Division of Agricultural Sciences UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA DRY EDIBLE BEAN PRODUCTION l N CALIFORNIA W. ALLARD FRANCIS I. SMITH & ' CALIFORNIA AGRICULTURAL t Station CIRCULAR 436 YESTERDAY The photos shown here are from the former Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 294, first issued in 1918, and show two methods commonly used for threshing beans at that time. Techniques of photog- raphy have improved since 1918. And so have those of bean pro- duction . . . [2] Today's bean thresher is equipped for bulk handling of the crop; picks up the windrows, threshes, discharges into a truck for rapid hauling. A CASH VALUE averaging $25,000,000 per year has been realized on dry edible beans in California in the last 20 years. They have accounted for about 9 per cent of the total income from field crops, exceeded only by cotton, hay, and barley. BEAN YIELDS ARE HIGHER IN CALIFORNIA than in the rest of the United States. From 1926 to 1950 yields per acre for the nation averaged 837 pounds, for Michigan 766, and for California 1,227. The higher yields permit California to produce her crop on fewer acres than are required in other states. CROP FAILURES ARE LOWER than in other bean-producing states because Cali- fornia production is largely on irrigated land. In the period 1930 to 1948, acres planted but not harvested in the nation amounted to 10.3 per cent, but only 0.5 per cent in California. THIS CIRCULAR GIVES YOU THE WHOLE PICTURE . . . what market classes and varieties are grown in California, how they are grown, and what their place is in the cropping system. The Authors: R. W. Allard is Associate Professor of Agronomy and Associate Agronomist in the Experiment Station, Davis. Francis L. Smith is Associate Professor of Agronomy and Associate Agronomist in the Experiment Station, Davis. MARCH, 1954 [3] WHERE BEANS ARE GROWN IN CALIFORNIA Dry Beans — other than Limas [4] DRY EDIBLE BEAN PRODUCTION I N CALIFORNIA R. W. ALLARD FRANCIS L. SMITH Dry edible beans have an important place in California agriculture for several reasons. A number of types of beans are pro- duced only in California. Beans fit well into the California cropping system, and like other legumes they are a soil-improv- ing crop, fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil. Average yields of the many mar- ket classes that can be grown in the state exceed the national average by about 30 per cent. And finally, bean growing in California is well suited to mechaniza- tion, resulting in low costs per unit of production. The 1950 census reported 1,628 farms in the state produced lima beans and 2,918 produced other types. From 1911 to 1950 the average annual acreage was 323,000. It reached its highest level dur- ing World War I, with 592,000 acres in 1918. The lowest acreage in this period occurred in 1942, with 206,000 acres. California and Michigan vie for lead- ership in national production of beans, each producing about one-fourth of the total. Table 1. Dry Bean Production in California by Market Classes Production 1941-1950 Per cent Produced Market class In California In United States in California Thousands of Bags Large Lima 1163 1163 100 Baby Lima 1057 1057 100 Blackeye 632 632 100 Pink 464 464 100 Garbanzo 36 36 1 00 Small White 607 622 97.5 Cranberry 27 187 14.2 Red Kidney 119 1076 11.1 Small Red 28 422 6.7 Pinto 131 3242 3.9 [5] THESE MARKET CLASSES ... of dry edible beans are grown commercially in California Standard Lima, grown exclusively in California, is shipped to all parts of the nation, especially the southeastern states. Production is confined almost en- tirely to a narrow coastal strip, seldom more than 10 miles wide, between Santa Barbara and San Diego. Because this market class commands the highest price of all beans, repeated attempts have been made to produce it in other areas. These have failed, presumably because the cool weather of the coastal area north of Point Conception results in excessively late maturity and because limas are not adapted to the high temperatures of in- land areas. Baby Lima. As with the large limas, practically all the national production of dry beans of this market class is in Cali- fornia, whence it is shipped all over the country. Although scattered plantings of baby limas occur in many areas of the state, the great bulk of production is centered in the irrigated districts on the west side of the northern San Joaquin Valley (Stanislaus and San Joaquin counties) and in the reclaimed lands of Sutter County. Baby limas are perhaps the most hardy of the beans of California with the exception of blackeyes. Both baby and standard limas belong to the species Phaseolus lunatus. Blackeye. This is a horticultural va- riety of the cowpea, Vigna sinensis. In California it is considered a dry bean because the crop is grown with the same methods and implements as other beans and is handled in the trade and sold in the markets as beans. Blackeyes are shipped mostly to the southern states, where they are a favorite dish — known as blackeye peas. Blackeye will withstand more heat than most other beans and is widely distributed throughout the state except in the cool coastal areas. It pre- fers sandy soils and is grown extensively in the San Joaquin Valley. Production extends northward into the Sacramento Valley. With extra care in seedbed prep- aration, blackeye can be grown on heavy soils in the northern Sacramento Valley, where considerable acreage is grown profitably, as well as in the interior val- leys of southern California. Small White is used extensively as a dry bean for baking. Large quantities are canned as pork and beans. Com- mercial production of small white is preponderantly in the central coastal counties, especially in the Salinas Valley. Red Kidney is grown mainly in New York, where it enters the export trade to Puerto Rico and the Latin American countries. An important part of the pro- duction in California is for disease-free seed used by New York growers. The production of red kidney is usually in the river-bottom lands of the tributaries of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, with centers of production in the Linden area of San Joaquin County and the Marysville area in Yuba County. Cranberry was formerly produced in the Sacramento Valley, but increasing trouble with root rots has changed this region to a minor producing area. At present the annual production in the state usually does not exceed 40,000 bags. The coastal area has been the largest pro- ducing area in the last decade. Bayo has had the most spectacular decline of any market class. At one time it was highly favored by prospectors and workers in the gold fields. Production began to decline in the early twenties and has continued. In the decade 1910-1920 the annual production was about 100,000 bags. Less than 1,000 bags a year have been produced since 1944. [6] Here are the beans most commonly grown in California. Top row, blackeye, standard lima, baby lima; second row, pinto, small white, cranberry; third row, pink, garbanzo, red kidney; bottom row, small red, horse bean, mung bean. 7] Pinto is the most important market class of colored beans in the United States. Pintos are favored by Mexicans of the Southwest; they consume greater amounts of beans than any other na- tional group except the southern Ne- groes, who prefer blackeyes. Most of the western states produce pintos. In Cali- fornia, pinto is grown mainly in the northern San Joaquin Valley and the Sacramento Valley, although small quan- tities are produced also in other parts of the state. The California production is only about 4 per cent of the national total. Small Red. California produces about 7 per cent of the United States total of this market class, Idaho being the major center of production. Small red, also known as Mexican red and in Cali- fornia as California red, is used as a boiled bean and in chili beans. It is grown mostly in the Sacramento Valley and the