EXCHANGE 
 
DEC 5 igto 
 
 POWER IN ALBERTA 
 
 WATER, COAL AND NATURAL GAS 
 
 Commission of Conservation 
 
 Canada 
 
Commission of Conservation 
 
 Canada 
 
 o 
 
 POWER IN ALBERTA 
 
 WATER, COAL 
 
 AND 
 
 NATURAL GAS 
 
 (Read at the Industrial Congress, Calgary, Alberta, 
 August 11-16, 1919) 
 
 BY 
 
 JAMES \yHITE, F.R.G.S., M.E.I.C. 
 
 Assistant to Chairman, Deputy Head, 
 Commission of Conservation 
 
 OTTAWA, 1919 
 
 680461 
 
Cornmission of Conservation 
 
 Constituted under/ 'Tfa.doiQervation Act," 8-9 Edward VII, Chap. 27, 1909, and 
 
 ''"amending &&:-.$ Edward VII, Chap. 42, 1910, and 3-4 
 :\ :/: ;*: *. Gsqrge V, Chap. 12, 1913. 
 
 Chairman : 
 
 SIR CLIFFORD SIFTON, K.C.M.G. 
 
 Members : 
 
 Hon. AUBIN E. ARSENAULT, Summerside, P.E.I. 
 
 Dr. HOWARD MURRAY, Dean, Dalhousie University, Halifax, N.S. 
 
 Dr. CECIL C. JONES, Chancellor, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, N.B. 
 
 Mr. WILLIAM B. SNOWBALL, Chatham, N.B. 
 
 Hon. HENRI S. BELAND, M.D., M.P., St. Joseph-de-Beauce, Que. 
 
 Dr. FRANK D. ADAMS, Dean, Faculty of Applied Science, McGill University, Mont- 
 real, Que. 
 
 Mgr. CHARLES P. CROQUETTE, M.A., St. Hyacinthe, Que., Professor, Seminary of 
 St. Hyacinthe, and Member of Faculty, Laval University. 
 
 Mr. EDWARD GOHIER, St. Laurent, Que. 
 
 Mr. W. F. TYE, Past-president, Engineering Institute of Canada, Montreal, Que. 
 
 Dr. JAMES W. ROBERTSON, C.M.G., Ottawa, Ont. 
 
 Hon. Senator WILLIAM CAMERON EDWARDS, Ottawa, Ont. 
 
 Mr. CHARLES A. McCooL, Pembroke^ Ont. 
 
 Sir EDMUND B. OSLER, M.P., Toronto, Ont. 
 
 Mr. JOHN F. MACKAY, Toronto, Ont. 
 
 Dr. B. E. FERNOW, Dean, Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont. 
 
 Dr. GEORGE BRYCE, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Man. 
 
 Dr. WILLIAM J. RUTHERFORD, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Saskat- 
 chewan, Saskatoon, Sask. 
 
 Dr. HENRY M. TORY, President, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alta. 
 
 Mr. JOHN PEASE BABCOCK, Assistant Commissioner of Fisheries, Victoria, B.C. 
 
 Members ex-officio: 
 
 Hon. S. F. TOLMIE, Minister of Agriculture, Ottawa. 
 
 Hon. ARTHUR MEIGHEN, Minister of the Interior, Ottawa. 
 
 Hon. MARTIN BURRELL, Minister of Mines, Ottawa. 
 
 Hon. ORLANDO T. DANIELS, Attorney-General, Nova Scotia. 
 
 Hon. WALTER M. LEA, Commissioner of Agriculture, Charlottetown, P.E.I. 
 
 Hon. E. A. SMITH, Minister of Lands and Mines, New Brunswick. 
 
 Hon. JULES ALLARD, Minister of Lands and Forests, Quebec. 
 
 Hon. G. H. FERGUSON, Minister of Lands, Forests and Mines, Ontario. 
 
 Hon. THOMAS H. JOHNSON, Attorney-General, Manitoba. 
 
 Hon. CHARLES STEWART, Premier, Minister of Railways and Telephones, Alberta. 
 
 Hon. T. D. PATTULLO, Minister of Lands, British Columbia. 
 
 Assistant to Chairman, Deputy Head: 
 
 Mr. JAMES WHITE. 
 
 EXCHANGE 
 
Power in Alberta Water, Coal and Natural Gas* 
 
 IJOWER has been defined as the " substitution of mechanical 
 *" energy for human energy, of mechaiiidaf ^orl^ for ; bjiflian 
 labour." As a result of the utilization of power,' civilized nations 
 expend enormously more energy than the cpm^ln'ed^r^^c'u^^ripbkci 
 of their inhabitants and their beasts of burden. Sir Dugald Clerk 
 has estimated that the factories of the world, including electric 
 lighting and street railways, use 75, 000, 000 horse-power; the railways 
 of the world, 21,000,000, and the shipping of the world, 24,000,000; 
 or a total of 120,000,000 horse-power. Fairgrieve, in his Geography 
 and World Power, says that " the power of Greece, whereby she 
 achieved such great things in all directions of human progress, was 
 largely based upon the work done by the servile class. On the aver- 
 age, each Greek freeman, each Greek family, had five helots, whom 
 we think of not at all when we speak of the Greeks, and yet these 
 were the men who supplied a great part of the Greek energy." 
 
 Of the 75,000,000 horse-power used in the factories 
 
 Distribution an( j g ene ral industrial and municipal activities of the 
 
 of Power 
 
 world, about 13,000,000 is used in the United King- 
 dom, about 29,000,000 is used in the United States, and 6,000,000 in 
 the British Dominions and Dependencies. 
 
 The work accomplished annually in the industries alone of the 
 United States, is, therefore, equivalent to the labour of 580,000,000 
 slaves, and each family in the United Kingdom has, in the industries, 
 nearly 30 serfs to " supply energy, requiring no food, and feeling 
 nothing of the wear and tear and hopelessness of a servile life." 
 
 Having demonstrated the enormous importance of power, the 
 next step is the examination of the particular problem under con- 
 sidereration, namely, power in the province of Alberta. 
 
 * It should be emphasized that this paper is only a general review of this important subject. It 
 applies to the province of Alberta only and, therefore, some of the conclusions might not apply with 
 equal force to other provinces of Canada. 
 
 It should also be emphasized that this paper refers only to the production of power on a 
 -wholesale scale. 
 
 68046 H 
 
 965054 
 
WATER-POWER 
 
 Water-power, with its numerous advantages, is 
 
 Factors Governing na t ur ally first in order of consideration. On the map 
 Water-power ,* _* jv ' r 
 
 - J . e . \ s w <Albrta (see pp. 16 and 17) the water-powers of over 
 
 SjOOO'twenty-'foti^-Iiour-low-water power are shown by a large dot, the 
 gw*e$ indicating the minimum in thousands of horse-power. Prob- 
 ably the first impression gained on examining the map will be that 
 the amounts of power indicated are much too low, such impression 
 being, in part, based upon the exaggerated statements that have 
 been made from time to time. It may also be partly due to the im- 
 pression gained, say, by the traveller who, from the railway train 
 in summer sees large volumes of water flowing down the beautiful 
 rivers of Alberta. The traveller is not aware, or forgets, that the 
 low-water season in the western rivers is not in the driest summer 
 weather when the glaciers and snow-fields are swelling their volume, 
 but in the coldest winter, when frost seals the ice and snow-fields 
 and the volume is practically dependent upon the springs that feed 
 the streams. 
 
 Another important consideration is the height of the falls that 
 are available. This is a geological question. The Rocky mountains 
 are, in large part, composed of limestone, with sandstone and shales 
 in some valleys in the eastern portion. The tendency of a river 
 flowing over such rocks is to reduce its bed to a nearly uniform 
 gradient, hence the few falls of considerable height. On the other 
 hand, high dams to create high heads are, in most instance's, pro- 
 hibited by the heavy cost, and, in the case of several important 
 streams, the presence of railways debars such constructions. 
 
