\m\ SM CO GIFT OF Mrs. May L* Cheney RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. A GRAPHIC AND CHRONOLOGICAL HISTORY OF RUSSIA'S BLOODY NEMESIS, AND A DESCRIPTION OF EXILE LIFE IN ALL ITS TRUE BUT HORRIFYING PHASES, BEING THE RESULTS OF A TOUR THROUGH RUSSIA AND SIBERIA MADE BY THE AUTHOR, WHO CARRIED WITH HIM LETTERS OF COMMENDATION FROM BOTH THE AMERICAN AND UUS^AN GOVERN MFA'TS. IB -v Cf . "W. IE3 TJ" JE "j , \\ Author of "Heroes of the Plains," "Metropolitan Life Unveiled," "Border Outlaws," etc., etc. ILLUSTRATED WITH OVER 200 ENGRAVINGS. SAN. FRANCISCO, CAL. : A. L. BANCROFT & COMPANY, 1883. GIFT OF Copyright, 1883, by J. W. BUEL. i CONTENTS. PAGE PURPOSES AND AUSPICES OF MY TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA, - -26 32 CHAPTER L RUSSIAN NIHILISM. Departure from America. Arrival at the First 'Russian Port. Defensive Strength of Oonstadt. My Arrest as a "Sus- pect." Going Through me for Seditious Papers. Compli- cations Increase Because of my Inability to Speak the Lan- guage. Custom House Examination. A Quizzical Tout Ensemble. Droshky Drivers. Engaging a Guide and Inter- preter. Under Close Surveillance. Further Embarrass- ments. Brought Before the Famous "Third Section." My Release Accomplished Through the Intercession of our Minis- ter. Stories About the Third Section. Horrible Tragedies Enacted Therein. How Nicholas I. Used to Punish Female Offenders. My Meeting With Minister Hoffman, and Presen- tation of my Official Letters. He Advises mo not to Attempt an Investigation of Nihilism, on Account of Dangers I Would be Certain to Encounter. Americans not Easily De- terred. My Introduction to Count Tolstoi, Russian Minister of the Interior. My Letter from Minister W. H. Hunt. A Meeting With the Minister of Police. Etiquette of the Im- perial Court. The Want of a Dress-Suit Places me in an Em- "barassing Position. An Interview With the Count. He Talks With me Frankly, and Proffers any Assistance in his Power. Access Granted me to all the Government Records. The Czar Sends a Note Proffering an Interview. I submit a Series of Questions on Nihilism. One that was Objected to for Decided Reasons. My Second Meeting With Minister Pleve. How he Became Minister of Police. He Transmits His Photograph to me in America, With an Autograph Let- ter. --------- 3350 M49151 CONTENTS. CHAPTER n. Some of the Unwritten History of Kussia. Extent, Population and Manner of Government. Religions, National Debt, Army, and Imperial Expenses. Kief, the Holy City. Number of Imperial Palaces, and How They are Maintained. How Rus- sia was Changed From a Republic to an Autocracy. Early Wars. Chronology of the Ruling Dynasty. Living Mem- bers of the Present Imperial Family. How the Grand Duke Nicholas Became Commander of the Russian Forces in the War With Turkey. Why his Father Removed Him. Grand Duke Alexis' Appointment as Admiral of the Russian Navy. His Discovery of Nihilistic Sentiments Among the Marines. . 51 61 CHAPTER m. The Three Greatest Characters in Russian History. Some events in the Life of Peter the Great Never Before Made Public. His Brother an Idiot. His Fight With Five Assassins. His Wars with Charles XII., of Sweden. Conspiracies Formed Against Him in his own Army. Ordering the Decapitation of Three Hundred Men. A Ghastly Incident of the Execu- tion. Peter's Infatuation fora Beautiful Woman. Discov- ered in a Treasonable Act, she is Ordered to the Block. How Peter Conducted Himself at her Execution. " Oh ! Beautiful Being, Would That I Could Take Your Place." He Never Gave a Pardon. The Founding and Building of St. Peters- burg. Establishment of his Court at Peterhoff. Striking a Dagger Into the Heart of his own Son. Securing a Wife for Peter III. Marriage of Catharine II. Domestic Intrigues. Peter IH. Orders the Arrest of Catharine H. How the Wily Queen Foiled Her Husband's Purposes. A Midnight Drive From Peterhoff. Descent of the Horse Guards Under Catha- rine Upon the Winter Palace. Flight of Peter III. to Cron- stadt. A Lovely Letter Which Allured Peter III. to His Death. Assassination of the Czar by his Wife's Orders. Circumstances Under Which Paul I. was Assassinated. Poli- cies and Wars Under Catharine II. The Dreadful Massacre of Poles in Warsaw. Catharine's Debaucheries. A Singular Death-Bed Scene. - - - 6276 CHAPTER IV. Russia's Great Rulers. Difficulties which Confronted Alexander IL on his Accession. The Reforms he Introduced. First CONTENTS. 7 Overt Act of Nihilists. Attack on the Winter Palace in 1825, and Dreadful Slaughter of the Mob. Alexander Herzen and the Revolutionary Press. History of Serfdom. Manumission of the Serfs. Scheme of Liberation as put into Execution by the Emperor. How the Noblemen Lived in Sumptuous Prof- ligacy. Results of the Liberation. Revival of Nihilism. Inflammatory Organs. A Remarkable Manifesto. " God to be Denied and Every Genius Stifled in its Cradle." Peculiari- ties of Russian Students. - - 7794 CHAPTER V. The Polish Insurrection. First Attempt on the Emperor's Life. Mysterious Ringing of a Bell in Rappenberg. Second Attempt to Assassinate Alexander. First Arrest of Students for Incen- diary Speeches. Revelations by Netschaief. Complete Ex- pose of the Nihilistic Organization. How They Recruit, Operate, and Carry on the Work of Murder. - - 95 99 CHAPTER VL Effects of the War With Turkey. General Trepoff 's Brutality. How he was Shot by Vera Zassulitch. Remarkable Trial of the Assailant. The Court, Threatened by a Mob, Forced to acquit her. Collision Between the Mob and Police. Escape of Vera. Her Strange History. Daughter of a distinguished General, but Persecuted to the Point of Desperation. Stab- bing to Death of General Mezentrieff and Escape of the Assas- sins. Attempt on the Life of Alexander II. by Solovieff. All the Large Cities of Russia Placed Under Martial Law. Execu- tion of Solovieff. Futility of Repressive Measures. Corre- spondence from Nihilists in the Government Offices. First Re- sort to Dynamite. Blowing up of a Train Supposed ^to Contain the Emperor. How and by Whom the Mine was Laid. Experts in the use of Dynamite Brought into the Ser- vice of the Nihilists. A Dreadful Plot. Preparations for Blowing up the Winter Palace. The Terrific Explosion in Which Forty-Five men were Killed. Accidental Escape of the Emperor. Impressive Scenes. Description of the Win- ter Palace. Finest Building in the World. Thousands of Workmen Killed During its Construction. How the Royal Family Dine. Establishment of other Repressive Measures. Count Melikoff Entrusted with Their Enforcement. Every one Ordered Under Arrest who Should Appear on the Streets 8 CONTENTS. After Dark. Terrorism Inaugurated. The Dreadful Third Section. Fate of Muishkin who was Lashed into Insanity. A Double Execution. Famous Trial of Sixteen Nihilists. Remarkable Heroism Displayed by Female Revolutionists. A Desperate Fight with the Police. History of Distinguished Nihilists on Trial. Attempted Assassination of Gen. Meli- koff. Execution of his Assailant. 100135 CHAPTER VII. The Culminating Event in Nihilistic Vengeance. Alexander IL, His Times and Adversities. A Youthful Witness to the Decem- brist's Outbreak. His Early Inclination Opposed to the Will of His Father. Forced into the Army. His Courtship and Marriage. Suicide of his Father. Sad Circumstances under which Alexander Accepted the Crown. The Plot for his Assas- sination. Laying a Dynamite Mine in Petersburg. Secret Plans of the Conspirators. The City barely Escapes Destruc- tion. Explosion of the First Bomb. It Kills two of he Imperial Guard, and Shatters his Majesty's Carriage. Explosion of the Second Bomb. The Emperor Mortally Wounded. Great Excitement. One of the Assassins Killed by the Bomb he Throws. The Czar Asks to be carried to the Winter Palace. Examination of His Wounds. His Sinking Condition Bulletined by Display- ing a Flag from the Palace. Administration of the Last Sacrament. Announcement of the Emperor's Death and its effects. Accession to the Throne of Alexander III. Funeral Services at the Fortress Chapel. Description of the Fortress Chapel. Arrest of the Assassins. Imperial Officers Arrested for Neglect of Duties. Uncovering the Secret Mine. Trial of the Assassins. Descriptions of the Assassins. A Bold Speech. Were the Criminals Tortured? Condemned to Death. Efforts of a Mob to Rescue the Prisoners. A Desperate Fight in which Several are Killed. One Man Hanged Three Times. Terrible Scenes at the Gallows. A Memorial Chapel in Remembrance of the Emperor. 136163 CHAPTER VIIL Accession of Alexander III. His Dread of the Nihilists. Removal of the Court Residence to Peterhoff. Description of the Palace Grounds. Bewildering Displays of Gold. How the Emperor Lives. Precautions Against his Enemies. High CONTENTS. Walls, Double Locks and Bars and. Three Cordons of Guards. Danger of Assassination. Murder of an Old Gardener by an Imperial Guard. How Nicholas I. Quelled a mob. - 169174 CHAPTER IX. The Secret Printing Press. Female Heroism. Personal Charac- teristics of Leading Female Nihilists. Assassination of Gen. Strelnikoff. Military Execution of Soukahnoff. Preparations for the Coronation of Alexander III. A Description of the Grand Votive Church Discovery of a Dynamite Mine under the Royal Chapel The Czar's Visit to Moscow Secrecy with which his Movements were Conducted Postponement of the Coronation Moscow, the Holy City Pilgrimages to her Shrines. 176-186 CHAPTER X. Difficulties of Satisfying the two Antagonistic Factions in Russia. Effects of a Conversation with a Russian Minister. My Recep- tion by the Terrorists. A Syllabus of the Great State Trials, Prepared by a Female Liberalist. The Famous Sixteen Con- spirators. Wonderful Sacrifices of Private Fortunes to Aid the Nihilists. The Assassination of Prince Krapotkin. Secret Meetings and Pledges to Destroy the Czar. Too many Volunteer their Services as Assassins. Arrest of (Joldenberg, the Nihilist, and his Astonishing Confession. A Complete Exposure of all the Terrible Plots laid by Nihilists. Graphic Description of the Dynamite Mine near Moscow. How the Conspirators Worked and Averted Suspicion. Mariana Semi- ovna's Wonderful Zeal, Cunning, and Bravery. Resolving to Die Rather than Surrender. An Ingenious Contrivance to Blow up the House and Themselves should they be Detected. The Siberian Mines. The Nobler Traits Manifested by Alex- ander IL Effects of his Assassination. - - 187-236 EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. CHAPTER XI. My Youthful Longings to Visit Siberia. Preparing to Enter the Frozen Wilderness. Exiles in the Central Dismissal Prison, Moscow. Sad Sights and Affecting Good-byes be- tween Exiles and their Families. Woman's Love the same 10 CONTENTS. Everywhere. A Pathetic Incident. A Visit to the Krem- lin. A Miraculous Picture of Christ. How Napoleon's Array Tried to Destroy It. The Great Tower of Ivan Veliki . and the Gigantic Bell. Off for Nijni Novgorod with an Ameri- can Companion. A Visit to the Nijni Fair. Daylight and Night-time Scenes. Description of Nijni. A Voyage down the Volga and up the Kama. How People Travel on Russian Steamers. Inveterate Gambling. Arrival at Perm. Rail- roading Across the Ural Mountains. Appearance of Nijni Tagilsk. Visit to the Iron and Malachite Mines. My First Step on Siberian Soil. The Journey to Ekaterineberg, and how Mining for Malachite is Conducted. - - 237-258 CHAPTER XH. Preparations for Overland Travelling. Engagement of a Taran- tass and Yemtschik Description of Each. Off with a Dash. Fears and Misgivings. Arrival at the First Post Station. A Tea Drinking People. Travelling Throughout the Night. Some of the Discomforts I Endured. Forty-one Hours in a Tarantass. Arrival at Tieumen, Hungry, Sore and Intensely Miserable. A Dinner of Black Bread and Salt. A Talk with the Governor. His History Respecting the Origin of Banishment as a Punishment. Boris Godunoff's Idea. An Enforced Settlement of Siberia. Privileges of Village Courts. Offences Punishable by Deportation. Those in Exile Generally better Educated than the Masses. How Prisoners are Transported. Driven Two Thousand Miles Under the Stinging Lash. Witnessing the Departure of Ex- iles from Tieumen. Resumption of my Journey Eastward. Engaging a Tumbril. Bad News. Checked by a Swollen Stream. Trying to Pass the Rubicon. Capsized, Bag and Baggage, in a Swift-flowing Creek. Lost in the Jungles. A Night of Terror. The Most Miserable Twenty-four Hours of my Life. Appearance of a Tartar Belle. - - 259-277 CHAPTER Xni. Arrival at Tobolsk. Description of the City. A Famous Bell that was Exiled with the Uglitch Insurrectionists. My First Insight into a Siberian Prison. How the Prisoners Labor. Punish- ment by the Knout. Heavy Manacles and Their Effects. Treatment of Female Convicts. Punishment with the Plete. Engagement of Another Interpreter. A Trip by Steamer from CONTENTS. 11 Tobolsk to Tomsk. The Ostjak People. How They Capture Fish in the Obi. - 277289 CHAPTER XIV. Debarkation at Tomsk. How Russia Evades the Sacred Law. Description of the prisons in Tomsk. Departure for Krasno- iarsk by Tumbril. A Horrid Dream. Meeting with a Convoy of Prisoners. Tipping the Chief Guard. Heavy Shackles Worn by the Convicts. A Pitiable Instance of Mal- treatment. Examination of an Exile at a Post-Station. Mortified Ankles and Wrists with the Tendons Exposed. May I Never see Another Sight so Horrible. Appearance of a Female Convict in Irons. The Flesh Worn from Her Neck. Wives and Little Children Voluntarily Accompanying the Exiles. 289301 CHAPTER XV. Inspection of the Prison at Krasnoiarsk. Convicts Driven to Insanity. A Hospital for Maniacs. The Chains not Removed from Exiles who Fall 111. A Sad Case in Point. Crossing the Yenisei River by Means of a Flying Bridge. Purchasing an Outfit in which to Visit Yeniseisk. A Trip Off the Highway. Camping Outin a Siberian Forest. What Was That? Ex- . citing Adventure with a Bear. Bear Hunting with Whips. 301 311 CHAPTER XVL Arrival at Yeniseisk. In the Midst of a Fur-bearing Country. Novel way of Catching Bears. Description of the Tundras. Frigidity that Freezes Those Who Read About It. Sledging and Camping in a Frozen Wilderness. Witnessing the Departure of Tunguese for Their Winter Hunt. Catching Sables. Elk Hunting. How Reindeer are Taken and Domesticated. 311 320 CHAPTER XVIL Siberia Rich in Precious Metals. My Visit to a Mine Worked by Convict Labor. How the Mining is Conducted. Conveying Gold by Convoys to Irkoutsk. My Meeting With an Exile. Determined to Visit His Abode. Description of his Hut. The Exile's Story. Torn Away from Home and Sent into Exile Without Trial. Terrible Suffer- 12 CONTENTS. ings on the Transport Route. Sent Down into the Mines. Flagellation with the Scorpion. Tearing Pieces of Flesh out of the Back. A Pitiable Tale of Woe. Message Which the Exile Begged me Carry to his Wife. - - 320334 CHAPTER XVIII. Travelling in a Strange Country after Night. Wolves ! a Success- ful Shot. The Governor's Story. A Terrible Ride to Alex- andreffsky Prison. Chased by Wolves. Discharging the Last Shot. Attacked in the Troika. Down go the Outside Horses. Three Furious Wolves Drag the Driver From His Seat. Fighting with a Gun Barrel. The most Desperate Encounter ever Described. Succor Arrives, but too Late to Save the Horses and Driver. My Departure for Irkoutsk. Wolves on the Highway. Why I Slept in a Roadside Inn. Fast Travelling in Siberia. 334847 CHAPTER XIX. Situation of Irlcoutsk. Attending the Races How Horses are Trained for Racing. Visit to the Prisons. Refused Ad'nis- sion. Meeting with an Exile from Kara. His Statements of How Prisoners are Treated at Kara. Brutalities of Vicious Guards. The Russian Law for Punishing Convicts. Proba- tionary Sentences. No Quick-Silver Mines in Siberia. Working Under Ground. Superstitions of Exiles. Political Offenders at Kara. The Prison Hospital. Punishments that Make Maniacs of the Convicts. Dreadful Sights in the Hospi- tals. Branding of Convicts. Dangers Incurred in Attempts to Escape. How I Verified Stories Told me by Exiles. - 347360 CHAPTER XX. The Native Tribes of Siberia. Prominence of the Ostjak People. How they Hunt and Fish. The Samoyeds. Kirghiz Tartars, Their Proclivities for Robbing and Fighting. The Buriats. The Goldi, Their Strange Burial Customs. The Gil yaks. Hunters and Polygamist?. Bear Hunting by Gilyaks. How They Capture the Most Dangerous Animals. Festival of Kill- ing the Bear. Strange Superstitions and Ceremonies. Ainu- lets of Bears' Claws. The Tunguse and Kirghiz. How they Live. - ..... 360374 CONTENTS. 13 CHAPTER XXL Making Irkoutsk my Headquarters. Cosmopolitan Character of the Place. Meeting With an American. His Description of the Island Sakhalein. Treatment of Exiles at the Dui Mines. Dreadful Cruelties Practiced on Exiles at the Dui Mines. Rewards Paid for the Heads of Escaping Convicts. How the Gilyaks Hunt Exiles. Description of the Natives on Sakha- lein. Nikolaefsk Prison. Insanity Caused by Brutal Treat- ment. Attempts to Escape. Killing Convicts for Their Clothes. Cannibalism Among a Battalion of Troops. Hor- rors of a Snow Storm. The Manzas Robbers. - - 874391 CHAPTER XXII. Description of Yakoutsk. Belles of Yakoutsk Riding on Oxen Astride. The Coldest Spot on Earth. Killing of Reindeer by Yukaghirs. The Yakutes. Their Peculiar Customs. Riding Reindeer. Settlement of Yakoutsk by Exiles. The Scopsi. A Religious Sect that Practices Castration. Found- ing their Faith upon St. Matthew and St. Paul. Doctrines Expounded by Scopsi Priests. How the Operation of Castra- tion is Performed. Similar Practices in Italy and Turkey. Unsexing of Children for Mercenary Purposes. Penal Quar- ters at Villiski. - 391409 CHAPTER XXIII. Interesting Facts Concerning the Lena River. A Description of the Country which it Drains. Early Adventurers who Crossed Siberia. A Trip Around the World on Foot and by Ship. Three Famous Voyages Down the Lena. Discovery of Fossil Remains. A Chinese Legend of the Mammoth. Legend of the Samoyeds. A Winged Rhinoceros. Discovery of the Great Mammoth. Scientific Theories. An Island Formed of Mammoth Bones. Captain Nordenskj old's Voyage Through the Arctic Ocean and Down the Lena. - 409 423 CHAPTER XXIY. Other Penal Mines of Siberia. Dreadful Treatment of Convicts at Nertchinsk. Testimony of two Gentlemen who Visited the Mines. My Interview with Three Men who hud Served Long 14 CONTENTS. Sentences at Nertchinsk. Exiles Working Three Hundred Feet Underground. Never Permitted to see the Light of Day. Working While Weighted Down with Manacles. How the Men are Punished. Tied over a Beam and Whipped with the Scorpion. Drawn up and then Lacerated with the Knout. Beating Convicts into Insensibility or Insanity. Effects of Constant Labor in the Mines. Sights more Terrible than Dancing Skeletons. Witchcraft. Torturing Women Accused of Practising the Black Art. A Humane Spirit Extending Towards Siberia. - - 423-433 CHAPTER XXV. Preparing for My Return to Russia. Troubles with My Bear Skin. Visit to the Convict Mines at Nijni Udinsk. Taking a New Route. Dreadful Exposures Experienced on the Return Journey. Virtues of My G-uide. Big Game. A Bare-Back Chase after Siberian Antelope. Wounding of a Big Buck. A Five Mile Race. Securing the Prize. Our Camp at Night. Arrival at Orenberg; its Peopler Serf Village. Great Changes that have Taken Place Since the Liberation. Relation of Noblemen and Peasants. Com- parison of Serfs with Southern Negroes. 433443 CHAPTER XXVI. Strange Superstitions Among the Peasantry. How Rooster Crow- ing is Interpreted. Pigeons Regarded as Holy Birds. Reverence for Icons. Haunted by Good and Evil Spirits. A Singular Sight I Witnessed in Moscow. The Black and White Clergy. Why the Serfs are so Poor. The Wonderful Splendor of Russian Churches. 'A Drunken Priesthood. Another Cause for Nihilism. One Hundred Annual Holi- days. Agriculture in Russia. Primitive Husbandry. Harvesting with Small Sickles. Threshing with Flails. Women in the Harvest Field, Decked in Gay Colors. Some of the Obstacles to Russian Farming. Division of Lands upon Communistic Principles. What Her Agriculturists Most Need. Natural Advantages of Russia. What a Great Country for Emigrants, if the Laws were Liberal. - 443452 CONTENTS. 15 CHAPTER XXVII. Renewing Relations with Count Tolstoi. Differences Between Moscow and St. Petersburg. Services at St. Isaac's Cathe- dral. Description of the Cathedral. Bowing Down Before Images. A Big Thing in Candles. Assuming an Attitude of Prayer Under Difficulties. Famous Russian Choirs. A Paralytic Carried to the Image of Christ. Faithful' Efforts but no Cures. A Te Deum in the Alexander Monastery Sung by Monks and Neophites. $25,000 for a Burial Place in the Monastery. Strange Incident in the Life of a Lady Superior. How she Spent $20,000,000 to Improve the Condition of the Poor. But the Money Belonged to the Church. Her Arrest, Trial, Conviction, and Sentence. Pardoned by the Emperor and Reinstated. Honored Above all Other Women. Description of the Monk Choir. Heavenly Music. My Entrancement. Singing for (rod and the Dead. Disturbance Created by the Employment of a Monk Tenor. An Ovation that was Next to a Riot. A Silver Sarcophagus Containing the Bones of a Pa- tron Saint. Trouble Caused Peter the Great by Priests who Stole the Sacred Bones. $250,000 for a Casket. 452462 CHAPTER XXVIII. A Visit to the Cathedral Kazan. Canonization of Lady Kazan. Clothed with Vestments of Great Value, and Crowned with Precious Stones. A $100,000 Diamond, and a $500,000 Sapphire. $200,000,000 Invested in Church Property. The Church Supported by Poor People. Holiday Celebrations. Ceremony of Blessing the Waters. Miraculous Properties Supposed to be Imparted by Priests. Bottling the Waters for Medicinal Purposes. Celebration of St. George's Day. Release of Domestic Animals that are Sprinkled with Holy Water. Observance of Recollection Monday. Paganish Rites in the Cemeteries. Revival of Old Jewish Customs. Shocking Bacchanalia in the Cemeteries. Drunkenness and Lewdness Among Priests and Parishioners. Charging a Fixed Fee for Prayers. No Middle Class in Russia. Govern- ment Taxes all Paid by the Poor How Guild Merchants are Created. Society in St. Petersburg. The Ten Command- ments of Catharine II. Requirements for Admission into So- ciety. Court Balls. Flagrant Conduct as Told in Strange Stories. Witnessing a Genuine Russian Dance. - 462 476 CONTENTS. CHAPTER XXIX. Summer Cottages of the Kich at Parvelosk. Life in St. Peters- burg During Winter. The Two Principal Streets. Ice Palace on the Neva River and the Grand Balls Given in it. Courtship Marriage, and Domestic Life in Russia. Court- ing by Proxy. Beauty Among the Rich and Homeliness Among the Peasantry. Making Love Through Accordians. Fathers Courting for Their Sons. The Matchmaker. How This Professional Body Plies Her Arts. Fedotoff's Celebrat- ed Painting, With a Description. A Pleasing Description of a Russian Marriage. Eastern Customs in Russia. Who'll be My Butterfly? The Tribulations of Married Life. How Russians Chastise Their ' Wives. A Painful Incident. Women Declared by the Church to Have no Souls. Worked Harder Than Domestic Annimals. ... 476 492 HISTORY OF JEWISH OUTRAGES IN RUSSIA. CHAPTER XXX. My Interview With Count Tolstoi Concerning the Jews. Indiffer- ence Manifested by the Government. The Czar's Personal Application to Kothschild for a Loan. Abrupt Termination 'of the Interview. Count Ignatielf's Policy in Dealing With the Jews. How he Issued Dreadful Orders, But Prevented Their Execution. His Removal Accomplished by Jews. Bribery in the Imperial Court. Inability to Procure Informa- tion of Jewish Outrages in St. Petersburg. My Decision to Yisit Warsaw. Description of my Rail Journey From Mos- cow to Warsaw. Having no Interpreter I Fall into Trouble. Stopping the Train to Let the Passengers Get Drunk. Con- flict Between Passengers and Troops. How Railroading is Conducted in Russia. Ten Miles an Hour and no Sleeping- Car. Humorous Scene in a Brest Eating House. Why I Got up and Crowed Like a Rooster. Gaining a Sudden Popu- larity. - - 492500 CHAPTER XXXI. Arrival at Warsaw. Description of the City. Introduced to the Mayor and Other Functionaries. A Drive With the Mayor. Visit to Lazienski's Park. A Beautiful Lake and Two An- CONTENTS. 17 cient Palaces. Description of a Novel Theatre Which wa Built for Kings. Mementoes of a Q-lory Now Departed. Poland, the Hero's Elysian. Her History Written in Blood. Visit to Wilanow Palace. The Home of Sa' ienski, Poland's Greatest King. A Property That has Escaped uus- sian Confiscation. Sights in and Around the Palace. De- scription of Three Wonderful Sun-Clocks. A Drive Through the Jewish Quarters. Remarkable Homogeneity of the Race. How the Polish Jews Live, Dress, and do Business. Foul Smells From Foul Bodies. Certain Occasions When the Jews use Bacon. How They Enforce Recognition From the Aris- tocracy. - 500506 CHAPTER XXXII. Some of the Causes for Jewish Outrages. Fanatical Zeal and Love of Plunder. Dreadful Riot at Elizabethgrad. Thirty Jew- esses Outraged and Several Killed. Destruction of $1,000,000 of Property. Proclamations Issued Declaring Russians Enti- tled to all Jewish Property. Mobs, Infuriated With Drink, Wreaking a Dreadful Vengeance. The Riot at Smielo in which Thirty Jews are Killed, and Sixteen Hundred Rendered Homeless. Terrible Massacre at Kiew. Soldiers Aiding the Mob. Refusal of the Governor to Protect the Jews. Out- rages at Kief. Stoning Children to Death, Murdering Old Men, Raping Women, and Burning Jewish Homes. Second Attack at Kief. Desolation Everywhere. Twelve Towns in Flames at one Time. Barrelling up Jews and Cast- ing Them Into the Dnieper. Outrages at Odessa. $1,500,000 Worth of Property Destroyed, r- Third Attack at Kief. The Mob led by Merchants. The Sarah Bernhardt Riots at Warsaw and Kief. The Terrible Riots at Warsaw. Streets Deluged With Blood. Count Ignatieff Held Accountable. Soldiers Uniting With the Mob. No Protection for the Jews. - 606618 CHAPTER XXXIIL The "Red Cock " Crowing Over Fifteen Towns. Attacks on the Jews of all Western Russia. 6,000 Jews driven From Their Homes in Minsk, and Their Houses Burned. $80,000,000 Worth of Property Destroyed. Red-Handed Murder. Lurid Faced Arson and Foul Visaged Outrage Stalking Through Every Jewish Village. 100,000 Jewish Families Reduced to Beggary. Governors of Provinces, Government Officers and 18 CONTENTS. Troops all Encouraging the Mobs. 4,000 Jews Expelled Prom Kief. A Government Fine for Harboring Jews Over Night. A Governor Ordering 5,000 Jews to Quit His Prov- ince. Sad Scenes of the Last Meetings of Jews in Their Synagogues. Issuance of a Singular .Rescript. The Gov- ment's Reply to Jewish Complaints. Charging the Jews with Monopolizing Trade and of Swindling Russian Subjects. Appointment of Commissions to Investigate the Causes of Anti- Semitic Prejudices. Dismissal of Commissions That had Made Their Reports Favorable to the Jews. Observations on the Short-Comings of the Government. Are Three and One-Half Millions of People to Perish Because They are Jews? - 618530 CHAPTER XXXIV. Distribution of the Jews. Poles and Jews Generally Harmonize. Influence of Mussulmans in the Caucasus. Singular Preju- dices at Odessa. Other Nationalities than Russians Opposing the Jews. Causes Assigned. The Cry of "Mad-Dog." Charges Made Against the Jews. Do they Violate the Laws? My Experience with Russians. A Land Cursed by Swindlers. An Irish Millionaire's Experience ; Laughable, but Typical. The September Proclamation Against the Jews Indefensible. A National and Governmental Weak- ness. Jews No Worse than Russians. Christians Placed in a Bad Light. How Italians Beat the Jews. A Means by which Russians Might Correct the Evils now Complained Of. A Lesson for Russia and Germany. - - 630 535 CHAPTER XXXV. Review of My Trip Through Russia and Sibria. The Largest Nation on Earth. The Russians and the Turks. Hideous Evidence of Muscovite Valor. Meaning of the Word Czar. The Czar "Above All," and Chief Counsellor of Deity. Ig- norance and Slavery of the Russian Masses. Bound JDown by Church and State. Poverty-Stricken and Debt-Ridden. Church Indulgences and Government Corruptions. What Russia Must Do to Place Herself on an Equality with Other Civilized Nations. Nihilism Apparently her only Hope. - 636 < ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGES. Portrait of the Author FRONTISPIECE. View of Cronstadt from the East 34 Custom-house Examination, St. Petersburg 36 Street Scene, Showing Droshkies and Drivers 38 Suspected Peasants Before the Third Section 40 Count D. R. Tolstoi, Minister of the Interior 43 U. S. Minister W. H. Hunt 45 V. Pleve, Minister of the Secret Police 49 Holy Mountain Near Kief 52 Holy City of Kief 54 Principal Street of Kief 56 Christening a .Royal Infant . . . . . . . .59 Pyrotechnic Display in Honor of a Royal Birth 61 Peter the Great Vanquishing his Would-Be Assar- i K ... 63 Eexcution by Decapitation of 300 Conspirators . . . . . 66 Ropscha Palace, Where Peter III. Was Strangled . . . .74 Scene in a Serf Village 83 Serfs Celebrating Liberation Day 85 A Russian Noble Lady, XVI. Century 88 Arrest of a Revolutionary Student ' 90 The Czar Declaring the Freedom of Bulgaria 101 Vera Zassulitch 104 Conducting Solovieff to Execution 109 Execution of Solovieff . Ill House from Which the Dynamite Mine was Laid .... 114 Reception of the Czar after the Railway-Mine Explosion . . . 116 19 20 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGES. Effects of the Explosion 118 A Te Deum in the Winter Palace . 121 Night Patrol in St. Petersburg 125 Execution of Kviatkovski and Presnhkov , 127 Portraits of Nine Leading Nihilists 12 i Leo Hurtmann 131 Gen. Loris Melikoff 134 Conducting MelikoflTs Assailant to Execution 135 City of Tiflis 137 Street Along the Catharine Canal 139 Cellar Room from Whence the Mine was Laid 141 Explosion of the Second Dynamite Bomb 142 Scene Immediately after the Explosion ../... 144 Appearance of the Emperor's Carriage 145 Conveying the Wounded Czar to the Palace 14 3 View in Alexander Palace, at the Moment of the Emperor's Death . 143 Swearing Allegiance to the New Czar 150 Alexander III. Accepting the Imperial Crown 152 Kemains of the Emperor Lying in State 153 The Fortress Chapel ! 155 Tomb of the Emperor 156 Uncovering the Dynamite Mine 157 The Czar's Study . . 159 Driving Alexander HI. to His Palace .161 Trial of the Emperor's Assassins 163 Execution of the Emperor's Assassins 165 Memorial Chapel where the Czar Fell 167 Portraits of Eight Leading Female Nihilists 176 Execution of Soukahnoff 178 View of Moscow from the Moska Bridge 181 Gatchina Palace 183 Women on a Pilgrimage to Moscow 185 Police Surveillance 210 Mineral Spring where the Czar Bathed 213 Arrest of Goldenberg 220 ILLUSTRATIONS. 21 PAGES. Precautions Against Nihilists . . 235 Central Dismissal Prison, Moscow 238 Last Partings at the Dismissal Prison . 240 Alexander III. and the Empress Entering Moscow .... 242 Great Bell and Tower at Moscow 244 Familiar Scenes at the Nijni Novgorod Fair 247 Wooden Church in Nijni Novgorod 249 View of the Great Central Square, Moscow 251 Principal Church in Perm 254 City of Nijni Tagilsk 256 The Demi doff' Mine, Ekaterineberg 258 The Tarantass . .260 View of Tieumen 263 Portions of Tieumen Overflowed 265 Convict Barge on the Kama River 269 Prisoners Leaving Tieumen for Eastern Siberia 271 Travelling by Tumbril 273 Upper and Lower Towns of Tobolsk 278 Administering the Knout 281 A Convict Laborer in Irons 283. City of Tobolsk from the Irtysh River 285 Russianized Ostjaks 288 The Gostinnoi Dvor at Tomsk 291 View of South Side of Tomsk 293 Post Station and Church on the Highway 296 A Shackled Convict, on the Transport Route 299 A Convalescent Prisoner in Irons 302 "Waiting to be Ferried Across the Yenisei River 30-"> Siberian Roadside Inn 307 Bear Hunting with Whips .310 Hunting Reindeer on the Tundras . . . . . . .314 Gold Mine on the Vitim River 321 Gold Train in a Snow Storm 823 Arrest of the Pole and his Brother 327 City of Nijni Udinsk 330 22 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGES. The Exile's Abode 332 Courier Chased by Wolves 835 Alexandreffsky Central Prison 837 The Treasury and Governor's House 841 The G-overnor's Race with Wolves . . . . . . .843 City of Irkoutsk 346 Horse Racing at Irkoutsk 849 Gold Mine and Washing House at Kara 851 Ostjaks in Winter Dress 361 Samoyeds from the Lower Yenisei 362 Kirghiz Tartars Abducting Thibetan Women 864 A Goldi Dead House 866 Goldi in Winter Dress 367 Group of Gilyaks 369 Festival of Killing the Bear 370 A Tunguse Family and Birch-Bark Tent 872 Views of Irbit . ,. .375 Arrival of Gold Dust at Irkoutsk 876 Ainos, Aborigines of Sakhalein 878 Great Fire at Irbit, April 29, 1879 380 Military Post at Dui, Sakhalein 382 Views on the Island of Sakhalein 884 Killing Escaping Convicts for their Clothes ... .. . .386 The Etape Prison, Nikolaefsk .387 Vladivostock, Chief Russian Port on the Pacific . . 389 A Corean House in Vlaclivostock 390 Exiles on the Island of Sakhalein ... ... 392 View of the City of Yakoutsk 894 Views of the Abodes of the Exiles near Yiikoutsk .... 897 Penal Quarters at Yakoutsk 400 Exiles' Houses on the Lena, Houses of Driod Dung . . . 403 Scopsi Colony Houses Near Yakoutsk 405 Scenes in Villiski 408 Yakute and Reindeer 411 Kirghiz of Northern Siberia 414 ILLUSTRATIONS . 2 3 PAOTCS. Placer Q-old Mines of Malopatomski 424 Town and Principal Place of Upper Vidinski . 427 Branding a Woman Convicted of Witchcraft 432 Departure from Irkoutsk 434 Mining and Way Station on the Route to Siberia .... 436 Siberian Antelopes 439 Kail way Bridge Across the Volga at Samara, the Longest Bridge in the World 441 Eussiun Agriculture 447 St. Isaac's Cathedral 454 Ceremony of Blessing the Waters 464 Ceremony of Blessing the Cows 467 A Kussian Peasant Village 468 Celebrating Kecollection Monday in the Smolensk! Cemetery . . 470 A Ball in the Winter Palace .472 View on Nevskoi Prospekt at the Bridge over St. Catharine Canal . 477 A Russian Courtship 481 The Matchmaker 483 Easter Customs in Russia 490 Scene in an Eating Station at Brest ....... 498 Jewish Synagogue at Orel 623 A Typical Jewish Peddler . . .685 PURPOSES AND AUSPICES OF MY TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA AND SIBERIA, No country on the world's broad atlas, whether civil- ized or unexplored, presents so many interesting and anomalous phases as does Russia and its immense de- pendency, Siberia. The very mention of this latter tract of desert waste, its illimitable snow-fields, scintil- lating under a fugitive sun or stretching away in solemn shadows under a leaden sky until it infringes upon a cir- cumambient horizon, excites our wonder and gives us the one idea of dreariness. But ah ! not only is the wilder- ness of Siberia's vast and lonely plain a topic which may infuse the humblest pen with power to write a stirring chapter on wild nature, ferocious beasts, and storm-beaten shores freighted with wrecks of hardy adventurers ; would that there were no more horrible stones of fact connected with the history of that country which, from infancy, has been an immense prison, or battle-ground a grave-yard of men's ambitions, the penal ground for patriotic expia- tion ! The MIXES ! There is no word that so thrills the Russian heart as this. " To the Bastile!" uttered during the most dreadful days in French history, carried with it but the shadow of a horror compared with that awful sentence: "To the Mines of Siberia!" in Russia. In France, Marat could only order his victims guillotined, and death ca:ne speedily and painlessly. But in Siberia 25 26 .^ * : ; -PURPOSES AND AUSPICES OF t litre w.as the kaout and other instruments of torture add- ed to the sentence which confined men and women to a life in the mines, where no light of day was ever permit- ted to enter, and where the voice of lamentation could never reach a sympathetic ear. The history of Russia, such as has already been writ- ten, possesses for me an interest felt for that of no other country ; and since the revolutionary crisis, which had its beginning or origin in the emancipation proclamation of Alexander II., such startling events have occurred in that nation that, being without parallel, they have focused the interest of the world, until to-day the Czar's dominions have become a country so alien in all its aspects of civil- ization, and rent internally by such horrible atrocities, that its current history is a story replete with exciting sit- uations and horrifying culminations. To obtain a true conception of Russia's policy, of her insubordinate elements, of the Nihilistic demonstrations, of her administration in dealing with the revolutionists, and lastly, of the exile life led by so many thousand persons in Siberia, I personally visited that country under auspices peculiarly favorable for the acquisition of infor- mation I specially desired. Before leaving America I made application to Gen. Green B. Raum, Commissioner of Internal Revenue, Washington, D. C., with whom I have enjoyed an intimate acquaintance since boyhood, for such letters of introduction to our representatives in Rus- sia as he might feel disposed to give. The application brought a response more favorable than I had expected, for forthwith he requested the Secretary of State to give me a letter which would secure for me the consideration of our Russian Minister, and, added to this, the General kindly wrote a personal letter to Minister Hunt, which accredited correspondence is herewith appended : MY TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA. 27 DEPARTMENT OF STATE, 1 WASHINGTON, D. C., ;June 21, 1882. / The Honorable WILLIAM H. HUNT, St. Petersburg. Sir: At the request of the Honorable Green B. Raum, I introduce to your acquaintance and commend to your courtesy the bearer of this letter, Mr. James W. Buel of St. Louis, Mo., who is about to visit Russia for the purpose of observing and writing upon the institutions of that country. I am Sir, Your obedient servant, J. 0. BANCROFT DAVIS, Acting Secretary. At the time of writing this letter, Mr. Davis informed me that as Mr. Hunt had only recently received the ap- pointment as Minister to Kussia, and had only departed t\vo weeks previously to take up his official residence, it was probable that I would find Hon. Wickham Hoff- man still acting Charge d" Affaires on my arrival at St. Petersburg, so he kindly gave me the following addition- al letter : DEPARTMENT OF STATE, \ WASHINGTON, D. C., June 21st, 1882. / WICKHAM HOFFMAN, Esquire, Etc., Etc., Etc. St. Petersburg. 8Hr: At, the request of the Honorable Green B. Raum, I introduce to your acquaintance and commend to your courtesy the bearer of this letter, Mr. James W. Buel, of St. Louis, Mo., who is about to visit Jldssia for the purpose of observing and writing upon the institutions i .f that country. I am Sir,, Your obedient servant, J. C. BANCROFT DAVIS, Acting Secretary. Upon showing my letters from the State Department to Gen. Eaum he at once wrote and handed me the follow- ing : 28 PURPOSES AXD AUSPICES OF TREASURY DEPARTMENT. OFFICE OK INTERNAL RBVENI; WASHINGTON, June 21, 1882. HON. WM. HUNT, U. S. Minister to Russia, St. Petersburg, Russia. Dear Sir : Mr. James W. Buel bears letters of introduction to yourself and to Mr. Hoffman from Hon. J. Bancroft Davis, acting Secretary of State. I write to commend Mr. Buel to your favorable consideration, and to request that you will introduce him into official circles so as to enable him to make a study of the Russian Government and Russian society. I have known Mr. Buel [from boyhood and know that he visits Russia with the best intentions. He will be no agitator against the Government, as some Americans have been in Ireland, and he will not betray any just confidence that may be reposed in him by the author- ities. I have the honor to be, Very Respectfully, GREEN B. RAUM. With this courteous correspondence I felt assured that, notwithstanding the difficulties which attached to the mission I was about to undertake, my investigations could be prosecuted without fear of serious molestation, for I considered these letters an implied promise from my gov- ernment to protect me so long as I committed 110 overt act against Russia, or manifested no revolutionary sympa- thy, although hundreds of persons have felt the heavy hand of the Czar's police for much less offence than an inquiry respecting Nihilism, two of which instances I must refer to : Some time during the year 1881 an American citizen arrived in St. Petersburg, as a seaman, without a pass- port. Without reporting his case to our Minister or per- mitting him to send any communication to our represent- ative, the Russian authorities searched the unfortunate man and found upon his person a letter of recommenda- tion from his employers certifying to his sober and indus- MY TRIP THROUGH RUSSIA. 29 trious qualities. This letter was from the Kemington Fire Arms Company, and this trivial fact the Russian of- ficers used as a pretext for holding the man as a suspect. They said : " You are a revolutionist, and have been en- gaged making cartridges and arms for the Turkish Gov- erment to be used against us." They argued this way because the Turkish Government during the war with Russia had purchased large quantities of war munitions from Remington & Sons. The poor fellow was taken to the Fortress prison and there confined on a diet of bread and water for an entire week before the facts accident- ally came to the knowledge of our Charge d' Affaires, who fiercely remonstrated at the outrage, whereupon the innocent captive was liberated. Another instance of even greater hardship and injus- tice, is the present confinement of a Jewish- American citizen who entered Siberia without a special permit from the Imperial Police, not knowing that such was required. It is easy to pass the Russian frontier into Siberia, but it is a most perplexing and next to impossible matter to get out again, and this American Jew having business in Si- beria, and being provided with a passport into Russia, in- nocently crossed the Urals, and at the first place he was called upon to show his papers, he was apprehended and thrown into solitary confinement, where he remained for six months, notwithstanding the correspondence that has passed between the Russian authorities and our minister concerning his imprisonment. It is but justice to state, however, that Minister Hunt expressed to me his doubts about the prisoner being an American citizen, though he claims protection from our government ; but the hard- ships and injustice complained of grow out of the priso- ner's inability, through lack of any privileges, to prove his citizenship beyond the passport he held, which, how 30 PURPOSES AKD AUSPICES OF ever, is not received as evidence because the period of its effectiveness had expired at the time of his arrest, pass- ports being good for only six months from the date af- fixed to the visa Russian consul's certificate. Many other instances of intolerance might, and will be cited in the following chapters, and hundreds of cases of unmerciful injustice will be described to show how Rus- sia maintains her autocracy and martial law, while her people groan beneath the burdens of misgovernrnent and repression . Several books on life in Russia and Siberia have appeared since the Turko-Russian war, but few that I have read treat the subject in a manner that sug- gests a personal visit to those countries by the authors. Mackenzie Wallace wrote a very excellent and reliable work on Russia, but it appeared before the war, and though a standard history at the time of its first publica- tion, it cannot be accepted as a history of Russia of to- day, so great have the changes been since that time. During the present year a work has appeared from the pen of Henry Lansdell, entitled "Through Siberia," that has met with much favor because it treats of a coun- try about which so little is known, and because the au- thor claims to have been a missionary and philanthropist. The facts are, however, that this work, I know, from observations made while in Siberia, to be a pure fiction so far as it relates to convict life ; its statements concern- ing the prisons of Siberia are almost as wide of the truth as any of Munchausen's choice yarns. I do not say this through any prejudice, because I never saw Mr. Lans- dell, and therefore have no private reasons for condemn- ing his work. The London Graphic, reviewing the book, pronounces it an aggregated canard throughout. But I particularize Mr. Lansdell' s fault only because my MY TRir THROUGH RUSSIA. 31 declarations and descriptions in the succeeding pages are directly opposite to his assertions respecting the treatment of exile prisoners in Siberia, and because the Russian Government, having endorsed his work, might lead un- thinking readers to suspect me of misrepresentations ; I therefore write this to anticipate any reflections of this character. I was told by many prominent persons in Russia that the Government purchased several thousand copies of Mr. Lausdell's book and has been active in circulating it through several countries, because it repre, sents convict life in Siberia as an existence of elegant ease and epicurean luxury, while it greatly disparages the treatment of prisoners in England and America. What I have written concerning Russia is wholly without malice, for I must acknowledge a treatment while in that country of rare courtesy and consideration. I can in a great measure excuse the Government for the policy it pursues in dealing with its criminals. I can readily understand how difficult it is for a ruler educated to autocracy ; one whose remote ancestors were Czars before him, with power so absolute as to repel advice from their own counsellors, except as it was asked for ; one who has been reared in the belief that all the world owes homage to him I can understand why such an one refuses his ear to the complaints of his subjects, particu- larly when they demand a constitution which would lead to an abridgment of the crown prerogatives whilst con- ferring the first taste of liberty to a people who never drew a breath of freedom. Besides, to acknowledge the policy of a revolutionary body, however weak, is always a dangerous precedent, and destructive in its influences. France is an illustration of this fact, and governments have ever regarded it safer to employ the full strength of their opposition by arms, rather than recognize any prin- 32 PURPOSES AND AUSPICES OF ciple, however inconsequential, when incorporated in an edict promulgated by insurrectionists. In this is found ample reason why the Czar confronts Nihilism with ar- mor and steel, and this has brought on an internecine conflict which fills the very atmosphere of Russia with blood, and stamps every highway in that miserable na- tion with red-handed murder. It is my purpose to describe, in a dispassionate, ungar- nished way, the crimes of Nihilism, to give some of the previously unwritten history of Russia, and to truthfully tell what I know concerning exile life in Siberia, with ob- servations on the people and mode of living in that won- derful country. I have had every advantage for ascer- taining all the facts, and am frank to say that no ex- cuse is left me if I have made a single misstatement in the narrative following. J. W. BUEL. RUSSIAN NIHILISM. CHAPTER I. I left America on the twenty-fourth day of June, for St. Petersburg, going by way of London, thence to Hull, and at the latter English port I engaged passage on a Wilson line steamer (Marsden) which took me by way of the North and Baltic seas. The latter part of the voyage was particularly pleasant, and occupied less than six days. We put into the port of Cronstadt, which is eigh- teen miles from St. Petersburg, as, owing to the extreme shallow water, vessels of any considerable burden cannot approach nearer the Russian capital. Cronstadt is a small town built upon an island, but though it has no natural defences, .it is next to Gibralter in fortress strength. Stretching across the Finland mouth to the two mainlands, are ten forts of almost impregnable strength, and counting the island fort of solid masonry there are mounted more than one thousand immense guns, the fire from all of which may be concentrated on any point of entrance to the Gulf. So perfect are the defences that no fleet, however powerful, could approach within effective range of St. Petersburg without first de- stroying the ten strongest artificial forts of the world ; while to these defences is added a channel of only nine feet, which makes the city safe from invasion by sea. A canal is now being dug, however, by American contrac_ 33 EXILE LIFE IK SIBERIA. 35 tors, from opposite Peterhoff to the Neva, which will admit heavy ocean tonnage, but it will be guarded by the strongest engines of war that can be brought into requi- sition. Upon landing at Cronstadt our vessel was boarded by five customs officials and passport examiners, one of whom detected an informality in my passport, which caused my apprehension as a " suspect." When leaving Washington City I neglected to have the Russian Con- sul's visa affixed to my papers, and this omission sub- jected me to much suspicion from a Government that naturally supposes every one a revolutionist who is not burdened with incontestible proofs of innocence. I would never have been permitted to set foot in Russia but for the letters I bore from the State and Treasury Departments, upon the presentation of which I was given a paper containing my promise to report in person at the Third Section in St. Petersburg, on the following morn- ing. I was then allowed to proceed to the city and take lodgings at the Hotel de France, but under the surveil- lance of the Imperial Police. No hotel in Russia is allowed to entertain any one, whether a native or foreign sub- ject, without first securing their passport, which must be registered with the police, and the names of all guests must be prominently posted on a blackboard in the hotels where any one entering can see them. I, together with the other passengers, was taken up to the city in a tender and landed at the Custom House. Being wholly unacquainted with the Russian language, I would have fared badly but for assistance tendered me by a fellow-passenger who kindly spoke for me. Ev- ery bit of paper I had, on which there was any writing, was critically examined by a score of underlings and then conveyed to a higher functionary for inspection and EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 37 judgment. My things were unceremoniously dumped out and all articles of clothing were searched with the care an old soldier manifests when looking for carnivorous in- sects. After undergoing the customs examination, I passed out into the street and was immediately received by a galling lire of solicitations from droshky drivers, whose unintelli- gible jabbering and strong entreaties so confounded me that I knew not what; to do, as my friend had disappeared, leaving me in a condition which I may well explain as tongues and lungs everywhere but not a voice to speak to me intelligently. If there is anything that will make a cynic laugh or startle a cosmopolite with wonder, it is a droshky driver in his quizzical tout ensemble. The municipal law requires him to wear a large, dark-blue stole, gathered at the waist by a band, and on his head he wears a covering which is half hat and half cap ; from under this quaint head- gear emerges a profuse quantity of hair cut in a sharp line all round. Hair cutters in Russia use a large cup which is inverted and placed over their customer's head, and then, with a large pair of shears, they trim squarely around the cup's edge. The result must necessarily be comical, especially since among no other people does the hair grow so abundantly. When I was first assailed by these peculiar, monkish- appearing, but good-natured fellows, and had taken a good look at their peculiar little vehicles, I could not re- frain from laughter, at which, like a number of imitative apes, they fell to laughing also. After several minutes spent in contemplating my unhappy condition, the gentle- man who had assisted me in the Custom House, appeared again, and engaging a carriage we drove together to the Hotel de France, where I was duly registered. My next 38 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND step was to engage a guide, which I found in the person of Charles Kuntze, a German who could speak several languages, whose services to me became absolutely ines- timable. It so happened that at the time of my arrival in St. Petersburg, Minister Hunt had not yet reached the EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 39 tal, and Charge cT Affaires Hoffman was on a brief visit to Finland ; I therefore had no other resource left me ex- cept to obey orders and trust to luck. In obedience to in- structions I called at the Third Section, where I was as- sured that my passport would be waiting me, but I was referred to another place, and from there to still another, and then back again to the Third Section. This shuttle- cock business continued active for four days, when at length I found that it was a way they had in Russia ; that I was thus kept in momentary expectancy until the au- thorities could take information on me and definitely de- termine my business in the country. At the expiration of the fourth day Mr. Hoffman returned, and upon re- porting my case to him he immediately procured my passport and relieved me from further police surveillance. The Third Section is one of the most noted institu- tions in Russia ; simple, unpretentious in title, but within its now crumbling walls have been enacted some of the most shocking tragedies known in history. It is a build- ing occupying one entire square and divided off into pub- lic offices, audience chambers, and prisons, though it is no longer used for the detention of criminals. Under the iron rule of Nicholas I., those who were ordered to the Third Section rarely ever breathed the air of freedom again, their sentence being either death or transportation . The place derives its name from, the fact that the city was formerly divided into three police districts, all under the Minister of Police, whose office was in the Third Sec- tion. It is told by those resident of St. Petersburg at the time that Emperor Nicholas I. had a private office in the Third Section where it was his custom to repair at a certain hour each day for the purpose of keeping him- self thoroughly advised 011 all matters appertaining to the police administration. It is also declared that there was KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 41 a trap door in the floor of his office which was used for a singular purpose, viz: when any female member of the reigning family was discovered inveighing against his ad- ministration which was by no means an uncommon oc- currence the offender was ordered to appear before him at his office. When there he gave such persons much fatherly advice about their transgressions and, at a sig- nal, the trap door, upon which they were made uncon- sciously to stand, suddenly gave way precipitating the woman to her arm-pits. While in this constrained posi- tion, unable to move, she was severely lashed by a per- son stationed underneath. In this wise the offender was prevented from knowing who was administering the castigation, nor could the person below know whom he was punishing. Upon meeting Mr. Hoffman I presented him with the letters I bore, as already quoted, and then asked him for such advice as he might give that would be serviceable to me. His reply was a genuine surprise, and one which I am not likely to forget soon. Said he : " Your purpose, I discover from Gen. Raum's letter, is to gather facts concerning Nihilism." 1 told him that was chiefly the object of my visit to Russia, whereupon he replied : " If my advice is worth anything, I will freely give it to you, and it is this : stop where you are; don't take the first step toward investigating that subject. The reason I thus advise you is because Russia is under martial law and the least .suspicion excited against one here is liable to be followed by arrest, and once in the toils it is next to impossible to get out. It matters not how much any government may remonstrate against the arrest of its subjects, Russia is not prone to regard them. So, for your own safety, I say abandon the idea of investigating Ni- hilism while on Russian soil." 42 RUSSIAN NIHILISM ANB I thanked Mr. Hoffman for his well-intended advice, and then replied : " You put the matter in a very gloomy light indeed, much worse than I expected ; nevertheless, I don't be- lieve it is customary for an American citizen to give up a mission that he has set his head and heart upon per- forming, because the sun has set before his face." He was evidently pleased with my answer, though he sympathized with my poor judgment, for at once he prof- fered such services as he was able to give, and promised to look after me if I should suddenly disappear. At my request he then wrote me the following letter to Count Tolstoi, Minister of the Interior, who is also acting Prime Minister. During the enforced retirement of Al- exander III. Count Tolstoi is practically the Czar of Rus- sia, all audiences on Imperial business being held with the Count and by him communicated personally to the Czar: LEGATION OF THE UNITED STATES. ST. PETERSBURG, July 21, \ , QC August 2d, / 1} His Excellency, COUNT TOLSTOI, Minister of the Interior. Mr. James W. Buel, a citizen of the United States, has come to St. Petersburg, bringing to Mr. Hunt and myself letters of introduction from the Secretary of State at Washington, stating that Mr. Buel comes to Russia with a view of observing and writing upon the insti- tutions of this country, and commending him to our courtesy. Mr. Buel himself tells me that his work is upon Communism in the United States, and that in this connection he desires to investigate Communism in other countries under whatever forms it may exist. For this purpose he desires access to certain unpublised documents. Will your Excellency kindly give him such facilities for his work as you may deem proper, and may feel at liberty to give. I take this opportunity to renew to your Excellency the assurance of my distinguished consideration. WICKHAM HOFFMAN. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. COUNT D. R. TOLSTOI. Minister of the Interior and Chief Councillor of the Czar, 44 11USSIAN NIHILISM AND Before leaving St. Petersburg in August, for Siberia, Hon. W. H. Hunt arrived in the Russian capital, and pre- sented his credentials as Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court at St. Petersburg. I had a very pleasant interview with him, and through him and Count Tolstoi my request for an interview with the Czar was communicated. Two days later his Excellency, V. Pleve, presented me with an answer from the Czar, who expressed regrets that he was holding his annual confer- ence at Gatchina Palace with his Generals, which would not be concluded for twelve days, but at the expiration of that time it would give him great pleasure to re- ceive me. My time was too limited to admit of so long a delay, as I had already made my preparations and en- gaged an interpreter in Moscow to accompany me on my tour through Siberia. Upon my return to St. Petersburg, in October, I again called on Minister Hunt, who gave me the following let- ter : LEGATION O"F THE UNITED STATES. ST. PETERSBURG, October 3, \ 1QQO October 15, / 1} The undersigned lias the honor to present to his Excellency Count Tolstoi, Minister of the Interior, Mr. J. W. Buel, a citizen of the United States, who, it is believed, has already been accredited to his Excellency by the late acting Charge d' Affaires of this Legation. Mr. Buel is the bearer of letters from several distinguished func- tionaries in the United States, who vouch for .his reliability and com- mend him to consideration. Having occasion to obtain some inform- ation from the authorities of His Imperial Majesty's Government, Mr. Buel is d -sirous of obtaining an interview with His Excellency, which the undersigned trusts may b^ accorded him. The undersigned avails himself of the opportunity to renew to His Exce Jency the assurances of his distinguished consideration. WILLIAM H. HUNT, Envoy Extraordinary, Etc., Etc., of the United States of America. EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 45 HON. W. 11. HUNT. MINISTER PLENIPOTENTIARY TO RUSSIA. 46 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND It is the etiquette of the Court that when a foreign subject desires an interview with any member of the Imperial Court, his request must come through a letter from the representative of the country to which the applicant belongs, although he may have been previously recommended. This is the reason this, second letter from the Legation was obtained and presented. The two dates affixed to these letters represent the difference be- tween the English and Eussian calendars, the latter still holding to the ancient style, which is twelve days behind the calendars of all other civilized nations. At this season Minister Tolstoi, who had his resi- dence in the suburbs of St. Petersburg, gave audi- ences only twice each week, and as I was misinformed as to the days he had set for this purpose, it was not un- til the third day that I called to present my letter. It chanced, however, that the Count was not in, but I was re- ceived, nevertheless, by His Excellency, Y. Pleve, Direc- tor of the Ministry of the Interior and Privy Counsellor to the Emperor, and Minister of Police. I was pleased to find him a very affable gentleman, and through my inter- preter he promised me every aid I might require in pros- ecuting my investigations. After conversing with him for several minutes he made an engagement to meet me again on the following day, and also to present me to the Prefect of Police on the Monday following this being Saturday. At the time appointed I met the Minister of Police again, and also the Prefect of Police, both of whom gave me considerable information, and at their request I submitted in writing a series of questions on Nihil- ism, the answers to which they promised to give me on the Wednesday following. Parting with them I left my letter of introduction with Count Tolstoi's secretary, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 47 and on the succeeding day received a note from the Count, written in French, saying he would be pi eased to see me at his office at eleven o'clock, Tuesday. I was punctual in keeping the appointment, but upon presenting my card to his valet I was told that it was et- iquette of the Court to receive only persons with whom appointments are previously made, and that no one is ad- mitted unless he appear in Court dress dress suit. Though embarrassed somewhat at first, I was equal to the occasion, for I sent my regrets to the Count, coupling them with the observation that in America every citizen is a sovereign, and that with us dress suits are used only on party occasions ; that it was with t inexpressible cha- grin I was compelled to acknowledge the fact that I nev- er owned a dress suit. In a moment after, the valet re- turned and ushered me into the Count's presence, who advanced and greeted me in so cordial a manner, laughingly commenting upon his valet's rigid Court man- nerism, that I entirely forgot the presence of royalty, and entered into conversation with a freedom from all re- straint. Count Tolstoi spoke with some warmth concerning the reflections cast upon Russia by other civilized countries, and earnestly denied the insinuation that the administra- tion was lacking in mercy or that every measure and pol- icy pursued was not thoroughly justified. He complained that Russia was the most misrepresented country on the globe, and as an earnest of his assertions he prof- fered to me any assistance I might need to learn any and all facts appertaining to Nihilism, and the manner in which the laws are administered. He gave me access to the Im- perial Library containing all the political records, and as- sured me that I might talk and enquire about Nihilism without the least fear of molestation, though he admitted 48 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND that without a disclosure of my purpose I might have en- countered some trouble. My sole purpose in visiting the Count was to procure from him a promise that I would not be subjected to suspicion or annoyance by reason of any inquiries I might institute, and to this end I frankly told him the purposes of my visit and promised to treat Nihilism in my work with all the fairness that my com- prehension of the subject permitted. Before leaving him he asked me as a favor to incorporate in my book the Government's position taken in the four leading politi- cal trials, viz : the trial of the Emperor's assassins; of those suspected of attempting to blow up the Winter Palace; of the assassins of Gen. Melikoff ; and the trial of Yera Zassulitch, who shot Gen. Trepoff, Minister of Police. I told him I should be glad to do him such a favor if he would prepare the matter ; this he agreed to do, and to transmit the manuscript through our consul to me in America, which promise, however, he did not ful- fill, and I am therefore absolved from the obligation. On Wednesday, the day following my interview with Count Tolstoi, I called on Minister Pleve again, who gave me answers to the questions I had prepared, but they were of an indefinite character, in fact evasive, and of no value, though Count Tolstoi had also promised that the questions I had submitted with one .exception should be answered fully. The question to which direct exceptions were taken, was this : 6 Explain why noble families sympathize with the Ni- hilists?" This, I was told, involved the entire administration of Alexander II. and to explain it fully would expose cer- tain matters which the Government held as strictly pri- vate. I was very much interested in Minister Pleve, because of the important part he acted in the most thrilling EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 49 drama of Russian history, and I spent nearly an hour in a most agreeable conversation with him, though we had to talk through my interpreter. At the time of the Czar's assassination he was in very high repute as a skil- ful detective, and upon the removal of Gen. Trcpoff after recovering from the wound inflicted by Vera Zas- sulitch Mons. Pleve was appointed Minister of Police. The assassination of the Czar brought his detective skill HIS EXCELLENCY, VAJESLAF KONSTANTINOVITCH PLEVE, MINISTER OF POLICE. into service again, and it was through his ingenuity that six of the accomplices were apprehended and brought to trial. His last act of great public consequence was to affix his signature to the death sentence of the assassins, which many believed no officer had the courage to do, because of the threats made in hundreds of anony- mous communications to kill every officer remotely con- 50 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND cerned in the executions. But Pleve did not hesitate, and while his life is yet liable to pay the forfeit of that act, he takes few if any precautions to guard against assas- sination. I asked him for his photograph for use in my book, and he promised to have one taken and send it to me at an early day, a promise which he kept, as is seen in the following letter : ST. PETERSBOURG, Octobre 9, 1882. MONSIEUR : Confarmement a votre desir, je vous envoie ci-joint ma photo- graphie en vous priant de recevoir 1'assurance de mes sentiment? distingues. V. PELVE. P. S. Les notes promises vous seront envoyees sans peu. TRANSLATION. ST. PETERSBURG, October 9, 1882. SIR: In accordance with your desire, I send you herewith my photo- graph, wishing you to receive the assurance of my high regard. V. PLEVE. P. S. The notes promised you will be sent in a little while. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 51 CHAPTER II. PROVIDED with what I considered a complete protection from officious servants of the Government, I set about gathering statistics and familiarizing myself with the social and political life of Russia since the accession to power of the Romanoffs. I was somewhat surprised to learn that many interesting portions of Russian history have never been given to the world, because of their reflections on the ruling family, and I now take what I conceive to be commendable pride in. presenting several material incidents for the first time in print. It is essen- tial to the thorough understanding of the causes which have combined to render Russia so unhappy, by giving life to a movement that is without precedent or simili- tude, that at least a brief or outline history of the coun- try should be familiar to the reader, and it is this which shall be my excuse for presenting it here ; added to this general history are several facts which, so far as my information extends, were never before published. The Russian Empire embraces an area of 8,444,766 square miles, or considerable more than twice the area of all our States and Territories. This vast region, which extends from the arctic to the torrid zone, has an esti- mated population of 85,000,000, and though the most fertile and extensive agricultural country in the world, there are proportionately fewer persons following pastoral pursuits in Russia than in any other civilized nation. The Empire is divided into about one hundred govern- ments, which are ruled directly by Governors whose pow- ers, especially in Eastern Siberia, are almost absolute. Of these governments fifty are in Europe, having a pop- ulation of 66,000,000 ; Poland contains 6,000,000 souls - RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 53 Finland, 2,000,000; the Caucasus, 5,000,000. Siberia proper has a population of 4,000,000, and Central Asia 3,000,000. These are approximate figures based on the census of 1880. In this broad extent of country about two-thirds of the entire population profess the Greek religion. The Dissenters number about one million ; the Roman Catholics two and one-half millions ; Protes- tants and Mohammedans about the same as the Cath- olics ; Jews, two millions. There are also one quarter of a million Pagans, worshipping idols ; fifty thousand Armenians, and about ten thousand Scopsi, a denomina- tion that will be described fully hereafter. Russia's national debt, since the loan of 1882, is about four billion roubles the paper rouble being equivalent to fifty cents, makes the total debt, in United States currency, two billion dollars. The expenses of the Gov- ernment in 1881 were nine hundred million roubles, two hundred millions of which were army appropriations. The Emperor is allowed twenty million roubles annu- ally for the support of the forty-four members of the royal family. Russia now has a mobilized army, ready at any time to be called out for service, of over two million men ; and her fleet, consisting of two hundred and sixty- three vessels, carries sixteen hundred and two guns. The original settlers of Russia were Sclavonians, whose history in the Empire dates from about B. C. 400. A century later they founded the cities of Novgorod the Great, and Kief both of which cities afterward became capitals of the country and Ilrnen. Kief has always been regarded as the Holy City, to which annual pilgrimages are made for worship. This ancient capital, though much of its former glory has departed, is still one of the chief places in Russia ; among its many squalid appearing buildings, always sug- 4 54 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 55 gestive of great poverty, is a palace provided, and still maintained, for the Imperial family. In Russia there are twenty-one palaces kept for the exclusive use of the Czar, many of which never once sheltered his Majesty ; they are always kept in readiness for him, however, being attended by hundreds of servants, and having stables containing many fine horses. I was surprised to learn this, and upon asking why such a useless extravagance was per- mitted, was answered : " The Czar is supposed to look after the interests of his entire Empire ; his presence, therefore, may be expected at any time in any place therein ; so. palaces are provided for his entertainment in various parts of Russia in order that at no time may he have to lodge in apartments not befitting his Majesty." This answer quite satisfied me. The earliest Government of Russia was a Republic, which continued for about one thousand years, when, in 851, a violent political disturbance took place which divided the Republic into revolutionary territories and inaugurated a warfare that threatened extermination. The Republic continued to exist in name, however, until 8(>2, when a council, chosen from the various factions, with the view of conciliating differences and protecting the country from invasions, which neighboring tribes threatened, convened at Novgorod, and after lengthy deliberations decided to invite a Varago-Russian, named Rurik, to accept the sovereignty, which he did, and Rus- sia then became an Empire, Novgorod remaining the capital of the new Government. There is very little history known connected with the Rurik dynasty. Vladimir was the greatest sovereign of that House. It was he who introduced Christianity into the Empire in 980, and at his death, which occurred in 1015, he was buried at Kief, and the church honored RUS8IAN NIHILISM ANI> EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 57 his name by declaring him a saint. Dimetrius was also a prominent ruler in the Rurik dynasty, and he is re- garded as a saint by the orthodox church. It was Dime- triits who founded Moscow in the twelfth century. A portion of his skull, the size of a silver half-dollar, is still preserved and exposed to view in the Royal Chapel at Moscow. Every day hundreds of pious Russians visit this chapel and reverently kiss the ghastly relic, murmur- ing their prayers, and crossing themselves at the same time. It is said that upon the occasion of a visit to this chapel by an American lady, seeing so strange and dis- gusting a performance by so many mouths, she grew sick and vomited. The act, as I saw it performed by dozens during my visit to Moscow, affected me almost as seriously as it did the lady referred to. The house of Rurik continued to rule Russia until the year 101.