;op,2 1 , i ^ - v 1 _ _^^ j- ■■-— 33 — ^i = ^ 1 — - o I - '"^^^ f— 1 1 ^^^____ ....-■ .1 I s 1 L M 1 J *m ^H- — r *■ j . -— -*. - T-, o — 1^^^— 1 — — 1 " NSTRU MENTATION Ebenezer Prout THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES MUSIC LIBRARY INSTRUMENTATION BY EBENEZER PROUT, Mus. D., B.A. PROFESSOR OF MUSIC, UNIVERSITY OF DUBLIN. BOSTON OLIVER DITSON COMPANY New York Chicago CHAS. H. DITSON & CO. LYON&HEALV Music Library MT no PREFACE. The paucity of books in our language on the subject of Instru- mentation has always appeared to the present writer a matter of surprise. On the Continent many excellent treatises have been published, such as those of Berlioz and Gevaert in French, and of Lobe and Marx in German ; but with the exception of the translations of Berlioz, and of Czerny's " School of Practical Composition " (the third volume of which treats, it must be confessed rather superficially, of orchestration), we have scarcely anything in English beyond such elementary details as may be found in Musical Catechisms. The present Primer is an imper- feet attempt to supply the deficiency. In writing: this book the author has more than once had occasion to remark that under no circumstances can Instrumen- tation be taught from an instruction-book ; and in completing his work he feels this even more keenly than in commencing it. It is by no means with unqualified satisfaction that he looks at the result of his labors. The subject is so rich in details, and there is so much that ought to be said which it has been impossible to say within the limits of a primer, that the author feels that many parts of his subject (especially those discussed in Chapters VI, VII, and VIII) have been dealt with in a manner so summary as to be inadequate to their importance. Want of space must be the excuse — it is hoped not altogether an insuf- ficient one. An apology appears needful for the very fragmentary nature of the quotations given from the scores of the great masters. In many cases these do not exceed three or four measures ; it would have been impossible to render them more complete without greatly enlarging the size of the work. Fortunately so many cheap editions of full scores have recently been published, that (3) 1366011 4 PREFACE. students will be able, without any very considerable outlay, to obtain them for themselves. For this reason, the best known and most easily procurable scores of Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven, have been in many cases merely referred to. instead of quoted. In the selection of illustrative passages the author has been guided by the desire to render his work useful, as far as possible, to those who might have in their libraries other treatises on Instrumentation. He has therefore endeavored to avoid quoting extracts already given by Berlioz and other authors ; and he has in every instance selected examples from scores in his own library, and not from other instruction-books, for the purposes of illustration. It has always appeared to him a curious thing that although Mendelssohn is, from the purity and fine taste displayed in his instrumentation, one of the best possible models for the young composer, hardly any of the .treatises previously published contain so much as one illustration taken from his works. His scores have therefore been somewhat freely drawn upon for the present volume. The author's general plan has been to quote from works less accessible to the student, rather than from those which he could easily procure for himself. It would be dishonest not to acknowledge the many valuable hints which the author has obtained from the treatises of Gevaert and Lobe — two of the best works on Instrumentation ever written. Those who have a knowledge of the French and German languages are strongly advised to consult these books for themselves. They will find there much useful information conveyed in a singularly clear and interesting form. In spite of the care which has been expended on the present book, the author dares not flatter himself that no important inaccuracies or omissions will be found in it. It is indeed almost inevitable that, in a work containing such a multiplicity of details, errors will creep in. EBEXEZER PROUT. TABLE OF CONTENTS. N.B. — The numbers refer to the paragraphs. PAGE Preface > CHAPTER I.— Introductory 9 Amount of knowledge presupposed in student, i — Special requisites : quickness of ear, 2 —imagination, 3— Score-reading, 4 — Practical knowledge, 7. CHAPTER II. — The Stringed Orchestra 13 Bow instruments, 9 — Importance of the strings in the orchestra, 10. The Violin: Compass, &c, 12— Scale passages, 13 — Double string, 14— Chords, 15, 16— Arpeggios, 17— Tremolo, 18 — Phrasing, 19 — Sordini, 20 — Harmonics, 21 — Pizzicato, 22. The Viola : Com- pass, &c, 24, 25 — Quality of tone, 26 — Employment, 27. The Violoncello, 28 — Fingering, &c, 29, 30— Methods of treatment, 31-35. The Double Bass, 36 — Three-stringed, 37 — Four-stringed, 3S — Various tunings, 39 — Specialties of the instrument, 40-42 — Strings in combination, 43, 44— Unison passages, 45 — The pizzi- cato, 46 — Sordini, 47 — Division of parts, 48, 49 — A solo violin with the orchestra, 50. CHAPTER III. — Strings, Oboes, Bassoons, and Horns . . 39 Composition of the modern orchestra, 52 (note) — Ancient and modern scores compared, 53 — Use of wind instruments, 54. The Oboe: Compass, 55 — Easy and difficult passages, 56— The genius of different instruments; special character of the oboe, 57 — Neces- sity for rests, 58. The Bassoon, 59 — Fingering, &c, 60 — Tone and capabilities, 61 — Grotesque effects, 62. The Horn, 64 — Natural notes, 65 — Crooks, 66-68 — Notation, 69 — Compass, 70 — First and second horn parts, 71 — Closed notes, 72 — Changes of key, 74 — Four horns, 75 — The best keys for the horn, 76 — The Valve- Horns, 77-79 — Characteristics of the horn, So — Combination with bassoons, 82 — Employment of horns, 83 — Examples of strings and wind combined, 84-S7. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER IV. — Strings, Wood, and Horns 57 The Flute, 89 — Fingering; shakes, 90 — Quality, 91 — Agility; " double-tongueing," 92 — The Third Flute, 94-96. The Piccolo, 97 — Its employment, 99 — The Clarinet, 101 — Various kinds of clarinets, 102 — Notation, 103, 104 — Differences in quality, 105 — Tone, 107 — Capabilities, 108 — The "small orchestra," 109 — Examples of its use, 110-115. CHAPTER V. — The Full Orchestra 76 Brass and Percussion Instruments, 116 — Use of the brass, 117. The Trumpet: Its natural scale, 119 — Keys and crooks, 120 — High notes in Bach and Handel, 123 — Choice of keys for trumpet, 124 — Tone, 125 — Three trumpets, 126 — The Valve-Trumpet, 127. The Kettle-Drums, 129 — Notation, 130 — The Roll, 131 — Employ- ment, 132 — Tuning, 133 — Solo passages, 134 — Three drums, 137 — Illustrations, 139. The Trombone, 140 — The slide, 141 — Varieties of the trombone, 142 — The Alto Trombone, 143 — The Tenor Trombone, 144 — The Bass Trombone, 145 — Notation of the trombones, 147 — Tone and employment, 148 — Solo passages, 150. The Ophicleide, 152 — Its tone, 153. The Bass-Tuba, 154 — Low notes, 155 — The Bass Drum and Cymbals, 157 — The Triangle, 158 — Peculiar employment of cymbals by Wagner, 159 — Caution against abuse of percussion instruments, 160 — Example of a pas- sage for full orchestra, piano, 161. CHAPTER VI. — Less frequently used Instruments ... 98 The Harp, 163 — Its employment in the orchestra, 164. The Guitar and Mandoline, 165. The Flute and Piccolo in D-flat, 166. The Cor Anglais, 167. The Basset-Horn, 168. The Bass Clarinet, 169. The Serpent, 1 70. The Double Bassoon, 171. The Cornet-d- Pistons, 172. Other brass and percussion instruments, 174. The Organ, 175. The use of the instruments mentioned in this chapter should be exceptional, 176. CHAPTER VII. — On Balance of Tone: Contrast and Color. 106 Mistakes of beginners in Instrumentation, 178 — The position of the parts, 179 — Illustrations ot balance of tone, 180, 181 — The middle parts not to be too thin, 182 — Exceptions, 183 — Illustration: dif- ferent scorings of a common chord, 184, 185 — Contrast, 1S6 — Examples analyzed, 187-190 — Orchestral coloring, 191. CHAPTER VIII. — The Instrumentation ok Vocal Musrc . . 115 Relative importance of voices and orchestra, 192, 193 — Exceptions to general principle, 194 — Clearness and contrast, 195— Strings form the best groundwork for accompaniment, 196 — Example, 197 — The voice accompanied by pizzicato, 198 — Duet for a voice and instrumental part, 199 — Relative positions of voice and accom- paniment, 200 — Wind instruments as an accompaniment to the voice, 201-203 — The accompaniment of recitative, 205 — The harp, 206 — The instrumentation of choruses, 207 — Breadth of effect, 20S — The strict style, 209 — Unaccompanied voices, 210 — The organ in choruses, 21 1-213 — The harmonium, 214 — Example for chorus and full orchestra, 215. TABLE OF CONTENTS. 7 PAGE CHAPTER IX. — The Orchestration ok Concertos, and other Instrumental Solos 128 General principles, 216 — Treatment of the solo instrument, 217 — Concertos for one or more instruments; the piano, 218 — Examples, j!r) — Violin concertos, 220 — Concertos for wind instruments, 221. CHAPTER X. — General Principles: Conclusion . . . .134 Writing practically ; avoidance of undue difficulties, 224 — Interesting the performers, 225 — Clearness, 226 — Each group of instruments to make correct harmony, 227 — Noise, 228 — The use of ventil instruments, 229 — Writing for a small orchestra, 230 — Gevaert on the ancient and modern school of Instrumentation, 231 — The best models for study, 232 — Conclusion, 233. APPENDIX. — The Order of the Instruments in a Score . . 139 Index of Illustrations 143 INSTRUMENTATION. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTORY. 1 . As the study of Instrumentation may be regarded as one of the highest branches of musical art, a considerable amount of knowledge on the part of the student will be presupposed throughout this book. No one can hope to write for an orchestra with any chance of success who has not obtained a thorough mastery of harmony and composition. He ought to be able to write with ease and correctness in four, five, and even more distinct parts; further than this, if he wishes to attempt the higher class of instrumental works (or of vocal works with orchestral accompaniments) he ought to have counterpoint, single and double, canon and fugue, so to speak, at his fingers' ends. If the height of his ambition is to score a polka, a waltz. or a march, for orchestra, he may indeed dispense with these last-named acquirements ; but if he would write a symphony, an overture, a cantata, or an oratorio, he may be well assured that without mastery of the technique of his art the most brilliant orchestration will not save his work. 2. Assuming then that the student comes to the study of Instrumentation with the requisite preliminary training in theo- retical subjects, there are certain special qualifications which he must acquire (if he have not already done so) before pro- ceeding: to write for the orchestra himself. Foremost among* these is quickness of ear. By this is meant the power of recog- nizing the tone of every instrument in the orchestra, whether heard singly or in combination. When he hears a melody in the orchestra, he ought to be able to tell at once by what instru- ment or combination of instruments it is being played. This, it should be added, is not always entirely possible ; because the parts are frequently doubled without anything being per- ceptibly added to the general effect. If, for instance, in a large (9) IO INSTRUMENTATION. orchestra the violins are playing fortissimo, and one flute is playing in unison with them, the probability is that the latter instrument would not be heard at all, and that the quickest ear would detect no difference if the player stopped. In a piano passage the difference would be audible at once. Such cases as this are, however, comparatively rare ; and the student should practice himself in picking out the various tones from the tangled web of sound which the modern symphony will present to his ear. 3. Closely connected with the power just named is another, no less indispensable — that imaginative faculty which enables the musician to hear at will in his mind's ear the tone of any instru- ment or combination of instruments. When, by listening to orchestral performances, he has become thoroughly familiar with the tone of each instrument, he will find it a useful exercise to imagine for himself a simple melody (such, for example, as the first line of "God save the Queen ") played on the various instru- ments, first singly, and then in various combinations — e.g., violin and flute in unison, violin with flute the octave above, oboe and clarinet in unison, oboe and flute in octaves, clarinet and bassoon in octaves — and soon ad infinitum. He may then try to hear a four-part common chord in various qualities — for strings alone, strings doubled by oboes and bassoons, clarinets and bassoons alone, &c, &c. These and similar exercises may at first appear difficult ; but if the student has a natural aptitude for orchestration, and sufficient perseverance, the difficulty will vanish. 4. Another most necessary qualification for the learner is the power of reading from score. Without this absolutely nothing can be done. For the sake of those who have not made this branch of their art a special study, a few words as to the easiest method of acquiring it may not be out of place. It may be pre- sumed that a quartett or quintett score offers no difficulty ; but should such be the case, the study should begin with some of Haydn's quartetts, followed by Mozart's string quintetts, and then by the more elaborate quartetts of Beethoven and Men- delssohn. With orchestral music, it will be best to commence with Haydn's symphonies, because in these the string quartett is generallv the most important part; and the student will accustom himself to seeing at a glance where the wind instru- ments merely double the strings, and where they have independent parts. Haydn's "Creation," may be recommended as the next "4ep, and then, if possible, the operas of Gluck, which are not only most instructive, but comparatively very easy to read. The scores of Mozart should come next in order; then those of Beethoven. The more modern composers — Weber, Mendelssohn, erbeer &c. should not be studied until later, because of INTRODUCTORY. II their greater complexity : probably the most difficult scores in existence to read are those of Berlioz and Wagner.* 5. Before proceeding further, it will be well to say as clearly as possible that Instrumentation can under no circumstances be thoroughly learned from an instruction-book alone. The com- binations of the orchestra are absolutely exhaustless ; fresh effects are constantly being discovered, and there are many points which can only be found out by actual experience. Many things which look well on paper sound very ineffective when submitted to the test of actual performance ; while, on the other hand, many passages sound in the orchestra much better than they look in the score. It is only possible in a work of this kind to teach general principles, as exemplified in the works of the great masters ; to which will be added such practical hints as it is hoped may be found useful. 6. Let us suppose that the student has acquired the power of score-reading, but (as is not improbable) has only an imperfect conception of the actual effect of the combinations which his eye takes in ; the next thing is to acquire the imaginative power spoken of above. For this object the method suggested by J. C. Lobe, in the second volume of his " Composition." may be strongly recommended. Let the student take the score of some work which he has a reasonable prospect of hearing played (for instance, one of Beethoven's symphonies, or Haydn's "Crea- tion") and study it carefully, especially trying to realize in his mind the effect of the various combinations ; then let him take the score with him to performance, and follow it closely, com- paring what he had imagined with what he hears, and thus veri- fying or correcting his previous impressions ; lastly, let him after the performance, while the recollection is still fresh, read the score again, to fix in his memory what he has heard. One of the greatest masters of instrumentation that has ever lived. Hector Berlioz, has said that it was in this way he learned to write for the orchestra : and the author of the present book can add his own testimony to the complete success of the method, if conscientiously carried out. 7. There are still two more hints to be given to the student. It is most desirable that, if possible, he should have at least a slight practical acquaintance with orchestral instruments, especially with the strings. Violin-players often complain that modern composers write " pianoforte passages " for them. They are played, it is true ; but they are mostly ineffective ; and even * It will be well to inform students that editions of the most important full scores of Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Weber, and Mendelssohn, have recently been published at extremely low prices by Peters, of Leipzig. It is therefore now possible, even for those of small means, to obtain a sufficient number of scores for the purposes of study. 1 2 INSTRUMENTATION. a little knowledge of the violin will be of the greatest assistance to the composer in orchestral writing. So also with the wind instruments. If the student can play nothing more than a scale on the flute, oboe, clarinet, or bassoon, it will be an advantage ; while some acquaintance with the theory, if not with the practice, of the brass instruments will often save him from writing in- effectively for that important part of the orchestra. Again, let him cultivate, as far as possible, the acquaintance of orchestral players. These gentlemen are mostly very willing to give infor- mation with regard to their instruments, and many valuable details may be learned in this way, which are not to be met with in ordinary instruction-books. S. A few words must be added on the system adopted in the present book. Instead of commencing with a catalogue of all the instruments used in the modern orchestra, and probably con- fusing the student's mind by the multiplicity of details involved, it has been thought better to begin with an orchestra of strings alone, and to teach first how they are to be used. The various wind instruments are then added by degrees to the strings, until at length the full orchestra is reached. The subjects of balance of tone and contrast will then be treated ; next the instrumenta- tion of vocal music, and of concertos, and other instrumental solos ; and a few general principles will conclude the volume. CHAPTER II. THE STRINGED ORCHESTRA. 9. Although the term " stringed instrument" may properly be applied to such instruments as the harp, the guitar, and the pianoforte, it is always understood that by the " strings" of an orchestra are meant merely the instruments played with a bow. Those in ordinary use in our modern orchestras are the violin, the viola, the violoncello, and the double-bass. Mam - other varieties of these instruments, which were formerly known under the general name of " viols," are to be found in the works of the old masters. Bach, for instance, employs the viol/no piccolo, the viola d' amore, the viola da gamba* and the violoncello piccolo* none of which instruments are now in use, though Meyerbeer in the first act of " Les Huguenots," has written an obbligato for a viola d'amore which, it may be added, is more often than not plaved upon an ordinary viola. The four kinds of instruments named above are the only ones with which the student will need to be acquainted. 10. A thorough knowledge of the capabilities of the strings is one of the very first requisites for writing for the orchestra. For many reasons the most important share of the work is always allotted to them. The tone of the wind instruments palls upon the ear much sooner than that of the strings. Again, in writing for the latter it is not needful to allow rests for taking breath — an important consideration with the wind. Practically, string- plavers can continue uninterruptedly for any reasonable time without fatigue. The quality of the strings blends well with everv other instrument or with voices : rapid passages, if judi- ciously written, can be played with very little difficulty ; and finally, it is far easier to get very delicate pianissimo effects from the strings than from the wind. These are some of the numer- ous reasons which have influenced the greatest composers in treating this section of the orchestra as the foundation of the whole instrumental structure. 1 1 . Before speaking of the various combinations to be obtained from strings alone, it will be needful to explain the compass of the various instruments, and the peculiar features which each presents. 12. I. The Violix. — This instrument has four strings, tuned in fifths : — jg ISt. 2nd. icz 3rd. =?- 4th. (13) '4 INSTRUMENTATION. Its compass for orchestral playing is from the open G of the A b C | fourth string to- $ or even I including all the semitones. Occasionally even higher notes are written for the violin ; for example, at the end of the Notturno in the " Midsummer Night's Dream," Mendelssohn has written — Sva. § The cases, however, in which such extreme notes should be in- troduced are rare ; and for ordinary purposes it will be safer not to go beyond A or at most B. Even with these notes the stu- dent will do well to remember that they are best approached gradually, and not with a sudden change of position, e.g. : — Ex. i. -^ m Here the passage (a) would be so difficult, owing to the sudden change in the position of the player's hand, that its correct intonation in the orchestra would be almost impossible. On the other hand (6) would give not the slightest trouble, because scale passages are perfectly safe. The skip of a twelfth at the close would also be quite easy, because E is the open note on the first string ; and even if another note, such as D or F, were substituted, there would still be no danger, because it could be played in the first position.* * The first position is that in which the hand is placed on the finger-board, close to the nut, so that the fingers stop the strings in such a way as to sound on each string the four notes of the scale leading up to the note sounded by the next open string above : — Ex. 2. ist string. 01234 4th string. 0123 ^ 4~i-^-^ * 3d string. 3 S=3fc 2nd string. 