 Before considering the economic phase of the question, the prin- 
 cipal water-powers in Alberta of over 5,000 minimum-twenty-four- 
 hour power should be noted. They are as follows: 
 
 WATER POWERS IN ALBERTA HAVING AN ESTIMATED MINIMUM 
 CAPACITY OF 5,000 H.P. OR OVER 
 
 Site 
 
 Head, 
 feet 
 
 Estimated 
 minimum 
 h.p. 
 
 Distance from 
 principal market and 
 cognate data* 
 
 Bow River vf 
 
 44 
 
 8,000 
 
 25 miles from Calgary. 
 
 Ghost 
 
 50 
 
 9,000 
 
 30 miles from Calgary. 
 
 
 47 
 
 8,000 
 
 35 miles from Calgary. 
 
 Bow Fort 
 
 66 
 
 11,000 
 
 38 miles from Calgary. 
 
 Horseshoe fall .... 
 
 70 
 
 12,000 
 
 42 miles from Calgary, t 
 
 Kananaskis fall . . 
 
 70 
 
 12,000 
 
 45 miles from Calgary.J 
 
Site 
 
 Head, 
 feet 
 
 Estimated 
 minimum 
 h.p. 
 
 Distance from 
 principal market and 
 cognate data.* 
 
 Elbow river: 
 Near Canon creek . 
 
 225 
 
 5,000 
 
 30 miles from Calgary. Other 
 
 North Saskatchewan river :\ 
 Rocky rapid 
 
 85 
 
 28,000 
 
 scheme using head of 500 
 feet also possible. 
 
 65 miles from Edmonton. 
 
 Athabaska river: 
 5 m. above Mountain rapid. . . . 
 Rock rapid 
 
 15 
 12 
 
 7,000 
 5,000 
 
 Would require a dam 85 
 feet high. 
 
 220 miles from Edmonton. 
 220 miles from Edmonton. 
 
 Crooked rapid , 
 
 13 
 
 6,000 
 
 220 miles from Edmonton 
 
 Long rapid 
 
 28 
 
 12,000 
 
 220 miles from Edmonton 
 
 Middle rapid 
 
 20 
 
 9,000 
 
 215 miles from Edmonton 
 
 Boiler rapid 
 
 25 
 
 11,000 
 
 215 miles from Edmonton 
 
 Grand rapid 
 
 54 
 
 22,000 
 
 200 miles from Edmonton 
 
 Pelican rapid and rapid above . . 
 Baptiste power 
 
 17 
 80 
 
 7,000 
 12,000 
 
 165 miles from Edmonton. 
 150 miles from Edmonton 
 
 7 miles above Baptiste river 
 Peace river: 
 Vermilion fall and rapid 
 Peace Canon rapids** 
 
 42 
 
 26 
 
 225 
 
 6,000 
 
 20,000 
 94,000 
 
 150 miles from Edmonton. 
 
 340 miles from Edmonton. 
 380 miles from Edmonton 
 
 Slave river. 
 Lower Fort Smith Rapids power 
 Upper Fort Smith Rapids power 
 
 48 
 69 
 
 128,000 
 184,000 
 
 Would require a flume or 
 conduit about 9 miles long, 
 if developed at one site. 
 
 450 miles from Edmonton. 
 445 miles from Edmonton. 
 
 * The mileages given in this column are air-line distances and, in most cases, are only given to 
 the nearest five miles. As a rule, the transmission line would be at least 10 per cent longer. 
 
 t The figures for the North Saskatchewan and Bow rivers are for regulated flow. For the Bow, 
 the minimum, with unregulated flow, is less than one-half the figures given. 
 
 t Calgary Power Co.'s hydro-electric plant. 
 
 ** In British Columbia. 
 
 The total low-water potentiality of the water-powers of Alberta 
 is estimated at 450,000 h.p. The developed water-power aggregates 
 33,000 h.p. 
 
 It should be noted here that the figures for the powers on the 
 Athabaska, Peace, and Slave rivers, given in our report on Water 
 Powers of Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta, are for the open 
 season only, namely, from May to November. Accurate data respect- 
 ing the minimum flow of these rivers are not obtainable, but available 
 information indicates that the minimum in winter is about one-third 
 of the open-season minimum, and the figures quoted above are based 
 upon that assumption. 
 
 Limited The foregoing brief review of the larger water-powers 
 
 Water-Power of Alberta does not indicate great resources in the 
 
 vicinity of the well-settled portions of the province, 
 
 assuming that the demand for power is uniform throughout the 
 
twelve months of the year. It is necessary, therefore, to consider 
 measures to supplement or to replace power from water. 
 
 The North Saskatchewan, South Saskatchewan, and Bow usually 
 reach the highest stages in the latter part of June, and the lowest 
 stages are usually reached in the latter part of December. In the 
 average year, the low- water period extends from December to April, 
 both inclusive, and, if Alberta's water-powers are to be utilized to any- 
 thing approaching their capacity, measures must be taken to supply 
 the deficiency during the low- water season. 
 
 During the period 1911-16, the maximum discharge of the 
 North Saskatchewan at Edmonton was 186,560 cubic feet per second 
 on June 28,1915, and the minimum was 650 c.f.s. on December 25, 
 1913, or, in other words, the high-water flow was 286 times the 
 low-water flow. During the same period the high-water discharge 
 of the South Saskatchewan at Medicine Hat on June 28, 1915-84,700 
 c.f.s. was 110 times the low-water discharge on December 27, 1911- 
 772 c.f.s. During 1910-16 the high-water discharge of the Bow river 
 at Calgary,on June 26, 1915,-28, 130 c.f.s was 48 times the low-water 
 discharge on December 27, 1912 580 c.f.s. 
 
 With the exception of the Niagara and the St. Lawrence, there is 
 probably no large river in Canada which is not very materially 
 affected by occasional extreme low-water stages. If, therefore, our 
 streams are to be developed to utilize their potential value as producers 
 of water-power, they can only be fully utilized by providing auxiliary 
 steam, gas, or other power-generating equipment. 
 
 The most obvious method of supplementing the low- 
 Possibihties of water flow is, of course, by provision of storage. 
 Unfortunately, the streams of Alberta do not drain 
 large lakes, nor, in most instances, is it possible to construct large 
 artificial reservoirs except at heavy cost. The largest lake in the 
 Rockies is lake Minnewanka, on the Bow. It has an area of six 
 square miles and the present dam provides a total storage of 58,080 
 acre-feet. Bow lake and Spray lake are also available for additional 
 storage aggregating 198,400 acre-feet. ^ 
 
 With Alberta's enormous coal resources, however, the deficient 
 power during the low-water months could readily be supplied by 
 auxiliary steam plants. Such plants could also take care of the 
 peaks of the loads. 
 
 If such auxiliary stations are only required for a few months in 
 the year, it may be advisable to construct them at low first cost, 
 even at a sacrifice in economy. If operated to cut down the peak 
 
load, however, or to prevent interruptions of service, economy of 
 operation is more important. 
 
 STEAM-POWER vs. WATER-POWER 
 
 In the foregoing review, attention has been devoted solely to 
 water-power and its utilization. 
 
 There is a fairly general popular belief that water-power is inher- 
 ently cheaper than steam-power. As a matter of fact, their relative 
 costs are dependent upon a number of considerations, and, in many 
 instances, steam-power is cheaper than water-power, particularly 
 since 1914, owing to the altered conditions created by the war. 
 
 As compared with steam-power, water-power has the following 
 advantages : 
 
 (1) Cost of operation is usually much lower. 
 
 (2) Very few attendants are required in the plant. No fuel 
 except for heating the building. 
 
 The disadvantages are: 
 
 (1) Usually the cost of development and installation is much 
 higher than with steam-power. 
 
 (2) The situation of the water-power plant is fixed by nature. 
 This lack of elasticity necessitates, on the average, a longer trans- 
 mission line to transmit the electric energy to the user. 
 
 (3) The service is less reliable owing to the possibility of lack of 
 power due to unusually low water. 
 