northern San Joaquin Valley. Pink beans are grown exclusively in California — in the Sacramento Valley, mostly in Sutter County, and in the area centered at King City in Monterey County. A few are grown in southern California. They compete in the market with other colored beans, especially pinto and small red. Domestic consump- tion is mostly in the Pacific coast states, but much of the production is exported to the Caribbean Islands and Latin America. All of the market classes above, from small white to pink, inclusive, belong to the species Phaseolus vulgaris, usually called common or field beans. Garbanzo, a favored dish of Latin peoples, is a variety of chick pea, Cicer arietinum. It was brought to California from Mexico in the mission period, and has since been produced in southern Cali- fornia as a minor crop. Its climatic re- quirements are similar to peas, and production is limited to the cool coastal areas of southern California. Horse bean. The large-seeded horse bean or fava bean, Vicia faba, often called Windsor bean, is a relative of the vetches. At one time horse beans were grown extensively in Alameda and ad- jacent bay counties, but production has been drastically reduced because of serious difficulties with the horse-bean weevil. At present a few are produced in the coastal counties north of San Fran- cisco extending to Humboldt County. The large-seeded edible types should not be confused with the small-seeded types used for winter green-manure crops in the warmer areas of California. Mung bean. Only the green-seeded varieties of the oriental mung beans, Phaseolus aureus, are grown in Califor- nia. The seed is used to produce bean sprouts, and the demand is limited. Mung beans are heat-tolerant and do very poorly in coastal areas. They are adapted to the same climatic conditions as black- eyes, but because of their susceptibility to nematodes cannot be grown in some areas where nematode-resistant varieties of blackeyes can be planted. [8] HERE ARE DIRECTIONS ... for growing and harvesting dry edible beans under California conditions The place of beans in the cropping system With the exception of horse beans and garbanzos, all of the beans produced in California are grown in the summer. Hence beans compete for the irrigated land with other summer-grown crops — tomatoes, sugar beets, rice, alfalfa. In common with other legumes, beans have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen in cooperation with rhizobial bacteria, which form nodules on the roots. Be- cause of this characteristic, beans oc- cupy a unique spot among the summer annual crops of California, finding a place in a large variety of crop rotations. A few of the more common ones follow. Lima bean rotations. Lima beans are often grown year after year on the same land. This is a satisfactory prac- tice because limas follow limas without decline in yield and also because limas are a preferred crop in areas where they are adapted, no other crop returning as much income as certainly and with as little labor. When limas are grown in a planned rotation, it is frequently with alfalfa be- cause limas respond favorably to the good soil tilth and high nitrate levels produced by the alfalfa. When limas and alfalfa are grown in rotation, 3 or 4 years of alfalfa are usually followed by 3 to 5 years of limas. Lima beans are replaced occasionally with crops such as tomatoes. However, limas usually yield to other summer an- nual crops in response to price outlooks rather than as a part of a planned rota- tion. Common bean rotations. Common beans and blackeyes are more likely to be used in planned rotations than limas. In one of the most simple rotations, bar- ley or other winter cereals are alternated with beans. Another common one is beans-sugar beets-barley-beans. In this rotation barley does well following sugar beets, and the beans help supply nitrates for the beets. Beans are also used in some rice areas in a rotation of beans- rice-beans and in rotations using alfalfa and cereal crops. It is not advisable to plant beans following beets that were in- fected with southern root rot caused by Sclerotium roljsii. Beans are also useful for interplanting in young orchards. They are compara- tively free from diseases that may spread to the trees, and they help supply ni- trates to the trees. In some areas pink beans or blackeyes may be planted im- mediately after harvesting a winter cereal crop. Beans rather frequently pre- cede vegetable crops such as tomatoes and peppers in rotations. GROWING THE CROP Preparing the land. Only a few things can be accomplished with tillage operations. The bean grower should have these objectives in mind to avoid un- necessary operations and excessive costs: 1. Incorporate plant materials into the soil. 2. Prepare the soil to absorb winter rainfall without runoff or erosion. 3. Prepare the soil for irrigation. 4. Control weeds. 5. Prepare a seedbed. Any operations in excess of those needed to accomplish these aims are wasted. Bear in mind that a large num- ber of different combinations of tools can accomplish the desired results, and the operations here discussed are only examples of satisfactory ones. The num- ber and kind of operations vary in dif- ferent areas of the state and can also be [9] ■•■■;• .-^ : IN THE FALL . . . Disking (left) or plowing (center) to incorporate bean straw into the soil is usually the influenced by rotations and double- cropping. Fall operations: After threshing, the soil surface is covered with a litter of bean straw. The objectives of fall work are to incorporate this nitrogen-rich ma- terial into the soil and to prepare the soil to absorb winter rainfall. Disking is usually necessary to reduce plant litter to the point where other tools will not be plugged. You may have to disk more than once. After disking, plowing will further incorporate the plant materials, aerate the soil, and leave it in a rough, cloddy condition. Heavy rainfall will not cause runoff from soil entering the winter period in such condition. Plows operate most efficiently at a depth about % the width of the cut. Hence plowing with the usual equipment should be about 8 inches deep. Greater depths of plowing do not contribute to increased yields and are much more ex- pensive. Depths of plowing should be changed slightly from year to year to avoid development of plow-pans. Many bean farmers subsoil in place of plowing or in addition to plowing, IN THE SPRING . . . Harrowing (left) usually comes first, then landplaning (center) or floating to first fall tillage operation. Subsoiling (right) is sometimes used but is seldom justified on normal soils. believing that subsoiling loosens the soil so that irrigation water can penetrate more readily. However, the evidence in- dicates that subsoiling does not accom- plish that purpose. It may be of value in breaking up hardpans or in improv- ing certain other structural deficiencies of soils, but it cannot be recommended as a regular practice upon "normal" soils. The necessary fall operations, disking or plowing, are usually completed be- tween late September and mid-December. No further tillage is needed until spring operations start in March or April. Some farmers use the winter period to grow a winter cover crop, which is plowed under early in spring. Spring operations: Harrowing, float- ing or landplaning, furrowing out, and pre-irrigation are all necessary to prepare a seedbeed, control weeds, and prepare the soil for irrigation. In preparing the seedbed, keep in mind that the require- ments for germination of a seed are: 1) adequate moisture; 2) adequate supply of oxygen; 3) proper temperature. level the soil. Next comes furrowing out for pre-irrigation to provide moisture for the seedbed. Any weed- free seedbed that satisfies these requirements is a good one. Winter rainfall softens the clods left by fall plowing, but the soil surface re- mains very rough. Therefore the first spring operation is usually harrowing with a