GIFT OF APT'IC. THE mr-^ooli of |ujri ^^^ ' "T" OR, THE AXNUiL OF AGRICULTURAL PROGRESS AND DISCOVERT, For 1855 and 1856. EXHIBITING THE MOST IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES AND IMPROVEMENTS IX AGRICULTURAL MKCHANICS, AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY, AGRICULTURAL AM) HORTICULTURAL BOTANY, AGRICL I.H UAL AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY, AGRICULTl RAL ZOOLOGY, METEOROLOGY, &c. TOGETHER WITH STATISTICS OF AMERICAN' GROWTH AND PRODUCTION A LIST OP RECENT AGRICULTURAL I'UlSLU'ATMNS-rLASSmF.n TABLES OF AMKKH'AN AGRICULTURAL P13 1854-55 A CATALOGUE OP PRUIT8 ADAPTED TO THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, Ac. WITH A COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW, BY THE EDITOR, OF THE PROGRESS OF AMERICAN AND FOREIGN AGRICULTURE; FOR THE YEAR \S55. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS. BY DAVID A. WELLS, A.M. OP THE BOSTON SOCIETY OF NATURAL HISTORY, FORMERLY CHEMIST TO THE OHIO STATE BOARD OP AGRICULTURE ; MEMBER OF THE PENNSYLVANIA HISTORICAL SOCIETY, PENNSYLVANIA STATE AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY, EDITOR OF THB ANNUAL OF SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERY, FAMILIAR SCIENCE, KNOWLEDGE IS POWER, ETC. ETC. PHILADELPHIA: CHILDS & PETERSON, 124 ARCH ST. 1856. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1855, by GUILDS & PETERSON, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. " STEREOTYPED BY l^ J00M80Jf *. 99. f . PHILADFtPMIM / ." ' ' ' * PRINTED BY DEACON* & PREFACE. THE object contemplated in the publication of the YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE is to aid the progress and development of that science upon which the prosperity of our country so eminently depends. In its preparation, the editor has carefully ex- amined every important agricultural or scientific publication which has appeared in the United States during the years 1854-55, together with very many of the jour- nals and publications of Great Britain, France, and Germany. He has not, how- ever, confined himself to the mere examination of agricultural journals and reports, but has taken advantage of every opportunity and resource which could furnish any thing of interest or value. The subjects embraced within the limits of a work, the object of which is to record the progress of agriculture in all its departments for a single year, are neces- sarily varied and extensive; since no branch of science or applied industry is de- pendent to a greater degree for its advancement upon assistance imparted from beyond its legitimate boundaries, than agriculture. Hence the operations of the mechanic, the chemist, the -naturalist, the engineer, and statician, are all allied more or less intimately with those of the farmer. It is not claimed that we have collected all that is new, or that all we have published is the result of the operations of a single year, but we do claim to have noticed all the recent improvements pertaining to agriculture which have seemed to us of sufficient importance, or of which we have been able, after diligent effort, to obtain reliable and intelligible accounts. Every invention pertaining to agriculture patented in the United States during the year ending July, 1855, has been enumerated. All have not, however, been described, for the reason that no distinct descriptions of them have been published, and repeated applications addressed to the inventors themselves have failed of responses. Some of the topics treated of may also seem old and familiar, but a careful examination in such cases will show that they have found place in the record in virtue of presenting old facts in a new light or application, or because they contain, in addition to what was before familiar, new facts and suggestions. Novelty in arrangement and condensation may often render an old subject as inte- resting as a statement of novelties in fact. It has also been the aim of the editor to transfer to the pages of the Year-Book such reliable and standard articles on different agricultural topics as have appeared, from time to time, during the past year, in the leading journals of Europe or the United States. By pursuing this course, the Year-Book will be rendered eminently valuable, not only for the present but for the future, and a complete series of the volumes for successive years will thus form a most perfect and unique encyclopedia of every department of agri- cultural science. The Year-Book of Agriculture will hereafter be issued early in September of each year, and no labor or expense on the part of both the editor and publishers 260274 4 PREFACE. will be spared to make it what it is designed to be a complete and substantial summary of agricultural progress. To the many friends who have aided us in the preparation of the present volume we would return our sincere thanks j our acknowledgments, however, are especially due, for favors rendered, to the Editors of the Scientific American and Philadelphia Horticulturist ; to Mr. Nicol, Superintendent of the Model Farm of the Union Agricultural Society of Virginia and North Carolina; to Prof. B. L. C. Wailes, Geologist of Mississippi ; G. E. Waring, Esq., of New York ; and C. L. Flint, Esq., Secretary of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. In the publication of the Year-Book of Agriculture one important fact is clearly and unmistakeably demonstrated namely, that there is a constant progress and im- provement in every department of theoretical and applied agriculture ; that many strong hands and practical and comprehensive minds are enlisted in the work of experiment and investigation, giving us the right to expect from the future many great and valuable results. PHILADELPHIA, October, 1855. COMMUNICATIONS for the Editor should be addressed " Year-Book of Agricul- ture ;" Care of Childs & Peterson, or David A. Wells & Co., 124 Arch Street, Philadelphia. We would also take this opportunity to say, that while under no circumstances will the pages of the Year-Book of Agriculture be open to the publication of articles having any thing of the character of advertisements, the editor will be always ready to give place to a description of every new and useful improvement pertain- ing to agriculture, and also for engravings, if necessary. gub ial til ci- ic- on ho ch ed he ho da ral lis an ml ng at his to Uh Ir. ti- m- in am s's icr bis Mr. Downing may well be styled a national benefactor. If, as the poet tells us, " A thing of beauty is a joy forever," what gratitude is due to that man who causes the land to smile with gardens, and ornaments every roadside with homesteads of architectural symmetry ! This is a tempting subject, but our limits forbid indulgence. The works of this gifted artist, which we are now about to A BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE, AND AN ACCOUNT OF THE WORKS, OF tototfo J. ANDREW JACKSON DOWNING, the most eminent of American horticulturists and professors of Rural Architecture, was born in Newburgh, upon the Hudson, in the State of New York, Oct. 30, 1815. He inherited a taste for horticulture from his father, who about the beginning of the present century abandoned the occupation of a wheelwright for the more congenial employments connected with the duties of a nurseryman, which claimed his attention until his death in 1822. Some years after this event Andrew was placed at an academy in Montgomery, in the vici- nity of Newburgh, where he continued until he had attained the age of sixteen. He had ac- quired a sufficient taste for his studies to earnestly desire opportunities for their prosecution at colle-e, but, as the execution of this plan did not comport with family arrangements, the youth remained at home, and a^isted his brother in the care of the nursery. Much of his leisure time was occupied in rambles through the surrounding country, which tended t<> -tren;.rthen find educate that ta-te for hot.-my and mineralogy which h- h.-id evinced from an eurly age. lu these excursions he profited by the instruct ion* of his companion, the . tie Liderer, the Austrian Con-ul-Cieneral, a summer resident of the neighborhood, who d to the sciences which had awakened the untaught enthusi.-ism of young Downing. When wearied with wandering among the hills and valleys of the Hudson, his hours of study were devoted to maturing his knowledge of landscape-gardening and rural architecture, iu which branches he subsequently attained such well-earned distinction. Hi.