 Effect of Steam During recent years, largely owing to the introduction 
 Turbine on of the steam turbine, the capital costs of modern high 
 
 powered steam plants and of many hydro-electric 
 developments are coming close together, and many engineers predict 
 that, at an early date, steam-electric power will be produced at less 
 expense, other things being equal, than hydro-electric energy. 
 Formerly, steam plants consumed 30 to 35 Ibs. of coal per h.p.-hour; 
 now, modern plants use 9 to 9J Ibs. In 1915, a modern steam turbine 
 of large size, using units of 10,000 to 20,000 kilowatts (13,300 to 
 26,600 horse-power) rating could be constructed for from $50 to $60 
 per kilowatt ($37 to $45 per horse-power) of maximum capacity as 
 compared with hydro-electric, costing from $200 to $250 per kilowatt 
 ($150 to $187 per horse-power). 
 
 Capital and Mr. Lewis B. Stillwell states that, in 1916, it was esti- 
 
 Operating Costs mated that a steam plant, to generate 50,000 kilowatts 
 
 (66,700 h.p.) could be constructed for $3,185,000, or 
 nearly $64 per kilowatt ($48 per horse-power). Allowing 12 per cent 
 for interest, amortization, and taxes, the cost per k.w.-hour would 
 
8 
 
 be 53 cents, assuming a 50 per cent load factor and coal at $3 per ton. 
 To compete with such steam plant, he estimates that, assuming 
 capital charges of 15 per cent per annum, an investment in a hydro- 
 electric plant of $130 per kilowatt ($98 per horse-power) would be 
 justifiable. 
 
 The foregoing, of course, rests upon the assumption, for the 
 hydro-electric plant, that the flow of the stream will permit developing 
 the full amount of power throughout the year. If a steam plant 
 must be provided and operated as an auxiliary during the low stages, 
 the justifiable investment in a hydro-electric plant, cited above, 
 would be reduced by the cost of the steam plant. In addition, the 
 capitalized value of the maintenance and operating charges of the 
 steam plant must also be deducted. 
 
 The large investment of capital in a water-power plant carries with 
 it a very heavy interest charge. Mr. Gano Dunn made an analysis* 
 of the gross operating expenses of a typical steam electric and typical 
 hydro-electric station of 20,000 horse-power each. The investigation 
 disclosed that, while the cost of coal formed 48.9 per cent of the gross 
 operating expenses of the steam-electric plant, and bond interest, 19 
 per cent, the bond interest of the hydro-electric constituted 77.4 
 per cent of the gross. 
 
 Obviously, that heavy charge, absorbing over three-fourths of 
 the operating expenses, is incurred whether the plant be operated to 
 full capacity to half capacity or whether it be idle. Failure to 
 ascertain or to recognize this important factor is one of the commonest 
 causes of the economic failure of water-power plants. 
 
 * Mr. Dunn's analysis is as follows: 
 
 Unit Analysis of Gross Operating Expenses in Typical Steam-Electric and Hydro-Electric Station of 
 the Same Capacity, 20,000 h.p., Annual Load Factor 50 per cent and Producing Power at the Same 
 Cost. Coal $3.25 per Ton Delivered. Returns to Capital 7%. 
 
 
 Steam station, 
 per cent 
 
 nf tntal 
 
 Hydro-electric 
 station, 
 
 
 gross operating 
 expenses. 
 
 gross operating 
 expenses. 
 
 
 4-0 
 
 4-0 
 
 Ordinary operating? expenses (except coal) 
 
 10-6 
 
 4-8 
 
 Coal 
 
 48-9 
 
 
 
 6-7 
 
 2-8 
 
 Depreciation ; 
 
 10-8 
 
 11-0 
 
 Bond interest 
 
 19-0 
 
 77-4 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 100-0 
 
 100-0 
 
 
 
 
Mr. Julian Smith, Chief Engineer and Vice President, 
 Water-power Shawinigan Water and Power Co., Shawinigan, Que., 
 
 states that the capital cost of a water-power plant is 
 twice that of a steam plant, and that, if this cost is high because of 
 high labour costs, the water-power plant is handicapped forever. 
 He is of the opinion that, for many years, steam plants will be of 
 primary importance and water-power plants of secondary importance, 
 but excludes from this dictum the great powers of the Niagara and 
 the St. Lawrence, which have great inherent and special advantages. 
 It should be emphasized that the steam plant, as compared with 
 the hydro-electric, occupies to-day a much more advantageous posi- 
 tion than it did, say, fifteen years ago. The hydro-electric plant had 
 a high initial efficiency, and, in that period, has only made an advance 
 of, say, 10 per cent. In addition, it has reached such a high efficiency 
 that it is not susceptible of considerable improvement. Its capital 
 cost has increased owing to the increased cost of labour and materials. 
 On the other hand, the initial low efficiency of the steam plant offered 
 ample scope for improvement and the lower first cost is due to the 
 development of the steam turbine. It is also susceptible of further 
 improvement and that improvement may be confidently anticipated. 
 The capital cost of the steam plant is only one-half what it was 
 fifteen years ago, and the consumption of coal has been reduced by 
 from one-third to one-half. 
 
 680462 
 
COALFIELDS OF ALBERTA 
 
 t Scale of Miles | 
 
 100 ZOO 
 
 Legend 
 
 Anthracitic and Bituminous coal areas. 
 
 Sub-bituminous coal areas 
 
 Lignite areas _ 
 
 Note.:- The areas shown as containing Anthracitic and 
 Bituminous include a/so, in places, Sub-bituminous and 
 Lignite. Similar /y, same of the. Sub -b it uminous areas 
 also contain Lignite t 
 
11 
 
 COAL 
 
 Alberta contains 87 per cent of the coal in Canada, but the estimate 
 in the Coal Resources of the World states that 82 per cent of the 
 coal in that province is lignite or sub-bituminous. Practically the 
 whole of the settled portion of the province is underlain by this valu- 
 able fuel, and the statements in the preceding paragraphs respecting 
 the relative costs of steam-electric and hydro-electric power, indicate 
 the desirability of investigating the economics of steam-electric 
 power generated at super-power stations and transmitted to the 
 municipalities within easy transmission distance, say 100 miles or 
 more. 
 
 Transmission n tne ma P C ^ TC ^ S nave Deen drawn (pp. 16 and 17) 
 Lines from with a radius of 100 miles. The centres of these 
 
 circles are only suggestive, and Lethbridge, Drum- 
 heller and Edmonton (or Clover Bar) were selected as being central 
 points of maximum production of coal. That the Lethbridge and 
 Edmonton circles do not touch the eastern boundary of the province 
 is unimportant, as the transmission is not limited to a distance of 
 100 miles, the Ontario Hydro-Electric transmission line extending 
 from Niagara to Windsor, a distance of 230 miles. 
 
 The larger coal-mining centres have been selected because such 
 large super-power plants give unusual opportunities for economies. 
 For instance, they can use coal which, under ordinary circumstances, 
 would be left in the mine as it would be unprofitable to bring it to the 
 surface. As an example of such economy, the Alliance Power Company 
 state that " by burning lignite slack " they " have succeeded in 
 reducing the coal bill in the Edmonton, Alta., power-house from 
 $165,000 a year, to $75,000"; also, that, if an automatic stoker were 
 devised which would " respond and evaporate the necessary water in 
 the boilers to handle the overload at peak," much better results could 
 be obtained. It is well within the mark to state that the coal that 
 is being wasted in the 240 or 250 coal mines in Alberta which are now 
 being operated in a small way, would, if properly utilized, generate 
 all the power now being used in the province. 
 
 Other economies are to be looked for along the many lines of 
 research now being conducted with the object of reclaiming commer- 
 cial by-products, much after the manner in which the large municipal 
 gas companies conduct their operations. 
 
 The average total capacity of the hydro-electric central station 
 plants in Alberta is 7,995 h.p.; of the steam-electric, 1,233 h.p., and 
 of the internal-combustion-electric, 222 h.p. 
 
 6S046-2* 
 
12 
 
 A turbo-generator of 80,000 horse-power is in operation in 
 New York at the present time. Obviously, generators of such 
 size, installed in super-power stations at the coal mines, would show 
 remarkable economies as compared with the numerous isolated plants 
 which would be supplanted by them, the most important being the 
 saving of coal and its transportation. As compared with existing 
 plants, there would be a notable saving in coal consumption, trans- 
 portation, man-power, etc. 
 