-), when an interregnum occurred, owing to the fa<-t that there was neither issue nor hereditary branch to succeed the last ruler. The Empire continued, how- ever, by the election of Michael Faodorvitch Romanoff as Emperor, who ruled from the year 1613 until 1645. He was succeeded by his son, Alexis Michaelovitch, who wa* the father of Peter the Great. His reign continued from 16-15 until 1676. The other rulers then came in the order named. Feodor Alexovitch, 1676-1682. Ivan Alexovitch the V., who was an idiot, being senior brother of Peter Alexovitch (Peter the Great), the Government became a duarchy until the former's death, which occurred in 1606, when Peter the Great, who was in fact ruler from 1682, continued on the throne until his death in 1725. Catharine I., wife of Peter the Great, ruled from 1725 until 1727, when she was poisoned by Count Ostermann Peter II., nephew of Peter the Great, 1727 until 1730. 58 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND Anna Ivanovana, niece of Peter the Great, ruled from 1730 until 1740, when she was banished to Siberia and died in exile. Ivan Antonovitch succeeded, but ruled only one year, until 1741, when he was thrown into prison, where he died. Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, ruled from 1741 until 1761. She died without marrying, but adopted the grandson of Peter I., who succeeded her as Peter III., but he ruled only one year, until 1762, when he was strangled by order of his wife, Catharine II. Catharine II. ruled from 1762 until 1796. Paul I., Catharine's only son, who was declared illegiti- mate, ruled from 1796 until 1801, when he was strangled in his palace by Count Parlen. Alexander I., son of Paul I., ruled from 1801 until 1825. He died from the effects of poisoned feet, the poison being secretly placed in his boots. Nicholas I., second son of Paul I., ruled from 1825 until 1855, when he ordered his physician to prepare him a dose of poison, which he took on account of his defeat by England and the Allied Forces in the Crimean War. Alexander II. ruled from 1855 until 1881, when he was assassinated, after many unsuccessful attempts, March 1st, Russian style, 1881. Alexander III. began his rule upon the day of his father's (Alexander II.) death, and is now upon the throne, which is like an active volcano under his feet, or a magazine of powder toward which a lighted fuse is steadily burning. The members of the ruling family are as follows : Emperor Alexander III. Alexandra vitch, born March 10th, 1845 ; he married Maria Sophia Frederica Dagmar, EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 59 daughter of Christian IX. King of Denmark. The Em- press, who is a sister to the Princess of Wales and King George, of Greece, was born November 26th, 1847, and married the Emperor, November 9th, 1866. She was engaged to the Prince Imperial Nicholas, elder brother of t h o present E m p e r o r, who, however, was seized with a dreadful malady brought on by his own indiscretions, and died before reaching man- hood. On his death- bed he begged his broth- er, who became heir in succession, to marry the Princess , which request was complied with. The children of this union are : Nicholas Al exandro- vitch, the Prince Impe- rial, who was born May 18th, 1868. George Alexandro- vitch, Grand Duke ; born May 9th, 1871. Xenia Alexandrovna, Grand Duchess; born April 6th, 1875. Michael Alexandroviteh, Grand Duke, born December 5th, 1878. 60 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND Olga Alexaiidrovna, born in May, 1882. The christening ceremonies of this infant princess oc- curred at Peterhoff, the Czar's present residence, and was one of the most gorgeous affairs that ever took place in Russia. Brothers and Sisters of the Emperor Vladimir Alex- androvitch, Grand Duke ; horn April 22, 1847 ; married August 28th, 1874, to Princess Marie, of Mecklenburg- Schwerin. Alexis Alexandrovitch, Grand Duke ; born January 14th, 1850. Morganatically married, but his wife was never acknowledged by the Court, and he was compelled to sever his relations with her. Marie Alexaiidrovna, grand duchess ; born October 17, 1853 ; married to the Duke of Edinburg, second son of Queen Victoria, January 23, 1874. Sergius Alexandrovitch, Grand Duke ; born May llth, 1857. Paul Alexandrovitch, Grand Duke ; born October 3d, 1860. Uncles and Aunts Olga Nicolaievna, grand duchess ; born September llth, 1822 ; married to Charles, now King of Wurtemburg, July 13th, 1846. Constantine Nicholaievitch, Grand Duke ; born Sep- tember 21st, 1827 ; married September llth, 1848, to the Princess Alexandra Josef ovna, the daughter of Joseph, late duke of Saxe Altenburg. There are sixteen other members of the Royal Family, children of the grand dukes and grand duchesses, all of whom receive a large annual pension from the Govern- ment. Few of the grand dukes have held any office requiring active service. The grand duke Nicholas w r as field Mar- shal at the outbreak of the war with Turkey, but his EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 61 father, Alexander II., had so little confidence in him that he decided to assign the chief command of the Russian forces to one of his old- er-Generals. Learning this, Nicholas presented himself before his father, and with pistol in hand declared that rather than suffer such disgrace he would blow his own brains out before his father's eyes. This threat induced the Emperor to give the chief command to Nicho- las, but before a year had elapsed there was such a general complaint of his extravagance and incom- petency that the Czar was forced to remove him and appoint Gen. Skobeleff-, the hero of Goek-Teppe, in his place. The grand duke Con- stantino was, for some time, rear Admiral of the Eussian fleet, but there developed among the ma- rines such strong revolu- tionary sympathies that in the spring of the pres- ent year he was removed, and the position given to the Grand Duke Alexis. The lat- ter at once began a secret examination of the men in the 62 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND navy, which resulted in the arrest and conviction of three hundred officers and privates in the marine service, all of whom were sent into exile. CHAPTER III. THERE are three great historical characters among the rulers of Russia, viz: Peter the Great, Catharine II., and Alexander II. Of these three the first named is pre- eminent in history, while they all have made popular rep- utations in the order named. Even in boyhood, Peter the Great exhibited such traits of character as indicated his special capacity for the po- sition he was hereditarily called to fill. His brother, upon whom the crown fell by succession, was an idiot, and at a very youthful age the responsibilities of Imperial State, under particularly perplexing circumstances, be- came his inheritance. His early life was characterized by those acts of brav- ery which grew in importance as maturer years came upon him. It is told of him that shortly after his acces- sion to the throne a conspiracy was formed to consum- mate his assassination. Those in the plot had a meeting place in a peasant's house, where they secretly came to- gether and arranged their plans for getting into his bed- room, and for disposing of the body after death. By some means, which tradition does not explain, Peter heard of the conspiracy, and with a spirit of reckless bravery undertook the task of visiting punishment upon his enemies. He accordingly posted himself in a place near the house where, unobserved, he might witness the assembling of the assassins, When five of the party EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 63 64 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND had collected, and while they were taking an oath to accomplish his murder, Peter broke in the door, and with no other weapon than his powerful arm, he rushed upon the affrighted men and knocked them into a condi- tion of insensibility, then taking away their daggers he kept them as a memento of his adventure. This great ruler was only seventeen years of age when he ascended the throne, but he was both warrior and statesman ; a sovereign full of ambition and the courage to force any extremity. His first desire was to extend his Empire, and this he undertook by engaging Charles XII., of Sweden, in a war which lasted, through shifting fortunes, for many years. At the beginning of this war Russia did not extend further north than the Neva River, the territory lying beyond belonging to Sweden. As a pre- liminary to the acquisition of Finland, Peter the Great wrote a letter to Charles XII., asking the favor of build- ing a small country residence on the north bank of the Neva. He had already founded St. Petersburg, and his request for permission to build a small house, even on Swedish territory, but adjoining his own dominions, was construed by Charles as nothing more than a natural de- sire, as the spot selected was embowered by beautiful trees and occupied a delightful site, commanding an ex- tensive view up and down the river. The request was therefore granted, and the wily Peter thus obtained his first footing 011 Swedish soil, which he never relinquished. It was a small house, in which Peter held counsel w r ith his officers, and one portion was fitted up for a workshop, for, although Czar, he was a skilful mechanic, whose chief delight was the turning-lathe and handling of all kinds of workmen's tools. Before engaging in war, Peter equipped himself fully by building a large fleet, providing abundant munitions, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 65 enlarging and drilling his army, and preparing all his forts and other defenses. When he had thus carefully arranged for a powerful campaign, war was declared, upon some trivial diplo- matic pretext, and there followed a twelve years' contest that has rarely been equalled for fierceness in all history. But the fortunes of war were all against him until his exchequer was nearly exhausted, his troops were beaten and driven at every point, the army became insubordi- nate, and there appeared no hope ; yet Peter was one of those rare characters that knew no such word as fail ; ev- ery blow he received only served to impassion him to more determined acts. While in this extremity three hundred of his officers conspired to sacrifice him, and had arranged all their plans. At the last moment he heard of the conspiracy, and forthwith covertly despatched a force of trusted men to arrest them, not in a body, but one at a time so that no alarm might be occasioned, for he real- ized how little sympathy there was among the people for his administration. When all the arrests were made, and the men conveyed to Moscow, he attended upon them in person and announced their fate, which was to be decap- itation. Peter was an interested spectator of the execu- tions, his calculating deference being manifested by the following incident: Among the number sentenced to death was a young, gallant officer who had been a great favorite of the Czar's. This man, as he laid his head upon the block, in order to avert his gaze from the exe- cutioner's sword, by a great exertion contrived to turn his face sideways, which lifted one of his shoulders upon the block. On seeing this Peter rushed up and catching C? JL O hold of the hair of his victim, violently drew back the head into proper place, at the same time administering this rebuke : RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND "A brave and considerate fellow indeed, who would disgrace the headsman by causing him to cut your shoulder rather than your neck." SCENE OF THE KXKCUTIOIsS, HE WALLS OF It was less than a year after the executions at Moscow that another conspiracy was discovered, headed by Pe- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 67 ter's favorite mistress, a woman who is represented as exceedingly beautiful and possessing such charms of per- son as won from the Czar an affection that subordinated his judgment and rendered him almost plastic in her hands. She had arranged to deliver him into the power of his enemies, but her purpose was disclosed to Peter in time for him to foil the conspirators and bring them to a judgment similar to that previously administered in Mos- cow. The woman was among those adjudged guilty of treason, and she was brought to the block arrayed in a long white robe covered with beautiful lace ; around her neck she wore a circlet of diamonds, a gift from the Czar, and her uncommonly long, black hair was allowed to hang disheveled over her shoulders. She is reported to have presented an appearance which would have turned any heart but that of the inflexible Peter, and even upon him she produced such an impression that he broke into tears, and throwing himself upon her neck in an agony of grief exclaimed : " Oh, beautiful being, I would gladly exchange places with you this sad hour, but pardon you I cannot. It is the Czar's duty to see no one convicted without just cause, so is it the Czar's duty to see the law rigidly en- forced." Then after kissing her many times, he ordered her head laid upon the block, and a moment after signaled the headsman to do his bloody work. It is true that during the forty-three years of his administration Peter the Great never pardoned a single convicted offender, and it was his pride to declare the fact. Though desperately beaten on nearly every battle-field for nine years, and until a further continuance of the struggle appeared hopeless, still the Great Peter sue- 68 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND ceeded in inspiring his army with his own dauntless spirit. At length fortune changed in his favor, and soon hope blazed up all over the once despairing Empire. The battle of Pultova, which was fought under Imperial! ead- ership by the flower of both armies, resulted in Peter's favor, and was so complete an overthrow of Swedish influence and power that it was the last blow struck on either side. Charles XII. was himself desperately wounded, his army almost annihilated, and he was ready to sue for peace at any price. A treaty followed soon after, which ceded to Russia nearly all that territory now known as Finland, but the Government of Finland has ever remained isolated from Russia, for the reason that it has a limited constitution and is a Dukedom. At the conclusion of peace Peter renewed the building of St. Petersburg, intending that it should be the capital of the Empire. He soon removed from his little palace which was called " palace ' ' because it was the Royal resi- dence to a spot eighteen miles west of the city, where he built another palace, and called the place Peterhoff . There were two houses constructed for his residence, both of which are very small, one of them being beauti- fullv situated on a bank of the Finland Gulf, and the other in a delightful wood, before which was made a large fish pond. He bestowed such attention on the grounds at Peterhoff that they are regarded as the most pictur- esque in all Europe. He concentrated so much of his ambition on St. Peters- burg, however, that notwithstanding the fact of its estab- lishment on an extensive morass, he expended the means which have, made it next to Paris in architectural beauty, with broad streets and numerous parks, graceful monu- ments, and the finest Imperial palace in the world. He fostered the arts and sciences, gave encouragement to EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 69 every commendable enterprise, and made Russia a power equal to any in Europe. Generous in sustaining every scheme which he con- sidered would advance the national interest, and genial in his intercourse with those he met in diplomatic or court relations, yet his stern determination and inflexi- ble heart made him often appear like a man destitute of human feeling and wholly without mercy. He had but one son, who possessed many of the traits characteristic of the sire ; this youth had an abnormally long head and a strange visage which foreboded dark purposes. When only fifteen years of age he became a disturbing factor in the Empire by attempting to incite a rebellion against his father ; so persistent was the youth in fomenting dis- cord that his father ordered him thrown into prison, but he was not so strictly confined as to prevent intercourse with many officials whom he tried to influence against the Czar. So incensed at length did Peter become that, alone, he repaired to the prison, and with his own hand struck a dagger into the heart of his recreant son. The second greatest character in Russian history, as before mentioned, was Catharine II., who was a German princess brought to Russia under the following circum- stances : Elizabeth, youngest daughter of Peter the Great, was without issue, though upon the throne from 1741 until 1762. In order to retain the throne in the family, she adopted a grandson of Peter I., whom she raised at Court under Imperial tutelage. When the young Peter approached his adolescence Elizabeth grew anxious for him to fix his intentions upon some princess who might, as Empress, reflect credit upon himself and the nation, but Peter was so diffident that he had to be coerced into a courtship. To this end the Empress sent for four Ger- 5 < :.U RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND man princesses all about the age of the youthful Peter, to visit her d uring the approaching winter. The girls were brought to Russia in a post-chaise, and upon their arrival they were met by the Empress, who observed a remarka- ble difference between Catharine, one of the quartette, and the other three princesses. This difference consisted in a bold, frank, careless air manifested by Catharine as she entered the Royal presence, whilst her three com- panions exhibited such modesty and awkward diffidence that Elizabeth declared, within half an hour after receiv- ing them, that Catharine should become wife to her adopted Peter. The two were brought together and their respective suits vicariously pleaded with such persistency that although Catharine could scarcely endure the Prince Imperial, yet she was induced to marry him. This union was a most unfortunate one, as will appear hereafter. Upon the death of Elizabeth, Peter I. became Czar under the title of Peter III. He was a weak ruler and directly opposite in desposition to Catharine, whose am- bition was as all-absorbing as that displayed by Peter the Great. After one year of contention Catharine took up her residence at Peterhoff, while Peter III. remained at the Winter Palace with his mistress, the Countess Stro- ganhoff. This woman gained such an influence over him that he decided to marry her. To accomplish his pur- pose he had first to get rid of Catharine, which he at- tempted to do by preparing charges against her of trea- son and inconstancy. Following these he issued an order for her arrest, which was to take place the morn- ing following. It was Catharine's good fortune to have a friend at Peter's Court who, learning of the secret arrangement to bring her to trial, which would have resulted in her ban- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 71 ishment, drove quickly to Peterhoff and acquainted her fully of the conspiracy. Catharine was not a woman to quail or grow sick at heart over this discouraging news ; but with a quick perception and the determination to dare and do, she called her waiting maid, whom she im- plicitly trusted, and ordering her sleigh to be quickly brought, she drove with all possible dispatch to St. Pe- tersburg and drew up her foaming horses before the bar- racks of the Imperial Horse Guards. It was one o'clock in the morning when she awakened the chief officer, and with speech that characterized her as a puissant queen, she told him of the conspiracy and demanded his assist- ance. The .officer was thus placed in a truly dangerous position, for his acts must now be treason either to the Emperor or Empress, for obedience to one would be treason to the other. In the moments of his indecision and while Catharine was haranguing the officers and men with words of burning eloquence, a young lieutenant named Potemkin drew his sword from its scabbard and holding it aloft declared his allegiance to the Empress and offered his services and life in her behalf. This spirit became at once contagious, and in an hour's time the Horse Guards, to a man, swore fidelity to her and promised to execute all her orders. Catharine seized the advantage which was now clearly hers, and while Peter was reposing in the arms of his mistress, unconscious of betrayal, the strategic Queen burst in upon the Winter Palace with her faithful force, intending to summarily arrest and execute her faithless husband. But the Emperor was aroused in time to effect his escape down a private stairway and, half clothed, his identity was so concealed that he fled undetected to Cron- stadt-. Here he was comparatively safe, as there was no force in all Russia that could have successfully assaulted this the strongest fortress in the Empire. 72 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND Catharine assumed control as Empress without incur- ring any opposition, and conducted the Government for a period of three months without holding any communi- cation with the dethroned Emperor. She was not satis- fied, however, with the apparent acquiescence in her rule, for there was a feeling of insecurity, occasioned by a dread of some conspiracy which might arise against her and restore the Emperor, so she concocted a diabolical plan for his assassination, the details of which show her to have been a cunning, but heartless woman. Having thoroughly conceived her purposes, Catharine wrote a lengthy letter, filled with the most affectionate declarations, to the despondent Emperor, in which she reminded him of their early courtship, the love that he bore for her before the poisonous influences of imperial- ism and sovereignty had alienated him ; she avowed her inexpressible love for him still, which, she claimed, was only realized when cruel circumstances had so strangely separated him from her ; she also absolved him from cen- sure for the part he had taken, throwing all the guilt upon those who had, through jealousy, influenced him to do that which she declared was foreign to his naturally pious and loving nature. She also pointed out the evil suffered by the nation by reason of a disgraceful act which had brought nothing but sorrow to them both. These specious pretenses were concluded by a cordial in- vitation which she extended him, announcing that, being so anxious for a reconciliation she would grieve her- self to death if it were denied, she had arranged to give him a royal dinner at Peterhoff , at which would be pres- ent a special company of his friends to welcome him back again to his loving wife and tjie throne of Russia. This letter, so skilful in its construction, completely captivated Peter, for being of a despondent nature he EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 73 only needed the effervescent spirit of such a communi- cation to dissipate the gloom which had gathered so densely about him. His friends, however, thought they detected the signs of a conspiracy in the missive, be- cause not a single sentence accorded with the nature of Catharine, whom they knew to be ambitious, despotic and unscrupulous, They therefore strongly advised him not to accept the invitation, but he could discover noth- ing in the communication beyond that which promised him a restoration to power. He accordingly ordered his yacht and sailed across to Peterhoff, his heart exulting with proud expectations and without the slightest suspicion of the dreadful death that he was hastening to. Upon reaching Peterhoff he was astonished to find no preparations for his reception, but even this did not excite in him the least apprehension. Arriving at the Palace he was told that the Empress had arranged to meet him at the Ropscha Palace. Still unsuspicious, he entered a carriage which was placed at his disposal, and drove to Ropcha, which is about twenty miles from Peterhoff, where he first be- came alarmed by failing to observe anything that indi- cated an expected visit from him. But he was now too far advanced into Catharine's territory to turn back, for flight could not have saved him. Entering the Palace he was met by an officer, who, with profound obeisance ad- dressed him as "Your Majesty," and conducted him into the reception room where a score more of officers greeted him in a manner becoming his rank. Being seated he enquired for Catharine, and was told that Her Majesty was in the toilette room with her maids, but would appear presently . In a short time dinner was announced, and he was in- vited to accompany the officers to the dining hall, where they assured him Catharine would appear at once. 74 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AN1> Everything was of such strained and uncertain charac- ter that Peter's alarm momentarily increased until when he sat down at the table his face blanched with fright. Calling again for Catharine and receiving an unsatisfacto- ry answer, Peter arose from the table and exclaimed : ROPSCHA PALACE, WHERE PETER III. WAS STRANGLED. " I perceive, gentlemen, that I have been grossly de- ceived, and that instead of inviting me to a reconcilia- tion with the Empress, this is a scheme to assassinate me. As these words were uttered Count Oraloff approached him suddenly from behind, and throwing a napkin around his neck exclaimed : "Yes, and it shall be as painless as we can make it." KX1LK L.IFK IX SII5ERIA. 75 The Emperor had time then only to cry, "Shame! shame ! ' ' when the napkin was drawn so tightly that he soon died of strangulation Catharine had but one child, a son, who was declared illegitimate, and when he ascended the throne as Paul I. a revolution was averted only by the most obsequious promises to pacify the people. He ruled for five years, but with such dissatisfaction that a conspiracy was organized against him in his own palace ; the conspirators forced themselves into his private study, and presenting a letter of abdication demanded that he should sign it. This he refused, whereupon Count Parlen, at'sisted by six others, drew a napkin about his neck and strangled him to death in the same way in which his father was executed The reign of Catharine II. was marked by the great progress Russia made, notwithstanding the wars she pre- cipited which drew so heavily upon her treasury. She did more for St. Petersburg even than Peter the Great, some of her principal works being the construction of three canals which run through the city and connect the Volga with the Neva river, by which boats may run through from the Caspian to the Baltic sea. Her politic measures were no less important, for she confirmed the abolition of the secret state inquisition ; she also educated seven thousand children, and among many other acts of public charity she established a foundling asylum at St. Petersburg, and also one at Moscow. These institutions arc the largest of the kind in the world. The one at Moscow receives an average of one hundred foundlings every day, while the one in St. Petersburg receives half that number. Her entire reign was distinguished for the successful wars she waged against Turkey, at one time pushing her arms so far that Constantinople would have been com- 7b RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND pelled to capitulate, but for the intervention of other powers. Her efforts to annex Poland precipitated a great civil war which resulted, through the intrigues of Russia, Austria and Prussia, in an assault on Warsaw and the most dreadful massacre that the pen of history has perhaps ever recorded. In 1784 Catharine gained complete possession of the Crimea and the adjacent islands ; she then established the great fort of Sevastopol, which became such a prom- inent point of attack in the Crimean war of 1853-54-55. Her private life was marked by the most demoralizing excesses, which she took no pains to conceal. She be- stowed every honor within her gift upon Potemkin, the lieutenant of the Horse Guards who espoused her cause against Peter III., and her favors were not limited to offices of preferment. She had seven favorites who were her daily companions and counselors, and these are remembered in St. Petersburg by a large bronze statue of Catharine, around the pedestal of which are grouped smaller statues of the favored Septemviri. Her ambition was abnormal, being irrepressible even in the last moments of her life. When conscious that death was at hand, with great effort she rose up so fur as her strength would allow, but fell back with these last words : " Bring me the crown, that I may feel it on my head once more before I die. The crown! the crown!" and whispering these words she expired. I EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 77 CHAPTER IV. THE third and last distinguished historical character of Russia is Alexander II., whose tragic death, March 13, 1881, startled the world. While I have selected as strik- ingly great, in the Romanoff dynasty, only three rulers, I would have it understood that my estimation of these sovereigns is based entirely upon the civil policy which they pursued, and their influence in promoting the com- merce and arts of Russia. There were greater warriors on the throne of Russia than Peter the Great, among whom I may mention Tamerlane, Ivan IV., surnamed the Terrible, and Vladimir the Great, but I have not at- tempted to outline a general history of Russia, as that task has been accomplished already by several writers whose works have become standard in the various civil- ized countries. My purpose in introducing Peter the Great, Catharine II. and Alexander II. as pre-eminently prominent sovereigns was to utilize their administrations as a specially appropriate prelude to the subject of Rus- sia's internal revolution. Their several policies and ten- dencies serve to illustrate the mercurial and violent na- ture of the Russian people, as well as the burdens they have had to endure, and with the foregoing epitome of the two greatest administrations in Russia an intelli- gent comprehension of that which is to follow may be had. When Alexander came to the throne there was every- thing to discourage him. His father had died under the most lamentable circumstances ; the Crimean war fail- ure had caused mutterings and a restlessness among the people which seemed to threaten disruption, if not revo- lution ; there was an empty treasury gaping at a debt of 78 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND ALEXANDER II., LATE EMPEROR OF RUSSIA. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. ' 79 frightful proportions ; and as the war with the Allied Powers had not yet terminated, he reached the throne in time to be held responsible for the downfall of Sevasto- pol. Nicholas I. was a despot whose iron hand had crushed out every semblance of liberty, and the people were naturally distrustful of the son of such a man, but the first acts of Alexander II. was to reduce the public burdens and inaugurate social reforms of great consequence to the people. At the conclusion of peace he reduced his army to the lowest possible limits compatible with the safety of the Empire ; he next established trial by jury, devised a code of laws for the restraint of the royal fam- ily, and so mitigated the censorship of the press that immediately literature was stimulated and with it fol- lowed a rapid progress in all the arts and sciences. But in making these reforms he met with a stubborn opposi- tion from the noblesse, so that they finally became as laws observed only in the breach. An author writing at the time on the profession and practices of the adminis- tration observes : "In the administration of justice we find on the one hand publicity and ample show of discussion during the proceedings, and in the jury-box ; on the other a practice which removes inconvenient persons from the cognizance of a tribunal, and sends them ' administratively ' to Si- beria. On the one side abolition of corporal chastise- ment as a criminal and disciplinary punishment ; on the other, incessant floggings in secret. On the one side a recognition of the principles of self-government in the provinces and towns ; on the other, the impossibility of turning this to any practical use through fear of Gov- ernors, Ministers, Councillors, or Chiefs of Gendarmes. On the one side a strict demarcation of power among 80 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND the various authorities, and a distinct separation of judi- cial from administrative functions ; on the other, an un- bounded exercise of arbitrary power by higher police officials, who in their turn are ruled over by the * Third Section,' whose supreme command overrides everything else." Although the reforms sought to be established by Alexander were suggested by an honest intention to remedy many crying evils, instead of eradicating, or even ameliorating any of the vicious practices so long complained of, seem to have served no other purpose than that of creating an inveterate hostility to him person- ally, which culminated, after five unsuccessful attempts, in his assassination. We are now brought to a period in Russian history where Nihilism had its beginning, for, strange enough, this bloody creature of a disordered if not frenzied con- ception had its birth in the very cradle of emancipation. Communism was a disquieting, if not dangerous factor in Russia as early as 1825, when a band of conspirators attempted to substitute constitutional for despotic Gov- ernment through the 'assassination of Alexander I., but there was a great dissimilarity in the two organizations, found in the fact that Communism of that time had a defined policy and a formulated idea of the Government it proposed to establish, while Nihilism is exactly what the word implies, " nothing ;" a determination to wreak vengeance without considering either the means or o O result. Russian Communism in 1825 had its origin in a grow- ing discontent with existing institutions and a desire to see them replaced by laws more in accordance with mod- ern ideas. This disposition, which was first manifested among the nobles, grew out of that vast wave of thought EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 81 to which the French Revolution gave rise, and, to some extent, to the unsettling forces set free during the great struggle with Napoleon I. The close of the life of Alexander I. was embittered by the reflection of how much he had done for his people and the ingratitude they had returned. From time to time he received mysterious messages containing warn- ings that his life and throne were in danger. His mind became so gloomy under these threatened calamities that he died of a broken heart at Togaurog. An interregnum ensued, during which, while Nicholas was refusing to exclude his elder brother from the throne and while Constantine was undetermined whether or not to swear allegiance to his younger brother, the Commun- ists gained strength and their plans coherency. The re- sult was a military insurrection in December, 1825, which terminated in a dreadful carnage. The attack was made on the Winter Palace by about five thousand men, who gathered in the Alexander Square in broken ranks, and with such weapons as they could collect. The mob was met by a battery of heavy artillery, planted in front of the Ministry of Justice, one hundred yards from the Palace, which, with grape-shot, opened fire on the crowd until nearly three thousand of the revolutionists were mangled in instant death or left dying in a sea of blood. This dreadful slaughter suppressed Communism until, upon the accession of Alexander II., Alexander Herzen organized a revolutionary committee and established a printing office in London , where Nihilistic literature was printed and used to inflame the passions of adventurers and those who were conscious of Russian oppression. This committee had its branches in Paris, Berlin and Geneva, but was making little progress when the Em- peror declared, by act of emancipation February 19, 82 El \s$l AX MHILISM AND 1861, the freedom of the Serfs. This was a blow at the Russain nobility which proved disastrous to their inter- ests and led to evils far beyond those anticipated by the Emperor. The history of Serfdom may be briefly told, and as it is essential to a correct understanding of the emancipa- tion proclamation and its consequences, is herewith given : The original settlers of Russia being 1 from the east and ~ o south, the nomadic disposition which characterized them continued to be a feature of the Government, until meas- ures were taken, at first of a mild, persuasive nature, to induce a permanent settlement of the people, in order that agriculture might be promoted. Incursions from neighboring tribes for purposes of forage and reprisal, followed by hordes who retaliated upon the invaders, be- came so general as to prevent any attempt to engage in productive industry, until in 1592 Boris Godunoff, of the Rurik dynasty, became convinced that there could be no progress or cohesion in his Empire unless the per- nicious custom was abolished. He accordingly promul- gated a peremptory decree, forbidding peasants from changing' their residence or appearing off their communal estates without a permit from the Governor of their re- spective districts. All efforts to enforce this decree proved futile, because no adequate punishment was pro- vided for its infraction. Determined in his purpose, however, Godunoff had enacted and put into execution another law which gave the right to any nobleman which was a wealthy class of landed estate owners, whose occupation was chiefly stock raising to hold in bondage all the peasants em- ployed by him, and also the further right of forcibly taking and owning as slaves any peasant whom he might EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA, 83 84 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND find off the communal estate on which such peasant was recorded as a resident. This latter law gave the noble- men absolute ownership of the serfs thus forced into bondage, with the right to dispose of them the same as other chattels. The law remained unchanged until dur- ing the reign of Nicholas I., when that sovereign issued another decree taking away from the noblemen the right of selling their serfs except as they might be disposed of with the estates of their masters. So extensive did this system of slavery become that in the year 1858 it is computed there were 47,100,000 per- sons in servitude, more than one-half the entire popula- tion of European Russia. Of this number M. Rambaud estimates that 20,000,000 were Crown peasants, 4,700,- 000 were peasants attached to estates, which were the Appenages of the Crown, laboring in mines and factories belonging to the Crown ; 21,000,000 belonged to private individuals and 1,400,000, were domestic servants. The serfs of the Crown and of the Appenages might be considered as free men, subject to the payment of a rent, and bound only to perform certain defined obliga- tions to the State, while they were permitted to enjoy a restricted local self-government. To emancipate these involved only an Imperial edict of manumission, which was done gradually by a series of ukases, the first of which bore date July, 1858. The emancipation of those serfs belonging to private owners, however, was a task not so easily performed, for, as Rambaud observes, " the liberation of these 22,400,000 human beings was to constitute the most prodigious social revolution that has been accomplished since the French Revolution." Particularly was the task a difficult one, sin^e the scheme provided for the liberation of the serfs under such conditions as left them in possession of EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 8G RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND the estates they hud cultivated, but imposed obligations upon them which may be summed up in the following : 1st. The peasants were to be invested with the privi- leges of free cultivators. 2d. They were to have, under conditions expressed in the decree, the full enjoyment of their enclosure, and also of a portion of productive land sufficient to enable them by industry to discharge certain obligations to the State. This enjoyment might become absolute posses- sion of the enclosure by purchase. 3d. The noblemen were to surrender to the peasants all the land actually occupied by them, a maximum and minimum being fixed for each commune the serfs lived in communes in a manner which will be explained here- after. The average allowance was nine acres of arable land to each male serf ; the allotment differed greatly, however, in different districts, according to the charac- ter of the soil ; in some rich localities as little as three acres were granted each serf, while in the most unpro- ductive portions as much as twenty-five acres was the portion. 4. The Government obligated itself to organize a sys- tem of laws through which the serfs were to be enabled to discharge their obligations to the State. 5. The domestic servants were to be granted an uncon- ditional freedom after serving their masters forthe period of two years. 6. The owners of the land and serfs were to receive compensation, for the property thus yielded, by a money payment, which was based upon the rents they had re- ceived and the value of their serf labor, which was to be calculated at a yearly rental of six per cent ; "so that, for every six roubles which the laborer had earned an- nually, he had to pay one hundred roubles to his EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 87 master as his capital value to become a free holder." Of this sum, twenty per cent, was advanced by the Govern- ment to the noblemen (owners) which was to be refund- ed by the freed peasants in installments extending over fifty-nine years. To secure this repayment, the Govern- ment imposed a tax on the commune, making the house- holders of each Mir, or village, individually responsible for the entire sum, charging on each commune a portion of the redemption dues and other imperial taxes propor- tionate to the number of males in the census list, which is revised and republished annually.* This Imperial ukase of emancipation went into effect February 19, 1861, and immediately produced a violent feeling, which for a time threatened civil war. We, in America, who know the effect of President Lincoln's manumission proclamation, can readily understand the rebellious spirit which must have animated the Russian noblemen, for though there was a compensation fixed by the Government, by which the serf owners were to re- ceive a money consideration, yet the scheme of payment Avas of such a character as to be practically valueless to the noblemen. It was a virtual confiscation of both their lands and serfs. Under the system of serfdom there developed a no- blesse class of aristocracy, who practiced the most extrav- agant indulgences, maintaining fine country seats in France, Switzerland and Bavaria, dressing in a garb of richest splendor when in Russia, keeping scores of mis- tresses, and breathing nothing but the atmosphere of profligacy. They not only derived an income from their pastoral estates, but encouraged their more ambitious slaves to * Russia, Past and Present, by H. M. Chester. 88 KITSSIAN NIHILISM AXD engage in business in the cities. Thousands of serfs of quick intelligence were glad to pay their masters the sum A RUSSIAN NOBLE LADY OF THE XVITH CENTURY. of one thousand roubles annually for what they could earn in commercial undertakings. But there are hun- EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 89 dreds of instances in which greedy masters compelled their serfs, who had prospered in business, to pay them ten times the amount they had thus agreed to accept. There was a law which made noblemen amenable to con- tracts thus entered into with their serfs, but it was ren- dered inoperative by the right of the owner, at the ex- piration of such time as he had agreed to grant freedom to his slave, to compel his serf to abandon business and return to the commune. Suddenly stripped of their wealth, and entirely unac- customed to any employment, the noblemen were left in a sorry condition by the Imperial ukase of 1861. Being from almost time immemorial used to princely revenues, and with a power which exalted their pride to the very limit of aggrandizement, the aristocratic lords were pre- cipitated, in a day, to the level of their minions, and we are not surprised to learn that they felt bitter toward the Government. This intense hatred soon developed into an active opposition, which culminated in Nihilism. The noblemen were educated, and their former position, an aroma of which still clings to them, gave them that influence among the ignorant classes which they have wielded so potentially ever since. Keeping behind the scenes themselves, they have used those whom flattering speech and promises of an Utopia could beguile, to commit revolutionary acts. The students, who are al- most continually committing some overt act against the Government, are the sons of those old noblemen who have transmitted their grievances and who look to the second generation for areclaimation of their rights. There is a vast difference between Communism and Ni- hilsm in Russia, the latter being far the more radical and aggressive, with less direction of purpose. During the early years of Alexander L, and following quipkly upon RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND EXILE LIFE IN KlliEiMA. 91 the overthrow of Napoleon, Russia, in common with all Europe, shouted herself hoarse in an enthusiasm for na- tionality. At this time the " Slavophils " were the na- tional reactionists, with many discordant elements which prevented homogeniety among them. During the reign of Nicholas the existence of even a shadowy form of liberalism was rendered impossible by the energetic action of thousands of secret police, though at Moscow there were individual liberalists, no two being in concert, however, so that of an organization there was not the least semblance. But toward the close of Nicholas' reign a group of students in the Uni- versity of Moscow began a discussion with the view of securing refuge from the absolutism which hedged them about in almost helpless conscription of thought and ac- tion. This idea was no doubt created by a study of He- gel's and Sch tiling's -philosophy, particularly the former, which excited such an interest among the students that there developed a mania for his works to the neglect of all other studies. There were two parties among these incipient philoso- phers, one of which was under the leadership of Alexander Herzen, who inclined to French Socialism, while the other branch recognized as their champions Aksakof, Kiriec- vskis and Samarin, who clung tenaciously to the Hege- lian school until they progressed into Romanticists. Their ideas finally crystalized around the belief that Western Europe was in a vortex of ruin, while Russia alone remained in that state of youth and vigor as gave promise, through the adoption of measures they advo- vocated, of reaching the highest plane in science, art and cultured civilization. To better accomplish their purpose, these fanatical students adopted the garb of the peasantry, wearing their 92 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND shirts over their trowsers and going about in sleeveless jackets to the great astonishment of Moscow. This move was to obtain the favor of a major class as well also as to manifest their sincerity. Hegel's philosophy of history taught that a new race, to have dominion over the world, must be the messengers of new ideas and principles ; the discovery, therefore, of the system of Russian Communism by Baron Von Hox- thansen in 1842, was accepted by the Slavophils as a rev- elation of the idea and principle upon which was to be es- tablished the Pan-Sclavonic nation of the future. This firmly imbedded belief became, as it were, the very con- stitution of Communism, and was the basis upon which Herzen builded his Socialism. Associated with the dem- ocratic tendency of the Slavophils to regenerate the nation through the common people, was their fidelity to the Church, which it was positively believed had protected them from Protestant infidelity and Papal oppression. This school of enthusiasts, though small in numbers for several years, had no little influence, and by the mani- festation of almost unexampled persistency they at length began to grow in numbers with great rapidity, while with their growth they became more pronounced in a developing sympathy with extreme radicalism. In 1860 the celebrated novelist, Ivan Tourguenief , in a popular story, applied the term "Nihilists" to the Hegelian Slavophils, whom he accused of a desire to de- stroy everything. But the word "Nihilism" was used as a synonym for scepticism many years before by Roy- ercollard and Victor Hugo. Alexander Herzen has been credited with being the founder of Nihilism, but this is a mistake, the real part he acted being that of an Evangelist of Nihilistic doctrines in Russia. Associated with Herzen were Tshernikevski and Bakunin, the latter EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. of whom succeeded Herzen in the editorship of the famous Kolokol. Under Herzen, this organ advocated re- forms and the introduction of Socialism with a modera- tion, however, in all its articles which made it respected by all parties, but under Bakunin it changed from a radical into a revolutionary journal and in a fiery, un- reasonable manner advocated the subversion of both Church and State, even at the expense of chaos. The violent manner in which Bakunin agitated his declared Nihilistic purpose may be better judged by the fol- lowing extracts from a manifesto, which he issued in 18G8 on behalf of an organization calling itself the " Alliance Internationale de la Democratic Socialiste," of which he was the head : " Brethren, I come to announce unto you a new gospel, which must penetrate to the very ends of the world. * * The old world must be destroyed and replaced by a new one. * . * The Lie must be stamped out, and give way to Truth. * * * The first lie is God; the second lie is Right > and when you have freed your minds from the fear of a God, and from that childish respect for the fiction of Eight : , then all the re- maining chains that bind you, and which are called science, civilization, property, marriage, morality, and justice, will snap asunder like threads. * * * Let your own happiness be your only law. * * * Our first work must be destruction and annihilation of everything as it now exists ; you must accustom yourselves to destroy everything, the good with the bad ; for if but an atom of this old world remains, the new will never be created." It is unfortunate that some zealous pupil of the fanati- cal agitator did not accept this advice and begin the work of destruction, for the upbuilding of a new world, by putting a quietus on Bakunin, 94 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND Another writer of seditious pamphlets in Russia makes use of this language : 44 Down with instruction and science; we have had enough of it for a thousand years. The thirst for it is an aristocratic one which, like the desire for conjugal felicity, engenders a love of wealth. We must extirpate this taste, and develop in its place drunkenness, backbit- ing, and a corruption till now unknown. All geniuses must be stifled in their cradles. So we shall arrive at a perfect equality." It is difficult to find a reason why such insane declara- tions find favor among any people, much less among the Nihilist teachers, who belong to the more intelligent and educated class. Yet according to the declarations made by Solovieff, the Emperor's would-be assassin, in his confession, more than three-fourths of all the Nihilists with whom he was connected were formerly students of the universities. Signor Arnando, who has made a special study of Ni- hilism, and who writes so intelligently on the subject, says : "The association of so many Russian youths of culture with doctrines so utterly at variance with common sense and humanity, may be explained in three ways. First, the Russians understand science easily, and like the study of it, provided it is all prepared for them by others. This accounts for the fact that Russia has produced very little original talent. Secondly, the rising generation shows a great tendency toward idleness, and a great lik- ing for conversations and discussions. It has two defects : It is too easily excited and never thoroughly investigates a subject. The Russian youths are intelligent, and ap- propriate with extraordinary promptitude all that comes to them from abroad, but they take it as it comes and build their own theories upon it. Thirdly, as Professor EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 95 Fleury has remarked, all the young men and women that frequent the universities show the same inaptitude for reasoning and abstract ideas ; their minds seize and retain particulars and details, but with difficulty surmount the conception of generality and collectiveness." CHAPTER V. TROUBLE grew apace in Russia after the liberation of the serfs, in which even the freedmen were inclined against their sovereign. They began to grumble because the Czar had not given them their freedom without im- posing a burden which it would require years of hard labor for them to remove. In 1863 Poland, that had dreamed of an untrammelled autonomy, at least since 1815, became the scene of a bloody insurrection, while all over Russia blazed up in- cendiary fires, and St. Petersburg was threatened with destruction. It was a gloomy period, but Alexander did not exhibit any other disposition than that of determina- tion. He argued that if a people will not be satisfied with the perfecting of reforms as rapidly as the condition of affairs would permit, the safest policy to pursue was coer- cion. Accordingly the insurrection in Poland was put down by a liberal, if not unmerciful, use of ball and steel. He now began to receive mysterious warnings that his life was in danger, but reckoning these as the idle fancies or ulterior designs of zealots, he gave no heed or care to such communications, until April 16, 1866, a young Pole named Karakozoff, who was employed by the revolutionary committee, made an attempt upon the Emperor's life. It was on Sunday afternoon, when the 1)6 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND Czar was about to take his customary walk in the Sum- mer Garden. A large crowd had collected near the gates fronting the quay on the Neva to witness his Maj- esty's departure. At the moment he was crossing the pavement to enter his sledge, a man stepped hurriedly forward from the crowd and presenting a pistol, which he had drawn from beneath a large cloak, fired at the Emperor. Fortunately for his Majesty a peasant hap- pened to be standing very near the assassin and having observed something suspicious in the movements of the criminal, jumped forward in time to knock the pistoi up and thus save the Emperor's life, when immediately the man was arrested. The peasant who had saved the Czar's life was named Kamissaroff, and in gratitude for his es- cape the Emperor granted a liberal annuity to the fortu- nate peasant, besides creating him a noble. As an example of the number of superstitious stories that were universally accepted by the common people as true, and were gravely published in the Russian papers as authentic facts, the following may be quoted : At three o'clock on the day when the attempt was made, the people of Rappenberg, a smail town in the Government of Riazan, which was the native place of Kamissaroff, were startled by the detonating peals of the alarm bell. On rushing to the church to learn the O cause, the people were greatly terrified to perceive that there was no one in the belfry ; that the rope still hung unmolested on a hook in the wall, and that the bell had rung of itself. Three days later the St. Petersburg pa- pers reached Rappenberg, containing an account of the attempt on the Emperor's life, when instantly the people were satisfied why the mysterious warning had been given. It was only natural that this first attempt on the life of EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 97 the Czar, whose reign had been consistently manned by a long series of popular reforms, should produce through- out the Empire a feeling of intense indignation, but at the time it was hoped that Karakozoff's crime was noth- ing more than the rash work of a small and not very powerful revolutionary party in Poland. All such hopes, however, were soon dissipated, and from the facts brought out at the trial it became evident that the Nihilists were already a strong and dangerous organization, with a code of laws and disciplined forces, as will hereafter be ex- plained. Karakozoff was brought to trial, found guilty and con- demned to be hanged, but the sentence of death was commuted by the Emperor to transportation to Siberia for life. The following year, 1867, another attempt to assassi- nate the Czar was made while his majesty was driving through the streets of Paris, with his two sons and the Emperor, Napoleon III. This second attack was also made by a Pole, named Berezovsky, who fired at the Em- peror, but happily with imperfect aim. No further overt act of the Nihilists was committed until in 1870, when a party of students were arrested for incendiary speeches and the publication of a paper filled with revolutionary articles intending to incite the people against the Czar. Among the sixteen that were arrested at this time was one named Sergius Netschaief , who disclosed the furious zeal with which Russian students of the advanced school em- brace the wildest doctrines of Socialism. In addition to this he also described the Nihilist organization, and as these statements have been frequently verified by other Nihilists who turned informers after their arrest, they may be accepted as true. The organization is divided into groups of members^ 98 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND each group having either five, ten or fifteen members who are under the authority of a chief, who alone is in imme- diate communication with the commander of twenty groups. These commanders hold intercourse with the executive committee, but only through a delegate. The executive committee forms the center of the Nihilist party and serves to the maintenance of the most strict and se- cret discipline. The slightest act of treachery or disobe- dience to its orders is punished by death. Many bodies of murdered men have been discovered in the cities or highways of Russia, a small dagger piercing the corpse, to which a scroll was attached bearing the significant in- scription , ' ' Death for Treachery . ' ' Recruiting the ranks is done in this manner : There are recruiting officers whose duty it is to search out per- sons whom it is desirable to have in the organization, and this is done in the following way : A man of apparent intelligence but of evident poverty, of whom there are thousands in every part of Russia, is, for instance, seen haunting some park or public place for want of occupa- tion. The recruiting officer watches him from day to day until satisfied that the man is in sore need, when he cas- ually approaches him and engages at first in a general conversation. An acquaintance is thus formed, and famil- iarity soon draws from the man an admission of his poverty and a desire to engage in anything that promises even such compensation as would afford him a livelihood. The officer suddenly remembers that he has a friend who is desirous of engaging a confidential agent, and proffers an introduction and recommendation. The poor fellow is, of course, elated at the prospect of securing employ- ment and is punctual in keeping the appointment, which is arranged for. He is told by the third person that a vacancy exists, who offers the position with a salary of one EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 99 or two hundred roubles per month to the happy expect- ant, who is immediately engaged. The poor man is re- quired to report from day to day at the headquarters of his employer, but has nothing in particular to do for per- haps two or three months. He is gradually prepared in the meantime for serious service .by prejudicing his mind against the Government and in favor of the Nihilists, who are represented as a band of patriots whose aims are all for the eradication of evils which have long oppressed the people. Thus, without acquainting him with the duties he is expected to perform, the person controlling his services at length fortifies him for the obligation which he is soon after compelled to take. When these prepara- tions are completed the man may be called on to assist in laying a dynamite mine, lighting an incendiary fire, or to commit murder. If he rebels at such orders he is told of his engagement and that his services belong to the execu- tive committee of Nihilists who will hold him to a serious accountability. In other words, there is the alternative of death or obedience, for he is now known to the com- mittee without in turn knowing the members, and it is 'only in rare instances that he will incur the danger which he is soon convinced will surely follow disobedience. In this way hundreds of recruits are made in addition to the large number who volunteer their services. The expenses of this bloody organization are defrayed out of a general fund which is created by subscriptions raised by committees in foreign countries, particularly in Switzer- land, France and England, and also by contributions from noblemen, whose influence and purses are almost univer- sally placed at the disposal of the revolutionary party. 100 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND CHAPTEK VI. THE war with Turkey, declared on April 12, 1877, as might be expected, gave fresh life and energy to the cause of Nihilism, which had for its object the securing of liberty at home. This war was ostensibly waged for the protection of Christians who were living under Mos- lum rule. When peace was concluded and a Representa- tive Chamber was opened in Bulgaria, Russia was the only European country that did not enjoy a constitu- tional Government more or less developed. The action of the Czar in declaring the freedom of Bulgaria and granting special privileges and autonomy to that country, while refusing like privileges to his own people, inflamed the Nihilists anew and greatly strengthened their organi- zation. For a while the Nihilist leaders believed that the end they had in view could be attained by striking a mortal blow at officialism, and this is proved by the fact that not counting the attempt made at Paris by the Polish advocate Berezovsky an interval of no less than thirteen years elapsed between the attempt made on the Empe- ror's life by Karakozoff and that made by Solovieff in 1879. In that interval General Trepoff, then Police Master of St. Petersburg, was severely wounded by Vera Zassulitch ; General Mezentrieff, Chief of the Secret Po- lice Department, was mortally wounded ; and General Drenteln, his successor, was shot at. Of all that have within the last thirty years occupied the high post of Police Master of St. Petersburg, General Trepoff, without doubt, was the most energetic and most zealous. But like most comparatively irresponsible officials, he was fre- quently apt to take the law into his own hands, and dur- 5 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND of 'power succeeded in amassing an enor- mous fortune. Thus, once when on a visit of inspection at the Fortress, one of the political prisoners, a certain Bogolouboff , not having saluted him though it was later most clearly proved that he had done so had his cap knocked off by the irate General and was ordered to be whipped, a sentence which, though manifestly in viola- tion of all Russian law, was executed within twenty-four hours. The whipping, somehow, in spite of all efforts to have the affair hushed up, got public, and more than one paper even ventured to expose the illegal nature of the punishment. Vera Zassulitch, who had not long quitted one of the Government educational institutes, and who, as was alleged, had been on intimate relations with Bogo- louboff, heard of the humiliation to which he had been subjected and determined to revenge him. For this purpose she came up to St. Petersburg from her country home in the Government of Yaroslaff, and presenting herself at the Police Master's official residence on one of his public reception days, whilst pretending to give a petition into his hands, drew forth a pistol from under her coat, and wounded the General so severely that his life for several days was despaired of, and he was com- pelled to retire finally from all public duties. The woman was arrested, and after long preliminary examinations was brought to trial. There was no doubt of her guilt, nor did she in any way attempt to deny it ; but on the con- trary gave to the court a full and precise account of the reasons that had prompted her to commit the crime. The effect of her defence was so great that the jury, after a short deliberation, brought in a verdict of not guilty. The Litenaya, a wide street in which the court where she was tried is situated, was thronged with a crowd of people anxiously awaiting the result, and when the fact EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 103 of her acquittal became known, the verdict was received with the most uproarious applause, and a serious collision took place between the people and the police, in the course of which several persons were killed, but Vera was rushed away by the sympathizing mob and concealed in a neighboring house. What is most remarkable, how- ever, is that the metropolis press, without a single excep- tion, warmly approved of her acquittal, one paper declar- ing the verdict to be "the voice of God;" and the Moscow Gazatte, the avowed organ of the Retrogradists, was singular in its condemnation of what it declared to be "a gross miscarriage of injustice." A resident of St. Petersburg, who was present a't the trial of Vera Zassulitch, and who was familiar with her life, gave me the following history of the woman : She was the daughter of a Russian officer in high rank, and at the time of committing the crime was twenty-eight years of age. She was a well educated and attractive lady, but so thoroughly imbued with revolutionary doctrines that she sacrificed all other interests for the cause of Nihi- lism, though it is not known that she contributed any- thing more dangerous than her influence ; notwithstand- ing this, for more than eleven years preceding her attack upon Gen. Trepoff, she endured continual persecu- tions at the hands of the police, and it is to the sympa- thy universally evoked by the account of her sufferings that she mainly owed her acquittal from the terrible crime of which she was manifestly guilty, and that the great populur enthusiasm with which the verdict was re- ceived in Russia is due. At the age of seventeen, while trying to support herself as a bookbinder at St. Peters- burg, she was arrested, owing to being the intimate school- friend of a young lady named Netchaieff , whose brother had just been implicated in some conspiracy at Moscow. 