heavy spike-tooth harrow. This breaks up clods, smooths the surface, and destroys weeds. Because irrigation is one of the most expensive items in growing beans, it is important for the soil to be level. Even small irregularities can cause expensive increases in labor requirements later in the season. Hence the next operation is usually floating or landplaning. This leaves the field level, removing minor irregularities resulting from previous tillage opera- tions. Landplaning may be done at other times, but it should be realized that the heavy landplane severely packs moist soil, and if possible it should not be done after pre-irrigation. Furrowing out for pre-irrigation is es- sential, and there are many types of fur- rowing outfits in use, one of the most efficient being shown on page 11. In pre-irrigation, from 6 to 8 inches of water is usually applied. More or less may be used according to areas or local conditions within areas. Because most of the roots of beans occur in the top 18 inches and few penetrate as deep as 5 feet, wetting the soil below the latter depth wastes water. Seedbed preparation: After pre- irrigation, work the soil as soon as it has dried enough — usually one to two weeks later. The harrow is usually the tool chosen to remove the furrows after pre- irrigation. To minimize loss of moisture a compacting tool such as a weighted drag is pulled behind the harrow. At this point in the preparation of seedbeds, wide variations in the final fitting are practiced. Every tillage operation performed will destroy weed seedlings and with the stirring of the soil bring more seeds near the surface, where they can germinate. Here pre-irrigation of the seedbed is being done by means of siphons out of a ditch— one effective means of providing moisture when it is needed. [12] : "■ ... ' . ■. „ Pre-irrigation is then followed by a harrowing to knock down the furrows— the first step in final preparation of the seedbed. Hence several workings of the soil are desirable. However, each time the soil is stirred, moist soil is exposed to the air and moisture lost. Tools such as disks, spring-tooth harrows, and chisels stir the soil more than spike-tooth or swede harrows and result in greater losses in moisture. The loss of moisture can be lessened by pulling behind the primary tool any tool that will compact and smooth the surface. On loam soils excellent seedbeds can often be prepared by two workings with a spike-tooth or swede harrow. On heav- ier soils other tools and more operations may be necessary. *. After knocking down the furrows, a final harrowing is sometimes given to aid in controlling weeds. [13] Time of planting beans depends upon several factors, of different impor- tance for different varieties: 1) proper soil temperature for germi- nation; 2) danger of rains, which cause for- mation of crusts; 3) hot weather, which may cause blos- som drop; 4) danger of fall winds and rain; 5) place in the rotation or cropping system. Lima beans, blackeyes, and all of the common beans are warm-weather crops, whose seeds germinate slowly at soil tem- peratures lower than 70° F. When soil temperatures exceed 70° F. the bean seedling grows more rapidly, and the establishment of a good stand is more nearly certain. Wireworms move to deeper levels when the soil warms up in the spring, so that danger is reduced with later planting. Beans emerge poorly through the crusts that form after rains. In most areas of the state the hazards of low soil temperatures and rain are re- duced by planting after May 1. In the Sacramento Valley planting dates are well established, particularly with pinks and red kidneys. When planted in May or early June, these types frequently do not yield well because of the abscission of most of the first or crown set. Farmers generally associate this blossom drop with the high tempera- tures of July and August. On the other hand, planting cannot be safely delayed beyond mid-July to avoid flowering dur- ing midsummer, because of the hazards of rain, winds, and frost associated with late-fall harvesting. The use of early varieties such as the Sutter Pink helps to lessen the harvest hazards that accom- pany mid-summer planting. The seeding date for beans varies with climatic conditions and varieties. Seed- ing dates for the major classes are shown below. (These dates are the ones most common in the areas of concentration of the different market classes.) Methods of planting. Various types of planters are used. Plate planters are frequently used for common beans. They are unsatisfactory for the limas because they are likely to crack the seed. This is avoided with the indent-cup planters of the "Ventura" type. These are used almost exclusively for the large and baby limas as well as many other varieties. The chief disadvantage of the Ventura planter is the rigid frame which makes the depth of planting variable if the land is uneven. Both types are made in dif- ferent sizes to plant 4, 8, or 12 rows at a time. The 8-row planter is most com- monly used. If the seed is to receive ample mois- ture for germination, the planter must put the seed at least an inch into moist soil. Late in the season when tempera- tures and evaporation rates are high, an inch and a half is safer. Depth of plant- Market class Usual planting date Standard Limas May 1-10 Baby Limas May 7-15 Small Whites May 5-15 Blackeyes May 1 0-20 Pintos June 1 0-25 Pinks, Salinas Valley May 15-25 Pinks and California Reds, Sacramento Valley June 25-July 5 Red Kidneys, Bayos, Cranberries June 20-July 1 Garbanzos March Horse Beans February [14] Earliest Latest April 20 June 1 April 25 June 10 April 20 June 10 April 20 June 15 May 15 July 1 May 1 June 15 June 15 July 15 June 10 July 15 February April January March The most commonly used planter is the 8-row drill type shown here. The seed should be placed at least an inch into moist soil. ing varies with seed size and soil type. The total depth of planting should not exceed four inches in loam soils for the smaller-seeded types. Experience has shown that the prac- tice of irrigating beans to bring them up is unsatisfactory. Hence care should be taken to assure ample moisture for germination before planting. Inoculation and fertilization. In most areas where beans are grown, rhizo- bial bacteria have been built up in the soil from previous bean crops. Under these conditions, the inoculation of seed with bacteria would not be expected to improve the crop. With lima beans, for example, two or three years of culture are needed for uniform inoculation of the soil on land where they are planted for the first time. This is true whether or not artificial inoculation has been used. The practice of inoculating common beans with the proper strain of rhizo- bium when they are planted on new land may be of some value in increasing the productivity of the crop, although the value of inoculation for lima beans is not clear-cut. Fertilizer trials with beans have for the most part given no measurable re- sponses in California. The occasional responses observed have usually been too small to pay for the fertilizer and costs of application. However, not all conditions have been sampled in these tests. For example, if beans are planted following sorghums, economical re- sponses to nitrogenous fertilizers might be expected. In some red kidney bean areas in San Joaquin County and small white bean areas in Monterey County, zinc deficien- cies occur. Affected plants are yellowish and stunted, the leaves show intervenal chlorosis, and the leaflets are abnormally narrow, crinkled, and ruffled. This defi- ciency can be corrected with a foliar spray consisting of two pounds of zinc sulfate and one pound of hydrated lime in 50 gallons of water per acre, applied before blooming. The greatest advantage of correcting zinc deficiency is in making the plants mature earlier. Cultivation. There are only two rea- sons for tilling the soil after the crop is planted, to control weeds and to con- struct furrows for irrigation. A multi- tude of experiments have established that inter-row cultivation does not con- serve moisture. On the contrary, it causes greater losses from evaporation than oc- cur in undisturbed soil. Weeds, how- ever, compete with the crop for moisture, light, and nutrients. Their presence causes difficulties in harvesting and in- creases the amount of dirt in threshing; [15] and the presence of weed seed and plant fragments lowers the quality of the threshed beans. Weed control can be partially accomplished by suitable rota- tions and general cleanliness. An ade- quate sequence of operations in seedbed preparation further reduces the weed problem. After planting, weed control may start before the crop has emerged, particu- larly if rain has fallen. The recom- mended implement is the rotary hoe. This tool, besides killing small weed seedlings by stirring the surface and causing them to dry out before their roots become established, aids emer- gence of the beans by breaking crusts that may result from the rain. The rotary hoe may be used in beans up to several weeks old without damage to the plants. The advantages are the destruction of weeds in the bean row. Harrowing is a somewhat less satisfactory method of controlling weeds and breaking crusts because it is limited to the pre-emergence period. Normally the first cultivation begins about 3 to 4 weeks after planting, with various combinations of tools in use. Sweeps and duck-feet are most common. Since weed control is the only objective, depth should be as shallow as possible to cut the weeds and still avoid moisture loss and cutting of some of the more shallow bean roots. Where furrow irri- gation is practiced, the furrows are usually made as part of the second cul- tivation. One cultivation after the first irrigation is usually necessary, particu- larly if watergrass is present. Subsequent cultivations are used as often as neces- sary or possible. With vine-type beans, the plants may grow together so that cul- tivation is frequently impossible without excessive damage. At least one hand- hoeing is necessary in most fields to de- stroy weeds which escape cultivation. Irrigation. Types of beans differ considerably in their rooting habits, and the differences are reflected in the irriga- tion practices employed and in the soil types and areas where the various types can be grown economically. Remember that water below the root zone is unavail- able to the plant; hence few heavy irri- gations cannot be substituted for more frequent lighter ones. Much larger total applications of water must be made in in- land areas where evaporation is higher. In general, bush types have less extensive root systems than vine types. Limas, baby limas, and blackeyes have the deep- est and most extensive; pintos, pinks, small reds, and small whites moderate; and red kidneys small root systems. Blackeyes, limas, and to a lesser extent baby limas occupy a considerable acre- age of non-irrigated land, especially in coastal areas where cool weather reduces transpiration losses. Under irrigation these deeper-rooted types may require only a pre-irrigation, or a pre-irrigation and a single irrigation during the grow- ing season. In inland areas where transpiration is very high, up to 3 or 4 irrigations may be required with these types. The varieties with moderate root sys- tems require more frequent light irriga- tions. Red kidneys and other types with small root systems, for the most part occupy heavier bottom-land soils, where uniform moisture can be maintained during the growing season. Several methods are successful with beans, of which the most common is fur- row irrigation. The water applied per irrigation varies from about 3 to 6 inches. In the Sacramento Valley and San Joa- quin-Sacramento Delta area, many thou- sands of acres are subirrigated. By controlling the water level in canals or ditches interlacing the fields it is possible to maintain the water level at about 18 to 24 inches below the surface, an inex- pensive system of irrigation. Capillary movement of water into the root zone provides exceptionally uniform moisture conditions. With this system the top sev- [16] Two popular types of irrigation— by siphons out of a ditch, or by subirrigation controlled by "spud" ditches interlacing the field. eral inches of soil remain dry so that small-seeded weeds cannot emerge, and the cost of weed control is low. In some areas sprinkler irrigation is used, and in still others, flooding between bordered checks, particularly with black- eyes. Under the latter system care must be used because beans are sensitive to scalding in standing water. Beans should be irrigated frequently enough to maintain the plants in a healthy growing condition. Do not let the plants show signs of water stress, such as "fir- ing" or "black" color. Blossoms or even moderate-sized pods will absciss under water stress. The last irrigation should be applied late enough in the season to allow pods to fill, producing plump seed. If applied too late, however, it may cause rotting of low-hanging pods, an increase in damage caused by Sclerotinia rot, and excessive vine growth leading to late ma- turity and harvesting difficulties. HARVESTING Cutting and windrowing. Perhaps the most critical operation in the produc- tion of dry beans is the harvest. Weather conditions become uncertain in late Sep- tember, with threats of wind and rain increasing as the season advances. Seri- ous losses in production and quality can result from improperly timing the har- vesting operations. Begin cutting when most of the pods are yellow or dry. Earlier cutting can cause excessive amounts of undersized beans. If pods become very dry, shatter- ing losses increase. With colored beans such as pinks and red kidneys, the plants are ready to cut when most of the beans show color around the eye. Beans are cut with knives about 5 feet long, set about 2 to 3 inches under the soil surface at an angle of about 150° to the row. These knives can be attached to various tools. Special 4-row tractor- mounted bean cutters are most common. Guide rods attached above the knives put two field rows into a cutter row. Side- A 4-row, tractor-mounted bean cutter with knives for cutting and guide rods for putting beans in rows. £B^^ 3fJ The double side-delivery rake places 3 cutter rows (6 field rows) into a single windrow for curing of the beans before threshing. delivery rakes are used to move 2 to 4 of these cutter rows, or 4 to 8 field rows, into a windrow. Curing in the windrow usually requires about 10 days but varies widely with weather conditions. The side-delivery rake rolls the vine-type beans into tight intertwined rolls. Though these are resistant to blowing, high winds can cause severe losses. Cutting and windrowing operations can start as soon as the humidity has increased enough to toughen the pods, and they cease in the morning when pods are dry enough to begin shattering. The best period for cutting and windrowing is usually from about 3:00 a.m. to 9 to 10 a.m. Threshing. Beans require careful threshing because the large brittle seeds are easily cracked or broken. All-purpose harvesters can be adjusted to thresh most types of beans satisfactorily. Usually, all but one row of concave teeth must be removed as well as about half of the cylinder teeth. Cylinder speeds must be adjusted so that the peripheral speeds do not exceed about 1,000 feet per min- ute for small-seeded types and about 700 feet per minute for larger-seeded types. It may also be necessary to reduce eleva- tor speeds. The rest of the machine should be operated at normal speeds to insure good separation of beans from straw. Attachments are available for most machines to allow proper speed adjustments for various parts of the machine. Bean growing in California is for the most part a large-scale enterprise. Hence the majority of bean farmers own har- vesters. Most beans are threshed with special bean harvesters. These "pick-up" machines, usually with three cylinders, are mounted on large rubber tires and pulled with a large track-type tractor. Such machines thresh from 600 to 1,200 bags (100 lb.) in a normal operating day (10 a.m. to 10 p.m.). A crew of five is required if the beans are handled in bags — a tractor driver, a separator operator, two sack sewers, and a sack filler (jig). The bags are dumped in groups of five or six and are picked up by a truck crew of two or three men. Mechanical loaders are often used by the truck crews. Handling beans in bulk is becoming increasingly popular. Bulk handling re- duces the thresher crew to two men and the truck crew to a single man. Bulk boxes are the favored system because they allow a flat bed truck to be used. [18] STORING AND MARKETING . . . plus some information on producing seed and watching your production costs STORING AND MARKETING Warehousing. Only rarely are beans stored on the farm. Practically all of the crop is hauled directly from the thresher to the warehouse. The cost of warehousing is low enough in most areas to make farm storage uneconomical. Cleaning. Thresher-run beans con- tain dirt, stones, trash, split and broken beans, and discolored beans. Beans are cleaned at the warehouse to bring the lot to the highest possible grade that is economical. The basic machine used in cleaning beans is a screen-air separator. Properly adjusted and used, this machine will re- move all undesirable materials from beans except certain sizes of dirt and stones, discolored beans, and certain mixtures of other types of beans. Lots containing excessive dirt after running through the screen-air machine are run over the gravity separator. This machine removes dirt and rocks. It is difficult to adjust and operate and has a low capacity. As used in many ware- houses it is practically useless. Clod rolls are used in some ware- houses. These machines depend upon the difference in smoothness of surface to separate dirt and stones from beans. The machine has low capacity and is less efficient than a recent development, the "clod-picker" developed by the Depart- ment of Agricultural Engineering of the University of California. This machine also utilizes the difference in surface characteristics to separate good beans from dirt, stones, and split beans. Electric-eye sorting machines have proved useful in separating discolored beans and other undesirable foreign ma- terial from beans, particularly the white market classes. Hand-picking may be necessary to bring some lots to grade. Hand-picked beans are also in demand for canning and for fancy packages. Mechanization of cleaning operations and improved harvesting methods have now been developed to the point where the majority of the California crop makes top-grade without hand-picking. Grading. Grades for beans are de- fined in United States Standards for Beans, available from the United States Department of Agriculture, Production and Marketing Administration. In gen- eral these grades are based on the amount of broken beans, discolored seed, foreign material, weed seed, trash, and other varieties. Marketing. Most of the bean crop is sold to bean dealers. The local ware- houseman is often either a dealer or a dealer's agent. The bulk of the lima, baby lima, and red kidney crop is handled through growers' cooperatives. By-products. The two chief by-prod- ucts of the bean industry are cull beans and straw. With the increasing use of pick-up threshers more and more straw has been spread on the bean field itself for incor- poration into the soil as a fertilizer. About 86 per cent of the straw was used in this manner in 1944. The remaining 14 per cent was either baled or sold in loose form for fertilizer, livestock feed, or bedding for animals. Feeding trials with bean straw indicate that its value is low when fed as a sole roughage but that it makes a good substitute for hay if it makes up less than half the rough- age. Often bean fields are leased to sheep- men to clean up the scattered bean straw after harvest is completed. Cull beans separated during the clean- ing process can be used successfully for feeding livestock. They are perhaps [19] Table 2. Two Illustrations Showing an Analysis of Cost of Bean Production in Per Cent of the Total Cost Labor Costs: Large Limas* Red Kidneyf Plowing 2.47 .... Other preparatory tillage 5.78 .... Total land preparation 8.25 9.45 Planting 1 .05 1 .09 Cultivating 1 .90 4.36 Hoeing 1 .03 2.31 Irrigating 2.06 8.77 Miscellaneous 4.12 .52 Total cultural labor 18.41 26.50 Cutting and windrowing 2.06 4.88 Threshing 4.49 7.13 Hauling 95 1 .45 Total labor costs 25.91 39.96 Material Costs: Irrigaton water and power 6.87 3.84 Fertilizer 4.58 7.00 Dusting for pest control 1 .90 Seed 5.72 5.99 Sacks and twine 2.06 2.50 Miscellaneous 57 .... Total material costs 19.80 21.23 Overhead: General expense 2.29 2.76 County taxes 8.59 2.38 Machinery repair 1.14 .63 Compensation insurance 57 .63 Recleaning, warehousing, and fumigation 7.26 13.07 Total overhead 19.85 19.47 Total cash costs 65.56 80.66 Depreciation Costs: Irrigation system 1 .72 .98 Tillage equipment 1 .37 .74 Planting equipment 07 .14 Harvesting equipment 86 2.31 Miscellaneous items 11 .24 Total depreciation costs 4.13 4.41 Interest on Investment Values: Irrigation system 86 .73 Tillage equipment 34 .19 Planting equipment 03 .04 Harvesting equipment 42 .53 Miscellaneous equipment 03 .65 Land 28.62 12.77 Total interest on investment (per acre) 30.30 14.91 Total all costs in dollars $87.35 $124.57 Total all costs in per cent 100.00 100.00 * Based on a typical well-managed 100-acre farm in the southern California Coastal Plain in 1940. Average yield 1,800 pounds per acre. f Based on an average on 10 farms comprising 566 acres in San Joaquin County in 1946. Average yield 1,644 pounds per acre. [20] best suited for sheep feed, as sheep will sort beans from trash. Cooking increases the palatability and digestibility of the beans and is essential if they are to be fed to cattle or hogs. Beans give best results when mixed with other concen- trates. Certified seed. Beans are normally self-fertilized. However, a small percent- age of natural hybridization occurs, leading to the appearance of off-types. A more serious source of mixtures is in planters, in threshers, and particularly in warehouses. Only by the most careful handling, and with a regular purifica- tion program, can the purity of any va- riety be maintained. The California Crop Improvement Association, in coopera- tion with the University of California Department of Agronomy, maintains Foundation Seed of all the bean varieties recommended for California bean grow- ers. This foundation seed is of high purity. It can be obtained from the Cali- fornia Crop Improvement Association by qualified growers. Seed grown from foundation seed, called California Cer- tified Seed, is used for commercial plant- ing. Under most conditions, certified seed can be used to produce more cer- tified seed. The extra cost of certified seed is small considering the assurance of purity that it provides the grower. COSTS OF PRODUCTION Because costs of labor, land, and equipment change with economic condi- tions, and wide variations occur in man- agerial practices, no discussion of costs can hope to cover the production prob- lems of any individual. However, the results of cost analyses of a number of well managed farms in two major pro- ducing areas are given in order to present a general outline of the distribu- tion of production costs. In table 2, the expenses of production are represented as percentages of the total costs. [21] PUT THESE WEEDS, DISEASES, AND PESTS on your blacklist . . . some points on avoiding or controlling them WEEDS Perennial weeds Weeds are well established throughout California bean-producing areas, and their control is a problem of bean pro- duction. Prevention of further spread of weeds as well as control in areas where they are established must be considered. Only the worst