 The Census and Statistics Branch estimates the total 
 Present Power power used in the " principal industries " of Alberta 
 at 100,000 h.p. It is evident that one giant unit of 
 80,000 h.p. such as is now in operation in a street railway power-house 
 in New York, could supply nearly the whole of the present power con- 
 sumption of the principal industries of the Province of Alberta. 
 
 The inter-connection of power systems also offers opportunities 
 for fuel economy, particularly if they include hydro-electric systems 
 which have a surplus output during the high-water season. Such 
 inter-connection also permits the increase of the load factor and the 
 reduction of the peaks inasmuch as the loads carried by different 
 systems do not coincide. Thus, inter-connection permits the maxi- 
 mum use of water-power and the increase of the average load factor. 
 Again, if there are uneconomical central stations in the system, they 
 may be held in reserve and only put in operation when necessary to 
 carry a high load. It is estimated that, in 1918, inter-connection 
 and closing uneconomical plants in the United States saved 540,000 
 tons of coal. 
 
 As indicated above, it is not sufficient to devote attention solely 
 to increasing the efficiency of the generating machinery, but every 
 effort must be directed to increasing the efficiency of the whole system. 
 
 It should be emphasized that, in indicating the numerous ad- 
 vantages of super-power stations, it is not urged that existing organ- 
 izations be ruthlessly treated, but that they should be treated with 
 fairness and justice, and should be so welded into the system as to 
 yield the maximum of output consistent with economy. Study of 
 such included systems would permit their operation in a way that 
 would reduce to a minimum the losses due to their relative lack of 
 efficiency. 
 
 As it has already been stated that the cost of hydro- 
 Market for electric power decreases with the increase in the load 
 factor, it is obvious that a market which will provide 
 a high load factor is extremely desirable. Electro-chemical work 
 gives a load factor frequently as high as 90 per cent. Under this 
 
13 
 
 head is included the electrolytic alkali industry, the products of 
 which are: caustic soda, used in the manufacture of soap, mercer- 
 izing cotton, etc.,; metallic sodium, used as a basis of cyanide; chlor- 
 ates, used in the manufacture of matches, explosives, etc.; hypo- 
 chlorites, for bleaching and sterilizing water; chlorine, a sterilizer and 
 for the formation of a bleach. The chief products of the electric 
 furnace consist of abrasives, graphite, silicon, ferro-alloys, such as 
 ferro-chrome, ferro-silicon, ferro- tungsten, etc., which are used in the 
 steel industry; calcium carbide, used in the manufacture of 
 cyanamide and acetylene. 
 
 To attract industries to an electrolytic plant, certain 
 Increasing Cost advantages must be presented, such as cheap power, 
 
 transportation facilities, large market, etc. The 
 question naturally arises: What is cheap power? About 15 years ago 
 the Ontario Hydro-Electric Commission closed a 10-year contract for 
 a block of power up to 100,000 h.p. at $9 per horse-power-year. 
 The present rate for new contracts is stated to be about $20 per 
 horse-power-year, which demonstrates that Niagara power is no 
 longer 'bargain' power. In addition to paying $20, the purchaser of 
 Niagara high-tension alternating current must also provide trans- 
 formers, etc., which increases the cost to a figure which approximates 
 to the cost of steam-power in New York city, using the smaller size 
 and cheaper coal. 
 
 For a very large plant generating cheap electric 
 NSogen f ener gy the possibilities of fixation of atmospheric 
 
 nitrogen for fertilizing purposes have been urged. 
 There are two processes, namely, oxidation of nitrogen in the electric 
 arc, and the conversion of calcium carbide into cyanamide. A large 
 plant devoted to the cyanamide industry has already been established 
 at Niagara Falls, Ont. Some engineers have stated that, if a very 
 large amount of power were available in Eastern Canada at a very 
 low figure, say, $12* per horse-power-year, a great nitrogen fixation 
 industry could be developed. Other engineers, however, state, that, 
 for this purpose, power should not cost more than $5 or $6. The portion 
 of the Alberta product of such an industry that was marketed in 
 Western Canada would, of course, be in an advantageous position, 
 but transportation charges to eastern Canada or the eastern United 
 
 *The plant of the American Nitrogen Products Company is situated near the Lake Buntzen 
 hydro-electnc olant of the British Columbia Electric Co., on the North arm of Burrard inlet and near 
 Vancouver, B.C. The American Nitrogen Products Company is manufacturing sodium nitrate, 
 ammonium nitnte and nitric acid. The ammonium nitrite is used in the manufacture of dyes and 
 the nitric acid has been sold to the British Government for use in the manufacture of explosives. It 
 is reported that the American Nitrogen Products Company is paying $12 per horse-power-year for 
 the electric energy it consumes. At the present time the B. C. Electric has a considerable amount of 
 surplus power and can afford to sell its surplus at a very low rate. In the plant of the Nitrogen 
 Products Co. the nitrogen is oxidized in the electric arc. 
 
14 
 
 States would be higher than from points nearer those markets. 
 
 Mr. Lawrence Addicks is of the opinion that a mammoth steam 
 plant established close to a coal mine and with a sufficient and suit- 
 able supply of water for boiler feed and condensing, " could give a 
 lower power cost than is now obtainable at Niagara.'" 1 
 
 Summing up: The foregoing discussion demonstrates that modern 
 development in the mechanical and industrial arts has disclosed the 
 fact that coal is now a serious competitor of all other kinds of power, 
 including hydro-electric. Alberta, therefore, with its great coal re- 
 sources, should most carefully consider the possibilities of utilizing 
 its coal along the lines suggested by the comments already made. 
 
 RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION 
 
 In view of the importance of the subject of railway electrification, 
 a brief reference to the subject will not be out of place. 
 
 While extension of the electrification of steam railways in the near 
 future is probable, there are several factors in the problem which 
 render it extremely unlikely that very considerable mileage will be 
 electrified. 
 
 Mr. W. F. Tye, late Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific railway, 
 has contrasted the advantages and disadvantages of the electric and 
 the steam locomotive. He points out that the advantages of haulage 
 by electric locomotive, as compared with the steam locomotive, are 
 numerous. The cost of maintenance of an electric locomotive is 
 much less; it does not require to be sent into the roundhouse for 
 cleaning, etc., at the end of a run; two or more can be operated 
 together without loss of power; at the top of a long grade the electric 
 retains its full power; on long descending grades, regenerative 
 braking returns the energy of the train into the trolley line or third 
 rail, and, in severe winter weather, the train load need not be reduced. 
 Ca ital Cost ^ n ^ e otner nan d, electrification would necessitate 
 of Railway raising large amounts of capital ; railways are not 
 
 Electrification finding that an easy operation, and interest charges 
 are much higher than in pre-war days. Electrification of all lines 
 would require the construction of hydro-electric and steam-electric 
 plants. The railway load is a fluctuating one, varying from hour to 
 hour and from day to day, and the numerous plants which had no 
 market other than the railway load would have a low load factor, 
 which, as already pointed out, means expensive power. Again, 
 failure of portions of the electric installation, such as a break in the 
 transmission, may tie up a considerable mileage. 
 
 Mr. W. F. Tye has stated that no road in Canada, except, possibly, 
 
 * For data re cost of transmission lines, see p. 23. 
 
15 
 
 the Canadian Pacific, is in a position financially to contemplate large 
 capital expenditures, and that he understands the " Canadian Pacific 
 has not, as yet, found a place where the traffic is sufficiently dense 
 to justify the cost of installation of electric traction."* 
 
 The possibility of the haulage of great tonnage by electric loco- 
 motives has been demonstrated, but I understand that serious trouble 
 is now being experienced owing to the fact that the ordinary railway 
 road bed will not stand up under the heavy braking of trains and 
 other exacting conditions of physical operation. 
 