01234 PE »—0- 3= nnn Here o indicates the open string (i.e., not pressed by the finger), and 1, 2, 3, 4 show the fingering of the scale in the first position. It will be seen that the notes — ( r^ can be played in two ways, either as open or stopped notes; a point which it will be needful to remember hereafter. THE STRINGED ORCHESTRA. '5 13. All kinds of scale passages will be practicable on the violin ; but chromatic scales are much more difficult than diatonic. They are sometimes written in rapid passages (for example, in Rossini's overture to " Guillaume Tell ") , but they should be sparingly used in this way, less because of their difficulty than of their compar- ative ineffectiveness. 14. Double notes can, with some exceptions, be played on the violin ; there are, however, some combinations which are im- possible, and others which are difficult. Of the former may be named (1) all double notes below — Thus — #^ would be quite impracticable, because both notes can only be plaved on the fourth string; while — ^m would be perfectly easy, as will be seen by referring to the scale fingering given in Ex. 2. Provided that both notes are not on the fourth string only, all seconds, thirds (major and minor), fourths, fifths, sixths, sevenths and octaves are possible, but in orchestral writing it will be judicious to use chiefly . c uch as can be played in the first position : — Ex. 3. .- 1^— wm i m P ^MU V) (<-). m P4tf &££ S J- r - j. j r Here all the double notes given under (a) are perfectly easy and safe ; those at (/>) , though quite practicable, are a little less certain, especially if the player has suddenly to leave the first position to take them ; while those at (c) would be so excessively difficult that no composer of judgment would think of intro- ducing them in orchestral music. It should be added that all i6 INSTRUMENTATION. intervals greater than the octave should be avoided, unless the lower of the two notes is one of the open strings G, D, or A, in which case there is no difficulty, e.g. : — Ex. 4. f *E: F Weber. Overture, "Oberon." PP ■3=- i ~Z?- It must also be remembered that rapid successions of double notes are best avoided, because of the difficulty of the sudden changes of fingering. 1 c; . After what has just been said, it will be readily understood that chords of three or four notes are also practicable on the violin, if due regard is paid to the fingering and to the position of the chords. It may be taken as a rule that those chords are best, both as regards sonorousness of tone and ease of execution, which contain at least one open note. Thus this chord — is not only very easy but very effective, while this — «- is simply impossible. Here the G is the fourth (open) string ; the lower E-flat must be stopped on the D string, and the B-flat on the A string ; but as the upper E-flat is lower than the open note (E-natural) of the first string, and a higher sound but not a lower can be obtained on a string by stopping, the chord is im- practicable. If the B-flat be omitted, the upper note can be played with ease on the A string. The following rule will be a guide for the student in this matter : All chords arc. impossible which contain three notes below the open string A or four below the open string E. 16. A few more examples of impossible chords may be given : — ^M id) (c) I (/) -1 («■) rf^ si :i If the student will refer to the fingering for the first position given in Ex. 2 (Sect. 12, note) he will see that both the chords (a) THE STRINGED ORCHESTRA. 17 and {5) are unplayable. The lower note, A, can only be taken with the first finger ; but no other finger can reach the F-sharp on the first string. In an arpeggio, as at (c) , the passage would be quite easy, because the finger can move from one string to the other quickly enough. Again, the chord (d) is impossible, because B must be played on the fourth string, D is too far away to be stopped on the third string ; and though it is easy to stop it on the second, the bow cannot jump from the fourth to the second string. By adding a note for the third string, as at (e) , (y), the chord becomes perfectly easy. At (g) is shown a suc- cession of chords which, without being impossible, would be very hazardous except in slow tempo, owing to the sudden change in the position of the hand. It will be well for the student to restrict himself almost entirely to the use of chords which can be played in the first position. With the explanations just given, and a careful study of Ex. 2, he will have little difficulty in knowing which to avoid. 17. It has been seen from Ex. 5 (<5),(c), that a chord the notes of which cannot be all struck at once may be quite possible in arpeggio. It may be said, in general terms, that any arpeggio is practicable which does not contain too wide intervals. A little consideration of the table of fingering will easily show whether any proposed passage is easy or difficult. Some experience will be required, and here especially a practical knowledge of the violin will be found valuable ; for, though reference has chieflv been made to the first position, it would be a mistake to infer that any passage which cannot well be plaj cd in this position is therefore necessarily difficult. We cannot , however, spare the space to discuss this question here ; the student must refer to some " Violin Tutor" for the requisite information. 18. Repeated notes in moderately quick time, as in the following — Ex. 6. are not only perfectly easy but effective. The same may be said of the tremolo, which, however, should not be too long continued ; not only because it would be monotonous, but because if of too great duration it would become tiring to the player. In writing a tremolo the composer must be careful to indicate exactly what he requires, thus, the following — in a rapid movement would be performed as a tremolo; but in sn 1 8 INSTRUMENTATION. andante or adagio it would not be so played ; it should then be written — and even then it would perhaps be safer also to add tremolo or trcm. over the part.* 19. Any possible variety of phrasing is practicable on the violin. It is important for the student to remember that the phrasing ought in all cases to be clearly indicated, not only for the violin, but for all other instruments; because orchestral players, if no phrasing is marked, invariably detach every note. 20. Sordini (mutes) are little instruments made of wood or brass, which when placed on the bridge of the violin deaden the sonorousness in a remarkable degree, and produce a thin veiled tone difficult to describe, but perfectly familiar to all listeners to orchestral music. Their employment is indicated by the words eon sordini ; and when their use is desired, the composer must remember to give a short rest to the instruments, to allow the players time to place the mutes on the bridges. About two or three measures of moderate time will be sufficient. For their removal (marked senza sordini) a shorter rest will suffice. 21. Harmonics are sounds which are produced by merely touching the string with the finger, instead of pressing it firmly against the finger-board. By this means tones of a peculiarly clear quality are obtained. It is chiefly in solo-playing that harmonics are employed ; in orchestral music it will be well to use only the touched octave of the four open strings. When harmonics are desired they are indicated thus — o. The four notes just named would therefore be written as follows : — ° -m- °, £ § * — The student who desires full information on harmonics will find it in Berlioz's treatise on Instrumentation. * Another variety of tremolo which may be described as a legato tremolo has been made use of by some modern composers. It is produced by the crossing of two violin parts in rapid motion, thus: — Violino 1. 7K~ Violino 2. It will be seen that both notes are heard in constant iteration, but with & legato unattainable in the ordinary manner. This kind of tremolo has been frequently employed by Wagner. THE STRINGED ORCHESTRA. IO, 22. Sometimes, instead of using the how, the violin-player twitches the strings with the first or second finger of his right hand. This effect is called pizzicato, and is indicated in the score by the abbreviation pizz. The student must remember not to write too rapid passages to be played in this manner, as they would be impracticahle. Where the bow is again to be used, col arco or simply arco is written over the violin part. 23. In the orchestra the violins are usually divided into two parts, one at each side of the conductor. The highest part is in general given to the first violins, though the seconds may occasionally cross above them ; the second violins play the second part of the harmony, the violas the third, and the violon- cellos and double-basses in octaves (as will be explained presently) the fourth part. As the music for the strings is mostly (though by no means invariably) written in four-part harmony, the collective body of stringed instruments is often spoken of, inaccurately but conveniently, as the quartett. The student will remember, if this expression is used hereafter, that it is not meant that each part is played by only one instrument. 24. II. The VioLA(called in English the "Tenor," in French the tk Alto."and in German the "Bratsche"). — This instrument is in reality a larger-sized violin, which in many respects it closely resembles. It has four strings, tuned by fifths, and a perfect fifth lower than those of the violin : — _C2 ISt. "g? 2nd. I :3rd. =T 4th. Music for the viola is always written in the C clef on the third line, excepting when the higher notes would require too many leger lines ; in this case the G clef is used, as for the violin. For orchestral music the practical limit to the compass of the viola is about — . ^ but it is seldom that even this height is reached ; a more common range being to — F 25. All that has been said above with regard to the violin, as to fingering, double notes, chords, arpeggios* tremolo, sordini, pizzicato. Sic. applies equally to the viola. In calculating fin- gerings, &c, it must be remembered that all the illustrations given in Exs. 1, 3, 4. and 5, must for the viola be traiisposed a fifth lower. In order to obtain an additional part to the har- mony, the violas are frequently divided into firsts and seconds. This is indicated either by the word divisi, or by a due (or 20 I XST It U M E N T A T IO N . " a 2")* over the part. Where they are to play together again m/is. (abbreviation of unisoni) should be written. 26. The quality of tone of the viola differs altogether from that of the violin. It is far less brilliant, but richer: and for this reason, when a peculiar effect of coloring is desired, the viola may be written as the highest part in the string quartett. This has been done by Mendelssohn in his air " Lord God of Abraham " in " Elijah," where the melody is chiefly given to the violas ; another interesting example may be seen in the chorale at the beginning of Bennett's overture to " Paradise and the Peri." Here, however, the violins are silent, and the violas are accompanied by the violoncellos in two parts, the double-basses, and the softer wind instruments. 27. Owing to the peculiarly penetrating quality of tone of the violas, it is not needful that in an orchestra they should be as numerous as the violins ; and even when divided their tone will still be sufficiently prominent, if the parts be judiciously written. Sometimes, where a very quiet accompaniment is desired, the bass of the harmony is given to the violas alone, as in the adagio commencing the well-known scena, k * Softly sighs," from the " Freischiitz." Again, a good effect is often obtainable by a four-part harmony for divided violas and violoncellos only. In the followins: extract from Gade's " Crusaders," the student will see not only an excellent example of this method of accompani- ment, but also how a sudden crescendo can be obtained (at the third measure) by adding the violins for only two notes to the other instruments : — Ex. 7. p-=/2 ==- Gade. '" The Crusaders. Violino Violino Viola 1, 2. Basso. Cello 1, 2. < ontrabasso. * It is important to remember that "a 2 "is used in orchestral scores in two precisely opposite ways. If placed over a part (such as the violas) in which all instruments usually play in unison, it is equivalent, as explained in the text, Xodivisi ; but if written over a line in which there are two parts {e.g., the flutes or oboes), it indicates that the two instruments are to play in unison. THE .STRINGED ORCHESTRA. 21 From the following example from Wagner's tw Walkiire," it will be seen that such a method of accompaniment is available in forcible no less than in quiet passages : — Ex. 8. Viola i. Viola 2. Tenor. Cello i. Cello 2. mk te^p m^ Wol f-m- m^ Wagner. " Die Walkiire." -a»- m^EEE^ES^m ^^==1 fe, der war =tSr: mein Va ter: * dim. Ifc^^ P pin. p dim. P piu. p t : w= Mi dim. P. ^z r f ^ Piu. p zwei kam ich der Welt, ei - ne Zwil - lings-schwes- ter und ich dim. Mzz=^ » /' k, ^ dim. P piu. p =F=t t . t If the student examines the above extract, he will see that it would be quite possible, without changing a note, to arrange it for two violins, viola, and violoncello ; but the effect of such a distribution would be quite different from that here obtained. Similar combinations may be frequently met in the works of other modern composers, especially of Mendelssohn ; and the student will do well to analyze them, and note the various and varying effects of the different methods of scoring. He will in this way learn more than could be explained in a dozen pages. The analysis of scores is indispensable for the thorough learning of instrumentation. 22 INSTRUMENTATION. zS. III. The Violoncello. — L,ike the instruments already noticed, the violoncello has four strings tuned by fifths, an octave lower than the viola : — <& »«* AAAm j0 0)J 0000 Ex. 16. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Violoncello e Basso. Mozart. Symphony in G minor. As in previous examples, the two violin parts are printed on one stave, to save space. The student will remember that each in scores is written on a separate line. In the quotation from the overture to "Don Giovanni" it will be seen that there is only three-part harmony till the last measure but one, the violas and violoncellos playing in unison. The passage also affords an example of harmony without the double-basses (Sect. 32). In Ex. 16 we see a four-part harmony with the melody doubled in the octave by the second violins. The passage is also an early instance of the division of the violas mentioned in Sect. 2=5. On the other hand, by the use of the "double string" (Sect. 14) harmony in five or six parts is often obtained from strings alone. Examples may be found in nearly every modern score. 3° INSTRUMENTATION. 44. Owing to the general resemblance in the quality of tone on the different stringed instruments, it is possible to divide an extended passage between the various parts without any marked change of tone-color. This will be seen from the following example : — Ex. 17. Violino 1. Yiolino 2. Viola. Violoncello. Andante con mato Beethoven. Overture. "Leonora," No. 1. I tK- ^E^& =^^=^ -£^-*^r ss S[ fr~ : ^?"^~ ;, ~ "3 s *? m BS? A similar passage played by various wind instruments would, owing to the difference of timbre^ produce by no means the same effect. 4^. The whole mass of strings playing in unison {i.e., of course, in unisons and octaves) in a forte ox fortissimo passage is always effective, provided care be taken not to separate the parts too widely. Thus, in the following example — Ex. 18. («) V - »J . 4 $ V. 2. (fir A j. (c) E t * ' ' J- Wz ff Viola. I ff. . ciiio f" e Basso. r m t= m 5= E THK STRINGED ORCHESTRA. 3 » the distribution of parts (at a) is bad, there being an interval of two octaves between the second violin and viola, and the middle being left empty. If the brilliancy of the upper notes is specially required, the parts should be written as at (6) ; while the arrange- ment (c), though less brilliant, would be fuller and more sonorous. A similar remark will apply to passages for strings in full har- mony ; and the student is advised to examine on this point the finale of Beethoven's Symphony in C minor, bearing in mind the general principles here laid down, and observing how they are carried out in the score. 46. The pizzicato of the strings can be used in various ways. Sometimes, as in the following example, we find the whole mass of strings played thus, without any accompani- ment : — Ex. 19. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Violoncello, e Basso. Allegro con fuoco. Mendelssohn. Symphony in C minor (finale). pizz. «" V * > ■" ■" I ^ ^ — * — : F3- — * — * — zE=. pizz. pizz. ^-l -pi -qp n m ? f.zt: * 1 $ SBi=£=tzz£*-- f^—^ -N- ^t? £ £=*^.j* i r-rffr^ $*— =»- g^£ ^— =&Lq (*_«(._ ^ Slp^ 35^: ^ - ^ 1-,^ q_ v - ^ The student should note, in passing, how at the first measure of the above, where the middle part of the harmony goes below the compass of the second violin, the composer helps himself with the viola. Such cases are of frequent occurrence. The pizzi- cato is often used as an accompaniment to a solo, either of the voice or of a wind instrument. The solo part thus stand* 3 2 INSTRUMENTATION. out more clearly than if the strings were played with the bow : — Ex. 20. <"orno 2 in E(7-* Violino i, 2. (u fit's.) Viola, liassi. [utiis.) Moderato. Spohr. Overture, " Jessonda. 3 fizz pizz. S^^^^EgEE^EJJpgHS P ?S ¥tZZ p 4 te 2 &9. ^ ^^^m w |^^=z^z4=g --9* M H* » BgEt EE*EE g^ -* — m- lE ^1 E : F A good instance of this effect may be found in the accompaniment of the tenor song, " Unter bliih'nden Mandelbaumen," in the first act of Weber's tk Euryanthe ;" while another, equally good, though in a totally different style, will be seen in the first movement of the scena, u Ah! quelle unit, " from Auber's " Domino Noir." (See Ex. 84.) A pizzicato accompaniment in a middle part, while the other strings play with the bow, is also sometimes to be met with, e.g. : — Ex. 21. Violino. 1, Violino. 2. Viola. 1 assi. Beethoven. " Prometheus,'' No. 15. Here we have only a three-part harmony; the violas doubling the basses either in the unison or octave ; but the figure of broken * For an explanation of the notation of the horn see Sects. 67, 6S. THE STRINGED ORCHESTRA. 33 chords for the second violin prevents any effect of thinness. Let the student notice also the compactness of the harmony and the position of the various parts. 47. The effect of the sordini has been already referred to (Sect. 20 ). They are chiefly used for the expression either of melan- choly, sometimes mysterious, effects, or of very light fairy-like passages, as, for instance, in the "Queen Mab " scherzo of Berlioz's *' Romeo and Juliet," or the " Dance of Dryads" in Raff's "Im Walde" symphony. They are also very useful in light accompaniments for vocal music. Beethoven fre- quently puts them on the violins and not on the rest of the strings : — Ex. 22. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Bassi. Adagio Jin poco mosso. Beethoven. Concerto in E-flat. Con sordini. i^§= * i • * - Con sordin —^4- -I J— I 1 » 1 U « = 1 ? ftfrf r r r r r t? Bfe SE *• > 1= fizz. 1 1 r r r- & fT~r- & r r r r r cres. re ^§=^ i=?=g ■•-L-* • • cres. MS i ' ^^ m 3 Here the telling notes of the violas on their fourth stiirg always stand out rather prominently through the sounds of the muted violins. The more usual plan is to add sordini for the violas also, and sometimes (though rarely) to the basses. The above quotation gives another example of the pizzicato of the basses as an accompaniment. The next extract will show how 34 INSTRUMENTATION. strings con sordini may be used for the purpose of accompam merit : — Ex. 23. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Voice. Violoncello Basso. Allegro assai. Con sordini. Auber. " Le Domino Noir.' mi-W- &s= && Com sordini. 1 1 Co;? sordini. m. ^ Angele. f^ i- gs l r^ ^ ttfeg -a Ctf« sordini. H£i B2 n =? Ctftt sordini. st 1 L'heu - ne, la nuit tout m'est pro - pi - ce, l=i=eEE^ 1 te^ *F - i=*= -«-*■ t to ^^Ea=T= :: J_-L-L_J. : —I 1 H-w 1 1 ~^ sp «§ ^==y ■=*- fes £& 3fcre^ ^^=j du cou-ra - re, nc tremblonspas, Hfe ^feg^ -rvr ■=£ U^£ E3E J, -?=<- THE STRINGED ORCHESTRA. 35 Though sordini are marked for the double-basses, it is doubttul if they are generally used, as many players do not possess them. The student will notice here the charming effect of the violon- cellos treated as melodic instruments, and moving in sixths below the voice part. 48. In modern compositions the violin parts are frequently divided, generally into two parts each, occasionally into more. Though the effect is as old as the time of Handel, who, in his overture to "Athalia," has four violin parts instead of two, it is curious that it does not seem to have been employed either by Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven. One of the earliest modern instances of its use is probably in die overture to the " Mid- summer Night's Dream " : — Ex. 24. Violino Violino Mendelssohn. Overture, "Midsummer Night's Dream." Allegro di snolto. gggkBBiSBttk m /•>/•> r^D"^: i-sts Sometimes the first violins only are divided, playing in octaves, in order to bring a melody into greater prominence, as in the following passage from the kt Cujus animam" of Rossini's passage "Stabat Mater ":- Ex. 25. Rossini. " Stabat Mater." divisi tes £=§£ Violino 1. .rfafffttt- U^fs: ! (= fc& £* Stc. 36 ixstui v::v:ation. 49. No one has displayed more ingenuity than Wagner in the division of his string- parts. Most musicians are familiar with the ethereal effect obtained in the prelude to k ' Lohengrin " by the division of the violins on the highest part of their scale : — Violino In his later works Wagner has attempted still more compli- cated divisions. For example, in the second act of " Tristan und Isolde" (p. 239 of the full score) the strings are divided into iifteen real parts. Such an elaborate arrangement involves so much practical difficulty in performance, that the student is ad- vised to confine himself to the ordinary division of each part into two, and not even to use this unless for some special effect that cannot be obtained in any other way. The simpler the distribution of the music the better will be the chance of an adequate performance. 50. A solo violin can sometimes be effectively combined with the other strings ; not so much as an obligato instrument Tin; STRINGED ORCHESTRA. o/ throughout a movement, but, so to speak, incidentally, and fur a particular passage. Of the treatment of the violin as a solo instrument we shall speak hereafter (Chap. IX). The following passage will illustrate what is here meant : — • Ex 2 7 Poco L-ntt S( HUMANK. Symphony i;i D mine Violino Solo. Violino i. Violino 2. Viola. Violoncello- Basso. p dot. . jl V -1 JL V ± divisi. Z* =fi*= _r ^=--$ gq ^ Pizz. The score of this passage also contains parts for horns and bassoons; but as these merely reinforce the harmony by doub- ling some of the middle parts, they are omitted, t > save space. The student will notice that in the last measure but one the accidental sharp to G appears twice in the viola part. It is important to remember that whenever two parts are written on the same stave (as here, or with most wind instruments) it is 3S INSTRUMENTATION. needful that all accidentals should be marked in both parts, because the copyist is almost certain to write each on a sepa- rate stave. Another good example of a violin solo may be seen near the close of the slow movement of Brahms's Symphony in C minor. 51. It is hoped that the student will by this time have some idea of the treatment of the strings of the orchestra as a separate mass. In our next chapter we shall endeavor to point out how to combine them in various ways with the wind. It must not be forgotten that, after all, the strings are the foundation of the orchestra ; and upon the way in which the composer has written for them will very largely depend the effectiveness, or the reverse, of his music. CHAPTER III. STRIXGS, OBOES, BASSOONS, AND HORNS. 52. To the stringed instruments, with which the student is by this time acquainted, we shall now add by degrees the various wind instruments which form so important a part of the modern orchestra : and we shall begin with oboes, bassoons, and horns, which when combined with the strings give the complete instru- mental force in general use at the end of the last century.* 53. If we compare a modern orchestral score with one of a hundred years ago, we shall find that the chief difference lies not so much in the number of wind instruments used as in the method of their employment. In Handel's scores, for example, though occasional solo passages for the wind are to be met with, yet these instruments usually double the string paits in unison. The music of Bach is so polyphonic that his scores are exceptional ; and though the wind instruments certainly have independent parts, they are very seldom treated in the modern fashion. The modern school of orchestration may be said to have been founded by Haydn, improved by Mozart, and perfected by Beethoven and Weber. The additions to our resources which have been made since the time of Beethoven have consisted rather of the intro- duction into the orchestra of new instruments than of anv important modification in the treatment of those previously employed. 54. Wind instruments are used in the orchestra in three different ways — as solo instruments, as a separate mass, or combined in various ways with the strings. Examples of each method of treatment will be met with as we proceed ; but it will be needful, before teaching how to combine them, to explain the compass and resources of each. * The modern orchestra in ordinary use contains, besides stringed instru- ments, two flutes, two oboes, two clarinets, two bassoons, two (or four) horns, two (occasionally three) trumpets, three trombones, sometimes also an ophicleide or bass-tuba, besides the percussion instruments (kettle-drums, &c), which, thoi "h not properly wind instruments, are always counted among them. (39) 40 INSTRUMENTATION. 55. The Oboe (Gcr. Hoboe ; Fr. Hautbois). — This impor- tant instrument is played by means of a ''double reed." Its com- pass is from — to ^t 5* Some oboes also possess the lower B-flat, but this note is scarcely ever written for the instrument ; though an instance may be seen in the intermezzo of Mendelssohn's " Midsummer Night's Dream " music. On the other hand, the upper E and F arc of great difficulty, and seldom used except in solo passages. For orchestral writing it will be safest to limit the upward range of the instrument to D or E-flat. 56. The oboe possesses a complete chromatic scale, and music for it is always written in the G clef. From the method of its fingering, some keys are easier than others ; the best are those which have not more than three sharps or flats in the signature. In these keys most ordinary passages, whether chromatic or diatonic, will be tolerably easy of execution. There are certain shakes which, for technical reasons, should be avoided. These are — s tr tr tr tr fr tr tr tr Jr gJ» fN^irSs^P^^i^; and all above the upper D, all of which are either difficult or absolutelv impossible. 57. It has just been said that most ordinary passages are tolerably easy for the oboe ; but it must not be thence inferred that they will necessarily be also effective, or even in all cases suitable for the instrument. Here we meet for the first time with a consideration of the utmost importance in orchestral writing — the necessity of considering the genius of each different instru- ment ; that is, its special peculiarities as regards quality of tone, the manner it combines with other instruments, &c. For exam- ple, the following passage, from the introduction to Haydn's 44 Creation " — -&■ 1 i iii — F i 1 1 CT —. — 1 i 1 1 sss -1 1 1 1 — given in the score to the clarinet, is most effective on that instru- ment ; but if played on the oboe it would sound absurd. The oboe is essentially a melodic instrument; and with very rare exceptions such as the oboe solo in the third entr'acte of Beethoven's " Egmont" music) rapid passages are ineffective on it. But. if properly treated, it is equally useful for the expression STRINGS, OBOES, BASSOONS, AND HORNS. -1* of melancholy, tenderness, and gaiety. A few examples from the works of the great composers will hest illustrate this : — Ex. 28. Schubert. Symphony in C. Oboe 1. Violino 1. Violino 2. Bassi. Andante. t ^•••^- t=^ £fc3 ^ /■> im p ffr 3r-^ — ' 4.4. 4-± x A A A A ' 4 tf=f 1 T till d \ * * * * p gfe^ *=£ =(sq- E^ /9 i ? EiEES mmm = = ^^f* i 5=^ if ceres. d w m ^^ fc F — -=»- Ex. 29. Oboi. Violino 1. Violino 2. Adagio, into. Haydn. "The Seasons." ifc ESSE * » Cantabite. J—tt f* tr except the following, which are either difficult or impossible, and should be avoided : — tr m --« J£ tstr fe£^ t- Shakes at either extreme of the compass of the instrument are impracticable. 61. There is no wind instrument capable of more variety than the bassoon. Rapid passages, if written in favourable keys, and not too much on the lower notes, are easy to play and effective ; e.g., the bassoon solo in the finale of Beethoven's Symphony in B-flat. Sustained melodies in the upper octave are full of expres- siveness ; the tone of the bassoon in this portion of its register has some affinity with that of the violoncello, and also, to a certain extent, resembles a tenor voice : — A ndante con moto. Weber. Mass in G, "Agnus Dei." Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Bassi. m^m 13 — p+ — #*— «- L «— *jf— •V O ■** zF? " 3fc=ft Syi r^ lierlioz, in his "Treatise on Instrumentation," says: "When M. Meyerbeer, in his resurrection of the nuns, wished to find a pale, cold, cadaverous sound, he obtained it from the weak middle notes of the bassoon." The author was evidently not aware that ! Iandel had done precisely the same thing a century before in the scene between Saul and the Witch of Endor. Not only from its historical interest, as a very earl}' instance of the solo employ- ment of the bassoon, but from the excellence of the musical effect, the passage is worth quoting: — 44 INSTRUMKNTATION. Ex. 31. Fagotti. Voice. Bassi. Handel. "Sj l,argo. 1 1 1 1 j JJTH ■&- ' J, r V T 4r** •+J1±.*^BL P -r--H- » »: ^ |S: Samuel. :=U— 6*= ~* < = ,l Why hast thou forced me S^^fe^ 3EEEEEE from the realms of peace back to this world of woe ? m& m ^ f^ =1 ^ 62. For the production of grotesque effects no instrument equals, or even approaches, the bassoon ; it may indeed be called the clown of the orchestra. Good old "•Father Haydn," over- flowing as he was with fun, seems to have been the first to perceive this, and many comic passages for the bassoon will be found in his symphonies. It will suffice to refer to the — .if w for the two bassoons, entirely unaccompanied, in the slow move- ment of the Symphony in D (No. 2 of the " Salomon Set"), as an illustration. Mendelssohn has employed the same instru- ments with excellent effect to accompany the entry of the Clowns in the 1,t Midsummer Night's Dream " music : — Ex. 32 Fagotti. Yinloncello. Mendelssohn. " Midsummer Night's Drea Allegro 1110//0 comodo. (Intermezzo.) STRINGS, OBOES, BASSOONS, AND HORN'S. 45 63. The bassoon is frequently used merely to strengthen the bass. In this capacity it is especially useful when the violon- cellos are separated from the double-basses, as the low notes of the latter, if not reinforced by their upper octave, will frequently be too far removed from the rest of the orchestra ; and the tone of the bassoon approximates quite sufficiently to that of the violoncello to be able to replace it under these circumstances. 64. The Horn (Ital. Corno ; JFr. Cor). — This is the first we have yet met with, and in many respects the most important, of the family of brass instruments. Two kinds of horns are used in our orchestra : the natural horn, sometimes, for a reason which will be explained presently (see Sect. 72), called the "hand- horn " ( Ger. Waldhorn) ; and the chromatic-, valve-, or ventil- horn. We shall first explain the peculiarities of the natural horn, as being both the older and the more frequently written for. 65. In the oboe and bassoon the various notes are obtained by closing or opening, with the fingers, holes in the tube of the instrument. It is only in the second octave of their scale that a difference in the pressure of air is employed to obtain a difference of pitch. In the natural horn, on the contrary, excepting in one case to be presently mentioned (Sect. 72), all the sounds are produced by the varying force of wind in the tube, according to the pressure of the player's lip. As the sounds obtained in this way are those of the natural harmonic series,* it follows that the horn cannot have throughout its compass a complete chromatic or even diatonic scale of natural notes. The har- monic series of a tube, the lowest sound of which is C, will be the following : — Ex. 33. :(feD^a»—gj z&. t^± (.&) (fag.) frg- 3 10 11 12 13 M 15 16 Of these notes, those in brackets are not in ordinary use. The fundamental tone cannot be obtained with the usual mouthpiece ; * For an explanation of the harmonic series, see Dr. Stone's '' Scientific Basis of Music." 4 6 INSTRUMENTATION. and the notes numbered 7, 11, 13, aiul 14, are too much out of tune with the tempered scale to he available without artificial modification. 66. If other notes, not forming part of this series, are required from the horn, they can only be obtained from it by altering the length of the resonant tube. This can be done in two ways, either bv the use of different '* crooks" — z.c, adding pieces of tubing of various lengths, according to the fundamental note that is required — or by tk valves" or ik pistons," which also alter the length of the tube by allowing the column of air to be diverted from its regular course into additional tubes connected with the main tube of the instrument, by pressing down a piston or a valve with the finger. 67. As the relation of the sounds in the harmonic series to one another is the same whatever be the length of the tube, it follows that with each different crook a new series of notes will be produced. Thus, in the following example — Ex. 34. (a) (/>) (c) (d) (e) I ^fe 1^ za if the player has his " C crook " on, he can produce the three notes at (a). Precisely the same blowing with the D, E-flat, E-natural, or F crooks, will give the notes at (6), (r), (d), and (e) respectively. As the pressure of the lip (technically called the " embouchure" ) is always the same for the same tonic or dominant, &c. — the actual sound produced depending upon the length of tube in use — horn parts are always written in the key of C, to save the player the labor of mentally transposing his part ; and the key to be emploved is indicated at trie commence- ment of the movement. Thus, in Ex. 34, to obtain the notes at (a), (- l-> I (e) (/) (?) b, W W- --$&- on a valve-horn the notes at {a) will be open notes, obtained without the valves. By blowing for the same notes, and pressing the second valve, we get the series (6), with the first valve (r), with the first and second together, or the third alone (d) , with the STRINGS, OBOES, BASSOONS, AND HORNS. 51 second and third (c), with the first and third (_/"), and with all three (g) We have only given a few of the open notes as an illustration ; all others will be affected in the same way ; and a moment's thought will show the student that with this mechanism we have a horn possessing a complete chromatic scale through- out its entire compass. 78. Many modern composers use the ventil-horn exclusively : while some go so far as to write for it only in the key of F. Many of our orchestral players also always use the F horn, and transpose by means of the pistons the music written for a horn in any other key. This plan is by no means to be recommended.* 79. All closed notes are possible on the ventil-horn : because as every note can be played as an open note, it is obvious that it can also be lowered by the hand, as with the hand-horn. When closed notes are required they must be expressly so marked with the word ••closed" or its French equivalent " bouchee." Wagner indicates closed notes, thus : — 80. It has been needful to enter in considerable detail into the mechanism of the horn, because there is no instrument in the orchestra for which students are apt to write so injudiciously, unless they clearly understand its nature. As a solo instrument the horn is of a noble, rather melancholy or dreamy character ; and, altogether apart from any questions of difficulty, sustained melodies are the most effective. (See Ex. 20) . A fine example of a horn solo, but too long for quotation, will be found in the open- ing of the notturno in Mendelssohn's music to the •• Midsummer Night's Dream." The horn may also be employed in more lively passages ; we may mention the horn solo in the scherzo of the "■Pastoral" Symphony, and the trio for three horns in the " Eroica ;" while it is sometimes used also for hunting strains, e.g. Ex. ;6. Oboi. Corni in Chorus. ( Tenor & Bass The Seasons." Vivace. mm Ha -la * Schumann, when he uses four horns, frequently has two natural and two ventil-horns. (See the scores of his Symphonies in E-flat and I) minor.) Wagner in his " Fliegende Hollander - " and " Tannhauser " does the same; in his later works he uses ventil-horns exclusively. INSTRUMENTATION. Here the horns are doubled by the oboes in the octave, a not infrequent combination. In all the instances referred to it will be seen that the horns are in one or other of those mentioned (Sect. 76) as their best keys; it is rarely that an important passage for them is found in others. If it be, the probability is that the player will use one of the most favourable crooks and transpose the passage. 81 . It has been said above that, when four horns are employed, it is customary to write one pair in each key. In the example (37) g' ven below it will be seen that three are in the key of the piece and one in that of the dominant. The reason will be found in the harmony, in which tonic chords largely predominate. The fourth horn part illustrates what has been said as to the use of the F clef fen - the lower notes : — Ex. 37- Allegretto molto tnoderato. Meyerbeer. " Robert le Diable." dolce. „ dolce. • ""^ Corni 1, 2 in C. C 01110 3 in G. Corno 4 in C. The well-known passage for four horns in the introduction of the overture to the " Freischiitz " may also be recommended to the student for analysis. S2. Where there are only two horns in the orchestra, and a somewhat similar combination is wanted, the bassoons blend sufficiently well with the horns to make an effective substitute : — Ex. 38. Fagotti. Corni in E. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Violoncello. Ci mtrabasso. Andante con mole. Schubert. ■yniphony in B minor. STRINGS, OBOES, BASSOON'S, AND HORNS. \ 53 $ K 1 i ES 3 ? - i i ^ ^ i -i 1 T ^ fTJ 1 3 Owing to this power of assimilation in the quality of tone of the horn and bassoon, the latter is often used to eke out the horns, if one mav so speak, by completing the harmony with notes which are not "on the horn. In the continuation of the passage from " Robert le Diable," quoted above (Ex. 37), the bassoon is used in this manner. Si. When combined with other orchestral instruments, horns are employed to fill up the harmony, use being made chiefly of their open notes. They blend no less well with clarinets, and even with the lower notes of flutes, than with bassoons ; while they are frequently employed in their lower notes to reinforce the basses on the tonic or dominant, as in the beginning of the finale of Haydn's Svmphony in D (No. 2, Breitkopf and Hartel's edition) . 84. It is quite impossible to indicate all or nearly all the combinations available to the composer with the instruments alreadv met with. We shall conclude this chapter with a few extracts from the works of the great masters, illustrating characteristic points, and must leave the student to discover "4 INSTRUMENTATION. others for himself. We shall first take one for wind instruments alone : — Ex. 39. q ; Beethoven. Choral Symphony. < boi. Fagotti. Corni in I). -*-» *=S= E^hSS fi' ss= J*k &± LlA 6 «■ - *; f ? ■M- r *t ib*- =p — •- -*— m- m S: i 9 =F f- P 1 This passage has heen referred to above (Sect. 57) as an example of the use of the oboe for joyous music. The distance at which the parts are placed causes the chief melody (in the first bassoon) , to which the oboe solo is a counterpoint, to be heard distinctly. The student will notice that the limited compass of the natural horn causes its use here to be restricted to the giving the domi- nant bass. 85. In the following illustration from Cherubini's " Elise " — Ex. 40. Maestoso. Cherubim. "Elise." Fagotti. Corni in ]>t^ Alto. Violino 1. 1'assi. we find an example of a very thin harmony, in consequence of which the different timbre of the various parts is perceived with STRINGS, OBOES, BASSOONS, AND HORNS. 55 more than ordinary clearness. The bassoon is often used, as in this passage, to double the violins in the octave below ; but it is generally one bassoon, and not (as here) two in unison, to which this duty is allotted. Similarly the oboe frequently (especially in Mozart's scores) doubles the violin in the octave above. 86. Our next example is of a totally different kind : — Ex. 41. Oboi. Fagotti. Corni in D. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Bassi. Allegro. Mozart. Symphony in D. I m siSS W- m S FTOtffi ^■^ ■U ^az^g ff ^t pizz. _«. tCZff f f: ~^~?~ 1 W to\ » I — fizz. r r Here the melody is given to the strings, and the accompanying harmonies to the wind. Long holding notes for the horns in the middle of the harmony are frequently to be met with, as here, and are always of good effect. 87. The last illustration we shall give is an excellent specimen of the use of the strings pizzicato to accompany a melody played on a wind instrument : — 56 INSTRUMENTATION. Allegro AUBER. "Lestocq.' The violins, violas, and violoncellos (the part of this last is in the score on a separate line) are all in unison. Were this passage played with the bow it would probably predominate too much. The student will note here the manner in which the horn is used in a minor key. Closed notes are more frequently needed than in the major mode. It will be seen that the worst closed note (A-ftat) is reinforced by the first bassoon ; the two horns and two bassoons together giving a rich middle part of a fairly homogeneous quality, and preventing the thinness which would be perceptible were the oboe accompanied only by the pizzicato of the strings. The student is strongly recommended to analyze for himself passages in the scores of the great com- posers which he will find to confirm and often also to supple- ment the instructions given in this chapter. CHAPTER IV. STRINGS, WOOD, AND HORNS. 88. By adding to the oboe and bassoon the flutes and clarinets, we complete the "wood instruments" in ordinary use in the orchestra, and greatly increase the resources at our disposal. We shall adopt the same method as in the last chapter, and speak first of the compass and mechanism of these instruments before treating of their employment in combination with others. 89. The Flute (Ital. Flauto ; Fr. Flute ; Ger. Flote).— This instrument is played without a reed, through a hole pierced in the side of the tube. Hence its old name of " flauto traverso " (" crossways flute"), which maybe met with in scores of the last century, to distinguish it from the now obsolete k * flute a bee" or "beak-flute," i.e., flute with a mouthpiece, like the flageolet. The compass of the ordinary flute is from — t= jj ^H — to lp with all the chromatic intervals. The upper C — $ is also a possible note, but uncertain, and should therefore be avoided in orchestral writing ; even the B-natural and B-flat in alt. should be sparingly used. The part for the flute is always written in the G clef. 90. The fingering of the flute is similar to, though not identical with, that of the oboe ; and the easiest keys for it are those which have not more than three sharps or flats in the signature. Nearly all shakes are practicable on the instrument ; those which should be avoided are the following — tr tr tr tr tr tr 5S INSTRUMENTATION. and all above the upper C-sharp, except these two- fstr S tr # 91 . The lower octave of the flute is sweet, but not very power- ful ; its upper notes, on the other hand, are of very penetrating quality. For this reason it is mostly employed to give the highest notes in the orchestra ; though its low sounds, when judiciously introduced, and not overpowered by other instruments, are very effective. A good instance of the employment of the flute through nearly its entire compass will be seen in the following example : — Ex. 43. Flauto. Violini 1, 2. Viola. Allegro moderate. Weber. "Jubilee Cantata." £3E & S& rn^£ -*- -« i p m &n*£L ik ^- rr~? E J. ^j-j 1 : — L "FR ^- r~ 1— n- HtST^n *^m 1 A f r7fl A f 4^^ ^ j=^=£ £* 1U3 (Bassi.) ^ The above extract gives an illustration of what was mentioned in Sect* 27, as to the bass of the harmony being given to the violas alone. Our next quotation shows the effect to be obtained by the lower notes of two flutes in unison : — * »= ! I 1 STRINGS, WOOD. AND HORNS. 59 Ex. 44. Flauti. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola, llassi. Mendelssohn. " Midsummer Night's Dream" ("Ye Spotted Snakes"). Allegro ma non troppo. , t /7\ /V\ ^ u z. pizz.* 92. Of all the wind instruments used in the orchestra, the flute is the most agile. In favourable keys rapid passages can easily be executed upon it, either legato or staccato. The staccato especially is suitable for it, because of the possibility of what is called " double-tongueing," i.e., a rapid movement of the tongue against the roof of the mouth, as for the quick repetition of the sound of /, thus : t-t-t-t-t. On reed instruments, as the reed is itself in the mouth, this is impossible ; consequently a staccato of more than moderate rapidity should be avoided for the oboe, clarinet, or bassoon. A later illustration (see Ex. 56.) will show what is practicable for these instruments. The student will find good examples of rapid solos for the flute in the scherzo of the " Midsummer Night's Dream " music, in the overture to kt Guil- laume Tell." and in Beethoven's " Leonora " overture, No. 3, all of which he is recommended to examine. 93. Besides the flute already mentioned, other varieties of the instrument, differing from the ordinary flute only in pitch, are in use. Some of these are met with only in military bands, and these therefore we can disregard ; but there are two which are employed, the one occasionally and the other frequently, in the orchestra. These are the Third Flute in E-flat, and the Piccolo. 94. The Third Flute in E-flat is so called because it is in pitch a minor third higher than the ordinary flute, which it resembles in its fingering. The note C is taken as the standard in naming transposing instruments ; and as the fingering which on the ordinary flute produces C will on the third flute give E-flat, we call this a " Flute in E-flat." It is sometimes, though incorrectly, described as a "Third Flute in F ;" the explanation of the discrepancy being that whereas the natural scale of the ordi- nary flute (that is the scale produced by opening in succession the six holes in the tube covered by the lingers) is the scale of D, it will on the third flute, which, as we have said, is a minor third higher, give the scale of F. The term " Flute in E-flat" is not only more correct, but also more usual. 6o INSTRUMENTATION. 95. The fingering of the third flute being the same as that of the ordinary flute, it is treated as a "transposing instrument," the notes on paper not being those actually sounded. As the instrument transposes a minor third higher, the composer must write for it a minor third lower than the notes he requires. Thus if he want — m -r-^- he must write £=£=t £ and so on in other cases ; being of course always careful to indicate that it is the third jlntc that is to be used. As in some modern scores three ordinary flutes are introduced, the student may meet with "Flauto terzo" when the flute in E-flat is not intended. A comparison of the key-signature with that of the other flutes will show at once which is meant 96. The third flute is not often required in the orchestra ; it is occasionally used when a passage which the composer wishes to give to the flute would be difficult on the ordinary instrument. In the second part of the " Crusaders," Gade desired to have the following passage played by the flutes : — Ex. 45. Allegro grazioso. As F-sharp is one of the most difficult keys for the instrument, especially in rather rapid tempo (_J = 116), the execution of this passage, unless by first-rate players, would be uncertain. In his score therefore Gade has employed two Third Flutes, and the passage appears in the following shape, being perfectly easy to play : — Ex. 46. Third Flutes in E-flat. fi3*^ i====MW ^-^335 «M* j^5 £ ►:.b fe«fe Another instance of the employment of the third flute for solo passages will be seen in the first movement of Spohr's symphony " Die Weihe der Tone." 97. The Piccolo {Ital. Ottavino, or Flauto Piccolo ; Fr. Petite Flute ; Ger. Kleine Flote) is of much more frequent employment STRINGS, WOOD, AND HORNS. 6l than that just described. It is an octave higher than the ordinary flute (whence its Italian name Ottavino). Its compass and Anserine are the same as that of the flute (of course trans- posed an octave), except that piccolos rarely have the additional keys for the low C and C-sharp. It must also be remembered that the upper notes are not only very shrill, but of extreme difficulty ; and the student is advised not to exceed the limits — 8va. ■m- -*- *= J= £=- . r fN which sound The part of the piccolo is always written an octave lower than its real sound. The notes of the lower octave are weak, and will mostly be better replaced by the second octave of the ordinary flute; the middle and upper notes are more powerful, while those above — -0- are so piercing that they should be used with great judgment. oS. When the piccolo is introduced into the score it is common only to use one flute, the second flute-player taking the piccolo. This has been done by Rossini throughout the score of his " Guillaume Tell," in which in some movements there are two flutes ; in others, one flute and a piccolo. Most second flute- players in our orchestra are accustomed to play the piccolo also. Some composers write for two ordinary flutes as well as a piccolo (e.g., Mendelssohn, "Walpurgis Night;" Auber, •• Masaniello ;" Meyerbeer, kt Les Huguenots "), while occasion- ally, though very rarely, two piccolos are substituted for two ordinary flutes, as in Gluck's tl Iphigenie en Tauride" (Chorus of Scythians), Weber's " Freischiitz " (Caspar's Drinking Song). 99. The usual employment of the piccolo is to double the melody in the highest octave of the tuttl ; though it has some- simes an Independent part, as for example in certain passages in the finale, of Beethoven's C minor Symphony, which the student will do well to examine, or at the end of the overture to " Egmont," where the — of the piccolo is combined with the fanfares of the trumpets and horns with the happiest effect. The instrument can also be made very useful in piano oassages. as for example in the com- INSTRUMENTATION. mencement of the Turkish March in Beethoven's 4 * Ruins of Athens " where it doubles the first oboe in the upper octave. ( )wing to its extremely high compass it may be used, as in the example below, to continue a melody which passes above the ransre of all the other instruments : — Ex. 47. Piccolo. Flauto. Oboe. * Clarinctti in B-flat. Violino 1, 2. Viola. Bassi. Aut.er. " J.c Dicu ct la Bayadere. 1 ' ijgH fe Andantino. K<> Solo lit fc^ -1 -5 Solo. gj^paas ^Fr; -i 1 iu^ ee m m==M=^M 100. The piccolo is an instrument which, if injudiciously treated, easily gives a vulgar character to the music ; the student is therefore advised not to use it too freely. For ordinary purposes two flutes will be found far more useful in a score. * The notation of the Clarinet is explained later (Sects. 103, 104}. STRINGS, WOOD, AND HORNS. 63 101. The Clarinet. — This instrument, of more recent in- troduction into the orchestra than any of those hitherto treated of, is the most important and, on the whole, the most useful of all wood instruments. It is played with a single reed, the tone produced by which is much fuller and more mellow than that of the double reed used for the oboe and bassoon. The extreme compass of the instrument is from — P^ to P C with the complete chromatic scale. The upper notes are not only extremely difficult to produce, but so harsh and piercing- as to be practically useless ; for orchestral music, it is well not to write above — though occasional higher notes mav be met with in solo passages in the works of the great masters (see the last note of the trio in the minuet of Beethoven's Eighth Symphony). Music for the clarinet is always written in the G clef. 102. The fingering of the clarinet differs essentially from that of the flute, oboe, and bassoon; and it is well to avoid, at all events in rapid passages, keys which have more than two sharps or flats in the signature. Within these limits, passages founded upon the scale, or the various forms of arpeggio (for an example see .Sect. 57), are easy and effective. All shakes between — fete gj Lz jn — and p *3 are practicable on the clarinet except the following — tr fJr ^/r sfr =F but it will be better to avoid those formed with two sharp or two flat notes, which, though not impossible, are difficult. But any passage written in a key with four or five flats or sharps, unless 6 4 INSTRUMENTATION. it were extremely simple, would be very difficult. Various kinds of clarinets are therefore made, of different pitch, to be used for the various keys. Those ordinarily employed in the orchestra are three — the clarinet in C, in B-flat, and in A. There also exists a small clarinet in E-flat ; but the use of this is almost exclusively confined to military music* 103. The fingering of the various clarinets is precisely the .same ; but as the length of the tube differs, the actual sound produced by a given fingering varies according to the instrument played. For the clarinet in C the notes are written as they sound, i.e., it is a "non-transposing" instrument; and if the player fingers for — £ he will sound that note. On the B-flat clarinet, the same finger- ing will give him — and on the A clarinet — So also with all other notes. A scale passage — 3tt would on the C clarinet sound as written ; on the B-flat clarinet it would be a tone lower — * Small clarinets in D and F are occasionally met with on the Continent, but they are not in use in this country. In the final scene of " Die Walkiire " Wagner has employed a clarinet in D. A peculiarity of notation should also be mentioned. A few composers write the lower notes (called " chalumeau " notes) an octave higher than their sound, marking " C'hal." thus — $ Chal. =fc me effect of which will be 'lie plan is not to be recommended. STRINGS, WOOD, AND HORNS. and on the A clarinet a minor third lower — 104. The advantage of the employment of different kinds of clarinets will now be seen. By the choice of a suitable instn. ment it is always possible, except in extreme keys, to avoid the use of more than two sharps or flats. The following table will make this clear : — NUTATION. EFFECT. Clarinet in C. Clarinet in B flat. Clarinet in A. Key, C major „ A minor „ G major „ E minor „ F major „ D minor „ BP major „ G minor „ D major „ B minor „ Fj? major „ C minor „ A major „ Ft minor As written. B^ major G minor F major D minor Eb major C minor A" major F minor C major A minor D^ major B^ minor G major E minor A major Ft minor E major C8 minor D major B minor G major E minor B major GS minor C major A minor Ft major D$ minor An examination of this table will show the student that in all keys in ordinary use it is possible, by selecting the right clarinet to avoid many flats or sharps. But this is not the only point to be considered. In the key of F, for example, it is possible to write either for a C clarinet, or for that in B-flat : which ouerht to be chosen? So again, in a movement in the key of G, we might take either the C clarinets (writing in G), the B-flat (writing in A), or the A (writing in B-flat) ; and the question presents itself: how are we to decide? 105. This brings us to an important point not yet mentioned — the fact that each clarinet has its own distinctive quality of tone. That of the C clarinet, especially in its medium and upper parts, is rather hard and unsympathetic ; for which reason some players never use it at all, preferring to transpose music written for it on the B* or A clarinet. The B clarinet is the richest and fullest in tone, and is the one generally selected for solos, though Mozart * The clarinet in B-flat is often spoken of concisely as the "B clarinet," 66 INSTRUMENTATION. has written both his clarinet quintett and his clarinet concerto for an A clarinet. This last instrument is rather less brilliant than that in B, which in other respects it nearly resembles. 106. If the student, bearing these facts in mind, turns to the table in Sect. 104, he will see that the answer to the question as to the choice of the clarinet will greatly depend upon the nature of the composition ; partly also, in a large work, on which instru- ment has been used in preceding movements. Thus in the finale of Mendelssohn's Concerto in G minor, which is in G major, the B clarinets are used, with three sharps in the signa- ture ; not only because, the movement being very brilliant, they are the most suited to it in character, but because they have already been used in the first movement ; but in the finale of the same composer's Concerto in D minor, though B clarinets have been employed in the andante, those in A are taken for the key of D major, the slight difference in brilliancy being more than compensated for by the greater ease of execution.* 107. The tone of the clarinet varies materially according to the part of the register employed. Its lower (" chalumeau "f) octave from — i 7 to =± is very reedy in quality, and useful both for holding notes, and for arpeggios. For a fine example of the former, let the student examine the introduction of the overture to the ' k Freischiitz," beginning at the twenty-fifth measure ; a specimen of the latter will be given presently (Ex. 53). The notes from — pEEfe-p are the weakest on the instrument. Those from — ij^f^ ,o p are full and rich, somewhat like the tones of the flute but mote * It is needful to inform the student that in some of the scores of the older French school, such as those of Cherubini, Mehul, and Spontini, the student will find the clarinets written as non-transposing instruments, the real notes sounded being those written, and the transposition being left to the player This method is now entirely abandoned. + See Sect. 102, note. STRINGS, WOOD, AND HORXS. 67 powerful ; while the upper octave is harsh and tearing, and should very rarely be employed. 10S. Of all wind instruments, the clarinet is that which possesses the most power of graduating its tone. The crescendo and diminuendo are much easier than on the flute, oboe, or bassoon ; while a good player can produce the most charming effects of pianissimo. Again, as a solo instrument the clarinet is capable of the most varied range of expression. This will be seen from the following examples, which have been purposely chosen as being as unlike one another as possible, while each is equally suited to the nature of the instrument : — Ex. 48. Clarinetto in A. Violino 2. Viola. Violoncello e Basso. ip^ Allegro con fitoco. Solo. ^- Weber. Overture, " Oberon." ffrss 3TfeC s : *'-— : t ""S -#-* — h — *- — i 0-- — * — m rfrr' — — i — ?—± w±~ -zd — I I - *lo* L.r — B&< vy j • m *- 'I 1 1 1 n il ■#% rfVr* i 1 V\> '. i J -tS>- -&- E? C i — — p-i — iau — «— — I ^.-., — , <■=> . ■ which plays so important a part in the movement.* In minor keys the trumpets are sometimes used in the key of the tonic major (Beethoven, Symphony in C minor, first movement ; Choral Symphony, first movement ; Mozart, Concerto in D minor) ; sometimes in the key of the relative major (Schumann, Concerto in A minor ; Mendelssohn, Scotch Symphony, finale) ; sometimes in some nearly related key, e.g., Mendelssohn, A minor Symphony, first movement ( Trombe in D) ; ditto, Concerto in G minor, first movement {Trombe in D). The student must be guided by the consideration of which notes in the scale he wishes to bring the most into prominence. 125. The tone of the trumpet is very brilliant, and peculiarly penetrating ; a single trumpet-note will easily make itself heard through the whole body of strings and wood. The elder masters therefore used these instruments chiefly for rhythmical effects, often for marking the accented parts of the measure. An examina- tion of any of the scores of Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven will show this at once, though occasionally (as in the slow movement of Beethoven's C minor Symphony and the finale of the Choral Symphony) we find a more important part assigned to the * See also the finale of Mendelssohn's Concerto in G minor. 8o INSTRUMENTATION. ti limpets. Modern composers more frequently introduce melodic passages, as in the following- example : — Ex. Clarinetti :. C. Fagotti. Corni in C. Tromba Solo in C. Strings. P Allegretto. 1 p P Auber. •Masaniello. ^ m J q Jj j-j- j j i I7P, j j nfjTTZ j ^ Pfi P ^^ m z==^= z=t r A i / J ^T r y^t^=* * ] f -=i — ^-^- teH r ^E i 4E E* THE FUEL, ORCHESTRA Si 126. The trumpet is frequently used for fanfares, as in the weil-known trumpet-call behind the scenes in the "Leonora" overture, in the overture to " Fra Diavolo," and the march in " Tannhauser," in which three trumpets are employed. The more customary number is two ; but three are by no means uncommon (Mendelssohn, overture to " Calm Sea and Pros- perous Voyage"; Wedding March in "Midsummer Night's Dream," &c). 127. The valve- or ventil-trumpet bears to the natural instru- ment the same relation as the ventil-horn to the hand-horn. The mechanism and action of the valves has already been explained (Sect. 77) ; it will only be needful to add that the valve-trumpet of course possesses, like the valve-horn, a complete chromatic scale, and that many modern composers write exclusively for these instruments. Some players use a " Slide-Trumpet," which gives the chromatic notes by lengthening the tube of the instru- ment, in the same manner as with the trombones (see within, Sect. 143.) In writing, no account need be taken of the ditferent varieties of mechanism.* 128. In many orchestras no trumpets are to be found, but the parts written for those instruments are played on the cornet a pistons. As this instrument (see Sect. 172) has a very different and much less noble quality of tone, the change is always to be deprecated. 1 29. The Kettle-Drums (Ital. Timpani ; Ger. Pauken ; Fr. Timbales). — These are not only the most frequently used, but by far the most important of all the percussion instruments. | The kettle-drums are tuned by screws fixed round the rim of the instrument. In an orchestra there are usually two (see Sect. 137), which are of different sizes ; the larger one has a compass from — and the smaller from ®—J- to ^^E to The part of the kettle-drums is always written in the F clef. 130. It was formerly the custom to write for the kettle- drums always the tonic and dominant of the key of the piece in which they were used, and to treat them as transposing instru- * In some modern scores (e.g., " Les Huguenots " ) there are parts for four trumpets, two natural and two chromatic. t For an account of the mechanism of kettle-drums, see the interesting paper by Mr. V. de Pontigny in the second volume of the "Proceedings of the .Musical Association." 82 INSTRUMENTATION. ments, writing invariably the notes C and G, and indicating the tuning at the commencement of the movement, thus — Timpani in D, A. t ^ TTW 3 the effect of which would be — £ : e s= ^ This plan was open to some objections. In the key of A, for instance, as the high A is not on the small drum, the tonic must be taken on the larger one, and in the passage above given, if " Timpani in A, E" were indicated, the notes played would be — Ife gE -T3- =E=g— *- >=? thus the drummer, when the upper note was written, would have to play the lower one, and vice versa ; which would be confusing. Again "•Timpani in B-flat, F," was ambiguous ; the player could tune either — or ^ and so also " in F, C." The modern custom therefore is to write the real sounds; this is the more necessary because, as will be seen later, the tuning of drums is not now confined to the tonic and dominant. It should be added that no key-signature is generally given for the drums, neither are the flats or sharps marked at all. Thus for drums in E-flat, B-flat, we should merely write — Tinlpani in E-flat, B-fl at - l^Eti==S^E=il?^ A few composers, however, always mark the flats or sharps ;is accidentals. 131. The roll of the drum, which is very frequent and ex- tremely useful, both in forte and piano, is indicated either by a tremolo — -=? Hn or, more frequently in modern scores, by a- tr i*f C2 ' rt 9 ' w w f ^ * To Save space the clarinets are written on the same line with the flute, and with the real notes sounded; in the score they are of course a tone higher. S6 IN'STKl MKX 1'A TKJ.X. Fagotti. Corr.i i:iC. Tronihe in C. Timp. in C, G. Viol, i, 2, Viola [urn's.) Bassi. Tempo di marcia. i rq j J -c Weber. "Concertstiick.' It will be noticed that in the first half of the second measure the second horn and drum are below the double-basses :— Ex. 63. Oboi. *Clarinetti in B. a^f pp t=r * 1 •=? • '"5 1"*— 1»» J£ r^ 3 * tsTT~r T^~ T=t=F :£=p i*x*±* I' /•>/•>' T3Sn -t - pp s it#£± pizz t ; c J J jj.ij .jj J, -i , J-^-J pizz. z PE Here we see a charming example of the trumpets and drums mark- ingthe rhythm//. The quotation requires no further explanation. The last example to be given here Ex. 64. Adagio. Flauti. Fagotti. Timpani in Eb, B>, D. i^ ^gisrrrW Violino 1, 2. Viola. Violoncello. Basso. j fife Brahms. " Schicksalslied." 4- ^-•^-J — U-4 P • »*** * p 6'tfw sordini. }=£ ; ££S^£^S^ gto r 5^- .'• ~ggr &=£ &- *& pt^ ^r 1 - — ^y ;■' 1^- ; » ^ i j.yj ss ^1 Ef =F * » SP /■'/•' S5 (3 £5 :sl shows the admirable effect to be obtained by a fiatio passage for the drum marking a strongly defined rhythm. The passage will * Transposed from score, giving the notes as sounded. THE FULL ORCHESTRA. 87 be well remembered by all who have heard the work from which it is taken. 140. The Trombone (Ger. Posaune ; Fr. Trombone). — Though it is only recently that trombones have been generally used in orchestral music, they are by no means newly invented instruments. We find them in the scores of Handel's " Saul " and " Israel in Egypt," while Bach frequently employs them very effectively in his "Church Cantatas." Haydn in his oratorios, and Gluck in his operas (especially in '-Alceste"), wrote much for them ; while Mozart in " Idomeneo," " Don Giovanni," the " Zauberflote," and the lt Requiem " showed a thorough knowl- edge of their capabilities. All these masters, however, and even Beethoven himself, used the trombones very sparingly, reserving them for special effects. Weber, Schubert, and Mendelssohn appear to have been among the first who treated them as con- stituent parts of the ordinary full orchestra. 141. The trombone is a " slide instrument" — that is, its tube is capable of being lengthened at the will of the player, so as to obtain with the same embouchure sounds of a different pitch. The notes to be obtained by difference of embouchure in any one position of the slide form part of the harmonic series already given for the horn (Ex. 33). Those in ordinary use are Nos. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8. No. 7 being, as already mentioned, out of tune with the tempered scale is not available. Nos. 9 and 10 are possible, but are seldom employed, while the fundamental tone, No. 1 (called a " Pedal "), is still more rarely met with. 142. Three varieties of the trombone are in use in the modern orchestra, the alto, tenor, and bass. The mechanism and method for playing is the same for all ; they differ only in pitch. Formerly a soprano trombone seems to have been known, as we find it indicated in some of Bach's scores. It is now, however, entirely obsolete ; and even the alto trombone is not employed in France, though in this country and in Germany it is frequently to be met with in the orchestra. 143. The Alto Trombone is in the key of E-flat — i.e., the natural sounds produced by the difference of embouchure when ■playing with the slide closed form part of the harmonic series of that key. By drawing out the slide with the right hand, and thus lengthening the tube, a similar series may be obtained in the keys of D, D-flat. C. B-natural, B-flat, and A. An exam- ination of the following table — w Ex. 6c. (i) ££ (2) M ^ (3) ' (4) mm &^£ S ^ 1 '5) 5 m m -? (6) (7) =t ■a -A — *£-- --4: -^ 88 INSTRUMENTATION. which gives the notes obtainable in the seven positions of the slide, will show that the instrument pcxia&ses a complete chro- matic scale from — 3== =3= to I It should be added that the lowest notes are very seldom used, as they can be more easily obtained, and are of a better quality, on the tenor trombone. 144. The Tenor Trombone. — This is the most important member of the family. Its natural pitch is in B-flat — a perfect fourth below the alto trombone. All that has been said about the six natural notes, the various positions of the slide, &c, in the last paragraph applies equally to this instrument, transposing a fourth lower. The compass of the tenor trombone therefore will be from — titt ^ ht W ' , to fc=^E with all the chromatic intervals. 145. The Bass Trombone, unlike the alto and the tenor, is made of various sizes. Some are in G, only a minor third below the tenor trombone, the compass being — p=^ to e — ^ — others are in F, a tone lower ; while they are sometimes found in E-flat, an octave below the alto trombone. In some orchestras they are not used at all, a second tenor trombone being employed. In any case the student will do well not to write for the bass trombone below — gp. = and to use the lower notes very sparingly, as they require much wind, and are very tiring to the player. 146. Three trombones are usually employed in the orchestra : in England and Germany, an alto, a tenor, and a bass ; and in France, three tenor trombones. If the student bear this fact in mind he will see the reason for the difference in the treatment of the instruments which he will find in French scores (e.g., those of Auber or Herold), as compared with those of German masters. Sometimes only two trombones are employed, as in Haydn's " Passione," Beethoven's "Pastoral" Symphony, ■•Fidclio," &c. Occasionallv the bass trombone only is used (Cherubini, " Les Deux Journees ; " Weber, " Concertstiick ; " Bennett, overture, THE FULL ORCHESTRA. 8 9 "Die Naiaden") ; while still more rarely four trombones are employed (Schumann, " New Year's Song"). 147. Unlike the horns and trumpets, the trombones are non- transposing instruments, the notes being always written in their actual pitch. With regard to their notation, several systems are adopted by different composers. Some always write the three parts on one line, using either the tenor or the bass clef indifferently, according to the position of the chords, choosing that which requires the fewest leger-lines ; others, again, write the alto and tenor trombone on one stave, using the C clef either on the third or fourth line, and giving the bass trombone a line to itself with the F clef; while many give a separate line to each instrument, and write each with its proper clef. Thus the chord of C major may be found written for three trombones in any of the following ways : — Ex. 66. to tt „. (<£) W (a) (l>) ZiSZZ * -=5~ - P Wt&= s p Ute - gg-- £ee? ££3 3^ |^ And my mouth shall show forth Thy J Bassi. glo WkEEE*EE* s* ~^^ P s =tt=: nous P r=fc lft:' ^ ritard. r? jg- ,= fr = E ritard. r- r @*« ^ 5*" ^ ^ tei #V 3Z: r2- zbsi ritard. praise, and my mouth shall show forth Thy glo - rious No composer has made more charming use of the softer effects. of the trombones than Schubert. Every musician will remember the beautiful passage in the first movement of the great Sym- phony in C (too long for quotation here), where the three THE FUEE ORCHESTRA. 91 trombones in unison play a melody in the tenor octave pp, com- SEfo t= The score of the same composer's Mass in E-flat is also especially worthy of study for the treatment of these instruments. 149. Instances of the employment of the three trombones_/br/e in full harmony may be met with in nearly any modern score. Indeed, the general tendency of the present day is to use them far too frequently. It may be laid down as a safe general rule that the effect produced by the trombones will be in inverse propor- tion to the frequency of their introduction into the score. Even in full passages they should be employed sparingly and with great discretion, both because of their power, and because the constant predominance of this tone-color gives a coarseness and vulgarity to the orchestra, and soon becomes wearisome to the hearers. 1 50. The trombone is but seldom employed as a solo instru- ment. A fine instance of its use may be seen in the "Tuba mirum " of Mozart's "Requiem." The passage is given in the old edition of the published score to the bassoon, and in modern performances is usually played by that instrument. It was never- theless originally written for the trombone, and the change was made simply because no player could be found at that time to perform it. The trombone-players of the present day would manage it with comparative ease. 151. There are still two other brass instruments to be noticed, which, though not met with in the scores of Haydn, Mozart, or Beethoven, have been frequently employed by modern composers. These ai"e the Ophicleide and the Bass-Tuba. As they are even now by no means universally to be found in modern orchestras, the student is not advised to write for them ; but, for the sake of completeness, a few words about them will be said in this place. 1^2. The Ophicleide. — This instrument is in reality the bass of the military bugle, which is not used in ordinary orchestras. There exist two varieties — the ophicleide in C and that in B-flat.* The compass of the former is chromatically from — B m== to m=^= tf- * Alto and double-bass ophicleides are also occasionally to be found in mill lary bands, but are never used in the orchestra. 92 INSTRUMENTATION. but the notes above — are so difficult that they should not be used in orchestral music. The ophicleide in B-flat is a tone lower than that in C. The latter is sometimes (but not always) written for as a trans- posing instrument ; the general practice is to write the real notes desired. The part of the ophicleide is always written in the F clef. 153. The tone of the ophicleide is so powerful that the instru- ment has been aptly described by an anonymous German writer as a " chromatic bullock." For special dramatic effects it may be exceedingly useful, as the student may see from an examina- tion of the overture to the " Midsummer Night's Dream," in which it has an important part ; but it blends so imperfectly with the rest of the family of brass instruments that it is now very generally replaced by the tuba. When it is used, it frequently either doubles the bass trombone in the unison, or the octave below, or else makes a four-part harmony with the three trombones. The ophicleide part is frequently written on the same staff' with the bass trombone ; occasionally the the three trombones and ophicleide are all written on one staff", thus — w C7 C in which case it is always understood that the ophicleide takes the lowest notes, unless the contrary be expressly marked.* 154. The Bass-Tuba. — This instrument, which in modern orchestras has almost superseded the ophicleide, not only pos- sesses the advantage of a more extensive compass downwards, * For a good example of an ophicleide part, let the student examine the score of Mendelssohn's "Elijah." lie will notice that though the part is written as sounded, the note — W\ which is only obtainable on the ophicleide in B-flat, is more than once intro- duced. THE FULL ORCHESTRA. 93 but is of a quality which blends far better with other instruments. For orchestral purposes it has a chromatic compass from — to W -4=- and, though a few more notes are possible at each end of the scale, it will be well to avoid them, as the lower notes are very slow of speech, and the upper ones difficult and uncertain. The bass-tuba (often called simply the " Tuba ") is written as a non- transposing instrument, and in the F clef. It is occasionally treated as a solo instrument, as in the following example — Ex. 69. Bass-Tuba. Timpani in D, A. Contrabassi. Wagner. "'Erne Faust Ouverture.'' Molto sostenufo. pp -H- ^3= =£= PP _ m-r-n ' -ft2~ 1 — f 3 — — r — — Tf- — S-4— v|>^ 1 *-ST — * .. ^' *g >J /J in which the low notes of the tuba in unison with the double- basses are of excellent effect ; but it is more frequently combined with the trombones, to form a four-part harmony : — Ex. 70. 3 Tromboni. Tuba. C horus (TenorieBassi). Wagner. " Lohengrin."' In diist'- rem Schweigen richt - et Gott ! 15^. After what has been said as to other bass instruments, it is perhaps hardly needful to add that rapid passages should be carefully avoided both for the ophicleide and the tuba, especially in the lower part of their compass. Wagner, in the second act of " Die Walkiirc," has obtained some magnificent effects from the 94 INSTRUMENTATION. sustained extreme low notes of the tuba : he has ventured to write for the instrument as low as — _,_ To make such notes effective, they must be judiciously introduced, and plenty of time allowed for the proper emission of the tone. 156. Besides the kettle-drums, other percussion instruments are sometimes employed in modern orchestras, especially in the opera. These are the Bass Drum (Fr. Grosse Caisse ; Ital. Gran Cassa,or Tamburo Grande ; Ger. Grosse Trommel) , the Cymbals (Fr. Cimbales; Ital. Cinelli, or Piatti ; Ger. Becken), and the Triangle. As these are all merely rhythmical instruments, of no determinate tone, a few words as to their notation is all that will be needful. 1 157. The bass drum and cymbals are usually noted on one staff, though sometimes (as in Haydn's Military Symphony and Mozart's "Seraglio") a separate line is given to each. Either the F or the G clef is used, the former being the more common ; the note generally, though not always, written is C. If both instruments are on the same staff, and one is to be used alone, this must of course be indicated (e.g., " G.C. sola" k% Piatti soli") . The reason for writing both parts on one line is that one of the cymbals is usually attached to the bass drum, and both instruments are played by the one performer — much (it should be added) to the detriment of the tone of the cymbals. 15S. The triangle is usually noted with C in the G clef — though occasionally the F clef is used for this instrument also. Good examples of the employment of the triangle in piano passages may be met with in abundance in modern opera scores ; Auber, especially in his overtures, has frequently introduced it with charming effect. The following extract from the allegretto of Haydn's "Military Symphony" will show one method of noting the parts for the percussion instruments. To save space. the whole score is not quoted : — Military Symphony. Tamburo Grande. THE FULL ORCHESTRA. 95 The part of the bass drum requires a little explanation, as it is not always understood, or even correctly rendered in performance. The instrument is usually struck on one side by a large drum- stick ; but for this passage two sticks are required. The player takes the large drumstick in his right hand, and a smaller (side-drum) stick in his left.. The notes with the stems down- wards are to be played with the larger stick, and the others with the smaller one. In modern music only the large stick is employed.* 159. Wagner, in the scores of his " Ring des Xibelungen " has employed the cymbals in several different ways. Besides the ordinary clash of the two together, he obtains peculiar effects by the sharp stroke of a large drumstick on one cymbal, which, being allowed to vibrate, produces a tone somewhat like that of a gong; he also uses the roll made on one cymbal with a pair of drumsticks. Such exceptional effects, however, should not be used unless for special dramatic purposes. 160. The student will do well in most compositions to avoid the use of the percussion instruments (excepting, of course, the kettle-drums) entirely. In a symphony they would mostly be utterly out of place. Haydn, in his Military Symphony, already quoted, employs them for a special purpose; but, so far as we know, this is a solitary instance. .So with Mozart; in his "Seraglio" he uses them, because they are warranted by the Turkish character of the work ; but in none of his symphonies has he employed them. Beethoven introduces them only in the finale of the Choral Symphony, in the climax where all possible voices and instruments are required. If injudiciously used the bass drum and cvmbals will give vulgarity, and the triangle triviality, to the music. The present book would have been incomplete without a notice of these instruments ; but their use is not recommended to the student in ordinary cases. Let him be content with the orchestra which sufficed for Mozart and Beethoven. 161. Having now shown the compass and employment of all the instruments in ordinary use in the orchestra, we shall con- clude this chapter with a charming specimen of a tnttt ', piano, from Auber's " Sirene." Let the student notice the effect of the * Sometimes, to save space, the parts for bass drum, cymbals, and triangle are written on single lines instead of on staves, thus : — (Iran Cassa e Piatti Triangolo . . . „ 1 M _J J _ tr ^^ Jt Jt -J— . 9 6 INSTRUMENTATION holding note for the oboes, the soft chords for the brass, and the employment of the percussion instruments alternately, ami especially of the bass drum, pp, without cymbals. The whole passage will reward the learner for careful analysis. It will be seen that to save space the score is condensed : — Ex. 72. Piccolo. Oboi. Clarinetti in B. Fagotti. Corni in E-flat. Corni in B-flat, basso. Allegro non troppo. Aueer. "LaSir£ne." tr ggsppg P t > Pit 1 h Mm — nrf^ g ^faE^ Tromboni. Timpani in E-flat, B-flat. Triangle. Grosse Caisse. (Solo.) Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Bassi. ^m p m imo Solo. d a 3 tr ±tr 0- t *E* a — IH H4rHJ \ Ui P r~i i r i r f~~n ISg V=£ -±-0—j^ =t t =*- P §m 1 1 ?==£=£ 3=£ pp W £= ~\l i * * \l * *= ^^^-^f^ yjp tr 4 .4 Ban ^ppf^^jg^ THE FULL ORCHESTRA. 97 ' : I ,-!- O ir r T Z0ZZ-0Z - - .; ; /r *r «-T=p:^ — i - • ,r~ - L t», > J- ^j ^E^^fe ^ ^ r * l i f- *i i i 1 ' i 1 ^EJ=J= g j 1 IJ7 = ^ E^E ^=^^ T f =^=^= F-nt- — i- = - i — -i—t- qF=*==*= = £E=^^3F=£=* t= r^— h i^z ^-^— ^- i^^a^=^ dr-*— ^ V-p— "£fc £3 *r f- ^ ?u £- £-E tt=i gg e^ l- T T I 1' Oi^ 1 1 r I I -AA - 4 J rT-T- 1 2 FT CHAPTER VI. LESS FREQUENTLY USED INSTRUMENTS. 162. The student being now familiar with all the instruments in general use in the modern orchestra, we shall proceed to say a few words on those more rarely employed, but with which he ought to have at least some slight acquaintance — not so much, in many cases, that he may use them himself, as that he may understand their effect when he meets with them in the scores of the great masters. It will be impossible within our limits to do more than briefly indicate their compass and capabilities; for fuller details the reader must refer to the larger works of Berlioz, and Gevaert. We shall take these instruments in the same order hitherto adopted, speaking first of strings, then of wood, brass, and percussion. 163. Of stringed instruments to be mentioned in this chapter, by far the most important is the Harp. This instrument has a compass of six octaves and a fourth, from — 8va. ggpj to 3 b~ but as each string can, by means of pedals, be raised cither a semitone or a tone, its real upward compass is to — 8va. % It is most important to remember that, by reason of its mechan- ism, the harp is essentially a diatonic instrument. Chromatic passages, whether scales or successions of chords, are mostly impossible, and, even when practicable, ineffective. Simple chords and arpeggios are the most telling on the instrument ; and in general terms it may be said that any passage suitable for the piano is also suitable for the harp, with the following limitations : (98) LESS FREQUENTLY USED INSTRUMENTS. 99 (i) it must not be chromatic; (2) all extensions above an octave are best avoided in both hands; (3) repeated notes and shakes are ineffective ; (4) sudden and remote changes of key are im- possible, unless sufficient rests be allowed to give time for the player to alter his pedals. If these points are borne in mind, there will be little difficulty in writing for the harp. 164. The older masters seldom used the harp in orchestral music. We know no examples of it either in Haydn or Mozart,* and even with Beethoven it is only to be found once in the complete collection of his works — in one of the ballet airs in " Prometheus." Modern composers have employed it much more freely; see, for instance, Mendelssohn's "Athalie," "Anti- gone," and "CEdipus," and the operas of Meyerbeer, Gounod, and Wagner. It combines especially well with the brass instru- ments, as will be seen by the following : — Ex. 73. Corni 1, 3, in E. Corni 2, 4, in E. 3 Tromboni. Tuba. Bruch. "Odysseus." Adagio. P I $mm §^m Timpani g ' fr j= in E, B. ^ H V Arpa. Viol. 1, 2. Viola. Violoncello. Basso. g§§ ^S {Fag. 1 col V cello.) P 1 3t=^*_ -, =}_ Basso pizz. * Mozart has written a concerto for flute and harp, but he does not use the instrument in any of his greater operas. IOO INSTRUMENTATION. Ex. 73 — {continued). m =£j m& M* f* —r T i T 1 i 1 The above example illustrates what has been already said (Sect. 71), as to the difference between first and second horn parts. It will be seen that the third horn is written above the second ; this is because it is thejirst horn of the second pair, and there- fore the player is accustomed to the high G, which would have been less certain for the second horn. i6v Other stringed instruments occasionally to be met with are the Guitar and the Mandoline. Of the former, Berlioz says that it is almost impossible to write well for it without being a player on the instrument ; we therefore advise the student to leave it alone, meanwhile referring him to Berlioz for details as to the best method of treating it. The man- doline (though found in the serenade in kw Don Giovanni") is now practically obsolete, and need not detain us. 166. In addition to the various flutes mentioned in Chapter IV. others are to be found in military bands. These are the flute in I)-flat and the piccolo in D-flat, both of which are often incorrectlv LESS FREQUENTLV USED INSTRUMENTS. IOI said to be * k in E flat" (for an explanation of this inaccuracy. see what was said in Sect. 94 about the " Third Flute "). We mention these flutes here, because Schumann in his " Paradise and the Peri " has used the D-flat piccolo instead of the ordinary one to execute a rapid and rather difficult passage in B-flat minor. A moment's thought will show the student that as on this instru- ment the fingering for C gives D-flat, the passage in question will be written in A minor, a far easier key : — Ex. 74. Piccolo in D-flat. (Effect.) Allegro. Schumann. '• Paradise and the Peri." KE^L -r rt r mz?^^^ « 3=E fcffiforf ii ^ It may be said, in passing, that Schumann has inaccurately marked l ' Piccolo in E-flat " in his score. 167. The Cor Anglais. ( Ital. Corno Inglese ; Ger. Englisches Horn). — This beautiful instrument is in reality a larger-sized oboe, with which instrument it is identical in fingering, the pitch being a perfect fifth lower. It is written as a transposing instrument, always a fifth higher than it sounds. Thus its apparent compass from — ^p to p =E= ^ives the notes from - p= "' P * Some Italian composers (e.g., Rossini, in the overture to " Guillaume Tell " ) adopt a different notation for this instrument, writing in the F clef an octave lower than the real sounds produced. to: INSTRUMENTATION. The extreme high notes are hardly ever used ; it should not be written for above — $ sounding F on the fifth line. The lower notes, on the other hand, are much employed, and are very effective. In tone the cor anglais resembles the oboe, but is less piercing, and more suited for the expression of melancholy. It was frequently used by Bach, under the name of oboe da cacc/a. but it seems" to have gradually fallen into disuse in the latter part of last century, till it was introduced into several modern operatic scores (Rossini, tk Guil- laume Tell ; " Meyerbeer, " Robert Le Diable," &c. ; Halevy,"La Juive") : Wagner, in his "Lohengrin," -Tristan und Isolde," and the " Ring des Nibelungen," has made very effective use of the instrument. 1 68. The Basset-Horn (Hal. Corno di Bassetto) bears the same relation to the C clarinet that the cor anglais does to the oboe, being in fact a clarinet in F. The lowest note on the clarinet being E natural, this would on the basset-horn sound — but by means of additional keys, and a prolongation of the tube, the downward compass of the instrument is extended to — soundine • 3fe — H F-=1- -^ £ Sf Si fe£ ■-J • "' te£ 172. The Cornet -a-Pistons. — This instrument, which in many orchestras is unfortunately used to replace the trumpets, is in the key of B-flat ; its natural harmonic series of open notes being — ?N £ ^ which, of course, in B-fiat sound a tone lower. The mechanism of the pistons (of which there are three) has been already ex- plained (Sect. 77) in speaking of the ventil-horn. The cornet has therefore a chromatic compass from — $ to 3R- I £= giving in B-flat i ¥ fe « The cornet has also crooks in A and G, which lower the pitch a LESS FREQUENTLY USED INSTRUMENTS. I05 minor third and a perfect fourth respectively, as compared with the notes written. Other crooks also exist, but those mentioned are the only ones in general use. 173. The cornet is far easier to play than the trumpet, which is doubtless one reason why it so freqently replaces the latter instrument. Its tone is, however, much more coarse and vulgar ; and it is far more fit for the performance of dance-music, or of solos in operatic selections at promenade concerts than for classical compositions. Rapid passages can be executed upon it with ease ; but in dignified and serious music it is entirely out of place. 174. Various other brass instruments are occasionally to be met with in orchestral scores, especially in operas, where a military band is sometimes employed on the stage. Such are the bugle, the various kinds of tubas, alt-horn, tenor-horn, &c, &c. As these arc not component parts of an ordinary orchestra, we simply mention them here,* and refer the student who wishes to make their acquaintance to the larger treatises on Orchestration. The same may be said of certain percussion instruments — side- drum, tambourine, gong, &c. — the notation of which is extremely simple, being always on one note ; but a knowledge of these instruments will be of little practical use to the student, as the occasions for their appropriate introduction are extremely rare. 175. There yet remains one important instrument to notice — the Organ. In instrumental music it is but rarely used, though Sullivan has employed it with excellent effect in his " In Memo- riam " overture ; and the author of the present work has published a concerto for organ and orchestra. It is. however, in sacred music that the organ is mostly used, and the consideration of its proper treatment will therefore be most suitably deferred till we come to speak of the accompaniment of vocal music. The same may be said of the Harmonium, which is often used as a substi- tute for the organ where the latter is not to be found. 176. In conclusion, it cannot be too earnestly impressed upon the student that the use of all the instruments mentioned in this chapter should be exceptional, and not the rule. One of the surest tests of skilful orchestration is the production of great efiects by limited means. Let the learner take the scores of Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven, rather than those of Meyerbeer and Wagner, for his models. We have quoted from time to time from the latter, to show what can be done ; but it must not be inferred that it is always expedient to try to do it. A few notes judiciously introduced will often produce far more effect than a score in which every line is crowded. Too often the result is in inverse proportion to the means employed. * Wagner has employed four tubas and a contrabass-tuba in his " Ring des- N'ibelungen; " but this case is quite exceptional. CHAPTER VII. ON BALANCE OF TONE : CONTRAST AND COLOR. 177. Having now made himself familiar with the compass and capabilities of the various orchestral instruments, the student may possibly imagine that he is qualified to begin to write a score. Nothing could be a greater mistake. A musician may have a thorough acquaintance with each separate instrument — nay more, he may even be a good player on them all — without having the slightest idea how to combine them effectively. It is this part of the subject with which we are now about to deal ; and here the teacher is met by far greater difficulties than in the pre- ceding parts of the work. It will be readily understood that the possible combinations of so many different instruments are abso- lutely exhaustless ; all that can be done here is to lay down a few general rules for the guidance of the learner, and to show, as far as may be, on what principles the acknowledged masters of orchestration have proceeded in writing their scores. 1 78. There are two mistakes into which beginners are most likely to fall in their first attempts at instrumentation : there will probably either be too much thickness, from the desire to give every instrument something appropriate to do ; or the middle parts will be too weak, and the orchestra will sound (to use a homely phrase) " all top and bottom." An understanding of the production of a proper balance of tone will enable the composer V) aVoid both these faults. 179. One of the most important points to be borne in mind is that the parts of the harmony should generally be zvell dispersed \ or at least that the upper parts should not be too far separated from the bass without anything to fill up the gap. For example, the chord of C major may be divided among the whole mass of strings in many different ways : — (106) OX BALANCE OF TONE : CONTRAST AND COLOR. I07 Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Cello e Basso. Ex.77. («) (fl W (<0 W (/) ur) w_ w_ e 3= 3ZT;S li g? < — — « — i S £ i==l ^ m£ 1227 I In this example the disposition of the parts at (a) will be very thin, and that at (b) only a little less so, owing to the distance between the three upper parts and the bass. The chord (6) will be better arranged as at (c), while (d) will be still more sonorous. At (e) and {J") we see examples of closer harmony, both of which will sound full and rich, but not brilliant, as the violins and violas must all play (at least in the second case) on their fourth string. To correct (a), retaining the upper notes for the first violins, the chords (g) or (//) may be employed, both of which make use of the "double string " (Sect. 14) ; and if, for any special reason, only a single note for each instrument is desired, the disposition of the parts as at (/) is probably as good a one as can be obtained. 180. We shall now refer the student to some of the extracts quoted from the works of the great masters in preceeding chapters, that he may see how carefully this balance of tone of which we are speaking has been attended to throughout. In Ex. 14 he will see that the middle parts, which are close to one another, are about equally distant from the melody and the bass. In Ex. 16 the middle parts, given to the two violas, are so arranged as to produce no effect of thinness ; but had Mozart written the second violins in unison with the first, instead of in the octave below, the balance of power would have been destroyed, for the melody would then have been too strong for the accompaniment. Ex. 19 gives us an example of " k close position ;" while Ex. 21, though only in three-part harmony, is perfectly satisfying to the ear, from the way in which the parts are distributed. 181 . In all the examples just referred to strings alone are used ; but if we proceed with our analysis we shall find the same general principles illustrated in passages where either the wind is used alone, or the wind and strings are combined. In Ex. 41 the two bassoons would seem to form but a thin accompaniment to the whole mass of violins ; but in calculating this the difference of timbre must be taken into account. Although the bassoons are playing in their medium register, the notes of which are not very strong, and the passage is also marked piano, the penetrating quality of their tone will cause them to be distinctly heard through IoS INSTRUMENTATION. the other instruments. The last measures of this same example appear to contradict the general rule given above (Sect. 179) «S to the distance between the upper parts and the bass ; but it must be remarked, first, that the holding A's of the horns furnish a sort of connecting link, and, secondly, that there are very few rules of orchestration to which there are no exceptions, and that the composers feeling of the effect he desires must be his guide as to the means he employs. Here it is evident that, after the low harmony for the bassoons, Mozart wishes for a sharply defined contrast. Another instance of the upper parts at a considerable distance from the bass will be seen in the passage from Brahm's Symphony in C minor (Ex. 76). 1S2. A very important consideration in laying out a score is that the middle parts must not be too thin. The French have a very expressive phrase to describe this : they speak of a rich middle part in the orchestra as being " Men nourrt" — well nourished. Reference to some of our preceding extracts will make this clear. Ex. 42 is a case in point ; but as this has been alreadv remarked upon, we will take others. In Ex. 56, let the student examine the disposition of the wind parts. Here the four- part chord in the upper octave for two flutes and two clarinets is balanced by the chord i.i the next octave (also in four parts) for two horns and two bassoons : we have compact harmony extend- ing over nearly three octaves. Now, imagine the bassoon parts replaced by two oboes an octave higher, and the whole effect of the passage is destroyed. The upper chords become so powerful as to obscure the melody for the violins, and the lower octave is left thin and empty. Look, again, at the beautiful arrangement of the score in Ex. 72. Here, while the first clarinet adds fulness and the piccolo brilliancy to the melody played by the first violins, the soft tones of the horns, bassoons, and trombones impart a peculiar rich- ness to the middle harmony, while the difference of tone-color is such as in no degree to obscure the principal theme. In Ex. 73i also, it will \)2 seen that the soft chord for the trombones and tuba fills up the middle octave, and removes the effect of thinness which the arpeggios of the harp alone would be insufficient to conceal. 183. It would nevertheless be an error to suppose that the middle parts of the harmony must be invariably filled up and enriched as in the passages just referred to. In Ex. 40, for instance, we see a very thin harmony, the middle consisting only of bare fifths for the horns; while in Ex. ^0 the melancholy desolate effect of the clarinet solo would be much less striking if the middle harmonies were fuller. On this point we shall have more to say later, in speaking of contrast. 184. We shall now further illustrate the balance of tone of which we c.te treating by showing several different ways of scoring the ON BALANCE OF TONE : CONTRAST AND COLOR. IO9 common chord of C major. We here give twelve examples of this chord, all forte, from the works of twelve of the greatest masters of instrumentation : — Ex. 7S. (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (S) (9) do) (11) (12) Fl. Pice. , Pice. Flauti. Oboi. Clarinetti in C. Fagotti. Corni in C. 1 Trombe in C. Tromboni. Timpani in C, G. Viol 1. Viol 2. Viola. Bassi. C.B. ( 1 ) Haydn, 2nd Mass. (2) Mozart, "Clemenza di Tito." (3) Beethoven, Overture, Op. 115. (4) Cherubini, " Faniska." (5) Schubert, Symphony in C. (6) Weber, " Freischiitz." C.B. C.B. (7) Mendelssohn, Overture, "Ruy Bias.' (8) Rossini, " Stabat Mater." (9) Auber, " Masaniello." (10) Meyerbeer, " Les Huguenots." (11) Wagner, " Meistersinger." (12) Brahms, Symphony in C minor HO INSTRUMENTATION. The student may profitably employ hours in the analyses and comparison of these chords. Did space permit it would be easy to write several pages on this example ; we must content ourselves with indicating to the student the points to which he should specially direct his attention. It should be said, in passing, that to save space the four horns (where four are used) are written on one staff, and the parts, when needful, transposed. Thus in No. 6 there are in the original two horns in G and two in C, in No. 7 two in C and two in E-flat, and so on. The examples are given nearly in chronological order, that the student may compare the older with the more modern styles of orchestration. Notice, first, the relative importance given in the various scores to the three notes of the chord — the root, the third, and the fifth ; and then observe the distribution of the parts with reference to the comparative strength of tone in the different octaves. It will be seen that in some cases {e.g., Nos. 2, 3, and 11) the effect is especially brilliant, while in others (such as Nos. 6, 7, and 12) it is fuller, richer, and more sonorous. 1S5. All the combinations of tone given in Ex. 7S are effective, though the nature of the effects differs widely in the various chords. We shall now conclude this pait of our subject by giving a few examples of the chord of C, which are intentionally scored badly, in order that the learner, by comparing them with those already given, may see not only what to do, but what not to do. (See Ex. 79, p. III.) These four chords would be all more or less ineffective. Instead of explaining the reasons, we leave the student to discover them, merely saying that they have all been made from the chords given in Ex. 78 by altering some of the parts. If Nos. 1 and 2 of Ex. 79 are compared with Nos. 6 and 8 of Ex. 7S, the difference will be apparent at once. In writing these chords, the rules already given for the guidance of the learner have been most scrupulously violated. 186. No less important than a proper balance of tone is the necessity for contrast in instrumentation. If either one strength of tone or one uniform color be too long sustained, the effect will inevitably be monotonous. Moreover, a want of contrast is the more inexcusable as there are so many different ways in which it may be obtained. Among these are (1) the alternation of the three different instrumental masses — strings, wood, and brass; (2) the contrast among themselves of different members of the same group ; (3) the sudden change from forte to pia>io and from full to thin harmony, and vice versa; (4) the contrast of varying rhythms and figures of accompaniment. We shall give a. few illustrations of these different kinds of contrast. 1S7. Many of the passages quoted in the preceding chapters of this book will serve as examples of what has just been said. For ON BALANCE OF TONE CONTRAST AND COLOR. n: instance in Exs. 38, 55, and 76 is exemplified the alternation of the various masses, wind and strings answering one another. Ex. 47 affords an instance of the contrasts to be obtained from different members of the same group — the wood. Ex. 30 presents two kinds of contrast at once — that of the tone of the bassoon as opposed to that of the strings, and that of two entirely different rhythms. Ex. 54 is particularly interesting as an example of con- trast. Notice especially the third and following measures ; where Ex.79- -iH 4& ^ (4 Flauti. $ Oboi. Clarinetti in C. Fagotti. Corni in C. Trombe in C. 3 Tromboni. Timpani in C, G. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Dcssi. I :£: rSz 5 tz ; . $ 22: H=^fi 4 ? I ? ZZZl 7Z2ZC ZStl tr tr tr tr a " m -^ ^ the melody is given to the oboe (a reedy-toned instrument), the full and round-toned horns have the harmony ; but in the follow- ing measures the disposition of the parts is reversed, the lower notes having the reedy and the upper the clear tones. For con- trasts between different parts of the family of strings, see Ex. 3S, where the pizzicato of the double-basses is so effectively fol- lowed by the sustained notes col arco of the other strings. I 12 INSTRUMENTATION. 1 88. A few more quotations may advantageously be given in illustration of these points : — Ex. So. Andante maestoso. Meyerbeer. " Robert le Diable." E Timp. _*r_ .*-.*- 3 Tromboni itnis. \ Clar. Fag: These opening measures of the prelude to " Robert le Diable" are given in a compressed score, because the orchestration is so clear and simple that a misunderstanding is hardly possible. The passage, it will be seen, shows us contrasts not only between various groups, but between members of the same group (flutes and oboes, answered in the next measure by clarinets and bassoons) , and between a unison and thin and full harmony ; and we also see the effect (in measure 7) of a strongly marked forte for full or- chestra followed by a pianissimo for only three instruments. It is perhaps almost needless to say that the pizzicato passages require the double string ; the student will easily discover for himself the easiest and most effective mode of dividing the chords among the strings. 189. Ex. .Si The following: lovelv little bit of instrumentation — Larghettu. Oboi. Clarinetti in C. Fagotti. t'orni in F. Viol. 1, 2. Viola. Kassi. Schubert. Mass in F, " Kyrie." ON BALANCE OF TONE : CONTRAST AND COLOR. JI 3 hardly requires explanation, but is none the less worthy of study. Let the charming effect of the sforzando, -pp, for the horns and bassoons in the last measure be specially noted. 190. The last example of contrast to be given here — Gounod. " Funeral March of a Marionette." Ex. 82. Oboi. Clarinetti in A. Fagotti. * Corni in D. * Trombe in A. Tromboni. Timpani in D, A. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Bassi. I ~S *~ n ~g g _*TlJ g i *£ P /. ^r J3fc_ -b**- — =r ^ * =/- T m =*= ^- &$- * The real notes sounded are printed here on one staff, to save space, except- ing the last note for the horns. 114 INSTRUMENTATION. illustrates two points. We see first a very decided forte for nearly the whole orchestra answered by a piano for a few wind instruments; and in the last measures a contrast of an altogether different kind — the legato in all the parts succeeding the previous staccato. This passage, moreover, furnishes an example of what was said in our introductory chapter (Sect. 5), that many things sound much better in the orchestra than they look in the score It is difficult for those who have not heard this march plaved I4- realize how striking is the effect of the contrast here given. 191. A few words must be said, in concluding this chapter on orchestral coloring, chiefly because a work on instrumentation in which the subject was not mentioned might reasonably be con- sidered incomplete. Yet this is pre-eminently one of the things the management of which cannot possibly be taught. What his box of colors is to the painter, that the instruments of the orchestra are to the musician ; and every great composer, like every great painter, has his own peculiar style of coloring. A musician who is familiar with the works of the great masters would, if shown a score by a composer whose name he did not know, be able, almost with certainty, to fix upon the author from the orchestral coloring. For example, no three styles of instrumentation can be much more unlike than those of Beethoven. Mendelssohn, and Auber — all equally effective in a different way — but while a connoisseur would feel the difference at once, he would probablv find it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to define. Every instrument has its own special capabilities of tone and expression, and the combinations are as exhaustless as the possible shades of tint in a picture. It is related of the painter Opie that, being once asked how he mixed his colors, he replied, "With brains, sir ! '' It is with brains, too, that the student must mix his orchestral colors. To a very large extent the feeling for tone- color, like melodic invention, is a heaven-born gift, though undoubtedly study will do much to develop it. Let the student analyze for himself the scores of the great masters, let him notice how they produce their effects, and his imagination will be quick- ened ; and if he have within him a natural feeling for color — and if not he had better not attempt orchestration at all — he will gradually learn, instinctively as it were, to combine his instru- ments in an effective manner. CHAPTER VIII. THE INSTRUMENTATION OF VOCAL MUSIC. 192. In the branch of our subject on which we are now entering we shall have to consider the orchestra in a new light. Hitherto we have regarded it as the principal if not the sole factor in music ; but when combined with the human voice it sinks for the most part to a subordinate position. In the present chapter we shall speak of the treatment of the orchestra when used for the purposes of accompaniment. 193. The first and most important principle to be laid down is that when the voice and the orchestra are combined the former is of primary, the latter of secondary, importance. To this rule there are doubtless numerous exceptions, some of which will be presently referred to ; but it will nevertheless be probably well within the mark to say that of every twenty measures of vocal music with orchestra in the works of the great masters the voice will be found in at least nineteen to have the prominence. The mistake most often made by beginners is to score vocal music far too heavilv. An accompaniment which is so strong as to overpower the voice, or which, even if it does not overpower it, distracts too much the attention of the hearer, is in the large majority of cases an artistic mistake. 194. It has been said above that there are occasional excep- tions to this rule. These are, perhaps, most frequent in operatic music. As a very good example let the student examine the commencement of the first duet in " Figaro." Figaro is measuring the walls of his chamber with a foot-rule ; the orchestra accom- panies with an expressive phrase, while he says to himself from time to time, " Five — ten — twenty ! " Here the instruments portrav for us his slow steps round the room ; the orchestra pic- dominates ; but as soon as his conversation with .Susanna begins the voice-parts assume their usual importance, and the orchestra becomes subordinate. So again with much descriptive music : the orchestra in the hands of a skilful composer possesses a power of realistic painting with which voices cannot compete, and in such cases the latter sink into a secondary position. The two storm-choruses, " Hark ! the deep tremendous voice," in Haydn's "Seasons," and "Woe! see the storm-clouds," in Weber's "Jubilee Cantata." will illustrate this. (• '5) u6 INSTRUMENTATION. 195. In the accompaniment of a solo two points should spe- cially be borne in mind — clearness and contrast. If the orchestral part is either too heavy or too elaborate the singer will not In- distinctly heard, while contrast can be obtained either by the difference of tone-quality between the voice and the instruments, or by variety in the rhythms and figures of the accompaniment, or by both combined. For instance, in Ex. 7 the contrast is merelv one of tone-color — the accompaniment is mostly homophonic with the voice ; but in Ex. 8, scored also for violas and violoncellos, we see the further contrast between the continuous melody for the voice and the detached chords of the orchestra. Again, in Ex. 23 the duet between the voice and the violoncellos gives us a contrast in tone, while the moving figure of eighth notes for the second violins gives, as compared with the voice part, the addi- tional contrast of rhythm. 196. In all the passages just referred to it will be noticed that the voice is accompanied by strings alone. It may be said that in general strings furnish the best accompaniment for a solo voice, not only because it is so easy to subdue their tone, and thus to avoid the risk of overpowering the melody, but also because they form a better contrast than do wind instruments, some of which, especially the clarinet and bassoon, assimilate much more nearly to the voice. For this reason it will be found (though there are of course many exceptions) that with the great masters the strings have generally had the most important part of the work in the accompaniment of solo music. 197. In the following passage, accompanied by strings only — Ex. 83. Violino 1. Yiolino 2. Viola. Voice. llassi. Gluck. " Iphigenie en Tauride." ^ m^ ^Es^ m^ ^ ^^i Et Danscet objet tou - chant a qui jedoisla vi-e, -f will be seen a good example of what has just been said as to con- trast. Three different forms of accompaniment will be seen, none of which resemble the figure of the voice part. The eighth rests on the accented beats of the measure in the first violin part cause the entries of the instruments to be rather more noticeable, without at THE INSTRUMENTATION OF VOCAL MUSIC. "7 the same time making the part so prominent as to interfere with the voice. 19S. The pizzicato of the strings is especially useful as an accompaniment when it is desired that the voice part shall be more than usually prominent. Examples may be found in nearly every modern score. We shall give one already referred to in an earlier chapter (Sect. 46), not only because it is one which the student is hardly likely to have seen, but also because it is rarely that we find the pizzicato employed as an accompaniment in such rapid tempo as here : — Ex. 84. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Voice. Bassi. pi Allegretto. § kh Bjllg Angele. fizz. Auber. " Le Domino Noir." I I J- ' -J- J-. ±~ J-. Jr m pizz. ==F ' j * j « - pizz. WE ** — +- = 5=« -s* ^=^^_ > > - ^ «» ' i * Ah quel- le nuit ! le moin - dre bruit me trou-ble et pizz. a ^ m BEEF p^gE^E - =S $E=* Ste ftj* t=mz *=Z 3t*=fc£=3E5E* Sl£ » * -•» — f- m'in-ter- dit. et je m'ar-rete,he- las, a cha-que pas. u8 INSTRUMENTATION. 199. An excellent effect is sometimes to be obtained by a duet for the voice and one instrumental part, as in the following well- known passage from " Elijah " : — Ex. 85. Violino 1, 2. Viola. Voice. Violoncello. Basso. Adagio. Mendelssohn. "Elijah." m 3=* dim. l ^=^=^ '* I am not bet ter, I am not bet ter than my dim. gE pfS^3 =J esT^=t- ft -1 !(- ■*- -•- T cres. ■m- i — =»- =t4==s£= T- ^— n~ — - — '**— — *«— — 1^ — > > —i — — U" — s-^-S — 1— - fa q — hi — — =1- — *- gj thers. -»- r 1 -■ — •0- 1 ^■^ » — * — p -*— — 1>* — — 3- — 1^ — — ft— — > — 1 T ") cres. 1 ^^" -3- -IS —J =1 — vSometimes a wind instrument is similarly combined with the voice, as, for instance, the oboe (in the air, ''Oh. how pleasing to the senses," from Haydn's ''Seasons"), the clarinet ("Parto," in " La Clemenza di Tito"), the cor anglais ("Robert, toi que j'aimc," in " Robert le Diable"), the corno di bassetto (" Non piu di fiori," in " La Clemenza di Tito") , or even the trumpet (as in Handel's "Let the bright seraphim " and " The trumpet shall sound ") . 200. It will be well to remember that as a general rule the accompaniment should be below rather than above the voice part, so as not to obscure it. Not unfrequentlv the upper instrumental THE INSTRUMENTATION OF VOCAL MUSIC. II 9 part is in unison with the voice ; but in many passages it will be found better not to double the melody with any instrument what- ever, or at least not in the same octave. The two passages last quoted (Exs. 84, 85) illustrate this point. It is important to remember, in applying this rule, that no account need be taken of the difference between male and female voices ; the great com- posers mostly accompany a tenor or bass solo in the same manner (as regards pitch) as a soprano or contralto. If, however, the two kinds of voices are combined (e.£-., in a duet for soprano and tenor) , the difference of the octave in the two registers must not be disregarded. 201. Although, as has been said above, the most important part of the accompaniment to a solo voice is generally given to strings, it by no means follows that the wind may not be occasion- ally used for the same purpose with excellent effect. It will be well, however, to bear in mind, first, that the tone of the wind instruments sooner becomes wearisome to the hearer than that of the strings ; secondly, that it assimilates more to the quality of the voice, and that therefore special care must be taken as to con- trast ; and lastly, that, being much more powerful than strings, wind instruments are likely to overwhelm the voice, unless used with great judgment. Two examples will suffice to illustrate these points : — Ex. 86. Flauti. c£fc* Clarinetti in A.* Corni in A. Soprano. Weber. "Jubilee Cantata." Andantino. mmm Lord, we pray Thee, Lord, we pray Thee. Here we have the voice accompanied by a sustained chord for only a few instruments pp, through which the melody can be heard without difficulty. It will be noticed that the accompani- ment is at times above the voice part, furnishing another example of what has already been more than once said — that there are few rides of orchestration to which there may not be found exceptions, more or less frequent, even in the works of the great masters. Here the soft tones of the flute in its lower octave are too weak to obscure the melody at all. * The real notes are given. I 20 INSTRUMENTATION. 202. Our next example is rather more fully scored than the last : — Ex. 87. Mendelssohn. "Lobgesang." ■1013 Afaderatn mn rnn fun/in. r P 0- 0--0-0-0-0 £000- Fiauti. i / f , b" ( ' s ::: :::: sstt ssss w i» u u^ s^gw^ u u uuwu Oboi. Clarinetti in B. Fagotti. Corni in E-flat. Soprano. ^ T^roic^ tllrtll Praise thou the Lord, my spi rit, and J£*± my in most soul, praise His great lov-ing-kind - ness. We see here a favorite device of Mendelssohn's — the iterated notes for the wind (compare Ex. 56), which in this place make an effective contrast to the sustained melody for the voice. Let the student also notice the balance of tone ; the voice is forte, and the accompaniment pianissimo. In the third and fourth measures the flute is above the voice, and the latter is reinforced by the oboe, so that the melody remains quite prominent enough. THE INSTRUMENTATION OK VOCAL MUSIC. 121 203. Brass instruments may also be used as an accompani- ment to a solo voice, though here, even more than with the wood, the utmost discretion in their treatment is necessary. An excellent example will be found in Ex. 6S, and modern scores, especially those of Wagner, contain numerous passages which may be consulted with advantage. It may be remarked that the brass is much less often used to accompany a female than a male voice, the latter being less likely to be overpowered. 204. If both wind and strings are used to accompany a solo, it will be better for the wind to be introduced very sparingly, and only for particular effects ; if combined continuously with the strings it will be difficult to prevent the accompaniment from being too heavy. The scores of Mozart's operas may be recom- mended for special study in this respect ; but as these are gene- rally accessible, we shall give a quotation from a less-known work. The analysis of the following passage — Ex. SS. Oboi. Fagotti. Corni in F. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Soprano Solo. Bassi. Schubert. Mass in F. i^ Larsrhetto. 3 fe fir- fir. s 3=e -=1— A- ^ =^3=*= J y ' IM^Ii fp -1l' ^-f eg '-m-m. =5=E ^EE i Ky - ri - e PP lei son, Ky - ri - e cres. lei - son m s will well repay the student, for there is not a note introduced without a special object. Mark particularly the beautiful effect of the sforzando of the wind on the unaccented parts of the measure. 205. For the accompaniment of recitative the great composers have chiefly employed the strings, either in sustained harmony (sometimes in tremolo), or in short detached chords separating the vocal phrases. The wind may also be employed, though the occasions for its appropriate introduction are somewhat rarer. 122 INSTRUMENTATION. No fixed rules can be given for the instrumentation of recitative ; the student will best learn what to do by consulting the scores of the great masters. Such examples as " E Susanna non vien," in •'•Figaro;" "Don Ottavio, son morta," in '"Don Giovanni ; " " Abscheulicher, wo eil'st du hin ? " in " Fidelio ; " and the whole of the recitatives in " St. Paul " and "Elijah " and in Cherubini's operas may be recommended as excellent models. The old-fashioned unaccompanied recitative (j-ecitativo secco) is now almost entirely disused. 206. Modern composers frequently employ the harp in the accompaniment of solo music, especially in opera. If judiciously treated this instrument is capable of great effect, but account must be taken of its somewhat weak tone ; and it should not be over- powered by too many other instruments. It may be well used eitheralone,withthe//2"2-/rrt;/(9 of the strings(orevenwith sustained notes of the strings, if \exy piano) , or with the softer wind instru- ments. The scores of Meyerbeer, Rossini, Gounod, and Wagner abound in effective harpaccompaniments. Agood example of their use in concert-music may be seen in the third part of Schumann's " Faust," in the baritone solo " Hier ist die Aussicht frei." 207. Hitherto we have spoken only of the instrumentation of solos ; for the accompaniment of choruses the orchestra requires altogether different treatment. And even with choral music the composer must consider whether he is writing for the stage or the concert- room. If the former the singers may probably be reckoned by tens ; if the latter, not infrequently, by hundreds. As the difference in the number of the orchestra will most certainly be by no means proportionate to that of the two choruses spoken of, it is important in writing to calculate the relative proportions of the two. For example, a good opera orchestra will probably number from sixty to seventy performers, and the opera chorus will be possibly as numerous. But a choral society numbering four or five hundred singers would most likely be accompanied by no larger a band ; and it will be seen at once that the relative strength of tone between voices and instruments will be widely different in the two cases. And this must be borne in mind by the composer.* * The general tendency in this country is to have far too numerous a chorus in proportion to the orchestra; hence the latter is, in many cases, completely "swamped," and important instrumental effects are rendered simply inaudible because the chorus is too large. An instance of the prejudicial results of this tendency recently came under the notice of the author. At a concert given by a choral society, in which the band numbered nearly fifty and the chorus about 140, complaints were made by some of the audience that "the band was too loud ; "the real fact being that the balance of tone was so much more correct than that to which they were accustomed, that when the orchestra was brought into sufficient prominence, instead of the chorus (as usual) domineering over every- thing, the conclusion was at once arrived at that such a state of things must W wront{. Our overgrown choral societies have misled public taste in this mattei THE INSTRUMENTATION OF VOCAL MUSIC. 1 23 208. The great point to be remembered in the orchestration of choral music is that breadth of effect should be aimed at rather than minuteness of detail. Many things which in the accom- paniment to a solo -would be charming, will be scarcely heard if the chorus is singing. It is not, of course, intended to imply that the full power of the orchestra should be continually employed ; such a procedure would be no less tasteless and absurd than in a symphony. But the composer should in general lay out his accompaniments rather for orchestral masses than for solo instrumental effects. Either of the orchestral groups (strings, wood, and brass) may be used singly or in combination in accompanying the voices ; but as a general rule a solo passage (e.g-, for flute, oboe, or clarinet) will fail to make itself heard unless the chorus be singing pianissimo. 209. In contrapuntal music, especially in fugues, it will be well to pay particular attention to clearness. If there be too much detail the music inevitably suffers. As a general rule, we re- commend the student to write the accompaniments to a fugue in the unison or octave with the voices. The great masters, it is true, have produced fine examples of fugue with an independent orchestral accompaniment (e.g., Haydn, " Et vitam venturi," in his First Mass; Mendelssohn, "Behold now, total darkness," in kk St. Paul"), but unless a composer has a great command of florid counterpoint he will find this form difficult to treat successfully. 210. In the cases already mentioned, the interest is supposed to be pretty equally divided between the chorus and the orchestra ; but cases frequently occur in which it is desired that the voices shall predominate. Nothing produces a finer effect than the introduction, if well managed, of a passage for unaccompanied chorus ; while instances may also be often met with in which an accompaniment is given which is entirely subordinate, and merely sufficient to prevent a sinking in pitch. This, by the way, is an important consideration ; and the composer will do well not to leave the voices without accompaniment in any passage of difficult or doubtful intonation, otherwise the effect of the re-entry of the orchestra may be disastrous. 211. In sacred music (oratorios, &c), and even in certain operatic scenes, the organ is often combined with the oi - chestra for the purposes of accompaniment. We strongly recommend the student not to employ this instrument unless he has some practical knowledge of its capabilit'es, as he will otherwise pro- bably not write for it suitably ; and its tone is so powerful that a badly written organ-part will ruin the effect of his orchestration. Assuming that he understands the instrument sufficiently, a few remarks may be made as to its treatment with the orchestra and chorus. 12 4 INSTRUMENTATION. 212. Both Bach and Handel made great use of the organ in their sacred works. The former, so far as can be judged from the indications in his scores, appears to have employed the instru- ment continuously, and in full harmony almost from the first to the last. Handel, on the other hand (as we know from his own notes on the organ-part to kt Saul " *), used the organ to play in unison with the voices in the choruses, and occasionally also to strengthen the bass part {tasto solo) in the airs. Haydn and Mozart in their masses mostly employ the organ in all forte passages, sometimes dispensing with it in the piano and solo parts of the music. In the scores of all these masters the organ- part is not written in full, but simply indicated by a figured ) ass, the exact position and fulness of the chords being left to the player. Probably the earliest instance of an organ-part fully written out in the score is to be found in Beethoven's Mass in D. The composer has here reserved it for special effects, where either a o-reat volume of sound or a sudden contrast of tone was desired : and his method of treating the organ was followed, perhaps with even more success, by Mendelssohn, whose scores of " St. Paul," " Elijah,"! and the "Lobgesang" are most instructive, and their study is strongly recommended to the student. We shall give one instance from the "Lobgesang" of a most felicitous introduc- tion of the organ in the middle of a phrase : — Mendelssohn. "Lobgesang." Ex. 89. Allegro di molto. |Corni in B-flat. Violino 1, Viola Alto (Chorus) * See Chrysander, " Jahrbiicher fur Musikalische Wissenschaft," i. 40S-428. t In the original editions of the scores of "St. Paul" and "Elijah" the organ-part is not given in full, but is simply indicated by the words "Col Organo " and " Senza Organo." In the new edition of the complete works of Mendelssohn (Breitkopf and Ilartel) the composer's own organ-part appears ii its proper place in these scores for the first time. \ See note to Ex. 55. THE INSTRUMENTATION OF VOCAL MUSIC. Si 125 ens f k=*- ^sSfe^ ■-*^z wmm mag-ni-fy His might andHisglo ry. 213. To a considerable extent, of course, the effect of the organ in combination with the orchestra will depend upon the manner in which the player "registers." Organs differ so much from one another that it would be impossible for the composer to indicate exactly the stops he desires used ; and even were it possible it would be unadvisable, because much must depend upon the size of the chorus and orchestra, the acoustic qualities of the hall, &c. It will be best therefore to give merely general directions, as Mendelssohn has done in the passage just quoted (f, mf, p ; 8 feet, 16 and 8 feet, S and 4 feet, &c). 214. The organ is occasionally used for special scenes in operatic music, as, for instance, in the fifth act of "Robert Is Diable," the second act of "Lohengrin," &c. It is also exec; - tionally employed in lighter opera {opera comique), as in the con- vent scene in the third act of Auber's "Domino Noir." As many theatres do not possess an organ, the part is in such cases usually played on a harmonium. This is at best only a makeshift; for though in softer passages the harmonium may fairly well be substituted for the organ, it is impossible to obtain the round tone of the diapasons from any reed instrument. The harmonium is scarcely ever used in the orchestra excepting in the way just mentioned. An instance of its employment(probablythe only one ) may, however, be seen in the score of Liszt's oratorio "Christus," in which both the organ and harmonium arc used alternately. 215. We have hitherto given no quotations of full choral pas- sages accompanied by the orchestra, partly because, to be of much use, they would be necessarily so long as to occupy more space than it is possible to spare in a small book such as this, and partly also because the learner can so easily obtain cheap editions 126 INSTRUMENTATION. of many of the full scores, which will be admirable models for him, that it will suffice to refer him to the works themselves. We specially recommend for study Haydn's "• Creation " and Men- delssohn's "St. Paul," "Elijah," "Lobgesang," and "Walpurgis Night," from a careful examination of which he may learn more than it would be possible for us to tell him in fifty pages. The most important point to be considered in the instrumentation of a chorus is the proper balance of tone between the voices and the orchestra. For the sake of completeness, wegive, in concluding this chapter, one short passage for chorus, full orchestra, and organ : — Ex. 90. Flauti. Oboi. (Clarinetti in C, col Oboi.) Fagotti. Corni in I). Trombe in D. 3 Tromboni. Timpani in D, A, Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Soprano. Alto. Tenore. Basso. Organo. Bassi life Mendelssohn. ■98th Psalm. m s S£ £:£ T^T _ s (' izez: m j^ KE 32 / S ±££ E ; r^sz f^ 3: r ^^r^ F _s- ^ ^=^ £A And the peo-ple with truth, 1.1 I If ^ I 1 and the peo-ple with J f» is ***** i feg; THE INSTRUMENTATION OF VOCAL MUSIC. ^- A J. f 2' § E £2"- ■^ ISC ¥ S± zB=*z isfc =1= ±S=> ffi i=£^E 3*= £E i -C 3 f? I £ EE p s T^ ^ 1 tr tr tr tr tr tr ^ % 8- «=» J= — J- r=fc ^ "5pz «s: as «3": £ Fr= q=c f -^-^J- --! u =sfc zsfc tst f^=i^ h =f 5 3t*c the peo A ! fT truth, and £ the I peo -s»- I pie, I _*. pie with truth. J J J P 2= ^ y= /' -g B e -*=- #= ^^ H§ In this extract we see first the contrast of the various masses, voices and strings being answered by wood and brass, and at the fifth measure the combination of the entire voc;d and instrumental force. An analysis of the passage will repay the student. CHAPTER IX. THE ORCHESTRATION OF CONCERTOS A.>D OTHER INSTRUMENTAL SOLOS. 216. The general principles by which the composer should be guided in orchestrating an instrumental solo being in all cases the same with which the student is already familiar, it will not be needful to do more than to make a few remarks in this chapter on the manner in which these principles should be applied. 217. In writing for a solo instrument many things are admissible which would be, to say the least, inexpedient in orchestral music. For instance, in a violin concerto there would be no necessity to limit the upward compass of the instrument to A or C (Sect. 12) ; many passages of double notes and other difficulties are allowable in a piece written to show off a soloist, which no sane musician would think of writing for the orchestra. Hence the necessity, or at least advisability, of the composer's having some practical knowledge of the instrument for which he is writing ; without such knowledge he will be very likely to introduce passages which will be as ineffective as they are difficult. 21S. Concertos are usually written for one solo instrument, though occasionally more than one is used ; thus concertos exist by Mozart for two violins, for violin and viola, and for flute and harp, as well as for two and three pianos ; while Beethoven has written a fine triple concerto (Op. 56) for piano, violin, and violoncello. The instrument for which the largest number of concertos has been written is undoubtedly the piano. This probably has largely arisen from the fact that the piano is more generally cultivated than any other instrument, and that for one good solo v?olinist it would probably be easy to find three or four equally good solo pianists. But another reason for the pre- ference given to this instrument may doubtless be found in the fact that it is capable of producing complete harmony by itself, and that, while not a component of the ordinary orchestra, it contrasts and combines equally well with all other instruments. If the student wo;ild learn how to combine the piano with the (128) THIS ORCHESTRATION OV CONCERTOS, ETC. I2 9 orchestra let him examine closely the scores of Beethoven's concertos (especially those in G and E-'.lat) and of his "Choral Fantasia" (Op. 80). Mendelssohn's works for piano and orchestra (concertos. •• Capriccio Brillant," &c.) may also be studied with advantage. 219. It is impossible within our limits to enumerate a quarter of the possible combinations of piano and orchestra. We shall content ourselves with giving short quotations, illustrating two or three of the effects most frequently introduced : — K.\. 91. Piano. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Bassi. Allegro con brio. h P - Beethovex. Concerto in C wsm =t= £fe=fe •-* ZW- p E^EE E^E ■*= "£" =r b±z mE$$$E&3-$ l 0-0-0-0--] pz J rrH * d d d d d ~ /•' P » /•> 6V//0. 1 1 £Jfc:£fe Iggfcljft ^ S^ =r? — I — I 1 — 1 — I — I — t- t 0*d d d d d d z - 1 $m -d. J ¥ d^ m ^^5 — * — ' — r- d : 1— P 3= * * - * * * 4=* £*&* I ^EE Here we have the melody given to the piano in octaves, and [ 3° t \^ ' Kl MENTATION, accompanied by simple harmony for strings. In the following ssasre — pass~ & Ex. 92. Fagotti. Piano. Schumann. Concerto in A minor. m Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Violoncello. Bassi. i ES>- $ = SS -=»-— Ped. UJ. =*=3= Ped. f f s divisi. m esprcss. I K ^ J aa # m m B r- Mi J. m I i * lb the melody is given to the violoncellos ; the other strings and the bassoons fill up the harmony in the first two measures, while the piano has ornamental passages of broken chords. At the third and fourth measures the piano takes the melody, and the strings occupy a subordinate position. Our next illustration — THE ORCHESTRATION OF CONCERTOS, ETC. 1^1 Ex. 93. Mozart. Concerto in D mittot. Allegro Flauto. Oboi. t m r ^ E± =£ : T~ W^?