a stranp or injury - - THE ANCIENT BRONZE IMPLEMENTS, WEAPONS, AND OKNAMENTS, OP GEEAT BEITAIN AND IEELAND. LONDON PRINTED BY TOOTH: AND CO., UIDTSD CITY P.OAU. PKEFACE. THE work which is now presented to the public has unfortunately been many years in progress, as owing to various occupations, both private and public, the leisure at my command has been but small, and it has been only from time to time, often at long intervals, that I have been able to devote a few hours to its advancement. During this slow progress the literature of the subject, especially on the Continent, has increased in an unprece- dentedly rapid manner, and I have had great difficulty in at all keeping pace with it. I have, however, done my best, both by reading and travel, to keep myself acquainted with the discoveries that were being made and the theories that were being broached with regard to bronze antiquities, whether abroad or at home, and I hope that so far as facts are concerned, and so far as relates to the present state of information on the subject, I shall not be found materially wanting. Of course in a work which treats more especially of the bronze antiquities of the British Islands, I have not felt bound to enlarge more than was necessary for the sake of comparison on the cor- responding antiquities of other countries. I have, however, in all cases pointed out such analogies in form and character as seemed to me of importance as possibly helping to throw light on the source whence our British bronze civilisation was derived. It may by some be thought that a vast amount of useless trouble has been bestowed in figuring and describing so many varieties of what were after all in most cases the ordinary tools of the artificer, or the common arms of the warrior or huntsman, which differed from each other only in apparently unimportant particulars. But as in biological studies minute anatomy often affords the most trustworthy evidence as to the descent of any given organism 2061220 PREFACE. from some earlier form of life, so these minor details in the form and character of ordinary implements, which to the cursory observer appear devoid of meaning, may, to a skilful archaeologist, afford valuable clues by which the march of the bronze civilisation over Europe may be traced to its original starting-place. I am far from saying that this has as yet been satisfactorily accomplished, and to my mind it will only be by accumulating a far larger mass of facts than we at present possess that compara- tive archeology will be able to triumph over the difficulties with which its path is still beset. Much is, however, being done, and I trust that so far as the British Isles are concerned, the facts which I have here collected and the figures which I have caused to be engraved will at all events form a solid foundation on which others may be able to build. So long ago as 1876 I was able to present to the foreign archaeologists assembled at Buda-Pest for the International Con- gress of Prehistoric Archaeology and Anthropology, a short abstract of this work in the shape of my Petit Album de Vage du Bronze de la Grande Bretagne, which I have reason to believe has been found of some service. At that time my friend the late Sir William Wilde was still alive, and as the bronze antiquities of Ireland appeared to be. ^specially under his charge, I had not regarded them as falling within the scope of my book. After his lamented death there was, however, no possibility of interfering with his labours, by my including the bronze antiquities of the sister country with those of England, Wales, and Scotland in the present work, and I accordingly enlarged my original plan. In carrying out my undertaking I have followed the same method as in my work on the "Ancient Stone Implements, &c., of Great Britain ; " and it will be found that what I may term the dictionary and index of bronze antiquities is printed in smaller type than the more general descriptive and historical part of the book. I have in fact offered those who take an ordinary interest in archaeological inquiry without wishing to be burdened with minute details a broad hint as to what they may advantageously skip. To the specialist and the local antiquary the portion printed in smaller type will be found of use, if only as giving references to other works in which the more detailed accounts of local discoveries are given. These references, thanks to members of my own family, have been carefully checked, and the accuracy PBEFACR yii of all the original figures for this work, engraved for me with conscientious care by Mr. Swain, of Bouverie Street, may, I think, be relied on. To the councils of several of our learned societies, and especially to those of the Societies of Antiquaries of London and Edinburgh, the Royal Irish Academy, the Royal Archaeological Institute, and the Royal Historical and ArchaBological Association of Ireland, I am much indebted for the loan of woodcuts and for other assist- ance. I have also to thank the trustees and curators of many local museums, as well as the owners of various private collections, for allowing me to figure specimens, and for valuable information supplied. My warmest thanks are, however, due to Mr. Augustus W. Franks, F.R.S., and Canon Green well, F.R.S., not only for assist- ance in the matter of illustrations, but for most kindly under- taking the task of reading my proofs. I must also thank Mr. Joseph Anderson, the accomplished keeper of the Antiquarian Museum at Edinburgh, and Mr. Robert Day, F.S.A., of Cork, for having revised those portions of the work which relate to Scotland and Ireland. The Index has been carefully compiled by my sister, Mrs. Hubbard. As was the case with those of my " Ancient Stone Im- plements," and "Ancient British Coins," it is divided into two parts; the one referring generally to the subject matter of the book, and the other purely topographical. The advantages of such a division in a book of this character are obvious. In conclusion, I venture to prefer the request that any dis- coveries of new types of instruments or of deposits of bronze antiquities may be communicated to me. JOHN EVANS. NASH MILLS, HEMEL HEMPSTED, March, 1881. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. The Succession of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages A Copper Age in America Scriptural Notices of Bronze Bronze preceded Iron in ancient Egypt Bronze in ancient Greece The Metals mentioned by Homer Iron in ancient Greece Bronzes among other ancient Nations Use of Iron in Gaul and Italy Disputes as to the three Periods The Succession of Iron to Bronze The Pre- servation of ancient Iron 1 CHAPTER II. CELTS. Origin of the word Celt Views of early Antiquaries Conjectures as to the Use of Celts Opinions of modern Writers 27 CHAPTER III. FLAT AND FLANGED CELTS. Flat Celts from Cyprus and Hissarlik Discoveries of Flat Celts in Barrows Those ornamented on the Faces Flanged Celts Those from Arreton Down And from Barrows Decorated Flanged Celts Flat Celts found in Scotland Deco- rated Scottish Specimens Flat Celts found in Ireland Decorated Irish Speci- mensCharacter of their Decorations Flat Celts with Lateral Stops . . 39 CHAPTER IV. WINGED CELTS AND PALSTAVES. Origin of the term Palstave Celts with a Stop-ridge Varieties of Winged Celts Transitional Forms Palstaves with Ornaments on Face With Central Rib on the Blade Shortened by Wear With a Transverse Edge Looped Pal- stavesWith Ribs on Blade With Shield-like Ornaments With Vertical Ribs on Blade With semi-circular Side-wings hammered over Iron Palstaves imitated from Bronze Palstaves with two Loops Scottish Palstaves Irish Palstaves Lopped Irish Palstaves Irish Palstaves with Transverse Edge Comparison with Continental Forms 70 CHAPTER V. SOCKETED CELTS. Terms, "the Recipient" and "the Received" Evolution from Palstaves With "Flanches," or curved Lines, on the Faces Plain, with a Beading round the x CONTENTS. PAOK Mouth-Of a Gaulish type -With vertical Ribs on the Faces- With Ribs end- ing in Pellets With Ribs and Pellets on the Faces -With Ribs and Ring Ornaments -Variously ornamented Of octagonal Section With the Loop on one Face Without Loops Of diminutive Size Found in Scotland 1 ound in Ireland Comparison with Foreign Forms Mainly of Native Manufacture in Britain Those formed of Iron 10 < CHAPTER VI. METHODS OF HAFTING CELTS. The perforated Axes of Bronze Celts in Club-like Handles Their Hafts, as seen in Barrows Hafting after the manner of Axes Socketed Celts used as Hatchets Hafted Celt found at Chiusi Hafts, as seen at Hallbtatt Celts in some instances mounted as Adzes No perforated Axe-heads in Britain Hafting Celts as Chisels I'* 6 CHAPTER VII. CHISELS, GOUGES, HAMMERS, AND OTHER TOOLS. Simple form of Chisel rare Tanged Chisels Chisels with Lugs at sides Socketed Chisels Tanged Gouges Socketed Gouges Socketed Hammers Irish Ham- mers Method of Hafting Hammers French Anvils Saws and Files almost unknown in Britain Tongs and Punches The latter used in Orna- menting Awls, Drills, or Prickers frequently found in Barrows Awls used in Sewing Tweezers Needles Fish-hooks IGo CHAPTER VIII. SICKLES. Method of Hafting Sickles with Projecting Knobs With SocketsSickles found in Scotland and Ireland Found on the Continent 1 94 CHAPTER IX. KNIVES, RAZORS, ETC. The Socketed Form Scottish and Irish Knives Curved Knives Knives with broad Tangs With Lanceolate Blades Of peculiar Types Double-edged Razors Scottish and Irish Razors Continental Forms 204 CHAPTER X. DAGGERS AND THEIR HILTS. RAPIER-SHAPED BLADES. Tanged Knives or Daggers Knife-Daggers with three Rivets Method of Hafting Daggers Bone Pommels Amber Hilt inlaid with Gold Hilts with numerous Rivets Inlaid and Ivory Hilts Hilts of Bronze Knife-Daggers with five or six Rivets Knife-Daggers from Scotland From Ireland Daggers with Ornamented Blades With Mid-ribs With Ogival Outline Rapier-shaped Blades Rapiers with Notches at the Base With Ribs on the Faces Rapiers with Ox-horn and Bronze Hilts Bayonet-like Blades 222 CHAPTER XI. TANGED AND SOCKETED DAGGERS OR SPEAR-HEADS, HALBERDS, AND MACES Arreton Down type of Spear-heads With Tangs and with Socket Scandinavian and German Halberds The Chinese Form Irish Halberds Copper Blades less brittle than Bronze Broad Irish Form Scottish Halberds English and Welsh Halberds The Form known in Spain Maces, probably Mediaeval . 257 CONTENTS. XI CHAPTER XII. LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS. TAOK Their Occurrence in British Barrows not authenticated Occur with Interments in Scandinavia The Roman Sword British Swords Disputes as to their Age Hilts proportional to Blades Swords with Central Slots in Hilt-plate With many Rivet-holes With Central Rib on Blade Representation of SAVord on Italian Coin Those with Hilts of Bronze Localities where found Comparison with Continental Types Swords found in Scotland In Ireland In France Swords with Hilts of Bone Decorated with Gold Continental Types Early Iron Swords 273 CHAPTER XIII. SCABBAEDS AND CHAPES. Sheaths with Bronze Ends Wooden Sheaths Bronze Sheaths Ends of Sword- Sheaths or Scabbard Ends Chapes from England and Ireland Spiked Chapes Mouth-pieces for Sheaths Ferrules on Sword-Hilts . . . .301 CHAPTER XIV. SPEAR-HEADS, LANCE-HEADS, ETC. Different Types Leaf-shaped With a Fillet along the Midrib Ornamented on the Sockets With Loops at the Sides From Ireland Decorated on the Blade With Loops at the Baso of the Blade Of Cruciform Section near the Point With Openings in the Blade With Flanges at the Side of the Openings With Lunate Openings in the Blade Barbed at the Base Ferrules for Spear-shafts African Spear Ferrules Continental Types Early Iron Spear- heads 310 CHAPTER XV. SHIELDS, BUCKLERS, AND HELMETS. Shields with numerous raised Bosses With Concentric Ribs With Concentric Rings of Knobs Shields found in Scotland In England and Wales Wooden Bucklers The Date of Circular Bucklers Bronze Helmets Their Date . 343 CHAPTER XVI. TRUMPETS AND BELLS. Trumpets found in Ireland Trumpets with Lateral Openings The Dowris Hoard Riveted Trumpets The Caprington Horn Trumpets found in England Bells found in Ireland 3-57 CHAPTER XVII. PINS. Pins with Flat Heads With Crutched Heads With Annular Heads Those of large Size With Spheroidal Heads With Ornamental Expanded Heads From Scotland From Denmark Their Date difficult to determine . . 365 CHAPTER XVIII. TORQUES, BRACELETS, RINGS, EAR-RINGS, AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. The Gaulish Torque Gold Torques Funicular Torques Ribbon Torques Those of the Late Celtic Period Penannular Torques and Bracelets Bracelets en- graved with Patterns Beaded and Fluted Looped, with Cup-shaped Ends Late Celtic Bracelets Rings Rings with others cast on them Coiled Rings found with Torques Finger-rings Ear-rings Those of Gold Beads of Tin Of Glass Rarity of Personal Ornaments in Britain .... 374 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XIX. CLASPS, BUTTONS, BUCKLES, AND MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. PAGE Difficulty in Determining the Use of some Objects Looped Sockets and Tubes Possibly Clasps Perforated Rings forming a kind of Brooch Rings used in Harness Brooches Late Celtic Buttons Circular Plates and Broad Hoops- Perforated Discs Slides for Straps Jingling Ornaments Objects of Uncertain Use Rod, with Figures of Birds upon it Figures of Animals . . . 396 CHAPTER XX. VESSELS, CALDRONS, ETC. Fictile Vessels Gold Cup Bronze Vessels not found in Barrows Caldrons found in Scotland In Ireland Some of an Etruscan Form The Skill exhibited in their Manufacture 407 CHAPTER XXT. METAL, MOULDS, AND THE METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. Composition of Bronze Lead absent in early Bronze Sources of Tin and Copper Analyses of Bronze Antiquities Cakes of Copper and Lumps of Metal Tin discovered in Hoards of Bronze Ingots of Tin Methods of Casting Moulds of Stone for Celts, Palstaves, Daggers, Swords, and Spear-heads Moulds of Bronze for Palstaves and Celts The Harty Hoard Bronze Mould for Gouges Moulds found in other Countries Moulds formed of Burnt Clay Jets or Runners The Processes for Preparing Bronze Instruments for Use Rubbers and Whetstones Decoration Hammering out and Sharpening the Edges . 415 CHAPTER XXII. CHRONOLOGY AND ORIGIN OF BRONZE. Inferences from number of Types Division of Period into Stages The Evidence of Hoards Their different Kinds Personal, Merchants', and Founders' Lists of Principal Hoards Inferences from them The Transition from Bronze to Iron Its probable Date Duration of Bronze Age Burial Customs of the Period Different Views as to the Sources of Bronze Civilisation Suggested Provinces of Bronze The Britannic Province Comparison of British and Continental Types Foreign Influences in Britain Its Commercial Relations Imported Ornaments Condition of Britain during the Bronze Age General Summary 455 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. The references are to the original sources of such cuts as have not been engraved expressly for this book. CHAPTER III. FLAT AND FLANGED CELTS. via. PAGE 1. Cyprus 40 2. Butterwick 41 3. Moot Low 44 Llew. Jewitt, F.S.A., "Grave Mounds," fig. 187. 4. Yorkshire 45 5. Weymouth 46 6. Read 47 7. Suffolk 48 8. ArretonDown 49 Archaologia, vol. xxxvi. p. 329. 9. Plymstock 50 10. , 50 Arch. Journ., vol. xxvi. p. 346. 11. Thames 52 12. Norfolk 52 13. Dorsetshire 53 14. Lewes 53 Arch. Journ., vol. xviii. p. 167. 15. Ely 53 16. Barrow 54 17. Liss 54 18. Rhosnesney 55 19. Drumlanrig 56 20. Lawhead 57 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 105. 21. Nairn 58 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ii. N.S. 22. Falkland 59 23. Greenlees 59 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xii. p. 601. 24. Perth 60 25. Applegarth 60 26. Dams 61 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xiii. p. 120. 27. Ballinamallard 61 28. North of Ireland 62 29. Ireland 62 30. Tipperary 62 Arch. Journ., vol. vi. p. 410. 31. Ireland . . 63 PIG. PAGE 32. Connor 64 33. Clontarf 65 34. Ireland 65 Wilde, "Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 248. 35. Ireland .... .... 66 36. Trim .... 66 37. Ireland .... .... 66 38. .... .... 66 39. Punched patterns . .... 67 40. , . .... 67 41. , . .... 67 42 , .... 67 43. , .... 67 Wilde " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," figs. 286 to 290. 44. Annoy .... 68 45. Ireland .... .... 68 46. .... 69 47. .... .... 69 CHAPTER IV. WINGED CELTS AND PALSTAVES. 48. Icelandic Palstave .... 71 49. .... 71 Arch. Journ., vol. vii. p. 74. 50. Wigton 51. Chollerford Bridge . .... 73 .... 74 52. Chatham. . . . .... 74 53. Burwell Fen . . . .... 75 54. BuckneU. . . . .... 75 65. Culham .... 75 56. Reeth .... 76 57. Dorchester . . . . .... 76 58. Colwick .... .... 77 59. Barrington . . . . .... 78 60. Harston .... 78 61. Shippey .... 79 62. Severn ... 80 63. Sunningwell . . . 64. Weymouth . . . . .... 80 .... 82 65. Burwell Fen . . . .... 82 66. East Harnham. . . .... 83 67. Burwell Fen . . . .... 83 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. no. 68. Thames .... 69. Stibbard . . . 70. Irthington . . . 71. North Owersby . 72. Bonn .... 73. Dorchester. . . 74. Wallingford . . 75. Stanton Harcourt 76. Brassingtou . 77. Bath 78. Oldbury HiU . . PAGE . 84 . 84 ... 85 ... 87 ... 88 ... 88 ... 80 ... 89 ... 90 ._. . ... 91 80. Honington 9l 81. Ely . 92 82. Bottisham 83. Nettleham 93 Arch. Journ., vol. xviii. p. 160. 84. Cambridge. 93 85. Carlton Rode 94 86. Penvores 96 87. West Buckland 96 Arch. Journ., vol. xxxvii. p. 107. 88. Bryn Crug S 89. Andalusia 97 Arch. Journ., vol. vi. p. C9. 90. Burreldale Moss 98 91. Balcarry 98 92. Pettycur 99 Arch. Journ., vol. vi. p. 377. 93. Ireland IOC 94. 100 95. 101 96. North of Ireland 101 97. Lanesborough 101 98. Trillick 102 99. Ireland 102 100. 102 101. 102 102. 103 103. 103 104. 103 105. Miltown 104 106. Ireland 105 107. 105 108. , 105 109. BaUymena 105 CHAPTER V. SOCKETED CELTS. 110. HighRoding 109 111. Dorchester, Oxon 109 112. Wilts 110 113. Harty 110 114. Ill 115. Dorchester, Oxon Ill 116. Reach Fen 112 117. 112 118. Canterbury 114 119. L T sk 114 120. Alfriston . 115 KIG. I>AGB 121. Cambridge Fens 116 122. HighRoding H6 123. Chrishall 117 124. Reach Fen 117 125. Barrington H7 126. Mynydd-y-Glas 119 127. Stogursey 120 128. Guildford 120 129. Frettenham 120 ISO. Ely 121 131. Caston 121 132. Carlton Rode 122 133. Fornham 122 134. Fen Dittoii 123 135. Bottisham 123 136. Winwick 123 137. Kingston 124 138. Cayton Carr 124 139. Lakenheath 125 140. Thames 125 141. Kingston 125 142. 126 143. Thames 127 144. Givendale 127 145. Cambridge 127 146. Blandford 127 147. Ireland (?) 128 148. Barrington 128 149. Hounslow 128 150. Wallingford 128 151. Newham 129 152. Westow 130 153. Wandsworth 130 Arch. Journ., vol. vi. p. 378. 154. \Vhittlesea 130 155. Nettleham 132 Arch. Journ., vol. xviii. p. 160. 156. Croker Collection 132 157. Nettleham 132 Arch. Journ. vol. xviii. p. 160. 158. Ulleskelf 132 159. Reach Fen 133 160. Carlton Rode 133 161. Arras 134 162. Bell's Mills 135 " Catal. Ant. Mus. Ed." 163. North Knapdale 136 164. Bell's Mills 136 165. 136 " Catal. Ant. Mus. Ed." 166. Leswalt' 137 Ayr and Wig ton Coll., vol. ii. p. 11. 167. Ireland 138 168. 138 169. Belfast 139 170. Ireland 139 171. 139 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 280. 172. Athboy 140 173. Meath 140 174. Ireland 140 175. Newtown Crommolin .... 141 176. North of Ireland 141 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE 177. Ireland 141 178. 142 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 275. 179. Kertch 142 Arch. Journ., vol. xiv. p. 91. CHAPTEE VI. METHODS OP HAFTING CELTS. 180. Stone Axe of Montezuma II. . 148 181. Aymara Stone Hatchet . . .148 182. Modern African Axe of Iron . 149 183. Stone Axe, Eobenhausen . . . 150 184. Bronze Axe, HaUein .... 152 185. Karon, Brigue 154 186. Edenderry 155 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 257. 187. Chiusi 156 188. Winwick 158 189. Everley 163 CHAPTER VII. CHISELS, GOUGES, AND OTHER TOOLS. 190. Plymstock 166 Arch. Journ., vol. xxvi. p. 346. 191. Heathery Burn 166 192. Glenluce 166 192* Carlton Rode 167 193. Wallingford 168 194. Reach Fen 168 195. Thixendale 168 196. Yattendon 169 197. Broxton 169 198. Scotland 170 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xii. p. 613. 199. Ireland 170 200. Carlton Rode 171 201. Westow 172 202. Heathery Burn Cave . . . .172 203. Carlton Rode 173 204. Thorndon 174 205. Harty 174 206. TJndley 175 207. Carlton Rode 175 208. Tay 175 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 127. 209. Ireland 176 210. Thorndon 178 211. Harty 178 212. 178 213. Carlton Rode 178 214. Taunton 178 215. Ireland 179 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 66. 216. Dowris 179 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 65. 217. Fresne la Mere 182 218. 182 219. Heathery Burn Cave .... 185 FIG. PAGE 220. Hatty 186 221. Reach Fen 180 222. Ebnall 186 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 66. 223. Upton Lovel 189 Archceologia, vol. xliii. p. 466. 224. Thorndon 189 225. Butterwick 189 226. Bulford 190 Arch&oloyia, vol. xliii. p. 465. 227. Winterbourn Stoke .... 190 228. Wiltshire 191 Archaologia, vol. xliii. p. 467. 229. Llangwyllog 192 230. Ireland 192 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 403. CHAPTER VIII. SICKLES. 231. Mcerigen 196 Arch. Journ., vol. xxx. p. 192. 232. Edington Bur.tle 197 233. , 197 234. Thames 198 235. Near Bray 199 236. Near Errol, Perthshire . . .200 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 378. 237. Garvagh, Deny 200 238. Athlone 201 CHAPTER IX. KNIVES, RAZORS, ETC. 239. Wicken Fen 204 240. Thorndon 205 241. Reach Fen 205 242. Heathery Burn Cave . . . .206 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 132. 243. Kilgraston, Perthshire . . . .206 244. Kejft 207 245. Ireland 208 246. Moira 209 247. Fresne la Mere 209 248. Skye 209 Wilson's " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 400. 249. Wester Ord 209 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. viii. p. 310. 250. Reach Fen 210 251. 210 252. Heathery Burn Cave . . . .212 253. Harty 212 254. Ireland 212 255. Ballyclare 213 256. Reach Fen 213 257. Ballycastle 213 258. Ireland 213 259. Wigginton 214 260. Isle of Harty 214 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. WO. PAGE 261. AUhallows, Hoo 214 262. Cottle 215 froc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 301. 263. Reach Fen 216 264. Lady Low 216 265. Winterslow 216 266. Priddy 216 267. Balblair 217 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 476. 268. Kogart 217 froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. x. p. 431. 269. Wallingford 218 270. Heathery Burn Cave .... 218 271. Dunbar.* 219 272. 219 273. 219 froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. x. p. 440. 274. Ireland 219 Wilde's " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 433. 275. Kinleith 220 froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 87. 276. Nidau 221 froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 91. CHAPTER X. DAGGERS AND THEIR HILTS. RAPIER- SHAPED BLADES. 277. Roundway 223 278. Driffield ........ 224 279. Butterwick 225 280. Helperthorpe 227 281. 227 282. Garton . . .228 Archteologia, vol. xliii. p. 441. 283. Wilmslow 228 284. Hammeldon Down . . . .229 285. Reach Fen 230 286. AUhallows, Hoo 230 287. Brigmilston 231 288. Leicester 231 289. Normanton 232 290. Roke Down 233 291. Ireland 235 292. Belleek . . 235 Journ. JR. H. and A. Assoc. of Ireland, 4th S., vol. ii. p. 196. 293. Ireland 235 294. Woodyates 236 295. Homington 237 296. Idmiston 237 297. Dow Low 239 298. Cleigh 239 froc. Soc. Ant. Soc., vol. x. p. 84. 299. Collessie 239 froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. xii. p. 440. 300. Musdin 240 301. Plymstock 240 Arch. Journ., vol. xxvi. p. 346. 302. Winterbourn Stoke . . . .240 303. Camerton 243 304. Cambridge 243 . 305. Magherafelt 245 Journ. JR. H. and A. Assoc. of Ireland, 2nd S., vol. i. p. 286. 306. Arreton Down 245 307. Kinghorn 245 SOS. CoUoony 246 309. Ireland 246 Wilde's " Catal. Mns. R. I. A." fig. 347. 310. Kilrea 247 311. Thames 247 312. Thatcham 247 313. Coveney 249 314. Thames 249 315. Chatteris 251 316. Thetford 251 317. Londonderry 251 318. Lissane 252 Wilde's " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 314. 319. Galbally 253 Journ. It. S. and A. Assoc. of Ireland, 4th 8., vol. ii. p. 197. 320. Tipperary 254 321. Ely 255 322. North of Ireland 255 323. Raphoe 255 CHAPTER XI. TANGED AND SOCKETED DAGGERS, OR SPEAR-HEADS, HALBERDS AND MACES. 324. Arreton Down 258 325. Stratford le Bow 258 326. Matlock 259 327. Plymstock 259 Arch. Journ., vol. xxvi. p. 349. 328. Arreton Down 260 329. Arup 261 Montelius, " Sver. Forntid," fig. 131. 330. China 262 331. Ireland 264 332. Cavan 266 333. Kewtown Limavady .... 267 334. Ballygawley 267 335. Falkland ." 268 336. Stranraer 268 froc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 423. 337. Harbyrnriggc 269 338. Shropshire 269 339. Lidgate 271 Arch. Journ., vol. vi. p. 181. 340. Great Bedwin 271 Arch. Journ., vol. vi. p. 411. 341. Ireland 271 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 361. CHAPTER XII. LEAF-SHAPED SWORDS. 342. Battersea 278 343. Barrow 279 344. Newcastle 281 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. FIO. 345 Wetheringsett PAGE 283 284 284 286 286 287 288 288 290 292 292 292 292 294 294 i, 295 295 I, 295 296 322. FIG. 386. Reach Fen 387. Ireland. . . PACK . 317 317 346. Tiverton 347. Kingston 348. Ely 349. River Cherwell 350. Lincoln Proc. Sot: Ant., vol. ii. p. 199. 351. Whittingham 352. Brechin 353. Edinburgh 354. Newtown Limavady . . . 355. Ireland 356. 357. 358. Muckno 359. Journ. R. H. $ A. Assoc. of Ir elan 3rd S., vol. i. p. 23. 360 Muckno Wilde, "Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 388. North of Ireland .... 389. Ireland Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 390. Reach Fen 391. Thorndon 392. Culham. . . 367. . 319 . 319 368. . 319 . 319 . 320 . 320 382. . 321 . 323 . 323 323 393. Athenrv Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 394. Thetford 395. Lakenheath 396. Near Cambridge .... 397. North of Ireland . . . 398. Ireland 399. Thames 400. Ireland 401. Near Ball vmena. . . 402. Ireland. " 403. . 324 . 324 . 324 . 325 . 326 . 326 . 326 'S. 327 361. Mully lagan Journ. R. H. $ A. A-snoc. of Jrelani 4th S., vol. ii. p. 257. 362. Mullylagan 363. Ireknd Wilde, "Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. CHAPTER XIII. SCABBARDS AND CHAPES. 404. Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig 385, 386, 378. 405. Elford .... 406. Isleham Fen . . 407. Stibbard 408. Ireland 409. Lakenheath Fen . . 410. Nettleham. . . . . 328 . 329 . 329 . 329 . 330 364. Isleworth 302 365. Guilsfield 303 366. River Isis, near Dorchester . . 303 367. Ireland 303 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 335. 368. Stogursey, Somerset . . . . 304 369. Brechin. . . 304 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. i. p. 81. 370. Pant-y-Maen 304 371. Reach' Fen 306 372. Cloonmore 305 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 336. 373. Stoke Ferry 305 374. Keelogue Ford, Ireland . . .306 375. Mildenhall 306 376. Thames 307 377. Isle of Harty 308 CHAPTER XIV. SPEAR-HEADS, LANCE-HEADS, ETC. 378. Thames, London 312 379. Lough Gur 312 380. 312 381. Heathery Burn Cave . . . .312 382. Nettleham 314 Arch. Journ., vol. xviii. p. 159. 383. Achtertyre 315 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ix. p. 435. 384. North of Ireland 316 385. Newark 317 Arch. Journ., vol. xviii. p. 160, 411. Knockans . 412. Lurgan Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 413. Ireland 414. Antrim 415. Thames 416. Naworth Castle 417. Blakehope 418. Whittingham 419. Winmarleigh 420. Burwell Fen . . . 421. Denhead " Catal. Ant. Mus. Ed.," p. S8 422. Speen 423. Nettleham. . 331 . 332 65. . 332 . 332 . 333 . 333 . 334 . 334 . 335 . 336 . 337 337 339 Arch. Journ., vol. xviii. p. 160. 424. Guilsfield 339 425. Glancych 341 426. Fulbourn 341 427. Hereford . . 341 CHAPTER XV. SHIELDS, BUCKLERS, AND HELMETS. 428. Little Wittenham 344 Messrs. James Parker & Co. 429. Harlech 345 430. Coveney 346 431. 347 432. Beith 347 433. 348 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATION S. IO. PAGK 434. Beith 349 Ayr and Wigton Coll., vol. i. p. 66. 435. Yotholm 350 436. 350 437. , 350 Proa. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 165. CHAPTER XVI. TRUMPETS AND BELLS. 438. Limerick 357 Wilde, "Catal. Mus. R.I. A.," fig. 360. 439. Tralee 358 440. 359 441. 359 Journ. R. H. and A. Assoc. of Ireland, 4th S., vol. iii. p. 422. 442. Africa 359 443. Derrynane 360 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 529. 444. Portglenone 361 Journ. R. H. and A. Assoc. of Ireland, 4th S., vol. iii. p. 422. 443. The Caprington. Horn .... 362 Ayr and Wigton Coll., vol. i. p. 74. 446. Dowris 364 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 523. CHAPTER XVII. 447. Heathery Burn Cave . . . .365 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 130. 448. Brigmilston 366 449. Everley 366 450. Bryn Crug 367 Arch. Journ., vol. xxv. p. 246. 451. Taunton 367 452. Chilton Bustle 367 Arch. Journ., vol. ix. p. 106. 453. Ireland 368 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 452. 454. River Wandle 368 Arch. Journ., vol. ix. p. 8. 455. Scratchbury 369 456. Camerton 369 Both from Archceologia, vol. xliii. p. 468. 457. Ireland 370 458. 370 459. Cambridge 370 460. Ireland 370 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 447. 461. North of Ireland 370 462. Keelogue Ford 371 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 449. 463. Ireland 371 Wilde, "Catal. Mus. R. I. A." fig. 448. 464. Edinburgh 372 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., New S., vol. i. p. 322. 465. Ireland 372 Wilde, "Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 450. CHAPTER XVIII. TORQUES, BRACELETS, RINGS, EAR-RINGS, AND PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. KIQ. PAGE 466. Wedmore 375 467. 376 468. West Buckland 377 Arch. Journ., vol. xxxvii. p. 107. 469. Wedmore 378 470. Yarnton 379 471. Montgomeryshire 380 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 467. 472. Achtertyre 382 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. ix. p. 435. 473. Redhill 382 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. i. p. 138. 474. Scilly 383 475. Liss 383 476. Stoke Prior 384 Arch. Journ., vol. xx. p. 200. 477. Stobo Castle 384 Proc. Soe. Ant. Scot., vol. ii. p. 277- 478. Guernsey 385 Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. iii. p. 344. 479. Cornwall 385 480. Normanton 385 Archceologia, vol. xliii. p. 469. 481. West Buckland 386 Arch. Journ., vol. xxxvii. p. 107. 482. Ham Cross 386 483. Heathery Burn Cavo .... 386 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 131. 484. County Cavan 387 485. Cowlam 387 486. 388 487. Ireland 389 Wilde, '< Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 480. 488. Woolmer Forest 390 Proc. Soc. Ant., vol. ii. p. 83. 489. Dumbarton 390 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. iii. p. 24. 490. Cowlam 392 491. Goodmanham 392 Greenwell's "British Barrows," p. 324. 492. Orton 392 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. viii. p. 30. CHAPTER XIX. CLASPS, BUTTONS, BUCKLES, AND MISCELLANEOUS OBJECTS. 493. Reach Fen 397 494. 397 495. Broadward . .' 397 Arch. Camb., 4th S., vol. iii. p. 354. 496. Trillick 398 Journ. R. H. and A. Assoc. of Ireland, 3rd S., vol. i. p. 164. 497. Ireland 399 Wilde, "Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 494. 498. Cowlam 400 499. Reach Fen 400 WOODCUT ILLUSTRATIONS. Kill. PAGE 500. Edinburgh 401 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., New S., vol. i. p. 322. .301. Heathery Burn Cave . . . .402 502. .... 402 Both from Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 236. 503. Harty 403 504. Dreuil, Amiens 404 505. Abergele 404 506. 404 507. , 404 508. Drouil, Amiens 405 CHAPTER XX. VESSELS, CALDRONS, ETC. 509. Goldcii Cup, Rillaton .... 408 Arch. Journ., vol. xxiv. p. 189. 510. Kincardine Moss 410 Wilson, "Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 409. 511. Ireland 411 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 407. 512. Ireland 412 Wilde, " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 409. 513. Capecastle Bog 413 CHAPTER XXI. METAL, MOULDS, AND THE METHOD OF MANUFACTURE. 514. Falmouth 426 Arch. Journ., vol. xvi. p. 39. i 515. Ballymena 429 1 516. Ireland 431 : 517. 431 518. Ballymoney 433 519. Broughshano 433 520. Knighton 434 521. 434 | 522. Maghera, Co. Deny 435 I 523. Lough Gur 436 Arch. Jotirti., vol. xx. p. 170. ; 524. Campbelton 437 i 525. 437 ! 526. 437 Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vi. p. 48. 527. HothamCarr 439 528. Wiltshire 440 529. 440 Proc. Soc. Ant., vol. iii. p. 158. 530. Harty 441 531. 442 532. 446 533. Heathery Burn Cave . . . .448 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 132. 534. Stogursey 450 535. 450 536. 450 537. Heathery Burn Cave . . . .451 Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 132. 538. Kirby Mooraide 452 539. Hove 452 Sussex Arch. Coll., vol. ix. p. 120. 540. Harty 453 ERRATA. Page 117, under fig. 123, for " Crishall " read " Chrishall." 143, line 15, for " Spain " read " Portugal." 207, ., 34, for "St. Genoulph" read "St. Genouph." 16, for "St. Julien Chateuil" read "St. Jullien, Chapleuil.' 3 from bottom, for " Staffordshire" read "Shropshire." 4, for " Suffolk" read " Sussex." 215, 314, 323, , 336, 20, for "Staffordshire" read" Shropshire." , 452, ,, 4 from bottom, for " Staffordshire " read " Shropshire. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. HAVING already in a former work attempted the arrangement and description of the Ancient Stone Implements and Ornaments of Great Britain, I am induced to undertake a similar task in con- nection with those Bronze Antiquities which belong to the period when Stone was gradually falling into disuse for cutting purposes, and Iron was either practically unknown in this country, or had been but partially adopted for tools and weapons. The duration and chronological position of this bronze-using period will have to be discussed hereafter, but I must at the outset reiterate what I said some eight or ten years ago, that in this country, at all events, it is impossible to fix any hard and fast limits for the close of the Stone Period, or for the beginning or end of the Bronze Period, or for the commencement of that of Iron. Though the succession of these three stages of civilisation may here be regarded as certain, the transition from one to the other in a country of such an extent as Britain occupied, more- over, as it probably was, by several tribes of different descent, manners, and customs must have required a long course of years to become general ; and even in any particular district the change cannot have been sudden. There must of necessity have been a time when in each district the new phase of civilisation was being introduced, and the old conditions had not been entirely changed. So that, as I have else- where pointed out, the three stages of progress represented by the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Periods, like the three principal colours of the rainbow, overlap, intermingle, and shade off the one into the other, though their succession, so far as Britain and Western Europe are concerned, appears to be equally well defined with that of the prismatic colours. 2 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. In thus speaking of a bronze-using period I by no means wish to exclude the possible use of copper unalloyed with tin. There is indeed every ground for believing that in some parts of the world the use of native copper must have continued for a lengthened period before it was discovered that the addition of a small pro- portion of tin not only rendered it more readily fusible, but added to its elasticity and hardness, and thus made it more serviceable for tools and weapons. Even after the advantages of the alloy over the purer metal were known, the local scarcity of tin may at times have caused so small a quantity of that metal to be employed, that the resulting mixture can hardly be regarded as bronze ; or at times this dearth may have necessitated the use of copper alone, either native or as smelted from the ore. Of this Copper Age, however, there are in Europe but extremely feeble traces, if indeed any can be said to exist. It appears not unlikely that the views which are held by many archaeologists as to the Asiatic origin of bronze may prove to be well founded, and that when the use of copper was introduced into Europe, the dis- covery had already long been made that it was more serviceable when alloyed with tin than when pure. In connection with this it may be observed that the most important discovery of instru- ments of copper as yet recorded in the Old World is that which was made at Gungeria in Central India.* They consisted of flat celts of what has been regarded as the most primitive type ; but with them were found some ornaments of silver, a circumstance which seems to militate against their extreme antiquity, as the production silver involves a considerable amount of metallurgical skill, and probably an acquaintance with lead and other metals. However this may be, there are reasons for supposing that if a Copper Age existed in the Old World its home was in Asia or the most eastern part of Europe, and not in any western country. The most instructive instance of a Copper Age, as distinct from one of Bronze, is that afforded by certain districts of North America, in which we find good evidence of a period when, in addition to stone as a material from which tools and weapons were made, copper also was employed, and used in its pure native con- dition without the addition of any alloy. The State of Wisconsin! alone has furnished upwards of a hundred axes, spear-heads, and knives formed of copper ; and, to judge from some extracts from the writings of the early travellers * Seepostea, p. 40. f Butler, "Prehist. Wisconsin." A COPPER AGE IN AMERICA. 3 given by the Rev. E. F. Slafter,* that part of America would seem to have entered on its Copper Age long before it was first brought into contact with European civilisation, towards the middle of the sixteenth century. It has been thought by several American antiquaries that some at least of these tools and weapons were produced by the process of casting, though the preponderance of opinion seems to be in favour of all of them being shaped by the hammer and not cast. Among others I may mention my friend the Hon. Colonel C. C. Jones, who has examined this question for me, and has been unable to discover any instance of one of these copper tools or weapons having been indisputably cast. That they were originally wrought, and not cast, is d priori in the highest degree probable. On some parts of the shores of Lake Superior native copper occurs in great abundance, and would no doubt attract the attention of the early occupants of the country. Accustomed to the use of stone, they would at first regard the metal as merely a stone of peculiarly heavy nature, and on attempting to chip it or work it into shape would at once discover that it yielded to a blow instead of breaking, and that in fact it was a malleable stone. Of this ductile property the North American savage availed himself largely, and was able to produce spear-heads with sockets adapted for the reception of their shafts by merely hammering out the base of the spear-head and turning it over to form the socket, in the same manner as is so often employed in the making of iron tools. But though the great majority of the instruments hitherto found, if not all, have been hammered and not cast, it would appear that the process of melting copper was not entirely unknown. Squier and Davis have observed,! " that the metal appears to have been worked in all cases in a cold state. This is somewhat remarkable, as the fires upon the altars were sufficiently strong in some instances to melt down the copper implements and ornaments deposited upon them, and the fact that the metal is fusible could hardly have escaped notice." That it did not altogether escape observation is shown by the evidence of De Champlain,+ the founder of the city of Quebec. In 1610 he was joining a party of Algonquins, one of whom met him on his barque, and after conversation " tira d'un sac une piece de cuivre de la longueur d'un pied qu'il me donna, le quel * "Preh. Copper Tmpl.," Boston, 1879. t " Anc. Hon. of the Missies. Valley." p. 202. t "Les Voyages du Sieur de Champlain," Paris, 1613, pp. 2467, cited by Slafter, op. cit., p. 13. B 2 4 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. estoit fort beau et bien franc, me donnant a entendre qu'il en avoit en quantit^ la ou il 1'avoit pris, qui estoit sur le bort d'une riviere proche d'un grand lac et qu'ils le prenoient par morceaux, et le faisant fondre le mettoient en lames, et avec des pierres le ren- doient uny." We have here, then, evidence of a Copper Age,* in comparatively modern times, during most of which period the process of fusing the metal was unknown. In course of time, however, this art was discovered, and had not European influences been brought to bear upon the country this discovery might, as in other parts of the world, have led to the knowledge of other fusible metals, and eventually to the art of manufacturing bronze- an alloy already known in Mexico and Peru.f So far as regards the Old World there are some who have sup- posed that, owing to iron being a simple and not a compound metal like bronze, and owing to the readiness with which it may be produced in the metallic condition from some of its ores, iron must have been in use before copper. Without denying the abstract possibility of this having been the case in some part of our globe, I think it will be found that among the nations occupying the shores of the eastern half of the Mediterranean a part of the world which may be regarded as the cradle of European civilisation not only are all archaeological discoveries in favour of the suc- cession of iron to bronze, but even historical evidence supports their testimony. In the Introductory Chapter of my book on Ancient Stone Implements I have already touched upon this question, on which, however, it will here be desirable farther to enlarge. The light thrown upon the subject by the Hebrew Scriptures is but small. There is, however, in them frequent mention of most of the metals now in ordinary use. But the word nu?"n?, which in our version is translated brass a compound of copper and zinc would be more properly translated copper, as indeed it is in one instance, though there it would seem erroneously, when two vessels of fine copper, precious as gold, are mentioned. J In some passages, however, it would appear as if the word would be more correctly * For notices of American copper instruments see, in addition to the works already quoted, Wilson, "Prehist. Man," vol. i. p. 205, &c. ; Lubbock, " Preh. Times," p. 258, &c. See also an interesting article by Dr. Emil Schmidt, in Arehiv.fiir Anth., vol. xi. p. 65. t A Peruvian chisel analyzed by Vauquelin gave -94 of copper and '06 of tin (Moore's " Anc. Mineralogy," p. 42). % Ezra, ch. viii. v. 27. SCRIPTURAL NOTICES OF BRONZE. 5 rendered bronze than copper, as, for instance, where Moses* is commanded to cast five sockets of brass for the pillars to carry the hangings at the door of the tabernacle, which could hardly have been done from a metal so difficult to cast as unalloyed copper. Indeed if tin were known, and there appears little doubt that the word Vn5 represents that metal, its use as an alloy for copper can hardly have been unknown. It may, then, be regarded as an accepted fact that at the time when the earliest books of the Hebrew Scrip- tures were reduced to writing, gold,t silver, iron, tin, lead, and brass, or more probably bronze, were known. To what date this reduc- tion to writing is to be assigned is a question into which it would be somewhat out of place here to enter. The results, however, of modern criticism tend to prove that it can hardly be so remote as the fourteenth century before our era. In the Book of Job, as to the date of which also there is some diversity of opinion, we find evidence of a considerable acquaint- ance with the metals : " Surely there is a vein for the silver, and a place for gold where they fine it. Iron is taken out of the earth, and brass is molten out of the stone. "+ Lead is also men- tioned, but not tin. Before quitting this part of the subject I ought perhaps to allude to the passage respecting Tubal-Cain, the seventh in descent from Adam, who is mentioned as " an instructor of every artificer in brass and iron," or a furbisherll of every cutting instrument in those metals. This must, however, be regarded as a tradition incor- porated in the narrative at the time it was written, and probably with some accessory colouring in connection with the name which Gesenius has suggested may mean scoriarum faber, a maker of dross, and which others have connected with that of Vulcan. Sir Gardner WilkinsonH" has remarked on this subject that what- ever may have been the case in earlier times, " no direct mention is made of iron arms or tools till after the Exodus," and that " some are even inclined to doubt the barzel (bna), of the Hebrews being really that metal," iron. Movers** has observed that in the whole Pentateuch iron is mentioned only thirteen times, while bronze appears no less than forty-four, which he considers to be in favour of the later intro- duction of iron ; as also the fact that bronze, and not iron, * Exod., ch. xxvi. v. 37. t Numbers, ch. xxxi. v. 22. % Ch. xxviii. v. 1, 2. Genesis, ch. iv. v. 22. || Smith's " Diet, of the Bible," *. v. IF " Anc. Egyptians," vol. iii. p. ** "Phonicier," ii. 3. 6 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. was associated with gold and silver in the fittings for the Tabernacle. For other passages in Scripture relative to the employment of brass or bronze, and iron, among the Jews, the reader may consult an excellent article by the Rev. John Hodgson in the first volume of the Archceologia jfiliana (1816), "An Inquiry into the Era when Brass was used in purposes to which Iron is now applied." From this paper I have largely borrowed in subsequent pages. As to the succession of the two metals, bronze and iron, among the ancient Egyptians, there is a considerable diversity of opinion among those who have studied the subject. Sir Gardner Wilkin- son,* judging mainly from pictorial representations, thinks that the Egyptians of an early Pharaonic age were acquainted with the use of iron, and accounts for the extreme rarity of actual examples by the rapid decomposition of the metal in the nitrous soil of Egypt. M. Chabas,f the author of a valuable and interesting work upon primitive history, mainly as exhibited by Egyptian monuments, believes that the people of Egypt were acquainted with the use of iron from the dawn of their historic period, and upwards of 3000 years B.C. made use of it for all the purposes to which we now apply it, and even prescribed its oxide as a medicinal preparation. M. Mariette,+ on the contrary, whose personal explorations entitle his opinion to great weight, is of opinion that the early Egyptians never really made use of iron, and seems to think that from some mythological cause that metal was regarded as the bones of Typhon, and was the object of a certain repugnance. M. Chabas himself is, indeed, of opinion that iron was used with extreme reserve, and, so to speak, only in exceptional cases. This he considers to have been partly due to religious motives, and partly to the greater abundance of bronze, which the Egyptians well knew how to mix so as to give it a fine temper. From whatever cause, the discovery of iron or steel instruments among Egyptian antiquities is of extremely rare occurrence ; and there are hardly any to which a date can be assigned with any approach to certainty. The most ancient appears to be a curved scimitar-like blade discovered by Belzoni beneath one of the Sphinxes of Karnak, and now in the British * " Anc. Egyptians," vol. iii. pp. 246, 247. See also " The Egyptians in the Time of the Pharaohs," p. 99. t" Etudes sur 1'Antiquite Historique d'apres les sources Egyptiennes," &c., 1872, p. 69. J " Catalogue de Boulaq," pp. 247, 248 ; Chahas, p. 54. See also Emil Soldi, " L'Art Egyptien," 1879, p. 41. BRONZE IN ANCIENT EGYPT. 7 Museum.* Its date is stated to be about 600 B.C. t A wedge of iron appears, however, to have been found in a joint between the stones of the Great Pyramid. $ Without in any way disputing the occasional use of iron among the ancient Egyptians, nor the interpretation of the colours red and blue on the tomb of Rameses III. as being intended to repre- sent blades of bronze and iron or steel respectively, I may venture to suggest that the round blue bar, against which butchers are represented as sharpening their knives in some of the pictures in the sepulchres of Thebes, may have been too hastily regarded as a steel instead of as a whetstone of a blue colour. The existence of a steel for the purpose of sharpening seems to imply not only the knowledge of the preparation of the metal and its subsequent hardening, but also of files or of other tools to produce the peculiar striated surface to which the sharpening property of a steel is due. Had such tools been known, it seems almost impossible that no trace of them should have come down to our times. Moreover, if used for sharpening bronze knives, a steel such as at present used would sooner become clogged and unfit for use than if em- ployed for sharpening steel knives. Lepsius II has observed that the pictures of the old Empire do not afford an example of arms painted in blue, the metal of weapons being always painted in red or bright brown. Iron was but little used under the old Empire ; copper was employed in its stead where the hardness of iron was not indispensable. However this may be, it seems admitted on all hands that the use of iron in Egypt in early times was much restricted, probably from some religious motive. May not this have arisen from the first iron there known having been, as it appears to have been in some other countries, of meteoric origin ? The Coptic name for iron, BG Nine, which has been interpreted by Professor LauthH as "the Stone of Heaven," strongly favours such a view. The resemblance of this term to BAA-N-HG, the baa of heaven, or celestial iron, has also been pointed out by M. Chabas,** who, how ever, is inclined to consider that steel was so called on account of its reflecting the colour of the sky. If the iron in use among the * Catal., No. 5410. t Day, " Preh. Use of Iron and Steel," page 14. J Day, op. cit., p. 32. Wilkinson, op. cit., vol. iii. p. 247. || " Les Metaux dans les Inscrip. Egypt.," 1877, p. 57. IT "Zeitsch. f. ^Egypt. Sprache," &c., 1870, p. 114. ** Op. cit., p. 67. Dr. Birch translates ba en pe " heavenly wood " or " stone " (Arch., vol. xxxviii. p. 377 ; Hierog. Diet.}. See also a paper by the Eev. Basil Cooper in Trans. Devon. Assoc., vol. ii. p. 386, and Day, " Preh. Use of Iron and Steel," p. 41. 8 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. early Egyptians were meteoric, and its celestial origin acknow- ledged, both its rarity and its restricted use would be accounted for. The term " bone of Typhon," as applied to iron, is given by Plutarch on the authority of Manetho, who wrote in the days of the first Ptolemy. It appears to be used only in contrast to the name " bone of Horus," which, according to the same author, was applied to the loadstone, and it seems difficult to admit any great antiquity for the appellation, or to connect it with a period when iron was at all rare, or its use restricted. Although the use of iron in Egypt was at an early period com- paratively unknown, that of bronze was most extensive. The weapons of war,* the tools for various trades, including those of the engraver and sculptor, were all made of that metal, which in its crude form served also as a kind of circulating medium. It appears to have been mainly imported from Asia, some of the principal sources of copper being in the peninsula of Sinai. One of the chief mines was situated at Sarbout-el-Khadem, where both turquoises and copper ore were extracted, and the latter smelted at Wady-Nash. The copper mines of Wady-Magarah are thought to have been worked as early as the second dynasty, upwards of 3000 years B.C. ; and in connection with ancient' Egyptian mining, it is worth while again to cite Agatharchides,f whose testimony I have already adduced in my " Ancient Stone Implements," and who relates that in his time, circa B.C. 100, there were found buried in some ancient gold-mines in Upper Egypt the bronze chisels or wedges (Xaro/xtBe? ^aA/rat) of the old miners, and who accounts for their being of that metal by the fact that when those mines were wrought, men were in no way acquainted with the use of iron. In the seventh century B.C., however, iron must have been in general use in Egypt, for on the landing of the Carians and lonians, J who were armed with bronze, an Egyptian, who had never before seen men armed with that metal, ran to Psammetichus to inform him that brazen men had risen from the sea and were wasting the country. As Psammetichus himself is described as wearing a brazen helmet, the arms mentioned would seem to have been offensive rather than defensive. The source whence the tin, which formed a constituent part of * Chabas, op. cit., p. 47. Lepsiua, op. cit., p. 57. t " Photii Bibliotheca," ed. 1653, col. 1343. I " Herod.," lib. ii. c. 152. BRONZE PRECEDED IRON IN EGYPT. the bronze, was derived, is much more uncertain. Indeed, to judge from M. Chabas' silence, its name and hieroglyphic are unknown, > though from some of the uses to which the metal designated by Q was applied, it seems possible that it may have been tin. On the whole, to judge from documentary evidence alone, the question as to the successive use of the different metals in Egypt seems to be excessively obscure, some of them being almost impossible to identify by name or representative sign. If, however, we turn to the actual relics of the past, we find bronze tools and weapons in abundance, while those of iron are extremely scarce, and are either of late date or at best of uncer- tain age. So strong, indeed, is the material evidence, that the late Mr. Crawfurd,* while disputing any general and universal sequence of iron to bronze, confesses that Ancient Egypt seems to offer a case in which a Bronze Age clearly preceded an Iron one, or at least in which cutting instruments of bronze preceded those of iron. Among the Assyrians iron seems to have been in considerable use at an early date, and to have been exported from that country to Egypt, but knives and long chisels or hatchets of bronze were among the objects found at Tel Sifr, in Southern Babylonia. The earliest bronze image to which a date can be assigned appears to be that on which M. Oppert has read the name of Koudourmapouk, King of the Soumirs and Accads,t who, according to M. Lenormant, lived about 2100 B.C. Dr. S. Birch reads the name as Kudur- mabug (about 2200 B.C.). Others in the British Museum are referred to Gudea, who reigned about 1700 B.C. The mythology and literature of ancient Greece and Rome are so intimately connected, that in discussing the evidence afforded by classical writers it will be needless to separate them, but the testimony of both Greek and Latin authors may be taken indis- criminately, though, of course, the former afford the more ancient evidence. I have already cited much of this evidence in the Introductory Chapter of my book on Ancient Stone Implements, mainly with the view of showing the succession of bronze to stone ; on the present occasion I have to re-adduce it, together with what corroborative testimony I am able to procure, in order to show that, along the northern shores of the Mediterranean, philology and history agree as to the priority of the use of bronze for cutting instruments to that of iron. * Trans. Ethnol. Soc., vol. iv. p. 5. t Soldi, " L'Art Egypt.," p. 25. 10 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. The Greek language itself bears witness to this fact, for the words significant of working in iron are not derived from the name of that metal, but from that of bronze, and the old forms of ^a\Kev^ and ^aXKeveiv remained in use in connection with the smith and his work long after the blacksmith had to a great extent super- seded the bronze-founder and the copper-smith in the fabrication of arms and cutlery.* An analogous transition in the meaning of words has been pointed out by Professor Max Miiller. " The Mexicans called their own copper or bronze tepuztli, which is said to have meant originally hatchet. The same word is now used for iron, with which the Mexicans first became acquainted through their intercourse with the Spaniards. Tepuztli then became a general name for metal, and when copper had to be distinguished from iron, the former was called red, the latter black tepuztli." t I am not certain whether Professor Max Miiller still retains the views which he expressed in 1864. He then pointed out* that "what makes it likely that iron was not known previous to the separation of the Aryan nations is the fact that its names vary in every one of their languages." But there is a " name for copper, which is shared in common by Latin and the Teutonic languages, ces, cerig, Gothic ais, Old High German er, Modern .German Er-z, Anglo- Saxon dr, English ore. Like chalkos, which originally meant copper, but came to mean metal in general, bronze or brass, the Latin ces, too, changed from the former to the latter meaning ; and we can watch the same transition in the corresponding words of the Teutonic languages. . ... . It is all the more curious, there- fore, that the Sanskrit ayas, which is the same word as aes and aiz, should in Sanskrit have assumed the almost exclusive mean- ing of iron. I suspect, however, that in Sanskrit, too, ayas meant originally the metal, i.e. copper, and that as iron took the place of copper, the meaning of ayas was changed and specified In German, too, the name for iron was derived from the older name of copper. The Gothic eisarn, iron, is considered by Grimm as a derivative form of aiz, and the same scholar concludes from this that 'in Germany bronze must have been in use before iron.'" But to return to Greece. It is, of course, somewhat doubtful how far the word ^oX/ro?, as used by the earliest Greek authors, was * XaXicevtiv Sk cat TO fftlriptvttv tXtyov, Kal xa\Kids, roi> rbv aiSrjpov epyao/vouc (Julius Pollux, " Onomasticon," lib. vii. cap. 24). t " Lectures on the Science of Language," 2nd S., 1864, p. 229 ; Tylor's " Anahuac," 1861, p. 140. J "Lectures on the Science of Language," 2nd S., p. 231. BRONZE IN ANCIENT GREECE. 11 intended to apply to unalloyed copper, or to that mixture of copper and tin which we now know as bronze. Mr. Gladstone,* who on all questions relating to Homer ought to be one of the best living authorities, regards the word as meaning copper : firstly, because it is always spoken of by Homer as a pure metal along with other pure metals ; secondly, on account of the epithets epvOpos, ^]vo^, and vcopoTJr, which mean red, bright, and gleaming, being applied to it, and which Mr. Gladstone considers to be inapplicable to bronze ; and thirdly, because Homer does not appear to have known anything at all of the fusion or alloying of metals. The second reason he considers further strengthened by the probability that Homer would not represent the walls of the palace of Alcinous as plated with bronze, nor introduce a heaven of bronze among the imposing imagery of battle (II., xvii. 424). On the whole he concludes that ^aA/ro? was copper hardened by some method, as some think by the agency of water, or else and more probably according to a very simple process, by cooling slowly in the air.f I regret to say that these conclusions appear to me to be founded to some extent on false premises and on more than one misconcep- tion. The process of heating copper and then dipping it in water or allowing it slowly to cool, so far from being adapted for hardening that metal, is that which is usually adopted for annealing or softening it. While the plunging into cold water of steel at a red heat has the effect of rendering that metal intensely hard, on copper the reverse is the result ; and, as Dr. Percy has observed,? it is immaterial whether the cooling after annealing or restoring its malleability by means of heat takes place slowly or rapidly. Indeed, one alloy of copper and tin is rendered most malleable by rapid cooling. It has been stated! that bronze of the ancient composition may by cooling it slowly be rendered as hard as steel, and at the same time less brittle, but this statement seems to require confirmation. According to some II the impossibility of hardening bronze like steel by dipping it into water had passed into a proverb so early as the days of J^schylus, but " ^O\KOV jScu^a? " has by others been * " Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age," vol. iii. pp. 498, 499. t The reference is to Millin, " Mineralogie Homerique," pp. 126, 132. J " Metallurgy Fuel, Fireclays, Copper," &c., p. 6. Moore, "Anc. Mineralogy," p. 57. || Rev. Arch., N.S., vol. iv. p. 97 ; -&sch. Agamem., v. 612. Professor Eolleston is inclined to refer the expression to the "tempering" of bronze (Trans. Brist. and Glow. Arch. Soc., 1878). 12 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. regarded as referring to the impossibility of dyeing metal.* Some of the commentators on Hesiod and Homer speak, however, dis- tinctly as to a process of hardening bronze by a dipping or /3a^}, and Virgil t represents the Cyclopes as dipping the hissing bronze in water " Alii stridentia tingiint ^Era lacu " but the idea of bronze being hardened or tempered by this process appears to me to have been based on a false analogy between this metal and steel, or even iron. The French chemist, Geoffrey, thought he had succeeded in imitating the temper of an ancient bronze sword, but no details are given as to whether he added more than the usual proportion of tin to his copper, or whether he hardened the edge with a hammer. With regard to the other reasons adduced by Mr. Gladstone, it is no doubt true that ^aXifo^ is occasionally spoken of by Homer as a pure metal, mainly, however, it may be argued, in conse- quence of the same name being applied to both copper and bronze, if not, indeed, like the Latin " ses," to copper, bronze, and brass. We find, moreover, that tin, for thus we must translate Kaaairepos, is mentioned by Homer ; and as this metal appears in ancient times to have been mainly, though not exclusively, employed for the purpose of alloying copper, we must from this fact infer that the use of bronze was not unknown. In the celebrated descrip- tion of the fashioning of the shield of Achilles by Vulcan which may for the moment be assumed to be of the same age as the rest of the Iliad we find the copper and tin mentioned in juxta- position with each other ; and if it had been intended to represent Hephaistos as engaged in mixing and melting bronze, the descrip- tion could not have been more complete. + XaX/cov S'tV irvpl fiaXXev dreipea, Kacrcrirepdv re. Even the term indomitable may refer to the difficulty of melting copper in its unalloyed condition. But tin was also used in the pure condition. In the breast- plate of Agamemnon there were ten bands of black KVCLVOS, twelve of gold, and twenty of tin. In his shield II were twenty bosses of tin. The cows 5! on the shield of Achilles were " Les Metaux dans 1'Ant.," p. 238. t " 2En.," viii. 450. xi. 24. || xi. 34. IT xviii. 574. METALS MENTIONED BY HOMER. 13 made of both gold and tin, and his greaves* of soft tin, and the border of the breast-plate of Asteropaeus t was formed of glittering tin. This collocation of various metals, or inlaying them by way of ornament, calls to mind some of the pottery and bronze pins of the Swiss Lake dwellings, which are decorated with inlaid tin, and the remarkable bronze bracelet found at Mcerigen,+ which is inlaid with iron and a yellow brass by way of ornament. With regard to the epithets red, bright, and gleaming, they are perfectly applicable to bronze in its polished condition, though they ill assort with the popular idea of bronze, which usually assigns to that metal the brown or greenish hues it acquires by oxidation and exposure to atmospheric influences. As a matter of fact, the red colour of copper, though certainly rendered more yellow, is not greatly impaired by an admixture of tin within the proportions now used by engineers, viz. up to about two and a half ounces to the pound, or about 1 5 per cent. As to the bright and shining properties of the metal, Virgil, when no doubt speak- ing of bronze swords and shields, makes special mention of their glitter II " ^Eratseque micant peltse, micat sereus ensis." Indeed, the mere fact of the swords of Homer being made of ^a\/ro9 is in favour of that metal being bronze, as pure copper would be singularly inapplicable to such a purpose, and certainly no copper sword would break into three or four pieces at a blow instead of being merely bent.^f The bending of the points of the spear-heads against the shields of the adversaries is, however, in favour of these weapons having been of copper rather than of bronze.** As to Homer having been unacquainted with the fusion or alloying of metals, it may fairly be urged that without such know- ledge it would have been impossible to work so freely as he has described, in gold, silver, and tin ; and that the only reason for which Vulcan could have thrown the latter metal into the fire must have been in order to melt it. * " 11.," xviii. 612. t xxiii. 561. For these and other instances see Prof. Phillips in the Arch. Jouri?., vol. xvi. p. 10. J Desor et Favre, " Bel Age du Bronze," p. 16. Holtzapffel, "Turning and Mechanical Manipulation," vol. i. p. 271. || "Mneid," vii. 743. f " Iliad," iii. 363. ** <( Il.,"iii. 348, vii. 259. 14 INTRODUCTORY. [CHAP. I. Whether steel was designated by the term KVO.VOS is a matter of considerable doubt, and certainly in later times that word was applied to a substance occasionally used as a blue pigment, not improbably a dark blue carbonate of copper. Assuming the word to mean a metal, the difficulty in regarding it as significant of steel appears in a great measure due to the colour implied by the adjective form k-vdveos, being a dark blue.* If, however, it were the custom even in those days to colour steel blue by exposing it, after it had been polished, to a certain degree of heat as is usually done with watch and clock springs at the present day the deep blue colour of the sky or sea might well receive such an epithet. That steel of some kind was known in Homeric days is abundantly evident from the process of hardening an axe by dipping it in cold water while heated, which is so graphically described in the Odyssey. If KVCLVOS be really steel, we can also understand the epithet black t being occasionally applied to it, even though the adjective derived from it had the signification of blue. According to the Arundelian Marbles, iron was discovered B.C. 1432, J or 248 years before the taking of Troy, but though we have occasional mention of this metal and of steel in the Homeric poems, yet weapons and tools of bronze are far more commonly mentioned and described. Trees, for instance, are cut down and wood carved with tools of bronze ; and the battle-axe of Menelaus is of excellent bronze with an olive-wood handle, long and well polished. Before noticing further the early use of iron in Greece, it will be well to see what other authors than Homer say as to the origin and ancient use of bronze in that country. The name of the principal metal of which it is composed, copper, bears witness to one of the chief sources of its supply having been the island of Cyprus. It would appear that Tamassus in this island was in ancient times a noted mart for this metal, as it is according to Nitzsch and other critics the Temese II mentioned in Homer as being resorted to in order to exchange iron for ^O\KO^, which in this as well as some other passages seems to stand for copper and not bronze. The advantage arising from mixing a proportion of tin with the * M. Ch. Houssel in Rev. Arch., N.S., vol. iv. p. 98. t " II.," xi. 24. Arch, fur Anthrop., vol. viii. p. 295 ; Miiller, " Fragm. Hist. Graec.," vol. i. p. 549. "II.," xiii. 612. || " Odyss.," i. v. 184. IRON IN ANCIENT GREECE. 15 copper, and thus rendering it at the same time more fusible and harder, must have been known before the dawn of Grecian history. The accounts given by early Greek writers as to the first discoverer of the art of making bronze by an admixture of copper and tin vary considerably, and thus prove that even in the days when these notices were written the art was of ancient date. Theophrastus makes Delas, a Phrygian, whom Aristotle * regards as a Lydian, to have been the inventor of bronze. Pausanias t ascribes the honour of first casting statues in bronze to Rhoecus and Theodorus the Samians, who appear to have lived about 640 B.C. They are also said to have improved the accuracy of casting, but no doubt the process on a smaller scale was practised long before their time. Ehoecus and his colleague are also reported to have discovered the art of casting iron,? but no really ancient objects of cast iron have as yet been discovered. The invention of the metals gold, silver, and copper is also ascribed to the Idsean DactyliJ or the Telchines, who made the sickle of Chronos 1 1 and the trident of Poseidon.^] Though, as has already been observed, iron and even steel were not unknown in the days of Homer, both seem to have been of considerable rarity, and it is by no means improbable that, as appears to have been the case with the Egyptians, the first iron used by the Greeks was of meteoric origin. I have elsewhere ** called attention to the possible connection of the Greek name for iron (atfypos') with currrip, often applied to a shooting-star or meteor, and with the Latin Sidera and the English Star, though it is unsafe to insist too much on mere verbal similarity. In an interesting article on the use of meteoric iron by Dr. L. Beck, ft of Biebrich on the Rhine, the suggestion is made that the final typos of ff/8r/j009 is a form of the Aryan ais (conf. ces, ceris). Dr. Beck, however, inclines to the opinion that the recognition of certain meteorites as iron was first made at a time subsequent to the dis- covery of the means of smelting iron from its ore. The self-fused mass or disc of iron,++ ur i ment of stag's-horn like a netting mesh, and a bronze awl showing traces of its wooden handle. In another barrow near Grotam, Nottinghamshire, JJ there lay near the thigh of a contracted skeleton a neatly chipped spear-head of flint, and a small bronze pin which had been inserted into a wooden handle. In a barrow near Fimber, Yorkshire, opened by Messrs. Mortimer, there were found near the knee of a contracted female skeleton a knife- like chipped flint and the point of a bronze pricker or awl. With another female interment in the same barrow a bronze pricker was found inserted in a short wooden haft. The Britoness in this instance wore a necklace of jet discs with a triangular pendant of the same material. A bronze, pin, 1J inches long, accompanied by a broken flint celt and some arrow-heads and flakes of flint, together with calcined bones, was found in an urn in Ravenshill barrow, || || near Scarborough. In some of the Wiltshire barrows more perfectly preserved handles have been found. One of these, copied from Hoare's " Ancient Wilt- shire,"^ is shown in Fig. 227. It was found in the King barrow with what was probably a male skeleton buried in the hollowed trunk of an * Arch., vol. xliii. p. 465, fig. 163. f Suss. Arch. Coll., vol. i. p. 55. I "Ten Years' Dig.," p. 85. " Vest. Ant. of Derb.," p. 41. || "Vest. Ant. of Derb.," p. 82. IT Smith's "Coll. Ant.," vol. i. p. 60, pi. xxi. 3. ** " Ten Years' Dig.," p. 155. ft Lib. cit., p. 106. H "Vest. Ant. of Derb.," p. 104. " Reliquary," vol. ix. p. 67. HI! Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. vi. p. 3. f IT Vol. i. p. 122, pi. xv. No. 3. AWLS USED IN SEWING. 191 elm tree. With it was a curious urn of burnt clay and two bronze daggers, one near the breast and the other near the thigh. The handle is described as being of ivory, but I think Dr. Thurnam was right in regard- ing it as of bone. The awl in this instance is of the third type, having a well-marked collar round it. Another of the same character, but retain- ing only a small part of the haft, so that the shoulder is better shown, was found with burnt bones in an urn deposited in a barrow near Stone- henge.* No mention is made as to the nature of the material of which the haft was formed. In the case of an awl of the first type, engraved by Dr. Thurnam, and here reproduced as Fig. 228, the handle is of wood, but the kind of wood is not mentioned. One or two bronze or brass awls with square shoulders are in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, f Several awls with their original wooden handles have been found in the Lake-dwellings of Savoy, I and others in hafts of stag's-horn in the Swiss Lake- dwellings. Whether the twisted pins from the Wiltshire barrows are of the nature of gimlets, as suggested by Dr. Thurnam, is a difficult question. I shall, however, prefer to treat of them as personal ornaments rather than as tools. It is possible that they may to some extent have combined the two functions. As to the instruments which I have been describing being piercing tools or awls, there seems to be little doubt ; and Mr. Bateman can hardly have been far wrong in re- garding them as intended to pierce skins or leather. Though not curved like the cobbler's awl of the pre- sent day, they are probably early members of the same family. In Scandinavia these instruments are of frequent occurrence, sometimes being provided with ornamental handles also made of bronze. They are in that part of Europe often found in company with tweezers and small knives of bronze, and all were probably used together in sewing, the hole being bored by the awl and the thread drawn through by the tweezers and, when necessary, cut with the knife. Possibly the use of bristles as. substitutes for needles dates back to very early times. In one instance at least tweezers have been found in Britain in company with objects apparently belonging to the Bronze Age, though no doubt to a very late part of it. Those represented in * " Anc. Wilts," vol. i. p. 164, pi. xvii. t Wilde's " Catal.," p. 597. J Chantre, "Alb.," pi. Ixiii. $ Worsaae, " Nord. Olds.," figs. 274,276; Nilsson, " Nordens Ur.-Invanare," figs. 55, 57. 192 CHISELS, GOUGES, HAMMERS, AND OTHER TOOLS, [CHAP. VII. Fig. 229 were discovered near Llangwyllog, * Anglesea, together with a two-edged razor, a bracelet, buttons, rings, &c., which are now in the British Museum. A more highly ornamented pair of tweezers, with a broad end, found with a bone comb, a quern, spindle- whorls, &c., in a Picts' house near Kettleburn,t Caithness, belongs to a considerably later period. The needles of bronze found in the British Isles do not as a rule appear to belong to the Bronze Period, though some of those found on the Continent seem to date back to that age. Two are engraved by Wilde, + and there are altogether eighteen such articles in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy. A broken specimen (1J inch) from the sand- hills near Glenluce, Wigtonshire, has been figured. Another useful article anciently formed of bronze though perhaps not, strictly speaking, a tool may as well be men- tioned in this place ; I mean the fish- hook, of which, however, I am able to cite but one example as having been found in the British Isles. This was found in Ireland, and is shown in Fig. 230,11 kindly lent by the Royal Irish Academy. Fish-hooks of bronze have been found in considerable abundance on the site of several of the Swiss Lake-dwellings ; and it is not a little remarkable that in form many of them are almost identical with the steel fish-hooks of the present day. The barb, to prevent the fish from struggling off the hook, is in most instances present, and double hooks are occasionally found. The attachment to the line was, even in the single hooks, frequently made by a loop or eye, formed by flattening and turning back the upper part of the shank of the hook. Fish-hooks were found in the Fonderie de Larnaud (Jura),1J and in the hoard of St. Pierre-en-Chatre (Oise). Such are the principal forms of tools and instruments of bronze found in these islands. Some of them, such as the socketed gouges, * Arch. Journ., vol. xxii. p. 74. t Proc. Soe. Ant. Scot., vol. i. p. 266 ; Arch. Journ., vol. x. p. 218. t "Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," p. 547. "Ayr and Wigton Coll.," vol. ii. p. 14. H Wilde, " Catal. Mus. E. I. A.," fig. 403. IF Chantre, " Age du Br.," lere ptie. p. 87. MOSTLY OF LATE DATE. 193 hammers, and chisels, can only belong to the latter part of the Bronze Period, when the art of using cores in order to produce sockets or other hollow recesses in castings was well known. Others, like the simple awls so frequently found in company with instruments of flint in our barrows, appear to extend from the commencement of the Bronze Age to its close. There still remains to be described a class of instruments in use by the husbandman, and not by the warrior ; and as the present chapter has extended to such a length, it will be well to treat of these under a separate heading. CHAPTER VIII. SICKLES. SICKLES are the only undoubtedly agricultural implements in bronze with which we are acquainted in this country. Already in the Stone Period the cultivation of cereals for food appears to have been practised, and I have elsewhere* pointed out a form of flint instrument which may possibly have supplied the place of sickles or reaping hooks in those early times. The rarity of bronze sickles in this country, as compared with their abundance in some parts of Southern Europe, is, however, somewhat striking, and may, perhaps, point to a considerably less cultivation of grain crops in Britain than in countries with a wanner climate, while the inhabitants were otherwise in much the same stage of civilisa- tion. The traditions of the use of bronze sickles survived to a com- paratively late period in Greece and Italy, and Medea is described by Sophoclesf as cutting her magic herbs with such instruments (Xa\Areoi<7ii> rf/jui cpeTravois rojuav), and by Ovid + as doing it " curvamine falcis ahenae." Elissa is by Virgil represented as using a bronze sickle for similar purposes " Falcibus et messee ad lunam quzeruntur aenis Pubentes lierbse nigri cum lacte veneni." When bronze sickles were used for reaping corn it seems to have been a common custom merely to cut the ears of corn from off the straw, after the manner of the Gaulish reaping machine described by Pliny, || and not to cut and carry away straw and ear together from the field. This practice will probably account for the small size of the sickles which have come down to us, unless we are to reverse the argument, and derive the custom of cutting off the * " Anc. Stone Imp.," p. 320. t Macrob. "Saturn.," v. c. 19. J " Met.," vii. 224. " JEn.," lib. iv. 513. || "Nat. Hist.," xviii.c. 30. METHOD OF HAFTTNG SICKLES. 195 ears only from the diminutive size of the instruments employed for reaping. Bronze sickles were hafted in different ways, sometimes being fastened to the handle by a pin, either attached to the stem of the blade or passing through a hole in it, combined with some system of binding ; and sometimes being provided with a socket into which the haft was driven, and then secured by a transverse pin or rivet. The sickles with a socket to receive the handle appear to be peculiar to Britain and the North of France. The other form occurs over the greater part of Europe, including Scandinavia, and the blades, as has been observed by Dr. Keller, are always adapted for use in the right hand. Dr. Gross, of Neuveville, on the Lake of Bienne, has been so fortunate as to discover at Mcerigen, the site of one of the ancient pile-villages on the lake, two or three handles for sickles of this kind. A figure showing three views of one of these handles has been published by the Royal Archaeological Institute,* and is here by permission repro- duced as Fig. 231. This handle is formed of yew, curiously carved so as to receive the thumb and fingers, and has a flat place at the end against which the blade was fastened. In this place there are two grooves to receive the slightly projecting ribs with which the stem of the sickle-blade is usually strengthened. Dr. Kellert has suggested that the blade of the sickle was made fast to the handle by means of a kind of ferrule which passed over it, and was secured in its place by two pins or nails. The end of the handle forms a ridge, through which are two holes that would admit a small cord for the suspension of the sickle, and thus prevent its being lost either on land or water. We find this sailor-like habit prevailing among the Lake-dwellers in the case of their flint knives also, the handles of which were often perforated. There is a remarkable resemblance in character between this handle and some of those in use among the Esquimaux + for their planes and knives, which are recessed in the same manner for the reception of the fingers and the thumb. Some iron sickles, of nearly the same form as those in bronze with the flat stem, were present in the great Danish find of the Early Iron Age at Vimose, described by Mr. C. Engelhardt. The * Arch. Journ., vol. xxx. p. 192. f Keller, 7ter Bericht, Taf. vii. 1. I See Lubbock's '< Preh. Times," p. 513. \ " Vimose Fundet," 1869, p. 26, o2 196 SICKLES [CHAP. VHI. chord of the curved blades is from 6 to 7 inches in length, and one of the instruments still retained its original wooden handle. This is between 9 and 10 inches long, and is curved at the part intended to receive the hand. The end is conical, like the head Fig. 231. Three views of a handle for a sickle, Moerigen. of a screw, and is evidently thus made in order to give a secure hold to the reaper when drawing the sickle towards him. Sickles with nearly similar handles were in use in Smaaland,* in the South of Sweden, until recent days. * " Aarboger for Oldkynd.," 1867, p. 250. AV1TH PROJECTING KNOBS. 197 Of sickles without a socket but few have been found in Britain, and those mostly in our Western Counties. In a remarkable hoard found in a turbary at Edington Burtle,* near Glastonbury, Somer- setshire, were four of these flat sickles. One of these had never been finished, but had been left rough as it came from the mould, into which the metal had been run through a channel near the point of the sickle. A projection still marks the place where the jet was broken off. As will be seen from Fig. 232, this blade is Fig. 232. Edington Burtle. provided with two projecting pins for the purpose of attaching it to the handle. In this respect it differs from the sickles of the ordinary continental type, which, when of this character, have usually but a single knob. Another of the Edington sickles with a single projection is Fig. 233. -Edington Burtle. shown in Fig. 233. This blade is more highly ornamented, and has a rib along the middle in addition to that along the back, no doubt for the purpose of increasing stiffness while diminishing weight. Of the other two sickles found at Edington, one is im-r perfect and the other much worn. Both are provided with the two projecting pins. -Two other sickles found on Sparkford Hill.t also in Somerset- shire,, present the same peculiarity. One of these much resembles . * Somerset Arch, and Nat. Hist. Proc., 1854, vol. v. p. 91. t Op. tit., 18567, vol. vii. p. 27. 198 SICKLES [CHAP. vm. Fig. 233, though nearly straight along the back. The other is flat on both faces. Each has lost its point. A chisel-like tool was found with them. With the Edington sickles were found a broad fluted penannular armlet and what may have been a finger-ring of the same pattern, a plain penannular armlet of square section, part of a light funicular torque like Fig. 467, part of a ribbon torque like Fig. 469, and four penannular rings, some of them apparently made from frag- ments of torques. Two other sickles of the same character, each with two pro- jecting pins, were found in Taunton * itself in association with twelve palstaves, a socketed celt, a hammer (Fig. 214), a fragment of a spear-head, a double-edged knife, a funicular torque (Fig. 468), a pin (Fig. 451), some fragments of other pins, and several penannular rings of various sizes. Fig. 234. Thames. All the objects found at Edington, Sparkford Hill, and Taunton are now in the museum in Taunton Castle. A thinner form of flat sickle, if such it be, has been found in Kent. Among a number of bronze objects which were discovered at Marden,f near Staplehurst, there is a slightly curved blade with a rivet at one end, which appears to present a sickle-like character. I have not seen the original, and as it is described as a knife-blade it may prove to have been one, or possibly, what is of far rarer occurrence, a saw. Of socketed sickles a few have at different times been dredged up from the Thames. One of these, found in 1859, is in my own collection, and is shown in Fig. 234. The blade, which is almost as sharp at the back as at the edge, is not quite central with the * Arch. Journ., vol. xxxvii. p. 94. Pring, " Brit, and Roman Taunton," pi. i. 3. t Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xiv. p. 258, pi. 13, No. 1. WITH SOCKETS. 199 socket, but so placed as to make the instrument better adapted for use in the right hand than in the left. The socket tapers con- siderably, and is closed at the end. In another sickle found in the Thames, near Bray, Berks* (Fig. 235), the socket dies into the blade instead of forming a distinct feature. A third, found near Windsor, and engraved in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries,] closely resembles Fig. 234, but the end of the socket, instead of being closed, is open. The blade of this also is sharp on both edges. One from Stretham Fen, in the Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society (about 5 inches), is of the same character. It has two rivet-holes in the socket. Another from Downham Fen (5 inches) is sharp on both edges. In the Norwich Museum is a sickle of somewhat the same character as Fig. 235, but the socket instead of being oval is oblong, and is placed at a less angle to the blade, which in this case also is double-edged. The Fig. 235.-Near Bray. i socket is -H by iV inch, and has one rivet-hole through it. The curved knife from Wicken Fen, to be described in the next chapter, much resembles this Norwich example in outline. Another sickle from Nor- folk J was exhibited to the Archaeological Institute in 1851. Mr. Franks has shown me a sketch of another found at Dereham which has the external edge of the blade extending across the end of the socket. Both edges of the blade are sharp. But few sickles have been found in Scotland. That shown in Fig. 236 was found in the Tay, near Errol, Perthshire, in 1840, and has been described by Dr. J. Alexander Smith. The block, which has been kindly lent me by the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, is engraved on the scale of two-thirds linear, instead of my usual scale of one-half. The main difference between this specimen, and mine from the Thames (Fig. * Proe. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iv. p. 85. t 2nd S., vol. v. p. 95. J Arch. Journ., vol. viii. p. 191. Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 378. 200 SICKLES [CHAP. vin. 234) consists in the blade being fluted. Another more rudely made sickle, found at Edengerach,* Premnay, Aberdeenshire, has also been engraved. This has a single central rib along the blade and no rivet- hole through the socket. Perhaps it is an unfinished casting. Fig. 236.-Near Errol, Perthshire. In Sinclair's " Statistical Account of Scotland"! it is stated that an instrument of this class was found at Ledbeg, Sutherlandshire, and was pronounced by the Earl of Bristol, then Bishop of Derry, to whom it was presented, to be a Druidical pruning hook similar to several found in England. In Ireland these instruments are much more abundant. Eleven specimens are mentioned by Wilde + as being in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, and there are three in the British Museum, as well as one in that at Edinburgh. That engraved as Fig. 237 is in the collection of Canon Greenwell, F.E.S., and was found at Grarvagh, county Derry. The blade is fluted somewhat like that of the Tay specimen. In one of those engraved by Wilde (Fig. 405) it is more highly ornamented. In another the socket is not closed at the end, but resembles that of the Windsor example already men- tioned. This appears to be the one engraved by Vallancey who ob- serves that it was "called by the Irish a Scare," and that it was used **to cut herbs, acorns, misletoe, &c." In another )| the blade forms Fig. 237. Qarvagh, Derry * Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 376. - 'f Vol. xvi. p. 206, cited by Wilson, " Preh. Ann.," vol. i. p. 401, t " Catal.," p. 527. " Coll. de Reb. Hib.," vol. iv. pi. x. 4, p. 60. . || Fig. 406. Compare " Horse. Ferales," pi. x. 19. FOUND IN IRELAND. 201 a direct continuation of the socket as in Fig. 238, which is engraved from a specimen in the British Museum, found near Athlone, county Westmeath. Vallancey, in his "Collectanea," has figured another. In the collection of Mr. J. Holmes is another example of this type. Another sickle of the same character as Fig. 237, found near Ballygawley,* Tyrone, has also been figured. This specimen is among those in the British Museum. A socketed sickle, double-edged, and with a concavity on each side at the angle between the blade and the socket so deep as to meet and form a hole, was found in Alderney, and is engraved in the Archceological Association Journal.] With it were found socketed celts, spear-heads, Fig. 238.-Ath]one. and broken swords and daggers. This may be regarded as a French rather than an English example. In my own collection is another, from the Seine at Paris, about 7 inches in length along the outer edge of the blade, which extends past the end of the socket. This still contains a part of the wooden handle, which has been secured in its place by two rivets, apparently of bronze. In general outline this sickle is much like Fig. 234, but the blade is narrower and more curved and the socket more flattened. In the museum at Amiens * Arch. Journ., vol. ii. p. 186. See also Dublin Penny Journ., i. p. 108 ; " Horse Ferales," pi. x. 18. t Vol. iii. p. 9. 202 SICKLES [CHAP. vin. is another sickle, in form closely resembling Fig. 234, but with a loop at the back of the socket. M. Chantre in his magnificent work, " L'Age du Bronze," does not specify this socketed type, though he divides the form without socket into five different varieties. The socketed form appears to be quite unknown in the South of France, as it also is in Switzerland. These three are the only instances I can cite of socketed sickles having been found outside the British Isles, so that this type of instrument appears to be peculiarly our own. The existence of a socket shows that the form does not belong to an early period in the Bronze Age, and the same is to be inferred from the character of the other bronze objects with which the Alderney sickle was found associated. Inasmuch as the continental forms are as a rule different from the British, and as they are, moreover, well known, it will suffice to indicate some few of the works in which descriptions of them will be found. Some from Camenz, in Saxony, have been engraved in illustration of a paper by myself in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries* Others from Germany, some of which are said to have Roman numerals upon them, have been figured by Lindenschmit.f Examples from Italy have been given by Strobel,+ Gastaldi, Lindenschmit,|| and others. They have been found in great abundance in some of the settle- ments on the lakes of Switzerland and Savoy. It has been thought that the Lake-dwellers did not cut off merely the ears of their corn,1[ but " that the straw was taken with it, otherwise there would not have been the seeds of so many weeds in the corn." Diodorus Siculus, however, who wrote in the first century B.C., tells us distinctly that the Britons gathered in their harvest by cutting off the ears of corn and storing them in subterraneous repositories. From these they picked the oldest day by day for their food. Whether for threshing they made use of the trihulum** that "sharp threshing instrument having teeth," before Roman times, is doubt- ful ; but that so primitive an instrument, armed with flakes of flint or other stone, should have remained in use in some Mediter- ranean countries until the present day, is a remarkable instance * 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 333. t "Samml. zu Sigmar.," Taf. xli. ; "Alt. u. h. Vorz.," vol. i. Heft xii. Taf. ii. I "Avanzi Prerom.," 1863, Tav. ii.6, 7. "Nuovi Cenni," 1862, Tav. iv. 17, 18. || " Samml. zu Sigmar.," Taf. xli. f Stevens, " Flint Chips," p. 157. ** See Evans, " Anc. Stone Imp.," p. 256. FOUND ON THE CONTINENT. 203 of the power of survival of ancient customs. Such an instance of persistence in a primitive form much reduces the extreme im- probability of the use of bronze sickles in Germany having lasted until a time when Roman numerals might appear upon them. If every St. Andrew's cross and every straight line found upon ancient instruments is to be regarded as a Roman numeral, and the objects bearing them are to be referred to Roman times as their earliest possible date, the range of Roman antiquities will be much enlarged, and will be found to contain, among other objects, a large number of the bronze knives from the Swiss Lake-dwellings ; for one of the most common ornaments on the backs of these knives consists of a repetition of the pattern XIIIIIXIIIIIXIIIII Even were it proved that in some part of Europe the use of bronze sickles survived to so late a date as supposed by Dr. Lin- denschmit, their great scarcity in the British Isles affords a conclu- sive argument against their being assigned to the period of the Roman occupation, of which other remains have come down to us in such abundance. CHAPTER IX. KNIVES, EAZORS, ETC. IT Is a question whether, if in this work strict regard had been paid to the development of different forms of cutting implements, the knife ought not to have occupied the first place, rather than the hatchet or celt ; for when bronze was first employed for cutting purposes it was no doubt extremely scarce, and would therefore hardly have been available for any but the smaller kinds of tools and weapons. Both hatchets and knives, or rather knife-daggers, have been found with interments in barrows ; but it seems better to include the majority of the latter class of instruments, which appear to occupy an intermediate place between tools and weapons, in the next chapter, which treats of daggers; rather than in this, which will Fig. 239. Wicken Fen. be devoted to what appear to be forms of tools and implements. Some of these, however, like the celt or hatchet, may have been equally available both for peaceful and warlike uses ; and though I have to some extent tried to keep tools and weapons under different headings, it appears impossible completely to carry out any such system of arrangement. Nor in treating of what I have regarded as knives does it seem convenient first to describe what appear to be the simpler and older forms, inasmuch as there are other forms which in all respects except the shape of the blade so closely resemble some of the socketed sickles described in the last chapter, that they seem almost of necessity to follow immediately SOCKET KD KIS'lVES. 205 in order. The first instrument which I shall cite has sometimes indeed been regarded as a sickle, though it is more properly speaking a curved knife. It was found in Wick en Fen, and is now in the Museum of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, the Council of which has kindly permitted me to engrave it as Fig. 239. It has already been figured, but not quite accu- rately, in the Arcliceological Journal,* the rib at the back of the blade being omitted. I am not aware of any other example of this form of knife having been found in the United Kingdom, but a double-edged socketed knife with a curved blade, found in Ireland, is in the Bateman Col- lection. The ordinary form of socketed knife has a straight double-edged blade, extending from an oval or oblong socket, pierced by one or two holes, through which rivets or pins could pass to secure the haft. These holes are usually at right angles to the axis of the blade, but sometimes in the same plane with it. Fig. 240 shows a knife with two rivet-holes, which was found at Thorndon, Suffolk, together with socketed celts, a spear-head, hammer, gouge, and an awl, several of which have been figured in preceding pages. Another (9 inches long), much like Fig. 240, but with the sides of the socket flat, and the blade more fluted, was found in the Thames, and is engraved in the Archaological Journal.] Another, of much the same size and general character, formed part of a hoard of bronze objects found in Eeach Fen, near Burwell, of which mention has already fre- quently been made. It is in my own collection, and is shown in Fig. 241. I have another, rig. 240. Fig. 241. 6 inches long, found in Edmonton Marsh. Thorndon. j Beach Fen. \ A fine blade of this kind, with two rivet-holes in the hilt (14 inches), was found in the New Forest, Glamorganshire, and was formerly in the Meyrick Collection. It is now in the British Museum. The blade has shallow flutings paraUel with the edges. A socketed knife of this kind (4 inches) was found by General A. PittEivers, F.E.S., in a pit at the foot of the interior slope of the rampart of Highdown Camp, near Worthing, Sussex. It may possibly have accompanied a funereal deposit. * Vol. vii. p. 302. "Anc. Armour," pi. xlvii. 11. t Vol. xxxiv. p. 301. Arch., vol. xlii. p. 75, pi. viii. 206 KXIYES, RAZORS, ETC. [CHAP. ix. In some instances the two rivet-holes run lengthways of the oval of the socket. One such, discovered with other objects at Lanant, Cornwall (8J inches), is engraved in the Archceologia.* It is now in the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries. One like it was found on Holyhead Moun- tain,! Anglesea, and is now in the British Museum. A fragment of a knife of this kind is in the museum at Amiens, and formed part of a hoard found near that town. It has a beading at the mouth of the socket, and also one about midway between the rivet-holes. Commonly there is but a single hole through the socket, especially in the smaller specimens. That shown in Fig. 242 is of this kind, but pre- sents the remarkable feature of hav- ing upon each face of the socket six small projecting bosses simulating rivet-heads. It was found in the Heathery Burn Cave,* Durham, with socketed celts, spear-heads, and nu- merous other articles. Another from the same cave (5| inches) with a plain and rather larger socket is in the collection of Canon Greenwell, F.R.& Of other specimens, but without the small bosses, the following may be men- tioned : One (6 inches long) found with socketed celts, part of a sword blade, and a gouge, at Martlesham, Suffolk, and in the possession of Captain Brooke, of Ufford Hall. Two found in the Thames near Wallingford. Another (5f inches), from the same source, in my own collection. This was found with a socketed celt, gouge, chisel, and razor (Fig. 269). One from Llandysilio, Den- bighshire, found with socketed celts and a spear-head, is in Canon Greenwell' s collection. A knife of this kind was among the relics found above the stalag- mite in Kent's Cavern, near Torquay. I have a knife of this character (4f inches), but with the rivet-hole in a line with the edges of the blade, found in Dorsetshire. * Vol. xv. p. 118, pi. ii. ; " Catal. Mus. Soc. Ant.," p. 16. f Arch. Journ., vol. xxiv. p. 254. J Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 132; Arch. Journ., vol. xix. p. 359. This cut is lent by the Society. Proc. Soc. Ant., vol. iv. p. 303. Burn Cave. * F e' SCOTTISH AND IRISH KNIVES. 207 In Scotland the socketed form of knife is very rare. That shown in Fig. 243 was found at Kilgraston, Perthshire, and is in the collection of Canon Gbreenwell, F.B.S. It has a central rib along the blade and two shorter lateral ribs, and in some respects has more the appearance of being a spear-head than a knife. Another, with the rivet-hole in the same plane as the blade, was found near Campbelton, Argyleshire, and has been engraved as a spear-head by Professor Daniel Wilson.* The discovery of a blade having its original handle, as subsequently mentioned, proves, however, that some of these are rightly regarded as knives, though another form (Fig. 328) has more the appearance of being a spear-head. The curved knife with a socket, figured by the same author, f can hardly, I think, be Scottish. In Ireland the socketed form of knife is more abundant than in either England or Scotland. No less than thirty-three such knives* are recorded by Sir W. Wilde, as preserved in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy, of five of which he gives figures. Many specimens also exist in private collections. That shown in Fig. 244 is in the collection of Canon Greenwell, F.E.S., and was found at Kells, Co. Meath. As will be observed, the blade is at the base somewhat wider than the socket. The indented lines upon it appear to have been produced in the cast- ing, and not added by any subsequent process. A knife of the same kind, found in the Bog of Augh- rane, near Athleague, Co. Galway, is still attached to the original handle, which, like many of those of the flint knives found in the Swiss Lake-dwellings, is formed of yew. It has been several times figured. I have a specimen of the same character, but in outline more like Fig. 240, 6 inches long, from the North of Ireland. A knife of this kind, found in a hoard at St. Ge- noulph, is in the Tours Museum. In some instances the junction between the blade and the socket is made to resemble that between the hilt and blade of some of the bronze swords and daggers, such as Figs. 291 and 349. The example shown in Fig. 245 is in my own collection. I do not, however, know in what part of Ireland it was found. The rivet-hole is at the side, and not on the face, in which, however, there is a slight flaw, which assumes the appearance of a hole in the figure. In Canon Green- well's collection is a nearly similar specimen (lOf inches), found at Balte- ragh, Co. Derry, with two rivet-holes at the side and the socket some- what ornamented by parallel grooves at the mouth and at the junction with the blade. * " Preh. Ann. of Scot.," vol. i. p. 390. t Op. eit., p. 402. J " Catal.," p. 465. "Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," fig. 350; Arch., yol. *xxyi r p. 330; "Hora Ferales," pi. x. 29. Fig. 244. Kells. 208 KNIVES, RAZORS, ETC. [CHAP. ix. One of the socketed knives in the Academy Museum at Dublin has two rivet-holes on the face. Of the others, about two-thirds have a single rivet-hole on the face, and the other third one on the side. A long blade, somewhat differing in its details from Fig. 245, was found between Lurgan and Moira, Co. Down, and, it is stated, in company with the bronze hilt or pommel shown in Fig. 246. These objects formed part of the Wilshe Collection, and are now in the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy. Two objects, somewhat similar to Fig. 246, found with spear -heads in Cambridgeshire, will subsequently be mentioned. A piece of bronze of much the same form, found with a hoard of bronze objects at Marden,* in Kent, seems to be a jet or waste piece from a casting. It has, however, been regarded as part of a fibula. The socketed form of knife is hardly known upon the Continent, though, as will have been observed, it has occasionally been found in the North of France. Among the fragments of metal forming part of the deposit of an ancient bronze-founder, and discovered at Dreuil, near Amiens, I have the fragments of two such knives. I have also a fine and entire specimen, 9 inches long, from the bed of the Seine at Charenton, near Paris. There is a transverse rib at each end and in the middle of the socket, through the face of which are two rivet-holes. A portion of the original wooden handle is still in the socket, secured in its place by two pins, also apparently of wood, which pass through the rivet-holes. Another knife (6$ inches), like Fig. 241, but with only one rivet-hole, was also found in the Seine at Paris, and is now in my collection. Several socketed knives with curved blades have been found in the Swiss Lake-dwellings, and one such, found with the sickle already mentioned, is in the Amiens Museum. There is another form of socketed knife which it will be well here to mention. The blade is sharp on both sides, but instead of being flat it is curved into a semicircle. Fig. 2 45.-ireiana. * For a typical example I am obliged to have recourse to a French specimen. That shown in Fig. 247 is in my own collection, and was found with a * Arch. As&oc. Journ., vol. xiv. p. 258. CURVED KNIVES. 209 gold torque and bracelet, a bronze anvil (Fig. 217), and other objects, at Fresne la Mere, near Falaise, Calvados. It seems well adapted for working out hollows in wood. With it was found a small, tanged, single- edged knife, the end of which is bent to a smaller curve. An instrument of much the same character (4 inches) was found, with a bronze sword, spear-heads, &c., in the Island of Skye, and is now Fig. 246. Moira. Fig. 247. Fresne la Mere. in the Antiquarian Museum at Edinburgh. As Professor Daniel Wilson* observes, "in general appearance it resembles a bent spear-head, but it has a raised central ridge on the inside, while it is nearly plain and smooth on the outer side. The most probable use for which it has been designed would seem to be for scraping out the interior of canoes and other large vessels made from the trunk of the oak." It is shown as Fig. 248. Another instrument of the same kind (4i inches), found at Wester Ord, Invergordon, Eoss-shire, is engraved in the Proceedings of the Fig. 248.-Skye. Fig. 249. Wester Ord. Society of Antiquaries of Scotland,] and is here by their permission repro- duced as Fig. 249. It seems by no means improbable that such instruments may have been * " Preh. Ann.," vol. i. p. 400 ; Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. viii. p. 310. The cut is here reproduced by permission of Messrs. Macmillan. t Vol. viii. p. 310. 210 KNIVES, RAZORS, ETC. [CHAP. ix. mistaken for bent spear-heads, and that they are not quite so rare as would at present appear. Two specimens of the socketed form have been found in the Lake settle- ment of the Eaux Vives, near Geneva, and are now in the museum of that town. Another, with a tang, is in the collection of M. For el, of Morges, and was found among the pile-dwellings near that place. A fragment of what appears to have been one of these curved knives, but with a solid handle, and not a socket, was found with gouges and various fragments at Houn- slow, and is now in the British Museum. What seems to be a tanged curved knife of this kind formed part of the great Bologna hoard. Another form of knife, which appears to be intermediate between those with sockets and those with merely a flat tang, is shown in Fig. 250. In this there are loops extending across the blade on either side, which would receive the ends of the two pieces of wood or horn destined to form the handle, so that a single rivet suf- ficed to bind them and the blade between them firmly together. The original was found in Reach Fen, Cambridge- shire, and is now in my own collection. The blade has the appearance of having been originally longer, but of being now worn away by use. I know of no other specimen of the kind. The power to cast such loops upon the blade is a proof of no ordinary skill in the founder. A palstave with a loop of this kind instead of a stop or side-flanges was found at Donsard,* Haute Savoie. Another form of knife or dagger has merely a flat tang, in some * Chantre, "Album," pi. vi. 2. Fig. 250. -Reach Fen. KNIVES WITH BROAD TANGS. 211 cases provided with rivets by which it could be fastened to a handle, in others without rivets, as if it had been simply driven into a handle. The blade shown in Fig. 251 was found in the same hoard as that engraved as Fig. 241. The rivets are fast attached to the blade, and the handle through which they passed was probably of some perishable material, such as wood, horn, or bone. Another blade (5 inches), with a broad tang and two rivet-holes, was found in the Thames.* In the British Museum is a knife much like the figure, 8 inches long, and showing three facets on the blade, found in the Thames at Kingston. The knife-blades with broad tangs, which were not riveted to their handles, were in some instances provided with a central ridge upon the tang, which served to steady them in their handles, and in others the stem or tang was left plain. One of the former class, from the Heathery Burn Cave, is shown in Fig. 252. It is in the collection of Canon Grreenwell, F.E.S. An imperfect knife of the same kind, found in Yorkshire, is in the Scarborough Museum. Another, with the edges more ogival, like Fig. 241, was found in the neighbourhood of Nottingham,! with socketed celts and numerous other objects in bronze. Another, broader at the base and more like a dagger in character, was found with various other articles at Marden,^: Kent. More leaf-shaped and sharply pointed blades of this kind, probably daggers rather than knives, have been often found in Ireland. One (10^ inches) has been figured by "Wilde. Another was in the Dowris hoard. In the Isle of Harty hoard, already more than once cited, was a knife with a plain tang, shown in Fig. 253. It has rather the appearance of having been made from the point of a broken sword, as the edges of the tang have been "upset" by hammering. The blade itself is now narrower than the tang, the result probably of much wear and use. The end of a broken sword in the Dowris hoard has been converted into a knife in a similar manner. In the collection of the late Lord Braybrooke is what appears to be part of a tanged knife, sharpened at the broken end so as to form a chisel. In the Eeach Fen hoard was a knife (4 inches) of much the same character, but not so broad in the tang. A flat blade with a tang for insertion in a haft must have been a very early form of metal tool. Among the Assyrian relics from Tel Sifr, in South Babylonia, such blades were found, of which there are examples in the British Museum. Canon Greenwell, F.E.S. , has two leaf -shaped blades of copper, with tangs set in handles of bone rather longer than the blades, which were lately in use among the Esquimaux. In form they resemble Fig. 257. * Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 229. f Proe. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. i. p. 332. I Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xiv. p. 258. "Catal.," p. 467, fig. 355. p2 212 KNIVES, RAZORS, ETC. [CHAP. IX. It will now be well to mention some of the other Irish speci- mens of this class. The knives with the projecting rib upon the tang are hy no means uncommon, and there are several in the Museum of the Eoyal Irish Academy and elsewhere. Canon Greenwell has one (6| inches) from Fig. 252. Heathery Burn Cave. i Fig. 253. Harty. $ Fig. 254. Ireland. Ballynascreen, Co. Tyrone, much like that from the Heathery Burn Cave (Fig. 252). The knife or dagger with a plain tang and an ornamented "blade engraved as Fig. 254 is in the Museum of the Eoyal Irish Academy. Another, simply ridged and with a single rivet-hole in the tang, found at Craigs,* Co. Antrim, is in the collection of Mr. E. Day, F.S.A. It is less round-ended than the hlade with a central rib along it and one rivet-hole in the tang, shown in Fig. 255. This is in my own collection, and was found at Ballyclare, Co. Antrim. * Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. v. p. 269 (woodcut). KNIVES WITH LANCEOLATE BLADES. 213 A mould for blades of this character will subsequently be mentioned. Another form of knife, unless possibly it was intended for a lance- head, is shown in Fig. 256. This specimen is also from the Eeach Fen hoard, but is of yellower metal and differently patinated from the objects found with it. Canon Greenwell has a knife of the same form (4 inches), found at Seamer Carr, Yorkshire. Another, smaller (3$- inches), is in the British Museum, but its place of finding is not known. A nearly similar blade, found near Ballycastle, Co. Antrim, is shown in Fig. 257. Another example of this form (5-f inches) is in the British Museum. Sir W. "Wilde * has figured some other examples of the same kind, from 3 to 4 inches long, which he regarded as arrow-heads. They appear to me, however, too large for such a purpose. In the Museum of the Royal Irish Academy is yet another variety, with the blade pierced in the centre (Fig. 258). Fig. 255.-Ballyclare. * Fig. 256.-Eeach Fen. J Fig. 257.-BaUycastle. J Fig. 258.-Ireland. Before proceeding to describe some other symmetrical double- edged blades, it will be well to notice such few examples as have been found of single-edged blades, like the ordinary knives of the present day. Abundant as these are, not only in the Lake- dwell- ings of Switzerland, but in France and other continental countries, they are of extremely rare occurrence in the British Isles. In Fig. 259 I have engraved a small instrument of this kind, found at Wigginton, near Tring, Herts, the handle of which terminates in the head of an animal. It was therefore not intended for insertion into a haft of some other material. * " Catal. Mus. R. I. A.," p. 503, figs. 387, 388, 389. 214 KNIVES, RAZORS, ETC. [CHAP. IX. I have another bronze knife, rather longer and narrower, and with a pointed tang, which is said to have been found in London ; but of this I am by no means certain. The rude knife found with the Isle of Harty hoard, and shown full size Fig. 259. Wigginton. as Fig. 260, is the only other English specimen with which I am ac- quainted, but no doubt more exist. The only specimen mentioned in the Catalogue of the Museum of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland is in all 14 inches long, with a thick back and notched tang, and of this the place of finding is unknown. Fig. 260. Isle of Harty. Professor Daniel Wilson * speaks of it as having been found in Ayrshire, and regards it as a reaping instrument. He also figures a socketed knife of much the same size from the collection of Sir John Clerk at Peni- cuick House, in which are also some tanged specimens. I cannot help suspecting that these are of foreign origin. In Ireland the form appears to be at present unknown. In Fig. 261 is shown a knife of a form which is of extremely rare occurrence in this country ; though, as will be seen, it has frequently been found in France. The specimen here figured has been kindly lent me by Mr. Hum- __^_ > ___^__ phrey Wickham, of Strood, and was Fig 26i -Aiihaiiows Hoo t found with a hoard of bronze objects at Allhallows, Hoo,f Kent. The hoard contained socketed celts, gouges, a spear-head, fragments of swords, and the object engraved as Fig. 286. One more crescent-like in form was found with a hoard of bronze objects near Meldreth, Cam- bridgeshire, and is in the British Museum. Knives of this kind were associated with celts, gouges, &c., in the hoard * " Preh. Ann. Scot.," vol. i. p. 402. t Arch. Cant., vol. xi. p. 125, pi. c. 14. KNIVES OF PECULIAR TYPES. 215 of Notre-Dame d'Or, now in the museum at Poitiers. Two also were present in the Alderney hoard found near the Pierre du Villain.* Some knives of this character were found with a hoard of bronze tools and weapons at Questembert, Brittany, and are now in the museum at Vannes. A broken one was in the hoard of the Jardin des Plantes, Nantes.f One from La Manche is engraved in the Memoirs of the Society of Antiquaries of Normandy, 1827 8, pi. xvi. 20. A knife of this character of rectangular form, each side being brought to an edge, was found with other bronze relics at Ploneour, Brittany, and is en- graved in the Archceologia Camlrensis.^ In character this knife closely resembles some of those in flint. A kind of triangular knife of the same character was found at Briatexte|| (Tarn). One from the station of Eaux Vives, in the Lake of Geneva, has the face ornamented at the blunt margin with a vandyke of hatched triangles. In some French varieties there are rings at the top of the blade instead of holes through it. In a curious specimen from St. Julien, Chateuil, in the collection of M. Aymard, at Le Puy, the edge is nearly semicircular, and there are eight round holes through the blade as well as two rings at the back. Some of the razors from the Lake-dwellings of Savoy and Switzerland are of much the same character as these knives. I have a knife of this class with a rather large triangular opening in it and two circular loops, found at Bernissart, Hainault. ^f Another somewhat different was found at Lavene** (Tarn). Fig. 262.-Cottle. A Danish ff knife of this character has five circular loops along the hollowed back. A Mecklenburg |J knife has three such loops and corded festoons of bronze between. The bronze knife or razor, shown full size in Fig. 262, was found at Cottle, near Abingdon, and is now in the British Museum. It is of a peculiar and distinct type, but somewhat resembles in character the oblong bronze cutting instrument found at Ploneour, Brittany, already mentioned. It is thinner and flatter than would appear from the figure. A Mecklenburg || || knife or razor figured by Lisch is analogous in form. I have a rough and imperfect blade of somewhat the same character as that from Cottle, but thinner and more curved. It has no hole through * Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. iii. p. 9. t Parenteau, " Materiaux," vol. v. pi. viii. 16. J 3rd S., vol. vi. p. 138. " Anc. Stone Imp.," p. 304, fig. 255. || "Materiaux," vol. xiv. pi. ix. 4. H " Ann. du cercle Arch, de Mons," 1857, pi. i- 6. ** "Materiaux," vol. xiv. p. 489. ft Worsaae, "Nord. Olds.," fig. 160. U Lisch, "Freder. Francisc.," tab. xvii. 10. Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. ii. p. 301. For the use of this cut I am indebted to the Council of the Society. |||| "Freder. Francisc.," tab. xviii. 14. 216 KNIVES, RAZORS, ETC. [CHAP. ix. it, but thickens out at one end into a short boat-shaped projection about i inch long. It was found near Londonderry. A diminutive pointed blade which appears to be too small to have been in use as a dagger, and which from the rivet-hole through the tang can hardly have served as an arrow or lance head, is shown in Fig. 263. This specimen formed part of the Eeach Fen hoard. A very small example of this kind of blade, from a barrow near Robin Hood's Ball, Wilts, has been figured by the late Dr. Thurnam, F.S.A., in his second exhaustive paper on "Ancient British Barrows," published in the Archaologia,* from which I have derived much useful information. A small blade with the sides more curved is shown in Fig. 264, which I have copied from Dr. Thurnam's engraving.f The original was found in Lady Low, Staffordshire. A smaller example, with a longer and iniperforated tang, found in an urn at Broughton,^: Lincolnshire, and now in the British Museum, has been thought to be an arrow-head ; but I agree with Dr. Thurnam in regarding both it and the small blades described by Hoare as arrow- heads, as being more probably small double-edged knives. Fig. 263. Reach Fen. Some remarks as to the almost if not absolutely entire absence of bronze arrow-heads in this country will be found in a subsequent page. The larger specimens of these tanged blades of somewhat tri- angular outline I have described as daggers, but I must confess that the distinction between knives and daggers is in such cases purely arbitrary. The more rounded forms which now follow seem rather of the nature of tools or toilet instruments than weapons. Fig. 265, copied from Dr. Thurnam's plate, || represents what has been regarded as a razor blade. It was found in a barrow at "Winterslow, * Vol. xliii. p. 450, pi. xxxii. 5. f Arch., vol. xliii. pi. xxxii. fig. 4. J Arch. Journ., vol. viii. p. 346. " Anc. Wilts,"vol. i. pp. 67, 176, 238, pi. xxxii. 1. || Arch., vol. xliii. pi. xxxii. fig. 8. DOUBLE-EDGED KAZORS. 217 Wilts, and is now in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. Its resemblance to the leaf of rib-wort (Plantago media] has been pointed out by Dr. Thur- nam, who records that it was found in an urn with burnt bones and a set of beautiful amber buttons or studs. He has also figured one of nearly the same size, but with fewer ribs, from a barrow at Priddy, Somerset. This also has been regarded as an arrow-head, though it is 3 inches long and 1 inches broad. It has a small rivet-hole through the tang. The original is now in the Bristol Museum, and its edge is described as sharp enough to mend a pen.* I have reproduced it in Fig. 266. A blade of much the same kind was found in an urn, with an axe-hammer of stone and a whetstone, at Broughton-in-Craven,f in 1675. Fig. 267. Balblair. Fig. 268.-Rogart. Canon Greenwell records the finding of an oval knife (2| inches) with burnt bones in an urn at Nether Swell,^ Gloucestershire. A flat blade, almost circular, with a somewhat longer tang than any here figured, formed part of the great Bologna hoard. * Arch. Journ., vol. xvi. p. 152. t Thoresby's "Catal.," in Whitaker's ed. of "Ducat. Leod.," p. 114. J " British Barrows," p. 446. 218 KNIVES, RAZORS, ETC. [CHAP. ix. These instruments are occasionally found in Scotland. Some of them are of rather larger size, and ornamented in a different manner upon the face. A small plain oval blade, which has possibly lost its tang, was found in a tumulus at Lieraboll,* Kildonan, Sutherland, and has been figured. Two oval blades were found with burnt bones in urns near St. Andrews.f Another, found in a large cinerary urn at Balblair,^ Sutherlandshire, is shown full size in Fig. 267. The edges are very thin and sharp, and the central rib shown in the section is ornamented with incised lines. Another blade of the same character, but ornamented with a lozenge pattern, and with the midrib less pronounced, is shown in Fig. 268, also of the actual size. It was found in a tumulus at Kogart, Sutherland. Fig. 269. Wallingford. * Fig. 270. Heathery Burn Cave. Another, apparently more perfect, and with many more lozenges in the pattern, is engraved in Gordon's "Itinerarium Septentrionale." || He describes it as "the end of a spear or Hasta Pura of old mixt brass, finely chequered." It was in Baron Clerk's collection. The only English example which I can adduce was found with some sickles, a torque, and numerous other objects at Taunton. It is of nearly the same size and shape as Fig. 267, but the centre plate is fluted with a slight ridge along the middle and one on either side, and is not orna- mented. It is described as a lance-head in the Archaeological Journal. 9 ^ I am not aware of any such blades having ever been found in Ireland, in which country the plainer forms of oval razors also seem to be ex- tremely rare. In Canon Greenwell's Collection is an oval blade (4 inches) with a flat central rib, tapering to a point, running along it. It has no tang, but t Greenwell, Brit. Barrows," p. 446. For the use of this cut, as well as figs. 268, * Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. x. p. 434. % Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. vii. p. 476. 271, 272, and 273, I am indebted to the Society. Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. x. p. 431. || P. 116, pi. 1. 8 (1726). H Vol. xxxvii. p. 95. See also Pring, " Brit, and Rom. Taunton," pi. i. 4. SCOTCH AND IRISH RAZORS. 219 there is a rivet-hole through the broad end of the rib. It was found in an urn with burnt bones at Killyless, Co. Antrim. The form most commonly known under the name of razor is that shown in Fig. 269, from a specimen in my own collection, found in the Thames, with a socketed knife and other objects, near Wallingford. One of almost identical character was found at Llangwyllog,* Anglesea. Fig. 273. Dunbar. J Fig. 274. Ireland. Another, without midrib, from the Heathery Burn Cave, is, by the permission of Canon Greenwell, F.E.S., shown as Fig. 270. An example from Wiltshire f in the Stourhead Museum (now at Devizes) is more barbed at the base and rounded at the top, in which there is neither notch nor perforation. It is difficult to assign a use for the small hole usually to be seen in * Arch. t/bwrw., vol. xxii. p. 74; Arch. Cfcwwi., 3rd S.,vol. xii. p. 97; Arch., vol. xliii. pi. xxxii. 7. t Arch., vol. xliii. pi. xxxii. 6. 220 KNIVES, RAZORS, ETC. [CHAP. ix. these blades. It may possibly be by way of precaution against the fissure in the blade extending too far, though in most cases the notch in the end of the blade does not extend to the hole. Eazors of this character have been discovered in Scotland. Three which are believed to have been found together in a tumulus at Bower- houses, near Jhmbar,* Haddingtonshire, about 1825, are shown in Figs. 271, 272, and 273. They are all in the Antiquarian Museum, at Edinburgh, together with a socketed celt found with them. Eazors of the class last described have been found in Ireland, and three are mentioned in Wilde's Catalogue f of the Museum of the Eoyal Fig. 275,-Kinleith. Irish Academy, to the Council of which body I am indebted for the use of Fig. 274. The midrib of the specimen here shown is decorated with ring ornaments formed of incised concentric circles, an ornament of frequent use in early times, though but rarely occurring on objects of bronze in Britain. There is a large razor of this kind in the Museum of Trinity College, Dublin. Several unornamented blades of this character were present in the Dowris hoard. Two which were found in a crannogej in the county of Monaghan were regarded as bifid arrow-heads. One of these (2f inches) is in the British Museum. * Proe. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. x. p. 440 ; " Catal.," p. 83, No. 182. t P. 649, fig. 433. % Arch - Journ., vol. iii. p. 47. CONTINENTAL FORMS. 221 A blade of this kind, but with a loop instead of a tang, and a hole at the base of the blade as well as one near the bottom at the notch, was found at Deurne,* Guelderland, and is in the Leyden Museum. The only remaining form of razor which has to be noticed is that of which a representation is given of the actual size in Fig. 275. This instrument was found at Kinleith, f near Currie, Edinburgh, and has been described and commented on by Dr. John Alexander Smith. The blade, besides being perforated in an artistic manner and having a ring at the end of the handle, is of larger dimensions than usual with instruments of this kind. The metal of which it is composed consists of copper 92-97 per cent., tin 7-03 (with a trace of lead). It aifords the only instance of a razor of this shape having been found in the British Isles. The form much more nearly ap- proaches one of not uncommon occurrence on the Continent than any other British ex- ample, and Dr. Smith has illustrated this by the accompanying figure of a razor from the Steinberg, near Nidau,]; on the Lake of Bienne (Fig. 276). I have a razor of nearly the same form from the Seine at Paris, and others have been found in various parts of France. The nearest in character to Fig. 275 is per- haps one found in the hoard of Notre-Dame d'0r,|[ and preserved in the museum at Poi- tiers. Instead of the blade being a single crescent, it consists of two penannular con- centric blades with a plain midrib connecting them, which has a ring at the external end. An instrument with the blade formed of a single crescent was found at the same time. A German example is in the Museum of the Deutsche Gesellschaft, at Leipzig. In the next chapter I shall treat of those blades which appear to be weapons rather than tools. * Jannsen's " Catal.," No. 209. t Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., vol. v. p. 84 ; vol. x. p. 441. I am indebted to the Society for the use of this and the following cut. J See Keller, 5ter Bericht, Taf . xvi. $ See Chantre, "Age du Br.," lere partie, p. 76. || Mem. de la Soc. des Ant. de V Quest, 1844, pi. ix. 10. Fig. 276. Kidau. CHAPTER X. DAGGERS AND THEIR HILTS. RAPIER-SHAPED BLADES. AMONG all uncivilised, if not indeed among all civilised nations, arms of offence take a far higher rank than mere tools and implements ; and on the first introduction of the use of metal into any country, there is great antecedent probability that the primary service to which it was applied was for the manufac- ture of weapons. So far as there are means of judging, a small knife or knife-dagger appears to have been among the earliest objects to which bronze was applied in Britain. Possibly, like the Highland dirk, the early form may have served for both peaceful and warlike purposes ; but there are other and appa- rently later forms made for piercing rather than for cutting, and which are unmistakably weapons. The distinction which can be drawn between knives, such as some of those described in the last chapter, and the daggers to be described in this, is no doubt to a great extent arbitrary, and mainly dependent upon size. In the same way the distinction between a large dagger and a small sword, such as some of those to be described in the next chapter, is one for which no hard and fast rule can be laid down. Nor in treating of daggers can any trustworthy chronological arrangement be adopted, though it is probable, as already observed, that the thin flat blades are earliest in date. The late Dr. Thurnam, in the paper already frequently cited, has pointed out that of bronze blades without sockets there are two distinct types. These are the tanged, which he regards as perhaps the more modern, and those provided with rivet-holes in the base of the blade, which seem to be the most ancient. I purpose mainly to follow this classification ; and, inasmuch as the tanged blades are most closely connected with the smaller examples of the same character, described in the last chapter, I take them first in order, though possibly they are not the earliest in date. TANGED KNIVES OR DAGGERS. 223 But for its size, the blade shown in Fig. 277 might have been regarded as a knife for ordinary use. The original was found in a barrow at Roundway,* Wilts, covered with a layer of black powder, probably the remains of a wooden sheath and handle, the upper outline of which latter is marked upon the blade. It lay near the left hand of a contracted skeleton, with its point towards the feet. Between the bones of the left fore-arm was a bracer, f or arm- guard, of chlorite slate, and part of the blade and the tang of some small instrument, perhaps a knife. Near the head was a barbed flint arrow- head. A smaller blade J (5 inches), of nearly the same shape and character, was found in one of the barrows near "Winterslow, Wilts, as well as one more tapering in form. Another, from Button Courtney, Berks (6J inches by If inches), is in the British Museum. Another (5^ inches) was found by Mr. Fenton in a barrow at Mere Down, Wilts. In this case also there was a stone bracer near the left side of the contracted skeleton. Another, imperfect, and narrower in the tang, was found at Bryn Crug,|| Carnarvon, with interments. The double- looped celt (Fig. 88) was found at the same place. Canon Green-well, F.E.S., has what appears to be a tanged dagger (6 inches) from Sherburn Wold, Yorkshire. A blade of this character (10 inches) was found by M. Cazalis de Fondouce in the cave of Bounias,^| near Fonvielle (Bouches du Rhone), associated with instruments of flint. Smaller tanged blades, of which it is hard to say whether they are knives or daggers, are not uncommon in France. Two are engraved in the " Materiaux." ** I have specimens from Lyons, and also from Brittany. Another form, which appears to be a dagger rather than a knife, has the tang nearly as wide as the blade, and towards its base there is a single rivet-hole. A dagger of this kind was found with a contracted interment in a barrow near Drifneld, Yorkshire, and an engraving of it Fig. 277. Roundway. J * Arch., vol. xliii. p. 450, fig. l./>4, from which this cut is copied; "Wilts. Arch. Mag.," vol. iii. p. 186; "Cran. Brit.," pi. 42, xxxii. p. 3. t " Anc. Stone Imp.," p. 381, fig. 355. I Arch., vol. xliii. pi. xxii. 2, 3, p. 449. Hoare's "Anc. Wilts," vol. i. 44, pi. ii. || Arch. Journ., vol. xxv. p. 246. IF Chantre, " Age du Br.," Ire partie, p. 91 ; Cazalis de Fondoiice, " Alices couv. de la Provence," pi. iv. 1. ** Vol. xiv. p. 491. 224 DAGGERS AND THEIR HILTS. RAPIER-SHAPED BLADES. [CHAP. X, is given in the Archceologia* from which Fig. 278 is reproduced. It had a wooden sheath as well as the wooden handle, of which a part is shown. On the arm of the skeleton was a stone bracer. Another, rather narrower in the tang and about 4J inches long, was found, with a stone axe-hammer, and bones, in an urn within a barrow at Win wick, f near Warrington, Lancashire. One (2 inches) with a rivet- hole in its broad tang was found in an urn on Lancaster Moor.| A dagger of nearly the same form but having two rivet-holes was found by the late Eev. E. Kirwan in a barrow at Upton Pyne, Devon. One, only 3 inches long, and much like Fig. 278 in form, was found in an urn with burnt bones in Moot Low, || near Middleton, Derbyshire. Another was found with burnt bones in a barrow at Lady Low,^[ near Blore, Staffordshire. The end of the handle in this instance was straight, and not hol- lowed. One (5f inches) with a broad tang, through which passes a single rivet, was found in the Thames.** It is now in the British Museum. What Sir E. C. Hoare terms a lance-head (3 inches), found with amber beads in the Golden Barrow, ff Upton Lovel, appears to have been a knife-dagger of this character. A knife, 1 inch wide, which had been fastened to its haft of ox-horn by a single rivet, was found by Canon Greenwell in a barrow at Eudstone, Yorkshire. Jt With the same interment was an axe-hammer of stone and a flint tool. A blade like Fig. 278 (3 inches), Fig. 278. Driffieid. | from the sand-hills near Glenluce, Wigtonshire, has been figured. Daggers, or possibly spear-heads, with a broad tang, as well as the moulds in which they were cast, were discovered by Dr. Schliemann on the presumed site of Troy.|||| The more ordinary form of instrument is that of which the blade was secured to the handle by two or more rivets at its broad base. These may be subdivided into knife-daggers with thin flat blades, and daggers which as a rule have a thick midrib and more or less ornamentation on the surface of the blade. The former variety is now generally accepted as being the more ancient of the two, and may probably have served as a cutting instrument for all purposes, and not have been intended for a weapon. Fig. 279, representing a knife-dagger from a barrow at Butterwick,^[5f Yorkshire, E.E., explored by Canon Greenwell, will give a good idea of * Vol. xxxiv. pi. xx. 8, p. 255. t Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xvi. p. 295, pi. xxv. 9. | Arch. Assoc. Journ., vol. xxi. p. 160. Trans. Devon. Assoc., vol. iv. p. 643. || "Vest. Ant. Derb.," p. 51; Arch. Journ., vol. i. p. 247; Bateman's " Catal.," p. 4. IT "Ten Years' Digg.," p. 163; " Catal.," p. 19. ** Proc. Soc. Ant., 2nd S., vol. iii. p. 45. ft " Anc. Wilts," vol. i. p. 99, pi. xi. t+ "British Barrows," p. 265. "Ayr and Wigton Coll.," vol. ii. p. 12. IHI " Troy and its Remains," p. 330. Ht " British Barrows," p. 186. KNIFE-DAGGERS WITH THREE RIVETS. 225 the usual form, though these instruments are not unfrequently more acutely pointed. This specimen was found with the body of a young man, and had been encased in a wooden sheath. The haft had been of ox-horn, which has perished, though leaving marks of its texture on the oxidized blade. In the same grave were a flat bronze celt (Fig. 2), a bronze pricker or awl (Fig. 225), a flint knife, and some jet buttons. Another blade of the same character, but rather narrower in its proportions, was found in a barrow at Eudstone,* Yorkshire. The handle had in this instance also been of ox-horn. In the same grave were a whetstone, a ring and an ornamental button of jet, and a half -nodule of pyrites and a flint for striking a light. Of the shape of the handles I shall subse- quently speak ; I will only here remark that at their upper part, where they clasped the blade, there was usually a semi-circular or horseshoe-shaped notch, in some instances very wide and in others but narrow. This notch is more rarely somewhat V-shaped in form. A blade of nearly the same form as Fig. 279, but with only two rivet holes, found in a barrow at Blewbury,f Berks, is pre- served in the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. Another, also with two rivets, was found by the late Mr. Bateman in a barrow near Minning Low,J Derbyshire. Its handle ap- pears to have been of horn. Its owner, wrapped in a skin, had been buried enve- loped in fern-leaves, and with him was also a flat bronze celt, a flat bead of jet, and a flint scraper. Dr. Thurnam mentions eighteen other blades, varying from 2 inches to 6f inches in length, as having been found during the Bateman excavations, as well as one 7f inches long and sharply pointed, found at Lett Low, || near Warslow, Staffordshire. Of these twenty, sixteen were found with unburnt bodies and four with burnt. Some of these were, however, of the tanged variety, and some fluted or ribbed. At Carder Low a small axe-hammer of basalt, as well as a knife-dagger of this kind, with the edges worn hollow by use, had been placed with the body. The same was the case in a barrow at Parcelly Hay, near Hartington, Derbyshire. At End Low, near Hartington, there was a rudely formed "spear- head" of flint beside the knife-dagger, and at Thorncliff,^} on Calton Moor, Staffordshire, "a neat instrument of flint." In some cases, though there were holes in the blade, there were no rivets ** in them, which led Mr. Bateman to think that they were attached