 Reference is frequently made to the electrification of the Chicago, 
 Milwaukee and St. Paul R.R. as indicating the economic practic- 
 ability of railway electrification. It must be borne in mind, however, 
 that, in the vicinity of that railway, were two powers with high heads 
 and on a great river, the Missouri; that these powers were already 
 developed, and that they were carrying the full burden of their bond 
 interest. Obviously, a customer who would take a block of 60,000 
 h.p. nrght convert a losing enterprise into a paying one, and the 
 company could afford to give such customer a low rate. On the 
 other hand, I am informed that, when the Canadian Pacific decided 
 to improve conditions in the heavy grade between Hector and Field, 
 B.C., they decided that it would be better to spend $2,000,000 on 
 7 or 8 miles of new line than to electrify the existing line. 
 INDUSTRIES IN ALBERTA 
 
 At the present time, there are, in Alberta, four hydro-electric 
 central station plants with an aggregate capacity of 31,980 h.p.; 42 
 steam-electric plants with 51,805 h.p. capacity, and 6 internal-com- 
 bustion plants of 1,332 h.p. capacity. According to the table on 
 page 18, supplied by the Census and Statistics branch, the principal 
 industries in Alberta include 272 plants. These plants utilize 238 
 steam engines, with an aggregate of 63,211 h.p.; 9 gas engines of 527 
 h.p.; 63 gasolene engines of 584 h.p.; 17 water wheels of 32,920 h.p.; 
 114 electric motors of 1,392 h.p.; and ' other power ' aggregating 662 
 h.p. Grand total of power thus used in Alberta, 99,296 h.p., exclusive 
 of motors supplied from plants which appear under their own prime- 
 movers, such as steam, water-wheels, etc., and other rented power. 
 This figure, practically 100,000 horse-power, is only a statistic of the 
 principal industries. Nevertheless, it demonstrates that two gigantic 
 80,000 h.p. steam turbo-generators, such as are now in operation in 
 New York, could produce more power than is now in use in the whole 
 of the province of Alberta. 
 
 The table on page 18, prepared by the Census and Statistics 
 Branch, gives the more important power-using industries in Alberta. 
 
 * The Times, London, states that a rough estimate, based on pre-war figures, showed that 
 electrifying the 24,000 miles of railway in Great Britain would cost about $100,000 per mile. 
 
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19 
 
 NATURAL GAS 
 
 Alberta contains the greatest developed natural gas resources in 
 Canada but it can not be too often stated, nor too strongly stated, that 
 a reservoir of this enormously valuable natural resource, once exhaust- 
 ed, can never be replaced. It is exceedingly difficult, in fact, almost 
 impossible to convince 'the man in the street' that the life of a gas well 
 is limited to a few years at most, no matter what the initial capacity 
 of the well may be. It is axiomatic, therefore, that natural gas should 
 be used where, and when, the maximum benefit to the community 
 will result therefrom. The recent decrease in the flow from the famous 
 Bow Island gas-field, which supplies Calgary, Lethbridge, Macleod 
 and intermediate towns, emphasizes the foregoing in the most forcible 
 manner. 
 
 Mr. T. T. Gray states that a large rolling mill may use 5,000,000 
 feet of gas per day and that this amount would suffice for 9,000 homes, 
 or, say, 45,000 individuals. He says that " It would, therefore, seem 
 reasonable to prohibit by law the selling of natural gas to one con- 
 sumer at less than one-half the price paid by another consumer, also 
 to prohibit more than a certain fraction of the capacity of the well to 
 be taken, during the early life of the well." 
 
 I venture the statement that, if gas is absolutely 
 
 Gas Values required for certain uses, and, if the supply of such by 
 
 Compared . . . / ^ J * 
 
 process ot manufacture involves a cost ol say 75 cents 
 
 per thousand to the consumer, then Alberta natural gas is worth the 
 same figure, if not more, because, when exhausted, it cannot be 
 replaced except at the cost of manufacture in other places. 
 
 Up to a recent date, gas sold in Toronto at 75 cents per thousand, 
 the lowest rate for coal gas in any large city in North America. In 
 view of the general increase in prices, the present price, namely, $1.00 
 per thousand, probably holds the same pre-eminent position as regards 
 cheapness. The average price of natural gas in Alberta in 1918, as 
 sold by the producing companies, was only 19 cents per thousand. 
 
 The case for Alberta natural gas, however, is even stronger than 
 the foregoing would indicate. Dr. D. B. Dowling's investigations 
 show that the gas supplied to Calgary has a heating value of 895 
 British thermal units per cubic foot, as compared with only about 500 
 B.t.u. for coal gas. Therefore, compared on a basis of heating values, 
 the gas supplied to Calgary from the Bow Island field would be 
 worth $1.78 per thousand in Toronto. 
 
20 
 
 The gas from the Dingman No. 2 well, 32 miles southwest of 
 Calgary, is even higher in heating value, averaging 1,015 B.t.u. 
 according to Dr. Dowling. Based on present Toronto prices it would 
 be worth $2.03 per thousand. 
 
 On the other hand, if, owing to excessively high pressure or other 
 reasons, it is impossible to store the gas, it is obviously better to use 
 it for any economic purpose to avoid wasting it. 
 
 NATURAL GAS FIELDS OF ALBERTA 
 
 In Alberta, four important gas-fields have been discovered, 
 namely, the Medicine Hat, Bow Island, Viking and Pelican Rapids 
 fields. The gas is derived from the top of the Colorado in the Medi- 
 cine Hat field, and from sands in the Lower Colorado in the Bow 
 Island and Viking fields. 
 
 Three anticlinal arches have been found. These arches however, 
 are so low and diffuse that, owing to the scarcity of natural exposures 
 of rock, it is difficult to trace them. 
 
 The first anticline extends from the Sweet Grass hills in Montana, 
 thence northwestward to the Bow river. The Bow Island field is near 
 the axis of this anticline. The second anticline extends northwest- 
 ward from the Saskatchewan-Alberta boundary in approximate 
 latitude 52, to Viking. The third anticline crosses the Athabaska 
 river about 20 miles above McMurray and, like the first and second, 
 has a general northwest-and-southeast course. 
 
 In the Medicine Hat gas-field there are 33 wells, with 
 an a PP rox i mate capacity, open flow, of from 90 
 million to 92 million cubic feet per day, which is 
 equivalent to about 53 million feet, working capacity, the working 
 capacity of a well being assumed to be 60 per cent of the 
 open-flow capacity. The largest well has been reported to have a 
 capacity of 6 million feet per day. The tested portion of this field 
 has an area of about 30 square miles. The initial rock pressure was 
 about 600 Ibs. to the square inch. The gas-sand is found at a depth 
 of from 1,000 to 1,200 feet and is about 900 feet above the Dakota 
 sandstone. This field supplies Medicine Hat, Redcliffe and vicinity. 
 Bow Island ^ e Bow Island gas-field has a tested area of about 
 
 Gas-field 25 square miles; the initial rock pressure was 790 Ibs., 
 
 and the gas-sand was found in the Dakota sandstone 
 and at a depth of from 1,850 to 2,150 feet. This field supplies Macleod, 
 Lethbridge, Calgary, and the intermediate towns by a 16-inch pipe 
 line, 175 miles long. There are 21 wells drilled in this field and the 
 
21 
 
 total daily capacity, open flow, was about 186 million cubic feet. 
 No. 4 well had a capacity of 29 million cubic feet. The well at Fore- 
 most, 36 miles south of Bow Island, and on the same anticline, has 
 an estimated open flow of 13 million cubic feet per day. A heavy 
 oil-sand found at Foremost, 920 feet below the gas-sand, suggests a 
 possible source for the gas. 
 
 _.. _ Gas has also been found at Langevin, Cassils, Brooks, 
 
 Wide Range of & . . ' ,, o u 
 
 Gas-Fields Sheep Creek, Vegreville, Wetaskiwin, Three Creeks 
 
 on the Peace river, and at Pelican rapids on the 
 Athabaska. 
 
 In the Viking field, gas has been found in the Dakota sandstone 
 at a depth of about 2,350 feet and in the Grand Rapids sandstone 
 at a depth of about 2,200 feet. The tested area is about 12 square 
 miles. There are eight wells in the Viking field, with a total daily 
 capacity of 36 million cubic feet in 24 hours. The average rock 
 pressure is 710 pounds. It is an ethane gas, in which respect it differs 
 from the Bow Island and Medicine Hat gases, which are very dry. 
 This, no doubt, will permit the production of gasolene by absorption 
 as soon as it has been piped and is in use in Edmonton. 
 