104 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND According to some accounts, Yera Zassulitch acted as a species of go-between and letter-carrier ; but this is not confirmed, and, be her offence what it might, she was closely imprisoned for two years without the slightest shadow of a trial. A few days after her release, more- over, she was again arrested for no ostensible reason, and carried off this time to Eastern Russia, and might VERA ZASSULITCH. have perished with cold on the journey had not a kind gendarme lent her his cloak. She remained at Krestsi, in the province of Novgorod, under police supervision for two more years, and in 1871 was allowed to go to Tver to live with a brother-in-law, also a political exile. The latter, however, getting into trouble, owing to the EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 105 dissemination of prohibited books, Vera Zassulitch was once more arrested and brought to St. Petersburg. In 1873 she was transferred to Kharkoff , and in 1875 was at last liberated. From that time she appears to have lived in retirement until July, 1876, when her feelings were excited by the details of -the cruel treatment of a political prisoner named Bogoluboff, who had been flog- ged by order of General Trepoff , the Prefect of Police at St. Petersburg, for some act of insubordination, but mainly because he had neglected to take off his cap on meeting that official for a second time in the prison pre- cincts. As Vera Zassulitch well knew the hardships of prison life, and the tyranny of the officials, this story made an intense impression on her mind, and, after wait- ing some time to see if any official notice would be given to the affair, she determined to take the matter in hand herself, and, in her own words, "At the price of my own ruin to draw public attention to the affair, and prove that a human being may not be insulted in that way with impunity. It is a terrible thing to raise one's hand against a fellow creature, but I could find no other means. ... It was all the same to me whether I killed or wounded the Prefect, and when I fired at him I did not aim at any particular place." To be brief, Vera Zassulitch sought an interview with General Trepoff in his reception room, and then and there shot him in the side with a revolver. For this she was brought to trial early in the month, the jury before whom she appeared being half composed of Government officials, the re- mainder being formed of persons in good position. The result was a verdict of " Not Guilty," a decision which was greeted with tremendous -enthusiasm by an audience com- posed of some 600 persons, the-applause being taken up by the crowd outside. On her appearance a perfect tumult en- 10(5 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND sued, and numerous arrests were made by the police, sev- eral of the rioters being shot. Had she not escaped, through the aid of friends who had a closed carriage in waiting, expecting her acquittal, Vera Zassulitch would no doubt have been re-arrested and tried before a mili- tary Court Martial, in which event she would have been convicted a-nd executed. But on the other hand, so . great was the popular sympathy for her that had the ver- dict of the jury been " Guilty," no one who is acquainted with the intense feeling manifested in her interest can for a moment doubt that the mob would have rushed into the court-room and torn to pieces not only the jurors but also the judges a-nd prosecutors. She is supposed to be in Switzerland, under protection of an assumed name and the revolutionary party, but others stoutly maintain that she was captured and secretly put to death. Later events have proved that the acquittal of Zassulitch, even more than the clemency shown to Karakozoff, was a mistake. The Nihilists only became bolder in their operations than they had shown themselves to be before. The attack on Mezentrieff soon followed. In spile of the hateful office which he held, the high character he bore had long won for him general and ungrudged es- teem. The plot against him was most cautiously planned weeks before it was carried into execution A thorough bred horse and a well furnished droshky were hired, and for some mornings were regularly to be seen standing at the corner of Michel Square and the Italianskaya street, which the General invariably passed while taking his usual early morning walk. On a morning of June, 1877, as was afterward proved, the three or four droshkies that happened to be in the street waiting to be hired were engaged by persons privy to the plot, so that any attempt to arrest them could be rendered, if not impossible, at EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 107 least very difficult. As the General, in company with M. Makaroff,- his aid-de-camp, approached the corner, a man extremely well dressed came quickly up as if intend- ing to speak to him, and with a dagger stabbed him twice. The blows were so instantaneously given that M. Makar- off, who just then had fallen a few steps behind, had no time to interfere, the assassins having leaped into the droshky th'at was waiting and drove off down the Sado- vaya street and across the Nevski at a furious rate. It is true that a soldier, who had seen the whole affair, pur- sued the criminals for some little distance, but they were soon out of sight, nor were the real murderers arrested till after the terrible assassination of March 13, 1881. In the meantime, M. Makaroff hurried up to the Gen- eral and raising him up with the assistance of those who had run to the spot in answer to his cries for help, asked him how he felt: "I am dying," was the reply, and when conveyed home the doctors who were summoned de- clared that there was no hope of recovery. He, however, lingered in great agony till about five o'clock in the after- noon. The crime, from its daringness and from the well arranged skill with which it was carried out, naturally caused a great sensation, and the question, what measures should be taken for the prevention of such- crimes in the future, was anxiously debated by the Imperial Min- isters in council. It would appear that no decision was immediately come to. But before long a fresh and all but successful at- tempt on the life of the Emperor convinced those in authority that in the war they had to wage with the party of Terrorism there could no longer be any dallying, but that the sternest measures of repression ^rnust be adopted. On April 14, 1879, the Emperor was taking his usual early stroll round the Winter Palace, when on com- 108 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND ing near to that part of the building which adjoins the Hermitage on the Millionaya side, he met an individual who stopped as if to salute him, but drawing out a six bar- reled pistol, tired deliberately three times at the Emperor, none of which, however, took effect. The would-be as- sassin was at once seized by the police and bystanders, though not before he had made a most desperate resist- ance, and had shot one of the crowd. As soon as he was secured he was seized with fainting, and the fact that poison was found under his finger-nails and about him led to a suspicion that he had poisoned himself . Emetics were at once administered, and he recovered. On being questioned the prisoner stated that his name was Ivan Solovieff, and that he was employed in a provincial branch of the Ministry of Finance. Considerable anxiety was excited by the . curious coincidence that for three days before the attempt placards had been posted on the walls of St. Petersburg, from the Secret Executive Committee, and addressed to " Mr. Alexander Nicolaievitch," and de- claring that the invisible advocates of the people had set themselves to clear out the Augean stable of despotism, but that neither the Czar nor any member of the dynasty had been threatened. After declaring against the army, "a cruel and insatiable army of thieves," the tribunals, "a mockery of justice," and the generals, "so many satraps," the document concluded, "Think, Alexander Nicolaievitch, where this must all lead. You go directly to perdition, and therefore we spare 3-0111- life." It would seem that the Emperor's suspicions had been excited by something that struck him in Solovieff 1 s gait and manners, and that he had furtively made a signal to a soldier who was on guard close by, but that the latter, failing to understand the Emperor's meaning, only came up after the assassin had fired a third time. Although EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA, 109 110 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND the balls missed, the escape of the Emperor may be almost regarded as miraculous, and was due to the for- tunate circumstance that the Czar, having observed some- thing suspicious in Solovieff, almost before the first shot was fired, hurried forward in a zigzag direction, and turned under the nearest gateway. That same day a Council of Ministers was held under the immediate pres- idency of the Emperor, and it was decided to declare St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kieff, Odessa, and other large cities of the Empire in a state of siege, and to appoint military Governors, with all but unlimited powers, over provinces of which these cities were the capitals. Thus General Guerko, who had won to him self no little renown in the inarch across the Balkans during the Turkish cam- paign, was made military Governor of St. Petersburg. Solovieff was soon brought to trial and convicted, and on June 9th his execution took place publicly in a field near the Smolensk Cemetery at St. Petersburg. At an early hour crowds had collected round the scaffold, and when the condemned man arrived it is estimated that fully 6,000 spectators were present. Soon after 9 o'clock the authorities made their way to the place of execution. The scaffold was a plain wooden structure, painted black, and surrounded by an iron rail ; outside this rail was a strong guard of both infantry and cavalry. At a quarter to ten the cart arrived in which Solovieff was seated firmly bound. He was dressed in the black coat, white trousers and cap usually worn by criminals of the higher class, in addition to which a large black label was hung round his neck, on which W 7 ere the words, " State Criminal." He was unbound, and, having ascended the steps which led to the scaffold, with undaunted firmness, stood calmly regarding the crowd while the sentence was once more read to him. The newspaper reporters alone EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA, 111 112 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND seemed to attract his attention. The priest then stepped up to him, but his offers of consolation were quietly and politely refused. The hangman then placed the white shirt and cap on the unfortunate man, and exactly at ten o'clock, amid the noise made by a band of drummers se- lected from the different regiments, the board was dragged away, and after a brief struggle Solovieff ceased to exist. The body in half-an-hour's time was removed by a strong escort of Cossacks to the place of burial. The futility of all repressive measures was, however, made evident by subsequent events. The work of the terror- ists was not interrupted for a single day, as we now know from the confessions subsequently made by one of their agents, a certain Goldenberg, during his imprisonment in the Fortress. Many of the stories concerning their activ- ity are mere fictions, but the following has been vouched for on the best authority : One day General Drenteln, the successor of Mcventrieff, found on the table in his office a threatening letter, and when he had read it, he laughingly turned to his private adjutant, the only official then in the room, with the remark: "They might as well write their letters on clean paper." The next morn- ing another letter was discovered on the same spot, apol- ogizing for the " unseemly appearance of the letter of yesterday," and expressing a hope that the present one would meet with the General's approval. Three years later, after the arrest of Kousakoff and the other crimi- nals concerned in the assassination of the Emperor, proofs were forthcoming of the actual complicity in the proceed- ings of the Nihilists of more than one trusted official in the Secret Police Department. But, as I have said, the party of terror all this time continued their work. Ac- cording to the statement made by Fliaboff at the great State Trial in March, 1882, the central committee decided EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 113 * in August, 1879, to make a mine under the railroad from Krusk to Moscow, about 17 versts from the latter city, the mine to be blown up when the train should pass with the Emperor and his suite on their return from Livadia in the Crimea. A small house was hired near the railway, and an underearth passage was dug from the house up to the right-hand rail, the work being carried on with the greatest circumspection. It is strange and at the same time shows how ineffective Russian police administration is, that a work of such dimensions and requiring a long period of time for its execution, could have been carried out without exciting the suspicions of the police ; the more so as it had been noticed that carts and wagons containing packages more or less heavy were frequently of an even- ing driven into the courtyard and there unloaded. The Imperial authorities, it is true, wisely adopted the most stringent methods of precaution. Thus not only one or two pilot trains were sent along the whole line, but thn train in which the Emperor was traveling was made to run along the left instead of the right track. The explosion, which took place on the evening of Dec. 1, 1879, proved to be extremely violent. It tore up the ground for a consider- able distance, destroyed several of the carriages, and severe- ly wounded four or five persons. But, of course, it did not touch the Emperor, who had already passed half an hour previously in another train. When the place was search- ed, it was discovered that the criminals, the principal ones being Fliaboff and his mistress, must at the moment the connecting wire was fired have escaped through the back door of the house, and availing themselves of the dark night easily succeeded in escaping. The house was found to be furnished in such a manner as to perfectly disarm all suspicion. On the walls were hung portraits of the reigning Emperor and Empress as well as of the crown 114 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND prince and princess, whilst a lump was burning before the holy image of St. Nicholas in the corner'of the room front- ing the door. Behind the sofa the lower part of the wall close to the floor liad been removed, from which point the excavation had been made. The greatest indignation was excited throughout Russia by the news of the attempt, and the most enthusiastic popular greeting accorded to the EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 115 .Czar, who in his speech to the Moscow authorities alluded to his escape with devout thankfulness, but added : " The Revolutionary spirit must be exterminate^, and I therefore turn to you and all well-thinking men for help in eradi- cating the evil, which has taken deep root." Curiously enough, this dastardly outrage' occurred after a special act of clemency. At a trial of Socialists which took place at St. Petersburg, one young man, Mirsky, who attempt- ed to assassinate General Drenteln, being condemned to death, was subsequently reprieved ; while another, named Karkoff, had his sentence remitted from hard labor in the Siberian mines to ten years' imprisonment in a fortress. Though numerous arrests were made, 110 real clue was discovered, and the true history of the attempt became known only after the death of the late Emperor. Nor were the terrorists discouraged by their repeated failures. Several of the leaders of the movement, among others the notorious Hartmaim, arrived in Russia from abroad ; the services of experts well versed in the preparation of dynamite explosions, as for example, Kiebalchitch, were secured, and Fiiaboff had placed under his immediate or- ders forty-seven men who were pledged to obey him im- plicitly and to carry out blindly his instructions whatever they might be. It was now resolved to strike a mortal blow, not only at the Emperor but at the whole Imperial Family, and the newly formed scheme for its atrocious boldness can only be compared with the famous Gunpow- der Plot in England. It was determined to blow up that part of the Winter Palace in which the rooms of the Em- peror are situated, the explosion to take place directly under the large dining saloon, and to be fired at a time when the Emperor, his family and guests were already seated at the table. Wild as the attempt may appear, the preparations for its execution were carried on w ch 116 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 117 greater success than many might suppose to be possible, owing to the habitual laxity with which the officials Avhose special charge it was to guard the palace, performed their duties. In the course of subsequent investigations it came out that more than one hundred and fifty persons, supposed to be connected with the lackeys and servants of the palace, had for years been living in the building un- provided with any kind of passport and free from all sur- veillance. Equally lax was the watch kept over the nu- merous workmen almost constantly employed in repairing one or another portion of the palace. Even to the pres- ent day it is not positively known who placed the in- fernal machine in the vault where some carpenters and bricklayers were engaged working. Against those ar- rested no sufficient evidence could be brought. They were evidently mere decoys, and the real criminal, the chief carpenter, succeeded in escaping. On February 17, 1880, a dinner party took place at the palace, the principal guests being the Prince of Bulgaria and the Duchess of Edinburgh. The dinner was fixed for six o'clock, but the Emperor remained in his private room a few minutes, not more than five, talking with the Prince, and to this unintended delay must be attributed the es- cape of the Emperor and his guests. They had scarcely crossed the threshold of the room when a terrible crash was heard, a large hole was torn in the floor immediately in front of the Emperor, huge candelabras were thrown from the table and lustres torn out of the wall, while the whole place was covered with clouds of dust, masses of broken glass, and fragments of shattered furniture. At the same moment the gas throughout the palace was ex- tinguished. As soon as lights could be brought, mes- sengers were sent to make enquiries about the Empress, who was lying ill in a distant room of the palace, and 8 EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 119 who, happily, had not in any way been injured, a minute search was set on foot and the extent of the catastrophe soon became known. In the vaulted room, where the in- fernal clock-machine had been placed, were a number of soldiers belonging to the Finland Regiment and waiting their turn to go on duty in the palace. Eight of these were instantly killed and forty-five were terribly wounded. The clock had been mounted so as to explode precisely at five minutes past six, by which time it was expected the Empe- ror and the others would have taken their places at the table. The Czarevitch and the Grand Duke Vladimir were the first to reach the guard-room after the explosion in the palace, arriving there just as the officers, fearing dan- ger to the Emperor, were about to lead the remaining sentinels to the Imperial apartments. The Grand Duke Vladimir hastened to the barracks to give the alarm, and brought back the Preobrajensky Guards to the pal- ace. It is said that at the moment of the explosion bombs were thrown in the streets outside the palace, some of which exploded under a private carriage, but the facts are, the cavalry, telegraphed for as soon as the alarm was given, galloped off in such haste that many of their cartridges were jerked out of their cartouche cases, and the streets were strewn with these explosives, which, of course, went off under the wheels of passing vehicles, the occupants of which were arrested by the police and bystanders who were ignorant of what had really oc- curred . In striking contrast with the domestic treachery which encompassed the Czar in his palace is the fidelity of the Finnish soldiers who formed his body-guard, who, through all political ordeals and insurrectionary conflicts never once faltered in allegiance to their Sovereign. Horribly sudden as the whole mur- RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND derous surprise was, not one of the injured men would leave his post until their own officer in charge, who was himself wounded, came to give the word of command. The Czar is said to have been very much affected ; so much so as at one time almost to have lost his self-com- mand. When, however, Lord Dufferin called to con- gratulate him upon his escape, the Emperor remarked that it was to Divine Providence he stood indebted, and that God having mercifully delivered him twice from very imminent peril, he was content to trust his life for the future to His protecting hand. The Duchess of Ed- inburgh displayed great fortitude and presence of mind in the trying crisis. This was the more noticeable from the fact that Her Imperial Highness was much af- fected on the occasion of Solovieffs attempt, being then in a delicate state of health. After the explosion the Emperor left the Winter Pal- ace, and went under escort of thirty Cossacks to the old Paul Palace, where he slept. Next day, on his way to attend the Te Deum in the Imperial Chapel in the pal- ace, he stopped before the officers of the Finnish Regi- ment, and thanked the colonel for the manner in which the soldiers had fulfilled their duty, referring to the fact that all the sentinels remained at their posts, notwith- standing that a company of the Preobrajensky Regiment had arrived to relieve them. On Friday following the soldiers of the Finnish Guards who were killed by the explosion were interred with great solemnity, the funeral being attended by the Grand Duke Constantine and many generals and staff officers. The coffins were borne to the grave by officers, and there was an immense crowd of spectators. General Gourko, in an order to the troops announcing the interment of their EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 121 122 BUSSIAN NIHILISM AND comrades, said : " May the honorable conduct of the men who were wounded by the explosion convince the insane criminals who planned the attempt that neither their en- deavors to bribe the soldiers nor the fear of "death itself can shake the loyalty of the troops." The Emperor and the Czarevitch attended the funeral ceremony celebrated in the barracks previous to the starting of the procession for the place of interment, and afterward visited the wounded men in the hospital. It is a remarkable coinci- dence that it was this same Finnish regiment which, in 1825, was suddenly called to the Winter Palace to over- awe and supercede the Grenadiers, whose loyalty was doubted ; and it was to them that Alexander, then only a child of seven, was entrusted by his father Nicholas. Taking the little Grand Duke Alexander by the hand, he said, "I confide my son to your care; it will be your duty to defend his life." The rough Finns, it is said, were moved to tears. They took up the child in their arms, passed him from rank to rank, and swore to form a rampart of their bodies behind which he should be safe. The building where the explosion took place, which is the largest and finest palace in the world, is the usual win- ter residence of the Czar and his Court. On one side it fronts on the river Neva, while on the other there is a large open space called the Palace Square, in which stands Alexander's Column, a monolith of red granite eighty feet high. On the right of the palace is Peter's Square, which contains the celebrated statue of Peter the Great, and the Field of Mars, a parade ground large enough for 40,000 men to manoeuvre in. On the east side of the palace, arid connected with it by a covered way, is the Empress Catharine's Hermitage, now a museum. The Nevski Perspective is in front of the Admiralty and close to the Imperial Palace, which, after being EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA . 123 burnt down in 1837, was rebuilt in six months in the middle of winter by order of the Emperor Nicho- las. Each story was dried with immense fires as soon as erected, and several thousand workmen met with their death during the rebuilding, in consequence of the alter- nate exposure to the excessive heat while at work in the apartments, and the rigorous temperature outside. The palace, which is painted a brick red, is four stories high, or about eighty feet. The frontage is 445 feet in length, and the breadth 350 feet. The principal en- trance is from the Neva, and leads by a magnificent flight of marble steps to the State Apartments of the palace. A gateway in the centre of the building, facing Alexander's Column, opens into -a large court. The in- terior is most gorgeous, suites of splendid halls being filled with marble, malachite vases, and pictures ; whilst the Crown and other jewels are of almost inestimable value. The Czar has his apartments on the first floor and in the corner of the Winter Palace that overlooks the Neva and the Admiralty. The Empress inhabits the other corner, and between the two is the family dining- room. At one and six o'clock the Czar, the Czarina, and the Grand Dukes Alexis, Sergius, and Paul formerly met for breakfast and dinner. The Czarevitch and the Grand Duke Vladimir, who are both married, have also general invitations to join the Imperial circle ; but the other members of the family wait until they are bidden. Six covers are always laid, and the service is performed by three French maitres d 'hotel ', who relieve each other every fortnight. The arrangement of the apartments is similar to that of Versailles, there being a multitude of small rooms, and an im- mense number of civil and military officials having their abode here in separate suites of rooms. The 124 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND guards' room, beneath which the charge of dynamite was deposited, is on the ground floor, and was formerly the sleeping apartment of the Grand Duke Nicholas when a child. The indignation excited by a crime that involved the lives of so many who, even adopting the views of its per- petrators, were completely innocent, was greatly in- creased in consequence of the general belief that on the approaching 19th of February an imperial manifesto would be issued, conferring political rights on Russian subjects more in accordance with the ideas of the nine- teenth century than those hitherto accorded. That all this was more than mere rumor, is certain from papers known to have been left by the late Emperor, and in ac- cordance with which tk&zemstra, or provincial assemblies, would have been granted representative rights which they have long petitioned for but never obtained. We can scarcely wonder that all such constitutional reforms were abandoned, and it speaks much in favor of the late Emperor, that even after February 17, he still had suffi- cient nerve and belief in the future of Russia, to refuse to adopt measures of an exclusively repressive and retrograde character. On the 25th of February a min- isterial committee " for the preservation of Imperial order and public safety," was established under the presidency of Count Loris Melikoff, which became an order in its enforcement little less than terrorism. A night patrol was organized in St. Petersburg which summarily ar- rested every crowd, numbering more than five persons, caught upon the streets after ten o'clock at night, and single individuals were required to have their passports constantly with them if they appeared away from their homes after dark. But this was not the most serious re- striction placed upon the personal liberty of citizens EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 12* throughout Russia. The order became finally the means which malicious persons utilized to destroy their enemies. It was only necessary to report, under oath, the active THE NIGHT PATROL IN ST. PFTERSBURG. sympathy of any person with the Nihilists to secure their imprisonment, and execution or transportation to Siberia. Thus a cowardly criminal could go before the Third Sec- 126 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AXD tion chief and make oath that he had detected his neigh- bor in the act of circulating revolutionary papers, or com- mitting some other prohibited act, and upon this infor- mation the unfortunate, and perhaps innocent person, would be summarily arrested and taken off to the Fortress prison. Hundreds of instances occurred in which blame- less men were torn from their families in the middle of the night, and without being permitted to say even good- bye to their wives or children, were ruthlessly carried to that dreadful political prison from which they either never departed alive or were sent across the desert wilds of Siberia to spend the remainder of their wretched lives in exile. In 1878 no less than one hundred and ninety-three persons were brought to trial at one time, charged with various grades of treason and conspiracy against the Government. Among the prisoners who were condemned was a spirited and intelligent man named Muishkin, who was once a justice of the peace, and proprietor of a print- ing-office from which forbidden books were issued. In 1875 he went to the distant forests of East Siberia with the intention of freeing the famous thinker and critic, Tchernieshevski, who had been in penal servitude for twelve years for his connection with a secret society, but he was unsuccessful. His speech before the tribunal brought tears to some, caused others to turn pale, to tremble, or to become furious. He was condemned to twenty years' penal servitude at the Central Prison at Kharkov. Single-handed, and with no other implement than his hands, this gigantic minded man began to make an underground passage in his prison to effect his escape. He had nearly finished the tunnel when it was discovered ; he was unmercifully lashed then, and, like many other Russian political prisoners, he has since become mad EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 127 12$ RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND from the barbarous treatment he received. Muishkin's insanity dates from October, 1880. But condemnations and repressive measures in no wise deterred the Nihilists, who, in fact, became bolder and more revengeful. In the meantime the Government was active in bringing to punishment those arrested for treas- onable crimes. In November, 1880, sixteen Nihilists of both sexes were arraigned for treason in St. Petersburg. The principal prisoner was Kviatkovski, who was accused of contributing to the revolutionary organ Will of the People, and also of being connected with the conspiracy to blow up the Winter Palace. Others were charged with complicity in the murder of Prince Krapotkin, in Solovieff's attempted assassination of the Czar ; others in the attempt to blow up the Imperial train at Moscow ; two in the attempts at Alexandrovolsk and Odessa to assassinate Imperial officers, and two others of being connected with secret printing presses. Several of the prisoners were arrested on their own confession, so brave and fanatically patriotic to their purposes were some of the Nilhists. Upon this trial it was proved that a car- penter named Stephen Chalturen, or Halturin, who form- erly lodged in the basement of the Winter Palace, was the author and most active agent in the palace explosion. Some of these prisoners were uncommonly well dressed and presented a generally intelligent appearance. Kviat- kovski and Presniakov were convicted and executed in the fortress of St. Peter and St. Paul on the 5th of No- vember, 1880. The public were rigidly excluded from the scene of execution, and but one foreign correspondent was permitted to be present. Early in the morning the two prisoners were taken from their cells, and as usual were driven to the scaffold in a cart, riding with their backs to kerses, and bearing a placard with the inscription EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. " State Criminal " on their breasts. At the glacis the fortress where the scaffold had been erected the prisoners descended and mounted the scaffold barefooted, where MDMB. OLGA NATHANSON. STEPHEN SHIRAIEV. MDLLE. EUGENIA FIGNEB. PORTRAITS OF LEADING NIHILISTS. they were clad in the long penitential shirt of condemned parricides and were pinioned to two upright posts 130 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND their sentence was read out to them. This over, a priest came forward with a cross, which both kissed, and then kissed one another, while he recited some prayers. The executioner then adjusted the rope, and raising the condemned men high in the air caused their speedy strang- ulation. The ground was kept by a detachment of the Finland Guard, who were on duty in the Winter Palace on the night of the explosion. Five others of those condemned at the same trial, No- vember 10th, were Kviatkovski, Shiraiev, Mdlles. Fig- ner, Ivanova, and Griasnova, whose portraits are given. Alexander Kviatkovski, of noble descent, the most im- portant of the prisoners, was arrested by the St. Peters- burg police in December, 1879, at the same time as Mdlle. Figner. Three mines ready for explosion, but in dissected pieces, were found in their lodging, as well as dynamite and fulminate, with revolvers, poison, and the plan of the Winter Palace, in which, later on, the explo- sion took place. The evidence which came out at this trial disclosed that Kviatkovski, who headed the Terrorist party, was one of those concerned in the explosion of the Winter Palace on April 14, 1880, when eleven men were killed and sixty-six were wounded ; that he was an indirect party to the attempt on the Emperor's life by Solovieff on April 2, 1879 ; and that he took part in the secret congress of the Terrorists at Lipetsk, in 1879, where a serfes of attempts on the Emperor's life were decided upon, in addition to other less well-known offences. Mdlle. Figner, daughter of a high Russian official, was twenty-two years old. She was acquitted of any participation in the Winter Palace conspiracy, but was condemned to fifteen years' penal servitude on the charge of her connection with the Terroristic party, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 131 LEO HART MANN. 132 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND and for publishing forbidden works. The Court, pitying her youth, begged of the Czarevitch to change her sen- tence into transportation to Eastern Siberia, where her sister was already in exile. Mdlle. Figner had been a medical student, and she also studied music at the Con- servatoire, St. Petersburg. Her voice is said to be one of the most beautiful in Europe. Shiraiev, of a peasant family, had been studying in a veterinary institute. He lived some time in London and in Paris, and on his return to Russia, in 1879, he joined the Terrorist party, and with Hartmann prepared dyna- mite for mines. He took part in the secret congress, and with Hartmann again was a party in the Moscow ex- plosion, December 1, 1879. He directed the digging of mines near Odessa and Alexandrovska after this, and shortly after was arrested by the police at St. Petersburg. Condemned to be hung, his sentence was remitted into one of penal servitude for life. Mdlle. Ivanova, daughter of a major, is the heroine of one of the most extraordinary transactions for a young lady of her age (then only twenty-two years). When the secret printing office of the Terrorist organ N~arod- naia Volia (People's Will) was discovered, she, with Mdlle. Griasnova and three men, revolvers in hand, kept the police at bay for three hours, firing more than one hundred shots. The gendarmes answered by volleys at both the windows and the doors, and only succeeded in overcoming the party when their stock of cartridges was exhausted. One of the printers, an unknown person, blew out his brains on seeing the inevitable end, the four others surrendered. Mdlle. Ivanova' s hands and legs were tied with ropes, and she was thrown on the ground ; in this state she reproached her comrades for lack of en- ergy in seif-defense. The gendarme officer, hearing EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 133 that, struck her in the face with the butt end of his re- volver, and kicked her severely. She complained of the man then a witness against her hefore the court mar- tial, but the officer, though he could not deny the fact, disregarded her words. The two printers, Ivanova and Griasnova, were con- demned to fifteen years penal servitude, but at the solic- itation of the court-martial, the heir apparent changed the sentence of the former to four years penal servitude, and transportation to Siberia for the latter. Among others, Papov, son of a priest, was convicted about the same time by a court-martial held at Kiev, and sen- tenced to be hung. He stood at the head of that party of Socialist propagandists whose distinguishing feature is that they do not practice any illegal measures either for self-defense or for propagandism. His bold and straightforward speech before the Court was the cause of his condemnation to death, but his sentence was subse- quently altered by the Emperor into penal servitude for life. Dr. Weimar, whose trial at St. Petersburg in the spring of 1880 caused such a sensation throughout Europe, was condemned to penal servitude at the same time as Mrs. Olga Nathanson. Dr. Weimar was accused of helping two other Nihilists, Mirski and Solovieff, in their crim- inal designs. He gave his horse to Mirski for his attempt on the life of Drenteln, Chief of the Third Section of the Emperor's Chancellery, and bought the revolver for Solovieff. In the month of October Olga Nathanson be- came mad in the fortress of St. Petersburg, before she could be sent to Siberia. The real cause of her insanity, it is alleged, lies in the fact that she, with three other young friends, was the subject of criminal violence on the part of the prison officials. 134 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND The next attempt at assassination occurred directly after the adoption of the repression measures of 1880, when the Armenian General Loris Melikoff was appointed Chief of the Executive, with unlimited powers, and had inaugurated a more rigid policy than even his predeces- sors. The attack was, no doubt, directly attributable to the execution of a sub-lieutenant named Donbrovin, which GENERAL LORIS MELIKOFF. occurred at St. Petersburg, and upon which occasion Gen- eral Gourko issued an order to the troops in which he cited the example of Donbrovin as a proof that the aim of the revolutionists was to make the military their accomplices. General Melikoff warmly approved this accusation and made many threats, declaring his purpose to deal with the Nihilists despotically, and indeed he did bring many of the revolutionists to judgment. EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 135 Many messages, containing desperate threats, were sent to Melikoff, which caused that astute official to ob- serve special care, but a determined fellow whose name I could not find in the records, caught sight of Gen- eral Melikoff as he was leaving his carriage to enter the Third Section, and made a vicious attempt to shoot him, discharging a pistol twice at the General but with- out effect. The assassin was arrested and being brought 136 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND to trial was convicted and publicly executed. The pris- oner was enveloped with a black shroud, only the face being exposed, and, seated upon a peculiar kind of a chair placed on a box wagon with the back toward the horses, he was driven slowly through the streets, pre- ceded and followed by mounted guards. The engraving, besides giving a portrait of General Melikoff's assailant, shows the method by which prisoners condemned to death are conducted to the place of execution. CHAPTER VII. THE culmination of that desperate, unreasonable ven- geance which animated the Russian Nihilists was reached on the 13th of March, 1881, when the Czar Alexander II., who deserved little but praise from his countrymen, and whose name must ever be associated with the greatest re- forms ever projected by a Russian ruler, was struck down, after five previous attempts, in a horrible death. We can only measure the full terribleness of that most atrocious act, by calling to mind the agony we ourselves suffered in the assassination of our honored and chosen rulers, Lincoln and Garfield. Autocrat though he was, Alexander II. possessed such qualities of heart and mind as made him very dear to the masses of his subjects. Unfortunately he was cradled in adversity and brought up through circumstances which enforced his familiarity with conspiracy. Born April 29, 1818, Alexander was only seven years of age when the famous conspiracy of the " Decem- brists " Russia's first open cry for a constitution broke out against his father on his accession to the throne, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 137 138 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND which rooted in him a horror of reform and made his reign one continuous repression of liberty and speech. Alexander was provided with a tutor who inspired him with a love for literature and romance, but he was not per- mitted to follow this gratifying and peaceful inclination. Nicholas, of iron will, compelled him to abandon every pursuit that promised contentment, and at seventeen Alexander became his father's Aid-de-Camp and com- mandant of the Lancers' Guard. But the boy Prince Imperial could not cultivate a love for the military, and after a short service so weary of spirit did he become that his father, much against his will, gave Alexander a vacation, during which he visited Germany and there wooed and won the Princess .Maria of Hesse Darmstadt a veritable love-match. Upon his return to Russia with his young and loving bride, Alexander interested himself in encouraging education and founded a chair of Finnish literature. In 1850 he visited Southern Russia, where af- ter campaigning for two months in the Caucasus, upon Woronzow's recommendation, the order of St. George was conferred upon him. But under Nicholas all persons, even heirs to the throne, were inconsequential unless they had won honors upon the field of battle or by diplomacy re- dounding to his advantage. Thus, beyond certain disagree- ments with the " Old Russian " party, whose idol was his younger brother Constantine, and a decided though silent disapproval of his father's policy in bringing on the Crimean war, there was little to observe in the Czare- vitch's unassuming life until the fateful day when defeat and disappointment drove his father to seek surcease in death. In his dying moments, March 2, 1855, Nicholas called Alexander to his bedside, and taking his hand, said: "My son, I now bestow upon you the crown of Russia, in succession to your dying father ; you will, I EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 139 140 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND am sorry to say, find the burden heavy," and then ex- pired. How Alexander II. took up the scepter of Government and wielded it for the benefit of his subjects has already been told, and now remains the task of describing how, after several diabolical attempts, he was at last stricken down by the fell hand of assassination and left the whole civilized world weeping beside his bier. It was the custom of the Czar to take mid-day lunch every Sunday with his sister in the Michael Palace, which stands not far from the center of St. Petersburg, in a con- siderable forest of trees surrounded by a high wall. This custom being well known, a body of Nihilists set about to compass his assassination in the following manner : Two of the conspirators engaged a cellar-room under a large, lead colored, four-story building which stands on the corner of Little Garden street and the Nevski Pros- pekt, and immediately facing the large bronze statue of Catharine II. This place was chosen because there are only two streets leading from Michael Palace, viz. : Little Garden street from the east, and an exit south into a narrow street running parallel with the Catharine Canal. As the former was generally used by the Czar, because of its smooth pavement, it was here that the conspirators decided to make most ample preparations to accomplish their deadly purpose. The cellar-room engaged was used for a considerable time as a milk and cheese depot, the better to enable the assassins to disguise their real occupation. During this time they excavated a tunnel entirely across the street and placed therein the enormous charge of sixty pounds of dynamite, which was connected by an electric wire, so that the mine could be discharged at any instant. It is de- clared by those familiar with the destructiveness of this EXILE LIFE IN SIBEKIA. 141 most powerful explosive, that had the mine been ex- ploded it would have razed fully one-half of the entire city and killed thousands of people. It is astonishing how great a work was carried on in so central a place without detection, particularly since the fact is known that General Melikoff received several letters notifying him that the end of the Czar Alexander was near at hand, and also that his assassination would RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND ftXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. be accomplished on the very day it was brought about. This latter information Melikoff communicated to Alex- ander and begged of him not to go out on that day, but such threats had become too common for this one to be specially observed. The dynamite mine being completed and ready for its deadly work, which it was expected to perform on Sun- day afternoon, March 13th, 1881, the assassins posted a watch to give information when the Czar should come driving from the Michael Palace toward the Nevski Pros- pekt. But to make their purpose more certain, although it was only on extremely rare occasions that the Emperor ever left the palace by the Catharine Canal street, yet in view of the possibility that on this occasion he might do so, another party of Nihilists were stationed along this street, two of them taking their positions near the gate. These two were each provided with Orsiui bombs glass balls the size of a hen's egg, loaded with dynamite while two others stood on the ice in the canal, also having bombs in their pockets, while a woman, Sophia Perofs- kaja, stood at the corner of the palace grounds from whence, by waving a handkerchief, she could signal the four conspirators if the Czar should leave the palace by Little Garden street. Shortly before two o'clock in the afternoon his Maj- esty drove out of the palace grounds by way of the canal, but scarcely had he proceeded a rod from the gate when one of the conspirators threw a bomb which burst so far to the rear of the carriage that its force was ex- pended on two of the Cossack guards, who were instantly killed, together with their horses, while the rear of the Imperial carriage was shattered, but the Czar received no injury. The report was so great that many person* were iinme- 144 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND diately attracted to the spot. The Czar stepped out of the carriage, though his coachman urged him to resume his seat, and advanced toward Colonel Dvorketsky, Chief of Police, who as usual, was following behindiuasledg*, and who had already seized the culprit, who was struggling violently with the Colonel and trying to use a pistol and dagger. Assistance was at hand, however, and the as- sassin was soon disarmed ; he proved to be n young student named Rlsakoff, belonging to the Institute of Mining EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA 145 EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 147 Engineers. A moment after, several officers congratu- lated the Czar upon his marvellous escape, to whose kind words he replied: "Give God the praise," and then piously crossing himself, he gave directions concerning the care of the wounded and started, on foot, toward the Winter Palace. He had taken less than a half-dozen steps when another bomb was thrown which struck and burst at his feet with most horrible effect. The Czar reeled and fell amid a cloud of smoke, uttering but a single cry, "Help !" The force of the explosion was so great that all the glass in neighboring houses was broken, the assas- sin,' Elnikoff, was himself mortally wounded, and a boy was instantly killed, while eleven of the Czar's body- guard were seriously injured. Staff Captain Novikoff was the first to reach his Ma- jesty, and throwing himself weeping at the Emperor's side, exclaimed, " Good God ! What has happened to your Majesty?" The Emperor remained motionless, and Novikoff, with the assistance of some sailors, who had hurried to the spot, lifted him up, himself holding the wounded Czar around the body and breast, while the sail- ors, without letting go of their carbines, held the feet. The Emperor then attempted to lift his hand to his bleeding brow, murmuring twice the word "Cold." Novikoff was just about to take his handkerchief from his pocket to bind around the Emperor's head, when the Grand Duke Michael came up and, bending down close to the Emperor's face, said, " How do you feel?" What his Majesty replied it was difficult to catch. The Grand Duke ordered the sailors to throw down their carbines, and then, taking a cap from one of the bystanders, placed it on the Emperor's head. They then began to move forward. Novikoff asked the Grand Duke whether he would allow the bearers to carry the 'Emperor into the 148 RUSSIAN Ml-IILISM AND EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 149 nearest house for the purpose of applying bandages to the wounded parts. The Emperor, who evidently re- tained consciousness, on hearing this, whispered in broken language, "Carry to palace, there die," and some few more words which were unintelligible. He was placed in Colonel Dvorketsky's sledge and driven directly to the palace, followed by an immense crowd of sorrow-stricken citizens, many of whom were crying like children who saw before them the mangled body of a beloved father. Upon reaching the palace the Emperor was carried up stairs into his study, where a bed was improvised, upon which he was laid for a surgical examination. Six of the ablest surgeons in St. Petersburg were instantly called, but the moment they saw how dreadful were his wounds they frankly told him there was no hope for recovery. Plis Majesty suffered excruciating agony so long as con- sciousness lasted ; both his legs were crushed and cut in a shocking manner, the femoral arteries being severed, from which alone he must have died through hemorrhage had there been no other injuries ; but .portions of glass were driven into the lower parts of his body, while there were also two severe cuts in his face from which large pieces of glass were extracted. Seeing that death was inevita- ble, the Court Chaplain administered the last sacrament during a short interval of consciousness and, while the surgeons were considering an operation on the Emperor, his Majesty surrendered the crown forever, at 3 :35 p. M., one hour and fifty minutes after receiving his wounds. Surrounding his bedside at the time of dissolution was a large number of the Imperial family, including the Czare- vitch and Czarina, who manifested such grief as is rarely witnessed. During the painful suspense which followed the first 10 "RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND \ miK^, v jBf! EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 151 news of the fatal attack on the Emperor an enormous crowd of people gathered in Alexander Square fronting the palace and gave expression to a sorrow deep-felt and inconsolable. At intervals of every fifteen minutes a flag was displayed from the palace which indicated the Em- peror's condition, and as each time showed him to be more rapidly sinking the crowd became more demonstra- tive in their grief. When at length the Emperor's death was announced by raising the Imperial standard at half- mast, the assemblage fell upon their knees and became mute in silent prayer. On the same evening of the Czar's death the troops in St. Petersburg and members of the Imperial family, ac- cording to their custsom, kissed the Bible and then took the oath of allegiance to the new Czar, who repaired to the Winter Palace Chapel and in the presence of the State and church dignataries placed the Imperial Crown of Russia on his head and was proclaimed Emperor, under the title of Alexander III. After assuming the crown the new Emperor and Em- press drove to their own palace, where they remained until his manifesto of March 27th was issued, designating his brother, the Grand Duke Vladimir, regent in case of his own death before his son, the present Czarevitch, at- tained his majority. The remains of the dead Emperor lay in state for one week, during which time expressions of sympathy and horror at the dreadful act which brought about his death, poured in upon the Royal Family from every na- tion of the earth, besides hundreds of beautiful tokens, from contemporary sovereigns in Europe, such as wreaths of silver, crowns, crosses and mottoes, most artistically worked, of the same precious material. On Sunday, March 20th, the body of the Emperor was taken to the 15* RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND Fortress Chapel of St. Peter and St. Paul, where it was de- posited in a marble sarcophagus beside the remains of his loved Empress, who died of a lingering illness one year be- fore. After the workmen had deposited the coffin in the vault beneath the Fortress church, and removed their tools, the Governor of the city went down into the pit alone, srrnng t *nl lkd tk havy dr, and on EXILE LIFI IN SIBERIA. 153 emerging handed the key to the chief of the new Czar's household, in the presence of the mourners and the high dignitaries. The key was afterward deposited in a place of great security in the Winter Palace, 154 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AN The Fortress Chapel is one of the rnost elaborate and gorgeous, in interior decoration, in the world. It is the repository of all members of the House of Romanoff since the time of Peter the Great, with the single excep- tion of Peter II., who, dying in Moscow, was by his own request buried there. The interior presents a rare com- bination of gold, silver and tinsel work, giving an ap- pearance of fairy-like splendor. Arranged around the single immense room, in two rows, are the marble sar- cophagi enclosed by an iron railing. From the ceiling is suspended a rich canopy reaching down over the sacristy, while the pillars are decorated with standards taken in the wars with France, Sweden, Poland, Turkey and Persia. There are also several silver and gold icons sacred images before which candles are kept con- stantly burning. On the sarcophagus of Alexander II., and also on that of the Empress, there is placed a gold crown inside of which a small lamp is always burning, which, throwing its rays through interstices of the crowns, produces a beautiful effect. On the wall, imme- diately opposite, are hung the emblems of mourning pre- sented by other countries after the Czar's assassination, and also wreaths of immortelles which are replaced, from time to time, by those who revere his memory. Directly after the Czar's death, Minister Pleve, who had been commissioned to the position he now holds for his services in detecting those concerned in the palace ex- plosion of 1879, was called upon to discover all the con- spirators concerned in the commission of the dreadful crime, and so thoroughly did he prosecute his investiga- tions, that scarcely had the Czar been laid away, before he procured the arrest of Nicholas Jelaboft', Sophie Pe- rofskaja, Hessy Helfmann, Nicholas Risakoff, Gabriel Michailoff, Jean Kibaichich, and several others who, however, proved their innocence. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. THE FORTRESS CHAPKL LAST RESTING PLACE OF THE IMPERIAL DEAD. 156 KUSSIAX NIHILISM AND Directly after these arrests were made another import- ant step was taken in consequence of discoveries made in examining the premises and opening the dynamite mine laid in Little Garden street. It was proved that the police had information in connection with the mine, TOMB OF THE EMPEROR IN THE FORTRESS CHAPEL ONE WEFK AFTER BUK1AL, which if utilized would have led to the arrest of the con- spirators and prevented the Czar' s assassination . The pub- lic officers accused of a criminal neglect of their duties were Major General Constantine Mrovinsky ; Paul Teg- leff , chief officer of the Spassky District ; General Fur- soff, chief of the Secret Section of the Prefecture, and 15 showed a leaning towards leniency. Thus, in deferring to one of the female defenders of the printing office a woman of the peasant class who had lived there ostensi- bly as cook the orator parenthetically expressed hope that the judges would find it not inconsistent with their duty to visit her with the lightest possible punishment, in consideration of her ignorance, almost even of reading and writing, and of her utter want of culture amounting to stupidity, and accompanied by partial deafness. All this is in keeping with the serious and dignified spirit in which our lawyers, since the great judicial reform, regard their profession. That compound of unseemly virulence, ferocious vindictiveness, and bombastic phraseology which, under the name of reqisitoire, is the disgrace of French criminal courts and the glory of an aspiring pro- cureur du roi or de Vempereur, or de la republique, as the case may be is utterly repugnant to the deep humane bent of the Russian nature. A Russian procureur would scorn to dig into the past life of an unfortunate prisoner, in order triumphantly to drag to light his most trivial youthful peccadilloes, nay ! his schoolboy pranks, and by dint of cruel ingenuity to force and twist them into so many proofs of a precocious viciousness, an unnatural pro- pensity to evil, until he stands before society a predestined criminal, a monster branded even before he failed, and now placed entirely out of the pale of humanity. Ever since the European judicial forms and institutions were transplanted into Russian soil, and quickly took root in it, our parquet has been remarkable in the discharge of its duties by a moderation and humane regard to fairness, which prove it to have thoroughly grasped the higher sense of its responsible and so often painful functions. It could not be otherwise in a country where the common people call prisoners of all kinds, without distinction of EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 231 rank or degree of criminality, by a generic name mean- ing " unhappy ones," but conveying a shade of infinitely deeper and tenderer pity than can be rendered by the English word. When the chained gangs of malefactors and alas ! political convicts were not exempted from the practice used to be led across the whole Empire on their endless, weary march to Siberia, the population of the villages would pour out to meet them, and may be escort them a short distance, not with insults and impre- cations, but with gentle words and outstretched offerings of food and even money. Now that convict trains and convict cars run on all the lines, and have done away with this long preliminary torture, popular sympathy still as- serts itself at the railway stations, and many a douceur of tobacco, delicate wheaten bread, or small coins, is handed in at the windows. Siberia ! the mines! Horror-laden, these words loom out mysteriously, an awful impersonation of the great bleak North, which appears in a vague remoteness, as a limbo of punishment, desolation and despair ! And truly it were difficult to overrate the dreadful import of those names. The vast arctic continent with its huge, slug- gish, silent rivers, its immense lowering forests teeming with fur-bearing game, its stilt more immense expanses of eternally snow-bound plains, its hidden ore, its convict colonies, is not a cheerful picture to contemplate, at least not this side of the picture. But there is another side to it. The statesman and political economist sees in this gigantic appendage to Russia a great promise for the future, a rich reserve of potential resources. He watches rejoicingly its growing cities, its incipient colonization, its developing industrial and commercial enterprise, the progress of culture which slowly but surely spreads, "brinsniur with it its thousand demands of intellectual and c o t material refinement, where till lately money-making 232 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND reigned supreme in its most vulgar, unmitigated coarse- ness. And he knows that these results are in great part effected by the influx of the Russian element by means of convict transportation. It would take me far beyond my present limits, and away from my present theme, to discuss this very extensive and intricate subject. But it will not be inconsistent with either to attempt a sketch of the probable future career of the hundreds of young men who of late years have trodden the long, dreary road to the far East. Let us follow those whose doom is heaviest. Few of them probably none will end their allotted term at the mines or State factories. An untimely death will doubtless end the sufferings of man} 7 , enfeebled from ill health brought on or aggravated by confinement, hard- ships, or climate, before the tardy hand of mercy can reach them. Yet, wonderful to say, many more survive the horrors of the first years than would seem possible for men of gentle nurture and urihardened body. If they are resigned and quietly behaved, they will after a while three, four, or five years instead of the fifteen or twenty of their sentence be brought under one of the so-called " gracious manifestoes " which are always being issued on occasion of birthdays, births, marriages, etc., in the Emperor's immediate family, and transferred to some one of the convict colonies, from which in due time they will be released in like manner and allowed to live within some particular rural district, at a great dis- tance from city or town, and under strict surveillance of the local police. Gradually the range widens, till it comprises district towns ; the surveillance is lightened ; at last the capital of the Government itself is opened to the half-pardoned convict, and with it society and re- sources of every kind. Society, indeed, is apt to lionize him. It now depends in a great measure on himself, his EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 233 good sense and abilities, to shape his further fortunes. Men of education and scientific or technical attainments are in as great demand, and for the same reasons, in our far east as in the far west of this country. And when by the end of ten or twelve years, as is generally the case, and after having previously been transferred to the more populous and civilized western Governments, the political convict is restored to his rank and privileges, freed from all disabilities and finally recalled from ban- ishment, it is by no means rare to see him return to the shores of the Baikal of his own free will, to settle there for life. I have known such lawyers, physicians, engi- neers, miners able and energetic men, who had come to love the wilderness, with its wide openings, its large hos- pitality, its manifold possibilities, and would not have exchanged it, except on compulsion, for what they had already learned to call the cold, narrow spirit of the over- crowded cities of the old world ; though heaven knows they need not have objected to any portion of even old Russia on account of over-crowding ! One young law- yer in particular do I remember. He was little over thirty, sturdy of frame, and keen of look ; his manners had lost the polish of his early social training, and ac- quired a certain not unpleasing self-relying nonchalance. He had come to St. Petersburg on a hurried trip to see his friends, assert his newly-recovered rights, and trans- act some business ; but all his thoughts were centred on a speedy return to Irkoutsk, where he had left a promis- ing and already flourishing practice, some half-started ventures in JL mining enterprise, and, as he almost hinted, a fairer attraction than all these, in the form of a well- dowered daughter of some wealthy merchant. He was so enthusiastic in his descriptions as almost to become poetical, and every day he was detained in the capital appeared to him a real loss. Such political exiles as are 234 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND not deprived of their liberty, but only bound to reside within certain assigned districts, of course have all the more chances in their favor. The intercession of friends at home also does much to shorten their term and hasten their transfer to cities or more habitable regions, if thej r behave judiciously, and have not the exceptional ill-luck of falling under the rule of some of those ignorant and wantonly brutal officials, whose number diminishes with every year, and who will soon live only in local traditions, the indignant records of the contemporary press, or the memoirs of some prisoners endowed with literary talent. The assassination of our Emperor, Alexander II., is of too recent occurrence, the particulars of which, and of the trial of his murderers are too well known by all the civilized world for me to enter upon a consideration of any of the circumstances connected therewith. All Rus- sia mourns his loss as a grateful child would that of a kind and indulgent father. No sovereign, not Elizabeth herself, had done for his people spontaneously what Alexander II. had done for his. Splendidly supported by his nobility, he had car- ried out the abolition of serfdom with a high hand, with precipitation 'almost, and intolerance of all gainsaying which was the very recklessness of an honest determina- tion to '-do right quickly, and at all cost. This gigantic act was followed, with scarce breathing time between, by one of hardly less importance the judicial reform, in- troducing open courts of law and public trial by jury. Then came the partial enfranchisement of the press after the model, very imperfect indeed, of the French press-laws under Napoleon III., but expressly announced as preliminary and temporary. Was that the man, was that the sovereign, to be requited with an assassin's ball? Nothing was less justifiable than the shot fired at the Emperor in 1866, but so naturally kind-hearted andmer- EXILE LIFE IX SIB Kill A. 235 236 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND ciful was he, that there are few now who doubt if left to himself he would have spared the life of his murder- ous assailant. Had he followed the merciful dictates of his own heart, the first "misunderstanding" between him and his people might never have arisen. If at that critical hour there were any by his side who took advantage of the disturbed state of the monarch's spirit, thrown off its balance by this gratuitous, most unmerited assault, to whisper to him counsels of wrath and reprisal, to increase their own importance by an exaggerated show of devotion and alarm, to urge him into a course of general suspicion and reaction, under pretence of insuring the safety of his person, endangered by his too confiding neglect of their previous advice if any such there were, Heaven forgive those men ! History will not, if she ever lays hold of their names. A passing misunderstanding ! Fifteen years blotted out of a country's life ! A couple of hundred years from now posterity will mention the name of Alexander II. with the reverence of a martyred saint, and place him in that galaxy of human satellites whose deeds still fill the world with radiance. But we are not posterity. We are burdened with affections which keep us down and prevent our soaring to a bird's-eye view of our own times ; so we see the accessories which will wane into the indistinct back-ground of the ages some day, but which stand out at present clear and mournful. A few hundred human lives sacrified may be a very paltry item ; hardly so to us, however, when they happen to be those of our brothers, our sons, our lovers, our friends of " our boys," in short. It is vain that history sternly points to other lands and other times, and reminds us thut with such as these, crushed, laid low, with all their budding promise, their splendid powers, their daring aspirations, the path of all human progress has been strewn, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. CHAPTER XI. THE interest which I hope has been inspired in the reader by a perusal of the preceding pages, will, I trust, increase in the following chapters describing my observa- tions while in that most desolate, wild and so little known portion of the earth Siberia. Looking back to the time when I was first able to read imperfectly, I can remember my longings to visit, as an adventurer, that wonderful country, about which so many thrilling stories were told ; of its vast arctic expanse ; the homes of wretched exiles in eternal isolation from the world, as it were ; of packs of hungry wolves chasing or devouring travellers ; of how the wild boar and Russian bears are hunted, and many other printed relations des- criptive of Siberia's frozen wilderness. Year by year this desire intensified, until the outrages of Nihilism at last determined me upon a visit to Russia, and an inves- tigation of that subject naturally took me far into the interior of Siberia, w^here my ambitions were at length fully gratified. Before leaving St. Petersburg I learned by chance that, notwithstanding the correctness of my passport, it would be necessary for me to procure a special permit before en- tering Siberia, or it would be impossible for me to return again without putting our minister to the trouble of se- curing my liberation through official correspondence, 237 238 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND which even might not be successful. After procuring such pass- port as was necesary I took the train for Moscow, where I spent several days viewing things of in- terest in that quaint | old capital. Among the many places of ^special importance I c visited in Moscow was the celebrated < Central Prison, which g is a depot where is 5 collected all offend- < ers whether political or otherwise who Cd ^ have been sentenced to exile in Siberia. < It must be remem- | bered that capital punishment is not < practiced in Russia | except for high trea- w son. Convicts for other high crimes are sentenced to varied terms of imprison- ment or banished to different parts of Si- beria according to the degree of crime ; vthe most dangerous EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA . 239 criminals are sent far east to the mines ; others are confined in Siberian prisons, whilst those guilty of minor offenses are sent to swell penal colonies in vil- lages which are under police surveillance. But all pris- oners sentenced to Siberia are first brought to Moscow and lodged in the Central Prison, from whence they are taken under convoys, in relays of generally three hundred, to the place of banishment. This prison is constructed to hold twenty-five hundred convicts, a number which it not unfrequently contains. All the prisoners wear long, rough coats having an orange colored square patch sewn into the back. There are two yards, in one of which are the minor criminals unfet- tered, while in the other are those convicted of serious crimes ; these wear large chains on their feet attached to which is an iron ball weighing about twelve pounds. The saddest sights to bo witnessed at this prison are the wives and little children of the convicts, who have travelled many weary miles to say a last good-bye to those they love, or who have decided to accompany their rela- tives into exile. The number of wives who voluntarily join their husbands in banishment is truly astonishing, and is a striking exemplification of that truthful saying: 4< Nothing can equal a woman's love." The parting scenes, witnessed almost weekly at this prison, are often inexpressibly sad, one of which I now recall only to re- awaken the sorrowful sympathy I then experienced. A young, handsome fellow who, I was told, was a political offender, had been brought to Moscow with a large party of prisoners four days before I saw him. While engaged with my interpreter making inquiries I was greatly startled by a sudden scream, when, upon looking around to discover the cause, I saw a young woman bearing a little babe on her left arm, while her right was clasped 240 IIUSSIAN NIHILISM AND tightly about the young fellow's neck ; they were both crying and trembling in an agony of poignant grief. Amid choking sobs they talked in their native tongue, which to me was unintelligible, but I soon saw that the young raau was expostulating with the woman about EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. something which only added to their already overwhelm- ing sorrow. My interpreter soon gained for me the par- ticulars, which were these : The young man was the hus- band of the woman and had been convicted in the city of Yaroslaf upon a charge of printing and circulating revo- lutionary literature, his sentence being hard labor in the Siberian mines for a period of ten years. When taken to Moscow the young wife was not permitted to accom- pany him on the train, but so strong was her attachment that she determined to see him at least once more, and gathering up her little girl babe, started alone, on foot, for Moscow, one hundred and seventy-five miles distant. Day and night she pushed as rapidly along as her feet could carry her with the burden of her child, fearing that she might not arrive before her husband's departure, until on the morning of the fourth day she reached Mos- cow and had the inexpressible satisfaction of greeting her shackled and grief-burdened husband. This meeting served only to increase their agony, for the wife insisted upon accompanying her husband into exile, while he, with feelings of wounded pride, could not consent, and bade her return home. I left them still clasped in each others' arms, crying bitterly, and never learned afterward whether or not the young wife became an exile for her husband's sake. Such incidents as these, however, are very common at the Central Prison, but they only pre- pared me for much more sorrowful sights which I was to witness in Siberia. Before leaving Moscow I went through the Kremlin, which is an immense wall, 7,280 feet in circumference, within which are many, in fact nearly all, the interesting features to be found by a visitor in the city. In 1812, when besieged by Napoleon, by command of Russia's greatest field marshal, Suwarrovr, all of Moscow was 242 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND ALEXANDER III. AND THE CZARINA ENTERING THE KREMLIN AT MOSCOW. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 243 burned except within the Kremlin, but even this wonder- ful citadel did not escape injury, as several mines were sprung beneath it by the French. Napoleon took pos- session of the Kremlin and had his quarters in the palace, which is inside the walls, but there being no means for provisioning his army, he was compelled to retreat with the most disastrous results that are recorded in all history. The Kremlin is entered by five gateways, to each of which some tradition attaches. The " Redeemer's Gate" is the most important; over its arch is hung a picture of Christ, so ancient that no one knows its history ; many verily believe that it was hung over the gateway by the Madonna herself. It is told and believed by all devout Muscovites that the French tried to remove this picture because they thought its frame was solid gold ; to accomplish this, they placed ladders against the wall, but every attempt to mount was frustrated by the ladders breaking; they next tried to batter down the wall with cannons, but the powder would not ignite ; fires were then built under the cannons, but when they did explode, 'it was backward, killing many artillerymen. They next tried to break the picture down with stones, but never a stone could bo made to strike it. It is a fact, that one of Napoleon's powder trains accidentally exploded near the gate, which destroyed many surrounding build- ings and cracked the tower and archway up to the holy image, but the picture and lamp which hung before it escaped injury. The buildings inside the Kremlin include churches, monasteries, jirsenals and museums, all of the Tartar style of architecture, surmounted by belfries, turrets, donjons, spires, sentry-boxes fixed upon- minarets, domes, watch- towers, etc., and having walls pierced with loop-holes 244 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND and crenelated crowns after the fashion of fortresses in the middle ages, the whole presenting a picture of great THE GREAT BELL OF MOSCOW, AND IVAN VELIKI ToWER. variety and pleasing aspect. The best views of Moscow are obtained from the Sparrow Hills (from which Napo- leon first sighted the city), the tower, or from the Moskva EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 245 Rekoi bridge, which crosses the Moskva river near the south wall. The great tower, Ivan Veliki, is 325 feet in height, which may be ascended by a succession of very steep, narrow stairways. It was erected by Boris Godunoff in the year 1600, and contains forty-three bells of various sizes, some of which are pure silver. The great bell, "Czar Kolokel," which was cast in 1730, was hung in the tower, but fell seven years later when the upper por- tion of the tower was burned. Its immense weight caused it to sink very deep into the earth, where it remained one hundred years, until Nicholas I. caused it to be mounted upon a pedestal where it still stands. This bell is twenty-one feet in height and weighs 400,000 pounds ; its value, estimated at the price for old metal, is $200,000. A large piece, broken out of the bell by the fall, lies beside it, and the clapper is in the chamber underneath. It was on Saturday, the 12th of August/that I left Moscow for Nijni Novgorod, in the company of Captain Spicer, of New London, Connecticut, and an interpreter named Smith, who is a native of Jersey City, New Jer- sey, but for the past seven years has been a resident of Moscow, where he acts as guide and interpreter for American visitors. Capt. Spicer was also enroute for Si- beria, being interested in the fur trade, and intending to explore northern Siberia in quest of fur-bearing animals. His company was very acceptable to me, for I saw only one other American while in Moscow, the Kev. John Hall, of the Fifth Avenue Presbyterian church, New York City, who was spending his summer vacation in Russia ; and in Siberia I did not expect to meet with any one who could speak my language. The distance from Moscow to Nijni is 273 miles, which 16 246 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND is accomplished by rail in 13 hours. I remained in Nijni over Sunday and Monday to attend the great fair which is held there annually from August 1st to October 1st ; though in ordinary times the town does not contain a population of more than 45,000, yet during the fair there maybe seen fully 200,000 persons here engaged in barter. The city, which is generally called Nijni, to distinguish it from Great Novgorod, appears to have been founded in 1222, and as early as 1366 fairs were annually held there. In 1641 a charter was granted to the Monastery of St. Macarius, 71 miles below the town, empowering the monks to levy taxes on the trade carried on at Nijni. This privilege they continued to enjoy, much to their gain, until 1751, when the trade, which was created by the fair, became so nearly free that the revenue, which now became the Government's, did not exceed $500. Statis- tics show that from 1697 to 1790 the value of the an- nual trade carried on at this fair increased from $60,000 to $22,500 000, while now it is estimated at $80,000,000 annually. The town is situated on a hill at the very center of that water communication which joins the Caspian, Black, White and Baltic seas, besides it is the eastern terminus of the world's railway lines, and the point of contact of European industry and Asiatic wealth. Below Nijni is a vast bottom land over which flows in spring and winter the confluent waters of the Volga and Oka rivers. Dur- ing the summer season the waters recede, leaving this bot- tom of sand ready for the purpose to which it is so well adapted. Immediately a tattoo of hammers begins which ceases neither day nor night until the whole vast plain is covered with frame shanties of every conceivable descrip- tion, into which fabrics of every design and complexion are crammed ; the articles thus exposed at the fair come EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 247 FAMILIAR SCENES AT THE NIJM FAIR. 248 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND from all parts of the Empire as far east as Kamschatka, while China, Thibet, Hindoostan, Tartary, and even Japan are well represented when the fair opens. Such a conglomeration of sights and smells can be found at no other place in the world as in Nijni ; during the day-time there is a jam and bustle among buyers and sellers who crowd the sidewalks and streets, so that passage through, on foot, is almost impossible. Beggars, orpin-grinders, auctioneers, jugglers, performing bears, Punch and Judy, and an olla prodrida of jumbling jacks and catch-on-as- you-please kind of attractions are crowded in among the legitimate features of the fair. When night throws its shadows over the bustling scene, there is a magic change in the panorama ; a million lights blaze up and throw flickering rays, like dancing jimiii, over a weird en- semble. The shops are closed about ten o'clock to give place to a revelry of chaotic choruses. Open air concerts are on every side, in which the chief features are half- naked women howling bacchante songs and kicking at a space much above their heads. Among these depraved artistes Circassian girls are more numerous, those beauties of the Caucasus we read so much about, but who, in fact, are fair and luscious only at a distance of one thousand leagues from the observer. Polish girls are also plentiful in these bazaars of freedom, and as a class they are very handsome. I saw two negro women (who were from the West Indies) at one of the concerts, who attracted as much attention as an Indian Rajah would in the United States. They were rated far above ordinary mortals, and had for escorts distinguished government officials, who hung on their words like bumble bees on the honey of fresh clover blossoms. I perambulated around through the fair and night scenes until exhausted nature could perform no more, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 249 when I retired to a room in which there were already thirteen other occupants snoring off the potations they WOODEN CHURCH IN NIJM-NCVGOKOD. had indulged. I had an old quilt to repose on, which smelt like^a Dutch cheese factory freshly stirred up, au &!B ; i!!SBuSmiiiiiiSi;5lteigy travel in the manner I had come. Fortunately it was only a little after mid-day when we arrived, and dinner was ready ; so I quickly washed my face, after first rubbing a long, broad, deep crick out of 264 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AM) my back so I could bend over, and then fell to with vo- racious greed to devour black-bread and salt. It's a way they have in that country. It must, undoubt- edly, be the product of some religious inspiration, for I can't imagine anything else potential enough to curtail the diet so extravagantly ; but whatever the cause, black-bread (which is eaten after a thick layer of salt is spread over it) and tea constitute almost the exclusive diet of the native Siberians. By dint of expostulation and particularly by promises of a large reward, I ob- tained a piece of steak, which was as succulent and tender as any I ever before ate. It is astonishing how these people subsist on so limited a diet, and my wonder was all the more increased when I learned that choice steaks can be had for four cents a pound, while fish are even cheaper. There is very little agriculture in Siberia, the occupations chiefly followed being mining, inn keeping, fishing and raising stock. Immense herds of horses and cattle roam all over the country, the property of herds- men who raise them for export, home consumption being scarcely thought of. I was so completely used up, so to speak, that after dinner I called to the landlord to show me a bed, into which I soon cast my wearied body and soul. After a two hours' rest, I awakened and, though still in an ex- hausted condition, reflected upon how precious was my time, arose, took another glass of tea, and sauntered out into the city in quest of information. Tieumen is situated on the Tura river, which flows by the Tobol into the Irtysh and Obi, and it is at this point that steamboat conveyance is taken to those rivers, and to the towns of Tobolsk, Omsk and Tomsk. The town is subject to great overflows every spring when the ice breaks up, and gorging below the bridge sometimes EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 265 266 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND inundates the whole city. It has a population of 16,- 000, with thriving manufactories of iron, earthenware, glass, cloth, carpets and leather; but the houses are mostly built of wood, and the place has a mean and dreary aspect. It is in one respect the most import- ant town in western Siberia, for it is here that all the prisoners are first brought before their distri- bution to the penal settlements and mines further east. There is one building in the city, devoted to educa- tional purposes, which cost $100,000, and is the finest structure in all Siberia ; two specially important facts connected with this institution are, that it was built by a man who started with nothing, has acquired a large fortune in Siberia, and donated the building to the Government ; the other peculiarity is found in the build- ing being furnished throughout with American furniture, as is also the home of the liberal donor. I found also here in Tieumen an American gentleman who very kindly introduced me to the Governor and sev- eral other functionaries, with whom I became intimate enough to announce the object of my visit and to request of them such information as I needed. To a question which I asked the Governor respecting the origin of punishment of offenders by exile, he made answer : 44 1 do not know exactly when the practice begun, but a well-known writer, M. Reclus, says the first degree of banishment was promulgated by Boris Godunoff when, in 1591, he sent nearly five hundred of the Uglitch insur- rectionists into exile, locating them not far from Tieu- men. This story, however, is more traditional than his- torical, though it may be true. But it is an established fact that near the close of the seventeenth century several thousand of Little Russians, who had revolted in the EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 267 Ukarine and were overcome by Great Russia, were sent, in chains, to various parts of Siberia. After this, trans- portation for all manner of serious offenses became com- mon. A large number of religious dissenters, with their families, were deported in 1682, and compelled to settle in the Baikal district. Peter the Great also banished many of the Strelitz, a tribe from southern Russia, who were so wedded to bows and arrows that they refused to use any other arms. They caused no little trouble by their treachery, and finally rebelled against their sov- ereign. During the reign of Elizabeth many distin- guished persons, accused of political unfaithfulness, were sent to the far eastern provinces, among whom were Tolstoi, Munich, Menchikoff, Dolgornki, Biron, &c., who were afterward permitted to return. In 1758 began the first deportation of Poles, but under Catharine II. thousands of these unhappy people were thrust in to exile. Nine hundred, who had served under Napoleon, were convicted of treason and sent to the Yakoutsk district. In 1826 three thousand Decembrists, who tried to assas- sinate Nicholas and provide a constitution, were sent to Siberia, followed in 1830 by a deportation of 80,000 Poles." The original idea of Godunoff , which was to use Si- beria as a place of punishment, grew into a fixed purpose under Nicholas I. and Alexander II., to not only banish offenders merely to punish them, but to make banishment a means for settling Siberia. They very correctly argued that here was a larger portion of the Empire, rich in min- erals and boundless in agricultural possibilities, lying idle because none would settle in it. They therefore con- cluded to enforce an industrial occupation of the cauntry. To this end not only were murderers and political offend- ers sent to Siberia, but colonies were established by the 268 liUsSlAN NIHILISM AND deportation of those guilty of petty crimes. A privilege was given the peasantry to establish village courts, called Zemsta, to which they might summon, or forcibly take, any one of their number charged with being untrue or im- provident, incorrigibly bad, lazy, a common drunkard, or village nuisance, and upon conviction he could be sent to Siberia. This practice was very extensive a few years ago, and is not uncommon now. Such convicts, how- ever, are not held, as prisoners, to any special labor, but are sent to increase colonies that pursue any calling they choose to obtain a living. The Governor further told me that there are thirty- four offenses punishable by transportation to Siberia. The first and greatest crime in Russia is treason, which is punished by execution, but for no other crime is the death penalty inflicted. The following offenses are pun- ished by exile : insubordination to lawful authority ; stealing official documents ; .escape or abetting the es- cape of prisoners ; embezzlement of Government funds ; forgery; blasphemy (though it is a dead-letter law); dissent and heresy (rarely enforced) ; sheltering or giving aid to escaping convicts ; counterfeiting ; being taken on suspicion and found without a passport ; va- grancy, coupled with suspicious conduct; murder or accessory thereto ; attempted suicide ; mayhem ; assault with deadly weapon ; seduction and rape ; subornation ; illegal holding or transfer of property ; arson ; burglary ; theft ; horse-stealing ; debt ; dishonoring the Emperor's name ; assuming false titles ; beastiality ; usury or extor- tion (rarely enforced, though a common offense) ; eluding military service; smuggling; illicit distilling; and the practices of the Scoptsi, of which I will write fully here- after, when describing their settlement. I was told that for the past ten years, the number of EXJLE LIFE IX SIBERIA, 269 270 RUSSIAN NIHILISM ANB exiles sent annually to Siberia was about 20,000, of which 12,000 are sent to the eastern district under sen- tence of hard labor in the mines. I was permitted to visit the Tieumen prison, in which there were confined nearly five hundred prisoners, awaiting orders to be sent further east. Of these five hundred there were nearly one hundred who could read and write. This indicates the intelligence of the criminals sent into exile. It is a statistical fact that of Russia's entire population only five per cent, can read and write, the lowest average of education to be found in any civilized country on the globe. Now, when we compare this fact with the prison- ers at Tieumen, of whom twenty per cent, could read and write, we are forced to the irresistible conclusion that Russia's criminals are from her best educated peo- ple. All prisoners sent from Moscow are taken by rail to Nijni-Novgorod, where they embark on a barge, which is towed by steamer to Perm. This barge is built ex- pressly for the purpose and will carry from seven to eight hundred. From Perm they are transported by rail to Ekaterine- berg, and from that point they are taken to Tieumen by wagons. Why they are not required to walk this latter distance I cannot understand, particularly since beyond Tieumen the prisoners are compelled to walk to what- ever place they are destined, which is not generally less than 2,000 miles further east. Sometimes it occurs that there is special haste to get the prisoners to Irkout.sk or Yakoutsk mines, before severe weather begins in the fall, and for purposes of expedition they are taken by barge on the Irtysh and Obi to Tomsk, from which latter place, however, they must walk voluntarily or be driven like refractory brutes under the stinging lash. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 271 On the morning after my arrival in Tieumen, as I had been told by the Governor the previous evening, a party of three hundred prisoners were taken out of their a PRISONERS LEAVING TIEUMEN FOR EASTERN SIBERIA. stockade and started to Chita, which is a penal settle- ment in the Trans-Baikal. It was raining very hard, but the element* were not permitted to interfere with the 272 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND programme. About fifty soldiers acted as convoy-guard, who marched out on foot in two files with the exiles be- tween them, followed by weeping women and a large number of curious citizens. At the suburbs of the place horses were in waiting for the soldiers, but there was nothing but a hard, foot journey before the unfortunate prisoners, about one-third of whom carried heavy chains on their wrists and ankles. I was affected almost to tears by the sight, every phase of which was inexpres- sibly sad. I stayed over at Tieumen one day longer to gather some additional facts and wait for more clement weather. Capt. Spicer had intended to leave me here and start by tarantass northward, but concluded to accompany me to Tobolsk, where he could take a steamer on the Irtysh, and have a journey to the Grulf of Obi, from which point he decided to begin skirting Siberia across to Kam- schatka. On the following day we engaged a new kind of conveyance, as from appearance it promised more com- fort than we had found in the tarantass. This vehicle was what the Russians call a tumbril; I suppose they de- rive the name from the English tumble, because it goes tumbling over the road like an acrobat, bounding up in dreadful jerks and coming down like a pile driver. A small steamer plies between Tieumen and Tobolsk, but at uncertain intervals, and gets through with greater uncertainty, so we adopted the overland route and started about three o'clock in the afternoon. The road was very muddy and our progress slow, which saved us from the sore affliction we suffered in the rapid tarantass. At thejirst station we halted to change"horses, the post- . keeper told us that the roads were almost impassable and that a creek, five versts further on, was- so swollen that crossing would be very dangerous. Nevertheless we con- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA 273 274 RUSSIAN NIHILISM eluded to push on and meet whatever adventure chance might visit upon us. We drove with all possible speed, in order to reach the creek before darkness set in, as ab- sence of light always multiplies dangers. We ar- rived at the stream about seven o'clock and found it rushing madly over its banks, carrying driftwood of logs, trees, brush, etc., so that our resolution gave way and we thought of returning to the' post-station to spend the night. Before deciding finally, however, a moujiJc local resident peasant appeared , whom we accosted and asked if there were any ferry-boat available that could set us across. He admitted that much danger would be in- curred in an attempt to pass the stream, but agreed to get a boat, which lay moored one mile further up the creek, and set us over for five roubles. This proposition at once decided us, and without further delay we drove up to where the boat lay and prepared to embark. The boat was a flat scow with gunwales not more than a foot out of water, and that it had been put to much service was evidenced by the rot that had struck in and weakened every board about it. The horses were so tractable, for- tunately, that no difficulty was experienced in getting afloat. The moujik used a long pole to push the boat off, but once getting started, our frail craft begun to spin around like leaves in a whirlwind. It now looked doubtful about getting across without swimming, but manfully we all pushed with poles, by which we managed to near the opposite shore about six miles below the point from whence we started. Prospects were brightening every moment, when suddenly our boat struck a pro- jecting log they are called sawyers by Mississippi river pilots and before we could shift our cuds of to- bacco, over we went, tumbril, horses and men, into the water, while the boat, bottom side up, went on down the EXILZ LIFE IX SIBERIA. 275 stream, still spinning around like a graceful coquette who has just jilted her lover. It so happened that the water, where we were capsized, was not more than three feet deep, and we were able to keep our feet. My first act was to grab two of the horses by their bridles, while Capt. Spicer and our two men seized the tumbril and righted it ; by skilful and instantaneous action we pre- vented the horses from becoming tangled, and soon had the satisfaction of getting on shore with no other incon- venience than wet clothing. But our more serious diffi- culty was yet to come, for it had now grown quite dark and was still threatening rain. We had landed and were on solid earth, but our surroundings were something like the jungles of Central Africa. There was no semblance of a road leading out of this swampy, brush-grown place, nor did we have so much as a match to light our way. But, figuratively speaking, shutting our eyes and trusting to Providence, we started the horses along in the direc- tion we supposed the road lay. After about one hour or more of this delightful pic-nicing excursion in the garden of the gods, we found ourselves lost. I had a compass in my pocket, but it might as well have been on top of the north-pole, for having neither a light nor the eyes of a nocturnal varmint, we " couldn't see the point." With nothing but wet clothes and wetter blankets our condi- tion was similar to that which the man fell into who in- vented a new oath. But, as if dissatisfied with our cir- cumstances, old Pluvius pulled out the stop-cocks of heaven and deluged us with a rain of nearly six hours duration, while the frogs, between dashes of rain, croaked all manner of requiems around about us. If a pack of wolves had descended upon us about this time I would have gladly assisted them to ravish my body, and yet every strange sound that seemed to presage an attack 276 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND from these chronically hungry desperadoes, produced a momentary fear that made us forget our other misery. Nothing could be done except face the artillery of mis- fortune, so we unhitched the horses and made them fast to our vehicle. Then came the rub of standing round and taking turns in saying such bad words as a distressed soul may be inspired to utter under the circumstances. Morning broke at last, but such a morning as would shame creation, for the rain still poured down, until what wasn't mud was water, and what wasn't water was a dis- tillation of exquisite melancholy. Frozen and drowned though we were, there was still enough aggravation left hi our natures to stimulate us to renewed endeavors to get out of the woods or purgatory, which is a more appropriate term. So confused were we by the desperate experience un- dergone that wretched night that it was late in the after- noon before we found the road again, and when we did tind it there was nothing to make us proud except the realization that we still lived. Through mud up to the axles we plodded along, hungry, exhausted, wet, mad and intensely miserable, until twelve o'clock the following night before reaching the next station. So thoroughly worn out was I that upon entering the station I threw myself upon a bench and did not stir again until morn- ing, though the master tried every way to arouse and direct me to a comfortable bed. The opiate of exhaus- tion was so powerful, in fact, that I no longer felt the wet clothes that were on me, or took time to wish I was in dear America. Renewing our journey about noon, the sun came out again, and we gradually forgot the miseries through which we had passed and began to find, one by one, some little pleasures in life. The roads also gradually became EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 277 more tolerable, while along the highway we met occa- sional groups of Tartars, and passed through Tartar vil- lages which presented many whimsical characteristics. In Siberia (where less than one-fifth the population is Russian) as in Russia, we found images of the Madonna hung up over doors, in windows, on walls, nailed to posts, strung up before ordinary village notices, and, in short, we found them everywhere, while little candles were burning before them all. The Tartars are very nu- merous throughout Siberia and are proud of their history, which is crowded with adventure and red with blood. They are the same people as those who, under Genghis Khan, in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, over- ran all of northern Asia and then penetrated Russia, striking the Muscovites such strong blows that they al- most accomplished the conquest of that nation. The Tartar women still hold to the ancient Moslem practice of wearing veils over their faces when strangers are near, which, I must say, is very kind of them, for as a stranger I speak, who having seen some few Tartar faces, am very thankful that I was not permitted to see more ; a Chinese god is beautiful when brought in com- parison with the most distinguished Tartar belle. CHAPTER TOBOLSK is but little more than one day's journey from Tieumen by steamer, but we encountered so many difficulties that it was more than two days before we reached the city, though the distance by land is but little more than half what it is by water. I had now reached one of the great Siberian prisons, 18 278 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND and my investigations became more interesting here be- cause of immediate contact with some initiatory horrors which previous study and reading had partly prepared me for. Tobolsk is a city of nearly 40,000 inhabitants and was the first capital of Siberia, the whole of that enormous terri- tory being acquired in seventy years of the seventeenth cen- tury. The town was originally built on a high hill, having pre- cipitous sides, and around it was a strong wall over the ramp- arts of which still glisten and frown several large cannons. Entrance to this part of the city is through fortress gates, to gain which passage must be made up a steep, winding road- way. As the town grew, for lack of space on the hill, building began on the plain below, until now the lower portion of the city is larger and more regularly built than that on the hill. The population of Tobolsk is composed of Eussians, Tartars and Germans, the latter race being much more EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 279 numerous than circumstances permitted me to believe until I had thoroughly convinced myself. They are an object of bitter prejudice to the Russians, who very fre- quently visit upon them rank injustice ; knowing this, I was very much surprised that the Germans composed nearly one-sixth of the entire population. Being some- what familiar with the German language, I found it now very serviceable to me, for I secured introductions to several prominent persons of that nationality who took much pains to make my visit both pleasant and profitable. In Upper Tobolsk is a fine and celebrated cathedral, near which is hung on a tripod the Ugtitch bell, with which is connected a singular history, to this effect : The bell was orginally in the turret of a cathedral in Uglitch, Russia, where, for many years, it called the faithful to assemble for worship. But in 1591 a great insurrection took place in Uglitch, against the Czar Godunoff, on which occasion the rebels used this bell to signal their uprising and attack upon the Goverment officers. These insurrectionists were very strong in numbers, and were not overpowered for several months, but when their sub- jection was at last accomplished, Boris Godunoff issued an order of punishment against the bell, in obedience to which it was thrown down from the turret, its ears were broken off, and then a company of men were made to publicly flog it. To this was added a decree of banish- ment, so that the bell was taken, with several thousand of the insurrectionists sent into exile, to the district of Tobolsk. The disgrace which thus fell upon the bell for aiding the rebels, has been so far removed now that it is again used for calling Muscovites to prayers. There is very little of interest to be seen in Tobolsk outside the prisons, which are three in number, and gen- erally contain from 1,000 to 1,200 prisoners. They are 280 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND located near a large pleasure garden, and directly under a commanding view from the fortress. I managed to secure an introduction to the chief prison guard, who being able to speak a little German readily answered such inquiries as I addressed to him, and also, after much per- suasion and the gift of several roubles, finally gave me permission to go inside the prisons. This privilege was much more than I had expected, but I soon learned from experience that a few roubles, judicously used, could be made a magical sesame that would open any door in Russia. The buildings are of brick with small, square win- dows, provided with double glass to keep out the cold. As I entered, two guards stepped forward with fixed bay- onets and followed me wherever I went in the prison. The chief officer also accompanied me, and from him I learned that Tobolsk was formerly the station to which all hard -labor convicts were sent, but as mines became developed further east the prisons here are now used to' confine convicts one year before sending them eastward ; it is only a comparatively small number who are de- tained at Tobolsk at all, those in confinement being crim- inals who have committed some new offense while on the transport route, or convicts who have been retaken after an attempt to escape. Large workshops adjoined the prisons, in which all those able to labor were busily employed ; there were shoemakers, tailors, wagon-makers, cabinet-makers, etc. All these were compelled to perform a certain amount of labor each day or be knouted, which is no more than a playful frolic between the floggerand his victim accord- ing to Mr. Lansdell, the philanthropist. This method of punishment, though ostensibly abolished, is inflicted on some poor convict at the Tobolsk prisons every day, as EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 281 several citizens assured me. A gentleman who had wit- nessed several such floggings, described the process as ADMINISTERING THE KNOUT. follows : The culprit is taken to a room where there is a large pillar, to which two rings are attached at an ele- 282 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND vation of about seven feet from the floor. Here he is stripped entirely, but ti light cloth is placed about his loins, not as an act of clemency, however, but of de- cency ; the poor victim, now panting and quivering at the ordeal which he anticipates, is then bound about the wrists with strong cords which are drawn up and fastened to the rings, raising him almost off his feet. Two pro- fessional floggers now enter the room in response to a summons, bearing knouts in their hands. These instru- ments of torture, rather than punishment, are composed of several rawhide thongs bound together at one end in a handle one foot long ; each thong terminates in a knot, which serves the purpose of giving additional force to each stroke and of greatly increasing the punishment by bruising the flesh where each knot strikes. The floggers begin their work generally by flourishing the knout sev- eral times about their heads without striking the victim, so as to take him by surprise, as it is believed a keener agony is produced by striking when the victim is least expecting it. When the whipping begins, ho\\ 7 ever, it is laid on by the floggers alternately, who strike all over the body, so as to produce the largest surface of suffering. With every stroke either several great blue welts rise un- der the thongs, or, if the flesh be particularly tender, gashes are made from whence streams of blood pour. But it is said there is less suffering from cuts than bruises, the former healing up rapidly, while the latter not infrequently fester and cause an illness from which many die. There are hundreds of instances, however, where men and women have died under the administra- tion, and in nearly all cases where as many as one hun- dred lashes are given, the victim becomes unconscious and does not revive for hours afterward. Among the workmen I noticed not a few who wore EXILE I, IFF. IN SIBERIA. 283 chains similar to those I saw on the prisoners at Moscow. Upon inquiry respecting the cause of this, an intelligent guard told me, through my interpreter, that the prison- ers thus subjected to additional punishment were crimi- nals who had been convicted of aggravated offenses, such as unprovoked murder or serious political crimes, and that the sentence they were under was hard labor for a long period of years (or for life) and without mercy. Through curiosity I approached very near a half-dozen or more of these shackled convicts, so that the effects of their chains were plainly visible ; in some instances large abrasions were noticed on their wrists, which must have given extreme pain, while in others the flesh under the galling irons was so black as to give an appearance of mortification. I could not discover what effect the heavy anklets had, as large, extreme- ly coarse socks hid the flesh, but from outward indications I should judge the ankles were badly swollen. When at work, the wrists of these convicts were bound with a chain which gave about two feet of free action to the hands, but when not at labor the wrists were brought together and fastened ; in addition to this, a strong leathern strap was attached from the wrist bindings to double chains on the legs and ankles, so that the hands were confined in one position ; hard labor was far more preferable than idleness, when bound in such heartless manner. Women convicts were subjected to as severe treatment A CONVICT LABORER IN IRONS. 1' - -4 KCSSIAX NIHILISM AND as the men, except their labor was hardly so taxing. They were chiefly employed scouring the prisons, cook- ing, and washing clothes, hut I noticed a few who were engaged in making baskets and polishing leather. Their sex did not exempt them from the knout or plele. This latter instrument of punishment is made of several short but thick birches tied together atjone end, the others be- ing left loose so as to strike in several places on the flesh at each blow. Having passed through the prisons, I had now seen quite enough of Tobolsk, and made my preparations to leave for Tomsk. Capt. Spicer had already left me the day after our arrival in Tobolsk, taking steamer for some destination on the Obi, which he himself had not finally decided upon. The guide whom we had employed at Moscow also accompanied him, to my great satisfac- tion, for I had long since learned that, besides knowing but little of the Russian language, he was incontinently stupid, and his services were by no means satisfying. Capt. Spicer, however, was an old Arctic whaler, and was now going among the Esquimaux, whose tongue he could speak ; he was therefore content to take the guide with him as a servant. I had no difficulty in securing another interpreter in the person of a German named Sehieuter, who was a res- ident of Tobolsk, speaking the Bii, Tartar, Samoyede, Giiyak, and other languages m*d by the various tribes of north and eastern Siberia ; be had also made several trips the continent, and was well versed in all the ehar- of both country and people. This engage- a particularly fortunate one, for through Sebleoter I obtained much information which, without his services, most have remained undisclosed to me. My experience with the taraatass and the tumbril, 28(> RUSSIAN NIHILISM AXH I must confess, greatly prejudiced me, against them as modes of conveyance, and as there was a tri-weekly ser- vice of paddle-wheel steamers between Tobolsk and Tomsk, I decided to travel to the latter city by boat. Accordingly, in obedience to my instructions, Schleuter purchased such things as we might need on the trip, and on Wednesday afternoon we embarked for a six days' voyage to Tomsk. As we backed out into the stream the Irtysh River a beautiful view of Tobolsk was had, reminding me of the appearance 1 had conceived of mid- dle'century castles inhabited by the lords of rich manors, with hundreds of outbuildings for the shelter of their subjects. This creation was intensified by a recollection of the country in which I was now traveling, and by the peculiar features and faces that surrounded me. There were perhaps one hundred and twenty-five pas- sengers on the steamer, but of this number not more than twenty occupied first-class accommodations. My interpreter was quite willing to travel second-class (the fare being fourteen roubles), but I preferred that he should go first-class so that I might have the benefit of his company constantly, particularly as the first-class fare was only twenty roubles ($10.00). But this passage money did not include table fare, which amounted to about $1.25 each per day. I have seen no little gambling in my life, but never before did I make a journey on a steamer where all the passengers were gamblers. As all Russia is a tea drink- ing nation, so are all Russian subjects inveterate card players. In fact the national laws foster gaming, for the Government has a monopoly of card manufacturing, the revenue from which is applied to the support of the foundling asylums at Moscow and St. Petersburg. JSight and day all the passengers, men and women , EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 287 were busily engaged throwing cards in a game I never saw played before, but which resembled "Napoleon," a game quite common in England, in which the players lay wagers on how many tricks they can take. But except at night, when I backed Schleuter in a game, I was too much interested in the scenery to take any interest in cards. After we passed out of the Irtysh into the Obi river our steamer made more frequent land- ings and an opportunity was had to learn something of Northern Siberia. At the towns of Shapsink, Sahabinsk, Sol kin and Surgat we met hundreds of Ostjaks, who are a race of people inhabiting the northern portion of the Tobolsk and Tomsk Governments. They live by fishing and hunting, chiefly by the former, and are as filthy in their person as the Digger Indians of New Mexico. They swarmed about our boat wherever we landed and besought the passengers to buy their fish and game ; ducks they sold at ten kopecks (five cents) a brace ; grouse at fifty kopecks (twenty-five cents) a pair ; while fish were so cheap that an American would not receive them as a gift and peddle them at a Negro barbecue at such prices ; sturgeons, which is perhaps the best fish found in Siberian waters, were offered at t\vo kopecks (one cent) per pound, or a fish weighing ten pounds might have been purchased, by a little higgling, for about sevea cents. Many other species of fish were offered at one- half cent per pound. These Ostjaks take all their fish from the upper streams in winter time, their mode of fishing being as follows: A hole is cut through the ice, over which a spring rod is placed, having several lines and baited hooks. Little balls of clay are heated and thrown into the stream, which cause the fish to rise from hollow beds in the river, where they collect in schools. When the fish move out of their 288 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND places they invariably swim some distance up stream at which time they see the bait and take it with great vora- RUSSIANIZED OSTJAKS. ciousness. Sometimes a dozen lines set in this way will take as many as a dozen fish at one time. After the fish EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 289 are caught they are packed and frozen, in which condi- tion they are sent to all parts of Russia, or sold at inns and to passengers along the steam or post-routes. The Ostjaks, who number about 30,000, inhabit that portion of Siberia lying between the rivers Irtysh and Obi, and as far north as Obdorsk. They are nomadic and live in a diffused state in tents which they call youts. The Obi is a stream of considerable width, and its course lies through a plain without even once passing a moderate sized hill. The scenery is therefore very mo- notonous, and but for the peculiar people met with there would be nothing on the water-route between Tobolsk and Tomsk 1,600 miles to excite the least interest. CHAPTER XIV. WE arrived at Tomsk late Tuesday night, and so anx- ious was I to leave the steamer, which had been little more than a prison to me, that I called to Schleuter and had him prepare for immediate debarkation. We en- gaged a droshky and drove to a hotel, the Russian name of which I have forgotten, but in English it was the Tomsk Tavern, so my interpreter told me, kept by a pleasing old fellow whose patronymic Honkhominiski I could not well forget, because it is so suggestive of hog and hominy. I was shown to a room in the hotel, the furniture of which was principally icons and candles. I might call them images, but not in the presence of a Russian, unless I wanted to insult him ; an icon, therefore, needs some explanation. The religious Muscovite i* technical to a, 290 BUSS1AN NIHILISM AND point of punctilliousness ; he observes that biblical in- junction which forbids the making of idols or .images for worship ; but his construction of the divine command is, to say the least, about as badly mixed as was the Irish- man who attended the accouchment of a double-headed calf. A farmer coming by noticed Pat at work with the calf, which he quickly observed was a freak of nature, and addressed him : " Well, Pat, that is rather a singu- lar lusus naturae, the like of which I never before wit- nessed." "Begorrah," responded the puzzled Hibernian, " that's a noble name for sich a brhute ; I was afther callin' ov it a badly mixed calf." In order to avoid conflict with the command, and at the same time secure his image, the Russian icon maker first paints a picture of either Christ, the Madonna, or whatever holy patriarch he desires to represent, and then makes a bas-relief investiture, so that the clothing is a relief image, while those portions which represent the face, hands or feet are only painted on a flat back-ground. This hybrid image the Russians call an icon, and they believe with all their devout credulity that it is neither a graven image nor the representation of an image. It is only necessary to add that Russian religion is founded upon faith alone without works. Surrounded by so much holiness, I slept with sound- ness until Peter's cock split its throat crowing, and the sun had started the bees on their third trip to the clover blossoms metaphorically, of course, as there is no clover in Siberia. Starting out into the city about ten o'clock, the first thing that arrested my attention was what Rus- sians call a gostinnoi dvor, a market-place where are sold all the vegetable products of Siberia, and many others raised in Russia. I was very much entertained passing EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 291 through the numerous stalls making a hurried inspection of the things on sale, and those who were bartering. Around the market there is a large open space in the cen- ter of which stands a handsome little chapel with white and gilt sides and a beautiful blue dome representing the starlit canopy of heaven. There are two prisons in Tomsk, both of which are low, brick build- ings, perpetually damp and foul with miasmatic exhala- tions, owing to the boggy character of the soil over which they are built. One of these pris- ons is used as a de- tention building, in which prisoners on the way east a r e temporarily confined, from one day to one week, according as occa- sion may require. In the other prison, criminals sent into exile for short terms are confined. These perform little labor, and they are kept in such close quarters that inaction affects them seriously.. Through the kindness of a local charity, a 292 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND school has recently been established for the benefit of the prisoners and their children, but comparatively few avail themselves of the benefit which it affords. There is a reason for this which I did not understand at first. The prisoners confined at Tomsk are only those con- victed of petty crimes, whose sentence does not exceed four } r ears, and even this does not extend beyond mere confinement ; naturally, such convicts are from a class so densely ignorant that intelligence is repugnant ; they never have spirit to do more than snatch a pocket-book, assassinate some unsuspecting person, or assault a female. There are no political convicts at Tomsk, and as it was this class I was more particularly desirous of seeing, my stay in that town was limited to a single day. We were now at the terminus of water communication eastward, of which fact I was not disposed to grumble, because steamboating in Siberia can only be compared for discomfort, to travelling by tarantass or tumbril ; when you are on one, you invariably wish you were on the other ; so, having just left a steamer, I was glad to get a tumbril. Schleuter had no difficulty in engaging a ve- hicle of this character, and being himself familiar with the highway, we concluded to dispense with the services of a yemstchik (driver) and go through to Krasnoiarsk, which is distant from Tomsk about three hundred miles, without any auxiliaries. Having completed arrange- ments, we started from Tomsk in the morning with a de- termination to reach Krasnoiarsk within two clays' travel- ling. Schleuter was a good driver, and he knew just how much speed to get out of three Siberian ponies abreast. When we reined up at the first station, our horses were in a foam but they still had many long breaths in them ; nevertheless we changed them, and with fresh animals our rapid travelling was resumed. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 293 294 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND As a pointer to those ambitious of visiting Siberia, let me add one explanatory word here. First, a tumbril is much to be preferred before a tarantass ; second, horse- back is preferable to either ; third, walking, in any other country, is far less objectionable than travelling in any way through Siberia. It is true, that in a tumbril lying down is possible, but consider the luxury of such a bed ; between the two axles are three or more poles to which the bed of the vehicle is fastened ; they are just long and inelastic enough to throw you high in the air when the tumbril crosses an obstruction, agd let you down again with the force of a catapult. Under such circumstances sleep visits the traveller in horrid dreams ; this I know from experience, for the first night out, being exhausted with the mascerating trituration to which J had been subjected for eighteen hours, I fell into a doze which lasted perhaps half an hour, during which time I dreamed of being assaulted by six three-headed giants two miles tall, who pounded me with spiked bludgeons and then chewed me up between steel teeth six feet long. When the giants concluded their feast, my dream changed and I thought a large pack of wolves had surrounded a small tree up which I had sought escape ; that they fell to with their teeth and soon gnawed the sapling until it fell, throwing me upon the ground with extreme violence, when immediately my flesh was torn into shoe-strings by a thousand snarling, voracious pests of Siberia's plains. The cold chills even now creep in successive waves over my body as I recall that dream, for it seems that I can still feel the wolves planting their feet on my body while stripping the flesh from my bones. This dream is only a very slight exaggeration of the real miseries suffered by travellers in Siberia. When Schleuter became too tired for further service I EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 295 took his place as driver, and thus we lost no time until the evening following our departure from Tomsk, when, strange enough, we overtook the same convoy of prison- ers I had seen leave Tobolsk, on foot, nearly a week be- fore. This I considered a piece of good fortune, as it enabled me to see how exiles in transport were treated, and to discover with what feelings they accepted banish- ment. I got on good terms with the chief officer of the con- voy by giving him sundry privileges with a little flask which I carried for emergencies, just like the one to which it was now applied. Through my interpreter I talked with him familiarly for some time and then made inqui- ries respecting his charge; he was not disposed to say much about the prisoners at first, but as the flask lost its contents, he became more loquacious until I had pumped enough out of him to fill a book. Under the spirit- ual influence which now possessed him, he exhibited that careless indifference of his prisoners' comfort which distinguishes the Russian aristocracy in their treatment of the poor peasantry. Tt was plain to be seen that the burdened convicts were suffering from fatigue, although it is said they travel only on alternate days, resting at post-stations and attending church meantime, but of this I have my doubts. It is probably the law, but what is a written law in a country like Siberia ? My impression is, if the officers of a convoy desire to recreate themselves get drunk on the highway they stop one or more days at a time ; but, on the other hand, if they are anxious to make a quick trip in order to serve their own personal ends, then the convicts are compelled to continue their march, regardless of the fatigue they may be suffering. In fact, the officer with whom I was conversing virtually admitted to me as much. EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 297 There were three ambulances tumbrils with the con- voy to carry those who could travel no longer, but the officer told me they were used only in extreme cases ; said he, "when a man or woman lags behind we sometimes touch them up with a cracker ; and if this does not put new life in their legs the plete, well wielded, almost invariably does." This admission served to indicate the severe measures sometimes used in compelling exiles to walk when their condition was such that they could scarcely support their exhausted bodies. I am not unconscious of the fact that many would feign sickness in order to secure a ride, but for the stringent measures used by the guards ; human nature is not different in Siberia from that we see in other countries, but the enforced travelling of exiles is performed under circumstances peculiar, in that the convicts are punished beyond what their sentence contemplates. As I rode beside the officer my attention was at- tracted to one man who staggered along, with his face towards the ground as if trying to lose consciousness in a hypnotism of himself. He was heavily ironed, in fact inhumanly, atrociously shackled, so that every step he took his chains rattled in consonance with the extreme suffering which I could plainly see he was enduring. His wrists were bound together, to which was attached a heavier double-chain that ran down and connected with immense iron manacles on his ankles ; the weight of the gyves he had to carry was not less than thirty pounds, and though not at the time able to observe the effects, I was quite certain that an examination would disclose a sight sufficient to excite the sympathy of any human be- ing. I was therefore determined in my efforts to see the poor fellow and learn exactly the condition of his limbs. To accomplish this I had recourse to a little stratagem, RUSSIAN NIHILISM AXI) in which Schleuter gave me such assistance as made my plan successful. I knew that the next station was the last before reaching Krasnoyarsk, so directly after refilling my flask I went among the several officers of the guard and gave them each so much as they desired to drink, besides a few pleasant words, such as I thought would place them on good terms with me. I next returned to the chief officer and give him a full flask, after which I began a dissertation on prisoners generally, and on exiles in particular ; declaring that as a rule their treat- ment was altogether too considerate ; that they should be dealt with in a manner becoming their crimes ; if a man commits murder he should be shown no more mercy than that which he manifested for his victim ; I assured him that the plete was a good stimulant and was quite certain that the irons on his prisoners were in no wise too heavy ; in fact they might be more wholesome if they were a little heavier. A long commentary of this charac- ter had the effect I had anticipated, for the officer not only coincided with my views, but offered to prove that he was a disciplinarian after the type I had pictured. " Some of these fellows," said he, "are wretches who ought to be fed to a slow fire ; well, I have the satisfac- tion of knowing that they will remember me ." To this I made a complimentary reply, and then begged that he would accord me the privilege of examining one or more of the convicts at the next station those whom he could recommend as having had something of their deserts while under his charge. I was very glad at receiving a favorable response, so at a station between Balshe and Krasnoiarsk we stopped an hour, during which time I examined the poor fellow to whom I have referred, and also one woman who was travelling with a large iron collar about her neck, to EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 299 which there were chains passing down and binding her wrists. The two were taken into a private room of the station, separately so as not to arouse the suspicion of the other convicts or guards. A SHACKLED CONVICT ON THE TRANSPORT ROUTE. The shackles being removed we took off the man's felt boots, when I saw a sight which may God forbid I should ever again witness. There is nothing to which 300 fcUSSIAN NIHILISM AND I might compare his condition except to some of those tortured by the Spanish Inquisition, or to victims of Bulgarian atrocity. The flesh had been bruised by the cruel shackles, and then swelling had caused the irons to slowly lacerate the sensitive parts until the ankles re- sembled the last stages of leprosy, when the flesh grows black and begins to drop away from the bones. Such a sight I never before saw and hope never to see again, but in addition to the suffering which this dreadful treatment caused him, his wrists were in a condition almost equally bad. His felt boots had, of course, somewhat aggra- vated the injuries to his ankles, which were now worn almost in two by the shackles ; but there was the same rasping pressure on his wrists on which he bore nearly all the weight of his chains in order to relieve his ankles. Such compassion was aroused in me by his suf- ferings that tears fell fast from my eyes, and in a mo- ment when the officer was not looking I slipped a ten rouble note into the poor fellow's pocket. I was well aware that this sum of money would purchase for him many little comforts and also secure him a place in the ambulance. The look of "God bless you" which he gave was so full of soulfulness and gratitude that in re- membering the event since I have wished a thousand times that I had made my gratuity tenfold greater. But in addition to my gift I procured for him transportation in the convoy trumbril by giving the chief officer five roubles. After examining the man and sending him out of the room the woman was called in, but though her condition was dreadful and pitiable, it was not to be compared with that of the man's. Her wrists, which had supported but little weight, were badly chafed and had bled until her dress was stained ; but the greatest suffering she en- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 301 dured was from her neck, which was so badly bruised that when the iron collar was removed she could not bear the least pressure on the injured parts without exhibiting great pain. By giving the officer another five rouble note he consented to permit the woman to travel into Krasnoy- arsk without the shackles. But I would not have the reader suppose that these two were the only sufferers in that party of prisoners, for there were, perhaps, three-score of men and women no more fortunate ; the two I selected to examine were not exceptional cases, but were a fair sample of the re- sults produced by wearing galling irons while travelling 2000 miles on foot. Beside these miserable convicts trudged nearly one hundred foot-sore women and children who had elected, of their own volition, to accompany their husbands or fathers into exile. Among the women not a few carried little infants strapped on their backs, Indian style, as their arms could never have borne them so far, however precious a child is to its mother. I distributed several roubles among those whose appearance of misery ap- pealed to my sympathy most ; but these little gifts served to increase the pity I already felt, for as I would give to one and not to another, the sorrowful looks I saw in the eyes of those whose extended palms received nothing pierced rue with compassion. CHAPTER XV. WE arrived at Krasnoiarsk on the evening of the third day, a little in advance of the convoy of prisoners, and found lodging in a hotel which gave us fair accommoda- tions. 302 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND The town has a population of about 8,000, and is situ- ated on one of Siberia's most famous rivers, the Yenisei, which, starting in the Taugnou mountains of Chinese Tartary, flows northward a distance of 2000 miles into the Yenisei Gulf. Krasnoiarsk lies upon several small hills, and is built in an irregular, straggling style. It contains one prison which is used, I understood, for con- fining local offenders, and others who, while enroute further east, fall ill by the way-side. What is meant by the word "ill," in this connection, may be inferred when the fact is known that out of a total of one hun- dred and twenty-two prisoners confined in the prison when I visited it, fifty-one were insane. I am not surprised that so many exiles grow mad, for it is only the coarsest and strongest minds that can bear up under the afflictions which a majority of ex- iles are made to endure. In passing through the prison at Krasnoi- arsk, I went into one ward that contained an unfortunate fellow who had been so brutally maltreated while on the transport route that his life was despaired of. He was therefore left at the prison, where his treatment being less rigor- ous he had so far improved as to be able to sit up and move about. But the most remarkable circumstance concern- ing this prisoner was found in the fact, that when he en- A CONVALESCF.NT PRISONER IN IRONS. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 303 tered the prison he was in chains much heavier than those I have previously described, and these had never been re- moved. This statement is so startling as to appear incred- ible, but receiving the admission from those in charge of the prisoner, and with my own eyes beholding tho wretched man still clothed with chains, there could be no stronger proof produced to establish any statement. As I saw him he sat on a clumsy chair to which he was made fast, as seen in the engraving. Around his waist was an iron girdle two inches broad and nearly one-half inch thick, to which heavy chains were attached connect- ing with an iron collar about his neck, and with an im- mense bar of iron over his feet. This iron bar, which must have weighed not less than twenty-five pounds, was made fast to his ankles by staples in the bar, which grasped the limbs in an unyielding embrace. It was truly a lamentable sight, from which I turned away with- out investigating the condition of his neck, waist or ankles, for I was certain they would present an appear- ance not unlike that I have already described as having seen at a post-station. There are not a few buildings in Krasnoyarsk of excel- lent pretensions both as to size and architecture. It has one church that cost nearly $500,000, which was built by a rich gold miner who had seen much of the world even on this side the Atlantic, and yet preferred Siberia as a place of residence. His home, however, was such a model of luxury and elegance that his preference was but natural. I Avas told that the city was but little more than half as large as it was prior to the fire of 1880, which swept away many of its most important buildings, the ruins of which were still to be seen on the south side of the town, for it must be remembered that they do not build up T>04 UUSSIAN NIHILISM AND burned districts in Siberia, or even in any part of Europe, like they do in America. A pleasing incident of this fact was told to me ut St. Petersburg. Some time in the win- ter of 1881 the Livadia Garden buildings (a summer retreat in the suburbs of St. Petersburg), took fire and were entirely consumed. The buildings consisted of open frame works under which there were seats and tables for wine and tea drinking ; also an enclosed building used as a saloon, and an open air theater ; the whole was made of light pine timber, such as in America a rushing man gen- erally gives himself one week to have built up from the ground and in full operation. But the Livadia; Garden was re-opened three months after the tire, the buildings having been, replaced, which was regarded as such extra- ordinarily quick work that the place has since been known as the American Garden. The St. Petersburgers declare that no where in the world outside of America was ever such rapid construction of buildings known. In the afternoon following my arrival in Krasnoiarsk the convoy which I accompanied made ready for cross- ing the Yenisei and continuing their journey tolrkoutsk, where, upon arrival, convicts are distributed, according to their sentences, to Sakhalein, Yakoutsk, Kara, and other penal stations. The Yenisei is nearly one mile wide at Krasnoiarsk, across which prisoners are taken by what is called a "flying bridge." This bridge, so called, consists of a series of boats anchored in the river, over which passes a long line connecting with the main shores ; a barge for carrying the convicts is made fast to this lino, which, moving by pullies, draws the boat from one side of the stream to the other. This rather singular arrangement O . T for ferriage is made necessary by reason of the extraor- dinary current in the Yenisei, which often reaches a rapidity of fifteen miles per hour,. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA 305 t: 306 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND There was nothing to detain me long at Krasnoiarsk, and being desirous of visiting some mines where 1 might witness the labor of convicts, after advising with Schleu- ter, we decided to proceed two hundred miles north- ward to Yeniseisk, As this would take us off the transport route we had to purchase all provisions needed on the trip, and also a complete travelling outfit, including horses and tumbril. This, however, did not involve so great an outlay as the reader might expect. Horses in Siberia are surprisingly cheap, as are cattle. A fatted calf, one year old, will not bring more than $1.50, and a good pony may be had for from $5 to $8. The outfit of three horses, harness and tumbril, cost me only $48, and in the end I found my purchase had been a most profitable one. Milk is nearly everywhere abund- ant in Siberia, and of this useful article we purchased four gallons ; butter is not so plentiful, but yet obtain- able at from six to eight cents per pound ; we also took with us a samovar tea urn two pounds of tea, fifteen loaves of white bread, which were baked to our order, and twenty pounds of fresh meat. For our horses we provided five bushels of corn, which is raised in Siberia and sold at twenty-two cents per bushel ; grass is gen- erally abundant, but oats are almost unknown. We laid in no other provender for our animals, having already such a load that we could scarcely make room for our bedding. Thus accoutred, away we went towards the great tundras, which, beginning a little north of Yen- iseisk, stretch away to the arctic shores of Siberia. Before reaching Krasnoiarsk the country becomes more broken, with a considerable showing of stunted trees, chiefly pine, but going northward from that city the vegetation rapidly grows more profuse, until soon there appears an unbroken forest in which large EXILi: LIFi: IX SIBERIA. .307 gar.ie abounds. Of this latter fact I had abundant evi- dence during the first night we went into camp. There is a public highway between Krasnoyarsk and Yeniseisk along which are occasional inns, but the intervals are so SIBERIAN ROADSIDE INN. rare that we concluded to make camp at nine o'clock rather than push 011 ten miles further, where we might have secured lodgings not nearly so good as our tumbril afforded. Directly after lighting our camp-fire, which 308 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND was made within a few yards of the road-side, beside a large log, Schleuter turned to me suddenly, with the re- mark : ' What was that ? ' ' I had heard no unusual noise, but must eonfess that his enquiry immediately put me in a condition to sec or hear anything dreadful upon the least symptom of a cause. I had with me no arms except a Smith and Wesson for- ty-four calibre revolver, and this was quickly drawn in anticipation of approaching deadly peril. The night was cloudless, so that objects not obscured by the dense growth could be readily denned at a distance of thirty or fort y yards. We therefore looked with eyes and ears, but could discover nothing, though our horses manifested signs of uneasiness. After several minutes of suspense, even Schleuter came to the conclusion that he had given a false alarm, but I was far from being satisfied, having received a nervous shock from the suddenness of his ex- citing enquiry which I could not rally from. Under no circumstances is it an act of decorum or an evidence of great courage for a gentleman to parade his cool bravery before a company when every element of danger is absent ; particularly inappropriate would it be for ine to strike a self-eulogistic attitude here where the opposite side has no opportunity of replying. But at the sacrifice of modesty I must say that on my native heath I have hunted such game as the country afforded without at any time save once having either my con- science or fears excited ; this placid condition is due, however, to the fact that I always killed what I was hunt- ing, and because I never got on the wrong side of the fence. But the conditions were now very materially al- tered, for what I knew concerning Siberian game had been acquired by reading adventures which described the animals as great hunters themselves and of the carnivorous EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. SO 9 Species. What I had forgotten of the ferocious wolves, hears, boars, etc., of which I had read, came back to me now in vivid panorama, so that an admission of my rest- lessness is drawing it exceedingly mild. I sat up rather late, smoking my pipe, but the drowsy god at length alighted on my eye-lids and I turned in with Schleuter, who had for an hour before been executing a nasal refrain in the tumbril. One, perhaps two hours had passed ; the fire was almost extinguished, and doz- ing, I had lost my fear in a pleasant dream of home. The dream was concluded abruptly by my being awak- ened with a returning sense of danger ; the horses were snorting and tugging violently to loose themselves. I jumped up, and looking over toward the smouldering embers saw a bear, which, in my dreadfully excited state, appeared as large as a mammoth. I forgot to awaken Schleuter, who obstinately slept without one disturbing reflection, but reaching for my pistol I fired across and very near Schleuter' s head just as the bear reared up on his hind legs to drain our samovar, which had been left on the log. If I had known a little pistol shot could have created so much of a row I would have considered sev- eral minutes before firing. Schleuter bounded up as though a dynamite mine had exploded under him, and he lit out of the- tumbril like one possessed of the devil. So dreadfully' confounded was I by his actions that for a moment I forgot all about the bear, notwithstanding that it was howling with rage and advancing on Schleuter. My aim had not been bad, for the bear's foreleg was broken by the shot, but this served to rouse all the fight in bruin's nature. Schleuter, half awake, could not see the bear nor be made to understand his dangerous posi- tion, until another shot from my pistol, placed almost against the animal's ear, put a coup de grace on our ad- venture. 