- first essay in building was the erection of a house upon his own grounds, in the Elizabethan which successful attempt to embody his conceptions of art greatly tended to extend that reputation which his known talents and energy had already gained in the surrounding country and among his more distant acquaintances. In 1*41 he published a work, which at once made him known to many thousands who never had the opportunity of listening to his oral teachings upon his favorite pur-uits. This was his Treatise on Landscape-Gardening, to which we shall have occasion to refer presently, together with other works which amply sus- tained his character as an intelligent and attractive writer. In 1836 he was invited by Mr. Luther Tucker, of Albany, to assume the duties connected with the editorship of The Horti- culturist, just established in that city. The proposition was accepted, and the journal con- tinued under Mr. Downing's charge until his death. The admirable contributions of the editor have since been collected, and were published in 1853 in a handsome octavo volume, edited, with a Memoir of the Author, by George William Curtis, and including a Letter to Downing's friends by Frederika Bremer. To Mr. Curtis's volume, to which we are indebted for the above facts, we must refer the reader for further particulars connected with the life of the subject of our notice. The fearful manner of his death is well known. He was one of the victims on the melancholy occasion of the burning of the steamer Henry Clay, on the Hudson, July 28, 1852. Mr. Downing may well be styled a national benefactor. If, as the poet tells us, " A thing of beauty is a joy forever," what gratitude is due to that man who causes the land to smile with gardens, and ornaments every roadside with homesteads of architectural symmetry ! This is a tempting subject, but our limits forbid indulgence. The works of this gifted artist, which we are now about to 6 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. enumerate, with the citation of some opinions upon their merits, should be in the possession of all who love flowers, and can appreciate the pleasures connected with refined taste. 1. A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, adapted to North Ame- rica, with a view to the Improvement of Country Residences. With Remarks on Rural Archi- tecture, New York, 1841, 8vo. Sale in America to 1863, 9000 copies. " Mr. Downing has here produced a very delightful work, and has convinced us that sound criticism and refined taste are not confined to this side of the Atlantic." London Art Union Journal. "A masterly work. * * * We havw quoted largely from this work, because in so doing we think we shall give a just idea of the greut merit of the author." London, editor ofRepton's Landscape- Gardening. "On the whole, we know of no work in which the fundamental principles of this profession are so well or so concisely expressed. * * * No English landscape-gardener has written so clearly or with so much real intensity." Dr. Lindley, in the Gardeners' Chronicle. " The standard work on this subject." Silliman's Journal. 2. Cottage Residences, 1842, 8vo. Sale in America to 1853, 6250 copies. "It cannot fail to be of great service." London. "We stretch our arm across the 'big water' to tender our Yankee coadjutor an English shake and a cordial recognition." An English Horticultural Critic. 3. The Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America, 1845, 8vo. Sale in America to 1853, 15,000 copies. " Downing's Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America deserves to be more generally known in Europe." Triibncr's Bibliographical Guide to American Literature, Lon., 1855, 12mo. 4. Hints to Young Architects, by George Wightwick, Architect; with additional Notes and Hints to Persons about building in this country, by A. J. Downing, 1849, 8vo. 5. The Architecture of Country-Houses ; including Designs for Colleges, Farm-Houses, and Villas, 1850, 8vo. Sale in America to 1853, 3500 copies. 6. Mrs. London's Gardening for Ladies ; edited by A. J. Downing, 1852, 12mo. 7. Rural Essays, by the late A. J. Downing, edited by George Wm. Curtis, with a Memoir of the Author ; and a Letter to his Friends, by Frederika Bremer, 1853, 8vo. This work con- tains, with one or two exceptions, all of Mr. Downing's editorial papers in the Horticulturist. A few additional testimonies to the eminent services rendered by Downing to the beautiful pursuits in which he found such enthusiastic enjoyment may properly conclude this notice : " Mr. Wilder says that a gentleman ' who is eminently qualified to form an enlightened judg- ment' declared that much of the improvement that has taken place in this country during the last twelve years, in rural architecture and in ornamental gardening and planting, may be ascribed to him, ^Downing.] Another gentleman, speaking of suburban cottages in the Wst, gays I asked the origin of so much taste, and was told it might principally be traced to Downing's Cottage Residences and the Horticulturist.' " Memoir, by G. W. Curti.*. " By these admirable works, [Fruits and Fruit-Trees of America, and Landscape-Garden- ing and Rural Architecture,] Mr. Downing has done much to promote the best and most judi- cious selection and culture of fruit-trees. It is one of the most common and earnest long- ings of the toiling residents of cities to be able one day to return to a snuggery in the country ; and these admirable works will both minister to these longings, and teach how to realize them satisfactorily." President King, of Columbia College, New York. For the above carefully-prepared sketch of A. J. Downing, we are indebted to S. Austin Allibone, Esq., of Philadelphia, author of that very valuable work, the "Critical Dictionary of English Literature and British and American Authors." Ed. Year-Book. COTTON CATERPILLAR anfo totromic Jtotatnj; INCLUDING HORTICULTURE, ARBORICULTURE, THE CULTURE AND PRESERVATION OF SEEDS AND FRUITS, THE INTRODUCTION AND PREPARATION OF VEGETABLE TEXTILE FIBRES ; OBSERVATIONS ON DISEASES OF PLANTS, ETC. tivat-.l in the United States. The Cotton-Plant and its Varieties in the United States. E present to the readers of the Agricultural Year-Book for 1855-6, a series of the most beautiful and accurate engrav- ings ever published, illustrative of the growth and di- of the great staple of American agricultural industry Cot- ton. These engravings (which are also interesting tn>m the fact that they are specimens of the new und beautiful -s of Chronio- Lithography ) were designed by Trot'. K. C. L. Wiiiles, supplies to the nutrient powers, satisfy the capacities of the plant at the proper time, and, all other things being a-lju.-ted. the husbandry is perfect; or give the plant its climate, temper the heats and moisture to its constitution, make its physical condition happy, and put within its reach the assimilating elements, and enough is done to insure pro- ductive returns. But to do this requires probably more knowledge of soils and of the culti- vated vegetables than we now possess. The ohj.vt is t. Mipply without waste, to cheapen the product by the expenditure of the least labor, an the air or by being washed to remote parts by mm-. It i- evident that adjustments require a complete insight into the physiology of vegetation, its incipient stage, its natural strength, the peculiar or special products to be found, the elements eompo>in them, and the be>t form in which these elements can be com- bined to meet all the wants of the being. As I have already said, functional endowments must be considered ; hence, that course with a plant which will give it an early vigorous constitution and a full development of its organs in its rirst stages, must be pursued, and the foundation is then laid for the full amount of the products sought. Dr. Emmona's J\ T at. Hist. New York. Why the Fanner should give heed to the Man of Science. THE following judicious remarks form the conclusion of a recent lecture by Prof. Tuomey, of Alabama, upon science, as applied to agriculture : " In conclusion, allow me to say one word upon the apparent indifference with which agri- culturists, as a body, listen to the teachings of science. Rural pursuits are far less favorable to speculative states of mind than those of the manufacturer ; and hence, while the latter has pressed chemistry into his service, the cultivator of the soil is too often contented to pursue his own chance-directed processes, unaided by the light of science. " This unnatural divorcement of science and agriculture has often arisen from not distin- guishing between agriculture as a science and agriculture as an art. The man of science investigates one department, and the cultivator of the soil practises the other. Odium is often brought upon what is called scientific farming by the failure of men of science when they attempt the practice of agriculture. Now, I believe that, in general, it will be found that it was not the science, but the common sense, of such men that was at fault. The practice requires a different training, and, however sound his principles, the mere man of science fails for want of it when he attempts to try his own principles practically. Liebig, I apprehend, would make but a sorry plowman, yet the world has listened to his teachings. In all the arts 21 22 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. of civilization this division of labor is recognised. The anatomist points out, from his know- ledge of the hoof, the best mode of shoeing horses, but no one would think of employing him to put his own principles in practice. The chemist informs the tanner of those substances that contain the largest amount of tannin, and explains the rationale of all his processes, yet the chemist is rarely expected to be able to produce leattier from the raw hide, nor is the utility of his knowledge called in question on this account. Now, let this but be properly under- stood among us, and there will be an end to the sneers at ' book-farming,' nor shall there be any longer cause to complain of the proverbial tardiness with which practical agriculturists avail themselves of the discoveries of chemical science." Machine for Cutting Cotton-Stalks. IN the States where cotton is grown, the removal of the stalks, prior to the preparation of the land for new planting, is a slow and laborious operation, for it is usually done by hand. The negro seizes hold of the stalk and bends it with one hand, while with the other he cuts it off at the root by means of a heavy cleaver. An invention designed to effect this operation mechanically has been