 In 1918 the production of natural gas in Alberta was 6,744 million 
 cubic feet, valued at $1,299,976, as sold by the producing com- 
 panies an average price of 19 cents per thousand feet. 
 
 PETROLEUM 
 
 Though, up to the present time, petroleum in considerable quan- 
 tities has not been discovered in Alberta, the situation may be summed 
 up as promising. 
 
 The great war has demonstrated the enormous value of petroleum 
 and its products, particularly gasolene. The products of petroleum 
 enter into our daily life under the guise of at least 250 different and 
 marketable commodities. It has immeasurably extended and, in 
 many cases, revolutionized transportation on land, in the air, on the 
 sea and below the sea. 
 
 ., Its use as fuel for fast passenger vessels will, undoubt- 
 
 Fuel Oil saves , . r 
 
 Cargo Space edly, be much increased in the near future. By 
 
 changing from coal to oil, the Mauretania, during the 
 round trip from Liverpool to New York and return would save 5,000 
 tons of fuel, reduce the stokehold force from 300 to 30, and would 
 make available for cargo and passengers about 100,000 cubic feet 
 of space, representing an earning value of $50,000 on each round trip. 
 It is highly probable that, during the next few years, all fast Trans- 
 atlantic steamers will be fitted to burn oil. 
 
22 
 REVIEW OF ALBERTA'S POWER 
 
 Conservation ^ ver y briefly recapitulate : The foregoing is a 
 of Gas Supply general survey of Alberta's assets of water-power, of 
 coal, and of natural gas, with a brief reference to 
 the value of petroleum. 
 
 Owing to its unique characteristics, its special adaptability for 
 various purposes, and the possibility of its rapid exhaustion, natural 
 gas should be zealously conserved for use in its sphere of greatest 
 efficiency. In my judgment, this sphere is not the development of 
 power on a wholesale scale. 
 
 The water-powers of Alberta, valuable though they be, are, 
 nevertheless, limited both with respect to magnitude and situation, 
 Owing to low-water conditions, water-power must be augmented by 
 power from other sources. 
 
 Now, the great source to which Alberta must look 
 Coal the Chief . 
 
 Source of Power for power is her coal. During recent years, the great 
 
 advance made in the art of the production of steam- 
 power is phenomenal. This advancement has given coal, as a prime 
 agency for power development in competition with other prime 
 agencies, almost a premier position. Those interested in the fur- 
 nishing of power on a wholesale scale in Alberta must make their 
 research into, and selection from, the achievements made in recent 
 years in the field of power produced from coal. 
 
 Careful Study J ust one wor d of caution. The production and sale 
 of Conditions of power are not the gold mine the uninitiated have 
 too often assumed them to be. Many factors, finan- 
 cial, economical, and physical, have to be properly weighed and 
 co-ordinated. For instance, in the period 1914-15, hydro-electric 
 plants in the United States, with an aggregate capacity of 600,000 
 h.p., have been absolute financial failures. 
 
 Emphatically, it would be far better not to embark in the pro- 
 duction of power in Alberta at all than to make the development 
 and incur serious financial loss. Better to proceed cautiously, examine 
 carefully what has been accomplished elsewhere, profit from the 
 knowledge of failures already made; study most carefully whether 
 economic and other conditions in any locality absolutely warrant the 
 furnishing of a supply of power before entering upon any project of 
 power development. 
 
 Understand that I am not speaking pessimistically, but, knowing 
 the failures which have followed many power development opera- 
 
23 
 
 tions, a word of warning on this occasion is certainly not out of place. 
 Alberta has the possibilities of extensive power production, and 
 sound judgment exercised with respect to these resources will result 
 in their best conservation and use. It cannot, however, be too 
 strongly urged that the economic aspect of her power problem de- 
 mands broad vision, an expert study of conditions, present and po- 
 tential, and the best judgment that is obtainable. With her enormous 
 coal resources, and assuming that the problem is dealt with in a 
 statesmanlike manner, her prospects are as favourable, if not more 
 favourable than any other province in the Dominion. 
 
24 
 
 COST OF TRANSMISSION LINES 
 
 Owing to the great advance in cost of labour and material, the 
 costs of transmission lines have greatly increased over those of pre- 
 war conditions. The present approximate costs for some transmission 
 lines in Ontario may representatively be cited as follows: 
 
 A main line ' heavy duty ' steel tower transmission line, carrying 
 two lines at 110,000 volts, such as the latest type of line used by the 
 Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario between Niagara Falls 
 and Toronto, with 66-feet right-of-way, the equivalent of 4-0 copper 
 conductors, telephone service, and all items of expense, would be 
 about $17,000 per mile. 
 
 A 110,000-volt line, single circuit, supported by wood poles, 
 with 66 feet right-of-way, and the equivalent of 1-0 copper con- 
 ductors, and telephone line, would be about $8,500 per mile. If pole 
 rights alone are secured the cost might be reduced to about $5,500 
 per mile. 
 
 A 44,000-volt, wood-pole line, with steel conductor and telephone 
 line on same poles, could be erected for about $3,000 per mile, but, 
 if there were considerable rock excavation for poles, this cost might 
 easily be doubled. 
 
 A 22,000-volt line, carrying one circuit of approximately the 
 equivalent of No. 1 copper conductor and with telephone line, would 
 cost about $3,500 per mile. 
 
 Smaller lines of about 4,000 volts, with equivalent of No. 4 
 copper conductors, have, under present conditions, been built for 
 about $2,000 per mile. 
 
 At the present time, a transmission line from Winnipeg to Portage 
 la Prairie is under construction. It will be 60 miles long, of steel tower 
 construction and will have an ultimate capacity of 20,000 k. w. The 
 immediate installation is of one circuit line of No. aluminium cable 
 which is estimated to carry 5 7 000 k. w., at 66,000 volts with a 3 per cent 
 drop in voltage at Portage la Prairie: or 10,000 k. w. with 15 per cent 
 voltage loss. The second circuit will be installed as soon as the demand 
 for power warrants it. The estimated cost is $4,600 per mile, which 
 includes substations at Winnipeg and Portage la Prairie. As it follows 
 the highway no right-of-way was purchased except at a few points 
 where the line is on private property. 
 
25 
 
 COST DATA OF TRANSMISSION LINES 
 
 Line 
 
 Year 
 built 
 
 Length, 
 miles 
 
 Voltage 
 
 Cost per 
 mile 
 
 Remarks 
 
 
 
 
 
 $ 
 
 
 Canadian Light and 
 
 1911 
 
 27 
 
 44,000 
 
 11,000 
 
 2 circuits of 2-0 
 
 Power Company, 
 
 
 
 
 
 copper, steel 
 
 Montreal . 
 
 
 
 
 
 towers. 
 
 Laurentian Power 
 
 1916 
 
 24 
 
 50,000 
 
 6,875 
 
 2 circuits of 1-0 
 
 Company, Quebec. 
 
 
 
 
 
 copper, steel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 towers. 
 
 Shawinigan Water & 
 
 1902-10 
 
 550 
 
 50,000 
 
 f 1,500 
 
 Single circuit, alu- 
 
 Power Company. 
 
 
 
 
 
 minium, wooden 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 poles. 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,500 
 
 2 circuits, alu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 minium, steel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 towers. 
 
 
 
 1910 
 
 94 
 
 100,000 
 
 7,500 
 
 2 circuits, alu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 minium, steel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 towers. 
 
 Sherbrooke Municipal 
 
 1917 
 
 30 
 
 45,000 
 
 2,334 
 
 Single circuit, No. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 copper, wood- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 en poles. 
 
 Hydro-Electric Power 
 
 1907-13 
 
 325 
 
 110,000 
 
 14,000 
 
 2 circuits 4-0 and 
 
 Commission. 
 
 
 
 
 
 3-0 copper and 
 
 Niagara system. 
 
 
 
 
 
 equivalent alu- 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 minium, steel 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 towers. 
 
 u 
 
 1907-13 
 
 765 
 
 26,400 
 
 2 , 200 
 
 Single circuit, alu- 
 
 
 
 
 and under. 
 
 
 minium and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 copper, wooden 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 poles. 
 
