THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES below A MANUAL OF ORTHOGRAPHY AND ELEMENTARY SOUNDS TWENTY-SECOND EDITION BY HENRY R. PATTENGILL Editor of Moderator-Topics, Song Knapsack, Civil govicrnment of michklan, michigan historical and Geographical Cards, Hints from Squints, Pat's Pick, Special Day Exercises, Thoughts for Those Who Think, Old Glory Speaker. H. R. PATTENOIIvL, PUBLISHER 1912 Correct pronunciatioa and distinct articulation are abso- lutely essential to good reading ; hence elementary sounds should be studied from the first. Copyrighl by Robert Smith Printing Co Henby R. Pattengilu Printers and Binders, 10'. n Lansing, Mich. TABLE OF CONTENTS. Chapter. Definitions 1 Principles of Pronunciation II Table of Elementary Sounds Ill How to Teach the Elementary Sounds IV Exercises in Enunciation V Exercises in Articulation VI Word Study VII Some Rules for Spelling and Some Spelling Tests VIII Some Rules eor Pronunciation IX Review Questions X Pronunciation Tests XI List of 2000 Words Commonly Mispronounced. . XII PREFACE. A pure and easy pronunciation, a clear and natural articulation are acgomplishments well worth diligent and persistent efforts to acquire. The knowledge of the use of diacritical marks is of great service in reading the language of the dictionary and, very properly, has come to be an essential factor in teaching pupils to read. It is sought in this brief manual to give a compilation of rules, suggestions and exercises on the subject of elementary sounds and dia- critical marks that will prove helpful to teachers and pupils. The rapid and steady sale of the volume indicates that the book serves its purpose. The author hopes that the Manual may aid in securing somewhat of a uniformity in teaching and using the proper sounds and their symbols. The list of words given are enough to afford ample drill to young and old in spelling, pronunciation, and articulation. It is an easy matter to create great interest in this sub- ject among the pupils in school, and may it no longer be truthfully said : "TheAmericans are noted for the carelessness of their speech." In the third edition, there were added sixteen pages; in the sixth edition other pages were added and the work revised to conform to the latest editions of the great lexicons; in the seventeeth edition a chapter on word study was added by Charles Car- lisle of Big Kapids. who also assisted in the revision of the nineteenth edition. H. K. PATTENGILL. CHAPTER I. DEFINITIONS AND THE CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS. Language is the medium for the communication of thought. Language is spoken and written. Spoken language consists of certain elementary sounds com- bined into words to express thought. There are about 300,000 words in the English lan- guage, and but 43 elementary sounds. An elementary sound is one of the sounds which make up spoken words. Elementary sounds are so called because they are speech elements which can- not be divided into two or more distinct and dif- ferent sounds. The elementary sounds are made of voice (vowels and subvocals) or of breath (aspi- rates), and are modified by the organs of articula- tion. Voice is produced by the vocal cords in the larynx, the upper part of the windpipe. The organs of voice are the vocal cords, larynx, pharynx, trachea and lungs. Speech is voice or breath modified by the organs of articulation. The organs of articulation are the lips, teeth, tongue, and palate. The organs of speech are the organs of voice and the organs of articulation. A letter is a character used to represent a sound. The English alphabet contains 26 letters. The alpha- bet is said to have been invented by the Phoenicians ; 6 ORTHOGRAPHY AND Aleph and heth, which in Greek are alpha, l)eta, were the first two letters; hence our word alphabet. The poiver of a letter is the sound which the let- ter represents. The name of a letter is what the letter is called in the alphabet. The names of the letters are: a, he, cee, dee, e, eff, gee, aitch, i, jay, kay, ell, em, en, o„ pee, kue, ar, ess, tee, u, vee, douhle-u, ex, icy, zee. The elementary sounds are classified as vowels and consonants. The voivels are open voice sounds. The consonants are speech sounds less open than the vowels. The basis of this classification is the degree of openness or closeness of the organs of articulation in the utterance of the sounds. The more open positions give less obstruction to the voice or breath as it passes through, the closer po- sitions give more. Try the sounds represented by ^> y; Q> ^j 6^^" The vowel sounds are represented by the letters a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. The words aistemiously and facetiously contain the vowel letters in the usual order. The consonant sounds were so called because they are used with vowels in the formation of words. Con, with; son, sound; atit, that which — that which sounds with. The most easily recognizable vowel sounds are heard in the pronunciation of the words aim, at, art, all, eat, end, mind, in, old, on, move, tube, tnt), full. The letters representing these sounds are marked a, 5, a, a, e, e, I, i, o, o, o, Q, ii, u. Vowels are also called vocals and tonics (voc voice, ton, tone). ELEMENT A R Y SO UNDS. 7 The consonant sounds are classified as sudvocals and aspirates. The basis of this classification is the material of which the sounds are made; that is, vocalized or unvocalized breath. The stthvocals, also called siibtonics and sonants, are vocal consonants. They are represented by the letters b, d, g, g, 1, m, n, r, r, v, w,, y, z, z. tb, ng. G with the bar is g as in go: g with the dot, g as in gem. The first r is r after a vowel, as in ear; the second r, r before a vowel, as in rate. The second z is z as in azure. Th with the bar is th as in this. Suhvoeal means under voice, and suhtonic under- tone — these sounds being muffled or shut in by the organs of articulation, i^ul), under; voe, voice; ton, tone. Aspirates, atonies or surds are whispered conso- nants. They are represented by the letters p, t. k, eh, h, f, ich, s, sh, th. Atonic means without tone. The spir in aspirate means to breathe, referring to the material, breath, of which these sounds are made. Consonant sounds are also classified as mutes and semivoKels. The basis of this classification is the stoppage of breath by the organs of articulation in the utterance of the sounds. A mute is a consonant sound which does not admit the escape of breath while the organs of articulation are in contact. The mute sounds are represented by the letters b, p. d, t, g, k. A semivoicel is a consonant sound which admits the escape of breath while the organs of articulation are in contact; i, e., in position to give the sound. 8 ORTHOGRAPHY AND Any consonant sound not a mute is a semivowel. Elementary sounds are classified according to the organs of articulation by which they are formed. The basis of this classification is articu- lation. This classification is sometimes called the organic division of consonants. Lahials are speech sounds articulated by the lips : 'P, h, m, 10, ich. Labiodentals are speech sounds articulated by the lower lip touching the upper teeth : v, f. Lingua-dentals, also called Unguals and dentals, are speech sounds articulated hy the front part of the tongue touching or approaching the teeth or the roof of the mouth : d, g, 1, n, r, y, z, z, th, t, ch, s, sh, th. Lingua-palatals, also called palatals and gutturals, are speech sounds articulated by the back part of the tongue touching or approaching the soft palate : g, k, h, ng. These sounds are called gutturals because they are articulated near the throat — guttur being the Latin word for throat. Elementary sounds are classified according to quality. Quality is a characteristic of voice or tone de- pending largely on resonance. Quality of voice depends upon the shape and size of the vocal organs, the shape and size of the reso- nance cavities, and the way in which the voice is resonated in those cavities. The resonance cavities are the cavities of the nose, mouth, throat and chest. Resonance is the sounding of the voice in the reso- imnce cavities. ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 9 Sibilants are hissing sounds: s, sh, f, th. Fricatives are buzzing sounds : z, z, g, v, y, th and trilled r. Liquids are consonant sounds that easily unite with other consonant sounds : I, m, n, r. Xasals are consonant sounds having special nasal resonance: m, n, ng. Cognates are speech sounds similarly articulated. Thus & and p are labials; d and t, lingua-dentals; etc. The letters representing the cognate consonant sounds are b p, d t, g k, g eh, v f, av ich, zs,z sh, tb tli. Vowel sounds said to be cognate are a e, e i, a a, c5o oo, e 1 ti, etc. Suhstitutes or equivalents are letters which may be used in place of other letters, as ph for f in Philip and for v in Stephen ; si, ti, ce, ci, for sh in pension, notion, ocean, coercion ; eau for in beau, u in beauty, 1 in beaufin; eigh for a in eight; an for a and gh for / in laugh; phth for t in phthisic, and for th in phthisis. Antecedent — a consonant before a vowel in the same syllable. Subsequent or Consequent — a consonant after a vowel in the same syllable. In the word standings, s and t are antecedent to the vowel a; n and d are subsequent to the vowel a; ng and s are subsequent to the vowel i. A digraph is two letters representing one sound {di, two; graph, written). Digraphs are consonant, vowel, and mixed. A consonant digraph is two consonant letters 10 ORTHOGRAPHY AND representing one sound, as th and ng in tiling; sh in wish; ck in back; dd in add; etc. A vowel digraph is two vowel letters representing one sound, as ea in eat; ai in aim; ay in pay; ey in they; ei in veil ; ie in belief; ee in see; oo in cool ; etc. A vowel digraph is sometimes called an improper diplitliong. A mixed digraph is a consonant and a vowel letter representing one sound, as si in pension ; ti in notion ; ci in gracious; ce in ocean; se in nauseate; zi in glazier; si in fusion; etc. A trigraph is three letters representing one sound. Trigraphs are consonant, as sch in schism, sch in schist, tch in w'atch, psh in pshaw, etc.; and vowel, as eau in beau, beauty, beaufin; iew in view; tei< in lieu, adieu ; etc. A triphthong is a vowel trigraph; i. e., three vowel letters rejjreseutiug one sound. A tetragraph is four letters representing one sound, as phth in phthisic, jjMIl in phthisis, ueiie in queue. A diphthong (di two, phthong sound) is two vowel sounds blended in one utterance, as a q in house, how; a 1 in oil, boy. The diphthong oi, oy is said to be a separable diphthong because each of the letters which compose it may be marked to show the sound represented : 6i, Oy. The diphthong on, ow is said to be inseparable because the letters which compose it cannot be marked to show the sounds represented. A diphthongal vowel is a vowel sound having a vanish. ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 11 The vanish of a vowel is the sound last heard when the vowel is pronounced. Thus, the vanish of a is e; the vanish of i is 65 the vanish of o is 00; the vanish of u is 00. A simple vowel is a vowel which has no vanish, as e, I, 5, u, etc. An aphthong (a without, phthong sound) is a silent letter, as a in eat, / in aim, t in watch, p in pshaw, h in ghost, iie in antique, etc. The assimilation of consonants is changing con- sonant sounds to make pronunciation easier. A z sound could not be pronounced in combination with t in chintz, therefore z in this word is pronounced as if it were the aspirate s. In icinds, the aspirate s could not be pronounced in combination with the subvocal d, therefore s in this word is pronounced as if it were the subvocal ~. In suffer, the 6 of the prefix siib is changed to /"; in illegal, the n of the prefix in is changed to I; in af[ix, the d of the prefix ad is changed to f ; in pressed, the d of the suffix ed represents the sound t, the e being silent. See p. 21, d. The duplication of consonants is doubling or re- peating a consonant letter, as dd in add, nn in funn/y, mm in hammer. The consonant letter is doubled or repeated to show that the preceding vowel sound is short : ebb, egg, miss, stripped, banner, running, etc. The duplication makes, in effect, a consonant digraph, as only one sound is represented by the combination. Orthography treats of the nature of elementary sounds, the power of letters and correct spelling. Orthoepy treats of the pronunciation of words. Phonology is the science of elementary sounds. 12 ORTHOGRAPHY AND Philology is the science of language. Phononiijpy and phonography are systems of sound representation. Phonotypy was an attempt to represent each ele- mentary sound by a distinctive character. Phonography is a system of sound representation by curves, straight lines and dots — also called sten- ography or shorthand. A diacritical mark is a mark used with a letter to indicate the sound which the letter represents. Quantity is the length of time occupied in uttering a sound or syllable. Stress is force of utterance. It is the chief con- stituent of accent and emphasis. See accent, p. 64. Hilent letters are used to modify preceding vowels and consonants, to indicate the derivation of words, to show differences in meaning, and to distinguish words of similar sound: mad, made; ace, ache; phthisic, phthisis, phthalic, rhythm; gilt, guilt; road, rode. Letters which are never silent are f, j, q, single r, x, and the letters representing the sound sh. Note. — For definition of words, syllables, etc., see Chap. VII. CHAPTER II. PRINCIPLES OP PRONUNCIATION. Herewith are given in a convenient form the prin-- ciples of ])ronunciation as expounded by the best modern orthoepists. VOWELS. a — long, as in ale, made, pain marked with a macron. This sound is di|)hthongal, ending in a brief V ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 13 sound of e long. To give the sound: Place the tip of the tongue at the base of the lower front teeth, and emit voice. Note. — The sound is represented by e in ihey, prey, etc, and by ei iu eight. a — marked with a dotted macron, as in cahhagc, preface, solace, senate, Tuesday, yesterday, or a before an accented vowel in a syllable following, as aorta, chaotic. This sound is a modification of a long in syllables without accent; ranging between a in ale and e in end, never taking the vanish. In final syllables the tendency of the sound is to turn to / short. a — short as in add, at, plaid; marked with a breve. This is a peculiarly English sound. It differs in quality and quantity from a in made and a in far. It is a short, abrupt sound, with an explosive char- acter. To give the sound: Place the tongue as in a, open the mouth a little wider, and emit voice. & — before r, as in care, air, parent; marked with a circumflex. Most orthoepists consider the sound to be the same as that of long a deprived of its vanishing element, e long. To give the sound: Open the mouth slightly, and j)artially depress the tongue. Place the vo6al organs the same as for e, short, and emit voice. The sound is of a less open quality than short e. Note. — This sound is represented by e in heir, there, their, therefore, where. (See i.) a — Italian, as in a^-m, far, farther; marked with two dots above. It is the most ojoeu and melodious of the vowel sounds, and its use should be cultivated. To give the sound; Open the mouth and throat 14 ORTHOGRAPHY AND wide, leave the tongue in a position of rest and emit voice. There is much latitude in the pro- nunciation of this sound, ranging from a in arm to a in aslc. A medial form is at present most approved. Note. — The vowel a has this sound before r in mono- syllables, or in accented syllables of some words and in their derivations as star, starry, debar, debarring, but when a comes before r in the accented syllable of a word not a derivative, and if followed by another syllable com- mencing with a vowel or another r it has its short sound, as in marry, arid. a — In unaccented syllables, as adove, around, among, '^ sofa, soda, q,roma, separable; marked dot above. This sound is called a intermediate, and is heard in syllables ending in ff, ft, ss, sk, sp, st, th, and a few in nee and nt. This sound ranges among different orthoepists from u short, to a Italian. The best authorities give it the shortened form of a Italian. To give the sound : Place the tongue in position for a, short, then draw the tongue upward and backward, and attempt to give the sound of a, short, without changing the position of the organs. Note. — Kead the interesting history of this sound in pronunciation ^ 6 of Webster's Unabridged or Academic Dictionaries. a — brodd, as in all, talk; marked two dots below. To give the sound: Depress the larynx, retract the tongue thus enlarging the cavity of the mouth, an(3 emit voice. Note. — This sound is represented by o in for. a — short broad, as in ivJi^t, wander; marked dot below. ''This is the extreme short sound of a broad, and coincides with the sound of o in not. ELEMENT A R Y SO UNDS. 1 J It differs, however, in quality as well as in quantity from a broad, being a more open sound ; that is to say the aperture of the lips and the internal cav- ity of the mouth, though of the same shape in both cases, are somewhat larger for a than for a, while the position of the tongue remains unaltered throughout." Note. — Mark the a in any. many, said, says, and the second a in again, against, by canceling it, and place e breve above it. The a is used as an equivalent of e. a — obscure, is used to indicate the closed sound of a, in words like infant, brutally, etc. In Webster's Dictionary this a is italicized. e — long, as in eve, mete; marked with a macron. This is one of the closest of the vowel sounds. To give it: The tongue is raised convexly within the dome of the palate pressing against its sides, and leaving only the smallest possible passage through which a vowel sound can be uttered. Note. — This sound is represented by i in machine, pique. e — in unaccented syllables as event, create, society; this is shorter than accented long e. To give this sound that of ti short shows carelessness; to give it that of e long shows affectation ; hence the compro- mise. Marked with a dotted macron. § — short, as in end, met; marked with a breve. This is not the short sound of a long; it is slightly more open than the radical part and lacks the vanish. To give the sound: Open the mouth slightly and place the tongue to the tips of the lower teeth. Note.— The sound is represented by a in many and u in bury. 16 ORTHOGRAPHY AND C — before r as iu heir, there, their, ichere; marked with a circumflex. (See a.) S — Intermediate, as in verge, ermine, prefer; marked with a wave. This sound is equivalent to thai of i in sir, and y in myrrh, and similar to that of u in urn, although the weight of authority is in favor of a distinctive sound of e, and its use is insisted upon in accented syllables. To give the sound: The organs are placed in a position in- termediate between that for sounding u in urn and e in met. Place the tongue so as to sound e short, draw the tongue back and depress in the center. In unaccented syllables and slow speech this sound is heard somewhat like the closing element of eu in grandeur. Note. — This sound occurs in e before r, in a monosyl- lable or in an accented syllable in which the r is not fol- lowed by a vowel or another r, or in derivatives of such words, when the syllable retains its accent, as in herd, defer, deferring, err, erring, term, mercy, viaternal. When e occurs before r followed by a vowel or another r in a word not derived as above, it has its short sound as in ferry, peril, or the long sound as in period. e — foreign as in prey, they; marked with a macron below. (See 5.) Note. — The e before n in unaccented syllables takes a sound of obscure quality in rapid speech as in prudent. Do not omit it, but do not exaggerate it to full short e. nor let it be like short i or short u. In woolen and kitchen, e has its short sound. The unaccented vowel of obscure quality, especially e or i, is frequently re- duced to the attenuated form called the voice glide, as in eaten, basin, etc. {EaVn, bas'n.) See pp. 27, 93. i — long, as in ice, marked with a macron. This sound is diphthongal in its nature, being composed of a ELEMENT A R Y SO UNDS. 17 and e with the first accented, but so briefly that the ear scarcely distinguishes its sound. Note. — This sound is represented by y in my. i — unaccented as in idea, biology, trihmal, diameter. The quality is subject to great variation, depend- ing upon the stress given to the syllable. I — sJiort, as in iH, if, in; marked with a breve. To give the sound: Place the organs in position to , give e long, and slightly relax the tongue. Note. — The sound is represented by y in nymph, e in England and pretty, ee in been, eau in heaufin, o in ivomen, u in busy, ea in guinea. 1 — foreign, as in pique, caprice; marked dots above. ( See e. ) 1 — intermediate as in girl, irksome; marked with a wave. (See e.) — long, as in old, groic; marked with a macron. This is slightly diphthongal, having a slight vanish in 00 in ooze. It should have a full, open sound, not contracted towards ii short, as hum for liome. To give the sound: Open the lips and bring the mouth toward the circle, and draw the tip of the tongue slightly backward. Note. — This sound is represented by au in hautboy, eau in beau, eio in sew. 6 — unaccented, as in obey, tobacco, billotc. This is usually in open syllables. It differs from long not only in absence of the vanish but by taking a wider form which varies, inversely, with the stress placed on the syllable. 6 — short, as in not, odd, on; marked with a breve. ( See a. ) Note. — Although the words dog, log, God, cost, brotli^ 9 18 ORTHOGRAPHY AND song, long, soft, cross, off, are marked by most orthoepists with the breve, yet the best authorities prefer a pronun- ciation of between that in not and that in for. Q — intermediate, as in do, move; marked dots below. This is tlie closest labial vowel; that is to say the liX)S are more nearly closed than for any other vowel. The sides being brought into contact with each other so as to leave a small central aperture. Note. — It is represented by oo in ooze, u in rude, ew in dreic, eu in maneuvre. 9- short 00, as in icoJf, foot; marked dot below. It is of the same quality as o intermediate, but its quan- tity is shortened. To give the sound: Close the li j)S nearly, leaving a small aperture for the voice to escape. Note. — It is represented by u in pull, and oo in foot. 6 — broad, as in for, orb, marked with a circumflex. ( See a. ) Note. — This sound of o occurs before r in a monosyl- lable as in for, Lord, etc., or in an accented syllable when not followed by a vowel or another r, as in former, orchard, abhor, and in the derivatives of such words, as abhorring. But when o occurs in an accented syllable before r fol- lowed by a vowel or another r in a word not a derivative, it has its regular short sound, as in foreign, orange, torrid. Teachers will do well to study the above note carefully. 6 — short u, as in sou, other; marked dot above. (Seeii.) (K) — long as in ooze, food; marked in the dictionary with an extended macron. (See o.) ob — short, as in foot, wool; marked with a breve. (See V.) ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 19 n - long, as in use, due, mute; marked with a macron. This is a compound sound, formed of the vowel oo in ooze and of the consonant y or the vowel i or e before it. Note. —When the u begins a syllable or is preceded by the palatal or labial sounds Tc, g, 2), &>/, in, v, the sound of y is clearly heard as in usage, cube, puny, etc.; after d, t, I, V, s, and th it is peculiarly difficult to introduce the sound of y, and negligent speakers omit it. The sound should be made as brief as possible and be pronounced in the same syllable. After r, ch, or sli, u has the simple sound of 00 in ooze, as in rule, sure. The sound of u long, is represented by eau in beauty, eu in feudal, eiv in few. The y sound should never be forced in when it will not come in smoothly as a glide. a — unaccented is a modification of u long in use. It is heard in such words as unite, graduate, judicial, censure, measure, etc. The sound difi"ers from fl by taking for the first element the wide q as in wolf, rather than the narrow q as in do. u — short, as in us, but; marked with a breve. In formation it is essentially the same as u in urge, but is shorter in quantity, and more open in quality. To give the sound: Open the mouth slightly, and depress the tongue partially. Note. — It is represented by a in so)i and oo in blood. ]^—long 00, as in rude, rule, ruin; marked dots below. ( See Q. ) Note. — This is the sound of u following r in nearly all cases, as in rumor, fruit, rule, ruin, rude, bruit, brute. u — intermediate, as in j)wf, pull; marked dot below. ( See 9 and do. ) ii— ^neutral, as in urge, urn; marked with a circum- flex. It lacks any strongly marked distinctive 20 ORTHOORAPHY AND quality. It differs from u sliort in length and a greater degree of closeness. This sound is heard in tcord, world, ii:ortliy, Konn, icorse, sandwort, spwgewort, etc. In marking cancel o and write (i above, y — long, as in my; marked with a macron. (See i.) y — short, as in nymph; marked with a breve. ( See i. ) y — intermediate, as in myrtle, myrrh; marked with a wave. ( See i. ) DIPHTHONGS. oi and oy, as in oil, hoy, unmarked. The elements of the sound are a and I with the accent on the former, on and ow, as in our, how; unmarked. This element is composed of ii and do, the former being accented and very brief. Note. — The test of a diphthong is that it requires a change in the position of the organs of speech during the continuance of a tone. For diphthongal vowels, see p. 10. CONSONANTS. b— as in hat, tub, Mb; unmarked. This sound is formed by slight contact of the edges of the lips and compressing the voice within the mouth and pharynx, causing a muffled sound or murmur to precede the separation of the lips. Don' t explode the sound by opening the lips too suddenly. It is usually silent before t and after in in the same syl- lable, as in debt, dumb. € — hard, as in cat; marked with a bar. ( See k. ) Note. - C has this sound when it comes before a, o, u, I, or r, before A;, s, or t final, and when it ends a word or a ELEMENTAR Y SO UN'DS. 21 syllable. It has the sound of z in sacrifice, suffice and discern, and is silent in czar, victuals and indict, and in the termination scle as in muscle. (; — soft, as in cyst, cede; marked with a cedilla. It takes the sound whenever it occurs before e, i or y. ( See s. ) ch — as in church, chat; unmarked. This is a simple sound and not composed of t and sh, as many orthoepists claim. ^^It is produced by placing a certain portion of the tongue near the tip, but not the tip itself, against a certain part of the palate, and, after pressure, suddenly withdrawing it with a violent emission of the breath." ^h — soft, chaise; marked with a cedilla. ( See sh.) Note. — ^Most words with this sound are from the French. ch — hard, as in chorus^ epoch; marked with a bar. (Seek.) Note. — This is also a sound heard in foreign words. Ch is always hard before I and r; it is silent in drachm, schism, and yacht. d — as in do, sad; unmarked. To give the sound : Press the end of the tongue against the upper gums, and then force up vocalized breath or voice, into the mouth. Note.- — When d follows a whispered consonant in the same syllable, it usually takes the sound of t in hissed. It is silent only in the words Wednesday and handkerchief . f — as in fat, leaf; unmarked. It is made by placing the upper lip against the edges of the upper front teeth and emitting the breath. Note. — This letter is never silent and has but one sound, except in the word of, when it has the power of its cognate, v. It is represented by gh in laugh a,nd ph in sylph. 22 ORTHOGRAPHY AND g-'-Tiard, as in go, teg; marked with a bar. The sound is formed by opening the mouth slightly and placing the root of the tongue in contact with the back of the palate, and then allowing the intonated breath to escape. Note.— It is hard before a (except in gaol and its deriv- atives), 0, u, 7i, I and ?•, and sometimes before e, i and y, as in get, give, muggy. It is always hard at the end of words. It is represented by gh in gherTcins. g — soft, as in gem, range; marked dot above. (See j. ) Note. — G usually takes this sound before e, i, and y (see exceptions above). In some French words g has the sound of zh as in mirage, rouge. It is silent before m and n final, and when initial letter n, as in phlegm, sign, gnat. gh — This digraph is unmarked and represents the sound of g hard as in ghost, f, as in laugh, Jc, as in lough, p, as in hiccough. It is silent after i and generally before t. h — as in hat; unmarked. It is a mere breathing. To sound it: Place the organs in position to form the next following sound, as in he, prepare to pro- nounce he and emit un vocalized breath; ha, ho, etc., the same. Note. — It is silent after g initial, after r, and when fol- lowed by a vowel in the same syllable, as in ghost, myrrh, ah. j — as in jug, jar; unmarked. This sound is produced in the same way as that of ch, and differs from it only in being vocal instead of aspirate. It is the same as g. Note.— It is never silent. In hallelujah it has the sound of consonant y. It is represented by di in soldier, and g in gem. k —as in Jcit, Tcnack; unmarked. To form the sound : Bring the back of the tongue into close contact ELEMENT A R Y SO UNDS. 23 with the back part of the palate; and then sepa- - rate by a continued pressure of the breath. It differs from its cognate g, in being aspirate. Note. — It is represented by c hard in cat, ch hard in chord, q before u in quail, and gh in hough. 1 — as in lame, bell; unmarked. This is the most har- monious of the consonants. To give the sound : Place the tip of the tongue against the upper gums and emit vocalized breath. The I in an unaccented syllable following an accented syllable fulfills the of&ce of a vowel, as in able. Note. — L is silent in many words, especially before a final consonant, as in alms, half, almond. m — as in me, mal-e, aim; unmarked. It is produced by closing the lips and letting the voice issue through the nostrils. It is called a labio-nasal. Note. — It is silent before n in the same syllable, as in m,nemonics, and serves as a vowel in schism. n — as in no, name, ten. To give it : Place the tongue as for d and emit voice through the nostrils. It is a dento-nasal. Note. — It is silent after Z or to as in kiln, hymn, but not in derivatives of words, as in hymnal. N also serves as a vowel occasionally, as in even, pardon, etc. n — as in ink, uncle, anchor, conquer, anxious, anger, finger; marked with a bar below. It is equiva- lent to ng. The sound never occurs at the be- ginning of a syllable. To give it: Place the tongue as for g, and allow the voice to pass freely through the nostrils. n — as in canon; marked with a tilde. It is thus marked only in a few Spanish words and indicates a 1/ sound following the n, as in cailoii, sefior. p — as in pet, lip; unmarked. It is formed like h 24 ORTHOGRAPHY AND except that the lips have a firmer contact and breath instead of voice is allowed to escape. Note. — It is silent before n, s, and t, and in some other instances. ph — This digraph occurs chiefly in words of Greek formation. It usually has the sound of f, as in phantom, v in one word, Stephen. Note. — It is silent before th initial, as p/it/iisis. q — as in quick; unmarked. It is sounded like k. The u following, if sounded, is sounded like w. This is II used as a consonant. In a few French words, as coquette and Marquette, and in the termination que, as in antique, the u is silent. r — rough or trilled, as in rat, roam; unmarked. This sound is produced by a more or less forcible vibra- tion of the tip of the tongue against the inner gum of the upper teeth. It occurs only before vowels. r — smooth or untrilled, as in nor, sort; unmarked. This occurs only after a vowel in the same sylla- ble. In giving this sound the tongue is so placed as to feel the passing stream of air, but not to yield to it. Note. — Single r is never silent. 8 — sharp, as in sit, same, yes. In forming this sound the tip of the tongue is rounded and brought near the upper front teeth, the lips are open and unvo- calized breath escapes. Late orthoepists give s the sharp sound in derivatives like disarm, disburse, etc. §—flat, as in has; marked with a suspended bar. Place the organs as for s sharp, and emit voice instead of breath. ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 25 Note. — S is sileat in the words aisle, isle, island, de- niesne, puisne, viscount, and g-enerally at the end of French words adopted into English, as chamois, corps. sh — as in she, flesh; unmarked. This sound is pro- duced by drawing the tip of the tongue inward from the position it takes to sound s in she, slightly en- larging the aperture through which the breath passes, while the middle of the tongue rises within the arch of the palate. Note. — It is represented by c in acacia, t in negotiation, s in nauseate, ce, ci, se, si, sci, ti, before a vowel in a syl- lable following an unaccented syllable, sch in schist,^ ch in chaise. It is never silent. t — as in top, note; unmarked. It is the vocal cognate of d, and formed like it. Note. — T is silent in the terminations ten, tie. after s, as in fasten, castle, and in a few other words. It is often equivalent to sh. th — sharp. aspirated, as in thin, breath: This is the sound made in lisping. It is made by i^utting the point of the tongue between the teeth, or by placing it against the back part of the upper front teeth, and forcing out aspirated breath. th — flat-subvocal, as in then, loith; marked with a bar. This differs from the one preceding only in substi- tution of voice for breath. V — as in vat, leave, unmarked. It is the subvocal cog- nate of/. Note. — Fis never silent except in seven-night. w — as in wo, loen, loet; unmarked. This is a consonant sound before a vowel. Place the vocal organs in position for oo long. Continue the sound of oo long, and observe the vanish. In forming it con- tract the lips slightly, and this compression of the 26 ORTHOGRAPHY AND lips changes the quality of the sound, giving it a buzzing and articulate character, rather than soft vocal ity. Note. — TFis silent before ?-, also in the words answer, sword, toward and two. It is often represented by ii. wh — as in what, unmarked. Webster says that in this digraph the h is sounded before the w, as they were w"ritt.en by the Anglo-Saxons (hwat). Other orthoepists claim that the sound is a simple one and that in forming it the lips are brought close together as for w, and then rapidly separated ; the breath is not obstructed. The latter idea is cer- tainly preferable. X — sha7^2^ as in tax; unmarked. Equivalent to Jcs. $:— so/it or flat, as in exist; marked with a suspended bar. This sound is equivalent to g hard and z. At the beginning of words x has the sound of 2;. y — as in yes, yawn; unmarked. To give the sound: Place the vocal organs as for e Jong; continue the sound as for e long, and closely observe the vanish. In forming it the tongue is slightly depressed, which destroys the jiure vocality in e. Note. — This sound is heard only at the beginning of a word or a syllable. It is often represented by i as in familiar. z — as in zest, maze: unmarked. This is the cognate subvocal of s, and is represented by §. In a few words it takes the sound of zh. zh — These two letters never come together in the proper spelling of an English word; the sound is represented by zi in glazier, si in fusion, and z in azure. The sound is the vocal cognate of sh. ELEMENT A R Y SO UNDS. 27 Note. — We give tables of the elementary sounds in this connection, to present the topic in a compact form, and suggest to teachers that large tables or charts may he made on manilla paper, and placed before the school for reference and study. See Chap. III. STJMjVIARY axd eeyiew. The diacritical marks used are avS follows : " — Macron, used above or below. " — Breve, used above. " — Dots used g(i^ove or below. " — Circumflex, used above. ~ — "Wave or tilde used above. ( "Wave when used with a vowel, tilde with a consonant. ) • — Dot used above or below. " — Bar, used with consonants above, through or below. , — Suspended bar, used below. " — Dotted macron, used above. '—For voice glide, used to denote the brief and obscure neutral vowel sound which sometimes occurs in unaccented syllables, such as the last sj'llables of ev'l, eifn, reas'n, etc. X — Xasal tone, used to indicate the nasal sound of a preceding vowel, as in words from the French and Portuguese: ho'Sho'N, bo'N- on. etc. Italic vowel (a, e, etc), used to show that the vowel sound is not to be entirely omitted, although it is more obscure than the definite short sound : infant, novel, prudent, government, radical, etc. EQUIVALENTS. VOWELS. a = 6 O = CK) or n e = ^ o = OO or n 28 ORTHOGRAPHY AND e = a ow = oil ew = ti oy = oi ee = e y = I i = S y = I I = % CONSONANTS. y = i € =.k dg = j 9 = s ' § = z €li= k ? = gz f;h = sh X = ks g = g ph = f g = J qu = kw a — has eight variations of sound; a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, besides the obscure sound represented in the Inter- national Dictionary by italic a. e — has seven variations of sound; e, e, e, e, e, % ac- cented and e the wide variant. i — has five variations of sound; i, i, i, i, I. — has seven sounds; 0, 6, 0, o, q, 9, 6. u — has six variations of sound; n, ti, u, u, u, u, besides its use as a consonant and exceptional sound of i, as in lettuce. y — has four sounds, all the sounds of i, except 1 in i^iqiie. y, y, y, y. LONG VOWELS. a as in made. i as in girl. a as in far. a as in all. a as in care. e as in eve. e as in verge. i as in ice. as in old. 00 as in ooze, w as in use. on as in our. oi as in oil. SHORT VOWELS. a as in at. a as in fast. e as in met. * 9.S in pit. o as in on. 00 as in foot. u as in us. ELEMENTAB Y SO UNDS. 29 CHAPTER III. TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. VOCALS. Examples. VocaLs. Equivalents. Examples. mate a a a a a a a e e e e i i i 6 oo oo u Q Vi u oi oil e e 6 6 1 y y Q U 9 V 6 oy ow they, there. preface care far fast all or. what oa. at eve event p/que. met girl. my. versre. ice idea it ]i?/mph. old obev ooze do, r?tde. wolf, \Mll. wse, due itnite XlVSL^ son. oil boy. cow. 30 ORTHOGRAPHY AND TABLE OF ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. CONSONANTS. Subvocals : b d g g 1 m n r r V w y z z tJi ng. Aspirates : p t k ch. h f wli s sh tli. Labials : b p m w wli. Labio-dentals : v f. Lingua-dentals : d g 1 n r y z z tli t ch. s sh th. Lingua-palatals : g k h ng. Sibilants : s sh f th. " Fricatives : z z g v y tli and trilled r. Liquids : 1 m n r. Nasals : m n ng. Mutes: b p d t g k. Semi-vowels : All consonant sounds not mutes. Cognates : b p d t g k g cli v f w wh z s z sh th th. Explosives, or Momentary Sounds : b p d t g k g ch. Continuants : consonant sounds that can be pro- longed at will — all consonant sounds not explosive, as 1 m n r V, etc. Extra or Redundant Letters : c j q x. These letters are called extra or redundant because they represent no sounds not represented by other letters. C is either -e (k) or 5 (s) ; j is g; q is k; x is ks in tax; gz in exact, z in xylophone, ksh in anxious. Because they represent no sound not represented by other letters, c j q x are sometimes called the unneces- sary letters of our alphabet. Our alphabet is said to be redundant because it contains the four extra letters c j q x, and defective because it has not an independent character to represent each elementary sound — seventeen or more vowel sounds being repre- sented by the five letters a e i u. ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 31 W is used as a consonant before a vowel in the same syllable, and as a vowel after a vowel in the same syllable : way, how. Y is used as a consonant before a vowel in the same syllable, and as a vowel after a vowel in the same syllable, and when it is used instead of i, I, or i : yet, way, fly, only, myrrh. I is used as a consonant when it is sounded as y, otherwise it is a vowel ; alien, onion, genial, etc. U is used as a consonant when it is sounded as w, otherwise it is a vowel : persuade, quit, language, suite. L, m, n are said to be used as vowels in syllables in which no vowel sound is distinctly heard, as evil, shovel, often, soften, reason, whistle, rustle, schism. (Webster's International, p. Ixix.) COGNATE, OR CORRELATIVE LONG AND SHORT VOWEL SOUNDS. The following vowels are more or less related to each other in manner of utterance: LONG. SHORT. a in care. e in met. a in far. a in fast. a in all. o in on. e in eve. i in it. 00 in ooze. oo in foot. u in urge. w in up. Practice uttering first one in one column, then its correlative in the other column. 32 ORTHOGRAPHY AND CHART OF THE COGXATK CONSONANT SOUNDS. b p d t gk g ch V f vr wh Z 8 z sh th th Give the subvocal sounds represented on the chart. The aspirate sounds. The labials. The labio-deu- tals. The lingua-dentals. The lingua-palatals. The sibilants. The fricatives. The sky-rocket sound (sh). The sneezing sound (ch). The spinning-wheel sound (z). The kitty sound (f). The goose's hiss (th). The explosive sounds. The continuants. The sounds in order from left to right in each row. In this order commit the sounds to memory. Frequent and careful practice in giving the ele- mentary sounds tends to make enunciation and ar- ticulation clearer, to perfect pronunciation by mak- ing it more accurate, and to strengthen and improve the voice. CHAPTER IV. HOW TO TEACH THE ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 1. Let the teacher take a familiar word, as mate pronounce it carefully to the class, and ask them to pronounce it in concert. Then to teach the sound of ELEMENT A R Y SO UNDS. 33 a, ask the pupils to pronounce the word, omitting the last sound, as nta, then omit the sound of m and pro- nounce the vocal sound a twice. This will give the steps, mate, ma, a, a. See that it is given fully and smoothly, then ask individual pupils to give the sound. Using the same Word, have the pupils pronounce it more and more slowly, until by slow pronunciation the word is separated into its elementary sounds. The separation of words into elementary sounds is sometimes called phonic analysis, or spelling by sound. 2. If necessary, the teacher should give instruc- tion in regard to the position of the organs of speech ; it may be necessary for the teacher to give the sound and ask pupils to imitate. 3. Ask pupils to name words containing the same sound. Let them write lists of such words and bring to the class. 4. Teach the use of the proper diacritical marks to represent the sound. 5. Let the teacher give the sound, and pupils wTite or name the letter and diacritical mark used to rep- resent it. 6. Give lists of words for pupils to mark. 7. Write common words with unusual markings to make new words of them. (This exercise should be used only for testing pupils after the marks are pretty well kno^^^l.) For example, €at, gat, cat, gat, €at. 8. In advanced classes make constant use of the 34 ORTHOGRAPHY AND chart; rapidly pointing to letters, the pupils respond- ing. Let boys give the subvocals; girls the aspirate cognates ; or vice versa. Note. — A g-ood way to drill upon these tables so that the pupil may remember the souud corresponding to the marks is first, to follow carefully the directions as to teaching' the sounds, and then to review the tables this way: a with a ma- cron as in mate; represented by e macron below, as in they, a, e. Frequent drills of this kind on all the vowels of the table will fix the marks and keywords perfectly in the mind. 9. Teach the common diacritical marks while the pupil is learning to read. Continue the drill through all the grades. 10. Write lists of words unknown to the pupils, mark them properly and call for pronunciation. 11. Eeqnire the- sounds to be given exactly right. 12. Do not let pupils begin with a weak sound and slide up to the right sound at the finish; let it be given with full force from the first. 13. Teach the technical names of the diacritical marks: Breve, macron, tilde, wave, circumflex, dots, bar, cedilla, suspended bar. It is a good plan to speak of the macron as a bar when used with a consonant and the wave as the tilde. The dieresis is used to shew that the second of two adjacent vowels is not pronounced with the preceding as cooperate; it is best, therefore, to speak of the diacritical marks similar to it as dots, likewise dot instead of period, circumflex instead of caret. 14. Lead pupils to classify the sounds heard in words, to analyze words and letters. 15. Give constant drills by various methods in ar. ticulation, enunciation and pronunciation. ELEMENTAB Y SO UNDS. 85 CHAPTER V. EXERCISES IN ARTICULATION AND ENUNCIATION. a o trace crash alms walk chase add scar dwarf space match farce scald grace scrap czar fawn case track laugh crawl scale catch gaunt forward haze sprang craunch torpor aid scamp gape scorch lay scratch ah adorn faint scalp jaunt born k a 6 a e g I last squad scare verge class squalid chair serge clasp wad where sir dance squash wear stir bath squander ere sperm quaff orange flare squirrel grasp torrid heir dirt stanch foreign bare earth task spot share prefer graft horrid lair term Q Ob u 9 11 do OU 01 6 u lose would out done move should our some whose woman cloud won woo nook spoil none noose took quoit shove smooth shook voice tongue ruse full hour buzz 36 ORTHOGRAPHY AND brute pull house much crude put hound scud spruce soot moist such U d final d initial h initial surge bed do bad scourge I'od dare bend purge send dost but purl board dime bare fur had dig by h final t final p initial t initial p final g initial crib pot tip so tub pat top get rob put trump gone scab pit tramp gat drab pet trap got g final j initial V initial V final egg jug vat love beg jamb vase live pig jut vice move dug jet vest drove bag jar vote save Note. — The teacher can use the above as drills in teach- ing the sounds and marks. Let the pupils pronounce and tell the marks, or teacher may pronounce and pupils mark. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. [For Shirking and Pronuiiciation.] Aunt, an, ant, path, pat, pass, bath, bask, balm, brass, calf, cask, calm, cast, gape, grasp, lath, last, palm, pant, past, daunt, laugh, blanch, chaff, glance, scoff, soft, cost, cube, flute, rule, chew, Tuesday, ruby. Articulation is that action of the organs of speech by which each oral element receives its own character. ELEMENT AR Y SO UNDS. 37 It is the utterance of separate elcnieiitan- sounds, or the combination of these sounds into sjilables and words. Pronunciation is the utterance of words with es- pecial reference to sound, syllabication and accent. Enunciation is utterance in general, as "His enun- ciation was not clear.'' The requirements of good articulatioti are: 1. Normal articulating organs. 2. Strength and flexibility in the use of these organs. 3. A proper knowledge of each sound in the language. 4. A knowledge of the art of combining these sounds into words. 5. Drill, drill, drill, especially on difficult com- binations. Note. — The drill in articulation should be so frequent and so long continued that the student shall be able to "pronounce the words trippingly on the tongue." The extreme of alfec- tation is but one degree better than the extreme of careless- ness. By practice the pupil may become an exact speaker and yet be easy and natural. ERRORS IN ARTICULATION. Errors of substitution : Figger, boiler, ellum, ketch, etc. Irrors of omission: F' rever, wlch, Id' no Irrors of Uending : Did jew for did you, Would jew for would you, Could jew for could you, Can chew for can't you, Won' chew for won't you. Shan chew for shan' t you. 38 ORTHOGRAPHY AND Note. — Let the expressions in the second of the columns preceding be repeated rapidly many times till the correct pronunciation be given without effort. It can be given, and is one of the marks of a cultured person. DIACRITICAL MARKS FOR VOWELS. (Sentences suggested by Diebel's " Method With English Grammar." The sentences give the student a type-word lor each ol the vowel sounds.) Fair KS-te, ask father aH thSt was said (s^d) In the senate about the infaut. We met where eight ^arls had been (b^n) seen to erect seyen emblems. My itinerant cousins whui nine tin stirring machines. Some Odd old woman's Opinion may dQ good work (wiirk) for our schfJols. In piire fun we urged Eube Fuller to buy for business (bigness) a utensil called a burying (berying) Urn. Fly, mystic martyr, with the myrrh and myrtle only. CHAPTER VI. ARTICULATION. 1. Utter firmly the following exercise, dwelling upon the consonant element, aud ending the vowel abruptly : bn, be bi bo ba boo boi ba be bi b6 bu boo bou Substitute for h in the above exercise d, g, j, I, n, w, y. 2. Utter the following slowly and carefully at first, and increase to a ^•ery rapid utterance : ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 39 ba-pa bS-pg bl-pi bO-po bn-jjn boo-pc3o boi-poi ba-pa be-pe bi-pl b5-p5 bu-pu b'Jb-pdb boii-pou Also da-ta, ya-fa, ja-cha. 3. Eobbed, robed ; bragged, dragged j banged, hanged ; singed ; tinged ; bulged j divulged ; lands, mends; sheathes; breathes; sheathed; breathed; elms, films ; chasm ; prism ; spasms ; schisms ; risen ; dozen. 4. Nymph, lymph; widths, breadths; rob' st, prob'st; milked, bilked; healths, wealths; twelfths; filched, mulched; months, plinths; lengths, strengths; sheath' st, breath' st; troubl'st, doubl'st; rob'dst, prob'dst; cradl'st, saddl'st; struggl'st, smuggl'st; begg'dst, drugg'dst; say'dst, wagg'dst; hold'st, fold'st; help'st, scalp' st. 5. Commit to memory: Geaseth, approacheth, re- joiceth, ceaseth; approacheth, rejoiceth, ceaseth, ap- proacheth, rejoiceth, ceaseth, approacheth, rejoiceth. 6. To read: Amid'st the mists and coldest frosts, with barest wrists and stoutest boasts, he thrusts his fists against, the posts, and still insists he sees the ghosts. RECREATIONS IX ARTICULATION. 1. His cry moved me. 2. His crime moved me. 3. Six thick thistle sticks. 4. A rural ruler truly rural. 5. Charles Smith's Thucydides. 6. She says she will sew a sheet. 7. Flesh of freshly fried flying fish. 8. The sun shines on the shop signs. 9. All night it lay an ice drop there. 40 ORTHOGRAPHY AND , 10. The sea ceaseth and it sufficeth us. 11. High roller, low roller, lower roller. 12. She sells sea-shells; shall he sell sea-shells? 13. A box of mixed biscuits; a mixed biscuit box. 14. Two toads totally tired tried to trot to Tedbury. 15. Some shun sunshine; do you shun sunshine? 16. Oh, the torment of an ever-meddling memory. 17. He sawed six long, slim, slick, slender saplings. 18. The old cold scold sold an old school coal- scuttle. 19. Eight great gray geese grazed gaily into Greece. 20. He accepts the office, and attempts by his acts to conceal his faults. 21. The cat ran up the ladder with a lump of raw liver in her mouth. 22. Thrice six thick thistle sticks thrust straight through the thin thatch. 23. He built a nice house near the lake, and shouted, "Ice cream for two young ladies." •24. Shave a cedar shingle thin. What! shave a cedar shingle thin? Yes, shave a cedar shingle thin. 25. Did you say you saw the spirit sigh, or the spirit's eye, or the spirits' sigh? I said I saw the spirit's eye, not the spirit sigh, nor the spirits' sigh. 26. Peter Prangle, the prickly, prangly pear picker, picked three pecks of prickly, prangly pears on the pleasant prairies. 27. How much wood would a wood-chuck chuck, if a wood-chuck could chuck wood? Why! if a wood-chuck could chuck wood he would chuck all the wood a wood-chuck could chuck. ELEMENT A R Y SO UNDS. 41 28. Theophilus Thistle, the successful thistle sifter, in siftiug a sieve full of unsifted thistles, thrust three thousand thistles through the thick of his thumb. Now if Theophilus Thistle, the success- ful thistle sifter in sifting a sieve full of unsifted thistles, thrust three thousand thistles through the thick of his thumb, see that thou in sifting a sieve full of unsifted thistles, thrust not three thousand thistles through the thick of thj thumb. Success to the successful thistle sifter. 29. Bead the following very rapidlj^: A day or two ago during a lull in business, two little boot-blacks, one white and one black, were standing at the corners doing nothing, when the white boot-black agreed to black the black boot black's boots. The black boot-black was of course willing to have his boots blacked by his fellow boot- black, and the boot-black who had agreed to black the black boot-black's boots went to work. When the boot-black had blacked one of the black boot-black's boots till it shone in a manner that would make any boot-black proud, the boot-black who had agreed to black the black boot-black's boots refused to black the other boot of the black boot-black until the black boot-black who had con- sented to have the white boot-black black his boots should add five cents to the amount the white boot- black had made blacking other men's boots. This the boot-black whose boot had been blacked refused to dO;, saying it was good enough for a black boot- black to have one boot blacked, and he didn't care whether the boot that the white boot-bhuk hadn't blacked was blacked or not. 42 ORTHOGRAPHY AND This made the boot-black who had blacked the black boot-black's boot as angrj- as a boot-black often gets, and he vented his black wrath by spit- ting upon the blacked boot of the black boot-black. This roused the latent passions of the black boot- black and he proceeded to boot the white boot-black with the boot which the white boot-black had blacked. A fight ensued, in which the boot-black W'ho had refused to black the unblacked boot of the black boot-black, blacked the black boot-black's visionary organ, and in w^hich the black boot-black wore all the blacking off his blacked boot in booting the white boot-black. AN EXERCISE ON THE SOUND U AS HEARD IN BUGLE. BLUE, DUTY;, ETC. Do not say toon for tiinc, nod for new, dook for duke, presoom for presume, etc. Look out also for the words ere, you, heard, grass, icords, ahsurdly, student, instead. "I presume that the tune You assume to be new, Was known to the duke And his fluter, ere you Ever heard of a lute, Or the flu.te that he blew ; That the dew on the grass, And the note that is due, With the words 'constitution,' And 'plume,' 'flume,' and 'flew." Sound just as absurdly. ELEMENTA R Y SO UNDS. 43 Pronounced as men do, To the ear of the scholar, The student, the muse, As to say *I refoose it' Instead of 'refuse'."' A TEST FOR BOX E- HEADS. [A Yale graduate, head of a school of elocution in New York, is responsible for the following, which he says cannot be memorized.] Esau Wood sawed wood. Esau Wood would saw wood. Oh, the wood Wood would saw ! All the wood Esau Wood saw Esau Wood would saw. In other words, all the wood Wood saw, Esau sought to saw. One day Wood's wood-saw would saw no wood; hence, all the wood Wood would saw, was not the wood Wood would saw if Wood's wood-saw would saw wood. Now Wood would saw wood with a wood-saw that would saw wood. So Esau sought a saw that would saw wood. One day Esau saw a saw saw as no other wood-saw would saw. In fact, of all the wood saws Wood ever saw saw wood Wood never saw a saw saw as the wood saw Wood saw would saw. And I never saw a saw saw wood as the wood saw Wood saw would saw until I saw Esau saw wood with the wood saw Wood saw saw wood. Now Wood saws wood with the wood saw Wood saw saw wood. 44 ORTHOORA PHY AND CHAPTER VII. ETYMOLOGY OU WOUD STUDY. Et3ano]ogy is the study which treats of the history of words, their primitive forms, derivation, and all changes of form and meaning. It includes the inflection of words, or the changes made in words to show gender, person, number, case and time, as boy, boys, boy's, boys'; who, whose, whom; give, gives, etc.; and what is known as word study, word analysis, or the study of the derivation of words, which is separating words into their prin- cipal and subordinate elements, and finding the meaning of each element. The principal elements of words are primitive words (root- words) and stems (roots). The subordinate elements of words are affixes (prefixes, suflixes). A primitive word (root- word) is a word which, without any affix, is a complete word in the lan- guage: child, house, man, sky. A stem (root) is the principal element in a deriva- tive word which is not usually a complete word in the language without some affix: vert, volv, posit, lat, spect, spir. Vert means to turn ; volv, to roll ; posit, to put or place; lat, to bear or carry; spect, to look; spir, to breathe. A prefix is a subordinate element placed before a primitive word or stem to modify the meaning: con, in, ro, de, sub, trans, intro. Con means with or together; in mean« in, on, not; re, back or again; de, down, from, concerning; sub, under or after; trans, across; intro, within. ELEMENT A R Y &0 UNDS. 45 A suflSx is a subordinate element placed after a primitive word or stem to modify the meaning : less, ful, \y, acy, nle, kin, ion, tion. Less means without or lacking; ful, full of or having; ly, like or after the manner of; acy, state, condition or quality of; ule and kin, small or little; ion and tion, act of. An aflSx is a subordinate element placed before or after a primitive word or stem to modify the meaning — a prefix or suffix. A derivative word is a word formed from a primi- tive word or stem by the addition of an affix or affixes: con-vert, in-volve, re-late, de-posit, in-spir- ation, intro-si>ect-ion. The literal meaning of a word is the meaning which the word has when separated into its prin- cipal and subordinate elements and the meaning of each element is found — the meaning of the word according to its derivation. The common or ordinary meaning of a word is the meaning brought to mind on hearing the word pronounced. The literal meaning of inspire is "to breathe in;'' from in, in, and spir, to breathe. The common or ordinary meaning" is "to draw in breath." The literal meaning of deportment is "state of carrying from :" de, from ; port, carry ; ment, state of. The common meaning is behavior. A compound word is a word made by putting 46 ORTHOGRAPHY AND together two or more simple words : boat-club, board- ing-house, blackboard, . housekeeper, bookkeeping, morning-glory, forget-me-not, never-to-be-forgotten. A simple word is a word not compounded — a word not made by putting together two or more simple words: boat, house, keeper, formality, impenetrable, incomprehensibility. Although the hyphen is at present omitted in com- pound words whenever possible, it is generally used : a. When the first word ends and the second be- gins with a vowel, or with the same letter: night- time, head-dress, snow-white, eagle-eyed. b. When the compound ends with boat, drop, light, room, if the first part has more than one syl- lable: candle-light, dwelling-house, dining-room, canal-boat, water-drop. c. When numerals are compounded with words of various meaning : two-handed, one-horse, fifth-rate, three-legged. d. When a present or perfect participle is com- pounded with a noun, adjective, or adverb; good- looking, rose-colored, plague-stricken, pear-shaped. e. When numerals from twenty to one hundred are written in words: twenty-one, sixty- two, eighty- five. f. When military or civil titles are united: vice- president, lieutenant-governor, attorney-general, rear- admiral. g. AA'hen the omission would obscure the pronun- ciation or meaning: co-worker, non-essential, co- ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 47 tangent, man-eating, lady'sslipper, many-colored, fort}' five-cent pieces. The hyphen is used to separate syllables in wordsy as in-sep-a-ra-ble ; to connect the parts of compound words, as easy-going; to unite the parts of words divided by lines in .writing or printing. HOW TO BEGIN' WORD-AXALYSIS. Show the meaning of such suffixes as less, ful, like, ishy etc., and analyze as follows : care less = without care. heed less = without heed. fruit less = without fruit. fruit ful = having (abundance of) fruit. care ful = having care. harm ful = full of harm. Use the same suffix with many words before in- troducing another, so as to fix the form and mean- ing thoroughly in mind. Use the blackboard and make the work oral until it becomes familiar. Then have the analyses in wriiing : care less -^ without care, care ful = having care, child ish = like a child, man ly = like a man. Use the work in connection with reading, spelling, or language lessons, or as an independent special or general exercise. 48 ORTHOGRAPHY AND Introduce prefixes such as un, mis, fore, over, under, ivith: un real = not real. un like = not like. un certain = not certain . Call attention to the endings s, ing, ed, er, est en: ripe er, est, ness, en. hope s, ed, ing, ful, less. work s, ing, ed, er. change s, ing, ed, ful, less, able. tame s, ing, ed, ness, less, able, ly. teach s, ing, ed, er, able. merry er, est, ly, ment. MORE ADVANCED WORK. Object : a. The enrichment of the pupil's vocabulary. b. The development of the power of defining words through familiarity with their elements. Method : Present the stem and explain its meaning. Use the stem with prefixes, giving the literal mean- ing of each resultant word. Have each word used in sentences given by pupils. Use the words in spelling and dictation exercises. Give a new stem and have pupils make a list of derivatives by adding prefixes. Use the same words with various suflSxes. Question pupils regarding each point in the exer- cise until all terms are familiar. ELEMENT A R Y SO UNDS. 49 Ti'}' to secure accuracy iu the use of the words as parts of speech — verb, uouu, adjective, etc. E. g., detain, to hold from; detention, act of holding from; tenant, one who holds; tenable, capable of being held. Exercise on the Stem Ficril), to Write; Script, WiHt- ten. This stem has two forms because the verb of which it is a part is an irregular verb. The first form is the infinitive stem; the second, the participial stem. de scribe = to write concerning. circum scribe = to write around. in scribe^ to write upon. pre scribe = to write before. pro scribe = to wi'ite forth. trans scribe = to write across. sub scribe = to write under. super scribe = to write above or over. con script = written with. post script = written after. re script = written again. script = written. a scribe = to write to. The a in ascribe is for ad, meaning to or toward. The d is drbpped because the word is more easily pronounced without it. Exercise on Curr Curs (Based on Sicinton's Word- Analysis) See Curr, Curs, p. 58. What is the meaning of this stem? Why has it two forms? 50 ORTHOGRAPHY AND What is meant by the current of a stream? What b}^ a current report? What by the current number of a magazine? What are prices current? As what parts of speech may current be used? What is the ordinary meaning of currency? W^hat was the "currency" of the American In- dians? What is meant by "this report gained currency"? Why are there two r's in currency? What is an excursion? W^hat is the meaning of the prefix? Of the suflSx? What is the literal meaning of the word? What is the power of si in this word? What diacritical mark has u? Use the word in a sentence. What is a "precursor"? W^hat is the meaning of "These black clouds are the precursor of a storm"? What are the antecedent and consequent letters in each syllable of precursor? What word from this stem means "a hostile at- tack"? What word means "a course of study"? What is meant by "a cursory glance"? Give the literal and common meaning of "curri- cle". Give synonyms of excursion, incursion, precursor. Give synonymous phrases for currency. What prefixes are used with curr and curs? What suffixes? ELEMENTAR Y S'O UNDS. 51 METHODS OP ANALYSIS. Orthography is a simple derivative word from the Greek stem graph meaning to write, and the Greek subordinate element orthos, meaning correct. The suffix has no special significance. The literal mean- ing, therefore, is "to write correctly." The ordinary meaning is "the study which treats of letters, ele- mentary sounds, diacritical marks, spelling, pronun- ciation, articulation, the derivation of words, etc." Written analysis : orthos = correct. graph = write or written. 1/ = no special significance. Indicate the derivation of revolver: re = again. volv^ roll (L). er = that which. What is the etymology of preposition? pre= before. posit ^ place (L). ion = state. What is the literal meaning of etymology? True icoj'd — etym, true (G.), log, word (G.). What is the '=free. /ra«5r=break. 7j^ero=letter. fiu fiii.r=Qow. loqu lociit=SY)eak. fund fus=pour, melt. man {main) =hand. grad mater gress=steip, go. matr grat mat r=mother. ^rac^pleasing, favor, mit thankful. miss — send. 60 ORTHOGRAPHY AND mov rex mot^move. reg not 7-ct'<=rule. (no6)=know, mark. riv — stream. Mor=new. rofj ninnber=n\imbev. rogat=ask. pater pa^/''=father. rupt=hreak. seri;;=keep, serve. pel 2JuZs=drive. sec SCC'f=CUt. pend pens — hang. sequ secut=^fo]\ow. ped pod=foot. sed sess sid — sit. port=carTy. scrih pon posit=put, place. scnpf= write. spir prim spirat p>i?i=rfirst. spir/^=breathe. press=press. spec punct=i)o'mt. spic spect^]o6k. plic pUcat plicit solv sohit=\oosen. p7ea?=fold. SO?l=SOUDd. ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 61 sta voc Stat V0Cat=Q2i\\. statut vine stit stitu sist^stand. i;/ci=reonquer. ven t;cw<=come. sum sum2)t^=take, use, spend. i;er&=word. vid tang vis tact tig=touch. {vey)=see. val trail valid /racf=dra\v. pull. (ia/Z)=be strong. tort vi torn r«a=way. /or7H=twist. t(n^=one. tcr ;j=naiiie. pof/i=feeling, suffering. p/H7^1ove. p/ton=sound. p7iOS p/ioi=light. p/irew=brain. p7if/iowp=sound. p7it/si=natui*e. po7is=city. r/j,e=flow, speak. scop=see, watch. so2)/i=wise. faiP=arrangement, order fec7i«:=art. f/je=god. t/je=put, place. tijp^=heat, strike. ;vO=animal, life. tetra=four. penta^&ye. hexa^=s\x. 7iepta=seveii. hecto heca hekta 7iefcio=hundred. A LIST OF SOME IMPORTANT SUFFIXES. [Noun Suffixes.] an, ant, ent, ar, er, or, ard, ary, eer, ier, ist, ive, s#er=one who does or is. ate, ee, ite, ii-e=one who is, one to whom. ary, ery, ori/=place where. acy, age, al, ance, ancy, dom, ence, ency, hood, ing, ion, ism, ment, mony, ness, ry, ship, th, tude, ty, or ity, ure, «/=state, quality, act. cle, cule, ie or y, kin, en, let, ling, ock, ule, ette= diminutives. W ORTHOGRAPHY AND [Adjective Suffixes.] al an, ar, ary, ic or ical, id, tic, ine, ory = per- taining to. ate, aceotis, ful, ose, ous, some, 7/=full of, or having. ahle, hie, ihlc, /7c=tliat may or can be. i^ie^^^having power. ish, like, ly=\ike. ?css=without. eij=made of. ant, enf^being or doing. oicZ^shaped like, baving the form of, like. [Verb Suffixes.] ate, en, fy, ish, isc or ice = to make. lAdverh Suffixes.] ly, tvise = manner. em, icard = direction . Examples of Suffixes: Comedian, defendant, adherent, scholar, scribbler, surveyor, wizard, mis- sionary, auctioneer, cashier, monoi>olist, operative, punster, associate, assignee, favorite, captive, apiary (L. apis, a bee), hennery, observatory, supremacy, pilgrimage, recital, forbearance, expectancy, martyr- dom, abhorrence, transparency, likelihood, rehears- ing, rebellion, barbarism, atonement, holiness, matri- money, pleasantry, apprenticeship, depth, solitude, brevity, rapture, particle, animalcule, Sammy, ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 65 Willie, lambkin, kitten, brooklet, duckling, hillock globule, cigaret, celestial, suburban, planetary*, oceanic, astronomical, puerile (L. puer, a child),, declamatory, grateful, frolicsome, flowery, habitable, convertible, corrective, knavish, matronly, fruitless, errant, brazen. CHAPTER VIII. SOME RULES FOR SPELLING. A few of the rules for spelling, if taught induct- ively, will be of great value to the pupil. Here- with are given a few of the most useful ones ; teach- ers should supplement them with illustrative exer- cises. 1. When adding a suffix beginning with a vowel to words of one syllable ending in a single conso- nant preceded by a single vowel, or to words of more than one syllable ending in the same way and accented on the last syllable, double the final con- sonant. [/i. and 8 in derivatives of gas. are the only excep- tions to this rule.] Give reasons for the following spelling: Spin- ning, wrapping, reaping, forming, compelling, re- vealing, entrapping, rendering, preferred, appeared. Explanation : Spin ends in one consonant, the 66 OBTHOORAPHY AND consonant is preceded by one vowel ; hence we double the n before the suffix ing, and have spinning. In reaping we don't double the p because two vowels precede it. In this manner apply the rule to many cases. 2. When a syllable beginning with e, i or y is added to a word ending with c, k is inserted after c to prevent it from taking the sound of s : trafficker, picnicking, frolicking , etc. 3. Final e is omitted before suffixes beginning with a voAvel, except when it is needed to keep c or g soft, or when its omission would obscure the pro- nunciation or meaning. Examples: Giving, having, singeing, charging, chargeable, fencing, peaceable, subduing, conducive. 4. When adding any termination, except one that begins with i, to words that end in y preceded by a consonant, change y to i: easy, easily; lad}% ladies. [The derivatives of dry, shy and sky, are excep- tions.]' Examples: Families, turkeys, essays, cherries, valleys, berries. 5. Change ie to y before the suffix ing: lie, lying; die, dying ; tie, tying. 6. In spelling words like believe and receive, let i follow 1, and e follow c: relief, conceit; belief, ceil- ing; lief, receipt. SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS. Some pupils are born spellers ; most pupils are not. All pupils can become pretty fair spellers. ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 67 Don't depend on the regular daily spelling exer- cise alone to teach spelling. Spell in every recitation. Spell a few of the diflfi- cult words of each lesson. As soon as pupils learn to write, begin each recitation by a spelling test, written or oral, of from three to twenty words. Pronounce the derivatives of common words. Don' t be content with "divide," but pronounce "division," "dividing," "divisor," "divisible;" not only "can- eel," but "canceling," "cancellation,"* "canceled." Underscore the misspelled words in every written exercise. Eequire pupils to correct these words and copy in a memorandum book. Plan for frequent spelling matches on these mis- spelled wordS; and others. Spell down on lists of class words, i. e., kitchen words, carx^enter' s words, farm words, etc. Create a spelling spirit by frequent matches. Spell class against class, grade against grade, boys against girls, etc. Do not neglect oral spelling. It helps to perfect articulation, pronunciation and syllabication. Dwell most, especially with poor spellers, on words which the pupil will use in his daily life and work. NEW AND IMPROVED MANNER OF SPELLING DOWN. In spelling down use this plan : 1. Choose sides. 2. Seat pupils so that those on opposite sides will alternate. 3. Let all pupils write every word, numbering words carefully on their papers. 4. Spell no word with a cai^ital unless it is one that always requires a capital. " * Cancelation accor<\ing to the Standard Dictionary. 68 ORTHOGRAPHY AND 5. After the words are written, let the writer place his name on the paper and pass it to a pui^il of the opposing side for correction. 6. Let the teacher give clearly the correct spelling of every word, a check mark being placed after each ward missed. 7. Let pupil who corrects a paper place his name to the paper and state the number of the word first missed on the paper he corrects, and also the. number of words missed on that paper. A word omitted should be counted missed. 8. Exchange papers again, so that each may hare his own x)aper. 9. Give a minute or two for appeals. 10. Let the two sides stand opposite each other in the room. 11. The teacher says: All who missed the first word may he seated; second word, third and so on, pupils talcing their seats as fast as the number of their first ivord missed is called; so on to the finish. Of course the last one standing has fairly spelled the school down because he has spelled every word till the one missed. 12. After all are down, ask all to rise in their places again and take this test : All who missed twenty or more words be seated ; nineteen, eighteen and so on down to one; in this way ascertain who is the best speller. WOEDS FOR SPELLING TESTS. X. E. A. Cleveland Spelling Test. At the Cleveland meeting of the National Educa- tional Association, in which a colored girl won first ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 69 rank, the national "bromide' on them : which separate develop whether February benefited grammar accommodate embarrass business acquiesce privilege parallel judgment until management analysis lettuce elm precede occasion divisible chargeable supersede occurrence committee disappear mischief following 100 words were given in the si)elling contest. Unless you are a you will turn your advanced pupils loose pursue origin exercise handkerchief potato iron together beginning surprise thorough negroes fulfill j)rincipal professor descendant government analyze detached governor cleanse vertical prejudice regretted noticeable restaurant curiosity miniature poem umbrella persevere Arctic particular adjacent pumpkin except recognize similar admittance irrelevant foreigner deceit hygiene siege niece alley ceiling chimney necessarily partition capitol muscle preparation victuals disease millinery sovereiun 70 ORTHOGRAPHY AND character several laboratory balloon geography cistern 1. cornice 2. vinegar 3. hominy 4. succotash 5. porridge 6. basin. 7. pewter 8. suet 9. turkeys 10. cookies 11. chimneys 12. jellies 13. succeed 14. precede , 15. proceed 16. recede 17. concede ^' 18. supersede 19. intercede '' 20. bilious : ' Sixty 1. persistence W 2. grateful 3. specimen 4. apparatus 5. recompense 6. analysis 7. receipt 8. parallel 9. participle reverend misspell equipage cemetery conscience mischievous architect stationary athletic convenient Sixty Common Words. 21. yeast 41. accordion 22. sieve 23. seize 24. panel 25. cistern 26. zincky 27. emptyings 28. biscuit 29. knead 30. cellar 31. clevis 32. colter 33. ballot 34. celery 35. separate 36. salad 37. napkin 38. frolicking 39. valleys 40. beefsteak 42. diphtheria 43. tranquility 44. dissipate 45. lilies 46. billiards 47. hare-lip 48. exaggerate 49. tyrannical 50. numbskull 51. erysipelas 52. frolicsome 53. vaccinate 54. collision 55. excelled 56. sensible 57. legible 58. recommend 5^. precise 60. prejudice Words not Quite so Common. 10. auxiliary V" 19. bounteous 11. amateur 20. transferred 12. novice 21. philosopny 13. intercept 22. physiology 14. statistics 23. psychology 15. accommodate 24. genuine 16. censure 25. facilitate 17. promissory 26. discern 18. reference 27. suspicion ELEMENTAB Y SO UNDS. 71 28. conceal 39. accede 50. bargain 29. conceive 40. exceed 51. tolerate 30. possess 41. amicable 52. crystallize 31. ventilate \ 42. balance 53. carriage 32. license : 43. obstacle 54. reversible 33. affidavit 44. definite 55. collectible > 34. dimension 45. fugitive 56. adjacent 35. guarantee 46. occurrence 57. plenteous 36. rarity ^ 47. audible 58. complete 37. serviceable 48. admissible 59. disperse 38. changing 49. precision /^^ 60. admittance Try Th esefor Hard Ones. 1. gauge 26. ghoul 51. beleaguer 2. guerrilla '^ 27. fusillade 52. crusader 3. cuirassier 28. cynical 53. accouterments 4. porphyry 29. inflammatory 54. peculiarly 5. paraphernalia 30. sesterces 55. gauntlets 6. whinney 31. baldric 56. turban 7. mullein 32. superfluous 57. vantageless 8. novitiate 33. acetylene 58. heraldry 9. vicissitude 34. insufferable 59. triumphal 10. apprehensive 35. colonies 60. architraves 11. rhinoceros 36. eradicated 61. infinitude 12. momentum 37. ignominiously 62. mnemonics 13. versatile 38. insidious 63. apocalypse 14. hauberk 39. exultation 64. idiosyncrasy 15. pennoncel 40. caricatured 65. plagiarism 16. poniard 41. grotesque 66. surcingle 17. chanticleer . 42. Saracen 67. mademoiselle 18. invulnerable 43. Pentateuch 68. initiation 19. apostasy 44. nonpareil 69. mayoralty 20. bicycle 45. indelible 70. recision 21. bowie-knife 46. millionaire 71. Pyrrhonism V 22. caisson 47. sanatory 72. , desiccate '•"' 23. euchre 48. alpaca 73. apologetic 24. elecampane 49. meerschaum 74. supinely 25. exchequer 50. terrify 75. subjugation 72 OBTHOOBAPHY AND 76. apparition 77. earthquake 78. injustice 79. oppression 80. rebellious 81. precautions 82. penetrating 83. unpracticed 84. Numidian 85. Thracians 86. Spartacus 87. lachrymal 88. camomile 89. cavalier 90. millennium 91. stadtholder 92. colonelcy 93. hygiene 94. labyrinth 95. inimitable 96. dexterity 97. illusory f/" 98. artifice 99. agility 100. presumption 101. embroidered 102. couchant 103. cylindrical 104. judicature 105. inoculate < 106. isosceles 107. caoutchouc 108. purslain ' 109. bacchanaliam 110. anachronism 111. corpuscle 112. chenille 113. corypheus 114. aphyllous. 115. saccharine 116. monarchial 117. chauffeur MICHIGAN'S 800. 118. cavalier 119. uncouth 120. venerable 121. colleague 122. predestined 123. clemency 124. conflagration 125. solace 126. Pleiades 127. Sadducee 128. California 129. tenet 130. vicar 131. pyrites 132. delusive 133. Tennessee 134. deleble l-^ 135. chute 136. wangan 137. fuguing 138. Delaware The Superintendent of Public Instruction of Mich- igan in 1895 arranged for a State Spelling Contest and sent out a list of words to be used in district, town- ship, and county tests. The words were collected from misspelled words in correspondence, examination papers, and words which experience in the schoolroom had shown to be troublesome. Believing that spelling is taught more practically when the words to be studied are woven into para- graphs that call attention to their meaning, the fol- lowing paragraphs were arranged so as to include the list of eight hundred words before mentioned. These exercises should be written by pupils from dictation of teacher ; and, for convenience in marking, the particular words to be note^ in each are printed ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 73 in italics and their number indicated by figmes in parenthesis, no word being twice italicized. The capital city of Michigan is a capital place in which to reside, and from the Capitol dome a fine view of the surrounding country can be gained. — (9). The small boy who addressed this epistle to Superin- tendent Fattengill is by no means the only individual who cannot spell his name correctly. — (8). The dairy maid each loeck sold the butter she nuide, and every Saturday night spent some time adding up the sum of her small earnings. — (12). When the mail arrived, we learned that a male cousin was coming on the next train, with the seven, small children who always accompanied him on his annual travels. — (11). He was particularly fond of this one daughter, and when he found her studying arithmetic, grammar, physiology, history, and physical geography, all in one year, he shook his head doubtfully and feared con- tinually lest she should develop brain fever in conse- quence. — ( 20.) It was a business principle of his that the smaller the inincipal invested, the better should be the security furnished, since irresponsible individuals often borroio small amounts with no intention of repaying. — (16.) English grammar was her bugbear and she never could see the difference betiveen a participle used as a part of the predicate, and a participial adjective. So she went to the Ypsilanti Normal one term and devoted her entire attention to the study of her native tongue, the result being that she finally obtained the coveted certificate to teach. — ( 24. ) 74 ORTHOGRAPHY AND ^he nuptial rite was concluded and the minister was pausing to tonYe down the names of the newly wedded pair, when right down the center of the aisle came a crazy looking creature who cried, " I'll forbid the banns, if no one else will." — ( 19.) Teachers too often forget that the diagram should be employed only as a means to an end, like any other object lesson; and whenever the pupil is unable to analyze without diagraming as he goes, it is time to cast this method aside altogether. It is "cram- ming,'' not teaching, when the means becomes the end of analysis. — ( 15. ) Ben had been a naughty boy for so many months that his aunt decided he must be kept at home from the husking bee as a, punishment for his wilfulness. — (12.) The moderator of our district was a bitter enemy of both the treasurer and director, and publicly de- clared his belief that iiAe?/ were in league to fill ^/teir own jyockets by padding the census list, though the director had made affidavit before the proper officer that it was correct. — (21. ) The guardian of the child that lies buried on yonder hill-top, has been accused of criminal complicity in \^ death, as he had recently taken out an insurance policy on its life, payable to himself. — ( 13. ) One of the scholars in the primary department one day fell into convulsions, lohich were supposed to be induced by the green apples he had ea^ew in disobedi- ence to his parents' command. Several pupils were sent for awZ, but he remained unconscious until the doctor came. — ( 18. ) ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 75 The societies he organized were numerous and all bore different names, though without much real differ- ence in the principles underlying them or the objects they sought. — (13. ) He was truly thankful for the opportunity to earn so large an income, and i^eceived the news of his promotion with such evident delight as caused his father immedi- ately to acquiesce in his desire to ?eaye home, even though against his oi^w interest. — ( 20.) With a large awl he pierced a ^oZe through the can- u«,s and /^reio himself down behind a big tree that acood conveniently near the tent, thus managing to gain a bird's-eye view of the interior and a?Z its dusJcy in- habitanis. — ( 15. ) He dreamed visions of himself acting as aid to the commander-in-chief of the armies, and was positive that he should ^eio fZouvi all obstacles to his advance- ment, as successfully as any brave knight of old ever cut his way through an opposing phalanx of mailed warriors. — ( 17. ) A city maiden, wearing a jaunty Eton jacket and possessed of majiy coquettish airs and graces, created such a commotion among the rexwesentatives of the sterner sex present at the village ball, that her girl companions grew quite jealous and began to ccw^ aftoit^ for some method of recalling the rustic swains to their senses. — (30. ) A sudden sneeze caused the epiglottis to fly open just in season for a bit of food to pass into the trachea instead of the esophagus, when such a fit of coughing ensued as nearly choked the unfortunate child to death. -(11.) 76 OBTHOGBAPHY AND The surgeon who was summoned to set the broJcen humerus, seemed to be always in a humorous mood, and was so jolly that his face was fairly seamed with the wrinkles caused by his habit of laughing so much. — (13.) My son who had won a great reputation as a singer, sat before the glowing grate with one foot on the fender, gazing through the window at the ruddy hue cast over the landscape by the setting sun, and watching it fade into a dun gray, while he softly sang Longfellow^ s won- derful poem, "The Day is Done.^^ — (25.) The drunken Bane did not deign to heed the com- mands of the policeman; and the more liquor he drank the noisier he grew, until arrested and carried off to the ^'aiZ where he could xwocure no more ''old rye." — (12.) John' s various friends one and all, respectively tried to awaken him to some sense of his duty^ but, though he listened to each respectfully, he continued his refusal to become a candidate for this desirable position, assign- ing no reason for his action. — ( 11. ) At last he told the whole truth and confessed to his participation in this illegal canvass of votes and ac- knoivledged, too, that he was the t:;eafc tool of ^2«o shrewd political tricksters who were the real instigators of these election frauds. — (19.) He sf/-o(Ze through the ivintry forest with a proud tread and happy heart, bearing the ^li^e antlers of a Aari as trophy of his sA;?7^ in hunting. Entering a little cottage near by, he cast down his burden for his hopeful heirs to drag to and fro with merry shouts, until the &at«Z of the smallest urchin announced that it was scarcely suited as a plaything for such tender hands. — (28.) ELEMENTAB Y SO UNDS. 77 There was scarcely any fuel or food left in the house, and the children we^^e but meagerly supplied with cloiMng, so that the mother^ s heart sank within her as the dreary autumn days irredicted the coming of winter and the suffering they must so surely endure. — (17.) A low caste Hindoo stood concealed behind an urn of sioaying palms, his glittering eyes peering out at two Brahmins who talked very earnestly together until the bell tolled the midniyht hour, when they went their separate ways, wholly unconscious that their plotting had been suspected and would be frus- trated by one of the sect they so desjjised.— ( 22. ) He was carefully scanning a marvelous engraving on the walls and thinking of engaging the artist to paint a portrait, when a friend upon whose judgment he greatly relied, expressed a preference for another picture; and he at once deferred to him and changed his decision. Can you give the rule for spelling each of the derivatives found in the above paragraph? — (22.) The Vhat is a diphthong? Give example. 7. What is a digraph? Write two. A trigraph? 8. What is an improper diphthong? A tetragraph? 9. Can two consonants form a digraph? 10. What is a triphthong? Give one. 11. Give a word containing a proper diphthong. 12. How are words divided as to their formation? 13. How are words divided according to number of syllables? 14. How many words in the English language? 15. Why are words divided into syllables? 16. What are the names of the diacritical marks used with consonants? 17. What is a simple word? Give examples. 18. What is a compound word? Give examples. 19. What is a primitive word? Give examples. 20. What is a derivative word? Give examples, 21. When is the hyphen omitted in compound words? 22. Give a compound primitive word. 23. Give a compound derivative word. ELEMENTAB Y SO UNDS. 83 24. What is a prefix? Name some. 25. What is a suffix? Name some. 26. From what languages do we get most of our prefixes'? 27. What is orthography! 28. What is an elementary sound? 29. How many are there in the English language? 30. What is a diacritical mark? 31. Name the diacritical marks used with vowels. 32. What is a vowel ? A consonant ? 33. What is a vocal? A sub vocal? 34. What is a mute? A semivowel? 35. What is accent? How marked? 36. Name some consonant combinations. 37. What is a silent letter ? 38. Name some letters that are never silent. 39. Name the unnecessary letters of our alphabet. 40. What are the uses of silent letters? 41. Give two words containing u used as a conso- nant. Give a word with u used as a vowel. 42. When are letters said to be siihsequent? 43. When are letters said to be antecedent? 44. What is a letter? 45. What is a word? 46. What is phonology? Phonotypy? 47. What is phonography? Philolog}'? 48. What are labials? Nasals? Name some. 49. What are Unguals? Palatals? Dentals? 50. Before what letters does c usually have its soft sound ? 51. What are tonics? Subtonics? Atonies? 52. What is syllabication? Stress? 53. What is a sonant? A surd?. 84 ORTHOGRAPHY AND 54. How is voice produced? 55. What are the organs of speech? 56. How does voice differ from speech ? 57. Can there be speech without voice? 58. Can you spell the name of h, g, q, s and w ? 59. "What is the dieresis? ' GO. Which consonant is most like a vowel in the for- mation of its sound? 61. Name the mutes in the word completed. 62. Write a word beginning with a labial? 63. What is a labiodental? Give one. 64. What is an aphthong? Give example. 65. What is meant by the assimilation of consonants? Give example. Duplication? 66. Why is n doubled in hannerf 67. What is orthoepy? Quantity? Quality? 68. What mark indicates the sound of e in her ? 69. What is meant by the ^'vanish" in a long? 70. Is there a difference in pronunciation of there and their? 71. How is Italian a marked ? 72. When has a the Italian sound? 73. Which is the more open sound, a broad or a short- broad? 74. Which is the most open and melodious of the vowel sounds? 75. Which is one of the closest of the vowel sounds? 76. Name a word in which u represents the sound of e short. 77. What other letter has nearly the sound of e inter- mediate ? 78. What is the sound of e foreign? ELEMENT A BY SO UNDS. 85 79. What two vowels go to make up i long? 80. In what word does eau have the sound of i short? 81. What is the '^ vanish" of o long! 82. What is the closest labial A^owel ? 83. What is the rule for o broad, for o short? 84. What peculiarity has the sound of u ? 85. What sound has u after r ? 86. Of what elements is the diphthong ou composed? oif 87. When is b usually silent? 88. Before what letters is ch alwayo hard? 89. Has h any equivalent sound? 90. What marks has i.^ 91. What letter always follows qf 92. Name five words containing the sound of z but not containing the letter z. 93. Give five words in which th has its sharp sound. ' 94. When does d take the sound oitf 95. Which is the most harmonious of the consonants? 96. Are j, m, r, I. v, ever silent? 97. What letters represent nasal sounds? 98. What is the Greek digraph? 99. Can jou pronounce phthisis? 100. What is the sound of s flat? 101. What is the dispute about ichf 102. What sound has x at the beginning of words? 103. Can you give a word in which z and h come to- gether ? 104. What is a lingua-dental? Name one. 105. AVhat letters represent mute sounds? 106. Name the prominent diacritical marks. 107. Of what use is the study of elementary- sounds? S(^ ORTHOGRAPHY AND 108. At what time in the school course should we begin teaching the use of diacritical marks? 109. What diacritical marks has x ? 1 10. What letters does x represent 1 111. Is y used as a consonant ever given a diacritical mark? 112. Explain to a child how to give the sound of y as a consonant. 113. What is the cognate subvocal of s f 114. What is an equivalent? Give examples. 1 15. Explain the process of teaching the sound of a letter to a child. 116. What common words are represented by the fol- lowing: gems, card, dgme? 117. Name five subvocals, five aspirates. 118. What is the tilde? The icavef 119. Mark the following words for proper pronuncia- tion: rule, bask, pearl. 120. Give a prefix meaning not, before. 121. Give two Greek prefixes. 122. Name two verb suffixes. 123. Name two adjective suf&xes. 124. What rule of spelling is illustrated in the words: heginning, trimmed, stopped, controlled? 125. Why is sjjreading spelled with one d and bidding with two? 126. Give the rule for final e in spelling. 127. Why is final e retained in serviceable? Why in singeing ? 128. Name three words that have the long sound of a. 129. How is the short broad sound of a marked? 1 30. Give five words containing the sound of e long. ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 87 131. How is the intermediate sound of a marked ? In what words is it heard? 132. What diacritical mark represents the sound of a before r? 133. What are the elementary sounds of a ? 134. In what words is c equivalent to z? 13,"). How many sounds has h f lof). How is the hard sound of c indicated? 137. Has d any diacritical marks ? 138. To what other sound is d equivalent? 139. What is the sound of a in arm? can't? cant? fast? father! air? what? hair? alias? abdomen? 140. What is the intermediate sound of e f 141. What regular sounds has ef 142. Is b ever silent? 143. Xame five letters that never have any diacritical marks? 144. What sounds has/.^ 145. What organ of speech is used most in giving the sound of g hard? 146. What sound has a vowel usually when between two consonants in an accented syllable? 147. What vowel can be sounded the longest with one breath f 148. Give a word containing all the regular vowels in their order. 149. Give all the diacritical marks used with o. 150. How are obscure vowels marked in the dic- tionary ? 151. Is sh ever silent? 152. What combinations or letters represent the sound of sh? 153. What endings generally give a the intermediate sound? 38 ORTHOGRAPHY AND 154. What sound has a when marked with a dotted macron ? 155. What is meant by the glide? 156. Give a word in which I has the force of a vowel. 157. Give a word in which n is used as a vowel. 158. What is articulation? 159. Is the caret a diacritical or rhetorical mark "? 160. Is the dieresis a diacritical or rhetorical mark % 161. What is the distinction between articulation, pronunciation and enunciation? 162. State the requirements of good articulation. 163. State three classes of errors in articulation, and give an example of each. 164. Select from the following words those in which the sound of e or i is omitted, and those in which it is not omitted: levels devil, chicken, panel, even, wooden, label, grovel, fossil, fallen, model. 165. Can you pronounce, define and spell every word in the following production? A SPELL. Stand up, ye spellers, now and spell. Spell phenakistoscope and knell ; Or take some simple word as chilly, Or ganger, or the garden lily. To spell such words as syllogism, And lachrymose and synchronism, And Pentateuch and saccharine, Apocrypha and celantine, Lactiferous and cecity, Jejune and homoeopathy, Paralysis and chloroform, Rhinoceros and pachyderm, ELEMENT A R Y SO VNDS. 89 Metempsychosis, gherkins, basque. Is certainly no easy task. Kaleidoscope and Tennessee, Kamtschatka and dispensary, Diphthong and erysipelas. And etiquette and sassafras, Infallible and ptyalism, Allopathy and rheumatism And cataclysm and beleaguer. Twelfth, eighteenth, rendezvous, intriguer, And hosts of other words are found On English and on classic ground. Thus Bering Straits and Michaelmas, Thermopylce, Cordilleras, Suite, hemorrhage, jalap and Havana, Cinquefoil and ipecacuanha. And Rappahannock, Shenandoah, And Schuylkill, and a thousand more, Are words some prime good spellers miss In dictionary lands like this; Nor need one think himself a scroyle If some of these his efforts foil. Nor deem himself undone forever To miss the name of either river. The Dnieper, Seine or Guadalquivir. 166. Can you read this without an error in sound ol vowel or consonant? Note.— This ingenious alliteration will give an excellent review, not only in nearly all the sounds of the vowels, but in the sounds of consonants in various positions. It is a review of the whole subject of elementary sounds : ALLITERATIVE POEM. An Austrian army awfully arrayed, Boldly by battery besieged Belgrade ; Cossack commanders cannonading come, Dealing destruction's devastating doom ; 90 ORTHOGRAPHY AND Every endeavor engineers essay For fame, for fortune fightin^'— furious fray. Generals 'gainst generals grapple ; gracious God, How honors Heaven heroic hardihood ! Infuriate, indiscriminate, in ill. Kinsmen kill kinsmen, kindred kinsmen kill, Labor low levels loftiest, longest lines; Men march 'mid mounds, 'mid moles, 'mid murderous mine Now noisy noxious numbers notice nought Of outward obstacles opposing ought; Poor patriots! Partly purchased! partly pressed. Quite quaking, quickly "quarter," "quarter," quest; Reason returns, religious right redounds, Sorrow soon stops such sanguinary sounds. Truce to thee, Turkey, triumph to thy twain, Unjust, unwise, unmerciful Ukraine! Vanish vain victory, vanish victorj' vain ! Why wish we warfare ? Wherefore welcome were Xerxes, Ximene, Xanthus, Xavier ? Yield, yield, ye youth ; ye yeomen yield your yell. Zeno's Zarpater's Zoroaster's zeal, Attracting all, arms against arms appeal. 167. What is a "stem"? Give five Latin and fivo Greek stems. 168. Give five cases in which the hyphen is generally used. 169. Define "affix," "antonym," "homonym," "par- onym," "eponym." 170. Name and define the three classes of accent. 171. Give the rules for accenting words. 172. Give the meaning of the following prefixes: super, con, trans, post, pro. 173. Give the meaning of the following suffixes • ment, ness, ish, ing. ELEMENT A R Y SO UNDS. 91 CHAPTER X. SOME RULES FOE PRONUNCIATION. 1. Don't pronounce ing like in; as writin' for writing. 2. Don't pronounce ow like iir or uli; as shaclur for shadow, Jioller for hollow. 3. Don't pronounce e v rec i ta'tion vwor') pro nun ci- put re cla ma' res 'in (rez) a 'tion (or pyg me'an tion resource' shI a 'shun) p_f ram'idal rec'og niz a- re spir'able proof pyri'tes(tez) bleres'pite proph'ecy' Pj^thago'- re con'nois- res'pit ed propb e sy ', V re an sance (nis) res'tau rant protege quadrille' reconnoi'- (0) (protazha') (kwa) ^ t€r rgsum6 pro tem'po re quag'gj recourse' (razQma') pro 'test qualm rec re a 'tion re tail', v ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. Ill re 'tail nova Eussian scen'ic re tro act ' (rush ' an) st-hed ' ule re'tro cede rutaba'ga schism. (or ret) sac'€ha rine (sizm) reveille sa crif'i€ a- screw (re varya) ble (skroo) rev 'o cable sac'rl fice scrofula re volt' (fiz) n & v scrvi'pu lous rheu mafic sac 'ri lege seek 'el rib'ald sac rile'- (apear) rice gioLis sed'atlve rid ' i cule sa ga ' cious seine riud saline' . se'uile rinse salm' on series rise (rize), v (sam'uu) (se'rez) salve (sav) sergeant rise(orriz),7i sal'ver (sar'jant) ro bust' ro mance roof rook (a plate) ser'vile san'guine ses'a me sa'pi ence sew'er(su'er sap phire or soor) root (saf ir) sew (so) route sa ' tyr sha' n' t routine' sau'cy (shant) ni'by saun'ter shire (or rude sau'sage(sej) sheer) rue sea lene ' shOne ( or ruffian seal 'lop shSne) (ruf yan) scarce short 'lived ru in scathed sib'yl line riile (skatht) si es'ta ru'mor scath'ing sim'i le si mul ta ' ne- ous sinew (sin'n) si'ne cure si ' ren sir 'up sleek (not slik) sloth slough (sluf) (a scab) slough (slou) (a mire-hole) snout so'brl quet (ka) sod'er soiree (swa- ra') so'joQrn 71 & V sol (in music) sol ' ace sol'der (sod) sol'e cism soon sdbt sooth 'say er so pra'no sough (suf) souse, V (not sowz) 112 ORTHOGRAPHY AND south 'erly sta'tus quo sur tgut' te'por south ward (qwo) sur veil'lance ter gl ver sa'- (sutli'ard) steel' yard (yance) tion s5v'er eij^Q (colloquially stir' vey, ?i ter 'ra pin (or suv) stil) sur vey', v tete a tete souvenir ste're o scope sut'ure (tat a tat' ) (soov'neer) ste're o type swarthy Tha li'a spasm steward swerve the ' a ter (spazm (stu ard) sweet 'flag their not um)stom a cher sword (sord) there 'fore species sto maeh'ic syn'od thral dom (spe'shez) stra'ta syr'up ti'ny sperm a ce ' ti stry eh ' nine tab ' er na cle ti rade ' sub al' tern tableau' (lo)to ma'to sphe'roid sub sid'ence talc top o graph '- spinach sub'stan- tal cose' ic al ( spin ' aj ) ti vely tal ' is man tour spir'acle sub ' tile (//iw (iz) tgur'na ment splen'e tic or rare) tap' es try tra'^he a spoon subtle (sly) ta'pis tran'quil spouse (sut'l) tar pau'lin trans fer'a- (spouze) sub'urb Tar ta' re an ble squalid Su'ez tar tar' ic trans 'mi- squa'lor suffice' (fiz)task grate squir'rel suite (sweet) taunt treat 'ise (skwur or sul phu'ric teat tre'mor squir ) su ' ma€ te ' di ous tri bu ' nal stal'wart (or shoo) te leg'ra phy trib'une (or stal) sum'ma ry tem'per a- trichi'na stanch su per'flu ous ture trip'ar tite star 'board sup 'pie ten'ure triph' thong stat'ics sur named' tep'id (or trip') ELEMENTAR Y SO UNDS. 113 tr5'€lie usurp' (z) vorume with trSth va^'c'ine (yum) -withe (not th) trOw va ga ' ry wain ' scot worn an tru'culent val'et wal'nut won't truths (not vaunt (or a) wal'rus (or wont truthz) ven due' wal) worst ed tube 'ruse (z) ven'i son wan'der (wgs'ted) Tues'day (zn) want wQund, n&v (tQz da) ve'hement wan'ton (or wound) ttir'bine ver'dl gris war'rant xiph'oid (z) turquoise vgr'dnre wa'ter xy lograph'- (tur koiz ' ) vet ' er i na Tf wharf (not ic (zi) typog'ra- vic'ar warf) yacht (yot) phervi'cinage whooping- y cleped' typ o graph'ic vign ette cough (klept) (or typ ' ) (vin yet ' ) (hoop ' ing- year ' ling ty ran'nic vin'dl ca- kof) yelk (or yolk) tyr'an uy tive way 'lay youths un der neath vi ra'go weird zeal'ot unscathed' (or vl) why (not wl) zS'nith (skatht) vis count wife's Zeus U'ranus (vi' count) (not wivz) zo di'a cal usage vis'or (vizur)wind row zo ol'o gy (yoo ' zig) vizier (viz ' - (win ' ro) zou ave ' used yer) wind 'ward 114 ORTHOGRAPHY AND INDEX. Page. Accent 64 Adjective Suffixes 64 Adverb Suffixes 64 Affix 45 Alliterative Poem 89 Antecedent. 44 Antepenultimate 64 Antonym 63 Aphthong 11 Articulation 38 " Errors in 37 " Exercises 35-37 " Recreation 39 "ASpell" 88 Aspirates, Dei. of 7 List of 30 Assimilation of Consonants- • 11 "Biacic Boot-Black" 41 Cognates 9-31 Compound Words 45 Consonants 7-20-30 Correlative Long and Short Sounds 31 Definitions 6 Dentals, Def. of 8 Derivative Words 45 Diacritical Marks, Def. of 12 " " Names of. • 27 Dleresis 34 Digraph 9 Diphthong 10-20 Diphongai Vowel 10 Dissyllables 54 Duplication of Consonants. .. 11 Elementary Sounds 6 " How to Teach Them 32 Elementary Sounds, Tables of 29-30 English Prefixes 56 Enunciation, Exercises In — 35 Eponym 53 Equivalents 9 Tableof 29 Errors in Articulation 37 Esau Wood— a Test for Bone- Heads 43 Exercises for Marking and Pronunciation 36 Examiners' Speech. Pro. Test. 94 For a Pronouncing Match — 95 Fricatives 9 Greek Prefixes 62 Greek Stems 62 Gutturals 8 Homonym 53 Page. How to Teach Elementary Sounds 32 Hyphen 46 Labials, Def. of 8 Tableof 30 Lablo Dentals 8 Tableof 30 Language 5 Latin Prefixes 56 Latin Stems 68 Letters 6 Lingua Dentals 8 Lingua Palatals 8 Liquids : 9 Linguals, Def. of 8 Tableof 30 List of Words Often Mispro- nounced 92 Michigan's SCO 72 Mispronounced Words, List of 92 Monosyllables 64 Mutes 7 Nasals 9 Noun Suffixes 63 Obscure Sounds of Vowels — 15 Organs of Speech 5 " Voice 5 Orthoepy 11 Orthography 11 Palatals, Def. of 8 Table of 30 Paronyms • 63 Penultimate 64 Ph 24 Philology 12 Phonography 12 Phonology 11 Phonontypy 12 Phonotypy 12 Polysyllable 64 Power of Letters 6 Preantepenultimate 64 Prefix 44 " Listof 56 Primitive Word 44 Principles of Pronunciation.. 12 Pronunciation Don'ts 91 Rules 91 Tests. . . 94 Pronunclative Ordeal • 96 Quality 8 Quantity 12 Questions— Review 82 Recreations in Articulation- • 39 Redundant Letters 30 Job.^./:?:^ Date Mend by Time.../..' Stab by.-TyT-.No. Sect.^l..T5^e^ Score...^^!?r Press Strip S This m>ob bound by Pncific Library Bl paliy, Los .Vngelcs, specialists in Libra Our work and luaterials are gnurautec indefinitely to satisfaction of purcbasci defects appearing in eitb^'i- will be made out additional charge. "Bound to wear, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles IN '"^O'This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. uS JAN 1 1 1967 m 1 1 1967 QL APR 41977 MAR 2 2 1977^ Form L9-Series 444 UCLA-Young Research Library LB1526 .P27 y I II Mil lllllllllllllll. L 009 578 472 4