recently patented by Mr. Bowerman, of Detroit, Michigan. It consists of a cart which is driven through the stalks in order to bend them down close to the ground. At the rear part of the vehicle a large horizontal knife is arranged to move vertically between suitable slides. Motion is given to the knife by means of gearing on the wheels of the vehicle. As the cart advances, the stalks bend, the knife is elevated, and then suddenly discharged, to fall upon the base of the bent stalks and clip them in a twinkling. Springs are employed to give additional force to the knife as it descends. Improvement in Cotton Saw-Gins, A VALUABLE improvement in the construction of the saws of cotton gins has been recently patented by Mr. A. D. Brown, of Columbus, Georgia. This invention consists in arranging the teeth of the saw in a series of curves eccentric to their axis, or, what is equivalent, in a series of tangential lines. By this means, with a proper arrangement of the saws relatively to each other, it is rendered impossible for any two saws to catch the same fibre across a rib, and thereby cut or break it, while a peculiar degree of facility is provided for the clearing of the saws by the brush. The expense of gins made according to this patent is no greater than those in ordinary use, while the cotton comes out equally as well cleansed, and otherwise in a far superior state. The amount of work done is also the same as in other gins of like capacity. Cleaning of Sea-Island Cotton. SEA-ISLAND COTTON is nearly all ginned by hand, upon gins of the most primitive construc- tion possible to conceive. A writer in the New York Tribune furnishes the following descrip- tion of the process and machine in use, as witnessed on Edisto Island, South Carolina : " Let the reader fancy a very roughly -made frame of two-inch square timber ; the length of the frame is 2 feet 4 inches ; width, 2 feet 2 inches ; height, 3 feet 4 inches. Upon the front part of the frame there is a little box 8 by 12 inches, about 3 inches deep, which holds the seed cotton. Upon each side of the box there is an iron fly-wheel, two feet across, of fif- teen pounds weight. Upon the outside of the fly-wheels there are short bearings and little cranks. The inside bearing is formed by a wooden roller, about a foot long, driven into a socket in the wheel. These rollers lie one upon the other over the back part of the box. From the cranks rods extend, like those of a small spinning-wheel or turning-lathe, to a treadle on the floor. Now, a man places a handful of cotton in the box, puts his foot on the treadle and starts the wheels, which make the two little rollers revolve toward each other ; then he holds a lock of cotton up to the rollers, and the lint passes through and seeds fall back, if the cotton is in good order and the weather dry ; if not, it cannot be separated without mashing now and then a seed, which injures the quality of a large lock. It is a day's work for a strong negro man or woman to gin twenty -five pounds. From the gin it is taken to the motor's I TON PI&IUT AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 23 table, where one woman motes for two ginners. If a mashed seed is found, the ginner is called to pick it out. From the moter's table, the cotton goes to the overlooker's table, who sees that every mote is picked out. Then it goes to the packer's room, and thence in suitable weather into the bags. It fc packed by hand, three hundred and sixty pounds in a bag made of four and one-half yards of cloth. One bag is a day's work, the packer standing in the bag and beating down the cotton with a rammer, almost as solid as though pressed with a screw. " Human ingenuity has been taxed heavily to furnish a cotton-gin that would clean Sea- Island cotton at a more rapid rate, without injuring the delicate, silky fibre of this variety, which is used for all the very finest threads, either for weaving or sewing. "A great many sanguine inventors have satisfied themselves that they had accomplished this very desirable object, by inventing a gin that could be worked by other than human power, ginning faster thun the roller-gin, without injuring the staple, but they have never been able to convince the Sea-Island planters. Governor Seabrook spent $5000 in experi- ments, and others equally as much, to get a substitute, but have been compelled to go back to the little primitive machine we have described. "We have often been assured by the cultivators of this description of cotton, that any man who could contrive an expeditious method of ginning their crops, could readily get assurances of $500,000 for his invention, as soon as he could procure certificates from the spinners that cotton cleaned upon his machine was equal to that upon those now in use. Various attempts have been made with horse-power unl r-tcmu-power to relieve the hard labor of propelling the roller-r the wooden rollers would be worth thousands of dollars. Those in use have to be made of wood not hard enough to glaze, or soft enough to broom; and, with all care in selectinn to American inventors: Have you or not in- genuity enough to make a Sea-Island cotton-gin ? If you cannot produce the entire article, can you not find a substitute for the wooden rollers, which continually wear out ?" New York Tribune. Rafting Cotton. MR. G. R. GRIFFITH, of Washington, District of Columbia, has recently perfected an invention by which cotton ^nay be got to market and the seaboard in spite of low water in the Southern rivers. The plan is very simple, being merely the adoption of a kind of vulcanized India- rubber bag, so constructed that any number of them may be connected together in the fashion of a raft, and either towed down the shallow streams by a steamer of light draught, or piloted by hands on the cotton, two men being able to manage one hundred bales. Twelve inches of water is amply sufficient for the transportation of cotton by means of these patent floaters ; and if they can be suecessfully introduced, the condition of the streams hereafter will be no barrier to supplying the markets with the great Southern staple. Cotton Rigging for Ships. THIS article continues to increase in popular favor. The New Orleans Delta states, " that in April last there were thirteen large vessels in that port with a part or the whole of their running rigging and hawsers of cotton cordage. The officers of all these ships were unani- mous in their testimony in favor of cotton cordage for running rigging, and many of them thought it would be adopted for standing also. A large new. clipper vessel, recently built at Newburyport, Massachusetts, has all her rigging, both standing and running, of cotton cordage. An experienced sea-captain, in an article in the Delta, asserts that cotton rope is much stronger than Manilla, as by bending cotton and Manilla ropes together and heaving on it at the capstan the Manilla will always part first. In wet weather, likewise, it is more pliable, and in frosty weather it is not so stiff as Manilla. After it is used a few months it becomes smooth and glossy, and works through the blocks much better than any other rope. THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. Machine for Cutting Standing Cotton-stalks. THE accompanying figure is a perspective view of a machine for cutting standing cotton- etalks, invented and patented August, 1855, by J. W. Bocage, Cypress Mills, Arkansas. The nature of the invention consists in the employment of a series of circular saws placed upon a vertical shaft, and rotating between angular bars, which answer the purpose of fingers ; the whole being placed and secured in a wheeled carriage, which is drawn through the cotton- field with mules or horses, and the saws rotated by gearing from the drawing-wheel, so as to act against the standing cotton-stalks and cut them down. A is a stout frame for supporting the machinery. It is sustained on the back and front wheels B D f . The perch C is connected to the front axle D as in an ordinary wagon. A bevelled gear-rim E is secured to the spokes of one of the hind-wheels B. A small pinion F on a vertical spindle G gears into it. This spindle is secured in the cross piece c', and a pendant brace supported by standards b. H is a pulley on the upper end of spindle G. A belt b f passes around this pulley, and another small one I on the top of the saw-spindle, which gives it a rotary motion and consequently the saws d f d f as the machine is drawn forward. The saw-spindle is secured in strap-bearings c c f on the top and bottom cross-pieces of the frame. The saws d' vary in size, the lower one being of the least diameter, and the size of them gradually increasing upwards the top one being the largest. They are placed at suitable and equal distances apart. Six of these are represented in this machine, but more may be employed. L L is a metallic frame composed of horizontal bars e' e placed at equal distances apart, and bent nearly at right angles. The saw-shaft or spindle is set just behind the inner angle formed by these bars, and the saws d' work through and between them; (about one-quarter of their discs project through the spaces.) OPERATION. The team is attached to the pole of the carriage in the common way, and as the machine is drawn along, the cotton-stalks are caught by the angular frame L, and forced towards the corner or angles of the bars or fingers e f , holding them firm for the circular saws AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 25 to act upon them and saw them down. As the saws decrease in diameter