 
 
 
 
 3,000 
 
 2 circuits, alu- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 minium and 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 copper, wooden 
 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 poles. 
 
 Muskoka system... 
 
 1915 
 
 26 
 
 22,000 
 
 2,025 
 
 Single circuit, No. 
 2 aluminium , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 wooden poles. 
 
 St. Lawrence sys- 
 
 1913-15 
 
 60 
 
 26,400 
 
 2,458 
 
 Single circuit of 
 
 tem. 
 
 
 
 
 
 3-0 aluminium. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 wooden poles. 
 
 Kamloops Municipal. 
 
 1916 
 
 42 
 
 44,000 
 
 1,667 
 
 Single circuit of 
 No. 2, alumin- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ium, wooden 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 poles. 
 
 West Kootenay Pow- 
 
 1897- 
 
 170 
 
 60,000 
 
 4,000 
 
 Single circuit , 
 
 er and Light Com- 
 
 1905 
 
 
 
 
 92,000 c.m. cop- 
 
 pany, Rossland. 
 
 
 
 
 
 per, wooden 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 poles. 
 
 (( u 
 
 
 32 
 
 20,000 
 
 2,000 
 
 2 circuits, No. 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 copper, wooden 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 poles. 
 

 26 
 LINE LOSSES 
 
 
 
 
 Name of company 
 
 Termini 
 
 Voltage 
 at gener- 
 ating end 
 
 Distance 
 
 Loss 
 per cent 
 
 Shawl nigan Co 
 
 Grand'mere to Montreal 
 
 100 000 
 
 Miles 
 94 
 
 10 
 
 Can Light & Power 
 Co. 
 Laurentian Power Co. 
 Sherbrooke Municipal 
 Hydro-Klectric Power 
 
 St. Timothee to Montreal. . 
 
 St. Fereol to Montmorency 
 Weedon to Sherbrooke 
 Napanee to Kingston. 
 
 44,000 
 
 50,000 
 45,000 
 44 000 
 
 27 
 
 24 
 30 
 30 
 
 8 
 
 5 
 13 
 
 10 " 
 
 Com. 
 Toronto Power Co 
 Dom. Power & Trac- 
 tion Co. 
 Winnipeg Municipal. . 
 Calgary Power Co. . . . 
 West Kootenay Power 
 and Light Co. 
 B. C. Electric Ry. Co. 
 
 Niagara Falls to Toronto. . 
 Power Glen to Hamilton . . 
 
 Pte. du Bois to Winnipeg. . 
 Kananaskis to Calgary .... 
 Bonnington to Greenwood . 
 
 Jordan plant to Victoria. . 
 
 60,000 
 44,000 
 
 66,000 
 50,000 
 60,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 80 
 33 
 
 78 
 50 
 82 
 
 43 
 
 20 
 6 
 
 20 
 
 # 
 
 16 
 
27 
 
 NOTE RESPECTING NITROGEN FIXATION WITH 
 
 SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE UTILIZATION 
 
 OF WATER-POWER 
 
 By L. G. DENIS, E.E. 
 
 A striking characteristic in the manufacture of air 
 General nitrates is the multitude of processes in actual com- 
 
 mercial use. In considering a prospective under- 
 taking, therefore, the question of selecting the most advantageous 
 method is probably the most important. In this connection, a great 
 many articles and papers have appeared in the technical press and 
 society proceedings dealing with the subject in a thorough manner. 
 Unfortunately, however, each author, while apparently treating the 
 subject in a general way, usually emphasises in no uncertain way 
 the particular method which he is either using himself or is interested 
 in having others use. Few papers, if any, treat the merits of the 
 various methods impartially. The advantage of one method over 
 another is really a question of local and of cognate conditions. 
 
 The known processes may be grouped under three general 
 methods: (1) the arc or direct oxidation, in which the principal agent 
 used is electric energy; (2) processes where electric energy and 
 chemical reaction are combined to obtain the final product, and 
 where these agents are of nearly equal importance. One of the 
 processes coming under this head is the well-known cyanamide pro- 
 cess used in the large factory at Niagara Falls, Ontario ; (3) 
 processes, such as the synthetic ammonia process, which are practic- 
 ally all chemical, and in which electric energy is of very little im- 
 portance. 
 
 From the above it may be seen, therefore, that the most suitable 
 process to adopt is largely a question of weighing the cost of electric 
 energy against that of various materials, such as lime, coke, etc., and 
 of the additional skilled labour necessitated by the partly or wholly 
 chemical process. 
 
 L. L. Summers, in a paper before the American Institute of 
 Electrical Engineers, gave the following comparison of power require- 
 ments for the various methods : 
 
 Direct oxidizing of atmospheric nitrogen, 5 per 
 cent efficiency, yield at 550 kg. per k.w.-year, 
 
 requires per kg. of N 65 k.w. hrs . 
 
 Cyanamide process, 66 per cent efficiency in car- 
 bide, 1 per cent loss in heating to combine with 
 N. (also preparation of N.) requires per kg. 
 of N... , 16-6 
 
28 
 
 Aluminium nitride, using coal to heat products to 
 
 temperature of reaction, requires per kg. of N. 12 k.w. hrs. 
 
 Catalytic method of combining N. and H. to form 
 ammonia (also preparation N. and H., re- 
 frigeration, and compression to 200 atmos- 
 pheres) requires per kg. of N 1-5 
 
 In the same paper Mr. Summers states that " one of the 
 chief interests in the chemical utilization of electrical energy is centred 
 in the possibilities of off-peak or off-season loads, as American plants 
 generally have a certain proportion of power which can be disposed 
 of to better advantage than selling the entire output as low-priced 
 power to chemical industries. This off-peak power is difficult to 
 utilize in furnace work, where the cooling of the furnace and its 
 charge is an important factor, both from the standpoint of cost 
 and of output; and again, adjustments may be so disturbed from an 
 interrupted output as to be absolutely impracticable." 
 
 He suggests as a possible solution for off-peak utilization the 
 adoption of some system where fuel is also utilized and the radiation 
 losses are not excessive under conditions of banked fire when the 
 electric portion of the heat energy is not in use. He is of the 
 opinion that " some of these combination processes may promise a 
 solution of the off-peak load situation more attractive than the 
 straight electric furnace." 
 
 Electric Arc Referring particularly to the arc process to produce 
 
 Process nitric acid, Mr. Summers makes the below estimate, 
 
 based on the assumption that nitric acid is selling 
 for $60 per ton. If the yield is 550 kilogrammes of acid per kilowatt- 
 year, he estimates that the manufacturer cannot pay more than $15 
 per k.w.-year ($11.25 per horse-power-year) for his electric energy. 
 He assumes that labour and repairs will cost $10 per ton of acid; 
 that the interest charge will be $8 per kilowatt-year and general 
 expenses $5 per k.w.-year. 
 
 Mr. E, K. Scott, f in a paper considering " adequately and 
 sympathetically " the merits of the arc flame process for making 
 nitric acid, compares it with the cyanamide process. He gives a 
 tabular statement showing that the arc flame method only requires 
 one factory against three for the cyanamide process; two operations 
 against seventeen; two kinds of skilled labour against eight kinds 
 for the cyanamide; while the raw materials and renewals are tabu- 
 lated thus: 
 
 * Proceedings, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, March, 1915, op. 609-610. 
 t /&*<*, June, 1918, op. 957-962. 
 
29 
 
 Cyanamide Arc Flame 
 
 1. Lime 1. Air 
 
 2. Coke 2. Water 
 
 3. Carbon electrodes in carbide furnaces 3. Metal electrodes 
 
 4. Carbon resisters in cyanamide retorts 
 
 5. Pure nitrogen 
 
 6. Superheated steam 
 
 7. Air 
 
 8. Water 
 
 Mr. C. P. Steinmetz has stated that:* 
 
 "The final solution of the nitrate problem is to be found 
 in the arc flame process or direct process " 
 
 "I agree that the direct process requires more electric 
 power than the cyanamide process, for instance, but, at the 
 same time, there are other processes, like the ammonia process, 
 which require no electric power, and the reason why the 
 cyanamide process requires much less power is that, of the 
 various operations, only a very small part, the first quarter, 
 is carried out electrically. We may put the statement the 
 other way and say that, in the direct process, nothing but 
 electric power is required, and all the work is done by electric 
 power, while in the other, the indirect process, electric 
 power plays only a secondary part, or no part at all. 
 
 "The present situation, as we all realize, is peculiar, 
 that we have to face an emergency. It is not a question 
 whether the one process is better or more economical than 
 the other one, but the question is, first, which process can 
 be brought into operation on a larger scale in the quickest 
 manner 
 
 "Of all the methods of nitrification the only one which is 
 capable of efficient intermittent operation is the arc process, 
 or direct process. The arc is equally as efficient in the second 
 or milli-second after it is started as it is after continuous 
 operation for days. That is not the case, however, with the 
 cyanamide process, where even a very short time interruption 
 means freezing of the carbide furnace and serious loss and 
 interruption 
 
 "We hear and have definite information that the Nor- 
 wegian arc process nitrate plants are commercially successful 
 and profitable, but we also hear that the conditions there are 
 peculiar, such as cannot be found in our country, and the 
 peculiarity is claimed to be the very low cost of power. That 
 is not strictly true in all respects, because off-peak power 
 here can be secured cheaper in many cases than the Norwegian 
 power." 
 
 Referring to the future possibilities of the arc process through 
 new discoveries to increase its efficiency, Mr. Steinmetz states that :f 
 "The present efficiency is from 60 to 80 grams per kilo- 
 watt-hour. The theoretical efficiency of nitric oxide pro- 
 
 * Proceedings, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, June, 27, 1918, pp. 975-976. 
 t/6tf, p. 978- 
 
30 
 
 duction is 2,500 grams of NOaH per kilowatt-hour, so that 
 the present best results are an efficiency of 3 per cent. 
 
 "You can realize, therefore, the vast possibilities there 
 are in increasing the efficiency, and if, at an efficiency of only 
 3 per cent, the process has become commercial under favourable 
 conditions, we can see that there are possibilities in this 
 method." 
 
 Mr. E. K. Scott,* commenting on the economic size of factory, 
 states that a convenient size of air nitrate factory is one to take 
 about 10,000 k.w., but, of course, the larger the factory the lower 
 the cost per kilowatt of plant installed, and the lower the working 
 cost and of overhead charges per unit of finished product. 
 
 The ordinary standard voltages of 5,500 and 6,600 and 
 periodicities of 25 and 60 per second, are suitable, so it is not 
 necessary to install special generating machinery. The energy can 
 be tapped from a general transmission network, although there are 
 advantages in having the factory near to the power house. 
 
 In a paper on the Cyanamide Process, F. S. Washburn, 
 Cyanamide President of the American Cyanamide Company 
 
 of Niagara Falls, Ont., states that:f 
 
 "Cyanamide is the only artificial nitrogenous product 
 which can be used directly in agricultural service and it is 
 well adapted to the cheap production of an ammonium phos- 
 phate which is of even more service in agriculture. Agri- 
 cultural uses will predominate over industrial, especially as 
 these can be well served by the nitric acid and ammonia 
 processes. Phosphate rock is mined only in Florida and 
 Tennessee, and the cost of transportation to the nitrogen 
 works will be the governing factor in the location of the latter. 
 The plant must be on a waterway near a cheaply-developed 
 water-power. Much of the product will be distributed by the 
 empty returning boats and the cost of such transportation 
 of the finished product will largely be only the expense of 
 handling." 
 
 In 1916, Mr. Washburn statedj that the world's yearly fixation 
 of nitrogen by the arc process is some 32,000 net tons, compared to 
 200,000 tons by the cyanamide process. The former process is 
 practically confined to Norway, while the latter has been applied 
 in Norway, Sweden, Germany, Austria, France, Japan, and Canada. 
 
 There is employed in the world's nitrogen fixation industry 
 1,000,000 continuous horse-power, and the distribution is as follows: 
 
 Canada 30,000 h.p. 
 
 Germany 350,000 h.p. 
 
 Norway 450,000 h.p. 
 
 Dalmatia, Italy, Switzerland, Japan, 
 
 France 150,000 h.p. 
 
 __ 980,000 h.p. 
 
 * Canadian ChemicalJournal, Nov., 1918, p. 279. 
 1 Engineering News, March 18, 1915, p. 557. 
 ^General Electric Review, Feb., 1917, p. 159. 
 
31 
 
 In describing the various steps in the cyanamide process, 
 Mr. Washburn states that the greatest heat and the greatest cold 
 obtainable are utilized in making cyanamide. By the intense heat 
 of the electric furnace (6,000F.) lime and coke are fused together 
 to make calcium carbide. This is powdered and placed in large 
 drumlike ovens and then brought by electricity to a white heat. 
 In the meantime wonderful machines are making liquid air by 
 compressing and cooling over and over again clear, pure air until 
 at 380 below zero the air liquefies. Air is four-fifths nitrogen and 
 one-fifth oxygen. When the liquid air is warmed a little only pure 
 nitrogen gas is given off. This is pumped into the drum-shaped 
 ovens containing the white-hot carbide, by which it is absorbed and 
 by which it is permanently fixed. The product, cyanamide, when 
 cooled, ground, and processed with special machinery, is suitable 
 for use as a fertilizer."* 
 
 H. Freeman, also of the American Cyanamide Company of 
 Niagara Falls, Ont., in an address on Nitrogen and its Compounds , 
 stated that.f 
 
 "The cyanamide process and the arc process require 
 considerable amounts of power for their commercial operation, 
 the arc process requiring five times the amount of power 
 that the cyanamide process demands in order to produce 
 
 the same quantity of fixed nitrogen 
 
 "The cyanamide process is the best adapted for the 
 conditions and requirements of North America." 
 
 In 1917, owing principally to war requirements , 
 Government the United States government decided to undertake 
 plant the manufacture of ammonia and nitric acid, and, 
 
 for this purpose, adapted the synthetic-ammonia process which 
 would not involve the use of water-power. This choice, however, 
 as suggested in Mr. Steinmetz's statement quoted above, may have 
 been influenced by considering which process could be brought 
 into operation on a large scale in the quickest manner. Among the 
 recommendations of the Nitrate Committee which were approved 
 by the United States Secretary of War in regard to the government 
 plant, the following may be noted :{ 
 
 "(1) That the Government negotiate with the General 
 Chemical Co. for the use of its process; (2) that $3,000,000 
 be used to build a plant to produce 60,000 Ib. of ammonia 
 per day and that it be located preferably in southwestern 
 Virginia; (3) that at least $600,000 be used for building an 
 ammonia-oxidation plant producing the equivalent of 24,000 
 
 Ib. of 100% nitric acid per day (8) 
 
 that more extensive installation of fixation processes or water- 
 power development be postponed until the recommended 
 plants are in operation or further need arises." 
 
 * Canadian Chemical Journal, March, 1918, o. 75. 
 
 t Canadian Chemical Journal, April, 1918, p. 88-89. 
 
 * Engineering News-Record, Sept 6, 1917, pp. 475-476. 
 
32 
 
 The following conclusions regarding the merits of 
 Conclusions the various processes of the air-nitrate industry 
 
 may be based upon the foregoing: 
 
 (1) The direct or arc process offers most advantages where 
 very cheap hydro-electric energy is available. Owing to its flexibility 
 to intentional interruptions it is well suited for off-peak loads. With 
 regard to the amount of energy consumed this process is, as yet, 
 very inefficient, but the consequent wide gap before theoretical 
 perfection can be approached gives much hope that future discoveries 
 will improve its efficiency. 
 
 (2) The indirect or cyanamide process has most advantages 
 where the cost of energy is reasonably low, say in the neighbourhood 
 of $10 to $12 per horse-power per year. The large plant located in 
 Canada, at Niagara Falls, Ont., and using some 30,000 h.p., has been 
 operating with this process for a number of years. 
 
 (3) In localities where the cost of energy is high and offers no 
 special inducement, purely chemical processes, such as the synthetic 
 ammonia process, may present the maximum of advantage. 
 

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