- -*—*- m i =t=fc g^fejEBE^f * 5 e^ shows how to combine the piano with the wind instruments effectively. The -piano of the trumpets and drums should be noticed. In a forte passage these instruments would overpower the solo part too much. 132 INSTRUMENTATION. 220. Next to the piano the instrument most frequently used for concertos is the violin. It is hardly needful to say that in the accompaniment of a solo violin the other violins must be used. Here contrast must be obtained less by variety of tone than by differences of rhythm, &c. Occasionally variety of tone also may be employed ; thus, in the slow movement of his violin concerto, Beethoven writes all the accompanying violins con sordini, while the solo instrument plays without the mute. The scores of the violin concertos of Beethoven and Mendelssohn will show the student how to treat this branch of orchestration. One extract from the latter is given : — Mendelssohn. Violin Concerto. Ex. 94. Flauti. Clarinetti in A. Fagotti. Violino Principale. Viol. 1, 2. Viola. Bassi. Sfe^E P£- ^gP PP legg. h§& 6*^S: KfcLt pizz. ~ p I I pizz SS^EE*^ S*' 3|=*= d= f 3e^^£ =*=£=F* -• m JL ■■■■«}. I>i 1^ & r Lll u^lLTlU Ld rir>,r I iX a JT I i§§ F THE ORCHESTRATION OF CONCERTOS, ETC. 1 33 In this quotation the solo violin is accompanied by a few wind instruments, while the strings have pizzicato chords. The con- trasts of tone here leave nothing to desire. 221. In the comparatively rare cases in which a concerto is written for a solo wind instrument, it will be well to avoid using another instrument of the same kind in the orchestra. Thus Mozart's and Weber's concertos for the clarinet have no clarinet parts in the accompaniment ; in Mozart's concerto for bassoon the only wind instruments are oboes and horns, and so on. The object, of course, is to have as complete a contrast as possible between the solo part and the accompaniment. 222. It need only be added, in conclusion, that if the student be guided by the general principles laid down in Chapter VII, on balance of tone and contrast, and in Chapter VIII, on the accompaniment of solo music, and will study carefully the pub- lished scores of the concertos of the great masters, especially Mozart, Beethoven, and Mendelssohn, he will find little difficulty in the suitable and effective orchestration of any concerto that the spirit may move him to write. CHAPTER X. GENERAL PRINCIPLES : CONCLUSION. 223. We have now briefly treated each of the branches of instrumentation which come properly within the scope of the present Primer. We shall conclude our work with a few general suggestions to the student. 224. One of the most important pieces of advice to be given to a young musician commencing orchestration is, write practi- cally". A very common mistake with the beginner is to make his music excessively difficult or awkward to play. It is compara- tively' seldom that such difficulty lies in the nature of the musical idea ; it mostly results from want either of thought or of know- ledge (or both) in the manner of expressing it; and the practical result of such a method of writing is that the composer, if he gets an opportunity of having his work played, will almost certainly hear it badly done. Our orchestral performers will take the trouble, if needful, to practise a difficult passage by Beethoven. Brahms, or Wagner ; but they will not take the same trouble, unless absolutely compelled to do so, with a symphony by Smith or Jones ; and in any case, they will play it not con anions but probably with an accompaniment of " curses not loud, but deep." Any one who has had much intercourse with orchestral players will know the truth of this. From similar considerations of practicability the student should avoid the introduction into his scores of instruments not in most oicnestras. If, for instance, he write an important part for a bass clarinet, or a contrafagotto, he is placing a considerable obstacle in the way of the production of his work. 22^. We now come to another point closely connected with the last — the importance of interest big the performers. A judicious composer will always endeavor to give something of importance (even if it be only a few notes) to every instrument in the orchestra. If the second oboe, for instance, or the second clarinet has now and then in the course of the piece a passage in which his instrument comes for a moment into prominence, and he feels that lie too is of importance to the general effect, he will blow away contentedly at whole pages of holding notes and accompaniments. Look at the scores of Mo/art's operas, or Beethoven's symphonies, from this point of view, and see how ('34) GENERAL PRINCIPLES: CONCLUSION. 13^ something at least is given to each player in the course of the work. If the performers be interested, they will play with a will ; and attention to this matter on the part of the composer may probably make all the difference between a good and an indifferent performance of his work. 226. Another consideration of the very first importance is the necessity for clearness in orchestral writing. This point has been already alluded to in an earlier chapter (Sect. 178) ; but it is of such moment that it must be referred to agrain. Many vouner composers seem to treat their scores as if they were exercises in writing counterpoint in eight or nine real parts. Under certain circumstances such polyphony is allowable or even desirable ; but in the large majority of cases an increase in the number of real parts (we are not speaking of mere doublings in the octave) , far from adding to the general effect, only causes confusion. Sebastian Bach, indeed, understood how to combine any number of independent melodies without sacrificing clearness ; but his case is altogether exceptional. Mozart, in the finale of his "Jupiter" Symphony has given some wonderful examples of polyphonic writing ; but it requires the genius of a Mozart to construct such a movement ; and in performance there are many points which do not sound so clear as they look in the score. On this point it may be remarked incidentally that in nearly every score passages will be noticed in reading which will scarcely be heard in actual performance, but which seem to be introduced partly for the sake of correct part-writing, and probably also in part for the sake of interesting the player. The greatest living contrapuntists are probably Brahms, Raff, and Wagner ; but if their scores be examined, it will be found that the thickness and obscurity resulting from the introduction of too many independent parts are seldom to be noticed : the four-part harmony forms (as it always should) the foundation of the musical structure. It is impossible to lay down a hard and fast rule on this point ; experience alone will teach the composer what to do and what to avoid ; but perhaps it is not too much to say that as a general rule the clearness of effect will be in inverse proportion to the number of real parts above four emploved. 227. It is an important rule, though not always so carefully observed as it should be, that each group of instruments should make correct harmony by itself. It is perhaps superfluous to say that this does not apply to the natural horns and trumpets, to which, in consequence of their incomplete scale, many licenses are necessarily allowed in this matter.* * See, for example, the eight measures of consecutive perfect fifths between the trumpet and ophicleide in the overture to the "Midsummer Night's Dream" (pp. 48, 49, of Breitkopf and Hartel's new edition). 136 INSTRUMENTAL ION A simple example will explain what we mean: — Ex. 95. *=^=*m -•■ — fi- r * * Iii this sequence of sixths, the three parts may he given to strings alone, or to wind alone, or the three string parts may he doubled by three wind instruments — c-g'-i an ohoe playing with the first violin, and two clarinets with the second violin and viola; it would even be possible, though of doubtful effect, to give the two extreme parts to strings and the middle part to wind, or vice versa. But it would be incorrect to give the two upper parts to strings, and the lowest one to wind, or the upper parts to (let us say) two oboes, and the lowest to violins ; and if all three parts were played by strings, it would be wrong to double the two upper parts with wind instruments without also doubling the third. 22S. The besetting sin of the modern school of orchestration is the love of noise; and against this tendency the present is a suitable place to enter an earnest protest. Our age has been appropriately described from a musical point of view as •• the age of brass." Two horns, tw r o trumpets, and a pair of kettle- drums sufficed for many of the grandest inspirations of Mozart and Beethoven ; but our modern composers think nothing of introducing on every occasion, lour horns, two or three trumpets, three trombones, an ophicleide or tuba, and (as likely as noO, in addition to the kettle-drums, the big drum and cymbals, triangle, and sometimes also side-drum. And most, if not all, of these may he heard in some modern works in the accompani- ment to a simple song! It is like using a Nasmyth steam- hammer to kill a fly. We are not protesting against the use, but against the a&use, of these instruments. Magnificent effects may he frequently obtained from the brass, as has been often proved by Schubert and Mendelssohn, and in our own day by Brahms and Wagner; but it is none the less true that the prevalent tendency of the modern school is to employ this depart- ment of the orchestra far too frequently. The general tone- color becomes richer, it is true, but it also soon becomes monot- onous, and many of the more delieate orchestral tints are blurred and obscured by the constant superposition of horns and trombones. 229. It is probable that the general introduction of the ventil in brass instruments has done much to foster this tendency. GENERAL PRINCIPLES: CONCLUSION. 137 When composers had at their disposal only a limited number of notes for horns and trumpets, they were forced, whether they would or not, to employ them with moderation. But when the new mechanism gave them the complete chromatic scale for the brass, they in too many cases yielded to the temptation to use these instruments on all occasions, overlooking altogether the fact that in their limited scale lay a considerable part of the secret of their effectiveness. We strongly advise the student to use only the natural horns and trumpets, at least until lie has acquired enough experience to know how to treat the valve instruments with discretion. In the whole of the extracts we have quoted in the course of this volume, we have purposely given only passages to be played on the natural instruments ; * and it will be seen that there is in them quite sufficient variety for ordinary purposes. 230. It will be an excellent exercise for the student to compose frequently for a small orchestra without trumpets or drums. Until he has tried for himself he will hardly realize what an infinity of combinations is possible without havinsf recourse to noise at all ; and in proportion as he accustoms himself to the production of charming effects with a few instruments, he will he less tempted to that misuse of the brass of which we have been speaking. j 231. M. Gevaert, in his admirable "Traite d'Instrumentation," says : — - If we compare one of Mozarts operas with a modern dramatic work, we shall immediately notice a profound difference in the system of instrumentation. Here the composition of the orchestra is, so to speak, stereotyped, and, except for slight differences, it remains the same from one end of the score to the other. The effect of each movement taken separately is more brilliant, hut the continual return of the same sonorousness engenders at last satiety and monotony. With Mozart, on the contrary, the instrumental programme is only com- pletely filled in the culminating situations of the drama, and this habitual sobriety brings out into stronger relief the irresistible vigor of the orchestra when all the masses are united. 232. Though M. Gevaert. in tlie above ([notation, is speaking more especially of the instrumentation of the opera, his sound observations apply with hardly less truth to the modern school of orchestration in general. Meyerbeer, Gounod, and Wagner, brilliant and most interesting as their scores are, can hardly * With the single exception of the chord from Wagner's " Meistersinger " in Ex. 78, which, however, could just as easily be played by two natural horns in F and two in C. t As a most interesting example of what can be clone, even in elaborate music, with a small orchestra, see the first finale of Cherubini's " Les Deux Journees." This magnificent piece occupies fifty-seven pages of the score, and is full of the most delightful effects of instrumentation ; but the only wind instruments used are flutes, oboes, clarinets, bassoons, and two horns. 138 INSTRUMENTATION. be recommended to the student as good models. Let him not disdain to learn from them the production of special effects and the management of large tone-masses when he requires such ; but let him, if he would learn how to use every single instrument legitimately and to produce great effects by small means, consult the scores of Mozart, Gluck, Beethoven, Cherubini,and Schubert. It is at least an open question whether, with all our modern ful- ness and richness, the science of instrumentation has made much real progress since the scores of " Figaro," " Fidelio," and "Les Deux Journees " were written. 233. In concluding this work we emphatically repeat what we said in commencing — that instrumentation cannot be taught from an instruction-book. Those (if there be such) who may buy this Primer, expecting that when they have read it they will be able to write for the orchestra, will most assuredly be disappointed. All that has been possible has been to explain the tecJi7iiquc of the variqus instruments, and to put the reader in the way of finding out for himself what to do with them. Natural aptitude, aided bv study and experience, must do the rest : by seeing how the great masters have used the orchestra, the student will best learn how to use it himself. If the extracts given in this book assist him in this matter their object will be sufficiently answered. APPENDIX. THE ORDER OF THE INSTRUMENTS IN A SCORE 234. It is much to be regretted that no uniform method exists of arranging the instruments in a score. The consequence is that a musician in reading a strange work may be considerably inconvenienced at first by finding the instruments in a different relative position from that to which he is accustomed. This is more especially the case with older works ; in modern scores only two, or at most three, methods of arranging the parts are in general use. As it will be impossible to indicate all the arrange- ments to be met with, a few words only will be said as to the svstems generally employed. 235. The first of these places the three upper string-parts at the top of the score ; next the wind — the wood according to their pitch, beginning with the flutes as the highest — then the horns, trumpets, and drums, the trombones (if they should be used) being placed immediately over, or sometimes under, the drums ; and lastly, the violoncellos and basses. The whole score would, therefore, take this order : — fVi ;. 1 Vi iolino 1. Strings. -I Violino 2. ( Viola. fFlauti. ,, r Oboi. Wood. < n , . ... I Clarinetti. t Fagotti. f Corni. Brass. -< Trombe. (_ (Tromboni). Timpani.* Violoncello e Basso. * The drums are exceptionally placed at the foot of the score, under the double-basses, as in Mehul's "Joseph," Cheruhini's "Elise," &c. (139) [.jo INSTRUMENTATION. This arrangement is to be found in the old editions of many scores by Mozart and Haydn ; it is also used by some modern composers, e.g., Meyerbeer and Herold. Spontini, in the score of " La Vestale," has introduced a variation in placing the viola immediately above the bass instead of below the violins, which seems to have no advantage, while it renders the score incon- venient to read. 236. A second system consists in grouping the instruments in their order of importance in the score — putting those least used at the top. This plan is followed in some German music, for instance, in Schumann's Symphony in E-flat, where the parts stand thus : — Timpani. Trombe. Corni. Flauti. Oboi. Clarinetti. Fagotti. Tromboni. Violino 1. Violino 2. Viola. Bassi. This plan has the advantage over the first of keeping all the string's together ; but it is an anomaly that the trombones should be separated from the rest of the brass. The system is now, we believe, entirely disused. 237. The third and most usual method with modern music is to take the three groups, putting the members of each (with one exception) in their order of pitch, the wood first, then the brass and percussion, and lastly the strings. The exception just referred to is that of the horns. Though in pitch they are lower than the trumpets they are placed above them, because they are so often used with the wood that it is more con- venient that they should be placed next to them. A variation of this method is used by some French composers (e.g., Auher) ; it consists in arranging the whole of the wind in the order of pitch. Bv this plan, instead of having the wood and brass separate, these two departments of the orchestra are mixed. The third plan, with its variation, will be the following : — THE ORDEI! OF THE INSTRUMENTS IN" A SCORE. 141 Flauti. Oboi. Clarinetti. Fagotti. {Or) Trombe. Corni. Corni. Trombe. Fagotti. Tromboni. Timpani. Violino 1 . Violino 2. Viola. Bassi. 23S. When additional instruments are introduced in the score, they are put in their position according to their class and pitch. Thus the piccolo is put over the flute,* the cor anglais below the oboe, the tuba or ophicleide below the trombones ; other percussion instruments below the kettle-drums. The harp is generally placed next above the violins ; though it is sometimes found immediately above the basses, and in one score (that of Gade's "Crusaders") it is placed, most inconveniently, at the top of the page. 239. In vocal music the plan most generally adopted is to write the voice parts in the order of their pitch next above the basses. If there be both solo and chorus parts, the whole of the solo voices must be placed above the chorus, in their order of pitch ; and in a double chorus the whole of the iirst chorus must be placed together above the second. Some composers place the voices above the first violins, thus dividing the wind and the strings : but the more usual method seems preferable. In con- certos, the solo instrument is occasionally placed at the top of the page, but more frequently over the first violins, though it is sometimes (especially the piano) to be found between the violas and the basses. 240. Students are recommended in their scores to adopt the order last given, which it will be seen has been employed throughout this book, a rearrangement of the parts having been made where required. It is necessary that the learner should also be acquainted with the other methods of arranging the scores which have been given. If these are fairly mastered, no great trouble will be experienced in reading any score in which slight variations may be found. * Many composers place the piccolo under the flute; probably because it is generally played by the second flute-player. The upper staff is certainly its- more appropriate place. 142 INSTRUMENTATION. 241. As the names of the notes differ in various languages, it will be well to give a complete table of all the names likely to be met with in Italian, French, or German scores, as the student may otherwise find himself in difficulties : — English. Italian. French. German. C Do Ut C C flat Do bemolle Ut bemol Ces C sharp Do diesis Ut diese Cis D Re Re D D flat Re bemolle Re bemol Des D sharp Re diesis Re diese Dis E Mi Mi E ' E flat Mi bemolle Mi bemol Es E sharp Mi diesis Mi diese Eis F Fa Fa F Fflat Fa bemolle Fa bemol Fes F sharp Fa diesis Fa diese Fis G Sol Sol G Gflat Sol bemolle Sol bemol Ges G sharp Sol diesis Sol diese Gis A La La A A flat La bemolle La bemol As A sharp La diesis La diese Ais B Si Si H Bflat Si bemolle Si bemol B B sharp Si diesis Si diese His INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. jV.B. — The numbers refer to the examples, not to the pages. AUBF.R. Beethoven. Brahms. Bruch. Cherubim. Gade. Gluck. Gounod. Handel. Haydn. M i nuL Mendelssohn. Le Dieu et la Bayadere 47 Le Domino Noir 23, 84 Lestocq 42 Masaniello 58, 78 Sirene 72 Choral Symphony ........ 39 Concerto in C minor ........ 91 Concerto in E-flat 22 Fidelio 60 Overture, Leonora (No. 1) . . . . . 17 Overture, Op. 115 78 Prometheus 21 Quartett, Op. 59 (No. 1) 9 Rinaldo 51 Schicksalslied ......... 64 Symphony in C minor 76, 78 Odysseus 73 Elise 4° Faniska 78 Crusaders 7» 46 Iphigenie en Tauride ........ 83 Funeral March of a Marionette 82 Saul 3 l Seasons 29, 36 Symphony in D . . . . . . • • 14 Symphony in G 52 Symphony in G (Military) 7 1 Joseph 54 Elijah 85 Lobgesang 55. 87, 89 Midsummer Night's Dream .... 24, 32, 44 Overture, Hebrides . . . . • • • 13 Overture, Ruy Bias 7* (143) I_j..|. INDEX OF ILLUSTRATIONS. Mendelssohn [continued) — Psalm 98 . 90 St. Paul 6S Symphony in A (Italian) 56 Symphony in A minor (Scotch) 50 Symphony in C minor ig Violin Concerto 94 Walpurgis Night 11 Meyerbeer. Les Huguenots 78 Robert fe Diable 37, 80 Mozart. Clemenza di Tito 75, 78 Concerto in D minor 93 Don Giovanni 15 Symphony in D 41 Symphony in E-flat 53, 62 Symphony in G minor 16 Zauberflote 61 Rossini. Stabat Mater 25, 78 Schubert. Fierrabras 67 Mass in F 81, 88 Rosamunde 49 Symphony in B minor 38 Symphony in C 28, 78 Schumann. Concerto in A minor 92 Paradise and the Peri. . . .... 74 Symphony in D minor 27 SPOHR. Jessonda 20 Wagner. Faust Overture 69 Lohengrin 26, 70 Meistersinger 78 Walkure 8, 12 Weber. Concertstiick 63 Freischiitz 78 Jubilee Cantata 43> 86 Mass in G . • 30 Oberon 4 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. M^iB 196P S ffl AP : 19711 NOV 131971) ww*72 i« oec - s \«* REC'D MUS-UB F£B 161976 APRS WW Form L9-39, 050-8, '65 (F6234s8)4939 L 007 137 514 1 L/C WllS^ONAL AA i/& yF/,c "-iry °°0 337 667 Music Library MT 70 P9lii cop ,3 • 5« as 8H mm SaBSHBJ jpnnMDOn ssSP