downwards, the upper part of the stalks will be cut down first ; in other words, the stalks are cut successively from their upper to their lower ends. Saws are superior to knives for cutting cotton-stalks by machinery in this manner, as they can be operated with less power, are more easily sharpened, and not so liable to get out of repair. Scientific American. Cotton Cleaner. A NEW machine for cleaning cotton has' recently been invented by Mr. J. B. Mell, of Rice- boro', Georgia, which promises some advantages over the gins now in use. It consists in an ingenious relative and combined action of brushes and teeth, with which the rollers are armed. By the operation of these the pure cotton is rapidly taken from the mass of the feed, leaving the seed as well as the dirt behind. The card or teeth, and brush rollers, revolve in opposite directions, so that, as the former raises the cleansed cotton, the latter sweeps it off, and it passes down the "discharge" and out of the box without interruption. Recent Improvements in the Preparation of Flax and Hemp. Hayings Ifffrip and Flax-breaker. An improvement in machinery for breaking and cleaning flax has recently been made by W. D. Hughes, of New London, Missouri. Three breakers, like heavy blunt knives, are attached to levers, and two of them are so arranged that they may be brought, while the machine is in operation, to the proper distance apart to suit the nature of the material to be operated upon. They may thus be caused to approach each other or nearer to the line of operation to the corresponding breaker, so that the operator can adapt the machine to break any kind of hemp, whether it be well-rotted or not, and to act upon large and small bunches. In this way, perfect control of the breakers is obtained while the machinery is in operation. CaryVs Flax-dressiny Machine. A valuable machine for the breaking and cleaning of flax, grown for seed, has been invented by Mr. A. II. Caryl, of Sandusky, Ohio. This machine is now in successful operation in various parts of the West, and is well worthy the attention of those interested in flax production. An explanation of its principles without engravings would be unintelligible. Sugett's Improvement in Treating Hemp. In a patent recently granted to Lewis C. Sugett, of Kentucky, for an improved process in treating hemp, the improvement consists in picking the hcn:]> seven to ten day-; lu'i'uiv ripening, its toughness being at its maximum about this time ; the immersing thereof, after the usual mechanical treatment, in a solution of common salt at about 70 Fahrenheit, during six hours, followed by a treatment with tar or an equiva- lent, previous to manufacturing it into twine or cordage; the whole for the alleged purpose of making it softer, stronger, more pliable, and more durable, and at the same time cheaper, than under any other treatment. The claims are as follows : u The application of common salt, or other saline substance, to the steep-water, in order to effect the removal and separation of the gum at the most advantageous condition of the lint or bar!. The saturation of the fibre and expulsion of its moisture, by immersion in boiling tar, pitch, or oil, for the purpose of more thorough and inti- mate application of the preserving substance to the fibres, preliminary to their conversion into twine or cordage." Parker's Flax-breaking and Scutching Machine. The peculiarities of this machine, recently in- vented by William Parker, of Belmont county, Ohio, are, that after breaking the flax it first presents the root-end of the fibre to the scutchers, retaining the seed-end, then withdraws the root-end and presents the seed-end, while the root-end is retained. The finished fibre is delivered on to an endless apron at the same time that the next tableful is received into the machine. Jennings' s Process for Improving the Quality of Flax Fibres. This process consists in throwing down upon the flax a small quantity of oil, say about half an ounce to the pound of flax ; this is done by boiling the flax in an alkaline soap-ley, washing with water, and then boiling it in water slightly acidulated with some acid ; for which purpose acetic acid is, perhaps, the most suitable, from its exerting no injurious action upon vegetable fibre. The acid decomposes the soap, the fatty constituent of which is left in the fibre, or, perhaps, a mixture of an acid soap 26 THE YEAK-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. and a small portion of free oil. These enter into and through every part of the fibre. After this treatment, it is washed, and is then found to be soft and silky, its spinning quality being thereby much improved, and its value being very considerably increased; and, while the fibre is not weakened, this process gives to it what is known in the trade as "nature." The im- provement in quality may be estimated at from 8 to 10 per ton, and is capable of being made with ease probably double. Dublin Journal of Industrial Progress. New Method of Cleaning- and Preparing the Plantain Fibre. VARIOUS attempts have been made at different times to construct a machine which would prove effectual for cleaning in a simple and economical manner the fibre of the plantain. Many expensive machines have been made and patented ; but all have failed when brought into full operation, partly on account of the peculiar nature of the substance to be acted upon, and partly through ignorance respecting its composition and qualities. All inventors have acted on the principle of crushing the stem of the plant, and combing out the substance which fills up the interstices between the fibres, thus freeing them from native impurities. This appears to have been a false principle ; and is the chief, if not the only, reason of all the failures which have resulted. The Hon. Francis Burke, of Montserrat, West Indies, who has been experimenting on this subject for some time, has recently succeeded in completing a small machine which perfectly cleans the plantain fibre, leaving a beautiful white, silky substance, resembling flax, only three times as long. It is capable of being manufactured into any description of textile fabric, from the quality of the finest cambric to that of the coarsest sail-cloth. This machine is said to combine simplicity of action with extreme cheapness. A piece of the stem of the plant is held by one end in the hand, passed into the machine through the "feeder," and, being still retained in the hand, is drawn out again perfectly clean and white. These machines are of different dimensions, and may be worked by the hand or any other motive-power according to its size. , A small machine worked by the hand costs but about fifteen dollars, and, with the assistance of a boy to feed it, will clean one hundred and fifty pounds per day ; and is so portable that it can be taken to the spot where the plantains grow, when they may be prepared in one day ready for shipment. So small is the waste, that from 75 to 80 per cent, by weight of pre- pared fibre is procured from the plant, irrespective of its watery particles. The waste sub- stance is a valuable pulp, which may readily be converted into the finest writing-paper. The pulp is estimated at a value equal to the cost of working, and the fibre is net profit. Transportation of Grain. THE transportation of grain from all the great wheat and corn-fields of the West is a sub- ject which now requires a careful investigation, from the immense amount of expenditure which it has been found to involve. The question is, simply, as to whether grain shall be transported in bags or barrels ; and that a great saving is in favor of the latter it is our pur- pose to establish. ^ By the present system of moving grain there is a continual waste from the harvest-field to the mill, and until the flour is packed in tight, well-seasoned barrels. Western wheat is mostly thrashed from an out-door stack, and piled and winnowed on the ground ; then bagged and brought to market, where it is emptied into elevators, and stored in bulk ; the centre of the pile often heating until its value is destroyed. It is then shipped in bulk, and when it arrives at Buffalo, is transferred by elevators to a canal-boat, and thence to a storehouse in New York. If it is finally sold for exportation, it is put up in bags suitable for shipping, after having undergone a dozen different handlings. Now suppose the farmer had provided himself with barrels, and put up his grain on the farm, dry and in good order. Each common flour-barrel will hold about three and one-third bushels, for which the freight from Indianapolis to New York is about $1.40 to $1.60 per barrel ; and, as a general rule, the charges on rolling freight on every line of railroad is from AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 27 15 to 20 per cent, less than on other freight. And, independent of the evident economy of this system, there is another consideration which commends itself to the attention of farmers. It is well known that grain is even more liable to heat and spoil in bags than it is in bulk ; while in barrels it is impossible to stow it in a position which will prevent the circu- lation of the air around it ; and if the wood of which the barrel is made be well seasoned, it will absorb and dry out any moisture which may be in the grain. For in the transportation of grain from the warehouse to the cars, vessel, or storeroom, it is often necessary to do a part of the work in unfavorable weather; and thus, in winter-time, snow frequently drifts into the cars and moistens the