20 EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. There was no more sleep for either of us that night, so rebuilding our fire we fell to and skinned the dead bear, keeping the hide as a trophy and taking the carcass along with us to Yeniseisk. I learned from natives that what I considered a great adventure, in killing a bear, was an event so commonplace that it could scarcely be esteemed an adventure. In fact the country I was now in abounded with such game, the hunting of which was followed not only for the purpose of securing the game but for rid- ding the country of pests which ravaged herds of young cattle and horses. A favorite way of hunting the bear is with a whip, fire-arms and ammunition not always being obtainable in Siberia. To be successful in this kind of hunting two men must hunt together on horses ; each provides himself with a whip, made of plaited rawhide, about twelve or fifteen feet long, to the end of which is tied a leaden ball, which gives impetus to the lash,. and also serves the more useful purpose of tying the lash when whipped around the animal's neck. A bear being found the two hunters, whose horses are generally trained for the use, ride on each side of the animal, striking it with the whip until it is almost exhausted ; they then, by a movement which requires no little skill, throw their whips around the bear's neck in such a manner that the lash ties itself; now being drawn from opposite directions the animal is powerless and is of ten taken into the village in this way, where it is disposed of. CHAPTER XVI. WE reached Yeniseisk without further adventure, and found it a city of much greater size and importance than I hud supposed. It contains a population of nearly 20,- 000 souls, and is beautifully situated on the south side of 312 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND the Yenisei River. It is a great center for disposing of furs obtained by the hunters of northern Siberia, who are generally Samoyeds, Tunguses and Ostjaks, whose numbers between the Obi and Yenisei rivers are estimated to be about 25,000. They subsist almost entirely by hunting and fishing, in which, with the use of the most primitive hooks and bows, they are remarkably success- ful ; but being nomadic and improvident, like our Amer- ican Indians, they accumulate no more than will supply their present necessities. The principal animals found in the province of Yeni- seisk are the bear, wolf, reindeer, white fox, ermine, elk and sable. In capturing the bear the Samoyeds adopt an original plan, one which I do not remember being practiced by any other tribe. Bears are more or less like the deer in their habit of visiting a special locality by a particular route ; the Samoyed therefore takes advantage of this habit by fixing his trap in bruin's way : A wooden plat- form is erected around a tree at such height from the ground that to reach the center of it a bear must stand upon his hind legs. The platform is filled with very sharp iron spikes running up two inches above the surface, while above them and made fast to the tree is placed a piece of meat. In rearing up to secure this meat the bear transfixes his fore-feet on the sharp spikes, and is unable to release himself. Snow was already falling about Yeniseisk during my visit to the place in September, and I saw a large party of Tunguses making ready for a trip to the tundras, which begin about thirty miles north of Yeniseisk ; the fishing season was now practically over, while the hunt- ing was just beginning. I did not visit the tundras, be- cause my time was too limited, but from several persons. EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 313 residents of Yeniseisk, who were thoroughly familiar with Northern Siberia, I obtained a description which was no doubt more accurate than I could have secured by paying a short visit to that intensely dreary section. There is no place on earth that can compare with the tundras for desolation and extreme cold, unless we choose to bring the arctic regions into the contrast. Our great western plains are only miniature tracts of level country, and their product of thin grass is as a bounteous dispen- sation of nature when compared with the almost meas- ureless, frozen-hearted, worse than barren deserts of northern Siberia. This great verdureless plain extends from the center of northern Russia, six thousand miles across Siberia, until it impinges on the fretful shores of the Kamtchatkan sea and Behring's Strait. For ten months in the year this immense stretch of hunger-laden shore is covered with snow ; not so much as a dry twig, frosted leaf, or drifting scallops about some fallen tree, is there to relieve the one dead, shimmering, shivering ocean waste of trackless snow ; nothing, like a bubble in mid-ocean, unless may be seen on the expansive plain some lonely hunters braving arctic perils in quest of the rein- deer. An American who spent three years in Siberia gives the following graphic description of life on the tundras : ' k A winter journey over the great northern tundras is inexpressibly lonely and monotonous. Day after day the eye rests upon the same illimitable expanse of storm- drifted snow, and night after night the traveller camps in an utter solitude, over which seems to brood the mournful silence of universal death. I do not know how to describe in words the impression of sadness, loneliness and isolation from all human interests, which these great barren plains make upon the imagination. EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 315 The world which you have left, with all its cares, strife and busy activity, fades away into the unreal imagery of a dream ; and you seem removed to an infinite distance from all the interests and occupations of your previous life. You cannot realize that you are still in the same busy, active, money-getting world in which you remem- ber once to have lived. The cold, still atmosphere, the red, gloomy twilight of the low-hanging sun, and the great white ghastly ocean of snow around you, are all full of cheerless, mournful suggestions, and have a strange unearthliness which you cannot reconcile or connect with any part of your previous life. "The pleasantest feature of winter travel in Siberia is camping-out at night. All day long you suffer from cold, hunger and fatigue ; you lose your way in blinding snow-storms, or become exhausted by the constant strug- gle to keep warm in a temperature of 40 or 50 below zero ; but the anticipation of the bright evening camp- fire sustains your flagging spirits, and enables you to hold out until night. We usually camped as soon as we could find wood for a fire after it grew dark. Three sledges were drawn up together so as to make a little enclosure about ten feet square ; the snow was all shovelled out of the interior and banked up around the sides like a snow fort ; and a fire was built at the open end. The little snow cellar was then strewn to a depth of three or four inches with twigs of trailing pine ; shaggy bearskins were spread down to make a warm, soft carpet; and our fur sleeping-bags and swans-down pillows arranged for the night. In the middle of the enclosed space stood a low table improvised out of a candle box, on which one of our native drivers soon placed two cups of steaming tea, a few pieces of frozen rye bread and some dried fish. Then stretching ourselves out in luxurious style upon our 316 BUSSIAN NIHILISM AND bearskin carpet, with our feet to the fire and our backs again stPpillows, we smoked, drank tea, and told stories in perfect comfort. After supper the natives piled dry branches of trailing pine upon the fire until it sent up a column of flame ten feet in height, and then, squatted in their favorite position around the blaze, they would sing for hours the wild, melancholy songs of the Kamchadals, or tell never-ending stories of hardship and adventure on the coast of the Icy Sea. At last, the great constella- tion of Orion marked bed-time. Our stockings were taken off and dried by the fire, the dogs were fed their daily allowance of dried fish each, and putting on our heaviest fur coats, we crawled feet first into our wolfskin bags, pulled them up over our heads, and slept. " A camp, in the middle of a dark, clear winter's night, presents a strange, wild appearance. Imagine, if you can, that you have waked up at some unknown hour after midnight, and have thrust your head out of your frosty fur bag, to see by the stars what time it is. The fire has died away to a few glowing embers. There is just light enough to distinguish the dark, crouching forms of the natives, some sitting upon their heels, with their backs against sledges, some squatting in a row by the fire, and all asleep. Away beyond the limits of the camp stretches the desolate steppe in a series of long snowy waves, which blend gradually into a great white frozen ocean, and are lost in the distance and darkness of night. High overhead, in a sky which is almost black, sparkle the bright constellations of Orion and the Pleiades, the celestial clocks which mark the long, weary hours be- tween sunset and sunrise. The blue, mysterious stream- ers of the aurora tremble in the north, now shooting up in clear, bright lines to the zenith, and then waving back and forth in great majestic curves over the silent camp, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 317 as if warning back the adventurous traveller from the unknown regions around the pole. Silence is as profound as death. Nothing but the pulsating of the blood in jour ears and the heavy breathing of your sleeping men, breaks the universal lull. " Suddenly there rises upon the still night air a long, faint, wailing cry, like that of a human being in the last extremity of suffering. Gradually it swells and deepens, until it seems to fill the whole atmosphere with its vol- ume of mournful sound, dying away at last into a low, despairing moan. It is the signal howl of a Siberian dog. In a moment it is taken up by another upon a higher key ; two or three more join in, then a dozen, then twenty, fifty, eighty, until the whole pack of one hundred dogs howl an infernal chorus together, making the air fairly tremble with sound, as if from the heavy bass of a great organ. " For fully a minute heaven and earth seem to be full of yelling, howling fiends. Then, one by one they begin to drop off, the unearthly tumult grows fainter and fainter, until at last, it ends as it began, in one long and inex- pressibly melancholy wail, and the camp becomes silent again as death. One or two of your men move restlessly in their sleep, as if the mournful howls blended unpleas- antly with their dreams, but no one wakes, and a death- like silence again pervades heaven and earth. "Suddenly the aurora shines out with increased bril- liancy, and its waving swords sweep back and forth across the dark, starry sky, and light up the snowy steppe with transitory flashes of colored radiance, as if the gates of heaven were opening and closing upon the dazzling brightness of the celestial city. Presently it fades away again to a faint, diffused glow in the north, and one pale green streamer, slender and bright as the spear of Ithu- 318 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AX I) riel, pushes slowly up toward the zenith until it touches with its translucent point the jewelled belt of Orion. Then it, too, fades and vanishes, and nothing but a bank of pale white mist on the northern horizon shows the lo- cation of the celestial armory whence the Arctic spirits draw the gleaming swords and lances which they brand- ish nightly over the lonely Siberian steppes. " With the earliest streak of dawn the camp begins to show signs of animation. The dogs get out of the deep holes which their warm bodies have melted in the snow ; the natives push their heads out of the neck-holes of their fur coats, and whip off the mass of frost which has accu- mulated around the aperture ; a fire is built, tea boiled, and you crawl out of your fur bag to breakfast. Fifteen or twenty minutes are spent in drinking tea and eating dried fish. The sledges are then packed, the runners wet down to cover them with a coating of ice, and before the aurora fades away in the increasing light of sunrise, you are riding again at a brisk trot across the steppe. In this monotonous routine of riding, camping and sleeping, day after day, and week after week pass slowly and wearily away." During the summer season of two months, there de- velops upon the tundras a coarse vegetation which very much resembles moss, but so thick and strong is it that nothing, not even a reindeer, can travel through it. But in the winter season this moss-grass becomes food for these animals, from which they remove the snow by digging with their sharp feet. The Tungueses whom I saw preparing for the hunt had a large number of dogs which they took with them to draw their sledges, as only dogs or reindeers can be used for that purpose ; they also had a number of sledges on which were thrown with other luggage several pairs of EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 319 snow-shoes. In answer to my questions, through an inter- preter, one of the hunters told nie his party was going in quest of sable, the skins of which sold in Yeniseisk as high as $40. In hunting these little animals the Tunguese re- lies chiefly on good luck, rather than any special skill. Tracks of the sable being found. they are followed until the animal is either caught, when it is despatched with a stick, or run into a hole. As digging it out would be next to impossible, and as the animal frequently lies abed for three or four days at a time, the Tunguese goes into camp to wait its appearance. Before lying by, as it were, however, the hunter fixes a number of snares around the hole, to which he generally attaches little bells. He then takes up a position near the hole and waits ; when the sable comes out and is caught the tink- ling bells alarm the hunter, who rushes and secures his prize before it can gnaw the threads in two which hold its feet. White foxes are caught in traps set on the highest knolls that can be found, for it is well known that this wary animal has a habit of repairing each night to some hill to make his observations. Black foxes are also occa- sionally caught in Siberia, but they are exceedingly rare. While attending the Moscow exposition I was shown a dressed black-fox skin for which the furrier asked $1,000, and this he assured me was not an unusual price. Elk hunting, or stalking, as it is called, is carried on , by men on snow-shoes, which any one, not acquainted with the numbers of these animals that roam the tun- dras, would suppose very hard and unremunerative labor ; but so numerous are elks, and also reindeer, in that bar- ren country, that they may be found in large herds without expending much time or labor. There are an- nually brought down to Yeniseisk for sale from 10 ? 000 to 20,000 elk skins. 320 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND Elks are generally shot, but reindeer hunting involves great skill and a thorough knowledge of the animal's habits, for they are taken alive and domesticated for draught purposes. The more common way of catching them is by building enclosures into which they are driven and then secured by lassoing. As it would be impos- sible to find material on the tundras out of which an enclosure could be made, hunters provide themselves with stakes and ropes which are carried on sledges to the places desired. A herd of reindeer being located the enclosure is hastily set up, after which a party of hun- ters surround and drive them to the mouth, which is large but gradually contracts until a small passage-way leads into a circular enclosure. Their horns are so large and many-pronged, that lassoing them may be easily done by even a novice. CHAPTER XVII. THE first mine I had the privilege of visiting, worked by convict labor, was at Yeniseisk, and to this part of the object of my visit I now addressed myself. Siberia is rich in mineral, nor is the country limited in quantity or qual- ity to the more common metals, for it also has large quantities of gold, silver, iron, malachite, copper, zinc, etc. Americans are wont to look upon our own territories as the richest in precious metals of any country in the world, but this a mistaken idea. Siberia is unquestion- ably richer in gold and silver than California, Colorado, Nevada, or New Mexico ; she already produces more gold than any other country, notwithstanding the obsta-> EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 321 cles which hedge her about, and every year the product largely increases. The principal gold mines in Siberia are those of Yen- iseisk, Irkoutsk, Kaust, Kara, Nijni Udinsk and several 322 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND along the Lena River, which hitter I am told are much richer than any others yet opened in Siberia. There is also a very large gold mine on the river Vitim, in the tians-Baikal district, from which there is now taken nearly $3,000,000 annually. The Yeniseisk ;old mine is several miles distant from o the town and to reach it we had therefore to have re- course to our tumbril. The road led through a dread- fully rough country and crossed several streams that were so deep the bed of our vehicle was wet. Beaching the mine I was somewhat surprised to find it a placer digging, for my idea was that here I should find convicts at work far under the earth upon whom I might observe the effects of perpetual banishment from sunshine. While I did not ? therefore, go under ground in quest of information of an extremely unpleasant character, I did witness many sights of interest connected with Siberian mining and the oper- ation of convict labor. A very large space of ground was dug over, but there was employed altogether not more than 400 laborers, about one-fourth of whom were free-men, that is, con- victs who had served their sentences but remained in the country because they could never collect enough money to take them to Russia again, or for some other reasons. *Thcse mines, like a majority of others in Siberia, are worked by private corporations or capitalists, who hire convict laborers from the Government. This system has been in operation for many years, owing to the fact that, prior thereto, dishonest officials robbed the Government of the mineral yield so that the mines were worked at a continual loss. The mining at Yeniseisk is performed in a primitive way. A large cylinder with maivy perforations takes the place of the washing pan used in the early days of Cali- 324 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND forma. Into this cylinder, which is made to revolve, the gold-bearing earth and stones are placed, over which a stream of water runs. The yield was not large, but an officer was there to inspect every cylinder and make re- port of its contents, which report was transmitted to the Government. The gold bullion, dust and quartz is taken by team to Irkoutsk, where there are reducing works. These teams are sent out from Yeniseisk about four times each year and are always accompanied by a cossack guard to protect the treasure from falling into the hands of highway plunderers. I witnessed no special hardships upon the convict lab- orers at these mines, nothing more than may be seen on a visit to almost any penitentiary in the United States. I saw a few men chained to wheelbarrows, and others having chains on their wrists and ankles, but it did not appear that they suffered greatly. But I was afterward in- formed that the mines near Yeniseisk were controlled by a very humane and charitable capitalist whose treatment of those in his employ was exceptionally considerate. Upon our return from the mines we came upon a for- lorn, exceedingly wretched appearing man who, in re- sponse to Schleuter's inquiries, stated that he was an ex- ile, having a habitation in the mountainous region thereabouts. There was something about the man which I could not resist, perhaps it was the melting and intelli- gent expression of his eyes, or the sorrowful, pitiable look that he gave us, or a thankful recognition for our condescension in addressing him so kindly. I therefore inquired the distance to his lodgings, and finding it com- paratively near immediately decided to pay him a visit. After a drive of perhaps half an hour we descended a mountain beyond the base of which there was a long, level stretch of treeless plain covered with snow. In this EXILE LIFE IN SIBElilA. cheerless solitude we soon found the exile's abode, which I was astonished to see was an exact counterpart of 4 the mud "dug-outs " still to be found scattered all over our western territories. T was glad to find that the poor exile who had excited in me so much interest and compassion was not all alone in this dreadfully dreary spot, and that he had a companion whose lot was no more fortunate than his own ; besides his fellow exile there was a faithful dog, companion to them both, whose vigils never waned, guarding against intrusions of wild animals and none the less suspicious of strange people like ourselves. The abode of our unhappy exile consisted of a slight excavation over which was a boarded double room cov- ered on the top with branches of trees ; the whole was banked with earth, two feet thick, so that a fairly com- fortable house was had, warm in winter and cool in sum- mer. A door on the south side led, by one step down, into the one spacious room, which was warmed by a fire of fir-wood burning in an improvised stove of too hybrid a character to admit of description. The floor of the room was made of loose boards uneven in length and thickness, but joined together with much care to exclude dampness. A bed was made in one corner by driving stakes into the ground which protruded about two feet and to which lateral and cross- wise strips were nailed to receive the bedding of wolf and bear skins. An icon of the Ma- donna hung on the wall, before which a little tallow can- dle, made of wolf's lard (so he told me), was kept burn- ing ; three shelves, two stools and a box composed all the funiture in the room. His cooking utensils were meager, but there was a samovar steaming on the stove, which to every Russian is next in importance to his icon. We were welcomed to these primeval appearing quar- 21 326 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND ters with a genuine hospitality. After tea had been drunk I begged of the exile to tell me the circumstances under which he was banished, and something of the life he had led in Siberia. First being assured that I was an American in quest of information concerning convict life in Siberia, he recited his story to me through my in- terpreter, which briefly repeated is substantially as fol- lows : "My home was, until 1873, near the village of Mie- chow, which is in the southern part of Poland, nearly two hundred versts from Warsaw. I belonged to a commu- O nal estate, which was originally the property of our no- bleman Kratznich, but after the order of liberation I remained attached to the estate, and tried to draw f rom the soil sustenance for my family, consisting of a wife and two children. I was fairly prosperous, though there is little certainty in the crops of my district, one year being abundant, and perhaps for one or two seasons fol- lowing a complete failure. However, I had no reason for complaint, since many of my neighbors pronounced me the most fortunate peasant among them. 44 My misfortune began in the spring of 1873, when there came to my cottage home a brother to my wife, who had fled from the authorities ; he was charged with having given aid to the Nihilists and also with being a member of the Terrorist party. Well, I gave him shel- ter over night, and the next morning three gendarmes, who had been pursuing him for several days, found and arrested him in my house ; I felt certain of his innocence, for he swore to myself and wife, before the Little Mother, that the accusation was false. I tried to prevail on the gendarmes to release him, but my pleadings, alas ! only served to endanger my own liberty ; I was ac- cused by the officers of aiding my brother to escape, and EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 327 despite the lamentations and prayers of my wife and children they tore me away from home, which I have never since beheld." At this point in his narrative, the poor fellow broke into tears, and burying his face in his hands, cried as if his heart were breaking. We tried hard to console him, so after venting his grief for several minutes he proceeded : ARREST OF THE POLE AND HIS BROTHER. " I was carried to Warsaw and thrown into prison where I remained nearly one week, at the expiration of which time, in company with ten others, I was taken to Mos- cow without having any trial whatsoever. From Moscow I was banished to the mines at Nijni Udinsk, which are on the transport route between Krasnoiarsk and Irkoutsk. Would to God I could forget the sufferings which I en- dured and witnessed among my fellow convicts while on that dreadful journey. "When I left Moscow and had learned my sentence my grief was so intense that it seemed I could not possibly survive ; day and night I could see my wife and children 328 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND standing beside our little log cottage casting their stream- ing eyes after me as the gendarmes rushed me away with them. This great grief , in a measure, made me uncon- scious of the cruelties to which I was subjected. It was in the summer time when we made the journey and the weather was so hot as to blister every part of our persons exposed to the sun. I was heavily ironed, like the most despicable malefactor, though I was as innocent of doing any wrong to the government, either in act or sympathy, as a babe on its mother's breast. The irons I wore cut my wrists and ankles so dreadfully that I became almost exhausted from the loss of blood, early on the journey. * The officers gave me some felt to bind my wounds, but this only aggravated my sufferings, as they no doubt knew it would. The dust and heat caused a rapid swell- ing of the afflicted parts, which turned black, and had I not stopped at a way-station on the route they would cer- tainly have mortified. " I cannot tell you of all the acts of inhumanity prac- ticed towards us while on our way to Udinsk ; my con- dition was somewhat relieved through a judicious use of the few roubles I chanced to have with me at the time of my arrest, but the other prisoners who had no means what- ever were literally goaded to death on the transport high- way. " I had heard much of the hardships endured by con- victs in the mines, but so great were my sufferings on the route that I was ready to hail the mines with joyful satis- faction, so .when at last we came in sight of Udinsk those of my party who were consigned to labor in the gold mines there looked on its spires with many manifes- tations of pleasure. " A very great majority of the prisoners were ready for the hospital rather than the mines, but several poor EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 329 fellows who had become the butt of official brutality were hustled into the mines with feet and hands almost putrifying from injuries produced by their heavy mana- cles. I was more fortunate, however, thanks to my rou- bles, and for two weeks I had a good bed in the hospital, which was looked after by a local charity. When my re- covery was complete I was ordered into the mines, f ully three hundred feet under ground, and assigned to labor with another convict ; we were required to trundle a large bar- row, I at the handles and he to draw by means of rope and breast-yoke attached to the axle of the barrow. " Before my money was exhausted I did not have any extreme hardships in the mine, but when my last copeck was gone then began sufferings which I dread to recall. Heavy chains were put on me again, about my neck, waist and ankles, while I was compelled to labor at least eighteen hours every day ; nor was the labor of an ordi- nary kind, but required such exertions that I have seen many men faint and fall under it. In numerous instances when exhausted nature could do no more, a manifesta- tion of fatigue would cause the sufferer to be unmerci- fully punished ; my shoulders have been bared to the knout on many occasions for imaginary derelictions, and twice I was tied up by the thumbs because I fell on my barrow from exhaustion. The more common modes of punishment practiced at^Nijni Udinsk are by the knout, plete, scorpion and suspension by the thumbs. I was never subjected to the scorpion, but have seen it applied not a few times. This instrument for flagellation is made like the knout, except that in place of the knots on the thongs there are small hooks which, with the force of each blow, are driven into the flesh and on being jerked out draw portions of flesh with them. It is a dreadful sight to witness a flogging with this most terrible of EXILE LIFK IX SIBERIA. 331 scourges, about one-fourth of those thus punished dying from its effects. " On rare occasions the heads of convicts, who have incurred the hatred of their brutal guards, are bound with strips of rawhide which are drawn so tightly that the eyes of the sufferer burst out ; the face turns purple and streams of perspiration pour from every part of the body. This punishment is also generally fatal, but I am glad to say it is not often inflicted. But there is a pun- ishment which is more terrible than either of the others mentioned, because it is protracted sometimes through years. That which I refer to is the confinement of pris- oners in damp portions of the mines from whence they are never allowed to depart until death releases them. I have seen men and women too, who were serving life sen- tences at hard labor in the mines, loaded with chains and kept at work in pools of water which were both work- shops and bed to them for years. It is astonishing how long some persons will survive this horrible treatment ; they grow thinner and thinner each day until their bodies become almost transparent ; thin cheeks and eyes can be seen in dark recesses of the face, the hair falls out, the voice becomes almost inaudible, the bones appear sharply defined under athin skin and at last they fall to rise no more forever. Amid the flickering lights which so imperfectly illumine the mines these poor wretches appear like gnomes, or spectres of famine, which no' one possessed of the least humanity can look upon without deepest pity. " I endured these dreadful sights and punishments for eight years, which was the full term of my hard labor sentence. But my misfortunes did not termi- nate with this sentence, for I am yet doomed to nine more years of exile life in the district which I now inhabit. I do not believe it is a common thing to divide 332 UUSSIAN NIHILISM AND EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 333 a sentence into periods of hard labor and simple exile, but this has been my lot, and I must endure it. An equally hard portion of my misfortune is the impossibility of communicating with my family, not a single word from whom has been received since the day I was so causelessly taken away from them, nine years ago. Neither my wife nor I can write, nor could any of our neighbors, so that I have found no means of exchanging messages, and am therefore in ignorance of their condition; they maybe dead ; or my wife, hopeless of my return again, may now be wedded to another ; but, if there have been no changes yet, what shall I expect in the next nine years? My heart is buried under afflictions which have passed, and forebodings of evils which must come to me. " I live here in this little house, dividing it with my equally unfortunate neighbor, and we subsist on what we can make by hunting and fishing. My present condition I would not deplore, but for remembrances of my home in Poland, which, alas ! is my home no more." I was so interested in the exile's story as to be quite unconscious of the approach of darkness, or that I had spent nearly three hours in the snow-covered cabin. But I did not forget to place ten roubles in the poor fellow's hand, and to promise him that I should visit Warsaw be- fore returning to America, and make an effort to com- municate whatever message he might wish to send his wife. He thanked me with tears in his eyes, and said : " Tell her that my greatest hope is to see her again, and that the hardest part of my sentence having already been served I shall not cease my prayers for the preserva- tion of our lives that we may meet again and be happy in the little cottage where we were parted so long ago." That every statement made to me by the confiding exile was true has never excited in me the least doubt, while I 334 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND i have repeated them (though in my own language) with- out any exaggeration. My own observations, besides the corroborating stories I heard from others who had vol- untarily and involuntarily visited the mines, quite con- vince me that it would be next to impossible to exagger- ate the brutal treatment practiced by guards in Siberia towards their miserable prisoners. CHAPTER XVIII. BUT for the snow on the ground it would have been quite dark when we left the exile's abode to drive back to Yeniseisk. The way was not marked by any sem- blance of a road, but I anticipated no difficulty in mak- ing the return trip safely and speedily. Our horses had been chilled by so long standing in the raw atmosphere, and when we started them they broke away in a run which threatened destruction to our tumbril and injury to ourselves. We got them checked finally, however, and were bowling along in a hilarious spirit until, reaching the apex of a hill, I looked out over the glinting land- scape, and was upon the point of making some observa- tion on the beautiful scene, when I descried three black objects nearly two hundred yards distant, which I thought were dogs. But Schleuter was too old a traveller in Siberia to be deceived, and immediately upon seeing them he exclaimed: "Wolves! Get your pistol ready, for we may be in for it to-night." I must confess that his remark excited some fear in me, for with it the stories I had read of travellers being chased and eaten by these voracious beasts, came back to me with chromatic exaggeration. This partially sub- EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 335 sided when I saw the wolves making off from us, and to facilitate their retreat I tired two shots at them, but 1 without effect. However, we had not proceeded more than two miles further when I saw standing in the way we were going two more wolves, which were so bold that I 336 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND shot one of them not more than twenty feet from our vehicle, while the other trotted off slowly, notwithstand- ing the shots I fired at it. We had twelve miles to go before arriving at Yenisiesk, and I saw on the route, al- together, not less than fifty wolves, all of the large, ferocious species which does not hesitate to attack trav- ellers, when slightly pressed by hunger. Arriving at the city about eleven o'clock, we related our experience with the wolves, when the landlord told us that a courier had just come in who had been set upon, by a pack, nearly twenty miles south of Yeniseisk, on his route from Irkoutsk, and that to save himself he had ridden his horse almost to death. Any mention of wolves before a crowd in a Siberian inn is sure to call forth from one or more persons, who may be present, stories of personal experience with the dreadful creatures, in which hair-breadth escapes figure very prominently, but as wolves are more plentiful in Siberia than squirrels are in our western States, such re- lations are made more out of vaunting ambition than with O an expectation of interesting those who listen to them. But for me stories of wolf and bear hunting are always en- tertaining, and I was therefore very much delighted to hear second-hand through rny interpreter the fol- lowing, told by an Ispravnik Governor from the Tomsk Government. It chancod that this distinguished func- tionary had arrived at Yeniseisk on the day I visited the mines, and wsis a guest of the inn at which I was slopping. He had four servants with him, all exiles, and otherwise manifested the dignity of his magisterial office, so that when he spoke all gave him a respectful hearing. To preserve the identity of the relator I will give the story in the first person : " It has now been just two yvurs since business, con- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 337 iiected with the Government, called me to Irkoutsk, and from thence to the Alexandreffsky Central prison, which is nearly one hundred versts north of the city. The winter, you remember, set in unusually early in 1880, and when I started from Tomsk there was so much snow 338 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND on the ground that a troika could be used. I met with no adventure on the trip to Irkoutsk, where my business was speedily transacted . The Governor at Irkoutsk placed his own private team at my disposal for the trip to Alex- andreffsky, and with a good driver I started out early in the morning, calculating to reach my destination before night set in, as I never fancied driving on a lonely high- way even in the moonlight. " It has been my rule, whenever travelling through any of the Siberian Governments, to carry with me a trusty rifle, which I purchased on my last visit to St. Petersburg, because it has more than once served me well in the midst of imminent danger, but unfortunately, on the occasion which I am now about to relate, I failed to provide myself with the usual complement of cartridges, taking less than twenty, when I generally carry not less than fifty. 44 We started out from Irkoutsk in high glee, taking with us a good quantity of quass and vodka, which serves one so well, you know, on a journey of the character I was about to take. Nothing whatever occurred to im- pede our progress until nearly three o'clock in the after- noon, when my Yemtschik became so confused by the vodka he had internperately indulged that he left the road and ran the troika over a log, upsetting it into a bank of snow, but we escaped injury. This episode was too com- mon to be mentioned but for the fact that our vehicle was so badly broken that we stopped nearly two hours making repairs, and after going only a short distance further we again broke down, our trouble being a broken shaft and tug, which was caused by the fractious capers of one of the horses. " It was nearly seven o'clock in the afternoon when I heard the prolonged howl of a wolf, which was directly EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 339 answered by several others in different directions. These sounds, however, did not alarm me in the least, for I have heard them too frequently ; but it was not long before I saw crossing the roadway ahead of us packs of five and six wolves, while others trotted along behind us in a sneaking manner. 1 knew these were the skirmish ing- forces and refrained from shooting, knowing full well that if I should kill one the others would devour him, and once tasting blood and flesh they would seek to finish their repast on us. "My driver kept the horses in a brisk gallop, realizing more than 1 did the danger which now threatened. Grow- ing more bold each minute as their numbers increased, the wolves appeared on every side, some coming up within a few feet of our troika and then stopping sud- denly to stare at us. Such howling I never before or since heard, the forest being apparently full of the hate- ful brutes, and every howl seeming to multiply the num- ber. At length they grew so fearless that several would run out quickly and snap at the horses and then dart back again. I now saw that it was full time for action, as each moment served to embolden them, and once they should attack our horses little chance would remain for escape. Bringing my gun up, therefore, I shot one of the wolves, and scarcely did his blood stain the snow before not less than one hundred piled on the wounded animal and tore him limb from limb almost instantly. I then fired two other shots into the pack and must have wounded several others, judging from the snarling and growling which succeeded. Looking back to observe the effects of my shots I could see a myriad of wolves run- ning to where the others were feasting, until they were like flies in summer time swarming over a putrefying car- cass. 340 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND " It was only a few minutes after I had shot, and before we got out of sight of the pack, when every vestige of the wounded wolves had disappeared in the voracious maws of their comrades, and the latter were again soon howling after us. " The rest which our horses had by reason of the acci- dents already described was very advantageous to us, for they were now put to their full speed without showing any suffering; but this speed could not avail against the wolves, which gained on us so rapidly that before we had gone six versts from where I fired my first shot they were upon us again. When they reached the troika and were ready to spring in, I shot two more, which were immedi- ately pounced upon by the entire pack, so we made another gain of two versts before they left this second feast and were upon us again. " I had every reason for husbanding my shots, for our escape lay in keeping the wolves from us by killing one of their number at a time, so as to distract the pack. I therefore continued this desultory warfare until my last cartridge had been fired, and we were yet nearly ten versts from Alexandreffsky. I had caused the death of perhaps twenty-five or more wolves, but there was no apparent diminution in number, nor were there any mani- festations of abandoning the attack on the part of those that had survived. Our horses had now become badly jaded, my driver almost lost his reason through fright, and the little hope I had left was hardly bright enough to show on a back-ground of despondency. I was not per- mitted to lapse into a reflective mood, however, for the hungry, carnivorous, blood-loving wolves came after us on lightning feet, their red tongues lolling out between vicious fangs which sometimes snapped together as though they felt our flesh already between their teeth. My gun EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 341 was now useless, but I carried it in my muffled robes until the wolves came so near that they tried to leap upon me ; then I wielded it as a bludgeon with excellent effect, killing three, or wounding them so that they were fallen upon and quickly devoured. But this successful way of re P ellin g their at- tacks did not avail us long, for while I combatted with more than a score, nearly ten times that num- ber ran ahead and at- tacked the horses. I now felt that it was tim e to abandon hope , cross myself and fall to praying, but our poor horses battled so nobly for life that I was encouraged by their acts. The two outsiders ran on at full speed for nearly a verst, while wolves were hanging at their haunches and throats or cutting great gashes in their legs and sides. I was astonished to see the horses survive so long, but when one fell at length the others could go no further, and here our last efforts were made to protect our lives. My driver, hav- ing nothing with which to defend himself, was, despite 22 342 JHJSS1AN NIHILISM AM) inv exertions, draped from his seat by three strong / O wolves, and as he fell upon the snow his cries for aid almost set me wild. Oh, how the poor fellow prayed and called to me while the ferocious beasts stripped the flesh from his bones until death ended the torture he endured. Our horses shared my driver's fate, while with almost superhuman strength I wielded my gun and scattered about me nearly fifty of the wolves that had attacked myself and driver. How I came out of that fiery fur- nace alive it is almost impossible for me to say, for I fought for many minutes, which seemed an age, before assistance came in the person of two exile moujiks who bravely seized clubs and rushed to my aid. We were almost on the outskirts of Alexandreffsky, and the noise created by our terrible encounter so*m brought others to the scene of action. My escape was chiefly due to the successful attack on the horses and driver, their bodies serving to draw away from me nearly all the pack. But when relieved at last, upon examination I found that my clothes were literally in shreds, and on my hands and legs were several severe scratches which, in my excited condition, I had not before discovered. " The wolves were driven away by shooting and beating, but not until the horses had been almost entirely devoured, and of the guide there only remained a grinning skull bare of flesh, the half of one hand, and a portion of his back and pelvic bone ; his limbs had been torn asunder and carried off by greedy members of the pack to some place where they could munch the bones undisturbed. Of my rifle there remained only the barrel , the stock hav- ing been broken and lost, and nothing in my possession do I esteem so valuable as this relic of the saddest ex- perience and adventure in all my life." We all applauded heartily the Governor's story, which THE GOVERNOR'S RACE WITH THE WOLVES. 343 344 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND was undoubtedly true, and this approbation stimulated others to relate their encounters with wild animals of the northern tundras ; but I was too sleepy to take any further interest in Siberian adventures, and stole off to bed. Having gathered about all the information accessible at Yeniseisk, on the following day I started for Irkoutsk, by way of Krasnoiarsk, distant eight hundred miles. The return trip to Krasnoiarsk was not without trouble on account of snow, which had fallen to a depth of fully six inches ; but I decided to hold to my tumbril rather than buy a troika (sledge) because I felt quite sure, as did Schleuter, that we should find no snow on the regular transport route, which we would reach in less than two days' travelling. We had not proceeded more than half a dozen miles from Yeniseisk before I saw two wolves dart across the road about one hundred yards ahead of us. Quickly the Ispravnik's story came back to me and I pictured myself in the midst of a ferocious pack with not so much as a club for defence. Every few minutes my forebodings were intensified by seeing one or more wolves not far dis- tant from us, a fact which did not appear to give Schleu- ter the least alarm, while I was continually forming reso- lutions what to do when ' ' worse should come to worse." Let me assure the reader that we did not camp out ; 30 far from being satisfied with a big fire and a warm bed in the tumbril, I was quite willing to forego comforts for the protection of an inn, one of which we found about nine o'clock in the evening. " Expect nothing and you will not be disappointed," is an old saying which none should forget while travel- ling in Siberia, but its moral was lost en me when, on proceeding to bed at the inn, I found no where to lay EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 345 my head except on the floor, mid no coverings except those of my own providing. But there were no wolves, bears or dreadful night-mares, so that the night was spent with really less discomfort than I had anticipated. Upon arriving at Krasnoiarsk I sold my three horses for the same money I had paid for them and started on to Irkoutsk by post conveyance, which is more than twice as rapid as I could have travelled with a single team. We lost no time in preparation, but immediately after disposing of my horses we got a fresh team and a yem- tschik who was lineally descended from Jehu. It is as- tonishing how rapidly one can travel in Siberia, when he is willing to pay for fast driving. It is told that the late Czar on one occasion sent a courier to Irkoutsk with in- structions to bring back to St. Petersburg, at the earliest possible moment, a distinguished person who had been exiled and was at the time in the Irkoutsk mines. So regardful was the courier of his order that he brought the offender from Irkoutsk to St. Petersburg distance 3,500 miles in just eleven days, making the incredible speed of three hundred and eighteen miles per day, or fourteen miles per hour. Having no desire to exagger- ate this story I will say that 1,000 miles of the journey was performed by rail, and perhaps 500 by steamer. But it is not an uncommon thing for the Czar's couriers to make 200 miles per day. In such cases the horses must suf- fer, though each relay is driven not more than twelve or fifteen miles. When extraordinary haste is necessary everything must give way on the road to the courier, who telegraphs ahead for horses, and has the swiftest reserved for him. When an animal falls dead in harness, which they frequently do, the courier cuts off one ear from the horse, and drives on, with the remaining horses, to the next station. The ears thus preserved are shown to the EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 347 Czar as a proof of the speed with which the courier exe- cuted his mission. Four days of rapid travelling brought us to Irkoutsk, which is 600 miles from Krasnoiarsk. On the road we passed only one small convoy of prisoners, the officers of which I did not consider it worth my time to interrogate, as they were half-drunk and inclined to be quarrelsome. At Nijni Udinsk we stopped only a short time, prefer- ring not to visit the mines there until upon my return, as I was anxious to reach Irkoutsk in time to see the races, which I was told had already begun and would continue only two or three days longer. CHAPTER XIX. IRKOUTSK is a handsome city, situated very much like New York, being built on a tongue of land formed by a sharp curve in the Angara River. The place contains a population of nearly 35,000, and among its buildings are a score of churches of elegant architectural design and ~ o expensive finish. We had to cross the Angara by hand-ferry, but upon reaching the city's side more than a dozen droshky driv- ers beseiged us, like hackmen in American cities, one of whom we engaged to take us and our luggage to De- coque's hotel, where I was rejoiced to find that the mana- ger could speak a little English. Irkoutsk is next to Yeniseisk in age, having been found- ed in 1680, the former in 1618. It has become the great- est mart on the overland route between China and Rus- sia, while many of the more devout, whose minds in- cline constantly to sacred things, regard it as a holy city, 348 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND particularly as Siberia's patron saint lies buried there. The climate is said to be very fine, except in the fall, when heavy fogs prevail that are infinitely more disagreeable than the rainy season in San Francisco, which is saying a great deal. My experience may be exceptional, but it has always happened that in visiting a strange country I invariably arrive just in the very worst season, or at least the na- tives tell me so. But I have suspected, many times, that these assurances of exceptional weather proceeded from local prejudice, or the common love for home place. Any how, I struck Irkoutskin a bad spell, for it was not only snowing with great violence but there was a fearful wind blowing which seemed to gather up big drifts of snow for the sole purpose of dashing them into people's eyes. This wretched blizzard put a temporary stop to horse racing, but during the night there occurred a great change for the better, the wind ceased entirely, and when morning broke Aurora burst upon a beautiful scene. At breakfast every one present was talking about the races, and when I went out upon the street nothing else seemed to be thought of. In fact I soon learned that horse rac- ing at Irkoutsk served the same purpose there that pool- rooms and market quotations in exchanges and bucket- shops do in this country they are the popular resources of speculators. I drove out about noon with my guide to the race- course, which, was a mile track situated some distance out of the city proper, and only partly enclosed by a very low fence. On that side the track next to the town there was a pavillion, in which the Governor, judges, and a few other privileged persons stood seats were nowhere pro- vided and conducted the racing. I was amused to wit- ness the preparations, as they are so unlike the prelimi- naries made by jockeys in other countries. The training EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 349 to which horses entered for racing are subjected appears very harsh, if not inhumanly cruel, and generally lasts for three weeks. This training consists in riding the horses for several hours each day at their greatest speed and 350 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND until they are covered with foam ; they are then tied out in an open field over night, under a sharp frost, so that the perspiration may freeze in a white coat over their bodies ; the Siberians declare thai this treatment (which Avould kill nearly any ordinary horse) hardens the muscles and at the same time makes the horse more supple. In addi- tion to this they will not allow their horses a drop of wa- ter for forty-eight hours preceding the race, their theory being that water distends the animal's stomach and proves a serious impediment to its speed. Horses used in the races are not ridden, but driven to a sledge, to which two animals are attached, but in reality only one does all the pulling, the other being used only to encourage the draught horse. All Siberian horses have enormous manes and tails, the former reaching to their knees and the latter often dragging a foot or more on the ground ; but that this profuse growth may not interfere with the running, the tail and mane are tied up in leather straps which im- part a rather grotesque appearance to the horses. After witnessing several races I returned to the city and paid a visit to the prisons, which are located on a level strip of ground on the opposite shore of the Irkut River, a small stream which bounds one side of Irkoutsk. I was chagrined, however, on applying for admission to the prison to meet with a flat refusal, and though I produced my letter from the St. Petersburg ministry request ing that every facility be afforded me in my investigations, the officer was none the less obstinate, but before leaving he told me I would be admitted on the following day. I was therefore compelled to return and await his disposi- tion, which leisure interval I improved by returning to Irkoutsk to gather such stray facts as might offer. Through rare fortune I fell in with an exile who had served several years in the mines at Kara, under a hard EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 351 labor sentence, but through the influence of friends at St. Petersburg hud the remainder of his sentence commu- ted to simple exile in the Irkoutsk Government. Through Schleuter I obtained from this unfortunate man a thor- ough and undeniably truthful statement of the treatment accorded to convicts at the Kara mines, and^I present it here with the full assurance that it is not in the least ex- 352 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND aggerated, for Schleuter himself had many ways of ver- ifying and attesting all the facts. His statements to me, made in the course of several hours of conversation, embrace the following interesting facts : The mines at Kara are noted throughout all Eussia for the atrocious treatment dealt out to convicts who may be sent there. A large majority of the Siberian gold mines are no longer worked by convict labor, hav- ing passed into the hands of private capitalists, but that at Kara is one of those still operated by Government authority with convicts who are sentenced to hard labor. Both gold and silver are found at Kara, but mining for the former is so much more profitable that the little silver gathered is from double running in reducing the gold-bearing quartz. Generally, the number of miners at Kara are from 300 to 500, and their daily labor is from 13 to 15 hours according to the favor which they may find in the officers' eyes. In 1857 there was a law passed in Eussia, which may be found in Article 569, providing for the punishment of convicts. According to this law all those sentenced to hard labor must wear heavy irons on their wrists and ankles for the period of two years, which is called the probation sentence ; if, at the end of two years, the convict is reported as having conducted himself in a humble, contrite and thoroughly acceptable manner to the officer in whose charge the exile may be, then this first sentence is considered served, and he begins on the second part of his sentence, which is apportioned as fol- lows : Those condemned for life must wear the heaviest shackles for a period of eight years (additional to the probation sentence) ; those condemned for twenty years wear the shackles six years ; for fifteen years, they weav EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 353 them four years ; for twelve years, they wear them three years ; for eight years, they wear them two years ; for six years, they wear them eighteen months ; and for four years, twelve months. So that in any event a hard labor exile must wear the most galling fetters upon his hands and ankles for a period of not less than three years. But this law, harsh, nay inhuman in all its phases, does not disclose all the heinousness of its application by officials in Siberia entrusted with its administration, for since ignorant and more brutal guards are made the censors of each exile's conduct, it is in their power to indefinitely extend the probationary period and keep a poor sufferer in chains so long as the guard's own pleasure may dictate. That this is the construction put upon the law by many Governors of penal colonies cannot be disputed in the face of a thousand living wit- nesses now slowly dying from torture and exposure in the eastern mines where it is applied. In justice to Russia it must be said, however, that the crimes thus committed against humanity are only indi- rectly chargable to the Government ; some discretionary powers must be accorded Governors of penal districts lying so remote from the chief administration ; that this necessary power should sometimes be abused is so natu- ral that the result is identical in all countries, being co-ex- tensive with the good and bad qualities of human nature. Not a few instances have occurred where Governors with brutal tendencies have been recalled to St. Petersburg and upon the establishment of charges preferred against them for cruelty, they have suffered the penalty of a, stern and exacting law. Another erroneous impression prevails very generally, but which has not the slightest foundation in fact, viz. : that exiles are compelled to labor in quick-silver mines 354 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND until their hair falls out and the flesh drops away from their bones. This error is inexcusable, because there is no such thing as a quick-silver mine in all Siberia ; and yet the Government has been time and again charged (by those who must know that they are falsify ing facts) with forcing thousands of men and women down into these caverns of insidious death each year. The truth con- cerning convict labor in the mines is dreadful enough, without any exaggeration or misrepresentation. For many years the mining at Kara was conducted above ground, but as the placers became exhausted tun- nels were sunk which resulted in the finding of much richer gold-bearing ore than the placers yielded. This discovery, though highly beneficial to the Government, proved disastrous to those whose enforced labor had un- covered the new auriferous deposits. Men who before were compelled to work fifteen hours each day with task- masters over them, had, at least, the blessed sun-light to kiss their heads like sympathetic ministrations from heaven ; they could hear, in summer time, the cheerful songs of many birds, and in winter there were great fields of snow laughing under the inconstant sun, or grown so bleak that all nature appeared to share the convicts' hard- ships. It is astonishing what inconsiderable circumstan- ces serve to console one when doomed to the never pity- ing injustice of those appointed to watch over and pun- ish hard-labor exiles. To many of the superstitious unfortunates there is luck in having a bird perch on a branch above them ; good news is expected to follow the song of a bird after sunset, and should a bird light upon the shovel or barrow of a convict it presages to the one who handles the implement, news from home promis- ing his speedy release. So are the moonbeams considered as harbingers of fate ; if a convict be wakened at night EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA* 355 by the moon shining in his face, he regards it as an omen of fortune : that he will hear from home, be transferred to more comfortable quarters, or in some other way be- come the legatee of good luck. All ambitions, hopes, and agreeable superstitions are suppressed in the heart of every exile when he is forced to labor underground ; it is to them a departure from the earth into the abodes of evil spirits where mercy is un- known. In consequence of this very prevalent belief among exiles they suffer in mind more perhaps than phy- sically, from the extreme punishment which is really inflicted upon them. In Kara, my informant assured me, as described on page 229 of a work entitled " The Russians of To-Day," "there are scores who never see the light of day, but work and sleep all the year round in the depths of the earth, extracting silver under the eyes of task-masters, who have orders not to spare them. Iron gates guarded by sentries close the lodes, or streets, at the bottom of the shafts, and miners are railed off from one another in gangs of twenty. They sleep within recesses hewn out of the rock very kennels into which they must creep on all fours." Nearly all these prisoners are constantly loaded with chains, while each has a daily task to perform, or come under the terrible discipline of the knout, plete, or scorpion. Nearly all the convicts at Kara are political offenders, against whom there is such prejudice among Government officials that they are tortured to the limit of cruel inge- nuity ; it is not one in twenty that can survive the cruelties inflicted here without becoming hopelessly in- sane. There is a prison-hospital established at Kara in which none are cared for except those who receive cor- poral punishment from the officers. So inhumanly se- > RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND vere is this administration of injustice that after its application the poor victim is little more than a piece of bleeding, unconscious flesh ; from the room of punish- ment he is carried to a ward, provided with small cots, at the foot of which is written the word " Costegcetis," meaning, " an offender well birched." But though it is called a hospital, the treatment is little calculated to im- prove the patients' condition, they being literally left to help themselves, the policy being that a dead convict is better than a live one. This ward exceeds in terror any portions of an insane asylum ; the poor sufferers are either dumb from unconsciousness, or raving with delirium ; some are lying like sheeted ghosts, their eyes half-closed, and one might suppose them dead but for their deep and sonorous respiration, indicative of approaching dissolution ; others are talking in a wild and incoherent manner of their wrongs ; or perhaps picturing the loved face of some friend or relative back in Russia to whom they talk in terms of rare affection ; others yet are storming with a passion directed by a mind from which reason has fled ; while lastly, on this or that dirty cot is a body purple, distorted, with blearing but vacant eyes, the very image of powerful agony, the hands clenched and stiff, happily dead. The poor wretches, not a few of whom have been delicately nurtured, and whose crimes are opposi- tion to a Government which they regard as oppressive, never receive one word of sympathy, nor are their most imperative needs attended to. Those whose brutality can punish so severely are not the persons whom we might expect would give a morsel of compassion to their victims. At Kara an instrument is used to punish convicts which differs from any others in use, so far as the knowl- edge of my informant extended. He described it as EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 357 three large pieces of raw hide, each three feet long, with knots on the end like on knouts ; these three thongs are plaited together at one end so as to make a handle, while the other ends are loose. A castigation with this instru- ment is next to an application of the scorpion . The sev- eral modes of punishment practiced at Kara are : whipping with the knout, plete, and the instrument just described, and sometimes, though rarely, with the scorpion ; the con- victs are also disciplined by being shut up in dungeons, by slow starvation, increasing their irons, placing them in beds of freezing water, and such other tortures as the ingenuity of vicious officers may suggest. But in addition to these cruelties, all prisoners brought to the Kara mines for hard labor are branded on the forehead and cheeks with three letters, K A T, which is an abreviation of Katarjnik, meaning a hard labor con- vict. The instrument used for this purpose is shaped like a cup, the larger end being provided with needles set so as to pierce the skin to a depth of about one-sixteenth of an inch in the shape of the three letters. The convict is bound to an upright post in an immovable position, and then the instrument is applied to the forehead and each cheek, after which a caustic liquid is rubbed briskly on the fresh wounds. This produces the most intense pain, which does not abate for several days, as the liquid aggra- vates the wounds and generally causes them to suppurate. When, after weeks, the brand is healed, conspicuous scars are left which endure for life ; thus a man who receives this stigma, however undeserved it may be, is doomed to parade his disgrace to all the world. My informant showed me the brands he had received, which resembled large and angry ring-worms that had assumed lettered shapes. The female convicts at Kara receive much more con- 23 358 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND siderate treatment than the men ; they are not compelled to labor in the mines, but are closely confined in iron cells at night and made to perform menial chores, and are in servitude to the officers during the day time. Nearly all those who are there confined are under sen- tence for murdering their husbands, a crime o great frequency in Rus sia where wives receive little '/,'ner treat- ment than blows. Indeed, under the e^riier laws of the Russian Church it was a portion of the pre- scribed ceremony of marriage for the groc'.p, to carry with him to the altar a small whip, which he lay lightly upon the bride's back as a token that she should be sub- ject to all his wishes or caprices. During the prevalence of this strange nuptial rite there was a law in Russia which punished wives who murdered their husbands by burying them alive up to their necks, and then turning dogs loose to feed on the exposed heads. My informant said that the danger incurred in at- tempts to escape was so great that comparatively few convicts, even if they had an opportunity, would take the risk. They would not only subject themselves to penalties provided by a law which was construed by inhu- man officials, but would have to run the risk of starva- tion, and also the chance of being shot by some of the Siberian tribes who hunt convicts as they would wild beasts, shooting them down in order to rob them of their clothes. I was greatly interested in the exile's relation of how convicts are treated at Kara ; the fellow was well educated for a Russian peasant, and he did not appear to have any particular prejudices against the Government. He had served fifteen years at Kara for having, with several stu- dents at Kasan, incited a political disturbance in which threats of assassination had been freely expressed. His EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 359 sentence was twenty years at hard labor, but, through the influence of friends at home, after serving three- fourths of his time the remainder of his sentence was com- muted to simple exile in the Irkoutsk district ; he was there- fore free to go whither he willed inside the territory, and might have engaged in business, but I believe he was doing nothing except a little hunting and fishing. On the following day I again applied for admission to the Irkoutsk prisons, but my success was not much better than before ; in fact, so unsatisfactory that no description of the prisons or treatment accorded the convicts could be obtained except from persons in no wise connected with the management, so I was compelled to return to Irkoutsk and conduct my investigations through such sources as were afforded, but these I soon found quite sufficient. The suspicion may have been already excited that such information as I have given is hardly worthy full credence because of having been re- ceived from exiles whose prejudices might lead them into great exaggerations. Before proceeding further I hope to relieve this impression by saying, that I had opportu- nities for verifying, in a general way, all the stories I re- ceived from exiles ; interviewing more than a dozen who had served long periods in the mines, I would have been liable to dotect any misstatement, especially since I did not talk with more than one exile at a time. In all their several statements not the least inconsistency appeared, while each declaration was further confirmed to me by business men in the various towns I visited in Siberia. I did not attempt to interview any prison official, because Mr. Lansdell's example was before me ; that they would protect themselves by hiding behind a mountain of misrep- resentations and denials is perfectly natural, notwithstand- ing their statements are made in the very face of established 360 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND facts. I saw with my own eyes quite enough of the hor- rible treatment of Siberian exiles to make me regard nearly any story of torture inflicted on Russian convicts appear as not improbable, but I have not the least dispo- sition to spread the terrible tales of exile suffering which have grown, by the accretions of repetition, to monstrous proportions. My desire is to tell nothing but the truth, and to this end I have not and will not repeat any state- ment that I have not sifted and found to rest upon the very strongest circumstantial evidence. CHAPTEE XX. IRKOUTSK is so situated that it is an excellent point from whence to gather information respecting the natives of Siberia, particularly as a majority of these tribes in- habit the northern section and make that city their cen- tral trading station. It is said there are thirty different tribes in all Siberia, among the more prominent being Tar- tars, Ostjaks, Samoy eds, Kirghiz, Jacuts, Goldi,Buriats, Zyrians, Koriaks, Tchapogirs, Jukagires, Yogules, Kam- tchadals, Coreans, Yakoutes, Gilyaks, Chukchees and Tunguse. The Ostjaks, of whom I have already written, have some claim to be considered as the aboriginal inhabitants of Siberia, occupying the north-western region. They are principally found in rude settlements scattered along the banks of the Ob or Obi, as far north as Tobolsk. Their chief occupations are fishing and hunting. The former yields them abundant means of subsistence, as the rivers teem with fish ; and hunting supplies them with valuable furs for barter. Some of the Ostjaks lead EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 361 a kind of pastoral life, and keep large herds of rein- deer, which furnish them with both food and Clothing. In summer they live in wretched temporary huts, framed of boughs and covered with birch bark. Their filthy bodies are but scantily clad. Small in stature, lean and lank, with a scared, hang-dog look, and a stupid expression on their broad ugly faces, they seem a degraded race. It is true that on the water they show to better advantage in their light skiffs or canoes, which they manage with OSTJAKS IN WINTER DRESS. wonderful dexterity. But the Ostjak is only seen at his best in winter, and in that far north which is his home. There he leads the primitive life for which he is best suited ; and there, warmly clad in the skin of the rein- deer, while swiftly gliding on his snow-shoes in pursuit of game, or bounding along in the "narta," the sledge drawn by dogs or deer, he may feel himself the true lord of the snowy wilderness that stretches to the Arctic Ocean. The winter habitations of the Ostjaks are rude 362 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND dwellings, built of logs, with an opening at the top for the smoke. The light is admitted by means of a rough but ingenious contrivance. An aperture made in the hut is fitted with a large block of ice, which serves as a window, and is renewed at will when it thaws. The dress worn by the Ostjaks is of reindeer skins. It con- sists of, first, a fur coat, which is seamless, and is slip- ped on over the head and reaches to the knee ; next, drawers of the same material, fastening round the body ; SAMOYED FROM THE LOWER YENISEI. FEMALE SAMOYEU. lastly, fur boots, with the hair turned inside. Over this dress is worn another, of which the various parts are the same, only that the skins are those of the old reindeer, the hair of which is thicker and longer. O Beyond the Arctic Circle, near the Kara Sea, and along the estuaries of the Ob and the Yenisei, dwell the Sam- oyeds, who in many points resemble the Ostjuks. They, too, lead a kind of nomadic life, roaming about in quest of pastures for their reindeer, of which they possess EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 363 large herds. They are more inclined to the chase than to fishing. Keen and bold hunters, they do not even shrink from encountering, single-handed, the huge polar bear, with no other weapon than the bow, or a knife fas- tened to a pole. They bring to market, at Obdorsk, on the Ob and Yeniseisk, the choicest furs ; among the rest, a peculiar variety of wolfskin,' much prized by the na- tives. The Samoyeds are tall and slender, but the women small. The dress of the latter is far more elegant than that of their Ostjak neighbors. It is not made of deer- skins, but of the different furs, carefully selected with a view to effect. The Kirghiz Tartars are more southernly in their habi- tations, and besides being warlike in disposition are fre- quently highwaymen, who have time and again been the terror of Siberian travel. They are chiefly engaged rais- ing horses and cattle, but though they pursue this voca- tion generally with profit they cannot resist the prompt- ings of a nature inherited from generation to generation, and therefore forage, pillage, rob, with that same relish exhibited by their Tartar ancestors many hundred years ago. Even within the last few years they have been guilty of many abductions, which is a revival of their earlier practices. Like the Albanians who, during the controversy with Montenegro in 1877, made descents upon unprotected villages near the border and carried off the most attractive female Montenegrins, so the Kirghiz have recently despoiled their Thibetan neighbors and made captive many women, carrying them off to their ranches and subjecting them to servitude. The Buriats inhabit a district in the Trans-Baikal that is, beyond Lake Baikal. They are not very numerous, but not a few possess considerable wealth and dress in a style which, if not exactly magnificently fashionable, is EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 365 very expensive. Many of them live in Yakoutsk, Chita and olhi-r f.:r eastern cities, where the females wear dresses and jewelry of great value ; but those leading a pastoral life live in tents like most of our western Indians. The Goldi are a small tribe, numbering about 5,000, located along the Amoor river, which is the dividing line between Siberia and China, and in the Ussuri district. They are nearly allied to the Tunguse in habits and lan- guage, but being on the Chinese border and mixing with the Manchu, they imitate them in many particulars. Formerly the Goldi did not bury their dead, but carried them to a dead house where the bodies were left until destroyed by time. Notwithstanding the dreadful exha- lations of this charnal house friends of the departed paid frequent visits to the building to mourn and pray for their dead. The Gilyaks are a tribe whose numbers I found no one could approximate. They inhabit a portion of the Island Sakhalein, and also a district adjoining that occupied by the Goldi, but there is so great a difference between them that no one single feature, in either habit or appearance, is common to them both. The Gilyaks have so great an aversion for water that they never learn to swim or wash themselves. Their subsistence is de- rived from fishing and hunting, fish being taken by nets, and sometimes by spearing. They are polygamists, es- teeming women of no more value than their dogs, but polyandry is also practiced ; in case where a woman has a patrimony of fair estimation, so many sledge-dogs, so much brandy, or so many valuable skins, she can buy as many husbands as her means will afford ; but polyandry is seldom practiced among them, while polygamy is very general. They are the most ignorant people to be found in Siberia, and in many respects are like the Congo tribes 366 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND in Central Africa. Sickness among them is treated by wearing amulets, and such fatalists are they that on no ac- count would one Gilyak attempt to save another's life. These people, though ignorant almost beyond belief, are uncommonly brave, and while they have many super- stitions, there is little connected with their faith that in- spires terror. They prefer hunting to any other employ- ment, but still use only primitive weapons for taking EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. ar,7 game ; yet there is a superstition which prevents them from hunting the tiger or wolf. In Western Siberia and Eastern Russia the peasants will not kill a wolf be- cause, as it was explained to me, " the surviving compan- ions or friends of a wolf will avenge the dead one." GOLDI IN WINTER DRESS. Many told me that if a peasant refused to kill a wolf his flocks would never be molested, but if he did do so the wolves would be sure to destroy his stock. Bear hunting among the Gilyaks is most exciting sport, 368 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND because it is conducted something after the fashion once practiced by ancient Norwegians. Their weapon consists of a long pole, to one end of which is attached, by means of small strips of raw-hide, a steel spear four inches long and two inches broad ; there is also another weapon used, but not so commonly as the former, which is made by wrapping several sharp-pointed spikes together so that their points will extend outward something like the bristles of a hedge-hog when rolled up ; this chevaux-de-frize is firmly fastened to a long pole, which is then used like the spear. This latter weapon is employed to worry the bear by first GROUP OF GILYAKS. i.Titatiiigthe animal until, enraged, it rushes upon its as- sailant ; the Gilyak hunter then defends himself by pre- senting his spiked weapon, which the bear seizes only to wound itself ; more violently enraged with these self-in- Ilicted injuries, the bear endeavors to destroy the spikes by biting and squeezing them, until it actually kills itself . In using the spear there is really more danger incurred than from the spiked weapon, for when a bear is wounded with a spear it attacks the hunter, who sometimes be- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 3(39 comes the victim. Nothing can equal, for ferocity and vitality, the Grizzly bear of North America, but next to this animal certainly comes the Russian bear, which is equal in all respects to the Grizzly, except in vital pow- ers. Yet terrible as it is when fully aroused, the Gil- yaks not only attack and slay, with no other weapon than a long spear, the most powerful Russian bears, but they also capture them alive to provide amusement at annual feasts. To capture these dangerous animals a party of eight to a dozen men provide themselves with lassoes, chains, collars and a muzzle, and in company seek their game. Upon finding a bear, however large it may be, they proceed to take it prisoner in the following manner : Scattering out in a circle they surround the bear and gradually contract the circle by driving the animal to- wards the center, always taking great care not to excite it. Dogs are not used at such times, because they would enrage the bear and cause it to break precipitately, so that a capture would be impossible. When the circle becomes sufficiently contracted everything is made ready for two men to cast ther lassoes, and while the attention of the bear is directed towards one or more persons, an- other of the party nimbly leaps upon the bear's back, as the lassoes are thrown, and catching bruin by the ears hold his head, assisted by others with the lassoes ; a col- lar and muzzle are next adjusted on poor bruin, and he then becomes a helpless captive. Should any of the hunters be wounded in these dangerous attempts, which they very frequently are, they think themselves lucky, as such wounds are considered evidences of prowess, and to be killed by a bearis esteemed a happy death. Bears thus caught are taken to the nearest village, where they are kept and fatted on fish, for the approach- ing festival . The most important fete day among these 370 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND FESTIVAL OF KILLING THE BEAR. 1. Gilyaks of the Upper Class, and Dog. 2. Bear Trap. 3. Wolf Trap* 4. Fish and Tackle. EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA . 371 strange people occurs early in January, but on no partic- ular date, as the Gilyaks reckon time by the moon. On this occasion the captured bear is taken from its cage and shackled so it can commit no harm, is dragged or driven all around the village and halted before each house, where some cabalistic words are repeated, supposed to bring good luck. , After this part of the ceremony is completed, they lead the animal to some place for water, and also serve it with a platter of food ; should the bear take both water and food the sacrifice is postponed, but owing to its anger it always refuses. The bear is now dragged to the place of sacrifice, where it is made fast between two posts by means of raw hide ropes connected with its collar. Then succeed orgies not unlike those practiced by several tribes of Indians about their sacri- fices. The bear is beaten with sticks and stones in order to make it growl, for manifestations of pain and an- ger from the animal are taken as answers to the entreaties of those engaged in the sacrifice for good luck. When at length the bear becomes exhausted, the honor of shoot- ing it through the heart with an arrow is accorded to one who is chosen chief of the ceremonies for that day. After its death the bear's head and paws are cut off, the former being presented to the village patriarch, and to which prayers are offered for a period of six weeks. The paws are divided between four popular persons at the feast, who keep them for good luck, sometimes wearing them for years tied to a string about the neck. In pass- ing through a Gilyak settlement it is very common to find the ears, jaw-bones, skulls and paws of bears killed in such sacrifices as I have described, hung up in trees, where they are supposed to exercise a most serviceable influence in keeping off evil spirits and bringing good luck to the village. 372 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND Iii the Island Sakhalein these ceremonials of bear kill- ing are much more frequent than on the Siberian shore, for the reason perhaps that the Gilyaks are more nu- merous on Sakhalein and because their customs are not interfered with or influenced by neighboring tribes. The Tunguse are a very numerous people inhabiting EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 373 many parts of Siberia. They are very much like the Manchu of China, in appearance, while in habits they assimilate with the Esquimaux, being found as far north as the Arctic Ocean. In March these people go on snow- shoes over snow, into which, at that season, cloven- footed animals sink, and shoot elks, roe, and musk deer, wild deer and goats ; the tent being fixed in valleys and defiles, where the snow lies deepest. In April the ice on the rivers begins to move, and the huntsman, now turned fisher, hastens to the small rivulets to net his fish. Those not required for immediate use are dried against the next month, which is one of the least plentiful in the year. In May they shoot deer and other game, which they have decoyed to certain spots by burning down the high grass in the valleys, so that the young sprouts may attract the deer and goats. June supplies the hunter with antlers of the roe. These they sell at a high price to the Chinese for medicinal purposes. In July the na- tives spend a large part of the month catching fish, taken with nets or speared with harpoons. They are able also to spear the elk, which likes a water-plant growing in the lakes. He comes down at night, wades into the water, and, whilst engaged in tearing at the plant with his teeth, is killed by the huntsman. In August they catch birds, speared at night in the retired creeks and bays of the rivers and lakes. Their flesh, except that of the swan, is eaten, and the down is exchanged for ear and finger rings, bracelets, beads, and the like. Thus they spend the summer months, afterward retiring again to the mountains for game. In the beginning of September they prepare for winter pursuits. With these people there is very little of civilization found ; they live in birch-bark tents, and delight in hunting on the tundras ; horses are not 374 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND favorably regarded by them, their domestic draught ani- mals being reindeer and dogs ; of the former they pos- sess immense herds, so that the fortune of a Tunguse is estimated entirely by the number of reindeer he owns. The Kirghiz, who are distinct from the Kirghiz Tartars, are the largest framed people in Siberia. Some of them own large herds of cattle and horses, in South Siberia, and have some pretensions of refinement, living in wooden houses and adopting a few customs which evidence civili- zation ; but as a rule they are beggarly, indolent rapscal- lions of the plains. They are met with in nearly all the larger cities, ply- ing their tricks of juggling, fortune telling and begging ; they have not the least acquaintance with work or clean- liness, and as a tribe they are generally despised. The numerous other tribes of native Siberians are hardly worthy of mention, because their numbers are very small, and in many respects they are so nearly as- similated to the principal tribes by intermarriage and nationality that only an ethnologist can distinguish the tribal Deculiarities of them all. CHAPTER XXI. MY journey eastward was concluded at Irkoutsk, which I regarded rightfully as the central point of Siberia, at which could be daily met people of all ranks from every part of the Empire. I was pleased to find that my opinion was correct and that here was afforded full and ample means of collecting all the facts appertaining to exile and commercial life in that portion of the Empire. Situated within less than seventy miles of lake Baikal, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 375 376 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND the largest fresh water body on the eastern hemisphere, on which ply numerous steamers deriving their business chiefly from the overland travel and freightage, and being midway on the great transport route, the city could not be otherwise than cosmopolitan and important. Its commercial fea- tures exceed those of Irbit, since in 1879 that large and finest city in Siberia was almost totally destroyed by fire. At all seasons may be found on the streets of Irkoutsk and in its hotels, representatives from all over Eu- rope. A great deal of gold and silver, in fact nearly all the native product from east of Tom- sk, is taken to Ir- koutsk for refine- ment and coinage. Nearly every day gold trains, guarded by large convoys, or bags of gold- dust conveyed by. tarantass, arrive in the city, while long files of merchants with goods from China or Eussia pass through its streets, so that an air of business is al- ways maintained. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 377 On the second day of my stay in IrkoutskI became ac- quainted with an American gentleman who was engaged in running a small steamer on the Amoor, but he made so many trips to Irkoutsk on business that his acquaintance with prominent people of the city was quite extensive. His name was Robert M. Gunsollis, and his native place a small town in Robinson county, Kentucky. He was very glad to see me, and upon disclosing to him the pur- poses of my visit to Siberia, he took great interest in as- sisting me. Through his kind services I secured an introduction to the Governor of Irkoutsk, and several merchants, all of whom tendered me their kind offices. Mr. Gunsollis was a traveller, and only six months before I saw him he had been on the island of Sakhalein spend- ing several weeks among the natives and convicts. Being a close observer and an uncommonly intelligent man, he had gathered a great deal of information of much value to the world at large, and as we spent an evening together he gave me the advantage of his newly acquired knowl- edge respecting Sakhalein. This island, which is nearly 600 miles in length, and about as large in area as the State of Illinois, was not explored until the year 1848, previous to which time it was supposed to be a portion of the Siberian, or Man- churian mainland. Along the coast it is generally very rocky and precipitous, while in the interior there is a chain of mountains which rise considerably above the limit of vegetation. Nearly every part of the island is wild and desolate, with a population of 15,000 persons, divided between Gilyaks, Tunguse, Oroks, Kuriles, and Ainos, the latter supposed to be the aboriginal popula- tion, while all the natives subsist on fish and wild game. Nevilskoy, Rear Admiral of the Russian navy, landed on the island in 1848 and accomplished a partial explora- 378 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND tion. Ho found it rich with coal, and this discovery led his Government to negotiate with Japan (to which the island belonged) for its purchase. Russia was in great need of a coaling station in the Pacific, and this want was supplied by a purchase of the island about t AV e 1 v e years ago. Directly after the acquire- ment of this des- olate wilderness, suggestions were made to Alexan- der II. which subsequently led that Emperor to establish penal colonies on the island, by which labor many coal mines were open- ed and are still worked. The port of Dui, which is sit- uated about the center of the western coast, is a small military AINOS ' A * OR ' G * es OF SAKHALEIN. station, but is nevertheless the most important place on the Island. It contains five prisons, all of which are small build- ings, in which are crowded nearly 2,000 exiles. In winter the atmosphere is freezing cold, and but for the crowding EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 379 it would be impossible for the convicts to survive even a moderate winter ; as it is, frost-bitten hands and feet are very common among the inmates. From Dui, the exiles are distributed to various parts of the island as prescribed in their sentences. The post is garrisoned by 500 men whose inactivity and severance from social relations cause their existence to be scarcely less unhappy than the exiles whom they guard. About one hundred miles south of Dui is another post called Korsakovsk, where a small force of soldiers is stationed, whose lonesome, unchangeable lives are even unrelieved by the sight of the supply vessels which put in at Dui two or three times a year. Out in the interior are two mines, one of which is called Dui mine and the other Dui farm, where a large number of convicts are employed, but the coal lies so near the surface that all convicts there engaged luckily escape the horrors of deep mining ; but while they are not forced down into black caverns, away forever from the blessed sunlight, as are many convicts in Siberian mines, their lots are but one degree less melancholy ; in fact it would sometimes appear that officials on Sakhalein are more devilishly barbarous than are those at Kara. The knout and scorpion are used almost without the shadow of a cause ; malignantly brutal keepers, never so content as when witnessing the agonies of extreme suffering, ex- pend all their surplus force by exercising with instru- ments of torture upon the bared backs of convicts. The labor jDerfornied in these mines is not so onerous as in many mines in Siberia, for the reason that they are worked for the Government, while a majority of Siberian mines are worked by private corporations interested in getting as much out of the exiles as possible. But there is little doubt that the punishment of convicts on Sakha- 380 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 381 lein is greater than that inflicted at any penal establish- ment in Siberia proper. To escape from these mines is almost impossible, for though it would be comparatively easy to get outside the guards, there is nothing upon which a convict might sub- sist while journeying the 200 miles he would have to go before reaching a point where. he could hope to" effect an embarkation for the mainland. Besides the dangers of starvation there is a reward of three roubles placed upon the head of every escaping convict, dead or alive. This barbaric outlawry is taken advantage of by the native Gilyaks, who prowl through every by-way in search of convicts, not with any intention of capturing them, but to shoot them down like wild beasts. This system of man-hunting is carried on so near the convict quarters that many unfortunate exiles, with no thought of attempt- ing to escape, fall victims within a stone's throw of their barracks, having unknowingly come within range of the perfidious Gilyaks, who, upon applying for the re- ward, are sure to make out a big story of how they de- tected their victims in a desperate effort to escape. The proof required before payment is the production of the severed head of the convict ; thus, when the Gilyaks kill an exile on Sakhalein they cut off his head and carry it to the Governor ; and inasmuch as the convicts are all branded it is easy to decide whether or not the applicant has made any mistake. On the lower coast, which is sandy, there is a vegeta- ble growth similar to South American Kale, which the Amos gather for their own use ; and also for transport to Japan, where they sell large quantities of the herb. It is said to make a very palatable soup, while its cheap- ness recommends it to the Japanese poor. The Qraks, who number about 5,000, are hunters and 382 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND fishers ; they live in cone-shaped houses made of thatch, which are set on poles about twelve feet above ground. Bears are plentiful on the island, and these the Oraks kill with spears, in a manner similar to that of the Gilyaks EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 383 of Siberia. Every Orak village has its sacred house, which serves as a repository for the bones of those ani- mals killed by residents of the village. The interior of these sacred houses is filled with all the bones of the bears except the skulls, which are placed on poles and set in the ground around the building. The Oraks are very super- stitious, worshipping no particular deity, but practice many singular rites under the belief that they will bring them good. They regard no other charm, or amulet, so potential as that made of some portion of a bear's skull, while all the bones of that animal are supposed to pos- sess magical powers, hence the pains taken by each vil- lage to preserve them. I was anxious to find some one who had visited Mko- laefsk, and was familiar with that famous prison, so com- municating this desire to Gunsollis, he assured me that it would not be difficult to find inlrkoutsk persons from any part of Siberia ; we therefore went out together the fol- lowing day, and before an hour had elapsed he found three different persons thoroughly familiar with Niko- laefsk, one of whom had been an exile there some years ago. Through the assistance of Gunsollis and Schleuter I obtained from these a large fund of information re- specting that dreaded prison, which, in some respects, is said to be more feared than Kara. Nikolaefsk is situated near the extreme eastern coast of Siberia, on a neck of the Gulf of Tartary and oppo- site the north-west coast of Sakhalein, or, more properly, at the mouth of the Amoor River. It contains a pop- ulation of about 5,000, and has a few really excellent buildings. My informants dispelled the popular impres- sion concerning the treatment of prisoners there, and assured me that the belief of cruelties practiced by Nik- olaefsk officials arose out of the fact that it lies at the 384 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND VIEWS ON THE ISLAND OF SAKHALEIN. l.Ainos Kale Hunters. 2. Anlva Harbor. 3; Orok Dwellings. 4. Island Gilyaks. 5. Port DuL 7, Korsakovtk. 8. Kuriles. 9. Orok Hunters. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA 385 end of overland travel. Convicts who are sent by the transport route to Sakhalein here conclude their 4000 miles of foot journey, and the few who survive the ter- rors of such a march are so broken down by their loads of chains and unexampled miseries that they are quite ready to regard this last place on the journey as a very hades. This impression also extends to visitors, because in no other place can such emaciated, sorrowful looking people be seen, nearly one-half of whom are insane. It is not an unusual sight to witness many patients in the Nikolaefsk hospitals, the skin on whose wrists and ankles is worn entirely away by heavy chains, leaving exposed the raw and angry tendons. The climate about Nikolaefsk is dreadfully severe in winter, and on account of imperfect protection many convicts die there in the prisons of cold. Yet there is a humanity among the officers at these prisons found at few other penal stations in Siberia ; the sufferings of convicts are attended to by a commission who derive, in addition to a salary from the Government, contributions from those who are charitably disposed, which latter is greater tnaii the salaries. When the exiles are so far re- covered as to be able to proceed to Sakhalein they are taken by a Russian man-of-war to port Dui and there distributed. It very frequently happens that rather than go to Sak- halein the convicts will attempt to escape from Nikolaef sk, sometimes in squads and at others singly or in small par- ties. Formerly there was a reward offered in all of east Siberia, by governors of the several districts, for the head of every escaping convict, like that which still pre- vails in Sakhalein. During the continuance of this bar- barous regulation several native tribes left off fishing and hunting wild animals, and took up the new occupa- 386 RUSSIAN NIHILISM ANt> tion of hunting exiles. Such of those as could secure guns conducted a thriving business in summer time when the number of fugitives was greatest. These head hunt- ers went on horseback, and around their waists they wore a broad belt to which they tied the heads of their victims. When a convict was found by these murderous heathen they showed him no mercy, but shot him down ; if the wound did not prove fatal, but sufficient to bring KILLING OF ESCAPING EXILES FOR THEIR CLOTHES. the victim to the ground, the hunter rushed upon him with a large knife and cut off his head ; strings were then made fast to the hair by which the severed head was tied to the hunter's belt. The body was also stripped of its clothing, which, though generally old and composed of nothing but reindeer skins, was valued so highly that since the withdrawal of money rewards by governors,. EXILE LII S E Itf SIBERIA. 387 388 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND these hunters continued shooting convicts merely for their clothes. Headquarters for the payment of these rewards was Irbit, Irkoutsk, Yakoutsk, and Yeniseisk, but a hunter might have his heads cashed at nearly any post-station by accepting a liberal discount. Even to this day not a few exiles are killed every year by Gilyaks and Tartars for no other reward than the clothes worn by the unfortunate men ; for though the Government no longer pays a premium for heads, it ex- empts the murderer of an escaping hard-labor exile from punishment. It is told that in September of 1856, a battalion of soldiers started from Nikolaefsk up the Amoor land route for Shilkinsk Zavod, but after proceeding less than a hundred versts they were overtaken by a snow-storm which so blinded them that progress was impossible, and to keep from freezing they were compelled to bundle to- gether. But a more horrible death than that by freezing soon threatened, for having provided themselves with ra- tions for only a few days their store of food failed them. Grim necessity was fought against until at last they were forced by hunger to draw lots to decide who should be sacrificed that their bodies might furnish food for the more fortunate. Nearly one-twentieth of the command was killed in this way and eaten by their comrades. Though no cases of cannibalism are known among con- victs who were trying to effect an escape, there are hun- dreds of incidents where they have been frozen to death and their bodies found in the forests or on the highways. So sympathetic are the people of Siberia, and particularly do they so well know the sufferings which every exile must undergo while fleeing for liberty, that it is their custom, just before retiring each night, to place some bread and salt on the outside window-sill, where it may EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 389 be convenient to any one passing by ; many a poor fugitive has thus been fed and his life preserved. There is one other dis- tributing point, or etape prison, on the Siberian coast, Yladivostock, which is a place of considerable commercial importance, in fact it is the chief Russian sea port on the Pacific. There is a considerable Russian population in the place, which has altogether about 10,000 inhabitants, but they are not in the ma- jority. Situated so near China, the town has at- tracted a large number of Mongolians , notwithstand- ing the fact that they are treated with great disre- spect and on two occasions have been ordered out of the district, while China has vainly tried to prevent emigration of her subjects to Russian soil. In 1861 China ceded the sea-coast to Russia and at the same time prohibited her sub- jects from colonizing on Siberian soil with their wives. The rich Chinese 390 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND therefore returned home, leaving the poor who were next to outlawed by the rigorous legal requirements which they were unable to obey ; they naturally drifted into crime, and being soon after joined by Manchu brig- ands, known as Manzas, there succeeded a regular pirati- cal organization which has not yet been entirely suppressed . These Manzas robbers are upon both land and water, kill- ing on the highways and scuttling small crafts on the A COREAN HOUSE IN VLADIVOSTOCK. coastwaters, so that travelling through the Primorsk dis- trict is always very dangerous. The Coreans are also in considerable numbers about Vladivostock, and because of their frugal, industrious habits they are despised and beaten by the Russ popula- tion. This treatment is due to the identical causes which have operated in San Francisco against the Chinese, for inasmuch as nearly one-half of the commodities used by the better classes in the Primorsk are of American pro- duction, the merchant and mechanic think that American prices and wages should obtain in Vladivostock. The EXILE LITE IN SIBERIA. 391 Coreans, however, are willing to work for very small wages and 'their bartering is conducted on small margins, hence the race prejudice. The Government of Coreahas attempted to arrest emigration by making it a capital of- fence for any of its subjects to settle in a foreign country. This law had a dreadful enforcement in 18G8, when 1,400 Coreans were run out of the Primorsk and upon returning to Corea they were summarily beheaded. CHAPTER XXII. THE most interesting district in Siberia is about Yak- outsk, which is a city of 6,000 inhabitants, and the capi- tal of the Yakoutsk Government. A large trade is car- ried on between Irkoutsk and Yakoutsk, so that I had no difficulty in finding scores of persons who had been long residents of the latter place, and would give me whatever information I desired concerning it. By Schleuter's as- sistance I interviewed the military Governor of Yakoutsk, who was on a visit to Irkoutsk, and to whom I was intro- duced by the Governor of the latter place. It was my good fortune also to find and talk with three men who had served short sentences of exile near Yakoutsk. From these several sources I gained a very satisfactory descrip- tion of life in and about the city. The government of Yakoutsk is the largest in Siberia, covering an area greater than that of all Europe, if we except Russia. The town itself, situated on the Lena River, in 65 north latitude, presents an odd blending of cosmopolite architecture, from the graceful styles adopt- ed by Russian nobility to the summer yourtsoi the native Yakutes. Generally considered, however, there are few 392 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND modern appearances about the place ; instead of using horses or reindeer for draught purposes, oxen are chosen, and these slow, plodding creatures are also used for rid- ing ; but a still more grotesque characteristic of the city is found in the fact that, discarding horses and the con- EXILES ON THE ISLAND OF SAKHALEIN. ventional ways of other countries, the ladies of Yakoutsk ride on the backs of oxen a-straddle. I cannot well imagine a more humorous sight than a Yakoutsk belle, dressed in the bright toggery peculiar to fashion, going out shopping in the city astride a mewling ox whose EXILE LirE IN SIBERIA. 393 shambling gait is marked by sinuous droolings, and whose whisking tail in summer time laps up little pools of sewage in the streets to distribute in a delicate spray over the fair rider. Yakoutsk is said to be the coldest spot on earth ; from December 1st to February 1st, the mean temperature be- ing 58 Fah. below zero, while not infrequently it reach- es 80 below. Extreme as this cold is, no particular dis- comfort is experienced ; while the mercury is frozen market women may be seen standing before their wares with arms bared above the elbows, laughing and chatting as if the weather were delightful. In sledge travelling during such temperature, the driver sleeps in the clothing he wears all day, and will curl up in his vehicle at night, draw the fur hood of his great coat over his head and sleep under the shivering stars, and no doubt dream of violets and primroses bursting into life under a warm, ex- hilarating, spring time sun. The Russian population of the Yakoutsk Government is confined chiefly to the Upper Lena, Yakoutsk and its vicinity. The Tunguse are also found on the eastern and western confines of the district, but are rarely met with in the interior. There is another race called the Yukaghirs, in the province, whose numbers are computed at about 2,000, but so wild is their nature that their ethno- logical peculiarities are but little known. They are only met with near the Arctic shores, between the Yana and Kolima rivers. They were once a very powerful tribe, so tradition says, and which statement is" partly proved by the tumuli and burial places still to be found along the Lena river. These relics of former tribal power contain human bones, bows, arrows, spears, and an instrument similar to that occasionally found among the more ignor- ant Laplanders, which they call a " magic drum," but it EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 395 resembles a pot more than a drum, being of considerable depth and closed at one end with reindeer skin. The Yukaghirs live almost entirely on the reindeer they kill during spring and autumn. At these seasons a mos- quito, not unlike the buffalo gnat of our Mississippi bot- toms, and so numerous that at times they almost darken the sky, so torment the reindeer that they seek refuge in the rivers, where they remain until winter sets in. This habit is taken advantage of by the Yukaghirs, who post themselves under cover beside a frequented stream and await the reindeer, which come down from neighboring forests in immense herds and enter the water. When the animals have taken to the stream they are set upon by the hunters, who appear on both sides and with long spears slaughter great numbers. The Yukaghirs are inveterate smokers of a tobacco O grown in the Ukraine, which they mix with small, half- decayed chips so as to make it go further ; in smoking not a whiff is allowed to escape into the air, but all is in- haled and swallowed, producing an effect somewhat sim- ilar to a mild dose of opium. Tobacco is considered their first and greatest luxury. Women and children all smoke, the latter learning to do so as soon as they are able to toddle. Any funds remaining after the supply of tobacco has been laid in are devoted to the purchase of brandy. A Yukaghir, it is said, never intoxicates him- self alone, but calls upon his family to share the drink, even children in arms being supplied with a portion. In the center of the Yakutsk province, occupying the valley of the Lena, roam the Yakutes, some of whom are met as far off as Nikolaef sk. They are of middle height, and of a light copper color, with black hair, which the men cut close. The sharp lines of their faces express indolent and amiable gentleness rather than vigor and 396 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND passion. They bear a close resemblance to the North American Indians ; their appearance is that of a people who have grown wild rather than of a thoroughly and originally rude race. Those who have been long settled among the Russians have perhaps become somewhat more polished than their wandering brethren. As a nice they are good-tempered, orderly, hospitable, and capable of enduring great privation with patience ; but in inde- pendence of character they contrast unfavorably with their Tunguse neighbors. Lay a finger in anger on one of the Tunguse, and nothing will induce him to forget the insult ; whereas with the Yakutes, the more they are thrashed the better they work.* The winter dwellings of the people have doors of raw hides, and log or wicker rwalls calked with cow-dung, and flanked with banks of earth to the height of the windows. The latter are made of sheets of ice, kept in their place from the outside by a slanting pole, the lower end of which is fixed in the ground. They are rendered air-tight by pouring on water, which quickly freezes round the edges ; and the fact that it takes a long time to melt these blocks of ice thus fixed is highly suggestive of what the temperature must be, both without and within. The flat roof is covered with earth, and over the door, facing the east, the boards project, making a cov- ered place in front, like the natives' houses in the Cau- casus. Under the same roof are the winter shelters for the cows and for the people, the former being the larger. * Strahlenberg divides them into 10 tribes, and Syboreen's Almanack for 1876 gives their number at 210,000. They belong to the great Turk family, and hence their Siberian locality is remarkable, because the Turks have ever been the people to displace others, whereas the Yakutes have been themselves dis- placed, and driven into this inhospitable climate, it is supposed, by the stronger Buriats, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 397 VIEWS OF THE ABODES OF THE EXILES NEAR YAKOUTSK. 1. & 2 Summer Houses of the liUiles. 3. & . Inferior views of same. *. Types of the Burl Population. 0. Grave Yard. 398 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND The fireplace consists of a wicker frame plastered over with clay, room being left for a man to pass between the fireplace and the wall. The hearth is made of beaten earth, and on it there is at all times a blazing fire, and logs of larch-wood throw up showers of sparks to the roof. Young calves, like children, are brought into the house to the fire, whilst their mothers cast a con- tented look through the open door at the back of the fireplace. Behind the fireplace, too, are the sleeping- places of the people, which in the poorer dwellings con- sists of only a continuation of the straw laid in the cow- house. In the winter they have about five hours of present it here, fully assured that it contains no misrep- resentations. Of the three, one had served eight years at Nertchinsk for participation in the Polish riots of 1863 ; another had spent ten years at hard labor for an alleged connection with Nihilist rioters at Karkoff, which, how- ever, he denied, and the other had served twelve years for burning Government property at YVirasloff. Each, of course, had a long story of justification, but as this might be expected from every convict, I did not rely on their defensive statements, lest they should be colored by excuses whicn had no existence in fact. But as to the treatment of themselves, and others under their obser- vation at Nertchinsk, they were qualified to speak truth- fully. The mines at Nertchinsk are entered through an exca- vation made near the base of a mountain ; they are nearly three hundred feet in depth, and, owing to the sup- posed existence of volcanic fires near the tunnels, are very warm. Into these tunnels, which ramify a large district, generally five hundred convicts are engaged mining silver ; about one-fourth of this num- ber are never permitted to appear above ground ; that is, while all are doomed to hard labor, the portion referred to, having incurred the prejudice of those hav- ing them in charge, are subjected to a treatment not con- templated in their sentences. These unfortunates are not only weighted with heavy manacles, their arms, necks and ankles mutilated by the galling, rasping irons that are never removed, but their tasks are allotted greatly out of proportion to their ability, and yet they must per- form them or be placed under such severe discipline as few can long endure. It is no excuse if these men become ill or exhausted, they work nevertheless, and that too, with the same en- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 429 ergy as though they were well and able-bodied. Those who trundle wheel-barrows are chained to their imple- ment ; those who wield the pick are generally chained to a rock beside their work, and so no one can leave for an instant the place where he is set to labor. In this mine there is a gallery which is used only for punish- ment ; it is provided with rings made fast in the rock, and also with a large beam set at an angle of thirty-five or forty degrees, similar to that used in some of our pen- itentiaries, on which to punish convicts, and called the "Widow." When an offender becomes a subject for punishment he is taken into this gallery and either tied up by his wrists to the rings, or made to lie face down- ward on the beam, to which he is made fast by binding his wrists and ankles underneath. The scorpion is very frequently used upon those who are bound to the beam ; from twenty-five to fifty lashes are given with this dread- ful instrument, which latter number will, nine times out of ten, make a raving maniac of the victim. Those tied to the rings receive from one hundred to two hundred strokes of the knout, which lacerate the back in a manner no one can possibly describe ; the use of both these in- struments of punishment is very of ten attended with fatal results. The shocking brutality of those who apply such, os- tensibly, corrective means is further illustrated by their refusal to care for their victims after the unmerciful pun- ishment is awarded. There is no compassionate treat- ment given the victims ; taken from the gallery, with gashed and bleeding backs, their bodies quivering with agony, and legs so enfeebled that they frequently refuse support, the poor wretches are driven, or dragged, back to resume their tasks. Many of these sufferers return with disordered minds, crazed from pain, yet their idiotic ut- 430 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND terances often cause them to be led again to the gallery for a double portion of punishment, or to be struck dead by the ferocious guard. For beds on which to lay their wounded bodies these poor convicts have only the ragged surface of the mine in which they work ; nothing but rocks for couch, pillow or coverlet; nothing with which to bind their sores or alleviate their pains ; enforced neglect causes a suppuration of the wounds, which, aggravated and poi- soned by perspiration, grow more severe until fever suc- ceeds, delirium is induced, and they fall victims indeed, but to secure at last relief and rest. Constant labor in the mines, without for one moment being permitted to see the blessed light of day, shut down in the damp cavern to breathe heated metalic fumes, produces an effect upon the convict which must be seen to be understood. The first changes noticeable, strange enough, are found in the hair, which becomes coarse, harsh and straggling ; next the features assume a pale cast, which afterwards change to a dull, ashen color ; the eyes then lose all lustre, and begin to sink ; the skin shrinks on the cheeks, and the flesh dries up until, after some years of labor, the whole frame seems to grow rickety, the muscles become atrophied and the voice is like a wheezy whisper ; the lips are thin as paper, and the fingers are grown to double length by reason of the flesh drying up between them. Such specter-like figures seen through the flickering light of smoking torches, which throw dancing shadows on the trickling tunnels' sides, are wierdly grotesque, arousing in the observer a conception of those nether regions peopled by tormented souls and imps of iniquity ; it is indeed a place of tor- ment, established and maintained in that spirit which gave expression to the poetic, though none the less existent fact : ' ' Ma 1 1 ' s i nhum a n ity t o in a n , m ak e s c < > u n t 1 e ss t h o u- sands mourn/' EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 433 Were made about Salem, Massachusetts, in the last century, and conviction almost invariably resulted. The punish- ment provided for such cases consisted in branding, with a red hot iron, upon the forehead and abdomen, a figure of the cross. This was supposed to spiritualize the vic- tim, and also to have a holy influence upon any offspring which she might thereafter bear. The application of the brand was accompanied with the most excruciating suffer- ing, it being deemed essential to the potency of the coun- ter-charm, to burn deeply into the flesh that the cross might ever appear most conspicuous. But this barbaric custom is no longer practiced in any part of Siberia, while the treatment of female convicts generally is now fairly considerate, though not entirely humane. So do we have to record the fact, already men- tioned, that a reward is no longer placed upon the heads of escaping convicts, though there is no penalty provided for the wilful murder of exiles, either in or out of prison. The spirit of the ago is very slowly, but none the less certainly, extending towards Siberia, and let us hope it may completely possess thai: eountiy ere long. CHAPTER XXV. HAVING pretty fully informed myself on the several sub- jects appertaining to Siberian life, on the 20th of Septem- ber I took leave (if my now acquaintances at Irkoutsk and prepared for the return jouniey, with Schlueter still acting as my guide. There was considerable snow falling and already on the ground, so adopting the most expeditious mode of travelling we engaged a poxt-troika and yem- stuhik, \vitli which vyestarted PprKrasuoiarsk. Up to this. 434 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND time I had carefully preserved the skin of the bear I killed while en-route for Yeniseisk, but it became so trou- blesome that, after many wavering resolutions, I finally gave it to a mujik at whose house we stopped to purchase EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 437) milk. My tribulations over that skin were manifold. When I first perceived the bear it appeared to me of the most stupendous size and ferocity; when fortune favored me by directing the ball I fired to a fatal spot andthe ani- mal rolled over dead, it must be admitted that I entertained an opinion of myself which is simply and utterly beyond description ; for several minutes I felt great anxiety to get back to America for the sole purpose of having my biog- raphy published. But when I began to skin the animal and thoroughly familiarize myself with its size and weapons for .defence, somehow it commenced to dwindle like a candle lighted at both ends, or more properly like an object looked at through the large end of a spy-glass. Actually, that bear got so small before we finished the skinning that I felt sorry rny rashness had destroyed an animal which I might as well have caught and made a pet of. But besides being very small, the skin refused to dry, while at every exposure it would freeze in the most un- comfortable shapes, and take up more room than all our other luggage. These several reasons I considered, at length, quite sufficient to make me part with the skin, but I was very sorry to see the mujik throw it aside with a look which plainly said: "Well, perhaps it will do for the cats to gnaw." Upon reaching Nijni Udinsk we made a short stop and went out to the mines, which are nearly one mile from the town proper. But my visit was without results, as the chief officer was absent and none of his underlings would permit me to descend into the mines. Starting again on the following day, we proceeded with- out interruption to Krasnoyarsk, and thence on to Tomsk without do 1 . ay anywhere on the route. Everywhere tlnTo seemed to bo plenty of snow except at Tomsk, where we found the ground so bare that I had to discard RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND the troika for a tumbril. I here decided to change my route and instead of returning to Russia by the same way I had come, to cut straight across to Omsk and take the \ower route which crosses the Urals at Orenburg. This, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 437 road I found, though not nearly so generally travelled as that by the way of Perm and Tobolsk, was through a more fertile country, and the roads were far better. Omsk is a town of 3, 000 people, with nothing to com- mend it above the smallest way-station, unless it be in the matter of churches, which are somewhat finer than those in Tieumen. I did not stop more than two hours in Omsk, being now anxious to conclude my investiga- tions in Russia and reach home before winter should be- gin. As there were no post-stations upon which I could rely for conveyance between Omsk and Orenburg, I was reduced to the necessity of buying a tumbril and three horses, for which I paid something more than for those I purchased at Tomsk. It was also necessary for us to hiy in a goodly store of provisions, as the distance we had now to travel was about one thousand miles before reach- ing the boundary of Russian civilization. This portion of my trip through Siberia impressed me more, perhaps, than anything I saw or heard on the convict route, for so great was the exposure induced from inclement weather that the effects I still keenly feel, while I was reduced in weight nearly thirty pounds. Schleuter, besides being a good guide, was a splendid cook, and his services over the camp-fire had much to do in sustaining my, at times, flagging courage, for I can assure the reader that it is a rugged courage indeed that can resist the complaints of nature when incited by freezing cold, chilling rains, sickness, and the number- less annoyances which one might expect to meet on so long a journey, across a wilderness of unchangeable des- olation, seven thousand miles from home. At one point, nearPrisnovsk, we discovered a herd of animals quite unlike any of the brute creation I had ever before seen ; they were called Siberian Antelope and, as 28 438 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND I was informed, are quite numerous in the western part of Siberia. As it was drawing toward evening, I ordered Schleuter to stop and assist me in trying to kill one of the animals, as we were in need of fresh meat and, besides, I wanted the adventure. According to my instructions, the horses were unharnessed, save their bridles, and Schleuter mounting one while 1 rode another, bareback, we set out to surround the antelopes, which were not nearly so wild as the large game on our western plains. I rode away to the north some distance, where there was a small ravine in which myself and horse could remain quite out of sight of the game, while Schleuter watched my movements and at the proper time made a wide circuit and came up leeward of the antelope which did not take fright until he had approached within a few rods of them. Fortunately, but as we both anticipated, they broke di- rectly for the ravine where I was stationed ; they came by me in a gallop, not more than twenty steps away, and with a shaking, buck-ague aim I fired, once, twice, three times, the last shot alone taking effect, breaking the hind- leg of a large buck. Though disabled, the animal did not surrender, but on three legs it went cutting through the tall grass, while I hastily mounted and, waving my hat for Schleuter to come on, started in hot pursuit. A Sibe- rian pony is great in endurance, though his speed is hardly above that of a mule's, but I was now thoroughly ex- cited, and with beating, kicking and otherwise urging my horse I got enough speed out of him to keep not far behind the wounded buck. Thus we raced for nearly five miles before I could approach near enough to make a finishing shot. When the antelope was finally killed, we were much puzzled how to get it to our tumbril, as its weight was not less than four hundred pounds, I should judge. But our difficulties were overcome by dressing the game EXILE LIFE 13* SIBERIA. 439 440 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND and then equally, dividing it, which, by the way, was a job of infinite tediousness and hard labor, since we had nothing but pocket-knives to work with ; all our trouble was, however, wholly forgotten while feasting off the delicious steaks that night, such meat as I am sure can be found nowhere else in the world, unless Siberian Antelope are to be found in other countries. We had no other exciting adventure between Omsk and Orenburg, which latter place we reached in fifteen days after leaving the former. The Ural mountains at Orenburg Pass are not even so high as the range about Perm. So far as my observations extended I was sur- prised to find that Orenburg had not been selected for the railroad passage instead of Perm, since nature certainly favors the southern route. I found in Orenburg a sleepy old town of pronounced Caucasian characteristics. Its population embraces many Tartars and Circassians, but all are a lazy, happy-go-lucky, to-morrow or next day kind of people, whom it is far better to read about in history than to mess with at table in short, they stink. My stay in Orenburg was very short, only long enough to sell my team and take a bath. I proceeded on for Nijni Novgorod by the regular post-route, which leads through Samara, where the Volga is crossed. Samara is noted for having the longest railroad bridge in the world, a structure erected by the company that began the con- struction of the southern railroad from Moscow through o Siberia, as already mentioned. From Samara I went on to Nijni, by steamer, and thence to Moscow, Schleuter still remaining with me, as I had need for an interpreter, having decided to spend two or more days in a serf village to acquaint myself with the customs peculiar to Russian peasantry. After stopping a few hours at Moscow I took the west-bound EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 441 442 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND train, which runs across Russia 500 miles to Warsaw, for a large serf village located near the road, about forty miles from Moscow. I decided to visit this place be- cause an American .;-: '-inan from Philadelphia, whom I met at the Hotel Bilk T osco\v, had travelled through the village a few days bei. -\d assured me of its rep- resentative character. The .^n at which I stopped contained only one or two builu.r>gs, nd being unable to engage any kind of conveyance 8cia;euf.--jv and I walked out to the Serf village, which was a joi:,; two miles from the station. There is nothing to which I can compare a serf settle- ment so well as to the negro log cabins still found on our Southern plantations. The buildings are nearly all alike, small, one or two room log huts having roofs of thatch, and are built along* streets which seem to have been regu- larly laid out. There are generally two small, square windows in each house, and the floors are made of hewn pine logs, same as those used for the walls. Invariably, at a short distance from the village, is the nobleman's residence and a chapel for religious worship, not always near together, but never more than a half-mile apart. The nobleman's house always stands on an elevated posi- tion commanding a view of the village and estate. Things are very much changed since the serfs were eman- cipated, but there are yet visible traces of the relationship which once existed between the serfs and their master nobleman. The glory, pomp and wealth of the nobility have departed ; no longer are the serfs called to their daily labor by the sounding horn, nor do they pay homage to or work for lordly masters who spend their years in riotous living. The mansion still stands a mule reminder of slavery days, but its once proud owner is now draining the dregs of poverty and spending his influence in fo- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 443 meriting rebellion against the Government that by a man- date deprived him of both wealth and position. But there appears to be little independence or prosperity among the serfs whose liberty came to them in a manner which they have never been quite able to understand. The communal estates still remain as in earlier days, the villages are intact, and but for the loitering indiffer- ence of the people we could hardly realize the change. On Southern plantations the gregarious log cabins which once sheltered negro bondsmen are now empty and fallen into decay, but though the abolition of serfdom was ac- complished before the manumission of slaves in America, there is very little outwardly to show that the serf of former days is not still a serf. I went among the peasantry, who now hold the term "serf" in disdain, and was kindly treated by them. After once assuring themselves that the object of my visit was to learn something of their customs, they showed me every kindness and entertained me with a generous hospitality. CHAPTER XXVI. SUPERSTITION is nowhere so absurdly general and gro- tesque as among the Russian peasantry ; but this is not surprising when we consider the fact that they receive no education whatever ; a school house to them is only as a dream ; they are nurtured in a church which recognizes modern day miracles, and are taught by priests who are the only monitors the poor classes know ; that God and his saints spend their whole time looking for a fitting oc- casion to do something that may be interpreted as a mir- 444 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND acle. The cock that crows in the morning is reckoned us a mouth-piece of some old saint, and there are certain patriarchs in each village who take it upon themselves to render certain matutinal calls of the cock into decrees from heaven. Pigeons are looked upon as holy birds, for the lives of which the Russians are so regardful that a severe punishment is provided for any who would wan- tonly kill them ; in consequence of this the whole country is fairly filled with pigeons, until they are an abominable nuisance. Every peasant must have an " icon " and keep a candle constantly burning before it ; should the candle become exhausted in the night or be extinguished by ac- cident, the entire household is at once seized with alarm ; they immediately declare that a prowling spirit of dark- ness is in the house, to rid themselves of which they burn certain kinds of herbs and perform long series of strange ceremonials. The Russians do not, so far as I could learn, entertain any belief in faries or pixies, but they all have implicit confidence in good and evil spirits, which they believe are the angels of men and women who have died leaving something undone of such serious nature that they visit the earth to attend to the neglected matter. Before neither chapel nor holy image will a peasant pass without devoutly crossing himself. While in Moscow I saw an amusing illustration of this devotional characteris- tic : a priest came riding by in a carriage, carrying in his arms a picture of St. Nicholas (in his life he was called the iron-heeled despot, but after death his name was dianged to St. Nicholas) ; the street was filled with peo- ple, and as they saw the (un)holy image they all dropped upon their knees and bent their heads to the sidewalk ; as far as my eyes could follow the receding carriage I saw the people dropping down in long files like double col- umns of an army answering to a command. These people, EXILE LIFE IX SiBEIilA. 445 poor, ignorant and superstitious, are hardly less serfs now than before, because of the slavery they are still under to the church. In Russia there are more priests than d:>'rs and per consequence more degradation than any oilier prevailing characteristic. The priests are divided into two classes, viz., the white and black clergy ; the former are privileged to do about as they please, but the latter, besides being prohibited from marrying, do not even receive the respectful regard of common people ; they are nearly all drunkards, and so notoriously corrupt that in their preaching they exhort the people to "Do as we advise you, but not as we do." These travesties on the gospel, nevertheless, succeed in filching from the peasantry the means they can illy afford to .spare. But under a suspicion that the highest reward hereafter attainable is given to those most liberal in their donations to the church, a belief which has been created by priestly mercenaries, the peasants divide their last copecks and go hungry that they may be called faithful. Churches, monasteries and chapels abound in rare profusion throughout Rus.sia ; nowhere in the world is there such a lavish display in ecclesiastical edifices and decorations ; altars of solid silver, candelabras of pure gold, steeples and domes glittering with precious metals ; priestly robes bedizened with diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and in short the whole church government covered inside and outside with a paraphernalia of extravagant, inestimable wealth. Now, who pays for all this pomp and more than Roman splendor? Why, none hut the peasantry, those whose earnings are counted by copecks half-cents who go without schooling, without bread, without any comforts, and who bring up their children no better than them- selves ; these are they who contribute the means that make such a mockery of Godliness, justice, common- 44(} RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND sense, possible. Beside the icon in every peasant's home is placed a small box into which something is dropped every day, if but a copeck, for the benefit of the clergy, and whenever a miracle is wrought in a peasant's family, which, in their estimation, is very often, this church allow- ance not infrequently extends to the last piece of coin the family possesses. In this barbaric superstition the Russian Church -is found the primary cause of Nihilism. The oppressive burdens complained of do not arise wholly from despotic rulership ; the Czar does not prevent the earth from bring- ing forth, nor does he withhold the hand of any husband- man from the plow ; but the church has set aside one hun- dred holidays annually, on which no man who is faithful must labor ; by this edict she destroys one-third the pro- ductiveness of the Empire and appropriates nearly all of the other two-thirds to herself, to keep up appearances. Poverty never considers the real cause that produces it, but angry at fate, she is controlled by prejudice against the more fortunate, and in these facts is patent reason why the political dissensions in Russia are so serious. The life of every nation is dependent upon the agricultural resources it yields, so that every nation must be poor whose pastoral people are poor ; it is better to stop the spinning wheel than to arrest the plow, and more wisely economical is it to burden the commerce of manufacture than to encourage any scheme that looks toward a tax upon the farmer. Russia has not yet learned this im- portant truth. Agriculture in all Russia is still conducted upon primitive principles ; I found that the peasants were indisposed to adopt any modern implement, but for what reason could not be explained. Their plows are not wholly unlike those used in China, consisting of a straight and narrow EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA . 447 448 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND plow-share, without any mould-board, which runs into the earth not more than three inches and makes more of a treneh than furrow ; their plow horses work in shafts, and even here the douga is not discarded, but retained as a relic of ancient usage. I>ut in the harvest lield there is still less of modern farming seen, for the grain is cut with hand-sickles, behind which follow gleaners, as in the days of Ruth and Boaz. It is really a pretty sight to witness the harvest gathering; as the peasants live in communes, they work together upon a communistic prin- ciple ; when the wheat has ripened Russia raises com- paratively little else the village population, both men and women, turn out with sickles at their labor, which begins at break of day and continues until darkness. I have seen more than one hundred reapers strung out in a line gath- ering the grain of a single field, the men wearing trousers, of some coarse material, outside of which the shirt is worn ; but the women, if not more expensively dressed, an; certainly more gaudily decorated. They are very fond of bright colors, their hair being bound up with gay hand- kerchiefs, while their dresses are either of a bright red, blue or green ; viewed at a distance, against a back- ground of ripened grain and, as a whole, moving in ec- centric undulations, the sight is exceedingly pleasing. When the wheat is gathered and ready for threshing, it is taken into sheds, which can hardly be called barns, and there the grain is beaten out with flails, as in old en times- Notwithstanding the crude manner in which the peasantry of Russia till their lands, yet Russia is the only competi- tor America has in an ambition to feed the world. Fortunately for us, what progress has been made in Rus- sia has been in manufacture, to the almost utter neglect of agriculture, the result of which is the unwonted de- pression of all her energies, and the critical condition of EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 449 her finances. This may he accounted for by a considera- tion of the following facts, which should have special interest for Americans, because a removal of the causes may seriously embarrass our prosperity : With immense tracts of sparsely populated but fertile lands, a great lack of native skilled labor, and undevel- oped mineral resources, Russia is necessarily an agricul- tural country, and must seek material progress in driving the plough, and not in forging the ploughshare. Every- thing, however, seems to militate against the success of ag- riculture. The land, which is in the hands of the peasants in the purely Russian provinces, is being rapidly exhausted under unskilful and improvident husbandry, and where, under proper management, the complaint would be that there were not hands sufficient to work the soil, the actual cry is, on the contrary, that there is not land enough to feed the inhabitants. To the foreigner who knows the vast extent of the Russian Empire and the comparative paucity of its inhabitants, the idea of an earth-hunger in the dominions of the Czar appears simply absurd. Never- theless the fact exists that the present deplorable condi- tion of the peasantry in many of the provinces is gravely attributed to the smallness of the shares of land which fall to the lot of the various village families. The subject has become so important to Russia that the Government has taken it into serious consideration, a commission being appointed to enquire into the question ; and steps having been taken to facilitate the removal of large numbers of the peasants from the central provinces to the vacant and fertile lands in the east of the Empire. It is part of the theory of the largest and most influ- ential class of Russian politicians that the welfare of the country depends upon the possession by each peasant of a plot of land sufficient under tillage to secure his main- 450 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND tenance, and great alarm is therefore felt at what is considered the failure in this respect of the system intro- duced on the abolition of serfdom. It is perfectly clear that if, under the ukase of liberation, each peasant fam- ily received only sufficient land for its support, the small- est increase in the population must produce the greatest distress, unless the system of agriculture be so improved as to render the portions of land continually more pro- ductive. The Russian press, however, and the poli- ticians who have specially occupied themselves with the land question, have for the most part paid but little atten- tion to the consideration of the necessity for a general improvement in agriculture. Tables have been drawn up, and statistics have been prepared, proving beyond dispute that the portion of land possessed by each male peasant is smaller than was contemplated under the great Act of Emancipation, and that under present conditions the pro- duce of this portion is insufficient to satisfy the require- ments of its possessor. All this, however, seems to fail to suggest the desirability, and, indeed, necessity of seeking to increase the value of the produce of each acre of land. Great obstacles stand in the way of any rapid or serious improvement, but still much might be done. A first requirement is the introduction of capital for the im- provement of stock, for works of irrigation, for the pur- chase of machinery, and for providing the means for tid- ing over bad seasons ; but this urgently required capital is hard to get. One great obstacle in the unnatural di- version of capital to manufacturing industries, has been pointed out, but in addition to this, other circumstances combine to prevent those classes that would be most likely to come forward, from appearing as investors. The Jew capitalists who are to be found in every provincial town of the west, and many of whom as dealers in agricul- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 451 tural produce, have intimate relations with the needy land- owners and peasants, are prohibited by law from becom- ing owners, mortgagees, or managers of landed property, and this fact alone locks up from the land large sums which would otherwise almost certainly be employed in its development. After the Jews, the large landowners are the class from whom most might be expected. Their wealth and superior intelligence, if devoted to agriculture, would be almost invaluable ; but since the emancipation of the serfs few of them reside on their estates or take any great interest in them. A barrier has arisen between them and those who were formerly their slaves, and if the mujik thinks that he can in any way struggle on inde- pendently, even high wages will seldom tempt him to work for his former master. The proprietor finds life in the provinces exceedingly dull and monotonous ; his re- lations with the peasantry around him are generally strained, and the superior comfort of residence in one of the capitals or abroad is so great that he seldom resists the temptation to quit the provinces and hand over the management of his estates to an agent. If the agent were likely to be a man of intelligence and probity the damage would not be so great, but such men are hard to find, and as a rule under the administration of a deputy the property is neglected, and instead of an example of superior agriculture being given to the peasants, the in- dolence and too often the dishonesty of the agent lead to results on the estate of the large proprietors as bad as are produced on the village lands by the incapacity of the peasants. Thus do we observe the drawbacks to Russia's prosperity, and may feel assured that so long as they continue to exist the country will grow poorer until no one may foresee the end. I am frank to admit that the Russian Empire has infinitely more natural advantages 452 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND than the United States ; she has the finest agricultural lands on earth, and more of it ; she has more mineral wealth than any other nation ; every climate maybe found in the Empire, and where is there a country that lias so many and such great rivers as Russia.? The soil in what is known as the "black earth district," south-east Russia, is positively so rich that it will produce nothing but potatoes, or such other vegetables as will only grow in manure, and this district contains millions of acres. Siberia itself has enough arable lands, that if properly cultivated might be made to produce sustenance for the whole world ; and yet, with all these advantages, Russia is behind every nation, and her population is only seven inhabitants per square mile. What a country for emi- grants, if the laws were liberal ! CHAPTER XXVII. AFTER visiting nearly two days among the serfs, I dis- missed Schleuter, who returned home to Tobolsk, while I went directly to St. Petersburg, and there renewed my relations with Count Tolstoi through a second letter of cordial introduction and recommendation, from Minister Hunt, as already published. My desire now was to inform myself of the social and religious life of the aristocratic and middle classes, as found at the Russian Capital. Notwithstanding the fact that Moscow and St. Peters- burg are both Muscovite Capitals, abounding with all the paraphernalia of Imperialism, regarded socially they are as distinct as Paris and Constantinople, having no single characteristic in common save in the possible matter of EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 453 church decoration. 'Moscow is a gem in the Asiatic sig- net still ; though in strongly pronounced antagonism to Budhism and the Moslem creed, she nevertheless clings to such observances as distinguish those faiths, and did the spires of her churches wear crescents instead of crosses we could readily believe that Moscow was the Mussul- man's holy city. But St. Petersburg has a highly pol- ished veneering of European civilization, whicji is con- spicuous everywhere outside her monasteries ; on the streets may be seen, though at infrequent intervals, monks with round, band-box looking headpieces, from which a piece of black muslin is suspended behind ; or, members of the white and black clergy dressed in black stoles, wearing hats tucked up at four quarters by strings, the former having short and the latter long, straggling hair ; but these are about all the ecclesiastical sights to be seen on the streets in St. Petersburg, and even they are not common. Sunday, too, is not a day wholly devoted to religious observances, for I saw large squads of men busy at work repairing streets, which must have been done by municipal order, and there is also more or less business done at the small shops on Sunday ; but in Moscow such sacrilegious employment would not be tolerated. I attended services one Sunday at St. Isaac's Cathe- dral, in company with my interpreter, Kuntze, and was entertained in a much more agreeable manner than I had ~ anticipated. This famous cathedral, though hardly so fine as the Grand Votive church in Moscow, is a marvel of architectural beauty and magnificence ; its cupola is a mass of burnished gold, lifting up against the sky its wonderful hemisphere like a bright sun half set behind a mountain peak. It has four fronts, with the same number of main entrances, before each of which are 454 HtfSSIAN NIHILISM AXl> eight granite pillars sixty feet in height and seven feet through. The interior, however, is much more impos- ing, being composed of many beautiful rooms supported by pillars of malachite ; the steps are made of porphyry ; the walls are of lapis lazuli, the floors are of variegated marble, the inner dome is of malachite, and the gorgeous ST. ISAAC'S CATHEDRAL. interior is lighted by foliated windows of rare colors. A feature of the decorations inside is the prestol form- ing the shrine, which is made of malachite and was a present from Prince Demidoff ; the cost of this shrine was one million dollars, equal to the cost of the build- ing's foundation. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 455 One peculiarity of all Greek churches is the absence" of seats, and instrumental music ; every one, whether prince or peasant, must stand up during the entire service, which generally lasts two hours. As I walked into the church it was between two files of beggars who haunted the entrance, and with suppliant mien addressed a peti- tion to each person who passed them ; they also held a little board in their hands on which they allowed to remain the copecks that were given them, as an incentive to others to contribute. When I reached the interior I found the congregation disposed in various naves, and generally in squads, the principal portion of the audience, however, being in the center nave, before which was the chancel and .priest. My attention was attracted to bevies of suppliants whose devotions were being made beforeicons of Christ, Mary, Russian saints, and bi blical patriarchs ; each suppliant was provided with a pocket-full of can- dles, as every icon was surrounded with candelabras, some having more than fifty, which were supplied with new can- dles as soon as those burning were exhausted ; the use of candles is so great that there are in Russia hundreds of very large factories which produce nothing but these sacrificial candles, and it is a most remunerative industry. Devo- tions made to these icons consist in the suppliant first addressing a short prayer before the image, while in a standing position ; the suppliant then bows down and touches the floor three times with his forehead, still reciting prayers ; this worship is repeated many times, and when concluded another prayer is offered, after which the sign of the cross is made three times, when the suppliant passes on to the center nave and participates in the regular services, which are chiefly choral. I saw many old men and women undergoing the preliminary service in a way which excited my compassion ; in pros- 456 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND trating themselves I could hear their stiffened joints, inflexible from age, crack with each motion, and J. could plainly see that the exertion consequent upon so repeat- edly rising and kneeling was of a most taxing, if not exhausting, nature. Russian choirs are famous the world over ; no other people have such musical throats, and when animated by the religious feeling which so thoroughly pervades them they produce a harmony which I can best describe bycal- ing it heavenly. I needed no interpreter to tell me of its beauty, or to inspire me with the soul-attuning melody which welled up until I became lost in its swells of rich grace-imparting, spiritualizing concord of delicious music. While entranced by this ecstacy of sweet sounds I was suddenly alarmed by a shriek which rose above the harmony, piercing and painful ; looking in the direction from whence the excitement proceeded, I caught sight of a woman who was being borne upon the shoulders of two men through the audience toward a large image of the crucified Christ ; instantly there occurred to me the idea of sacrificial rites, that this woman, screaming as if she were possessed of a thousand devils, was to do some propitiatory act for absolvment from a penalty which she conceived was about to be ad ministered ; these reflections were produced by the strange influences which surrounded me, but upon inquiry addressed to my guide for the cause, he informed me that the woman was a paralytic who, having received absolution, and the power of faith through a reception of the holy spirit, had begged to be carried to the feet of Christ, which, if she might touch, she expected to be cured of her affliction. I found that this was a very usual occurrence, there being few services hold in the Cathedral that some incurable among the audience did not seek to touch the sacred image, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 457 believing it would make them whole. I did not hear that any one had ever been thus miraculously cured, but then there is no limit to faith, and I did not expect to find reason prevailing to any extent among a people so exclusively religious as these. I attended one other sacred service in St. Peters- burg, which was even more interesting than that at St. Isaacs Cathedral, and which, I may add, impressed me more seriously. It was a te deum sung at the St. Alexander Nevskoi Monastery by fourteen monks and twelve neophytes. This ecclesiastical institution is renowned throughout the Empire, being to Russia what Westminster Abbey is to England. Under its marble floors repose hundreds of the most famous characters in Russian history, whose deeds are briefly recorded on the tablature above them. In a large yard about the Mon- astery lie buried many people once rich enough to pur- chase a resting place in the sacred enclosure, for it is a fact that none can find burial here except upon the payment of a certain sum, which generally amounts to $25,000 ; this is considered small enough price for a bed in so holy a place, which many think is but a step removed from heaven. Some years ago there was a Lady Superior in charge of the Monastery who was also financial agent of the institution ; she was a woman of extraordinary force of character and so popular among the aristocracy that she secured from time to time most princely bequests from rich people of the Empire ; she was on very intimate terms with the royal family, particulary with the Em- press of Alexander II., and possessed the confidence of everybody. Her charities became the wonder of all, for she built almost a score of institutions for the benefit of the poor, and established hospitals in many parts of 458 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND Russia. It is estimated that in her ambition to amelio- rate the condition of the Russian poor she spent not less than $20,000,000. After a time it was hinted that all this wealth had not been derived from the sources she represented, but that she had appropriated the church revenues. An investigation followed, which was prompted by priests jealous of their own personal inter- ests, which established the facts as charged. She was then placed on trial for sacrilege, in misappropriating church funds, and after one of the most exciting legal contests that ever took place in St. Petersburg, her guilt was established. The trial was attended not only by scores of the most famous people of the Empire, but also by the Emperor and Empress. It was clearly proved that, though the Lady Superior had used funds of which she was the trust agent, yet every dollar of it had been charitably employed ; that even her own wants and needs were neglected to the end that she might use every copeck available for the betterment of those need- ing aid. Her sentence was confinement in prison for twenty years, but instead of this harsh judgment affix- ing any stigma to her name, hundreds of aristocratic women begged that they might be permitted to share her imprisonment. When assigned to a cell in the Bol- shaya Sadovaya prison she found it a solid bower of perfume-laden flowers ; she was daily visited by mem- bers of the Imperial family, and every possible attention was paid her by people of the highest rank. After two years of imprisonment, which was one continual ovation, Alexander II. gave her a pardon, and within two months after her liberation she was reinstated in the position of Lady Superior in the Monastery, where she is still serv- ing, with enlarged jurisdiction, and honored as no other woman was ever honored in Russia. EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 459 I entered the monastery with my guide, who eon- ducted me through long corridors, which seemed to be endless, past dark chambers which looked like charnel pits, and at times along narrow passages, until nearly a half-mile had been traversed, when we emerged into the main chapel. The te deum service begins at four o'clock p. M., and continues uninterruptedly for two hours; it was quarter past four when we arrived and the choir was already chanting their musical invocations ; the first rich notes that fell upon my ear charmed every sense and thrilled me with melodious rapture. I walked for- ward in the great hall, which was deserted save by three women who were praying at the base of a gray pillar, until near the chancel, upon a raised dais on which stood the monks and neophytes, their backs toward the hall and with faces turned upon a large painting of Christ. There was about the whole scene something to inspire the soul ; some overshadowing but impersonal presence ; a strangeness that suggested infinity and spirituality ; the shaking of hands and declaration of familiarity between the living and dead. The monks were habited in long, black surplices ; on their heads they wore the black caps indicative of self-denial and retirement from the world , and their hair hung far down the back in con- sonance with the idea of a neglected body, but care for the soul. I have heard with delight the famous professional singers of both continents, and measured their harmony by the fullest sense of the ear, but to none of them, Lind, Patti, Mlsson, could I compare the harvest of symphony as produced by the monks ; indeed, one is as an elevation of man's feelings from the sordid cares of life to the bountiful love of domestic happiness and con- tentment ; while the other is like lifting one from out a 460 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND life of disappointments for a transplanting into felicitous fields of paradise, where the very essence of existence is musical. I never before conceived the limits of vocal culture, I did not appreciate the mesmerism of a human voice, nor understand the magic of a song. There I stood, before that wonderful choir, so em- balmed with melody, and intensified by a rapture so won- derful that I felt as one who might ascend upon wings of love to the portals of Hesperides and there bathe in a flood of joy which blessed souls find on the beautiful shores. I am not unconscious of the suspicion which many readers are liable to attach to so florid a descrip- tion ; who may, indeed, pronounce it sophomoric exag- geration, but my excuse for using such adjective expres- sions is the genuine, soul-entranced feeling I had while listening to the Monk choir, and which I have only indifferently described. I might resc under the imputa- tion of supersensitiveness were it not for the fact that all who hear this famous choir are impressed with feel- ings identical with my own. Princely offers have been made the choir for their choral services in public, but these have all been refused with the pious remark, " We sing only for God and the dead." Some years ago a great tenor of the chofr was ordered by Alexander II. to sing on a public occasion at the Royal Italian Opera in St. Petersburg. His appearance created such an intense excitement that the Emperor was glad to have him return to the monastery ; so great was the rush of peo- ple to hear the tenor that many persons were trampled, while those who gained admission to the theatre mani- fested such delirious joy that they would hardly permit him to leave the stage ; in addition to this rather annoy- ing adulation, the church violently protested against his public appearance, pronouncing it a sacrilegious sacrifice, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 461 and hurled dreadful anathemas at the Emperor for his order. This was the first and last time that any mem- ber of the Monastery choir has sung outside the chapel of their own sacred institution. When the services were concluded, at six o'clock p. M., the monks withdrew into their cells and I was left to inspect the building. The chief object of interest inside the chapel is a silver casket containing the body of St. Alexander Nevskoi, who is the patron saint of Peters- burg. This saint is a canonization of the Grand Duke Alexander, who was a member of the Rurik dynasty, but lived only a short time before the accession of the Romanoffs. He is reputed to have been a great warrior, and it is said of him that in a battle with the Swedes, fought on the very spot where the monastery now stands, he defeated his enemies with great loss and killed the Swedish commander with his own sword. The bones of this hero were originally buried near Kazan, but were brought to St. Petersburg and canonized by order of Peter the Great. Not long after this event some priests of Little Russia slipped into St. Petersburg and succeeded in stealing the canonized bones, which they removed to a spot not far from where they were first buried. Much distress was felt by Peter at this desecration, audit is said he fell to praying for direction how to proceed to recover the bones. His petition was answered by an angel who appeared to Peter in a cloud of fire and told him how the bones were taken away and where they were buried ; it is told that the Emperor, accompanied by two of his royal suite, visited the spot described by the angel and, with his own hands, dug up the saint, boxed the bones and carried them back to St. Petersburg, determined that they should not be again disturbed Peter caused to be made an immense silver sarcophagus, into which he IlUSSiAX A'llllLIiSAr AND placed the sacred remains, then closed down the lid, locked it and threw the key into the Neva River. This solid silver casket, or rather sarcophagus, is in a side chapel, to the right of the sacristy. It is square shaped, and at each corner is the figure of an angel (large as a grown person) in an attitude of mourning. The value of this piece of art and precious metals is $250,000. CHAPTER XXVIII. WHILE I did not attend divine services in but two churches in St. Petersburg, yet I did not neglect to visit the Cathedral of St. Petersburg, generally called Cathe- dral Kazan, as it is dedicated to an imaginative deity, or rather to a canonized woman, who doubtless never existed, but who is supposed to have been named Kazan. This church is the finest perhaps in all Russia, always excepting, of course, the Grand Votive Church in Moscow. It is situ- ated on the Nevskoi Prospekt, and is the most conspicu- ous building on that great thoroughfare. In shape it is that of a cross, its greatest length being 238 feet and its width 182 feet, the whole being modeled after St. Peter's at Rome, though in height the building does not meas- are above 250 feet, and the cost did not exced $4,000,000. The most curious and interesting object connected with this cathedral is an image of "Lady Kazan," which stands near the altar. This image is supposed to have been made in the city of Kazan, in 1579. I say " sup- posed" because the Russian priesthood do not want to positively know anything, being mindful of the fact that fascination is much more likely to be excited by legend than by established history. The figure is known to have EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 463 been placed in the cathedral in 1821, where it has ever since remained, a very strong attraction, and as an investment it has no doubt paid the church enormously, for a devout peasant can hardly look upon it without being moved to make a contribution. I have called this ideal representation of Lady Kazan a figure, or image, but it is neither painting nor image, being a medley of both. The Greek religion, as before mentioned, prohibits the use of images, but the prohi- bition is rather technical than literal. In reality the fig- ure proper is a painting, but it is habilitated in regal attire and almost covered with precious jewels. There is one diamond in the crown valued at $100,000, and a sap- phire which forms the center of the tiara is said to be worth $500,000 ; it was contributed by the Grand- Duchess Catharina Paulovna, who is now " supposed " to be getting value received in the court of last resort heaven. There is invested in churches, decorations and sacred images in St. Petersburg more than $200,000,000, a sum equal to nearly one-half the value of all other property in the municipality ; yet I was surprised to learn that most of the money used in sustaining the churches is derived from the poorer classes ; this statement appears almost incredible but it is none the less true ; its apparent exaggeration is somewhat modified, however, by the fact that in Russia the priests receive very little more than is barely sufficient for their needs, which are few. Although Russia is, as a nation, intensely religious, her aristocracy incline to sacred matters with such indiffer- ence that they cannot be called religious, while there is not one among a hundred of her scientists or learned men who is not an agnostic. I was told that scarcely any of the upper classes attend divine service, and in the 464 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND homes of the nobility an icon i.s beginning to be a rarity. So we can readily understand why the burdens of church expenses have fallen upon the poorer people, whose loy- alty to the faith of their ancestors is unwavering, same as we find it in all countries. But as the poor in Eussia are so much more numerous than the rich, and because EXILE LIFE IN. SIBERIA. 465 they compose the sinews of the government and are its sole dependence, their influence is recognized by the govern- ment in continuing its religious observances, and in pro- viding such pomp as delights the simple votaries of the Greek Church. It would require too much space to describe the many holidays set apart by Russian laws, but some of them are observed so generally, and with such display of ceremo- nial, that I must mention a few. The most distinguished day and festival occasion occurs on August first, which is called " First Spass;" or Savior day. It is commem- orative of the crossing of the Sea of Galilee by Christ and his disciples. The service of celebration begins with a te deum at church, which lasts about two hours ; at its conclusion a procession is formed, composed of nearly all the common people in St. Petersburg, few persons of wealth or rank participating. At the head of this pro- cession are six peasants, each bearing a sacred banner; immediately behind them are two more peasants, who carry between them a large painting of the Savior. Be- hind these are peasant girls bearing icons of the Madon- na and disciples. After the girls comes the chief priest, who wears upon his head a golden cross and is clothed in rich vestments of the church. Behind him marches the long line of peasants, or all who desire to participate in the services. The procession thus formed marches to a bridge across the Neva River, which has been decorated fortheoccitsion with trees, flowers and interlaced branches of evergreens. Upon reaching this bridge a short prayer is offered by the priest, who then signals a blessing of the waters, which is followed by those bearing banners, crosses and icons, dipping them into the river three times, which is supposed to impart a miraculous influence. Im- mediately upon this being done hundreds jump into 466 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND stream, while other hundreds fill bottles, jugs and barrels with the precious water that is now believed to possess a magic power to heal any and every ailment of humanity ; many invalids are carried down to the water and sub- merged, fully possessed of the belief that their afflictions will be cured, while those who are in sound bodily health bathe their heads to keep off disease. These waters, which must be taken on the day they are blessed if their potency be desired, are supposed to possess miraculous virtues for one year, and no amount of evidence could shake the faith of a peasant in this belief, although I could not find any peasant who kneAv of a cure having been effected by using the water. The next most important holiday in Russia is St. George's Day, which occurs on the 23d of April, and is a celebration in honor of Russia's patron saint. So severe are the winters in northern Russia that it is custom- ary to keep cows and sheep stabled from November first until St. George's Day, when they are turned out of doors, their release being made a chief part of the holiday ceremonials. On the morning of this day the peasants arrange tables, spread with white cloths, about the stables containing their domestic animals, upon which they place bread, water and eggs. Around these tables stand the peasants, male and female, each provided with an icon of some saint, and at the stable door stands a priest who bears a large banner having four portraits painted upon it and also a picture representing St. George killing the dragon. Beside him is a basin of water which he con- secrates by dipping into it a small cross three times. Afterpreachinga short sermon the priest opens the stable doors, the cows and sheep come out before him, and he sprinkles them with holy water, from the basin, with a little bruih. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA, I do not remember of having ever heard of a custom among any people so singular, if not paganish, as that which prevails among the poorer classes in Russia, and known as Recollection Monday. Feasting among the tombs, I am aware, was once a custom among the Jews, who did it as a mark of respect for their departed friends, as jilso do the lower classes of Irish hold " wakes," but EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA, 469 \ just for what purpose they cannot themselves tell. But the custom, as now observed in Kussia, is much more radical in character than either the Irish or ancient Jewish ceremonies. The celebration of Kecollection Monday is begun by services of mass held in the various chapels, at the conclusion of which a large amount of food, consist- ing of Easter eggs, salt, cake and fruit, which is brought into the chapel sin baskets, is taken forward to the priest for his blessing. Wine and vodka are not a necessary part of the provisions used at the ceremonies, but con- siderable quantities are nevertheless provided. After the chapel services are finished processions are formed, headed by priests, which march to the cemeteries and there be- gin lamentations for the dead. But this manifestation of grief very soon changes into a wild, bacchanalian revelry; men, women and children drink vodka until their condition is shocking to civilization ; ribaldry, lewd- ness, and demoralizing actions of almost every kind characterize those who visit the cemeteries on these occa- sions. The priests, drunk and boisterous like their parishioners, stagger around with tapers and crosses, soliciting fees for reciting prayers over the graves ; these priests, provided they are sober enough, will pray fifteen minutes over any grave for the sum of fifty copecks (twenty-five cents), this being the basis of the regular tariff fixed by them ; the dead who have no friends will- ing to pay this amount, have to sleep without prayers and take their chances of being burned. I have mentioned a middle class in Russia, but in re- ality there are only two classes, the aristocratic and the peasant. Russian subjects, as a rule, are either very poor or exceedingly rich, so that in my references to a mid- dle class I intended to designate what in America we call the office-holding people. But in Russia this means 30 470 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND more than it does in America, for officers are much more numerous in that country, and being in the government service, even though they may be ever so poor, yet they are accorded a position in society above the peasantry, but not equal to the aristocracy ; thus we can only desig- nate them as the middle class ex qfficio. It is a fact no less singular than unreasonable, that the EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 471 poor pay nearly all the taxes in Russia ; the rich mer- chant in St. Petersburg or the owner of municipal real estate pays no taxes to the government ; the city revenue is of course derived from city property, but the government receives mot a dollar, except as a voluntary gift, from any source but that of agriculture. When Alexander II. granted freedom to the serfs and made the Empire as- sume a debt of $50,000,000, to pay the noblemen for their manumitted slaves, he did not change the revenue laws, so that the liberated peasants are made to purchase their own freedom . Every acre of land in Russia and every product of the soil is assessed annually and taxed upon a basis fixed to meet the annual budget. In all other occupa- tions there is exemption from tax. A man who desires to engage in business goes to the proper bureau and de- clares his intentions ; he is there furnished with a license, but he cannot pursue any business except that for which his license is issued, under a severe penalty ; thus,. if one secures a license to follow tailoring the person so privi- leged cannot engage in any other vocation without sur- rendering his license as a tailor and taking out a new privilege ; his place of business cannot be ('hanged either without first notifying the police ; neither can a man move his place of residence without complying with the same conditions. Merchants who are worth $50,000, and who do a business of the same amount annually may become members of the first "guild" upon an annual payment to the government of $300. Those who are worth $25,000 and do an annual busines e(juai to that amount may become members of the second " guild" by paying annually the sum of $150. These "guilds" are established for the recognition of the aristocracy similar to those which once obtained in England. Mem- bers of the first guild wear a uniform to distinguish their 472 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. . 473 rank ; this uniform is more showy than that worn by a Russian general ; the cloth is a navy blue, the pants having a gold stripe down the leg, while the coat and vest are embroidered with gold cord, and on the shoul- ders are immense epaulettes of cord and tinsel. These merchants are invited to the court balls, but may not personally address the Emperor ; they must content themselves with viewing' royalty and with being enter- tained in the palace. Society in St. Petersburg has about it more punctilio than anywhere in the world ; it is surrounded by a very high wall, and may be reached only by those having magic keys ; an introduction will not suffice, as it does in America, for every one who seeks admission must have the requisites of discreetness, wealth and bizarre manners. Catharine II. was the first to organize society in St. Peters- burg, and since her character is pretty generally known, we may readily surmise the kind of stamp she impressed it with. There is in the Hermitage a tablet, which is generally concealed from view by a curtain, upon which is engraved the "ten commandments" of Catharine, which she enforced upon those who attended her parties. Literally translated they read as follows : 1. Leave outside your rank, your hat, and especially your sword. 2. Leave outside your right of precedence, your pride, and everything akin to them. 3. Be gay, but do not damage anything. 4. Sit, stand or walk, regardless of any person. 5. Talk calmly, and not too loud, so as not to make the head and ears of others ache. 6. Discuss without anger or excitement. 7. Neither sigh nor yawn, nor make others gloomy or dull-spirited. 8. Let all join in any innocent game proposed. 474 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND 9. Eat whatever is sweet and good, but drink mod- erately in order that every body's head may be level upon leaving. 10. Tell no tales out of school ; that which goes in at one ear must go out at the other before leaving the room. Punishments provided for a transgression of any of these rules were as follows : 1 . Any person transgressing against any one of these rules shall, if two witnesses appear against him, drink one glass of cold water, not excepting the ladies, and read aloud one page of the "Telemachiade," (written by a Russian poet named Tretiakofsky, after whom Tapper was probably fashioned . ) 2. Whoever, during the same evening, acts contrary to any three of these rules, shall commit to memory six lines of the same work. 3. Whoever breaks the tenth rule slitill not again be admitted. There was no austerity in any of these prohibitions except the last, which was made to protect the character of those who attended ; but though well intended it did not fully serve the purpose. If it were not for the fact that the stories are too shocking for publication I could fill a book with well attested tales of flagrant conduct peculiar to these recherche entertainments of Catharine II. ; I heard scores of them in St. Petersburg, but they are more conducive to morals when forgotten. Dancing is a favorite recreation in Russia, indulged in by all classes, and carried, in some instances, to great excess. While in Moscow I was taken to a public house where there was a big ball, and on this occasion I had the pleasure of witnessing a genuine Russian dance. Among the wealthier people very little dancing is seen EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA, 475 47() IIUSSIAN NIHILISM AND that is not common to Americans, as French masters hold schools in St. Petersburg and Moscow, and the people naturally adopt the French style. But at this public ball there were several gentlemen with whom my guide was intimately acquainted, and my request, through him, to have the gentlemen execute the Russian dance, was com- plied with by four couples. They advanced to the cen- ter of the room, and, courtesying, one couple led off with a varsouvienne step, which was soon changed to lancers time. The other couples followed, and then they took positions, so that the respective partners faced each other ; now succeeded a movement which language is wholly inadequate to describe ; the men crouched down in what appeared to be a very painful attitude, as if sitting on their heels ; in this position they would kick first with one leg and then with the other, without changing their attitude, and continued this violent exercise until exhaus- tion was plainly manifested. During this time the ladies waltzed around their partners and tossed their heads from side to side in a coquettish manner. After the crouching movements were concluded the men arose and balanced before their partners, then placing their arms akimbo, they began an awkward shuffling, or rather stamping, something like the Sioux war dance, and \ doing this they tossed their heads, stuck out their tongues, pouted and looked cross-eyed. CHAPTER XXIX. the summer season St. Petersburg is almost deserted, all the better classes taking up their residence in suburban places, the most popular and fashionable resort EXILE LIFE IN SIT5KRIA 477 \t 478 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND being Parvelosk, which is situated eighteen miles out of the metropolis. The ground on which Parvelosk is built was donated by the Grand Duke Constantine, who erected a music-stand, and laid out about two thousand acres of the surrounding ground in a park, which has since been improved at an expense of $1,00.0,000. Near this park are hundreds of beautiful cottages, in the midst of green lawns studded with flowers and statuary ; parties are given nearly every night in these summer mansions, a few of which I had the pleasure of attending. No people are so polite and fashionable as the wealthy class of Russia, and, I may add, that not even in Paris is there such abandon, and perfect freedom, exhibited as at a Russian ball. About the first of October those who have summered in rural towns begin to return to St. Petersburg, and directly after this date "the fashionable season opens in the city. There arc two streets in St. Petersburg which can hardly be surpassed for beauty, one of these, Nevskoi Prospekt, runs north and south, from the Admiralty building to the Alexander Nevskoi Monastery", a distance of three miles, and is as level as a floor ; the street is one hundred and fifty feet broad, fifty foot of it being paved with six-sided blocks, set in like the Nicholson pavement except that there are no interstitial strips and fillings of gravel, the blocks being laid in direct contact ; this makes a driveway of rare excellence, and, indeed, such as cannot be found anywhere else. The other noted street is the Bol- shaya Moscowa, or great Moscow, which runs east and west about two miles. It is constructed like the Nevs- skoi Prospekt, and both streets arc lined with line build- ings. These are the favorite resorts of fashionable people with fine carriages, troikas, and magnificent sleighs. These conveyances are sumptuously made, and are gen- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 479 I -4 480 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND erallj drawn by black horses in beautiful caparisons decorated with gold and silver, while in the semi-circle of the douga are a dozen silver bells that merrily jingle and fill the air with cheery music. There are also many drives through Alexander Park, around the suburbs of St. Peters- burg, and over the long, broad wooden bridges which span the Neva. When winter fairly sets in, early m November, the court balls are given, and after the Neva freezes over an ice palace is built every year on the frozen stream. This palace is a thing of sucji great beauty that it, is worth many miles of travel to see. It is built of translucent blocks of ice two feet thick, which, upon being laid to- gether, are solidified by pouring water over the outside and inside walls. The roof and ceiling are also made of ice, and the architecture of the whole is very beautiful. The interior is elegantly furnished with furniture taken from the Winter Palace, magnificent chandeliers are sus- pended from the ceiling, golden sconses are set in the Avails, and luxurious carpets cover the floors. It is in this beautiful, fairy-like palace that some of the finest royal balls given in St. Petersburg by the Imperial family are held. Courtship, marriage and domestic life in Eussia are radically different from what they are in America. As in China, the Russians conduct their love affairs largely by proxy : not because of any peculiar timidity, but in conformity with customs which have prevailed among them from time immemorial. Among the upper classes there are many very beautiful women, with forms as graceful as may be seen among the Jiaut ton promenaders on the Avenue del' Opera in Paris ; but among the peasantry beauty is almost as rare as philosopher stones ; not only are their faces coarse, flabby and devoid of delicate color, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 481 but their forms are vulgarly repulsive, every develop- ment tending: towards shapeless obesity ; with them mod- . , A RUSSIAN COURTSHIP. esty, too, is an unknown quality, while untidiness is a peculiarity of them all. Yet, no more attractive swains 482 RUSSIAN NIHILISM fall iii love with these mottled maidens, woo them in a cholicy sort of way, and marry them without manifesting any special pleasure over the event. In. Russia as in Ger- many, there is a great love for accordions and concer- tinas ; as the Spanish lover beguiles his inamorata with dulcet notes trumnicd on a guitar, so does the Russian peasant persuade his favorite to some secluded bower, and there puffs into her ears with the bellows of his ac- cordion some tune which he calculates will swell her heart. But however greatly he may surcharge her with love's melody, or however eager he may be to procure an admission of her tender feelings, he will smother the desire and abide the customs of his country. He there- fore goes home to his father, to whom he declares his love and desire to many; the father then invites the parents of his son's flame to take tea ; this invitation being accepted, the father cunningly broaches the subject of marriage and at length speaks plainly of his son's desire ; the matter is arranged entirely between the old folks, but if either of them objects, then there can be no marriage, for young people in Russia never disobey their parents. There is another custom in Russia no less peculiar than the courtship just described; it is in using a "match- maker" to arrange marriages. This personage is a very important one, being a professional body, whose chief occupation is dividing titles ; that is securing for poor but titled lords well dowered butuntitled ladies, for it should not be forgotten that all the world is in a scramble for titles, however empty and unprofitable they are in fact. The accompanying engraving, made from FedotofFs celebrated painting entitled the Svakha Matchmaker conveys a comprehensive idea of her employment ; briefly described, and using terms employed by the Russians, this EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 483 picture reads thus : The man in the caftan (the long coat worn by the middle and poorer classes in Russia) is evi- dently a moujik parvenu, who has been fishing with a golden bait for a husband of rank superior to his own for his tseeplonok chicken ; a "poulet engraisse," if money can make her so. The fortunate svakha, not less con- 481: 11USSIAX NIHILISM- AXD tented than the happy parents, is come to announce the polkovnik (colonel), who has consented to he a suitor for the fair one; and the officer -who, nothing diffident, has come to take the offered prize, is giving the last stroke to a well-cherished moustache. Both the mother of the maiden and the syakka hold, displayed in their palms, a nasavoi-platok (nose-handkerchief), according to the idea of such persons that the exhibition of that article-is a sine qua non of good breeding. On ti side-table refresh- ments are awaiting the guests, the Tcoulibayalca ( fish-cake) , favorite dish of the middle classes, being the principal attraction. The servants, who are whispering in the cor- ner, and who address their -moujik-master as an equal, with " Thou/' in spite of his wealth, are as much inter- ested in the event as their Icazein (master) or the mistress with \\QY pavoynik (head-dress), which gives her such an important appearance. The young lady's apparent dis tress is more than probably feigned. To complete the ensemble, Fedotoff has painted a cat stroking or washing with its paw the side of the head nearest the door by which a visiter is expected, as intelligent cats are sup- posed to do by anticipation. I did not have the pleasure of seeing a marriage per- formed while in Russia, but from an English gentleman who has lived in St. Petersburg for the past fifteen years, I obtained a description of the ceremony which he at- tended at the marriage of his chambermaid, and which he described to me as follows : "I never had but one married servant in my house- hold, and she was a chambermaid named Macha a nice, pretty, and obliging peasant girl, who had been with us for about two years. For some time I had observed that she seemed discontented, and on one occasion, asking her why she was not as gay as usual, she replied that she was EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 485 nearly eighteen years old and not yet married. Had I been a single man I might have had serious ideas of propos- ing myself to such a pretty girl ; but I simply persuaded her to bear up under her misfortune, and to bide God's time for a husband. I had quite forgotten the circumstance, when one night late, hearing a great disturbance down in the servants' offices, I went to see what was the matter. As I entered the servants' room all was in confusion, boxes were being opened, bundles ransacked, dresses measured, boots thrown about, under-linen inspected, beads counted (the Russian costume is never worn without as many as six to eight rows of beads round their throat), stockings exam- ined, bed-linen animadverted upon, jewelry valued, go- loshes felt, and fur mantles tried on. After a glance at these things, I turned my gaze upon the occupants of the room. There were three or four women servants be- longing to the house, a couple of respectable peasant women, dressed in the usual red chintz short petticoats and leather fur-lined mantles, with brilliantly trimmed hoods on their heads, and three peasant men ; these last were all fine muscular-looking fellows, with their high knee boots, velvet breeches, and red-and-blue shirts, worn loosely outside the nether garment, something like our old English mock-frocks, except their being shorter, and worn with a many coloured ceinture. All the persons there present seemed to be thoroughly interested in the exhibition of clothes going on ; but the youngest of the three men showed a slight restlessness as box after box was hurriedly opened, and the contents of each, meeting with apparent approval from the elder among the peas- ants, elicited from him grunts of satisfaction and digs in the ribs for the young man. At lust, when all had been well examined, Macha, the 31 486 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND chambermaid, who all this time had been doing much the harder part of the work in opening and expatiating on the merits of each article, received a hearty slap on the shoulder from the fine old peasant there present, who in his own native language wished her "much happi- ness." On this the young man arose from the bench where he had been sitting and, naming a day in that same week wherein we then were, slouched out of the cell or cave (as one might well call the apartments of the ser- vants) to have, we may suppose, some of his favorite " vodka" (the usual Russian spirit drunk by the peas- ants) . This scene that I had been witnessing was neither more nor less than a preliminary before marriage. The sturdy old peasant there was the father of the young fel- low who had just gone out, and he had come up from the country to find a wife for his son. He had heard of this young woman from a traveling peddler who went every three months to Moscow to replenish his pack, and who knew half the girls by name who were in want of husbands. On the strength of this information from the peddler the old peasant (the father of the bridegroom- elect), his wife and son had come to judge for themselves as to the eligibility of Mancha's goods and chattels ; but, if they had found any article or articles wanting in the bride's trousseau, there would have been no marriage. Everything depended upon the bride's clothes ; but all was there, even to the 154 rubles of the hard-earned sav- I ings of the peasant-girl. So she was to be married ! and she considered herself fortunate in having a husband given her ; not that she liked him, for she had only seen him for the first time that day. He and his father, the old peasant, lived far away in the country; but as the spring was coming on, and the old father would want somebody beside his own wife to help to prepare the EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 487 earth for the seed to be sown , the best thing was to get a wife for his son, and thus secure the help of another pair of hands during seed time without the expense of extra wages. So Mancha, our chambermaid, was to be mar- ried. She was happy as a bird. For a long time she had stood much chaff as to being an old maid ; but now she was going to be married, and the " Benediction," (a Russian rite preceding marriage) and wedding day had already been fixed by the future husband himself. Now she could make fun of others, for in Russia it is a seri- ous thing for a girl if she is not married as soon as the law permits that is, at sixteen. Friday came, the day of * ' Benediction . ' ' Macha went about her work as usual ; she neither seemed anxious nor nervous. As she had been a good servant, we were all going to honor her by appearing at the ceremony. At about 7 p. M. a small table, covered with a white cloth, was arranged in one corner of our large family dining- room, two or three images of saints, ornamented with flowers and precious stones, were placed on the table, together with a large round sort of bread or cake, which was to play no mean part in the ceremony. A few minutes later the steps of the priest were heard on the marble staircase, together with the heavier step of the peasants' feet, and in another moment the room was full of the bride's friends, arrayed in the" most gorgeous chintz dresses, and of the bridegroom's mates, dressed in the usual outdoor black leather "pelisse," lined with sheepskins. All those friends and relations belonging to the lady in whose house the ceremony was taking place stood immediately behind the priest. After everything was arranged in place, a slight stir and bustle was heard, and, the crowd making way, the future bride came sail- ing in, beautifully attired in a salmon-colored silk and 488 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND tulle dress, which her mistress had worn at the very ball given in honor of the Duke of Edinburgh and his Imperial wife by the town of Moscow. How splendid all her friends thought her ! She had innumerable rows of pearls around her neck and arms ; her veil was of net ; but though the dress was magnificent, and must have been very effective when worn by a lady, yet on this peasant woman, with her arms and hands and sun-burnt com- plexion, it looked ghastly and made the wearer appear repulsive. She passed awkwardly up the sails and took her place before the effigies of saints, or " images," as they are called, and immediately after, her future hus- band (who seemed half-frightened) slipped from the crowd, followed by his father, and took up his position on the right side of the bride. Then the ceremony of "Benediction" commenced; it lasted about forty min- utes, the priest reading and chanting together with his clerk many psalms and prayers, while the future man and wife continually bowed themselves to the ground, touch- ing the floor with their foreheads. Then the round cake of bread was put into their hands by the priest, and was kissed by the recipients, afterwards by the bride- groom's father, and then again by the bride's mother, father and friends. This part of the ceremony is to show that "bread is .life, and that they pray they may ever have bread both in this life and in the one to come." As soon as the priest had finished, champagne was brought in by the generosity of the lady of the house ; the first glass was handed to the priest, and the next to the engaged couple, who now remained as if struck dumb. As soon as they put their lips to it, congratulations pour- ed in from all the assembled crowd, who, on receiving an acknowledgment for their kind wishes, could oblige them to kiss each other as often as they were told.- Of EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 489 course everybody did so, while the poor unhappy pair had to go through the loving, caressing ceremony as if enjoying it. When all the glasses were emptied the priest dismissed the happy couple, the " Benediction " was over, and now nothing but " Marriage " remained to be solemnized. This last ceremony was to be performed on the following Sunday, so that acquaintance, examina- tion of wardrobe, Benediction, and Marriage would be all got through with in less than a week. The Sunday came, and with it a great thaw ; the distance to the church was not far, but the bride could not go in her thin boots even ten steps, so an " Isvostchik" was called, who gently placed the future bride in his vehicle, and drove her to the church. There the ceremony was somewhat long, in fact, so much so that the bride's cousin was unable to continue holding the wreath over her head throughout the whole ceremony ; he was relieved by another peasant, who took kindly to the task, and who was heard to mutter, " The bride is a bonny lass, I'd give six years to have her !" After the ceremony all the party adjaurned to a public-house or "Traktir," where they made as jolly as they possibly could with five or six quarts of " vodka " for the men, and as many quarts of quass, or what the French call Limonade des Cochons, for the women. This then is the usual style of Eussian marriages amongst the peasantry, the difference being only that in ordinary cases, where the lady takes no interest in the persons marrying, the ceremony is performed in the lower regions of the house, and the bride may not be so elegantly attired as was our Macha. That Macha was well married according to Russian ideas I have no doubt, but would it not have been better had she married the man who would have served six years to have her?" Easter customs in Russia are very pretty, this day 430 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 491 being observed like Christmas or New Year is with us. * Easter eggs, which, however, are not colored, are used in a variety of ways to encourage courtship. " Catching butterflies " is a peculiar sport of Easter, which consists in young men of the villages going about on snow-shoes, with nets, crying out, " who'll -be my butterfly;" the idea is that the girl who is first seen in a doorway by one who carries the net and who smiles upon him, will be- come his wife. But I am sorry to say that domestic life in Russia is generally a very unpleasant existence. Among the peasan- try there is little virtue but a great deal of vice. Men and women are both prone to drink, and they never know anything of refinement. A peasant thinks very much less of his wife than of his horse, because he can easily obtain the former, but the latter he must pay cash for ; this is the way he looks at married life. During my short stay in St. Petersburg, I saw scores of men beating their wives in the street and no one cared to interfere. One particular instance I witnessed of extreme brutality, a man began abusing his wife who made no complaint but doggedly hung her head (I suspected that she was half drunk), whereupon he knocked her down with his fists and then kicked her unmercifully ; she was very badly hurt but he jerked her upon her feet again and then squeezed her right hand until the bones were almost crushed ; she screamed with pain and implored him to desist, but he dragged her off with him still squeezing her hand and occasionally striking her in the face. Although a policeman and dozens of citizens stood by watchingthe husband's cruelty, none offered to interfere. But I was assured that all Russians whip their wives, which I am quite prepared to believe of the poorer classes ; how could we expect them to be kind and affectionate to the 492 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND wives when the church, which is all-powerful and influen- tial in Russia, teaches that women have no souls and that their proper relation to man is that of an inferior being who may approach him only in subjection, and may not dispute any of his acts however unjust or flagitious ; thus wives in Russia are hardly as well cared for as domestic animals, and their labor I am sure is much greater. CHAPTER XXX. A HISTORY OF THE JEWISH OUTRAGES IN RUSSIA. As a race the Jews have endured more persecutions than any other people, and yet they have always been the most prosperous and homogenious. There are several remarkable race peculiarities about them which may be found in no other religious sect, chief among these strange characteristics being their tenacity, whether regarded in a religious or business sense. Everyday we meet intelli- gent men, who may have been raised under the most pious tutelage and had their youth fully saturated with Christian precepts, going about denying Christ, but how many Jews, in all history, have departed from their faith and accepted Christ as the promised Messiah ? I never heard of one. Yet, branded with contempt, driven from homes which their own industry~builded ; despoiled of their property by edicts of Christian governments, every sem- blance of personal liberty taken from them, and bur- dened with special taxes that was but another name for confiscation, still, the Jews have prospered in every land, under all circumstances, as no other people. We never see a Jewish beggar, never hear of them being cared for EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA . 493 in municipal hospitals or poor houses, and in no other way do they become burdens to the State. So that pros- perity, despite all adversities, and loyalty to their ancient religion, are distinguishing traits in the Jewish character. If we ask why the Jews have been so remorselessly pursecuted by all countries in which they have sought a home excepting in America we are brought to the con- sideration of a problem impossible of satisfactory solu- tion. In this age of commerce and international reci- procity, when the plowshare has superceded the sword, when the broad principles of liberalism have taught us to respect the opinions of others, even though they should be in conflict with our own, it is a matter for surprise that there should develope such race prejudices among people acknowledging the same sovereign, as would lead to per- sonal assaults and from these to outrages which shame Russian civilization. There are several causes operating in Russia to antago- nize the relations between Russians and Jews. When 1 asked Count Tolstoi for an explanation of the outrages he shrugged his shoulders, blandly extended his hands and made only an untranslatable facial expression. I got no satisfaction from the minister and therefore extended my inquiries into other quarters, with better results. In the early part of 1882 Alexander III. sent for and requested an interview with one of the Roths- child bankers, who was just completing a magnificent residence in St. Petersburg. The Czar was in sore need of money to meet the budget that had been submitted, so, rather than entrust the negotiation of a loan to his Chancel- lor or Minister of Finance he concluded that, by seeking a personal interview with Rothschild, he could secure, at a moderate rate of interest, the sum required. In re- sponse to the Czar's request Rothschild appeared at the 494 % RUSSIAN NIHILISM ANU Peterhoff Imperial residence, where he was very soon made acquainted with the Emperor's wishes, but instead of treating the request for a loan in a business way Roths- child took advantage of the occasion to express a strong disapproval of the Jewish outrages that had already taken place in southern Russia, and then had the temerity to remind the Czar that it was a Jew to whom the govern- ment had come for financial aid. Without defending his policy the Czar arose, and pointing his finger toward the door said, "There is the exit, be gone at once, and I order you to quit Russia entirely ; this country shall not be your place of residence, for the sight of you would pollute an honest man." Rothschild was not slow to obey the peremptory order, and his unfinished palace in St. Petersburg is now for sale at a great bargain. This incident may serve as a straw to indicate from whence the wind of Jewish oppression blows. But there is an- other almost equally important fact having a direct bear- ing upon this vexed question : Count Ignatieff came to the office of Minister of the Interior in 1880, I believe : he was trusted with carte blanche powers because he ranked next to Gortcha- koff as a diplomatist ; but it was within a few months after his acceptance of the ministerial port folio that fresh outrages were reported perpetrated upon the Jews in Poland and southern Russia. The Count was expected to punish those engaged in the attack and for a time every person thought he would bring down a retributive justice upon the heads of all who molested the Jews. This idea obtained by reason of the Count's issuing several dreadful orders addressed to commanders of troops throughout Russia, ordering them to punish with- out mercy all Jew baiters ; he went still further, and declared that he intended to put down every Jewish out- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 495 break by the strong force and law at his command. His violent policy thoroughly alarmed the riotous factions for a time, but as none of these laws or declarations were put into effect the outrages were begun again and week after week grew more horrifying. The Jews were not only robbed of their money and merchandise, but mobs entered their residences, killed their little children, bru- tally and lustfully assaulted the females, brained the men and then burned the desecrated homes. Ignatieff con- tinued to threaten, but he never punished, until finally it was currently reported that he secretly connived at and encouraged the assaults ; not only was it so reported but, impressed with the fact, many of the richest Jews in Russia raised a purse of more than two hundred thousand roubles, which they used to accomplish his removal. How this money was applied I did not learn, but my informa- tion that it was so used is of such a character as does not admit of any doubt. Ignatieff, we know, was dismissed very suddenly and at a time when he had planned many changes which it was reported had been approved by the Czar. Being unable to obtain any satisfactory information in St. Petersburg concerning the Jews, and as there were no records from which official data could be had descriptive of the outrages, I decided to visit Warsaw, in Poland, because several outbreaks had occurred in that vicinity, and because I knew Warsaw to be very largely populated by Jews. Accordingly I went to Moscow and there took the train for Warsaw, which is five hundred miles distant. This road is not only the most aggravating line on which I ever travelled, but it is next to the road which runs from Moscow to Odessa, and I am told that travel on this hitter line is worse than riding a country pig to market. By advice of a gentleman whose acquaintance I had form- 496 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND ed in the Holy Mother City, upon taking passage I be- sought the guard of a first-class van and gave him five roubles not to put any other passenger in with me, so that I might be the sole occupant and thus be enabled, to stretch out on the seat and sleep. A little explanation at this point will no doubt be of benefit to the reader : in Russia, as in all Europe, passenger cars are made in com- partments, generally four in each car, entrance to which is made at as many side doors ; the guards are what we call conductors, but instead of there being one in charge of an entire train, as in this country, in Russia there is a guard for each car. The guard to your compartment is your keeper, because, as you enter he locks the door which he does not open until a large station is reached. There are no sleeping cars run on the line between Mos- cow and Warsaw for fear, perhaps, that the passengers might sleep themselves to death. Such monotonous scenery, a level, gray, sandy, weird waste, not a mole hill even to relieve the surface, and when a fine forest is passed you instinctively remark on its striking resem- blance to the others, every tree being apparently of the same height, diameter, and general appearance. The time between Moscow and Warsaw is fifty hours, but it appears like an age in the earth's life and development. At every little station the train stops to allow train-hands and passengers to take tea ; when it is ready to proceed again the chief guard blows a police whistle twice, which is answered by two from the engine ; at this a fellow who stands beside a switch generally one hundred yards ahead of the engine, blows a little brass horn and holds up a fold- ed green flag; another fellow rings a gong, ten or a dozen guards cry out "all aboard," or its equivalent, the doors are then shut, and if no accident occurs the train starts off like an old man suffering from hypochon- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA, 497 dria and inflammatory rheumatism. At every road crossing there is a woman standing holding out her green flag, I presume to let the engineer know that the coast is clear, but then this seems to be unnecessary, for the train would never do any damage to anything that could crawl. But the funniest thing about railroading in Eussia, or at least what amused me most, was to see how the axle boxes were examined ; at every stopping place, however small, and utterly regardless of the speed at which we had been creeping, two well-greased men passed along the train with hammers, tamping and oil, sounded each wheel and critically examined for hot boxes. They must have gotten the idea of hot boxes from the road between St. Petersburg and Moscow, or else read about them in foreign journals, for I am quite sure there was never a hot box on the Moscow and Warsaw road. We stopped one hour and a half at three different places, Smolensk, Minsk and Brest ; before, we had stop- ped to drink tea, but at these cities the delay was made to give every passenger and train-man time to get drunk, and I never saw such an industrious use of opportunity made as on these occasions ; every fellow made a rush for vodka, which was kept in decanters on tables, and distributed by women, in small glasses ; in about fifteen minutes I was the only sober man on the train ; such yelling, singing and carousal, but no one seemed to get mad until another train met us at Minsk, loaded with soldiers. The troops were in box-cars and their first sal- utations convinced m,e that they, too, were drunk ; despite every effort made by their officers the soldiers got out of their cars, made a raid on the station, and then directed their attention to about one dozen of our passengers who had expressed some objections to the high-handed privil- 498 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND eges that were being indulged by the troops ; both sides drew up their forces in fine style and then began a tongue fight which for virulence, noise and froth I never saw equaled, but with all their vehement gesturing, neither party advanced beyond their original stations, so that a EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 499 collision was avoided, and the row, once so threatening, became only a farce of cowardice. In making the trip from Moscow to Warsaw I was without an interpreter, and of course had to take the blunt end of every obstacle. I had learned two or three words of Russian, but only one that I could make use of while railroading, this single word was cht\ meaning tea ; thus, whenever I reached an eating station I would run up to a luncheon counter, cry out chi and then pick up whatever I saw that appeared palatable. But a diet of tea, brown bread and Russian cakes becomes discouraging after a time and I resolved to extend the bill of fare. I wanted some meat, beef, mutton, veal, chicken, etc., but to all intents and purposes I was a deaf mute. An idea came to me, however, when we reached Brest that I was not slow to put into execution. Seated at long tables in the dining room were fifty or sixty Russians, many of whom were officers, and all were drinking tea and vodka, or munching dry cakes. Calling a waiter to me I gave him to understand, by gesture, that I wanted something, which something I indicated by rising to full height, clapping my sides three times and then crowing loud enough to rattle the dishes. Instantly every eye in the room was centered on me, but as I took up my plate and passed it to the waiter he comprehended my wishes and soon brought me a piece of chicken. All those at the tables now understood why I had crowed, and such a capital joke did they esteem it that more than a dozen came over, shook my hand, laughed immoderately and then proffered me bottles of wine ; thereafter my com- panions took such an interest in providing for me that they anticipated all my wants. 