weeds in California bean fields will be discussed here. These weeds can be grouped into two classes, peren- nials and annuals. The most serious per- ennial weeds are wild morning glory, Bermudagrass and Johnsongrass. Wild morning glory is well estab- lished in all the bean-producing areas of the state. It spreads from rhizomes and from seed. It twines about the bean plants, especially the bush varieties, and greatly reduces the crop. With the advent of 2,4-D the morning glory problem has in general been greatly reduced. Since beans are also susceptible to this herbi- cide, most of the control of wild morn- ing glory has to be done before the beans are planted. However, some operators spot-spray for morning glory as they cultivate. The spray is not under high pressure, and the bean plants are pro- tected by shields on the cultivator. Car- bon disulfide is also used to eradicate morning glory spots. Alfalfa has been found to be a good competitor with wild morning glory. In the rice rotations the weed is well con- trolled by the continuous submergence of the land. Deep tillage after pre-irrigation has also proved satisfactory control. After the morning glory has emerged, knives are run 12 to 16 inches below the sur- face. The beans are planted immediately, and they germinate and become estab- lished before the morning glory produces enough top growth to provide serious competition. Bermudagrass is a serious weed of beans. Effective control on bean lands must be accomplished largely at times when the land is not planted to beans. Bermudagrass does not withstand low temperatures, but the weather conditions in most of the interior valleys of the state are not severe enough to kill the plant. It propagates from seed, from above-ground stolons, and from under- ground rhizomes. In a single season a plant may spread as much as 5 feet by vegetative means. Shallow plowing, which exposes the rhizomes to frosts, has some killing effect. Rhizomes are better killed by the heat of the sun if they are exposed during the summer. A season of summer-fallow, during which you use a spring-tooth harrow at frequent inter- vals to rip out the underground roots and rhizomes and expose them to drying, will reduce Bermudagrass infestations, but cannot be expected to eradicate it completely. Smother crops have been found effective in reducing this weed; but beans do not seem able to provide enough smothering effect to inhibit its growth. This is especially true of bush beans. Johnsongrass has many of the bad features of Bermudagrass. The same methods of control are possible. Being taller it shades the plants more than the Bermudagrass, but it is probably easier to control by cultivation. Annual weeds Many annual weeds plague the bean grower. The worst are ground cherry, watergrass, puncture vine, and pigweed. Ground cherry and Black night- shade are solanaceous weeds of special concern to bean farmers. When the bean [22] crop is ready to harvest, they are still green and have abundant green fruit. These fruits are high in moisture and do not dry out completely in the win- drow. When the beans are threshed, many of the fruits, being small enough to pass through the screens with the beans and too heavy to be blown out with the straw, go into the bag with the beans. Some are mashed in the threshing proc- ess so that they tend to stick the beans together and cause them to swell. If there are many ground cherries in the beans the high moisture content will cause heating between the time of harvest and cleaning. The juices stain the beans, especially white-seed varieties. Because of the high nuisance value of these weeds, many bean farmers pull the ground cherry and black nightshade and carry them out of the field before they begin to cut the bean crop. Watergrass or barnyard grass is an annual summer weed, which provides one of the most serious problems in bean production. Some measure of control can be accomplished by pre-irrigation and by destroying the seedlings in the preparation of the seedbed. If care is ex- ercised to keep the crowns of rows dry during the first post-planting irrigation, seeds in the rows cannot germinate. When germinated by later irrigations, the seedlings have more difficulty becom- ing established because of shading by the bean plants. Despite the greatest care, especially in low or wet areas, seedlings will come up in the row and must be removed by hoeing. The seedlings that come up between the rows can be kept in control by cultivation. Puncture vine is a widespread noxi- ous annual weed. The sharp thorns on the bur aid in its dissemination by ani- mals and by rubber-tired farming equip- ment. Each bur has a number of embryos, which may germinate or re- main dormant — so that once a soil is infested this weed remains a problem for years. The plant and the burs are killed by spraying with oil, but this can- not be practiced in a field of beans. The plants produce viable seed in a very short time; therefore frequent cultiva- tions and hoeing are necessary for con- trol. Pigweed is a summer annual capable of rapid growth and abundant seed pro- duction. The best control is obtained by inducing germination and destroying the seedlings in seedbed preparation. Frequent shallow interrow cultivations after planting will destroy additional seedlings. A few weeds escape the culti- vators and if left in the field will serve as a source of weed seed in the future. Careful farmers, therefore, hoe the few remaining weeds by hand after the bean rows are covered over and cannot be cul- tivated. DISEASES Seed and seedling rots. A number of fungus diseases can attack beans. For convenience, these diseases may be di- vided into three more or less distinct groups: seed and seedling rots, root rots, and foliage blights. In addition, a num- ber of virus diseases affect beans. Seed and seedling rots are caused by species of Pythium, Fusarium, and Rhizoctonia, fungi present in nearly all soils. They cause some damage nearly every year, and in a favorable environ- ment they can become quite destructive. In cool soils Pythium species are pri- marily responsible for seed decay. The same type of damage in warm soils is more likely to be caused by Rhizoctonia or Fusarium. Until the discovery of such effective fungicides as Spergon and Arasan, seed rotting was one of the main hazards in establishing stands of beans. The recommended application of Sper- gon is 3 to 4 oz. per 100 lb. of seed when applied as a dust and 2 oz. per 100 lb. of seed when applied as a slurry. Arasan is used at 1% oz. per 100 lb. of seed as a slurry. It is not ordinarily used in dust form. [23] These same organisms can also attack developing seedlings of beans both be- fore and after emergence. This is called damping-off. It is most likely to occur under the unfavorable conditions for germination found in cool, wet soils, but can occur under a variety of moisture and temperature conditions. This disease is characterized by the invasion and rot- ting of the hypocotyl of the seedling, generally at and below the ground level, resulting in wilting of the unifoliate leaves and death of the seedling. Shoots of developing seedlings may also be invaded and killed as the plant is growing through the soil. The result- ing seedling is a baldhead, resembling plants damaged mechanically or by seed- corn maggots. Shoot rotting is most likely to occur in cool, moist soils and is most often caused by Pythium ulti- mum, the organism most favored by these conditions. Treatment with seed protectants such as Spergon or Arasan appears of little if any aid in controlling damping-ofl and shoot blights, and no effective treatment is known except planting in soils warm enough to secure rapid germination. Root rots can be caused by any one of these soil-inhabiting fungi or by more than one acting simultaneously. The root rot caused by Rhizoctonia solani is prob- ably the most common one, however. This organism invades the parts of the hypocotyl below ground, producing dry, reddish, oval-to-elongated lesions. These lesions may enlarge until the hypocotyl is girdled and rendered largely or com- pletely useless, with the result that the plant is stunted or dies. Generally the lateral and branch roots of the plant are not damaged. Although Rhizoctonia solani may attack plants at any stage of growth, severe damage is generally restricted to those plants attacked dur- ing the first few weeks after planting. The root rot caused by Fusarium solani produces rather similar symptoms and effects. It differs from Rhizoctonia root [ rot principally in its lesser prevalence, in the less sharply defined and wetter lesion, and in the somewhat greater dam- age to the lateral roots. The root rot caused by Pythium ultimum is encoun- tered still less often. Because this organ- ism is favored by cool, moist conditions, it is important only during the early part of the season. Invasion is largely limited to the lateral roots, which be- come water-soaked and die. Although the plants may not be killed, the reduc- tion in the number of roots reduces their efficiency, causing them to be unthrifty and low-yielding. Several other soil-borne fungi sporadi- cally cause damage to beans. Sclerotium rolfsii is a warm-weather organism that can produce a root and stem decay. Sugar beets are particularly susceptible to this organism, which most frequently attacks beans grown after sugar beets or when sugar beets are planted next to them. Its recognition is facilitated by the association of sclerotia — hard masses of fungous mycelium resembling mus- tard seed — with the lesions it produces. Black root rot, characterized by black lesions on the hypocotyl and some dam- age to the lateral roots, is uncommon in California. Pythium wilt, caused by Py- thium aphanidermatum, invades at the soil level but affects only the above- ground parts of the plant. Its attacks are largely confined to older plants, causing them to wilt rapidly and die. It is usually found in low areas where irrigation water stands about the crown of the plant and is readily controlled by good irriga- tion practices. Satisfactory control measures are not yet available for the control of root- rotting organisms. Chemical treatments have been both ineffective and expen- sive. Because of the wide range of hosts most of these organisms can invade, rota- tion has not been entirely satisfactory. However, there are differences in patho- genicity of different strains of the organ- isms to different host crops, and investi- 24] gations of rotation sequences indicate that certain crop rotations may reduce damage. One of the most promising ap- proaches to their control is through re- sistant varieties, and with the discovery of resistance in lima beans to Rhizoc- tonia root rot, breeding projects to develop Rhizoctonia-resistant commer- cial varieties have been initiated. Cowpea wilt is a soil-borne disease that merits special attention. It is most important in the lighter soils of the Modesto-Turlock area, and between 1930 and 1940 nearly eliminated the produc- tion of blackeyes in that region. Varie- ties of blackeyes with partial resistance to the disease, released by the Depart- ment of Agronomy in 1939, have again made production possible in the wilt areas. However, since these varieties can be damaged rather severely by wilt, breeding projects to improve the degree of resistance are in progress. Methods of control other than by resistant varie- ties have proved completely unsuccessful. Foliage blights are not important diseases of beans in California because the climate is particularly unfavorable for the development of diseases that af- fect the aboveground parts of the bean plant. Powdery mildew, probably the most damaging of the foliage diseases, may occasionally affect common beans in California. The mildew organism re- quires cool, moist conditions for growth and consequently is rarely important until cool temperatures accompanied by dews become common in the fall. Dust- ing with sulfur is an effective control measure. Some other foliage diseases of beans in moist humid areas, such as Bac- terial blight, anthracnose, Diaporthe pod blight, scab, rust, and downy mil- dew, do not occur in California. The fact that California-grown seed is free from anthracnose and bacterial blight, both seed-borne diseases, is one of the reasons California is a major bean-seed produc- ing state. Virus diseases. Several strains of virus are known that can cause mosaic disease of common beans. The symptoms caused by various viruses may be quite different, varying from yellowing to extreme puckering of the leaves. In ad- dition, stunting of growth usually accom- panies infection by viruses. These viruses are transferred by aphids from plant to plant in beanfields, or from other species to beans. The most common and damaging of the virus diseases in California is com- mon bean mosaic. The symptoms are severe puckering of the leaves, delayed maturity, stunting in some degree, and reduced yield. In addition to being trans- ferred from plant to plant by aphids, this virus is carried over from genera- tion to generation in the bean seed. The affected seedlings are said to have "pri- mary mosaic" and serve as a source of inoculum to spread the disease to healthy neighboring plants, causing secondary infection. Plants with primary mosaic are usually so severely stunted that they produce little or no seed. In susceptible varieties, seed stocks comparatively free from common bean mosaic can usually be maintained by roguing plants with primary infection early in the season. However, in the Salinas Valley, second- ary infection starts so early that it has been difficult to maintain mosaic-free seed in that area. Resistant varieties pro- vide the only satisfactory means of con- trol, and breeding programs are under way to incorporate mosaic resistance in some California dry bean varieties. Yellow bean mosaic caused by another virus may show spectacular symptoms. It is not seed-borne however. Two viruses are known to attack lima beans, but they do not cause damage of economic consequence. [25] INSECTS AND PESTS Root-knot nematode. In total, in- sect pests are probably more important economically in California than the dis- eases of beans. Root-knot is caused by an eelworm or nematode. The whitish, translucent worm is barely visible to the unaided eye. The worms invade the roots of beans and become embedded in the root tissue, where they cause large, grotesque galls, rendering the roots use- less in the absorption and translocation of water and nutrients. Plants infected with nematodes are stunted, the leaves become yellow and absciss prematurely, and if they survive to maturity produce low yields. Nematodes prefer warm areas and are particularly important in south- ern California and the San Joaquin Val- ley, but occasionally infest soils in the Sacramento Valley. They are most seri- ous on sandy or loam soils but can also cause damage on heavy soils. The root- knot nematode is soil-inhabiting and can live for many years in the soil, even when susceptible crops are avoided. Nematodes attack a great variety of crops and weeds, only the grasses being largely unaffected by them. Crop rotation can greatly reduce Plant on left (Wilbur variety) has typical galls caused by root-knot nematode organism; plant on right (Westan) is practically free from galls. Plants are from adjacent rows in a field. nematode populations in the soil, but no case is known where it has resulted in their elimination. Cereals are the only resistant crops useful for nematode con- trol. Other crops, especially alfalfa, are popularly regarded as resistant, but such is not the case. Alfalfa may give relief for one or two years but actually only succeeds in further spreading the pest. Chemical fumigation of the soil has been used on thousands of acres of bean land in California to control nematodes (and wireworms). Ethylene dibromide (EDB) at a rate of about 2 gallons of actual EDB per acre has been the most common treatment. Neither this chemical nor any other yet tested will eradicate nematodes, but one or even more years of relief may be obtained. In some in- stances, nematodes appear to have be- come more prevalent in the second or third year after treatment than on un- treated areas. For this reason, and be- cause the treatment is expensive, chemi- cal fumigation for nematode control does not appear to be the ultimate answer to the nematode problem. Probably the only completely satisfac- tory control for root-knot is the use oi resistant varieties, at present available in only two of the market classes. The West- an variety of baby limas is highly resist- ant, and Blackeye 5 has moderate resistance. However, resistance is at pres- ent being incorporated into several other commercial varieties of lima beans. Wireworms are the larval stage of click beetles. The eggs of these beetles are laid in the soil and hatch into small wormlike larvae that may require any- where from 2 to 5 years in the soil to reach the pupal stage and then the adult stage. It is during the period of rapid growth in the larval stage, usually dur- ing the second year as a larva, that the appetite of the insect is very great and most damage to plants occurs. The larvae feed on seeds, and on both young and older plants. They do most damage dur- ing and shortly after emergence when [26] Wireworms can cause near failure of a stand (as shown in background) unless chemical control measures are taken. they can cause nearly complete failures of stands. Since 1946 very effective control meas- ures have been developed. Lindane is highly toxic to wireworms and affords excellent protection when small amounts are applied to seeds. The present recom- mended dosage is % oz. of 75 per cent lindane per 100 lb. of seed, except for large-seeded limas where only % oz. should be used. Lindane, applied alone, may cause reductions in stands in areas where insects are not active. Because this effect is in some manner counteracted by fungicides, lindane should never be used by itself, but always in conjunction with a fungicide. The insecticide and fungicide may be applied to the seed as a slurry or in dust form. Slurry appli- cations are particularly satisfactory if precautions are taken in treating large- seeded limas, since they are very sensi- tive to mechanical injury. Seed treated with lindane ordinarily should not be stored more than two or three months before planting. Chlordane, dieldrin, and aldrin have also been used as seed pro- tectants, but they have not given con- sistent control of wireworms, though they have been more effective against seed-corn maggots under certain condi- tions than lindane. Effective control of wireworms has also been obtained by treating the soil with the above chemicals and with DDT. Since soil treatments are more expen- sive, and since some of these chemicals may impart unpleasant flavors to the beans, seed treatment is generally to be preferred. Seed-corn maggot is the larval stage of an insect similar to the house fly. The eggs are laid in the soil and hatch into larvae, which feed on germi- nating seeds, roots, and even stems. The chief damage, however, is to the shoots and cotyledons of germinating plants. Lindane seed treatment recommended for wireworms ordinarily provides ade- quate protection against the seed-corn maggot. Red spiders cause some damage to beans nearly every year and spectacular damage in occasional years. These small mites suck the juices from bean leaves, stems, and pods. Centers of infection often arise near roads or other areas where plants may be covered with dust. Control differs with the species of red spider, and with the type of bean. Dust- ing with sulfur is often effective against the Pacific mite, but not against the two- spotted mite, particularly in northern California. Several new miticides are ef- [27] fective if proper applications are made. These include Aramite, Ovotran, TEPP (tetraethyl pyrophosphate), and para- thion. About 30 to 40 lb. per acre, applied by airplane, of 3 per cent, 10 per cent, 1 per cent and 1 per cent dusts, respec- tively, are usually recommended. More than a single application may be neces- sary. TEPP and parathion are highly toxic to humans and should be handled according to the manufacturer's direc- tion. Baby limas and blackeyes are quite resistant to red spiders, but common beans are generally rather susceptible. Red kidneys and similar varieties are particularly susceptible to their attacks. Pod borer. The larvae of a small gray moth do considerable damage in some years to lima beans and blackeyes and occasionally to other dry-bean types. The eggs are laid on the immature pods. When hatched, the larvae bore into the pod and feed on the young beans. The damaged beans are unsightly and reduce the market value of the crop unless re- moved — an operation that often requires hand-picking. Damage is usually greater with late-planted beans. Although no completely satisfactory control is avail- able, 2 applications of 30 lb. per acre of a 5 per cent dust of DDT will usually provide partial control if the first ap- plication is made at the time small pods first become numerous on the plants, and the second about two weeks later. Lygus bug. The lygus bug can cause damage to beans by piercing flowers or small pods, causing their premature ab- scission. The insect also feeds on older pods, puncturing the pod wall and dam- aging the developing seeds. The damage appears as small, unattractive spots, conspicuous on the seed coats of white varieties, but hardly noticeable on colored-seeded varieties. DDT or toxa- phene applied as dusts in the early bloom stage have given satisfactory control. If the infestation is severe, more than a single application may be required. Leaf miner. The larvae of certain flies sometimes invade the leaves of bean plants to feed on the tissues under the epidermis, leaving conspicuous and characteristic serpentine tunnels. Dam- age of economic proportions is rare, and has been reported only on pink and red kidney beans. Partial control may be obtained through two applications of 35-40 lb. per acre each of 10 per cent toxaphene dust. The applications should be made about two weeks apart begin- ning shortly after the full-bloom stage. Bean weevils. Because weevily beans either cannot be sold or are severely dis- counted, this insect can cause severe monetary losses. The bean weevil can infect beans either in the field or after threshing, when the beans are in storage. If weevils are to be kept in check, a combination of sanitation and fumiga- tion is required. Weevily seed should never be planted. Bags, storage bins, and cleaning equipment should be thor- oughly cleaned and fumigated before clean beans are allowed to come in con- tact with them. Methyl bromide is a popular fumigant because it does not in- jure germination with proper dosages and does not present the fire hazard of carbon bisulfide. Exposure of beans to 1 lb. of methyl bromide per 1,000 cubic feet for about 12 hours in a tight build- ing will give good control of weevil? without reducing the viability of the seed. In order that the information in our publications may be more intelligible it is sometimes necessary to use trade names of products or equipment rather than complicated descriptive or chemical iden- tifications. In so doing it is unavoidable in some cases that similar products which are on the market under other trade names may not be cited. No endorsement of named products is intended nor is criticism implied of similar products which are not mentioned. Co-operative Extension w< co-operating. Distributed k in Agriculture and Home Economics, College of Agncultur furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8, and June 3f University of California, and United Stales Department of Agriculture 1914. J. Earl Coke, Director, California Agricultural Extension Service. 10m-3,'54(A8636)AA [28]