bags, and in this or some way they are dampened ; and then, if packed in bulk, there frequently ensues more injury from mould and other causes than the whole cost of barrelling would amount to. A friend who has had a great deal of experience in this matter estimates the saving to the farmer at at least six cents a bushel on every bushel of grain sent to this market in barrels ; in fact, that by the present system of sending it in bulk or bags the farmer is losing six cents a bushel at the very lowest estimate. There is another view of the matter, in the consideration that the manufacture of the barrels would add so much more to the productive interest of the country. What a vast amount of raw material, quite worthless in a wooded region, it would convert into cash ! for each buyer of the grain would pay the value of the barrel at the point where it changed hands. When it reached France, it would be worth its original cost for fire-wood ; for there fuel is sold by the pound at a high price. At any rate, there would be no loss, as in the case of bags, while in cost of freight, handling, storage, leakage, wetage, injury from mustiness, etc., there would be a c-onsioVraMo balance in favor of the bam-1-. With Indian, corn this saving-would be more important than with wheat, because it is a grain so low in price that it will n<>t bear o-tly transportation. When corn is only worth twenty-five cents a bushel at a point in the West whence it cost fifty cents to get it to New York, a ditl'en-iu-e of six cents u bushel in freight may entirely prevent it from being sent forward, as the market, price would not allow a higher rate of freight, and any increase would nun h from the farmer's low price. But there is yet another fact regarding the trans- ].. 'i -ration of grain in barrels that is worthy of coiiMlerati>n. The motion of the cars keeps the kernels of grain in the barrels in constant motion, and the natural tendency is to follow the circle round and round, instead of settling down to the bottom, as it does in bags or bulk. This has been proved by experiment. Besides this, the frequent rolling of the barrels gives motion to the grain, and helps to keep it sweet. If there should be any danger of dampness, it is suggested that a few dry corn-cobs or husks among the grain would be likely to prove a preventive. In conclusion, we are quite confident that if these hints should be followed by the majority of Western farmers, the amount of money saved in one year would be as much a source of surprise as self-congratulation. New York Tribune. Improvements in the Construction of Granaries. A MR. ADAMS, in a late number of The Journal of the London Society of Arts, has made a suggestion for a new kind of granary, by which he thinks that grain may be safely and effectually preserved for any number of years. The great difficulty now is the natural moist- ure contained in all grain, and which it is never entirely divested of by exposure to the atmosphere at the common temperature ; this being the cause of much of the sour, musty flour found in market. The following are Mr. Adams's observations upon the subject : "There does not seem to be any difficulty in the matter, if we divest ourselves of precon- ceived ideas, of the notion that a granary or grain receptacle must necessarily be a building with a floor or windows more or. less multiplied in altitude. We may reason by analogy as to what is the cheapest and most effective means of securing perishable commodities from the action of the atmosphere and vermin. In England we put our flour in sacks. Brother Jona- than puts his in barrels, which does not thoroughly answer. * * * If Brother Jonathan wishes really to preserve his flour or his ' crackers' undamaged, he makes them thoroughly 28 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. dry and cool, and hermetically seals them in tin cans. This also is a common process to pre- vent goods from being damaged at sea. "There can be no doubt that if we were to put dry wheat in an hermetically sealed tinned case, it might be kept as long as the famed 'mummy wheat' of Egypt. This will readily be admitted, but the expense would be queried. Let us examine into this. A canister is a metallic reservoir; so is a gasometer; so is an iron water-tank in a ship, at a railway station, or elsewhere ; and a cubic foot of water-tank on a very large scale will be found to v cost very much less than a cubic foot of canister on a small scale. And if a bushel of wheat be more valuable than a bushel of water, it will clearly pay to put wheat in huge canisters of iron. The wheat canister, in short, should be a wrought or cast metal tank of greater or less size, according to the wants of the owner, whether for the farmer's crop or the grain-mer- chant's stock. "This tank should be constructed of small parts, connected by screw-bolts, and conse- quently easily transported from place to place. The internal parts should be galvanized, to prevent rust, and the external part also, if desired. It should be hermetically tight at all the points, and the only opening should be what is called a man-hole ; that is to say, a canister- top, where the lid goes on, large enough to admit a man. When filled with grain, the top should be put on, the fitting of the edge forming an air-tight joint. Wheat put dry into such a vessel, and without any vermin, would remain wheat any number of years. But an addi- tional advantage to such a reservoir would be an air-pump, by the application of which, for the purpose of exhaustion, any casual vermin would be killed. If the grain were moist, the same air-pump might be used to draw or force a current of warm air through it, to carry off the moisture. By this process, and subsequently keeping out the air, the grain might be pre- served for any length of time. As the reservoir would be perfectly air-tight and water-tight, it might be buried in the ground with perfect safety ; and thus cellars might be rendered available for granaries, economizing space of comparatively little value. The grain would be easily poured in from the surface ; and to discharge it, an Archimedean screw should be used. The size of the reservoir should be proportioned to the locality, and it should hold a specified number of quarters, so as to serve as a measure of quantity, and prevent the expense of meterage. * * * If constructed above the ground, a stair or ladder must communicate with the upper part, and the lower part must be formed like a hopper, for the purpose of discharge. For many farm localities this arrangement might be best, and wheat might be thrashed into grain direct from the field and stored. * * * Granaries of this description would occupy less than one-third the cubic space of those of the ordinary description, and their cost would be less than one-fifth. * * * With this security for storing safely, a farmer would have less hesitation in sowing great breadths of land. He would not be driven to market under an average value, and might choose his own time for selling. The fear of loss being dispelled, people would buy with less hesitation, and the great food stores of the community would, by a wholesome competition, insure the great mass of the community against a short supply. But as long as uncertainty shall prevail in the storage of grain, so long will it be a perilous trade to those engaged in it, and so long will the food of the community be subject to a very irregular fluctuation of prices. There is nothing difficult in this proposition. It is merely applying existing arrangements to unusual cases. There needs but the practical example to be set by influential people, and the great mass will travel in the same track. To the wealthy agriculturist it will be but the amplification of the principle of the tin-lined corn-bin, that keeps out the rat from the oats of the stable. * * * Were this mode of preserving grain to become general, the facility of ascertaining stocks and crops after reaping would be very great. The granaries being measures of quantity, no hand-measuring would be needed, and the effects of wet harvest-weather might be obviated." Immense Grain Warehouse. THE Chicago Journal thus describes an immense grain warehouse recently erected in that city by Messrs. Gibbs, Griffith & Co. : The structure extends from the dock to the railroad track, a distance of 190 feet. The AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 29 river front is GO feet wide, that on the railroad is 110 feet. The edifice is constructed as strong as wood and iron can make it, and is protected on the outside by a fire-proof roof and walls of brick, or sheathed with sheet iron. The height of the main building is 62 feet to the roof, or a little over 100 feet to the top of the cupolas, two in number, where is constructed the weighing apparatus. There are in the building above the lower floor, sixty-six bins of 5000 bushels capacity each, or of the dimensions of ten feet square by thirty-five feet in depth, all braced in the strongest manner to sustain lateral pressure. The two immense shipping bins hold 12,000 bushels each. The lower floor gives a clear space for rolling freight, and will easily accommodate .">(>, 000 barrels. The uppermost story is designed to furnish con- veniences for drying grain, and also for receiving and storing grain in bags. By way of re- capitulation, it will be seen to be a modi-rate estimate that the warehouse can give storage- room to half a million of bushels of grain. The grain is received on the land side by four elevators, which can unload, in the aggregate, 10,000 bushels of grain per hour, or two hundred car loads. On the river-side a single elevator unloads the canal boats at the rate of 3000 bushels per hour, while in the same period, into the vessels, may be pouring at once, 8000 bushels of grain. The great heart of all, the seat of life in the establishment, is found very economically and snugly stowed in an interior angle of the building in shape of a splendid low-pressure engine of one hundred horse-power. Ford's Improved Granary. Fig. l. THE annexed engravings are views of an improvement in granaries, for which a patent was granted to Ebenezer Ford, of Spring Cottage, Mississippi, October, 1854. The nature of the improvement consists in erecting a building having double walls and double floors, furnishing the same with double partitions ; the walls, floors, and partitions being filled in with salt, in order to prevent the attacks of insects. Figure 1 is a perspective view of the granary, and figure 2 is a horizontal section of the same. 30 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. Fig. 2. a is the flooring ; b c are compartments ; d are doors ; e a wire gauze ; / are windows ; g is the door ; h is wire gauze on the same ; i are par- titions ; k the smoke-hole ; I are the walls. The building* intended for a granary con- structed on this plan is built in the usual man- ner, except that the walls b are made double, one side of the other, the space between being filled in with salt. The partitions i are so con- structed in the same manner, so that between the different compartments a b c there are double partitions containing a filling of salt. When the granary is finished and ready for use, the floor should be saturated with salt brine. The house is now to be smoked by the introduction of a stove-pipe through the hole k, the pipe being connected outside with an ordinary stove the smoke being carried through the hole k directly into the interior of the building ; sawdust, or any kind of wood used in smoking meat will answer. When the house is being smoked, the doors and windows should all be closed, but in clear weather the windows may be opened for ventilation. The grain may now be put in ; and if in bulk, it should be thrown up against the walls, slanting down towards the corners of the garners. The partitions between the compartments are high where they join the walls of the building, and slant down quite low towards the centre of the same, which permits the introduction of light in the various parts. The house should be smoked at least once a month with sulphur, and likewise with wood and sawdust during cloudy or sultry weather, which are the periods when the weevil and other insects generate. If no insects be carried into the granary with the grain, none will appear during the season ; should any have been carried in, they will perish, and not generate any more. The object of the gauze at the top of the doors and the windows is to admit currents of cold air when an opportunity occurs. Salt is a substance very destructive to insects. By the employment of smoke in the manner described, any superabundant moisture occasioned by the use of salt will be carried off, and the condi- tion of the granary may be at all times properly preserved. The claim is as follows: " I am aware that salt has long been used as a filling between the timbers of ships, and also between the walls of ice-houses ; and therefore to such devices I make no claim. But I claim the mode herein described for making granaries, having the walls, floors, and partitions filled in with common salt, in the manner substantially as set forth." David Leavitt's Barn at Great Barrington, Massachusetts. ABOUT two years since, David Leavitt, Esq., late President of the American Exchange Bank, New York, purchased for his son, who had a taste for rural pursuits, a beautiful farm of three hundred acres, situated about one mile south of the delightful village of Great Barrington, Massachusetts. With the assistance of Professor Wilkinson, late Principal of the Agricultural Institution at Mount Airy, Mr. Leavitt commenced a series of improvements which, for the labor and expense attending them, are probably unequalled in the annals of American agri- culture. The situation of the farm commands not only varied and picturesque scenery, but is admirably adapted for that system of improvements which its proprietor is so energetically and bountifully executing. Its outline is nearly quadrangular. On the south-east the farm is bounded by a high mountain, from which two streams run through a portion of the farm, forming a junction in a deep ravine a short distance from the house. A few rods below this junction, a dam is thrown across the ravine, and the arrested waters form a large and beauti- ful pond, if we recollect rightly, about twenty feet deep. The barn is built in the ravine ; in fact, one of its sides forms the dam to which we have alluded. It is a gigantic building, spanning the ravine, two hundred feet from side to side, AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 31 and forty feet wide. The centre of the barn is a square; on each side, two wings with arched roofs, covered with tin, extend to the ravine on either side. The roof of the square centre is flat, and forms the base of a cupola twenty feet square, and about eighteen feet high. From this cupola rises a wooden spire of about thirty feet elevation. From the peculiar situation of the barn, and by a great expenditure of labor and money in grading, easy drives are obtained into each story and basement of the building. The upper story is on a level with the surrounding table-land, and there is a magnificent driveway the entire length of the building, two hundred feet. On each side this driveway, there are bays for the storage of hay, a carriage-house, implement-room, and convenient apartments for the bailiff and farm laborers, coachmen, &c. Above this, in the centre building, there are a granary, pigeon- house, and rooms for the storage of cut-fodder and straw for litter. We should have said that the water of the brook, by being dammed up, furnishes a constant power, and is used for driving the machinery of the building. In the upper story, over the driveway, a shaft, with pulleys, runs the entire length of the building ; and by it, and an ingenious contrivance, the hay is taken from the wagons, a load at a time, and deposited in the bays alongside. In this way a ton of hay can be unloaded each minute ! Descending to the next story, we find another splendid driveway, one hundred and sixty feet in length, and on each side stables and stalls for horses, cattle, &c. By means of lead pipes, and conveniently situated stop-cocks, there is an abundant supply of hot and cold water for all purposes. The mangers for cows and horses are of iron, fixed on a swivel, so that they can be easily turned into the driveway, or feeding-room, away from the animals. This is very convenient, and might be generally adopted with advantage. The piggeries are on this floor, and are well arranged. In the pens for breeding sows, a framework of slats, about a foot high, is placed all around the inside of the pen, a foot or so from the outside boards. This is to prevent the sows, in lying down, from crushing the little pigs against the outside of the pen, the framework leaving a space into which they can escape, between the glats, and be lfe. Mr. Wilkinson thinks this arrangement has saved him many hundreds of dollars. The dairy is on a level with this floor. It is an arched room or cellar, eighty feet in length, extending into the bank of the river, under the driveway by which teams enter the third story above. The floor and roof, which is of stone, are cemented, and means are taken to secure good ventilation. At the end of the milk-room there is a large and con- venient ice-house. The whole length of this floor, including ice-house, dairy, and stables, is two hundred and seventy-eight feet ! The basement, one hundred and sixty feet long and one hundred and forty feet wide, is used as a manure-cellar, and has an easy driveway to all parts of it. The arrangement for cleaning the stable is most complete. The trap-doors are placed on a slide, and by means of a lever at one end of the stable they can be all opened and shut at once, in a moment. All the straw for litter is cut, and this, too, greatly facilitates the cleaning of the stables. The grain is threshed as it is drawn in from the field. The machine threshes out the grain, separates it from the straw and chaff, and carries it, already cleaned for market or use, into the granary in the upper story ; it cuts the straw up fine for fodder or for litter, and conveys it up to the storeroom above. The grain or cut straw, by means of well- arranged tunnels, can be shot into any part of the feeding-rooms below. The root-cellar is in the eastern division of the second story, and there is an apparatus for sorting and clean- ing the roots, by means of large riddles or wire sieves, as they are stored away. There are also machines for sawing lumber of all kinds, and one of Woodworth's largest and best planing and matching machines ! The sawdust from these machines falls into a room below designed for its reception : it is used for litter. The manure is regularly dusted over with charcoal and sulphate of lime, in order to prevent the escape of ammonia. The advantage of cutting the straw for litter is most manifest in filling, hauling, and spreading the manure. It is all drawn out and spread upon the land in the winter. The conveniences of this method are quite sufficient to counterbalance any ordinary loss from leaching, evaporation, &c. It I that this barn has cost Mr. Leavitt some fifty thousand dollars! New York Country Gentleman. 32 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. Ventilating Flour Barrel. THE annexed engravings represent an improvement in flour barrels, recently patented by Thomas Pearsal, of Smithboro', New York. Fig. 2 represents a vertical section through the centre of the barrel, showing the ventilating tube. It is well known that all commodities containing in themselves the constituents necessary to produce fermentation will, when closely packed in bulks of sufficient size to prevent the air from perietrating them, sooner or later generate heat at the centre, which gradually diffuses itself through the mass; hence the enormous quantity of flour, meal, &c. spoiled in transportation and storing. It is also well known that decomposition invariably com- mences at the centre of the bulk, owing to the increased pressure there, and to its being farther removed from the refrigerating influence of the atmosphere : it is a common occur- rence on opening a barrel of flour to find it perfectly sweet and good at top, bottom, and around the outside of the bulk, while at the centre it will be both hot and sour. While this is common in bulks of the size of a flour barrel, it is rare in a half-barrel. On this theory the invention is based, and to remedy this evil there is inserted a tube or tubes longitudinally through the cask in which such commodity is to be packed, for the free cir- culation of air therethrough, so that the centre of the cask is no longer the centre of the mass ; as in proportion as you increase the diameter of the pipe, you increase the number of centres in the bulk, thus mathematically dividing the mass into as many parts as required, which is equivalent to dividing the mass into as many smaller packages. A represents a flour barrel with holes B' in each end in the centre of the heads A / , to receive the tube B. In filling the cask, the head A is taken out, and the tube B inserted in the hole in the lower head of the cask ; the desired quantity of flour or meal is then packed therein, and the upper head A is put into the cask again, the tube B protruding through the holes in each end of the cask, about half an inch, more or less, which is to be hammered down, forming a flange on the heads. Thus the air can circulate freely through the centre of the bulk, and its liability to heat is obviated, and at the same time the cask is materially strengthened. When larger casks are used, several tubes may be inserted in the same manner, if found necessary. These tubes may be made of iron, tin, wood, or any other suitable material porous, perforated, or otherwise. AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 33 Machines for Dressing Flour. THE following is an abstract of a paper recently read before the London Society of Arts, by Mr. T. Egan, on the above subject: " The mode of dressing meal after it is ground into flour is a subject that, no doubt, has engaged the attention of men in all ages, from the earliest dawn of civilization, when men first began to settle down from hunting and the chase, and to grow corn and cultivate land for human subsistence; but it must soon have occurred to them, even in a rude state, that the outer skin or bran made their cake dark in color, and was not nutritious or good for human food ; so that they would soon try to devise means for separating this oiiter covering of the seed from the fine flour. Most probably the first invention for this purpose was the skins of sheep, or other animals, perforated with small holes, and fastened to a wooden frame. This frame being shaken, flour would pass through, while the bran would remain above. The second step, probably, was the invention of a sort of sieve, made with very thin slips of narrow wood, crossed upon, and worked down into each other, forming a kind of weft and warp, which was attached, as they best knew how, to hoops. To this sieve a semi-rotatory shaking was given, so that the fine part or flour was let through, while the larger particles were held in the sieve. This kind of sieve is, to this day, used in many parts of Great Britain ; but growing intelligence, however, has substituted wire sieves, which do the work both quicker and better. But, as population increased, and the wants of man became more numerous, the primitive mode of sifting by hand was too slow a pro- cess, and could not long supply the wants or gratify the tastes of the more enlightened people. Then it was that power was first applied to sifting meal and dressing it into flour, by means either of wind or water ; and as soon as power became thus employed, the reel was introduced, very nearly as we have it at the present day. This reel consisted of a wooden hexagonal frame, some six or eight feet in length and two in breadth, with a wooden spindle or shaft through the centre ; over and on the frame was drawn a kind of stocking or web material, sewn together in two or more parts, into which the meal was let from a hopper above. The shaft being connected with the mill, motion was communicated to the reel, and the meal was dressed into flour. The next thing to be considered is the kind of web or stocking put upon this reel. The most ancient kind was made of fine linen, proba- bly in six pieces sewn together ; and it is a curious fact, that in Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, England, America, and France, this ancient reel is the same in form and shape throughout, except that in some parts of France it is five or six times as long, and is driven much slower. The material used for the bolting-cloth was that which was most easily attainable in each country. In Germany and England, linen stretched and stitched with six seams was the first kind of cloth ; and there is no question or doubt but in the process of time, and at a very early period, a mixture of linen and woollen cloth, called linsey, was used ; but in France, where silk was easy to be obtained, they adopted it for bolting-cloth. It has been found, by experience, that a silk web cannot be driven at the same rate of speed as the German and English cloths ; a fact which should be borne in mind by millers when they fancy they have discovered wonders in dressing with silk. The next improvement in order in the dressing of flour is the improvement of bolting-cloths, which was followed by the system of dressing flour through an iron wire-cloth. In this arrangement the reel was changed for circular wooden frames, three or four being used to each sheet or width of wire, as they were considered to afford support to the wire. Though the centre of the cylinder is a shaft, to which a series of brushes are attached, driven at the rate of 300 or 400 revolutions per minute, while the cylinder is stationary. This machine stands at an inclination of three or four inches to the foot. The meal is introduced at the upper end or head of the machine, and, in passing from one to the other y , the flour is pushed through the wire by the revolution of the shaft, while the bran is retained in the cylinder until it reaches the lower end, where it falls into a hopper. This machine is apt to clog, and it becomes necessary for the miller to clear the outside of the wire cylinder from time to time with a hand brush. This mode of dressing obviously produces great pressure upon the wire, and the brushes force the finer particles of bran through the wire, along with the flour. Con- 3 34 . THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. siderable breakage of wire takes place, but still the wire cylinders maintain the precedence over cloths, so far as regards the quantity of work performed. "An improvement on this plan, known in England as the Yorkshire machine, resembles somewhat the foregoing, save that iron is used instead of wood for the ribs supporting the wire ; and the cylinder, instead of being stationary, has a slo^w revolving motion given to it. A series of brushes revolves on the outside of the wire for the purpose of keeping it clean, thus doing away with the necessity of hand brushing. The interior brushes affixed to the shaft are capable of being adjusted by means of a screw, so as to stand at any required dis- tance from the interior surface of the wire, which they are never allowed to come in contact with. The whole of these motions of the cylinder and the outside and inside brushes are obtained from gearing fixed at the head of the machine. These machines have been largely used, and are very efficient, but they are liable to continual breakage of the wire gauze, more particularly at the ribs which are used to support the wire, as in the machine before described. This machine is fixed at the same inclination as the one in which the cylinder was stationary. It is clear that the numerous ribs in all these machines form obstructions to the passage of the flour through the wire gauze. It occurred to Mr. Egan that if he could get rid of these ribs, the quantity of flour dressed per hour would be much increased, without in any way adding to the pressure on the wire ; and that, at the same time, economy would result if, as was supposed, the breakage of the wire gauze was due to the ribs. In his machine, the only ribs used are those necessary to form the junctions between the sheets of wire ; the distance between them thus being about eight or nine inches, instead of two and a half or three inches, as in the old