500 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND CHAPTER XXXI. I reached Warsaw on a Sunday afternoon and engaging a carriage drove two miles or more, to the Hotel Vic- toria. Warsaw contains a population of 350,000, (twenty-three per cent of which are Jews) and is located on the Vistula River, a pretty stream, large enough for a considerable commerce. Nearly one-half the town is built on bottom lands, which portion is so foul with dirty people, crazy-looking houses and stinking streets, that mufflers for the head could be used to great advan- tage by respectable persons while passing through it. That portion of the city built on the hill presents a mediae- val appearance, particularly those buildings that overlook the river. I was now in Poland, a country that has passed through more desperate ordeals than any other nation on the globe ; Warsaw, her ancient capital, that has been the home of so many distinguished heroes, whose streets have been channels through which the blood of thousands has rushed, and the scenes of massacres that are too dreadful for contemplation ; here have flourished a peo- ple so proud that rather than lose their identity by amal- gamation with other powers, chose to sacrifice themselves, and die in the blazonry of bravery, freedom and the his- tory they had made. On every square there stands some monument commemorating the deeds of her great men, while tablets are here and there discovered by visitors, telling in simple annals of bloody deeds on the spots they mark. Though rent by three powerful nations, Ger- many, Austria and Russia, who fastened their fangs in poor Poland like hungry dogs fighting for a piece of meat, she is still proud, though no longer glorious a EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 501 sick lion that has yet a brave heart but cannot defend itself. Poland is now a orovinee of Russia, but, true to her chivalric character., she refuses to assimilate with that nation. There are only two Greek churches in Warsaw, but of Lutherans and Catholics there are many. So great is the hatred for Russia that Poland refuses to adopt Muscovite exchange ; copecks and roubles are compara- tively rare in Warsaw, in place of which the Poles use a little coin called " grozy," equivalent to one-half cent, which was the last coinage of Poland, in 1840. I was very much rejoiced to find that the manager of the Hotel Victoria spoke excellent English, and as he was a man of some prominence in Warsaw, his services were to me of great importance. Through him I obtained an introduction to the Mayor and also to some other impor- tant gentlemen of the city, who afterwards gave me such assistance as I needed to secure the information for which I had visited the place. Before proceeding with my in- vestigations I accepted an invitation from the Mayor, who spoke excellent German and a little English, to view the city and its most interesting features. Of this drive I have a very pleasant remembrance, for never shall I for- get my visit to Lazienski Park and Wilanow Palace, which are a few miles out of Warsaw, and reached by driving over a very rough road, but they are the most pleasing sights I witnessed in all Europe. In Lazienski Park is the renowned palace of Poniatowski, consisting of two buildings, which face each other, four hundred yards apart, and both are built on the margin of a hike that is grandly beautiful. Though very old the palaces are kept in perfect repair, and are furnished in a manner befitting the richest and most powerful potentate. But though the rooms in these palaces are magnificent a.s 32 502 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND wealth can make them, I was attracted particularly to the ruins of a theatre which, two hundred years ago, stood in all its grandeur on the banks of the beautiful lake referred to. The arrangement of this gallery of amuse- ment was ingeniously romantic. On the banks of the lake was built a large amphitheatre, of stone, provided with private boxes, which, however, were in the center of the semi-circle. Entrance was through doors beside which were sculptured dragons, and up a stairway that lead to the amphitheatre. The seats were of stone, but elegantly cushioned and arranged suitable to the different ranks of those who attended the entertainments. In front of tips amphitheatre, but on an island in the lake, was a stage, also made of stone, most elaborately fitted up with all needful accessories for mimic deeds, the fury of battle or the plaints of love. These stage representa- tions were witnessed by those occupying seats in the amphitheatre, the view being greatly enhanced by roman- tic surroundings of forest trees, and limpid water spark- ling under scintillating rays of a silver moon. But both amphitheatre and stage are now in ruins, crumbled with the glory of Poland, leaving moss-covered stones as a memorial of those times when Polish Kings were in their pride, and when ambition crowned their subjects. From Lazienski Park we drove four miles to the palace of Wilanow, which was built by Poland's great- est King, Sobiesky (John III). This fine property is the only estate that has escaped Russian confiscation, and is still owned and occupied by Sobiesky 's descend- ants, who are wealthy enough to preserve its former grandeur. The palace is very large and contains many galleries filled with curiosities, fine paintings and statu- ary ; its floor,- like the palace at Lazienski Park, are of polished woods ingeniously inlaid so as to produce a EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 503 most harmonious effect. The grounds cover nearly two hundred acres, every foot of which is cared for by the most artistic landscape gardeners ; there is also a large lake connected with the palace which is kept stocked with game fish, and the banks are embowered with trees that are luxurious in growth and trimmed in a manner which produces an effect almost magical. My curiosity was very much excited by three sun-clocks which, by chance, I observed on the palace, one being on the east end, another on the south, and a third on the west gable of the building. These clocks consist of a large dial above which is a stone image representing "time;" in the right hand of this image, or statue, is a sword so exactly placed that the sun's rays falling upon it a shadow is thrown upon the dial that indicates the time of day, even to a minute. There were three clocks so that the sun's position might be facing one of the clocks morning, noon, and afternoon. This wonderful time- piece for the three must be taken as one has marked the hours for nearly one hundred years, having fortunate- ly escaped the destructive influences that have desolated Poland, and sent so many thousands of her people into exile. Returning to the city we drove through the Jewish quarters, which are as distinct and clearly defined as is the Chinese settlement in San Francisco. Here I ob- served a race of people so wedded to their ancient cus- toms and religions, as to resist every practice and senti- ment of those by whom they are surrounded. Polish Jews are as different in character from the Jews of America as any two races having a common ancestry can be ; they are marvellously exclusive and homogeneous ; over their places of business they have signs printed with Hebrew letters ; their costume never varies, every man 504 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND among them wearing a long-tailed coat, reaching to their knees, and buttoned up tight in front ; around the neck they wear a coarse, woolen comfort, and a little cap crowns their head. I have no language at my command that could describe their filth ; they literally reek with stenches. I was told that though bacon is abhorrent to them, on account of religious prejudices, yet the Jews use it on a certain occasion, viz : when a Jew pur- chases a new shirt, his next act is to procure a piece of bacon, with which he thoroughly greases the gar- ment all over ; he then puts on the shirt and does not take it off for one or two years, or until it is entirely worn out. The bacon is used to prevent vermin from getting on their filthy bodies. I am quite prepared to believe this statement, since only such a disgustingly nasty practice can account for the odor which they carry about them. Foul, homely and narrow-minded as the Polish Jews are, they succeed in accumulating so much money that gentlemen of caste pay them tribute, and they therefore force their importance among even the most aristocratic class. The character of Shylock will certainly fit some of them, judging by the experience of a professor of lan- guages in the leading university of Russia, who borrowed seven hundred roubles from one under the following cir- cumstances, as he told me : A young man, with whose fami- ly the professor had long been intimate, lost his mother by a sudden illness, and being sorely pressed for funds with which to provide burial and to meet other expenses, he applied to the professor for a loan, which he promised to return within one month. The professor did not have the necessary amount, seven hundred roubles, but so in- fluenced was he by the entreaties of his young friend, that he went to a Jew and borrowed the money, upon EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 505 his situation, as will hereafter be explained. He gave his note for the amount, and then, as required, gave an agreement binding himself to pay ten per cent, per month for the loan ; this he was influenced to'do by a belief that the young man would fulfil his obligation at the time ap- pointed for payment. But when the month expired the promise was violated, so that the professor was left with a security debt on his hands which he had no means of liquidating. At the end of every month he had to pay the Jew seventy roubles, and if he chanced to be one day behind time the Jew would berate him soundly, and threaten to throw him out of doors by taking all his household property. The laws in Russia are such that if a debtor becomes delinquent his creditor can peremptori- ly attach every article of furniture or clothing belonging to the debtor or his wife ; in addition to this, if the debt- or holds any position of trust, upon complaint and proof of debt made by the creditor, he may be removed, and is thereafter disqualified from assuming any place of trust again. This law is the creation of an aristocracy, and forms one of the principal complaints of Nihilists. The Jew was enabled, by threatening an enforcement of this most oppressive law, to compel the professor to pay the monthly interest, which at times caused him much distress. Salaries paid to educators in Russia are so small that the professor was never able to discharge any portion of the original debt, and when he related the circumstances to me he had paid in interest thirty-five hundred roubles, while the original debt of seven hund- red roubles was still held against him . Fortunately, he had just discovered a technicality by which he could avoid the further payment of interest ; this loop-hole, as he defined it, consisted in the fact, of which a lawyer friend had advised him, that the Jew was licensed as a merchant, 506 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND and that he had no broker privilege, so that the lending of money by him was an offense, which the professor declared he should make the Jew answer for. It was another case of Shy lock brought to justice. CHAPTER XXXII. AT Warsaw I found there was such a general ac- quaintance with the riots that had taken place against the Jews throughout Russia, that I had no difficulty in collect- ing all essential facts, and so many, too, that I could not undertake to give them the extensive description which they merit. I shall therefore have to present a history of the riots in a concise form, and within the* space remaining that was alloted for this work on Russia and exile life. The most outrageous atrocities perpetrated against the Jews took place in the latter part of 1880 and in 1881. Germany started the anti-Semitic agitation, which speedi- ly spread to Russia, because of the revolution already ex- citec] by factions which had pronounced against law and inflamed the masses to disorder. Another reason is found in the fanaticism of the Russian people who believe it is a righteous act to slay a Jew ; and yet another, and per- haps stronger reason still is the natural love of poor, de- graded, ignorant and brutal people to engage in plunder. The Jews were rich, and the peasantry poor, so a pretense was had to despoil them, according to biblical precedent. Within a period of eight months, four of 1880 and four of 1881, a tract of country equal in area to the British Isles and France combined, stretching from the EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 507 Baltic to the Black Sea, was the scene of horrors that have hitherto only been perpetrated in medieval days during times of war. Men ruthlessly murdered, tender infants dashed to death, or roasted alive in their own homes, married women the prey to a brutal lust that often caused their death, and young girls violated in the sight of their relatives by soldiers who should have been the guardians of their honor. In the face of these hor- rors loss of property is of little moment, yet they were accompanied by the razing of whole streets inhabited by Jews, by the systematic firing of the Jewish quarters of towns in Western Russia, and by the pillage of all the property on which thousands of Jewish families were de- pendent for existence. In addition to all this many Russian towns heartlessly seized the occasion to expel from their limits crowds of Jews, who were left by this inhuman and deliberate meas- ure homeless amid masses infuriated against them. And during these scenes of carnage and pillage the local au- thorities stood by with folded arms, doing little or noth- ing to prevent their occurrence and recurrence, and allowed the ignorant peasantry to remain up to this day under the impresssion that a ukase existed ordering the property of the Jews to be handed over to their fellow- Russians. So far from publicly expressing reprobation of these outrages, the Minister issued a rescript clearly betraying that the Russian authorities fully shared the prejudice of the mob, and contemplated adding to the burdens and inequalities which have been the direct cause of the embittered feeling that has led to these disorders. When the assassination of the Czar roused all Russia to the highest pitch of excitement, it was confidently pre- dicted that the approaching Easter would see an outbreak against the Jsws, It was said afterwards that the pre- 508 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND diction was aided in its fulfilment by Panslavist emissaries from Moscow, who planned all the subsequent troubles. It is at least certain that rumors of a rising had reached Elizabethgrad, and caused the heads of the Jewish com- munity, who form a third of its 30,000 inhabitants, to apply for special protection from the Governor. No notice was taken of the appeal, and on Wednesday, April 27th, the dreaded outbreak took place. A religious dis- pute in a cabalet led to a scuffle which grew into a general melee, till the mob obtained possession of the dram-shop and rifled it of its contents. Inflamed by the drink thus obtained, the rioters proceeded to the Jewish quarter and commenced a systematic destruction of the Jewish shops and warehouses. At first some attempt was made by the Jews to protect their property, but this only served to increase the violence of the mob, which proceeded to attack the dwellings of the Jews and to wreck the syna- gogue. Amid the horrors that ensued a Jew named Zololwenski lost his life, and no fewer than thirty Jew- esses were outraged. At one place, two young girls, in dread of violation, threw themselves from the windows. Meanwhile the military had been called out, but only to act at first as spectators and afterwards as active partici- pants. One section of the mob, formed of rioters and soldiers, broke into the dwelling of an old man named Pelikoff, and on attempting to save his daughter from a fate worse than death, they threw him from the roof, while twenty soldiers proceeded to work their will on his unfortunate daughter. When seen by the gentleman who related to me this fact, Pelikoff was in a state of hopeless madness, and his daughter completely ruined in mind and body. The whole Jewish quarter was at the mercy of the mob till April 29th. During the two days of the riots 5QQ houses and 100 shops we re destroyed EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 509 whole streets were razed to the ground. It may be added that the property destroyed and stolen was reck- oned at 2,000,000 roubles ($1,000,000). The evidence of pent-up anti-Jewish passion displayed by these scenes encouraged the foes of the Jews to wider and more systematic attacks. In. the excesses which fol- lowed, the masses soon got to recognize professional ringleaders from Great Russia. These distributed pla- cards, found afterwards to have been issued from a secret printing-press at Kiew, in which it was declared that the Czar had given his orthodox subjects the prop- erty held by the Jews. In most cases the very day on which a riot might be expected was announced before- hand Sundays and saints' days being chosen, as the days when the lower orders were at liberty. After a week's pause, a whole series of riots broke out, commenc- ing on May 7, at Smielo, near Czergassy, where thirteen men were killed and twenty wounded, and 1,600 were left without homes. On the following day, Sunday, May 8, a most serious riot broke out at Kiew, once the capital of Russia, and still an important town, containing 20,000 Jews in a population of 140,000. Here the riot had been definitely announced for the Sunday, and the Jews sent a deputation to the Governor* requesting him to call out his soldiers to prevent disturbance. He blunt- ly refused, saying that he would not trouble his soldiers for the sake of a pack of Jews. During the riot, which broke out on the day fixed, the police and the soldiers again acted the same part that they had at Elizabethgrad. The first procedure of the mob had been to storm the dram-shops, and, staving in the brandy casks, to wallow in the spirit. During the period of license that followed four Jews were killed, twenty-five women and girls were violated, of whom five died in consequence, as was proved 510 11USSIAX NIHILISM AND at the subsequent trials. At the house of Mordecai Wienarski, the mob, disappointed in the search for plun- der, caught up his little child, three years old, and brutally threw it out of the window. The child fell dead at the feet of a company of Cossacks who were drawn up outside, yet no attempt was made to arrest the murderers. At last, when several houses were set on fire, the military received orders to make arrests, which they proceeded to execute with much vigor, making 1,500 prisoners, among whom 150 were Jews arrested for protecting their lives and properties. No less than 2,000 Jews were left without shelter by the dismantling or the burning of their houses, and for the relief of immediate necessities a Kiew committee soon afterwards had to disburse the sum of $150,000. Next day similar scenes of violence occurred at Brow- ary, in the neighborhood of Kief, in the province of Czernigow. On the same day still more disgraceful deeds were enacted at Berezowka, in the province of Cherson. Here lust seemed more a principal motive than plunder. While the Jews of the village were at synagogue a mob attacked the Jewesses and violated many of them, causing the death of three ; others who escaped the worse evil were driven into the river, and nine ultimately died from the effects of the exposure. When the Jews came to the rescue, two of them were killed and a young lad was stoned to death. The neighborhood of Kief was again visited on the next day, May 10, at Konoptop and at Wassilkov. At both places the attacks had been planned : at the former wooden crosses were placed before the doors of Chris- tians that their houses might be spared, while at the latter the day of riot had been announced, and the report diligently spread about that the Czar had given the EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA . 511 erty of the Jews away. At Wassilkov and in the neigh- borhood eight lives were lost, seven at one fell swoop at the inn kept by a Jew named Rykelmann. He was forced to admit the mob to his. wine-cellars, and, during his ab- sence in search of assistance, the drunken rioters cut the throats of his wife and six children. By this time the chief towns and villages of Southern Russia were ablaze with violence and riot. Throughout the whole of the provinces of Cherson, Taurida, Ekat- erinoslav, Poltava, Kief,' Czernigov, and Podolia the notion, spread fast as wildfire that the Jews and their property had been handed over to the tender mercies of the populace, a notion that seems almost justified in the face of the inertness of the Governor-General in check- ing the riots at Elizabethgrad and Kief. At Wasilgin the Mayor even read a copy of the supposed ukase to the citizens, and a riot would have ensued had not the village priest done his duty and declared his belief that no such ukase existed. At Alexandrovsk, on the banks of the Dnieper, the operatives carried out what they thought to be the will of the Czar, on May 13, rendering 300 out of the 400 Jewish families of the place homeless, and de- stroying property to the amount of 400,000 roubles. As usual, the riots were previously announced, and the appeal to the Governor to send for additional troops proved fruitless. Even after the riots had commenced, a tele- gram dispatched to the capital town of the province, Ekaterinoslav, was delayed for four hours by the Gover- nor before it was sent off. At Ekaterinoslav itself a projected riot was happily prevented by the issue of a proclamation by the local authorities declaring the Jews to be true subjects of the Czar and entitled to protection of their property. At Polonnoze, near Kief, a disaster was averted by the forethought of the Mayor, who 512 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND changed the market day to Saturday, and on the peas- ants complaining he read them a lecture on the utility of the Jews as middle-men, and induced them to promise not to molest their Jewish fellow-citizens. From Alexundrovsky the instigators paid a visit to the Jewish agricultural colonies in the province ot Ekateri- noslav, which have now been established for more than forty years. The chief centres, Gulaypol, Orjechgw and EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 51 3 Marianpol, were visited in turn, and though no violence seems to have been done to the persons of the Jews, their farms were almost entirely destroyed. At Orjechow the instigators who led the mob were dressed as police officers, and produced a document falsely professing to be the proclamation of the Czar. . The farming imple- ments were all destroyed, and 500 cattle and 10,000 sheep driven off. At Kamichewka the Jews adroitly turned the supposed ukase of the Czar into a safeguard. Hearing that the rioters were advancing to attack, they brought the keys of their houses to their Christian neigh- bors, saying that if the ukase were true it would be bet- ter that their neighbors should have their property than the rioters, and if the ukase proved to be untrue, of course their good neighbors would return the keys. The Christians of the village accordingly repulsed the rioters, and in a few days the Jews of Kamichewka were again in possession of their property. Up to this time the riots had chiefly arisen among the urban populations, but they now spread into the rural districts and reached every little village where even a single Jew resided. A Jew was murdered at Rasdory, a few miles southeast of Orjechow, and at Znamenka, near Nikopol, on the Dnieper, a Jewish innkeeper named Bessor was murdered and his wife dishonored, after which both were cast into the river. At Balka, also on the bank of the Dnieper, there was only one Jew, Allo- wicz by name. A band of ruffians went to his house on May 17, and, finding him absent, they violated his wife, and, to conceal the crime, set fire to the house while the poor woman lay helpless in it. All 'this was witnessed by her little daughter, crouched in a ditch hard by. On the preceding day another tragedy had occurred at Kitzkis, where the house of one Preskoff was set on 514 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND and he, with his two little children, left to roast in it, while the wife and mother looked on, vainly appealing for mercy to the ruffianly perpetrators of the crime. At Gregorievk a Jewish innkeeper named Ruff maim was cooped in one of his own barrels and cast into the Dnie- per. Again, at Kanzeropol a man named Enman was murdered brutally and his wife violated and afterward killed. Such were the deeds that were done on the banks of the Dnieper during the month of May. Meantime the seaport of Odessa had likewise been the scene of an an ti- Jewish riot. Originally announced for May 13, it was postponed till Sunday, May 15, with- out, however, any precautions being taken by the Govern- or, who had, as usual, been duly warned of the impend- ing outbreak. Though only lasting for six hours, the riot resulted in the death of a Jew named Handelmann, and eleven cases of violation are reported, one resulting in death. Here the Jews seemed to have been most energetic in their resistance. Of the 800 arrests made, 150 were Jews, twenty-six of whom were afterward charged with carrying revolvers without a permit. The police estimated the damage done at 1,137,831 roubles, while those more immediately concerned raised the sum to 3,000,000. Similar scenes took place on the same day at Wolvezysk, on the borders, where a riot had been announced for the Sunday. A week afterward the lower orders at Berdyczew rose against the Jews, and on May 24 a riotous disturbance occurred at Zmerinka, in Po- dolia. Thus, within a month of the first outbreak, almost every town in Southern Russia had seen such horrors as here described. Apart from t?e influence of ringleaders, the rioters had no cause to incite them to rapine, except the force of contagion and the impression that the Czar EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 515 had really transferred all Jewish property to his ortho- dox subjects. If once this impression had been officially removed, the epidemic would have been checked. In many cases it was distinctly shown that the peasants liked the Jews, and only pillaged because they thought it had been ordered. At Bougaifka, for example, a few days after the peasants had destroyed the property of the Jews, they became contrite, and gave their Jewish neighbors 800 roubles as some compensation for the damage they themselves had caused. In the face of such a fact, it is tolerably certain that if the supposed procla- mation had been energetically and officially denied the riots might never have reached the extent that they even- tually did. The contagion spread as far as Saratov in early June, and thence to Astrakhan ; it even reached a town near Tomsk, in Siberia, and caused an anti-Jewish riot there. The only bright spot in all this gloom was the condition of Poland, where Jews and Poles had before lived in amity. This continued till General Igna- tieff directed the Governor of Poland to appoint commis- sions of experts to consider how the Jews should be dealt with, to which fact persons on the spot attribute the rise of anti-Jewish feeling that culminated in the Warsaw riots. But outside Poland these outbursts of popular prejudice placed a population of nearly two millions in perpetual dread of their lives and property. At times they dared not remove their clothes night .or day, fearing that they might have to flee at any moment. After the Saratov affair, on June 8, in which 30 Jews were wounded, there was a comparative lull in the more violent forms of outrage. But early in July the neigh- borhood of Kief and the banks of the Dnieper were once more visited by scenes which recall the horrors of the Middle Ages. On Sunday, the 12th, open rioting 516 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND took place at Penjaslaw, which was characterized by the fact that the mob were led to the attack by the sons of the merchants of the district. Commercial rivalry add- ing its sting to religious and social differences, the strug- gle was here of a more violent nature than usual, and, while 30 of the molb were wounded, no less than 200 of the Jews received serious injuries at the hands of their neighbors, and three died in consequence; 176 houses were destroyed, some by fire. At Borispol, on July 21, scenes occurred during the riots worthy of the worst days of the Commune. Women, for almost the first time, made their appearance on the scene as assailants, and added to its horrors. During the rioting they encouraged their friends on to the fight and were seen to assist them to violate the Jewesses of the village by holding down the unfortunate creatures. A curious petition afterward sent from Penjaslaw, demanding, among other things, that Jewesses should not be allowed to wear silks and satins, may throw some light on the motives of these viragoes. The reader will be by this time satiated with the horri- ble crimes which have been laid before him. The im- agination may now be able to take in the full meaning of the bare statement, so frequently telegraphed to the world, that anti-Jewish riots had taken place in such and such a district of Southern Russia. Suffice it then to add that the month of August saw such riots at Njezin on the 2d, at Lubny on the 8th, at Borzny on the 18th, and at Itchny on the 28th. If September was comparatively free from disorders, the cessation must be attributed rather to the needs of the harvest than to the quieting of the popular mind, for, early in October, the mob attacked the Jews of Balwierzyski, in the government of Suwalki. October 3 was the Day of Atonement, the most sacred EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 517 day of the Hebrew calendar, and the mob took the occa- sion to destroy the synagogue and wreck the Jewish quarter, where one Jew was killed and 20 wounded. Even as late as November, the myth of the spoliation ukase imposed upon the peasantry. On the 15th of that month, a band of 100 peasants at Czarwona, near Zito- mir, pillaged the property of th-e Jews under that pre- text. Lastly, to show the excitable state of the popular mind, the Sarah Bernhardt riots at Kief on November 1$ and at Odessa on November 27 proved that a mere suspicion that the actress was a Jewess was sufficient to arouse once more the fury of the mob, and cause them again to attack the Jewish quarter of those towns. Finally, this catalogue of horrors must be concluded by a reference to the riots at Warsaw on Christmas and the following days. The detailed events of those days, when 300 houses and 600 shops were pillaged and devas- tated and thousands of victims rendered homeless and re- duced to beggary, are doubtless fresh in every one's mem- ory, but certain facts must be again referred to, owing to their typical character. In the first place, the riot was clearly planned, the alarm of fire being simultaneously raised in at least two churches, and the mob being direct- ed by men who spoke Polish with a Russian accent. The culpable neglect of the military authorities of Warsaw in refusing to make use of the 20,000 men forming its garrison, finds its counterpart in the similar behavior of the Governors of Kief, Elizabethgrad, and Odessa earlier in the year. The behavior of the police, who are des- cribed as only interfering to prevent the Jews from pro- tecting themselves, exactly tallies with their behavior elsewhere. And, finally, the attempts that were made by telegraph officials and others to prevent the true state of the case from reaching the rest of Europe may serve to 33 518 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND account for the extraordinary fact that the enormities of the nine months only found the faintest echo in the press of Europe or America. Thus, while outrages on women were openly committed, the knowledge of this fact was guarded so that it might not go outside the Russian boundary. The outrages recounted in the preceding pages, though, no doubt, the most irnoprtant, are far from including all the similar events that occurred during the year 1881. They have been selected from a list of over 160 towns and villages in which cases of riot, rapine, murder, and spoliation have been known to occur during the last nine months of 1881. Out of these information was collect- ed from about 45 towns and villages in Southern Russia. In these alone are reported 23 murders of men, women and children, 17 deaths caused by violation, and no few- er than 225 cases of outrages of Jewesses. Such have been the horrors that throughout the past year have assailed the 3,000,000 Israelites who inhabit Russia. Nor is there any indication that the atrocities will cease in succeeding years, unless the Russian Gov- ernment will intervene in the sacred cause of civilization and humanity. CHAPTER XXXIII. BESIDES appealing to the blind passions of the mob, the Jew-haters of Russia have resorted to more system- atic efforts to harass the hap less Israelites. The Russian Moujik has a method almost peculiar to himself of ex- pressing his rage and hatred. Whenever the fever point of excitement is reached arson is usually the direction in EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 519 which it overflows. So well is this recognized in Russia that the peasants have a technical name for the deliberate firing of towns the " red cock" is said to crow. Dur- ing the year 1881 this method of revenge was resorted to JEWS BEING DRIVEN FROM THEIR HOMES IN MINSK. on a large scale against the Jews of Russia, especially in the West. By the end of June the "red cock" had crowed over 15 towns in Western Russia, including Mo- hilew, containing 25,000 inhabitants, Witebsk, with 23,- 520 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND 000, and Slonim, with 20,000, as well as smaller towns like Wolcowysk, Scherwondt, Augustowo, Nowo-Gucdek, Ponovicz, and Lipsk. Many thousands of Jews were rendered homeless by this means, and on July 3d 6,000 Jews lost their homes by fire at Minsk, 4,800 being de- , prived of every means of subsistence at the same time. The town of Pinsk, in the same province, suffered a like fate. And shortly afterward a conflagration took place at Koretz, in Wolhynia, in which 30 lives were lost and 5,000 souls left without a home. Every week added to the number of fires in towns inhabited by Jews till, by the end of September, " the list extended to 41 towns. This probably involved the loss of homes to 20,000 Jews. To the mass of homeless and penniless creatures in Southern Russia must be added the many victims of pil- lage. The violence of the mobs often wrecked whole streets of houses as completely as any fire, and it is known that 2,000 were thus rendered homeless at Kief, 1,600 at Smielo, 1,000 at Konotop, 600 at Ouehow, and 300 at Aluchpff. The value of property destrojed in the south has been reckoned to reach $80,000,000. It is possible that an aggregate of 100,000 Jewish families has thus been reduced to poverty. The ranks of the ruined were increased by those who dared not ap- ply for their just debts, while in many cases the peasan- try deliberately "boycotted" the Jews. It must be further remembered that in several places the Jews an- ticipated riots by evacuating their homes ; thus, near Perejaslay, after the riot at that place, no fewer than 17 villages in the neighborhood were deserted by the Jews, and the same, doubtless, took place in other localities. Men fled from the villages in which they had resided all their lives. Even after the events of Keiw the Jews of the EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 521 neighborhood, fearing the spread of disorder, crowded, at the rate of 100 families a day, into the town which had so lately shown itself hostile. .Others fled toward the borders, and during the summer months a camp of refugees in the open air at Podwoloczyska contained no less than 1,500 souls, including children of the tenderest age. A few who still possessed some means attempted to flee across the frontier, but many were stopped. Of 5,000 who managed to reach Brody, on the Austrian border, in a perfectly helpless state, 2,000 remained there huddled in cellars for nearly one month. Meanwhile, the municipalities, with the connivance of the local governments, took every means in their power to add to the misery of the situation. With rough logic they argued that, as these riots were directed against the Jews, if there had been no Jews, there would have been no riots. They accordingly petitioned the governors of their provinces to issue orders for the expulsion of the Jews from towns in which they had no legal right of domicile. The Jews of Russia are only allowed to reside in 28 of its provinces, often only in certain towns, and the number of permits to reside is, at least theoretically, limited. For the last 20 years, however, these barbarous laws have been somewhat allowed to fall into desuetude, and many Jews have ventured beyond the narrow limits assigned to them. Leaving aside the general question, it was clearly a most heartless act to add to the miseries of the Jewish population at the moment when the mob were eagerly scanning the disposition of the authorities to dis- cover to what lengths they might proceed with impunity. Whatever be the legality of the measure, the occasion for introducing its rigorous enforcement was inhumanly in- opportune, and lays the corporations who enforced it open to a charge of complicity with the more lawless per- 522 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND secutors of the Jews. At Kief, for example, even before the excitement had entirely subsided, the governor or- dered a stringent scrutiny of the right of domicile among the Jews of that town. By July 29 the strict enforce- ment of these harsh regulations had resulted in the ex- pulsion of 4,000 Jews, and quite recently new rules have been issued in Kief, as well as Odessa, still further limit- ing the number of Jews capable of residing in either city. At Liebenthal, near Odessa, the municipality, of course with the permission of the Governor of Odessa, expelled from fifteen to twenty Jewish families, and imposed a fine of fifty roubles upon any one harboring a Jew for a single night. From Podolsk 100 families were expelled, while whole regions of Podolia have been relentlessly cleared of the Jews ; the towns of Kromonitz, Dubno, Constantinow, Vladimir, and Wolinsk, being the principal offenders. More to the east the town of Charkooff ex- pelled Jews at the beginning of August. At Orel, in the Government of that name, the expul- sion has recently taken place on a large scale, and under peculiarly cruel circumstances. In that town 900 families of Jews, numbering 5,000 souls, have hitherto dwelt in peace and good will with their neighbors. Soon after the outbreak of the disturbances, the Governor of Orel gave orders that all Jews must quit its bounds by September 1. When that day arrived a further grace was allowed them till October 25, and on the latter day the Jewish congregation met for the last time in the syn- agogue, and, after tearful prayers, removed the sacred scrolls and left in mournful procession the town that had been their home. Nearly 400 of them, however, did not even possess the means of departure, and ventured to re- main, only to be thrust out by the police into the snow on the following night. In other places, where no legal EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 523 JEWISH SYNAGOGUE AT OREL. 524 HUSSIAN KIHILISM AND objection could be taken to the domicile' of the Jews, pe- titions were sent by the authorities requesting the imposition of all sorts of restrictions. They desired to restrict Jewish commerce in grain, and to limit the send- ing of Jewish children to the higher gymnasia and universities, thus stultifying their own complaints as to the want of culture among the Jews. Many local com- missions would prevent the Jews from holding "harandas," erroneously described as "drain-shops," but really general stores, at which wine and spirits are sold. I have already referred to the Perejaslav petition, that Jewesses be not allowed to wear silks and satins. These expulsions and petitions have formed the sole an- swer which the town councils of Russia have given to the Jewish question. Meanwhile, what has been done in this emergency? It is by no means difficult to suggest what could and should have been done from the first appearance of an ti -Jewish feeling in the South. If orders had been given and pub- lished that every Governor-General should supply Jewish communities with a guard on application from the Rabbi and the elders of the community ; if an edict had been passed rendering all damage to Jewish property by riots chargeable to the communal rates of the town or village ; if, above all, a proclamation had been issued declaring that all Jewish subjects were as much entitled to protec- tion of life and property as their orthodox fellow-citizens, and denying the existence of any ukase purporting to "convey" their property, it is safe to assert that the disorders would not have spread far, and certainly would not have lasted long. Instead of this, at Kief instruc- tions were issued that the military should not be called out till the last extremity. As early as May 23 the Czar, having been appealed to EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 525 "by a deputation of the Jews of St. Petersburg, headed by Baron Gunzburg, expressed his intention of dealing with the evil. Accordingly, Count Kutaissow was de- spatched to the South to make inquiries. He returned, it would seem, with the answer that inquiries were still further necessary. General Ignatieff now took the op- portunity to introduce a system by which the Zemstras, or Provincial Assemblies, might be superseded by local committees of experts on this special subject, and on September 3 the following rescript was issued : " For some time the Government has given its atten- tion to the Jews, and to their relations to the rest of the inhabitants of the Empire, with the view of ascertaining the sad condition of the Christian inhabitants, brought about by the conduct of the Jews in business matters. "For the last twenty years the Government has en- deavored, in various ways, to bring the Jews near to its other inhabitants, and has given them almost equal rights with the indigenous population. The movements, how- ever, against the Jews, which began last spring in the south of Kussia, and extended to Central Russia, prove incontestably that all its endeavors have been of no avail, and that ill-feeling prevails now as much as ever between the Jewish and the Christian inhabitants of those parts. Now, the proceedings at the trial of those charged with rioting and other evidence bear witness to the fact that the main cause of those movements and riots to which the Russians, as a nation, are strangers was but a com- mercial one, and is as follows : " ' During the last twenty years the Jews have gradu- ally possessed themselves of not only every trade and business in all its branches, but also of a great part of the land by buying or farming it. With few exceptions they have, as a body, devoted their attention not to 526 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AXD enriching or benefiting the countiy, but to defrauding, by their wiles, its inhabitants, and particularly its poor inhabitants. This conduct of theirs has called forth pro- tests on the part of the people, as manifested in acts of violence and robbery. The Government, while on the one hand doing its best to put down the disturbances and to deliver the Jews from oppression and slaughter, have also, on the other hand, thought it a matter of urgency and justice to adopt stringent measures in order to put an end to the oppression practiced by the Jews on the inhabitants and to free the country from their mal- practices, which were, as it is known, the cause of the agitation.' " With this view it has appointed commissions (in all the towns inhabited by Jews), whose duty it is to inquire into the following matters : " 1. What are the trades of the Jews which are in- jurious to the inhabitants of the place? "2. What makes it impracticable to put into force the former laws limiting the rights of the Jews in the matter of buying and farming land, the trade in intoxi- cants, and usury? " 3. How can those laws be altered so that they shall no longer be enabled to evade them, or what new laws are required to stop their pernicious conduct in business? " 4. Give (besides the answers to the foregoing sugges- tions) the following additional information : (a) On the usury practiced by the Jews in their dealings with Chris- tians, in cities, towns and villages; (b) the number of public houses kept by Jews in their own name, or in that of a Christian ; (c) the number of persons in service with Jews or under their control ; (r7) the extent (acreage) of the land in their possession, by buying or farming; (e) the number of Jewish agriculturists. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 527 "In addition to the above-named information to be supplied, every commission is empowered to report on such conduct and action of the Jews as may have a local interest and importance, and to submit the same to the Ministry." That, after the events of May, June and July, any per- son in authority in Russia should in August have been thinking of aught else but the protection of Jewish lives and the honor of Jewish women, is the first surprise that meets us in this remarkable document. But that no word of reprimand should be addressed to those who had in- dulged in such misdeeds is a severer surprise still, the only allusion to the whole catalogue of horrors being couched in the half-apologetic allusion to "protests" that have taken so deplorable a form. It is certain that the direct cause of the objection of the Russians to their Jewish fellow-citizens is the natural result of the Russian laws, which restrict their rights and mark them off from the rest of the nation. It is the lesson taught by all experience that the only solution of the Jewish question is the granting of full equality. It is absolutely certain that the whole body of the Jews, forming one-eighth of the population amid which they dwell, cannot be accused of "exploitation," or "usury," as imputed by the re- script, the fact being that the chief industries of Russia are in the hands of the thrifty and hard-working Jews. Again, objection to innkeeping by Jews is clearly a gross injustice, seeing that statistics show drunkenness to be more prevalent in provinces where Jews do not reside. But, waiving all this, surely the poor women who had been violated, the little children who had been murdered, the farmers who had been robbed of their cattle and implements, could not be accused of these charges, and it was accordingly the refinement of cruelty to 528 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND issue this document, teeming with animus against the Jews, at a time when the passions of the mob had been raised against all Jews, without distinction of person, oc- cupation, age or sex. The Jewish question at the present moment is not how the Jews should be prevented from competing with the Russians in certain trades, but whether the lives of three millions and a half of Jews shall be left at the mercy of the passions of the mob. A document like this, far from helping to solve the question, rather adds to its complexity by showing clearly to the populace that the authorities share their prejudices. The appoint- ments to commissions showed the same bias ; at the head of the Kief Commission was placed General Drudkoff , the Governor of Kief, who initated the proceedings of the first meeting by declaring, "Either I or the Jews must go." On another Commission was placed M. Che- garym, whose only claim to be considered an expert on the Jewish question was that he had written a pamphlet, entitled " The Annihilation of the Jews." At Odessa the first Commission was dismissed because it had recommended the only true solution of the questions put by the Minister of the Interior, the granting to the Jews fully equality of rights and equal liberty of settle- ment with their fellow-citizens of other creeds. A second Commission was thereupon appointed, with views more in consonance with the spirit of the rescript. When the Governor of Warsaw, Count Albedinski, was ordered to publish the circular he at first refused, saying that Jews and Poles had always lived on such friendly terms that no Commission was necessary. He was, however, forced to publish the rescript, and competent observers attribute the rise of anti-Semitic feeling in Warsaw mainly to this publication. These acts and the tone of the circular itself made clear EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 529 to the Commissions what was expected of them. They have accordingly made recommendations which will, if adopted, bring back all the horrors of the Middles Ages on the unfortunate Jews of Eussia. Thus, among other proposals, they have advised that Jews should not be allowed to build synagogues or establish schools and or- phan asylums ; that they should not be permitted to re- side in villages, nor own houses or landed property ; that Jews should not lease factories or sell spirituous liquors or be apothecaries; Besides this, it is rumored that it is intended to restrict still further the right of domicile, and to allow no Jew to reside within eighty miles of the bord- ers. In short, it seems to be the intention to make Eussia an impossible home for the Jews, or perhaps even to doom them to complete extinction. The Eusso-Jewish question may, therefore, be summed up in these words : Are three and a half millions of human beings to perish because they are Jews ? CHAPTEE XXXIV. THE Jews of Eussia are chiefly confined to the Southern portion of the country and to Poland, which latter pro- vince contains nearly one-half the entire Semitic popula- tion. It is not in all sections that bitter prejudices pre- vail against them ; in fact they generally live harmoni- ously with the Poles. In the Caucasus, though not re- garded with any special affiliation, they are certainly not hated or envied with that intense feeling which has de- veloped against them in other provinces of the Empire. The influence of Mussulmans for so many years in the Caucasian district, and the efficient measures taken by 530 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND them to enforce the " Truce of God " among the votaries of different religions, have had the effect of establishing and maintaining at least a partially considerate forbear- ance toward the Jews whose thrift here, as elsewhere, has given them control of the business of the district. Wherev- er Jews come in contact with Turks, as in the Cauca- sus, they usually prosper without exciting any prejudice ; this may be accounted for, however, by the implacable hostility which exists between Christians and Mussul- mans, in which Jew and Turk may be regarded as com- mon enemies of the cross. But the most singular features connected with Jewish persecutions are found in and about Odessa, where the riots have been appalling in deep villainy and heartless cruelties. These singular features are found in the fact that Odessa, with a population of 200,000, is so cosmo- politian as to be Anti-Russian ; the French are so numer- ous that they have stamped their impress upon the city ; in fact have Frenchified it ; the Russian tongue is rarely spoken in Odessa, hardly so much as the Turk, while among the upper class French and Italian are alone used. We also observe the lack of Russian influence in the absence of Greek churches, and, in short, there is abund- ant evidence that the Russ people are despised in Odessa. Yet, the Jews are persecuted here with a severity equal to that which distinguished the rioters at Kief or Minsk. The cause is found, not in religious intolerance nor in race prejudices, but in that vicious desire which devel- ops under conditions identical with those which are so frequently found in Russia the love for plunder when incited thereto by a mob. It is like shouting * ' mad-dog ' ' Sit some poor canine, the cry being immediately taken up by every person until the dog is killed. The Jews are rich, but their defensive strength is poor, they therefore, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 531 become objects for spoliation, and whether the spoils- man be Russian, Frenchman, Spaniard or Englishman, if the occasion be flattering, the cry of " Jew," " Christ- killer," etc., will be just as loud against them. The trade of Odessa is in the hands of Polish Jews, who are most thoroughly despised by the illiterate Russ. Many of these Israelites are in possession of large tracts of land in the Odessa district, which they cause to be cul- tivated for their own account, and thus they enjoy to a large extent a monopoly of the produce exports, while they are both land owners and merchants. Their wealth stirs up against them the hatred of all Russia, which hatred extends to every officer of the Government and also to the subjects of other nationalities doing business in Russia. . The Jews are charged with the most heinous offenses, but the charges are vague, and reducible to no positive evidence. " They make their money by the most infa- mous practices," it is said ; "they lend money at outra- geously high rates of interest, and do not keep their own counting houses or shops, but prowl about the country like wolves, seeking the peasants they may devour, selling them liquor to encourage their drunken propensities, tak- ing advantage of their distress to wrest from them deeds of mortgage, and urging them on the road of ruin, so as ultimately to drive them out of their homes and lands." All this is tantamount to sajnng that the Jews are usurers ; then the question arises, What are the provisions of the Russian law with respect to usury, whether prac- ticed by Jew or Gentile? Money is no more than an article of trade on which Russians and Hebrews place a like estimate; there is no Russian shopkeeper who will not ask two or more times the value of an article if he thinks his customer can be induced to pay it, so there is 532 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND no legal reason why the Jews should not follow the ex- ample thus set before them. My experience convinces me that nowhere under the ethereal canopy is there another nation that can equal Russia for swindlers. I must here relate an incident told me while on my voyage up the Baltic Sea to St. Peters- burg. Among our passengers was an Irish gentleman who had, for nearly twenty years, been running a large cotton mill in Yaraslof, Russia. He had been on a visit to Ireland and was now returning to Yaraslof, where he made his home. Said he: "The person who goes to Russia without understanding the ways of the country will undoubtedly be boldly swindled. Directly after first going to Yaraslof I purchased a pair of felt boots for the sum of 'twelve roubles, which I thought very cheap. Soon after making the purchase I showed the boots to a gentleman who was an old resident of Russia, but who was an Englishman with whom I was going into business ; I held up the boots in an admiring manner and comment- ed upon the extraordinary bargain which I had made. But instead of uniting in my opinion, the Englishman laughed at me for being * taken in,' as he expressed it, and then declared he could buy a pair exactly like mine, and at the same place where my purchase was made, for five roubles. Excitedly I offered to wager him a basket of the finest wine to be obtained in Yaraslof, that he could not. He accepted my wager, for which I was very glad, for I felt certain to win. At his request we went down to the store where I had bought the boots, and go- ing in he enquired the price of a pair like those I had ; the shopkeeper asked him fifteen roubles. Instantly I clapped my hands in high glee and called on him to pay the bet. But, said he, * give me a little time and I'll buy the boots for five roubles.' He began to abuse the shop- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 533 keeper in the most awful manner, calling him swindler, thief, extortioner, etc. All these epithets did not dis- turb the good humor of the shopkeeper, who finally con- sented to let the boots go for twelve roubles. My friend turned abruptly upon his heel and with many impreca- tions went out of the shop, while I laughed and urged him to pay the bet. We walked down the street a little way and then returning came back by the shop again. Seeing us go by, the shopkeeper ran out to my friend and telling him a long story about how much the boots cost, he offered them for ten roubles. My friend only gave him another cursing and then went on ; returning in a few minutes, we again walked by the shop, and again the merchant ran out beseeching my friend to buy, but still there was no trade, so that for the third time we parted from the shopkeeper, who had, however, offered the boots for seven roubles. I now began to be fright- ened, yet I could hardly think that the man would make a further reduction of two roubles. After staying away nearly one hour, for the fourth time we passed. The merchant, who, as before, ran out, caught hold of my friend and began to argue with him. The English- man manifested great umbrage and threatened to strike the shopkeeper for interfering with him so many times, when at the beginning he declared he would not give more than five roubles for the boots. After considerable quarreling the shopkeeper at length accepted the original offer, and of course I had to pay for the wine." This Jewish manner of doing business is common among all Russian merchants, so that generally speaking any article may be purchased from them for about one- third the price which they first ask. Now, if we even mistrusted the repeated assertions made throughout Russia that Government agents were 534 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND sent among the populace to stir up their evil passions, to justify and almost provoke their violence by a reference to the Emperor's acts and wishes ; even if we disbe- lieve the statements that men high in authority, civil or military governors, refused to interpose between the mur- derers and their victims, " not wishing to disturb their soldiers for a pack of Jews ; " even if we deemed it im- possible that men and officers belonging to the army or the police, either remained passive spectators of the worst outrages, or became participators in them ; even if we make abstraction from all this, yet it would be impossible to find words sufficiently severe to stigmatize the iniqui- tious proclamation, or " Rescript," of September 3d, in which, instead of denouncing the atrocities of the perse- cutors of the Jews, the Government takes the opportunity of enumerating the offences of the Jews themselves ; thus palliating, if not actually sanctioning, any excesses that may be committed against them, and almost inciting the populace to run amuck them : '* not to nail the Jew's ear to the pump." And yet, after all, what are the alleged offences of the Jews? " They have possessed themselves not only of every trade and business in all its branches, but also of great part of the land, by buying and farming it." " They have defrauded, by their wiles, the inhabitants, and particularly the poor people." But the question is, or should be : " Have the Jews broken the laws? " " Do the laws allow either Jew or Christian to carry on illicit trades or criminal business?" If the Jews have acted within the law they should have lawful protection. If their offences were of a na- ture not foreseen by the existing law, then it should be amended. But in any case the first duty of the Gov- EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 535 eminent should have been to uphold the law against the persecuting populace, about whose unlawful proceedings there could be no doubt whatever ; the gravest error or crime that can, in a civilized country, belaid to the charge A TYPICAL RUSSIAN JEW. of a Government being that of allowing its subjects to take the law into their own hands. With respect to the main offences imputed to the Jews, that of being usurious money lenders, and keeping dram- shops, I must repeat that the fault is not so much. of the Jews' greed and knavery as of the Christians' improvi- 536 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND deuce and intemperance. The peasants of Northern Rus- sia, though there be no Jews among them, are no less ad- dicted to drunkenness, and no less eaten up by debts and mortgages, than peasants of the Southern and Western dis- tricts ; for there are both North and South plenty of Christians ready to lend money on usury and to keep dram-shops. There is nothing more certain than that the Jew, the peddling Jew, has no chance of thriving, except among people whom ignorance and unthrif t deliver into his hands as easy victims. It is not by banishing or exterminating the Jews that Russia can hope to save her poor peasants, but by trying what education may do toward curing a people (to whom no one can deny many fine qualities) of those drunken,, thriftless, and vagrant habits which have always been their besetting sins. There was a time when Jews had a mo- nopoly of the money business in Europe, when kings and princes drew the teeth from the Hebrew's jaws to get at the ducats in his purse. What was the result? The Italians, -Lombards and Tuscans set up in competition. They en- nobled money lending by creating banking houses. They thus beat the Jew with his own weapon, and their names still live in Lombard street and Boulevard des Italiens; and men still write L. s. d. instead of P. s. p. This is a good lesson for the Russian and German Governments to study. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 537 CHAPTER XXXV. I have given, in as succinct form as possible, a descrip- tion of Russian life in ail its phases, as I found it. My trip through that country, made rather as an investigator than tourist, was delightfully pleasant and profitable ; not that I did not encounter serious difficulties or meet with annoying obstacles, for it was my lot to suffer many times from both, but all the unpleasant episodes and positions which jeopardized my safety only served to make the result, as a whole, more enjoyable. I have written of Russia and Siberia at times both facetiously and solemnly, but always with frankness, and, so far as my judgment permitted, truthfully. It is most difficult to write of a country (covering the scope which I have undertaken in this work) while ignorant of the language used by its people, because information received through interpreters must always have about it the suspicion which usually attaches to second-hand stories. But I have exercised much care and discrimination, so that I have no hesitation in reaffirming and declaring the truth of every statement herein made. Russia is the most remarkable as well as the largest o nation on the earth ; her history is wonderful, because it recounts so many wars with barbaric hordes ; claiming to be a great civilized power, yet her civilization is of a doubtful character ; nor can we review the influences by which she is surrounded and expect Russia to be more progressive with the spirit of education and that uplift- ing force of science which dazzles all creation with intel- ligence ; to the south she has Turkey, with which nation Russia has become partially amalgamated in spirit by reason of the bitter wars that have waged between them ; 538 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND on the southeast is Persia and the Caucasus, and upon the east are the wild tribes of Siberia and contiguous countries. With these ferocious races Russia has been at war since she became a nation, and the contests have ever been conducted upon barbaric principles. Visitors to the museum at St. Petersburg will not fail to see pre- served in jars of alcohol, and mounted in glass cases, several heads that have been struck off by imperial orders, from the bodies of traitors or enemies to Russia. These ghastly trophies are actualty paraded in the capital as an exhibition of Muscovite valor, but what better ex- ample of barbarism can be found than they afford ; or what better proof do we require to establish the asser- tion that Russia is a barbaric nation in the swaddling clothes of civilization ? The Government of Russia is fashioned after unen- lightened Suzerainties, to be found nowhere except in Pagan countries. The word Czar comes from Caesar, but even the great power of Caesar could not compare with that now exercised by Russia's ruler. Not only is the Czar exalted above all temporal attributes, but his name must perforce be mentioned with that awesome re- gard which the faithful Moujik pays to God. No coun- try has so much law as Russia, yet the first sentence in her code is this : " The Czar is above all law." It does not even say. " Czar, by the grace of God," as they do in England, because, like the Pope of Rome, Russia's sovereign is both a temporal and spiritual ruler, if not equal to God, at least one of His chief counselors. This is all barbarism, which is inversely developed into more inordinate Paganism by a prohibition of secular freedom and the exaltation of a particular creed whose very essence is ignorance and superstition. Shackled by faith in ancient ceremonials, bound fast EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 539 by gyves of church discipline, divested of the robes of intelligence, confined in the damp, foul, pestilential at- mosphere of slavery to rulership, blinded by fanatical prejudices and worse than fanatical religion, hedged about with intolerance, poverty-stricken with a debt created by church indulgences, utterly lacking in homo- geneity, injustice and corruption permeating every de- partment of the Government, how shall Russia raise her- self from under such grievous burdens and set her eyes toward a civilization such as other Christian nations en- joy? I am sorry to say it, but the fact is so apparent that none may misconstrue the events now taking place the future of Russia is in Nihilism ; if this bloody power does not purge the nation and give it a new growth, then we cannot predict any further than the dismemberment of the Empire and its gradual absorption into other powers. Civilization is spreading rapidly eastward, it cannot stop or go around Russia, and whether with bayonet or psalm- book the march will be made through every part of the Czar's dominions ; resistance will be like a shadow fight- ing the storms, only that to resist as a nation will be to destroy every vestige of Muscovite Imperialism and leave her as another Babylon ; or, to use a more moderate illus- tration, like Poland, that has been so voraciously swal- lowed and digested by her. The Nihilists, aside from their inchoate condition and lack of objective cohesion that concentrates revolutionary parties under acknowledged leadership, are prompted by policies and apprehensions at strange variance with the object they ostensibly have in view. In this observation I have reference to that prime Nihilistic faction which aims at liberalism and a radical reformation of the Gov- ernment, which shall have some elements of democracy in 540 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND it. They confidently believe that these reforms can be obtained through a process of terrorization, particularly by assassination. That this is a fallacy is proved by the repeated failures which have followed its adoption in nearly every country of both hemispheres since history began to record the deeds of men. The first logical step toward securing enlarged liber- ties to the people of E-ussia, is education of the masses ; not alone education in science, but in politics as well, a mind development that will subvert the Greek Church, which is a ban of barbarism almost as rank and more de- basing than Shamanism. To-day the peasantry of Russia are not prepared for liberty, which is to them no more than a jewel before swine ; so long as the poten- tentiality of the Church continues absorbing a revenue doubly in excess of governmental expenditures, and im- posing a yoke of servitude upon its subjects more galling than ever a Romish Pope devised, so long must Russians suffer. ' Abuses of the aristocracy and impe- rialism are made possible by the Church, whose dic- tatorial mandates are written to publish the Czar's pleasure and to set up a fear of the devil for the coercion of those who might otherwise think for themselves. Liberalize the Church and a liberalization of the Gov- ernment would be certain to follow. The Greek Church forbids its subjects thinking, while the Government de- nies its subjects the exercise of a voice in public affairs ; that power which oppresses the mind is ten-fold more injurious than that which prescribes the acts of men ; hence, 1 repeat, the first important step toward re- forming Russia must be directed to the curtailment of the Church power and influence, so that her peasantry may be free from superstitions and be made to understand that they have a mind which God intended they should USQ for themselves, EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 541 But the obstacles which now so seriously hinder Russia's advancement are no greater perhaps than those that have obstr ucted civilization in all other countries ; hence, we cannot resist the belief that she, too, will ad- vance by gradual steps and finally become established as a free and fully enlightened government. If we may look forward to the time when Russia shall develop into a republic, or even a limited mo narchy, we may behold in her not only a greater power than now, but we may also observe her growth into a government absolutely peerless, and more nearly in competition with the United States than, any other nation ever can be. Already, with all of Russia's drawbacks, she contests with America in agricultural production and in feeding foreign nations, and were her possible resources fully developed by im- proved machinery and well-applied industry she would produce enough wheat, corn, potatoes, rye, barley, etc., to shut our cereals entirely out of the European market. The revolution in Russia means not only the downfall of autocracy and the breaking up of those customs which aggrandize a few by the impoverishment of many, but it also means, though indefinite and doubtful under Nihi- listic policy, an enforced recognition of agriculture as the prime factor in national existence; it means encourage- ment to industry of every chara cter and the subversion of every element in the Government that is hurtful to the masses. Thousands of Russians have long despaired of reforms being granted that would enlarge their liberties, and for the first time in the history of that country there is a considerable emigration from Russia, not an inconsid- erable part of the hegira being directed toward America. I have always considered it an ill-advised policy to throw out flattering invitations to all dissatisfied 542 KUSSIAN NIHILISM AND foreigners to make their homes with us, but since the policy is in active operation I must say that no class of immigrants would be more valuable to America than Russians ; they are patient, honest, and, when put upon their resources, very industrious ; no people are less ad- dicted to disturbance, their amiable qualities, indeed, being almost phenomenal. Raised in subjection to an aristocracy, the peasantry seem to expect the treatment of slaves ; they will submit to any indignity from those whom they regard their superiors, and their confidence is easily gained ; they are faithful to any trust, and consid- ered in all their peculiarities they are the most humble, frugal and deserving people on the earth. Placed upon any of our Western prairies the Russians would thrive greatly, though in their own country, where land is al- most superabundant, they make little progress and mani- fest a shiftlessness that is most reprehensible. But this is due to causes lhave already explained in describing the facts and results of serf manumission. Wherever a Russian possesses absolute proprietary interests he inva- riably prospers, nor does he exhibit any disposition to idleness. Though Russia may, and doubtless soon will become the most dangerous competitor we can ever have, yet America cannot help feeling a friendly interest in her prosperity ; we cannot afford to forget the kind offices extended us by Russia in the most distressing era of our national life. The two Alexanders have always been our friends, and to-day the subjects of no other nation are so warmly welcomed in the Empire and so considerately treated by all Russians as are those of America. To say " I am an American," in St. Petersburg, is almost like the open sesame of Ali Baba ; it is enough, and to all such JRussiq, extends u most hospitable welcome.. EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 543 It has been in no contentious or prejudiced spirit that I have written of Russia as semi-barbaric ; so far from using the term as one of reproach I have employed it rather to excuse the manifest faults of the Empire, the faults of the son as seen in the father, the faults of train- ing, which are as natural and similar as the blood of consanguinity. The growth of Russia toward liberalism is slow, but it is, nevertheless, apparent. Her greatest scientists, poets, philosophers, are of the present century ; her greatest newspapers and manufactories are of to-day ; her finest churches were built many, many years ago, and her priesthood has lost the respect of the masses. Are not these gratifying evidences of improvement? These were my reflections while in Russia, which have been strengthened by a further consideration of the sub- ject since, but while thinking of Russia's future I cannot help feeling sympathy for poor Poland, whose subjuga- tion is Russia's greatest disgrace. Suffering Poland! distress has been the price of her patriotism, and though she struggled with a bravery almost unparalled yet her struggles were like those of Spartacus and the heroic Thracians, for now she lies as one dead at the feet of liberty. Before leaving Warsaw I remembered my promise made tc the exile in his lonely hut near Yeniseisk, and determined to fulfil it. I therefore persuaded the man- agers of the Hotel Victoria to address a letter, in Rus- sian, to the exile's wife at Micahow, and to fill it with many endearing words, which I thought would convey the feelings of the exile toward one whom I was sure he still loved devotedly. Nothing could have afforded me more pleasure than to have witnessed the effect produced by this letter, if it was received by the wife : but as my 544 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND curiosity in this direction must ever remain unsatisfied, I will still take delight in thinking of the happiness I caused the poor exile and the possible pleasure my act may have given his wife. Having spent nearly one week in Warsaw, and gathered all the information available for my purposes, I prepared to leave for London by way of Vienna and Paris. Before departing, in company with a guide, 1 went to an ex- change office in Warsaw to convert my Russian money into Austrian florins. As all the exchange dealers in the place are Jews, I of course went into the Israelitish quar- ters and was conducted to what my guide declared was the largest and most reliable broker in Warsaw. If the guide had omitted to tell me this, I would certainly have inclined to the belief that this same broker was a lean and hungry apothecary ; his place was shabby in the ex- treme ; there was a rickety counter behind which, on the grimy walls, were shelves stored with phials and old greasy packages ; an old Jew, of marked features, cov- ered up in a long overcoat and with an immense muffler around his neck, sat on a stool waiting for customers. He appeared very glad when we entered, evidently in an- ticipation of a few copecks, and bowed so graciously that he quite impressed me, but 1 could only return his salu- tation by a nod of the head and by smiling familiarly. My guide did all the talking, and effected an ex- change of one hundred roubles, the rest of my money being in English pound notes. When we got back to the hotel I made a calculation of what I should have received in the exchange and found that the sagacious and con- descending old fellow had discounted me so that I was one florin short. I was so well satisfied that the broker had knowingly swindled me that, with the guide, I imme- diately returned and had my interpreter explain the EXILE LIFE IN SIBERIA. 545 shortage ; whereupon, without any discussion of the matter, the Jew gave me another florin, with a look which plainly told that he knew it all the time, and had only experimented to see if I would find it out. The train service between Warsaw and Vienna is excel- lent, much better than I found it in any other part of the continent. The sleeping cars are made into compart- ments large enough to accommodate only two persons, and since travel between the two cities is not usually great, a compartment to one's self is easily obtained with- out extra cost. These accommodations are even more exclusive than the staterooms in Pullman sleepers, while the upholstery is much more luxurious. My trip down to Vienna was a very pleasant one, with two exceptions : about one o'clock at night I was rudely awakened by a man who pounded viciously at the door of my compart- ment, and when I let him in his actions and speech were such that I thought he was a train-robber. He spoke Russian, and of course I had to rely on his gestures. After thumping around for some time, he grabbed my valise and began to wrench at it until I was on the point of giving him the bounce or being bounced myself , when the sleeping-car conductor made his appearance, and, as he spoke German, I was soon made acquainted with the fact that we had arrived at Granitza, on the Russian frontier, where the passport examiner inspected the papers of all persons leaving Russia. I got out my passport, to which was attached, by large red seals, my Siberian podorojna, and also a special order from the Russian Government requesting all officers to facilitate my pur- poses and to give me any aid I might require. Seeing these special privilege papers, the examining officer took off his hat to me as though he had just discovered that I was a prince or king in undress, and gave me a five-*. 546 RUSSIAN NIHILISM AND minute speech of apology. I now tumbled into bed and was not long in reaching a sound sleep again, but at three, A. M., I was frightened out of rny slumber by another kicking at my stateroom door and a yelling all along the line. Great guns ! I thought, are we attacked by brigands, thrown off abridge, or in a dreadful smash-up? "Zollbeamte! " (Custom-officer,) cried a voice at the door. " Well, you need not make such an outrageous racket about it, if you are," I answered. " I have nothing duti- able, so pass on to the next customer." This made the Austrian custom officer red-hot, so to speak, for I now understood that we had passed out of Russia and were at Shtchakova, the first station in Austria, and levity before an Austrian is worse than a red flag in France. He pounded with increased gusto until I opened the door and showed him a small satchel filled with manuscripts and second-hand books. At sight of these he gave me a fierce look and then pasted a double eagle on my bag and shot out of the room as though he had lost a great deal of precious time with me. Thus I left Russia and entered new dominions. The matter is foreign to my subject, but as it is a part of rny experience, I wish to s^iy that the trip from Vienna to Paris is about as uncomfortable as stupidity can make it. I engaged a sleeping-car berth of the International Wagon Lits, and was assigned to a small compartment in which there were already three others. The room was so' small that only two persons could sit in it at the s:i:^ time, so we had to take turns in standing in the passage- way. At Stuttgart, which is about intermediate between Vienna and Paris, a common link coupling, which con- nected our sleeper with the train, broke, and most aston- ishing to relate, the sleeping-car was abandoned, because EXILE LIFE IX SIBERIA. 547 a new link was not obtainable. Thence we rode into Paris in a third-class car, because there was no room in the others. This trip was almost as harassing as my journey from Ekaterineburg to Irkoutsk, but it taught me why people go to Europe to spend their summers ; first, because it is thought to be fashionable ; and second, because the accommodations of every character through- out the continent are so execrable, if not horrible, that after spending a few weeks in Europe it is like stepping out of the back door of hades into the front parlor of heaven to get back to America again ; it teaches us how to appreciate our own country. UNIVERSITY OF CAT jFm>*" - RY low. U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES M49151 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY