OUR HOMEICA'NB SHISTGRIG'i AP o CJ > ?, a! u u b w fcuO — s H ^r ^ - « .e c 5 o II < a. £ £ u (« a M In z > C o £ c — o < C ti 4J < H Le Moustier 13 the implements are all characteristic of the Mous- tier culture, but the fauna changes from sub- tropical in the lower deposits to sub-arctic in the upper, Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros leptorhinus and Hippopotamus major, being associated with the former, and the Mammoth {Elephas primi- genius), Woolly Rhinoceros {Rhinoceros tichor- hinus) and reindeer with the latter. At Le Moustier itself the fauna also included cave-bear and musk-ox, and was indicative of a cold, damp climate. Other deposits have yielded Arctic fox, glutton, marmot, Arctic piping-hare, chamois, ibex, lemming, horse and bison. The fauna of the grotto of Aurignac in Haute-Garonne, the type-station for the Aurignac period, included cave-bear, brown bear, mammoth, Siberian rhi- noceros, cave-lion, badger, polecat, wild cat, cave hyaena, wolf, fox, horse, ass, pig, stag, Irish elk, roebuck, reindeer and aurochs. In the subsequent Solutre period the climate had become milder and less humid but the fauna was still of boreal type, consisting of mammoth, reindeer, horse, urus, fox, wolf, Saiga antelope, cave-lion, and deer. Horse flesh appears to have been the chief diet, burnt bones forming ramparts in the open-air encampment of Solutre in Saone-et-Loire. The remarkable changes in the fauna show the great duration of the Madeleine period and the alteration in the climate. M. Cartailhac has divided it into four sub-periods : — 1 4 Our Homeland Antiquities (a) The period of the ascendancy of the bison, to which belong the painted and engraved caves in Dordogne, the Pyrenees and other localities. (b) The steppe period, during which the Saiga antelope was dominant and when it is suggested that the loess (a finely comminu- ted sand or pulverulent loam) was de- posited. (c) The main period of La Madeleine in which the bison had almost disappeared and the reindeer was dominant. To this sub- period belong the wonderful drawings on and carvings of bone and horn. (d) When the mammoth had entirely disap- peared and the reindeer almost, Cervus elephus being the predominant animal. This is the period of the painted pebbles of the cavern of Mas d'Azil on the north side of the Pyrenees, and other animals found included roebuck, chamois, sheep, oxen, horses, pigs, bear, wild boar, badger, wolf, beaver and rat. Some consider that these were all wild animals but others be- lieve that Palaeolithic man domesticated the sheep, pig, goat and dog, and perhaps the horse and ox. Throughout the remainder of the prehistoric period the fauna appears to have been similar to that of the present day. Artistic efforts of early man i 5 Skeletal remains of prehistoric man have been found in various deposits, but most commonly in caves. Professor Sir A. Keith considers that in early Palaeolithic times there was a number of very different kinds of men in existence, all of which have become extinct with the exception of the branch which has given rise to modern man, who has existed almost unchanged from the middle of the Pleistocene period. He was then accompanied by another type of man, the Neander- thal race, which became extinct probably at the end of the Le Moustier period. At the beginning of the Pleistocene period there were two other forms of man, represented by the Piltdown skull and the small-brained man of Java. Much evidence as to the physical characteristics of primitive man has been obtained of late years. If genuine, the oldest specimen of man's artistic efforts yet discovered is a fossil shell, said to have been found in the Red Crag at Walton-on-the- Naze, on which were rudely carved two eyes, a nose, a mouth and a chin. Associated with Palaeo- lithic implements in the gravels are often found nodules of flint of peculiar form which have some- times been chipped to form a base on which they rest, and other chips have removed the cortex or crust and supplied eyes, nose, mouth or other features. Mr. W. M. Newton has classified these animistic flints in six divisions — human features, birds, beasts, fishes, reptiles and grotesques. 1 6 Our Homeland Antiquities These probably represent man's earliest attempts at the expression of his artistic instincts. Carving in the round originated in the Aurignac period, when statuettes of women were modelled, and engraving and painting were also practised. In the rock shelter of Colombiere in South-east France, in addition to a human face engraved on part of the shoulder-blade or pelvis of a mam- moth, other engravings on bone were also found and some engraved pebbles were discovered in 1913. On one of these was the figure of a horse, on another drawings of a striped horse, bison, and member of the cat family, but the most interesting was a flaked pebble which had been engraved to represent a mouflon. Paint-tubes of reindeer horn and crayons of red ochre have been found in other caves of this period. There is apparently only one instance of en- graving on bone in the Solutre period, when the chipping of flint attained a remarkable degree of perfection, but instances of sculpture and painting occur. The La Madeleine period was characterised by the highest development of the engraving and working of bone and horn. There are wonderful sculptures in bone and ivory, line engravings of many of the animals contemporary with the artist, but rarely of the human figure. In the Neolithic age the art of drawing seems to have died out or was exercised on material which has perished. The art of personal adorn- Photograph [Blampej and So A MENHIR WITH THE LATER ADDITION OF A CROSS AND INSCRIPTION. Sticklepath, Devon. (Se<- p. 99). Early ornament 17 mcnt flourished. Spirited drawings, incised on the crust of flint, have, however, been found in the flint-mines (presumably of Neolithic age) at Grime's Graves. Articles were ornamented with straight lines radiating from a centre, and frequently terminating in the curious cup and ring marks also found on the rocks of many countries from Scotland to Australia, and apparently of mystical significance. The chief decorative art motives of the Bronze Age were the chevron, the concentric circle, the spiral and the winding band, while the symbols utilised were the swastika or fylfot, triskele, cup and ring, ship, axe, and wheel. The finest monu- ment of the Bronze Age Kelts, is the tumulus of NYwgrange, County Down, in which many of the stones are carved with spirals. Some archaeo- logists adopt the view that from the Bronze Age there were transmitted to the Early Iron Age the use of the closely coiled spiral, rows of dots, dia- gonal lines in preference to those running hori- zontally or vertically, and of designs founded on the curved swastika, but the evidence that the art of the Early Iron Age came from the classical area seems more convincing. Chapter II. How to Distinguish Flint Implements. Though there is probably a very early stage in the art of chipping when it is impossible to dis- tinguish between flints worked by man and those shaped by natural forces, yet the majority of the flint implements made by man bear upon their surfaces evidence of his handicraft such as is accepted by all archaeologists. Some persons seem to have a gift which enables them, when once the distinction between human and natural chipping is pointed out, immediately to determine which flints show the work of man. A study of the work of modern flint-knappers such as those of Brandon, Suffolk, is most in- structive in this connection. In making gunflints a knapper takes a lump of flint which has been excavated from the chalk, and gently tapping it to ascertain from the sound the lines of cleavage, breaks it in two or more pieces and obtains flat faces of flint. Placing one of these flat surfaces horizontally, he then strikes near the edge of the A humanly chipped flake. Front, side and back views. A. — Bulb of percussion. B. — Striking platform. C. — Conchoidal ripples. D. — Flaking ridge. 20 Our Homeland Antiquities flint and detaches a strip which is known as a flake. At one end it has a portion of the flat surface called the " striking plane " or " striking platform." Where the blow which detaches the flake is struck, on the inner side just below the point of impact, a rounded protuberance is formed. This is the " bulb of percussion " and in most cases when found on a flake, is a sign that it was struck by man. Somewhat similar bulbs, though usually flatter, are found on flakes detached by natural causes, but in these cases the " striking platform " is rarely present. On the piece of flint from which the flake has been removed, opposite the bulb of percussion is a hollow known as the bulbar cavity, and this may appear on the next flake which will have a de- pression on its outer surface and a bulb on its inner. Should the " striking platform " receive a blow, and no flake be detached, a " cone of per- cussion " will probably be formed in the flint and may ultimately be removed as a small but perfect cone, of which a portion of the " striking plat- form " forms the apex. More frequently however, the blow does not detach a complete cone, but a small white circle or portion of a circle, is formed on the surface of the flint, and is an " incipient cone of percussion." In making gunflints a knapper usually discards the bulbar end of the flake as he needs a flat back to the implement, but to prehistoric man the bulb furnished a de- The bulbar scar 21 sirable base, and as a consequence most of the chipping on implements of the Le Moustier and subsequent periods is on the end opposite the bulb, and also on the face opposite the bulb, as the flat back of the flake provides a much better surface from which to do the secondary chipping than does the top of the flake, which is often ridged where the edges of flakes previously struck off have come. These flaking ridges are some- times called " aretes," but French archaeologists also use the word to denote the cutting edge of a flint implement. Many flakes — the proportion on a large series from the vicinity of Thetford was about 30 per cent. — have a small chip removed from the sur- face of the bulb of percussion. This is sometimes known as the bulbar scar, more generally as an crailluYc and is made with the same blow that detaches the flake, being due to an irregularity of the hammer-stone at the point of impact. It is occasionally found on natural flakes formed by pressure. On some flakes small undulations of the conchoidal surface are accompanied by fine concentric ripples, and often with white recti- linear lines known as " fissures " diverging from the centre of the bulb. A flake sometimes ends at the portion remote from the bulb in a smooth curled-over part which is termed a " hinge frac- ture " and this appears only to occur on man's handiwork. In making implements a long flake 22 Our Homeland Antiquities was often broken into two or more portions, only- one of which would have the " bulb of percussion/' and it would then be a truncated flake. In judging whether the shape of a flint is the result of man's handiwork, or is due to natural causes, it is necessary to bear in mind the varying features of a humanly-struck flake. The primary chipping (the preliminary flaking), and the secon- dary chipping (edge-work or smaller flakes re- moved between the main flaking ridges), are the most reliable guides. Shape alone, is, however, an utterly fallacious test, and with regard to primary chipping, many beginners are deceived by the effects of thermal action, chiefly frost, effects which the sense of touch will usually dis- close to the field-worker. Flints are also fractured by natural percussion and pressure, each form of fracture having characteristics which can only be determined by experience, and even among field- workers there is an absence of unanimity con- cerning the more primitive implements. A thermal fracture is usually flat or in the form of a shallow saucer with a slightly raised portion in the centre, sometimes with ripple-marks around. The natural surface of some flints is covered with regular pittings of uniform size which have been proved by observation and experiment to have been produced by the freezing of the absorbed water. Pressure usually causes a prismatic or starch fracture. ( ^ te^' liy permission] iPrehtstoru Soc.oj E. A nglia. IMPLEMENTS SHOWING CHIPPING OF TWO PERIODS. Characteristic chipping 23 In some cases chips at the end of an implement are not deliberately done, but are the result of usage. But though edge-chipping is sometimes due to the utilisation of the flint, surface-chipping is not, and when it is borne in mind how easily edge-chipping on a flint may now be done with a pebble, and how closely it resembles the ancient chipping, it is certain that in most cases the out- line of the implement and the bulk of the secon- dary work are the result of the maker's skill, and not the fortuitous effect of use. Tests of the " humanity " of Neolithic imple- ments are applicable to the Palaeolithic cave periods, but in the Palaeolithic drift periods the flakes were generally waste products detached in shaping a nodule for use as an implement. Some of the pre-Palaeolithic implements bear no evidence of flaking, and have been hacked or battered into certain recurring types. The earlier the period, the less obvious, as a rule, are the dis- tinctions between flints shaped and utilised by man, and the often similar forms due to natural causes. While the main distinctions between humanly and naturally chipped implements are the same in all periods, yet each stage of culture had its characteristic types and chipping which, though by no means easy to distinguish in individual specimens, ' are usually quite apparent when a series is examined. Chapter III. Where to Find Flint Implements. Implements of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages are usually found casually, in trenching, quarrying, or in agricultural operations, and most polished stone implements are found under similar circum- stances. The field-worker can never be certain of finding a bronze implement, but in a suitable district he can usually be assured of finding specimens of the handiwork of Neolithic man. In almost all cases these are found in the surface soil, and they are generally most abundant on the fields or heaths on the slopes of the river- valleys. The tops of the ridges usually appear to have been avoided, but the slopes facing north and east yield as many implements as those facing south and west. Among the reasons for choosing sites for settlements, sandy or gravelly soil and the proximity of water were seemingly prominent, though it should not be forgotten that in all probability some of the valleys which are now dry, contained watercourses when Neolithic man dwelt in the land. Settlements seem to have existed along the valleys of most rivers in districts where flint is obtainable from the chalk, boulder-clay, In the field 25 or gravels. Neolithic implements are found all over the British Isles. They are abundant in the chalk area of southern and eastern England, on the Lincolnshire and Yorkshire Wolds, the Lan- cashire moors, and many sites in Scotland and Ireland. In the Neolithic period, and perhaps before, flint was an article of barter, for flakes and chips which prove that implements were made on the spot, have been found in districts such as Cornwall and the Hebrides, far removed from de- posits containing flints. An examination of an arable field in a suitable district, a sufficient time after it has been ploughed for the soil to have settled and a considerable proportion of the stones to be lying on the surface, will disclose a perplexing quantity. In many parts of the country it will be found that some are pebbles, or fragments of rocks from the glacial clays or gravels, while others have the cortex or crust which shows they have been unbroken since they were washed or ground out of the chalk. Others are of various colours or mottlings indica- tive of different qualities of flint, and of the different degrees of exposure and chemical action to which they have been subjected. This will leave a certain number of flints, black, blue or white, the black more or less lustrous, indicating that they have not been recently fractured, and with little or none of the original crust remaining. These are worthy of further examination, and if c 26 Our Homeland Antiquities it be found that they have striking platforms, bulbs of percussion, flaking ridges, and secondary chipping, whatever their shape they are un- doubtedly implements made by prehistoric man. Fifty of them will usually include certain definite types which occur almost all over the world. Among these there will probabty be knives, scra- pers, hollow scrapers and borers ; more rarely, prismatic tools, gravers, or other of the less common forms, while a good axe or arrow-head often atones for many hours' searching when noteworthy specimens are few. Though the implements figured in works on prehistoric archaeology are usually the best known types, perfect and well-chipped, the great majority of the worked flints picked up by a collector when systematically searching any area, are irregular in shape, and of speculative use, yet this need not cause disappointment. When an implement bears no indication of having been fractured either at the time it was made or by subsequent blows, and is apparently complete, with some amount of secondary chipping, it probably fulfilled a useful purpose for its maker. Furthermore any piece of flint chipped by prehistoric man may throw light on the many debatable questions of pre- historic archaeology. In itself it may be a poor specimen of man's handiwork, but the changes of patina, iron-moulding, lustre and striation, by which it has been affected in its eventful history, Millions of worked flints 27 may furnish important clues in the elucidation of difficult problems. Yet in many districts selection in the field is inevitable. Almost every flint ever chipped by man is still in existence, and the vast quantities found evidence long occupation rather than large population. In Mapos Island off New Guinea, there are acres of flint chips, inches deep, and on the Cooper Flats of Australia bushels of quartzite flakes can be found. Mr. W. A. Dutt and I once made a careful calculation which showed that on one square mile of heathland in south-west Nor- folk, there were on the surface over thirteen million humanly worked flints of which nearly three millions were implements. In an area of a few square yards at Culmore, Wigtownshire, more than 636 chippings and cores of flint, including eighty good implements, were picked up. Implements of the Neolithic period are some- times found on an old land surface a short dis- tance below the present, and similar " floors " with implements of the Palaeolithic cave periods, have been noted in recent years. The latter implements also occur in caves in the north and west of England, and on the surface inter- mingled with remains of the Neolithic and later ages. With the exception of a few surface finds, implements of the Palaeolithic drift periods usually occur in gravels or brick-earth, some- 28 Our Homeland Antiquities times in great abundance. These gravels are frequently worked for road-material, and by a little diplomacy it is generally possible to obtain per- mission to examine the heaps of excavated stones and the sections shown from time to time, though better results may be obtained by enlisting the services of the workmen who in some districts have an excellent knowledge not only of imple- ments, but also of the monetary value of their finds. For the sub-Crag implements it is necessary to go to East Anglia, where, however, few Crag-pits are now worked, and fresh sections are conse- quently rare. Eoliths are most abundant in patches of gravel high up on the chalk Downs, but sections are few, and most of the specimens in museums and private collections have been found on the surface. A frequent indication of settlements of the Neolithic period and consequently of flint imple- ments, is the presence of pot-boilers, which also occur with remains of earlier periods. They have been found in the basement-bed of the Red Crag at Foxhall, Suffolk and in the Hoxne brick-earth with drift palaeoliths, and calcined stones are not uncommon in the drift on High Down, Isle of Wight. Hundreds of pot-boilers were noted on an Aurignac floor at Ipswich. Many primitive races boiled water for cooking purposes by plunging into it a succession of white-hot stones. A cavity in the Cooking places 29 rock was selected, or a hollow in the soil puddled with clay and filled with water. Raw flesh was then put in and the flints or other stones heated in an adjoining fire, were thrown into the water which was quickly boiled and easily kept boiling. Flints which have thus been heated and plunged into water are covered with a network of cracks and usually have a grey porcellanous surface. Mr. T. C. Cantrill, f.g.s., points out that " large heaps of burnt, cracked, and broken stones, mingled with charcoal dust, although frequent near springs and streams in districts devoid of other evidences of ancient occupation, such as camps, village or hut-circles, have seldom been recorded." Some of the heaps of stones which have been thus utilised are of considerable size. One at Blackbury Castle, in East Devon, yielded seventy cartloads of material. In Central and South Wales 270 cooking-places ranging from six to sixty feet in diameter, but rarely more than three feet in height, have been noted. Primitive cooking-places occurred at various levels in the shafts at Grime's Graves, Weeting, and also in the sections dug in various parts of the area. A typical day's collecting in a good district provides plenty of variety and a fair number of implements. I recall such a day of exploration in south-west Norfolk. The first part was over primeval heath where the only possibility of finding implements was on 30 Our Homeland Antiquities the molehills and the sand thrown out from their burrows by the rabbits. In a district that is well worked these provide new opportunities day by day as a constant succession of imple- ments, potsherds and pot-boilers is brought to light. Several scrapers, a piece of a Bronze Age cinerary urn, fragments of Roman pottery, a Flemish token, and several striated flakes reward our search. The next part of our journey was on a prehistoric trackway, mostly grass-grown, but here and there consisting of bare sandy patches. Here the chipped flints were so numerous that it was almost impossible to examine them all, and probably a hundred humanly- worked flints were picked up before one was found sufficiently well chipped to be stored in the knapsack. After a further patch of unproductive heathland we reached two " creeks," that is portions of heath- land broken up for cultivation, but found too un- profitable, and therefore allowed to lie fallow. The size of the stones on the surface indicated the relative age of the " breck," as on the older brecks all but the largest stones have been covered by the growth of moss and lichen. An ancient " breck " is therefore easily examined, but one about two years old is usually in splendid condition. We were fortunate in finding such an one, and a fairly close search revealed some of the more delicate implements such as arrowheads, triangular knives, and button scrapers, with the larger scrapers, Trying a ploughed field 31 knives, cones, planes, a portion of a polished axe, and some interesting examples of rechipped im- plements, the older surface blue-patinated and the newer a lustrous honey-colour. My own method is to pick up every chipped piece visible, judging its merits as much by feel as sight, for testing the edge by the thumb will usually indi- cate whether it has secondary chipping, and also disclose the occasional saw which might other- wise be passed as a flake. It is thus possible im- mediately to discard flakes and chips with no secondary work, broken implements, or those with no special features of interest. Some col- lectors turn over the humanly-worked flints with a stick, and thus save continued stooping, but this method can only be followed by those with first- class eyesight. Leaving an area of known possi- bilities we determined to speculate on the un- known and try a newly-ploughed field. Following our usual practice we walked across the middle in each direction, trusting to get some indication of the best portion of the field. Scattered flakes occurred in all parts, but were much thicker at one place than others, and to this spot we re- turned and endeavoured to delimit the area which would best repay detailed searching. This was soon revealed by a careful inspection and a sys- tematic search was then made, almost every yard being scrutinised. The " bag " was good and varied, and at the end of the day each had about 32 Our Homeland Antiquities a hundred good implements in his knapsack. To obtain this number it is probable that each col- lector had picked up several thousand humanly- chipped flints. When the eye is trained, it is but rarely that a naturally chipped flint is picked up in error, though with so many of the flints partly buried in the sand, it is impossible to determine their value until they have been extracted and examined. On arrival home, surface implements such as these are washed and scrubbed, and the locality in which each flint was found either in- dicated by a number, corresponding to that in a register, a gummed label with parish and collector's initials printed thereon, or a written locality. A method by which the particular field in which the implement was found can be ascertained is to be recommended, as variations in the industries of sites only a few hundred yards from each other, are thus made obvious. Chapter IV. Flint and its Changes. In this country the greater portion of the imple- ments of prehistoric man are made of flint, though chert, quartzite, and most of the igneous rocks have also been utilised. Flint is a crypto-crystal- line variety of quartz, with a sub- vitreous lustre, and a conchoidal fracture, leaving a cutting edge. It is usually grey, smoke-brown or black, and when found in the chalk has a white crust known as the cortex, which consists of pure silica. The Lower Chalk is without flints, which are almost all de- rived from the Middle or Upper Chalk where they occur in layers a few inches thick, continuous, as in the " floorstone " of the Brandon district, or more often in large nodules as in the " wall- stone." Chert is a term usually applied to any impure flint. Flint consists of roughly four-fifths of anhydrous silica, the remainder being hydrated or colloidal silica, which is the portion affected by patinating influences. Mr. B. C. Polkinghorne, f.g.s., proved by experiment that a Cissbury flake which had weathered uniformly white throughout, consisted solely of anhydrous silica, the more soluble colloidal silica probably having 34 Our Homeland Antiquities been dissolved by rain-water charged with car- bonic acid, which also abstracts the colouring particles consisting of manganese. Patina is the term employed to denote the surface change on flint after it has been chipped by man. Many flints have had a varied history between their removal from the chalk and their utilisation by man, and have become altered in colour, porosity and hardness. These changed flints do not readily patinate. Some of them retain a dull surface, but others exhibit different degrees of lustre, as the surface polishing of im- plements by exposure to wind, rain and blowing sand, is termed. However, flint which is black when chipped, frequently tends to undergo a surface change, though should lustre first take place, the implement appears to retain its original colour. The first appearance of patina is as a delicate bloom on the surface of the black flint, and this gradually increases in intensity until there is apparently a thin blue coating, which becomes thicker and ultimately white. The blue is, how- ever, the black of the flint visible through a thin white film. On many of the " Cissbury type " implements the white surface is so disintegrated that it can be removed with the finger nail. By fracturing the implement, however, it will be found that beneath the patina the flint is as black as when freshly excavated. Implements with Diversities of patina 35 white or cream patina are found in all periods from the sub-Crag and North Downs eoliths to the Neolithic, and it may therefore be asserted that patina in itself is a test, not of antiquity, but of exposure. Palaeolithic implements are often unchanged, while some Neolithic implements are thickly patinated and have ochreous staining. It is probable that the various stages in the sur- face changes from black to white are the only true patinas, and that other surface colourings are due to staining. The yellow, red, and brown stains on implements are due to limonite and chalybite, precipitated from solution in natural waters. Implements found in peat have a char- acteristic chocolate black staining due to the form- ation of organic salts of iron. Some flint naturally contains ferrous compounds, and it is possible that in certain cases water acting upon this so oxidises it as to give it a general reddish colour. Diversities of patina on the same implement are caused in some cases by a portion having been rechipped by a subsequent worker ; in others by varying degrees of exposure to which different portions of the implement have been subjected ; and in a not inconsiderable proportion by differ- ences in the quality of the original flint. As to the causes which produce patina, there is a wide diversity of opinion, but to me the evidence in favour of climatic influences, chiefly carbon di- oxide in the rainfall, seems strongest. At different 36 Our Homeland Antiquities periods in the history of mankind, patinating in- fluences would differ in intensity. In sub-tropical conditions with great sun-heat, blowing sand, and low rainfall, lustre would be produced rather than patina ; in sub-Arctic conditions with great humidity and heavy rainfall, patina would tend to form with much greater rapidity. In a brick- earth where the implements vary from black to white, it is probable that the former were always protected from the effects of the rainfall while the latter had been exposed on the surface before finding a resting place in the brick-earth. Mr. J. Allen Brown noted that on Palaeolithic floors the implements were generally bleached on the upper side, and of the same colour beneath as the under- lying deposit. At Swanscombe, Messrs. Hinton and Kennard state that it is possible to obtain practically all stages of patination and colour on undoubtedly contemporary implements, the dif- ferences arising from varying positions in the bed, the white or bluish-white examples always coming from the upper part. In one of the surface floors at Grime's Graves, Weeting, for a depth of three feet, implements, flakes and chips were so tightly packed together that they could only be removed with the utmost difficulty. The flints imme- diately beneath the turf were white all over ; then came a layer white above and light blue beneath ; another layer light blue above and dark blue beneath ; one dark blue above and black beneath ; Iron-staining 37 while in the lowest layer the implements and flakes were as black as on the day they were made. There is little doubt that all the chipped flints on this floor were approximately of the same age. Similar conditions were noticed in one of the pits at Cissbury. Near the surface the flints were patinated white ; those in a layer of red earth were coated with carbonate of lime, but only slightly discoloured ; while those near the bottom of the shaft were entirely unpatinated. Another problem on which it is impossible to be dogmatic is that of iron-moulding. Many im- plements have reddish-brown streaks and blotches, obviously caused by the oxidisation of particles of iron which can often be seen at the centre of a blotch. By examining large series of implements, it will be found that on those of certain types and patinas the iron-moulding tends to uniformity. A series of polished axes almost uniform in type and patina and widely spread in western Europe are all heavily iron moulded. In the raised beach at Larne, Co. Antrim, Miss Layard found that the implements in the top three feet had an unchanged or bluish surface with iron-staining in blotches, and along the ridges, while those in the lower layers were thickly coated with a white porcel- lanous patina and had no iron-staining. Iron- stains were found on implements deeply buried at a station in Eure-et-Loir, and has also "been observed in flint-mines and on floors in England. 38 Our Homeland Antiquities Such discoveries preclude agricultural operations as the sole cause of these iron-stains, which in many cases are probably due to iron pyrites in the deposits in which the implements occur, while it has also been suggested that meteoric dust may be a factor. American observers have had to face the same problem, and Mr. N. H. Winchell has suggested that the iron oxide is limonite, and that its frequent presence in the form of long streaks, is due to infiltration in striae or pressure lines caused by glacial action. Implements found on the surface in various parts of the country and in many deposits, have scratches or striae of varying degrees of intensity, certain kinds of scratches being associated with special patinas. The late Dr. W. Allen Sturge, M.v.o., suggested that the striations on surface implements (often of the hardest flint) were caused by a succession of minor glaciations in the Neo- lithic period. By adapting the astronomical theories of Croll and Drayson, he has suggested reasons 'ior these remarkable climatic changes. The striae are apparently similar in character to those on erratics from glacial deposits, and the only alternative cause suggested is agricultural opera- tions, producing pressure - lines, which subse- quently weather out. , s # \ A STRIATED OR SCRATCHED NEOLITHIC IMPLEMENT. Santon, Norfolk. Chapter V. Eoliths. The student of anthropology, reasoning from in- vestigations among modern savages, and aware how slowly the mind of primitive man developed fresh ideas, feels certain that the oldest imple- ments accepted by conservative archaeologists as the work of man, namely those of the Palaeolithic Drift period, cannot represent the earliest attempts at chipping flint. Both in design and execution, they indicate a degree of skill which could only have been obtained by a long and gradual process of development. There is conse- quently considerable diversity of opinion as to the chipped flints commonly known as eoliths. The gravels in which they occur appear to have belonged to a river-system quite unlike that now existing, and to have been formed in the Tertiary period. Eoliths are flints with a configuration mainly natural, but showing evidence of choice of ma- terial, wear and sharpening. They may be divided into striking, cutting, piercing, pushing, pulling, and rotating tools and those used for the pro- duction off fire. They were easily made, being merely chipped or hacked on the edges without 40 Our Homeland Antiquities the primary chipping which was the product of flaking, and as they could be shaped in a few minutes, are therefore very abundant. Imple- ments of Eolithic form persisted quite through the age of stone. Many types are common, beak- shaped, hollow scrapers, ordinary scrapers, double scrapers, crescent-shaped hollow scrapers, and a bow-shaped tool with a small short point on one of its longer edges. They are frequently rolled, scratched, bruised and smoothed, and often stained brown or ochreous. In the numerous excavations that have been made in the gravel, it is asserted by some authori- ties that eoliths only have been found, though palaeoliths and eoliths of similar patina have been noted in association on the surface. Others allege that they have been found with ochreous palaeo- liths at depths varying from four to eight feet and at altitudes from 435 feet to 770 feet above O.D. Eoliths have been found in the greatest abundance in Essex, Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Hampshire, Wiltshire, Dorset, Berkshire and Hertfordshire. Their chronological position is uncertain, and by some they are assigned to the mid-Pliocene. Much of the evidence for the human origin and geological position of eoliths was accumulated by Mr. Benjamin Harrison, of Ightham, to whose labours prehistoric archaeology owes a great debt.* * See Mr. F. J. Bennett's Ightham : the Story of a Kentish Village. k 5 X < 2 = do 2 a o 2 c O .2 H S (/) •- 2 E < c. 2 >. CO DC 5. J 5 o Flints from the Red Crag 4 1 In 1897 Mr. W. J. Lewis Abbott described chipped flints he had found in the Cromer Forest Bed at East Runton ; in 1905 I found similar specimens resting on the chalk beneath twenty- five feet of pebbly gravels and sands at Eaton, Norwich ; and in 1909 chipped flints were found at Ipswich beneath Red Crag by Mr. J. Reid Moir. They occur in the basement-beds of these de- posits, and have also been found beneath the Coralline and Weybourne Crags. The basement- bed probably represents the debris of an old land- surface redeposited by marine action as the sea gradually encroached on the land, and contains an admixture of land and marine mammals. Individually and apart from the deposit in which they are found, selected specimens would probably be accepted as the work of man by any student, but a large series of flints from the base- ment-bed shows all stages in chipping from those undoubtedly shaped by natural forces to those apparently chipped by man. The recurrence of certain definite types appears to support their human origin, and many critics have been con- vinced by the specimens found at Foxhall. If shaped by natural forces it must be admitted that they simulate human chipping to a much greater degree than the flints from any other deposit. The Committee of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia which in 1910 reported on these flints, found the following characteristics which 42 Our Homeland Antiquities led them to assume that the chipping was human. The presence of percussion bulbs and cavities, chipped surfaces with fine conchoidal fracture, a considerable number of grouped " smashing blows " on flints that were little or not at all abraded, the repetition of rather elaborately chipped types, fine edge chipping following a regular curve (on flints from the top of the London Clay where pressure action was eliminated) and alternate chipping resulting in a regular sinuous edge. About 86 per cent, of the implements in my possession from the basement-bed of the Norwich Crag have flat bases, quite different in appearance from thermal or other natural fractures, and similar to those on the " quarters " of the Brandon flint knappers. Forty per cent, have bulbs of percussion and three per cent, eraillures. Most have some portion of the original crust remaining, but on a few implements it has been entirely removed, both sides being covered with flaking. Narrow parallel rippled flaking occurs and the secondary chipping on some specimens is so good that if it were not for their geological position, most students would accept them as Drift palaeo- liths. The rostro-carinate type is rare in Norfolk, though the most perfect specimen yet recorded was found by the writer at Whitlingham and is now in the British Museum. It is the subject of a monograph by Sir E. Ray Lankester, k.c.b., f.r.s., i ROSTRO CARINATE IMPLEMENT FROM THE BASEMENT BED OF THE NORWICH CRAG found by the author at Whitlingham, now in the British Museum. Dr. A. R Wallace 43 who considers that it was shaped with twenty-five distinct blows. The discovery of flints chipped by man and older than the deposition of the shelly Crag of East Anglia, has been attacked on various grounds. That the flints are older than the Crag is incon- testable. It has, however, been urged that it was impossible for man, or any precursor sufficiently intelligent to have fashioned implements, to have existed at such an early period. But so long ago as 1863 Sir Charles Lyell wrote : " Neither need we despair of one day meeting with the signs of .vian's existence in the (Cromer) forest bed or in +he overlying strata, on the ground of any uncon- geniality in the climate or incongruity in the state of the animal creation with the well-being of our species." Writing in 1910 Dr. A. R. Wallace went much further, " All evolutionists are satis- fied," he said, " that the common ancestor of man and the anthropoid apes must date back to the Miocene, if not to the Eocene period ; so that the real mystery is not that the works or the remains of ancestral man are found throughout the Pleistocene period, but that they are net also found throughout the Pliocene, and also in some Miocene deposits." Chapter VI. Drift Palaeoliths. The science of prehistoric archaeology has not been established more than three-quarters of a century. The sequence of the Stone, Bronze and Iron Ages was established by C. J. Thomsen, curator of the National Museum of Antiquities at Copenhagen from 1816 to 1865, and was elaborated by his suc- cessor Prof. J. J. A. Worsae. Exploration in the Brixham Cave in 1858 first definitely proved the contemporary existence of man with the Pleistocene fauna, and when British archaeologists visited the Somme Valley in the following year, they readily accepted as the work of man the flint implements first described by Boucher de Perthes in 1847. " Thenceforward," says Dr. A. C. Haddon, " archae- ology made greater progress abroad than in Great Britain, mainly, perhaps, on account of the more numerous materials for study." The French were fortunate in having stratified deposits in caves, gravels and brick-earth showing a succession of cultures, with the result that they established the sequence of the various Palaeolithic periods, and their type-stations have been adopted by British archaeologists, together with some of their nomen- i C/3 H O cu G u c - 5 cs a Q ~ OS c > g as "S, 2 .5 - - W a > - < ttf OS c o 5 j '3 < c ^ 3 cu Implements from the river drift 45 clature for implements, though English names for the latter are now commonly used. While there is still some divergence of opinion as to whether the eoliths or pre-palaeoliths are of human workmanship, archaeologists agree that man made the drift palaeoliths, which are chiefly found in gravels and brick-earths. The former are often in terraces on the valley slopes of present streams, occasionally in positions which indicate that they belong to older (perhaps fluvis-glacial) systems. As a rule, the higher the terrace the older the implements contained in the gravel, the successive terraces having been formed as the river cut its channel downwards. There are excep- tions to this rule, one of the most striking being at Chelles-sur-Marne, near Paris, the type station for the Chelles implements. Over the Tertiary deposits there are three layers of gravel, the lowest containing unrolled implements, the next pebbles and rolled implements, and the uppermost with implements of Le Moustier type. In some cases therefore rivers had already cut down their valleys to the present level at the be- ginning of the Chelles period. The oldest of the Palaeolithic drift periods is the Stripy, in which the characteristic imple- ments are usually natural nodules, roughly and sparingly flaked, usually at the point, and there- fore retaining some portion of the original crust. Rough side-scrapers, scrapers, and hollow scrapers 46 Our Homeland Antiquities are found, and crude forms of the hand-axe, squared at the butt. Flakes are thick with promi- nent bulbs of percussion, and a minimum of chipping, due to use or shaping, on the edges. In the Chelles period the typical implement was the hand-axe or coup-de-poing, two to ten inches in length, with wavy edges caused by the removal of flakes first from one side and then the other. The flaking was coarse, broad, conchoidal, with strongly marked concavities. This hand-axe was generally made from a nodule, often with the original crust of the flint remaining at the butt end, while the other portion was coarsely flaked to a point. It is rarely oblong with rounded ends, and sometimes roughly triangular. Another type of the period is the pick or ficroji, with the butt trimmed to a blunt cone, and the apex frequently forming a chisel. Scrapers, side scrapers, hollow scrapers, borers and knives also occur. Chelles implements are usually found in gravels, but they were noted in the lowest layer of Kent's Cavern, Torquay, with teeth of the cave bear. As the his- tory of the individual implements in any gravel cannot have been absolutely uniform, there is great variation in the appearance of specimens lying but a few yards apart, and it is not infrequent for opposite faces of the same implement to have strongly contrasting surfaces. That which has lain uppermost and has therefore been more exposed, either in the gravel or previously, is Classification of Palaeoliths 47 patinated and stained to a greater extent than the more protected under side. The same gravel may provide all shades of patina from a delicate bloom to a dense white, while some implements may be black and lustrous. The prevailing colour of drift implements is, however, ochreous, the result of a sufficient disintegration of the surface to enable the external portion of the flint to be- come stained with ferric oxide. In the vicinity of London an extensive area is covered by a Palaeolithic floor consisting of five or six inches of gravel containing many implements and flakes of Chelles type. About twelve feet below this there is often a bed of gravel containing rolled bones and abraded implements. For many years French archaeologists adopted a system of classification for Palaeolithic imple- ments of which they had no absolute proof. This, however, was forthcoming at St. Acheul, where M. Commont found a series of undisturbed imple- ment-yielding beds which showed the accuracy of the accepted classification. Implements con- sidered the oldest were found in the lowest beds, and each stage nearer the surface yielded imple- ments of more recent type. Scientific induction was rarely more signally justified. In England the Palaeolithic sequence has been partly demon- strated at Swanscombe, Kent, on the ioo-feet terrace of the Thames where the lowest layer of gravel contained implements corresponding to 4 8 Our Homeland Antiquities the Strepy culture ; the middle gravel included fine implements of Chelles types, chiefly a flat- tened pear-shape three to four inches long, roughly Ovate Palaeolithic Implement. From Caddington (Beds.) Half size. chipped and pointed with heavy butt, often re- taining the crust ; while in brick-earth at Green- hithe, implements of St. Acheul type occurred The St. Acheul type 49 with a fine racloir or side scraper of Le Moustier type in the gravel above. At Ipswich Miss Nina Layard found a gravel containing Chelles imple- ments rolled and patinated, topped by a brick- earth containing sharp St. Acheul ovates un- rolled and unpatinated. The typical implement of the St. Acheul period is the ovate with a twist like a reversed S, and finely flaked on both surfaces. The hand-axe was flatter and lighter, with better flaking than in the Chelles period, with straight edges, though some- times twisted with the remainder of the imple- ment, and the point not in line with the base. The flaking was conchoidal but narrower, longer and finer, several flakes having been frequently struck off near the same spot. M. Commont considered that the survival of a portion of the striking plat- form on an implement is a St. Acheul characteristic and the flakes themselves usually have a small bulb of percussion. In the latter part of the period the hand-axe developed into a fine lanceolate form, which in the La Micoque sub-period had a ridge nearer one side than the other, making one part of the face steep, and the other sloping. Other St. Acheul implements are sub-triangular, disc- shaped, and cordate. Disc-shaped implements and ovates are characteristic of gravels of this period in East Anglia where the hand-axe is un- common, while in the Thames Valley where the hand-axe is abundant, ovates are rare. Long So Our Homeland Antiquities picks are also common in the Thames Valley de- posits . Other St . Acheul types include long and short borers, anvils, and horse-shoe shaped scrapers. A coup-de-poing in the British Museum found at the end of the seventeenth century with ele- phant bones near Gray's Inn Lane, London, appears to have been the first implement of the kind ever recorded. Others were discovered at Hoxne in Suffolk in 1797 and were referred by John Frere to "a very remote period indeed, even beyond that of the present world, and to a people who had not the use of metals." After the discoveries of Boucher de Perthes in France, and the visit of Mr. (afterwards Sir) John Evans to that country in 1859, the gravels of southern England were examined and yielded thousands of implements of the Chelles and St. Acheul periods. In the two subsequent decades, when the roads in the Fenland were being constructed, gravel flints were excavated in vast quantities from the sides of the valleys a few miles from the Fen borders, and numerous Palaeolithic imple- ments were found near the Great Ouse, Little Ouse and Lark ; from the valley of the Little Ouse alone about 7000 specimens being recorded in ten years. The St. Acheul quarry has, however, yielded some 20,000 specimens, and several times this number have been obtained from Swans- combe, Kent. From most of the river valleys in the chalk areas of southern England Palaeolithic ■ * -" m ■ .-k. r i' tout the] \l-\<\ ( i RIVER DRIFT PALAEOLITHIC IMPLEMENTS. St. Acheul Type, from Mildcnhall. Suffolk. Gravel terraces of the Thames 51 implements have been obtained, as well as in gravels near Birmingham and Nottingham, and even as far north as Lancashire and Yorkshire. The abundance of implements of the Chelles and St. Achenl periods in the south of England, and their comparative rarity in the north and in Scotland is perhaps chiefly due to the presence of chalk flints in the former area, implements made of rocks other than flint being much more diffi- cult to distinguish. Northern archaeologists claim to have found large numbers of implements of various hard rocks, and it is probable that their views will ultimately be confirmed. Those geologists who believe in the pre-glacial date of the implements of the Chelles and St. Acheul period, allege that the sparsity of these implements in the north is due to the fact that most of them are buried under the thick moraine. The gravel terraces on each side of the Thames form one of the best known hunting grounds. The most recent classification of these by Messrs. M. A. C. Hinton and A. S. Kennard, f.g.s., is as follows : — (1) Plateau Gravels, containing Eoliths. (2) Hill Gravels, containing the older palaso- liths, chiefly pointed and ovate implements. Hollow and side scrapers also occur. (3) High Terrace of the Thames, with Chelles implements. In the upper layer and in later channels occur ovates of the St. 52 Our Homeland Antiquities Acheul I and St. Acheul II periods. This is commonly called the ioo feet terrace. One collector had 80,000 specimens from this level. The best exposures are at Swanscombe. (4) Second Terrace and Crayford brick-earths. There are few contemporary implements in the gravel, but they are abundant at the base of the brick-earths on the old chipping floors at Grays, Crayford and Northfleet. The implements are of the Levallois type, which Mr. Kennard considers belongs to the St. Acheul period, but which is usually ascribed to Le Moustier. (5) Third Terrace. At Ponder's End and Angel Road this has yielded an Arctic flora and fauna. No contemporary implements have yet been found. (6) Buried channel. (7) Holocene alluvium. The Palaeolithic floors on which " Drift " men lived and made their implements, furnish better evidence of contemporary types than the gravels into which specimens from a large area and of various ages may have been washed. On Stoke Newington Common, Mr. Worthington G. Smith found a floor 4^ feet from the surface and covered by sandy loam, on which were weapons, tools, hammer-stones, flint anvils, and bones of animals just as they were left by Palaeolithic man, the Palaeolithic working floors 53 implements being sharp and unrolled. At about the same time Mr. Flaxman Spurrell discovered a similar floor at Crayford and was able to recon- struct a block of flint from the flakes he found. On a floor at Acton Mr. J. Allen Brown found triangular implements five to six inches long, scrapers, rude choppers or axes, borers, hollow scrapers, knives, and a few pointed implements. In the brick-yards at Caddington, near Luton, at a height of 600 feet above the sea, an occupation level was noticed by Mr. Worthington Smith from four to thirteen feet below the surface in the brick-earth which caps the chalk. Two levels were shown in some places, the lower having im- plements with a grey or bluish marbled surface, while those on the upper level were whitish. Above this brick-earth, though the contained implements are older, being of Chelles types, is contorted drift, with ochreous specimens, slightly abraded. One of these which had been rechipped was found on the Palaeolithic floor, where the implements consisted of pointed and oval types, hammer - stones, punches, and well - chipped scrapers. These were probably late St. Acheul, as some of the side scrapers approximated to those of the subsequent Le Moustier culture. Chapter VII. Cave Palaeoliths. Between the end of the Palaeolithic Drift period and the beginning of the Neolithic, there were several culture stages grouped as the Later Palaeo- lithic or the Cave period, the chief divisions of which are Le Moustier, Aurignac, Solutre and La Madeleine, each being further sub-divided. Though usually known as Cave periods because the chief discoveries of relics associated therewith have been made in Continental caves and rock- shelters, yet Solutre" was an open-air encampment, and it seems reasonable to conclude that where caves were not available for habitation, other sites were utilised. Were it not for this, we should have to conclude that the three last-named periods were unrepresented in England except in a few caves in the West and Midlands. Some years ago, however, the late Dr. W. Allen Sturge was able to prove, by a comparison between his large series of specimens from some twenty French caves, and tens of thousands of surface imple- ments chiefly found in East Anglia, that Palaeo- lithic cave types occurred on the surface in- termingled with Neolithic and later implements The Le Moustier type $5 and weapons, and his conclusions have been accepted by continental archaeologists. Since that time Aurignac " floors " have been found at Ipswich, Suffolk, and Heacham, Norfolk, and La Madeleine " floors " at Icklingham and Wang- ford, Suffolk, and East Wretham, Norfolk. The Le Moustier Period. Many archaeologists consider that implements found on a high bank at La Micoque in Dordogne represent the transitional stage between the St. Acheul and Moustier periods, though some con- sider that they are late Le Moustier. The hand- axes of the period have long slender points and straight converging edges ; some are flat-backed and others have two convex chipped faces. White splashes or a network of white lines are a feature of the patina. In the early part of the Le Moustier period the implements approximated to the latest St. Acheul, but were subsequently characterised by short scaly chips following one behind the other, and becoming smaller as the edge was approached. The bases of the flakes were often faceted owing to the block from which they were struck having first been trimmed. In the St. Acheul period the force of the blow was distributed over a large striking platform ; when the striking platform was faceted, the force of the blow was concen- 56 Our Homeland Antiquities trated, and enormous bulbs of percussion resulted. Most of the Drift implements were made of the nucleus from which flakes had been removed to chip it into shape, but in the Le Moustier period the flakes themselves were chiefly utilised, and the nucleus but occasionally. The most charac- teristic feature is the limitation of the chipping to one face of the flake, and frequently to one edge. Opposite a curved scraping or cutting edge, a portion of the crust of the flint is often left, in order to allow the user to obtain a better grip of the implement. The period is named from the cave of Le Mous- tier, which is about ninety feet above the right bank of the V6zere in Dordogne. It was first examined by Messrs. Lartet and Christy in 1863, and subsequent investigations have added to the instructive series of relics it has produced. The sixty feet of deposits in the Grotte du Prince, at Mentone, all contain implements characteristic of the Moustier culture. Doubly patinated im- plements indicate that sufficient time must have elapsed for the original implement to patinate before being again utilised by Le Moustier man, and during the occupancy of the cave the climate changed from sub-tropical to sub-Arctic. The characteristic implement of the Le Mous- tier period (though not confined to it) was the " point " which was produced by the gradual re- duction of the two edges by use as scrapers, till .£ CO •~ H 2, 2 U (X S Q 2 < c Cd ;; a C w u Cd « CO ■0 u H tt X H 2 O « >— < ►J DC H J O *? J «< (X Cd ,_, > _o < ■3 -- -oS OS e "* m 2 2 ."§ O 2 ° w g « < «G r 1 o Dene-holes 95 as of wild geese, ducks, swans and pelicans. Iron, lead and glass were smelted ; pottery made by hand and with the wheel ; wheat was grown and flax spun and used for weaving ; and wooden objects from the site included wheels, ladders, buckets, dishes and bowls, many of them orna- mented with incised patterns. Refuse heaps or kitchen middens of a race who knew the use of pottery and used flint implements, and may therefore have been Neolithic, but who may possibly have been degraded contemporaries of a more civilised people, have been found on the coast in Devon and Cornwall, Sussex, Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The best examples of the dene-hole are found in Essex and Kent bordering on the Thames. They consist of a round shaft about three feet in diameter, usually sunk through gravel until the chalk was reached, but in some cases in sand and gravel, no chalk being near. They sometimes reached a depth of 150 feet and at the base opened into chambers of double-trefoil pattern, which would have served excellently for storage pur- poses for a people dwelling on the surface. In some of them pick-marks in the chalk appear to have been made by a metal instrument of a rude and not very effective kind. They are not earlier than the Late Keltic period and in most cases probably not so early. Some of the most prominent survivals of the 96 Our Homeland Antiquities prehistoric period are the barrows which mark the places of interment of peoples of the Neolithic and Bronze Ages. In the Early Iron Age both cremation and inhumation were practised, but barrows were not erected. Long barrows of the Neolithic period are most abundant in Wiltshire, where about sixty have been noted, and they also occur in Dorset, Somerset, Gloucestershire, the East Riding of Yorkshire, Northumberland, West- moreland, Durham, Oxfordshire, Berkshire and Kent. They are generally orientated, the east end being broader and higher than the other, and the body was usually placed in a stone chamber occasionally with a rounded opening in the wall at one end. In unburnt interments the bones are often disjointed, leading to the conclu- sion that the skeleton had been placed in the ground after the decay of the flesh. The skeletons are invariably long-headed and other remains are rarely found with them, though four fine flint javelin-heads were found in a long barrow at Winterboume Stoke Down, arrow-heads at Fy- field and Walker Hill, Wilts., and some 300 white patinated flakes and implements near Avebury. Chambered cairns in the south-western counties were used for interments by inhumation, but in the north of Scotland cremation and inhumation were both used, showing that the Scottish were more recent. A form of chambered caim is peculiar to Argyllshire, the isles of Islay and Arran, and the A BARROW'OF THF BRONZE AGE E at onT Common, "Norwich. (See.7p.j97).! A SOUTH-WEST NORFOLK "BRECK.' Many of the flints lying on the surface are humanly chipped. (See p. 27). Round barrows 97 opposite coast of Ireland ; round chambered barrows of peculiar type are found in Derbyshire ; and cairns which at the east and west ends have horn-shaped projections curving outwards, in Caithness. Unchambered long barrows occur in South Wiltshire, Dorset, Westmoreland and York- shire. The typical barrow of the Bronze Age is a rounded mound of earth on some upland heath or down, visible for many miles. Both burnt and unburnt burials occur, occasionally in the same mound. Unburnt burials are in the majority in Derbyshire, Staffordshire, Yorkshire (omitting Cleveland), while cremation was more common in other districts. Cinerary urns were used in nearly 70 per cent, of the interments in Dorsetshire, in about 60 per cent, in Cleveland, and in about 25 per cent, in Wiltshire, and were much less com- mon on the Yorkshire Wolds than in other parts of England. Most of the interments in round barrows have no articles associated with them, and the propor- tion of those with bronze implements or ornaments is greater in the southern part of the country where continental influences were stronger. From the limited number of types of implements found — axe, knife-dagger, drill and awl — it has been in- ferred that the barrows all date from the early part of +he Bronze Age, about 1800 to 1000 B.C. While long barrows only contain long skulls, 9 8 Our Homeland Antiquities round barrows chiefly contain short skulls with a certain number of long. Round barrows vary in diameter from 30 to 140 feet, and in altitude at the present time from a few inches to ten feet. Some of them are surrounded by a ditch, or ditch and bank, rarely with detached standing stones, often with a break at the south-east. In Wiltshire there are disc-shaped barrows, consisting of a level area with slightly raised mounds over inter- ments, within a ditch and bank. The cremated ashes were deposited in hollows made in the chalk. In the sand or chalk of which barrows are usually composed, potsherds, broken bones of animals and flint flakes, are sometimes abundant. Among the most noteworthy relics found in British barrows, are three solid chalk drums from Folkton Wold, East Yorkshire, with geometrical engraving, and a crude representation of a human face similar to some found around the eastern Mediterranean. Round barrows are common in Wiltshire, Dorset, Derbyshire, the East Riding of Yorkshire and Norfolk and Suffolk. Megalithic monuments of prehistoric man are well represented in Great Britain which is sup- posed to have possessed more cromlechs than any other country in Europe, some 200 being known. The largest was the circle of standing stones at Avebury, Wiltshire, which was 1200 feet in diameter, consisting of a circular ditch and em- bankment enclosing a circle of large stone, within lPi ^sr/ ?s A GROUND PLAN OF STONEHENGE BEFORE THE RESTORATION. A— circular earthen bank. B-stone circles in centre. C— large fallen stone. D— standing stone, the Friar's Heel. E E— two smaller stones. F F — Barrows, perhaps earlier than the bank. Stonehenge 99 which were two smaller circles formed by a double row of smaller stones. Two long winding avenues of stones ran from the embankment, one ending in the double circles at Kennet. Midway between the two avenues is Silbury Hill, the largest arti- ficial mound in Great Britain. The monoliths re- maining are native sarsens, varying in size above ground from five to twenty feet in height, and three to twelve feet in breadth. With that at Arbor Low — a circle of large unhewn limestones — it probably pre-dates Stonehenge which is the most elaborate example of its kind and appears to have been erected at the beginning of the Bronze Age. Within a circular earthwork 300 feet in diameter was a circle of trilithons, 100 feet in diameter, formed of thirty hewn sarsens, each pair supporting a large lintel. Within this was another circle consisting of forty smaller " blue stones," enclosing five groups of huge trilithons arranged in horseshoe shape. Inside this was a second horseshoe group and in the centre a slab oi micaceous sandstone known as the " altar stone," while in the circumference of the outer earthen rampart is the "sun stone" or "Friar's Heel." Menhirs are tall stones which occur singly or in groups, rough and unhewn ; in the British Isles found chiefly in Ireland and Scotland, the tallest being that of Clach-an-Truiseil in the island of Lewis, which is 18 feet 9 inches above ground ioo Our Homeland Antiquities The best known alignment in this country is perhaps that at Ashdown, Berks, where about 800 stones were grouped in three divisions, but there are also some excellent examples on Dart- moor. A dolmen consists of two or more stones stand- ing like pillars with a large flat or slight] y inclined one placed on the top. Professor G. Elliott Smith considers that they represent a degraded form of the typical Egyptian tomb of the Pyramid Age. They are generally found near the coast from India, along the Mediterranean, Portugal, France and the English Channel, the same general form, with local variations, appearing along the whole route. In Scandinavia they mark the second quarter of the Neolithic period, and elsewhere they are probably of the same date. Dolmens were originally covered by a mound of earth and were undoubtedly used for interments, probably being reopened as occasion demanded for human re- mains to be placed therein. There are numerous British examples, Kit's Coty House, Kent, being one of the best known. The oldest earthworks are in open country, owing to the necessity for pastoral peoples seeking such for their flocks and herds. These earthworks are the hill-top forts of the chalk downs, those of the harder hills being Late Keltic or post-Roman. Ringworks defended by a bank and ditch are found on the lowlands, and are more recent than o> Camps and earthworks 101 the hill-top forts. Shape only in earthworks is as fallacious a test of age as in flint implements, and the only sure evidence is that of articles brought to light by the spade. When however the ditch is inside a circular rampart, it is probably pre- Roman, and sometimes Neolithic, while many rectangular camps are of the Bronze Age. There are over iooo pre-Roman camps in England, and at least a similar number on the Scottish main- land. Many of them were occupied in several stages of culture. The deep fosse at Avebury is of Neolithic date. Recent excavations revealed ornamented pottery, flint knives, saws and scrapers, red deer antler picks, hammers and levers, bone pins and bone shovels. The great camp at Cissbury, Sussex, covers no fewer than 60 acres, and is supposed to be early Neolithic, but is later than the flint mines there. Many of the hill top camps are Bronze Age or Early Iron Age. All those on Dartmoor, with the hut circles and barrows, are said to' be of the Bronze Age, though the inhabitants still used scrapers and other implements of flint. Square entrenchments with low ramparts, prob- ably used as enclosures for cattle, occur in various parts of the country. In the Early Iron Age these encampments were also used as permanent abodes. Hunsbury, two miles south-west of Northampton, is perhaps the most noted township of the period yet discovered. 102 Our Homeland Antiquities The Messrs. E. and E. C. Curvven have described earthworks on the Sussex Downs consisting of a central ditch with a bank on each side, most of them running athwart the main ridge of the Downs. Similar earthworks have been found in Yorkshire, Wiltshire and Dorset, and the evidence seems to show that they date back to a late period of the Bronze Age. They are probably " covered ways or roads of communication " between settle- ments. Chapter XII. Flint Mining. It is difficult to ascertain at what period man first used flint quarried from the chalk instead of flints removed by denudation or glacial action, yet it is probable that at least as far back as late St. Acheul times, flint obtained from outcrops of chalk was selected for the making of flint imple- ments. At a later period the seams of flint were followed up, and shallow excavations made, such as have been found at Great Massingham, Ringland, and Buckenham Tofts, Norfolk ; at Peppard Common, near Henley-on-Thames by Dr. A. E. Peake ; at High Wycombe ; and near Chichester by Captain Wade. At the last named place the pits proved to be shaped like a gigantic Wellington boot, and contained flint knives and rough im- plements, and a pick made from red deer antler. Excavations at Manmbury Rings in 1912 revealed a line of prehistoric flint mining shafts, some of them going to a depth of thirty feet. Flint flakes, traces of charcoal, pottery and antler picks were found, as well as a pair of immense antlers of red deer attached to part of the skull. One antler measured 3 feet 2 inches in length, " brow " tine 104 Our Homeland Antiquities 14 inches ; and bez and trez tines 13 inches, with a crown of four points. A much more elaborate system of flint mining was developed at Cissbury, Sussex, and Grime's Graves, Weeting, Norfolk, and probably on similar sites not yet explored. The mines at Ciss- bury have been investigated on various occasions, and vary in depth from a few feet to 39 feet, and in diameter from five or six feet to seventy feet. They were sunk in the chalk to obtain flint from the various seams. The deepest pit explored was oval and funnel-shaped with a basal diameter of five or six feet and no galleries radiating there- from, but in others there was a network of galleries following a layer of flint. The pits had all been partially filled with rubble, a typical section being — Feet. Surface soil ..... 2 Chalk rubble, yellowish loam and char- coal extending beyond the mouth of the shaft ..... 3 Red earth, moist, and full of flints both worked and unworked ... 5 Chalk blocks, interstices not filled . 3 Red earth, thickest in centre . . 3 Chalk blocks, interstices filled with rubble and loam .... 4 The fauna associated with the pits consisted of horse, Keltic shorthorn, goat, red deer, roe deer, wild boar, badger, otter, dog and Bos primigenius, Cissbury finds 105 and the charcoal was from furze, willow and beech. Antlers, mostly from slain red deer, were used as picks to remove the chalk and obtain the flint. Among the finds, a wedge made of an antler had been ground smooth all round, a chalk disc had a central hole bored from both sides, and four large pear-shaped lumps of chalk, about 3 Jibs, in weight, were pierced at the smaller end. Lamps were made of lumps of chalk with a hollowed centre in which oil or fat had been placed and a wick floated. Pottery occurred at various depths in the filling in. On the jambs of the entrances into galleries in four of the shafts, lines had been scored, while rounded chalk blocks, pitted with small round holes and scored with lines, were also noted. Inside one of the galleries was a block of chalk scored with deep parallel lines and bearing a rude resemblance to a human figure. In one pit was found, head downwards, the skeleton of a woman about 25 years of age and about 4 feet 9 inches in height. In another pit the skeleton of a man who had been buried 16 feet from the top of a pit and 14 feet from the bottom was disinterred. The flint implements were so distinctive as to be designated the " Cissbury type." They in- cluded axes, sometimes with a hump on one side supposed to form a stopridge when the implement was hafted, planes, prismatic tools, end-scrapers with side-trimming, tools resembling the end of H 106 Our Homeland Antiquities a large celt but probably complete, chisels flaked all over both surfaces, scrapers with two ridges and rounded end, the butt being left untrimmed, fluted planes, choppers with crust on the thick end to prevent injury to the hand, long oval inplements with square ends, thick sub-triangular hand axes, thick ovates, side scrapers, broad flakes used as scrapers along one side and at the narrower end, and points of laurel-leaf form. The celts, says Mr. Reginald Smith, f.s.a., are " all flaked on both faces, and are more or less sharp all the way round, like many hand-axes of the St. Acheul period, from which these seem to be descended." Arrow-heads are absent, round or horseshoe scrapers rare, and a few polished implements have been found. Rough imple- ments made of the blade bone of deer or a small ox, also occurred. Grime's Graves, Weeting, consist of 366 filled-in flint mines, one of which was excavated by Canon Greenwell in 1S70, and two by the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia in 1914. The circular shafts were sunk through sand, chalky boulder clay and chalk to a particularly fine layer of flint now known as " floor-stone," 39 feet from the surface in Greenwell's pit, and about ten feet less in the others excavated. When the bottom of the shaft was reached the layer of flint was fol- lowed by means of an elaborate system of gal- leries, those of one shaft uniting with those of Grime's Graves 107 surrounding shafts. The chief work in the shafts was done with picks made of red deer antlers, some seventy-nine of which were found by Canon Green well, and 244 in the two pits excavated in 1 914. Several of these bore the finger prints of the miners impressed on the chalky incrustation. In most cases the crown of the antler, and the bez and trez tines had been removed, sometimes by fire, the " brow " tine used as a pick, and the opposite side of the beam and burr as a hammer. The beam in many cases had been worn smooth by usage. Hammer-stones were made of quartzite pebbles from the boulder clay or sand. The charcoal was almost solely of oak, beech and Scotch fir, but spruce and yew were also identi- fied ; the mollusca evidenced a warm climate during the excavation, and a moist climate during part of the infilling ; and the fauna in- cluded horse, ox, sheep, pig, dog, red deer, roe deer, beaver, fox, mole, vole, common shrew, and four species of bats, which appear to have hiber- nated in the galleries. The skull of a man and portions of the skeleton of a girl of about thirteen, correspond with those found at Cissbury. The flint implements were in the main of " Ciss- bury type," though the presence of many flakes with faceted striking platforms, such as were characteristic of the Le Moustier culture, was a feature apparently confined to this site. Many of the " Cissbury type " implements have an un- 108 Our Homeland Antiquities doubted resemblance to Palaeolithic cave im- plements, but it seems unnecessary to postulate a Palaeolithic date in explanation of this when all other factors seem to point to the Neolithic period, as that in which the shafts were sunk. In a gallery of Canon Green well's pit, was found a polished axe of basalt with almost circular section and pointed butt, and there were marks of polished axes in the galleries opened in 1914, but no polished implements were found, the chipped axes for use in the hand being characterised by the smashing of the ridges to enable them to be held with com- fort. A bone piercer rubbed smooth except at the butt and tapering to a point was found in Canon Greenwell's shaft at a depth of 17 feet, and a bone rod slightly curved and polished all over at a depth of 35 feet. Flint flakes found in the galleries were as black as on the day they were struck ; implements in the lower part of the filling in of the shafts were blue ; while those within a foot or two of the surface were white. The main types were large, and arrow-heads and the smaller Neolithic im- plements did not occur, and very few scrapers were noted. In more recent excavations on various floors a polished greenstone axe, an axe, spearhead and tweezers, all of bronze, and flints with engravings on the crust, one being a naturalistic representation of an elk or red deer, have been discovered. Chapter XIII. Pottery. Pottery has been found in caves of the Late Palaeolithic period, but it has generally been as- sumed that it belonged to some succeeding stage of culture. It is by no means obvious why this should be so. Races which attained such a com- paratively advanced civilisation as is indicated by the Aurignac statuettes, the magnificent flint chipping of Solutre, and the engravings on bone of the La Madeleine period, can hardly be con- sidered incapable of having attained a knowledge of the manufacture of pottery. Yet it would probably be imperfectly fired, and in moist de- posits would tend to disintegrate and leave hardly a trace. The oldest pottery yet discovered appears to be that from thirteen caves of the Aurignac period in Belgium, and from Aurignac itself. The Bel- gian pottery is of reddish ware, slightly fired, fragile, and soluble in water after a few days' immersion. In 1914 Mr. J. Reid Moir found pottery at Ipswich resting on London Clay, and beneath an undisturbed stratum of sand, associa- ted with early Aurignac implements. The ware no Our Homeland Antiquities is somewhat soft and apparently impregnated with iron, one surface coloured red, and the largest piece, which is eight inches in length, formed part of the lip of a vessel measuring 13^ inches in diameter at the mouth. From the La Madeleine period there is a vase with pierced lugs, a cup with round handle, a fragment with thick moulded lip, and three with parallel incised lines. Limestone grit from the cavern walls was mixed with the paste, and only covered with a thin film of lime, owing to imper- fect firing. Pottery discovered on Neolithic sites and bar- rows in this country is usually a dark-coloured hard-baked ware, richly ornamented, with a small quantity of silicious grit mixed with the paste. Crude pottery has been found in the kitchen- middens on the southern shores of the Baltic, in the hut-village of Campigny, and the pit dwellings of Holderness. Among the 300 sherds found at Campigny were fragments of vessels with round handles, occasionally with ornamentation of lattice and chequer patterns. In the kitchen middens explored by Mr. Lewis Abbott at Hastings, frag- ments of large bottomed utensils, of coarse well- baked black or dark red ware, several bearing traces of fire, were plentiful. Pottery was found in the shafts at Cissbury, and also in 1914 in the filled-in shafts at Grime's Graves, Weeting, and in the chalk tunnels leading from the bases of the Neolithic pottery in shafts. A large piece of cordoned pottery, very rudely fabricated, was disinterred near the bottom of a flint mine 24 feet deep, excavated at Maum- bury Rings in 1912. Coarse pottery was also found on the floors of circular hut sites at Grove- hurst, Milton-next-Sittingbourne, Kent, and frag- ments showing ornament made by impressing cords on the wet clay were discovered in the sandhills on the shore of Whitepark Bay, Co. Antrim. Some of the pottery found in the Neo- lithic oval pile-structures (probably dwellings) at Stoney Kirk, Wigtownshire, had rounded hori- zontal ridges, and some was decorated with the teeth of a comblike implement, the rims having an inward slanting bevel with similar ornamenta- tion but at right angles to the preceding. The Neolithic pottery found in graves consists of vessels with round bottoms, slightly bulging bodies, and wide mouths, highly ornamented. That from chambered cairns in Argyllshire, Islay and Arran, and the opposite coast of Ireland, re- sembles the pottery of the dolmens of north-west France and the Pyrenees, and is distinct in type from that found elsewhere in the British Isles. Of pottery from British barrows the most defi- nitely Neolithic is that from the chambered long barrow near Avebury. There were three heaps of potsherds belonging to various vessels which it was impossible to restore. They, however, enabled other bowls used for domestic as well as ii2 Our Homeland Antiquities sepulchral purposes, to be assigned to this period. These bowls were hemispherical, of thick dark ware, with a hollow moulding between the angular lip and shoulder, and ornamented by pressing a twisted cord or the ringer nail, into the clay before baking. The lower part of the vessel was plain, and the upper part covered with ornamentation which sometimes extended to the inner face of the lip. These vessels were the immediate predecessors of the " food vessels " of the Early Bronze Age to which they bear a close resemblance, while the beakers are undoubtedly a foreign importation. Pottery of the Bronze Age, made without the potter's wheel, is abundant, and has been ad- mirably classified by the Hon. John Abercromby, who divides the ceramic art of the Bronze Age into beakers, food vessels and cinerary urns. The paste was generally mixed with small particles of broken flint, quartz, xhalk, shells or minute pebbles, some of the finer being tempered by grit or sand. Beakers are " hand-made, usually from six to nine inches high, with thin walls made of clay tempered with sand or finely pounded stone. The surface of the vessel has often a polished appearance from being smoothed and rubbed with a stone or bone. The vessels were fairly well baked in an open fire." These were associated almost entirely with unburnt interments. The most common form has a cylindrical neck joined X H J m O ■1 Z Beakers and food vessels 113 to a globular body, both being covered with orna- ment, chiefly in horizontal bands, but on the neck sometimes vertical. In most cases it was made by twisted thongs impressed on the moist clay, or by instruments of wood and bone by which herring-bone or hatched patterns and stamped rings were made. The British form of the bell- beaker is supposed to have been introduced about 2000 B.C. from the borders of Switzerland. The earlier and more specialised forms are found in southern England, and gradually degenerated as they spread northward, the rounding of the angles being very noticeable, though in view of the advanced types found in Yorkshire — the East Riding being the richest centre in these islands — it is probable that there was a separate invasion of the east coast. Food vessels " served the same purpose as the beakers and were evidently placed in the grave for the use of the deceased. Compared with beakers the walls of the vessels are thicker, more solid, and though generally of small size (from 4 to 6 inches in height) are heavier than a beaker of greater height." They are probably later than the beakers, and are chiefly found in round bar- rows, with unburnt interments, though sometimes used to hold the burnt bones. They are abundant in the north of England and scarce south of Derby- shire and Staffordshire. Ornamentation extends all over the exterior, sometimes outside the lip ii4 Our Homeland Antiquities and occasionally there is a cruciform design on the base. Covers are sometimes found, and some specimens have lugs round the narrowed neck. These food vessels, which are unknown outside the British Islands, are supposed to have been placed beside the dead, with an offering of food as a solemn sepulchral rite. " Incense cups " are also an indigenous product, though a few are known from the Channel Islands. They are small cup-shaped vessels usually orna- mented, sometimes on the base, and many have two small holes pierced through the bulge on one or both sides. Incense cups are almost exclusively associated with cremated remains, occasionally inside the cinerary urn with the ashes, having therefore been placed in the grave after the cre- mation ceremony. It has been suggested that they were used to convey fire from the domestic hearth to the funeral pyre. Most of the cinerary urns are later than the beakers and food vessels, and are found in barrows, either upright or inverted over the ashes. They are large, of coarse badly baked ware, and vary greatly in shape, the most common form con- sisting of two truncated cones placed base to base, the upper forming a deep overhanging rim, which was chiefly used for ornamentation. This type and the food vessel are supposed to be derived from an Irish prototype, dating from about 1500 to 1400 B.c. ; while the urn with handles probably Cinerary urns 1 1 5 crossed the English Channel into Cornwall and Dorset where it is best represented. The best examples of sepulchral pottery have been found in Wiltshire, Dorset, the East Riding of Yorkshire, and the east coast of Scotland. Decoration was chiefly done with a pointed tool, or with finger point and nail, the potters evidently being women. Domestic pottery was as a rule unornamented, but that of Dartmoor was elaborately decorated. Many domestic utensils have been discovered with sepulchral pottery, a few entire, but the majority broken. Bronze Age types were still manufactured in the Early Iron Age, but most of the pottery was made on the wheel, though domestic utensils were hand made, usually plain, but sometimes with rectilinear patterns. The most common type in southern Britain has a tapering body with rounded shoulder and slight rim, and two stout loops either projecting from the shoulder or placed over in- dentations. These are of fine paste with good surface, and are brownish-black. Some of the vessels are perforated at the base, and it is assumed that they were used for draining honey-comb. Such have been found in Kent, Hampshire, Wilt- shire and Dorset. From the cemetery at Aylesford a splendid series of cinerary urns was obtained, the paste being in the main free from grit and chalky par- ticles, though mica and minute grains of quartz n6 Our Homeland Antiquities are present. The urns are well baked and grace- fully moulded, light brown in colour, the surface coated with a lustrous black pigment, probably formed of finely powdered charcoal. Many have a well-turned pedestal, this type being found as far north as Northamptonshire and as far west as Dorset, but is most abundant in Kent and Essex. Though based on Gaulish models, they were undoubtedly of local manufacture. Raised ribs or cordons arranged horizontally with lateral grooves were frequent, but finely incised lines or comb-markings constituted the chief designs, while a polished line produced by drawing a blunt point over the soft surface of the clay, was not infrequent. Some of the pottery was bowl-shaped, and some had the triangular decoration which occurs in the Bronze Age. Many of the specimens of pottery found in the Glastonbury lake village had incised patterns of considerable complexity ; some were hand-made but most were turned on the wheel. Loom weights of baked clay and pottery spindle whorls be- longing to this period have also been found. Chapter XIV. The Pleasures of Field Work. Few scientific pursuits have so much in their favour and so little to justify hostile criticism as the study of the handiwork of primitive man. In the first place the collector is doing no harm to anybody or anything. He is not dejtroying life ; the objects he collects are inanimate, and their removal is resented neither by landowner, farmer, nor gamekeeper, if these are approached in a proper manner. Permission to search for flint implements and other relics of the prehistoric period, either in gravel pits, on arable fields, heath- land or downland is rarely refused, though the collector is least welcome on game estates in the springtime and on arable land when the cereal crops are more than a few inches in height. Heath- land can be searched at any season of the year, rabbits and moles acting as unpaid assistants in bringing implements to the surface from beneath the mat of vegetation, while fields of roots are most easily examined in the autumn, and fields of cereals in the spring, or between the harvest and the ploughing. Fallows are, of course, acces- sible at any time. In most districts stone pits are n8 Our Homeland Antiquities chiefly worked in the autumn, winter and spring, and where possible it is advisable that periodical visits should be paid as new sections are con- stantly being exposed. The exploration of cliffs, kitchen middens, barrows, etc., can usually be carried on at any season of the year. Field-work takes the student-collector into the open air to some of the wildest portions of the country, where he can conveniently combine with the study of prehistoric archaeology, the pursuit of geology, ornithology, botany, entomology, con- chology, or any of the branches of natural history where observation of the living animal or plant in its natural habitat is essential. It is possible while devoting the major portion of one's energies to collecting flint implements, to observe the wild life of the area in which one is working, and to appreciate its natural beauties. For the field- worker to know something of geology is a neces- sity, and the wider his knowledge the more valu- able his conclusions. A smattering of mineralogy is helpful in enabling the most likely places of origin of implements made from materials other than flint to be determined. To be able to iden- tify bones found in association with the handi- work of prehistoric man, or to demonstrate how mollusca show the varying changes of climate through which this country passed in Pliocene and later times, are also fascinating pursuits. Knowledge of the human skeleton is desirable, The pleasures of field work 119 and the man who is best equipped makes the most reliable observations in the field, and is less apt to miss the little matters which may have an important bearing on the antiquity of specimens found. As the acquisition and utilisation of know- ledge are in themselves pleasurable, the necessity for peeping into so many branches of science may be accounted one of the delights of prehistoric archaeology. Further there is the intense human interest of the subject. Mankind has always been curious as to its origin, and when exact knowledge was lacking, resorted to myth. Evidence as to the great antiquity of man has been slowly accumu- lated during the past seventy or eighty years, and there is so much yet in dispute, and so many points on which further investigation is needed, that every field-worker has ample opportunity of increasing the store of knowledge on the subject. Even on those days when he has tramped many miles over moor, heath, down or arable land, or carefully searched pit sections or heaps of flints without success, his labours have not been entirely in vain. Negative evidence, though not so valuable as positive, is yet worthy of record. To know that relics of prehistoric man are not found in certain deposits, or on special areas, is of value, but to ascertain the reasons for this is still more valuable. Any flint implemenUpicked up may be an im- portant link in the chain of evidence as to a period 120 Our Homeland Antiquities of culture, patina, iron-moulding, striation, re- chipping, the importation of flint, or any one of the hundreds of problems which await elucida- tion. Other relics, such as potsherds, pot-boilers, human remains, and bone implements, all have an important bearing on early culture, and every collector has the opportunity of adding to the common stock of knowledge. These speculative possibilities have a great attraction for some collectors. There is always the " sporting chance " (as one keen student terms it) that the next implement picked up may prove to be epoch-making ; on a day when little success has attended the collector's efforts it may be the last chipped piece which is the best. Instances of noteworthy implements found by accident are innumerable ; every collector can narrate striking examples of implements found built into walls or even churches, lying on wayside heaps of road material or among stones picked from the fields, loose on much-frequented footpaths, disclosed by rainstorms washing away the covering earth, or turned up in digging or ploughing. I know of one man who found a. hoard of bronze implements as the result of a dream, but this method cannot be universally recommended. Not least among the pleasures of prehistoric archaeology — though this it shares in common with other branches of science — is the freemasonry of kindred spirits. Those who have shared days A harvest of memories 121 in the wilds, with all their vicissitudes, forge a bond not easily broken, and have a harvest of pleasant memories. When field work is impossi- ble, an examination of specimens either in one's own collection, in those of brother collectors, or in public museums, yields fresh interest, and every student can always find numerous questions on which he disagrees with others, so that debatable points constantly occur. Therefore whether in the field or in the study, the pleasure and mental profit of prehistoric archaeology are easily main- tained. A Glossary of Terms used in Prehistoric Archaeology. Abri Audi point — a knife-like flint implement with straight cutting-edge and thick back curving to the point. Transition period between Le Moustier and Aurignac. St. Acheul — type-station for the third of the Palaeolithic Drift periods. Amygdaloid — almond-shaped ; applied to certain Palaeo- lithic Drift implements. Anthropoid swords — Early Iron Age swords, with repre- sentation of human head in angle of pommel. Arete — minor ridge between flakes, but some continental authorities use it to denote cutting-edge. Aurignac — type-station for the second of the Palaeolithic Cave periods. Axial ridge — main flaking ridge on the long axis of an im- plement. Back — bulbar, flatter, or neutral surface of a flint imple- ment. Barrow — artificial mound of earth, or earth and stones, raised over burials, generally in the Bronze Age. Baton de-Commandement — arrow - straightener formed of antler with one or more circular holes. Beaker — pottery drinking-cup of Neolithic or Bronze Age. Bec-de-perroquet — flint graver curved at the point like a parrot's beak. Beehive hut — early dwelling-place, so built that the stones of the wall overlap, and meet in the roof centre. Blade — long flake with parallel side-edges. Bracer — bowman's wrist-guard. Glossary 123 Brachycephalic — (round-headed) applied to skull with cep- halic index (q.v.) of more than 75. Breccia — solidified floor-deposit from caves. Broch — defensive tower of masonry in Scotland. Buckel-urnen — German Bronze Age vases with conical bases. Bulb of percussion — the swelling at the end of a flake pro- duced by the blow by which it was detached. Bulbar cavity — the hollow left by the bulb of percussion on the removal of a flake. Bulbar Scar — see Eraillure. Burin — graver (q.v.). Burin busquS — busked graver, distinguished by longitu- dinal fluting at the point, instead of the simple slice. Button scraper — small flint scraper, circular, or worked to a quadrant or more of a circle on the face and edge opposite the bulb. Cairn — mound of stones raised over a burial. Le Campigny — type station of an early period of the Neo- lithic age. Carinated plane — flat-based implement with ridged top, sloping to ends and sides. Celt — hafted, axe-like implement in stone or bronze. Cephalic index — ratio of a skull's breadth to length, length being taken as 100. Chalk-inlay — powdered chalk applied to decorative in- cisions in pottery. Chape — scabbard-tip for sword or dagger. Chelles — type-station for the second of the Palaeolithic Drift periods. Chert — an impure form of flint. Cinerary urn — urn containing cremated human remains, sometimes inverted over them. Cissbury — type-station of implements of the flint-mining industry, 3^ miles north of Worthing, Sussex. Cist — coffin-shaped receptacle of stone for interment of an unburnt, or rarely cremated, body. 124 Our Homeland Antiquities Cone — flint implement of various forms, but usually with flat base and conical or oval top, probably used as a plane. Core — nucleus of flint after flakes have been removed. Core-casting — casting socketed bronze celts with core of burnt clay. Core-scraper — implement flaked at right angles on the two faces, and one edge with secondary chipping. Coup-de-poing — pointed hand-axe of the Palaeolithic Drift period. Crannog — artificial island, strengthened by piles, and used for dwellings. Cromlech — ring of standing stones. Cup-and-ring — concentric incised rings surrounding a hollow cut in a stone slab. Cushion type — oblong form of stone mace or axe-head. Disc Barrow — small mound marking interment, situated within a ring formed by an inner ditch and bank. Disc — circular flint implement chipped on both faces. Dolichocephalic — (long-headed) skull with cephalic index (q.v.) of not more than 75. Dolmen — sepulchre constructed of a capstone resting on two or three upright stones. Dolphin plane — pear-shaped, flat-based flint implement. Dos abattu or Dos ra.ba.ttu — " battered back" flake usually of prismatic form, transversely flaked from one or two edges. Drift — fiuvio-glacial or river deposits of gravel. Drinking-cup — beaker (q.v.). Eburneen — ivory period (Early Aurignac). Encoche — chipped hollow in a flake or implement. " End of celt " — a finished flint implement shaped like half an axe. End-scraper or duckbill-scraper — flint flake rounded at one end on one face only, by usage as a plane. Eolith — the oldest type of flint implement, usually hacked and battered, rather than chipped. Eraillure — (bulbar scar) the chip on a bulb of percussion. Glossary 125 Les Eyzies — type-station for the transitional period be- tween Solutre and La Madeleine. Fabricator — narrow chisel-like flint implement used with pyrites for producing fire, but often regarded as a tool for flaking flint. Face — broader surface of an implement as opposed to the side-edges. Facetted butt — chipped striking platform of flake or im- plement, produced before detachment from the core. Fibula — brooch. Ficron — long implement with broad base and narrow point of the Palaeolithic Drift period. Fissures — radiating superficial cracks on flint, produced by a detaching blow and pointing to the bulb of per- cussion. Flake — strip of flint removed from a core, either in shaping the latter, or preparatory to being made into an im- plement. Flake-implement — palaeolith made from a flake, especially one struck from a tortoise-core (Northfleet type). Flange — the beaten up edge of a bronze celt. Floor — an old land-surface on which implements or pot- tery are found. Floor-stone — the lowest worked stratum of flint in the chalk at Lingheath, Brandon, and Grime's Graves, Weeting. Below it are lumps called " gulls," and above it layers called " wallstone," " upper-crust," " toppings " and " horns." Food- vessel — wide-mouthed pottery vessel, sometimes with cover, found with Bronze Age interments and confined to the British Isles. Fogou (Cornish) — underground chamber or gallery. Fosse — the ditch of an earthwork. Fylfot — see Swastika. Gloss — a porcellanous surface occasionally found on flints both worked and unworked, and commonly at Knowle Farm, Savernake. 126 Our Homeland Antiquities Grattoir — plane made from a long or broad flake of flint. Grattoir museau — plane (q.v.) more or less carinated, with nose at end. Grattoir Tarti — see Tarte plane. Graver — flint tool used for engraving on bone or ivory, the point produced by downward slice {coup-de-burin). Hallstatt — type-station for early period of Early Iron Age. Hand-axe — coup-de-poing (q.v.) the commonest form of palasolith. Harpoon-barb — small triangular flint implement fixed in the side of a harpoon-head. Hinge-fracture — rounded end to a flake, furthest from the bulb, produced at the time the flake was struck. Holed Stone — a perforated menhir, e.g. The Men-an-Tol, Penzance. Horseshoe-scraper — large scraper worked to a quadrant or more of a circle on the face and edge opposite the bulb. Hut-circle — circular hollow in the ground, site of early habitation. Incense-cup — small pottery vessel found with late Bronze Age interments in Britain. Incipient Cone of percussion — a small ring-mark, the effect of a blow on a piece of flint from which a flake has not been detached. Iron-moulding — spots, streaks or blotches of iron-staining on flint implements. Kitchen-midden — refuse heap on habitation-site. Kist Vaen (Cornish) — rude stone box or coffin m barrow. La Madeleine — type-station of the fourth of the Palaeo- lithic Cave periods. La Micoque — type-station for the transitional period be- tween St. Acheul and Le Moustier. La Tene — type station for late period of Early Iron Age. Lake-dwelling — hut erected on piles in a lake or mere. Lateral symmetry — when the edges of an implement have the same curve. Glossary 127 Le Moustier — type-station for the first Palaeolithic Cave period. Levallois flakes — broad flakes with facetted butts (q.v.) of Le Moustier date ; named after Levallois-Perret, a suburb of Paris. Limande — flat ovate implement of Chelles or St. Acheul date. Loess — a sandy calcareous deposit recognised abroad as largely due to wind action (seolian deposit). Long barrow — burial mound, Neolithic period. Lunula — crescent-shaped gold ornament of Irish origin. Lustre — the natural polish on flaked or chipped flints. Lynchet — terrace on hill-side, usually in series, generally called cultivation terraces. Mas d'Azil — type-station of the beginning of the Neo- lithic Age. Megalith — monument, probably sepulchral, consisting of huge unhewn stones. Menhir — standing stone. Mesolithic — conjectural period connecting the Palaeo- lithic Cave and Neolithic Ages. Microlith — minute flake carefully trimmed. Neolithic — New or Later Stone Age. Nosed scraper — scraper with projecting portion chipped for use (grattoir musean). Odnochoe — flagon. Palaeolithic — Old or Early Stone Age. Palstave — bronze celt with deep grooves for split handle, with or without loop. Patella — skillet of frying-pan shape. Patina — change in surface appearance of chipped flint, due to partial or entire removal of colouring matter by chemical action. Pick — long implement with broad base and narrow point, of the Palaeolithic Drift period (ficron). The so- called Thames pick ^(cylindrical) is of later date. Plane — flat-based flint implement of varying forms. 128 Our Homeland Antiquities. Plunging flake — a flake which is thin at the bulbar end but thickens towards the other. Pointe — triangular implement, usually with two worked edges, of Le Moustier date. Pointe & cran — shouldered point of late Solutre date. Pot-boiler — chipped or unchipped flints, used by pre- historic man in cooking. They were heated in a fire and then dropped into water, giving them a white china-like surface, covered with almost innumerable cracks. Pound — a walled enclosure surrounding hut-circles, e.g. Grimspound, Dartmoor. Prismatic tool — implement similar to a fabricator, but with one flat face. Profile symmetry — when the face and back of an imple- ment are alike in their curvature. Pygmy — minute flint implement. Quern — hand-mill stone for grinding corn. Quoit — the flat covering stone of a dolmen, used in Cornwall for the dolmen itself, e.g. Lanyon Quoit. Racloir — flint side-scraper. Ripple-flaking — minute parallel flaking. Ripples — concentric inequalities of the surface due to a detaching blow, with bulb of percussion as centre (compare ripples produced by stone thrown into water) . Robenhausen — type-station for the climax of the Neo- lithic period. Rostro-carinate — a type of flint implement found beneath the Crag beds of Norfolk and Suffolk, flat based, more or less central ridge, and curved at one end so as to resemble the beak of an accipitrine bird. Round barrow — burial mound, usually of Bronze Age. Sarsens — blocks of sandstone strewn over the Wiltshire Downs and South-east England. Known also as Grey-wethers or Druid Stones. Schnur-becher — continental form of drinking-cup. Glossary 129 Scraper — flat backed implement, with many varieties, chipped to a quadrant or more of a circle. Segmental tool — implement with flat base, shaped like half-a-disc (" tea-cosy "). Situ la — an Early Iron Age vessel of the bucket-type, with horizontal bands sometimes with representations of animals and men. Skillet — a pan or vessel of metal with a long handle. Solutr6 — type-station of the third of the Palaeolithic Cave periods. Spatulate celt — spoon-shaped bronze celt. Spindle-whorl — small perforated disc of bone, stone or pottery, forming a rude fly-wheel for the spindle. Staining — chemical changes in surface colouring of chipped flints. Stop-ridge — a ridge about halfway along each face of a bronze celt. Stone circle — see Cromlech. Strepy — type-station of the first of the Palaeolithic Drift periods. Striation — scratched lines on flint or stone. Striking-platform — the flat end of a flake on which the blow that detached it was struck. Swastika — a figure of the shape of a cross of which each arm is bent to form one or more right angles. Tardenois — type-station for an early part of the Neolithic Age characterised by pygmy implements. Tarte plane (Grattoir Tarte) — flint chipped to a conical shape and used as a plane (Aurignac date). Tea-cosy — segmental tool (q.v.). Terpen — pile-dwellings on land (Dutch). Terramara, plural Terramare — pile - dwellings on land (Italian). Terret — ring attached to the pad or saddle and hames of harness, through which the driving-reins pass. Tore — twisted metal collar. 130 Our Homeland Antiquities Tortoise-core — a block of flint trimmed all over, from which a complete flake-implement was subsequently struck. Placed on the flatter face it resembles a tortoise. Tranchet — axe, with the cutting-edge at the broader end produced by the removal of a single transverse flake. Trilithon — two upright stones, connected by a continuous stone impost, examples in Stonehenge. Triskele (triquetra) — a three-limbed figure occurring in early British art. Truncated flake — a flake which has been shortened by subsequent working. Tumulus — artificial mound of earth, not necessarily sepulchral. Vallum — the bank of an earthwork. Waisted Plane — flat-based implement, shaped like an axe, but constricted in the middle. Worked-angle flake — flake with chipping or battering on one side only of the central ridge. Zonen-becher — continental drinking-cup with ornamen- tation in horizontal bands. TYPE-STATIONS. St. Acheul — a suburb of Amiens, valley of the Somme. Aurignac — grotto in Haute-Garonne, about 40 miles s.w. of Toulouse. Le Campigny — hill near Blangy-sur-Bresle, Seine-inf6rieure. Chelles — Chelles-sur-Marne, eight miles east of Paris. Cissbury — flint mines, 3^ miles north of Worthing. Les Eyzies — cave near Tayac, Dordogne. Hallstatt — in the Noric Alps (Austrian Tyrol) four miles from town of Hallstatt. La Tene — near Marin, north end of lake of Neuchatel, Switzerland. La Madeleine — rock shelter on the right bank of the Vezere, Dordogne. Mas d'Azil — cavern in valley of the Arise (Ariege) north of the Pyrenees. La Micoque — cave in the Vezere valley, near Tayac. Le Moustier — cave on the right bank of the Vezere. Robenhausen — site of pile-dwellings, Switzerland. Solutre — in dept. Saone-et-Loire. Strepy — village west of Charleroi, Belgium. Tardenois — site at La Fere-en-Tardenois, dept. Aisne. Bibliography. A Selection of General Works of use to the Student. Man's Place in Nature. T. H. Huxley Antiquity of Man. Sir Charles Lyell . Prehistoric Times. Lord Avebury Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and Orna ments of Great Britain. Sir J. Evans Cave Hunting. W. Boyd Dawkins British Barrows. W. Greenwell Early Man in Britain. W. Boyd Dawkins Prehistoric Europe. James Geikie Ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons and Orna ments of Great Britain. Sir John Evans Man Before Metals. N. Joly Le Prehistorique. G. and A. de Mortillet Scotland in Pagan Times. J. Anderson . Lake Dwellings of Europe. R. Munro Man and the Glacial Period. G. F. Wright Man the Primeval Savage. W. G. Smith . Prehistoric Man and Beast. H. N. Hutchinson Life in Early Britain. B. C. A. Windle . Man, Past and Present. A. H. Keane Prehistoric Scotland. R. Munro Human Origins. S. Laing Guide to the Antiquities of the Stone Age in the British Museum Neolithic Man in North-east Surrey. W. Johnson and W. Wright .... Bibliography 133 Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age in the British Museum ..... 1904 Remains of the Prehistoric Age in England. B. C. A. Windle ..... 1904 Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age in the British Museum ..... 1905 Neolithic Dewponds and Cattleways. A. J. and G. Hubbard ..... 1905 Forty Years Researches in Burial Mounds in York- shire. R. Mortimer .... 1907 Folk Memory. W. Johnson .... 1908 Earthwork of England. A. H. Allcroft . 190a La Prehistoire. G. and A. de Morttllet . 1910 Ancient Types of Man. A. Keith . . . 191 1 Ancient Hunters and their Modern Representa- tives. W. J. Sollas . . . . 191 1 The Lake Village of Glastonbury. A. Bulleid and H. St. George Gray . . . . 1911-17 Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society of East Anglia. (Annually) .... 1911-21 Prehistoric Man. W. L. H. Duckworth . . 1912 A Study of the Bronze Age Pottery of Britain and Ireland. Sir J. Abercromby . . 1912 Submerged Forests. Clement Reid . . 191 3 Prehistoric Britain. R. Munro . . . 1913 Repertoire de l'Art Quaternaire. S. Reinach . 1913 The Origin and Antiquity of Man. G. F. Wright 1913 Les Hommes contemporains du Renne dans la Vallee de la Somme. V. Commoxt . . 1914 Prehistoric Times and Men of the Channel Islands. J. Sinel 1914 The Antiquity of Man. A. Keith . . . 1915 134 Bibliography Prehistoric Man and his Story. G. F. Scott Elliot ...... 1915 Report on the Excavations at Grime's Graves, Weeting, Norfolk 19 15 An Introduction to Field Archaeology as illustrated by Hampshire. J. P. Williams-Freeman, M.D. 1915 Prehistoric Art. E. A. Parkyn. 1915 Pre-Palaeolithic Man. J. Reid Moir. 19 19 La PrShistoire. A. Rutot .... 1919 Man and his Past. O. G. S. Crawford. 1921 Prehistory. M. C. Burkitt. 1921 L'Anthropologie. Bulletin de la Soctete' Prehistorique Francaise. Index. Figures in heavy-face type refer to Illustrations PAGE Abercromby, Hon. John . 112 Abbott, W. J. L. . 41, no Acton . . . .53 Adzes . . . .68 Angel Road . . .52 Anvils . 50, 52, 67, 73, 81 Arbor Low . . -99 Aretes . . . .21 Arrow points 59, 61, 67, 68, 68, 69, 75, 80 Art . 12, 15, 79, 83, 108 ^sAshdown . . .100 Assegais . . . .63 Aurignac 13, 16, 28, 54, 58, 60, 63, 109 Avebury 87, 96, 98, 101, in Awls 57, 59, 60, 63, 67, 69, 97 Axes 66, 69, 70, 70, 75, 76, 77, 81, 97, 105, 108 Axe-hammers . . 67, 70 Aylesford . 82, 82, 115 Barrows, long Barrows, round ^-Battersea Beads Beakers . Beehive houses Belloc, H. Bibliography Birmingham Blackburv Castle 96, in 77, 96, 97 . 82 • 79 . 112 92,93 . 89 . 132 . 5i • 29 Bodkin . Borers 46, 50, 53, 57, 60, Bosporthennis Bracelets Brandon Bridlington Brighton Brixham Cave Bronze Age 17 PAGE • 59 63, 67, 69, 97 24, Brown, J. Allen Buckenham Tofts Bulbar cavity . Bulb of percussion Burin (see Graver). Caddington Cairns Caithness Campigny Canterbury Cantrill, T. C. . Cam Kessidjack Cartailhac, M. . Chanctonbury Ring Channel Islands Chatelperron point Chelles-sur-Marne 12 Chert Chichester Ohisels . 60, 64, 79, 80 18, 42 . 69 • 75 44, 60 38, 76, 76, 78, 80, 112 36, 53 • 103 . 20 20, 42, 56 96, 67, 145, 46 67, 78, 53 in 66 no 88 29 20 13 87 68 59 , 53 33 103 106 136 Our Homeland Antiquities Choppers Cissbury 33, 37, Cissbury Camp Cissbury Ring . Cinerary urns . Clach-an-Truiseil Clark, E. K. . Colombiere Colonsay Commont, M. . Cones Cone of percussion Cooper Flats . Copper . Coralline Crag . Cordate implement Cores Coup-de-poing Cox, R. H. Crannogs Crayford Creswell Crags . Cromlechs Culmore . Curwen, E. & E. C PAGE 57, 60, 106 67, 104, IIO . 34, 101 87 114 99 86 16 66 47, 49 60, 67, 70 20 27 77 41 49 58, 67, 75 46, 46, 50 • 87 • 94 52, 57 64 20,98 • 27 . 102 Daggers . Dartmoor Dee Valley Dene-holes Disc-shaped implement Dolmen Donghoren Hills Dover, Straits of Drone Road Dunbridge Dunstable Dutt, W. A. . Early Iron Age 100, 100 67, 78, 80, 97 93, 101, 115 75 95 49 in 83 88 90 57 80 27 17, 24, 80, 82, 94, 115 Earthworks East Anglia, Society of East Runton . Eaton, Norwich Eocene . Eoliths . Eraillure Erwood, F. C. E Essex Eure-et-Loir Evans, Sir John PAGE . 100 Prehistoric 41, 106 . 41 41, 96 10 35, 39, 40, 51 21, 42, 74 Fabricator Farnham Fauna 12, Field-work Fissures . Flakes Flint Flint-mines Floors Folkton Wold Food vessels Forts, hill-top Foxhall . Franks, Sir A. Frere, John Fyfield . 94, 1 o, 46 03, 1 W. 69, 74 • 37 5o,77 • 7i . 57 05, 107 29, 117 . 21 , 56, 59 • 33 . 103 , 47, 52 . 98 . 112 . 100 28, 41 . 82 • 50 . 96 Glastonbury . 94, 94, 116 Glossary .... 122 Gouges . . . 67-8, 78 Gouges, limpet . . 66 Gravers 12, 60, 60, 62, 62, 64, 67, 7i Grays . . . .52 Grays Inn Lane . .50 Greenhithe . . .48 Green well, Canon . .106 Index 137 PAGE PAGE Grime's Graves 17, 29, 36, 106, Kitchen middens 66, 68 95, no L06, no Kit's Coty House . 100 G uernsey • • 58 Knives 46, 53, 59, 63, 66 78, 81, ] , 72, 72, tor, 103 Haddon, Dr. A. C. • 44 Hallstatt . 80 La Gravette point . 60 Hammers 52-3, 5S, 66 - 73, 78, Lake-dwellings 93,94 107 La Madeleine 12, 13, 14 16, 54, Hand-axes 45, 46, 49 53, 55, 60, 62, 64, 67, no 58, 106 La Micoque 49, 55 Harlyn Bay • 83 Lance heads . 57, 6c , 68, 81 Harpoon-barbs 63 ', 6^ t, 67, 7i Lankester, Sir E. Ray . 42 Harrison, B. . 40 Lanyon Quoit . 100 Hastings 75, no Larne • 37 Heacham • 55 Lartet and Christy . 56, 59 Helmets . 81 La Tene . . 80 High Down . 28 Laugerie Haute 61, 62 Hinge fracture . 21 Layard, N. F. . 37, 49 Hinton, M. A. C. 36, 51 Le Moustier 12, 21, 45, 48, 52, Hockwold . 90 56, 70, 107 Holme . 90 Les Eyzies • 63 Hoxne 28, 50 Levallois 52, 57 Hubbard, A. J. & G. . 8 7 Lisnacroghera . . 83 Hunsbury Camp 82, IOI Lyell, Sir C. . • 43 Hunstanton . 90 Hut-circles . 91 Maces Maiden Castle . • 79 87,89 Icklingham • 55 Maidstone . 40 Icknield Way . . 88 Mapos Island . . 27 Incense-cups . . 114 Marlborough . . 82 Ipswich . 28, *9j 55, 109 Mas d'Azil 14, 66 Iron-moulding • 37 Massingham, Great . Maumbury Ring 87, ] Meare . 103 C03, no • 94 Java . 15 Menhirs . 16, 99 Jersey . • 58 Mentone . Mildenhall • 56 50,57 Keith, Professor Sir A. • 15 Milton-next-Sittingbourne 93, Kennard, A. S. 36, 51 in Kennet . • 99 Miocene . . 10 Kent's Cavern ' At , 60, 64 Moir, J. Reid . 41, 109 I This book is DUE on the last I38 ( date stam ped below. PAGE ■Mortlake I, 105 Mount Cabur 7, 106 Mullers . Neanderthal . 53 . 88 . 74 Neolithic 16, . 78 Neoliths . 15,28 Newgrange . 103 Newton, W. I 68,94 Northfleet 42, 42 Norwich Cra^ . 90 Nottingham , 103, Oban 107 Oligocene 73,88 Oransay . . 38 Ovates . '4, 101 53, 57, Palaeoliths, a 66, 74, >i, 105 ch 5i, 53, Patina 72, 75 Paviland cav< • 75 Peake, Dr. G . 66 Peddar's Wa; 62, 64 Peppard . . 73 Perthes, Bom 78, 81 Picks 46, 49, 72,78 IC . 99 Pilgrims Wa> »5, 107 Piltdown • 59 Pit-dwellings . 100 Planes •0, 106 Pleistocene . 52 Pliocene . 12 Polished imp] 61, 62 Polkinghorne 7, 78, Ponder's End 81, 96 Pot-boilers • 53 Pottery . . 35 fjNl V l!iJLWOA j. X v^* -< , J .^^. LOS ANGS Stan wick Sticklepath ' B 000 017 784 o • - - ?~> . 16 Underground dwellings . 91 s . . .61 GN 306 C55o iin . 103 . 96 a! r. • 43 s T aze • 15 . 55 . 82 41, 92 . 66 Jay 92, in a . 12, 42, 70 H. . 38 . 88 ;. a. . 67 ie Stoke . 96 /er . 82 • 57 ole . 60 . A. . 44 . 34 ast . 55 ligh . 103 I