NEW THEMES 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 PROTESTANT CLERGY: 
 
 CREEDS WITHOUT CHARITY, 
 THEOLOGY WITHOUT HUMANITY, 
 
 AND 
 
 PROTESTANTISM WITHOUT CHRISTIANITY: 
 WITH NOTES 
 
 LITERATURE OF CHARITY, POPULATION, PAUPERISM, 
 POLITICAL ECONOMY, AND PROTESTANTISM. 
 
 By STEPHEN COLWELL. 
 
 SECOND EDITION REVISED. 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 
 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO. 
 18 52. 
 

 The foregoing title has created impressions not intended by the 
 author. In making it short, it has become ambiguous. It would have 
 better expressed the meaning had it run thus : — " Creeds, but not 
 
 WITHOUT CHARITY — ThEOLOGY, BUT NOT WITHOUT HUMANITY — PRO- 
 TESTANTISM, BUT NOT WITHOUT CHRISTIANITY." Titles Very seldom 
 constitute an index to a book, and we trust no unfavourable presenti- 
 ment will arise from that which we have adopted. We are sorry some 
 more pleasing expression of our idea had not occurred to us. Few, 
 however, can be willing to appropriate to themselves either horn of 
 the following dilemma, which is found in a review of the work in the 
 April number of the Church Review : — 
 
 "There arc two classes of persons who will shrink with sacred hor- 
 ror from the title of this book : both the formalist and the formulist 
 will abjure it without further scrutiny. The one believes that the 
 Church is to truth what amber is to the insect which it encloses, holds 
 fast, preserves entire, hit first kills. The latter imagines that from 
 apostolic times, the truth was held by the Church in a state of solu- 
 tion until a certain modern date, when, on a sudden shaking of the 
 vessel, that truth was instantly deposited in the form of a transparent, 
 cold, angular, and sharp-pointed crystal, which, henceforth, can neither 
 be improved or modified." — Church Review, April, 1860. 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1851, by 
 
 LIPPINCOTT, GRAMBO & CO. 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States in and for the 
 
 Ea^stern District of Pennsylvania. 
 
 hnnU'd ly T .K & P G Col has. 
 
PREFACE TO SECOND EDITION. 
 
 The favour of the public, which calls so soon for a 
 second edition of this volume, makes us regret more than 
 ever its serious deficiencies, and would stimulate us to 
 attempt some considerable amendment, but that our de- 
 sign was not to prepare the book which the subject 
 demands — it was rather to draw such a work from more 
 competent hands.* We now believe this object will be at- 
 tained. Our general aim has been extensively approved, 
 and this sentiment cannot long continue to be felt without 
 taking the form of a treatise, which, if not adequate to 
 the subject, may still be one great step in our literature 
 of Christian Charity. 
 
 It is not the least of our regret that these pages have 
 given pain to some very worthy persons : but this we 
 lament as much on their account as on our own ; for while 
 it was our part to present these views more free from de- 
 
 * This volume can be of little consequence except so far as Gtted to 
 excite inqniry, and promote the discussion of a much neglected sub- 
 ject If the issue shall be fairly taken up and considered, by those 
 most able to do it justice, this hasty production will have fulfilled its 
 desi^. Perhaps its very faults may contribute to this good end, as 
 well M to hasten it into oblivion as soon as better works have appeared. 
 A 2 iii 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 fects and in a more deserving form, it was theirs to receive 
 them in a better spirit. Their reception, whether fa- 
 vourable or otherwise, has clearly shown it was time to 
 bring the subject prominently into discussion. There is 
 a longing on the subject of Christian Charity which de- 
 mands some gratification; there is an unwillingness to 
 touch it which should be overcome ; there is an in- 
 capacity to grasp its scope and obligations which requires 
 to be familiarized with the topic and to be instructed. If 
 some believe that it has all the prominence it deserves in 
 Protestant systems, let them not discourage the discussion, 
 nor denounce those who differ from them in opinion. It 
 would form a strange medley of praise and censure and of 
 direct contradictions if we should spread before our readers 
 what has been said and written of this little volume. 
 Upon view of the whole, we are satisfied that much more 
 good than harm will come of its publication, and that we 
 are not responsible for all the misconceptions to which it 
 has given rise. Many of these are due, in part at least, 
 to faults in the reader, and not wholly to the fault of the 
 writer. On our side we know there are many faults; 
 there may be some on the other. 
 
 Without attempting to remove the various mistakes as 
 to the aim of the work which have come under our eye, 
 we offer the following remark, from a notice in the 
 Church Review, as evidence that some could very fairly, 
 if not fully interpret our design : 
 
 " The theory of the author under review, may be 
 thus stated : — In apostolic times, it was the motto of the 
 church, ' now abideth these three, faith, hope, and charity; 
 but the greatest of these is chariti/.' In these latter days 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 the text is virtually altered, so as to read the greatest of 
 these is faith." 
 
 It was our purpose to insist that the doctrine of Chris- 
 tian Charity is not sufficiently prominent, if it be not 
 wholly omitted in Protestant standards, creeds, confes- 
 sions, catechisms, and articles j that it did not hold the 
 place , due to its importance in Protestant theology and 
 literature; that our Protestant theology was not suffi- 
 ciently imbued with the precepts and teachings of our 
 Saviour himself; that the moral law — the rule of Chris- 
 tian life and conduct — coulci be more safely drawn from 
 the very words of Christ, than from any uninspired de- 
 velopment of the Decalogue ; that it was wrong, very 
 wrong, to pass over in silence or in neglect, the language 
 of our Lord covering the whole ground of moral obliga- 
 tion, of duty to God and duty to man; and attempt to 
 develop the doctrine of charity or love from the Deca- 
 logue ; that the moral law was re-enacted in a neAo com- 
 mandmenfj and set forth by Christ himself with such 
 fulness, such searching power, such deep discrimination, 
 such ample comprehensiveness, that it savours of profane 
 hardihood, if not criminal oversight, to attempt the de- 
 duction of Christian obligations by any mere human com- 
 mentary upon the Ten Commandments. 
 
 We meant to urge that no document, proceeding from 
 the Reformers or from the founders of any of our leading 
 Protestant denominations, contains any adequate, or even 
 fair statement of the Christian law of Charity as pro- 
 claimed by Christ and tauglit by his apostles ; that this 
 omission in Protestant teaching had led to serious mis- 
 takes and omissions in Protestant modes of administering 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 charity, and to a very inadequate conception of the obli- 
 gations of Christians to their fellow men ; that the com- 
 mands to love our neighbours as ourselves, and to do to 
 others as we would have others do unto us, have not and 
 are not receiving that close, faithful, and adequate appli- 
 cation to the business and conduct of men in the various 
 relations of life to which they arc entitled at the hands 
 of the Protestant clergy; that no such application is to 
 be found in our religious literature ; that it does not com- 
 ply with the law of Christian Charity to look upon our 
 fellow-men merely as so many sinners — as so much ma- 
 terial for conversion, or to be moulded and worked up 
 into congregations — as so many subjects, upon whom the 
 ecclesiastical organizations and their several modes of 
 teaching should be brought to bear; that this law clearly 
 enjoins not merely loving our Christian brethren of the 
 same denomination, or of any denomination, which is 
 rising no higher in the scale of charity than the require- 
 ments of Free Masonry and Odd Fellowship, but it en- 
 joins loving those who do not love us — even our enemies 
 and those who despitefully use us. It is not enough for 
 the Christian to be concerned only for the interests of 
 men in the world to come, but for their best interests in 
 this world. If a heathen poet could exclaim : 
 
 Homo sum : et nihil humani a me alienum puto ; 
 
 (I am a man : every thing that is human concerns me ;) 
 
 the Christian must realize that the law of his charity 
 carries him higher and farther, in regard for humanity, 
 than any heathen conception could ever attain. 
 
 We maintain that Christ himself should have the chief 
 voice in defining Christianity, and that this has been de- 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 nied him in most, if not all the compends and summaries 
 of Christian doctrine which are the bond of Protestant 
 churches. Let them all be examined to see if a single 
 one contains any full recognition of what Christ taught 
 in his own ministry. 
 
 Our statements and expressions appear exaggerated to 
 a certain class of minds. It may be that strong feeling 
 has made them so, or to appear so in many instances ; 
 but we are sure that in many cases we have fallen far 
 short of the truth in what to some appears exaggeration. 
 Our views and feelings are the result of many years' 
 careful investigation of social questions regarded from the 
 Christian side : we have met with few who have explored 
 :i wider region of thought and fact on this subject than we 
 have. We are disposed to think that any sweeping 
 charge of exaggeration is most likely to be made by those 
 least prepared to decide. 
 
 Then, as to the responsibility of speaking plainly : it 
 is hardly greater than that assumed in asserting that one 
 man, or many men, two or three hundred years ago ex- 
 plained the Scriptures so unerringly that not a word is 
 now to be added to or taken from that exposition ; or in 
 assuming that any uninspired man can set bounds to the 
 meaning of Revelation with such certainty as to claim 
 the assent of all other^men. We believe, and therefore Nv 
 say, that the law of Christian Charity, as developed and A 
 taught by Christ, has not its due place in our Protestant 
 pyBtems. It is sheer error to alh^ge that the Holy Scrip- 
 tures were as well understood within two hundred years 
 ifter the Kcformation as they are now; and it would be 
 cijually wide of the mark to say thoy will not two hun- 
 
YIU PREFACE. 
 
 dred years hence be far better comprehended than now. 
 Our compends of Christianity should then keep up with 
 the advance of Christian knowledge and Christian expe- 
 perience. The disposition to cling to the past may, 
 within proper limits, be commendable; but it must be re- 
 membered that is the trait in human nature which main- 
 tains ancient error until it become doubtful whether a 
 just change may not inflict more injury than the con- 
 tinual sufferance of old abuses. Can Protestants safely 
 assume that all is right in their camp; that there are no 
 mistakes, no omissions, no imperfections in their systems? 
 Certainly not. Can any denomination claim such exemp- 
 tion from error ? Certainly not. It may be presumed, 
 indeed, without any dangerous departure from the truth, 
 that those churches which most confidently proclaim their 
 freedom from error, are, if not the deepest in sin, at least 
 the most ignorant of themselves. Should not all Pro- 
 testants then, trusting, as they do, in the right of private 
 judgment and private interpretation, be ever willing 
 with perfect frankness and earnestness to engage in the 
 work of self-examination, and be ever open to the voice 
 of suggestion, or even of animadversion ? The Christian 
 man does not attain his spiritual growth but by slow de- 
 grees; and Christian churches do not attain all their 
 knowledge of the truth at once; they must long grow 
 and increase in knowledge before the building, of which 
 Christ is the corner-stone, shall be perfected. 
 
 We did not specially define our theology, nor did we 
 afiix the name of the writer, trusting that the views ad- 
 vanced were entitled to some consideration without re- 
 ference to the author's creed or position. We did not 
 
PREFACE. IX 
 
 trace the theological bearings of our propositions ; we 
 desired to commit that task to more skilful hands. We 
 did not define Christianity, nor attempt to abolish old 
 definitions ; we simply offered our views indicating ele- 
 ments of Christianity which the old definitions did not 
 adequately cover and recognise. We did not anticipate 
 that our illustrations would be taken for our positions. 
 We did not attempt to present the whole of Christianity, 
 but to indicate its bearings on humanity, its aspects on 
 the side of humanity ; we sought not to subvert sound 
 doctrine, but asked to have the doctrine of charity or 
 love to our fellow men incorporated with evangelical 
 theology. 
 
 Though we are firm in that system of belief in which we 
 have been educated, we do not hesitate to scrutinize both 
 creeds and summaries, and to subject every such produc- 
 tion to comparison with the Inspired Standard. Our 
 faith was not diminished as we examined with increasing 
 boldness the foundation on which it stands. Christianity 
 has lost none of our admiration nor of our afi"ection as 
 the only way of eternal life, since we have perceived more 
 clearly its adaptation to ameliorate the lot of men in this 
 life. We receive and hold it none the less cordially and 
 purely with its promise of a final resting-place in man- 
 sions not made with hands, eternal in the heavens, now 
 that we believe it is intended to secure as much rest, 
 peace, and happiness in this world, as men under divine 
 guidance are capable of conferring upon each other. We 
 rejoice to extend our vision even to a wider field than our 
 fathers beheld. We desire to know more and believe more. 
 We rejoice to understand and believe that Christianity has 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 obligations and instructions which, if attended to, would 
 change the whole face of society, and amend the condi- 
 tion of all the sufferers on earth. In enlarging the 
 sphere of Christian duties toward man, we would not 
 diminish one iota the sphere of those which refer to God. 
 
 If we have appeared to regard Christianity only from 
 one side, we intended no more. We were regarding it 
 from one point which had been, as we believed, neglected ; 
 all that we say is to urge what is not an exclusive, but 
 should be an integral characteristic of our system. He 
 who discovers, or thinks he has discovered, a new mineral 
 or a new law in chemistry, has no need, even if he were 
 capable, in announcing it, to write out an entire treatise 
 upon the kindred sciences. The responsibility of gather- 
 ing up the fragments of knowledge and reducing them all 
 to their proper order lies upon those who devote them- 
 selves to systematic teaching. It cannot be wrong to 
 offer a contribution, though we may not be able to fill the 
 treasury. 
 
 The grand peculiarity of Christianity is that it is the 
 work of God : the corresponding peculiarity of Pro- 
 testantism is, that it is the work of man : it is man's ex- 
 planation of his Creator's doings. Michelet, the eminent 
 French historian, referring to his intended history of 
 Christianity, by which he means the Catholic church, is 
 deterred from attempting it by such considerations as 
 this : " Touch Christianity ! it is only they who know it 
 
 not, who would not hesitate For me I call to mind 
 
 the night when I nursed a sick mother. She suffered 
 from remaining in the same position, and would need to 
 be moved, to be helped to turn in her bed — the filial 
 
PREFACE. XI 
 
 •lands could not hesitate, but ah ! how move her aching, 
 Jecaycd limbs !".... Children of Protestantism should 
 have no such fear : their parent, being of a sturdier frame, 
 ean bear not only to be turned in bed for ventilation and 
 purifying, but to be vigorously shaken and exercised for 
 development of her powers and to prevent stagnation — 
 can endure every operation needful for restoration, and 
 receive every addition needful for growth ; born and nur- 
 tured in freedom of mind and boldness of tongue, Pro- 
 testantism must ever flourish most with free handling and 
 candid speech. 
 
 It is not mere almsgiving for which we contend, 
 although there is space on Protestant shelves for a vast 
 number of volumes on the Christian side of that subject. 
 We carry the obligations of the Christian higher and 
 wider than this virtue implies. Every thought, every 
 word, every act, every motive, and every feeling that 
 tends to human advantage bears upon the conscience of 
 the Christian. He must not look for gratitude nor ex- 
 pect reward ; his good deeds, like the rain which descends 
 in equal measure upon the just and the unjust, must be 
 for all to whom he has access, direct and indirect. Ho 
 must not merely be ready to bestow alms where they are 
 needed, he must lend his hands, his time, and his talents 
 to help every member of that family, each individual of 
 which has the privilege of saying, " Our Father in hea- 
 ven," But this is not announced as Christianity, it is 
 only an essential ingredient. 
 
 We are far from undervaluing the achievements of 
 Christianity, under the banner of Protestantism, to the ex- 
 tent that Kome have understood us. It was not the task 
 
XU P K E F A C E. 
 
 before us to indulge in a definite appreciation of the good 
 that has been done since the Reformation, to which we 
 are far from being blind, but to inquire faithfully why 
 Christianity has not, with its present advantages, made 
 still greater progress. We are far from being insensible 
 to the pious and self-denying labours of clergymen abroad 
 and at home: but we were looking at what might have been 
 done and could now be done by the whole body of evan- 
 gelical clergy. We believe that the more earnest and 
 exemplary labour at vast disadvantage, and with results 
 widely disproportionate to their eflforts, for the reasons 
 urged in this volume. Their horizon of duty wants enlarg- 
 ing on the side of humanity. It is because we look upon the 
 whole body of the evangelical ministry, and consider what 
 they might do, and what they seem in no way disposed 
 to do, that we feel and express ourselves strongly. On 
 this topic, exaggeration of the evil is scarcely possible. 
 Can any man or minister be absolved from what be owes 
 to society and the world, by mere zeal for his peculiar 
 denomination ? Can those ever attain to clear views 
 of man's duty to man who regard the subject only through 
 a denominational medium ? 
 
 We cannot admit that all that sail under Protestant 
 colours must go uaque&tioned and without search : we do 
 not concede that we miast swallow all that is called Pro- 
 testantism for conscience' sake. A mighty work has been 
 achieved under its banners; but, as Protestants, we are 
 not absolved from future responsibilities upon the ground 
 of good works we have already done. By the favour of 
 God, Protestants have done thus much — will any pretend 
 they have perforim;d their whole duty ? Can the fabric 
 
PREFACE. XIU 
 
 of Protestantism be endangered by any scrutiny to which 
 it can be subjected ? With the sacred volume as a lighted 
 candle may we not safely search the innermost recesses 
 and darkest corners as well as make careful surveys of 
 the tout ensemble of the building. Nothing more grand, 
 more severely majestic and imposing has been seen on 
 the earth since the early days of Christianity ; but our ad- 
 miration must stop short of making Christianity respon- 
 sible for all that may and does pass under the name of 
 Protestantism. Christianity is one thing, Protestantism 
 may be, and is sometimes another thing. Let us beware 
 of canonizing the latter, whilst the former stands before 
 us revealed in the clear outline of inspired penmanship. 
 
 It is possible that, in endeavouring to point out why 
 more has not been done, and what is to be done hcrcaftor, 
 we may have seemed to disparage the past. It was not 
 our intention greatly to depreciate the past, except in 
 comparison with what might and should be accomplished. 
 Nor did we intend any comparison with Romanism unfa- 
 vourable on the whole to Protestantism. Wo merely 
 presented such topics and incidental points of comparison 
 as appeared fitted to stimulate Protestants to vigorous 
 self-examination, and to the exercise of a more humane 
 piety. It must be wrong to assume that past eflforts are 
 to be the measure of future exertion, or that past know- 
 ledge is to be the measure of future attainment. The 
 depths of divine wisdom in Revelation are not yet all 
 sounded; divine truths have not received all their appli- 
 cations to the concerns of men of which they are capable. 
 The teachings of Christ, in their bearings on social ques- 
 tions, require to be further studied, developed, and applied. 
 
XIV • PREFACE. 
 
 A vast domain of social, moral, and religious philosophy 
 remains to be explored under the light of Christianity. 
 To this investigation let Christians address themselves, 
 rather than to glorying in the past. 
 
 We cannot appreciate the objection to the anonymous 
 character of this publication. Men should certainly 
 judge of the merits of a book as impartially without as 
 with a knowledge of the author. Writers should be 
 judged by their works, not by the colour of their coats. 
 What is rightly urged can gain no merit from a name, 
 and what is wrong should not. Much more plausible are 
 the objectors who inquire, What has he achieved who 
 speaks so plainly to others? We are sorry for those 
 whose opinions depend upon the result of such an in- 
 quiry. We can claim no hearing and no favour upon 
 any personal ground 3 if we obtain none, we shall utter no 
 complaint. But to lessen the force of both these objec- 
 tions, and to make what amends we can for the admitted 
 faults and deficiencies of this volume, we assume the re- 
 sponsibility of the subsequent pages, by subjoining our 
 name ; and we ofi'er a prize for the best work upon the 
 doctrine and grace of Christian Charity, which shall be 
 produced within two years, upon a plan indicated on the 
 fly-leaf at the close of this volume. 
 
 Stephen Colwell. 
 
 Philadelphia, May 1, 1852. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 In offering the following pages to the public, we fur- 
 nish no formal or complete treatise upon any of the topics 
 embraced. "We have reflected long and earnestly upon 
 them, as they arose incessantly in the course of kindred 
 studies, until we became painfully convinced that they 
 were neglected, and that the time had arrived when the 
 public attention should be specially invoked. This labour 
 is devoted to that purpose. We have poured forth our 
 feelings, and, with scarcely a pretence of method, sketched 
 an outline of our thoughts. We would thus provoke others 
 to more elaborate performances. If this work is unworthy 
 of the subject, let its imperfections stimulate those of 
 more leisure, better training, and greater ability to unler- 
 take the task we have only indicated. We ask attention 
 to the suhject, as of sufficient interest and novelty to arrest 
 the thoughts of the reader, despite all our deficiencies : 
 let no one, therefore, who desires the progress of Christi- 
 anity or the promotion of humanity refuse to hear the 
 feeblest voice which is raised in their behalf 
 
 Let it not be thonght that, whilst dwelling so em- 
 phatically upon Charity, we have violated its dictates by 
 undue severity of remark. We have intended no cen- 
 lures upon individuals, even when severe upon the class 
 to which they belong. We regard the faults of indi- 
 
 BiJ IV 
 
XVI . PREFACE. 
 
 viduals, whether priests, clergy, ministers, or laymen, 
 as being the faults of their age or their station, or aa 
 the results of education or training, — circumstances all 
 beyond their control ; and whilst we do not abate a jot 
 from the responsibility which belongs to wrong-doing, we 
 admit, human nature being ever prone to err, that men 
 placed in similar circumstances will be likely to tran"S- 
 gress in similar paths. We believe there are few in- 
 stances in which one class of men can, in the sight of 
 God, glory over others : if any are better, they have more 
 light and better opportunities, and will be held to a 
 stricter account. Many of our expressions doubtless re- 
 quire qualification, but we trust that the reader who is 
 earnestly in quest of truth will readily perceive our scope, 
 and follow the channel of our thoughts until he is fully 
 embarked in the subject; he will then perceive there is 
 " ample room and verge enough" for the mind, without 
 aiming censure at any one. We denounce none : we ask 
 the serious consideration and co-operation of all. We 
 insist that Protestants have long overlooked and neglected 
 charity — that it has not been, and is not, a feature in 
 their creeds ; that, while Protestantism has gone far 
 before the world in liberality, it is almost a stranger to 
 that charity which the Author of bur faith preached and 
 exemplified. We plead the cause of the poor, the suflfer- 
 ing, the friendless, before those who claim pre-eminence 
 in Christianity: we ask whether, as Protestants, enjoying 
 the highest Christian privileges which have fallen to the 
 lot of men, we have, in the matter of human welfare, 
 done that which it was our duty to do ? We may not post- 
 pone this inquiry without suffering in public estimation 
 and in our ability to do good ; — we cannot postpone it 
 
PREPACK. XVII 
 
 without danger of being put on our defence as recreant 
 to the cause of humanity. The world now believes 
 that the religion, announced by the Author and Finisher 
 of our faith, embraces humanity as well as divinity 
 in its range. We must meet the great questions now 
 raised in behalf of humanity, and not be overtaken by 
 them. Let us unite in the effort to adjust the claims of 
 charity and justice ; and let us not wait until they are 
 settled without our aid or our consent — we being thrust 
 aside as unworthy a voice in the matter. Human weal 
 and human wo cannot as subjects be postponed. The 
 duties we owe to our fellow-men, long passed by in the 
 Gospels, are being brought to light. Theology must 
 soon sink to its subordinate position, and charity — the 
 law of kindness — ^must soon be exalted to its proper rank. 
 The value of kindness, as a remedy for the ills of life, 
 is beginning to be appreciated. It is now the established 
 specific for insanity : it is the only mitigation of madness. 
 Where a spark of reason is left to the raving maniac, 
 though invisible to every other human eye, it is fanned 
 into life, and soon perceived by the messenger of mercy. 
 It is but a few years since the most atrocious cruelties 
 were perpetrated by good people against those bereft of 
 reason. The age of cruelty is giving way to that of mercy. 
 Kindness is known to be a specific for many forms of 
 disease, and kind nursing for many more. Christ's whole 
 ministry was one of personal kindness. Charity is the 
 great lever of Christianity : by it the messengers of the 
 gospel can open the eyes of pagan blindness : by it the 
 ears of the most obstinate and hardened can be unstopped : 
 by it reason can be restored and life saved : by it every 
 human ill can be alleviated : by it all obstacles to the pro- 
 
XVlll PREFACE. 
 
 gress of Christianity can be removed or diminished. Men 
 are selfish, unfeeling, and prone to the abuse of power and 
 wealth; yet, where charity appears in her simplest garb, 
 she is hailed as a heavenly visitant, and the message 
 which accompanies her deeds of kindness is received as 
 the voice of Heaven. 
 
 It is time the virtue of this remedy were tried in the 
 name of Christianity upon the whole mass of humanity : 
 try it upon the poor, upon paupers, upon prisoners, sol- 
 diers, sailors, servants, labourers; try it upon infidels, 
 socialists, reforming zealots, revolutionists; try it upon 
 all men — and the result will be happy beyond all our 
 present conceptions. 
 
TO THE READER. 
 
 Let no one cast aside this little volume, as the work 
 of a crude and unfurnished mind ; or as the product of a 
 captious grumbler, ignorant of the theology he underrates 
 and incapable of grasping his subject; or as the sickly 
 dreams of a diseased imagination. If any are so dead to 
 the interests of humanity as to be insensible to the con- 
 siderations here presented, it is time they were awakened ; 
 if any are alive to them, but inactive, it is time they 
 were put on the alert. Few, it is hoped, can follow 
 the train of reflection here suggested, without experi- ^1 
 encing a feeling that there is a lamentable omission in / 
 our Protestantism, and without a desire to understand • 
 the subject better. It will be found there is a wide 
 range for the mind in the topics here touched, and that a 
 reformation remains to be effected greater than any yet 
 conceived. 
 
 We have added to the text extended bibliographical 
 notices and catalogues, in the hope of tempting the 
 studious and humane into this field of research, and of 
 facilitating the labours of those who may be willing to 
 devote their thoughts to the service of humanity. 
 
 October 20tb, 1851. 
 
 xix 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Why has Christianity made so little progress? 6 
 
 Christians respon.sible — ^The law of love — Passages from the Gospels — 
 Protestantism and the precepts of Christ— Heligiotis literature- • 5-31 
 
 The M18SI05 of Christ in his own words 31 
 
 Christ's reply to John's messengers— Other announcements of his 
 mission — The Parable of the last judgment — Diversity of opinions — 
 The Christian bond is love, not doctrine • « • • « -31-47 
 
 The ministry and teaching or the Apostles 47 
 
 f^om the Acts of the Apostles and from the Epistles— ^he 
 Import of these teachings — Civilization and Christianity — Ecclesiasti- 
 cal Machinery-^reeds— Christ in his teachings as well as in his 
 oflBces 47-64 
 
 Charity among the primitive Christians, and thence to 
 
 THE Reforaiation 65 
 
 Slavery— Emancipation— Captives in war— Bishop of Carthage— Mo- 
 oastic system — Hospitals — Emperor Julian — Con^tantinn and Flacilla 
 — lAUrentius the Deacon and the poor — Declt^nsion of Christianity — 
 Power and piety incompatible — Churches not proper almoners- The 
 Christian's field of labour — Charity not liy proxy — Temptations of 
 church property— I'aj.al zeal for charity— Its perversions— Indul- 
 geneea— First results of the Reformation— It« strifes— Errors— Tha 
 8cripiure«— ProtestantisiB- • • • 6(h«6 
 
XXU CONTENTS. 
 
 Protestant errors and omissions 96 
 
 Judaizing — Burdens of men's devising — Each man's faith his own — 
 Helps to a Christian life 96-99 
 
 Thirst for power always hateful, still more in matters 
 
 of religion 99 
 
 Tendency to seek power — Church Government — Formalism— Ceremo- 
 nies 99-107 
 
 How THE GREAT LAW OF ChARITY HAS BEEN CARRIED OUT 
 
 BY Protestants 107 
 
 Zeal for sound doctrine — Creeds of the Reformation — Charity omitted 
 —The Bible 107-114 
 
 The Benefits of the Reformation no reason for per- 
 petuating ITS errors 114 
 
 Characteristics of Protestantism developed in its 
 
 growth 117 
 
 Freedom of mind— Selfishness increased in trade — Morality of busi- 
 ness — Men of the world and money — Their influence in the churches — 
 Business of charity — Real charity designed to promote the good of 
 giver as well as receiver 117-135 
 
 Too MUCH reliance on learning — the affections to be 
 
 exercised as well as the mind 135 
 
 Theology— No light without heat 135-138 
 
 The Established Church of England — its abuses at the 
 Reformation — its neglect of the poor and suf- 
 fering 138 
 
 The spoils of the Catholic Church— Poor-laws— Poorhouse— Police 
 of poor — Lazarus and the rich man— Zaccheus— Established Church 
 and the poor— English theory— Malthus • 135-153 
 
 The Spirit of Protestantism — English Protestantism.. 153 
 
 Errors and omissions — Social questions — The wealth of the Esta- 
 blished Church 163-163 
 
CONTENTS. xsill 
 
 The duty of DBvisiNa and cakkying into effect plans 
 
 FOK THE GENERAL AMELIORATION AND PERMANENT RE- 
 LIEF OF THE SUFFERING AND DEGRADED CLASSES 163 
 
 Labour mortgaged — Amelioration 163-172 
 
 The RESPONSIBILITIES OF CHRISTIANS IN THE UNITED STATES 
 
 IN REGARD TO THE SUFFERING CLASSES 172 
 
 Religious feuds— Church-room for the poor— Christendom— Diffusion 
 of the Scriptures— Interpretation by the world 172-191 
 
 Gradual declension of Christianity until it loses the 
 
 image of its origin 191 
 
 Modem social institutions — No riolent revolution needful — ^Thooe 
 only can comprehend Christianity who practise it 191-202 
 
 The CLERGY OF ALL CHURCHES — THEIR MISTAKES, DIFFICUL- 
 TIES, AND DUTIES IN REFERENCE TO THIS SUBJECT. ..202 
 
 The church — Truth should tree the mind — Ministers — The poor — 
 Orthodoxy — Church discipline — Real objects of the ministry — Conser- 
 vatism — Charity enlarges the mind 202-228 
 
 Further mistakes of the clergy 228 
 
 Distrust of the Scriptures— Abuse of creeds— Theology for children 
 —Missionaries 228-237 
 
 Topics for the consideration of Christian teachers... 288 
 
 Maxims of the world — Laws of business — Property — Christian social 
 •conomy 238-245 
 
 Principles upon which" reforms, social and religious, 
 
 should be conducted 245 
 
 Nature, Providence, and Holy Writ must be construed together — 
 Ills of humanity — Charity — Christian rule of reform — Abuses of re- 
 form — Christians should be the avowed champions of the poor and 
 -Slavery— Political reform 246-259 
 
 Ihfidelitt and some of its exciting causes 269 
 
 Cosduct of ChriAtiaiu— Need of exemplification of Christianity--ila. 
 
 1 
 
XKW CONTENTS. 
 
 fidelity and Humanity — Christianity and the social institutions of the 
 day — Higher and lower classes — Self-righteousness— Stephen Girard — 
 Conservatism of power — Triumph of truth and charity 259-281 
 
 M^\w, Uiblingrnplittal mt (gmruL 
 
 The Literature op Charity in the English language... 283 
 
 No elaborate work on charity in our language — Christian Charity 
 Ikcphiined, by John Angel James — Extracts from it — Mammon, or Chve- 
 Uncs7iess the Sin of the Church, by the Rev. John Harris — Extracts-— 
 Thiee prize tracts of the American Tract Society 282-289 
 
 Or THE English poor-laws, and the literature to which 
 
 they have given origin 289 
 
 English Church abjured the care of the poor — Assumed by civil 
 authorities — Laws — Literature — History of the Poor-laws, by Richard 
 iJwm, ii. 2>.— Extract 289-290 
 
 A Catalogue of some English works on the poor-laws 
 
 AND their administration 290 
 
 The Population Question and its discussions 293 
 
 Malthus on Population — List of works on Population — Importance 
 of this discussion — Not placed on its true basis — No solution on the 
 basis assumed — Dr. Chalmers enters into the arena — His work on the 
 Christian and civic economy of large towns — Extract — Weyland on 
 Population — Chalmers and 'HL&M'hns— Of Population, tyWm. Oodwin — 
 Malthus and Godwin— Extracts from Godwin 293-306 
 
 The Puseyites — another phase of the controversy 
 
 about population and pauperism 306 
 
 Christian Politics, by Rev. TV. SeweOr— Extracts 306-311 
 
 The subject of humanity approached with timidity in 
 England from dread of unsettling the founda- 
 tions OF THEIR system 311 
 
 Working Classes— Political Economy— Rev. Vic. Knox's worJrs—Ex- 
 tract — Principles of Political Economy, by John Steuart Mill — Extract — 
 Extract from R. Southey's Essay on the State of the Poor — Barriers to 
 
CONTENTS. XXV 
 
 the progress of charity— Conservatism— /bsfer's Essays— Enir&ct— 
 Eambden in the 19th Cmtury—T)T. Chalmers— Extract— The Philoso- 
 phy of Necessity, by Ch. Bray — Extract — Topics of the vrork — Outline 
 of Social Systems, by Ch. Bray — Utopists — Remarks on Bray — Post obit 
 bUls on heaven — Labouring Classes of England 311-320 
 
 Treatment which the subjects of charity, pauperism, 
 
 and labour have met in france 821 
 
 French legislation as to the poor compared with English — Difference 
 of administration — French works on the poor compared with English 
 —Feeling as to the poor compared with that of England 321—323 
 
 Catalogue of French works on Christian charity, 
 
 PUBLIC AND private CHARITY, PAUPERISM, POPULA- 
 TION, AND LABOUR 323-332. 
 
 Dboerando ON Charity: other French works on la- 
 bour, THE POOR, AND CHARITY 332 
 
 Classification — Academy of Moral and Political Sciences — Other French 
 Academies — Prize questions on these suVjects — De la Bienfaisance 
 PuUique of Degerando — Visitor of the Poor — Extracts from the Intro- 
 duction of the work on Charity— Degerando's notice of Malthus and Dr. 
 Chalmers — Topics of Degerando's work stated in their order — Iligtoryof 
 Charity during the First Four Centuries of the Christian Era, by Martin 
 Doisy—Y.xiTtijc\&—A Philosophical History of Beneficence, by M. Tail- 
 hand — Extracts — Charity in its Relations with the Morals and the Well- 
 being of the Lower Classes of Society, by M. T. Duchatel — Extracts — 
 Topics— 0/ Legal Charity, its Effects and causes, by the Rev. F. M. L. 
 NaviUe, of Geneva — Extracts — Topics — New Studies upon Charitable Le- 
 gislation, by L. Lamothe — Extracts — Topics — Conferences upon Christian- 
 ity in Us Rekdion to Social Questions, by the Rev. Edmond de Ptr^sensi, 
 of Paris — Extract — Christian PolUical Economy, by ViUeneuve-Barge- 
 mont — Extracts — Topics — Works on pauperism, the poor, the wretched, 
 the dangerous, Ac. — Questions "frewly discussed in France — History of 
 the Worldng Classes and Town's People, by A. G. de Casnagnac— Topics 
 — History ofllie Wi/rking Class, from the Slave to the. Proletaire of our 
 Day, by Robert (Du Far)— Extracts— His notices of Wickliffe, Uuss, 
 and Luther— The problem of the reward of labour, how met in 
 France 332-359 
 
 BOCLALISM 869 
 
 The necessity of observing the movement passing under this name 
 —Inquiry into its origin, and into its Infidel tendencies— The error* of 
 
XXVI CONTENTS. 
 
 socialism do not nullify the truths it supports— A real exemplifi- 
 cation of Christianity the best refutation of Hocialist errors — The 
 common mode of opposing socialism of no arail— Socialism on the 
 side of humanity, Christians often on the other side— IVue Christianity 
 as it came by Jesus Christ, by Co^)et, author of Icaria, and leader of 
 the French colony at NauTOO 359-366 
 
 Later indications in Great Britain 365 
 
 JVorth British Review — Edinburgh Review — The Method of the Divine 
 Government, Physical and Moral, by Rev. James McCosh — Extracts — 
 The Theory of Human Progression, and Natural Probaiility of a Reign 
 of Justice — Extract — Social Statics, by Herbert Spencer — Topics — Works 
 to be added to list on page 292 365-381 
 
 Protestantism 372 
 
 Conferences on Christianity, by Rev. Ed. de PressensS — Extract — 
 Battle oftlie Churches — Westminster Review — Complacency of Protest- 
 ants — Pageantry of Protestantism — A beautiful picture with a dark 
 background — The real compared with the actual — Abuses of privileges 
 — Slavery of prejudices and wrong training — The rigid observers of 
 established arrangements — Infallibility not a characteristic of Pro- 
 testantism — The Scriptures applied chiefly to controversy — Our litera- 
 ture, creeds, forms, &c. came firom men of strife — Our religious educa- 
 tion from that mint— Jews, Catholics, Protestants, all overlaid the 
 truth with their own inventions — Shorter Catechism — Not proper for 
 children 372-380 
 
 A CASE SUPPOSED UPON THE SUBJECT OF THE VARIOUS IN- 
 TERPRETATIONS OF THE Bible 380 
 
 Edwards' Chaeityand its Fruits 384 
 
WHY HAS CHRISTIANITY MADE 
 SO LITTLE PROGRESS? 
 
 What impedes the progress of Christianity ? 
 This inquiry must very often arise in the 
 mind of every thoughtful Christian, and no 
 one can over-estimate the importance of a 
 right answer. Apart from its Divine origin, 
 and its vital personal consequence to every 
 human being, the triumphs of Christianity 
 over all other religious systems assert its 
 claims to the support of all lovers of order, of 
 civilization, of industry, of art, of science, of 
 literature and social well-being. Its triumphs 
 are, however, thus far, greater in kind than 
 in extent. The Christian world is distin- 
 guished immeasurably above all the rest in all 
 these respects; but the Mohammedan and 
 Pagan world yet greatly exceeds it in extent 
 
 1* 
 
THE SMALL NUMBER OF CHRISTIANS. 
 
 and population. Eighteen centuries have 
 been sufficient to establish Christianity over 
 but a small portion of the earth ; and even 
 many of the conquests once made are now 
 lost! Both Mohammedism and Paganism 
 prevail now where Christians once dwelt. If 
 the question were only — Why are not the ad- 
 vantages of Europe and America extended to 
 Asia and Africa ? — it would be of unspeakable 
 importance to find a solution : but the solution 
 is of infinitely more importance than this 
 would imply. How many in Christian lands 
 are really Christians? Less, perhaps, than a 
 tenth, or a fourth, or a third. The inquiry 
 then arises, — What restricts Christianity to 
 this small proportion? How comes it, that 
 among the enlightened, upon whom the truths 
 of the Gospel are urged from God's own word, 
 where eternal blessedness is placed in the al- 
 ternative with eternal misery, so *few make 
 their election to be on the safe side ? — What- 
 ever circumlocution may be indulged on this 
 subject, the plain truth is, that men who neg- 
 
BELIEVERS OR UNBELIEVERS. 
 
 lect to seek eternal happiness, do not believe 
 the message of the GospeL There is not a 
 sane man in existence, who, if he believed 
 that an eternal existence of happiness or 
 misery awaited him, as he made his peace 
 with God or not in this world, that would 
 lose one moment in turning his face heaven- 
 ward. They do not believe in Christ who do 
 not seek his favour. It rs a vain waste of 
 words to distinguish between the tenets of 
 him who openly denies the message of God 
 to men, and of him who constantly refuses 
 submission to his will. The one but denies 
 by words what the other denies as fully by 
 his acts, whatever may be his words. The 
 people of Christendom are, therefore, properly 
 classified into believers and unbelievers. 
 
 But why this appalling disproportion under 
 the full light of the truth ? The fault cannot 
 be with Him who offers this grand alterna- 
 tive. No doubt every individual must answer 
 for himself to God, and each must bear the 
 penalty of his own impenitence and unbelief ; 
 
THE CAUSES. 
 
 yet it is certain that, in the order of Provi- 
 dence, human means are employed in the 
 propagation of Christianity. Why then are 
 the means so ineffective ? How much of this 
 reproach belongs to the professed followers 
 of Christ, to whom the duty of proclaiming 
 the truth is committed? Do they suppose 
 they have discharged their whole duty in this 
 respect ? Are their skirts clear of the blood 
 of those who are perishing by millions ? No 
 inquiry can be so important to Christians as 
 that, whether, next to their own salvation, 
 they have done what they could for the sal- 
 vation of others. It is the work of Christians — 
 all the means are committed to them. 
 
 It is true that men are, by nature, blind 
 to their eternal interests, and unwilling to 
 obey, or even hear, the truth : but the power 
 of the truth is sufficient to subdue the most 
 obdurate ; and God is always ready to bless 
 every proper effort. Where, then, lies the 
 difficulty — the obstacle — the barrier to the 
 progress of Christianity ? There can be only 
 
THE RESPONSIBILITY. 
 
 one reply — that, aaide from the accountability 
 of each individual for himself, the responsi- 
 bility for the slow progress of Christianity 
 lies at the door of those who profess to be the 
 friends of Christ. 
 
 It may not be easy to say, in what precise 
 manner they are liable to this heavy charge ; 
 but it is clear that it lies nowhere else, and 
 that they are bound to examine themselves 
 and see what it is they have done, or what 
 they have left undone, which subjects them 
 to the accusation of obstructing the progress 
 of their Master's cause. 
 
 We propose to enter a little upon this ex- 
 amination, not with the hardihood of expect- 
 ing to offer any solution of the difficulty, but 
 merely to make a few suggestions — to mark 
 out a line of thought, which, followed up by 
 others more capable, may lead to profitable 
 results. 
 
 What, then, is the mission upon which 
 Christ came into this world, and which, upon 
 leaving it, he committed to his followers ? — 
 
10 MISSION OF CHRIST. 
 
 To state this it is not necessary to enter into 
 a history of the Jews, nor even to notice the 
 prophecies which heralded his approach. The 
 mission of Christ is explicit and intelligible. 
 He came to redeem the perishing; to offer 
 terms of reconciliation to rebels ; to ac- 
 complish a sacrifice, being himself the victim, 
 and thus to become a Saviour through whom 
 all that believe should inherit eternal life. 
 He came to fulfil and satisfy the law which 
 men had not kept, that no jot or tittle might 
 pass unfulfilled; he came in the fulness of time 
 with a new dispensation of mercy, and a new 
 commandment, comprehending all the moral 
 obligations of the old law, and embracing, in 
 a few words, every duty of man to God, and 
 to his fellow man — "Thou shalt love the 
 Lord thy God with all thy heart, and all thy 
 soul, and with all thy strength, and with all 
 thy mind; and thy neighbour as thyself"* 
 This is the sum of human duty ; this is the 
 
 * Luke X. 27. 
 
SCOPE OF CHRISTIANITY. 11 
 
 law which Christ has given us ; this law, re- 
 ceived from him, is- Christianity. Its com- 
 prehensiveness and purity proclaim its divine 
 origin. No such law, nor such doctrine, nor 
 such philosophy ever fell from mere human 
 lips or human pen. No other religion em- 
 braces such requirements. The expositions 
 of this law, given by Christ in the course of 
 his ministry, leave no doubt of its comprehen- 
 siveness and the nature of its application — 
 of its stringency, and its searching obligation. 
 " A new commandment I give unto you, That 
 ye love one another ; as I have loved you, that 
 you love one another." He frequently em- 
 ploys the terms " my commandment," show- 
 ing that there is something special and pecu- 
 liar in the precepts thus announced. 
 
 For the sake of distinctness and convenient 
 reference, "we here place in conjunction some 
 of the more special teachings of Christ on the 
 subject to which we desire more especially to 
 draw the attention of the reader. 
 
IS SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 
 
 And he opened his mouth, and taught them, saying, 
 Blessed are the poor in spirit : for theirs is the king- 
 dom of heaven. Blessed are they that mourn : for they 
 shall be comforted. Blessed are the meek : for they shall 
 inherit the earth. Blessed are they which do hunger and 
 thirst after righteousness : for they shall be filled. Blessed 
 are the merciful : for they shall obtain mercy. Blessed 
 are the pure in heart : for they shall see Grod. Blessed 
 are the peace-makers : for they shall be called the children 
 of Grod. Blessed are they which are persecuted for 
 righteousness' sake : for theirs is the kingdom of heaven. 
 Blessed are ye when men shall revile you, and persecute 
 you, and shall say all manner of evil against you falsely, 
 for my sake. — Matt. v. 2 — 11. 
 
 Ye have heard that it was said by them of old time, 
 Thou shalt not kill ; and whosoever shall kill, shall be in 
 danger of the judgment : but I say unto you. That who- 
 soever is angry with his brother without a cause, shall be 
 in danger of the judgment : and whosoever shall say to 
 his brother, Baca, shall be in danger of the council : but 
 whosoever shall say, Thou fool, shall be in danger of hell- 
 fire. Therefore, if thou bring thy gift to the altar, and 
 there rememberest that thy brother hath aught against 
 thee, leave there thy gift before the altar, and go thy way; 
 first be reconciled to thy brother, and then come and ofier 
 thy gift.— .¥««. V. 21—24. 
 
 Ye have heard that it hath been said. An eye for an 
 eye, and a tooth for a tooth. But I say unto you. That 
 ye resist not evil : but whosoever shall smite thee on thy 
 
SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 13 
 
 right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if any man 
 will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him 
 have thy cloak also. And whosoever shall compel thee to 
 go a mile, go with him twain. Give to him that asketh 
 thee, and from him that would borrow of thee turn not 
 thou away. 
 
 Ye have heard that it hath been said, Thou shalt love 
 thy neighbour, and hate thine enemy : but I say unto 
 you. Love your enemies, bless them that curse you, do 
 good to them that hate you, and pray for them which 
 despitefuUy use you and persecute you ; that ye may be 
 the children of your Father which is in heaven : for he 
 maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good, and 
 sendeth rain on the just and on the unjust. For if ye 
 love them which love you, what reward have ye ? do not 
 even the publicans the same ? — Matt. v. 38 — i6. 
 
 Take heed that ye do not your alms before men, to be 
 seen of them : otherwise ye have no reward of your Father 
 which is in heaven. Therefore, when thou doest thine 
 alms, do not sound a trumpet before thee, as the hypo- 
 crites do, in the synagogues, and in the streets, that they 
 may have glory of men. Verily I say unto you, They 
 have their reward. But when thou doest alms, let not 
 thy left hand know what thy right hand doeth ; that 
 thine alms may be in secret; and thy Father which 
 aeeth in secret, himself shall reward thee openly. — Matt, 
 vi. 1—4. 
 
 And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors.— 
 MaU. vi. 12. 
 
 2 
 
14 SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 
 
 For if ye forgive men their trespasses, your heavenly 
 Father will also forgive you : but if ye forgive not men 
 their trespasses, neither will your Father forgive your 
 trespasses. — Matt. vi. 14, 15. 
 
 Lay not up for yourselves treasures upon earth, where 
 moth and rust doth corrupt, and where thieves break 
 through and steal : but lay up for yourselves treasures in 
 heaven, where neither moth nor rust doth corruupt, and 
 where thieves do not break through nor steal. For where 
 your treasure is, there will your heart be also. — Matt. vi. 
 19—21. 
 
 Therefore I say unto you. Take no thought for your 
 life, what ye shajl eat, or what ye shall drink ; nor yet 
 for your body, what ye shall put on. Is not the life more 
 than meat, and the body than raiment? Behold the 
 fowls of the air ; for they sow not, neither do they reap, 
 nor gather into barns ; yet your heavenly Father feedeth 
 them. Are ye not much better than they ? Which of 
 you by taking thought can add one cubit unto his stature t 
 And why take ye thought for raiment ? Consider the 
 lilies of the field how they grow ; they toil not, neither 
 do they spin ; and yet I say unto you, That even Solo- 
 mon in all his , glory was not arrayed like one of these. 
 Wherefore, if God so clothe the grass of the field, which 
 to-day is, and to-morrow is cast into the oven, shall he not 
 much more clothe you, ye of little faith ? Therefore 
 take no thought, saying, What shall we eat ? or. What 
 shall we drink ? or. Wherewithal shall we be clothed ? 
 (For after all these things do the Grentiles seek :) for your 
 
SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 15 
 
 Beavenly Father knoweth that ye have need of all these 
 things. But seek ye first the kingdom of God, and his 
 righteousness, and all these things shall be added unto 
 you. Take therefore no thought for the morrow : for 
 the morrow shall take thought for the things of itself. 
 SuflScient unto the day is the evil thereof. — Matt. vi. 
 25—34. 
 
 Judge not, that ye be not judged. For with what judg- 
 ment ye judge, ye shall be judged : and with what mea- 
 sure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again. And 
 why beholdest thou the mote that is in thy brother's eye, 
 but considerest not the beam that is in thine own ej-e ? 
 Or how wilt thou say to thy brother. Let me pull out the 
 mote out of thine eye ; and behold, a beam is in thine own 
 eye ? Thou hypocrite, first cast out the beam out of thine 
 own eye ; and then shalt thou see clearly to cast out the 
 mote out of thy brother's eye. 
 
 Give not that which is holy unto the dogs, neither cast 
 ye your pearls before swine, lest they trample them under 
 their feet, and turn again and rend you. 
 
 Ask, and it shall be given you ; seek, and ye shall find ; 
 knock, and it shall be opened unto you : for every one that 
 a.sketh, receiveth ; and he that seeketh, findeth ; and to 
 him that knocketh, it shall be opened. Or what man is 
 here of you, whom if his son ask bread, will he give him 
 a stone ? Or if he ask a fish, will he give him a serpent ? 
 If ye then being evil know how to give good gifts unto 
 your children, how much more shall your Father which 
 is in heaven give good things to them that ask him? 
 Therefore all things whatsoever ye would that men should 
 
16 SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 
 
 .do to you, do ye even so to them : for this is the law and 
 the prophets. — Matt. vii. 1 — 12. 
 
 Not every one that saith unto me, Lord, Lord, shall 
 enter into the kingdom of heaven ; but he that doeth the 
 will of my Father which is in heaven. Many will say to 
 me in that day. Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in 
 thy name ? and in thy name have cast out devils ? and in 
 thy name done many wonderful works ? And then will I 
 profess unto them, I' never knew you : depart from rae, 
 ye that work iniquity. — Matt. vii. 21 — 23. 
 
 And when he had called unto him his twelve disciples, 
 he gave them power against unclean spirits, to cast them 
 out, and to heal all manner of sickness, and all manner 
 of disease. — 3Iatt. x. 1. 
 
 And as ye go, preach, saying, The kingdom of heaven 
 is at hand. Heal the sick, cleanse the lepers, raise the 
 dead, cast out devils : freely ye have received, freely give. 
 Provide neither gold, nor silver, nor brass in your purses ; 
 nor scrip for your journey, neither two coats, neither 
 shoes, nor yet staves : (for the workman is worthy of his 
 meat.) And into whatsoever city or town ye shall enter, 
 inquire who in it is worthy ; and there abide till ye go 
 thence. And when ye come into a house, salute it. And 
 if the house be worthy, let your peace come upon it : but 
 if it be not worthy, let your peace return to you. — Matt. 
 X. 7—13. 
 
 And whosoever shall give to drink unto one of these 
 little ones, a cup of cold water only, in the name of a diy- 
 
SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 17 
 
 ciple, verily I say unto you, he shall in no wise lose his 
 reward. — Mait. x. 42. 
 
 And Jesus called a little child unto him, and set him 
 in the midst of them, and said. Verily I say unto you, 
 Except ye be converted, and become as little children, ye 
 shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven. Whosoever 
 therefore shall humble himself as this little child, the same 
 is greatest in the kingdom of heaven. And whoso shall 
 receive one such little child in my name, receiveth me. 
 But, whoso shall offend one of these little ones which be- 
 lieve in me, it were better for him that a millstone were 
 hanged about his neck, and that he were drowned in the 
 depth of the sea. — Mait. xviii. 2 — 6. 
 
 Moreover, if thy brother shall trespass against thee, go 
 and tell him his fault between thee and him alone : if he 
 shall hear thee, thou hast gained thy brother. But if he 
 will not hear thee, then take with thee one or two more, 
 that in the mouth of two- or three witnesses every word 
 may be established. And if he shall neglect to hear them, 
 tell it unto the church : but if he neglect to hear the 
 church, let him be unto thee as an heathen man and a 
 publican. — Matt, xviii. 15 — 17. 
 
 Then came Peter to him, and said, Lord, how oft shall 
 my brother sin against me, and I forgive him ? till seven 
 times ? Jesus saith unto him, 1 say not unto thee. Until 
 seven times : but. Until seventy times seven. 
 
 Therefore is the kingdom of heaven likened unto a cer- 
 tain king which would take account of his servants. And 
 when he had begun to reckon, one was brought unto him 
 
18 SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 
 
 which owed him ten thousand talents. But forasmuch as 
 he had not to pay, his lord commanded him to be sold, 
 and his wife and children, and all that he had, and pay- 
 ment to be made. The servant therefore fell down, and 
 worshipped him, saying, Lord, have patience with me, and 
 I will pay thee all. Then the lord of that servant was 
 moved with compassion, and loosed him, and forgave him 
 the debt. But the same servant went out, and found one 
 of his fellow-servants, which owed him an hundred pence : 
 and he laid hands on him, and took him by the throat, 
 saying, Pay me that thou owest. And his fellow-servant 
 fell down at his feet, and. besought him, saying. Have pa- 
 tience with me, and I will pay thee all. And he would 
 not : but went and cast him into prison, till he should pay 
 the debt. So when his fellow-servants saw what was done, 
 they were very sorry, and came and told unto their lord 
 Jill that was done. Then his lord, after that he had called 
 him, said unto him, thou wicked servant, I forgave thee 
 all that debt, because thou desiredst me : shouldest not 
 thou also have had compassion on thy fellow-servant, even 
 as I had pity on thee ? And his lord was wroth, and de- 
 livered him to the tormentors, till he should pay all that 
 was due unto him. So likewise shall my heavenly Father 
 do also unto you, if ye from your hearts forgive not every 
 one his brother their trespasses. — Matt, xviii. 21 — 35. 
 
 Jesus said. Thou shalt do no murder ; Thou shalt not 
 commit adultery ; Thou shalt not steal ; Thou shalt not 
 bear false witness ; Honour thy father and thy mother : 
 and. Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself. The young 
 man saith unto him. All these things have I kept from 
 my youth up : what lack I yet ? Jesus said unto him, 
 
SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 19 
 
 If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and 
 give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven : 
 and come and follow me. — Matt. xix. 18 — 21. 
 
 Jesus said unto him, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God 
 with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy 
 mind. This is the first and great commandment. And 
 the second is like unto it. Thou shalt love thy neighbour 
 as thyself.— 3/a«. xxii. 37—39. 
 
 When the Son of man shall come in his glory, and all 
 the holy angels with him, then shall he sit upon the throne 
 of his glory; and before him shall be gathered all na- 
 tions : and he shall separate them one from another, as a 
 shepherd divideth his sheep from the goats : and he shall 
 set the sheep on his right hand, but the goats on the left. 
 Then shall the King say unto them on his right hand, 
 Come, ye blessed of my Father, inherit the kingdom pre- 
 pared for you from the foundation of the world : for I 
 was an hungered, and yo'gave me meat: I was thirsty, 
 and ye gave me drink : I was a stranger, and ye took me 
 in : naked, and ye clothed me : I was sick, and ye visited 
 me : I was in prison, and ye came unto me. Then shall 
 the righteous answer him, saying, Lord, when saw we thee 
 an hungered and fed thee? or thirsty, and gave thee 
 drink ? When saw we thee a stranger, and took thee in ? 
 or naked, and clothed thee ? Or when saw we thee sick, 
 or in prison, and came unto thee ? And the King shall 
 answer and say unto them. Verily I say unto you. Inas- 
 much as ye have done it unto one of the least of these my 
 brethren, ye have done it unto me. Then shall he say 
 also unto them on the left hand. Depart from me, yc 
 
20 SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 
 
 cursed, into everlasting fire, prepared for the devil and 
 his angels : for I was an hungered and ye gave me no 
 meat : I was thirsty, and ye gave me no drink : I was a 
 stranger, and ye took me not in : naked, and ye clothed 
 me not : sick, and in prison, and ye visited me not. Then 
 shall they also answer him, saying, Lord, when saw we 
 thee an hungered, or athirst, or a stranger, or naked, or 
 sick, or in prison, and did not minister unto thee ? Then 
 shall he answer them, saying, Yerily I say unto you. In- 
 asmuch as ye did it not to one of the least of these, ye did 
 it not to me. And these shall go away into everlasting 
 punishment : but the righteous into life eternal. — Matt. 
 XXV. 31—46. 
 
 For whosoever shall give you a cup of water to drink 
 in my name, because ye belong to Christ, verily I say 
 unto you, he shall not lose his reward. And whosoever 
 shall offend one of these little ones that believe in me, it 
 is better for him that a millstone were hanged about his 
 neck, and he were cast into the sea. — Mark ix. 41, 42. 
 
 And they brought young children to him, that he should 
 touch them ; and his disciples rebuked those that brought 
 them. But when Jesus saw it, he was much displeased, 
 and said unto them, Suffer the little children to come unto 
 me, and forbid them not : for of such is the kingdom of 
 God. Verily I say unto you. Whosoever shall not re- 
 ceive the kingdom of God as a little child, he shall not 
 enter therein. And he took them up in his arms, put 
 his hands upon thein, and blessed them. 
 
 And when he was gone forth into the way, there came 
 
SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 21 
 
 one running, and kneeled to him, and asked him, Good 
 Master, what shall I do that I may inherit eternal life ? 
 And Jesus said unto him, Why callest thou me good ? 
 there is none good but one, that is God. Thou knowest 
 the commandments. Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, 
 Do not steal. Do not bear false witness. Defraud not. 
 Honour thy father and mother. And he answered and 
 said unto him. Master, all these have I observed from my 
 youth. Then Jesus beholding him loved him, and said 
 unto him. One thing thou lackest : go thy way, sell what- 
 soever thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt 
 have treasure in heaven ; and come, take up the cross, 
 and follow me. And he was sad at that saying, and went 
 away grieved ; for he had great possessions. 
 
 And Jesus looked round about, and saith unto his disci- 
 ples, How hardly shall they that have riches enter into 
 the kingdom of God I And the disciples were astonished 
 at his words. But Jesus answereth again, and saith unto 
 them. Children, how hard is it for them that trust in 
 riches to enter into the kingdom of God ! It is easier for 
 a.camcl to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich 
 man to enter into the kingdom of God. And they were 
 astonished out of measure, saying among themselves. Who 
 then can be saved ? And Jesus looking upon them, saith. 
 With men it is impossible, but not with God : for with 
 God all things are possible. — Mark x. 13 — 27. 
 
 But I say unto you which hear. Love your enemies, do 
 good to them which hate you, bless them that curse you, 
 and pray for them which despitcfully use you. And unto 
 him that smiteth thee on the one cheek, offer also the 
 
22 SPECIAL TEACHINGS OP CHRIST. 
 
 other; and him that taketh away thy cloak, forbid not to 
 take thy coat also. Give to every man that asketh of thee ; 
 and of him that taketh away thy goods, ask them not 
 again. And as ye would that men should do to you, do 
 ye also to them likewise. For if ye love them which love 
 you, what thank have ye ? for sinners also love those that 
 love them. And if ye do good to them which do good 
 to you, what thank have ye ? for sinners also do even the 
 same. And if ye lend to them of whom ye hope to re- 
 ceive, what thank have ye ? for sinners also lend to sin- 
 ners, to receive as much again. But love ye your ene- 
 mies, and do good, and lend, hoping for nothing again ; 
 and your reward shall be great, and ye shall be the chil- 
 dren of the Highest : for he is kind unto the unthankful 
 and to the evil. Be ye therefore merciful, as your Father 
 also is merciful. Judge not, and ye shall not be judged : 
 condemn not, and ye shall not be condemned : forgive, 
 and ye shall be forgiven : give, and it shall be given unto 
 you; good measure, pressed down, and shaken together, 
 and running over, shall men give into your bosom. For 
 with the same measure that ye mete withal, it shall be 
 measured to you again. — Luke vi. 27 — 38. 
 
 And why call ye me Lord, Lord, and do not the things 
 which I say? — Inike vi. 46. 
 
 And behold, a certain lawyer stood up, and tempted him, 
 saying, Master, what shall I do to inherit eternal life ? He 
 said unto him. What is written in the law ? how readest thou ? 
 And he answering said, Thou shalt love the Lord thy God 
 with all thy heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy 
 
SPECIAL TEACHINGS OE CHRIST. 23 
 
 strength, and with all thy mind ; and thy neighbour as 
 thyself. And he said unto him, Thou hast answered right : 
 this do, and thou shalt live. But he, willing to justify 
 himself, said unto Jesus, And who is my neighbour ? And 
 Jesus answering, said, A certain man went down from Je- 
 rusalem to Jericho, and fell among thieves, which strip- 
 ped him of his raiment, and wounded him, and departed, 
 leaving him half dead. And by chance there came down 
 a certain priest that way ; and when he saw him, he passed 
 by on the other side. And likewise a Levite, when he 
 was at the place, came and looked on him, and passed by 
 on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he jour- 
 neyed, came where he was : and when he saw him, he had 
 compassion on him, and went to him, and bound up his 
 wounds, pouring in oil and wine, and sat him on his own 
 beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. 
 And on the morrow, when he departed, he took out two 
 pence, and gave them to the host, and said unto him, 
 Take care of him : and whatsoever thou spendest more, 
 when I come again, I will repay thee. Which now of 
 these three, thinkest thou, was neighbour unto him that 
 fell among the thieves ? And he said, He that showed 
 mercy on him. Then said Jesus unto him. Go, and do 
 thou likewise, — Luke x. 25 — 37. 
 
 Then said he also to him that bade him. When thou 
 makest a dinner or a supper, call not thy friends, nor 
 thy brethren, neither thy kinsmen, nor thy rich neigh- 
 bours; lest they also bid thee again, and a recompense 
 be made thee. But when thou makest a feast, call the 
 poor, the maimed, the lame, the blind ; and thou shalt be 
 
24 SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CHRIST. 
 
 blessed : for they cannot recompense thee : for thou shalt 
 be recompensed at the resurrection of the just. 
 
 And when one of them that sat at meat with him heard 
 these things, he said unto him, Blessed is he that shall eat 
 bread in the kingdom of God. Then said ho unto him, A 
 certain man made a great supper and bade many : and sent 
 his servant at supper-time, to say to them that were bid- 
 den, Come, for all things are now ready. And they all 
 with one consent began to make excuse. The first said 
 unto him, I have bought a piece of ground, and I must 
 needs go and see it : I pray thee have me excused. And 
 another said, I have bought five yoke of oxen, and I go to 
 prove them : I pray thee have me excused. And another 
 said, I have married a wife : and therefore I cannot come. 
 So that servant came, and showed his lord these things. 
 Then the master of the house being angry, said to his 
 servant, Go out quickly into the streets and lanes of 
 the city, and bring in hither the poor, and the maimed, 
 and the halt, and the blind. And the servant said, Lord, 
 it is done as thou hast commanded, and yet there is room. 
 And the lord said unto the servant. Go out into the high- 
 ways and hedges, and compel them to come in, that my 
 house may be filled. For I say unto you, that none of 
 those men which were bidden shall taste of my supper. — 
 Luke xiv. 12—24. 
 
 And he spake this parable unto certain which trusted 
 in themselves that they were righteous, and despised 
 others : Two men went up into the temple to pray ; the 
 one a Pharisee and the other a publican. The Pharisee 
 stood and prayed thus with himself, God, I thank thee 
 
SPECIAL TIIACHINGS OF CHRIST. 25 
 
 that I am not as other men are, extortioners, unjust, adul- 
 terers, or even as this publican. I fast twice in the week, 
 I give tithes of all that I possess. And the publican, 
 standing afar off, would not lift up so much as his eyes 
 unto heaven, but smote upon his breast, saying, Grod be 
 merciful to me a sinner. I tell you, this man went down 
 to his house justified rather than the other : for every one 
 that exalteth himself shall be abased j and he that hum- 
 bleth himself shall be exalted. — Luke xviii. 9 — 1-1. 
 
 And Zaccheus stood, and said unto the Lord ] Behold, 
 Lord, the half of my goods I give to the poor ; and if I 
 have taken any thing from any man by false accusation, 
 [ restore him four-fold, — Luke xix. 8. 
 
 And the scribes and Pharisees brought unto him a wo- 
 man taken in adultery : and when they had set her in the 
 midst, they say unto him. Master, this woman was taken 
 in adultery, in the very act. Now Moses in the law com- 
 manded us, that such should be stoned : but what sayest 
 thou ? This they said, tempting him, that they might 
 have to accuse him. But Jesus stooped down, and with 
 his finger wrote on the ground, as though he heard them 
 not. So when they continued asking him, he lifted up 
 himself, and said unto them. He that is without sin among 
 you, let him first cast a stone at her. — John viii. 3 — 7. 
 
 After that, he poureth water into a basin, and began to 
 
 wash the disciples' feet, and to wipe them with the towel 
 
 wherewith he was girded. Then cometh he to Simon 
 
 Peter : and Peter saith unto him, Lord, dost thou wash 
 
 3 
 
36 SPECIAL TEACHINGS OF CIIllIST. 
 
 my feet ? Jesus answered and said unto him, What I do 
 thou knowest not now ; but thou shalt know hereafter. 
 Peter saith unto him, Thou shalt never wash my feet. 
 Jesus answered him, If I wash thee not, thou hast no part 
 with me. Simon Peter saith unto him, Lord, not my feet 
 only, but also my hands and my head. JeSus saith to 
 him, He that is washed needeth not save to wash his feet, 
 but is clean every whit : and ye are clean, but not all. 
 For he knew who should betray him : therefore said he, 
 Ye are not all clean. So after he had washed their feet, 
 and had taken his garments, and was set down again, he 
 said unto them. Know yc what I have done to you ? Ye 
 call me Master, and Lord : and ye say well j for so I am. 
 If I then, your Lord and Master, have washed your feet, 
 ye also ought to wash one another's feet. For I have given 
 you an example, that ye should do as I have done to 
 you. — John xiii. 5 — -15. 
 
 A new commandment I give unto you. That ye love one 
 another ; as I have loved you, that ye also love one an- 
 other. By this shall all men know that ye are my disci- 
 ples, if ye have love one to another. — John xiii. 34, 35. 
 
 This is my commandment. That ye love one another, as 
 I have loved you. — John xv. 12. 
 
 Ye are my friends if ye do whatsoever I command 
 you. — John xv. 14. 
 
 These things I command you, that ye love one an- 
 other. — John XV. 17. 
 
THE REFORMATION NOT COMPLETE. 27 
 
 Can any believer in Christ deliberately 
 think upon these and other sinailar teachings, 
 and not be apprehensive that a great reforma- 
 tion remains to be effected among his fol- 
 lowers : a reformation not less important than 
 that which rescued us from the errors of the 
 Romish church ? How does our Protestantism 
 compare with these precepts of our Divine Mas- 
 ter? May we not be indulging our com- 
 placency a little too far since our escape from 
 Rome ? Have we not stopped the progress 
 of a reformation which had far to conduct us 
 ])efore we adorned these doctrines of our Lord 
 and Master ? Where Js yet the exemplifica- 
 tion of Christianity, even as it may be looked 
 for on Earth ? There is reason to fear, that 
 while, as Protestants, we deny the infallibility 
 of the Pope, we are-setting up one of our own. 
 There is no greater enemy to the progress of 
 truth than self-sufficiency. Spiritual arro- 
 c'-ance is not rare among Protestants. " We are 
 1 ight, and you are wrong," are assertions dealt 
 out with unsparing frequency and energy. 
 
28 A WARNINQ — WHERE ARE THE CHRISTIANS? 
 
 But, in the present condition of Chris- 
 tianity, should not Christians qualify their 
 opinions with — " Lord, I believe ; help thou 
 mine unbelief!" When we are divinely taught 
 that if we had " faith as a grain of mustard- 
 seed," we could perform miracles, there is 
 surely meaning enough in this expression to 
 warn the followers of Christ not to be of those 
 who "trust in themselves that they are 
 righteous, and despise others." 
 
 The precepts of Christ — how striking their 
 point, their power, their purity, their simpli- 
 city, and their vast comprehensiveness I — 
 These exhibit Christianity ; but where is its 
 exemplification? Where are the Christians 
 of whom it may be said, " By this shall all 
 men know that ye are my disciples, if ye have 
 love to one another," — such love as Christ 
 himself prescribes and characterizes ? If no 
 such exemplification, and no approach to it, 
 can be found, may we not fear that this is the 
 barrier which now stays the progress of Chris- 
 tianity? The world needs to be convinced 
 
THE BARRIER. THEOLOGY. 29 
 
 through other avenues than the ears. When 
 the men of the heathen world look upon the 
 Christian world, what do they behold ? Chris- 
 tianity ? — No ! Civilization : — civilized men 
 indebted to Christianity, but not repaying the 
 obligation. They behold the evidences of 
 science on every side ; but illustrations of the 
 pure teachings of Christ they find nowhere. 
 
 We shall not now dwell on this topic, but 
 merely inquire, in passing, where we shall find 
 any adequate exposition of the teachings of 
 Christ. In Protestant religious literature, 
 where is that treatise upon the Love of God, 
 which does justice to the magnitude of the 
 subject? Or in what system of divinity, or 
 work upon theology, does this subject occupy 
 the place it deserves? It would appear as 
 if theology should be developed from that 
 point. 
 
 We may inquire, in like manner, where has 
 the rule of our Saviour, " Whatsoever ye 
 would that men should do to you, do you even 
 BO to them," received that full exposition its im- 
 
 3* 
 
30 PROTESTANT LITERATURE. 
 
 IDortance requires ? It covers the whole ground 
 of man's duty to man ; yet what space does it 
 occupy in our religious literature ? There are 
 scores of thousands of theological works of 
 Protestant origin, yet how few of these treat 
 of Love to God, or, Love to Man ! Where 
 shall we find any adequate application of the 
 command that we should " love our neighbour 
 as ourself," to the constitution of society, as 
 now existing in Christendom ? If these com- 
 mands are as broad and obligatory as their 
 terms imph', they constitute the basis of 
 the Christian system, and of all true social 
 economy. No theology can be rightly framed, 
 and no sj^stem of morals or politics can be 
 rightly constructed, which have not this foun- 
 dation, and of which the superstructure is not 
 cemented by the same material. Yet, where 
 is the system of theology wdiich takes the love 
 of God as its starting point, and the love of 
 man as a chief element? This question is 
 merely thrown out here : the subject will be 
 resumed before we close. 
 
31 
 
 THE MISSION OF CHRIST IN HIS OWN WORDS. 
 
 We have glanced at the teachings of our 
 Saviour. Let us also examine his own prac- 
 tical exposition of these teachings.. He came 
 into the world, not only to save, and to teach, 
 but to exemplify his precepts. If his human 
 lineage was noble, his birth was lowly in the 
 extreme. His parents were not only poor and 
 in humble life, but residents of a district 
 despised by the rich and the great. He not 
 only did not appear in the world as a noble or 
 a king, but he did not come as a priest or a 
 Levite. His ministry, which did not com- 
 mence until he reached a ripened manhood, 
 can be fitly characterized only in his own 
 words. When John sent two of his disciples 
 to Christ, to inquire, "Art thou He that 
 should come, or do we look for another ?" The 
 reply wa,s not an exposition of his title to the 
 
32 IT WAS A MISSION TO THE POOR. 
 
 Messiahship ; not a summary of his doctrine ; 
 neither a creed nor a sermon ; but, — " Go and 
 show John those things which ye do hear and 
 see : the blind receive their sight, and the lame 
 walk; the lepers are cleansed, and the deaf 
 hear ; the dead are raised up, and the poor 
 have the gospel preached to them."* He an- 
 nounced a mission to the poor, to the infirm, 
 the diseased, and the dying ; and yet the mis- 
 sionary was so poor himself, he had not where 
 to lay his head. Of this world's goods it does 
 not appear that he had any. The chosen as- 
 sistants of his ministry were selected not only 
 from among the poor, but from among those 
 engaged in the humblest and most despised 
 employments. They were ignorant and un- 
 learned men, and were even readily recognised 
 to be such after the resurrection of Christ.f 
 That they had high qualifications or aptness 
 for the duties to which they were called, we 
 cannot doubt, for they were chosen by that 
 
 * Matt xi. 3, 4, 5. f Acts iv. 13. 
 
IT WAS A MISSION TO THE POOR. 
 
 discrimination which never errs : and yet that 
 fitness did not consist in clearness of appre- 
 hension nor powers of intellect ; for it is ap- 
 parent that some of these disciples did not 
 comprehend many of their Master's plainest 
 teachings until after his crucifixion. Under 
 these instructions they made almost no pro- 
 gress in theology : their labours, like those of 
 their master, were works of exhortation and 
 charity. The personal efforts of Christ being 
 chiefly among the poor, his instruments were 
 chosen for that purpose. The Love of God, 
 and the Love of Man, are the keys of all his 
 doctrines, and the text of his life and labours. 
 He came to the poor, because they were the 
 most numerous, the most suffering, the most 
 humble, the most helpless, and the most igno- 
 rant. He regarded the poor as the most hope- 
 ful, because least wedded to this world. Not 
 only so, but he taught that the door of poverty 
 was the safest way to heaven. " How hardly 
 shall they that have riches enter into the 
 kingdom of God ! It is easier for a camel to 
 
34 CONSOLATIONS FOR THE POOK. 
 
 go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich 
 man to enter the kmgdom of God."* He taught 
 that those who trust in riches must give up that 
 trust, which is selfishness, and become " poor 
 in spirit," before they can enter the kingdom 
 of heaven. He never wearied in affording 
 succour, consolation, and instruction to the 
 poor. He exhorted them to lay up for them- 
 selves treasures in heaven, and not upon earth. 
 He encouraged them — " Are not five sparrows 
 sold for two farthings, and not one of them is 
 forgotten before God? But even the very 
 hairs of your head are all numbered. Fear 
 not, therefore : ye are of more value than 
 many sparrows."'j- He taught that the 
 widow's mite was more than all the offer- 
 ings of the rich. How beautifully did his 
 life illustrate this lesson ! — " Take no thought 
 for your life, what ye shall eat, neither for the 
 body, what ye shall put on. Consider the 
 ravens : for they neither sow nor reap : which 
 
 • Mark x. 23—25. f Luke xii. 6, 7. 
 
WARNINGS FOR THE RICH. 35 
 
 have neither store-house nor barn ; and God 
 feedeth them. How much more are ye better 
 than the fowls?" — "Consider the lilies how 
 they grow : they toil not, they spin not ; and 
 yet I say unto you, that Solomon in all his glory 
 was not arrayed like one of these. If then 
 God so clothe the grass, which is to-day in the 
 field, and to-morrow is cast into the oven; how 
 much more will he clothe you, ye of little 
 faith."* 
 
 His miraculous power was chiefly exerted 
 in behalf of the poor, in healing diseases, cast- 
 ing out devils, in feeding the hungry, in calm- 
 ing the tempest. His parables of the Prodigal 
 Son, and the Good Samaritan, touchingly en- 
 force our duty to the destitute and forsaken. 
 But whilst his mission and jninistrations were 
 chiefly among the ^oor, the rich and the great 
 were not forgotten, but were also objects of 
 solicitude. His warnings tx) them are solemn 
 and awful. For their sakes his parable of 
 Lazarus the beggar, who died in the street, 
 
 • Luke xii. 22—38. 
 
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE RICH. 
 
 covered with sores, and went to Abraham's 
 bosom, institutes a dialogue between an in- 
 habitant of heaven, and one in the regions of 
 eternal despair, in which the rich are plainly 
 told, that if they will not believe Moses and 
 the prophets, neither would they believe 
 though one rise from the dead to warn them. 
 To the rich ruler, who had kept all the com- 
 mandments from his youth up, Christ said, 
 "Yet lackest thou one thing: sell all that 
 thou hast, and distribute unto the poor, and 
 thou shalt have treasure in heaven : and 
 come, follow me."" Our Lord did not by this 
 teach that there should be no individual pro- 
 perty, or that goods should be in common. 
 The special instruction was for the particular 
 man. His general doctrine is, " How hardly 
 shall they that trust in riches enter into the 
 kingdom of God ! But what is impossible with 
 man, is possible with God." He that trusts in 
 riches cannot enter into the kingdom of God. 
 Every disciple of Christ must be God's steward, 
 
 * Luke xviii. 32. Mark x. 21. 
 
INSTITUTIONS OF MEN TO CHANGE. 37 
 
 and hold his riches, if he hold them at all, for 
 Him whose servant he is. To one the com- 
 mand may be, " Sell all thou hast, give to the 
 poor, and come and follow me ;" because he can 
 be saved only in that way. To another the 
 command may be, " Occupy till I come f ad- 
 minister what I have given thee under the 
 law — " Love thy neighbour as thyself," until 
 I call thee to account. He to whom riches 
 prove a snare and a temptation too great for 
 his strength, must give them up ; whilst he 
 who can hold them as instruments of good, 
 becomes the servant of God. 
 
 Christ took the institutions of men as he 
 found them, and seemed to require that they 
 should be changed only as the hearts of those 
 who lived under them changed. He knew 
 that no change could be permanent unless 
 founded in the hearts and minds of the peo- 
 ple. He did not require that the rich and 
 poor should change places, nor that all men 
 should be lifted above the state of poverty ; 
 for he said, " The poor always ye have with 
 
 4 
 
38 WITH CHANGE OF HEAllTS AND MINDS. 
 
 you."* He did not require that the master 
 should give up his slave, nor that the slave 
 should quit or resist his master. He did not 
 offer resistance to the laws or public authori- 
 ties, or in any manner teach that his king- 
 dom was of this world. He simply taught 
 that men should love their neighbours as 
 themselves, and left that great law of human 
 conduct to accomplish all the changes and 
 revolutions necessary 'for the progress of his. 
 doctrines and the best interests of men. He 
 utterly refused to take any authority or ad- 
 ministration in temporal matters. To him 
 who asked him to interfere in the division of 
 an inheritance, he replied, " Man, who made 
 me a judge, or a divider over you ?"f When 
 the woman taken in adultery was brought to 
 him for j udgment, he said, " He that is with- 
 out sin among you, let him first cast a stone 
 
 * John xii. 8. 
 
 ■j" Luke xii. 14. — ^This is somewhat in contrast with the course 
 of the Bishops of the EstabHshed Church of England, who have 
 taken charge of the administration of estates, and have become 
 judges and dividers over their fellow-men. 
 
PARABLE OF THE LAST JUDGMENT. 39 
 
 at her." And when her accusers had slunk 
 away, he said to the woman, " Neither do I 
 condemn thee. Go, and sin no more."* He 
 did not require him whom he exhorted to sell 
 his goods, to bring the proceeds to him for dis- 
 tribution, but to, give to the poor himself. To 
 those who tempted him in regard to paying 
 tribute to the Roman emperors, he replied, 
 *• Render unto Caesar the things that are 
 Caesar's, and unto God the things that are 
 God's."t To Pilate he said, " My kingdom 
 is not of this w^orld."J 
 
 The most striking illustration of our Sa- 
 viour's life and doctrines is to be found in his 
 exemplification or parable of the last judg- 
 ment. When all nations are gathered before 
 the final Judge, and when the blessed are 
 placed on his right hand, and the guilty 
 on his left, — " Then shall the King say unto 
 them on his right hand, Come ye blessed of 
 my Father, inherit the kingdom prepared for 
 you from the foundation of the world : for I 
 
 * John viii. 7, 1 1. f Matt. xxii. 21. J John xviii. 36. 
 
40 CHARITY AND MERCY. 
 
 was an hungered, and je gave me meat : I 
 was thirsty, and ye gave me drink : I was a 
 stranger, and ye took me in : naked, and ye 
 clothed me : sick, and ye visited me ; I was 
 in prison, and ye came unto me." And to 
 the question of the righteous, when had they 
 done these things, the reply is, "Verily, I 
 say unto you. Inasmuch as ye have done it 
 unto one of the least of these my brethren, 
 ye have done it unto me."* The condemna- 
 tion of the wicked is placed upon the ground 
 that " Inasmuch as ye did it not unto one of 
 the least of these, ye did it not to me."f There 
 is here nothing about churches, creeds, con- 
 fessions, catechisms, prayer-books; nothing 
 of theology, faith, or doctrine ; and yet this 
 is the last judgment, characterized by the final 
 Judge Himself. 
 
 Can it be more strongly enforced that the 
 mission of the disciples of Christ on earth is 
 one of charity and mercy ? If the tree bear 
 
 • Matthew xxv. 31. j Ibid. xxv. 45. 
 
VARIOUS MINDS, VARIOUS OPINIONS. 41 
 
 not these fruits, it is none of liis planting. 
 There cannot be a doubt that he who loves 
 God supremely, and his neighbour as himself, 
 cannot err fatally in his theology. He may 
 require for his profit, encouragement, and 
 spiritual sustenance, all the means of grace 
 and instructions within his reach; but no 
 amount of this sort of work constitutes Chris- 
 tianity, nor insures salvation. There must, 
 in the infinite variety of minds, be an infinite 
 variety in the way of regarding these sub- 
 jects; and every one is bound, under the 
 instructions given in the word of God, to 
 think for himself Tlxese instructions are not 
 m detailed but that every believer must in 
 \ ery many things be left to his own discre- 
 tion : he is a steward, bound to execute his 
 Lord's will, but with a large discretion as to 
 the mode of performance. Those servants 
 who received the talents from their master, to 
 be employed by them in his absence, used 
 their own discretion in the manner of it, and 
 he who Iniried his in a napkin was con- 
 
 4* 
 
42 RESPONSIBILITY FOR OPINIONS. 
 
 demned, because he had refused to exercise 
 that discretion. It is abundantly clear that 
 those who love God and their fellow-men, 
 with all their hearts and minds, have the gift 
 of spiritual perception, and can, as they 
 walk through life, unlock all the treasures 
 they find, comprehending them with as much 
 certainty as is consistent with the limited 
 intellects and many infirmities of human 
 nature. We are far from asserting that it is 
 immaterial what men believe, so they are 
 honest in their belief; we say that men may 
 greatly err in doctrine and theology, and yet 
 be safe.. They are not excusable for re- 
 maining in error, when they have the means 
 to escape from it. Every man, with the Scrip- 
 tures in his hands, is bound to search them 
 anxiously, carefully, and with an honest de- 
 sire after the truth : it is his duty to supply 
 himself with all the help he can, both from 
 books and living teachers ; but in the last resort 
 he must believe for himself, and not by an- 
 other ; his belief must be built on his own 
 
UNIFORMITY UNATTAINABLE. 43 
 
 convictions, and not on those of another. A 
 man's rehgious mind, the state of his soul in 
 its relations with religious truths, must be 
 made up from its own investigations, decisions, 
 and exercises, and not those of another. He 
 is bound to perfect himself in belief and 
 practice, to the utmost extent of his capacity ; 
 and no doubt all men fall short of their duty 
 in this respect. It is obviously absurd to bind 
 men by creeds and confessions, and expect 
 them to keep together and be uniform in faith 
 or speculation. Such efforts can only pro- 
 duce a seeming uniformity, and exert a decided 
 influence towards hypocrisy or want of can- 
 dour. Happy are we indeed, that there is a 
 way of salvation equally efiicacious for errors 
 of judgment as well as errors of life. No 
 human scrutiny nor discrimination dare draw 
 the line of doctrine or conduct which bounds 
 the mercy of God in Christ. 
 
 Let every man, therefore, examine himself, 
 upon his eternal peril, and see whether he 
 has made that progress in truth of which he 
 
44 DIVEllSITY OF CONVICTirN. 
 
 is cajDable, and wliether he may not be enter- 
 taining errors in doctrine, for which it is no 
 excuse for him that others entertain them. 
 And let all religious teachers take heed to 
 their teaching, and not think they have done 
 their duty by aiming at an apparent conformity 
 of faith, to be maintained by church discipline, 
 public opinion, and other external influences : 
 let them remember that their hearers are to 
 be made free in Christ, and not to have yokes 
 laid upon them. They are bound to instruct 
 them in the truth, but they cannot command 
 their assent. The Reformation let in a flood 
 of light, and set multitudes free from the 
 bondage of error; their minds rioted in reli- 
 gious truth, and, as a necessary consequence, 
 diversities of opinion arose, and diversities of 
 conviction resulted in a variety of sects. This 
 was unavoidable; not only so, but freedom 
 of religious thought not merely begets this 
 variety of sects, — it must produce an equal 
 diversity of opinion in the bosom of each 
 sect: nay more, in the mind of every active 
 
RELIGIOUS PROGRESS. 45 
 
 Christian there is much diversity. And it 
 must be so, because it is clearly a part of 
 Grod's mode of dealing with men, that they 
 must be continually struggling between good 
 and evil ; continually deciding between truth 
 and falsehood, between right and wrong ; con- 
 tinually exercising patience, practising self- 
 denial, resisting temptations, and undergoing 
 an infinity of trials of greater or less magni- 
 tude, — all which constitute the school in which 
 souls take their form and character, which 
 determine their capacity for everlasting hap- 
 piness, or fix their destiny for unending 
 misery. Men who by long and patient study 
 acquire great knowledge, and by continual 
 exercise strengthen their intellect, attain to a 
 capacity for intellectual enjoyment not only 
 great, but capable of indefinite enlargement. 
 So those who exercise their religious affections, 
 capacities, and graces, to their utmost power 
 here, are the better fitted to enter upon the 
 pure joys of the heavenly state, whenever 
 called to a separation from the body. From this 
 
46 BOND OF HARMONY. 
 
 preparation, in the infinity of these various 
 exercises and experiences, operating on indi- 
 vidual minds, there must necessarily be 
 evolved an endless variety of thought, of 
 character, and of opinions; a diversity as 
 great as the number of individuals. As 
 from these differences are constituted many 
 sects, not agreeing in all things, but in many 
 things which consist with harmony of action ; 
 it does not comport with God's government 
 that these diversities of opinion should be 
 obliterated or smoothed away. The cords 
 which bind his disciples together should not 
 be composed of opinions, nor doctrines, nor 
 creeds : the cords provided for this unity are 
 love to God and love to man ; the ties of the 
 affections are the real bonds of peace with 
 God and man. If the bonds of love be made 
 strong enough, and drawn close enough, differ- 
 ences in theology will be little remarked and 
 sectarian asperity will find no soil in which to 
 grow. The struggle among sects will then be 
 not to injure each other, not to surpass in 
 
•lUMlTIVE EXAMPLE. 47 
 
 numbers aud power, but to surpass each other 
 in efforts to promote the interests of the Re- 
 deemer's kingdom, by labouring for the best 
 interests of men temporal and eternal. 
 
 THE MINISTRY AND TEACHING OF THE APOSTLES. 
 
 Whilst the words of Christ were yet sound- 
 ing in the ears of liis disciples, they com- 
 menced their ministry at Jerusalem. They 
 followed their Master's example of preaching 
 the gospel to the poor, of healing the sick, 
 the lame, the blind, and deaf, and of raising 
 the dead. " Silver and gold have I none," 
 said Peter to the man lame from his birth ; 
 " but such as I have give I thee : in the name 
 of Jesus Christ jof Nazareth, rise up and 
 walk."* One of the earliest results of their 
 ministry and teaching is thus recorded: 
 "And all that believed were together, and 
 
 • Acta iii. 6. 
 
48 CnRlSTIAN HOSPITALITY. 
 
 had all things common : and sold their pos- 
 sessions and goods, and parted them to all 
 men, as every man had need."* " And the 
 multitude of them that believed were of one 
 heart and of one soul : neither said any of them 
 that aught of the things which he possessed 
 was his own, but they had all things com- 
 mon." " Neither was there any among them 
 that lacked : for as many as were possessors 
 of lands or houses sold them, and brought 
 the prices of the things that were sold, and laid 
 them down at the apostles' feet, and distribu- 
 tion was made unto every man according as 
 he had need."f The distribution of the pro- 
 ceeds of these benefactions among the needy 
 soon absorbed so much of the time and atten- 
 tion of the apostles, as to draw them unduly 
 from their peculiar duties of preaching the gos- 
 pel, and made it necessary to select and appoint 
 men to this special business. J Frequent men- 
 tion is made, throughout the Acts of the Apos- 
 
 * Acts ii. 44, 45. f Acts iv. .32, 34, 35. J Acts vi. 1—3. 
 
APOSTOLIC EXHORTATIONS. 49 
 
 ties and the Epistles, of the great liberality 
 and hospitality of the early Christians; but 
 it is obvious that within the space permitted 
 to these writings, few details of the private life 
 of the converts could be included. We can 
 refer to what the apostles taught, as some 
 evidence of what the first Christians practised. 
 
 And all that believed were together, and had all things 
 common ; and sold their possessions and goods, and parted 
 them to all men, as every man had need. — Acts ii. 44, 45. 
 
 And the multitude of them that believed were of one 
 heart, and of one soul : neither said any of them that 
 aught of the things which he possessed was his own : but 
 they had all things common. And with great power gave 
 the apostles witness of the resurrection of the Lord Jesus : 
 and great grace was upon them all. Neither was there 
 any among them that lacked : for as many as were pos- 
 sessors of lands or houses sold them, and brought the 
 prices of the things that were sold, and laid them down 
 at the apostles' feet : and distribution was made unto every 
 man according as he had need. — Acts iv. 32 — 35. 
 
 He that giveth, let him do it with simplicity : he that 
 ruleth, with diligence ; he that showeth mercy, with cheer- 
 fulness. Let love be without dissimulation. Abhor that 
 which is evil; cleave to that which is good. Be kindly 
 aflfcctioncd one to another with brotherly love ; in honour 
 preferring one another. — Eom. xii. 8 — 10. 
 6 
 
50 APOSTOLIC EXHORTATIONS. 
 
 Distributing to the necessity of saints ; given to hospi- 
 tality. Bless them which persecute you ; bless, and curse 
 not. Rejoice with them that do rejoice, and weep with 
 them that weep. Be of the same mind one toward an- 
 other. Mind not high things, but condescend to men of 
 low estate. Be not wise in your own conceits. Recom- 
 pense to no man evil for evil. Provide things honest in 
 the sight of all men. If it be possible, as much as lieth 
 in you, live peaceably with all men. Dearly beloved, 
 avenge not yourselves, but rather give place unto wrath : 
 for it is written. Vengeance is mine ; I will repay, saith 
 the Lord. Therefore, if thine enemy hunger, feed him ; 
 if he thirst, give him drink : for in so doing thou shalt 
 heap coals of fire on his head. Be not overcome of evil, 
 but overcome evil with good. — Rom. xii. 13 — 21. 
 
 Owe no man any thing, but to love one another : for he 
 that loveth another hath fulfilled the law. — Rom. xiii. 8. 
 
 Love worketh no ill to his neighbour : therefore love is 
 the fulfilling of the law. — Rom. xiii. 10. 
 
 For none of us Uveth to himself, and no man dieth to 
 himself. — Rom. xiv. 7. 
 
 But why dost thou judge thy brother ? or why dost 
 thou set at nought thy brother ? for we shall all stand be- 
 fore the judgment-seat of Christ. — Rom, xiv. 10. 
 
 Let us not therefore judge one another any more : but 
 judge this rather, that no man put a stumbling-block, or 
 an occasion to fall, in his brother's way. — Rom. xiv. 13. 
 
 We then that are strong ought to bear the infirmities 
 
APOSTOLIC EXnOKTATIONS. 51 
 
 of the weak, and not to please ourselves. Let every one of 
 us please his neighbour for his good to edification. — Rom. 
 XV. 1, 2. 
 
 Now the God of patience and consolation grant you to 
 be likeminded one toward another according to Christ 
 Jesus. — Rom. xv. 5. 
 
 Wherefore receive ye one another, as Christ also re- 
 ceived us, to the glory of God. — Rom. xv. 7. 
 
 Now I beseech you, brethren, by the name of our Lord 
 Jesus Christ, that ye all speak the same thing, and that 
 there be no divisions among you ; but that ye be perfectly 
 joined together in the same mind, and in the same judg- 
 ment. — 1 Cor. i. 10. 
 
 Now therefore there is utterly a fault among you, be- 
 cause ye go to law one with another. Why do ye not 
 rather take wrong ? why do ye not rather suflfer your- 
 aelves to be defrauded ? Nay, ye do wrong, and defraud, 
 and that your brethren. — 1 Cor. vi. 7, 8. 
 
 Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, 
 and have not charity, I. am become as sounding brass, or 
 a tinkling cymbal. And though I have the gift of pro- 
 phecy, and understand all mysteries, and all knowledge ; 
 and though I have all faith, so that I could remove moun- 
 tains, and have not charity, I am nothing. And though 
 I bestow all my goods to feed the poor, and though I give 
 my body to be burned, and have not charity, it profiteth 
 me nothing. Charity suffereth long, and is kind ; charity 
 
52 TEACHINGS OF THE APOSTLES. 
 
 envieth not ; charity vaunteth not itself, is not puffed up, 
 doth not behave itself unseemly, seeketh not her own, is 
 not easily provoked, thinketh no evil; rejoiceth not in 
 iniquity, but rejoiceth in the truth ; beareth all things, 
 believeth all things, hopeth all things, endureth all things. 
 Charity never faileth : but whether there be prophecies, 
 they shall fail; whether there be tongues, they shall 
 cease; whether there be knowledge, it shall vanish away. — 
 
 1 Cot. xiii. 1—8. 
 
 And now abideth faith, hope, charity, these three ; but 
 the greatest of these is charity. — 1 Cor. xiii. 13. 
 
 Let all your things be done with charity. — 1 Cor. 
 xvi. 14. 
 
 For to their power, I bear record, yea, and beyond their 
 power, they were willing of themselves ; praying us with 
 much entreaty, that we would receive the gift, and take 
 upon us the fellowship of the ministering to the saints. — 
 
 2 Cor. viii. 3, 4. 
 
 Only they would that we should remember the poor ; 
 the same which I also was forward to do. — Gal. ii. 10. 
 
 For all the law is fulfilled in one word, even in this, 
 Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself — Gal. v. 14. 
 
 But the fruit of the Spirit is love, joy, peace, long-suf- 
 fering, gentleness, goodness, faith. — Gal. v. 22. 
 
 Bear ye one another's burdens, and so fulfil the law of 
 Christ.— (?aZ. vi. 2. 
 
 As we have therefore opportunity, let us do good unto 
 
TEACHINGS OF THE APOSTLES. 53 
 
 all men, especially unto them who are of the household 
 of Mth.— Gal. vi. 10. 
 
 With all lowliness and meekness, with long-sufFering, 
 forbearing one another in love. — Fph. iv. 2. 
 
 Wherefore putting away lying, speak every man truth 
 with his neighbour : for we are members one of another. 
 Be ye an^y, and sin not : let not the sun go down upon 
 your wrath. — EpJi. iv. 25, 26. 
 
 Let all bitterness, and wrath, and anger, and clamour, 
 and evil-speaking, be put away from you, with all malice : 
 and be ye kind one to another, tender-hearted, forgiving 
 one another, even as God for Christ's sake hath forgiven 
 yon.— Ej)h. iv. 31, 32. 
 
 If there be therefore any consolation in Christ, if any 
 comfort of love, if any fellowship of the Spirit, if any 
 bowels and mercies, fulfil ye my joy, that ye be like- 
 minded, having the same love, being of one accord, of one 
 mind. Let nothing be done through strife or vain-glory ; 
 but in lowliness of mind let each esteem other better than 
 themselves. Look not every man on his own things, but 
 every man also on the things of others. — Phil. ii. 1 — 4. 
 
 Put on therefore, as the elect of God, holy and beloved, 
 bowels of mercies, kindness, humbleness of mind, meek- 
 ness, long-suffering; forbearing one another, and forgiv- 
 ing one another, if any man have a quarrel against any : 
 even as Christ forgave you, so also do ye. And above all 
 these things put on charity, which is the bond of perfect- 
 ncss. — Col. iii. 12 — 14. 
 
 6* 
 
54 TEACHINGS OF THE APOSTLES. 
 
 And the Lord make you to increase and abound in love 
 one toward another, and toward all men, even as we do 
 toward you. — 1 TJies. iii. 12. 
 
 But as touching brotherly love ye need not that I write 
 unto you : for ye yourselves are taught of God to love one 
 another. — 1 Thes. iv. 9. 
 
 And be at peace among yourselves. Now we exhort 
 you, brethren, warn them that are unruly, comfort the 
 feeble-minded, support the weak, be patient toward all 
 men. See that none render evil for evil unto any man j 
 but ever follow that which is good, both among yourselves, 
 and to all men. — 1 Thes, v. 13 — 15. 
 
 Yet count him not as an enemy, but admonish him as 
 a brother. — 2 Thes. iii. 15. 
 
 Now the end of the commandment is charity out of a 
 pure heart, and of a good conscience, and of faith un- 
 feigned. — 1 Tim. i. 5. 
 
 If ye fulfil the royal law according to the scripture, 
 Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself, ye do well. — 
 
 James ii. ^. 
 
 If a brother or sister be naked, and destitute of daily 
 food, and one of you say unto them, Depart in peace, be 
 ye warmed and filled ) notwithstanding ye give them not 
 those things which are needful to the body ; what doth it 
 profit? — James W, 15, 16. 
 
 But the wisdom that is from above is first pure, then 
 
TEACHINGS OF THE APOSTLES. 55 
 
 peaceable, gentle, and easy to be entreated, full of mercy 
 and good fruits, without partiality, and without hypo- 
 crisy. — James iii. 17. 
 
 Behold, the hire of the labourers who have reaped down 
 your fields, which is of you kept back by fraud, crieth j 
 and the cries of them which have reaped are entered into 
 the ears of the Lord of Sabaoth. — James v. 4. 
 
 Seeing ye have purified your souls in obeying the truth 
 through the Spirit unto unfeigned love of the brethren, 
 see that ye love one another with a pure heart fervently. — 
 1 Pet. i. 22. 
 
 Honour all men. Love the brotherhood. Fear God. 
 Honour the king. — 1 Pet. ii. 17. 
 
 Finally, be ye all of one mind, having compassion one 
 of another ; love as brethren, be pitiful, be courteous : not 
 rendering evil for evil, or wiling for railing : but contra- 
 riwise, blessing; knowing that ye are thereunto called, 
 that ye should inherit a blessing. For he that will love 
 life, and see good days, let him refrain his tongue from 
 evil, and his lips that they speak no guile. — 1 Pet. iii. 
 8—10. 
 
 And above all things have fervent charity among your- 
 selves : for charity shall cover the multitude of sins. Use 
 hospitality one to another without grudging. As every 
 man hath received the gift, even so minister the same one 
 to another, as good stewards of the manifold grace of 
 Ood.—l Pet. iv. 8—10. 
 
56 TEACHINGS OF THE APOSTLES. 
 
 And besides this, giving all diligence, add to your faith, 
 virtue ; and to virtue, knowledge ; and to knowledge, tem- 
 perance ; and to temperance, patience ; and to patience, 
 godliness; and to godliness, brotherly-kindness; and to 
 brotherly-kindness, charity. — 2 Pet. i. 5 — 7. 
 
 He that saith he is in the light, and hateth his. brother, 
 is in darkness even until. now. He that loveth his brother 
 abideth in the" light, and there is none occasion of stum- 
 bling in him. But he that hateth his brother is in dark- 
 ness, and walketh in darkness, and knoweth not whither 
 he goeth, because that darkness hath blinded his eyes. — 
 IJohnii. 9—11. 
 
 For this is the message that ye heard from the begin- 
 ning, that we should love one another. — 1 John iii. 11. 
 
 We know that we have passed from death unto life, be- 
 cause we love the brethren. He that loveth not his 
 brother, abideth in death. — XJoJm iii. 14. 
 
 But whoso hath this world's good, and seeth his brother 
 have need, and shutteth up his bowels of compassion from 
 him, how dwelleth the love of Grod in him. My little 
 children, let us not love in word, neither in tongue, but 
 in deed and in truth. — 1 John, iii. 17, 18. 
 
 And this is his commandment ; That we should believe 
 on the name of his Son Jesus Christ, and love one another, 
 as he gave us commandment. — 1 John iii. 23. 
 
 Beloved, let us love one another: for love is of God; 
 
TEACHINGS OF THE APOSTLES. 
 
 and every one that loveth is born of God, and knoweth 
 God, He that loveth not, knoweth not God ; for God is 
 love. — 1 John iv. 7, 8. 
 
 Beloved, if God so loved us, we ought also to love one 
 another. No man hath seen God at any time. If we 
 love one another, God dwelleth in us, and his love is per- 
 fected in us. — 1 John iv. 11, 12. 
 
 And we have known and believed the love that God 
 hath to us. God is love : and he that dwelleth in love, 
 dwelleth in God, and God in him. — 1 John iv. 16. 
 
 If a man say, I love God, and hateth his brother, he is 
 a liar. For he that loveth not his brother, whom he hath 
 seen, how can he love God, whom he hath not seen ? 
 And this commandment have we from him. That he who 
 loveth God, love his brother also. — 1 John iv. 20, 21. 
 
 By this we know that we love the children of God, 
 when we love God, and keep his commandments. For 
 this is the love of God, that we keep his commandments ; 
 and his commandments are not grievous. — 1 John v. 2, 3. 
 
 We trust that these quotations, which are 
 only a portion of what can be adduced to the 
 same purport, have not proved tedious.* 
 
 * We have deemed it right to place these passages before the 
 reader, in place of sending him to the sacred volume whence they 
 are taken, aa they can be read in less time than their places can be 
 found. 
 
68 WHERE ARE SUCTI CHRISTIANS? 
 
 Should not these passages, taken in gross 
 and in detail, awaken inquiries of vital im- 
 port ? Where is the Christianity which they 
 prescribe? Where are the Christians who 
 receive these instructions and obey them? 
 Where are those people whose charity is 
 greater than that faith which could remove 
 mountains — more liberal than that bounty 
 which bestows all its goods to feed the poor, 
 and more self-sacrificing than his devotion 
 who gives his body to martyrdom ? — Whose 
 charity never fails — bearing all things, be- 
 lieving all things, hoping all things, enduring 
 all things ; whose love is without dissimula- 
 tion ; in honour preferring one another ; who 
 bless them which persecute — bless and curse 
 not ; who feed their enemies ; who bear one 
 another's burdens; who let not the sun go 
 down upon their wrath ; who put away all 
 bitterness and wrath, and clamour, and evil 
 speaking, with all malice ? Where are those 
 Christians who, having this world's goods, 
 never shut up their bowels of compassion 
 
THE PEOPLE OF CURISTENDOM. 59 
 
 when they see their brothers have need ? The 
 sufferings and utter destitution of the millions 
 upon millions of the poor throughout rich 
 Christendom ; the strife, and clamour, and evil 
 speaking, ambition, jealousy, bitterness, ma- 
 lice, oppression, wars, and perpetual struggles 
 for power, wealth, and precedence, furnish a 
 reply to these inquiries. 
 
 What do we see, then, in Christendom? 
 Civilization, arts, sciences, knowledge ; a vast 
 complication of church machinery to keep 
 men in the traces of sectarianism ; a vast ac- 
 cumulation of duties to be performed ; of 
 things to be said and done ; of yokes to be 
 carried ; of doctrines lo be understood and be- 
 lieved; of traditions, glosses, comments, ex- 
 planations : a vast array of biblical learning 
 and criticism, in which every word is ex- 
 amined, weighed, and defined. We have 
 creeds, confessions, liturgies, prayer-books, 
 catechisms, forms and platforms of faith and 
 discipline. We have councils, conventions, 
 synods, and assemblies, and other ecclesiasti- 
 
60 WHERE IS THEIR CHARITY SEEN ? 
 
 cal bodies without number. We have sacra- 
 ments, ordinances, ceremonies, observances 
 without limit. We have bishops, priests, 
 ministers, preachers, and teachers. We have 
 congregations, schools, colleges, and semina- 
 ries. We have costly temples and palaces 
 built for Him who dwelleth not in temples 
 made with men's hands. We have assem- 
 blages of infinite variety for religious pur- 
 poses. We have thousands upon thousands 
 of volumes of religious books ; but where is 
 our Christianity ? for all these things do not 
 constitute us followers of Christ. Where is 
 the exemplification of that charity without 
 which all these things are mere sounding 
 brass and tinkling cymbals ? In what city 
 is the "gospel preached to the poor?" In 
 what country are the poor such special ob- 
 ject of care and attention on the part of 
 Christians, as is contemplated by the teach- 
 ings of Christ and his disciples? This is not 
 merely feeding and clothing the poor ; for if 
 you give all your goods for this purpose, it 
 
WHAT OF ALL THIS MACHINERY. 61 
 
 does not meet the requirements of Christian 
 charity. All such exterior manifestations 
 of Christianity as are above enumerated are, 
 in the best sense, merely means to an end. 
 Where, we ask, are the results of this immense 
 and costly paraphernalia of Christianity ? Is 
 there not reason to inquire if the essence of 
 true religion has not been crushed, repelled, 
 and sometimes wholly extinguished, under 
 this load ? Compare all this mass of Christian 
 machinery with the extreme simplicity of 
 that example in practice and teaching which 
 is left for our instruction by Him who could 
 "speak as never man spake." While we 
 adhere so closely to the letter, let us not be 
 in danger of perishing m the letter. Know- 
 ledge will not save us : while we rely on the 
 Bible as an instructor, let us not trust in it as 
 a Saviour. 
 
 While one portion of nominal Christians 
 have busied themselves with forms and cere- 
 monies, and observances, with pictures, images, 
 and processions; others have given to doc- 
 
G2 CREEDS AND CONFESSIONS. 
 
 triiies the supremacy, and have busied them- 
 selves in laying down the lines by which to 
 enforce human belief, — lines of interpretation, 
 by which to control human opinion, — lines 
 of discipline and restraint, by which to bring 
 human minds to uniformity of faith and 
 action; they have formed creeds and cate- 
 chisms, — they have spread themselves over 
 the whole field of the sacred writings, and 
 scratched up all the surface, — they have gather- 
 ed all the straws and turned over all the 
 pebbles, and detected the colour and deter- 
 mined the outline of every stone and tree and 
 shrub; they have dwelt with rapture upon 
 all that was beautiful and sublime, but they 
 have trampled over mines of golden wisdom, 
 of surpassing richness and depth, almost 
 without a thought, and almost without an 
 effort to fathom these priceless treasures, 
 much less to take possession of them. 
 
 In what part of Christendom is Christian 
 charity occupying that space in the teachings 
 of the schools or churches, or in the works of 
 
WHAT IT IS TO BELIEVE IN CHRIST. 68 
 
 the people, which we perceive to be occupied 
 by other things in the two classes above-men- 
 tioned ? Where are men found as anxiously 
 bent on fulfilling the duties of loving God 
 and loving their neighbour as they are in 
 other things pertaining in their estimation to 
 religion ? We hear fiir more of the sufferings 
 of Christ, of the redemption wrought out for 
 us, of the atonement, of the vicarious sacri- 
 fice, of the law fulfilled in our behalf, of his 
 righteousness in which we are exhorted to 
 clothe ourselves, of his blood shed for us in 
 which we are to wash and be clean ; of the 
 cross at the foot of which we must lie until 
 we are purified by the sacrifice there accom- 
 plished for us, than we do of all the precepts 
 and all the example of Christ. To have 
 faith in Christ implies not only belief in his 
 atonement, in his redemption, in his fulfil- 
 ment of the law, in the shedding of his blood, 
 in his personal sufferings, but in his ministry, 
 teaching, and example. It is not enough to 
 say, Lord, Tx)rd ; we are not his followers 
 
64 THE MESSAGE OF CHRIST AND HIS OFFICES. 
 
 unless we walk in his footsteps ; we are not 
 his believers if we do not believe what he 
 taught and imitate what he did. He came 
 into this world and assumed our nature, not 
 merely to accomplish his various offices, but 
 to be the bearer of a message the most be- 
 nign and pure which has ever greeted the ears 
 of man. Can we claim the benefit of his 
 expiatory sacrifice while we forget his mes- 
 sage or treat it with contempt ? Can we be 
 saved by the offices of Christ, if Ave receive 
 not the instructions of Christ? 
 
 We must refrain from entering further into 
 this branch of the subject until we have com- 
 pleted our historical survey. We have noticed 
 the instructions of Christ and his apostles, 
 and also their example : it may be worth 
 while to notice, however slightly, the usages 
 of Christians in the early and middle ages of 
 Christianity under these instructions, before 
 we come to compare them with the practices 
 of the present day. 
 
65 
 
 CHARITY AMONG THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. 
 
 A HISTORY of Christian charity in the first 
 ages of Christianity is deserving of volumes : 
 it is possible now merely to sketch a few promi- 
 nent features. Our Saviour found slavery 
 an established institution in the world. In- 
 consistent as that relation may appear with 
 liis teachings, he utters not one syllable of 
 reproach against it, or against slaveholders as 
 such. He publishes the law of love ; he lays 
 do^vn the rule of doing unto others as we 
 would have others do unto us; both which 
 are as binding on the slave as on the master. 
 Upon the operation of these Christian prin- 
 ciples he relies for the abolition of slavery. 
 Before the advent of Christianity, no axe had 
 ever been laid at the root of slavery; no phi- 
 losopher had denounced it, and it does not 
 appear to have been considered by any as an 
 
GQ CHRISTIANITY AND SLAVERY. 
 
 evil to be repressed. Nor did the apostles 
 teach diiFerently, but distinctly laid down 
 rules for the conduct of master and slave; 
 thereby clearly recognising the relation, with- 
 out denouncing it as in itself sinful. Their 
 Master's instructions were intended to make 
 men what they should be, and then eyery 
 institution, every law, and every practice 
 inconsistent with that state, would fall before 
 it. If a community of slaveholders, under 
 Christian instruction, were gradually tending 
 to the point of general emancipation, both 
 masters and slaves would gradually be fitting 
 for so great a change in their relative condi- 
 tion. It would be a subject of great interest 
 to trace, in the early ages of Christianity, its 
 influences upon the institution of slavery, 
 so much in contrast with the movements or 
 influences of paganism. During the first four 
 or five centuries of the Christian era, eman- 
 cipation of slaves by converts to Christianity 
 took place upon a large and progressively 
 incroasino: scale, and continued until tlie 
 
EMANCIPATION. 6^ 
 
 occurrence of political events, the invasion 
 of barbarians, and other causes, agitated the 
 whole Christian world and shook the very 
 foundations of the social systems in which 
 Christianit}' had made most progress. When 
 Christianity sank into the darkness of the 
 middle ages, the progress of emancipation 
 ceased, because the influence which produced 
 it ceased during that period to operate. The 
 annals of emancipation in these primitive 
 ages, if materials were extant for a full narra- 
 tive, would be of extraordinary interest, and 
 would fully reveal the effects of our Saviour's 
 precepts when brought to bear upon the 
 hearts of men in their true spirit, even where 
 the letter did not apply. Under paganism, 
 slavery could never come to an end : under 
 the continual light of Christianity, it hastens 
 to an inevitable end, but by that progress 
 and in that mode which is best both for mas- 
 ter and slave ; both being bound to love each 
 other until the door of emancipation is fully 
 open without injury to either. 
 
68 CAPTIVES IN WAR. 
 
 The ranks of the slaves, in the early period 
 in review, were constantly replenished by 
 captives taken in the continual wars of that 
 time. One of the marked characteristics of 
 Christian kindness is seen in the liberality 
 exercised in ransoming from slavery its con- 
 stant recruits. In many cases, whole com- 
 munities were impoverished by their efforts 
 in this way, and instances are not wanting 
 in which men sold themselves into slavery 
 to procure the means of redeeming others.* 
 When Genseric took and pillaged Rome, he 
 carried off a host of its best citizens as cap- 
 tives, and landed them at Carthage, in Africa, 
 where, husbands being separated from wives, 
 and parents from children, they were sold 
 into bondage. Christians at Rome sent after 
 their unhappy brethren all the means they 
 could command towards their redemption 
 and relief; but the prisoners found Christians 
 in Africa. Deogratias, bishop of Carthage, 
 
 * Epistle of Clemi'iit to the Corinthians. 
 
THE KIND BISHOP OF CARTHAGE. 69 
 
 gave himself at once to the work of succour- 
 ing these slaves of Vandals and Moors. To 
 prevent separation of families, he purchased 
 a large number of them. The churches of 
 Carthage were fitted up with beds and furni- 
 ture, and became the habitations and hospitals 
 of those who were the descendants of the 
 former enemies of that city. To meet this 
 great expense, the gold and silver ornaments 
 and vessels of the churches were sold. Medi- 
 cal attendance and nursing were liberally 
 bestowed upon the numerous sick. The good 
 bishop day and night gave his personal super- 
 intendence and aid to this great and good 
 work, and this under the weight of a feeble 
 old age.* 
 
 The origin of the monastic system was 
 charity. Many of those who felt impelled 
 by the Saviour's injunction, "Go sell that 
 thou hast and give to the poor," united them- 
 selves for facility of support, and formed 
 
 * A. D. 4.').'). 
 
70 EARLY MONASTIC SYSTEM. 
 
 houses of charity for each other, and for all 
 whom they could help. Their doors were 
 open to all strangers, to the sick, and to all 
 who asked their aid. Many carried their 
 worldly possessions to these establishments, 
 and there they were dispensed for the general 
 object of the association. 
 
 The more these institutions were managed 
 in the spirit of true Christian charity, the 
 more j)opular they became ; and large gifts 
 and bequests were poured upon them to assist 
 in their charitable enterprises. The value of 
 such gifts for charitable uses made in these 
 early times cannot now be told ; and if they 
 could, the amount would be deemed incredi- 
 ble. The administrators of these houses 
 of charity, who in their origin laboured 
 with their own hands in their communities 
 for their support and for the means of suc- 
 couring others, were in the end overwhelmed 
 by the amount of those benefactions which 
 the zeal of Christians for charity showered 
 upon them. It is but little from the mark to 
 
PROrEllTY OF THE KOMAN CHURCH. 71 
 
 say, that all the property held by the Roman 
 church and her ecclesiastics, if we except her 
 temples, was given purely for charitable pur- 
 poses. It was given to feed the hungry,- to 
 clothe the naked, to redeem the captive, to 
 aid in the cure and care of the sick, the 
 infirm, the halt and the blind, and for the sup- 
 port of a generous hospitality. Where these 
 houses were found, and they were once densely 
 strewed through Christendom, the poor were 
 never without a resource for every want, and 
 the stranger never at a loss for a home. The 
 history of these houses, in the days of their 
 purity, is greatly needed as a practical expo- 
 sition, of charity by the first Christians. 
 
 When the plague raged in Alexandria, in 
 the time of the Emperor Gallianus, Christians 
 distinguished themselves, in contrast with the 
 pagan population, by their undaunted courage 
 and persevering care for the sick, dying, and 
 dead. They omitted no duty and fled from 
 no contact in the care of those labouring 
 under the frightful malady, in closing the 
 
72 HOSPITALS. 
 
 eyes of the expiring, in cleansing the bodies 
 of the dead, and in carrying them to their 
 graves; and as fast as the ranks of those 
 thus exposed were thinned by death, others 
 stepped in to fill their places. These sacri* 
 fices were made not only for Christian brethren, 
 but for the heathen, who were deserted by 
 their own families, and left to die without a 
 single attendant, in the street as well as in 
 the houses, and their bodies to go unhearsed 
 and unburied. 
 
 Hospitals were, in those early ages, made 
 an appendage of Christian churches. There 
 cannot be a doubt that Christians fully re- 
 lieved all their own poor, and very many of 
 the pagan poor besides. There is on record 
 the testimony of an enemy, to the fact. The 
 Emperor Julian, one of the bitterest enemies 
 of Christianity, provoked by the good works 
 of Christians, thus instructs one of his 
 pagan priests : " Establish hospitals in every 
 town, for the care of the sick and the enter- 
 tainment of strangers, and for extending the 
 
EMPEROR JULIAN ON THE POOR. 73 
 
 cares of humanity to all that are poor. I will 
 furnish the means. For it is a shame for us 
 that no Jew ever begs, and that the impious 
 Galileans should not only keep their own 
 poor, but even many of ours, whom we leave 
 to suffer." To another he writes thus : " The 
 impious Galileans, having observed that our 
 priests neglect the poor, have applied them- 
 selves to that work : and like those who 
 would steal our children to sell them, they 
 attract them by offering cakes ; and so they 
 have led our faithful ones into infidelity, by 
 commencing with charity, hospitality, and 
 the service of tables, for they have many 
 names for these works, which they practise 
 abundantly." This testimony is of great 
 value in showing the customs of Christians 
 in those days, and the nature of that teaching 
 by example, which not only commanded the 
 admiration of an enemy, but compelled an 
 emperor to follow it, in pure defence, lest the 
 hearts of his subjects should be stolen from 
 him. Very many proofs of this charity could 
 
74 CONSTANTINE AND FLACILLA. 
 
 be adduced from the conduct of Christians in 
 different parts of the world ; but the evidence 
 of Julian is ample enough for his day. 
 
 The Emperor Constantino followed this 
 good example, not from rivalry, but because 
 he was a Christian. " He poured out his alms 
 liberally both upon Christian and Pagan. To 
 the public beggars he gave both food and 
 clothing; he assisted generously those who 
 had fallen from a better condition; giving to 
 some, pensions ; to others, lucrative offices. He 
 took especial care of widows and orphans, 
 giving their daughters in marriage to rich 
 men, known by himself to be worthy."* 
 
 The Empress Flacilla, wife of Theodosius, 
 made the care of the poor her chief occupa- 
 tion, to serve whom she undertook any office, 
 however degrading. A letter from an emi- 
 nent Christian to King Clovis contains this 
 passage : — " Be the father and protector of 
 your people ; lighten their burdens as much 
 as is consistent with the necessary wants of 
 
 * Eupcbius, Life of Constantine. 
 
TREASURES OF THE PRIMITIVE CHRISTIANS. 75 
 
 your government. Console and relieve the 
 poor ; nourish orphans ; take care of widows ; 
 permit no oppression. Let the door of your 
 palace be ever open, that every one of your 
 subjects may be able to claim justice at your 
 hands." 
 
 A better idea cannot, perhaps, be given of 
 the sentiments of early Christians on this sub- 
 ject, than is furnished by an incident which 
 occurred in Rome. The liberality shown to 
 the poor had led a Roman officer, in the 
 days of persecution, to believe that Christians 
 had great treasures at their command. Lau- 
 rentius, one of the deacons or guardians of the 
 poor, was commanded by the Roman Prefect 
 to deliver up the treasures of the church. He 
 demanded three days to comply with the re- 
 quisition. In that time he collected from the 
 whole city all the poor taken care of by Chris- 
 tian benevolence, and having assembled, 
 in the courts and porches of one of their 
 churches, the immense multitude of the aged, 
 infirm, lame, blind, diseased, destitute poor 
 
70 THE POOR THE TREASURES OF THE CHURCH. 
 
 who received constant aid from the hands of 
 Christians, he called upon the prefect and said, 
 " Come see the treasures of our God ; you shall 
 see a great court full of vessels of gold, and 
 talents are heaped up in porches." The Pre- 
 fect followed, and was shown the assembled 
 poor. " Behold the treasures I promised you. 
 I add to these the widows and orphans ; they 
 are our pearls and precious stones, the crown 
 of the church. Take this wealth for Rome, 
 for the emperor, and for yourself"* 
 
 These few incidents speak far from ade- 
 quately, but still strongly, the opinion of pri- 
 mitive Christianity on the subject of practical 
 charity. We cannot reach our own time, 
 however, without traversing a period during 
 mediaeval ages, when, by a slow but sure pro- 
 cess of corruption, Christianity, overcome by 
 forms, ceremonies, and superstitions, sank, 
 
 * These incidents are taken from Histoire de la Charity pendant 
 lea quatre premiers Si^cles de Vhre Chr^tienne, par Martin-Doisy. 
 The subject of the charity of early Christians is treated in some 
 detail, in Cave's Primitive Christianity, part 3, chap. 2. 
 
DECLENSION OF CHRISTIANITY. 77 
 
 gradually, into all the abuses of Roman Pa- 
 pacy. Priestly power and dignity usurped 
 the place of apostolic simplicity and teaching ; 
 political sway and ambition were substituted 
 for ministerial labours devoted mainly to the 
 spiritual welfare of men's souls. Those who 
 claimed to be successors of Peter, the fisher- 
 man of Galilee, who followed a master who 
 had not where to lay his head, grasped a 
 kingly rule and swayed a spiritual sceptre : 
 those who claimed to be the special delegates 
 of the meek and lowly Jesus, w^ho had neither 
 house nor home, nor bishopric, nor church, 
 who refused all participation in temporal af- 
 fairs, who would neither punish, the guilty 
 woman, nor assume the distribution of an in- 
 heritance, nor be judge nor ruler over any one, 
 but who enjoined submission to the civil au- 
 thorities, claimed and exercised lordship over 
 kings and emperors, and gave themselves out 
 as the source of all power in Christendom. 
 
 Herein lies the explanation of the sad de- 
 clension of Christianity in this unhappy pe- 
 
 7* 
 
78 POWER AND PIETY INCOMPATIBLE. 
 
 riod. The purity of the early Christian minis- 
 try inspired confidence : confidence led many 
 to commit important trusts to them, as the 
 most worthy and the most enlightened : the 
 execution of these trusts gave power and 
 patronage : the exercise of power and patron- 
 age proved a source of corruption and ruin. 
 The most dangerous foes of Christianity are 
 wealth and power: the human heart is so 
 little proof against these enemies, that it has 
 always yielded to their influence. Christianity 
 was founded in poverty and worldly weak- 
 ness; it cannot be reared nor flourish in 
 worldly splendour or in regal rule. He who 
 taught that it was easier for a camel to pass 
 through the eye of a needle than for a rich 
 man to enter into the kingdom of God, meant 
 what he said — that no rich man, in his own 
 strength, can turn from his riches and be- 
 come his disciple. Kiches are so many grap- 
 ples which hold men to this world ; and grap- 
 ples they are which the men who have forged 
 them cannot break without aid from on hi2:h. 
 
LIBERALITY OF EARLY CHRISTIANS. 79 
 
 Yet Christian ministers absorbed and brought 
 under their administration during the middle 
 ages a large proportion of the wealth of the 
 world. Christ said, " Sell that thou hast, and 
 give to the poor ;" these ministers of his said, 
 " Bring in your offerings to us, and we will 
 feed the poor." Under this stimulus, the of- 
 ferings of the people poured in upon the priest- 
 hood in a profusion which proved how deeply 
 Christian charity had taken hold of the minds 
 of men. Christian ministers were not long 
 proof under the corrupting tendencies of this 
 fatal error, and Christianity sank into a de- 
 gradation of more than a thousand years, and 
 into a neglect of charity visible in all subse- 
 quent history. 
 
 No doubt, Christians as a church, or in their 
 special organizations, are bound to administer 
 wisely and faithfully such charities as are com- 
 mitted to them; but they should regard 
 such trusts as dangerous to the welfare of 
 churches, and they should not encourage indi- 
 viduals in their creation, but endeavour to dif- 
 
80 CHURCHES NOT PROPER ALMONERS. 
 
 fuse that light and spirit which enables every 
 individual Christian to become a faithful 
 steward of that which is in his hands, under 
 the great law of charity. Even when indi- 
 viduals have done all in their power to carry 
 out Christian duties, much must still devolve 
 upon some public administration. This will 
 be as much as human weakness can perform 
 with safety and success. That the papal 
 practice of making the church the grand 
 almoner of all its members is radically wrong, 
 is plain from all past results; it is clearly 
 wrong, because human virtue cannot be proof 
 against the temptations incident to such an 
 administration; it is clearly wrong, because 
 not according to the teachings of Christ, who 
 undertook no such offices. It is very ap- 
 parent in many of the passages above quoted, 
 that Christ's plan in the exercise of charity, 
 contemplates more the spiritual good of him 
 who exercises charity than of him who is its 
 object. The poor are the objects of many 
 promises and of much providential care and 
 
THE EENKFIT OF ALMS TO THE GIVER. 81 
 
 bounty : they have little to tie them to this 
 world, and therefore are the more readily in- 
 duced to fix their affections upon things above, 
 and to look to the future world as a final home 
 and place of rest. They are more likely to be 
 " poor in spirit," to " mourn," to be " meek," 
 to " hunger and thirst after righteousness," to 
 be " merciful," to be " pure in heart," to be 
 " peacemakers," to be " persecuted for righte- 
 ousness' sake," to be " reviled, and to have all 
 manner of evil spoken of them falsely ;" and 
 they are, of course, the more likely to enjoy 
 the blessings promised to such. The rich in 
 this world's goods must look upon the poor 
 and the suffering as the special objects of their 
 stewardship : poverty and pain are the fields 
 in which they must labour, and in which their 
 graces must be exercised, and their Christian 
 characters formed. It is not enough to found 
 hospitals, build churches, establish monaste- 
 ries — to feed, lodge, and clothe the poor; 
 but to cultivate that " charity, without which, 
 if men bestow all their goods to feed the poor 
 
82 CHARITY — BUT NOT BY PROXY. 
 
 and give their bodies to be burned, it profiteth 
 nothing." The inheritance of the kingdom 
 prepared for the blessed from the foundation 
 of the world, is given to those who give meat 
 to the hungry, drink to the thirsty ; who re- 
 ceive strangers, clothe the naked, visit the 
 sick, and go unto those who are in prison. 
 This blessedness is not proffered to those who 
 perform this duty by proxy. It is not pro- 
 mised to the church, but to individuals who 
 perform these offices for even the humblest 
 of the human family. 
 
 Papal Rome did not cease to inculcate 
 charity, and extol it as the highest of Christian 
 virtues ; but this she did, not that she cared 
 for the poor, but because "she was a thief, and 
 had the bag, and bare what was put therein."* 
 Like Judas, whose apparent zeal for the poor 
 exceeded that of the other disciples, his zeal 
 to fill his bag having increased with the ava- 
 rice which the bearing of that bag had engen- 
 dered, the papacy preached charity with in- 
 
 * John xii. 6. 
 
WHERE THE CARCASS, THERE THE BIRDS OF PREY. 83 
 
 creasing earnestness when avarice had become 
 the motive. The experience of the Romish 
 church proved that where there is a bag of 
 money to be held, or large sums to be ad- 
 ministered, a Judas will creep into the office. 
 It was a fatal error of that church to expose 
 her officers to such manifold temptations. 
 Having assumed the charge of such vast 
 wealth and the administration of such im- 
 mense power, virtue in priests and bishops 
 and popes became nearly impossible. Reli- 
 gious houses and charitable institutions be- 
 came the scenes of frightful abuse and per- 
 version. No wickedness of this world has 
 much exceeded that which these abuses have 
 exhibited. 
 
 The history of the world proves that such 
 power and such wealth cannot safely be con- 
 fided to human agencies. Even if the virtues 
 of those whose purity of life has commanded 
 unlimited confidence, being strengthened from 
 above, hold out, their positions will be coveted, 
 and eventually seized by those whom no scru- 
 
84 ROME KEPT ALIVE THE GRACE OF CHARITY. 
 
 pies restrain. The true theory is, to reduce 
 temptation to the lowest practicable point, in 
 social, political, and religious life : enough will 
 still remain to tax all the energies of human 
 virtue and endurance. 
 
 When Rome had assumed the government 
 of all Christendom, and had put forth every 
 device which cunning and wickedness could 
 contrive to increase her power and to extract 
 money from her votaries, she preached cha- 
 rity unceasingly, as the great feature and 
 characteristic of the Christian religion. Cha- 
 rity was proclaimed as the highest of graces 
 and the most pressing of duties. Whilst the 
 main object was to become the administrators 
 of charity, and to absorb the alms of the faith- 
 ful, it happily fell out, that all the givers did 
 not select the church as the medium of their 
 bounty, and that many actually practised that 
 charity which was chiefly enforced from in- 
 terested motives. St. Paul says that some, 
 even in his day, ^^ preached Christ of envy 
 and strife." — " What then ? — whether in pre- 
 
BRIGHT SPOTS IN ROMANISM. 85 
 
 tence or in truth, Christ is preached.'*' So 
 charity was inculcated during a long series of 
 ages, from interested motives, and continues 
 so to be enforced. Yet we have much reason 
 to rejoice over this teaching. During the long 
 night of the dark ages, the duties of alms- 
 giving and liberality to the church for the 
 sake of the poor being urged with all the zeal 
 of self-interest, was thus kept before the minds 
 and in the hearts of men, in a period when 
 almost every other semblance of Christianity 
 disappeared. 
 
 When the annals of Charity shall be fully 
 written, it will be found that this dark period 
 furnishes, under the influence of Romish 
 teachings, many as bright and beautiful exam- 
 ples of lives devoted to charity as any the 
 world has ever beheld. The invention of 
 works of supererogation contributed, no doubt, 
 to form such characters, and to stimulate that 
 perseverance in good works which should have 
 sprung from a clear comprehension of the true 
 
 • Phil. i. 16, 18. 
 8 
 
86 THE SAINTS OF THE DAKK AGES. 
 
 plan of salvation. The corruptions and abuses 
 of the Romish church assumed in this period 
 a form in which the priesthood, in all its 
 grades, must naturally become ambitious, cor- 
 rupt, and tyrannical ; the mass of the people 
 ignorant, superstitious, and enslaved. A 
 few, from peculiar temperament or accidental 
 advantages, might stand forth in the exercise 
 of Christian graces of the highest degree, but 
 not unfrequently mingled with forbidding aus- 
 terities and stoical virtues more pagan than 
 Christian. The dark ages added many saints 
 to the Roman calendar, and the church, which 
 could not make these men available for selfish 
 ends while they lived, canonized them and 
 used them efficiently after they left this world. 
 It was this interested devotion to the subject 
 of charity which constituted the salt by which, 
 humanly speaking, Christianity was preserved 
 from utter suspension during this lapse of 
 ages. This was at least the spark which kept 
 it alive in the Romish coinmunion, which, by 
 the worship of saints and images, had made a 
 
PERVERSIONS OF CHARITY. 87 
 
 long step back into paganism. He who could 
 have looked upon this church in this period, 
 and compared its immense complications of 
 power and wealth, and wickedness, with the 
 practices and teachings of the great Head of 
 Christianity, would have perceived nothing in 
 common between the two systems but these 
 gleams of charity shooting athwart the vision 
 in the vast mass of papal gloom. 
 
 During this corrupt period the charitable 
 institutions, which had multiplied without 
 number in. the primitive ages of Christianity, 
 under an infinity of names and organization, 
 were, to a great extent, perverted from their 
 true design and the objects of the founders. 
 Monasteries, hospitals, religious houses of 
 every name became nests of lazy drones, 
 consuming and wasting the bounty of the 
 charitable — the patrimony of the poor. Many 
 associations, which had their origin in a plan 
 of joint labour for the poor, became sinks, 
 swallowing the benefactions attracted to 
 their institutions by the purity and industry 
 
88 ABUSE OF CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 of the early associates. The richly endowed 
 establishments which were to feed the poor 
 and take care of the sick, to ransom the cap- 
 tive, far and wide around them, ceased to be 
 dispensers of alms, and consumed within 
 their own walls those streams of plenty 
 which should have watered a wide region. 
 It is true, these houses seldom wholly shut 
 their doors against the poor who were able 
 to reach them, but the inmates ceased to 
 furnish the cup of cold water to those who 
 could not apply, to visit the sick and those 
 who were in prison. These duties were left 
 to the charity of individuals. Not only were 
 these ancient establishments thus perverted 
 and abused, but innumerable others were 
 founded, and, in like manner, abused. The 
 mass of these perversions and corruptions, 
 became so great finally, as to draw the atten- 
 tion of all who had minds even partially free 
 from the bondage of the church. They be- 
 came an offence to all such in Christendom. 
 The streams which fed the abuses began to 
 
SALE OF INDULGENCES. 89 
 
 fail, and charity itself to fall into discredit. 
 But though alms-giving to the begging poor 
 was never given up among any Catholic popu- 
 lation, that liberality which sustained in idle- 
 ness and debauchery a lazy priesthood was 
 sensibly checked. This led at last, to the 
 incredibly wicked device of selling indul- 
 gences to sin, an impiety without parallel in 
 any other form of religion, among any other 
 people, or in any age of the world. The 
 abuses of the divine grace of charity had 
 opened the eyes of many to the corruptions 
 of the church : this sale of indulgences so 
 roused their indignation, that they shook off 
 the chains of superstition, and, becoming free 
 in thought, soon determined to be free in ac- 
 tion. A very slight examination, in this frame 
 of mind, betrayed the depths from which they 
 had emerged, and spread before them the 
 vast mass of benighted humanity held in the 
 grasp of papal power; — that power which 
 bound all its subjects to believe as it dictated, 
 to bow to its decision in faith as well as in 
 
90 FIRST EFFECTS OF THE REFORMATION. 
 
 practice ; which forbade all freedom of thought 
 or speech, and denied the word of God to those 
 whose salvation it was intended to secure; 
 which extinguished all thirst for knowledge 
 and all independence of thought; which 
 robbed God of his government and made 
 men slaves of the Church. The long abuse 
 of charity and its institutions had made 
 them a stench in the nostrils of those who 
 became awakened to papal usurpation. The 
 church for nearly a thousand years had 
 merely been telling her people what to do : 
 the men who now, after a thousand years 
 of oblivion, had taken up that rejected book, 
 the Bible, and received it as the word of God, 
 began to inquire almost exclusively, as they 
 emerged from darkness, what they should 
 believe. The intellect, set free after this long 
 inaction, exerted itself with immense vigour. 
 The truths of Holy Writ evolved with great 
 rapidity, were seized with avidity by multi- 
 tudes sighing for emancipation from mental 
 
CONTROVERSIES OF THE REFORMATION. 91 
 
 bondage. A wide field of inquiry was thus 
 thrown open, and hosts of eager inquirers 
 soon thronged the area. The absurdities and 
 enormities of the papacy were exposed with- 
 out mercy, and the doctrines of the gospel 
 were proclaimed as far as voice and press 
 could reach. It was soon experienced that 
 freedom of thought did not produce uniform- 
 ity of belief. Strong minds differed in the 
 interpretation of the gospel ; sharpened by the 
 excitements of a new liberty, and impatient of 
 control, differences of opinion gave rise to 
 animated controversies, which only confirmed 
 the disputants in the sides they had taken. 
 Papal power could enforce a seeming uniform- 
 ity of practice, but the power of the Reform- 
 ation could establish no uniformity of faith. 
 These differences, which sprang up in the 
 sixteenth century, being magnified in import- 
 ance by the special circumstances of the Re- 
 formation, being widened by protracted dis- 
 cussions, remain unsettled to this day ; they 
 gave origin to various sects, which maintain 
 
92 SECTARIAN STRIFE. 
 
 their several views with a rigid obstinacy, 
 which often engenders most unchristian 
 strife. This diversity of belief and interpre- 
 tation is an inevitable incident of free in- 
 quiry; but the evils of diversity were early 
 felt, and strong efforts were made, by the 
 adoption of creeds, platforms, confessions 
 of faith, catechisms, and other devices, to 
 secure that unity of opinion which appeared 
 to be wanting to the reformers. These efforts, 
 whatever success may be due to them, did 
 not put an end to sectarian controversies. 
 From the era of the Reformation until the 
 present time, the question has still been. What 
 is the true doctrine ? what shall we believe ? 
 and if the disputants have been sects and 
 not merely individuals, it has rendered the 
 various sects only more watchful in maintain- 
 ing their special tenets, and in keeping their 
 several followers to the line of their various 
 creeds. The eyes of Protestants have been 
 long and intently fixed upon these sectarian 
 lines of demarcation. They are jealous 
 
SECTARIAN ERRORS. 98 
 
 of their infringement in proportion to the 
 heat of controversy, rather than in propor- 
 tion to their importance. They have become 
 far less zealous of the great substantial truths 
 in which they agree, than in those matters 
 of interpretation and speculation in which 
 they differ. A large region is given them to 
 cultivate, and they quarrel about their several 
 boundaries, while the land on each side runs 
 to waste. It is clear that opinions have, by 
 these contests, been magnified into undue 
 importance, and these disputes have absorbed 
 time and attention which belonged to other 
 subjects. They have given a harshness and 
 severity of outline to sectarian differences, at 
 once forbidding and unchristian. So long as 
 the Word of God is taken as the rule of life, 
 and so long as men are permitted to think 
 for themselves, so long there must be diver- 
 sities of opinion ; but if the love of God and 
 the love of our fellow-men, about which there 
 can be no dispute, be allowed to exercise their 
 due sway, all these differences will fade into 
 
94 STUDY OP THE SCRIPTURES. 
 
 insignificance, compared with the duties to God 
 and man which invoke to active efibrt on 
 every side. It is no more the province of 
 any Protestant denomination to claim infal- 
 libihty for its opinions, than for the Bishop 
 of Rome ; and Protestants will no more yield 
 this claim to each other than to the papal chair. 
 If we examine the articles, confessions of faith, 
 creeds and catechisms of Protestants; if we 
 look into their controversies, if we attend their 
 convocations, conferences, conventions, and, 
 assemblies, we find that the burden of the 
 whole has been doctrines, theology, and 
 church government. In aid of these discus- 
 sions, the Scriptures are searched unceasingly ; 
 every book, chapter, verse, and word* have 
 been put to the test of severe examination : 
 and no bounds are placed to the industry 
 with which they are read and taught, but 
 with results far beneath what such efforts 
 should seem to promise. May not this study 
 
 • Some have even counted the letters in all the v^'ords of the 
 Bible. 
 
PROTESTANT NEGLECT OF CHRIST. 95 
 
 of the Scriptures have been made too sub- 
 servient to sectarian opinions, and too little 
 conducive to the active duties of Christian 
 love ? It should be matter of inquiry how 
 far the instructions of Christ have been made 
 the basis of reformed theology and religious 
 teaching. His precepts do not enter largely 
 into creeds nor confessions, catechisms nor 
 articles, nor are they prominent in theology 
 or religious literature. There may be reasons 
 for this, which we do not perceive; but the 
 main reasons we take to be, those already 
 indicated in the abuses of charity and its in- 
 stitutions, by the Romish Church, and in 
 the controversies growing out of the Reformar 
 tion, which naturally took the form of dis- 
 putes about what we should believe, rather 
 than what we should practise as Christians. 
 Besides the abuses which led to the Reforma- 
 tion, the disruption itself, the wars which 
 followed, and the disputes among the reformers 
 were all unsuitable soil for the growth of that 
 
96 PROTESTANT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS. 
 
 mutual love and forbearance inculcated by 
 our Saviour as the manner of life which 
 characterizes his disciples. 
 
 PROTESTANT ERRORS AND OMISSIONS. 
 
 We shall not attempt further to vindicate 
 the omissions of Protestant religious instruc- 
 tion : it is a subject too vast for us to conceive, 
 much less to execute. That there are great 
 omissions, it would be claiming too much for 
 human imperfection to doubt ; that they are 
 of vital consequence to the progress of true 
 religion, the present state of Christendom and 
 of the world demonstrates. We cannot at- 
 tempt this great task, although we lament 
 deeply that Christianity is suffering for want 
 of a vindication which shall clearly separate 
 the divine from the human. All the errors 
 of Romanism were not left behind by those 
 who came out of that church. The idea of a 
 
THE DAYS OF JUDAIZING NOT OVER. 97 
 
 great mysterious organization, a heaven-or- 
 dained corporation, which is the medium of 
 communication between Christ and his fol- 
 lowers, still clings to the minds of many. The 
 disposition to judaize, to "tithe mint and 
 rue, and pass over judgment and the love of 
 God,"* has not been exhausted, but has been 
 visible in every age since the days of the 
 apostles. " Lading men with burdens grievous 
 to be borne,"f " putting yokes upon the neck 
 of disciples,"J has been done in modern times, 
 and contiimes to be done, and Avill probably 
 continue to be done, until a further reforma- 
 tion takes place, or until men become too en- 
 lightened to be fit subjects for such spiritual 
 domination. 
 
 To step in Ijetweeu the soul of man and 
 his Creator, Redeemer, and Sanctifier, to as- 
 sume the office of mediator between them, or 
 of arbiter and absohite interpreter, is an act 
 of usurpation so daring and impious as to be 
 incredible, if our knowledge rested on less evi- 
 
 • Luke xl 42. t Luke xi. 46. J Acta xv. 10. 
 
 9 
 
98 EACH man's faith his own. 
 
 dence than our own eyes and ears. This in- 
 tervention of man between God and his crear 
 tures, is not all confined to members of the 
 papal church. The assumption is not strange 
 in the Protestant world. The gospel is to be 
 preached to every creature ; instruction is to be 
 given to every extent that is practicable ; those 
 for whom it is intended are to receive it hum- 
 bly and teachably, exercising all their facul- 
 ties to understand and digest : but the opinions 
 then formed, the faith then built up, and the 
 working of the affections then excited, the 
 union between God and the soul then formed, 
 are operations wholly between God and his 
 subject man, in which no church or other ec- 
 clesiastical agency or office can have any 
 share. The sooner men are made to feel, in- 
 dividually and as masses, the great fact that 
 their eternal salvation depends not upon any 
 church or form of religious organization, but 
 upon their individual reception of the truth — 
 not upon their union with any religious de- 
 nomination, nor upon their observance of any 
 
THE HELPS TO A CHRISTIAN LIFE. 99 
 
 fonns or ceremonies, or modes of worship, but 
 upon their individual union with God in Christ, 
 the sooner will Christianity acquire a new pro- 
 gress and surmount the barriers which now 
 retard its movements. When men fully com- 
 prehend that the basis of saving truth lies in 
 the teachings of Christ, and that all forms of 
 worship and religious observance are merely 
 means of grace, without any intrinsic saving 
 power, they will begin to look upward at once 
 to Him with whom their peace is to be made, 
 and then to their fellow men of various Chris- 
 tian organizations for aid, for instruction, for 
 encouragement, for discipline, in their strug- 
 gle to maintain a Christian life. * 
 
 THE THIRST OF POWER ALWAYS HATEFUL, STILL 
 MORE IN MATTERS OF RELIGION. 
 
 There is no craving of the human heart 
 more strongly written in human history, than 
 that after power. It is no more strongly 
 
100 MISTAKEN IDEA AS TO USE OF POWER. 
 
 written in political than in ecclesiastical 
 history : but its exhibitions, hateful and 
 mischievous everywhere, are still more so in 
 whatever concerns religion. It is the tendency 
 of human nature, exhibited in every religious 
 denomination, to obtain all the power and in- 
 fluence it can. This tendency in the primi- 
 tive churches led to their ruin and to the rise of 
 the papal power. Every minister and teacher 
 and church-officer felt that if he had more 
 power he could do more good, not remember- 
 ing his own weakness, and the corrupting in- 
 fluences of power ; not calling to mind that 
 " God hath chosen the foolish things of the 
 world to confound the wise, and the weak 
 things of the world to confound the things 
 which are mighty."* God works by human 
 agencies, but He gives no right, and takes 
 away all pretence, of these agencies, or any 
 " flesh to glory in his presence." 
 
 The thirst for power, the rage to govern, 
 infects more or less the mass and the indi- 
 
 • 1 Cor. i. 27—31. 
 
CHURCH GOVERNMENT. 101 
 
 viduals of every religious denomination; it 
 reaches towards every thing in men's conduct, 
 and every thing in their opinions. Thus men, 
 themselves weak, fallible, and the prey of 
 temptation, strive after a power which does 
 not belong to them, which they have not wis- 
 dom to wield, and which, if obtained, saps their 
 morals and ruins their souls. How little 
 countenance is given to church domination by 
 any thing contained in the lives or teachings 
 of Christ and his apostles ! How little to 
 forms and ceremonies ! The Jewish religion 
 had been one of forms and ceremonies in de- 
 tail without number ; nearly all power was in 
 the priesthood. Alf this had been perverted 
 and abused to the very utmost extent of hu- 
 man wickedness. The Christian dispensation 
 came and swept off every vestige of these 
 forms and ceremonies and the whole frame- 
 work of priestly power; it re-enacted the 
 whole moral law, in terms so comprehensive 
 and so simple as apparently to leave no escape 
 to the evasive ingenuity of erring man. It 
 
 9* 
 
102 APOSTOLIC FORM. 
 
 laid down no long array of man's duties to 
 God ; but commanded him to love God with 
 all his heart, and all his soul, and all his mind ; 
 and, instead of a long line of man's duties to 
 his fellow", he is simply enjoined to love his 
 neighbour as himself " On these two com- 
 mandments" are made to " hang all the law 
 and the prophets." There is no form of church- 
 government implied in these commands, 
 which clearly import that man's great duty 
 to God and his fellow-man can only be dis- 
 charged by a personal performance. All that 
 is contained in the writings of the apostles 
 [in the teachings of Christ there is nothing] 
 is so dim and shadow^y in outline, we are 
 forced to the conclusion it was not intended 
 to set up authoritatively any form of church 
 government, nor to convey the impression 
 that the subject was of any vital import. If 
 the form adopted by the apostles and thus 
 slightly traced be deemed obligatory^ certainly 
 the manner in which it is handed down to 
 us by its authors admonishes that we should 
 
THE SPIRIT OF FORMALISM. 
 
 not magnify tlie importance of that which is 
 so little dwelt upon by those who framed it. 
 It was because Christ appeared in the garb 
 of poverty, and without any of the power or 
 pomp or riches of this world, that the Jews 
 rejected him with such disdain : being wedded 
 to these things, they could not believe in the 
 reality of His mission who condemned and 
 denounced them. This spirit, manifested so 
 strongly by the Jews, is not extinct to this 
 day, but has been equally visible in every 
 age of the Christian era. It was with great 
 difficulty the first converts at Jerusalem could 
 believe the gospel was to be preached to the 
 Gentiles, — that they could be brought to give 
 up the practice of circumcision, the observ- 
 ance of days and feasts, and other Jewish 
 forms and regulations, and bring themselves 
 to the simple requirements of a purely spiritual 
 worship. In reality, nothing was left of Jewish 
 forms, for this spirit to feed upon ; and to re- 
 move every pretext in regard to days, — as, 
 otherwise, there would seem to be a great 
 
104 NEW WINE IN OLD BOTTLES. 
 
 propriety in adopting the seventh day of the 
 week as the day of Christian worship, — even 
 that was changed, lest it should come to be re- 
 garded rather as a continuance of the Jewish 
 Sabbath than as a day appointed by Chris- 
 tians for rest from labour and for religious 
 services. The necessity of that change is 
 made plain enough by the whole history 
 of Christianity : even now, many enforce the 
 observance of the first day of the week, in 
 the same terms and under the same sanctions 
 as those which are applied in the Old Testa- 
 ment to the seventh day. It would be incre- 
 dible, if the like were not seen upon all sides, 
 and more or less in every form of Christian- 
 ity, how this spirit of clogging its pure 
 system with excrescences which in few in- 
 stances have been of any use, and, in very 
 many, of incalculable injury — this putting new 
 wine into old bottles — has prevailed from the 
 days of the apostles down to this moment. 
 It is a spirit which may be losing some of its 
 strength, but which yet exerts its power with 
 
EXCRESCENCES. 105 
 
 extraordinary vigour : having its root in 
 some of the worst vices of the human heart, it 
 cannot readily be extirpated. The more nu- 
 merous these excrescences upon the Christian 
 system, the more numerous are the pretexts 
 for human agencies, and for the exercise of 
 spiritual power. They were piled on for ages 
 by the Eomish church. Protestants have not 
 only failed to cast off all these accumulations, 
 but adopt many of their own invention or 
 selection. It is in regard to the adoption or 
 rejection of these, that some of the most vio- 
 lent religious controversies have been carried 
 on, and in regard to which the greatest re- 
 ligious animosity and uncharitableness have 
 been displayed. The Lord's supper, an insti- 
 tution of the simplest possible kind, was the 
 subject of rank abuse in the days of the 
 apostles, and has ever since, in various ways, 
 been the subject of singular perversion. The 
 simple emblem of purification in baptism has 
 been the subject of like abuse; and because a 
 man may simply wash his face or hands or 
 
106 CEREMONIES. 
 
 feet, or may bathe his whole body in the 
 water, in either of which cases the emblem is 
 equally significant, a controversy is waged 
 with heat, not only whether baptism implies 
 washing or bathing, but whether it carries 
 with it regeneration. The ceremony of wash- 
 ing the feet has been observed among Roman- 
 ists, in a manner which is a perfect mockery 
 of that humility its appointment was intended 
 to promote and signify : among Protestants it is 
 wholly neglected. The fondness for ceremony 
 and outward forms does not reach so low as 
 this act of humility, which is as clearly en- 
 joined as the Lord's supper. 
 
 The beautiful and sublime simplicity of the 
 Christian religion is thus continually sacrificed 
 by attempts to improve — to build upon it ; its 
 progress is continually impeded by loading its 
 movements with innumerable additions of 
 man's invention. It asks none of these aids or 
 accompaniments. It can live through all these 
 abuses ; it can save many of those who are 
 unwittingly guilty of them. It requires no 
 
CHRISTIANITY SURVIVES ABUSE. 107 
 
 superstructure of man's devising, no adorn- 
 ment or trickery of his wisdom : it asks its 
 votaries to give their affections to God, and 
 their services to their fellow-men : it asks an 
 exemplification of its purity and power in 
 their lives and conversation. 
 
 HOW THE GREAT LAW OF CHARITY HAS BEEN 
 CARRIED OUT BY PROTESTANTS. 
 
 We have already adverted to the fact that 
 the reformers of the sixteenth century ad- 
 dressed themselves iriainly to the task of res- 
 cuing Holy Writ from the utter disuse to 
 which it had been doomed, and the truth 
 from that mire of traditions, superstitions, and 
 unmeaning ceremonies in which it had been 
 for so many ages sunk and lost. Their first 
 inquiries, as we have seen, were, since we dis- 
 card this mass of error and priestly trash 
 which has so long been heaping up in the 
 
108 ZEAL FOR SOUND DOCTRINE. 
 
 church of Eome, what shall we believe, and 
 what shall constitute the outline of reformed 
 doctrines ? The whole subject of charity had 
 become odious to those who had long been 
 contemplating the abuses of their church, and 
 especially the frauds and atrocities perpetrated 
 under the cloak of that Christian grace. Many 
 heavy yokes had been placed upon the necks 
 of the people by that church, and by no means 
 the lightest were those imposed under the 
 specious pretences of charity. The reformers, 
 in carrying out their work, in the ardour of a 
 conflict in which none but men of surpassing 
 energy could engage, soon forgot every con- 
 sideration and dropped every semblance of 
 charity — a virtue so long distorted before their 
 eyes. Their cry was for freedom of opinion 
 and worship, for truth, for sound doctrine. ] 
 They may have supposed that, the truth once 
 re-established and freely proclaimed, the prac- 
 tical duties of religion would be fulfilled, not 
 only with increase of intelligence, but of zeal. 
 They carried on their great work until Pro- 
 
FORMULAS OF THE REFORMATION. 100 
 
 testantism stood up clearly revealed and de- 
 fined before the world. The contest by which 
 this was accomplished, both physical and in- 
 tellectual, was one of the most remarkable for 
 interest, fierceness, and endurance, which the 
 world has ever witnessed. Rome did not per- 
 mit this afli'ont to her supremacy without 
 exerting all her power and all the unscrupu- 
 lous wickedness of interested dignitaries. The 
 vigour of youthful liberty and free opinions 
 overpowered a church in its dotage. In this 
 contest charity had no part. Unhappily, the 
 reformers not only scouted the Romish abuse 
 of charity, but they neglected to give this 
 divine grace that place in their system which 
 it occupies in the New Testament, which it 
 claims in every Christian's heart, and without 
 which all forms of religion must be incom- 
 plete, if not false. In none of the formulas 
 of the Reformation, in none of its creeds, con- 
 fessions, catechisms, did the subject of charity 
 figure according to that precedency which is 
 given to it in the teachings of Christ and his 
 
 10 
 
no CHARITY LEFT OUT. 
 
 apostles ; and in many instances it was lost 
 sight of altogether. The doctrine of human de- 
 pravity, imputed righteousness, justification 
 by faith, repentance, regeneration, the head- 
 ship of Christ, the freeness of God's grace, 
 among very many others, were brought to 
 light and vindicated as truths of the gospel : 
 innumerable errors of Komish doctrine and 
 belief were singled out, refuted, and held up 
 to ridicule or public detestation. All this was 
 done ; but all reformers have found it more 
 easy to pull down than to build up. Men can 
 seldom glory over their own work. They 
 dragged Romanism from the horse, and in at- 
 tempting to mount, they went clear over to 
 the other side. The priests of Rome preached 
 charity as a mode of enriching the church ; 
 and while streams of charity flowed from their 
 joeople to the poor, many of the rich continued 
 to make the church and its officers the depo- 
 sitaries of their wealth, in confidence that it 
 would be applied to the relief of the needy. 
 These streams of bounty they swelled with all 
 
STRUCTURE OF PROTESTANTISM. Ill 
 
 the skill and all the means in their power. The 
 subject was never forgotten, but kept con- 
 stantly before the minds of the people. How- 
 ever unfaithful the priest, the bishop, or the 
 monk may have been to their trust, yet how 
 many were moved, by such constant appeals 
 to their kindness, to the regular and faithful 
 distribution of alms ! How many were in con- 
 sequence visited in prison ! how many of the 
 naked were clothed ! how many of the sick 
 were visited ! to how many of the thirsty was 
 the cup of cold water administered. True, 
 many did all this without any clear concep- 
 tion of scriptural charity; but the exercise 
 of such kindness must more or less cultivate 
 the true grace it represents. 
 
 The reformers took the Bible in their 
 hands, reared the standard of truth, swept 
 off the rubbish of Romanism, and erected the 
 fabric of Protestantism, but overlooked, in 
 their readings of the New Testament, its im- 
 l^erative injunctions of brotherly kindness. 
 Their building was massy, of noble and severe 
 
112 REAL MERITS OF THE REFORMATION. 
 
 outline : its frame-work of truth was of im- 
 pregnable strength, yet was it cold, forbidding, 
 and uncomfortable; it w^as neither warmed 
 nor lighted by charity. The men of the Re- 
 formation were men of truth, not of charity. 
 It was an age which called into action all the 
 stern energies of the man, the warrior, and 
 the defender of truth. When every nerve of 
 mental and physical exertion was strung to 
 its utmost intensity, the milder graces of cha- 
 rity were forgotten amid scenes in which there 
 appeared so little occasion for their exercise. 
 Look into the theology of the Reformation and 
 Bee if it be not subject to this reproach. It is 
 a form of Christianity with charity left out ; 
 and yet if this form implied a strength of faith 
 which "could remove mountains," it would be 
 "nothing." It is a monstrous technicality; it 
 is sculptured marble, white and beautiful, but 
 rigid and unfeeling^ 
 
 This takes away none of the real merits of 
 the Reformation. The Bible was rescued from 
 oblivion and placed in the hands of the peo- 
 
THE BIBLE GIVEN TO THE PEOPLE. 113 
 
 pie, as the rule of their faith — a lamp for 
 their feet, and a light to their path. It would 
 be very wrong to assert that those who had 
 thus newly placed their hands upon the word 
 of God must be the safest expositors of its in- 
 junctions. They executed a task as great as 
 any men ever achieved, but they should not 
 continue to be our sole spiritual teachers. We 
 are bound to search the Scriptures for our- 
 selves, and all who faithfully study the teach- 
 ings of Christ will find a mine of instruction 
 which is not prominent in the writings of 
 reformers. Romanism is like a man full of 
 all manner of disease, immersed in ignorance 
 and mental darkness, in slavish subjection to 
 the power of the church, but with a hand often 
 open to succour the poor. Protestantism is 
 a giant of bone ai)d sinew and iron nerve ; 
 full of enterprise, energy, and action ; ready 
 to defend the right and to do justice, and 
 anned to battle for the truth ; but with a hand 
 more yeody to discipline than relieve the beg- 
 gar. ''It is very clear that true Christians are 
 
 10* 
 
114 OUR ONLY SAFE GUIDE. 
 
 not made so by any virtue in Romanism, nor 
 by any virtue in Protestantism. Both these 
 forms of religion are of man's construction, 
 and, however great the difference in their 
 merit, they both partake of human frailty. 
 Our only safe guide is the word of God in our 
 own hands, the teachings of w^hich in their 
 main scope are so plain that the humblest in- 
 tellect may find the words of eternal life. ■ 
 
 THE BENEFITS OF THE REFORMATION NO REASON 
 FOR PERPETUATING ITS ERRORS. 
 
 Whilst it is true that the errors of the 
 reformers were such as belonged to the pe- 
 riod, the occasion, and the kind of men who 
 were called to do the w^ork; and whilst it 
 is equally true that in some sense the reforma- 
 tion is a work continued to this day — for the 
 contest with Romish error is far from being 
 ended, — ^yet the sins, omissions, and mistakes 
 
ERROR IN ALL HUMAN DOINGS. 115 
 
 of the early reformation should be as carefully 
 rectified and avoided as any other errors or 
 transgressions. The success of the reformers, 
 in the first instance, was remarkable ; but they 
 were far from seizing and presenting the whole 
 scope and spirit of Christianity. Error min- 
 gles in all human doings : the reformation ex- 
 hibits its share. It has been the duty of Pro- 
 testants ever since, not only to vindicate 
 constantly the great truths brought out at the 
 Reformation, but constantly to extend and pu- 
 rify their knowledge ; and, whilst thus hold- 
 ing up the truth, to aim at a better fulfilment 
 of the duties of Christianity. It is to be feared 
 that what was a necessary feature of the 
 early reformation has been too exclusive a 
 characteristic ever since of Protestantism — a 
 devotion to Christian truth far exceeding our 
 devotion to Christian duty. Our preaching 
 and our teaching have been carried on with 
 wonderful zeal and diligence ; many run to and 
 fro, and knowledge is increased; the means 
 of grace are spread abroad and resorted to with 
 
116 NO ZEAL CAN DISPENSE WITH CHARITY. 
 
 a perseverance that evinces a just apprecia- 
 tion of Christian truth ; but it is too little felt 
 that all this comes far short of practical Chris- 
 tianity. 
 
 No attendance upon the preaching of the 
 gospel, nor upon the ordinances of any 
 church or congregation, nor upon any minis- 
 trations — no zeal nor industry in Bible classes 
 nor catechetical teaching — no liberality in 
 sustaining the ministry, nor any of the enter- 
 prises of the churches, can dispense us from 
 the obligation to love our neighbour as our- 
 selves — ^from doing unto others as we would 
 have them do unto us ; nor from any of those 
 duties of charity which are so strongly en- 
 joined by Christ himself as the chief of our 
 duties. Truth cannot save us; even that 
 faith which can remove mountains is insuffi- 
 cient without charity. No zeal for prayers, 
 or liturgy, or church service, nor creed, nor 
 confessions, nor for the Bible itself, can re- 
 place the duties of brotherly kindness. It is 
 all vain to call Lord, Lord, if we do not the 
 
LOVE NOT IN WORD, BUT IN DEED. 117 
 
 things which our Lord says.* " But whoso 
 hath this world's good, and seeth his brother 
 have need, and shutteth up his bowels of com- 
 passion from him, how dwelleth the love of 
 God in him ? My little children, let us not 
 love in word, neither in tongue, but in deed 
 and in truth."f 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTESTANTISM DEVE- 
 LOPED IN ITS GROWTH. 
 
 Protestantism does not, however, owe all 
 its distinguishing features to the events of the 
 Reformation nor to the peculiarities of the 
 reformers. The church of Rome having 
 long held men in temporal and spiritual 
 bondage, the truths which the Reformation 
 brought to light constituted a real emanci- 
 pation. Before that time, men's minds and 
 estates were claimed by the church, and the 
 claim was enforced to an extent which checked 
 
 • Luke vi. 46. f 1 ^ohn iii. 17, 18. 
 
118 PROTESTANT ENERGY. 
 
 energy, enterprise, and industrial progress. 
 All Europe and the world soon felt the acti- 
 vity and life infused into business by Pro- 
 testant energy. This was the natural 
 result of that mental freedom which per- 
 mitted men to determine their course of life, 
 free from the bonds of superstition and priest- 
 ly rule. Science, literature, industry, and 
 commerce, all felt the new impulse, and com- 
 menced the great career which has brought 
 the world to its present advanced position ; 
 the fetters being removed which had bound 
 men for a thousand years to miserable inac- 
 tion and mental sloth. Galileo and Copernicus 
 could safely have announced their discoveries 
 under the protection of Luther. Newton would 
 have been treated like them, had he lived in 
 their days, under papal rule. At the time 
 this Protestant energy began to display its 
 power, the treasures of the New World were 
 pouring into Europe, and doubtless aided to 
 stimulate that movement which was then so 
 remarkable, and which has continued until it 
 
LIBERTY OF THOUGHT PROMOTES ENERGY. 119 
 
 exhibits in the results of three centuries' pro- 
 gress a greater advance than in all the pre- 
 vious history of the world. To trace this 
 progress in its connection with reformed 
 Christianity, would be a topic worthy of vo- 
 lumes. We do not speak of this as progress 
 in Christianity; we do not claim it as a 
 Christian conquest. It has sprung from that 
 freedom of mind which is essential to Chris- 
 tianity, but it has in a large degree been 
 achieved in defiance or neglect of the great 
 law of charity. 
 
 The most remarkable developments of 
 human energy which have ever been exhi- 
 bited have taken place in connection with 
 the enjoyment of more than ordinary per- 
 sonal or national liberty. Thus was mani- 
 fested the military energy of Greece and Rome ; 
 thus the commercial energy of the Italian re- 
 publics, the Hanse towns; but no human 
 energy has ever equalled that which has been 
 displayed under the liberty conferred by Pro- 
 testantism. This has been exerted equally 
 
120 EXAMPLES. 
 
 in peace, in science, in arts, in industrial pro- 
 duction, and in commerce. /It would not be 
 just to claim for Protestantism all that has 
 been accomplished, yet it may be safely as- 
 serted that Protestants have led the way in 
 this great advance of knowledge, art, and in- 
 dustry. Many Catholic countries have re- 
 mained almost stationary : witness Italy, 
 Spain, Portugal, Ireland, Mexico, and the 
 countries of South America. German Catho- 
 lics have had the aid and have been stimu- 
 lated by the example of German Protestants. 
 France once had a large infusion of Protest- 
 ants, who were notoriously the most enlight- 
 ened and the most industrious of her people : 
 when they were cruelly massacred or driven 
 abroad, they carried with them the best manu- 
 facturing skill of their country. How much 
 the progress of France was retarded by this 
 insane and wicked persecution can never be 
 told ; it may be conjectured from the advance 
 made since that revolution in which the 
 whole nation rose in mass and shook off the 
 
PROTESTANT ENERGIES NOT OVER PURE. 121 
 
 thraldom of the papacy. If France had then 
 become Protestant, her social progress would 
 haYe responded to the greatness of her efforts 
 and sacrifices ; but having made the attempt 
 to cast off all religion, she easily fell back into 
 the arms of the Priesthood, never again, we 
 may hope, to relapse into the darkness of papal 
 superstition. The Romish religions of France 
 and Spain are far from being identical in 
 their power over the people. 
 / But we cannot by any means claim this 
 Protestant superiority as any triumph for 
 Christianity. The energy which has achie- 
 ved so much in Great Britain and the United 
 States, and other Protestant countries, has 
 not always been controlled by the pure mo- 
 tives of Christianity. No, far from it ! Hu- 
 man faculties and energies, set free from 
 bondage, spiritual and temporal, would not 
 naturally engage in the service of the Re- 
 deemer. Rome, where she had or has the 
 power, holds her subjects to the service 
 
 of the church : Protestantism can only offer 
 
 11 
 
122 PROTESTANT CONQUESTS SMALL. 
 
 to those by whom she is surrounded, the invi- 
 tations of the gospel on the one hand ; whilst 
 the world, with all its allurements, presents 
 its inducements on the other. In this strug- 
 gle, every human effort has been employed. 
 The Protestant ministry have armed them- 
 selves with all the learning of the world ; they 
 have built up a great science of theology; 
 they have formed themselves into a variety 
 of camps, holding every variety of opinion 
 which free minds can draw from the study 
 of their acknowledged rule of life, the Scrip- 
 tures ; and they have unitedly exerted an 
 amount of labour and zeal in their work, 
 which has seldom been surpassed in any de- 
 partment of life, by any class of men. These 
 efforts, continued now through two centuries, 
 have not been without results. Yet the full 
 benefits of Christianity have been brought 
 home to a few only of those who have en- 
 joyed all these advantages. ; It may be feared 
 that not a tenth of the people of any Protest- 
 ant country can be truly claimed as having 
 
THE MEN OF THE WORLD NOT IDLE. 123 
 
 been unfeigned disciples of Christ, taking their 
 ministers as judges. This is a small triumph, 
 indeed, if we regard the efforts made, and the 
 means employed. But if few have been saved, 
 many have been brought within the influences 
 of the gospel, to submit to many of its require- 
 ments, to contribute to its support, to acknow- 
 ledge its worth, to conform to its morality ; 
 and thus characteristics have been imparted 
 to the population of Protestant countries 
 which are peculiarly their own. AYIiile the 
 zeal and labours of Christian ministers were 
 thus applied to draw converts from the mul- 
 titude, the men of the world were not less 
 energetically employed. Whilst they, for the 
 most part, were constramed by the force of 
 public opinion to preserve an outward appear- 
 ance of respect for religion, all their plans 
 and labours were dictated and carried on 
 under motives of consideration purely human. 
 In this play of* the human faculties, under no 
 powerful constraint, their powers for good 
 and evil have been more signally developed 
 
124 INTENSE SELFISHNESS. 
 
 and displayed than in any age of the world. 
 A new race of men has sprung up, and intel- 
 lectual power is more widely spread among 
 the masses than ever heretofore. Human 
 nature has asserted its evil tendencies in the 
 most striking forms; but in no way so re- 
 markable as in the form of that intense self- 
 ishness which is manifested in the pursuit 
 of wealth and power. Whilst we might dwell 
 upon many triumphs of science, art, and indus- 
 try, in Protestant countries, as these do not lie 
 within the scope of our subject, we feel bound 
 to say that too great devotion to the pursuit 
 of riches, to the increase of production and 
 the extension of commerce, has been their 
 chief characteristic. It is not to be wondered 
 that where human nature had full scope, it 
 should spend itself in a direction, so much 
 in accordance with its dictates. Men no longer 
 feared the deprivation of their wealth under 
 the fearful terrors of the inquisition or the 
 powerful suction of the church. They re- 
 garded only the laws of the land. Under these 
 
BATTLE OF LIFE. 126 
 
 circumstances, the business of the world took 
 a start, which left far in the shade any ex- 
 ample in its previous history. The energies 
 and the talents of men grew with their un- 
 wonted exercise, and strengthened from gene- 
 ration to generation. It became a great strug- 
 gle, in which the most powerful intellects, the 
 greatest talents, the largest experience, the 
 deepest skill, or the most consummate cun- 
 ning, gained the victory. In this contest 
 every possible human effort was exerted. 
 Emulation and competition became control- 
 ling elements in this pursuit of- wealth. ] The 
 excitements of the gambler were often added 
 to the other motives'of those engaged in this 
 struggle, by the unavoidable complications 
 and uncertainties which attended many of 
 the best laid schemes. The minds of men 
 became thus absorbed to a degree which 
 would be incredible if we were not daily wit- 
 nesses, f In the midst of all tliis turmoil, there 
 arose a business morality, exhibiting a punc- 
 tuality, an adherence to contracts, an honesty 
 
 ir 
 
126 BUSINESS MORALITY. 
 
 in the execution of trusts, a 'faithfulness to 
 promises — far exceeding what the world had 
 ever known. It was in fact, a necessity of 
 business, without which by mutual consent, 
 the immense transactions of which it was the 
 bond, could never have been carried on. It 
 borrowed some of its maxims from Christi- 
 anity, and the whole of this vast movement 
 had a tinge of Christian colouring thrown 
 over it, gilding many of its deformities, but 
 not sanctifying them. 
 
 It is but too plain that the Protestant 
 ministry, not being able to stem the tide of 
 this resistless stream of human selfishness, 
 mingled too much with it. As the early Ro- 
 man priesthood compromised with that pa- 
 ganism which they became less and less able 
 to overcome as they became more corrupt, 
 and adopted many of its customs and prac- 
 tices, as a fit amalgamation with the papacy, 
 we have too much reason to believe that a 
 gradual compromise took place between the 
 devotees of mammon and the ministers of 
 
THE MEN OF THIS WORLD. 127 
 
 Christj Protestantism was strong enough and 
 pure enough to command respect, to establish 
 a public opinion, and by this means to enforce 
 a seeming submission to some of the external 
 requirements of Christianity. The men of this 
 world conceded so much, and are received into 
 Protestant congregations, not as Christians, 
 but as the material upon which the teaching 
 and preaching is to be expended. They be- 
 come hearers of the word, and large contri- 
 butors to the maintenance of ministers and 
 teachers. They are officers in the temporal 
 affairs of the congregations, and exercise no 
 small control in all their concerns. In the 
 Romish church, the priesthood hold in their 
 hands not only all its spiritual affairs, but all 
 its property and business of every kind. 
 Among the Protestants are two classes — the 
 real Christians, members of the church ; and 
 the mere hearers, spectators, members of the 
 congregations. Among the Romanists, all are 
 alike members of the church, whatever dif- 
 ference there may be in their respective at- 
 
128 THEIR INFLUENCE IN THE CHURCHES. 
 
 tention to its requirements : all are members 
 who are not excommunicated. The men of 
 the world have, then, a strong position in Pro- 
 testant churches, and exercise a visible in- 
 fluence. The whole expenditure of Protestant 
 congregations of almost every denomination, 
 for every purpose, religious and philanthropic, 
 is derived, in a large degree, from those who 
 are not acknowledged to be real disciples of 
 Christ. 
 
 Those who thus contribute may be, and 
 are, frequently, patterns of business morality ; 
 they may be kind neighbours, good friends, 
 and praiseworthy in all the relations of this 
 life ; but they are regarded as more devoted 
 to this world than to the world to come. We 
 undertake not to say how much of good or of 
 evil may be in all this ; but we ask if there 
 be not some danger in this commingling of the 
 men of the world and the disciples of Christ 
 in the business of the churches ? Will not the 
 former exercise an influence proportionate to 
 their contributions ? And are not their con- 
 
THE world's maxims IN THE CHURCH. 129 
 
 tributions frequently the largest? Can we 
 not, in fact, readily point out some of the re- 
 sults of this hybrid system ? One of these is, 
 that the spirit of business, which rules in the i 
 affairs of the world, has largely invaded the 1 
 churches. In many Protestant countries; 
 others being the judges, religion has become 
 merely an affair of state, or a matter of busi- 
 ness.^ But we may pass over these large ex- 
 emplifications, in which political control aided 
 the evil result, and regard only the purest and 
 best of their churches. In these, even, religion 
 has assumed many of the maxims and prac- 
 tices of business. Buildings are erected for 
 the worship of God where men are found to 
 pay for them ; ministers preach where men 
 are found to pay them ; congregations assem- 
 ble in costly temples which they have con- 
 tributed to build, or the services of which they 
 contribute to maintain ; ministers and mis- 
 sionaries are trained up and go forth where 
 there is money provided to educate and main- 
 tain them ; associations are created to promote 
 
130 MONEY IS THE MAINSPRING. 
 
 every form of philanthropy where money can 
 be had to sustain them. Every manner of 
 good work is accomplished where money can 
 be had to pay for it. A division of labour is 
 established in religion and good works. Some 
 furnish the head, some the heart, some the 
 hands, and some the money. In these pro- 
 cesses, the riches of this world become a ruling 
 element, a foundation of all the system, and 
 the cause of all the success. It would be im- 
 possible to distinguish in all this work, what 
 share' is taken by those of whom it is said, 
 ^* It is easier for a camel to go through the 
 eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter 
 into the kingdom of God;" but it is well 
 known they partake largely and wield an im- 
 portant influence. Money, in too strong a 
 sense, is the mainspring of a large portion of this 
 activity; remove this spring, and the machmer 
 ry would stop. Whence comes this money ? 
 It is not the voluntary offerings of crowds 
 who come up cheerfully and pour their con- 
 tributions into the treasury of the churches. 
 
THIS MONEY IS EXACTED. 131 
 
 It is levied, nay even exacted, by a system 
 and under influences which do not permit 
 denial ; under such penalties as the givers are 
 afraid to incur. It has become a great busi- 
 ness to raise money for religious and benevo- 
 lent purposes. A man may live in the house 
 of another, if he pays the rent ; he may own 
 real estate in any country, if he pays the taxes ; 
 so he may have a seat in the house of God -if 
 he pays its assessment. He may occupy a 
 respectable position in the church, and in the 
 society around it, if he contributes liberally, 
 when called upon, to all the numerous de- 
 mands which religious and charitable associa- 
 tions make upon him.' It would be hard to 
 conjecture how much of the money levied in 
 this way would be got, if it were left to flow 
 in solely by the spontaneous movements of the 
 contributors. Certainly a very small portion. 
 It is a regular system of business, this sys- 
 tematic benevolence ; and if this feature be 
 taken away, the whole must fall to the ground, 
 unless some other life be breathed into it. A 
 
132 THIS IS NOT THE CHRISTIAN SYSTEM. 
 
 vast amount of good may be thus accom- 
 plished; many good Christians may mingle 
 in these labours ; yet this system is not Chris- 
 tianity, nor has it the purity or vitality of the 
 Christian system. 
 
 We protest against Christianity being made 
 responsible for this mode of operation, what- 
 ever of good or evil may be the result. It is 
 rather an excrescence fastened upon Chris- 
 tianity by human frailty, and being so at- 
 tached, it is regarded by too many beholders, 
 who 'take not the trouble to examine, as a 
 part of the Christian system. Let the probe 
 be freely applied, and it will be found this ex- 
 crescence is no part of the system which it 
 overshadows, conceals, and deforms. 
 
 We mean not unqualified condemnation : 
 every form or manifestation of Christianity 
 must be more or less marred by human frailty. 
 Let us be .careful to separate that which is 
 human from that which is divine : and, above 
 all, let us be careful not to place that which 
 is human above that which is divine. We 
 
CHARITY AS GOOD FOR GIVER AS RECEIVER. 133 
 
 merely point to a system professedly Chris- 
 tian, by which men commit their charity to 
 the keeping of others, and permit their good 
 works to grow upon other people's vines : by 
 which we may do good to others, but get none 
 for ourselves. 
 
 But let us not too much disparage this 
 business-like philanthrophy : it is a tribute 
 to the sublimer spirit of Christianity ; yet not 
 to be confounded with that system in which 
 the gift of two mites may exceed in import- 
 ance and in results the bestowal of millions. 
 We would not condemn, we would not dis- 
 courage this kind of effort ; it may lead some 
 to think they are fulfilling all their Christian 
 duties, and thus lead them astray; but the 
 general tendency must be to open the chan- 
 nels of good affections, to liberalize the mind, 
 and to strengthen benevolent emotions. 
 
 Christianity designs the exercise of charity 
 to be as useful to those who exercise it as to 
 those in whose favour it is exercised — to him 
 who gives alms as to him who receives them. 
 
134 IT CANNOT WAIT FOR DIRECTION, 
 
 to those who visit the sick and suffering and 
 the imprisoned, who clothe the naked and 
 feed the hungry, to those who administer the 
 cup of cold water to the thirsty, as to those in 
 ^ whose favour these kind offices are performed. 
 Christian charity is the overflowing of kindly 
 afiections: it cannot commit to others that 
 which it can perform itself: it cannot wait for 
 direction nor arrangement, but promptly 
 stretches forth the hand of succour, wherever 
 it finds a claim for relief. Charity is poured 
 from the heart ; that which springs up in the 
 soul, that loves its neighbour as it loves itself, 
 can never be satisfied by paying contributions 
 into the treasury of any association, however 
 praiseworthy its objects. The starving pauper 
 craves bread with no stronger sensations than 
 the charitable soul desires to minister to him 
 the succour and comfort he needs : the sons 
 and daughters of affliction crave sympathy 
 and consolation with no stronger emotions 
 than are felt by the charitable souls who fly 
 to commune with and comfort them. Charity 
 
BUT CRAVES THE PLEASURE OF GIVING. 135 
 
 does not consist in any system which merely 
 secures comfort to the poor and afflicted : 
 it consists in the overflowing of those affec- 
 tions which prompt us to fly uncalled to the 
 help of the miserable. 
 
 TOO MUCH RELIANCE ON LEARNING.— THE AF- 
 FECTIONS TO BE EXERCISED AS WELL AS THE 
 MIND. 
 
 Christianity has suffered from the labours 
 of men in another aspect. While the spirit 
 of business has invaded religion on one side, 
 learning and theology have occupied too much 
 ground on the other. It required but a few 
 years of Christ's ministry to announce his great 
 message. These simple but sublime truths 
 are recorded by the four evangelists in very 
 small space. They are so plain that he that 
 runs may understand. Christ consummated 
 his mission by suffering on the cross, and 
 the work of redemption was accomplished. 
 
136 ALL CANNOT BE VERSED IN THEOLOGY. 
 
 His apostles went forth to proclaim the glad 
 tidings of salvation : they exhorted, explained, 
 argued, vindicated, and illustrated, according 
 to the circumstances in which they were 
 placed, and the persons to whom they ad- 
 dressed themselves, whether Jew or Gentile. 
 Both were opposed to the truth, and to both 
 were applied such motives and treatment as 
 their case required. 
 
 "We mean not to urge any objections to 
 theology in itself, nor to deny that our spi- 
 ritual teachers should be versed in such 
 knowledge. They may by such learning be 
 more thoroughly furnished to every good 
 work, and be enabled to prosecute their 
 labours with more success among all classes 
 of men. But all Christians cannot be versed 
 in theology : it cannot safely be asserted how 
 much knowledge is requisite to save a be- 
 liever. This gauge is not placed in human 
 hands. It is true, the more knowledge of the 
 Christian system the better ; but if this light 
 emit no heat, it is deceptive and injurious. 
 
LIGHT SHOULD NOT BE WITHOUT HEAT. 137 
 
 It is not the knowledge of God, but the love 
 of God, which constitutes the Christian : it is 
 not Christian doctrine as measured by human 
 faculties which makes Christianity, but the 
 perfect love of our neighbour. Men are not 
 saved by their knowledge, but by their affec- 
 tions. Few can make high attainments in 
 knowledge, but all may in the exercise of 
 kindly feelings. Men are less answerable for 
 the degree of their knowledge than they are 
 for the use they make of it. If the temple 
 is not warmed as well as lighted, it is not the 
 abode of a Christian man. 
 
 We fear that too great prominence is given 
 to doctrinal instruction. Too much effort is 
 given to discipline men into parallel belief, 
 to -curb and restrain men's minds into one or 
 a few channels of faith. All efforts thus ap- 
 plied have fallen far more short of success in 
 reality than they have even in appearance. 
 It is far from true that the individuals of any 
 denomination of Christians agree in opinions; 
 there are, probably, as many shades of belief 
 
 12* 
 
188 THE TRUE MODE OF PREACHING. 
 
 as there are differences in minds. It is im- 
 possible to bring various mental capacities to 
 one measure ; to carry all to the same goal, 
 or to stop all at the same place. Let not the 
 attempt of equalizing men's belief be carried 
 to extremes; Christian knowledge need not 
 be carried beyond the bounds to which the 
 heart can send the warmth and life of Chris- 
 tian affections. There is nothing now so 
 much needed by Christianity from its profes- 
 sors as an earnest exemplification of Christ's 
 teachings. This would preach louder than a 
 thousand voices ; this would be more eloquent 
 than ten thousand volumes ; this would carry 
 conviction where no human instrumentality 
 could ever penetrate. 
 
139 
 
 THE ESTABLISHED CHURCH OF ENGLAND— ITS ABUSES 
 AT THE REFORMATION— ITS NEGLECT OF THE POOR 
 AND THE SUFFERING. 
 
 We admit that other men, clothed with 
 powers similar to those wielded by the Ro- 
 mish ecclesiastics, would equally have abused 
 them. The very first steps of the Reformar 
 tion afford striking examples. In no country 
 had the religious liberality of Catholic laity 
 ]x;en displayed on a larger scale than in Eng- 
 land. This munificence, in the course of seve- 
 ral centuries previous to the Reformation, had 
 placed in the hands of the clergy quite a large 
 proportion of the best estates in land of that 
 kingdom. The tendency to' this kind of gene- 
 rosity, under priestly instigation, became so 
 great that legislative intervention became 
 necessary to restrain it. The immense estates 
 thus given to the church were, in a large de- 
 gree, expressly bestowed for charitable pur- 
 
140 CATHOLIC APPORTIONMENT OF THE SPOILS. 
 
 poses, the fulfilment of which the givers sup- 
 posed would assist to rescue their souls from 
 the fires of purgatory. The bishops and 
 priests, who knew what was necessary on that 
 score, made what may be termed, all things 
 considered, a very fair distribution of these 
 spoils. They settled, as the law of appor- 
 tionment, that the bishops should have one- 
 fourth ; the priests one-fourth ; for repair of 
 churches one-fourth ; and the remaining one- 
 fourth to the poor and the other general pur- 
 poses for which the whole was expressly given. 
 This distribution was, in some instances, or 
 according to some authorities, one-third to the 
 clergy, one-third for repair of churches, and 
 one-third to purposes of charity.^ At the pe- 
 riod of the Eeformation, when Henry VIII. 
 assumed the headship of the church of Eng- 
 land, all these immense estates were confis- 
 cated and conferred upon the bishops and 
 other clergy and leaders of the great reform. 
 All that was given to the nobility and gentry 
 has from that day to the present been held as 
 
ENGLISH SEQUESTRATION OF THE SPOILS. 141 
 
 private property, without the slightest regard 
 to the trusts upon which the grants were ori- 
 ginally made. All that was given to the 
 English bishops and clergy has remained the 
 property of the establishment to this day. Its 
 yearlj^ value is variously estimated, but is 
 safely put at fifty millions of dollars. Not the 
 slightest regard has been paid by these bishops 
 and clergy, any more than the lay grantees, 
 to the trusts under which these estates were 
 granted. The Catholic clergy applied a fourth, 
 or even a third, for the benefit of the poor ; 
 the English clergy have retained the whole 
 as their exclusive perquisite. Thus arise the 
 enormous revenues of the English bishops, 
 which are a standing reproach to Christianity 
 in a country where millions upon millions are 
 groaning in poverty, ^\dth a clear right to all 
 the relief these riclies could afford. 
 
 From its first establishment, the English 
 church not only appropriated the funds of the 
 poor, but cast the charge of the poor upon the 
 secular arm, where it remains to this day. It 
 
142 PENALTIES OF POVERTY IN ENGLAND. 
 
 would be difficult to point out in the history 
 of the papacy, any more daring and fla- 
 grant disregard of Christian principles than 
 this. The Eomish church in all ages, and in 
 all countries, has admitted the claims of the 
 poor, and also the obligations which those 
 claims imposed. The Protestant church of 
 England commenced its career by seizing their 
 estates, and turning the poor over to the ten- 
 der mercies of the government. The legisla- 
 tion for the poor was characterized, during the 
 reign of Henry VIII., by its fixing upon the 
 unemployed poor the epithet of " vagabonds," 
 and by inflicting the penalties of whipping, 
 cropping, branding, and death for the oflence 
 of being vagabonds. Many thousands were 
 hung in the reign of that first head of the 
 English church for being vagabonds ; that is, 
 unemployed or idle poor. No doubt the dis- 
 solution of the monasteries and other religious 
 houses had sent forth a host of inmates 
 stripped of all means of support, and had de- 
 prived of their customary employments vast 
 
ENGLISH POOR LAWS. 143 
 
 troops of labourers, whose services were re- 
 placed by others more favoured by the new 
 occupants of the estates, and had driven away 
 in despair hosts of poor who had lived upon 
 the regular alms of the religious establish- 
 ments. The mischiefs which arose from dis- 
 charging such a multitude of destitute paupers 
 upon the community must have been grave 
 enough to require all the patience and all the 
 wisdom of the public authorities, and more 
 especially as the subject was new to them. 
 No wonder these persons, so suddenly and ut- 
 terly stripped of their only comfort and hopes 
 for this life, became unruly, wandered like 
 vagabonds, and rendered stringent measures 
 necessary to keep them in awe. This is no 
 place to write the history of the English poor, 
 of the legislation applied to them, nor of the 
 administration of the poor-laws ; whatever 
 may be said of the wisdom or the mercy or 
 the statesmanship displayed in the treatment 
 of English poor, the whole constitutes such a 
 disgrace to the established church, and to Pro- 
 
144 THE POOR-HOUSE, STIGMA OF PROTESTANTISM. 
 
 testantisnij as can never be adequately cha- 
 racterized. During three centuries, she has 
 shut her eyes from beholding, and shut her 
 ears from hearing, and withheld her hands 
 from removing the woes of ten generations of 
 increasing millions of suffering poor. She has 
 not fed them nor clothed them, nor visited 
 them in sickness nor in prison ; she has left 
 them in charge of the national authorities. 
 And what have these done ? In this long pe- 
 riod, what have they devised for the poor ? 
 They have long since reduced the treatment 
 of paupers to a system which has since been 
 adopted for criminals. They have invented 
 the poor-house, that stigma of Protestantism ; 
 they have degraded the poor to the level of 
 the worst criminals ; they have made charity 
 dependent on the parish boundaries; they 
 have enacted a scene of protracted and bitter 
 litigation to determine which parish may be 
 acquitted of the duty of relieving the poor; 
 they spend as much in efforts to cast off the 
 burden of a poor family as would relieve scores 
 
SUCH A POLICY DISGRACEFUL. 145 
 
 of families ; they let out the poor by contract 
 to the maintenance of a contractor ; they look 
 upon the support of the poor as a grievous 
 burden, and regard it as a matter of business, 
 in which economy must rule, until the lowest 
 cost at which life can be sustained is found ; 
 and accordingly the allowance of the poor has 
 gone far below that of the soldier or sailor, or 
 even the thief and murderer in prison. They 
 regard the pauper as a public evil, the cost of 
 which is to be kept at the lowest possible 
 point ; and they deny the obligation of such 
 legislation as might have a tendency to amend 
 the condition of their hordes of poor. 
 
 Whether the English authorities have in all 
 this fulfilled their duties as legislators and 
 governors, is a question into which we cannot 
 enter. But the conduct of the established 
 church, which has for centuries looked upon 
 this scene of famine and nakedness and poor- 
 house imprisonment, without an effort as a 
 church to fulfil her Christian obligations to the 
 poor, is such as no language can with proper 
 
 13 
 
146 THE RICH MAN IN HELL LIFTED UP HIS EYES. 
 
 "^ severity stigmatize. The English poor have 
 been increasing in comparative numbers and 
 destitution from the Eeformation to the pre- 
 sent hour ; and during this period, the confis- 
 cated revenues of the poor in the keeping of 
 the church have been increasing. What pos- 
 sible affinity can that church, as such, have 
 with the religion of Christ, which, whilst it 
 absorbs the living of the poor, repudiates all 
 care of them ? Could such a church appear 
 before Christ, without hearing the command, 
 " Sell all that thou hast and give to the poor, 
 and come follow me ?" This is the lightest re- 
 buke that is conceivable in the circumstances. 
 But as this command was given to one whose 
 heart was merely too much fixed on riches 
 which were his own, the case of the church 
 of England and the poor who are pining in 
 want, and dying at her door, may be much 
 more fitly illustrated by the parable of Laza- 
 rus and the rich man, who, for his hardness 
 of heart, "in hell lifted up his eyes in tor- 
 ments." Even this does not reach the enor- 
 
HALF OF MY GOODS I GIVE TO THE POOR. 147 
 
 mity of the case ; for this rich man's goods 
 were his o^vn. / The church of England turned 
 the poor out of doors, and took possession of 
 their houses and their goods ; and whilst re- 
 velling in the enjoyment of these ill-gotten 
 gains, myriads of paupers, lying at her gate, 
 are suffering the extremities of sickness, na- 
 kedness, and want. If they ever reach Abra- 
 ham's bosom, it will not be from any instruc- 
 tion or help given them by the establishment. 
 But whether they do or not, who can doubt 
 that it will be less tolerable for that church 
 in the next world than for the rich man who 
 neglected Lazarus? 
 
 When the truth first flashed on Zaccheus, 
 the tax-gatherer of Judea, he broke out in- 
 stantly, and said to Christ, " Behold, Lord, 
 the half of my goods I give to the poor; and 
 if I have taken any thing from any man by 
 false accusation, I restore him fourfold." If 
 this be the rule of restitution for a wrongful 
 taking, it will not be hard to fix the sum 
 
148 THE ESTABLISHED CHURCH OF ENGLAND. 
 
 which is due to the poor of England from the 
 English church. 
 
 If our tone seems harsh towards the church 
 of England, it is merely because the facts jus- 
 tify it. We believe no sect, as such, can vin- 
 dicate all its acts. It is the more just to select 
 that church for remark, in such an essay as 
 this, because it imbodies what is regarded as 
 the flower of Protestantism. The members 
 of that church are distinguished throughout 
 the world for wealth, liberality, learning, and 
 many high qualities. It is fair to take them 
 as a favourable sample of the fruits of the Re- 
 formation. We cannot say how far individuals 
 or multitudes are responsible for the sins of the 
 church with which they are connected ; but 
 we know that very many, in all ages of Chris- 
 tianity, have distinguished themselves far 
 above the errors of their respective churches. 
 No church has more to boast in this respect 
 than that of England. It is well that the eter- 
 nal welfare of the members does not depend 
 on the character of the church to which they 
 
THE PAUPER AND THE CRIMINAL. 149 
 
 may belong. K so, what church or sect could 
 save its members ? Not one ! — ^but least of all, 
 perhaps, the church of England. 
 
 A natural result of this wicked neglect of 
 the poor in England by the church, has been, 
 that the poor in that country are regarded 
 differently, and treated differently, from what 
 they are in any other nation. What is not 
 deemed the duty of the church has ceased to 
 be regarded as the duty of individuals. The 
 poor are restrained to the limits of their own 
 parishes, under penalty of starvation or being 
 carried back by the authorities to their own 
 limits. They are not permitted to ask alms. 
 They are turned off the land in England, and 
 obliged to take refuge in the cities, working at 
 wages which barely sustain life, to swell the 
 ])roduct8 of the manufactories. They are, 
 without judge or jury, convicted of poverty, 
 sent to the poor-house, where husband and 
 wife and children are separated and put to 
 hard labour. The severity of this sentence is 
 fully as great as that which awaits criminals 
 
 13* 
 
150 THE PRACTICES WORKED INTO A THEORY. 
 
 under the present improved system of prison 
 discipline. The poor are regarded as a burden 
 upon society, to be diminished or got rid of by 
 any course short of murder. They are not 
 deemed to have any claims as fellow-men or 
 fellow-christians, in a Christian land. Eng- 
 land has a blessed constitution. She has long 
 enjoyed the most wise and vigorous adminis- 
 tration in the world, under all the advantages 
 of a mild climate and productive soil, and yet 
 paupers not only exist, but have greatly in- 
 creased. It is plain they are an inevitable evil : 
 nothing more can be done but by all projDcr 
 means to prevent the increase of those who 
 are only born to be burdens upon the commu- 
 nity. This is the English feeling in regard to 
 the poor. 
 
 It was reserved for a clergyman of the es- 
 tablished church to work up this feeling and 
 these views into a system of philosophy. The 
 sum of the Eev. Mr. Malthus's work on po- 
 pulation is thus given in his own words :— 
 '' A man who is born into a world already 
 
THE ENGLISH DOCTRINE IN MALTHUS. 151 
 
 possessed, if he cannot get subsistence from 
 his parents, on whom he has a just demand, 
 and if the society does not want his labour, 
 has no claim of right to the smallest portion 
 of food, and, in fact, has no business to be 
 where he is. At nature's mighty feast there 
 is no cover for him. She tells him to be gone, 
 and will quickly execute her own orders, if he 
 do not work upon the compassion of some 
 of her guests. If these guests get up and 
 make room for him, other intruders immedi- 
 ately appear, demanding the same favour. 
 The report of a provision for all that come 
 fills the hall with numerous claimants. The 
 order and harmony of the feast is disturbed : 
 the plenty that before reigned is changed into 
 scarcity : and the happiness of the guests is 
 destroyed by the spectacle of misery and de- 
 pendence in every part of the hall, and by the 
 clamorous importunity of those who are justly 
 enraged at not finding the provision they had 
 been taught to expect. The guests learn too 
 late their error in counteracting those strict 
 
152 THE REMEDY PHOPOSED BY MALTHUS. 
 
 orders to all intruders issued by the great 
 mistress of the feast, who, wishing that all her 
 guests should have plenty, and knowing that 
 she could not provide for unlimited numbers, 
 humanely refused to admit fresh comers when 
 her table was already full."* 
 
 Can inhumanity go a step farther? Can 
 disobedience and contempt of the Divine com- 
 mand to love our neighbour as ourself imagine 
 a farther step ? It is a total denial of " the 
 Fatherhood of God and the brotherhood of 
 man," and consequently a total abjuration of 
 Christianity. The remedial measure proposed 
 by the Kev. Mr. Malthus is in strict accord- 
 ance with his theory. He proposes that, notice 
 being given, all children begotten afterwards 
 should in every event be denied all official 
 and private relief, or charity of any kind. 
 If they perish, the responsibility will rest 
 with the parents who brought them into the 
 world after due warning of the consequences. 
 
 * Malthus on Population, first edition ; and see sixth edition, 
 vol. ii. p. 337. 
 
ENGLISH THEORY OF POVERTY. 153 
 
 By this means, the intruders into the hall of 
 the great feast of life would be rapidly starved 
 out of existence, the order and harmony of the 
 feast restored, and the "happiness of the 
 guests be no longer destroyed by the spec- 
 tacle of misery" around them. 
 
 ^If this is not the doctrine of the church 
 of England in regard to the poor, it is the 
 philosophy which has grown out of her neglect 
 to teach and exemplify the great duty of Chris- 
 tian charity : if it is not her doctrine, it is the 
 very essence and theory of her practice. 
 
 THE SPIRIT OF PROTESTANTISM AT LARGE.— ENGLISH 
 PROTESTANTISM. 
 
 This subject might justly be swelled into 
 volumes. We might proceed to show that 
 other Protestants besides those of England 
 have fallen short of their duty to the poor ; 
 that they have not apprehended, taught, nor 
 
154 
 
 practised the precepts of charity as inculcated 
 by Christ and his aj)ostles : that, split into nu- 
 merous sects, they have been far more zealous 
 in defining and defending their various shades 
 of belief than in fulfilling Christian duties : 
 that they have divided the vineyard which 
 has been given them to cultivate, into 
 innumerable subdivisions, and have spent 
 in contests about enclosures the time and 
 talents which they should have given to the 
 cultivation of the vines: that they have buried 
 themselves in theology, and neglected the 
 plainest teachings of Him whose name they 
 bear : that they have brought reproach upon 
 their Master by exhibiting all manner of un- 
 charitableness in their mutual bearing to- 
 wards each other: that w^hile they utterly 
 scout the claim of the pope to infallibility, 
 they severally put forth pretensions in regard 
 to their own standards and creeds as exacting 
 as those of the pope; and whilst they thus 
 claim to be undoubtedly and severally right, 
 they have, almost without exception, exalted 
 
AND OMISSIONS. 155 
 
 their own creeds, catechisms, confessions, litur- 
 gies, and forms of service above the precepts 
 of their Master : that they have built temples 
 "without number, and have preached the gos- 
 pel, but not for nor to the poor : that whilst 
 all religious eloquence has been cultivated 
 with great assiduity, they have forgotten that 
 " though they speak with the tongues of an- 
 gels, and have not charity, they are as sound- 
 ing brass :" that whilst they have multiplied 
 religious books beyond all enumeration, and 
 pursued biblical lore with a zeal and success 
 truly wonderful, they have not remembered 
 that '• though they had the gift of prophecy, 
 and understood all mysteries and all know- 
 ledge, and though they had all faith so that 
 they could remove mountains, and had not 
 charity, they are ijothing :" that whilst their 
 liberality has frequently been large and greatly 
 diversified, and whilst they have sufiered for 
 the truth's sake, they have forgotten that 
 " though they bestow all their goods to feed 
 the poor, and give their bodies to be burned, 
 
156 CHURCHES CAN GLORY IN NOTHING. 
 
 and have not charity, it could profit them no- 
 thing." 
 
 There is, indeed, no church nor sect which 
 can glory in its purity or perfection before 
 God : there is none which would not be ut- 
 terly condemned under the application of the 
 same rules by which men must be finally 
 j udged. Let any of them give account of their 
 stewardship in the administration of the great 
 duty of Christian charity, and see how far, 
 how very far they have fallen below the re- 
 quirement. If this subject were pursued by 
 some one fitted for the task, the picture drawn 
 could not but lower that self-righteous spirit in 
 which many Protestant churches so freely in- 
 dulge. They would find that we may be very 
 clear in perceiving error in others, without 
 being right ourselves ; and that so little room 
 is there for any to indulge in self-righteousness 
 before God, that, for the most part, those who 
 are most positive and assuming are deepest in 
 error. It may be well to think that whilst 
 the great mass of Protestant theology may be 
 
RETURN TO ENGLISH CHURCH. 157 
 
 in the main correct as far as it goes, yet it 
 must be fatally deficient, because it has no 
 soul. The statue may be faultless in its out- 
 lines, proportions, and faithfulness to the truth, 
 but it is cold, hard, unyielding, and without 
 sensation or affections. 
 
 The whole field of Protestantism being too 
 wide for our purpose, we return to England, 
 and confine our remarks to what is observa- 
 ble there, not in an invidious spirit, but be- 
 cause the facts are most easily ascertained and 
 verified, and because, if English Protestants, 
 with their world-wide reputation for liberality, 
 have failed to fulfil the duties of Christian 
 charity, there will be small ground for others 
 to stand upon in the day of scrutiny. 
 
 If we have been successful in bringing to 
 view the pressing obligations of our duties to 
 our fellow-men in poverty, in sickness, and in 
 confinement, few will deny the propriety of 
 immediate obedience to every such call. But 
 whilst we cheerfully give the cup of water to 
 the thirsty, whilst we feed those who are acta- 
 
 14 
 
158 CHARITY NOT ONLY FOR INDIVIDUALS, 
 
 ally starving, and clothe those who are actu- 
 ally naked or in rags, because these duties 
 are specifically enjoined, does not the great 
 law, " love thy neighbour as thyself," claim 
 something more than these temporary acts of 
 kindness and relief We must not let these 
 occasions of charity slip ; we must not turn 
 our back upon those who are suffering for 
 what we can give them. But are we not 
 equally bound to exert ourselves to afford per- 
 manent succour — td raise our suffering bre- 
 thren to the same level in comfort with our- 
 selves ? We owe a duty not only in every 
 particular case, but we owe a debt of love to 
 every individual ; and we are bound to pay 
 that debt, not only in special acts of kindness, 
 but in general efforts, not merely for the bene- 
 fit of individuals, but of the whole human 
 family. The obligations of Christian charity 
 are as wide as the field of our action and of 
 our influence; but we are not acquitted of these 
 obligations by our individual efforts. We are 
 bound as Christians to unite in the great work 
 
BUT FOR MULTITUDES. 159 
 
 of bettering the condition of the human 
 family. That which is the duty of every in- 
 dividual Christian in reference to his fellow- 
 men, is the duty of the whole body ; and the 
 obligation upon the body is increased with the 
 power and opportunity of doing good. 
 
 There can be no doubt that in any commu- 
 nity where the individuals are full of the be- 
 nign spirit of their great Exemplar, the whole 
 mass will be enlivened and inspired by the 
 same beneficence. If the community has not 
 performed its duty, the responsibility lies upon 
 the individuals. 
 
 We have thus imperfectly referred to the 
 obligations of charity, because few will be dis- 
 posed to question either their nature or ex- 
 tent. What has England, under such respon- 
 sibilities, done for her millions of poor — poor 
 so crushed and broken and pressed down, 
 that the picture transcends the power of pen- 
 cil, of pen, or of tongue ? For those poor who 
 have for three centuries been increasing in 
 proportional numbers, and sinking to a deeper 
 
160 WHAT HAS BEEN DONE FOR THE SOCIAL 
 
 and deeper degradation, what has been done ? 
 We cannot reply, " nothing !" for though mul- 
 titudes have sunk, from age to age, under the 
 ills of poverty, yet masses have been kept alive 
 to hand down their woes to increasing gene- 
 rations succeeding them. The church having 
 repudiated the charge, the government has 
 discharged the duty of saving, perhaps, the 
 greater number of these outcasts from death 
 by starvation or exposure. But what mea- 
 sures have been devised to lift these multi- 
 tudes from their depths, and restore them to 
 the level of living by their labour ? Where 
 shall we find the traces of any great move- 
 ment among English Christians to redeem 
 their poor from the chains of their hopeless 
 bondage ? They rouse themselves into ener- 
 getic action to abolish the slave-trade — to 
 emancipate the slaves of their West Indian co- 
 lonies ; they send Bibles by millions over the 
 whole earth ; they send missionaries to preach 
 Christ to every people ; yet how little will all 
 this profit them, if they have neglected charity 
 
ELEVATION OF THE POOR IN ENGLAND. 161 
 
 at home. Christianity can only be successfully 
 propagated by those who practise it. English 
 Christians have done nothing worth naming 
 to redeem the poor from their abject condi- 
 tion. They have looked upon their myriads 
 of paupers in hopeless inaction : the problem 
 of relief seemed too difficult for solution, much 
 more of accomplishment. 
 
 The church of England has signally failed 
 in the fulfilment of her chief duty. Besides 
 having left unperformed every other duty to 
 the poor, she has, worst of all, not preached 
 the gospel to the poor. Whatever pre-emi- 
 nence the Papist may claim over the Episcopa- 
 lian in this respect, even the Papal church 
 has in this fallen very far behind the line of 
 duty ; and so, indeed, has every other church 
 or sect. Tlie truth is, the work of the real 
 disciples of Christ must be performed by them 
 individually, and not by the church. The 
 good which flows from works of love and cha- 
 rity must benefit the giver as well as the re- 
 ceiver. No church has ever discharged, in its 
 
 14* 
 
162 THE CHURCH WILL NEVER DO HER DUTY. 
 
 collective character, the duty of its members 
 in their individual capacities. Nor can that 
 love of men ever dwell in a corporation or 
 ecclesiastical organization which should glow 
 in the bosom of individual Christians. It was 
 not so intended, and is not so inculcated. 
 Every Christian association, however, of which 
 the members are fully warmed up to their 
 separate w^ork, will be found partaking, in the 
 mass, of the life which pervades the indi- 
 viduals. The English church will never per- 
 form her duty to the poor, because she has 
 great possessions, and will continue to turn a 
 deaf ear to the command — " One thing thou 
 lackest: go thy way, sell whatsoever thou 
 hast, and give to the poor." How can that be 
 a church of Christ, which has great riches and 
 yet rejects the claims of the poor ? 
 
 But whatever may be said of the guilt of 
 the church, if a church can be guilty, the re- 
 sponsibility lies upon its members. They are 
 the real stewards, to whom the various talents 
 are committed for which account will be ren- 
 
INDIVIDUAL OBLIGATIONS. 163 
 
 dered at the coming of our Lord. The Chris- 
 tians of England are bound to relieve the 
 poor to the extent of all their possessions, and 
 to perform every other duty towards them re- 
 quired by the precepts of Christ, whatever 
 may be the conduct of church dignitaries or 
 political authorities. Nothing but performance 
 can acquit them of this obligation. That per- 
 formance would sweep from existence every 
 vestige of the present unchristian system. 
 
 THE DUTY OF DEVISING AND CARRYING INTO EFFECT 
 PLANS FOR THE GENERAL AMELIORATION AND PER- 
 MANENT RELIEF OF THE SUFFERING AND DEGRA- 
 DED CLASSES. 
 
 But the duty of English Christians is not 
 circumscribed, as we have insisted, to reliev- 
 ing the immediate and pressing wants of the 
 poor, nor even to the present teaching them 
 the way of life. Their numbers are so great, 
 their degradation so low, their oppression so 
 
164 MUST NOT SAY THE EVIL IS HOPELESS. 
 
 heavy, that those whose duty it is to minister 
 to them, can only discharge their obhgation 
 by adopting measures for permanent emanci- 
 pation from evils so enormous. If we should 
 do unto others as we would have them do 
 unto us, if we should love our neighbours as 
 ourselves, we cannot escape the responsibility 
 of undertaking, in full earnest, the regenera- 
 tion of the whole body of poor. This has 
 never occupied the minds of English Chris- 
 tians as it should : the feeling has been too 
 much that to which we have above referred : 
 ^ Our laws and institutions are the best in the 
 world; the result, visible in our hordes of 
 paupers, is inevitable : there is no remedy 
 but some check to this over-growing popula- 
 tion.' No Christian who knows his Master's 
 will should hold such language, or entertain 
 such thoughts. In the eye of the Christian, 
 all men constitute one brotherhood, and there 
 is no avoiding the conclusion to which this 
 truth leads. The poor have as much right to 
 live as the rich ; and the rich are equally 
 
LIMITS OF PAUPERISM. 165 
 
 bound to help them, whether they give a good 
 reason for coming into the world or not. The 
 same Lord who has given freely to one, and 
 denied to others, is over all, and has given the 
 proper rules of action. How, then, can those 
 who have wealth, or power, or influence, or 
 wisdom, or knowledge, refuse to entertain as 
 the great question of their lives, — What shall 
 be done for the permanent amelioration of the 
 condition of the poor ? That in any possible 
 state of society there must always be paupers, 
 cannot be doubted ; but in every society where 
 Christian duties are discharged with even 
 moderate faithfulness, the poor will be reduced 
 to the smallest number possible. Is this so 
 in England ? Is it necessary — is it unavoid- 
 able, that there should be three millions of 
 suffering poor in Great Britain? Is it in- 
 evitable that every tenth person should be a 
 pauper ? We say, no : that there should not 
 be in Great Britain nor in Ireland more than 
 one pauper to every hundred inhabitants. We 
 eay that this subject is seldom, if ever, ap- 
 
166 THE LABOR OF GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 proached, as it should be, in its Christian 
 aspect. 
 
 All the world hears of the wealth of Great 
 Britain. It is visible on every side to those 
 who traverse the country. But all this wealth 
 yields no income without labour : the indus- 
 try of the people earns the enormous sum of 
 two hundred and fifty millions of dollars, paid 
 in annual revenue to the government, and 
 five times the amount, which goes to swell the 
 pockets of the rich. The income of the church 
 is large, because it is drawn from the work 
 of a large number of labourers. The large 
 landholders are rich, because they receive the 
 avails of the industry of a multitude of la- 
 bourers. The manufacturers drive a large 
 business, and make large profits at times, be- 
 cause they command the bones and sinews of 
 as many labourers as they please to employ. 
 It is labour which makes wealth available : 
 w^ithout it, neither land, nor houses, nor ma- 
 chinery, nor mines, nor gold and silver, nor 
 stocks of any description, could yield any per- 
 
IS DEEPLY MORTGAGED TO A FEW. 167 
 
 manent income. The labour of Great Britain 
 is absorbed by a comparatively few. Their 
 income is large, and the streams of wealth and 
 liberal expenditure being large, the riches of 
 the country are rated accordingly. But the 
 nation is none the richer for this unequal dis- 
 tribution of income. England no longer ap- 
 pears so rich,, if you divide her wealth by her 
 population: other countries will excel her in 
 wealth by that rule. The industry of the 
 people is deeply mortgaged, to produce this 
 result. Masses of labourers are kept in 
 hopeless poverty and dependence; they are 
 allowed the scantiest subsistence which will 
 support life, that high taxes and high rents 
 may be paid, and that goods may be manu- 
 factured at prices so low as to secure them a 
 market throughout the world. So long as 
 this system is maintained, there can indeed be 
 no amelioration of the bondage of the poor, 
 whose labour must go to make up this large 
 annual product ; and it is because no sugges- 
 tion of any change in this system is tolerated, 
 
168 AMELIORATION IMPLIES NO ROBBERY. 
 
 that the lot of the poor seems so hopeless in 
 the eyes of Englishmen. 
 
 Such a policy, whether constructed upon the 
 wisdom of this world or not, cannot be regarded 
 in the light of Christian truth, without utter 
 detestation. It is a duty from which Chris- 
 tians cannot escape, to search for the best mode 
 of raising their brethren from this political de- 
 gradation. The amelioration sought implies 
 neither revolution, bloodshed, nor robbery : it 
 demands adequate remuneration for labour : 
 it implies that the bones and sinews of the 
 people must not be sacrificed to that infatu- 
 ation for foreign commerce which subjects 
 them to the competition of the whole world. 
 Great Britain presses her goods up6n the mar- 
 kets of the world, and keeps prices everywhere 
 at a rate ruinous to industry : she keeps the 
 price of labour at home at such a point as 
 leaves the labourer no choice but death or the 
 offered wages : she keeps hosts of unemployed 
 and starving labourers always pressing on the 
 labour market, or working at a point between 
 
LET PROFESSION BEAR FRUIT. 169 
 
 life and death, to sustain that commercial 
 sj^stem which is absorbing the vitals of the 
 country. Let Great Britain add five pounds 
 each to the annual wages of ten millions of her 
 poor operatives, and it will add fifty millions 
 sterling to her trade, because the whole sum 
 will be expended at home, in a way far more 
 beneficial to that country than any operation 
 of foreign trade. 
 
 ( If English Protestants have in three cen- 
 turies weeded out the errors and supersti- 
 tions of Romanism ; if they have searched the 
 Scriptures and sifted from them the whole 
 truth, and formed a aystem of Christian theo- 
 logy by which they can abide, it is time they 
 should bear the fruits of Christian profession 
 so enlightened. ' It is time they should ex- 
 emphfy the doctrines of their Master, and hold 
 up that exemplification in the display of Eng- 
 land's greatness before the world. This is 
 what is needed to send Christianity with rapid 
 pace round the world. Let those deeds of 
 charity which are the legitimate fruit of a 
 
 15 
 
170 ACTS SPEAK LOUDER THAN WORDS. 
 
 truly Christian spirit, be exhibited in England 
 according to the urgency of that poverty 
 which calls for them, and according to the 
 be9'Uty of that example which was set by Him 
 who went about continually ministering to 
 the wants of the poor, and the missionary 
 need only take the Bible in his hands and 
 point to this happy fulfilment of its precepts, 
 to insure among every people a ready obe- 
 dience to its injunctions. How can English 
 Christians preach Christ successfully through- 
 out the world, whilst myriads of her own 
 people are left to pine in ignorance, in want 
 and utter destitution ? Can these be followers 
 of Christ, that permit this ? — must be asked, 
 not only by the heathen abroad, but by the 
 skeptic or worldling at home. ] Every indi- 
 vidual Christian of Great Britain is bound to 
 do all that he can, by his hand, his mind, his 
 voice and estate, to relieve and enlighten the 
 poor, presently and permanently ; so, in like 
 manner, is the whole community of British 
 Christians bound to exert their united ener- 
 
AN EFFORT INDISPENSABLE. 171 
 
 gies and means for the same end. Nothing 
 less can acquit their obligations or fulfil 
 their duties; 
 
 The Christians of Great Britain, if actu- 
 ated by this spirit, could with ease guide 
 the counsels of the nation: they would 
 find many, very many, who now decline a 
 profession of Christianity, prompt to engage 
 with them in this great work, and ready to 
 say, This, indeed, convinces us of the reality 
 and truth of your religion. The solution 
 of that problem which involves the social 
 and religious elevation of the poor can never 
 be reached by mere, human wisdom; but 
 British Christians, individually and in mass, 
 are not the less bound to apply themselves 
 to* the task because it seems gigantic and 
 above their knowledge ; the effort is as ne- 
 cessary for their spiritual welfare as it is 
 for the elevation of the poor. Every ques- 
 tion of human well-being is solved directly 
 or indirectly in the instructions left us by 
 Christ. Every man is his steward; and 
 
172 THE NATURE OF OUR STEWARDSHIP. 
 
 if he has wealth, the principle upon which he 
 is to hold it is plainly indicated. The rich 
 man is not bound to divide his estate with 
 his neighbour who may be in want, for the 
 poor man may be utterly incapable of manag- 
 ing property. He is bound to relieve him, 
 to the extent that love may dictate, necessity 
 require, and prudence prescribe. The Chris- 
 tian who cannot hold riches upon this tenure, 
 is in great danger if he hold them at all. It 
 will be easier for a camel to pass through the 
 eye of a needle than for him to enter the 
 kingdom of God. 
 
 THE RESPONSIBILITIES OF CHRISTIANS IN THE 
 UNITED STATES IN REGARD TO THE SUFFERING 
 CLASSES. 
 
 We have thus instanced the case of British 
 Christians, and insisted upon their adopting 
 the Christian solution of the great problem 
 of pauperism. Their social difficulties are 
 
THERE ARE POOR IX THIS COUNTRY. 173 
 
 complicated by connection with the govern- 
 ment, and hardened in texture by antiquity ; 
 but the duty is not less pressing and impera- 
 tive. Lazarus is still lying at their gate : the 
 wounded man in their streets is still bleed- 
 ing — and the priest and Levite pass by on 
 the other side, whilst the good Samaritan 
 delays his coming. All this, however strik- 
 ing, removes no responsibility from the Chris- 
 tians of this country. Have we not among us 
 those who are hungry, and require to be fed ; 
 those that are naked, and require to be clothed ; 
 those that are fainting with thirst, that re- 
 quire a cup of cold water; those that are 
 sick and in prison that require to be visited? 
 Alas! how many poor are already among 
 us, and how fearfully the numbers are increas- 
 ing ! /And what hps been done for them by 
 American Christians, upon whom their Master 
 has heaped such bounteous favours ? They 
 have, as in England since the Reformation, 
 been turned over to the public authorities.^ 
 Christians, as such, have thus repudiated th^ 
 
 15* 
 
174 WHAT HAVE WE DONE FOR THE POOR? 
 
 highest obligations. They have not taken in 
 Lazarus, to clothe and feed him : they have 
 not taken up the wounded man : they have 
 sent all to the poor-house ; or rather, they 
 have virtually assented to the doctrine that 
 that is the proper place for them. 
 
 In some parts of the country,our poor-houses 
 are fast growing populous, and we are, in this 
 career, treading upon the heels of England. 
 What have Christians done here to arrest this 
 evil of pauperism ? Their influence must be 
 felt and exhibited in the action of our institu- 
 tions, according to numbers, energy, and de- 
 votion to any good cause. If Christianity is 
 not exemplified in the lives of its professors in 
 this country, where lies the responsibility ? 
 If their united influence is not seen in the 
 action of our various governments, what is the 
 cause ? 
 
 In point of fact, we find Christians for- 
 getting their vocation in the exercise of their 
 duty as citizens, and ranghig themselves in 
 the rank and file of political gamblers and 
 
OPPORTUNITIES OF DOING GOOD. 175 
 
 demagogues. There are Christians enough, 
 and light, and wisdom enough, if properly 
 and zealously applied, to place every truly 
 good cause in the ascendant, and to make our 
 land as remarkable for its exemplification of 
 Cliristian precepts as it has been for the fa- 
 vour of Providence. If the Christians of this 
 country had only been as faithful to their re- 
 ligious obligations as they have been faithful 
 to party discipline, they would now wield a 
 moral and religious power which nothing 
 within or without could long withstand. 
 
 Here is a field in which Christians, for more 
 than half a century, have had full liberty and 
 free scope to carry out their Master's injunc- 
 tions. What have they done ? What kind 
 of Christianity is exhibited in this country, 
 where the conscience is free; where religion 
 is not complicated with the government; 
 where abuses are not consecrated by antiquity; 
 where superstitions are not fastened upon us 
 by the habits and associations of ages ; where 
 the priesthood is without power, and where 
 
176 RELIGIOUS STRIFES. 
 
 the light of the Scriptures shines as freely as 
 the light of the sun ? To what extent do we 
 behold the influence of Christians in our legis- 
 lation, or in the working of our national or 
 state governments ? Do we find that influence 
 in the fierce competition of trades, in the pro- 
 gress of which thousands upon thousands an- 
 nually fall into distress and poverty, while the 
 eager votaries of wealth sweep past, unheed- 
 ing the victims upon whom they trample ?] 
 
 But this is the mass which owns not Christ. 
 Look, then, at those who profess to be his fol- 
 lowers, and bear his name. Scores of churches 
 surround us, mutually repelling and attack- 
 ing each other, and affording a scene of strife, 
 jealousy, animosity, and evil-speaking, with 
 scarce a parallel for virulence in the proceed- 
 ings of those who profess no fellowship with 
 Christ. ^ Each of these various sects claim, in 
 terms the most unqualified, that they only 
 are right : no claim of infallibility is stronger 
 than that they arrogate. Some differ as wide 
 as terms can separate them : others agree so 
 
INTERNAL CHURCH FEUDS. 177 
 
 nearly, that there is scarcely the shade of a 
 phrase between them ; yet the bitterness of divi- 
 sion only increases with the less it has to fasten 
 upon. But while this sectarianism is thus a 
 spectacle to the world, it is eclipsed by the in- 
 ternal feuds to which these sects are themselves 
 exposed. Many of them have been convulsed to 
 their centres, or blown asunder by explosions 
 of strife and evil passions which were a dis- 
 grace to civilization, let alone Christianity. 
 Volumes might be filled with accounts of these 
 fatal exhibitions ; but, alas, they are too fresh 
 in the memory of all, to need any reference 
 even in the way of warning. 
 
 Apart from these flagrant departures from 
 the spirit of Christianity, what does the current 
 history of the various churches, in greater or 
 less degree, disclosed? Intense and often unscru- 
 pulous rivalry, incessant and unkind competi- 
 tion, a self-glorifying and haughty demeanour. 
 Whatever a few individuals may do to correct 
 or overcome the evil, churches seldom treat 
 each other in a spirit of lovo or forbearance. 
 
178 THE POOR ENTER NOT INTO RICH TEMPLES. 
 
 If, without, they are ever in a hostile attitude ; 
 within, they are far from being at peace with 
 each other, or with the Master they profess 
 to serve. If united, they are but too often 
 frozen together : if at variance, it has all the 
 acrimony of a family quarrel. They build 
 sumptuous temples for the worship of God, 
 and sell the seats to the highest bidder : they 
 neither attend nor allow others to attend. 
 The poor are virtually excluded from houses 
 professedly devoted to the service of their 
 best Friend ; they are not invited to come to 
 the services of these temples : much less are 
 they compelled to come in : the streets and 
 highways are never searched to find guests 
 for the empty seats in these costly dwellings 
 of sectarian worship.* The gospel is not 
 preached to the poor, neither in them nor 
 out of them. Christ is preached, but not 
 obeyed ; his various offices are magnified and 
 proclaimed, but his precepts are neither ade- 
 
 * The few honourable exceptions to these statements do not save 
 the necessity of making these and similar remarks. 
 
THE RANGE OF VISION CONTRACTED. 179 
 
 quately explained nor exemplified. The 
 preaching is done in the churches to the rich, 
 or to the empty seats which belong to them.) 
 The word of life is scattered abroad over the 
 world with a liberal hand, but it goes unac- 
 companied by any practical ratification of its 
 benign precepts, proving that it is confided 
 in and obeyed by those who send it. The 
 gospel is sent to the heathen of far distant 
 lands, but the heathen at home are neglected. 
 The world is the field committed to Chris- 
 tians for cultivation, and they employ them- 
 selves in dividing and subdividing the ground, 
 in building high walls, in planting hedges 
 of thorns, in digging deep ditches, and in 
 endless disputes about boundaries and lines 
 of demarcation, whilst the plants, the poor 
 plants, suffer for ^want of proper culture, 
 wither and die. The labourers in these arti- 
 ficial lines of circumvallation an^ not per- 
 mitted to look over these walls, but are re- 
 quired to contract the range of vision and 
 thought to the lines prescribed. The culti^ 
 
180 WHAT WE KNOW, LET US DO. 
 
 vators of this great field, thus fearfully par- 
 titioned, employ themselves in studying and 
 discussing the philosophy of their work, down 
 to the minutest matter, and to the nicest pos- 
 sible distinctions; and while thus engaged, 
 plants perish by thousands at their feet, lack- 
 ing that attention which the simplest Chris- 
 tian could afford. Thus that labour of Chris- 
 tians is expended in discussing, refining, and 
 distinguishing, which should be laid out in 
 exemplifying what they know. Immense 
 efforts are made to induce and compel people 
 to believe the same things, and to think in 
 the same channels, which should be applied 
 to the practical illustration of what we believe 
 and know in common. It is in vain that we 
 master chemistry, meteorology, and the whole 
 science of agriculture, if we do not likewise 
 perform the humble offices of ploughing, 
 manuring, planting and watering. It is 
 equally in vain to pile up volumes of theo- 
 logy mountains high, if we are not thereby 
 stimulated to engage in those Christian 
 
THEOLOGY TOO MUCU EXALTED. . 181 
 
 labours of love which it should be a main 
 object of those works of theologj^, if they are 
 of any value, to recommend and encourage. 
 The truth is, that theology has been ex- 
 alted immeasurably above practical Chris- 
 tianity ; although no theology can be wholly 
 clear or convincing which is not accompanied 
 by a practical illustration. Precept may go 
 before example, but it must go unheeded 
 unless the example quickly follows. The 
 great work of Christianity being to love God 
 and man, Christianity can only be success- 
 fully propagated by those whose lives illus- 
 trate these duties. The only solvent for the 
 pride, asperity, hatred, jealousy, envy, and 
 other evil passions of men, is charity. ^The 
 only medium in which the truths of revela- 
 tion can be clearly seen and appreciated in 
 all their varied ramifications, is charity ; it is 
 the true test of all theology. The only at- 
 mosphere in which the rays of truth can 
 reach the hearts of all the dwellers on earth 
 with their full power, and in which the work 
 
 16 
 
182 A NEW REFORMATION NEEDED. 
 
 of bringing the whole race of men under the 
 dominion of Christ shall be successful, is 
 charity. 
 
 If this be so, a greater reformation is yet 
 to be accomplished than that of the sixteenth 
 century. How true that no flesh can glory 
 in its own doings before God ! Let modem 
 Pharisees of every church, who imagine they 
 have attained unto the full measure of holi- 
 ness, pause to inquire whether they are not 
 merely full of spiritual pride and uncharita- 
 bleness : for sanctity cannot dwell but with 
 brotherly love. 
 
 Let a new reformation commence, which 
 shall exhibit in its consummation the " Fa- 
 therhood of God and the brotherhood of man." 
 Let it commence here, where there is no need 
 for such a protector as Frederic of Saxony, 
 nor any such champion as the detestable 
 Henry VIII. It demands the disruption of 
 no ties but those which bind us to evil. It 
 implies no revolution but that gradual one 
 which must take place as men change from 
 
WHAT THE WORLD WOULD ADMIRE. 183 
 
 worse to better.! Let every man examine him- 
 self, and see what talents are committed to 
 him for his master's service, and prepare him- 
 self by a proper fulfilment of his stewardship 
 to render his final account. There is no plea- 
 sure in this world so exalted and so pure as 
 this, in which our great duty consists in 
 honouring God and helping man. 1£ all who 
 profess to be followers of Christ were to carry 
 out in their lives all his precepts in this re- 
 spect, the spectacle would fill the world with 
 awe and admiration. Wickedness and cruelty 
 and oppression would shrink from that obser- 
 vation which now they do not fear. 
 
 But the world now looks on and beholds, in 
 Catholic countries, that great machine called 
 the church, contrived by crafty and ambitious 
 men to enrich themselves, to enslave and rule 
 the masses under cover of ignorance and su-p 
 /• perstition :( where Protestantism prevails, a 
 free intellect, but a hard and unrelenting 
 selfishness, a devotion to mammon never be- 
 fore equalled, a grinding competition in all the 
 
184 CHARACTER OF CHRISTENDOM. 
 
 pursuits of life, a race for wealth and power, 
 in which the multitudes are distanced by a few, 
 who become masters, and wield their power 
 with unpitying severity ; a scene of strife, of 
 endless divisions, of hot discussions about tri- 
 fles, of sectarian rivalry, in which every ele- 
 ment of evil mingles, often without even a spice 
 of human kindness, much less religious charityJ 
 Will the world adopt Christianity while this 
 picture is before it ? No : the world has 
 already risen in judgment upon Christianity 
 as exemplified by those who are called Chris- 
 tians. What are the characteristics of Chris- 
 tendom in the eye of the world ? Civilization,^ 
 discord, war, priestcraft, sectarianism, greedi- 
 ness of gain, vigour of mind, heartless compe- 
 tition, domination of capital, pauperism, crime. 
 The world sees much to admire in Christen- 
 dom, but fearful evidence that neither the 
 laws of brotherly kindness nor Christian cha- 
 rity control its institutions, social, political, or 
 religious. Let not the Romanist flatter him- 
 self that the church can ultimately vindicate 
 
ROMANISM CONDEMNED ALREADY. 185 
 
 Christianity, and set all right. His church 
 has had her day of uncontrolled sway, and 
 exhibited what men will invariably do. when 
 made the depositary of such powers : she 
 abused her position shamefully, and sank 
 Christianity into a long night of ignorance and 
 superstition : his church is condemned already, 
 and is clinging with unwise and depraved per- 
 tinacity to that power which the world will 
 ere long tear from hands polluted with every 
 crime. A few ill-balanced minds, darkened by 
 drinking at the literary fountains of the mid- 
 dle ages, may betake themselves to the deep 
 shadows of Romanism, and thus turn their 
 eyes from the cheering light which the pro- 
 gress of humanity is shedding round them. 
 Theirs is a mental vision which cannot en- 
 dure human progress, nor undergo that change 
 of light which must be encountered in the 
 struggle for human brotherhood. They can 
 perceive no beauty in the religion of Christ ; 
 they cannot be reconciled to any religion but 
 that which involves all power in the hands 
 
 16* 
 
186 LET PROTESTANTS BEWARE OF JUDGMENT. 
 
 of priests, and all submission on the part of 
 the people. They may believe in Christ ; they 
 trust only in the church. 
 
 Let not the Protestant wrap himself in 
 spiritual pride, and imagine that because he 
 has escaped the errors of Romanism, he is safe 
 from the judgment of the world. Let him not 
 scorn that judgment because it often con- 
 demns what is right ; but let him dread it, be- 
 cause it judges him for denying his Master 
 and disgracing his cause. Let Protestants 
 dread that rejection of Christianity which 
 springs from their evil example. Let them 
 fear their responsibility for retarding the cause 
 they profess to befriend. Let them forbear 
 proclaiming that Christianity is what their 
 example makes it; the world may either re- 
 fuse to accept such a religion, or condemn the 
 pretensions of its professors. 
 
 Protestants are now zealously and success- 
 fully scattering the Scriptures in all languages 
 to the ends of the earth, and all men are in- 
 vited to read and judge for themselves. They 
 
MEN WILL INTERPRET FOR THEMSELVES. 187 
 
 will do SO ; they are doing so, and are dis- 
 posed to interpret for themselves. They will 
 not adopt all the sectarian dogmas ; they will 
 even question the piety of many of the strait- 
 est of the sects. They will decide that either 
 these sects can find no warrant for many of 
 their doings and doctrines in the New Tes- 
 tament, or that it can be no revelation from 
 Grod. The independent readers of the evan- 
 gelists will bow neither to Romish tradition 
 nor to Protestant interpretation. They can 
 read Christ for themselves, and the more they 
 read, the more they will wonder how many 
 who call themselves Christians can for a mo- 
 ment pretend to be followers of the meek and 
 lowly Jesus, whose whole ministry was among 
 the poor and the erring, and whose strongest 
 rebukes were reserved for the proud, the rich, 
 and the sanctimonious, 
 
 Christ went from village to village, healing 
 the sick and personally solacing the cares of the 
 poor : Protestants fulfil their charities, not per- 
 sonally, but by delegation, or by machinery ; 
 
188 PROTESTANT AND ROMANIST. 
 
 they visit the sick, feed the hungry, and clothe 
 the naked by joint-stock associations, or by the 
 hands of public functionaries. The Roman- 
 ists trust in the church ; the Protestants trust 
 in theology. The former thinks to save him- 
 self by confessions, masses, and priestly abso- 
 lution; the other by preaching, by prayer- 
 meetings, and lectures. The one holds to the 
 accumulated errors of ages, and shuts out 
 Christ for the sake of the church ; the other — 
 all right in theology — clings to a skeleton in 
 triumph, rejecting flesh and blood and spirit. 
 Both Romanist and Protestant hold up Christ 
 as a Saviour, and proclaim his personal suffer- 
 ings, his cross, his crucifixion, his atonement, 
 his ascension, but they omit his life of toil 
 among the poor, and, above all, they\neither 
 preach nor practise what he taught J The 
 person of Christ has long disappeared from 
 the earth, his earthly sufferings are long since 
 over, his personal mission has long since 
 ended, his atonement has long since been ac- 
 complished, but his precepts are handed down 
 
THEOLOGY AND TRADITION. 189 
 
 to US unimpaired in sublimityj beauty, and 
 strength of obligation by the lapse of ages. 
 These constitute overpowering evidence that 
 He who delivered them " spake as never man 
 spake," and that his mission must have been 
 divine, which breathed so much love, so much 
 compassion, so much that is beyond and 
 above what any human teacher ever ima- 
 gined or expressed. All this, we have now ; 
 and this is what is not fairly incorporated 
 into the religious systems of either Protest- 
 ant or Catholic. The former substitutes his 
 peculiar hobby of theology; his catechism, 
 prayer-book, creed, confession, articles, or other 
 frames of doctrine are carefully and assidu- 
 ously taught to old and young, while the 
 teachings of Christ are comparatively neg- 
 lected. The Romanist rejects the New Tes- 
 tament itself, as of no more authority than a 
 papal bull, and Christ as being no wiser than 
 the pope, both being infallible. But the 
 world is now reading this rejected book, and 
 the readers will compare Christians with 
 
190 THIS WORLD ABUSED BUT PROTECTED. 
 
 Christianity. This ordeal has begun : the motto 
 of an advancing army of reformers is the 
 " Fatherhood of God, the brotherhood of man." 
 What arms can Christians oppose to such in- 
 vaders ? That policy may no longer suffice 
 which has hitherto prevailed, of declaiming 
 against the love of the world, and yet falling 
 with savage severity upon him who offers to 
 disturb a single brick in the grand structure 
 of that society which constitutes this present 
 world. There are no greater friends of poli- 
 tical liberty than Protestants, but it is that 
 liberty which lets every man take care of him- 
 self, and ruin seize the hindmost ; it is that 
 liberty which stimulates, all to run, but per- 
 mits the heat of competition to rise so high 
 that none can stoop to pick up the multi- 
 tudes who fall exhausted by the way. 
 
191 
 
 GRADUAL DECLENSION OF CHRISTIANITY, UNTIL 
 IT LOSES THE IMAGE OF ITS ORIGIN. 
 
 Humiliating will be the effort of him who, 
 with a clear perception of the sublime and 
 simple instructions of Christ, betakes himself 
 to the task of searching the history of the 
 last eighteen centuries for any extended or 
 national exemplification of these pure les- 
 sons. He may experience all the admirar 
 tion which the struggle of Christianity with 
 heathenism, during ar few centuries of its in- 
 fancy, is calculated to excite: he may be 
 struck with the vigour it infuses, the confi- 
 dence it inspires, the unfailing courage and 
 fortitude it sustains ; but he must suffer the 
 deep mortification of beholding that which 
 could triumph over a world of enemies suc- 
 cumbing to the treachery of professed friends. 
 Christianity was no sooner established than 
 its perversion commenced; crafty, covetous, 
 
192 MISTAKES OF ROMANISM. 
 
 and ambitious men made it the instrument 
 of working out their designs, of absorbing 
 wealth, and wielding the power of nations. 
 Whatever of the truth was recognised by the 
 papal church, and whatever of piety may have 
 been displayed from age to age by individuals 
 in her communion, because they could not be 
 out of it, the church of Kome is a fabric as 
 purely human and as entirely opposed to the 
 true spirit of Christ's teachings as any system 
 of idolatry or false religion the world has 
 ever known. The papacy has only honoured 
 and used the truth as a means to sustain her 
 usurped power ; and cannot therefore be de- 
 fended on the ground of having merely disre- 
 garded the truth. Considered as a human in- 
 vention, its great mistake was in the vastness 
 of the power committed to its priests ; the 
 extent of this and its nature insured its abuse. 
 It was a power which could not be safely in- 
 trusted to human hands. The monstrous cor- 
 ruptions and the enormous wickedness dis- 
 played in the history of the papacy are such 
 
WHAT WARRANT FOR A POMPOUS RITUAL. 193 
 
 as flowed from its constitution. Any other 
 men clothed with such powers would have 
 been as guilty. In all sects of Christians, 
 before and since the Reformation, human 
 nature displays its weaknesses and its de- 
 pravity according to the power and oppor- 
 tunity afforded to weak or wicked men, who 
 are found in every community and con- 
 gregation. What warrant has Christ left 
 for any complicated ecclesiastical organiza- 
 tion, for high offices, for priestly power, for a 
 splendid ritual or pompous ceremonies ! He 
 selected his assistants from the lowest orders 
 of the people : he gave them no power but to 
 declare the truth and to heal the sick : he 
 built no temples, and had not where to lay 
 his own head. His church, as he left it, was 
 the simplest possible form of organization. 
 In fact, in all its chief characteristics, it was 
 the opposite of the papacy. He used no ritual, 
 and left none for his followers. He enjoined 
 no ceremonies but those connected with 
 
 17 
 
194 OUR INSTITUTIONS NOT CHRISTIAN. 
 
 the simple and common acts of eating and 
 washing. 
 
 It is plain that the institutions of this 
 world, political, social, commercial, and in- 
 dustrial, we had almost said religious, par- 
 take little of the spirit of Christ ; and yet his 
 ministers and disciples are its most noted and 
 uncompromising defenders. Is it because 
 these ministers and disciples are so well 
 treated by the w^orld, that they are in such 
 strict league with it, and are so prompt to 
 take its part ? All over Christendom, masses 
 of men, long oppressed, are rising clamorous 
 for relief, and a better condition. Light from 
 Christianity has broken upon the night of 
 their ignorance and helplessness, and they 
 know that they are entitled to something 
 better in the world's portion than has been 
 allotted them. But the whole truth has 
 not been told them, and their notions of 
 remedy are wild and impracticable. This 
 great movement should be met by Chris- 
 tians with rejoicing that light is at length 
 
WHAT IS DONE FOR THE MASSES. 195 
 
 penetrating such a dark mass of ignorance ; 
 and they should hasten to hold up to them the 
 precepts of Christ, as meeting their entire case, 
 and providing a complete remedy for all their 
 grievances. But how is it that the outcries 
 of these masses who have been hitherto 
 strangers to the voice of Christian kindness, 
 are now met by both Romanist and Protest- 
 ant with a stern frown of rebuke and rejec- 
 tion ? Christ is not preached to these poor, 
 suffering millions, as all-sufficient for them ; 
 much less do they anywhere behold any 
 Christian movement in their behalf, which 
 might at once explain to them their errors 
 and show them their remedy. They are not 
 sought for in the lanes and highways, and 
 invited, nay, compelled, to come into the feast 
 of life ; but they are rudely driven from the 
 door as they present themselves, and are told 
 that there is no room, no remedy, no allevia- 
 tion ; that the laws of property and the ar- 
 rangements of society utterly forbid any ame- 
 lioration of their sad condition. Thus it is 
 
^ 196 IF CHRIST WERE TO APPEAR AGAIN, 
 
 that religion purchases her peace with this 
 present world, by sustaining its institutions ; 
 thus it is that Christ is denied, to purchase a 
 liberal provision for his ministers ; thus it is 
 that, whilst these ministers assume the office 
 of denouncing this world, its maxims, its fol- 
 lies, its oppressions, its greediness of gain; 
 they deny that privilege to those who are 
 enduring the bitterest lot that can befall hu- 
 manity. Christ did not so : He went first 
 to the poor, and administered succour and 
 comfort to them ; and that such is the chief 
 duty of his disciples now is as clear as the 
 words of inspiration can make it. If Christ 
 were to appear again on a mission to earth, 
 he would go again to the multitudes; he 
 would be seen again in the abodes of the poor; 
 he would again claim no resting-place for his 
 head; he would again repeat his words of 
 solace to the lowly, and his works of mercy 
 to the suffering. He would find little time 
 for Protestant observances, and little occasion 
 for their temples. His ministry would con- 
 
WHAT THEN IS TO BE DONE? 197 
 
 form to his precepts; and many who repeat 
 ' Lord, Lord !* and claim to be his special and 
 favourite disciples, would find themselves ob- 
 jects of his sternest indignation and most 
 withering rebukes. The race of Pharisees 
 and priests and false teachers is not extinct ; 
 they would again treat their Master with 
 contempt and scorn, or utter neglect, if his 
 associations were among the poor and lowly. 
 What, then, is to be done? No violent 
 revolution is required. No despot is to be 
 hunted from his place ; no blood is to be shed; 
 no legislation is indispensable; no new sect 
 in religion or philosophy need be formed, nor, 
 in the first instance, need any one desert the 
 position in which Providence has placed him. 
 What is required is, that every one who is, 
 or who believes himself to be, q, true disciple 
 of Christ, should at once resolve so far as in 
 his power, and so far as he might be favoured 
 with divine aid, to live in this world according 
 to the teachings of his Master. As soon as 
 the great law of doing to others as we would 
 
 17* 
 
198 THE RESULT. 
 
 others should do to us begins to be exem- 
 plified, the reign of wrong, and injury, and 
 extreme suffering will come rapidly to an 
 end. Instead of one Howard, one Mrs. Fry, 
 and one Miss Dix in a century, we should 
 have thousands upon thousands, in every de- 
 partment of charity. When we look at what 
 these three individuals have accomplished, 
 what might we not expect from millions 
 labouring with united strength and intellect 
 in the great work of human welfare ? 
 
 As soon as the law of charity is fulfilled 
 on an extensive scale, in all its Christian 
 beauty and loveliness, the world will pause 
 to admire and believe and imitate. The 
 apostles as well as their great Master mingled 
 their preaching with incessant care of the 
 poor and the suffering ; it should be so now. 
 Christians may not fold their arms, and be 
 inactive, because there is an almshouse, a 
 poorhouse, or a benevolent society. There 
 should be no suffering within the reach of 
 any Christian that he can relieve or alleviate, 
 
EFFECT OF A FULL CONCEPTION OF DUTY. 199 
 
 without making the attempt. It is not 
 Christianity to attend weekly in the stately 
 church and well-cushioned pew, to hear expo- 
 sitions of difficult passages of Scripture, while 
 there is an utter failure to perform duties 
 which are so plainly enjoined that the dull- 
 est intellect can comprehend. Nor does the 
 most punctual attendance upon the Sunday- 
 school, or upon lectures or weekly meetings 
 for prayer, make up for neglect of the higher 
 duties of charity. If the preacher and people 
 in our rich and well-ordered congregations 
 were, in the midst of the gravest sermon, sud- 
 denly visited from on high with a deep and 
 adequate conception of their transgressions 
 of the law of charity, and of the duties which 
 they owe to those who are outside of thie 
 church ; if they were made to realize the great 
 contrast between their condition and that of 
 those who were abroad and around them, 
 their seats would in a moment become insup- 
 portable, and they would rush in a mass, 
 preacher and people, from their splendid 
 
200 THOSE COMPREHEND, WHO PRACTISE. 
 
 edifice, to the courts and alleys and cellars, 
 to the abodes of destitution, ignorance, crime, 
 and suffering. They would carry succour for 
 present wants; and all would become teachers 
 of the way of life. In vain do we preach, 
 and in vain do we teach, unless we carry obe- 
 dience to what we do understand, into our 
 lives; our progress in knowledge of divine 
 things must be limited by our actual progress 
 in the practical duties of Christianity. 
 
 No people can ever fully comprehend Chris- 
 tianity but those who comply with its requi- 
 sitions ; and of course the world can never ap- 
 preciate it until its laws of love are shown by 
 example. This distinguishing feature of Chris- 
 tianity is that which Christians have most 
 slighted. More attention has been given in 
 our churches and Sunday-schools to Jewish 
 manners, customs, ceremonies — to the orna- 
 ments of the tabernacle and temple — to breast- 
 plates and phylacteries, than to the obliga- 
 tions of brotherly kindness. There are foun- 
 tains of tenderness in every human bosom; 
 
OUR HIGHEST DUTIES, OUR PUREST JOYS. 201 
 
 they are not taught to gush forth and flow in 
 streams which no harshness of this world can 
 ever check : there are chords of love in every 
 breast; these are not taught to respond to 
 every appeal for sympathy and succour. 
 
 The purest joys of earth, the exercise of the 
 kindly affections, are nearly allied to the high- 
 est Christian duties of love to God and man. 
 Rare indeed is it to find a soul so dead as to 
 be insensible to kindness; and still more rare 
 is it to find one in the exercise of kindness, 
 who does not find the benefit of his good deeds 
 more than doubled in the happiness they re- 
 flect upon himself Rare is it to find a heart 
 so insensible as to be unmoved at even the 
 recital of noble deeds of charity, goodness, and 
 neighbourly kindness. In this great channel 
 of charity the Deity has chosen, in his infinite 
 mercy, to fix the sphere of our chief duties 
 and our highest enjoyments. Here is scope 
 for the employment of all our talents, and for 
 the exercise of all good affections. Where all 
 these come into full use, under the law of 
 
202 WHAT WILL DISAPPEAR UNDER PURER LIGHT. 
 
 Christian charity, many things now deemed 
 of vital importance will sink into comparative 
 insignificance, or utterly disappear under the 
 bright light of a purer Christianity. 
 
 THE CLERGY OF ALL CHURCHES— THEIR MISTAKES, 
 DIFFICULTIES, AND DUTIES IN REFERENCE TO THIS 
 SUBJECT. 
 
 We cannot dismiss this topic without in- 
 voking to it the earnest attention of the clergy 
 of all denominations, as well those who claim 
 to be the successors of the apostles, as those 
 who merely profess to be ministers of Christ. 
 We are not of those who entertain any preju- 
 dices against them as a class. Like other 
 classes, their history shows they have em- 
 braced in their ranks some of the best and 
 some of the worst of men. It is plain they 
 have their peculiarities as a class, and these 
 are mainly what circumstances have created 
 
GREAT ERROR OF THE EARLY CLERGY. 203 
 
 and continued. The frailties of human na- 
 ture have been as apparent among them as 
 others : they have shown themselves as sus- 
 ceptible to temptation. The developments of 
 their weaknesses have been more striking and 
 more painful from the sacredness of their call- 
 ing. The time has arrived when their in- 
 fluence for evil has sensibly diminished, and 
 when, we may trust, their labours for good 
 must be more successful. The great error of 
 the ministers of Christ in the early ages of 
 Christianity, as already remarked, was in sup- 
 posing that the more power and influence 
 they had, the more useful they could be. This 
 was a feeling very natural to human weak- 
 ness, and the continuance and increase of it 
 built up the papacy, the spirit of which is, to 
 claim and exercise power, spiritual and tem- 
 poral. No doubt thousands upon thousands 
 of these early clergy honestly believed they 
 could better promote their Master s cause if 
 they were armed with a continual increase 
 of power. They imagined in like manner that 
 
204 CHRIST WORKED %0T BY POWER, BUT BY LOVE. 
 
 if they could maintain a watch over the inner 
 man, while they had power to control his out- 
 ward movements, they could efficiently serve 
 their Master, and promote the interests of his 
 kingdom in this world. They were daily en- 
 countering obstacles in the heathen world by 
 which they were surrounded, and in the per- 
 verseness or stubborn independence of nomi- 
 nal Christians, which tended to confirm in 
 them the conviction of the necessity of this 
 priestly power. They were regarding the sub- 
 ject as men ; they forgot their Master's exam- 
 ple, who had all power, both temporal and 
 spiritual, and yet worked only by love : who 
 did not even avail himself of power, or wealth, 
 or high office, or social position. He took the 
 lowest place in society, that he might reach 
 the multitudes who were more accessible to 
 the truth, and nearer to the kingdom of God,- 
 because less wedded to this life than the rich 
 and great. They were not receiving the good 
 things of this world. He went among them 
 to carry them glad tidings of the world to 
 
ERROR OF GRASPING POWER STILL PREVAILS. 205 
 
 come. They were suffering in this world ; he 
 appeared among them to carry succour, con- 
 solation, and hope. This should have been 
 to this day the conduct of his ministers ; who, 
 by adopting the scheme of converting the 
 world to God by the power of the church over 
 mind and body, have committed an amount 
 of wickedness beyond any human estimate. 
 
 We thus notice this great mistake, as it pre- 
 vails to this day, more or less, among those 
 denominations of Christians, or rather among 
 their clergy, who regard the church of Christ 
 as a great mysterious, spiritual corporation. 
 The temptation of magnifying their office over- 
 much assails the ministers of Christ continu- 
 ally, and they seek to magnify it, not by the 
 good they do, but by the power to do good. 
 But since the daysiof Christ, it has ever been 
 seen that power, temporal or spiritual, was a 
 dangerous possession to priests or ministers. 
 These have always been corrupt in proportion 
 to the power they wielded. All the power 
 they can employ successfully, is that of truth 
 
 18 
 
206 TRUTH BACKED BY KINDNESS. 
 
 and love. It is a mistake to suppose that this 
 grasping after control has come to an end^ or 
 that it is confined to those who claim to have the 
 only true priesthood. Many of the reformed 
 churches are its victims. Those in the north 
 of Europe have thus had all spiritual life ex- 
 tinguished : others have suffered more in this 
 way than we can pause to tell. But this no- 
 tion of the church, with power to do good, 
 haunts the minds of many ministers all around 
 us in a way that has produced, and still pro- 
 duces much mischief. Instead of bending all 
 their energies to commend the truth to their 
 hearers, and to back it by that kindness and 
 love which is the seal of its genuineness, they 
 struggle to build up the church, that is, their 
 particular denomination ; to bring their peo- 
 ple to a strict adhesion to their peculiar tenets, 
 to strict attendance upon their public wor- 
 ship, and to a general outward compliance 
 with all its requirements. In this way, a hedge 
 is carried round the people which is intended 
 to secure submission to the discipline of the 
 
THE TRUTH SHOULD MAKE US FREE. 207 
 
 church, and due attendance upon its pre- 
 scribed routine. All this is very well within 
 proper bounds ; but when the labours of the 
 clergy are chiefly devoted to congregational 
 management, the cause of Christ will suffer in 
 proportion as the minister is successful. He 
 may wield a dominion over his people as 
 strong as papal bondage, by establishing a 
 public opinion which few have courage to re- 
 sist. He may secure an apparent unanimity 
 in matters of religion, which only proves the 
 tyranny which has been established. All such 
 attempts to promote the cause of Christ and 
 to extend his kingdom by church discipline, 
 by uniformity of opinion, by destroying free- 
 dom of expression, proceed upon false princi- 
 ples. The truth should be preached, but can- 
 dour should not be extinguished. Our pro- 
 fession of being Christ's disciples should bear 
 all the fruits of religion; but we should not 
 be constrained by artificial appliances to any 
 apparent obedience to Christ's commands. 
 The truth should make us free: free in 
 
208 FORGING DENOMINATIONAL FETTERS. 
 
 thought, in speech, and in action. How much 
 the mind is enslaved under papal rule is gene- 
 rally appreciated out of that church; but how 
 much bondage of opinion is endured under Pro- 
 testant rule, is not so generally admitted or 
 considered. Others may point it out and dis- 
 play its special evils : we refer to it to show 
 how much time, attention, and mental effort 
 of ministers is employed in keeping up this 
 system, which should be employed upon the 
 more appropriate duties of the servants of 
 Christ. If half the time, labour, and mental 
 effort which have been expended in forging de- 
 nominational fetters, in fastening them on, and 
 in keeping them in their place, had been spent 
 by ministers in simply and honestly imitating 
 the ministry of Christ, how great an advance 
 would Christianity have made beyond what 
 is now seen ! 
 
 This inclination to grasp power as a spirit- 
 ual weapon, so congenial to human nature, has 
 been powerfully seconded in every age of 
 Christian history, as at this day, by a ten- 
 
PETTING MINISTERS. 209 
 
 dency scarcely less strong on the part of the 
 people to flatter and pet their sj^iritual guides. 
 Multitudes act as if they must be safe for the 
 next world if they can secure the special 
 favour or smiles of their pastors in this world. 
 This has always been so obvious that even 
 the most humble and modest among the 
 clergy could not but see evidences of this 
 servility; and none but the most firm and 
 conscientious could help availing themselves 
 of it. By degrees, the temporal advantage 
 of being priest or minister reached such a 
 point, that it became an object of attraction 
 for many, very many-who would never other- 
 wise have been followers of Him who claimed 
 neither house nor home. The charge of a 
 pastor has grown to be an affair of business, 
 and no longer a mere mission of truth and 
 mercy to and among the poor. Salaries are 
 given, not to have the gospel preached to the 
 poor, not for a ministry like that of Christ, 
 but for hard study and much reading — for 
 the delivery on Sundays of elaborate treatises 
 
 18* 
 
210 NOT HALF THE POOR ENTER A CHURCH. 
 
 on Scripture criticism, doctrinal points, or 
 practical duties. These discourses are not 
 addressed to the poor, and are not suited to 
 their comprehension; they are addressed to 
 the owners of the church in which they are 
 read, or to the empty seats belonging to these 
 proprietors. The poor enter these edifices in 
 yery small numbers. Not half the poor in 
 any Protestant country ever find a seat in 
 the places of public worship. Not half their 
 numbers ever hear the gospel, even by acci- 
 dent, once m a year : a very small number 
 ever make the acquaintance of a minister of 
 Christ. They are born strangers to the truth, 
 and so remain during all their lives. They 
 live, perhaps, within sight of many churches 
 devoted to the service of God. But those 
 who swarm in the courts and alleys and 
 suburbs of our cities, the outskirts of our vil- 
 lages, and many a thronged locality of the 
 country, never enter a church, and seldom, 
 if ever, hear the accents of mercy and kind- 
 ness which breathe in the teachings of ouv 
 
OUR OBLIGATIOXS NOT IMPAIRED. 211 
 
 Redeemer. As we cannot doubt that the 
 poor and suffering of the present day are as 
 much the objects of Divine compassion as 
 during the personal ministry of Christ, so we 
 cannot doubt what should be the mission of 
 his disciples. If the clergy are prevented 
 by circumstances beyond their control, by 
 habits of the people not easily changed, by 
 mstitutions and artificial duties not of their 
 own arranging, but which time has fastened 
 upon them, the example of Christ shines 
 none the less brightly and its obligations lose 
 none of their force, whether neglected or for- 
 gotten or found to be -of difficult execution. 
 
 The clergy of the church of Rome and all 
 denominations of Christians since the Refor- 
 mation have failed, as we allege, to present 
 Christianity to the^ world in the sublime and 
 simple beauty in which it was clothed by 
 its author in his ministrations. The papal 
 clergy have overlaid it with the superstitious 
 mummeries and traditions of ages of dark- 
 ness : through which the faintest traces of the 
 
212 CHRISTIANITY SMOTHERED. 
 
 divine and pure original can scarcely be per- 
 ceived. The Protestant clergy have rescued 
 the Bible from the darkness of papal libraries 
 and have scattered it abroad over the whole 
 earth. They have exalted it in the highest 
 terms of human praise. They have studied, 
 commented, and explained, nay even tortured 
 every word, phrase, and expression in the 
 original and translations, for every possible 
 interpretation : and this they continue to do 
 as one of the most meritorious works of Chris-' 
 tian life. The result is, that Christianity is 
 smothered in theology and criticism: the 
 truths of revelation are wire-drawn and spun 
 and twisted into the most fantastical shapes 
 human fancy or human logic can devise. A 
 system of technical divinity has been con- 
 structed which rivals in complexity all the 
 machinery of the Romish church. 
 
 From this system, by a series of strainings, 
 condensations, and extractions, they have pro- 
 duced the catechisms, guides, and various 
 formularies of the different churches. These 
 
CHIEF TOPICS OF ORTHODOXY. 213 
 
 resumes of theology are taught more than all 
 Scripture, because they are regarded as autho- 
 ritative abstracts of the truth. They con- 
 stitute the landmarks of revelation, the ske- 
 leton of religion, the wires by which the 
 Christian machinery is to be kept in success- 
 ful operation. In all this system, man is 
 mainly treated of and regarded as a lost 
 sinner, as having fallen with his representa- 
 tive liead, Adam, in his first transgression. 
 Christ is mainly regarded as having become 
 incarnate, as having endured the wrath of 
 God, the scoffs of the Jews, the agony of the 
 garden, the degrading death of the cross, and 
 OS having thus suffered and shed his blood as 
 an expiatory sacrifice for the sins of men, 
 thereby atoning for their offences and pur- 
 chasing remission of their offences, — as having 
 risen from the grave on the third day, and 
 ascended to the right hand of the Father, 
 there to be the head of the church founded 
 by his incarnation, crucifixion, and resurrec- 
 tion. 
 
.214 A SKELETON OF TRUTH NOT ENOUGH. 
 
 But this hard and bony skeleton of truth 
 can never be exalted into Christianity until 
 it is clothed with desires, affections, kindness, 
 charity, love to God, and love to men. The 
 mission of Christ was not, merely incarnation, 
 death, resurrection, mediation, and redemp- 
 tion. It was also an humble and lowly minis- 
 tration among the poor and suffering: this 
 was his daily work. He went about doing 
 good, ministering to the hungry, visiting the 
 sick, and restoring the leprous, the blind and 
 lame. He preached constantly the doctrines 
 of his mission, which, wherever felt and appre- 
 hended, will secure a ministry engaged in the 
 very same work. Now, whether we look 
 upon the whole mass of those who are re- 
 garded as Christ's ministers, or at those of 
 any particular denomination, we shall be 
 equally at a loss to find any class of them 
 who are imitating the ministry of their Lord 
 and Master. Not only is there no such class 
 of ministers, but it is rare to find one who 
 walks in the footsteps of Him whom he pro; 
 
A MINISTRY LIKE CHRIST'S. 215 
 
 fesses to serve ; it is rare to find one who even 
 comprehends the scope of his teaching who 
 spoke as never man spake. The mass of these 
 nominal ministers of Christ aim constantly 
 to maintain a position of authority and in- 
 fluence, which they have usurped, and not 
 only strive to perpetuate, but to enlarge. 
 
 Vast numbers are engaged in teaching 
 theology, in making weekly orations, in en- 
 forcing ecclesiastical discipline, and the per- 
 formance of duties of routine required by 
 church regulations, in reducing their hearers 
 to the same level of faith and doctrine, in 
 bringing them to the -same line of conduct, 
 and in performing a thousand church duties, 
 which have no warrant in the teachings 
 and no precedent in the example of Christ. 
 Let them now be exhorted to review their 
 course of ministration, comparing it honestly 
 and intelligently with the instructions and 
 the conduct of their Master : let their minis- 
 try become constantly more like His. This 
 imports a great and vital change, and one 
 
216 CHRISTIAN CHARITY EMBRACES ALL MEN. 
 
 which cannot be made at once. It will 
 take time fully to comprehend the mighty 
 scope of the mission which a thorough obe- 
 dience to Christ dictates, and which following 
 his example implies. There is room in this 
 for all that human talents, or energy, or wis- 
 dom, or piety, or goodness can accomplish — 
 room for the exercise of all the gifts the Deity 
 has bestowed. 
 
 Passing over the main characteristics of a 
 ministry after the example of Christ — merely 
 remarking that the gospel is to be preached 
 to the poor ; the suffering are to be succoured ; 
 the sick, and those in prison, are to be visited; 
 the hungry are to be fed, and water to be fur- 
 nished for the thirsty — we proceed to designate 
 other duties belonging to this service, not 
 so obvious, but necessarily resulting from an 
 enlarged view of the field of this ministry. 
 The field is the world ; and while the labours 
 of the minister may be chiefly employed 
 among the poor among whom his lot is cast, 
 he is not to forget what he owes to all the race 
 
MITIGATION TO EVERY HUMAN ILL. 217 
 
 of men. Whilst the servant of Christ finds 
 himself surrounded by many that require his 
 personal consolations, teachings, and aid, he 
 cannot but remember that the world is full of 
 sorrow and trouble, of want and degradation, 
 of oppression and cruelty. Far more than 
 half the human race is in a condition of po- 
 verty, ignorance, and abject wretchedness. 
 While the minister puts forth his hand for the 
 relief of those that are near him, his heart and 
 mind should embrace all that his voice and 
 hand cannot reach. Christianity offers ame- 
 lioration to all cases of social evil — mitigation 
 to every human ill. ' No wisdom of man is 
 adequate to the rescue of humanity from the 
 social and physical evils which oppress it. 
 The wisdom of God has long since laid down 
 the rule which meets every possible exi- 
 gency : — " Love thy neighbour as thyself." 
 
 From this rule let all the practical duties 
 of life be developed. Christ himself fumished 
 many special deductions from this law ; but, 
 as we have said, both his illustrations and 
 
 19 
 
218 WHAT A HUNDEED MINISTERS COULD DO. 
 
 the law itself are almost unnoticed in Pro- 
 testant literature : there has not been an ap- 
 proach to any adequate treatment of this sub- 
 ject by any Protestant hand. Let this re- 
 proach be speedily wiped away. Let ministers 
 withdraw for a moment from the tread-mill 
 work of church routine, and reflect upon the 
 condition of all men, and the applicability 
 of Christianity to social as well as religious 
 renovation — to ameliorate the condition of 
 men in this world as well as to save their 
 souls in the next. Since the advent of 
 Christ there have lived professed ministers 
 enough, if they had performed a tithe of their 
 duty, to have insured the blessings of Chris- 
 tianity to all the world in a much greater de- 
 gree than they are now enjoyed by the most 
 favoured portion. If one thousand ministers 
 had only laboured in this cause as some have 
 laboured — nay, if one hundred had so la^ 
 boured in every generation since the Chris- 
 tian era, we might now look abroad upon a 
 Christian world. A hundred ministers as de- 
 
THE MASSES ARE SEEKING LIGHT. 219 
 
 voted to their Master's cause in general as 
 Howard was to one department of that cause, 
 would, in less than a century, bring all the 
 world to the knowledge of God in Christ. No 
 mere proclamation of the truth, whether by 
 voice or by types, could effect such a desirable 
 renovation : the seal of charity must go with 
 the book, and the liberal hand must accom- 
 pany the voice. Men will never be made to 
 know what Christianity is, until they are made 
 to see and feel it in the conduct of Christians. 
 It is time that ministers were waking up to 
 gome better conception of their mission ; for 
 the world is already awake, and masses of 
 men, sensible that their condition in this 
 world is, without fault of theirs, below their 
 true position, are groping for amendment, 
 seeking for light, and demanding aid in the 
 name of a common humanity. They are 
 struggling in the mists of ignorance for better 
 things ; they are devising plans for social im- 
 provement, and attempting to carry them out 
 in revolutions and bloodshed. Their efforts 
 
220 CONSERVATISM. 
 
 are convulsing civilization to its centre. They 
 have been oppressed, trodden down, kept in 
 ignorance, buried in superstition. What has 
 been done for them by ministers of state, or 
 ministers of Christ ? They have felt no kind 
 hand from the state extended for their relief; 
 they have seen no effort of Christianity in 
 their behalf, nor any adequate example of its 
 success in ameliorating the ills of humanity. 
 When these men arise in mass to seek justice, 
 to hunt for that charity which has not found 
 them, the ears of slumbering ministers of 
 Christ should tingle with mortification and 
 shame for having so long neglected to preach 
 the gospel to these poor, and for having so 
 long withheld from them the blessings of 
 Christianity. 
 
 Let not stern Christian conservatives now 
 deride their erroneous schemes of social im- 
 provement, and denounce as bad men and 
 citizens all who make such attempts ; rather 
 let the voice of Christian ministers be heard 
 addressing them in tones of kindness and en- 
 
CHRISTIAN KINDNESS CAN DO THE WORK. 221 
 
 couragement, giving assurance that in Chris- 
 tianity they can find the only hope of a 
 better system of society, and the only solution 
 of social problems: that if it has not per- 
 formed any mighty achievement in social re- 
 generation, it was not the fault of its princi- 
 ples or its maxims, but of those who professed 
 but did not practise them. The highest aspi- 
 ration of the most earnest reformer never 
 reached a point so lofty as, " Thou shalt love 
 thy neighbour as thyself." Let those who are 
 sighing for reform be invited to unite in a sys- 
 tem enjoining on its members, and on all men, 
 more kindness, more charity, and more bro- 
 therly love than all the social schemes they 
 ever listened to could imagine. Let them be 
 told that it« invitations, promises, assurances, 
 and rewards are specially addressed to the 
 poor, the suffering and oppressed ; that it re- 
 quires for its success no political revolution, 
 permits no bloodshed, but a simple surrender 
 of human wisdom, and an acceptance of that 
 of the Deity ; that they should not only ask 
 
 19* 
 
222 LET THE WORLD SEE YOUR KINDNESS. 
 
 Christ to come to them, but arise at once and 
 go to Him. But topics need not be suggested ; 
 they abound, and every minister will be fruit- 
 ful in them when he has once opened his mind 
 and heart to regard all the human family as 
 within the scope of Christian sympathies, and, 
 in so far as opportunities offered, within the 
 scope of clerical labours. Let the world clearly 
 perceive that Christians are labouring with 
 untiring zeal, not merely for the purpose of 
 making proselytes to a sect, or slaves to a 
 church — not merely to swell the numbers and 
 glory of a sect, or to increase the taxables of 
 a church, but to promote the temporal com- 
 fort and eternal welfare of all to whom they 
 have access, and the world will soon be found 
 sending its hosts heavenward. But the world 
 must first be fed and cured of its ailments and 
 sorrows before it will hear ; it must be con- 
 vinced over a banquet of " loaves and fishes." 
 The poor must be sure of the disinterested- 
 ness of the teacher before they will receive his 
 teachings. Personal kindness will win more 
 
KINDNESS OPENS UNWILLING EARS. 223 
 
 friends among them than the highest elo- 
 quence or the most orthodox theology. They 
 will believe you are truly desirous of their 
 eternal welfare when you show yourself truly 
 desirous of promoting their temporal well- 
 being. 
 
 This is no harsh judgment. The great 
 point to be gained, in the progress of truth, is 
 to make people willing to hear, and willing 
 to be convinced. As soon as they are satis- 
 fied, by your personal kindness or steady 
 zeal for their good, that you are a fast friend, 
 {hey become ready to hear from you the 
 truths of the gospel. ^ If Christ himself com- 
 menced and carried on his ministry by con- 
 tinual displays of regard for the poor, how 
 much more necessary for his ministers to 
 make their ministry one of continual kind- 
 ness and compassion ! No amount of preach- 
 ing or of prayer can compensate for the neg- 
 lect of this essential part of clerical duty. But 
 in this, as in many other Christian duties, the 
 minister or priest can only lead in kind offices; 
 
224 WHERE DO THE POOR LOVE THE CLERGY? 
 
 it will be nearly in vain, if those who profess 
 to be Christians do not follow. In this career 
 of charity, the clergy must not only embark, 
 but their people must be induced to embark 
 with them. 
 
 It is strange, indeed, that with the example 
 and instructions of the Saviour before them, 
 ministers should have so forgotten their duties 
 to their fellow-men as not to perceive that 
 the hand of charity must accompany the 
 tongue of truth ; the latter must enter into 
 the heart, but the former must open the 
 door. In what Protestant country are the 
 clergy regarded by the mass of the poor as 
 their special friends ? or rather, in which do 
 the poor look to or receive from ministers 
 or bishops, as such, any evidences of special 
 regard, temporal or spiritual, beyond what 
 may be dictated by and subserve the interests 
 of such ministers and bishops themselves? 
 Where has the impression been adequately 
 made upon the poor that Christ is as much 
 the friend of the poor now a*s in the days 
 
CLERICAL DUTIES TOO ARDUOUS. 225 
 
 of his sojourning upon earth, only that now 
 his disciples are appointed to do his will and 
 execute his works of mercy ? Until this im- 
 pression is made, and that by a veritable ful- 
 filmeut of the law of love, the gospel cannot 
 be preached to the poor, as prescribed and 
 intended in the New Testament. 
 
 It may be said, the clergy are already 
 burdened beyond their strength, and that 
 they cannot assume such duties as are here 
 designated. True, they are so burdened, and 
 they are constantly sacrificing health and 
 life to a mistaken system. Two-thirds of their 
 present current duties should be dispensed 
 with, to make room for the ministry of kind- 
 ness, which would promote health instead 
 of destroying it, and prolong life instead of 
 shortening it. The personal effort required 
 by a ministry of consolation and succour 
 among the poor, the ' afflicted, the sick, and 
 the imprisoned, would give vigour to the 
 body and nerve to the mind ; it would deepen 
 the affections and enlarge the views; it would 
 
226 CHARITY EXPANDS THE INTELLECT, 
 
 confer a knowledge of human nature and an 
 insight into the ways of Providence which 
 no other clerical training can accomplish. It 
 would show that he who makes such acquisi- 
 tions may carry to the study of the Scriptures a 
 commentary shedding a holier and purer light 
 than all the volumes which human intellect 
 without such experience has yet devoted to 
 that purpose. A servant of Christ engaged 
 in the very work in which his Master laboured 
 must acquire the very knowledge and expe- 
 rience which will enable him fully to under- 
 stand and appreciate the lessons delivered 
 by Christ whilst so engaged. The whole of 
 that sublime and exquisite system of divinity 
 and charity which is taught in the evange- 
 lists will be gradually unfolded to his admir- 
 ing view. He will soon glory in his Master, 
 in his instructions, and in his work. With 
 this clear comprehension of the Scriptures 
 which lie before him, of the wants of his fel- 
 low-men around him, he can soon extend his 
 vision to the whole field of labour, the inha- 
 
AND SUGGESTS NEW TOPICS. 227 
 
 bited world. By this torch, he will begin to 
 see the compromise now subsisting between 
 the spirit of this world and the professed dis- 
 ciples of Christ, of which the ministers of Christ 
 are, of every name, the most determined sup- 
 porters. His mind will gradually open to 
 the consideration of topics and questions now 
 utterly eschewed by nearly all the clergy 
 of every church. Looking with indignation 
 beyond that political economy which regards 
 men as machines to create and distribute 
 wealth ; which upholds a competition which 
 grinds the labourer into a condition far below 
 that of the slave ; which looks upon the poor 
 as having come " unbidden to the banquet 
 of life," he will inquire anxiously and boldly 
 what can be done to ameliorate the condition 
 of the millions upon millions of his brethren 
 of the same family and children of the same 
 Heavenly Father. Whilst he will bow to 
 every ordinance of man for conscience' sake, 
 and will neither meditate nor counsel vio- 
 lence, nor any uncharitable or evil proceed- 
 
FEAR NOT THE TRUTH. 
 
 ing, to attain a good end, he will permit no 
 false principles of honour, or trade, or property, 
 however consecrated by time, or upheld by 
 rank, wealth, or legislation, to restrain him 
 from looking at the naked truth, and from 
 pursuing what he shall deem the path that 
 leads to human well-being in that way which 
 may be consonant with the teachings of Christ. 
 
 FURTHER MISTAKES OF THE CLERGY. 
 
 The clergy fell into another grievous error 
 in the first ages of the church of Christ, 
 which clings in greater or less degree to 
 all churches down to the present time. 
 This error is equally due to human weak- 
 ness, and is therefore as likely to prevail in 
 time to come as in time past. It is the 
 more necessary, then, to be fully aware of 
 the mischief, that some effort be exerted 
 towards counteraction. We refer to the con- 
 
DISTRUST OF THE SCRIPTURES. 229 
 
 stant disposition to enlarge or restrict the 
 bounds of revelation. It was early dis- 
 played in the exertions of the Jewish con- 
 verts to impose on the disciples of Christ 
 the yoke of Judaism : this was followed by 
 a system of tradition, and this, by the erec- 
 tion of a hierarchy, at the head of which 
 was the bishop of Rome as pope claiming 
 equal authority in matters of truth with 
 Christ himself This tendency is displayed in 
 later times, in the adoption of creeds, articles 
 and confessions of faith, prayer-books, cate- 
 chisms, and such formularies. Whatever the 
 advantage a proper use of such helps may be, 
 the constant abuse of them has been their 
 substitution for the plain and simple teach- 
 ings of Christ and his apostles. There seems 
 to be a constant apprehension that the latter 
 are insufficient, and that men must inevitably 
 go astray if left to interpret the word of God 
 for themselves. It must, therefore, be taken 
 away from them, and an entire system of man s 
 devising substituted in its stead, as is done by 
 
 w 
 
28^0 ABUSE OP CREEDS. 
 
 the Komanists ; or strict forms of faith and 
 practice must be submitted for the adoption 
 of believers, who are required to believe, not 
 in the New Testament, but that the system 
 submitted is drawn from it, or is in accordance 
 with it. None of these are so easily under- 
 stood as Christ's own words, but are yet 
 put forward as standards of faith, as summa- 
 ries of knowledge, as compends of instruction 
 for the old and the young. We do not ven- 
 ture to depreciate these productions nor to 
 estimate their true value. It is their abuse 
 of which we complain ; it is the constant ten- 
 dency to rest upon the paraphrase instead 
 of the text, to rely upon long-drawn conclu- 
 sions instead of direct revelation ; it is the dis- 
 position, not merely to insist upon our taking 
 the Scriptures as our guide, but to prescribe 
 how we must take them ; it is the limiting 
 the right of individual judgment, and nar- 
 rowing the ground of private opinion, until 
 nothing is left for the exercise of the believer's 
 mind. He is required to believe, not to think ; 
 
DANGER OF DESERTING THE SCRIPTURES. 231 
 
 to receive the conclusions of others, and not 
 to draw any for himself It may appear best 
 to the trained mind of the theologian to bring 
 the minds of believers at one step to the con- 
 clusions of that science, but they forget that 
 the assent which is thus given is of no advan- 
 tage to him who gives it — his mind has not 
 derived it from the word of God. It may ap- 
 2)ear safest and most expedient and a saving 
 of labour thus to tax men's credence, but it 
 clearly involves the danger of a desertion 
 of the Scriptures, which contain the very 
 truths upon which the minds of believers 
 are to be employed, and stated in the way 
 which the same inspiration dictated. Who 
 can teach higher things than Christ himself 
 taught, and illustrated by his life, — and who 
 can make them plainer to common minds 
 than they now are ? Even Protestant clergy 
 have failed to hold up the Scriptures as the 
 only word of life, upon the revelations of which 
 every man must pass his own judgment, en- 
 lightened as much «as may be by clerical 
 
232 CHILDREN LED TO A COMPEND OF THEOLOGY. 
 
 exposition. Christ said, "Suffer little chil- 
 dren to come unto me ;" now that Christ is no 
 more on the earth, this exhortation means, 
 " Suffer little children to come to me" through 
 the study of my life and precepts ; but the 
 clergy now lead little children to the cate- 
 chism — to a compend of theology. Even 
 where the study of the Scriptures is zealously 
 pursued and inculcated, the formula of faith 
 is put forward as of equal importance and au- 
 thority. Scores of thousands of volumes are 
 written for the purpose of enforcing, explain- 
 ing, and defending these formularies, which 
 should be given to the plainer duties of 
 the shepherds of a flock, many of which are 
 sick, deserted, in trouble, or straying from the 
 fold. 
 
 This is no special or singular dereliction 
 of the clergy of the present day : it is a phase 
 of the present state of Christianity. The 
 ministers of Christ being what the abuses and 
 errors of the age have made them, the cause 
 of Christ must suffer grievously in their hands, 
 
CANDIDATES FOR RJCH CHURCHES. 233 
 
 for they are not so much the servants of Christ 
 as of their congregations or clerical superiors. 
 They are no longer ministers of peace, meek- 
 ness, and charity, but of study, of learned po- 
 lemical war, of worldly, imperious, and unyield- 
 ing habits. What hosts of candidates for 
 the pastorship of rich churches, and yet how 
 few able and popular ministers are found 
 labouring among the degraded and the poor ! 
 In fine, however much many may perceive 
 the inconsistency of their course of life with 
 the profession they make, they feel their ina- 
 bility to stem the current which sweeps them 
 onward in the beaten track of sectarian 
 fonns. How few clergymen of any church 
 could ]je strict imitators of their Master with- 
 out losing caste, or suffering excommunica- 
 tion ! Those who -tjan and do come nearest 
 to their Master's example are the missionaries, 
 who give up the comforts of home and the 
 enjoyments of social life, to brave the oppo- 
 sition, the blindness, or the besotted idolatry 
 of remote and frequently barbarous people. 
 
 20^ 
 
234 FOREIGN MISSIONARIES. 
 
 Many of these devoted men have, in such 
 positions, at once perceived the true nature 
 of their mission. They felt that the truths 
 they had to announce could only find access 
 to darkened minds by channels opened 
 through the affections. They went among 
 the poor, and carried relief and succour wher- 
 ever they were able. They visited the sick, 
 administering medical aid without charge. 
 The lame and the blind and the suffering, 
 in many cases, resorted to them in multi- 
 tudes. When the missionary is a physician, 
 or is accompanied by one, the resemblance of 
 his mission approximates more closely to that 
 of his Master. How profound the impression 
 which has at various times been made by such 
 missionaries ! The pagan is made to feel that 
 nothing in his religion approaches in sub- 
 limity the beautiful kindness of the disin- 
 terested messenger of Christ : his great diffi- 
 culty is to realize that such kindness is real ; 
 that there is not some lurking selfishness, 
 some covert design concealed from sight 
 
HEATHEN OBJECTIONS. 235 
 
 Every doubt, however, falls before a continued 
 ministry of kindness to the poor, to the af- 
 flicted, and to children : the missionary might 
 rejoice in conquests for his Master greater than 
 his most sanguine dreams ever anticipated, 
 but for the practical repudiation which Chris- 
 tendom affords of Christian principles and 
 practice. 
 
 What can the missionary in India say 
 to objections raised upon the conduct of 
 officers, agents, soldiers, and servants of the 
 East India Company, who are all reputed to 
 be Christians by the natives ? What can the 
 missionary in Chinar say in defence of that 
 Christianity which forces opium upon the 
 Chinese at the cannon's mouth ? What can 
 the missionary to the Sandwich Islands say 
 for the conduct or the people of Christian na- 
 tions who touch there ; and of those who force 
 brandy upon them under the guns of men-of- 
 war ; and what can the missionaries to the 
 poor Indians of this country say to the policy 
 which has driven them from their homes, de- 
 
236 PROTESTANTISM. 
 
 prived them of their lands, and exterminated 
 tribe after tribe ? 
 
 Mere Protestantism makes no claim upon 
 the sympathies or affections of any people ; 
 and when the law of kindness is held up as 
 the law of Christian life, the idolater points 
 to the conduct of Christian nations and the 
 lives of the people. Some among them are 
 always ready to avail themselves of this means 
 of discrediting the new worship, and show 
 themselves well-informed as to the delin- 
 quencies of Christian life. The barrier to the 
 success of the missionary is not merely the 
 inconsistency between Christian precepts and 
 practice — it is the practical denial of the great 
 law of charity which the missionary preaches, 
 and in his own life exemplifies. This law or 
 rule of life, which would soon bear Christianity 
 into all the world, not being respected by 
 Christians, cannot secure the confidence of the 
 heathen, multitudes of whom regard it as a 
 pretence and a covering for more designing 
 selfishness and deeper iniquity. We tliink it 
 
MISSIONARIES LOOKING BACK. 237 
 
 right thus to distinguish between the mission- 
 aries and other clergy, because the former 
 present to our minds the only true exemplars 
 of a Christian ministry. When once engaged 
 m their work of love, they look back upon 
 the narrowness of sectarian views with horror 
 and surprise. They regard the squabbles of 
 ecclesiastical assemblies with pain and morti- 
 fication. They begin to understand their mis- 
 sion as ministers of Christ, and to see how lit- 
 tle that mission is comprehended by theolo- 
 gians and divines, the well-paid ministers of 
 rich congregations, many of whom pluitie 
 themselves chiefly upon being the successors 
 of the apostles, whilst they are certainly not 
 even earning the title of the humblest of 
 Christ's servants. 
 
238 
 
 TOPICS FOR THE CONSIDERATION OF CHRISTIAN 
 
 TEACHERS. 
 
 • 
 
 The sins of society are the sins of the indi- 
 viduals of which it is composed, however will- 
 ing the individuals are to shift or cast off the 
 responsibility. Christians are thus accountable 
 for much iniquity which they might prevent. 
 They become hardened, by custom, to that 
 which is occurring all around them ; but their 
 duty is not less binding, to overcome the ills 
 of society, and to point out the errors which 
 are consecrated by habit. When they become 
 able to lay aside the pride of position, the 
 conservative stubbornness of an easy life, and 
 to regard the present constitution of society 
 under the full light of Christ's life and pre- 
 cepts, they will find abundant cause of lamen- 
 tation. They will find that almost all the 
 maxims and requirements of business are op- 
 posed in spirit and results to these precepts. 
 
MAXIMS OF THE WORLD. 239 
 
 That stern punctuality which is the essence 
 of business morality, and which exacts a ful- 
 filment of engagements with so little forbear- 
 ance that thousands are ruined whom a very 
 little forbearance would save, may be indis- 
 pensable to the progress of commerce, but is 
 irreconcilable with those precepts which en- 
 join upon us to love our neighbour as our- 
 selves, and with that prayer which asks " for- 
 giveness of sins, for we also forgive every one 
 that is indebted to us." 
 -^ V That fierce and unfaltering competition in 
 the race of business so much exalted by poli- 
 tical economists as the best regulator of in- 
 dustry, may be very useful in extinguishing 
 all those sympathies which weaken human 
 eflbrts when directed against each other, and 
 in sharpening all those energies which are ap- 
 plied to the purpose of amassing wealth, grasp- 
 ing power, and ministering to all other ends 
 of human selfishness ; but little accords with 
 the demands of human brotherhood. That 
 ravenous and untiring pursuit of wealth so cha- 
 
240 THE LAWS OF BUSINESS. 
 
 racteristic of Protestant activity — that adding 
 of field to field and bam to barn, or heaping 
 up treasures of this world, or that lavish ex- 
 penditure which squanders with as much zeal 
 as it accumulates — may be a necessary accom- 
 paniment of the doctrine which teaches the 
 propriety of encouraging whatever gives vigour 
 to the mind and body, and confirms the sacred 
 rights of property, that is, of doing what we 
 please with our own ; but all this little com- 
 ports with the stewardship of Christ's disciples, 
 or with the command, ," Go sell that thou hast 
 and give to the poor." 
 
 This buying at the cheapest possible rate, 
 not regarding the hardship to him who sells, 
 and selling at the dearest rate possible, not 
 regarding the interest of him who buys — this 
 position in trade or in society which makes 
 it not only the interest, but the natural course, 
 of every one to prey upon his fellow-men to 
 the full extent of his power and cunning, is 
 well fitted to carry selfishness to its highest 
 limits, and to extinguish every spark of mutual 
 
INDUSTRY AND COMFORT, THEN TRADE. 241 
 
 kindness, but is very inconsistent with the 
 duty or the policy of keeping out of the way 
 of temptation. This idea of considering men 
 as mere machines for the purpose of creating 
 and distributing wealth, may do very well to 
 round off the periods, the syllogisms, and state- 
 ments of political economists; but the whole 
 notion is totally and irreconcileably at va- 
 riance with Christianity, which teaches that 
 all the world is of less value than one soul ; 
 and that, in ascertaining the true interests of 
 men, we should first direct our attention to 
 those measures which may best secure physi- 
 cal comfort, peace, and happiness in this world, 
 and the best preparation for the world to come ; 
 and afterwards to those which may create 
 the largest amount of wealth, not merely 
 for the benefit of free trade, — that unre- 
 strained action of merchants, which makes 
 them arbiters of the condition of millions 
 who toil to produce what they buy and sell, 
 and fetch and carry, at charges fixed by them- 
 selves. ' 
 
 21 
 
^42 POOR men's labour needs protection 
 
 ^ f The doctrine that property, real and per- 
 sonal, must, under all circumstances, remain 
 inviolate, always under the ever watchful 
 vigilance of the law, and its invaders subject to 
 the severest penalties of dungeon or damages, 
 may be very essential to the maintenance 
 of our present social system, but totally dis- 
 regards the consideration that labour, the 
 poor man's capital, his only property, should, 
 as his only means of securing a comfortable 
 subsistence, be also under the special care 
 and safeguard of the law. The doctrine that 
 trade should be entirely free — that is, that 
 merchants should be perfectly at liberty, 
 throughout the world, to manage their busi- 
 ness in that way which best promotes their 
 interests, may suit very well for merchants, 
 making them masters of the industry of the 
 world ; but it will be giving a small body of 
 men a power over the bones and sinews of 
 their fellow-men, which it would be contrary 
 to all our knowledge of human nature if they 
 do not fatally abuse; because they are in- 
 
AS MUCH AS RICH MEN's PROPERTY. 243 
 
 terested to reduce the avails of labour to the 
 lowest attainable point, as the best means of 
 enlarging their business and increasing their 
 gains. 
 
 s 
 
 That philosophy which teaches that vaQxi 
 should always be left to the care of them- 
 selves; that labour is a merely marketable 
 article, which should be left, like others, to 
 find its own market value, without reference 
 to the welfare of the man, may appear plausi- 
 ble to those who forget the Fatherhood of God 
 and the brotherhood of man ; but is utterly 
 at variance with His precepts who taught that 
 those who were sent to work at the eleventh 
 hour should receive the same as those who 
 had borne the burden and heat of the day. 
 
 We might thus go on, indicating topic after 
 topic, in endless variety, linked by their rela- 
 tions with the welfare of men in this world 
 and their hope of the w^orld to come, all of 
 which deserve the serious examination of 
 those who are shepherds of Christ's flock. 
 These and many more such subjects are not 
 
244 TOPICS FOR CHRISTIAN MINISTERS. 
 
 merely political, or politico-economical ; they 
 concern men's temporal well-being, and, 
 through that, have a vital bearing on their 
 eternal prospects. They demand, therefore, 
 the most earnest attention of Christians and 
 Christian ministers, as of far greater import- 
 ance to the progress of religion than innu- 
 merable topics of theology which have here- 
 tofore and do yet engross so large a portion 
 of their time and talents. If the scrutiny and 
 time and talents which have thus been mis- 
 applied, had, with equal industry and zeal, 
 been turned to the science of human well-be- 
 ing, we should not now lament the little pro- 
 gress which has been made in that great and 
 much-abused department of knowledge. 
 
 / What has been so long neglected remains 
 to be done ; the social economy which will re- 
 solve the most difficult questions yet proposed, 
 must be developed by Christians from the 
 teachings of Christ and his apostles. And so 
 developed that the exemplification may ac- 
 company the truth ; that precept and practice 
 
THE CHRISTIAN SOCIAL PROBLEM. 245 
 
 may travel together, and reflect a mutual 
 light on their progress. In this lies the pro- 
 blem, the solution of which will determine 
 the advance of real Christianity and all the 
 blessings it bestows. 
 
 PRINCIPLES UPON WHICH REFORMS, SOCIAL AND 
 RELIGIOUS, SHOULD BE CONDUCTED. 
 
 In reference to the advance of human well- 
 being, there is, perhaps, no subject which more 
 requires the close attention of Christian men 
 and ministers of the gospel than the manner 
 of effecting reforms in religion and politics 
 and social economy. It is so much more easy 
 to see and tell what is best in these respects 
 than to advise how it is to be accomplished, 
 that whilst the world has never been without 
 attractive schemes and theories of human wel- 
 fare, very few have been found who could suc- 
 cessfully accomplish any beneficial change. 
 
 21* 
 
246 WHO FIRST IN EVERY GOOD REFORM. 
 
 It would be impossible to estimate or conjec- 
 ture the amount of evil inflicted on the human 
 family by ill-conducted efforts at reform. How 
 many laudable plans have wholly failed for 
 want of wisdom and moderation in their sup- 
 jDorters ! How much has real progress been re- 
 tarded by unseasonable, unwise, and ill-directed 
 labours ! It is not enough that Christians should 
 desire to promote the highest interests of hu- 
 manity ; that, under the light of Christian truth, 
 they should enter into all the subjects which 
 pertain to human welfare, social and religious ; 
 but it is equally their duty to step into the 
 arena of active reform, and carry thither all the 
 light, all the wisdom, self-control, and influ- 
 ence they can command. They should be 
 ready to take the lead in every movement 
 which promises to ameliorate the condition 
 of men. They should not permit the direction 
 of such movements to fall into the hands of 
 those who are prompt to seize it from motives 
 of interest or ambition. 
 
 Men emancipated from the clouds of super- 
 
WHO SHALL GUIDE THE INQUIRING? 247 
 
 etition, and the grasp of power, whose minds 
 are free to act, will not be idle in thought or 
 in deed. Who shall direct the masses that are 
 now, and soon are to become, thus free ? Who 
 should be the best friends of the poor, the igno- 
 rant, and the inquiring ? If these multitudes 
 should be promptly acted upon and led into 
 error by designing and mistaken men, who 
 should be the first to extend a hand to guide 
 them into the true path ? Who so properly, 
 as those who have in their hands, and should 
 have in their hearts and minds, that true phi- 
 losophy which alone affords elements for the 
 solution of all questions of human well-being ? 
 It is difficult to detect all the errors, falla- 
 cies, and temptations to wrong which have lain 
 in the path of reformers, and on which some 
 of the most beautiful and richly-laden vessels 
 ever freighted with human interests have suf- 
 fered wreck and destruction. These rocks 
 cannot all be pointed out and laid down ; but 
 some of the more dangerous may be selected 
 for special remark. 
 
248 NATURE, PROVIDENCE, AND HOLY WRIT. 
 
 God speaks to us none the less plainly and 
 authoritatively in the volumes of Nature and 
 Providence because he speaks to us also in a 
 special revelation. We may not fully under- 
 stand this teaching of Nature or Providence 
 but wdth the aid of revelation ; yet with this 
 aid, we must not neglect to study and try to 
 comprehend. God is the Creator and Gover- 
 nor of the world, as well as the Author of the 
 Scriptures. His precepts and his administra- 
 tion must be consistent: we must therefore 
 construe these volumes of Nature, and Provi- 
 dence, and Holy Writ, by the li^ht they mu- 
 tually reflect upon each other. He that is 
 blind to Providence and deaf to the voice of 
 Nature, can never adequately understand the 
 instructions of revelation. It is a common sin 
 of men to exalt themselves above God, and to 
 pretend to a wisdom above his wisdom. Many 
 reformers would stem the whole current of the 
 Divine administration, and stop the course of 
 Providence. They would instantaneously 
 banish all evil from the world, and extirpate 
 
GOOD AND EVIL BLENDED IN MAN'S LOT. 249 
 
 all that is hurtful, dangerous, and offensive in 
 the kingdom of nature and in the province of 
 humanity. Upon their showing, these things 
 should never have existed, and should now, 
 without a moment's delay, be brought to an 
 unconditional termination. They take no ac- 
 count of the origin of evil, nor of its permitted 
 continuance by a Being who could bring the 
 movements of the universe to an end, if he 
 chose ; but they would, without hesitation, un- 
 der guidance of their own wisdom, change the 
 whole order of Providence, and reverse the 
 course of the Divine government. / 
 '' Even the Scriptures, taken alone, furnish 
 the same blended picture of good and evil, all 
 occurrijig under the same wise Ruler. Those, 
 then, who would put an end to evil in any 
 other way than that which is contemplated in 
 the Divine teachings, are making themselves 
 wiser than the Governor of the universe. The 
 Deity has ever permitted the existence and 
 the use of evil in his administration of the af- 
 faire of men : to how many is the way to 
 
250 NEARLY ALL MEN HAVE BEEN SLAVES. 
 
 heaven through the furnace of afflictions! 
 Who can recount the sujQferings and the sor- 
 rows of the people of God ? or who describe a 
 tithe of the agony which men have endured 
 in this world ? By far the largest number of 
 human beings who have had a place on the 
 earth since the dawn of history, have been 
 slaves — slaves in the usual acceptation of the 
 word ; slaves to despotic sway ; slaves to mili- 
 tary rule; slaves to priestly domination; 
 slaves to the feudal system ; slaves to capital, 
 to competition, to the fear of starvation. The 
 worst passions of men have long rioted in 
 mutual injuries and in endless wars about 
 the most unimportant things. Thrice as many 
 men have fallen by the hands of their fellow- 
 men as are now living on earth. 
 
 Against evils of such enormous magnitude, 
 no other weapon has been provided by Chris- 
 tianity than those of charity — brotherly kind- 
 ness. The Christian scheme is to renew and 
 regenerate the man ; to inspire him with new 
 tastes, new feelings, new aims, higher aspira- 
 
THE CHRISTIAN RULE OF REFORM. 251 
 
 tions, and, by making better men, to put an 
 end to the crimes, excesses, bloodshed, and op- 
 pression which have so long reigned in the 
 world. When the disciples of Christ would 
 have invoked the fire of heaven upon his ene- 
 mies, he rebuked them, and told them they 
 little knew the spirit they were of; that is, 
 they little knew they were instigated in this 
 by the spirit of the prince of this world. We 
 must, therefore, under his teaching, give up 
 the spirit of revenge for wrong suffered, the 
 spirit of violence, and the spirit of reproach, in 
 accomplishing all reforms, and expect the Di- 
 vine approval only when we proceed in the 
 way of Divine appointment. We may not, if 
 we have the power, destroy the oppressor, nor 
 even overwhelm him with indignant reproach. 
 We may not seize the combatants at the mo- 
 ment they are about to engage in deadly 
 strife, and hold them in iron grasp while their 
 veins swell with increasing rage ; but we must 
 change the oppressor into a benefactor, and 
 the deadly combatants into brethren and 
 
252 ABUSES OF REFORMERS. 
 
 peacemakers. If this be a long process, the 
 delay is unavoidable ; for God permits no other 
 mode. If generations pass away before this 
 reform is effected, it is our fault, who hold the 
 truth, but do not exemplify it. But the delay 
 is unavoidable ; for no other mode is. in ac- 
 cordance with the Divine government, i 
 
 It cannot be denied, that the cause of re- 
 form in religion, politics, and social economy 
 has suffered, and not undeservedly, from the 
 faults and vagaries of those who have, in all 
 ages of the world, offered themselves as re- 
 formers. It has too often happened that the 
 prosecution of the best reforms has fallen into 
 the hands of the worst men. All reform re- 
 quires industry, energy, and indomitable per- 
 severance. These qualities are frequently 
 found among those who are destitute of all 
 good principles, and who embark in the cause 
 of reformation from interested motives, or for 
 the mere sake of the excitement and distinc- 
 tion which a new career affords. Such men, 
 not having the main object in view, turn the 
 
THE FEARS OF THE PRUDENT. 253 
 
 whole progress of events to serve their own 
 purposes, or commit such excesses and are 
 guilty of such outrages as bring reproach and 
 contempt upon the cause they advocate, and 
 finally beget a resistance to further progress 
 which cannot be overcome. Keforms are thus 
 often wholly ruined by the unfitness or wick- 
 edness of those who usurp their management, 
 or smothered by the imprudent zeal of those 
 who need better guidance. Seeing how thorny 
 and difficult this path has always been, and 
 how many a good cause has suffered ship- 
 wreck for want of good pilots, it is not to be 
 wondered that good men stand aloof, fearing 
 to enter a career in which so many not only 
 fail to achieve the good they aim at, but com- 
 mit a world of mischief, which, perhaps, they 
 did not contemplate. It is so common for 
 those who leave the beaten track on the great 
 subjects of religion and the temporal interests 
 of humanity, to wander far beyond the sphere 
 of truth — once swung from their accustomed 
 moorings, to push far out into a trackless and 
 
254 HATING ERROR WITHOUT LOVING WISDOM. 
 
 uncertain ocean, without compass or chart — 
 that many of the most prudent, dreading the 
 loss of present advantages, refuse to step from 
 the trodden road of routine, or to cast their 
 eyes into regions beyond the ordinary range 
 of their vision ; and regard such wanderings 
 as sinful and dangerous. As soon as they ob- 
 serve a man adventuring, upon new ground 
 or unused investigations, they look upon him 
 as in the path of danger, if not in the road to 
 destruction. Thus is born a stern and im- 
 movable conservatism, which reverences pru- 
 dence more than truth — which fears error 
 more than it loves wisdom. Into this mis- 
 taken disposition the best may fall, because 
 the best are most apt to mistrust their own 
 powers and doubt their own fitness. Where 
 this prevails in any community, the spirit of 
 inquiry is repressed, if not extinguished, and 
 none but erratic, ill-balanced, and ill-disci- 
 plined minds venture, against the weight of 
 public opinion, to depart from the usual routes 
 of thought and action. The prudence of the 
 
DUTY LEADS ONWARD. 255 
 
 wise, carried too far, but heightens the ab- 
 surdity of the foolish, and thus, unhappily, 
 throws additional discredit upon the path of 
 research and reformation. 
 
 But although all these snares, temptations, 
 and obstacles beset the path of reform, it is 
 none the less our duty to struggle onward. It 
 is in the order of God's providence thus to try 
 our courage and fortitude at every step, and 
 thus to strengthen the intellect, the good af- 
 fections, and the watchfulness of his servants, 
 by giving full exercise to every faculty of pro- 
 gressive energy and passive endurance. It is 
 His will, that whilst His people are doing 
 good to their fellow-men, they shall be build- 
 ing themselves up in spiritual vigour and men- 
 tal power, thus enlarging their capacities for 
 higher enjoyment in the world of spirits. 
 Christians must not stand still while by 
 far the largest portion of men are estranged 
 from their Master, and while strife, oppression, 
 bloodshed, and evil rule throughout all the 
 world. They must not only fulfil the voca- 
 
25G BE THE KNOWN FRIENDS OF THE POOR. 
 
 tion to brotherly kindness to the individuals 
 around them, but they must study every pro- 
 blem of humanity which is displayed before 
 them, and do what they can for multitudes 
 both near and at a distance. It should be true, 
 and be known to be true, that they are inces- 
 santly occupied in studying the temporal and 
 eternal interests of men ; that they are ready 
 to go forward upon every occasion and every 
 moment when relief can be afforded, sorrow 
 soothed, suffering alleviated — when any reform 
 can be effected, with advantage in the mode 
 of accomplishing it and permanent results for 
 the end. 
 
 It should be known and felt by the masses 
 of degraded and suffering men, that Christians 
 seize every occasion of labouring for their 
 good — as it should be known to the rulers of 
 all countries, that reforms conducted by Chris- 
 tians involve neither bloodshed, nor rebellion, 
 nor disorganization, but the best interests of 
 all concerned, social, intellectual, and reli- 
 gious. But Christians can only create this 
 
REFORM OF SLAVERY. 257 
 
 impression by engaging efficiently in this 
 work, by wise solutions of the various ques- 
 tions involved, and by perseveringly pursuing 
 the instructions and footsteps of their divine 
 Master. His precepts contain elements for the 
 solution of all the problems of social well-be- 
 ing, and the mode of accomplishing all desira- 
 ble reforms. When the object is to abolish 
 slavery, the Christian process will be to incite 
 masters to love and cherish their slaves as 
 immortal beings under their charge, and to 
 teach the slaves to love and obey their mas- 
 ters, under whom, in the order of Providence, 
 they are placed. Under this teaching, a pa- 
 triarchal relation will arise between the mas- 
 ter and his slave ; the fetters will drop off; 
 the one will become a father, and the others 
 children; and, finally, when the master is 
 brought to the point of emancipation, the ser- 
 vants are brought to that preparation for 
 liberty which enables them to accept the boon 
 with advantage, and to begin the career of 
 freedom under the more than friendly eye 
 
 22* 
 
258 POLITICAL REFORM. 
 
 of their former master, and now employer; 
 or to enter upon any other enterprise for 
 which their habits or education might fit 
 them. 
 
 So in political reform. The precepts and 
 example of Christ should be brought to bear, 
 by love and acts of kindness, upon kings and 
 rulers, and upon subjects and citizens, at the 
 same time. This wisdom, which came from 
 on high, if properly applied by such as exem- 
 plify what they teach, will, in due time, leaven 
 the whole mass.. The grasp of authority will 
 be relaxed, the complaints of the oppressed 
 will gradually cease, as the process of that re- 
 form goes on, which lightens the cares and 
 labours of authority while it removes the 
 burdens of obedience. 
 
 But all these are labours of love, as well 
 as words of truth. These lessons must be 
 imparted to the master as well as the slave, 
 to the despot as well as the subject, by those 
 who never forget the example nor the pre- 
 cepts of their Divine Teacher. Tliere can be 
 
TRUE REFORMER MAY GO WHERE HE WILL. 259 
 
 no doubt that those, whether many or few, 
 who conform to His rules, may go everywhere 
 and deliver the words of warning and of truth 
 to everybody, rich and poor, bond and free, 
 high and low. 
 
 INFIDELITY, AND SOME OF ITS EXCITING CAUSES. 
 
 Many Christian writers have attempted the 
 task of exposing the causes and progress of 
 infidelity. If we have been in any degree 
 successful in bringing our train of thought 
 and inquiry before the reader, we think he 
 will be satisfied that the grand cause of un- 
 belief is to be found in the abuses of Chris- 
 tianity. The prevalent unbelief has for its 
 object not the truths of revelation, but the 
 opinions and conduct of those who profess to 
 be Christians. We all know how this ope- 
 rates on a small scale among the individuals 
 around us ; and we may well infer that it 
 operates still more pf)tontly upon multitudes 
 
260 INFIDELITY AND ITS EXCITING CAUSES. 
 
 than upon individuals. In Catholic countries, 
 the most of those who escape the fetters of 
 ignorance and superstition regard Christianity 
 as a system of fraud and oppression, designed 
 to cheat and govern men. They become infi- 
 dels, because they confound Christianity with 
 its professors. In Protestant countries, the 
 wrangling disputes and uncharitable bearing 
 of the various churches carry disgust and 
 dislike wherever they are witnessed. Men 
 cannot believe that is a pure fountain from 
 which such uncleanness flows. They are 
 repelled and not attracted by the exhibition, 
 and easily draw the conclusion that whether 
 there is anything real in Christianity or not, 
 they must be as safe for eternity as those 
 whose profession accords so ill with their 
 lives. It would be difficult to over-estimate 
 the prevalence of such feelings, or their influ- 
 ence in turning men from the path of obe- 
 dience and piety. Many say in their hearts, 
 if they do not pronounce aloud, that if certain 
 persons or classes of men are really bound 
 
men's natural aversion to holiness. 261 
 
 heavenward, they do not wish to go — they 
 will take an opposite direction. Are they 
 excusable for thus rejecting Christianity, 
 through the fault of its professed friends ? 
 Certainly not : but how is that to be re- 
 conciled with the Christian duty of winning 
 souls to Christ, when their conduct repels 
 more than it attracts ? It may be said that 
 the aversion of the natural man to Chris- 
 tianitj' is such that it need not be wondered 
 if he turns away from holiness. Something 
 is due to this consideration, but it has less 
 foundation than many good people imagine. 
 It is true that in the days of Christ's sojourn 
 on earth, the priests, the rich, and noble, for 
 the most part, rejected his mission with scorn ; 
 but it is equally true that multitudes, at- 
 tracted by his kindness, and by his preaching, 
 flocked after him : these multitudes were so 
 great, that the priests feared the people, al- 
 though they had all the authorities and the 
 Roman soldiers at their command. How 
 many were deterred l)y the tliroats and mil- 
 
262 MEN LOVE PURE CHRISTIANS 
 
 nagement of the priests from following Christ, 
 we know not. The fact was that the minis- 
 trations of Christ were in a high degree at- 
 tractive, and nine-tenths of the whole nation 
 would probably have followed after him, but 
 for the measures taken to repress the move- 
 ment. So the persecutions encountered by the 
 early Christians in pagan lands came from 
 emperors, governors, priests, and prophets, 
 who feared that the new doctrine would un- 
 dermine their authority: the people every- 
 where welcomed the advent of Christianity. 
 This is not that they naturally inclined to 
 love its doctrines or obey its precepts, but 
 that they always, unless in positions of ad- 
 vantage supposed to be endangered by inno- 
 vation, revered and loved every personal 
 exemplification of the gentle spirit of Chris- 
 tianity. They loved the Christian, even when 
 they did not at once cordially embrace his 
 faith and partake of his hope. 
 
 The aversion to the pure requirements of 
 Christian truth may still be influential and 
 
MORE THAN CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE. 263 
 
 visible in the natural man, but he has no 
 such aversion to the Christians who obey 
 these requirements and display them in their 
 lives. It is even true that the very men who 
 read the Bible are forcibly struck with the 
 beauty of its precepts, and feel themselves 
 strongly attracted to the Author of our present 
 dispensation; and this is the strong inducement 
 to the present extensive distribution of the 
 Holy Scriptures. But where one man would be 
 thus favourably influenced by the mere read- 
 ing of the word, a thousand would behold 
 with admiration and sincere regard any fair 
 exempliJ&cation of the precepts of the Saviour. 
 It is a matter worthy of special remark that 
 the exercise of charity, of brotherly love, of 
 humanity, embracing those duties which Chris- 
 tians most overlook and neglect, are the very 
 duties in which the men of the world are most 
 willing to engage and carry on independently 
 or in company with Christians. It is further 
 to be noted that very many of the benevolent 
 and Christian enterprises of the day are in 
 
264 KINDNESS THE DOMAIN OF RELIGION. 
 
 fact more indebted to the liberality of men 
 not professing to be Christians, than to those 
 who are. It is upon this very ground, in which 
 Christians are most deficient, that men of the 
 world are most efficient — most inclined to act. 
 This is the field in which the least repulsion 
 is to be expected, and in which the most 
 complete success would immediately crown 
 any rightly-directed Christian effort. 
 
 It is because this effort is not made, because 
 this field, which, even in the estimation of the 
 men of the world, belongs to the domain of 
 Christianity, is not fully and strongly occu- 
 pied by Christians, that many, very many 
 disbelieve in its power over the human heart 
 and mind, whilst they admit its abstract pu- 
 rity. They regard that, as a neglected philo- 
 sophy — as the Utopia of an amiable philan- 
 thropist, which assumes to be an active religious 
 principle — a divine power. It is only when 
 Christianity is in action, when the example 
 of its Author is followed even at the distance 
 from divinity to humanity, that its beauties 
 
THE MORALISTS OF THIS WORLD. 265 
 
 and graces reveal all their attractions. So, in 
 like manner, when a semblance of Christianity 
 is set up in which the chief beauties and 
 graces are omitted, the men of the world turn 
 away from the counterfeit, with contempt and 
 hatred added to natural aversion. 
 
 It is this failure on the part of Christians 
 to commend their Master s pure and benign 
 cause by lives of meekness and charity that 
 turns away so many of the strict moralists of 
 this world, who, feeling that their own conduct, 
 even in what they deem a Christian aspect, is 
 80 much superior to that of professed Chris- 
 tians, that they cannot reverence a religion 
 which bears no better fruits than those they 
 behold, ^h, how should such considerations 
 arrest the attention of all followers of Christ ! 
 Here is an aspect of duty which fixes heavy 
 responsibilities upon every individual of them ; 
 not upon the clergy alone, but upon the whole 
 body of Christians. This is a field of labour 
 in which the efforts of the laity may be more 
 ix)tent than all the labours of the clergy. 
 
 23 
 
266 INFIDELITY AND 
 
 Here lies the path to an effectual refutation 
 of by far the largest portion of infidel objec- 
 tions. When these responsibilities are fairly 
 met, the clergy will no longer fulfil the heavy 
 task of preaching that gospel which none 
 obey — of enforcing those precepts which find 
 no verification. 
 
 It is a fact worthy of note and careful re- 
 flection, though we cannot enter into any full 
 analysis of it at present, that many of the 
 most zealous friends of humanity, in some 
 cases only professed friends, have either been 
 infidels or have shown a strong bias in that 
 direction. So far as this zeal for the interests 
 of humanity can have been real, or can be 
 supposed to have been real, it presents a case 
 of moral and intellectual obliquity of the 
 most extraordinary kind. The reasons may 
 be worked out at length by those who have 
 leisure and ability for the task. We only 
 point to the fact. We refer not to those who 
 are merely seeking political reforms, but to 
 those who apparently desire to go deeper and 
 
HUMANITY. 267 
 
 effect more radical changes for the better 
 in human condition. To go no farther 
 back than Paine, a long list of men might 
 be formed whose zeal for humanity made 
 them infidels, or whose infidelity begot their 
 zeal for human welfare. In general, these 
 men were not ignorant of, and could not be 
 blind to, the claims of Christianity, upon a 
 survey of all history since its advent, to being 
 considered the greatest benefactor of mankind 
 the world has ever known. But they were 
 not men who busied themselves with past 
 claims or merits : they were looking to 
 something to be accomplished which wa-s be- 
 fore them. They find Christians arrayed 
 against their plans, and they immediately 
 array themselves against Christianity. The 
 Christians may be right, and the reformers 
 may be wrong, or there may be right and 
 wrong on both sides, but what is chiefly to be 
 lamented is that Christians suffer these con- 
 troversies to assume a shape and aspect which 
 have the appearance of infidelity being on the 
 
2G8 OUR GOOD KVIL SPOKEN OF. 
 
 side of human well-being, while Christianity 
 stands up in defence of ancient abuses, oppres- 
 sive legislation, and social enormities. Whose 
 fault is it that the good of Christianity is thus 
 brought into a position to be " evil spoken 
 of?" Is it that Christianity has so compli- 
 cated her interests with those of governments, 
 with the course of legislation, with the exist- 
 ing social evils, that Christians fear to have 
 any of these touched lest the fabric of their 
 respective churches may suffer ? Is it so, that 
 those who set themselves to examine existing 
 institutions and the evils which afflict huma- 
 nity are brought to the conclusion that Christi- 
 anity is one of the chief barriers to progress* 
 in the path of charity and social well-being?' 
 Can Christianity be so far put in the wrong 
 as to appear even in the slightest degree 
 adverse to any policy which promises the least 
 addition to the comforts, the happiness or best 
 interests of the great masses of men ? 
 
 Let no one wince if the probe has to be 
 applied in finding a reply to these queries, 
 
6YMPATBI£6 OF THE flIQU£R CLASSES. 269 
 
 and if it wounds the complacency of those 
 Christians who are so perfectly satisfied with 
 things and institutions as they are that they 
 tremble at any suggestions of change. It is 
 very easy for those who are sitting in abun- 
 dance, in the enjoyment of competent salaries, 
 a good inheritance, a well-established business, 
 or enjoying the sure patronage of powerful or 
 rich friends, or in possession of other adven- 
 titious or well-earned advantages, to be very 
 much opposed to all propositions of reform 
 which do not meet their views or comport 
 with their interests. And as it is not proba- 
 ble that any plan can be devised to secure 
 the assent of all, common sympathy unites 
 the respectable classes in opposition to every 
 scheme which implies much change. They 
 feel easy and comfortable, and, having the 
 power in their hands, they cannot perceive 
 why they should jeopardize their position by 
 assenting to reforms which, after all, may not 
 fulfil their design. These sentiments and 
 
 23* 
 
270 TWO-THIRDS FALL IN THE RACE OF LIFE. 
 
 this state of feeling, is in perfect accordance 
 with the natural dictates of the human heart. 
 But they are certainly wide as the poles 
 from the genuine spirit of Christianity^ which 
 should not be used as a cloak for such selfish- 
 ness. It seems to be the order of Providence 
 that, in the path of life, at least two-thirds of 
 the human race fall behind, and become more 
 or less dependent on the other third, upon 
 whom greater industry or strength, or bodily 
 vigour, or special talents, or accidental ad- 
 vantages have conferred power, or wealth, or 
 influence, which enables them not merely to 
 live upon the labour of their less fortunate 
 brethren, but at will to prey upon them, and 
 reduce them to absolute or virtual servitude. 
 Now, it so happens, in Christendom, that this 
 happy third, in Catholic countries, consists of 
 the priesthood, and the nobles, public officers, 
 gentrj^, and men of wealth, who find many 
 reasons for sustaining their exclusive posi- 
 tion ; in Protestant countries, the deposit of 
 power and influence is in equivalent hands. 
 
HIGHER AND LOWER RANGES OF SOCIETY. 271 
 
 Thus Christianity sits enthroned on high 
 places, while poverty is struggling below. 
 Christians find matters very well arranged 
 for them; they are reaping the fruits of so- 
 briety, economy, industry, and honesty, while 
 the multitudes below are suffering the conse- 
 quences of idleness, ignorance, vagrancy, in- 
 temperance, dishonesty, and crime. The com- 
 placency of the upper class is complete, but 
 dangerous. Between these vast classes of 
 the higher and lower range is a multitude 
 that skirt the boundaries of both, and are no 
 indifferent spectators of what passes above 
 and l^elow them. A portion of them may, 
 with all the energies of selfishness, be work- 
 ing their way upwards ; but many, of medium 
 capacities, are constitutionally content with a 
 quiet life and frugal living ; and these become 
 special observers of the effects of disease, 
 hunger, nakedness, ignorance, crime, and the 
 indescribable suffering and anguish which are 
 below, and of the cool indifference, the hard- 
 ness of heart, the oxrlnslvonoss whidi rllrtates 
 
272 CERTAIN QUESTIONS AVOIDED. 
 
 relief to a few of some particular church, or 
 some who have fallen from higher fortunes, 
 but which repudiates the kindredship of the 
 human family : they become indignant ob- 
 servers of the barriers and obstacles, legal, 
 political, religious, and moral, which are care- 
 fully and industriously raised, not only 
 against any actual measures of relief for these 
 suffering millions, but even against any fair 
 and candid, much less Christian discussion of 
 the questions involved in any attempt to ele- 
 vate and permanently improve their condi- 
 tion. Does all this beget in them no abhor- 
 rence of power, no infidelity, no tendency^ to 
 democracy and other levelling doctrines ? 
 Let the literature of the past century speak 
 in reply. Let the progress of republicanism 
 in Europe and America answer — let chartism, 
 and above all socialism, respond. In chart- 
 ism, in democracy, in socialism, there is not 
 necessarily any ingredient of infidelity ; and 
 yet in fact, we find them to a large extent 
 blended and travelling together, because 
 
THE PATRONS OF EVERY GOOD CAUSE. 278 
 
 Christians, as such, and those who pretend to 
 be such, have, without just discrimination, 
 opposed every movement of reform, as dan- 
 gerous to society. There is then no avoiding 
 the conclusion which should be uppermost in 
 the minds of all, — that Christians should pro- 
 mote every reform which has human welfare 
 for its object, provided it can furnish good 
 assurance of its claims, and that it is to be 
 carried out in the true spirit of Christianit}^ 
 They should not only be prompt to perform 
 all that it is wise to do, but ready to devise 
 all that their minds can compass for that end, 
 and be ready to hear all that can be sug- 
 gested. No discussion should be more wel- 
 come to a Christian s ear, than that which 
 concerns the true interests of men, even for 
 this world ; because, when Christians find the 
 means of promoting the temporal interests of 
 men, they have found a door open to secure 
 their interests for eternity. Christians should, 
 therefore, be the known patrons of every 
 measure involving the progress of humanity : 
 
274 FAITH AND DUTY TO BE BALANCED. 
 
 that their patronage may be effectual, they 
 must keep their minds and their duties 
 balanced, not allowing any one measure 
 to swallow up all others and all other 
 considerations. There is but one rule for 
 doing this, and but one Being who can 
 aid us in applying it: we must love the 
 emperor and serf alike, the master and 
 slave, the captor and his prisoner, the man 
 in the palace and the man in the hovel, 
 the man that is a friend and the man 
 that is a foe : the rule is to love all these 
 as we love ourselves; and if we have not 
 strength to keep this precept, we must look 
 for aid to Him who gave this " new com- 
 mandment." 
 
 / But we find many besides those in this 
 middle range of life who become deeply 
 grieved at the apparent indifference of Chris- 
 tians to the cause of humanity : these 
 exceptions exist both in the higher and 
 lower ranks : they exist among the poor, 
 mingled with bitterness, if not hatred ; and 
 
DO NOT DESPISE REPROOF. 275 
 
 among the rich, mingled with aversion and 
 distrust.* " 
 
 It is no sign of wisdom, or of meekness, or 
 of charity, that Christians despise and dis- 
 regard these opinions and sentiments, how- 
 
 ♦ Take the case of Stephen Girard. Not a few clergymen 
 appear to entertain a feeling of resentment for his exclusion of 
 their order from his College of Orphans, and it is not uncom- 
 mon to hear him denounced as an infidel. This is scarcely 
 in good taste : we think a teachable spirit might draw an im- 
 portant lesson from such a fact. 
 
 Let us suppose that Mr. Girard, intent on his grand project 
 for the education of orphans, had assembled in full convocation 
 all the evangelical clergy of Pennsylvania, that he had an- 
 nounced to them his plan and his appropriation of two millions 
 to carry it out, and that he had asked their advice as to the 
 kind of education to be prescribed, and as to the details of man- 
 agement for the institution. None can imagine better than the 
 clergy themselves the scene of disagreement and debate which 
 must have ensued. Can any one suppose that Mr. Girard would 
 have received the slightest encouragement from this ecclesias- 
 tical assembly to commit any participation in his charity to the 
 clergy, whatever of individual worth he may have perceived 
 among them. Let him therefore be not too strongly censured 
 for this exercise of his worldly wisdom ; " For the children of 
 this world are in their generation wiser than the children of 
 light." Luke xvi. 8. 
 
 It may serve to extenuate this much mooted offence of Mr. 
 Girard against religion, to state that the management of the 
 British and Foreign Bible Society, the London Sunday-school 
 Union, and our own Sunday-school Union, is committed exclu- 
 •ively to laymen. 
 
276 COMPLACENCY NO CLOAK FOR ERROR. 
 
 ever mistaken, and attempt to wrap them- 
 selves complacently in robes of orthodoxy 
 and self-righteousness, wondering at such 
 ignorance and presumption. This is an error 
 even more fatal than that at which it is di- 
 rected. It is cause of profound mortification 
 and humility in Christians, that such senti- 
 ments prevail in certain quarters. There is 
 no escaping this conclusion by contempt or 
 disregard, any more than the ostrich escapes 
 its pursuers by thrusting its head in the sand ; 
 nor will it meet the case to say "that the 
 heart of man is deceitful above all things and 
 desperately wicked," — that "enmity against 
 God" is the explanation of this enmity to his 
 servants. When the day of judgment comes, 
 and . all hearts are laid open, it will be deter- 
 mined how far it is safe or proper for one set 
 of men to assume that their righteousness 
 was the cause of offence in other men. 
 
 Religion and its institutions, whether from 
 compactness or strength of organization or 
 from a command of public opinion, constitute 
 
THOSE WHO STIFLE INQUIRY. 277 
 
 a very effective power, which is wielded by 
 human hands under all the influences to 
 which human nature is subject. It is inevi- 
 table, therefore, that it must be abused, and 
 the more especially because no human posses- 
 sion is more apt to be abused than power, 
 however derived. This power is abused both 
 positively and negatively, — by what it does, 
 and what it prohibits being done : — it is effi- 
 cient of evil and repressive of good. Those 
 enjoying such control have always been in- 
 clined, not only to stifle inquiry into abuses 
 which might expose themselves, but also all 
 free expression of opinion which might, in 
 any way, bring the validity of their dogmas 
 in question. It was easier for them to sit 
 tranquil in their places and hold men to one 
 track of thought, than to be kept constantly 
 on the alert, to examine, understand, and try 
 the soundness of positions as fast as they 
 might be advanced. They deemed that, by 
 having grasped this power, they had earned a 
 
 right to the quiet enjoyment of its exercise, 
 
 24 
 
2?8 FEAR or THE TRUTH. 
 
 > 
 
 although that exercise affected ten times 
 their number of people, vitally interested 
 to question the validity of the rights claimed, 
 and more especially interested to inquire if 
 neither religion, nor humanity, nor politics, 
 nor political economy had any thing better 
 in store for them. It is therefore in perfect 
 accordance with human nature that we find 
 this power for repression of truth and all 
 disturbing investigations freely exercised, not 
 only in cases where the truth or the subject 
 of inquiry plainly points to defects of exist- 
 ing systems, or suggests remedies, but even 
 from tyranny or caprice, in cases where no 
 possible danger to the powers that be is in- 
 volved. Thus the Catholic opposition to the 
 astronomical discoveries of the middle ages ; 
 thus the modem opposition to the conclusions 
 of geology, and thus the almost universal 
 opposition among rigid churchmen and the 
 severely orthodox to all free inquiries into 
 human condition, the rights and wrongs of 
 the poor, and into the great problem of proper 
 
DOMAIN OF FREE INQUIRY. 279 
 
 security for human labour. This is pro- 
 claimed, by some from whom better things 
 might be expected, to be ground which free 
 inquiry should not touch ; as within the do- 
 main of religion, and therefore not to be 
 touched by profane hands. And yet these 
 same persons do not so much as touch these 
 subjects with their little fingers. They do 
 not enter in themselves, and they would 
 fain prevent others also from entering. The 
 odium of this tyranny falls not merely upon 
 the guilty, but upon that Christianity they 
 unworthily represent. 
 
 When will it be understood and fairly ad- 
 mitted, that however men may have cause 
 to fear the truth, and however they may be 
 interested to sustain abusive doctrines and 
 institutions, Christranity has nothing to fear 
 from the truth, and much less cause to fear 
 open enemies than pretended or mistaken 
 friends? When will it be felt and understood, 
 that whatever virtue there may be in con- 
 servatism, whatever caution should be ob- 
 
280 DOMAIN OF FREE INQUIRY. 
 
 served in reforms, whatever barriers may be 
 raised against the progress of truth or science, 
 Christianity cannot be enlisted against hu- 
 manity, nor against any cause that promotes 
 social well-being : that whilst millions upon 
 millions of human beings in Christendom, 
 under the very shadow of Christianity, are 
 suffering the extremities of want, of igno- 
 rance, degradation, crime, and oppression. 
 Christians cannot, in the slightest accord- 
 ance with their profession, oppose all search- 
 ing inquiries into these miseries and all active 
 and effectual methods of relief? It is un- 
 christian to say that nothing can be done for 
 these millions : it is wicked to deny that very 
 much can be done : it is treason to the cause 
 of Christ if infidelity is permitted to take 
 precedence in the career of social and moral 
 reformation. Let Christian kindness be so 
 prompt and conspicuous in whatever con- 
 cerns human amelioration, that whilst every 
 mind is encouraged to put forth all its powers 
 in that direction, every scheme of improve- 
 
DOMAIN OF FREE INQUIRY. 281 
 
 ment shall be tinged, if not imbued, with 
 heavenly wisdom, and every plan shall in- 
 stinctively seek the approval of Christian 
 Charity and the co-operation of Christian 
 enterprise. Let the science of social well- 
 being — the art of doing good — be exalted to its 
 true elevation, of making all other sciences 
 and arts subordinate, and contributory to its 
 perfection and efficiency, and then it shall be 
 found that every good cause will stand in its 
 true place and the harmony of the whole 
 will constitute a soil on which Christianity 
 shall reap her greatest triumphs in this world.] 
 
 24* 
 
NOTES. 
 
 FEW WORKS ON CHARITY IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 We have not in the English language any elaborate work on Chris- 
 tian Charity. A great many beautiful things have been said and 
 written on this subject, which it would be at once profitable and 
 pleasant to collect and compare. How many charity sermons have 
 been preached in English since the Reformation ! How many essays, 
 how many touching passages, poetical and prosaic, might be brought 
 together by a diligent search ! How far all these might go to vindi- 
 cate Protestantism in Great Britain and America from the reproach of 
 having produced no great work on Charity we cannot conjecture. 
 Whether these choice extracts would be found most abundant in sacred 
 or profane literature we cannot tell. We trust the work will be done 
 by some thoroughly industrious explorer, whom nothing worthy of no- 
 tice shall escape. If the collection shall prove too extensive for publi- 
 cation, let us at least have a des_criptive catalogue, indicating the loca- 
 lities and the nature of these hidden treasures. When this task is to 
 be performed, we trust that our religious literature will be especially ex- 
 amined ; that every system of theology, every guide to piety, every 
 book of daily meditations, every work descriptive of the divine life, 
 every volume that professes to set forth Christianity in general, and 
 every one that professes to point out the paths of a Christian life in 
 particular, shall be diligentiy searched, to discover what any and all 
 may yield on the great subject of Christian Charity. Enough may be 
 found perhaps to encourage some competent person to wipe away our 
 reproach, and furnish in our language a great and adequate work on 
 Christian Charity — on the leading instructions of Christ, on the more 
 prominent acts of Christ's life, on the duties that Christian ministers 
 owe to the ignorant poor, and on the obligations of Christian people to 
 all that require their aid, sympathy, and protection. 
 
 Our inquiries have furnished us in English religious literature with 
 only one work on the subject of Christian Charity, which, though far 
 from being foroprphennive or thorough, in ncverth«>lof«s a very good 
 
 i'8:{ * 
 
284 NOTES 
 
 book. The author is one who was capable of doing better justice to 
 this vital topic, but unfortunately, it did not come within the scope of 
 his undertaking to embrace its whole range. He gives frequent proofs 
 in its pages of having felt the importance and pressure of the subject. 
 We trust he may yet return to it and furnish a systematic treatise, 
 covering the whole ground of love to God and love to man. We refer 
 to " Christian Charity Explained, <fcc,, in an Exposition of the 
 Thirteenth Chapter of the First Epistle to the Corinthians," by John 
 Angell James. 
 
 The mode of treatment suggested by the weekly duty of furnishing a 
 lecture was unfavourable to system and shut out elementary and com- 
 prehensive views, whilst perhaps it gave earnestness and pungency to 
 his. exhortations. We offer a few extracts, which, whilst they confirm 
 many of our author's positions, show that the writer fell short of a full 
 conception of the subject. 
 
 "Our Lord has resolved all piety and all morality into Love. This shows us 
 at once that religion has its seat in the heart, and is of a free, and noble, and 
 generous nature. From a persuasion that this view of it is too rarely taken, 
 too little understood, and too imperfectly felt, I was induced to enter upon the 
 exposition of Paul's most interesting description of Christian Charity." 
 
 " It is impossible to read this chapter without being convinced that the religion 
 of Jesus Christ has excellences and beauties in its nature, which, in conse- 
 quence of the depravity of our hearts, have been yet but very imperfectly de- 
 veloped to the world. Unfortunately for the reputation of Christianity, it has 
 been generally looked at, not as it appears, in mild but unclouded effulgence, 
 in its own hemisphere, the Bible, but as it is feebly and dimly reflected from 
 the dull surface of what is called the Christian world." 
 
 " Were this rule of conduct accurately and universally conformed to by all 
 who bear the name of Christ, what a scene would the church of God present ! 
 how striking would it appear, when thus exhibited as the dwelling-place of 
 love, amidst a region of selfishness and cruelty, — a verdant oasis in this desert 
 world." 
 
 " Keligion, in the present day especially, is too exclusively a puUic business — a 
 thing of times and places — an observance of forms, and an enjoyment of public 
 means : its efforts are confined to the hearing of sermons, and a voluptuous 
 enjoyment of devotional seasons." 
 
 "The religion of the age is all bustle, and hurry, and flutter; the consequence 
 is, that many really know not what manner of spirit they are of." 
 
 "The mode of doing business, also, in the present day, is often shockingly at 
 variance with the "whatsoever things are true, and just, and honest." It has 
 t)een said by some, that trade is a lie from beginning to end. This is an ex- 
 travagant expression, but it is partially true; so that what with the bad prarv 
 ticfts which custom too easily reconciles to the conscience of even pious people, 
 
NOTES. 285 
 
 and what with tbe time which is usually emplojed, even where there is no de- 
 parture from the strictest integrity, — personal religion is In imminent peril." 
 
 " Miracles were but the credentials of Christianity, but Charity is its essence ; 
 miracles but its witnesses, which, having ushered it into the world, and borne 
 their testimony, retired for ever ; — but Charity is its very soul, which, when dis- 
 encumbered of all that is earthly, shall ascend to its native seat — the paradise 
 and the presence of the eternal God." 
 
 "This is love, blended with all our living habits, diffused through all our con- 
 duct, forming our character, breathing in our desires, speaking in our words, 
 beaming in our eyes; in short, a living part of our living selves. And Uiii, be 
 it remembered, is religion— practical religion." 
 
 After qaoting a number of the leading passages in the New Testa- 
 ment on the subject of Charity, the author bursts forth as follows : — 
 
 "What encomiums are these I what striking proofs of the supreme importance 
 of the disposition now under consideration 1 Who has not been guilty of some 
 neglect of it ? Who has not had his attention drawn too much from it? Who 
 can read these passages of Holy Writ, and not feel convinced that not only 
 mankind in general, but the professors of spiritual religion also, have too much 
 mistaken the nature of true piety ? What are clear and orthodox views — what 
 are strong feelings — what is our faith — what our enjoyment — what our free- 
 dom from gross immorality, — without this spirit of pure and universal be- 
 nevolence ?" 
 
 "Some conclude, that because they are regular in their attendancf. upon the ser- 
 vices of religion they are true Christians ; they go punctually to church or to 
 meeting — they receive the Lord's supper — they frequent the meetings for social 
 prayer — they, perhaps, repeat prayers in secret, and read the Scriptures. All 
 this is well, if it be done with right views, and in connection with right disposi- 
 tions: but it is the whole of their religion; a mere abstraction of devotional 
 exerciflc ; a thing separate and apart from the heart, and temper, and conduct ; 
 a businew of the clowt, and of the sanctuary ; a sort of composition paid to 
 the Almighty, to be relesMd ttota all the other demands of Scripture, and ob- 
 ligationji of piety ; an expression of their willingness to be devout in the church, 
 and on tbe Sabbath, provided they may be as earthly-minded, as selfish, as ma- 
 liciooA, and a« unkind as they please, in all places and all times besides. ThiM 
 is not religion."* 
 
 " Doctrine is every thing ; clear views of the gospel are the great desideratum : 
 and in their teal for these things, they suppose they can never say things extrava- 
 gant enough, nor absurd enough, nor angry enough, against good works, practi- 
 cal religion, or Christian temper. Puffed up with pride, selfish, unkind, irri- 
 table, censorious, malicious,— they manifest a total want of that humility and 
 klodocM which are the prominent features of true Christianity. Let it be known 
 however, that clear views, even where they have no resomblance to the mon- 
 vtroot eariflstarea and frightful di-formities of modern Antinomianism, are of 
 thenMlvea no evidence of religion, any more than right theoretical notionn 
 of ttie eonatitatkm am the proofs of loyalty : and as a man with tbeM notions 
 
286 NOTES 
 
 in his mind may be a traitor in his heart, so may a professor of reli^on bo an 
 enemy to God in his soul, with an eyangelical creed upon his tongue. Many 
 profess to be yery fond of the lamp of truth, grasp it firmly in their hands, 
 admire its flame, pity or blame those who are following the delusive and me« 
 tcoric fires of error; but after all, make no other use of it than to illuminate 
 the path that leads them to perdition ; their religion begins and ends in adopt- 
 ing a form of sound words for their creed, approving an evangelical ministry, 
 admiring the popular champions of the truth, and joining in the reproba- 
 tion of fundamental error. As to any spirituality of mind, any heavenliness 
 of affection, any Christian love, — in short, as to any of the natural tendency, 
 the appropriate energy, the vital, elevating influence, of those very doctrines 
 to which they profess to be attached — they are as destitute as the veriest world- 
 ling; and like him, are perhaps selfish, revengeful, implacable, and unkind. 
 This is a religion but too common in the present day, when evangelical senti- 
 ments are becoming increasingly popular; a religion but too common in our 
 churches : a religion, cold, heartless, and uninfluential ; a sort of lunar light, 
 which reflects the beams of the sun, but not his warmth." 
 
 " It is to be feared that many, in the present day, satisfy themselves that they 
 are Christians, because of their zeal in the cause of religion. Happily for the 
 church of God, happily for the world at large, there is now a great and general 
 eagerness for the diffusion of knowledge and piety. Throwing off the torpor 
 of ages, the friends of Christ are labouring to extend his kingdom in every di- 
 rection. Almost every possible object of Christian philanthropy is seized upon ; 
 societies are organized ; means adapted to every kind of instruments are em- 
 ployed ; the whole levy en masse of the religious world is called out ; and 
 Christendom presents an interesting scene of benevolent energy. Such a state 
 of things, however, has its dangers in reference to personal religion, and may 
 become an occasion of delusion to many. It does not require genuine piety to 
 associate us with these movements : from a natural liberality of disposition, or 
 regard to reputation, or a desire of influence, or by the compulsion of example, 
 we may give our property ; for all these motives are, no doubt, in partial ope- 
 ration, when giving is in fashion. And as to personal exertions, how many 
 inducements may lead to this, besides a sincere and an ardent love to Christ I 
 An inherent fondness for activity, a love of display, the spirit of party, the per- 
 suasion of friends, may all operate, and unquestionably do operate in many 
 cases, to produce astonishing effects in the cause of religious benevolence, 
 where there is a total absence of genuine piety. The mind of man, prone to 
 self-deception, and anxious to find some reasons to satisfy itself in reference 
 to its eternal state, short of the true evidence of a renewed heart, is too apt to 
 derive a false peace from the contemplation of its zeal. In proportion as the 
 cause of the delusion approximates to the nature of true religion, is its power 
 to blind and to mislead the judgment. If the mind can perceive any thing in 
 itself; or in its operations, which bears the semblance of godliness, it will con- 
 vert it into a means of lulling the conscience and removing anxiety. To many 
 persons the fatal opiate, the soul-destroying imposture — is their activity in the 
 cause of Christian zeal : none are more diligent in their devoteduess to the 
 
NOTES. 28T 
 
 duties of committees, none are more constant in their attendance upon public 
 meetings ; othens again, weary themselves in their weekly rounds to collect 
 the contributions of the rich or the oflferings of the poor. These things, if they 
 do not lead them coolly to reason and to conclude that they are belieTers, take 
 off their attention from the real condition of their souls, leave them no leisure 
 for reflection, repress the rising fear, and either stifle the voice of conscience, 
 or enable them to drown its remonstrances in the eloquence of the platform 
 or in the discussion of the committee-room. We doubt not that some unworthy 
 professors of religion, in the present age, resort to public meetings for the same 
 reason as many a guilty votary of pleasure does to public amusements, — to 
 forget his own condition, and to turn away his ear, for a short season, from the 
 voice that speaks to him from within. Individuals are known to us all, who, 
 amid.'^t the greatest zeal for various public institutions, are living in malice and 
 all uncharitableness, in the indulgence of a predominant selfishness and un« 
 controlled wrath. But it will not do. This is not piety. Could we support 
 the whole expenditure of the Missionary Society by our afllucnce, and direct 
 its counsels by our wisdom, and keep alive its energy by our ardour, and yet 
 at the same time were destitute of love, — we should perish eternally, amidst 
 the munlfioezioe of our liberality." 
 
 " Mammon, or Covetousness, the Sin of the Christian Church, by the Key 
 John Harris, author of The Great Teacher." 
 
 This was a vigorous effort of an English divine to bring the sins of 
 the English churches against charity to their notice. It was a prize 
 essay, and made a strong impression on the public mind. It par- 
 takes, however, of the same cfefects as the work of Mr. James — it 
 does not cover the whole ground ; because, doubtless, the author did 
 not contemplate so large a task. A few extracts will give its tone : — 
 
 « It is clear, then, that the entire economy of salvation Is constructed on the 
 principle of restoring to the world the lost spirit of love. Its advent was an 
 era in the universe." . . . "It was confironting selfishness in its own native 
 r^on with a gystem of benevolence prepared, as its avowed antagonist, by the 
 band of Ood itaelf— P. 27. " But has its olyect been realized ? more than 1800 
 years have elapsed since it was brought into operation — has its design suo- 
 eeeded. Succeeded I Alas! the question seems a taunt, a mockery. . . But 
 why is it thus? why has the gospel been hitherto threatened with the failure of 
 » mere business experiment?"— P. 28. Speaking of the success of the earliest 
 preachers of Christianity : "The world was taken by surprise — never before 
 bad it beheld such men — every thing gave way before them— city after city, 
 and province after province capitulated — yet the whole secret of their power 
 was late." .,..** k fire had been kindled in the earth which consumed the self- 
 ishness of men wherever it came."— P. 30. . . . "But who does not feel that the 
 era of effective bmevolenoe has yet to commence ? Let him sketch the most 
 simple tcbeme of bensTolmee which the gospel can approve, and he will perceive 
 
288 NOTES. 
 
 at every step that he is writing the condemnation of the church."— 238 . . . 
 ♦' The great lesson taught by our Lord's voluntary selection of a state of poverty 
 ix yd to he fully understood, the evident application of many plain passages of 
 Scripture to be made, doctrines startling to selfishness to become familiar and 
 welcome, the word benevolence itself to be differently understood, the demon 
 of covetousness to be cast out of the church, and the whole economy of benevo- 
 lence to be revised." — 239. 
 
 '• Every nation has its idol. In some countries that idol is pleasure ; in 
 others, glory ; in others, liberty : but the name of our idol (in Great Britain) is 
 mammon." If it be true that each succeeding age has its representative ; that 
 it beholds itself reflected in some leading school, and impresses its image on the 
 philosophy of the day, where shall we look for the image of the existing age, 
 but in our systems of political economy." — 80 ... . " Mammon is marching 
 
 through the land in triumph." — 81 "To the same unhallowed spirit of 
 
 gain is to be traced that fierce ' competition,' of which the labourer, the arti- 
 san, the dealer, the manufacturer, and even the members of all the liberal pro- 
 fessions alike complain." "But when it rises to a struggle in which 
 
 neither time nor strength is left for higher pursuits, in which every new com- 
 petitor is looked upon in the light of an enemy, in which every personal ex- 
 ertion and practicable retrenchment do but barely leave a subsistence, there 
 must be something essentially wrong in our ruling spirit or social constitu- 
 tion."— 83. . . . "And on all hands it is admitted that the way in which busi- 
 ness is now conducted, involves all the risk, uncertainty, and unnatural excite- 
 ment of a game of chance." — 84. Edit. Am. Tract Soc. 7. 
 
 Three prize tracts on Benevolence or Christianity, have been re- 
 cently published by the American Tract Society, entitled as follows : 
 
 The Divine Law of Beneficence, by Rev. Parsons Cook, Lynn. 
 
 Zaccheus, or the Scriptural Plan of Benevolence, by Rev. Samuel Harris, 
 Conway, Massachusetts. 
 
 The Mission of the Church, or Systematic Beneficence, by Rev. Edward A. 
 Lawrence, Marblehead. 
 
 These tracts have great merit, but are confined to urging libe- 
 rality in support of the various Christian enterprises of the day, 
 and to the propriety of systematic appropriations of a regular portion 
 of our incomes to charitable purposes. They are really good as far as 
 they go, but fall short of developing the great principle of love to God 
 and man as the motive of all giving to religious objects. Their 
 tendency is more to make giving a business, to foster habits of 
 giving, than to plant that deep spirit of Christian sympathy which 
 promptly, spontaneously offers the needful aid, the sustaining hand, 
 the cup of cold water, without staying to consult the state of the chu' 
 ritahle fund, or acting from the impulce of a regular habit. 
 
NOTES. 289 
 
 On the EjfGLiSH Poor-laws, and the Literature to which they. 
 
 HAVE GIVEN ORIGIN. 
 
 If the English Church has abjured all charge of the poor, neither 
 feeding them, nor lodging them, nor clothing them, nor visiting them 
 in prison, nor administering the cup of cold water to the thirsty ; if 
 English libraries furnish, neither by churchman, nor statesman, nor phi- 
 lanthropist, any complete treatise upon Christian Charity, the language 
 is by no means deficient in literatm-e of the poor; we mean, not poor 
 literature, nor literature for the poor, but literature of the " Poor- 
 laws." When the English civil authorities assumed the charge of the 
 poor, whom the Church rejected, they undertook a most dangerous 
 and difficult task, as the whole history of their poor-administration 
 proves. We do not say it would have been done better by any other 
 authorities, for we admit it was the most difficult undertaking ever 
 assumed by civil authorities. The management of the poor in Eng- 
 land has given birth to volumes of legislative enactments, volumes of 
 judicial decisions on questions as to whether a pauper belonged to 
 one parish or another, as to what sort of residence constituted a claim 
 to relief, as to which parish the burden of the pauper belonged to, and 
 which should be exempted from afiTording any aid ; volumes upon the 
 most economical mode of feeding and keeping these burdens of tho 
 parishes ; volumes on the history of the poor-laws and their admi- 
 nistration ; on the management of the poor; on their employment, 
 on workhouses, on the history of tho poor, and on the poor-rates. 
 This literature is unique — there is no parallel to it in any country. It 
 exhibits a constant fieric« of writers struggling against the whole 
 system, disgusted with it, or approving it only as an inevitable evil 
 without remedy ; but all unable to rise to the Christian solution of the 
 subject The Protestants of England had absolutely lost sight of the 
 relations between Christianity and poverty, and numberless humane 
 writers were racking their brains during centuries to find some plan 
 or theory in regard to the poor which might meet the object and quiet 
 disturbed consciences. But no solution appeared, and the evil con- 
 tinually increased. We may characterize the actual state of the poor 
 and the legislation for the poor during nearly the whole of this period 
 by the following extract from a work of the highest authority, " The 
 History of the Poor Laws," by Richard Bum, L.L. D. 1 vol. 8vo. 
 London, 1764. 
 
 25 
 
290 NOTES. 
 
 "Thi OrncE op an Oveeseer of thi Poor seems to be understood to be this : 
 To keep an extraordinary lookout to prevent persons coming to inhabit [his 
 parish] without certificates, and to fly to the justices to remove them ; and if a 
 man brings a certificate, then to caution all the inhabitants not to let him a 
 farm of £10 a year, [which would give him a settlement in the parish,] and to 
 take care to keep him out of all parish offices ; to warn them, if they will hire 
 servants, to hire them half-yearly, or by the month, or by the week, or by the 
 day, rather than by any way that shall give them a settlement [which entitles 
 them to relief in case of their becoming poor ;] or, if they do hire them for a year, 
 then to try and pick a quarrel with them before the year's end, and so to get rid 
 of them. To maintain their poor as cheaply as possibly they can, at all events ; 
 not to lay out twopence in prospect of any future good, but only to serve the 
 present necessity. To bargain with some sturdy person to take them by the 
 lamp, who yet is not intended to take them, but to hang over them in terrorem, 
 if they shall complain to the justices for want of maintenance. To send them 
 out into the country abegging ; for why not they, as well as others ? To bind 
 out poor children apprentices, no matter to whom or to what trade, so that the 
 master live in another parish. To move heaven and earth, if any dispute hap- 
 pens about a settlement, and, in that particular, to invert the general rule, and 
 stick at no expense. To pull down cottages. To drive out as many inhabitants 
 and admit as few as possibly they can; that is, to depopulate the parish in 
 order to lessen the poor-rate. To be generous indeed, in sometimes giving a 
 portion with the mother of a bastard child to the reputed father, on condition 
 that he will marry her [and support her ;J or with a poor widow, for why should 
 she be without the comforts of matrimony ? — always provided that the husband 
 is settled in another parish. Or, if a poor man with a large family appears to 
 be industrious, they will charitably assist him in taking a farm in another 
 parish at £10 a year, and give him the money to pay his first year's rent; and 
 if any of the poor have a mercantile genius, they will purchase him a box of 
 pins, needles, laces, buckles, and such-like wares, and send him abroad in the 
 quality of a petty chapman : with the profits thereof, and a moderate knack at 
 stealing, he can decently support himself and educate his children in the same 
 industrious way."— Page 211. 
 
 A Catalogue op some English Works on the Poor-laws and 
 THEIR Administration, and on the Poor. 
 
 Proposals for Employing the Poor, by T. Firmin, London, 1678 
 
 Provision for the Poor, by Sir M. Hale, " 1683 
 
 Proposals for a College of Industry, by John Sellers, «< 1696 
 
 Giving Alms no Charity, by Daniel Defoe, " 1704 
 
 Effectual Provision for the Poor, by H. Fielding, « 1763 
 
 Defects of the Poor-laws, by Th. Alcock, 8vo. " 1752 
 
 Considerations on Better Management of the Poor, 4to. « 1762 
 
 Of tlie Care of the Poor in most Civilized Nations, by Richard 
 
 Onely, 4ta " 1758 
 
NOTES. 2^1 
 
 Causes of the Increase of the Poor, by Josiah Tucker, 4to. London, 1 760 
 
 Letters on the Rising Generation of the Labouring Part of our 
 
 Fellow-pubjects, by Jonas Hanway, 2 Tols. 8vo. " 1767 
 
 A Dissertation on the Poor-laws, by Rev. Joseph Townsend, 8vo. " 1786 
 Causes of Increase of Poor and Poor-rates, by Rev. John 
 
 Ilowlett, 8vo. " 1788 
 
 Hifltory of the Poor, by Thomas Ruggles, 2 toIs. 8vo. " 1793 
 
 This writer first clearly announced the wrong which the Established 
 Church had done to the poor, by taking possession of and holding the 
 church property given for the relief of the poor. It is said he was 
 compelled by clerica^ influence to expurgate his work and publish 
 without these objectionable allegations upon the purity of the Church. 
 
 Means of Providing Employment for the People, a Prize Essay, 
 
 by Samuel Crumpe, 8vo. London, 1795 
 
 The Case of Labourers i n IIu sbandry stated, by Re v. D. Davis, 4to. « 1795 
 
 The State of the Poor ; or, a History of the Labouring Classes in 
 England from the Conquest to the Present Period ; their 
 Domestic Economy, with respect to diet, dress, fuel, habi- 
 tation, and plans adopted for their relief by Sir F. M. 
 Eden, 3 vols. 4to, « 1797 
 
 This is the most elaborate work to which this fruitful topic has 
 given rise. It is highly valuable in the sense in which this subject 
 was viewed. It descends to tKe merest minutiae of food and clothing, 
 and sifla numberless reports, documents, and accounts, to exhibit the 
 true cost of maintaining the poor during the period to which it relates. 
 The treatment of the poor is discussed solely in the light of economy. 
 It is the best history of prices for the last three centuries extant, and 
 IB, otherwise, an important collection of facts. Can any thing more 
 strongly exhibit the blindness of English people to the true relations 
 of this subject, than that a work of 3 vols. 4to. could be written upon 
 the State of the Poor, from the Conquest to the year 1797, on which 
 BO little should be said upon the true nature of the claims of the poor 
 and the obligations of the rich ? The author has, however, said enough 
 to show that be was not ignorant of the truth, but he evidently con- 
 aiders that view of the subject as one of small importance. 
 
 Inqairy into the Policy and Humanity of the poor laws, by J. 
 
 Weyland, 8vo. London. 
 
 A TreatiM on Indigence, by P. Colquhoun, 8vo. [This is not ele- 
 mentary, as lt« title imports.] " 1808 
 
 Syttcmatie Relief of Poor in different Countries, by J. Duncan, Bath, 1815 
 
292 NOTES. 
 
 Report and Evidence on Mendicity in the Metropolis, to House 
 
 of Commons, folio London, 1816 
 
 Condition of Labouring Classes of Society, by John Barton, 8to. ♦* 1817 
 
 Report to House of Commons on Poor-laws, 1817 
 
 Remarks on the Report on the Poor-laws, by J. H. Moggridge, 8vo. Bristol, 1818 
 Causes of Depreciation of Agricultural Labour, by J. Barton,- • -London, 1820 
 Administration of the Poor-laws, by Rey. C. D. Brereton, 8vo.- -Norwich, 1823 
 
 Workhouse System, same " •• " 1826 
 
 Causes and Remedies of Modem Pauperism, ---same " .. « 1827 
 
 Poor-laws, as a Scheme of Benevolence and as to their Political 
 
 Economy, by J. E. Bicheno, 8vo. London, 1824 
 
 Principle ofEnglish Poor-laws Defended, by F. Page, 8vo. Bath, 1822 « 1830 
 
 Reports to House of Commons, 1824 and 1825, on Condition of 
 
 Manufacturing Population, folio, 
 
 Nature, Extent, and Effects of Pauperism, by Thos. Walker,- •• « 1826 
 
 Administration of Poor-laws, by T. Calvert, « 1831 
 
 Christian and Civic Economy of Large Tovms, by Thomas Chal- 
 mers, D. D., 3 vols. 8vo. 1821-26 
 
 Causes and Remedies of Pauperism in Great Britain, by R. Wil- 
 
 mot Horton, 8vo. London, 1830 
 
 Moral and Physical Condition of Working Classes, by J. H. 
 
 Kay, M. D., 8vo. -^. " 1832 
 
 The Poor and the Labouring Classes in America and Europe, by 
 
 N. W. Senior, 8vo. « 1835 
 
 Manufacturing Population of England, Moral, Social, and Physi- 
 cal, by P. Gaskell, 8vo. " 1833 
 
 The History of the Middle and Working Classes,— the Economi- 
 cal and Political Principles which have influenced the 
 Past and Present Condition of the Industrious Orders, by 
 John Wade, « 1833 
 
 Several editions of this valuable woi*k have appeared since. 
 
 The Agricultural Classes of Great Britain and Ireland, with 
 Extracts from Parliamentary Reports from 1833 to 1840, 
 Remarks of the French Editor, published at Vienna, with 
 
 a Preface, by Henry Drum mond, Esq., 2 vols. 8vo. " 1842 
 
 This mystified title, doubtless, is but a thin covering to the fact that 
 
 H. Drummond is responsible for the work. 
 
 National Distress, its Causes and Remedies, by Samuel Laing, 
 
 Esq. Jun., 8vo. London, 1844 
 
 The Working Classes, their Moral, Social, and Intellectual con- 
 dition, with Suggestions for their Improvement, by Q. 
 Simmons, 12mo. " 1849 
 
 The Social Condition and Education of the People in England 
 
 and Europe, by Joseph Kay, 2 vols. 8vo. " 1850 
 
NOTES. 293 
 
 IX' 
 
 The Population Question and its Discussions. 
 
 The discussions carried on in the books on the subject of the poor 
 and poor-laws were much enlivened by the publication of the Rev. T. 
 R. Malthus, in 1798, of "An Essay on the Principle of Population, as 
 it Affects the Future Improvement of Society," London, 8vo., already re- 
 ferred to by our author, who has quoted some of its positions, (ante, 
 page 150.) 
 
 Malthus produced nothing very original ; he merely reduced Eng- 
 lish feeling and usages in regard to the poor into a philosophy. Pre- 
 vious to this publication, the questions discussed had been chiefly as 
 to points of economy in keeping the poor, and the very point of feed- 
 ing had been assiduously ascertained, discussed, and tried : it had also 
 been a matter of much inquiry how far and in what way the labour of 
 paupers might be made to pay for their maintenance. In these in- 
 quiries, nothing, however small or unimportant, escaped remark : in a 
 question of economy, a very small saving, even that of a few pence in a 
 year, made a large sum when multiplied by the poor of England. The 
 keeper of one of the workhouses once made the important discovery that 
 the constant use of the same scales in weighing out paupers' rations 
 had worn upon one side of the scales so as sensibly to affect the adjust- 
 ment This was brought forward at the meeting of the superintendents 
 as indicating the means of a considerable economy. But no one, who has 
 not looked into the details which occupied the attention of writers and ad- 
 ministrators of the poor-laws, can conceive to what a nicety of manage- 
 ment this economy was carried. A question of moment was debated 
 by many, while the attention of others was directed to the point of 
 economy, — that of the propriety of any compulsory provision for the 
 poor ; some alleging that the poor ought to be left to the charity of 
 individuals — any public provision made for them only encouraging 
 idleness and consequent pauperism. Others averred that there must 
 b^ paupers, and that they could be more economically kept upon some 
 general plan, applicable to all, and that allowing hordes of beggars to 
 stroll through the kingdom was an annoyance not to be endured. It was 
 much discussed whether paupers should be confined, families being sepa- 
 rated, in poorbouses, or let out to the farmers, upon the beft terms ob- 
 tainable. In the midst of these and many like debates, Mr. Malthus 
 appeared, and announced that he had discovered the philosophy of the 
 25* 
 
294 NOTES. 
 
 whole matter. He took the discussion by the horns, and rejected all 
 the previous plans and opinions, compulsory provision, economy, and 
 all. He told the people of England, they were fast approaching a pe- 
 riod when the population would exceed the supply of food, and that it 
 was unjust and unphilosophical to nurture and keep alive men who 
 would soon take the bread out of the mouths of those who were now so 
 generously feeding them. Let them alone, they will only die by pri- 
 vation — they came unbidden to the banquet of life — there is no place 
 for them ; do not let them usurp your places at the feast ; do not give 
 them a morsel ; if let alone, nature will execute her decrees, and send 
 them out of the way. This philosophy of Mr. Malthus made a great 
 sensation : to some it appeared as clear a truth as ever was announced : 
 others regarded it with unmingled horror and detestation. The politi- 
 cal economists, who are supposed to look upon men as machines for the 
 production and distribution of wealth, took sides with Mr. Malthus. 
 The humane classes took the other side. After the appearance of Mr. 
 Malthus's work, one branch of the discussion turned upon his views, 
 while the others followed the old tracks. It is worthy of remark that 
 the cry of horror which was uttered at the first appearance of Mr. 
 Malthus's work, induced him to omit in subsequent editions the most 
 objectionable passages, and, among others, that quoted above, page 150. 
 But these omissions leave his theory unimpaired in its full scope. 
 And that is, that no one has any business to remain in this world who 
 cannot of himself make himself comfortable; and that great care 
 should be taken to avoid the increase of such people, by withdrawing 
 all countenance and aid from them. This theory was not suffered to 
 go untouched. It was attacked with great vigour and eloquence, both 
 in England and on the continent, and defended by Mr. Malthus and 
 others, with talent and learning. We give a list of a few of the works 
 which followed Mr. Malthus on the subject of " population." 
 
 The State of the Poor. The Principle of Mr. Malthus's Essay on Popu- 
 lation and the Manufacturing System. Robert Southey. 80 pp. 
 12mo. 1812 
 
 The State of the Poor and the Means pursued by the Society for Better- 
 ing their Condition. Robert Southey. 87 pp. 12mo. 1816 
 
 A Treatise on the Records of Creation, Ac, showing the Consistency of 
 the Principle of Population, with the Wisdom and Goodness of the 
 Deity, by J. B. Sumner, Bishop of Cheater, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1815 
 
 The Principles of Population and Production, as they are Affected by the 
 
NOTES. 295 
 
 Progress of Society, with a yiew to moral and political conse- 
 qnences. John Weyland, Jun., F. R. S. 8to. London, 1816 
 
 An Inquiry into the Population of Nations, containing a Refutation of 
 
 Malthus's Essay on Population. George Ensor, 8 vo. London, 1818 
 
 Of Population. An Inquiry concerning the Power of Increase in the 
 Numbers of Mankind, being an Answer to Mr. Malthus, 4c. Wm. 
 Godwin, 8vo. London, 1820 
 
 niuBtrations and Proofs of the Principle of Population, by Francis 
 
 Place, 8to. London, 1822 
 
 New Ideas of Population, with Remarks on Malthus and Godwin, by Alex. 
 
 H. Everett, Minister of the U. S. at the Netherlands, 8vo. London, 1823 
 
 Lectures on Population, with a Correspondence between the Author and 
 
 Mr. Malthus by N. W. Senior, 8vo. London, 1829 
 
 The Law of Population, a Treatise in Disproof of the Super-fecundity of 
 Human Beings and developing the real principle of their Increase, 
 by M. T. Saddler, M. P., 2 vols. Svo. London, 1830 
 
 An Inquiry into the Principles of Population, exhibiting a System of 
 Regulations for the Poor, designed to lessen and finally remove the 
 evils pressing upon the Labouring Classes of Society, Svo. London, 1832 
 
 The Principles of Population and their Connection with Human Happi- 
 ness, by Archd. Allison, 2 vols. Svo. Edinburgh, 1840 
 
 The True Law of Population shown to be connected with the Food of the 
 
 People, by Thomas Doubleday, Svo. London, 1842 
 
 Besides these, very many other separate publications were made in 
 this controversy, which gave birth also to a large issue of pamphlets; 
 and the subject was largely introduced into most of the works on po- 
 litical economy which have appeared since the beginning of this cen- 
 tury. It is far beyond our present purpose to offer any appreciation 
 of these works separately. 
 
 We regard this whole discussion as among the most remarkable of 
 modem times. It exhibits a virtual disregard of Christianity scarcely 
 to be equalled. This is evidently no special fault of the respective 
 writers ; for they and their readers were alike involved in this utter 
 neglect or utter misconception of Christianity. These writers were, 
 many of them, far from being infidels : their reference to religion is 
 frequent and respectful. The marvel is that, for the solution of the , 
 great points in dispute, they neither take nor seek any aid from Chris-/ 
 tiantty. The whole subject is man, and yet humanity, in its fulli 
 meaning, is excluded from consideration. The topics are, the law ofj 
 increase ; the laws of limitation ; the supply of food ; economy o/ 
 feeding ; restrainta of marriage, moral and political ; police ; com- 
 pulsory provision ; poorhouse regulations ; labour, manufacturing and 
 
29G NOTES. 
 
 agricultural. The statistics of the world were ransacked to supply 
 materials for these and very many similar subjects. Learning and 
 ability worthy of a better cause were most profusely expended in the 
 wide range of these treatises. These authors and their readers grapple 
 with a great difficulty, and, for more than a generation after the work 
 of Malthus appeared, they struggled to produce some grand solution. 
 But they never advanced a step. They never can, in that path. 
 So long as those who, for the time, are rich or comfortable in life, con- 
 fine themselves to the inquiry how they can perpetuate such a desirable 
 state of things; how they can manage to hold a heavy mortgage on 
 the labour of the masses, and make them work it out ; how they can 
 keep down the numbers of the poor to the point at which they can by 
 their labour make up the incomes of the rich and comfortable, with- 
 out risk of becoming a burden ; how food and labour can be kept 
 plenty and cheap ; how one-tenth of the population can manage to 
 live in elegance, and ease, and English comfort, whilst the nine-tenths 
 are suffering all the degradation of mind and body, all the nakedness, 
 and hunger, and other privations of utter poverty ; and, in fine, how 
 the poor can be best managed, to get a large living out of them, without 
 danger of having that living absorbed in keeping them alive, — so long 
 the Christian and only true solution of the great problem of human 
 well-being will never be reached. In England, the rich man cannot 
 endure to have Lazarus at his gate ; he cannot endure a beggar in the 
 highway or in his private path. The Englishman of wealth is emi- 
 nently respectable. He sends the beggar to some secluded spot, where 
 his shabby looks can offend no gentle eyes, nor spoil a landscape in 
 which all that is permitted to be seen is beautiful and rich ; he gives 
 him work, when he has any, and food to keep him alive. But labour 
 may be always kept plenty and cheap when nine-tenths of the people 
 labour for one-tenth, and a very large profit may be realized on the 
 operation; for though only half-work is required from these people, yet 
 they are only half- fed and half-clothed. If the poor were full-fed, full- 
 clothed, and full-worked, they would rapidly save enough to become 
 sufficiently independent to make their own terms for their labour, and 
 thus gradually bring about a more equal and just distribution of the 
 avails of labour. 
 
 In all this prolonged discussion, none of those engaged ever fairly 
 rose to the conception that every Christian man is a guardian of the 
 poor, under religious obligations to succour all the suffering Avithin his 
 
NOTES. 297 
 
 reach, and, not only to assist indiridaals, but, according to the ex- 
 ample of his Divine Master, to feed and help the multitudes. The 
 sacrifice necessary to accomplish any great change in the position of 
 the poor in England appeared greater than any government dared re- 
 quire of the governed, or was able to efiFect without some flagrant and 
 unjustifiable violations of the right of property. It did not occur to 
 these authors that this sacrifice could come from the spontaneous 
 action of the people under the pressure of religious motives. Less 
 eflfort, and, perhaps, less money than was expended upon the attempt 
 to abolish the slave-trade, and the emancipation of the slaves in the 
 West Indies, would have been sufiicient to accomplish a thorough 
 change of policy in regard to the poor, by which, if they were not im- 
 mediately lifted above the state of poverty, they would be lifted into 
 a state of hope, and the energies of men, long paralyzed with despair, 
 would be roused to successful action. 
 
 We believe that no ingenuity, no talent, no efibrt of any human in- 
 tellect can solve the questions involved in those discussions, so long as 
 such data are assumed as a basis of discussion. That door is irrevo- 
 cably shut against human eyes and human strength. It is not for 
 men to adjust the food of the world to the population of the world, 
 and much less is it for them, as assumed by Malthus and those of his 
 school, to adjust the population of the world to the food of the world. 
 This partakes rather too much of an intervention in the Divine govern- 
 ment — of assuming the reins of Providence. There were questions 
 to bo solved, doubtless, growing out of the position of the poor in 
 England, but the true solution could never be reached by speculations 
 upon the possible increase of food or the possible increase of popula- 
 tion, compixlsory provision, parish charge, out-door, in-door, or work- 
 house relief. All these que^ions assumed that all was right in British 
 institutions except what was referred to, and of course the disputants 
 did not even touch the elements of the subject. The real questions 
 are, — How can the labour of man bo best applied to subserve the ne- 
 cessities and comforts of man ? As it is plain, from the order of Provi- 
 dence, from the inequalities in the mental and physical energies and 
 faculties of men, that some must act under the direction of others, or, 
 perhaps, fall under their dominion, what should bo the limit of the 
 power thus attainable ? To what extent may the labour of a few or of 
 many be mortgaged for the benefit of those who, by superior industry, 
 or talents, or energy, may be able to subject them to their power? 
 
298 NOTES. 
 
 And, if Christianity be heard on a subject so vitally interwoven with 
 its precepts, what light is shed upon this topic by the life and instruc- 
 tions of its Great Author ? 
 
 If it be objected that this abstract consideration of the subject could 
 not lead to any practical result, because all such questions arise under 
 actual governments and established institutions, which must, more or 
 less, modify every decision, the reply is, that the abstract truth must 
 be discovered and fully understood before it can be ascertained how 
 far existing laws and institutions stand in the way of reform. When 
 the truth shall be known, the obstacles will be known, and plans of re- 
 form can be devised, including such political changes as may be 
 needful for complete success. Shall this whole discussion be excluded 
 from the pale of Christianity ? In all matters of politics, and in all 
 of humanity, shall Christians always walk through the world with 
 their lights deeply shaded, that they may appear to be as much in the 
 dark as those who are groping round them ? 
 
 In all this controversy about " population," no event is more striking 
 than the advent upon the arena of Dr. Thomas Chalmers, the great 
 Scottish divine. He entered upon the subject with all the zeal which be- 
 longed to his character, and, though he shed a flood of light upon it, and 
 has left a mine of materials for future labourers in that career, he has 
 added another to the many instances, that clear and powerful thinkers 
 do not always, nor even soonest, reach the truth. He failed to assume 
 the proper elements in his outset, to lay the right foundation for his 
 structure, and therefore failed in erecting a well-proportioned super- 
 structure. He saw, at a glance, that the English system of providing 
 for the poor was both impolitic and unchristian. He dashed into the 
 contest and made his efforts felt on every side. He was the first who 
 fairly carried Christianity into the field, and demonstrated that to 
 Christians and Christian ministers belonged the care of the poor. 
 Himself a minister of the Established Church of Scotland, he unfor- 
 tunately took his whole survey of the subject from that point of view. 
 He set out with the proposition in his mind, that to the parishes, as 
 such, of an Established Church, belonged the charge of the poor. 
 Having once assumed this wrong ground, he went into the discussion 
 with extraordinary power and ardour, carrying with him, in far greater 
 degree than any who had preceded him, a truly Christian desire to 
 redress the wrongs of the poor. It can scarcely be doubted that the 
 absorbing interest of this subject, and his ardour in maintaining a 
 
NOTES. 299. 
 
 position which he deemed to be the only one consonant with Christi- 
 anity, accounts for that almost bigoted devotion to an established 
 church, which Dr. Chalmers displayed for many years of his life. 
 Looking upon the parish churches and their officers as the proper 
 guardians of the poor, he could not but regard with impatience any 
 voluntary system or dissenting churches, as so many disorganizers, who 
 complicated his plans for the poor and weakened the only churches 
 upon whom he supposed any reliance could be placed for performing the 
 great office of relieving suffering humanity. It is pleasant to discover 
 what thus accounts so favourably for what appeared to be the greatest 
 defect in Dr. Chalmers's character. His zeal for the poor made him, 
 for a time, an uncompromising opponent of Christian freedom. The 
 severe lesson he received before his death, in the disruption of the 
 Scotch Establishment, and the noble sacrifice of sentiment he made 
 by uniting in the secession, showed how far he was above preserving 
 consistency at the expense of truth. He suffered in this more mental 
 agony, probably, than any other individual who left the Establishment. 
 How his opinions were modified, in regard to the poor, we are not in- 
 formed, but we feel confident, that if the occasion had offered to pro- 
 duce another work on the subject, it would have been what is yet a 
 desideratum in Christian literature. Dr. Chalmers's error, in the first 
 place, was assuming the parish churches to be the proper guardians 
 of the j)oor, instead of taking the higher ground that every Christian 
 is a guardian of the poor, and insisting upon the great law which 
 requires us to love our neighbour as ourselves. His system of action 
 should have been developed from that law, and not from the duty of 
 parish churches. He could then, without difficulty, have reached and 
 brought in the agency of congregations under all systems of religion, 
 both established and voluntary. When the duties of individual Chris- 
 tians towards the suffering are all discharged, there will not be much 
 left for parish churches or separate congregations to perform. 
 
 But though Dr. Chalmers committed this error, and though he failed 
 in his " Christian and Civic Economy of Large Towns," to produce the 
 work which was needed, and though political economists, so called, 
 have not assigned a high rank to that production, it contains more 
 truth, more profound Christian philosophy, more pure Christian sym- 
 pathy for the poor than any one to which the controversy has given 
 rise. 
 
 The following extracts from Chalmers's " Christian and Civic Eco- 
 
300 NOTES. 
 
 nomy" will help to illustrate the subject of the foregoing pages, and 
 afford a specimen of the manner and tone of his work : 
 
 "There are many towns in our empire, where the Establishment has not pro- 
 vided room in churches for one-tenth of the inhabitants." . ..." It is clear, 
 in these circumstances, that the vast majority must be left to wander without 
 the pale of Christian ministrations, and Christian ordinances, altogether — 
 where they have settled down into a mass of heathenism, which, to the eye of 
 common experience, looks completely irrecoverable. There is a very general 
 feeling of helplessness and despair upon this subject, as if the profligacy and 
 ungodliness of cities were elements in every way as unconquerabie as is phy- 
 sical necessity itself." .... 
 
 "All serving to confirm the general hopelessness that there is upon the sub- 
 ject, and to afford a plausible warrant for the contempt wherewith schemes of 
 philanthropy are so apt to be regarded by the more secular «,nd sober-minded 
 of our citizens, who feel satisfied with things as they are, nor want their quies- 
 cence to be at all disturbed by any suggestion or demonstration, -whatever, of 
 things as they should be." 
 
 " It has transformed the whole character of charity, by turning a mat- 
 ter of love into a matter of litigation: and so, has seared and shut many 
 a heart, out of which the spontaneous emanations of good-will would 
 have gone plentifully forth among the abodes of the destitute. We know 
 not how a more freezing arrest can be laid on the current of benevo- 
 lence, than when it is met in the tone of a rightful, and perhaps, indignant de- 
 mand for that, wherewith it was ready, on its own proper impulse, to pour re- 
 freshment and relief over the whole field of ascertained wretchedness. There 
 is a mighty difference of effect between an imperative and an imploring applica- 
 tion. The one calls out the jealousy of our nature, and puts us upon the atti- 
 tude of surly and determined resistance. The other calls out the compassion 
 of our nature, and inclines us to the free and willing movements of generosity. 
 It is in the former attitude, that, under a system of overgrown pauperism, we 
 now, generally speaking, behold the wealthy in reference to the working 
 classes of England. They stand to each other in a grim array of hostility — 
 the one thankless and dissatisfied, and stoutly challenging as its due, what the 
 other reluctantly yields, and that as sparingly as possible. Had such been a 
 right state of things, then pity would have been more a superfluous feeling in 
 our constitution ; as its functions would have been nearly superseded by the 
 operation of law and justice. And the truth is, that this sweetener of the ills 
 of life has been greatly stifled by legislation; while the amount of actual and 
 unrelieved wretchedness among the peasantry of England too plainly de- 
 monstrates, that the economy of pauperism has failed to provide an adequate 
 substitute in its room. Were this economy simply broken up, and the fountain 
 of human sympathy again left free to be operated upon by its wonted excite- 
 ments, and to send out its wonted streams throughout those manifold subordi- 
 nations by which the various classes of society are bound and amalgamated 
 
NOTES. 301 
 
 together — we doubt not that from this alone a more abundant, or, at least, a 
 far more efficient and better spread tide of charity would be diffused through- 
 out the habitations of indigence." .... 
 
 " And we fear not, on the other hand, the dislike of the theologian to our 
 announcement, that the pauperism itself is a moral nuisance, which must be 
 swept away from these realms, ere we can rationally hope for a very powerful 
 or preyalent spirit of Christianity in the land. That which letteth must be 
 taken out of the way. It is, indeed, a heavy incumbrance on the work of a 
 clergyman, whose office it is to substitute iimong his people the graces of a new 
 character, for the hardness, and selfishness, and the depraved tendencies of na- 
 ture, that, in addition to the primary and essential evils of the human consti- 
 tution, he has to struggle, in his holy warfare, against a system so replete ajs 
 pauperism is, with all that can minister to the worst, or that can wither up the 
 best affections of our species." .... 
 
 '^We hold pauperism to be a still more deadly antagonist to the morality of 
 our nation." .... "Like the Malaire in Italy, it has now attained a pro- 
 gress and a virulency, which begin to be contemplated with the awe of some 
 great approaching desolation ; and a sense of helplessness mingles with the 
 terror which is inspired by the forebodings of a mighty disaster, that has been 
 gathering along the lapse of time, into a more distinct shape and more appal- 
 ling magnitude. It is indeed, a frightful spectacle ; and the heart of the Chris- 
 tian, as well as of the civil philanthropist, ought to be solemnized by it. He, of 
 all men, should not look on with indifference, while the vapour of this teeming 
 exhalation so thickens and spreads itself throughout the whole moral atmo- 
 sphere of our land : And, when he witnesses the fell malignity of its opera- 
 tion, both on the graver and more amiable virtues of our nature, — when ho 
 sees how diligence in the callings, and economy in the habits of individuals, are 
 alike extinguishfMl by it, and both the tendernesses of relationship and the 
 wider charities of life, are chilled and overborne — we should expect of this 
 friend to the higher interests of our species, that he, among all his fellows, would 
 be most intent on the destruction of a system that so nips the best promises of 
 spiritual cultivation, and, under the balefulness of whose shadow, are now 
 withering into rapid decay, and^aro annihilation, the very fairest of the fruits 
 of righteousness." 
 
 If companionship in crime or in adversity make strange bedfellows, 
 so companionship in error affords not less curious specimens of incon- 
 graous fellowship. Parties, having taken their sides with little or 
 no reference to Christianity, lug it in to serve the purposes of the dis- 
 eunsion, to tarn a period or to point a sneer, according to the disposi- 
 tion of the writer. It was not the object of even Chalmers to solve the 
 question by means of Christian truth, but to establish his position 
 that compuhjory provisions for the poor were of evil tendency, and that 
 the proper charge of the poor belonged to the parish officials of an 
 26 
 
302 NOTES. 
 
 established churcli. This view did not afford him a fair opportunity 
 to explain the nature of Christian charity ; it was not his topic, — he 
 did not attempt a full exposition, and Christianity only plays a sub- 
 ordinate part in the system of Dr. Chalmers. Wayland, in his work on 
 " Population," refers to revelation throughout, as offering the only true 
 Bolution, but, though his book is in many respects well written, his ex- 
 hibition of the bearing of Christianity on this subject is very feeble, 
 and shows how slightly he felt its power, and how little he knew its 
 scope. It is worth observing, in these various authors, their various 
 modes of referring to the truths of Holy Writ as furnishing a curious 
 and instructive exhibition of the human mind and human nature. 
 But no one can fully understand the relations of Christianity to this 
 subject, as fixed by the various writers, who has not fully mastered 
 the spirit and details of the leading author, Malthus, whose " Essay 
 on Population" has, ever since it appeared, ruled the faith of a large 
 number of disciples. It would be difficult to point out a publication 
 as thoroughly infidel in its spirit and tendencies. When taken up, out 
 of the controversy about population, and regarded from the side of 
 Christianity, the book cannot be read without an accumulating sense 
 of contempt, horror, and indignation. Yet this is the standard book 
 in English literature on this subject ; its positions are regarded as im- 
 pregnable by a very large body of the educated people of Great Bri- 
 tain ; and its contents are the received doctrine of all the political 
 economists, strictly so called, of Europe and America. 
 
 Yet Dr. Chalmers is found battling by the side of Malthus, both 
 agreeing in the opposition to a compulsory legal provision for the poor ; 
 and we find him writing to his friend Morton — 
 
 " Mr. Malthus's theory upon this subject would have carried me without ex- 
 amples. But it seldom happens that a speculation so apparently paradoxical, 
 is so well supported by the most triumphant exemplifications."* 
 
 It is scarcely to be wondered that, when such a man can receive such 
 theories and speculations so kindly, the world around him should do so 
 likewise. But, whatever the number of Malthus's innocent disciples, 
 there were not wanting many who detected the cloven foot. On the 
 Continent, especially, many, who did not belong to the stricter school of 
 political economists, denounced the work as atrocious and unchristian. 
 It required an infidel to detect an infidel, according to the spirit of the 
 old proverb: and thus was effected a complete exposure of the fallacies, 
 
 . ' 
 
 * Life of Chalmers, vol. ii. 386. 
 
NOTES. ^Od; 
 
 the inhumanity, and the infidelity of a work professedly friendly to 
 Christianity, the production of one of its ministers. It was Wm. God- 
 win, who, writing " Of Population," gave the first effectual check to the 
 spread of Malthusian doctrines. "Without any reference to the argu- 
 ment and the facts of Godwin, in which unusual ability is evinced, as 
 opposed to those of Malthus, we cannot hut advert to the effectiveness 
 of the excoriation which he applied to Malthus and his opinions : not 
 content with this, he crushes him indignantly as a vaoomous reptile. 
 The morbid exposure is frightful ; such a literary smashing was rarely 
 or never seen, and never more richly merited. If a butchery like this, 
 were unbecoming a Christian, it is the only pretence upon which the 
 shame of leaving its execution to an infidel can be justified. 
 
 Of course, such a punishment will neither bear transfer nor abridg- 
 ment, but we must not let the occasion pass without giving a specimen 
 of Mr. Godwin. The portentous evil which Mr. Malthus held up to 
 frighten the world was, the fact asserted by him, that population tended 
 to increase in a geometrical ratio, and subsistence in an arithmetical 
 ratio : 
 
 Thus, Food, 123456 7 8 9 
 
 Population, 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256. 
 
 ** This, then, is the precise outline of Mr. Malthus's system. The 
 evils against which he would guitrd are hunger and famine ; the reme- 
 dies for these evils are vice and misery."* Unimpeded increase would, 
 " in less than two thousand years, people the whole visible universe, at 
 the rate of four men to every yard square."f It must, of course, have 
 required a vast deal of vice and misery to counteract such a ratio of in- 
 crease as that imports. Mr. Malthus, to remove some of the harshness 
 of his conclusions in the earlier editions of his work, introduces another 
 check to population, which he calls " moral restraint," but he constantly 
 insinuates a caution against any reliance upon it He finds that " in 
 pa«t ages it has operated with very inconsiderable force," and he is 
 not visionary enough to entertain " any opinion respecting the future 
 improvement of society, in which he is not borne out by the experience 
 of the past" His main dependence, therefore, against the enormous 
 calamity of an over-peopled world, is vice and misery. Mr. Malthus 
 " sits remote, like a malignant providence dispensing from his magazine 
 all the various iniquities and miseries of life, which, sooner or later," in 
 
 •QUwim 9m VfrnUMn, clup. ■ book *L M6. tU&lUtua, roL U. p. 3M. aot*. 
 
304 NOTES. 
 
 various degrees, contribute to shorten the natural duration of huma'' 
 life. " That is the desidef-atum,"* 
 
 He examines the population of all the countries of the world, and 
 finds confirmation of his doctrine everywhere — vice and misery in 
 abundance ; he does not discriminate, and cares not for kind or degree, 
 so it be inherent and efi"ective. If inherent in the constitution of all 
 societies, it must operate in every condition of the human family. He 
 finds, therefore, that " human institutions, however they may appear to 
 be the causes of much mischief to society, are in reality light and 
 superficial, — mere feathers that float on the surface, in comparison with 
 those deeper causes of evil which' result from the laws of nature and 
 the passions of men." It is visionary to think that any improved form 
 of government could overcome the vice and misery which prevail as 
 checks to population, and if they could, they would become the cause 
 of still greater evils. Mr. Malthus can descant pleasantly upon the 
 benefits and beauties of Christianity, but these benefits and beau- 
 ties are reserved for those only in the higher walks of life, and if it 
 were otherwise, Christianity must of itself become a nuisance. A large 
 portion of the pages of the " Essay on Population" are devoted to 
 speculations on the diminution of mortality. This would seem, at first 
 sight, against the spirit of the whole treatise. A closer examination 
 reveals the harmony of his opinions. 
 
 It will be found, that all the plans of reducing mortality involve 
 the previous processes of thinning the ranks from which death can 
 pluck his victims. If vice and misery can be made to reduce the 
 numbers of the present generation below the average, then there must 
 be fewer deaths hereafter, because fewer men to die. As the world will 
 go on to double its population every twenty-five years, unless some- 
 thing is done to prevent it, and as Mr. Malthus feels it to be rather 
 awkward to rely entirely for remedy upon vice and misery, without, 
 at least, mentioning other remedies, he discusses divers modes of re- 
 ducing the numbers of mankind. As men are coming into the world 
 faster than they can be provided for, it becomes a question what is to 
 be done with the new-comers. Mr. Malthus discovers the law which 
 must, of necessity, govern the case. They come into a world already 
 possessed and fully occupied. There is not room for all, — who must 
 give way, the possessors or the interlopers ? It is perfectly clear that 
 those who have the ground and the property, " have a right to do what 
 
 * Godwin on Population, chap. i. book vi. 520. 
 
NOTES. 806 
 
 they please with their own." It follows, Aat "we are bound in 
 justice and honour, formally, to disclaim the right of the poor to sup- 
 port." This includes all the poor, the maimed, the blind, the sick, 
 and suffering of every description. The poor-laws of England are, in 
 bia estimation, "an evil, in comparison of which, the national debt, 
 with all its magnitude of terror, is of little moment."'* The law of 
 Mr. Malthus, then, is, that men who came into the world must support 
 themselves, or those who bring them in must support them : if they 
 fail or die in the attempt, they but execute the laws of nature upon 
 themselves; they have no right to obtrude themselves upon the notice 
 of those who are comfortably enjoying the banquet of life, much less 
 any right to claim any portion from a feast to which they were not 
 invited. 
 
 Mr. Godwin quotes freely from the New Testament the law of lovo 
 as set forth in the precepts of Christ — the command to the young man 
 who alleged be had kept all the commandments from his youth up, 
 "Go sell that thou bast and give to the poor." On this, Godwin 
 remarks : — 
 
 "There id a kind of oriental boldness in this, at least, considered as a general 
 exposition of tho moral law; for it would be reasonable to answer, If it is my 
 duty to render the greatest benefit to my fellow-creatures, and if my mind is 
 well prepared to discharge this duty, it will, probably, be better done by my 
 devoting my income to this purpose, than by at once divesting myself of the 
 principal." 
 
 '• But nothing can be more clear than the general tenor of revelation on this 
 q-.icstion. By it we are instruct'-d that we are stewards, not proprietors of the 
 g<iod things of thin life, we are forbidden to pamper our appetit«!R or our vanity, 
 we are commanded to be fellow-workers with and impartial ministers of the 
 bountiful principle of nature, and we are told that, when wo have done all, we 
 have dnne nntbin;^ nf which t(e have any right to boast." 
 
 •• Such are the dictates of Cbrixtian revelation, and such is the answer to Mr. 
 Malthus's poritiOD that 'erery man has a right to do what ho will with his 
 own."* — Godwin, Of Population, chap. iii. book vl. p. 614. 
 
 " Thus stood the principles of morality," remarks Mr. Godwin, aft«r 
 making these quotations from the teaching of Christ, "before Mr. 
 Malthns wrote bis Essay on Population." The rich man believed in 
 them, thoagh be constantly violated them by wantonly expending on 
 his appetites and vanity, sums for which his conscience as con- 
 
 • Maltbua, Vol. II. 307. The public debt was then £860,000,000, and the interMt 
 £47,000,000. Th« poor-ratM w«re £3,000,000. 
 26* 
 
306 NOTES. 
 
 stantly reproached him. This was some check. The poor man 
 believed in them, though he saw how little they prevailed in the 
 world. He believed that the unfortunate, the disabled, and deserving 
 poor had a right to support, "a belief in which he was borne out by 
 the light of nature and by the gospel. Neither the evangelists, nor 
 apostles, nor the Holy Spirit that inspired them, were aware that all 
 these maxims were subverted by the principle of population." Mr. 
 Malthus has changed the situation of the rich and poor. To the poor 
 he has taught that, if they receive any relief, they owe it not to any 
 right, but to what he calls the spontaneous charity and pure benevo- 
 lence of the rich ; his opinion being that " private charity almost 
 invariably leads to pernicious consequences," and public charity he 
 condemns without any reservation. 
 
 " To the rich he has read an important lesson. A great portion of this claFS 
 of society are sufficiently indisposed to acts of charity, and eminently disposed 
 to the indulgence of their appetites and their vanity. But hitherto they had 
 Fecrctly reproached themselves with this as an offence against God and man. 
 Mr. llalthus has been the first man to perform the grateful task of reconciling 
 their conduct and their consciences, and to show them that when they thought 
 they were indulging themselves in vice, they were in reality conferring a most 
 eminent and praiseworthy benefit upon the community." — Godwin, p. 548. 
 
 The PusEYiTES. — Axother Phase of the Controversy about 
 Population and Pauperism. 
 We have seen that Chalmers and Malthus were found side by side 
 in their opposition to a compulsory provision for the poor, but, with 
 what different ultimate objects ! Chalmers, to secure a kinder admini- 
 stration, and a more eflfectual maintenance ; Malthus, to let their own 
 improvidence and misery bring them to a rapid end, that, by thinning 
 the ranks of men now, the mortality hereafter might be diminished. 
 We now bring forward another collaborator, from a different school, 
 having his point of agreement, also, with these anti-champions of the 
 poor-laws. A class of religionists has become conspicuous in Great 
 Britain since Malthus and Chalmers wrote, who, as is generally the 
 case with new sects, are divisible into two camps. The Puseyites may 
 be divided into the sincere, but deluded and mistaken; and the de- 
 signing and unprincipled, who are always ready to lead any squadrons 
 of the ignorant or superstitious. No drifting mob of humanity can go 
 long without a leader. It may be well feared that, as we find many 
 good and sincere people among the Puseyites, they were made so by 
 
NOTES. 80t 
 
 contemplating Protestantism as it is displayed in the Church of Eng- 
 land. The purer and more conscientious they were, the greater their 
 detestation of her character and doings. If too religious to become 
 infidels, and too refined to become mere disciples of Christ, they natu- 
 rally turned their faces towards Rome. Among this class of the sincere 
 and deluded, many writers have appeared whose pages breathe a spirit 
 of pure piety, which is destined to meet very little sympathy in the 
 Romish Church, to which it is tending. The leaders who are steadily 
 guiding this deluded cohort to Rome, no doubt sufi"er the expression 
 of such opinions among those in their train, knowing that, once safe in 
 Popedom, such absurd goodness will soon be rubbed off" or laughed out 
 of countenance. The writer to whom we are now to refer is the Rev. 
 Wm. Sewell, B. D., Author of Christian Politics, and late Professor 
 of Moral Philosophy in the University of Oxford. He plainly sees the 
 incompatibility of the English poor-laws with Christianity; he freely 
 admits that the poor are the charge of Christians, and, with Chalmers, 
 be sees no way of discharging that duty but through the oflScials of an 
 established church — not such as Chalmers had in his eye, nor such 
 as exists in England, but a real priesthood after the order of the papacy 
 of the Middle Ages. But, however antiquated the plan of Mr. Sewell 
 for the care of the poor, what he says about them is deserving the 
 attention of all; and evinces clearly that his heart is in the right 
 place, however wrong his head'or perverted his judgment. 
 
 " Poverty, in some shape or other, is an essential condition of political society, 
 and it will inereaae in proportion with the accumulation of money; because 
 capital ba« always a tendency to drain and absorb into itself all the lesser 
 spring of wealth by its command over labour, and competition will drive 
 wages down to the lowest possible prices. But these questionn, and the whole 
 theory of national wealth, rec^tire to bo examined at length ; and a Christian 
 political economy would form a necessary appendage to Christian politics, and 
 most be reserved for such a place. 
 
 " Bnt, aa a fact, the man of poverty has now swelled in thi^ country to a pitch 
 which threaten* to overflow and devastate society itself With a free trade and 
 a manafactaring system, it could not be otherwise. The interference of the 
 legislature is demanded. All eyes are turned to its omnipotent arm ; and it 
 proceeds to act. It gathers under its protection the starving, houseless, mise- 
 rable beings, whom the avarice of their employers has called into existence by 
 the demand tor labour, and then left them to porish in the fluctuations of em- 
 plojmient, at baa redooed them to the minimum of subsistence, and therefore 
 to denonUntlon and deapair. Bnt it in compelled to gather them in masses, 
 by broad, palpable Unea of distinction ; because the state has no delicate diaorimi- 
 
308 NOTES. 
 
 nating eyes, none of the finer organs of prehension and selection, which are 
 required to separate between the bad and the good ; the industrious and the 
 idle; the poverty whioh is a fault, from that which is misfortune ; that which 
 demands consolation, from that which requires chastisement; the improving 
 fl-om the reprobate and lost. Its seat of action is too far removed to penetrate 
 into the cottage and the hovel, to hear the tale of distress, and to balance de- 
 grees of indiscretion, or suffering, or crime. And no instruments can it create 
 to execute such a task, because it can retain them by pay onlj', and hired 
 servants can have neither the feeling nor the zeal to attempt it well. There 
 is, indeed, in every parish, one or more persons, of whose sacred and appointed 
 functions it is an especial part to care for the poor — the servants of a Divine 
 Master who was born in a stable and laid in a manger; who, as fir as personal 
 enjoyment is concerned, are themselves pledged to poverty; whose office it is 
 to watch over the souls of those around them, and therefore to discriminate 
 characters; who can give alms without dei^rading the receivers; who can add 
 to them a double grace and double comfort by words of blessing and advice; 
 who are solemnly devoted to this work, whether the state employ their services 
 or not; and who, by the ministrations of religion, can render even destitution 
 tolerable, aud raise even idleness and profligacy to an honest and respectable 
 industry. The clergy are the clergy for the poor." .... 
 
 "The clergy must be set aside; and the poor must be fed and clothed by a 
 Board of Poor-law Commissioners, who have no religious preference whatever. 
 What follows? Destitute of the means of discriminating character, and justly 
 afraid of encouraging every kind of vice and evil by an indi^criniinating 
 charity, they are compelled, I will not say to regard poverty as a crime, but to 
 deal with it as if it were such; to reduce their alms down to the lowest pos- 
 sible point at which life can be maintained — life without hope, without dignity, 
 without enjoyment, without possibility of improvement — one stern, cheerless, 
 dreary, dismal protraction of imprisonment and privation, that all may be dis- 
 couraged from approaching it. Whether it be from prudence towards the poor, 
 or from selfish economy for itself, the civil power cannot hold out any alms, 
 which are not wrung and counted out like drops of blood, and given with a 
 curse, the curse of niggardliness and reproach, rather than with a Messing. 
 
 "15ut the neci'ssity of economy and privation renders another step equally 
 necessary. The home cannot be permitted to remain ; expenses cannot be cur- 
 tailed, nor enjoyments restricted, where the poor are allowed to expend what 
 they receive in the bosom of their families; and therefore they must be 
 gathered together under one roof. Oh, how thwarted nature and despised 
 truth will avenge themselves at last; and, if we refuse to receive and honour 
 them in their genuine forms, will compel us to fall down and worship some de- 
 formi-d idol, which we erect, without knowing it, after their mutilated image ! 
 It is necessary that some men be poor. It may be good for us all to abandon 
 wealth, even if we are not abandoned by it. And social life is a blessing : and 
 for those who have no firesides, it is charity to provide a home, after the model 
 of a family, where they may live under a wise and merciful restraint, and have 
 their affections developed and their energies exercised, and even accomplish 
 
NOTES. 
 
 many a grand and noble work, hj united labour, which cannot be att«mpted 
 by indiTiduals.'' .... 
 
 "And in the nineteenth century, when we boast of haying receded so far 
 from such ignorance and superstition, that we cannot possibly relapse to it, 
 suddenly, at the call of the most vague latitudinarianism, there rise up on 
 erery side vast houses and refuges of the poor, maintained not by religious 
 alms, but by extorted taxes ; and, containing in their system, almost every cir- 
 cumstance which has been either wrongly ridiculed by the bad, or justly con- 
 demned by the good, in the system of monasticism ; omitting only that which 
 commanded the reverence of all — religion. 
 
 "There is poverty, but forced, not voluntary; privation and fasting, but 
 reluctant sufferings, not self-denying and repentant discipline. There is seclu- 
 Bion from the world without contemplation, or any of the benefits of retirement. 
 There is endless, hopeless fixedness of lot, but riveted by the denial of all 
 means of improving the condition, not by vows, which, however erroneously 
 taken, were at least dignified by their sacredness. There is labour, wasted and 
 unproductive ; society, without any bond of union but common degi-adation 
 and restraint ; and dependence upon others, but on their grudging penurioiis- 
 ness, not on their benevolence and love. There is celibacy, or a compulsory 
 disruption of the marriage-ties, but with no holy thoughts or high aspirations 
 to purify and guard it from crime. There is a breaking up of the family and 
 the home, but without creating any community of love to supply its place. 
 There is a badge stamped upon all inmates, separating them from the rest of 
 their fellows, but neither holding up before the world the memorial of higher 
 duties and purer feelings than the world at large permits, no giving dignity 
 and elevation to them who bear it,^ut branding them with a mark of infamy, 
 as the paupers of a poorhouse. And there are no duties to animate or dignify. 
 Shame, but not for sin — fear, but not of God — inactivity without repose — la- 
 bour without hope — ignominy without self-reproach — and punishment without 
 crime ; such are the essential and inseparable characteristics of a system which 
 gathers together the good and the bod into one abode of poverty, and feeds, and 
 clothes, and shelters, and employs them by the hands, not of the church, but 
 of the state. 
 
 * For religion is excluded ; (Sir, if admitted, it can come before them only in 
 the rare and grudged ministrations of a single chaplain ; set side by side with 
 the authorized teaching of others, who denounce his doctrines as false, and 
 his commission as invalid. Heresy and schism, and, following on them, unbe- 
 lief; must pursue the civil power, even into the poorhouse. And the last 
 refuge for its miserable inhabitants, the belief in a God, and the hopes of 
 heaven, most be shot against them by the distractions of doubt and contro- 
 versy, which the state, instead of excluding, forces on them ; which it brings 
 into their very home — gathering the war of words and the strife of tongues, as 
 before round the bewildered child, so now in the ear of the ignorant, the aged, 
 the sinful, the miserable, the hard of heart, the bereaved and the friendless, 
 the dull and dead of hearing and understanding, even round the decay of 
 ficknem, and the agonies of the death-bed. The state will acknowledge no 
 
m 
 
 NOTES. 
 
 excluslre truth in religion, and listen to no controversies, because truth is fulj 
 of doubt, and controversies the destruction of peace ; and therefore the mise- 
 rable pauper is compelled by it to listen to them himself, and to end where the 
 state begins, in disbelieving all that he hears." .... 
 
 "And then turn to another relation of domestic life — that of master and 
 servant. Christianity set the slave free. It struck oEF his chains, not by any 
 violent infraction of an established system — not by encouraging that restless 
 and dangerous spirit of independence which refuses to own any master — not 
 by indulging in vain and fanatical clamours against an institution which had 
 not been excluded even from the divinely appointed polity of the Jews — which 
 nature herself had in some degree adopted — and the very name of which liad 
 been assumed into the most ennobling relations of the gospel. She knew that 
 where the spirit of Christian love is infused, there the outward form of slavery 
 not only loses its terrors, but becomes capable of generating great virtues. 
 And, however capable of abuse may be the power of one human being over 
 another, she knew that far greater abuses prevail in the unrestricted rule of 
 each man over himself. The highest virtues of our nature — patience, fortitude, 
 humility, faith, may be cherished and exercised in the slave, even under the 
 harshest bondage; and mercy, and pity, and love, and self-denial may be prac- 
 tised by the master even when armed with absolute power. But no virtue 
 whatever can be generated in the license of self will, except it be the self-com- 
 mand taught to us by bitter suffering, and resolute to abandon its freedom 
 and to confine itself under an external rule. If a Christian was born a slave, 
 by the advice of the apostle he was not to seek to become free." .... 
 
 " Labour — the labour of human beings — is now an article for ther market. 
 It is a subject of competition. It is open to the same rivalry, and its value is 
 fixed by the same irregular struggle between two contendns-; .<5elfishiiesses, as the 
 price of a bale of cotton or a loaf of bread. The hirer and hired liave each 
 but a single object: the one to purchase as cheap, the other to sell his toil as 
 dear, as possible. But in such a conflict the master must ultimately be the 
 vanquisher. The servant who outstands his market must starve. And thus, 
 we have seen the price of the labour of the poor throughout the kingdom, in 
 almost every department, reduced to so low a rate, that life can srarcely be 
 supported. And the wretched workman is left to starve, throughout the, vigour 
 of his life, in a miserable hovel, and to die in a poorhouse, while the master is 
 apparently exempt from all responsibility, as he is untouched by any compas- 
 sion, because the relation between himself and his servant has been stripped 
 of all moral obligation and religious character, and has been reduced to a mere 
 act of barter. Faith and fear have perished from it. And so it must be, when 
 the dependence of man upon man ceases to be regarded in a religious light — 
 as a positive dispensation of Providence ; when, instead of submitting to, and 
 acquiescing in. the position in which we are placed at our birth, until some 
 other call from heaven summon us from it. we are tau^^ht from our childhood, 
 that there is no law or rule for our temporal conduct, but to s-cure, each of us, 
 what we deem to be our own advancement in the world ; when, in this way, a 
 perpetual fretting fever of restless ambition is diffused through every class; 
 
NOTES. '311 
 
 when the master, to increase his gains, reduces his servants to starvation, and 
 the servant serves, not as an act of duty, and in the Lord, but simply to earn 
 his bread." .... 
 
 "We sigh over the imprisonment of the canary-bird, exclaim against the 
 cruelty of its oppressor, unbar the doors of its cage without a moment's delay, 
 and the poor bird claps its wings with joy, flutters into the open air, regains 
 its liberty, its blessed liberty. — and the next day is found dead of cold and 
 hunger. It is not for a Christian to argue in favour of slavery; still less to 
 speak of it, except with abhorrence, when the master abuses his power, and the 
 slave, instead of being raised by him, by degrees, to the capability and enjoy- 
 ment of his freedom, is rivetted in his chains for ever. But a Christian may 
 indeed ask, whether the total exclusion of all constraint, of all fear, of all 
 positive external obligation from the relation of master and servant, has not 
 ended in reducing the servant in this country to a condititm far worse — far 
 more abject and degraded — &t more hopeless — far more vitiated — than that 
 of any slave in any period or country of the world. Our mines, our factories, 
 our common workshops — even our farms and agricultural cottages — full of 
 crippled children and deformed women, of famine and fever, of drunkenness 
 and vice, of depraved, miserable, hopeless beings, doomed by their own free 
 act — the free act of a being in the agony of starvation — to the severest toil in 
 darkness, at midnight ; deprived of rest, stinted in food, selling their children 
 to the same misery with their own for a few shillings, or sickening over hours 
 of toil to earn their pence — all the horrible scenes revealed by late inquiries 
 into the state of our lower classes, — what is there in the records of slavery to 
 be found more heart-breaking, or more appalling, to those who believe that 
 nations, like individuals, are visited by curses from the Almighty, and that 
 the first curse denounced in His commandments is uttered against those who 
 depart, even in the slightest degree, from His positive, external, revealed truth, 
 and shape out ideas of the Divine nature after their own fancy.'— pp. 313 — 328. 
 
 The subject or Humanity approached with timidity in Exolakd, 
 
 THROUGH DREAD OF U5SETTLIM0 THE FOUNDATIONS OF THEIR 8Y8TEK. 
 
 The writers of England have come slowly and reluctantly to the 
 persaasion that something must be done for the working classes. All 
 the searching and thorough expositions of parliamentary reports, in 
 which the condition of the poor was set forth with a fidelity of detail 
 und power of truth have failed to conquer public apathy, for 
 the mass of evidence proved too heavy for the public digestioo. 
 No doubt it had some weight even in England, by furnishing sources 
 of information to the few who were inquiring. Some reforms followed 
 in the hours of labour, in the employment of children in factories, and 
 females io mines. Tbe«e documents never touched the great social 
 
312 NOTES. 
 
 problems involved. A large class of writers discoursed abundantly of 
 wealth, labour, production, distribution, and other topics of political 
 economy, without a kind thought or expression for the men whose in- 
 dustry furnished the subject of their thoughts ; they treated of com- 
 merce, and of the productive powers of nations, without shedding a 
 ray of light on the questions of human welfare and happiness involved 
 in these discussions. Wealth and industry are treated as abstractly 
 and as separately from human well-being, as if the whole productive 
 power was nothing but steam-engines or water-wheels. Perhaps no 
 department of literary labour has suffered more fi'om not being placed 
 on a right basis, than this of political economy. Being a science, if 
 one at all, pertaining exclusively to human well-being — to the progress 
 of social economy, it was early divorced from this basis and assumed 
 the shape of speculations upon commerce, the productive power of 
 labour, consumption, rent, capital, value, money, exchange, interest, 
 banking, circulation, credit, and similar topics ; all which were dis- 
 cussed theoretically and developed largely, as if imbodying an abstract 
 science, apart from the men whom they concerned. That there is no 
 agreement among these writers, and that their productions command 
 the assent, or even the comprehension of very few, cannot be surpris- 
 ing, when it is considered they are brain-spun theories, and not actual 
 deductions from history or experience. The reason why political 
 economy took this shape was, doubtless, chiefly, because despotic rule 
 and priestly domination forbade any attempt on the continent of 
 Europe at erecting a system of political economy with a strict view to 
 the best interests of men. The Church of Kome has always assumed to 
 be infallible in matters of this world, as well as of those in the world to 
 come; it was not possible, therefore, for authors to shed light on any 
 subject of which " the Church" chose to take jurisdiction. Whatever 
 ground "the Church" left was covered by the various claims of despotic 
 governments. In England, where these obstacles did not intervene, 
 the incubus of the poor-laws effectually prevented any inquiry into the 
 science of human welfare which would tend to disturb the existing 
 order of things. Under these manifold disadvantages the science of 
 political economy has received its expansion ; and, as might be expected, 
 it is neither consistent with itself nor adapted to its object. According 
 to its literal expression, however, it has no legitimate end; it contem- 
 plates the production, distribution, and consumption of wealth; but 
 does not inform us in what way this can be done with a view to the best 
 interests, temporal and eternal, of the producer. 
 
NOTES. 318 
 
 " It considers the lord of the creation merely as a sensitive machine, with 
 eyes, arms, hands, and fingers formed to manufacture some commodity saleable 
 in the marts of commerce ; merely an animated engine, to be worked at the 
 will of opulence and power for pecuniary gain ; merely as a breathing mill or 
 animal automaton, which cannot stand still a moment for the purposes of moral 
 »nd religious discipline, without irreparable loss of time and unpardonable 
 traste of wealth."* 
 
 But the pressure of new ideas and the advancing tide of reform is 
 invading the "godless wisdom" of political economy. Its votaries begin 
 to perceive they cannot much longer overlook man in their speculations. 
 The last and best work of its class, "The Principles of Political 
 Economy, by John Stuart Mill," thus steps out of its way to speak 
 of man : — 
 
 " In the details of political economy, general views of society aud politics are 
 oat of place ; but, in the more comprehensive, it is impossible to exclude them." 
 .... "Considered in its moral and social aspect, the state of the labouring 
 people has lately been a subject of much more speculation and discussion than 
 Ibrmerly ; and the opinion, that it is not now what it ought to be, has become 
 yery general." . . . . " The working cla-^ses have taken their interests into their 
 own bands, and are perpetually showing that they think the interests of their 
 employers are not identical with their own, but opposite to them." .... "The 
 principles of the Reformation have reached as low down in society as reading 
 and writing, and the poor will no longer accept morals and religion of other 
 people's prescribing." . . . . " The poor have come out of leading-strings and 
 cannot any longer be governed or treated like children." .... "But whatever 
 advice, exhortation, or guidance is held out to the labouring classes, must 
 
 henceforth be t<>ndered to them as equals." " The problem is, to obtain the 
 
 efficiency and economy of production on a large scale, without dividing the pro- 
 doeen into two parties with hostile Interests, employers and employed, the 
 many who do the work being mere servants under the command of the one 
 who supplies the funds, and having no interest of their own in the enterprise, 
 except to fulfil their contract and earn their wages."! 
 
 These are certainly remarkable concessions to the spirit of the age, 
 appearing in the pages of an elaborate work on political economy. 
 No doubt, the writer felt it to be impossible for even one of his school 
 to be deaf to the cries of humanity ; and therefore, some twenty pages, 
 in over eleven hundred and fifty, arc devoted to the connection between 
 humanity and industry. 
 
 The progress of opinion shows that the time cannot bo distant when 
 the science or system of political economy will receive its just appre- 
 
 • V. Knox's Works, toL tI. p. *28. t Book It. chap. vU. 
 
 27 
 
314 NOTES. 
 
 ciation — when the absurdity of constructing a system of industry or 
 trade without any reference to the men for whom it is intended will be 
 seen in its naked deformity. It must be known soon that any system 
 of social economy which leaves out of view both divinity and huma- 
 nity must at first encounter resistance and reproach, and at last utter 
 failure. 
 
 " The system which produces the happiest moral effects will be found, also, 
 most beneficial to the interest of the individual and to the general weal. Upon 
 this basis the science of political economy will rest at last, when the ponderous 
 volumes with which it has been overlaid shall have sunk by their own weight 
 into the dead sea of oblivion."* 
 
 For half a centurj-^, the philanthropy of Great Britain has been con- 
 spicuous in many remarkable manifestations. The abolition of the 
 slave-trade, the emancipation of the slaves in the West Indies, the im- 
 mense sums paid for the distribution of the Bible, and for the support 
 of missionaries, the searching inquiry made by committees of parlia- 
 ment into the condition of all the suflFering classes, all show that the 
 public mind was deeply moved with compassion. There has, however, 
 been visible there a great reluctance to enter into the real questions 
 pertaining to their domestic population. The few could afford to be 
 liberal, while the many were oppressed. No inquiry could be stirred 
 in relation to the permanent relief of the masses, which did not point 
 to some sacrifices on the part of the few. The constitution was sacred, 
 ancient usages were sacred, property was sacrod, personal rights were 
 sacred : all these and many like barriers rose in the way of any or- 
 ganic changes, by which labour might be increased and its rewards 
 enlarged. The difficulty of overcoming these bamers was greater, and 
 so still remains, than even at first sight sti'ikes the inquirer. Three- 
 fourths of the labouring population of Great Britain have been long 
 sunk into a state of utter poverty and dependence : they live from 
 day to day, and the least misfortune precipitates them into pauperism. 
 They have no voice in fixing their wages, but are compelled, by sheer 
 necessity, to labour for what they can get. This is a dreadful alterna- 
 tive for the multitudes, and shows hoAV hopeless their condition. But 
 it is the real foundation upon which the apparent strength, wealth, and 
 grandeur of Great Britain now rest. Her manufactures increased by 
 
 * Essay on the State of the Poor and the Means Pursued by the Society for 
 Bettering their Condition, 1816, by Robert Southey. 
 
NOTES. 
 
 315 
 
 the aid of steam and machinery, and this cheap labour can enter all 
 the markets of the world at a price low enough to encounter any com- 
 petition ; her nobles and men of capital can sport the largest indi- 
 vidual incomes in the world, because the labour that earns that income 
 is inadequately compensated ; the government can with certainty raise 
 the largest revenue in the world, because it is the proceeds of the la- 
 bour of her millions of poor, who must toil incessantly, and give the 
 whole avails of their incessant toil to the men of capital who employ 
 them, receiving for their share a pittance which imperfectly sustains 
 life. The men of capital, having this command of the bones and sinews 
 of the poor, can afford to pay high taxes to sustain the government 
 which sustains this system. The strength of this system is the ex- 
 treme subordination of the labourers, which is only maintained by their 
 inability to make any provision ahead to resist a system which reduces 
 them to worse than African bondage. Now it is clear that the questions 
 which arise in any attempt to bring this whole subject to the light of 
 day are delicate and complicated in the extreme. It is no wonder that 
 few have courage to approach it, and that those most interested in 
 maintaining the present order of things can scarcely endure to have it 
 touched. It is very evident that any sudden reform, however directed, 
 must be fatal in the extreme to the present social system of Great Bri- 
 tain. One great error has prevailed, which must soon be dispelled by 
 the light which is rapidly gathering over the true interests of hu- 
 manity ; — we cannot much longer shut our eyes to the truth : we must 
 receive it with full credit : if its bearings are adverse to some cherished 
 notions or interests, it will become a matter of conscience, of prudence, 
 and consideration, when and how the reforms which this truth dic- 
 tates shall be accomplished. We should no longer fear light, though 
 we may well pause and ponder in the path of reform. Wo believe that 
 if the truth in regard to the social system of Great Britain was brought 
 home to the minds and consciences of the intelligent people of that em- 
 pire, a quarter of a century would not elapse, without exhibiting an 
 entire renovation and political reformation, effected without violent re- 
 volution or bloodshed, and mainly by concessions made by those now 
 holding positions of power and the possession of capital. Let it be 
 uoderatood, then, that while no consideration should extinguish or re- 
 press the truth, the methods of reform, however effectual, should be 
 fraught with neither violence, nor injustice, nor even dangerous haste. 
 It is quite curious to trace the cautious and slow approaches which 
 hare been made in Great Britain, in the last half-century, towards a 
 
316 NOTES. 
 
 thorough consideration of the condition of their labouring population. 
 We may readily imagine many grounds for this caution, all of which 
 were magnified in the minds of those whom they influenced. The 
 whole contributed to form a public sentiment so intensely conservative 
 as to be at times ridiculous, tremblingly sensitive, and often odious, if 
 not positively anti-christian. All who belonged directly or indirectly 
 to the established church, all who were connected with the government, 
 executive, legislative, or judicial, or expected or aimed to be so — all 
 who supposed their interests to be deeply concerned in the great 
 questions touching the rights of property, were alive to every topic 
 that might remotely or directly affect any of these great interests. The 
 influence of the church and the government, and the wealth of the 
 country were arrayed on the side of the severest conservatism, and 
 formed, together, a public sentiment which it was not only hard to stem, 
 but which those who were educated in it found it almost impossible to 
 think against. It formed a shell which the mind could not break 
 through. It would be easy to illustrate it by extracts, but for the space 
 it would require. Those who desire, may find its tone and polished sur- 
 face well exemplified in the pages of John Foster, whose conception of 
 human depravity and the hopelessness of all amendment, was of the 
 strongest kind. According to him, if the wickedness of the world was 
 concentrated in any one country, it would furnish a land of infernal 
 spirits, except that they would be incarnate, " which last, they would 
 soon, through mutual destniction, cease to be," and thus become naked 
 spirits infernal. He brands all reform with ridicule and contempt, and 
 says " that revolutions, great discoveries, augmented science, and new 
 forms of policy shall become, in effect, what may be denominated the 
 sublime mechanics of depravity."** 
 
 This essayist had a profound respect for religion, and expressly ex- 
 cepted its ministers from the odium he attached to the profession and 
 idea of reform ; but he expressly cautions them not to hope for any 
 great things from that; and the utmost stretch of expectation which he 
 allows for the time to come, is measured by what has been accom- 
 plished in times past. Happily for the world, even the profound es- 
 sayist was obliged, in subsequent editions of his popular essays, to 
 make some acknowledgment of advance, in the face of his " ominous 
 conjectures" and profound immovablencss. 
 
 * Letter IV. on the Application of the Epithet Romantic. John Foster. 
 
NOTES. 31T 
 
 "We have already seen that those who most frequently attacked this 
 discouraging philosophy were known as avowed infidels. The truth is, 
 the tone assumed by many of this conservative school was such, that 
 very few could venture to attack it without risk of being called infidels. 
 Note the extreme care which runs throughout the work entitled, "Hamp- 
 den in the XIX. Centunj," in which the author, evidently strongly im- 
 bued with enlarged feelings of humanity, and anxious to enter upon 
 the career of investigation and reform, is but too apprehensive that 
 Christianity and humanity cannot be reconciled. Southey, in his "Pro- 
 great of Society," availing himself of the conversational form in which 
 it is written, takes both sides, the hopeful and hopeless, and gives no 
 decided opinion, although his writings generally show his sympathies 
 were strongly on the side of humanity. Dr. Chalmers was bold 
 enough to break this barrier of truth, and, in spite of all the influences 
 bearing on the path of reform and free expression, he not only said 
 what he thought, but did what he could. Hear him, in 1819, address- 
 ing an assemblage in Glasgow, met on the subject of the schools for 
 the poor, got up and endowed by his exertions : 
 
 " Here will I prophesy, if the world is to stand, there will be a {rreat nmelio- 
 ration in the life of general humanity. The labouring classes are destined lo 
 attain a far more secure place of comfort and independence in the conimou- 
 wiMilth than they have ever yet occupied ; and this will come about, not as the 
 fruit of any victory gained on the arena of angry and discordant politics, but 
 far more surely, as the result of growing virtue and intelligence and worth 
 among the labourers themselves. I trust, the day is coming, when humble life 
 
 will be dignified both by leisure and literature when many a lettered 
 
 rage, as well as many an enlightened Christian, will be met with, even in the 
 very lowest walks of society ; when the elements of science and philanthropy 
 and high scholarship, will so ripen throughout the general mind of the 
 roantry, an to exalt it prodigiously above the level of its present character and 
 acquirements."* 
 
 Many works have appeared within the last ten years, which show 
 that the que."«tion of human well-being is falling by degrees within 
 the public domain. Apprehension is wearing off, the friends of hu- 
 manity are growing bolder, Christians are extending their vision over 
 a wider field, and beginning to be ashamed of leaving the champion- 
 ship of humanity so much to infidels. To this result the efforts of 
 Robert Hall and Thomas Arnold contributed their full share : the latter 
 WM, however, far ahead of the former in his appreciation of questions 
 
 • UHb of Cbalmen, by the Rer. Wm. Hanna, 2d vol. p. 250, Am. Ed. 
 
318 X T E s. 
 
 involving the interests of the human race. In answer to the question, 
 *' What is the progress spoken of?" Arnold replied, " It is in the appli- 
 ration of Christianity to human things, — the progress in this is as 
 endless as the progress from our imperfection to perfection can be."* 
 
 Besides the later works enumerated in our catalogue above, some of 
 vchieh go freely into the question of the improvement of the labouring 
 classes, is one which deserves a special mention, — "The Philosophy of 
 Necessity, or the Law of Consequences as ajypUcahle to Mental, Moral, and 
 Social Science, by Charles Bray."f This work, though far from being 
 elaborate, when the extent of its scope is considered, is yet highly de- 
 serving, as a direct attempt to open up the subject of the "science of 
 man," and spread its topics before the world in logical order. We are not 
 prepared to furnish an appreciation of a work of so much thought, but 
 deem it worth while to give some indication of its contents. 
 
 " The object of the work is to inquire into the nature and constitution of man : 
 to ascertain his place in creation, the object and aim of his existence, and the 
 l)Oundaries of his mind: — 'to vindicate the ways of God to man,' by tracing 
 the law of consequences, and pointing to the good of evil: to inquire what sanc- 
 tion nature affords to morality, or what obligation she lays us under to regard 
 the happiness of others : to analyze the present constitution of society : to trace 
 the cause of its numerous evils : to suggest a remedy, and to show how we may 
 l>pst avail ourselves of our present knowledge aud power, to live together in 
 the most happy manner possible.''^ 
 
 In the body of his work the author classes his subject under the 
 three main divisions, — Mental Science, Moral Science, and Social 
 Science. Under the head of Mental Science, he treats of the men- 
 tal facnltics, animal feelings, social feelings, moral sentiments, external 
 senses, perceptive faculties, &nA. reasoning faculties ; the origin of our 
 l-notvledge, and the adaptation of the intellectual facidties to the extcr- 
 iial world / belief; truth; the connection of the 7nind with organization ; 
 and the subjects of materialism, consciousness, ideality, and associa- 
 tion. Under the head of Moral Science, we have philosophical 
 necessity, the doctrine of which he derived from Edwards's " Inquiry 
 into Freedom of Will," and its application to responsibility, praise 
 and blame, reward and punishment, virtue and vice ; the origin, ob- 
 jects, and advantages of evil ; pain considered as the most effective 
 
 * Miscellaneous Works, Am. Ed. p. 441. 
 
 t In two volumes, 8to., London, 18il. J Preface. 
 
NOTES. 319 
 
 guardian of that system, of organization upon which happiness depends; 
 pain necessary as a stimulus to action ; evils consequent upon the varie- 
 ties of condition among mankind; death. Morality, pain and pleasure, 
 man in relation to external objects; man in relation to his fellow-man. 
 Under the head of Social Science, he treats of the present condition 
 of society, division of society, annual income of the kingdom and its 
 distribution, income of the working classes and its expenditure, con- 
 dition of the working classes. 3feasures jjroposed for the amelioration 
 of the condition of the people, — governmental reform, free-trade, emi- 
 gration, education, religion. Causes of the poverty of the working 
 classes, social reform, summary, &c. 
 
 We mention this work as a bold and well-sustained attempt to take 
 up the Bubject of human welfare on its own merits. It is readily seen 
 that the prevalent theories of political economy have had little room 
 in the mind of the author. We can easily perceive that, labouring 
 under the prevailing error of estimating the value and importance of 
 Christianity through the medium of the conduct of Christians, he did 
 not comprehend the true relations of religion with his subject. This 
 error, so common and so fatal to the progress of correct notions, is 
 equivalent to ascertaining the constitution and laws of a nation by the 
 conduct of the people, instead of comparing the conduct of a people 
 with their written constitution and laws. 
 
 Mr, Bray is the author of a very useful book as a help in these 
 studies, — "An Outline of the Various Social Systems and Communities 
 which have been founded on the Principle of Co-operation: London, 
 1846." In this he briefly indicates, under more than sixty heads, some of 
 the more prominent schemes of reform and co-operation, from early to 
 modem times ; such as Crete, Sparta, Peru, Egypt, the Essenes, Early 
 Christiana, Moravians, Shakers, Ruppites, Godwin's, St. Simon's, and 
 Owen's Systems, Poor Colonies of Holland, Socialism, Fourierisvi, Hof- 
 uryl, Port Royal: the various Utopists, — Plato, More, Bacon, Harring- 
 ton. This indication of these various plans is confined to exposition and 
 dwells not upon merits or demerits, but is preceded by an introduction 
 on the general subjects, which contains a variety of information on the 
 condition of the working classes in Europe. 
 
 Whilst we profess that we are not prepared to give any opinion on 
 the real merits of Mr. Bray's labours, we award him without hesitation 
 the praise of having cast himself freely and unreservedly into a subject 
 so much neglected and so much feared ; and of having produced a work 
 which cannot fail to be the precursor of very many more useful than 
 
320 NOTES. 
 
 his own. We are free to say, that we do not feel the necessity, to ob- 
 tain clear views on this subject, of going beyond the "new command- 
 ment" which is delivered to us in the gospel, and fully believe that, if 
 Mr. Bray had set out from that point, he would have obtained clearer 
 views and a more secure resting-place, besides making far greater pro- 
 gress. His imperfect conception of the Christian system, and his 
 mingling Christianity with the conduct of Christians, draws him 
 frequently into trains of remark highly exceptionable; but their free- 
 dom, their severity and boldness are extremely instructive ; and Chris- 
 tians should accept the merited reproof, even though blended with 
 misapprehension and error. He characterizes the conduct and teaching 
 of Christians who tell the poor and suffering that all the ills of this life 
 are visitations for sin, chastisements for the discipline of the mind and 
 groAvth in grace, — who separate religion entirely from any consider- 
 ation of comfort in this world, and postpone all happiness to the next 
 world, — by saying that, "in place of the good things which God has 
 given so plenteously, and which he intends equally for all his children, 
 they allow liberally to the poor 'post-obit bills on heaven,'^- as a compensa- 
 tion for what the wretched system of society has taken from them here."f 
 Some works on these subjects may hr^ve escaped our attention. Vast 
 numbers of occasional pamphlets have appeared on the various questions 
 involved, many being of signal value and merit. Among these smaller 
 productions, one which is well worthy of notice is — " The Labouring 
 Classes of England, especially those engaged in Agriculture and Manu- 
 factures. By an Englishman. Boston, 1847." This was written by an 
 English factory operative, then residing in this country, and contains 
 views and details of the highest interest. Previous to leaving England, 
 he had been employed by a benevolent nobleman to make inquiries 
 respecting the condition of the poor, and thus had facilities for obtain- 
 ing correct information. Alton Locke and other similar productions 
 must assist in awakening the English mind. The recent exposition 
 of Mr. Mayhew in the Morning Chronicle, which the author is now 
 swelling into a large work, richly illustrated by -engravings, has created 
 a sensation and materially assisted in opening the way to a more 
 general comprehension of facts, and to more just views of the rights 
 and wrongs of the poor. 
 
 * This is a mode of payment adopted by expectant spendthrifts, who, b«ing 
 unable or unwilling to pay, give bills or notes, at enormous interest, payable 
 upon tlie death of a father, or somo one from whtiui a legacy is expj'ctcd. 
 
 t rbilosophy of Ncn-.'sity, Vol. II. .375. 
 
NOTES. 321 
 
 The Treatment which the subjects op Charity, Pauperism, axd 
 Labour have met in France. French Works on these and 
 
 KINDRED topics. 
 
 Our author appears not to have been fully aware that the legislation 
 of France, in regard to the poor, for the past three centuries, has many 
 features in common with the English legislation, which he so justly 
 condemns. They are far indeed from being identical, but in France 
 severe epithets and harsh punishments were inflicted for vagabondage, 
 as well as in England. Viewed in a merely political light — in tho 
 aspect of good police — the public authorities of England and France 
 did not originally greatly differ ; but, in the administration and public 
 sentiment which grew out of this legislation, a wide difference arose. 
 The French legislation became, in a great measure, inoperative in its 
 severe features. The English are eminently a law-abiding people; 
 they have shown it as much in the rigid and severe administration of 
 their poor-laws as in any portion of their history. If the law exists, 
 it must be administered : it must not be a dead letter through false 
 sympathy or any mere inefficiency; hence the administration of the 
 poor-laws of England revealed in its progress a scene of brutal hard- 
 ness of heart, unchristian severity, litigation, and low cunning, dis- 
 graceful to human nature and revolting at once to decency and 
 humanity. Such a picture of law-abiding fidelity in a guardian of the 
 poor as that characterized in the extract from Bums' a History of the 
 Poor-latca, given in a preceding page, (289,) could never find a parallel 
 in France. The English system became, indeed not so much from its 
 actual enactments as its practical working in English hands, tho de- 
 testation of Europe. It was regarded by many as the climax of inhu- 
 manity and the special disgrace of Protestantism. When epithets 
 failed to brand adequately the horrors of this anti-christian treatment 
 of tho poor, it was denominated the English system. 
 
 In our reference to the English works on the subject of the poor, tho 
 poor-laws, population, Ac, we have seen that, almost without exception, 
 they proceed upon the assumed ground that British institutions, reli- 
 gious and political, were all right, and that of course no part of the 
 miffchiefs, irregularities, and misery which occurred under them could 
 be charged to that source. And, of course, the elements of the subject 
 were never touched by those who confined their view to such a narrow 
 
322 NOTES. 
 
 range. Before the advent of Malthus, the question was chiefly one of 
 economy. It was simply, How shall we most cheaply feed and clothe 
 these increasing hordes of paupers, so that there shall be no charge upon 
 the nation of having permitted them to perish for want of food, or 
 clothing, or shelter. After the appearance of Malthus, who exalted 
 inhumanity into the highest philosophy, the question became, at least 
 so far as the Malthusian doctrines pervaded English literature, not how 
 to feed, and clothe, and lodge them, but merely how they might be 
 permitted to perish with the least shock to existing prejudices. In 
 France, the English system had some friends and Malthus a few disci- 
 ples, chiefly among the political economists of the Smith and Say 
 gchool. A few professed themselves followers of Malthus, like Dr. 
 Chalmers, without considering the whole scope of his philosophy, merely 
 because they agreed with him in some of his positions. Malthus w*as 
 opposed to a compulsory provision for the poor, and Dr. Chalmers and 
 many more, availing themselves of his authority upon that point, per- 
 mitted their names to go abroad as endorsers for a man who virtually 
 repudiated all charity, public, private, and religious. In truth, none 
 but the strict political economists, a very small class out of England, ever 
 fully approved the doctrines of Malthus. But even in their pages the 
 Malthusian philosophy carefully hides its most revolting features. 
 
 The literature of charity and humanity in France, always far in ad- 
 vance of that of England, is now rapidly swelling into large dimensions. 
 As a. whole, it is not merely untinged with the worst aspects of Malthusi- 
 anism, but it partakes scarcely at all of that hard, dry, calculating, spirit 
 of economy, which regarded poorer classes as an odious burden, and 
 pauperism as a positive nuisance, to be endured only because it could 
 uot be abated. It is not in this spirit that the subject of humanity, 
 the science of social well-being, has been treated in France. Whatever 
 may be some of the special faults of this department of French litera- 
 ture, it is so superior in tone, in taste, and in method to the equivalent 
 branch of English literature, that it would be impossible to put them 
 in comparison. To any one filled with earnest longings for human 
 welfare, who has explored the English works on the poor, pauperism, 
 and the poor-laws, with the view of finding instruction, helps for cha- 
 rity, or hopes to cheer the sufiering classes, the utter disappointment, 
 if not loathing, experienced, will find immediate relief by taking up 
 the volumes in which French writers have so kindly, so earnestly, so 
 wisely discussed questions bearing on human happiness. The con- 
 nection of the whole subject with Christianity is much more frequently 
 
NOTES. 323 
 
 pointed out and explicitly stated, and much more appreciated in France 
 than in England. The mere question of economy in feeding the poor 
 is scarce ever touched in France, and the English mode of considering 
 that question would not be endured in France, where men that labour fcrr 
 a living, however lowly their position, or suffer the severities of famine 
 and nakedness, for want of labour, are regarded as objects of the highest 
 interest, social, political, and religious. They cannot endure in France 
 that the chief question in regard to such men shall be what it may 
 cost to feed and keep them, and whether the job of keeping them 
 alive, or saving appearances if they are suffered to die, shall be under- 
 taken by public authorities at the expense of a forced contribution, or 
 be left to the spontaneous offerings of private charity or to the parish 
 oflBcers of an established church. In Fi-ance, the whole question is as 
 open as the day, and every topic is brought forward without reserve, 
 and discussed with a freedom unknown in any other country in the 
 world, and with an earnestness and ability equally unsurpassed. It 
 would be impossible to classify the numerous productions of the French 
 press or to point out the various schools to which they belong, as they 
 range from the strictest conservatism through every variety of opinion, 
 down to the wildest and absurdest schemes a diseased fancy or per- 
 verted intellect can create. To give some idea of the richness of the 
 field, we furnish a catalogue, from which we shall select a few on the 
 subjects of CHARiTT, PACPERisJr, and labocr, to be specially men- 
 tioned and their contents noted as specimens of this literature, and as 
 indicating to those inclined to such studies where they may find a rich 
 and profitable field of study. 
 
 A Catalooub of Frenc^ Works on Christia.v Charity, Public 
 ASD Private Charity, Pauperism, Population, and Labour. 
 
 Belly, Jefaan de. OSuTres de Hin^ricorde envers les Pauvres, ■ • • • • Paris, 1572 
 Exhortation to the People of France touching works of Mercy to the 
 Poor. 
 
 Le Maiatrr, Ant L' Aumoene Chrestlenne, 2 toIr. 12ino. 1651 
 
 Christian Alms, or the Tradition of the Church touching Charity to 
 the Poor, collected Arom the Iloly Scriptures and the Or«ek and 
 Latin Fathers. 
 
 Thiert, J. B. L'Avocat det PauTren, 12nio. 16T9 
 
 The AdToeate of the Poor, showing the Obligations of the Churrh 
 Aatboritie* to make a good use of the Church Funds in aid of 
 the Poor. 
 
324 NOTES. 
 
 Vernage et Paccori. Abrege d« la Loi Nouvelle, 12mo. 1713 
 
 Summary of the whole Law — the love of God and of our Neighbour, 
 with a Treatise upon Charity according to St. Paul. 
 Saint Pierre, Abbe de. Memoire sur les Pauvres, 8to. 1721 
 
 A Memoir upon the Begging Poor and the Means of Relieving them. 
 Morin, Henri. Ilistoire Critique de la PauvretS. 1723 
 
 Critical History of Poverty. 
 
 Porbonnais. Memoir upon Beggary. 1722 
 
 Maugras, J. F. Lettres sur I'Aumone, 12mo. 1726 
 
 A Consultation upon Alms, in which is established the Necessity of 
 Alms and Rules for Giving, with a Refutation of the Pretexts for 
 Refusing them. 
 Duguet,J. J. Charite, 12mo. 1728 
 
 Explanation of the Characteristics of Charity as given by St. Paul. 
 Le Pelletier, C. Traite de la Charite, 12mo. 1729 
 
 Love to our Neighbour, and its True Character. 
 Pallu, M. De la Charite, 12mo. 1742 
 
 Love of our Neighbour ; its Motives, its Duties, and its Opposite Defects. 
 Morrice, D. Proposition pour Secours des Pauvres 1753 
 
 Proposition for EflScaciously Aiding the Poor. 
 De la Morandiere. Police sur les Mendiants, 12mo. 1764 
 
 Police for Beggars and Vagabonds. 
 Faiguet, J. L'Ami des Pauvres, 12mo. 1768 
 
 The Friend of the Poor, or Political Economy. 
 Beaudeau, N. Idees d'un Citoyen, &c., 2 vols. 8vo. 1766 
 
 Opinions of a Citizen upon the Wants, the Rights, and the Duties of 
 the Poor. 
 Mery de la Canorgue, Abbe. L'Ami de ceux qui n'en ont point 1767 
 
 The Friend of the Friendless. 
 
 Moheau. Considerations sur la Population de la France, 8vo. 1778 
 
 Malvaux. Mendicite en France, &c., 8vo. 1780 
 
 A Mode of Stopping Beggary in France, by making the beggars use- 
 ful to the public without making them unhappy. 
 
 The title of this work was the subject proposed for a prize by the 
 Academy of Sciences in 1777. A large volume of the essays, ofiFered in 
 this competition, was published in 1799. 
 
 Percy et Willaume. Memoire, &c. 1780 
 
 A memoir crowned by the Academy of Sciences, of Macon, upon this 
 question : "The Ancients — had they public establishments for aid of 
 indigent, of orphans, or foundlings, the sick, the wounded ; and if not, 
 what had they in their place ?" 
 
 Reymond, Abbe H. Droit dos Pauvres, 8vo. • • 1781 
 
 The Rights of the Poor. 
 
NOTES. 325 
 
 Dapont de Nemours. Idfies sur les Seooura, 8vo. 1786 
 
 Ideas upon the Succour to be giyen to the Poor in Large Towns. 
 
 Clochar. Mendicity, 8to. 1790 
 
 Method of Stopping Beggary. 
 
 Hontaignac. Reflexions sur la Mendicity, 12mo. 1790 
 
 BuBKj de Henrion. De la Destruction de la Mendicity, 8vo. 1790 
 
 Tolland. Memoire sur les Moyens de detruire la Mendicity en France, 4to. 1790 
 
 Desmousseaux. De la Bienfaisance Nationale 
 
 Brogiran. Memoire sur les Moyens de bannir Mendicity, 8vo. 1791 
 
 Bannefroy. Memoires sur la Mendicity, 12mo. 1791 
 
 Bonnefoy. Memoire sur la Mendicity, 4to. 1791 
 
 La Rochefoucauld, Liancourt. Plan pour I'Extinction de la Mendi> 
 
 citft, 8vo. 1790 
 
 Plan for the Extinction of Mendicity, presented to the National As- 
 sembly, and Report of the Committee of Mendicity upon the 
 Hospit&l of Paris. 
 Dillon. Memoires sur les Etablissements de Bienfaisance, 12mo. 
 
 Memoirs upon Public Houses of Charity, of Labour, of Correction, in 
 a political and commercial aspect' 
 Ymco. Memoires sur les Causes de Mendicitd et les Moyens de sup- 
 primer. 1799 
 
 Boec. Essai sur les Moyens de detruire Mendicity, 8to. 1800 
 
 Friedlander. Ilistoire des Etablissements relatifs aux Pauvres, 1821 
 
 Reprinted in Paris in 1822, with a catalogue of works published in 
 Germany upon the Poor. 
 
 Do6. Traits sur I'lndigence, 8to. 1805 
 
 A Treatise upon Indigence, its principal Causes and the Means of 
 arresting it 
 
 Prestot. Memoire sur I'Tndigenoe, 12mo. 1806 
 
 Upon Indigence, the Means of Curing it without a return of Beggary. 
 
 Guignon, Laourenn. Dcs Depots de Mendicity, 8vo. 1814 
 
 Houses for the Poor, and their Influence on Public Welfare. 
 
 Aubert de Vitry. Recherches mir les Vrais Causes de la Mis^re, 8vo. 1816 
 
 Researches upon the Real Causes of Misery and of Happiness. 
 Mansion, H. Essai sur I'Extinction de la Mendicity en France, 12mo.> • 1820 
 
 Gerando, De. Le Vlsiteur du PauTre, 8to. 1820 
 
 Bonnefbns, C. R. P. Le Chretien Charitable, 18mo. 
 
 The Charitable Christian who visits the Poor, those who are in prison, 
 and tbofle who are nick. 
 Dapin, Baron. Uistoire de rAdministration dea Seoours Publics, 8to.' • 1821 
 
 Pidiniere, A. P. Memoire sur 1a QuKstion suiTante, 8yo. 1821 
 
 lUmoir upon this Question: ''What are the respective advantages 
 and disadvantages of Public Hospitals for the indigent sick, and of 
 aid at tbvir domicile ; and what ameliorations may be properly in- 
 trodnoed in this rwpactr" 
 SoTkbe^ J. Dm Ilftpitaax et des Secoars a Domicile, 8vo. 1822 
 
 28 
 
326 NOTES. 
 
 Fod^rl, F. E. Essai Ilistorique sur la PauTret6 des Nations, 8to. 1825 
 
 Essay, Historical and Moral, upon the Poverty of Nations, Popular 
 tion. Mendicity, and Foundlings. 
 Duopetiaux. Traite des Moyens de soulager et de prevenir I'lndigence, Bvo. 1832 
 
 Morogues, De. Du Pauperisme, 8vo. 1834 
 
 Pauperism and Mendicity, and the Means of preventing their Dread- 
 ful Effects. 
 
 Sismondi, De. Du Sort des Ouvriers dans les Manufactures, 1834 
 
 Villeneuve Bargemont, De. De I'Economie Politique Chretienue, 
 
 3 vols. 8vo. 1834 
 
 Bouvier Dumoulin. Des Causes du Malaise 1834 
 
 The Causes of the Uneasiness of the Erench Population. 
 
 Beres, E. Des Classes Ouvrieres, Svo. — . 1835 
 
 The Working Classes — the means of ameliorating their lot in point 
 of their moral and physical well-being. 
 
 Berger. Du Pauperisme dans le Canton de Vaud 1836 
 
 Vincens, Emile. De I'Organization Sociale 1836 
 
 Duchatel, T. Consideration de I'Economie Politique sur la Bienfai- 
 
 sance, 8vo. 1829 
 
 Considerations upon the Political Economy of Beneficence or Charity, 
 in its relation with the moral condition and the well-being of the 
 lower classes of society. 
 
 iJaville, F. M. L. De la Charity Legale, 2 vols. 8vo. 1836 
 
 Of Legal Charity, its causes and effects ; and particularly of Houses 
 of Labour, and of the Prevention of Begging. 
 
 This author was a minister of the gospel at Geneva. 
 
 Schmidt. Recherches sur la Population, les Salaries, Pauperisme 1836 
 
 Pignot. Projets concernant la Salubrity Publique, Svo. 1837 
 
 Projects in reference to Public Health and the actual Extinction of 
 Mendicity. 
 Esterno, D'. De la Misere, de ses Causes, de ses Effets, de ses Tlemh- 
 
 des, Svo. 1842 
 
 Du Puynode, G. Des Lois du Travail, <&c., Svo. 
 
 Of the Laws of Labour, and of the Working Classes. 
 Labourt. Recherches sur I'lntemperance, Svo. 
 
 Researches, Historical and Statistical, upon the Intemperance of the 
 Working Classes, and upon Foundlings. 
 Quyard, Robert. Essai sur I'Etat du Pauperisme en France, et sur les 
 
 Moyens d'y remedier, Svo. 
 Chirat, Abb6. Guide de la Charite, 12mo. 
 
 The Way of being Merciful with Advantage. 
 
 Naudet.- Des Secours Publics chez les Remains 1838 
 
 T> M^moire couronng par TAthSu^e de Paris 1838 
 
 Upon this question — "What should be the organization of labour 
 the best fitted to augment the happiuess of the Working Classes ?" 
 
NOTES. 327 
 
 Fregier. Des Classes Dangereuses, 2 vols. 8to. 1839 
 
 Of tbe Dangerous Classes of the Populatiou, and the means of making 
 them better. 
 
 Gerando, De. De la Bienfaisanoe Publique, 4 vols. 8vo. 1839 
 
 A Treatise upon Public Charity, with a full view of Indigence in its 
 relatione* with social economy, containing tbe history and statistics 
 of charitable establishments in France and in other countries. 
 
 Desvaux. De 1' Amelioration du Sort de la Classe Pauvre, Svo. 1839 
 
 The Amelioration of the Lot of the Poor ; or, of Charity in its Prin- 
 ciple, its Application, and its Influence. 
 Cochut, A. Du Sort des Classes Souffrantes. 
 
 Cerf beer, A. E. Rapport au Ministre de 1' Interieur, 4to. 1840 
 
 Ileport upon the different hospitals, hospices, establishments and 
 societies of beneficence, and upon mendicity, in the States of Sar- 
 dinia, Lombardy, Venice, Rome, Parma, Placentia, and Modena. 
 Villerme. Tableaux de I'Etat Physique et Moral des Ouvriers, 2 vols. Svo. 1840 
 Picture of the Moral and Physical Condition of the Workmen em- 
 ployed in the Cotton, Woollen, and Silk Manufactories. 
 
 Buret, E. De la Mis^re, 2 vols. Svo. 1841 
 
 Of the Misery of the Working Classes in France and England. 
 
 Tarbe, Prosper. Travail et Salaire, Svo. 1841 
 
 Labour and Wagns. 
 
 Chamborant, De. Du Pauperisme, Svo. 1842 
 
 Of Pauperism as it was in antiquity and as it is now : of the Remedies 
 which have been applied, and those proper to be applied at the 
 present day. 
 Ix>udon, Ch. Solution du Probleme de la Population et des Subsist- 
 
 aoces, Svo. 1842 
 
 Dutouquet De la Condition des Classes Pauvres & la Campagne, Svo. 
 Uonaco, Le Prince de. Du Pauperisme en France, et dos Moyens de la 
 
 detruire, 8vo. 1043 
 
 WattevUle, A. de. La Legislation Charitable, Svo. 1843 
 
 ** Statiftiqoen des Etablissements de Bienfaisance, 1843 
 
 Napoleon, Le Prince LouiB. (fhe President of France.) De I'Extlnction 
 
 du Paaperisme, 1844 
 
 D. 8.. Le Prince. Aperfu sur la Condition des Classes Ouvri&res 1844 
 
 Lamotbe, L. Etudes sur la Legislation Charitable, Svo. 1845 
 
 Remarks upon Reforms, financial and administrative, in Establish- 
 ments of Charity. 
 Lamothe, L. Nouvelles Etudes sur la Legislation Charitable, Svo. 1860 
 
 A very thorough and able work open the administration of Publio 
 Charity. 
 
 Anoales de la Cbaritt. A monthly Journal, commenced in 1860. 
 
 D0bri«,J. Des ProleUires, Svo. IStt 
 
 Tbe Poor, and tbe Amelioration of their Condition. 
 
328 NOTES. 
 
 Marchand, D"A. Du Pauperisme, 8vo. 1845 
 
 Marbeau. Etudes sur L'Economie Sociale, Svo. 1845 
 
 Fix, Theodore. Observations sur I'Etat des Classes Ourri^res 1846 
 
 Gamier, J. Sur rAssociation, I'Economie Politique, et la Mis6re 1846 
 
 Qoupienot des Mousseaux. Des Proletaires 1846 
 
 The Necessity and Means of Relieving the Poor. 
 
 Clement, A. Recherches sur les Causes de I'lndigence, Svo. 1846 
 
 Oasparin, Comtesse Agenor de. II y a des Pauvres k Paris — et ailleurs. 
 
 There are Poor in Paris — and elsewhere. 
 
 The authoress is a protestant lady, well known for her benevolence 
 and intelligence. The count is equally well and favourably known. 
 
 Du Pont White, Essai sur les Relations du Travail et du Capital, Svo. 1846 
 Vivens, Le Vicompte. Lettre sur la Mendicity, addressee k la Reine, Svo. 1846 
 
 Fayet, P. Progres de la Charite en France •. 1846 
 
 Lourde, Th. Essai sur I'Extinction de la Mendicity 1847 
 
 Dufau, P. F. Lettres k une Dame sur la Charity, 8vo. 1847 
 
 Paulmier, Ch. De la Misere et de la Mendicity. 
 
 Marbeau, F. Du Pauperisme en France • 1847 
 
 Pauperism in France, and the Remedies ; or, the Principles of Chari- 
 table Economy. 
 
 Egron, A. Le Livre du Pauvre, 18mo. 1847 
 
 The Book of the Poor. 
 
 Farelle, F. de la. Du Progres Social, 2 vols. Svo. 1839 
 
 Social Progress, with a view to the advantage of the intermediate 
 classes of society, not the rich nor the indigent. 
 
 " " Plan d'une Reorganization Disciplinaire, &c., Svo. 1847 
 
 Plan for a Disciplinary Arrangement of the Working Classes in 
 France. 
 
 These are together in one volume, in the edition of 1847. 
 
 Gerando, De. Des Progres de I'Industrie, ISmo. 1847 
 
 The Progress of Industry in relation to the physical and moral well- 
 being of the Working Classes. 
 
 Chevalier, M. Lettres sur I'Organization du Travail 1848 
 
 Letters upon the Organization of Labour, upon the Chief Causes of 
 Misery, and upon the Remedies propo.<<ed. 
 
 Du Puynode, G. Lettres sur le Proletariat, 12mo. 1848 
 
 Doi.«y, Martin. Histoire de la Charite, Svo. 1848 
 
 History of Charity during the first four centuries of the Christian 
 Era, to serve as an introduction to the history of Public Charity 
 in modern times. 
 
 Tailhaud. Histoire Philosophique de la Bienfaisance, Svo. 1848 
 
 Pelletier. Solution du Probleme de la Misere, 1848 
 
 Faucher, L^on. Droit au Travail 1848 
 
 The Bight to Labour. 
 
NOTES. 329 
 
 Moreau, Christophe. Du Droit a I'Oisivete, 8vo. 1849 
 
 Of the Right to Idleness, and the Organization of Slave-Labour in 
 Greece and Rome. 
 
 Rollet et Saint Genez. De 1' Assistance Publique, 8vo. 1849 
 
 Cador, L. Subsistances et Population, 8vo. 1860 
 
 Blanqui, Aine. Des Classes Ouvrieres en France in 1848, 2 toIs. 18mo. 
 
 Tillerme. Des Associations OuTrieres, 1849 
 
 Melun, A. De Tlnterrention de la Society pour Prevenir et Soulager 
 
 laMisire 1849 
 
 Girardin. Le Droit au Travail 1849 
 
 Gamier. Le Droit au Travail • 1849 
 
 Le Bastier, J. De I'Organization de 1' Assistance Publique 1849 
 
 Watteville, A de. Le Patrimoine des Pauvres. 
 
 Aaaembl^e Nationale. Droit au Travail, 8vo. 1850 
 
 A Debate of many days, in which the most enlightened men of 
 France, of all shades of opinion, participated. 
 Chevallier, M. Question des Travailleura, 18mo. 1848 
 
 The Amelioration of the Lot of Labourers, Wages, and Organization 
 of Labour. 
 WolowskL De I'Organization du Travail, 8vo. 
 
 3(ontaigu. Organization du Travail, 8vo. 1848 
 
 Gamier, J. Etudes sur les Profits et les Salaires. 
 
 Clement, A. Des Nouvelles Id^es de Reformes Industrielles, with re- 
 marks upon Louis Blanc's work on the Organization of. Labour • • 1848 
 
 Gratiot, A. Organisez le Travail, ne le DesorganLsez pas. 1848 
 
 Ijamothe. Des Moyens d'Amelioror Ic Sort de la Classe Ouvriore. 
 
 By a continued development of charitable institutions. 
 DauMigny. Do I'Organization du TravalL 
 
 Manufacf uring Associations. 
 Cousin, V. Ju<<tire et Charity, 18mo. 1848 
 
 The Limits of Justice and Charity, the right to labour, and the mutual 
 rights and duties of individuals. 
 Jandeau, F. Amelioration dvr Sort des Travailleurs, 8vo. 
 
 Organic I^iws of Labour. 
 Aim6. Berthe-Pommery. Petit Ecrit sur une Grande Question. 12mo. 
 
 The Amelioration of the Condition of the Working Classes. 
 Barsalon, O. Etudes sur lo PaM4 et I'Avenir, 16mo. 
 
 Of the Industrial Operatives. 
 Bother, A. E^sai sur TAmelioration du Sort des Classes Laborieuses. 
 
 IndieaUon of a Better System of Rural Economy. 
 Merran, K. De la Situation dos Classes Ouvriores en France, 12mo. 
 DraheD, J. Des Causes de I'lndigence, et des Moyens d'y Remedier, 8vo. 1850 
 Nennond, P. C. Eosai sur les Rapports, Ac, 12mo. 
 
 The Relations which exist between Property, I^ljour, Credit, and 
 Misery, and Uf-on the inip<.rtnnt conscquenrrs to be deduced from 
 a koowtcdgp nf these relations. 
 
 28* 
 
330 NOTES. 
 
 Qrancoin, Ch. Des Subsistances, et des Moyens de les mettre en Equi- 
 
 libre avec la Population. 8vo. 1850 
 
 Audigaune, A. Les Ouvriers en Famille, 18mo. 
 
 Conversations upon the duties and rights of the labourer in the dif- 
 ferent relations of his laborious life. 
 
 De I'Organization du Travail, 12mo. 1844 
 
 Leclaire. De la Misere, et des Moyens k Employer pour la faire cesser, Svo. 1850 
 Oirardin, E. de. L' Abolition de la Misfere par I'Elevation des Salaires. 
 
 Bernard. Plan d' Organization du Travail 1851 
 
 Addressed to the friends of true order, justice, and family, of pro- 
 perty and religion ; in a word, of the Republic ; by labourers and 
 merchants. 
 
 Moreau, Christophe. Du Probleme de la Misere, 3 vols. Svo. — • 1851 
 
 Of the Problem of Misery, and its Solution, among people ancient 
 and modern. The first volume is devoted to paganism, the second 
 to the Mosaic period and the Christian dispensation of the Middle 
 Ages, the third to the principal states of Europe, and specially to 
 France. 
 
 Fregior. Solution Nouvelle du Probleme de la Misere, 12mo. 1851 
 
 A Practical Method of Ameliorating the Condition of the Operatives 
 in our Manufactories. 
 Mohler, E. Fur 1' A melioration du Sort des Travailleurs. 
 
 Of the Association of Workmen. The Necessity of a new Industrial 
 Inquest, and a Model of an Institution of Succour and Retreat. 
 Cenac-Moncaut, M. J. Elements d'Economie Sociale et d "Organization 
 
 du Travail, 1 '2rao. 1848 
 
 Depasse, E. Considerations, &c., 12mo. 
 
 Considerations upon Asylums, and their Influence upon the Future 
 Condition of the Poor. 
 
 Allard, M. Des Moyens d'Ameliorer le Sort des Travailleurs 1848 
 
 The Means of Improving the Condition of Labourers, manufacturing 
 
 and agricultural, with a Projet for a Declaration of their Rights 
 
 and Duties and a Pi-ojel of a Law for the Amelioration of their 
 
 Condition. 
 
 Luro, V. Du Travail et de I'Organization des Industries dans Liberty, 
 
 18mo. 1848 
 
 De Bausset-Roquefort. Devoirs, Droits, Assistance, 12mo 1849 
 
 Duties, Rights, Assistance in the light of Christianity, Liberty, and 
 Education. 
 
 Ducellier, F. Essais sur quelques Questions Sociales, 12mo. 1848 
 
 Garcin, A. L' Assistance Publique, 18mo. 1849 
 
 Public Assistance — what it is, what it ought to be ; with a Manual for 
 Visitors of the Poor and those who exercise Private Charity. 
 Leclerc, L. Caisse d'Epargne et de Prevoyance, 18mo. 
 
 Letters to a Young Labourer upon the subjects of Indigence, In- 
 dustry, and Savings. 
 
NOTES. 531 
 
 Marchal, L. Question des Subsistanccs, 12mo. 1849 
 
 To this little volume was awarded a gold medal, as a prize for the 
 best essay on this subject, by a charitable association. The subject 
 is treated in its bearing on the interests of the poor. 
 Scribe, P. A. A. Question du Travail, Moyens, Pratique Sociaux, 18mo. 
 
 De la Question du Travail, 12mo. 1848 
 
 A Solution, proposed by a Labourer without Work. 
 
 De la Bicbesse et des Imports, ou Usure et Travail, 
 
 18mo. 1850 
 
 De la Liberty en general, 8vo. 1849 
 
 Of Liberty in general, of the Liberty of Labour, and the means of 
 
 assuring the physical and moral well-being of the Working Classes. 
 
 Ramon, De la Sagra. Organization du Travail, 8vo. 1848 
 
 Questions preliminary to the examination of that problem. 
 
 Le Probleme de I'Organization du Travail, 8vo. • • 1848 
 
 Bijlereld, J. C. De ^Organization du Travail par un meilleur systfime. 
 
 A better system of the Organization of I>abour. 
 O'Connor, A. C. Le Monopole Cause de tons les Muux. 
 Monopoly the cause of all the distress. 
 
 This work, published in Paris in 1849, in 3 large volumes, 8vo, by a 
 General of Division in the French Army, is devoted to the interests of 
 the poor. It is specially severe upon the English system. 
 
 8auriae, X. Un Syst^me d'Organi*ation Sociale, 8to., Paris 1850 
 
 Bamia,Th. H. Conseils aux Ouvriers, 12moT Paris 1850 
 
 Counsels to Workmen on the means of being happy. 
 Dupin, O. Enseignement et Sort des Ouvriers, 18mo., Paris 1848 
 
 Instruction and fate of labourers. 
 Marbeau, F. De 1' Indigence el des Secours, 18mo., Paris 1850 
 
 Indigence and its succour. 
 
 De Cormenin, M. Des Salles d'Asile en Italic, 18mo., Paris 1848 
 
 Vee, M. Du Pauperismeet des Secours Publics, ISmo^ Paris 1849 
 
 Olade, P.-V. De 1' Indemnity des Pauvres, 8vo, Paris 1860 
 
 Of the Indemnity of the Poor In France. 
 
 Beziat, O. Organization de I'Epargne da TraTaiUenr, 12mo., Paris 1848 
 
 Da Travail et du Pain, 18mo., Paris 1849 
 
 Of Lal>oar and of Bread. 
 De la Libert* du Travail, 8vo., Paris 1849 
 
 Of the Liberty of Labour, and the means of assuring the material 
 •ad moral well-being of the labouring classes. 
 
 Meraon,B. Da Droit au Travail, ISmo, Paris 1848 
 
 Julllvct. De U Pbllanthropio Anglalse, 8to, Parin 1842 
 
332 NOTES. 
 
 Degbbando on Charity; other French works on Labour, thb 
 Poor, and Charity, specially noticed. 
 
 "We trust the catalogue of French works, furnished above, may go far 
 to give the desired impression of the fulness, the frankness, and the 
 thoroughness with which the topics which they discuss have been met 
 and treated. If the interested reader has not received as strong an 
 impression as it is fitted to give, we almost despair, in the limits which 
 are left us, of carrying his interest to the desired point by the rapid 
 survey we may now take of some of these admirable volumes. These 
 works may be classified by their subjects ; as works on charity, bene- 
 ficence, humanity ; on the poor, indigence, pauperism, misery ,• on la- 
 bour, — its proper organization and its just rewards ; on the history of 
 the working classes in all ages and stages of society; on Christian poli- 
 tical economy; and on special subjects, such as the history of prostitu- 
 tion, and full accounts of all existing hospitals, asylums, and benevo- 
 lent institutions. To these may be added, able histories of the various 
 reforms and reformers of ancient and modern times. These subjects 
 branch and spread over so wide a field, that the classification, like the 
 catalogue, fails to give an idea of the width of the hairest opened to 
 the reader. But these volumes may be also arranged according to the 
 character, position, and opinions of the writers. We have, then, poli- 
 tical economists, philanthropists, catholics, protestants, statesmen, phi- 
 losophers. It is, perhaps, most curious and most instrilctive to regard 
 this matter under the point of view of the parties from Avhom the 
 respective opinions emanated. We can, however, follow up neither 
 classification in what we further submit, and only merely indicate a 
 few of the more remarkable books, making a few quotations and no- 
 tices. For many years the Academy of Moral and Political Sciences 
 has distinguished itself in the career of discussions touching social in- 
 terests, physical and moral well-being. This society ofiered a prize of 
 6000 francs for the best memoir on the subject of — "Misery, in what 
 it consists; what are its manifestations in diflerent countries; and what 
 are its causes." This is only one of very many prizes offered for me- 
 moirs on kindred topics by this society during the last twenty-five 
 years. Very many valuable works have appeared in that period, in 
 response to the questions thus propounded. 
 
 But this society, having its seat at Paris, was not the only associa- 
 tion which gave earnest heed to these subjects ; several others, in dif- 
 
NOTES. 
 
 ferent parts of France, had brought forward the condition of the suffer- 
 ing classes. As early as 1777, the Academy of Chalons-sur-Marne 
 received a hundred memoirs in reply to questions upon mendicancy. 
 A summary of these papers was published, and furnishes a vast mine of 
 materials and thought for inquirers. There is, indeed, abundant evi- 
 dence that the literary and scientific associations of France have not 
 been forgetful of those whom poverty had denied, not only the advan- 
 tages enjoyed by them, but even the smallest comforts beyond a bare 
 existence. 
 
 The most meritorious work, perhaps, which has appeared in France 
 on this subject, is that by the Baron Degerando, entitled, " De la. 
 BiEKFAiSANCE PcBLiQUE," published at Paris in 1838, in four volumes, 
 8vo. The author had previously published the Viaiteur du Pauvre, in 
 which he had turned the attention of his readers to the condition and 
 claims of the poor, and furnished directions and motives for a constant 
 and zealous attention to their wants.* 
 
 This work of Degerando may be fairly considered as having pre- 
 sented the most complete view of public charity which had appeared 
 at the date of its publication, and, though a flood of light has since 
 been shed on ita various topics, yet no single production has surpassed 
 it in variety, fulness, method, and the very spirit of kindness. In de- 
 dicating it to hi« friends, he pjays that " He who is the source of all 
 good, all coHsolation, and all light, may shed his blessing upon the 
 imperfect attempt, and that his effort may contribute somewhat to the 
 Bolace of humanity and the progress of good morals." The introduc- 
 tion contains an ample survey of the English, German, and French 
 literature upon the subject of his labours. This exhibits groat learn- 
 ing, industrj', and discrimination, and furnishes proof how fully he was 
 prepared for his task. Ifi regard to the Qerman writers, we are 
 informed that the number who have taken up this subject is so con- 
 siderable as to have led to the publication of special catalogues and 
 bibliographical compilations. He indicates a considerable number of 
 the principal works, and furnishes an appreciation of their contents. 
 Wo cannot better give the spirit of the whole work than from the first 
 portion of the rather prolonged introduction. 
 ** The noble studies of which the interests of humanity are the oi\ject, and 
 
 • Thi* excellent little Tolumo has been tranRhitM and published in Boston, 
 with a ralaable introduction, written at the inntance of the lady who made the 
 bjr the R«T. Joaeph Tuikprman, 1H32. 
 
334 NOTES. 
 
 which affect elevated minds with such profound sympathies, are associated by 
 Tery intimate relations. Tending to a common end and based upon the same 
 elements, they afford mutual light and demand mutual support." 
 
 " Among their number, that which relates to the ills of sufiFering humanity, — 
 to the means of preventing and solacing them, — bears, more than any, close 
 relations to all the others. It is the centre of the system We cannot in- 
 vestigate the painful phenomena of poverty without penetrating the constituent 
 elements of society itself, and without entertaining grave considerations upon 
 the distinction of classes, and the organization of property and labour. The 
 causes and effects of poverty touch, in many points, upon the subjects of crimi- 
 nal and civil legislation. In seeking preservatives and remedies, we enter, fre- 
 quently, upon the most important problems of political economy. All that 
 regards public health comes under contribution in the consideration of public 
 succour. The torch of morals casts upon the origin and development of indi- 
 gence light which we are far from having appreciated in its whole extent 
 
 Philosophy, also, contributes to the study of beneficence ; and these contribu- 
 tions are more important than is generally perceived. Religion, finally, which 
 rules ever at the summit of human affairs, as including at once the higher 
 mysteries and the highest laws, appears, full of warning and wisdom, but 
 abounding in consolation, upon the scene where so many sufferings are dis- 
 played and so many victims sigh; it reveals knowledge, succours, and hopes of 
 inestimable value; it works wonders which manifest its power and claim the 
 admiration and the gratitude of the whole human family." 
 
 " The study of the ills of humanity mingles intimately with all the interests 
 of social order. Statesmen who have heretofore disdained this inquiry, discover 
 now, not without apprehension, that in this study are questions upon which 
 depend the repose of nations and the destiny of peoples. Governments learn 
 that, in the tears of the poor, there are for them instruction and duties. Of 
 all conditions of people, the wretched are, without doubt, those who have the 
 most right to our cares and anxieties; but we know their interests are con- 
 nected with the other classes of society by a union which may be violated but 
 cannot be obliterated." 
 
 " If the general happiness, if the improvement of the great human family, 
 is the object of all the social sciences, that inquiry which concerns the suffering 
 classes must be preliminary to all others. Must it not contribute to all ? Does 
 it not receive from all? Is it not, in many respects, one of the most vast, one 
 of the most necessary ? Is it not, alas ! also one of the practical sciences 1" 
 
 " To be solid and instructive, such a study ought to be extended to its utmost 
 compass. It presents many phases, it is complicated in many ways. It must 
 be regarded as a whole, if the sacred cause of humanity is to be efficiently 
 fierved. The different branches of aid cannot be well appreciated but by their 
 coincidence in a common system, and by their relation with the evils they pro- 
 pose to cure. In considering these evils, we ask, whilst soothing them, if they 
 could have been prevented; we find ourselves inquiring their origin; we are 
 led over the whole path of human life, — observing the accidents which menace 
 it, the helps which sustain it; we regard misfortune in its sad and numberless 
 
NOTES. 335 
 
 forms, in its connection with riches, in its relations with the whole of society, 
 which acts upon it in many ways, and upon which it in turn reacts." 
 
 He remarks, that those who visit the abodes of destitution and the 
 establishments for relief " cannot fail to be profoundly afifected, to bo 
 attracted to the holy cause of humanity, and to be strongly inclined to 
 devote themselves wholly to it" 
 
 The treatment of the subject of charity by the Christian fathers is 
 noticed, showing how they " successively vindicate the rights of the 
 poor ; how warmly they exhort to the duty of alms-giving, and how, 
 especially, they show that the duties of charity devolve upon the minis- 
 ters of religion." It seems that the obligations of the clergy in regard 
 to the poor have, in modern times, engaged the attention of the public 
 more in Germany than elsewhere. In 1787, Julius, Bishop of Wurtz- 
 burgh, proposed as the subject of a prize essay, " The duties of eccle- 
 siastics and those who have the care of souls, relatively to the well- 
 being of those under their charge, and especially the poor." Twenty-five 
 essays were sent in response, and many of them were published, 
 " breathing the pure spirit of Christianity." 
 
 "The principles which establish the rights of the poor and the obligations of 
 the rich have greatly occupied the attention of theologians, moralists, and 
 jarisoonsults of Germany. Wagenseilius, in 1700 ; Muller in 1749 ; Pfaff in 
 1771 ; Count Spaar, in 1802, have jnade them the subject of elaborate works. 
 Tarioos German and Swiss societies have proposed questions upon these topics; 
 and altogether, in Germany and Switzerland, the subject has been more worthily 
 handled and illustrated by examples than elsewhere." 
 
 Degerando notices the Malthusian controversy, and furnishes proof 
 enough, whilst he gives him due credit for ability, that he has no 
 sympathy with the leading doctrines of Malthus. Among the followers 
 of Malthas, he distinguishes Dr. Chalmers, clearly with the intention 
 of explaining why such a man should be found in such company. 
 
 '' Among the writers who are ranged under the banner of Malthus, are some 
 who have more or less modified his positions and corrected his errors. At the 
 head of these is the respectable Dr. Chalmers. Casting over the whole field of 
 philanthropic studies a coup^aeU at once vast and profound, he perceived the 
 divoree which was separating political eoonomy from Christian charity, lie 
 undertook the reeoneiliation of these two classes of doctrines ; he has shown 
 the need th<>7 have of each other, and the inevitable mischief of the separation; 
 he pointed oat the principles which are common to them, and thus at once 
 ■erred the intflrctts of aoclety and hnmanity. Beholding, under a new aspect, 
 the influ<>noe of Christianity upon the institutions of beneficence, he has shown 
 to hie life, not k« than in hU writinga, that ecclesiastical establishments are the 
 
336 NOTES. 
 
 appropriate channels of benevolence. A minister himself of Christian worship, 
 he justly appreciated the present state of society and the moral wants it ex- 
 periences." 
 
 * * * * * * 
 
 " Frequently prolix, but giving a special value to every detail by the spirit 
 of observation which he displays, and by the practical utility at which he aims ; 
 with what skill does he not set forth all the springs of the organization suitable 
 for carrying out the actions he recommends ! With what authority of reason 
 and experience does he not demonstrate the necessity of localizing, special- 
 izing, individualizing the different modes of succour! How admirably he 
 reveals the immense advantages which flow from the relations of good-will 
 which an active and intelligent charity establishes between the rich and indi- 
 gent classes, and the means of increasing this touching sympathy." 
 
 After signalizing at some length and with great discrimination the 
 course of authorship on these subjects, Degerando closes his intro- 
 ductory essay by some remarks upon what remains undone. He notes 
 the " great divergence of opinion among writers, and the confusion in 
 the minds of many, which in some begets discouragement, and in others 
 distrust. The art of beneficence, at first glance so simple in its prin- 
 ciples, so easy in its application, has given rise to problems the most 
 complicated. In proportion as we remount to first principles, these 
 problems become even more difficult. Religious and political differ- 
 ences have mingled in these discussions, and thus increased the diffi- 
 culty by turning inquirers from the unbiassed pursuit of truth. The 
 very foundations of our present social organizations have been drawn 
 in question ; the war of the poor against the rich has at some periods 
 appeared imminent; and thus an agitation of mind has arisen which 
 renders the whole of these studies more important for the interests of 
 humanity. Painful anticipations have crept into the minds of good 
 people — a dark cloud lies in their horizon, which seems to be fraught 
 with tempests. They fear to see the scourge of pauperism sweeping over 
 the land, and a feeling of dread takes possession of the thoughtful." 
 . Upon comparing the views of the diiferent parties to this great dis- 
 cussion, he ranges himself on the side of the hopeful, believing that 
 the very discussion itself justifies our expecting the triumph of truth. 
 
 '.' We believe firmly in this triumph. We thus believe, after having partaken 
 of the grievous doubts which arise from such opposite opinions, — after having 
 weighed and compared these contradictions with a conscientious impartiality. 
 Long reflection and continued investigation have produced the deepest convic- 
 tions, which we shall express with as much sincerity as they were formed. We 
 have faith in the marvellous power of beneficence guided by wisdom. We are 
 persuaded that this holy virtue is not a thing of hazard, or vague or random 
 
NOTES. '8S7 
 
 instinct. It has rules, although difiScuIt, founded upon positird principles. We 
 do not partake of the terror felt by some in the present day on the subject of 
 pauperism. We are not alarmed at the increase of population, nor at the flight 
 of industry, nor at the growth of great cities, nor at the inequality of condition ; 
 but we think that the new social circumstances begot by the progress of in- 
 dustry, of wealth, of the advance of civilization, have given birth to new 
 necessities, and impose on society new obligations. We are alarmed at dangers 
 more real in our view, and because, perhaps, less known, more dangerous. If 
 our new social duties are neglected, the danger will become more imminent; we 
 need, therefore, a system of public beneficence, worked out with the most liberal 
 and enlightened views, as the greatest of ameliorations in the condition of the 
 suffering. Social ties are now becoming loosened ; the spirit of calculation has 
 invaded every thing ; individuality feels a conscious triumph ; attacks, always 
 imprudent, often culpable, awaken between the different classes of society 
 distrust and discord, if not dreadful hostility. In the very bosom of prosperity, 
 inquietude begins to grow and spread." " All must concur in the resto- 
 ration of harmony. We shall insist upon this duty, in all its extent and in all 
 its strictness. The result for the rich, will be the enlightened and benevolent 
 patronage of the poor ; for the poor, the spirit of labour, of order, and good 
 conduct; for society in general, measures of protection, of prevention, and of 
 •olaoe for misfortune." 
 
 "A great and principal truth springs up here to our view: — to morals belongs 
 the grand privilege of founding, preserving, and perfecting human institutions; 
 to morals belongs eminently the prevention of the causes of indigence, and 
 the solace of sufferings, and, above all, the establishment of such relations 
 between rich and poor as may be equally useful and happy for both. Public 
 morals are the soul of social beneficence, as virtue is the inspiration of pri- 
 vate charity. The august alliance of morals and beneficence is, in our view, 
 the thought which comprehends and governs the whole subject ; it has guided 
 our labours, animated our xeal, sustained our strength, and is the foundation 
 of our hopes." 
 
 ••The well-being of the labouring classes is a subject of immense interest for 
 rocicty, and cannot be purchased at a price too high. To ascertain the means 
 of promoting that well-being; to emancipate this numerous and interesting 
 class from the evils which threaten them, or, at least, to mitigate the sufferings 
 which are inevitable, is the ardent desire of all generous minds. We unite 
 with such with ail our soul ; we are devoted to this effort with all the zeal and 
 all the perseverance of which we are capable. But to serve this great cause 
 the more perfectly, we are, above all, devoted to the truth ; we refuse to in- 
 dulge in iUosions which may defeat our progress by carrying us too far. We 
 have not merrly kept in view that which is desirable, but that which is 
 practicable." 
 
 We have drawn largely from tbi."! introductory essay; but those who 
 will read the whole will find that our extracts have failed to furnish 
 ABj adeqtiate idea of iia merit It was by far the beat statement of tlio 
 20 
 
338 NOTES. 
 
 subject, as it then stood, which had ever appeared. No doubt it con- 
 tributed not a little to awaken men's minds to the pressing importance 
 of questions the discussion of which could not be much longer delayed. 
 It is true, that great delusions prevail on these topics in France, but 
 there is also a large and enlightened body which clings to the sober 
 but earnest humanity of Degerando. In real knowledge of this sub- 
 ject the French are an age in advance of their English neighbours; 
 and if they are more annoyed by those who hold extravagant and im- 
 practicable theories, they have weapons to contend with them which 
 must finally conquer. In England, these extravagant and dangerous 
 doctrines are repressed, not refuted. When they prevail in England to 
 an equal extent as in France, they will be more dangerous, because 
 there only brut« force will be opposed to them. 
 
 We have yet to point out the arrangement and the special topics of 
 the work before us. 
 
 The First Part. — Book First treats of indigence in its relations with social 
 economy, as being the object of public beneficence. Indigence classified, absolute 
 or relative ; its degrees, and herein of wages. The indigent strong and weak, 
 male and female, skilled and unskilled, by their own fault, temporary and 
 permanent; circumstances, prognostics, and effects of indigence. Statistics of 
 poverty in the various countries of Europe and in the United States of America. 
 
 Book Second. — Of social riches, and herein of the total wealth of a country 
 and its special apportionment, of the inequality of conditions, of the lower 
 classes and of the prospects of the extinction of indigence: of industry in its 
 relations with the causes of indigence, and of the labourer under the' double 
 aspect of producer and consumer, and herein of the rewards of labour, the 
 relations of the employers with the employed, the rate of wages, and the prices 
 of articles of consumption ; raw materials, great enterprises, influences of com- 
 merce, vicissitudes of industry, effect of profuse expenditure or luxury in the 
 higher classes upon the labourer, the labour of children, labour as a means of 
 instruction ; of population in its relations with indigence. Questions raised 
 upon this subject, of the increase of population, mortality, births, marriages, 
 manners and morals, vices, crimes, influence of towns, influence of higher 
 classes ; of social, institutions and their influence upon poverty, institutions 
 political and social of communities, corporations of arts and trades, laws of 
 property and laws as to persons, penal and fiscal laws, public expenditure, 
 taxes, lotteries, corn-laws, customs, military service; how the errors of benefi- 
 cence multiply the indigent, distinguishing the true poor from the pretended ; 
 the grounds of apprehension from the increase of pauperism. 
 
 Third Book.— Of the rights of indigence as arising from civilization, their 
 nature and extent, limits, duties of the poor, injuries, distinction between legal 
 charity and public beneficence, of the duties and power of private and public 
 charity. 
 
NOTE s. 339 
 
 Secoitd Part. — Book Firgf. — Institutions for the eduoation of the poor, aiding 
 mothers, placing them at narse, schools and asylums for infants, their manage- 
 ment and economy ; orphans, institutions for their care, ancient and modern, 
 in Europe; orphans in England and the United StateS; France and Belgium, 
 regulations; foundlings, their treatment anciently and now ; foundling hospi- 
 tals, their history in every country of Europe, questions, doubts, and discus- 
 sions as to foundlings, abandonment of children. 
 
 The subject of foundlings is treated at great length in every aspect 
 of the subject, but with a constant inclination to the propriety and 
 necessity of providing fully for the support and education of all found- 
 lings as well as orphans. There is clearly no infusion of Malthus in 
 the twelve chapters of Degerando's work devoted to the interests of 
 little children. The 11th and 12th of these chapters relate specially 
 to schools for foundlings and orphans, to train their minds in knowledge 
 aifd their hands to useful employment 
 
 Second Book. — Institutions for loans to the poor throughout Europe, their 
 history and utility; of societies for mutual assistance, their origin in Greece 
 and Rome, history ; life insurance ; savings' banks, their character and history 
 in Europe. 
 
 ITtird Book. — Of the means of preventing indigence by changes in social 
 •oonomy, of measures touching the apportionment of property, of co-operative 
 societies, of the organization of labour, the necessity of it at present, the con- 
 ditions to be fulfilled, country labour, city labour, the various kinds of trades, 
 large manufactories, public service, special institutions to provide labour, 
 domestic economy of the labourer, public health, instruction of the trorking 
 classes, priies for special acts of virtue, the family, contentment of the labour- 
 ing classes, popular amusements, morals, police, labour as a moann of educa- 
 tion, bouses of refuge for females, temperance societies, morals of criminals in 
 oonflncment, penitentiary systems, and aid for those who arc set at liberty; 
 of religion, as a part of popular education, as the protectress of the suffering, 
 the special power of Christianity for the amelioration of popular morals, the 
 Ills of false religious instruction, exterior worship ; of the means'of strength- 
 ening religious Influences upon popular manners. 
 
 TffiKO VAnr.—Bjok First. — Of the means of procuring useful occupation for 
 the poor, employment with individuals and for the public, labour at the domicil, 
 Hamburg Institute, shops for sale of products of labour of the poor; work- 
 houses throughout Europe, reform of English poor-laws; discussions which have 
 arisen as to workhouses, of their organization, economy, discipline ; of work- 
 houses where the labour is forced, their history; of receptacles for mendicants, 
 and their history in Europe, of their utility, objections and replies ; of the 
 labour most suitable for the poor, in respect to their capacity, to their manage- 
 ment, or to their working by the piece or job, the effect of their labour on the 
 ((eDsral int«rests of industry, of the public works, eharity-shops, farm-labour, 
 dlstrfbatkm of lands to the poor; colonitation nf Uu poor, their fitness for colo* 
 
340 NOTES. 
 
 nists, colonies interior, foreign, various experiments, Switzerland, Holland, 
 Belgium, agricultural colonies as a means of beneficence for the poor, objections 
 and replies ; of emigration, researches on the subject, various emigrations of 
 Europe, interior and foreign. 
 
 Book Second. — Assistance at the domidl, origin and first forms of, and specially 
 in Great Britain, organization, succour to the able-bodied, to the weak, results 
 of such assistance, charitable associations affording the mode of relief in Eng- 
 land, assistance at domicil in various countries of Europe, and in the United 
 States, of the best methods of giving this succour, visiting the poor, of giving 
 money ; of distributions at reduced prices of food, clothing, fuel, to the aged 
 and incurable, to women and children, casualties, burial, succour extraordi- 
 nary in great public calamities, as famine, fire, and flood, of aid to those who 
 are so timid as not to make known their wants. 
 
 Third Booh. — Of houses of entertainment for the poor among the ancients, 
 in the middle ages, and at the present day, establishments in France si^jjce 
 1750; of hospitals, their utility, objections answered, their constitution, con- 
 ditions of admission, a great variety of particulars in relation to administra- 
 tion ; hospitals for children, for chronic affections, and lying-in hospitals ; of 
 houses for the old and the infirm ; of houses for the insane, their constitution, 
 history, and condition in Europe, in the United States, and in the East. 
 
 Fourth Part. — First Boole. — Of poor-laws, of the origin of legislation for the 
 poor, legislation of the Egyptians, Hebrews, Greeks, Romans — republican and 
 imperial, legislation of Modern Europe for the poor, requisites in legislation for 
 the poor. 
 
 Book Second. — Of the administration of poor-laws, unity of system, centraliza- 
 tion, union of public and religious charity, officers, associations, and of females 
 in the work of charity; ameliorations desirable in the administration of relief. 
 
 If Degorando could, with his wide survey of the subject, with his 
 unprejudiced and frank statement of the truth, have carried with him 
 the Christian fervour, experience, and knowledge of Dr. Chalmers, the 
 work we have just noticed would have been one of the most effective 
 and useful which ever came from the press. The student of humanity 
 should therefore cany to the study of Degerando the Christianity and 
 zeal of Chalmers. Whoever reads the " Visiteur du Pauvre" and " De la 
 Bienfaimnce Publique," in the strong Christian aspect of the subjects, 
 will find a range of topics open to his vision which will make him 
 lament that at least two-thirds of the volumes which now crowd the 
 shelves of theological libraries had not been devoted to the interests 
 of men, temporal and eternal, instead of being of so little practical value 
 that they might be all destroyed any day without detriment to human 
 welfare. The " Word was made flesh" and dwelt with us in a blended 
 divinity and humanity : let the loord of our religious instruction be 
 
NOTES. 341 
 
 ever so continued to us, that while God is always held up to our view, 
 man is never hidden from our sight. 
 
 The History of Charity during the First Four Centuries of the Christian 
 Era, by Martin Doisy, which appeared immediately after the Revolu- 
 tion of 1848, is well-conceived, exhibits much research, and, although 
 the whole work is from an earnest Catholic, abounds in considerations 
 of great and instructive interest The subject is regarded as one 
 clearly belonging to Christianity, and the devotion of the Romish 
 Church to its duties is treated as one of her highest titles to favour. 
 But while it is thus viewed, it is apparent that the chief design of the 
 author is to promote the well-being of the suffering classes. 
 
 •• No one can accuse us of having erred aa to the time of bringing forward a 
 work, of which the suffering classes are the subject and charity the foundation. 
 Pontics, social economy, the legislative hall, and the periodical press, history 
 and romance, present us, at every turn, with the subject of the masses. At 
 this moment, history is being recast and rewritten for the benefit of the 
 people." " The object of France is the people — it is the progressive ameli- 
 oration of the lot of the suffering multitudes; that is, the present ameliorated 
 by the education of men ; the future assured by the education of the children." 
 Quoting from Lamartine, who is addressing a proprietor, he says : — 
 " Keep thy property, for in spite of visions of community of goods, property 
 is the tine qua rum of society : without it we can have neither family, nor labour, 
 nor civilization." 
 
 But he says also : — 
 
 "Forget not, that property is not instituted for thee merely, but for all 
 humanity: thou sbalt possess it, but upon the conditions of justice, social 
 utility, and an open hand: thou shalt furnish to thy brethren, out of thy super- 
 fluit}', the mean* and elements of labour necessary for them, that they, in their 
 tarn, may become helpers of others: thou shalt recognise a right above the 
 right of property — the right qfhurtMnity." 
 
 He quotes from Quizot, who speaks thus : — 
 
 "It is impoMsiblc to regard without profound compassion so many human 
 beings bearing from the cradle to the tomb so heavy a burden, and even then 
 •earoely maintaining a miserable existence. That is a grievous thought, and 
 yet it is a thought never to be dimnisaed ; to forget it would be a grave and peril- 
 
 ous error.' 
 
 The work before as is not a mere work of theology : its object is to 
 ■how how the duties of Christian charity boar upon the condition and 
 prospeetfl of the loffering working-classes. He shows us the advent 
 of charity at the appearing of Christ, and sets forth at large his mission 
 of mercy, his humble ministry of kindness, as that which it should be 
 
 29* 
 
342 NOTES. 
 
 the aim of his foUoAvers to imitate. He recounts the hospitality of 
 ancient Christians and the charity of the apostolic times ; he develops 
 the doctrines of human fraternity, and, especially, the doctrine of 
 charity as taught by Christ. Although the Catholic Church is greatly 
 lauded by this writer, we do not hesitate to recommend his work to 
 Protestants, as calculated to humble their spiritual pride, and possibly 
 goad them into paths of charity hitherto little trodden by their feet 
 
 We have A Philosophical History of Beneficence, from the pen of M. 
 Tailhaxd, in 1847. It has considerable merit, and is also written 
 expressly with reference to the sufferings of the labouring classes. 
 His introduction commences thus : — 
 
 " The human race is, in its earthly dwelling, afflicted with so many evils, that 
 it might be deemed man was a mere abortion upon the earth. The thrill of 
 joy runs rarely to his heart, and even then it is rarely unmingled with sad- 
 ness. Infirmities are the portion of his physical nature, and make him a man 
 
 of grief." "In the midst of this scene of suffering and disorder which is 
 
 displayed around us, there is one bright object which delights us and justifies 
 the course of Providence to our race; that is beneficence — that is the man of 
 charity. His deeds are, in my view, rays of the Divinity piercing the night 
 of this world, — demonstrative evidence of that Providence which never with- 
 draws its overwatching care. I could never have believed that man was made 
 in the image of his Creator, if I had not seen him smitten with tenderness and 
 compassion for the suffering; and now I perceive him to be intrusted with a 
 special mission of love and mercy to his fellow-creatures. If I inquire whence 
 comes this charity, the ways of God are unveiled to my eyes in a manner still 
 more striking ; for I find the motives of beneficence in the heart and in the 
 
 conscience." "To prove that conscience is the main, the most faithful, 
 
 and the most energetic principle of charity, is the object of this work." 
 
 Mr. Tailhand, who subscribes himself a Priest without charge, gives 
 a solution to this inquiry which is truly Romish. He makes every act 
 of charity expiatory, and thus shows the interest of all men to be cha- 
 ritable. Every act of self-sacrifice, in which men sacrifice their own 
 interests to those of others, goes in part satisfaction of their sins. 
 "Whatever may be thought of this author's theology, he presents power- 
 ful motives to those of his faith to abound in charity. Overlooking its 
 religious tenets, this volume contains useful details, interesting views, 
 ptrong exhortations upon the whole subject of beneficence, which do 
 credit both to his head and heart. His work, like that of Martin Doisy, 
 is mainly historical, and brings in review beneficence under the patri- 
 archs, among the Jews, among the pagans, during the first six centu- 
 ries of Christianity, in the middle ages, and in modem times. 
 
NOTES. 343 
 
 In 1829, M. T. Dcchatkl published at Paris, Cliarittf in itt rela- 
 tion* teith the morals and the well-being of the loicer classes of society. 
 Speaking, in his preface, of statesmen, he says they too frequently 
 *' look upon nations as collective beings, and neglect to extend their 
 regards to the lower classes of society, who, however, include the 
 greater part of the human family ; they overlook these classes in their 
 theories as they disregard them in thfcir histories. It appears to us, 
 they ought to have part in the general movement — in the march of 
 civilization ; and that progress for the better ought to be sought for 
 them as well as for those classes who are greater favourites of fortune. 
 Such is the spirit in which this work is conceived." After a rapid 
 sketch of the condition of the lower classes, from their original slavery 
 until their gradual attainment of freedom of person and freedom of in- 
 dustry, he proceeds : — 
 
 "Since this change has been accompliuhed, the destiny of the working classes 
 haA been regarded in two special aspect"!. Some, preoccupied with certain theo- 
 ries of political economy, not perceiving any other source of power and wealth 
 for a nation than what is derived from the sale of domestic products to foreign 
 nations, have sacrificed to that object the interests of labourers. This foreign 
 sale proceeds more f^-eely in proportion as merchandise is lower in price ; and 
 prices are lower in proportion as wages are lower. It follows that, for the pros- 
 perity of thin foreign trade, wages should be low It is in this point of view 
 
 that men, the producers of the articles which enter into this foreign trade, are 
 regarded as mere machines." 
 
 He remarks that such is the policy of England, and thanks God that 
 this chimerical system, which sacrifices the well-being of the popula- 
 tion to the interests of commerce, has few partisans left. The author, 
 who is now a distinguished public man and friend of the Orleans 
 family, has lived to see the friends of this system greater in number 
 and stronger in inflaenoe than ever, under the banner of free-trade. 
 "Others, more humane," our author proceeds, "are animated with an 
 earnest desire for the good of the producing classes : they love their 
 fellow-men. They do not hesitate at sacrifices for the comfort of the 
 indigent ; but their philanthropy, not suflBciently enlightened, regards 
 the actual condition of the sufiering which requires aid as inevitable 
 and fixed. They think only of helping the poor by means derived 
 from the rich, and by deeds of charity." " Thus, while the in- 
 terests of the poor are sacrificed by some to false systems of political 
 economy, they are sacrificed by others to a false system of charity." 
 " But," referring tu the system last mentioned, he as)^s» " Is 
 
344 NOTE s. 
 
 this true charity ? Does it not overlook all that the future promisea 
 for the amelioration of the lot of workmen ? Ought not our efforts 
 to be directed to increasing the income of workingmen ? Ought we 
 not to rescue them from the condition of dependence upon charity, 
 ly giving them the full reward of their labour?" As a philosophical 
 work, this is far superior to the two last mentioned : it is calm and 
 forcible; it displays ability, varied knowledge, and deep sympathy. 
 He discusses the following topics: — The necessity of charity, and the 
 rules for its exercise ; the causes of misery ; the laws which determine 
 the increase of population among the inferior classes ; forjnation of 
 capital; inequality of wealth ; employment of machines ; influence of 
 government; remedies; public relief ; famines ; interruption of la- 
 bour ; hospitals ; beggary ; private charity ; political economy and 
 morals ; prospects of labotirers in the future. Although we may differ 
 from some of his conclusions, and desire to qualify some of his positions, 
 we commend the work of M. Duchatel to all the students of humanity. 
 One of his chief mistakes is, that there is a perfect accordance between 
 political economy and sound morals: as he conceived the subject, there 
 may be; but the political economy of the great writers and doctors of 
 the so-called science discard all relations with morals and humanity. 
 When political economy is developed from its only proper starting- 
 point, human well-being, it will be found in accordance with strict 
 morals and pure religion. At present, if its advocates dare follow it so 
 far, a strict logic would carry political economy into sheer infidelity. 
 
 The next work we specially bring to the notice of the reader, is 
 that of a Protestant minister of the gospel in Geneva, published at 
 Paris in 1836, in two volumes, 8vo., — Of Legal Charity, its effects and 
 causes. Its motto, quoted from the Monthly Journal of Political Eco- 
 nomy, of 1834, is, "The agitation and uneasiness, now apparent in all 
 quarters, announce that the time has come when we must meet these 
 high and difficult questions." It was written in competition for a 
 prize, proposed by the French Academy, upon the following subject : — 
 " Of charity, considered in its principles, in its applications, and in its 
 influence upon manners and upon social organization." One-third of 
 the prize was awarded to the author, the Rev. F. M. L. Naville, and a 
 very complete report and analysis of this work was made to the Academy 
 by its secretary. In his introduction, the author, after having stated 
 briefly some of the causes of indigence, proceeds : — 
 
 "Thence springs a misery of which the spectacle wounds the heart, and pro- 
 luces frequently an exceBsively importunate beggary, at times even menacing 
 
NOTES. 345 
 
 the general swarity. Humanity, religion, the interests of social order, and 
 public well-being exact an effort to diminish it, — an effort to relieve the 
 wretched whose existence is rendered so painful, — to protect society from the 
 dangers to which it is exposetl, — to put an end to the fatiguing importunities of 
 which it is the pretext" 
 
 The spirit of this extract makes a slight approach to the English 
 view of the subject. Navillc, like Dr. Chalmers, is strongly opposed 
 to a legal provision for the poor ; but, while his work is greatly supe- 
 rior to that of the Scottish divine in method and in breadth of view, 
 he falls far below him in conception of the relations of the subject 
 with Christianity, Their united efforts blended would have presented 
 the best work which has yet appeared ; and their different conclusions 
 blended would, even yet, form the safest solution of the problems in 
 question. Chalmers committed the care of the poor, as a religious duty, 
 to the oflBcers of the parish church : Navillo refers this care to private 
 charity, under the enlightened considerations and cautions which he 
 suggests, stimulated by Christian pjinpathy. The argument of Naville 
 against legal charily is of signal ability and power, with a method at 
 once logical and clear, and fortified by a large array of facts and 
 authorities, derived from all the countries of Europe, and from the 
 legislation of many of our States. Besides the sketch he gives of the 
 various countries, he considers specially the effect of public relief upon 
 the morals and ultimate welfare of the relieved, the effect upon those 
 who are refused, and the effect of collecting the poor-rates upon those 
 who pay them. The plan of succour at the domicile is also fully con- 
 sidered and condemned : so, also, the various plans of hospitals, asy- 
 lums, private and public labour for the special benefit of the poor. 
 He traces the use of legal charity, or a compulsory provision for the 
 poor, and famishes a sk^h of public opinion on the subject in 
 Europe. 
 
 In proposing pnrafe charity as the only effectual and safe mode of 
 relieving indigence and suffering, ho lays down six principles as a 
 guide, which may be briefly stated thus: — 1. Pity must be indulged, 
 bat caution not forgotten. 2. We must bear in mind that the poor 
 man is a moral being. 3. We must not disregard the social nor the 
 family relations of the poor. 4. We must not only relieve misery, but 
 prerent it 5. While private charity does the work, it should bo able 
 to derive, and em])loy properly, aid drawn from the public. 6. What- 
 erer organixation b« given to this public aid, it should be of a nature 
 to encoarage and stimalate private charity, by using the agency of 
 
346 NOTES. 
 
 those whose active charities bring them continually in contact with 
 the poor. 
 
 If these principles, as well as much more which Naville has written 
 on the subject of private charity, had a larger infusion of Christian 
 light and sympathy, they would be unexceptionable. Chalmers wrote 
 upon the subject under the influence of a constant glow of Christian 
 feeling. Naville philosophizes calmly and kindly, reserving the Chris- 
 tian aspect of the subject for a separate chapter, from which, by way 
 of vindicating him, we proceed to make a few extracts. 
 
 " If all men have the same origin ; if the same joys are promised to all, and the 
 same punishments are denounced against all beyond the tomb ; if their goods 
 are but deposites, for the use of which they must render an account to God who 
 gave them ; if the life of the founder of the Christian religion was a scene of 
 mercies, and his death an act of self-devotion ; if, to partake of his glory, it is 
 needful to walk in his footsteps ; if the chief characteristic of his disciples is, 
 that they love one another; if, in celebrating his memory, they partake of the 
 same bread and drink of the same cup, — are not these facts, truths, symbols 
 eminently fitted to inspire charity, to enforce its exercise, and to justify 
 the general opinion, which regards charity and Christianity as synonymous 
 terms ?" 
 
 In this connection, he speaks with. commendable impartiality of the 
 devoted kindness to the suffering of the Brethren de Saint-Jtan de Dieu, 
 a Catholic institution in France, and insists that no motive but those of 
 the Christian could induce such devotion as is visible in these brethren 
 and in many others who give themselves to works of charity. 
 
 "We may not flatter ourselves that any plan of private charity, however en- 
 lightened, can ever succeed, if the easy classes, from whom the resources must 
 come, and among whom also must be found the men to do the work, are not 
 animated by the vivifying spirit of Christianity." 
 
 "We do not mean here that pretended Christianity which consists in mere 
 faith or in mere deeds." .... "The Christianity we have in view is the religion 
 of Him who reduced the whole law to the precepts of love to God and our 
 neighbour, and who, in the parable of the good Samaritan, has taught us who 
 is that neighbour whom we are to love as ourselves; it is the religion which 
 feeds the poor, consoles the afaicted, upholds the weak, protects the widow and 
 the orphan, — which is the hope and refuge of all the unhappy, — which, by its 
 abounding good works, has exhibited to all people a God of all goodness and 
 s, Saviour who commenced the reign of love on earth. It matters little to 
 what sect those belong who profess it; it is not by the opinions which divide 
 them, but by the love which unites them, that the title of Christians is me- 
 rited."— iVawTZ*, vol. 2, p. 264. 
 
 In 1850, L. Lamothe published, at Paris, New Studies upon Chari- 
 table Legialation. It is a summary, with additions, of previous pro- 
 
NOTES. 3^ I 
 
 ductions on the snbject- He is inclined to Malthus upon some points, 
 being, with him, opposed to compulsory provision for the poor, and be- 
 lieving that population gains upon food, without acceding to the 
 mathematical formula in which Malthus states his position. But in 
 hia general treatment of the subject, he is far from Malthusian. 
 Himself engaged in the administration of charities, a large experience 
 aided his investigations. " In all my studies and writings upon the 
 subject," he remarks,* "it will be easily sefen that one thought runs 
 through the whole, — the amelioration of the condition of the humbler 
 olssses." He believes the time has come when the application of 
 the principles of charity which the Scriptures lay down for the direc- 
 tion of individuals, may be also demanded of society at large. He 
 believes, with Messrs. Dufaure, Coquerel, Victor Hugo, Faucher, and 
 Thiers, that Christianity, which has renovated the face of the world 
 during the last eighteen centuries, ought to become the base of every 
 administrative code, — that society should, within the measure of its re- 
 sources, and within the limits which wisdom dictates, come to the 
 succour of individual misfortune, — that individual foresight and pru- 
 dence should not exclude that of the community, — that in matter of 
 aid, the public should do all that is possible, and attempt all that is 
 probable. The author who expresses such sentiments may be for- 
 given if, out of sympathy for the school of rank political economists 
 with whom he is in amicable relations, he declares some accordance 
 with Malthus. We have an additional guarantee for the soundness of 
 our author's views in the evident regard he entertains for the labours 
 of Edmond de Pressense, a Protestant pastor in Paris, who published 
 in 1849, — Con/erenee$ upon Chrittianitif in tta Application to Social 
 QiKitioM, — a very profound work, which we shall bring more specially 
 to the notice of our readers. We subjoin a portion of the quotations 
 made from its pages by M. Lamothe : 
 
 •'We reject the diTinlon so frequently made of morals, into two kinds: the 
 one of universal application ; the other for the guidance of individuals merely. 
 There is but one priuciple of morals ; its applications may vary ; it cannot 
 vary itnelf. If that principle is ju«tic«. absolute and exclusive, it can be obeyed 
 by society alone. But if we recognise charity as lying at the base of morals, 
 we cannot conceive any reason why we should not realize its benefits in our 
 social institutioDS. Is It so that God having forcborne to visit us with justice, 
 we are the leas Inclined to exercise alike mercy to our fellow-creatures t" 
 
 *Prelkoe. 
 
348 NOTES. 
 
 "If the principle of charity is the basis of morals, theu the doctrine of pure 
 justice is no more applicable to the sphere of the state than in private life. 
 You are apprehensive, you say, that you will diminish the occasions of indi- 
 vidual charity. Be not afraid : ample opportunities will remain for benevolent 
 action, even if the monopoly is taken away from individuals. For, as we say, 
 the applications of charity differ; but one mode does not exclude others. It is 
 to be well considered what is the special application to be made by the state ; 
 and to ascertain this, we must inquire what is the providential mission as- 
 signed to the state, for withiti this limit only must the principle of charity be 
 applied." . . . . " According to the socialists, the state is charged with our 
 moral development— it ought to accomplish this for us, by removing all obsta- 
 cles and all temptations. That is the paternal government renewed. Accord- 
 ing to the political economists, the state is merely the medium in which we 
 live: it should hold itself apart, regarding only our crimes, and disregarding 
 wholly our miseries. There is a, juste niUieu between these theories. The state 
 cannot assume the care of our moral development, for that is an affair of con- 
 science and liberty; neither ought it to be simply a power of suppression or 
 punishment." 
 
 " The state is the sphere of our moral development." . . . . " Social life, 
 while it stimulates our activity, might also destroy it, if not under the re- 
 strictions of law; if interests and passions were without due restraint; if law 
 was not substituted for the hazards of violence and force. Such is the sublime 
 mission of the state. It is the high social object of saving to every one the 
 right of fulfilling his destiny. Law, in this aspect, is the channel of the possi- 
 bility of duty. The state is not only the sphere, it is one of the conditions of 
 our moral development; and it is from this high point, we ought to take 
 all our departures, in seeking the providential ends of this great institution. 
 Let the principle of charity once be declared predominant in society, and it is 
 <lear that we can no longer content ourselves with attributing to the state 
 solely a negative mission, as would be that of protecting individuals one from 
 another, and merely puting out of the way whatever is injurious to the moral 
 development: we may then demand that this object be directly promoted." 
 .... "The state should render moral development possible to all, — nothing 
 more, nothing less ; and it ought to be accomplished by the beneficial opera- 
 tion of our social institutions as a whole. A state constituted upon the 
 principle of charity, would enable every man to fulfil all the duties of his 
 position, — his proper destiny : that is, while it respected his personal liberty 
 more than at present, it would cover him with the buckler of law from undue 
 injury of any kind. Without liberty, there is no moral development, not even 
 if the restraint is accompanied with large benefits : this indeed, instead of a 
 help, is an obstacle to improvement." 
 
 " But there are physical sufferings, dreadful privations, and growing inquie- 
 tudes, which break down and materialize the soul. The raging appetites of 
 privation are as dangerous as the indulgences of luxury. Very well ! A well 
 ordered state ought, by the completeness of its adjustments, to prevent these 
 perverting miseries. It ou^ht to furnish food, by proper elementary instruction, 
 
NOTES. 349 
 
 for the mind, without which it becomes barren ; and food for the bod}', without 
 which the finest systems of laws upon paper are but illusions and treachery. 
 In this way alone can the state be the condition of our moral development; and 
 thus far, we repeat, it should go, and no farther." — Conferences, rfc, par Edm. 
 PrtumU, p. 296, 4c. 
 
 In the first chapter of his work, Lamothe brings into review some of 
 the principal writers on the subject, from which review we take a few 
 extracts. 
 
 " Malthas, Chalmers, Dnch&tel, Naville,— these are the heads of that school, 
 improperly enough called the Protestant, but which, in our opinion, had been 
 more fitly named the rationalist school. Its distinctive character consists in 
 imposing silence upon the language of the heart, and proceeding exclusively 
 by the light of reason and the facts.* Its services are acknowledged by its 
 adversaries; it has laid bare the true principles, taught us to recognise them 
 and to strip oflf the accessories which lead so many from the reality." 
 
 Speaking of Malthus, he says : — 
 
 " Is it not he who has best perceived the relations and limits which exist be- 
 tween the prudence which foresees misery and the charity which relieves it, — 
 the relation between wages and the increase of population ?" 
 
 He complains of Blnnqui for having, in his History of Political 
 Economy, condemned the doctrines of Malthus, and made the epithet 
 Malthiman one of reproach, "Without, however, substituting for his 
 doctrines something better. It is strange that Lamothe could not see 
 the relations of Christianity with the subject, and the solutions it offers. 
 He and others do Christianity the honour of a conspicuous mention, 
 but they draw no solution from Revelation, and are as far from walk- 
 ing in its light as the Protestants whom he calls rationalists. Ho 
 mentions, next, a work we had designed for special examination in 
 these notes, — Ohriatian Political Economy, or Reaearchen into the 
 nature and caiuea of Pauperitm, — the author of which is thus intro- 
 duced to bis readers by Lamothe : — 
 
 " In face of these writers, in the opposite camp, H. le Yicomte Alban de Yille- 
 neuve-Bargemont presents himself. He is an apostle of the gospel, who sees 
 BO remedy for the evils of society but in a strict observance of the teachings 
 of Christ." .... "Christian charity, carried into public policy, into the laws. 
 Into the institutions and the manners of a country, can alone preserve social 
 
 • We may doabt whether Dr. Chalmers would have been flattered by beinu 
 H in the school of rationalists. Whatever else may Justify this clas- 
 he eanno*. JosUy be accused of silencing the lanj^aage of the heart 
 
 30 
 
350 NOTES. 
 
 order from the frightful dangers which threaten it. Without this element, 
 there is nothing but deceit and illusion." — Nouvelles Etudes, p. 3.* 
 
 This important work of Villeneuve-Bargemont (in 3 vols. 8vo.) was 
 the fruit of long-continued and patient study of the whole subject, and 
 of great experience in the highest oflBces of departmental administra- 
 tion in France. The author is a zealous Catholic, but not to the extent 
 of exalting the church above Christianity.* The subject seemed to be 
 of the very highest interest to him, and he pursues it with the ardour 
 of a true friend of the human family. His preface gives a frank his- 
 tory of the changes which his mind had to undergo in his investiga- 
 tions. We can only transfer a few points. 
 
 "That which has chiefly struck me in my studies, is the dreadful influence 
 which tlie industrial and political system of England has exercised over France, 
 Europe, and other portions of the world. That system, based upon insatiable 
 selfishness and upon a profound contempt of human nature, has been displayed 
 to my eyes with the effect of exalting my sentiment of nationality to the highest 
 point, as will be visible in this work ; but I have tried to be faithful to truth, 
 and not to injure or exaggerate." 
 
 " In efifect, real pauperism, that general distress or destitution, permanent 
 and progressive, of the population, had its birth in England, and it is thence 
 the contagion has spread. For three hundred years this power has not ceased 
 to excite the love of wealth, luxury, material enjoyments ; a ruling aristocracy, 
 a clergy enriched with the spoils of Catholicism, speculators, skilful and 
 prompt, occupying stations of power, controlling capital, property, and industry, 
 have not ceased to accumulate lands, and the advantages of commerce and 
 navigation ; — a monstrous centralization of fortune and the despotism of riches 
 continually employed in extending its power and possessions; — such has been 
 the incessant advance of this proud and greedy class, in their ascendency over 
 the population. It is thus they everywhere employ and use the human race; 
 and, whilst they are distinguished for improving the breeds of other animals, 
 they are ever engaged in overworking and injuring the xi^ce and constitution 
 of their working classes. It was not enough to swallow all the wealth of Great 
 Britain — this insatiable cupidity reaches forth to every portion of the earth. 
 At any price it must be satisfied — violence, inhumanity, corruption, all this 
 and more have in turn been employed in ministering to this appetite." 
 
 " For a long period the opulence of England has dazzled all eyes, and her 
 example has seduced many other nations ; but at last time and experience are 
 
 * Accompanying this work of Lamotho is an extended bibliography of charity 
 and the kindred topics, of great value to the student of philosophy and social 
 science. 
 
 t He names among his most intimate friends, with whom he consulted on 
 these topics, a Protestant professor of theology at Montauban. — Vol. i. p. 9. 
 
NOTES. 351 
 
 removing the veil which conceals the frightful misery of a population,* op- 
 pressed, famished, and pushed to the borders of despair." 
 
 " Publicity has revealed the excess of production ; the manufacturing struggle, 
 tinder the impulse of unregulated competition, is reacting with vigour. It is 
 plain the colossus is shaken ; an abyss is being dug beneath its feet." .... 
 
 " The English system reposes upon the concentration of capital, of commerce, 
 of lands, of industry, of indefinite production, of universal competition, upon 
 the reduction of wages, and, finally, upon the moral degradation of man." 
 
 " Let us found our French system upon a just and wise distribution of the 
 products of industry ; upon the equitable remuneration of labour; upon the 
 development of agriculture ; upon our industry, applied to the products of our 
 own soil ; upnn the religious regeneration of man ; and, finally, upon the great 
 principle of charity." — £kxm. Pbl. Chret. preface, vol. i. p. 22. 
 
 The motto of the introduction is quoted from Droz, and runs thus: — 
 
 " In reading certain economists, one might be led to think that the products 
 
 of industry were not made for man, but that man was made for the products." 
 
 The first lines of the introduction are as follow : — 
 
 "Individual poverty, that is privation more or less absolute of the necessa- 
 ries of lifn, is a position so painful, that the natural sympathy between man 
 and his fellow compels us to yield our compassion ; it is, in the eyes of religion, 
 » 8ufrf>ring of which Heaven enjoins upon us the solace, wherever it exists; it 
 ia a physical and moral degradation, for which the interests of society require 
 a remedy." 
 
 He distinguishes between that isolated and transient poverty arising 
 from the very nature of man, the relative inferiority of physical strength 
 and of intelligence, the inequality of social position, and other inevitable 
 evils incident to the differences between men, and that "indigence which 
 pa«se8 under the new and sadly energetic name of pauperism, which in- 
 vades entire clajises of the population, and tends to increase at the rate 
 of the industrial production," " If this," he remarks, "is not an accident 
 of society, but a con«lition of life forced upon large portions of the com- 
 munity, it cannot be a mistake to find in these symptoms of suffering, 
 thus diffused in the body politic, a disease, deep-seated, and menacing 
 the approach of severe and perhaps fatal disturbance to the whole 
 social system thus affected." — Vol. i. p. 27. 
 
 It wonld be interesting, as well as profitable to the heart and to the 
 nnderstanding, to follow this truly humane and Christian writer 
 
 * A population worked for the benefit of foreign, not domestic trade ; for the 
 b«neflt of inerchanta, not of the producers; for foreign, not home consumption; 
 fcr cheap production, that foreigners may purchase ; but at the lowest wagei^ 
 that tb« prodowrs may not eonsame. 
 
352 NOTES. 
 
 through all the volumes of a work conceived in a spirit so charitable, 
 making extracts as we proceed ; but we must forbear, and merely in- 
 dicate an outline of his topics. 
 
 The first volume treats of the religious vietc of indigence ; the in- 
 equality of men; theories of civ ilizntio7i ; of progress ; of the prin- 
 ciple of population ; celibacy of priesthood ; of labour; of the pro- 
 duction, distribution, and consumption of riches ; profts and wages ; 
 agricultural industry ; manufacturing industry ; machinery; the new 
 feudal system ; commercial industry ; St. Simonism ; taxes; luxury; 
 ignorance and immorality of the working classes ; political revolutions. 
 
 The second volume treats of the condition and number of the indi- 
 gent and of beggars in Europe ; of charity and its application, 2>rivate 
 and public ; of legislation in regard to the indigent. 
 
 The third volume is devoted to charitable institutions ; the revision 
 of the poor-laics ; and to agriculture, considered as a means of reliev- 
 ing and preventing indigence. 
 
 He takes leave of his readers on the last page by saying, whilst 
 lamenting the deficiencies of his work, — 
 
 " Our intentions, however, will be understood and our efTorts appreciated by 
 those who have studied the moral causes and effects of misery, and reflected 
 upon the means of prevention. Besides, our ambition will be satisfied if we 
 Bhall awaken the attention of any of the governments of Europe to questions 
 so vital to the present epoch; if we shall have aided in disseminating useful 
 truths ; and above all, if we shall have excited a spirit of charity in some 
 Christian hearts." 
 
 "May that which we have been able merely to indicate, be completed and 
 perfected by abler hands. The age is ripe to comprehend that social order 
 must be based on laws, and confined within limits traced by an Almighty 
 hand. To aclinowledge this eternal truth, to return to our obedience to its dic- 
 tates, that is the progress which ought to characterize our day, and for which 
 we shall not cease to pray whilst we desire to promote human happiness." — 
 Vol. iii. p. 584. 
 
 We should gladly extend our notices to other French works upon 
 charity which are lying round us, making such extracts as might 
 characterize them, but it would far exceed our limits. 
 
 There is another class of productions of great interest which we 
 must pass over, devoted exclusively to the topics of pauperism, the 
 poor, the wretched, the dangerous, the disinherited classes, the misery 
 of the working classes, &c. : the titles of many of these, of great merit 
 and breathing the very soul of humanity, and not unfrequently, also, 
 the very spirit of Christianity, will be found in the preceding catalogue. 
 
NOTES. 353 
 
 We must not, however, omit all mention of those which go to show 
 that, while humanity and Christian sympathies are so intelligently ex- 
 cited in France in favor of the suffering, efforts are not wanting in 
 the direction of a more enlarged treatment of the whole subject, and 
 in the way of prevention of evils, as well as their cure. A discussion 
 has been actively proceeding in France for many years, which, until 
 very recently, could not be touched, much less endured, in England 
 nor in the United States. The fact that the labouring classes — the 
 great mass of producers, to whose industry we are chiefly indebted for 
 our material comforts — do not receive a just remuneration of their 
 labour, and do not enjoy their proper share of the blessings which 
 social institutions should afford, is freely admitted in France, and' the 
 best minds of that country are devoting their energies and acumen 
 to the solution of the great problem involved in the just reward of 
 labour. They no longer meet this great question with the estoppels, 
 that the poor will always be with us, and that inequalities of condition 
 are inevitable : they feel the necessity, having granted the truth of 
 these propositions, of inquiring, nevertheless, what can be done to 
 diminish the number of the poor, and to render inevitable inequalities 
 M tolerable as possible. They admit the necessity of seeking the clue 
 to the true and just organization of labour, so that he who toils to earn 
 a subsistence by the sweat of his brow may have some assurance that 
 an undue portion of the avails of his labour shall not go to those who 
 do not labour at all. It would require large space to bring before our 
 readers even a slight indication of what has been written on this 
 subject It is well known that French authors have led the way in 
 a change of historical writing, which is not only highly popular, but 
 eminently philosophical and instructive — that of giving the history of 
 people and their condition'ln past times, as well as the history of wars, 
 of kings, of nobles, and of generals. This historical research has 
 been applied specially to the subject of labour and labourers, with a 
 constant view to the best interests of humanity. We might show what 
 bos been done by Thierry, Michelet, Quizot, and others, but their 
 productions arc sufficiently known and appreciated. We shall mention 
 a few less known, but whose efforts have been exclusively applied to 
 tho subject. We refer with pleasure, among them, to one of signal 
 ability and learning — The HiBtoryofthe Working Clattet and the Toton'$ 
 People, by Adolphe Oranier He Cmmngiiac, published in 1837. It waa 
 apparently intended as an introduction to a more extended work, but 
 we have met with no continuation. It forms in it« present state, a 
 30* 
 
NOTES. 
 
 very appropriate introduction to the historj' of the world, espe- 
 cially of the European world, and those countries of antiquity from 
 which European civilization and institutions were derived. After 
 pointing out the deficiencies of history in regard to the masses, the 
 author enters upon his task of a brief, strong, and bold outline of the 
 changes of condition which these masses have passed through in 
 various stages of the progress of humanity. His sketch includes, of 
 course, the history of slavery before the advent of Christianity, be- 
 fore which time, he says, the justice of the relation was never seriously 
 questioned; and also after Christianity, the progress of which for seve- 
 ral centuries was marked by the emancipation of immense multitudes 
 of slaves, although neither Christ nor his apostles denounced it as in- 
 consistent with their teachings. These enfranchisements, made with 
 more kindness than prudence, he shows to have been the fruitful 
 source of crime, misery, and degradation, among those who were freed 
 from compulsory service, but not admitted to the full level of freemen, 
 nor placed in a position where their labour would command a just re- 
 muneration. He shows that the worst of the European population are 
 descendants of emancipated slaves, who, as a body, have sunk below 
 the level of slavery,"and have never been able to emerge into a better 
 situation under European institutions. The crimes of slaves in the 
 Roman Empire were far fewer than in the same number of the lower 
 classes of modern Europe. Freedom from personal servitude in 
 Christian Europe does not raise the masses to the level of slaves in 
 the Roman Empire. This is illustrated and shown by a vast number 
 of references and proofs, which make a strong impression of his cor- 
 rectness. We must add, as the result of our own investigations, that 
 the feudal slaves liberated in England in the 15th and 16th centuries, 
 sank after their liberation to the condition of paupers, from which, as 
 a body, they have never emerged. Something more than liberty is 
 due from the master to the slave, from the community to its poor, 
 and from man to his neighbour. Our author dwells upon the rise of 
 the commune, the isolated castles of the nobles, the cities, villages, 
 and walled towns of the people, the history of property, and the his- 
 tory of the peasantry, so completely forgotten by historians. But wo 
 cannot enumerate the topics of a work so condensed. It is rich in al- 
 lusion to the Bible, of which the author had an enlightened compre- 
 hension, rich in classical allusion, in Greek and Roman antiquities, in 
 knowledge of the civil law, in church history, and in the history of 
 European civilization. 
 
NOTES. 355 
 
 The History of the Working Clata, from, the Slave to the Proletaire of 
 our Day, a work in four super-royal octavo volumes, by Robert (Du 
 Var,) Paris, 1847, is a production evidently dictated by an extreme 
 regard for the best interests of the class of whom it treats. The first 
 words of the author are : — 
 
 " The increasing dififusion of knowledge, by awakening the sentimont of jus- 
 tice in souls the mot^t withered, is extending daily the discovery of what is 
 painful and grievous in the situation of the labouring classes. God forbid that 
 any should be hereafter astonished that those who produce so much and con- 
 sume so little should insist, by all possible arguments, upon the amelioration 
 of their condition! This general feeling is to the thinking man a prophecy. It 
 i« the solemn guarantee of the early emancipation of labour." 
 
 After enlarging upon the importance of the history proposed, he 
 proceeds : — 
 
 " The very idea raises grave and capital questions : we inquire at once, by 
 what great and terrible deviation from justice, human society has become so 
 disturbed and so badly adjusted as to produce, for some only, wealth, leisure, 
 lil>erty. and comfort, while leaving to the greater number only lal>our, misery, 
 and all the ills of slavery? Whence springs this disinherited class?" 
 
 Robert does not accord to slavery so high an antiquity as Granicr de 
 Cassagnac, but believes "there was a time when man was not the 
 servant of man ; when every one, living for himself, made his own 
 wants his master, and gatherecT without hindrance the fruits of his own 
 industry :" but he traces the poverty and misery of the masses at this 
 day to ancient slavery. 
 
 «* We have looked upon the toil of the slave of antiquity, the serf of the 
 middle ages, sod the labourers of modem times, and have set forth their rewiird 
 In ewfh period. We have lifted the veil at each epoch which conceals the 
 tninery of the working classes; we have not f-arcd to descend to those ralnutitc 
 which, however apparently unimportant, are the real index of their condition; 
 we have inquired, along the progress of ages, how they were nourished, lodged, 
 and clothed, whose Industry produced the food, built the houses, and mauu- 
 factored the clothing." 
 
 " But the labourer, although a labourer. Is yet a man In the fullest extent of 
 the word, and a« such he exist* In the presence of the body politic. Citizen or 
 not. the state, by the fact of his existence, is obliged to recognise his pres<-nce — 
 to proQOunoe upon him; — hence the historian must take account of this legis- 
 lation. From the definition of slavery by pagan laws to the legislation of the 
 prewnt day, by which the working-men are excluded from all voice in the 
 direction of their own inti*rests, and completely exiled from the path of puwer, 
 we hsv« notiovd and numbered the charges which legislation has brought 
 ■fahMi t h w B, Um praaltlen It has Inflicted, and the thousand chains in which 
 It baa heM tlMin bound." 
 
356 NOTES. 
 
 "Of course, we have followed step by step the intellectua. compression 
 to which they have been so long subjected, their consequent ignorance, and 
 their dangerous prejudices : to give these facts full relief, we have disclosed 
 the different methods of education and training successively applied to the 
 masses." 
 
 '■ Consolation is not wanting I — as we advance to modern times, humanity, 
 pushed on by the invincible cravings of its nature, appears to comprehend its 
 old error. The revolts of the ancient slaves against their masters, those of 
 the serfs of the middle ages against their lords, had for their chief motive anger, 
 vengeance, and other hateful passions. Modern labourers begin to call to their 
 aid philosophy and science ; the organization of industry and the application 
 of the principle of human brotherhood are the ideal which now stimulates the 
 working classes. After having revolved for ages in the fatal circle of individu- 
 alism, of war and contention, a necessity for harmony begins to be felt where 
 irritation would be most excusable — order and peace begin to be sought in the 
 arena of the interests of all." 
 
 These extracts are from the introduction. The field surveyed in 
 this work is so extensive that we cannot even enumerate the topics. 
 His notice of the influence of Christianity in procuring the enfranchise- 
 ment of slaves is interesting : — 
 
 " Certainly, that influence was remarkable. To pass from paganism to Chris- 
 tianity was to pass from slavery to liberty." — Vol. i p. 247. 
 
 He examines the effects of slavery upon the habits and history of 
 the enfranchised, and concedes that the blessing of liberty was far 
 from an unmingled benefit. His details upon this head are of great 
 interest, but his views of the whole subject are less broad than those 
 of Gi'anier de Cassagnac. 
 
 In the progress of his work he details, with evident satisfaction, the 
 career of the great reformer Wickliffe, who attacked the Romish 
 hierarchy with so much boldness and vigour ; he tells us, that re- 
 former disputed the theory of property, which was prevailing then in 
 England, and insisted that the great wealth of the clergy was whollj' 
 inconsistent with their character, and that those who would be minis- 
 ters of Christ must follow his example of poverty and personal kind- 
 ness to the poor. He claims Wickliffe as an apostle of humanity, 
 holding views in accordance with those of modern reformers, and then 
 proceeds to show at length that John Huss followed him closely in 
 these views. (Vol. iii. p. 356 and 386.) 
 
 Our author takes a wide distinction between the Protestant Refor- 
 mation of Luther and his colleagues, and the reforms proposed by 
 AVickliffe and Huss. The reforms of the former were merely aimed 
 
NOTES. 357 
 
 at the abuses of the Romish Church, wliile the latter contemplated 
 alao social amelioration. The noblesse and the rich could readily co- 
 alesce with Luther's principles; but they would have been slow to sus- 
 tain those of the two earlier reformers, who contemplated measures 
 for the temporal benefit of the masses. He shows the bearing of the 
 wars of the peasants, which followed the teachings of Huss and the 
 doctrines of the Anabaptists, on social questions. 
 
 This work has great value as a history, and for the details it fur- 
 nishes upon subjects yet very far from being exhausted ; its leanings 
 are, however, plainly to some form of socialism. This proclivity doeg 
 not often mar the course of the history, and is only made clear in the 
 fourth volume, in which ho reviews the plans of various schools of 
 socialists, lie insists that, whatever may bo their errors and their 
 want of agreement among themselves, they have rendered the cause of 
 humanity essential services. He avers that they only have rightly 
 framed the problem of social amendment, which, alone, is a long step 
 towards a correct solution. He evidently believes the solution will come 
 from the side of the socialists, and that the strongest guarantee of the 
 saccess of social reform is the prevalence of modified views upon the 
 BubjecL- 
 
 The great problem of adjusting the relations of human labour to 
 human well-being has been met in France, with more or less zeal, by 
 all schools of politicians, philosophers, and writers : all are not equally 
 enlightened, nor equally liberal, but all admit the urgency of the in- 
 quiry, and all contribute some aid to the solution. The political 
 economists have shown great activity of the pen, perceiving tliat their 
 craft was in danger from any direct inquiry into what would most 
 promote human welfare. They have yielded to the pressure of the 
 time whatever they can surrender without destruction of their theory 
 of the weaUh of nationt. 
 
 It might be as profitable as agreeable to enter into an examination 
 of the large numl>er of works published in France, within the last 
 twenty years, on the subject of labour, the liberty of labour, the or- 
 ganization of labour, the right of labour, the laves of labour ; but the 
 
 * We are sbiolotely compelled to refrain from extending them notices by the 
 ■pace tbey are oonnuming, thus leaviDg unnoticed the productionii of many 
 writers of icreat power and renearch. As the discussion pro<»>eds, it is instrao* 
 tire to watch the advance which t\w lat«r writers ure making under the advan- 
 tagM and the light dertred fWmi their pn-decefSDrs. Diit wc mnst forego the 
 profit •• w«ll as the pleaanre of such an examination. 
 
858. NOTES. 
 
 greatness of the task and the narrowness of our limits forbid.* The 
 phrases thus employed and made the subjects of elaborate and pro- 
 found inquiry, are ridiculed in England, and even in this country, as 
 implying impossibilities, or nonsense, or socialism. In Trance, hu- 
 manity is placed, in importance, above human institutions and laws ; 
 or it is acknowledged as their object. In Great Britain and in the 
 United States, it is assumed that our institutions and laws are perfect, 
 or so nearly perfect that any consideration of mere humanity, or bene- 
 ficence, which interferes with them, or calls for their amendment, is 
 regarded as the puling conception of a visionary. Such a man, in the 
 estimation of men of the world, is unacquainted with the stern and 
 inevitable realities of life; he is a labourer at that which is impracti- 
 cable, and is rather to be pitied for his ignorance than encouraged in 
 his investigations. Such, in the main, is the language of the Protes- 
 tant ministry and the religious press, who very promptly extinguish 
 all such inquiries as belonging to the domain of socialism or com- 
 munism, for which the horror exceeds that which is felt for mere infi- 
 delity. For, certainly, German infidelity is tolerated in many libraries 
 for the sake of its learning, where works of socialism would not be 
 admitted for the sake of humanity. 
 
 * We refer to the following, as well deserving the attention of the inquirer : — 
 
 The, Liberty of Labour ; an exposition of Vie conditions under which human 
 powers are exerted with the most effect. By Charles Dunoyer. 3 vols. 8vo., Paris, 
 1845. 
 
 Essay upon the Orgayiization of Labour, and the Future of the Working Classes. 
 By Theo. Morin. 1 vol. 8vo., Paris, 1845. 
 
 The Laws of Labour. By Gustavus Dupuynode. 1 vol. 8vo., Paris, 1845. 
 
 The Right of Labour. A compl'te collection of the speeches made at the National 
 Assemhly on iliat suhjrct. 1 vol. 8vo., Paris, 1848. 
 
 Essay upon the Rdations of Labour to Capital. By Ch. Dupont White. 1 vol. 
 8vo., Paris, 1846. 
 
NOTES. 86& 
 
 SOCIALISM. 
 
 This word, in its commonly misapplied signification, may denote 
 sufficiently the subject of the following remarks. If we have not 
 already brought forward the writings of French socialists, it is not 
 because wo have overlooked them, nor because we regard them as de- 
 void of interest and instruction. We belong not to that school which 
 regards with a seemingly pious scorn all that passes under the name 
 of socialism, — we are afraid to say even to the socialist, " Stand by, 
 for I am holier than thou." We look upon the whole socialist move- 
 ment as one of the greatest events of this age. We believe no man 
 can understand the progress of humanity or its present tendencies 
 who does not make himself, to some extent, acquainted with the teach- 
 ings of socialism, and does not watch its movements. It is regarded 
 by many, and especially by Protestant divines, as a war upon Chris- 
 tianity. This betrays ignorance, not only of socialism, but of human 
 tiature, and a sad misconception of Christianity itself. It is true, that 
 a large mass of the socialists of France are not Christians, and that 
 many of them openly express their disbelief; and it is just as true 
 that many among us are not Christians who never scoff; and many 
 more live in open and direct violation of Christ's injunctions of love 
 and mercy, who make the loudest professions of Christianity. It is 
 true enough that socialists are in error in many material or vital 
 points, but they are earnestly seeking truth according to their oppor- 
 tunities and light. We hesitate not to aver that, in other material 
 points, the Protestant communities of Great Britain and the United 
 States, under the fuller light of the gospel, hold to errors as fatal in 
 their final issue. '^ 
 
 Let us inquire a little into the origin and nature of this socialist 
 movement. Every one knows the condition of the human family 
 under Grecian and Roman domination. It may be expressed, for our 
 present purpose, in two words, slavery and war. Christianity 
 greatly ameliorated the operation of these evils of humanity. But 
 this amelioration was incomplete when Christianity was swallowed up 
 by a combination of priestcraft and paganism, and a long night of 
 raperstition, with slavery of body and mind, fell upon all Christendom. 
 There was no relief for the masses, until the Reformation came, and 
 placed the Bible in the hands of the laity. The Reformation itself 
 ended in mere Protcstantisoi; in which the chief advantage left to th« 
 
360 NOTES. 
 
 people was the possession of the sacred volume. Darkness still 
 brooded over the people of Europe, for part remained steeped in the 
 errors of the Papacy, and part were stuffed with the dry husks of 
 Protestant theology. But the light of the gospel continued to 
 brighten, until something of its power was seen in Great Britain, and 
 a more dazzling display was exhibited in the United States. How- 
 ever far short these exemplifications came of the requirements of the 
 gospel, they attracted the attention of the world. Those who were 
 suffering every manner of evil, under institutions framed by priestly 
 cunning, unholy ambition, and political misrule, when the benign pre- 
 cepts of the Saviour began by degrees to reach them, when they began 
 to realize, from the examples of Great Britain and the United States, 
 that men might think for themselves and estimate their own rights, 
 perceived very soon that they were unjustly treated, that they were 
 not admitted to their proper position in the scale of humanity, and 
 that they were not permitted to make their own industry as available 
 for their own benefit and comfort as justice required. Resentment 
 against their supposed oppressors was not slow in following this view 
 of their condition; priests, kings, rulers, and institutions became 
 alike the objects of a hatred which became indiscriminate in propor- 
 tion as it became violent. As the Papal priesthood assumed to have 
 all Christianity in their hands, religion itself came in for a share of its 
 dislike ; for these people cried out. What has religion done for us ? 
 They had bitter experience that the dignitaries of the church were as 
 greedy of money, and of power, as the functionaries of civil authority. 
 It is not very surprising that they began a vigorous opposition against 
 all that, in their view, was inimical to their interests. They could not 
 acquiesce in doctrines, moral, political, or religious under colour of which 
 humanity suffered such inflictions : they resisted the religion, the law, 
 and the philosophy which gave birth to such doctrines and practices. 
 They entered the field of theory and speculation, to find if by inves- 
 tigation they could deduce laws for their protection and guidance more 
 in consonance with humanity. Being wholly unembarrassed with 
 prejudices in favour of antiquity, or indeed in favour of any existing in- 
 stitution, they entered with sharp appetites upon the discussion of all 
 abuses of power, religious and political ; they held a sharp and un- 
 swerving knife as they proceeded to the dissection of Papal and civil 
 institjitions, against which they held a grudge so serious ; they sub- 
 jected modern society, with its accumulations of errors, to a scrutiny far 
 more severe and searching than it had ever encountered. A great 
 
NOTES. 861 
 
 diversity of conclusions resulted from this spirit of iiiquiry — this 
 active and unsparing investigation ; and this army of social 
 philosophers became separated into many camps. They quarrelled 
 with those around them, and especially with those above them; 
 but they were also far from agreeing among themselves. They 
 received, finally, the name of socialists, a term intended to convey 
 a characteristic of the whole. Properly explained, it is suflSciently 
 significant: — they are a body of men who deem themselves injured; 
 they point to the causes of their sufferings in the church and state, 
 and demand a remedy ; they insist that society is bound to amend 
 their social position. They insist that no institutions can be wise or 
 juat which encourage or permit oppression — which fail of giving fair 
 scope to industry and knowledge — which do not, as far as practicable, 
 secure to labour its proper reward, and to knowledge and enterprise 
 •a open field and due defence. It is true that those upon whom these 
 doctrines have brought the epithet of socialists, have run into wild 
 errors and mistaken theories, and many of tlicm, perhaps, into absurd 
 and crazy conceptions. But the mistakes of some, or all, by no means 
 set aside or nullify the irrefutable truths they have announced. It 
 is sheer nonsense to attempt to crush these truths by the cry of social- 
 ism ; it is worse than uon^^ense not to know and appreciate truths 
 which have already spread far and wide beyond the ranks of the 
 socialists. It is a pitiable ignorance which chooses to remain blind to 
 light which is guiding great multitudes as they pass before you. It 
 is a stubborn and wicked conservatism which is rooted to one spot in 
 this world of evil, refusing to believe in any thing better, scouting 
 bntnanity as a dream, not conceding to Christianity the triumphs which 
 are assared by its own promises, offering to Christ this present world 
 as now exhibited, or none,-^not perceiving that the social, political, and 
 commercial institutions of the present day, founded upon and sus- 
 tained by a selfiehnesK heretofore unequalled, are the great barriers to 
 the progress of Christianity. The works of the socialists have exposed 
 this hideous skeleton of selfishness — they have pursued it with un- 
 faltering hatred ; and this constitutes our main obligati<m to them. 
 Our language to them should not be that of scorn or denuuciatiou; 
 it should be that of sympathy in their desire of truth, and compassion 
 for their saffnrings and their errors. They do desire to learn : to them 
 vitary qvestioo is open : they have burst away from the chains of su- 
 false morals, and false social science. Who is able or pre- 
 to insuuct them? Will not Chritftiane step forward and show 
 31 
 
862 NOTES. 
 
 them that the equality and the brotherhood and mutual kindness 
 which they seek are all embraced in that very Christianity, which 
 they have rejected, because they never knew it. Do not the teachings 
 of Christ contain all, and far, far more of the benefits they seek than 
 their highest wishes ever reached ? It cannot for a moment be 
 denied that if Christians, — all who are called such, made even a fair 
 approach to the precepts of Christ in their lives and conversation, 
 the abuses of which socialists complain and the sufferings to which 
 the poor are subjected could no longer disgrace Christianity and out- 
 rage humanity. 
 
 While we lament that the socialists have injured their cause by in- 
 dulging in vagaries at once absurd and wicked, we lament still more 
 that those who assume to know so much better, — those who do know 
 better, — those who have read the benign injunctions of Christ, — should 
 have so far erred in life and teaching as not to have exhibited to the 
 socialists a living exemplification of that kindness, that mercy, that 
 charity, that justice^ that equality, that brotherhood for which they 
 sigh. Can any one doubt that such examples would attract the eyes 
 and the admiration of all the socialists and well-wishers of humanity 
 in the world ? Can any one doubt that such an example would correct 
 the theories and repress and set right the erroneous speculations, now 
 on all sides so rife, in regard to social progress ? Such an argument 
 would go farther to reclaim the socialists who are opposed to religion, 
 than all the works on theology extant. It does not meet the objections 
 which they offer, when the Catholic priesthood say to them that they 
 must not oppose the authority of the church, that the church will 
 take care of them, that she will make up in alms what may be wanting 
 for their sustenance from the avails of industry. Nor is the case made 
 better when they are told by Protestants that their position is the one 
 assigned them in the order of Providence, which cannot be changed 
 nor resisted without fatal consequences ; that their misery and suffer- 
 ings are the natural results of that depravity inherent in our nature 
 and inherited from our first parents, and that we can no more banish 
 wretchedness and poverty than we can eradicate original sin. Neither 
 do the political economists meet the case by urging that the laws of 
 trade are founded upon the very nature of things, and, if some men 
 suffer apparently under the operation of these laws, the evil is in- 
 evitable, and that these laws cannot be altered because their working 
 may not be equally favourable to all; if some be less happy, others will 
 be more; if some arc starving now, others will have plenty elsewhere or 
 
NOTES. 863 
 
 hereafter, and thus the average will be fair ; if many die, there will 
 be more for those who remain ; and if men are deprived of labour in 
 one department of industry, they can turn to another ; and if they die 
 in the transition, it ig because they were not needed. So, neither is the 
 complaint of socialists met by statesmen, who tell them their demands 
 cannot possibly be conceded without the greatest injustice to vested 
 interests, without disturbing society to its foundations, without such a 
 radical change of political institutions as would wholly change the 
 existing order of things, and thus revolutionize our present social 
 system; to the ruin of those who now hold wealth and power, ad- 
 yantages not to be surrendered without a struggle. No such re- 
 sponses as these can allay the excitement or stem the progress of social- 
 ism, the very object of which is to remove the barriers to progress, to 
 open the career of industry to poverty-stricken multitudes, who now, 
 when they labour at all, labour for the advantage of others more 
 than for their own; who insist upon the solution of the problem, 
 — What will best promote the interests of the whole number of any 
 community ? 
 
 Although we totally dissent from the plans of reforming political 
 institutions which the socialists have proposed, we cheerfully concede 
 their having rendered a great service to social science by demonstrat- 
 ing the justice and necessity of reform. Their strong sympathy for 
 human suffering throws an interest over many of their writings, very 
 much in contrast with much of the theology, political economy, and 
 politics of the present day. It would be a useful task to glance over 
 pages thu» in contrast, and entertain our readers with socialists plead- 
 ing the cause of humanity, and Christians taking the part of wealth 
 and power. If much cause of humiliation should be found in this 
 comparison, it would not b^ the only lesson of that kind which might 
 be administered to those who profess to be the followers of Ilim who, 
 when he took upon himself the form of humanity, became also its 
 champion and friend. 
 
 Whatever may be said or thought by those who regard socialism as 
 aynonymous with infidelity, it is very certain that many of them are 
 not only Christians, but derive their strongest assurances of the final 
 •nooesi of their reforms from the universal prevalence of Christianity. 
 It will be new to many, that one of the most noted of the socialists, 
 the author of learia, and the leader of the French colony now settled 
 ftt Nauvoo, M. Cabbt, is the writer of a work with the title, True 
 Chrittianitjf tu it eame by Jem$ Chritt, (Paris, 18mo., 635 pages,) in 
 
364 NOTES. 
 
 ■which is an exposition of the Christian system as delivered by the 
 Saviour to his disciples, in not a few respects superior to any in our 
 Protestant libraries. He sketches the Jewish dispensation, the law, 
 ritual and moral, the types, the prophecies, the promises of a coming 
 Saviour, his appearing in the fulness of time, and his divine mission: he 
 receives Him as a Divinity, as the Son of God and the Saviour of sin- 
 ners, as having given a new commandment and introduced a new dis- 
 pensation, intended to open up the way of life for lost transgressors, and 
 wisely designed to amend their condition in this world. But the distin- 
 guishing excellence of this work is the exposition it gives of the life, 
 miracles, and teachings of Christ, precisely the department in which 
 Protestant Avriters come short of what is due to their great Teacher, 
 the author and finisher of their faith. We commend this volume, 
 which is not free from serious defects, to those whose duty it is to 
 produce, as far as human ability will permit, something worthy of the 
 subject. Let us have an exposition of Christianity as it came from 
 the lips of its Author, a full development of his doctrines and precepts, 
 as the best and onlj^ appropriate introduction to the expositions and 
 toaohings of the apostles. 
 
NOTES. 36d 
 
 LATER INDICATIONS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 
 
 Whilst the preceding pages were going to the press, we have 
 gathered fresh evidence that the subject of human well-being is re- 
 ceiving in Great Britain increasing attention. Not all the interests 
 of rank or wealth, nor the influence of the church, nor the prejudices 
 of education, nor the immovableness of conservatism, have sufficed to 
 keep down the topic. Socialism can no longer be kept out of sight, 
 and the subjects it involves can no longer be overlooked. That is tho 
 real triumph of socialism — it has raised the questions and forced on 
 the discussion. The French mind has been fully employed upon all 
 aspects of social science ; in Great Britain they are preparing to fol- 
 low. They begin to admit the subject may be openly treated, and 
 that there may be something for consideration. We have referred to 
 some of the pioneers in this path of thought We now notice some 
 of later date. 
 
 We find an article in No. 22 of the North British Review, 
 for August, 1849, devoted to the subject of German and French 
 socialism, which displays some knowledge of the various writers in- 
 cluded in the survey. The writer treats them with unsparing, and, for 
 the most part, just criticism : he perceives their weak points, their 
 mutual variance, and the absurdity of their conclusions ; but never once 
 touches the question which such an examination should have pre- 
 sented to the mind of a thinking man. Another article in the same 
 Review, No. 30, for August, 1861, enters so far into the subject as 
 to concede there may be room for discussion, — there may be a neces- 
 sity of examining theories of human welfare, — there may be a social 
 science. Speaking of Newman's (Political Economy) depreciating 
 •ooialism, the writer remarks : — 
 
 " Among the many merits of Mr. Newman's volume, we cannot rank, how- 
 ever, bin unexoepting depreciation of ttie political force of tlic nocialist move- 
 ment. No movement occupying so large a space in history could possibly be so 
 devoid of positive worth of any kind as he represents socialism to be. In 
 tbie respeet, Mr. Mill, who anticipates much from socialism, seems to entertain 
 the more Jnst and philosophic view." 
 
 Bat the writer is far too deeply steeped in political economy, and 
 too deeply convinced of the perfection of British institutions as they 
 
 31* 
 
366 N 1 E s. 
 
 are, to be able to conceive the importance or breadth of the sul)ject 
 which lay before hira. His glimpse of the truth, however, obliges 
 him to say — 
 
 " Followed out to the utmost, indeed, the spirit of political economy leads to 
 the fatal conclusion — that the conduct of the social life should be left entirely 
 to the spontaneous operation of those laws which have the seat of action in 
 the minds of individuals, without any attempt on the part of society, as such, 
 to exert a controlling influence ; in other words, without allowing to the state, 
 or institutions for general government, any higher function than that of pro- 
 tecting individual freedom. And it is in this respect that political economy 
 has called forth the antagonistic doctrine of socialism. Viewed historically, 
 socialism has certainly some of the marks of a genuine step in the progressive 
 development of the human mind." " The influence of socialism, how- 
 ever, on social science, properly so called, has consisted less in the addition of 
 positive doctrines of any substantial value, than in the general impulse it has 
 given to social speculation. As opposed to political economy, its effect has been 
 to vindicate the right of other laws than those concerned in the acquisition of 
 wealth to a recognition in the social constitution; and also, to reassert, in a 
 new and higher form, the necessity of general government — that is, the scien- 
 tific superiority of the will of society as such, to that of all its members indi- 
 vidually."* 
 
 This is a large concession from that quarter, and a long step in ad- 
 vance of the article on socialism, in the number for August, 1849. 
 It is far from explicit, but it clearly reveals the transition state into 
 which the writer has passed. He begins to perceive that there was 
 something in socialism which he did not see, and that there may pos- 
 sibly be some deficiencies in political economy which he did not con- 
 ceive. He had not yet perceived that political economy, strictly 
 so called, is as much opposed to the spirit of Christianity as it is an- 
 tagonistic to socialism ; or, in other words, that there is far more in 
 common between socialism and Christianity, than there is between 
 the latter and political economy. We make only one more remark, — 
 that this Review, being the organ of one of the most orthodox and 
 enlightened of the Protestant sects, it is hopeful to find its door open- 
 ing for the discussion of social science on its merits, and that the 
 interests of humanity may yet find a place in Scotch theology. 
 
 The Edinburgh Review has long been known for its strict devotion 
 to political economy. This might be exemplified in a way very little 
 to its credit as the friend of humanity. But the light which has hurst 
 
 * North Bridsh Review, No. 30, August, 1851. Article 1. 
 
NOTES. 387 
 
 into the Protestantism of the North British, has reached, also, the in- 
 terior of the Edinburgh. In the first article of the number for 
 January, 1851, we find the following : — 
 
 "It does seem as if the time were come for genius to find a new field for its 
 development and display; and there are many hopeful indications that the 
 pame glorious faculty which has reaped harvests of enduring laurels in most 
 other departments, is about to take up the case of man himself. The time is 
 come for the leading spirits to devote themselves, heart and soul, to the solution 
 of tboM perilous enigmas of life which have so long formed our perplexity and 
 our despair, and to the cure of those social anomalies which darken the fair 
 tue of the modern world, and make us feel, sadly and humbly, how imperfect 
 and partial is the civilization we exult in. It cannot be that the same intellect 
 which has wrung from nature her moat hidden secrets, which has tri- 
 umphed over the most gigantic material obstructions, should not, 
 
 when fairly applied to social and administrative science, be competent to rec- 
 tify our errors and to smooth our path ; unless, indeed, society take refuge in 
 the dreary creed, which never shall be ours, that the problem before us is in< 
 soluble, and the wretchedness around us inherent and incurable." 
 
 These are words of grand promise from a periodical so conservative 
 and influential as the Edinburgh Review. Clearly, the question of 
 human well-being is becoming an open one in Great Britain : it has 
 forced itself upon the attention of the enlightened, in such manner 
 that neither shutting eyes not stopping ears has suflSced to keep it 
 away j neither ridicule, nor scorn, nor denunciation has been able to 
 repress its swelling vigour. The subject must be considered fairly, 
 openly, thoroughly : if met candidly and earnestly, by men in power 
 and men of wealth, it will involve no revolution, but a more faithful 
 performance of Christian duties. 
 
 In 1850, appeared The Method of the Divine Government, Phyncat 
 and Moral, by Rev. Javes McCosh, a Scottish divine, a large and 
 elaborate work, the merits of which were at once admitted, and placed 
 the author in a high rank as a profound thinker and able writer. He 
 eould not, however, traverse the whole field of the providence of God, 
 as had been the habit of the theologians aforetime, without touching, 
 in several points, the growing topic of human welfare : 
 
 "■wr rfaee the days of Adam Smith, we have been seeking to promote a 
 gnat ahsttaethm, which we rail national wealth; and in looking to it, we for- 
 fst that to whSeh It sboald be a mere stepping-stone— national happiness and 
 national Tirtiw. A traveller is filled with admiration of our large factories," Ac. 
 
 ** Bat has he entered the houses in whioh the workmen live? — ^has h« 
 
 sUtan at their boards and viewed their domestic arrangements ?— has he inquired 
 
368 NOTES. 
 
 into the character of woman, as aflfected by the state of society, or her work, 
 which takes her from her family, or renders her unfit for the management of 
 it ? — has he inquired into the training of the rising generation ? — has he visited 
 those humble and humbling abodes, to which the poor and outcast are driven 
 by crime or misfortune ? — has he visited those crowded lanes of our cities, 
 whose physical is not so polluted as their moral atmosphere, but in which the 
 heart — larger than even the imagination — of Dr. Chalmers used to feel a livelier 
 interest than in the gorgeous scenes of natvire he so much admired? If he has 
 done this, he will be ready to doubt whether any country, in any age, has pro- 
 duced a more demoralized or debauched population than the masses to be found 
 in our large cities, (and not a few of our agricultural labourers are no better,) 
 possessing, as they do, little of civilization but its vices, and the knowledge 
 and wealth of the classes above them producing in them only discontent and 
 jealousy."— Pages 263, 264, Am. Ed. 
 
 " It does look as if our earth were waiting for something greater or better than 
 has ever yet been realized." .... " Does it not appear as if these great and 
 beauteous works of God were preserved for a grander purpose than they have 
 ever yet served? — that this air is yet to be breathed by, and the light of these 
 heavenly bodies to shine upon, beings as pure as themselves are?" 
 
 " How universal, too, the restlessness, how deep the groanings and travail- 
 ingsof the human race ! This world is not now and never has been what its in- 
 habitants wish it to be. Hence the constant endeavours to improve it. Whether 
 taken individually or collectively, human kind do not feel themselves to be at 
 
 ease." "What never ending schemes for the improvement of mankind, 
 
 all proceeding on the principle that mankind need to be improved!" 
 
 "Can we suppose such universal desires and expectations would be excited 
 without a deep reason? Do not the universality and the fundamental depth 
 of the desires seem to indicate that they may be gratified?" 
 
 " Let it be frankly admitted that there is progress in the world. There is 
 progress in agriculture, there is progress in all the arts and in all the sciences." 
 
 "But is there to be a physical and intellectual, and no moral progress? 
 
 Is the less to advance and the greater to remain stationary ?" " Some of 
 
 these considerations may be regarded as brought from a distance; yet by their 
 collection and clustering, they seem to us to form a pleasant belt of light — a 
 kind of milky way, hung over our world, in this its dark night, to give light to 
 the traveller who has set out In search of truth." — Pages 467-469. 
 
 These extracts exhibit either the efforts of a deep thinker groping 
 his way in a subject with which he was not yet familiar, or of one 
 who, understanding the subject, was feeling the pulse of his readers, 
 to know how far he might go in aspirations for human progress. In 
 either case, the inquiry arises, how Christian men, believers in the 
 Scriptures, can so wholly overlook the four Gospels as not to perceive 
 the ample light they shed upon these dark problems and deep ima- 
 ginings? lie must either have been labouring in the mists of theology, 
 
NOT E.S. 
 
 or have been afraid to speak out his sentiments in an atmosphere of 
 theology. Few Scottish divines could have ventured upon the career 
 of Dr. Chalmers ; and even with his courage, few could venture upon a 
 subject, the paths of which were so hedged in by the prejudices of 
 education. 
 
 Among the works placed in our hands since we commenced these 
 notes, is The Theory of Human Progression and Natural Prohabiliff/ 
 of a Reign of Justice, (8vo., London and Edinburgh, 1850,) which we 
 regard as a striking evidence of the advance of social science in Great 
 Britain. 
 
 We can only commend it to the reader's notice, as a volume 
 of more than ordinary ability. It is the offspring of a profound 
 thinker, but of one who has not sufficiently explored the whole ground 
 of social science to be an equally safe guide in all places. His chief 
 position is that huowledije is reform — that the increase of knowledge 
 mast be the basis of all human progression. He regards Divine re- 
 velation as an indispensable accompaniment of all other knowle<Tgo, 
 which must ever be kept within Christian limits and inspired with 
 Christian aims. The author does not believe that pauperism comes 
 from Qod : 
 
 " It Is mbn'g doing, and man's doing alone. Qod has abundantly supplunl 
 man with all the means of support; and where he cannot find support, wc mu«l 
 Bot look to the arrangements of the Almighty, but to those of men, and to 
 the mode In which they have portioned out the earth. To charge the poverty 
 of man on God, is to blaiipheroe the Creator, instead of bowing down in reve- 
 rent tLankfalnew for the profusion of his goodness. lie has given enough, 
 abundano*, more than sufficient; and if man has not enough, we must look to 
 the mode in which God's gift* have been distributed. There is enough, enough 
 for all, abundantly enough; «Dd all that is requisite, is freedom to lal>our ou 
 the soil and extract flrom it the produce that Ood int4>ndi!d for man's support." 
 ** If we find, at one end of society, a few thousand individuals with enor- 
 mous wealth, for which they work not, and never have worked, and on the 
 other end of society, millions l)om on the same soil, with barely the necessa- 
 ries of life, and too often in atjject destitution, there is no other possible con- 
 clusion than that this poverty arises from man's arrangements." "If 
 
 Englishmen discover that j>«iip<rlsm and wret«-hedni;ps are unnecessary ; that 
 the Divine Being never int«*nded such things; that the degradation of the 
 labouring population, their moral degradation consequent on poverty, is the 
 earw of the laws, and not of nature, does any man suppose that Englishmen 
 Wpold not be Justifled in abolishing such law^ or that they will not abolish 
 thenr— Page 31.V:n&. 
 
 Thi« writer i« a vehement opi^nent of the whole theory of political 
 
370 NOTES. 
 
 economy, as now held by the chiefs of that school. He states his 
 objections strongly, and, we think, convincingly. They are so well 
 founded, that we may wonder why he did not take the welfare of man, 
 which he avers to be the true object of political economy, as the subject 
 of his volume. It would have formed a much clearer radiating point 
 for his inquiries than the indefinite term knowledge. He thus com- 
 mits the very error, and indulges in the very same kind of fallacy 
 which lead astray the writers of political economy : he exalts the 
 means above the end. Knowledge is a means of human progression, 
 an indispensable means ; but human welfare is only to be achieved by 
 a variety of means — knowledge among the rest. So industry, wealth, 
 and commerce are means of human welfare, and can only be properly 
 treated in that aspect. The attempt to construct a science out of the 
 facts of industry, wealth, and commerce, without any regard to hu- 
 man well-being, or to any moral considerations, is as baseless as 
 knowledge, apart from men to knoio. The leading imperfection of this 
 very creditable performance may be traced to this erroneous starting- 
 point. 
 
 A work which attracts much attention, appeared a fevr months since 
 in London, with the title, Social Statics, by Herbert Spencer. It is 
 apparently an attempt to consecrate some of the more refined of the 
 Malthusian doctrines, by placing them on more specious grounds, and 
 assuming new data and a more popular line of argument : it comes to 
 the aid of the political economists, by offering them a basis for their 
 whole fabric different from that which they ever claimed. It comes 
 to the aid of the English institutions, not only by assuming a theory 
 of society which adopts the views of the few who hold the power and 
 the wealth of the country, but by starting from the present distribu- 
 tion of power, rank and wealth, with the position that the perfection 
 of society consists in the perfect liberty of every individual to do 
 what he pleases, provided he infringes not the liberty or rights of 
 others. That is, the present distribution of the good things of this 
 world must not be changed in the United Kingdom ; but that being 
 conceded, the man of power and the man without, the man of wealth 
 and the pauper, should each have the largest and most perfect liberty 
 consistent with their not touching each other. This is the highest and 
 most ingenious sublimation of English political philosophy which has 
 yet been given to the world ; and it is given forth under the plausible 
 colours of the largest liberty. It forbids the thought of charity or 
 brotherhood or sacrifice; it consecrates selfishness and individual- 
 
NOTES. 1^ 
 
 ism as the prime feature of society. It forbids all deliberation for the 
 common good — all legislation for the present good of the greatest 
 number. Its principle is, the least possible restriction, the fewest 
 possible enactments — the weak must be left to their weakness, the 
 strong must be trusted with their strength, the unprotected must not 
 look for favour, and government must resolve itself into the lowest 
 possible agent of non-intervention. 
 
 It may be hoped this is the last specimen we shall see of that philo- 
 sophy which aims to exalt the present institutions of society into the 
 first principles of social science. This volume of Mr. Spencer is 
 characterized by clearness and severe logic, and the ability of the 
 writer increases the regret that it is not employed in the service of 
 humanity. When a logical mind like his shall, in a survey of social 
 ttatica, set his compass from the point of human welfare, we shall see 
 him developTng a very different system from that which we have 
 noticed. It will be a system in which public good will be pursued 
 with a view to individual welfare ; in which politics, political economy, 
 and Christianity will be found blending their efforts and interests in 
 the sole consideration of social happiness ; in which selfishness will 
 not be consecrated, under the name of the largest individual liberty, 
 as a fundamental principle of society, but self-denial and mutual 
 kindness taken as the basis of liuman society. 
 
 The following works, omitted in the catalogue at page 294, are 
 worthy of being consulted : — 
 
 EsMja on the Principlos of Charitable TngtitutionR, Stc, London, 1836 
 
 Tb« Wrongs of Mar, by Wm. Planning, 8vo., London, 1838 
 
 The Claims of Labour— Duties of Employers and Employed, 12mo., 
 
 London, ^ 1845 
 
 The Elevation of the People, Moral, Infltructional, and Social, by Rev. 
 
 Th. Milnor, Svo., Tendon, 1846 
 
 Over-population and Its Remedy, by Wm. Thomas Thornton, 8vo., London, 1846 
 An Analysis of the Occupations of the People of Great Britain, Wm. P. 
 
 Bpsckman, 8to. London, 1847 
 
 The Organlxation of Indostry, by T. C. Banfleld, Sto., London, 1S48 
 
87S NOTES. 
 
 PROTESTANTISM. 
 
 Whatever advantages many sects may enjoy in point of orthodoxy, 
 purity of doctrine, and knowledge of revelation, the mass of Protest- 
 ants have no special grounds of complacency. In proportion t^o their 
 light, their privileges, and their mental freedom, their advances in pure 
 Christianity are by no means so creditable as generally assumed. 
 There is more ground for recent assertions of Catholic authorities, 
 that Protestantism is declining, than is admitted. The Catholics 
 did not perceive that true religion was gaining even where Protest- 
 antism was crumbling, nor did they perceive, when they made this 
 boast, that Christianity would become for them a far more formidable 
 adversary than Protestantism. When Christianity has made all the 
 conquests which belong to its career, the Christian will look back upon 
 Protestant history with grief and mortification, that so much light 
 and so many privileges were so long abused under cover of a hard 
 and unprofitable theology. We might multiply quotations to this 
 effect, from other sources than Papal writers, but restrict ourselves to 
 a very few. We have already referred to (ante 347) Conferences xipon 
 (Christianity in its Application to Social Questions, by the Rev. Ed. 
 De Pressense, a Protestant and evangelical pastor in Paris. From 
 this volume, which deserves the profound study of Protestants in other 
 quarters of Christendom, we offer another passage : — 
 
 '• But the social question is nothing else at this day than the dp^rt'e of pre- 
 dominance to be allowed to charity in our institutions. It was this principle 
 of charity which should have been graven upon men's consciences, and we 
 now know why the Protestant dogma could not do it." 
 
 " If we are willing to be convinced of the insufficiency of Protestantism to 
 diriHit society in the transformations it is now undergoing, we have only to 
 look at the attitude it assumes in regard to the social questions of the day. It 
 h;is shown itself indififerent or hostile to this movement: in Germany, France, 
 England, and Switzerland, the real Protestants have refused to entertain this 
 question ; and in their just opposition to socialism, they have smothered the 
 very legitimate question of which socialism lias usurped the place. This is 
 specially to be remarked in England; for, if there is one country more than 
 another where a question touching the interests of humanity should have 
 been favourably regarded, that was England. Close to the magnificent resi- 
 dences of the aristocracy, the manufacturing towns conceal more miseries than 
 we can conceive; and Ireland, suffering the tortures of famishing poverty, 
 
 continually stares her in the face." «If England, then, displays such a 
 
 hideous exhibition of poverty, we must infer that there is not in the religious 
 
NOTES. 373 
 
 spirit which rules there, an inspiration Strong enough to lift the public mind 
 into the career of wise social reform." 
 
 " We have very strong proof that the weakness of Protestantism cannot be 
 attributed to second causes, but must be laid at its own door — it is everywhere 
 crumbling."* 
 
 " In England it seems to preserve intact its ancient form, because the revo- 
 lutions which have shaken the continent have not penetrated there ; but from 
 the day it shall penetrate, wherever the heated wave strikes, that ancient form 
 
 must yield." "In Germany, where social and political questions have 
 
 long been largely discussed, Protestantism is routed." 
 
 " In France, Protestantism wields so little power, that many are disposed to 
 inquire where it is concealed ; and it does well to hide its miserably degraded 
 condition. It cannot assume here the name of a church. Weak and small, 
 yet so divided that we cannot return a united response to any question. Sad 
 state ! proving that Protestantism in France, as elsewhere, has had its day." — 
 Page 214. 
 
 • 
 
 M. Pressense insists that the Catholics annihilate the principle of 
 
 charity by their system, which exhibits God as only granting his par- 
 don to our good works ; that is, paying us the wages of our labour. 
 It implies no love, no compassion in the Deity. 
 
 The Protestant system is, he alleges, scarcely less erroneous. It 
 exhibits the sovereignty of God so nakedly and so constantly in its 
 teachings, that those revelation^ of his word showing him to be a God 
 of Love, as well as of Infinite Power and Justice, blending his attri- 
 butes into that perfection of Judgment and Mercy which we adore, are 
 lost from sight Charity expires under a theology so ungenial to its 
 nature. (Page 202.) 
 
 In reference to Protestant theology, we are reminded that it is im- 
 portant not only to hold to right doctrines, but to keep them in the 
 right place, assigning to ettch their due prominence. We must wear 
 our garments in their proper order, if wo would be perfectly clothed. 
 The Christian who dwells only upon God's aovereignty, and speaks 
 only of God's immutable decrees, cannot but lose the harmony which 
 should reign in Christian life and demeanour. 
 
 For an article containing some wholesome truths for Protestants, we 
 commend to the reader the Battle of the Churches, in the Westminster 
 Review, No. 1 08, for January, 1851. It ii well at times to be taught by 
 
 * Since 1849, tbe date of H. PreraensA's publication, English Protestantism 
 bas been shaken to its basis, and is certainly in danger, if not already 
 crumbling. 
 
 32 
 
374 NOTES. 
 
 our enemies, and the extract in' that article, from Mr. Newman, who 
 writes under all the rancour of a fresh family quarrel, giving unmis- 
 takeable evidence of his willingness to point out Protestant failings 
 without mercy and without compunction, may furnish food for thought 
 and motives for self-examination, if not grounds for profound humilia- 
 tion. 
 
 We know there is a vast deal of complacency and pride among us 
 Protestants, and if any thing can justify such a feeling, there may be 
 many grounds for this self-satisfaction. Our minds are free from the 
 bondage of Romanism, we perceive clearly the iniquities of priestcraft, 
 we have the Scriptures, read them freely, and exalt them to the skies 
 as divine in their origin and teachings, we build imposing and costly 
 temples for the worship of God, we punctually attend upon that 
 worship at the summons of the church-going bell, long lines of well- 
 clad, decently behaved, genteel people crowd the walks and roads 
 which lead to the house of God ; luxurious seats are weekly filled with 
 these order-loving people, attending upon the regular preaching of the 
 word, and giving ear to the strains of the organ or the efiforts of the 
 choir ; the weekly meeting for prayer sends up its stated supplications, 
 the Sunday-school gathers in multitudes of children, the regular agents 
 of the church and its religious and benevolent institutions are yearly 
 enriched with large contributions. But in all this, however much 
 there is to admire and love, there may be none, and very often is very 
 little true Christianity. Many true Christians mingle in this external 
 pageant of religion, as doubtless do many in the Papal churches, but in 
 neither case is the external exhibition any essential part of religion. 
 It may not be all wrong — it may be all right — it may be a means of 
 grace, but it should never be mistaken, as it is extensively, for Chris- 
 tianity. It is the foreground of a picture, in which there is much to 
 delight the eye and gratify the taste, a beautiful blending of colours 
 and fine outlines : but there is a dark, unregarded background in the 
 depths of the picture. When an individual of one of the forsaken 
 classes in London was asked what his class thought of religion, the 
 reply showed he had seen the picture : — " Religion is not for the likes 
 of us ; it's for the great and rich people." In this deep, deep back- 
 ground are the masses of humanity, far outnumbering those in the 
 front : there is poverty, pauperism, misery ; there is ignorance, envy, 
 hatred, and crime ; there are willing hands and nothing for them to do; 
 there is unrequited labour; there is famine, disease, and premature 
 death. 
 
NOTES. 375 
 
 Protestants have not invited this neglected multitude to the enter- 
 tainment of Christianity; it has not gone into the streets and high- 
 ways to bring in the poor to the house of feasting; the courts and 
 lanes and alleys have not been visited, to constrain the wretched 
 to come in and fill up the vacant seats in Protestant churches. How 
 differently would the picture strike the beholder if suddenly trans- 
 formed in a perfect representation of Christianity ! The stately temples 
 would fade away, and whole masses of suffering humanity would rise 
 to view : instead of the long lines of orderly people in the path to 
 church, we should see hosts of good Samaritans hurrying through 
 crowds of the poor, pouring in oil and wine, and speaking everywhere 
 words of life and comfort, in the name of Christ ; and while myriads 
 of hands were eagerly thrust out for the cup of cold water, as many 
 would eagerly extend it to parched lips. Praise would no longer go 
 up merely fro'm this mountain or that, but from every heart, in every 
 place. The gospel would be preached to the poor, and the disciples 
 would be as well known by their loving one another, as they are now 
 distinguished by strife, bigotry, and estrangement. 
 
 Protestantism has a fearful account to render for abused privileges 
 and wilful blindness, for exalting theology above charity, for lead- 
 ing children to theology instead of to Christ, and thus giving them 
 a etone in place of bread, for discarding humanity, for abjuring the 
 brotherhood of man and substituting sectarian exclusiveness and bit- 
 terness. It would be easy to prolong this accusation — but it is enough 
 to excite reflection. Let it not be thought that these charges bear 
 with as much force against individual Christians as against Protestant- 
 ism and its sects. A crime of society is often the accumulation of 
 centuries. Such evils are fplt by many who are powerless to remedy 
 them. How many lament the effects on their minds of a religious 
 education encumbered by superstitions or fettered by a useless 
 tbeolog^ ! They find themselves cooped up in the frame-work of a 
 system they can neither escape nor modify nor overthrow. Christian 
 men are not acting freely ; their paths of active duty are not marked 
 out by the precepts of Christ, but according to the arrangements of 
 man. They cannot oppose the church without scandal : they cannot 
 obey Christ without being eccentric- Fetters of man's invention are 
 now TMtraining the movements of thousands of intelligent Christians, 
 who long for the liberty of the gospel, — to be free in Christ 
 They are restrained by the consideration that they must not so use 
 their liberty as to offend weak brctlirt-n, or by the prejudices of their 
 
376 NOTES. 
 
 own education. These are truly orthodox, evangelical Christians, 
 whose great desire is to place Christian charity at the head of Chris- 
 tian graces, where it belongs. 
 
 There are multitudes, on the other hand, whose only mode of show- 
 ing their zeal for religion is a rigid observance of the established 
 usages of their church, a prompt appeal to its standards in cases of 
 doubt. To such a degree of assurance does this narrowness of the mind 
 arrive, that men, while indulging a spirit at war with the very essence 
 of Christianity, look upon many around them with the condescension 
 of pity or the unconcern of conscious superiority. Love for the human 
 family is a sentiment to which they are utter strangers : they can rise 
 no higher in their efforts for it, than contributions or labours to bring 
 converts to their particular denomination. These are the Pharisees of 
 modern times. Their faults are the result of their education. They 
 are men who, under proper training, would have been real benefactors of 
 their race; but their theology, which is perhaps sound, has smothered 
 the heart, instead of reforming and guiding it, and has absorbed in- 
 stead of having sanctified their affections. 
 
 It is a serious mistake to claim infallibility for Protestantism : we 
 take the Scriptures, which are unerring, for our guide, but our fallibility 
 is displayed at every step, not only in interpretation of what is doubt- 
 ful, but in our imperfect compliance with what is perfectly plain. We 
 must not forget that human nature is as prone to evil among us as among 
 others; and that the enemy is as active among us as he is in the 
 Papal camp. We must not be surprised, indeed, if his greatest feats 
 of cunning and power are directed against us. It was indeed a mas- 
 terly sti'oke of policy to win a signal advantage, in the very hour 
 of his overthrow at the Reformation. The Reformers were bent on 
 extricating the truth from the mass of papal rubbish, and on erecting 
 a structure of sound theology : they were resolved upon having the 
 Bible in their own hands, to decide for themselves. Theological con- 
 troversies without limit furnished them full employment for their time 
 and full use for their Bibles: mounted on their own hobby, the Re- 
 formers rode hard, and they rode far. They had the Scriptures, but the 
 enemy carefully hid from their sight, in the excitement of controvei'sy, 
 the precepts, the parables, the seiroons of Christ — these were of no 
 use in theological polemics, and very inopportune in a period when 
 strife raged and all the evil passions were in full exercise. The Scrip- 
 tures were used freely and constantly in this warfare upon matters of 
 faith, to vindicate the truth ; but they were little heeded in their in- 
 
NOTES. 877 
 
 stractions as to conduct and conversation. Spiritual perception was 
 wide awake in matters of controversy, but asleep in those of charity. 
 These controversies even yet continue, and theology is yet enlarging 
 its boundaries. The Scriptures for three centuries have been chiefly 
 thus applied. If the heat of the contest has abated, and if interest in 
 theology has diminished — if the cries of humanity are coming up 
 in our ears from all Christendom, and we are compelled to search the 
 Scriptures anew, to discover whether there is any thing there appli- 
 cable to the demands of poverty, oppression, and misery — we find this 
 long forgotten and unused life of Christ, his precepts, sermons, and 
 parables, whose instructions cover the whole gi-ound and meet the 
 whole case. But, unfortunately, our standards, creeds, confessions of 
 faith, catechisms, and manuals of devotion were drawn up by men 
 more versed in polemics, more engaged in the heat of religious con- 
 troversy, than versed in the principles of peace, mercy, kindness, and 
 charity ; unfortunately our whole Protestant literature, our whole reli- 
 gious education has all come from the same mint. The life and pre- 
 cepts of Christ are not incorporated in our religious ideas. AVe cannot, 
 therefore, instantly apply them. We require time to cast the old skin 
 and come out clothed in new garments of love, mercy, and peace. 
 It was, indeed, worthy the cunning of our great spiritual enemy, thus 
 to cheat the Reformation of half its truth and half its energy; but his 
 skill has been not less manifested in later times, by giving to all the 
 sayings and doings of the Reformers the sanction of age and the bul- 
 wark of conservatism: having emasculated Protestantism at its birth, 
 he now rallies all the sober, substantial, conservative clergy, and all 
 the rich, substantia], satisfied laymen, in defence of the noble band of 
 Reformers who so valiantlj^ fought the battles of the Reformation. 
 To desert them, it is urged, would be to desert Christianity. It is 
 Ttrttially admitted that the Scriptures are insufficient without the 
 explanations of these men of battle and storm; and that our theology, 
 bom in the beat of religious controversy, is our only safeguard, even 
 at this day. The Jews fastened their traditions upon the Old Testa- 
 ment Scriptares, the Papists concealed the whole Bible in the ma- 
 chinery of their church, and the Protestants cannot escape the charge 
 of overlaying the Scriptures with a mass of theology, in the shape of 
 ereeds, articles, catechisms, standards, platforms, confessions of faith, 
 and manaals of devotion. Let these formularies be examined simply 
 in the light of Christ's teachings, and their coldness, dryness, and 
 inconsistency with the true spirit of Christianity will be manifest. 
 32* 
 
378 NOTES. 
 
 They breathe none of the spirit of kindness, mercy, and charity of 
 Him whcse ministry was among the poor, and whose miraculous 
 powers were chiefly exerted to feed the hungry and heal the diseased. 
 Christ's life and teachings were not deemed available in the contests 
 of the Reformation, and were, therefore, not incorporated into the 
 systems of that day. And now they are to be deemed inadmissible, 
 because they come too late — the divines of that day and a century or 
 so later having settled the whole frame-work of our Protestant reli- 
 gion. Taking as a sample of these compends of theology, one of the 
 latest and most admired specimens, one that is, perhaps, the most 
 faithfully taught and the most highly venerated by the denominations 
 who receive it as their vade meeum, the Shorter Catechism drawn up 
 by the Westminster Assembly of Divines, we ask a moment's attention 
 to its main features. This catechism, framed with singular aptness, 
 precision, and vigour of expression, is placed by several large denomi- 
 nations of Christians in the hands of children of the tenderest years : 
 it is pressed upon their attention and memories as the best religious 
 instruction which can be given them, as the very marrow and essence 
 of Christianity. It teaches the doctrines of the Trinity, of the decrees 
 of God, of Providence, of original sin, or the fall of man with Adam; 
 the covenant of works, the co^'enant of grace, election, eternal Sonship, 
 Christ made man, the offices of Christ as Prophet, Priest, and King; 
 his humiliation, exaltation, and death ; of justification, adoption, sanc- 
 tification ; of the resurrection, of tlae obligation of the ten command- 
 ments, of eternal punishment, of faith in Christ, of repentance, of the 
 sacraments of baptism and the Lord's Supper ; concluding with a few 
 questions on the Lord's Prayer. And this is the milk with which 
 their babes are fed — this is the fountain to which good people carry 
 their children. Christ said, " Suffer little children to come unto me ;" 
 and, although these people have Christ in the Gospels, his very words 
 intelligible to children, abounding in the most simple and touching 
 lessons, in a form the most interesting for the tender mind of children, 
 and containing injunctions suited to every age and every walk in life, 
 these are all made to give way to this compend of mere theology.*" 
 Is this bringing children to Christ? Is this honouring his instruc- 
 
 * We have just noticed a work on charity, by the great Jonathan Edwards, 
 advertised as now in the press. It is rather a remarkable fact, and somewhat 
 indicative of the Protestant estimation of that subject, that such a work should 
 have been permitted to sleep a century, during which time not a volume on 
 that topic was extant in the English language. See post 384. 
 
NOTES. 3(7$ 
 
 tions ? But how does it look, in an epitome of Chnstianity, to pass 
 unnoticed the comprehensive precepts of Christ, reaching so deep into 
 the heart and stretching so wide into human obligations, substituting 
 the decalogue and applying all possible power of enlargement to 
 make it reach the ground so explicitly covered by the very searching 
 injunctions of Christ? Let any unprejudiced man compare this en- 
 largement with the special sermons of Christ, and he must inquire, 
 with amazement, what could have been the motive for the substitu- 
 tion? The words of Christ extend to our whole outward and inward 
 duty, and need no paraphrase. They should be impressed upon the 
 minds of children from infancy upwards. They constitute a practical 
 guide for our duty to God and to man, and are, therefore, of daily 
 and incessant application. They refer to our conduct, and direct our 
 Christian life and conversation — therefore, perhaps, they have been 
 left out The framers were far more concerned about faith than 
 works, and they passed over all of Christ except his ofl5ces, if we ex- 
 cept the Lord's prayer, which is specially distinguished. The Reform- 
 ers, and the successors to their vocation and spirit, always inculcated 
 prayer. They could not rise to the conception of charity, and mercy, 
 and peace, but they could pray devoutly, and loud, and long. They 
 were willing to call upon God, but they failed to preach the gospel to 
 the poor. They could stand up and make long prayers — they could 
 pray in secret, and with earnestness, but the kindness of brotherly 
 love was almost a stranger to their bosoms. In the judgment of 
 charity, there have been hosts of such men who were true Christians, 
 not according to the measure of their own estimation, but according 
 to the grace of Christ, which perceives a spark of faith far less than a 
 "grain of mustard-seed." - 
 
 Whatever may have been the number and value of the children of 
 ibe Reformotion, Charity is yet to be bum. We may rejoice that 
 Christendom is now in labour. If Christians can now be brought to 
 know and do what is right, charity will be the fruit of these throes, 
 and the world will be gladdened to see the brightest and loveliest 
 offspring of Christianity. 
 
380 NOTES. 
 
 A CASE SUPPOSED UPON THE SUBJECT OF VARIOUS 
 INTERPRETATIONS OF THE BIBLE. 
 
 Let us suppose that an ardent friend of the truth has found in his 
 missionary tours a large number of people who are strangers to the 
 Bible and its contents. The good messenger of the gospel hastens to 
 place in their hands the holy volume which points out the way of 
 eternal blessedness, and by his earnest exhortation and amiable de- 
 portment obtains assurance that the good book shall be carefully read. 
 In due time the missionai'y invites his beneficiai-ies of the Bible to 
 communicate their impressions. He finds their views differing with 
 every different mind, from the closest adherence to the letter to the 
 widest limit of liberal construction — he finds opinions corresponding, 
 in greater or less degree, to all the sects of Christendom. Some pro- 
 fess their confidence and full faith in the whole volume, some in por- 
 tions ; some cling to the letter, others to the spirit; some announce it 
 as a spirit of eternal life, but clothed in earthly habiliments; some re- 
 ceive it as a veritable and entire revelation from heaven ; others as 
 only containing heavenly truths mingled with human statements — as 
 containing a mass from which we may select the important declara- 
 tions which convey the message of eternal life; some admire the 
 history of the Old Testament, and the morals of the New; some, the 
 poetic portions of the Old Testament and the benign precepts of the 
 New ; some find the Trinity clearly taught ; others, while they receive 
 the Bible as the word of God, Christ as their Saviour, and the Holy 
 Spirit as their Sanctifier, cannot receive the doctrine of the Trinity ; 
 some find warrant for believing in a great mysterious mystical body, 
 called the church, while others believe that Christ enjoins no form 
 of organization upon his followers, leaving them to adopt such, in all 
 circumstances, as they may deem most effective, most suited to pecu- 
 liar cases — that the organization and the form of the ministry may be 
 unfolded and gradually shaped by the piety of the people, and not 
 that this piety can be dependent upon any form of church government 
 or ecclesiastical arrangement — that no other creed or confession or 
 manual of piety is required than the New Testament itself. 
 
 A much greater variety of opinion was manifested by these stu- 
 dents of the Bible, among which were many who could perceive no 
 
NOTES. 381 
 
 beauty nor truth in its pages, and some who were disposed to regard 
 the whole as an invention of impostors. 
 
 Our missionary replied to this candid expression of the views of hia 
 Bible readers, that he had much reason to be gratified by the evident 
 attention which had been given to the holy book he had placed in their 
 hands, and thus continued : — " I am not surprised to find a wide di- 
 versity of opinion among you. It could not be otherw^ise, as God has 
 constituted the human mind : if we judge for ourselves, our judgments 
 must be dififerent, for our minds are no more cast in the same mould 
 than our faces. Diversity is a characteristic of the world and its 
 creatures. There is even much diversity in each one of us at difierent 
 times. God could easily have given us his word in such a form that 
 no shadow of doubt could have rested upon any passage, and no room 
 have been left for inquiry, or thought, or weighing of conclusions. 
 He has not done so. The course of His providence, as well as the 
 nature of his revelation, shows that his mode of dealing with men is, 
 to place before them, constantly, that which must exercise all their 
 mental and moral powers. As by bodily exercise the muscles are 
 developed in size and improved in strength and facility of motion, so, 
 in the order of God's laws, the powers of the soul expand with exercise 
 and attain increasing energy and activity. You differ widely in your 
 construction of God's word, because you vary in mind, in knowledge, 
 in judgment, in mental habits, and because there are varieties also in 
 your moral constitution. If you were all willing to be guided implicitly 
 by me, giving up your conclui^ions for mine, it oould not benefit you, 
 because God knows your real opinions, and, in His view, acquiescence 
 is not faith, and sincerity is better tlian mere profesaion. According 
 to my understanding of the^ Scriptures, some of you have seized the 
 whole truth and have found the way of life, and some of you have 
 found a Saviour, who have not perceived the whole truth ; some of 
 you have a very clear view of the letter of the word without having 
 attained, perhaps, to the spiritual meaning; there is a line, seen only 
 by the eye of Oo«l, between those of you, whether wholly right or not, 
 who believe unto salvation, and those who come fatally short No 
 haauui hand can trace that line. I bcf^oech you all to strive that 
 yoa may not at last come short of a saving knowledge. You have 
 mcftfy iMgun the ttady of the Scriptures ; a long life will not exhaust 
 tbdr leMon* of wisdom. But stop not, as too many do, in their more 
 lea rn ing and ezpositioB, study rather their spiritual meaning and their 
 fweral scope. Let every step you make in the knowledge of tba 
 
382 NOTES. 
 
 Scriptures be exemplified in your life. I have not the least doubt, 
 that the highest attainments in God's word are only made by those 
 who exemplify strictly what they learn. It is only when Christian 
 experience accompanies Christian wisdom that the spiritual under- 
 standing is opened. To such only is it given to understand the truths 
 which lie hidden from those who, having eyes, see not, and having ears 
 hear not, the truths of the gospel. I cannot point out the line of fatal 
 error which runs between you, but I can, with some certainty, by your 
 future lives, tell who is travelling heavenward. I shall entertain 
 strong hopes of all who cling to this book as their rule of life, even 
 though they may, in my estimation, err greatly in its interpretation. 
 To those who are alarmed at the doctrine of eternal decrees and 
 God's foreknowledge, let me say there is nothing more difficult in that 
 than in the existence of such a world as this with such people in it. 
 If we cannot reconcile our free will with God's decrees, he has removed 
 all practical difficulty out of our way, by making our wills free and 
 making us responsible for our acts. It cannot be otherwise, according 
 to the clear tenor of the Scriptures, than that we are free to choose 
 between eternal life and death ; and it cannot be otherwise than that 
 God foreknows whatsoever is to come to pass. This is enough for us. 
 But there remains a class of you to whom I must say a word : — You 
 who perceive no truth in the Scriptures and do not regard them as a 
 message from God. I am sorry, most sorry, but I do not despair : I 
 have known many entertaining the same views to change them. Let 
 me exhort you to keep in mind, that if you are in error, it is a fatal 
 error, one which entails eternal and unavailing repentance. You 
 should be very sure before you adopt such opinions. I shall not 
 cease to pray for you, hope for you, and do all I can to aid you. 
 
 "I might regard you all as the representatives of the various 
 churches or sects to whose opinions you respectively make the nearest 
 approach ; and you who put no faith in the Bible, I might range with 
 the unbelievers of the world. But I prefer to have all look at the 
 subject from a different point of view. There is much less diversity in 
 what, as Christians, we have to do, than in what we may believe. The 
 mind is able to traverse far more ground than the body ; a greater 
 arena is therefore given for its exercises. I wish you to agree in what 
 is to be done for your fellow-men and yourselves, and leave you, while 
 in harmony of action, a wide divergency of belief. I ask you to keep 
 the Bible in your hands, striving to realize the spirit and main object 
 of its instructions. I know there must be a diversity of interpreta- 
 
NOTES. 383 
 
 tion ; bat whilst you are unable to agree iu many points of doctrine, 
 you all agree that your chief duties are to love God and be a brother 
 and a helper to your fellow-man ; on this broad platform yoxi may all 
 travel heavenward in harmonj', making your differences of opinion in 
 other matters continual occasion for the exercise of charity and for- 
 bdaracce ; not forgetting, however, that the great use of these differ- 
 ences is to stimulate and strengthen the mind to increased efforts after 
 truth. While we, therefore, sharpen our perceptions and quicken our 
 pursuit of the truth, let all undue struggle and collision be moderated 
 by labours of love and mercy. If our theology — our divinity be not 
 blended with humanity it cannot be genuine. Our Saviour was not 
 only the Son of God; he was also the Son of man. 
 
 The case here supposed, has occurred in part. The Bible has been 
 scattered broadcast for half a century ; it has been sent forth without 
 paraphrase or explanations. Its truths are diffused among the nations 
 of the earth. The result is various, and may be readily seen by close 
 observers. The most remarkable is that which is seen in the univer- 
 sal movement in favour of human well-being. Never, since the world 
 began, was such a voice raised in behalf of humanity. It is daily 
 growing in force and in extent. Can any one imagine any fountain 
 from which all this charity could have flowed, but the Gospels? There 
 is no human source which could have furnished the opinions which 
 are now proclaimed, or excited the feelings of human sympathy now 
 prevalent Let us then welcome back the bread which was thrown 
 upon the waters, even though it may have gathered impurities from 
 exposure and improper contact Let us hear the report from all who 
 come with the Bible in their hands, and let us treat them kindly, aid 
 them when we can, and, if need be, let us be humble enough to receive 
 instraction from those who have had the Bible free from all the tram- 
 mels of prejudice, early education, and systematic theology. It is 
 possible that these new students may bring up truths, or applications 
 of troths, which have escaped those who preceded them. It is very 
 certain that those whose minds have not parsed through the theology 
 of the Reformation, almost always fasten upon the life and instructions 
 of Christ as the most interesting and precious portion of the volume. 
 These hare passed from month to mouth, and are now throughout 
 Europe beginning to leaven the whole mass of the population, and 
 thence the general cry for the amelioration of the condition of the in- 
 ferior elasses. 
 
384 NOTES. 
 
 JONATHAN EDWARDS ON CHARITY. 
 
 Since the publication of this volume, Charity and ita Fruits, by th« 
 greatest of New-England divines, has appeared. It is really extra- 
 ordinary that such a work should have been suffered to sleep a century 
 unearthed and unread. Even now this strange resurrection creates no 
 sensation among those whose business it is to teach, and whose large 
 libraries previously contained no such book. By some of these it is 
 apparently deemed no great prize, being welcomed coldly, whilst an 
 eager inquiry is made after that icork on Church Govertwient which is 
 said to be still buried among the MSS. of Jonathan Edwards. 
 
 Ah ! what is Charity to Church Government ? Is what the people 
 need most, in the view of such, not charity, but ecclesiastical control ; 
 not love, but organization; not freedom, but constraint; not the 
 simple, spontaneous service of their common Lord, but power and 
 management; not the quiet shepherd going in and out before his 
 flock, but the shepherd heading and driving, binding, cribbing, and 
 shearing ? 
 
 The exposition of 1 Cor. xiii., by Edwards, is a very wonderful work 
 for the period in which it was written. It is limited in its range, like 
 that of J. A. James, by its plan. But though the design of Edwards did 
 not lead him to a full treatise upon Charity in all the extent to which it 
 is preached by Christ, he frequently expresses his views in such strong 
 terms as leave no doubt of the fulness of his conception. We offer the 
 following extracts : — 
 
 " All the virtue that is saving, and that distinguishes true Christians from 
 others, is summed up in Christian love." " And by the apostle's mention- 
 ing so many and so high things, and then saying of them all that they profited 
 nothing without charity, we may justly conclude that there is nothing at all that 
 avails any thing without it. Let a man have what he will and do what he will, 
 it signifies nothing without charity, which surely implies that charity is the 
 great thing, that every thing which has not charity in some way contained or 
 implied in it is nothing, and that this charity is the life and soul of all religion, 
 without which all things that wear the name of virtues are empty and vain." — 
 P. 4, 5. 
 
 This is a strong condemnation of many creeds, confessions, and com- 
 pends of Christianity, which contain no statement of the doctrine of 
 Christian Charity, and no proper inculcation of its corresponding 
 duties. 
 
A PRIZE OF FH^ HUNDRED DOLLARS,* 
 
 FOR A TREATISE OP REAL MERIT, TO BE FURNISHED WITHIN TWO 
 
 YEARS, AND WmCH, WHEN COMPARED WITH ALL PRODUCED, 
 
 SHALL BE ADJUDGED THE BEST, 
 
 UPON THE LAW OE DOCTRINE OF CHRISTIAN CHARITY, 
 AS TAUGHT AND EXEMPLIFIED BY CHRIST AND 
 HIS DISCIPLES. 
 
 The scope of such a treatise should include all the 
 instructions of Christ and of his apostles hearing 
 on the subject. 
 
 The question should be examined whether the 
 moral law is to be regarded as coming to us chiefly 
 or mainly from the words of Christ and his apostles, 
 or from the Decalogue, as developed and expanded 
 by uninspired writers. 
 
 * Persons disposed to assist in raising this prize to $1000 
 
 will plense commnnicate their address, with the amount they are 
 
 willing to gi?e, to the author or publishers of this yolume. The 
 
 names of the persons to adjudge the prize, and the sum to 
 
 which it may be increased, and any other information desired, 
 
 frill be communicated to any who may inquire 
 
 83 : 
 
PROPOSED TREATISE ON THE 
 
 The various creeds, articles, compends, confes- 
 sions of faith, and other summaries of Christianity, 
 emanating from or used by Protestants, should be 
 examined with reference to their deficiencies in the 
 element of charity. This examination may be ac- 
 companied by suggestions of revision and amend- 
 ment. 
 
 All that is recommended or enjoined by Christ 
 and his apostles in reference to the duties and de- 
 meanour of men toward each other, and in reference 
 to the manner and motives of their conduct, should 
 be considered and treated as a development of the 
 doctrine of Christian Charity, constituting a system 
 of Christian morality with applications to the chief 
 relations and business of life. 
 
 This will include, of course, — "Thou shalt love 
 thy neighbour as thyself;" and, "As ye would that 
 men should do to you, do ye also to them likewise ;" 
 and also the due consideration of all the kindly 
 affections and mutual good offices which all men 
 owe to their fellow-men : 
 
 The forgiveness of injuries. 
 
 The granting of favours without hope of reward. 
 
DOCTRINE OF CHRISTIAN CHARITY. lU 
 
 The loving our enemies and those who despite- 
 fully use us. 
 
 The being peacemakers ; placable ; self-denying ; 
 easy to be entreated ; hospitable ; compassionate ; 
 patient, not covetous ; not ambitious ; not prone to 
 judge others ; not envious. 
 
 The duties of rulers and legislators in reference 
 to human well-being. 
 
 The duties of citizens ; subjects; masters; slaves; 
 and of men in other public relations. 
 
 The duty of men in authority, legislators, Chris- 
 tian ministers, and of all enlightened men favoured 
 by education, experience, wealth, and influence in 
 society, and, finally, of all men to study the solu- 
 
 TIOl^, UNDER THE LIGHT OF CHRISTIANITY, OF ALL 
 THE GREAT SOCIAL AND POLITICAL QUESTIONS WHICH 
 BEAR ON HUMAN WELFARE, SUch as : — 
 
 The organization ^of labour, or the means of se- 
 curing to labourers, as far as may be practicable, 
 the due and regular reward of their labour; and 
 herein how far the labour of those who live by theii* 
 labour alone, should be a special object of solicitude 
 to the governing powers of a nation. 
 
 Whether competition should be the only or chief 
 regulator of industry, and whether the rate of wages 
 
IV PROPOSED TREATISE ON THE 
 
 should depend wholly on the results of competi- 
 tion. 
 
 Whether the rewards of industry and the conse- 
 quent well-being of the labouring classes should be 
 dependent on the action and results of foreign com- 
 merce. 
 
 Whether the subject of labour, as the poor man's 
 only possession, should not be deemed an independ- 
 ent topic, demanding consideration on its own se- 
 parate merits, with a development from the single 
 point of human well-being. 
 
 The subject of public education should be con- 
 sidered under its Christian aspects. In the United 
 States no denomination of Christians can teach all 
 the children, and all the denominations united must 
 fall short in any eifort to reach the whole of the 
 youth of the country; whether, therefore, all true 
 Christians may not advocate and sustain some sys- 
 tem of public education. This system should, of 
 course, be such in a religious respect as evangelical 
 Christians may be able to agree upon in a spirit 
 of concession to each other, and in a spirit of kind- 
 ness to all others ; and such as they should unite to 
 carry into effect, so that no children should be suf- 
 fered to go without its advantages. Every indi- 
 
DOCTRINE OF CHRISTIAN CHARITY. 
 
 vidual and every church may and should care for 
 the children in their special charge; but the per- 
 formance of this duty, however complete, cannot 
 discharge them from duty toward other children 
 within the reach of their influence. 
 
 There are other subjects in reference to human 
 welfare which, if not treated in some detail, should be 
 referred to as among those upon which the light of 
 Christianity should be shed, and as to which it should 
 be known that Christians are ever alive, anxious for 
 information, and desirous for the progress of the truth. 
 
 Separate property and unequal accumulation are in 
 accordance with the whole doctrine of charity, which 
 contemplates a state of want, of mutual dependence, 
 of the need of succour and protection, and the power 
 to aflford it. 
 
 The whole idea of Christian stewardship implies 
 that power and possessions are committed to the 
 steward for his proper management. 
 
 Superior minds, superior bodily strength and en- 
 durance, greater energy of character and power of 
 labour, will command or acquire greater wealth, and 
 thus incur special responsibilities under the law of 
 charity. 
 
 The responsibilities of the rich in reference to the 
 
n PROPOSED TREATISE ON THE 
 
 employment of tlie poor ; and as creditors ; as lend- 
 ers ; and as possessors of the soil, require, with other 
 like topics, to be fully developed. Can men of 
 large incomes acquit themselves of the duty they 
 owe to their fellow-men, by a merely generous libe- 
 rality toward religious and benevolent enterprises ? 
 Can such shut themselves quietly and securely from 
 the cares of the world, and from contact with their 
 fellow-men, without any inquiry into the situation 
 of the masses of their fellow-beings around them, 
 many of whom stand all the day idle because no one 
 comes to employ them ? It may involve anxiety and 
 care thus to look after the unemployed ; it should be 
 considered whether this is not the very kind of care 
 which devolves upon those who are rich and increased 
 in goods, and which will be of equal benefit to those 
 who incur it and those for whose benefit it is exercised. 
 If it involves a great sacrifice of peace and quiet in 
 the rich thus to employ themselves, the parable of 
 the talents teaches us that their reward will be in 
 proportion. 
 
 Whether it be right for rich men to keep their 
 wealth ^'laid up in a napkin," unproductive, or even 
 at usury in the bank, while the employment of the 
 mass of labourers is left to those of inadequate 
 
DOCTRINE OF CHRISTIAN CHARITY. VU 
 
 means, who cannot punctually pay the wages of their 
 men, and who frequently fail and never pay them. 
 
 Whether Christian capitalists are to consider the 
 employment of those who are compelled to labour 
 for their daily bread, as one of their obligations un- 
 der the law of Christian Charity ; and this not merely 
 as to the actual employment of those who may come 
 within their reach, but in reference to the general 
 policy of the country in its bearings on the question 
 of labour and wages. 
 
 The law of charity as applying specially to The 
 poor — The suflfering — The helpless — The imprisoned 
 — The idle — The vicious — The insane — The intem- 
 perate — The dangerous, &c. 
 
 The law of charity as applied to nations or men 
 in general. 
 
 The duty of studying what may tend to the gene- 
 ral peace of the world. 
 
 What are those principles of human well-being 
 which are of equal application in every country. 
 
 What can be done to open the way and facilitate 
 the progress of Christianity throughout the world, 
 
Wi PROPOSED TREATISE ON THE 
 
 by showing its design and its fitness to improve the 
 condition of men in this life, as well as to secure 
 eternal happiness in the world to come. 
 
 The order of charitable efibrt might be considered 
 thus : — 
 
 1. Individuals are personally to accomplish all 
 they can for the good of others, not merely for the 
 benefit of those whom they serve, but for the reflex 
 benefit of charitable action on themselves. 
 
 2. Congregations, as such, are to carry their 
 charitable efforts as far as the range of their power, 
 and then commit wider action to, — 
 
 3. Denominational effort, and when this reaches 
 its final results, — 
 
 4. The whole body* of Christians must unite in 
 the work of ameliorating the condition of humanity, 
 and thus opening the way to the progress of the 
 truth and the final triumph of the gospel. 
 
 The advantages of denominational subdivision in 
 reference to details, supervision, and discipline, 
 should be fully appreciated so far as their influence 
 extends ; the co-operation of the whole Christian body 
 in certain movements are not only of equal advan- 
 tage, but often of indispensable necessity. 
 
DOCTRINE OF CHRISTIAN CHARITY. IX 
 
 The effectual work of charity demands the minute 
 care of denominational and the united strength of 
 the whole body of Christians. Should enlightened 
 Christians refuse all co-operation or unity of action, 
 and place every movement on the narrow ground 
 of sectarian effort ; thus not only narrowing the 
 basis of action, but contracting the views of the 
 actors ; throwing away the power of united effort, 
 and presenting a divided force for the enemy to 
 conquer in detail ? 
 
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