machines. The inside brushes, instead of revolv- ing with their surface parallel to the gauze, and being continuous throughout the length of the cylinder, as in the Yorkshire machine, are divided into separate portions, corresponding with each sheet of wire gauze, and are at an angle, so that one end of the brush is nearer to the cylinder than the other. The outside brush, instead of revolving, has a motion given to it similar to hand brushing. By these means the frequent breakage of the wire is obvi- ated, besides dressing a larger quantity of flour per hour." Improvements iir Flouring and Bolting. A PATENT has been recently granted to Messrs. Stouffer, Brough, and Barr, of Chambers- burg, Pennsylvania, for an important improvement in flouring and bolting. The nature of the improvement consists in entirely separating the bran and the flouring particles previous to subjecting the stuffs to regrinding, by passing them through the super- fine bolt, and then through a second one under it. The advantages of this improvement are set forth in the specification, as follows: "In the bolting process and apparatus an insig- nificant quantity of brown stuff is made, (which is only bran ground fine,) and avoiding entirely the production of middlings, at the same time increasing the production of superfine flour of uniform quality or brand; with good wheat, a barrel being produced from four bushels to four bushels and six pounds. It is also stated in the specification, that all efforts heretofore made to produce a barrel of superfine flour from less than four bushels and twenty-five pounds of wheat, have failed to procure a regular run of quality, on account of the bran husk being reground with the farina, and imparting a red cast to the flour. The regrinding of all the offal, on account of gluten, has also a tendency to clog the bolts. The great quantity of bran also, in proportion to the flour, which is passed through the auxiliary mill, consumes a great deal of power. A full description of this improvement, with a diagram, may be found in the Scientific American, vol. x. Feeding Flour-Bolts. SAMUEL TAGQART, of Indianapolis, Indiana, has obtained a patent for an improvement in feeding flour-bolts, the essential feature of which consists in feeding the meal at all times uniformly to the bolts. The usual method of feeding the meal to bolts in making flour is by spouts having a drop-shoe under each. These drop-shoes receive a shaking motion by AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 35 cams or wiper wheels, and the meal slides down their inclined bottoms, and is conducted to the bolts, often irregularly, by ordinary spouts. By the new plan, the "hopper-boy" which receives the meal for the bolts is fitted within an annular chamber, through which passes a vertical shaft, having arms upon it, with sweepers secured to their ends. Directly above the "hopper-boy," on the vertical shaft, an arm having oblique flights upon it is placed loosely, and is connected by cords to a rod passing horizontally through the central shaft. Spouts lead from the lower end of the annular chamber to the elevated ends of the bolts. The central vertical shaft passing through the centre of the "hopper-boy," rotates and gives motion to the flight-arm named, which also rotates and carries the meal towards the centre of the "hopper-boy," from whence it falls into the annular chamber and is cooled, while the sweepers take and force it into spouts, which convey it to the bolts, and thus feed it in more regularly than by the shaking of the shoes. An improvement in dressing flour, patented during the past year, by Messrs. Nordyke and Hunt, Richmond, Indiana, consists in a peculiar device for expanding and contracting the rotating brushes, which act against the wire-cloth of the bolts and force the flour through. These brushes may be made to act against bolting-wires with a greater or less pressure, according to the will of the miller. Self-regulating Windmills. MR. T. C. VICE, of Rochester, New York, has recently invented a self-regulating windmill, constructed as follows: The arms and frames are as usually constructed, but the canvas sails are fitted with rings at each end running loosely on an iron rod ; also with rods and loops at suitable distances dong its length, so that the sail is prevented from slatting, while at the same time it is at perfect liberty to be extended or contracted by suitable cords. The main shaft of the mill is hollow, and through it leads a light shaft, which carries on its end, and in front of the centre of the windmill, a bevel wheel. This wheel gears into power-wheels keyed on the end of light shafts, which extend the whole length of each arm, having bearings at proper intervals along its length. Revolving these shafts in one direction contracts the sail, by shortening a set of cords leading directly to the leech or edge of the sails, while revolving them in the other direction releases these cords and contracts another set, which are rove through sheaves or through staples on the opposite side, and serve to extend the s:iil. When all is right, the small shaft in the centre of the main driving-shaft is allowed to turn with it; but if the wind freshens and the mill moves too fast, the small shaft must be retarded, which will have the effect, by revolving the bevel wheels, to reef or contract the sails. As the weather moderates, and more sail becomes desirable, the surface may be extended by giving the regulating or central shaft a greater velocity. This arrangement is easily adapted to employment with a governor, so as to be literally self-adjusting ; and in any event will, if successful in practice, save much of the disagreeable labor in attending windmills that of reefing in cold and wet weather. A forty horse-power mill, or one the sails of which are each thirty-three feet long and six feet wide, would pro- bably require considerable power to extend the sails thus simultaneously ; but it may be recollected that this operation will usually be performed when the wind is light, the action in reefing being merely that of a brake to retard the wheel, and the action of the cords on the sails is in this case direct. Mr. Vice has provided means for making the mill itself sup- ply the power for this purpose, and considers the whole susceptible of complete control by an ordinary governor. An improvement in windmills has also been made by Daniel Halliday, of Ellington, Con- necticut. This consists of the attachment of wings or sails to rotary movable spindles fur- nished with levers. These levers are also attached to a head which rotates with the sails upon the same shaft. Another lever is attached to the head ; this is connected to a go- vernor, which slides the head upon the shaft, so as to cause the levers to turn the wings or sails. The necessary resisting surface being thus presented to the wind, a uniformity of velocity is attained. The proper regulation of the obliquity of the sails, so as to adapt them to the varying motive force of the atmosphere, is represented by the inventor to be thus 86 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. secured without difficulty, to a degree which renders his mill more constantly available than those hitherto employed. The mill built by him has five-feet wings; that is, the diameter of the wind-wheel is ten feet, and it has been in operation for six months, without a hand being touched to it to regulate the sails. It is so contrived that nothing but a squall of great severity falling upon it without a moment's warning c*n produce damage. The mill mentioned has drawn water from a well twenty-eight feet deep, one hundred feet distant, and forced it into a small reservoir in the upper part of the barn, sufficient for all farm purposes, garden irrigation, and "lots to spare." The cost of such a mill will be $50, and the pumps and pipes about $25. It is elevr. ted on a single oak post a foot square, the turn-circle being supported by iron braces. The wings are made of one longitudinal iron bar, through which run small rods ; upon these rods, narrow boards half an inch thick are fitted, holes being bored through from edge to edge, and screwed together by nuts on the ends of the rods. This makes strong, light sails, but, as will be seen, are fixtures not to be furled or clewed up ; but they are thrown up edge to the wind by a very ingenious and simple arrangement of the machinery, which obviates the great objection to windmills for farm use the necessity of constant supervision of the sails to suit the strength of the wind. A third plan for self-regulating windmills has also been invented during the past year by A. P. Brown, of Brattleborough, Vermont. It is somewhat on the plan of Halliday's, above described, and is regulated by a weight attached to a lever in such a manner that when at rest it keeps the sails flat, but as the breeze freshens, the wings open by the force of the wind and lift the weight, which falls back to its place when the wind lulls. Wind is undoubtedly the cheapest power that a farmer can use ; and, notwithstanding its inconstancy, if this improvement operates as well as it bids fair to in the mills already erected, it will be applied to many valuable uses. Horse-Shoeing Apparatus. A PATENT was recently granted to Noah Warlick, of Lafayette, Alabama, for the employ- ment of a peculiar adjustable rest for the support of the horse's foot during the operation of shoeing. The arrangement consists in a standard, sustaining a support, hollowed out to receive the horse's hoof. Attached to this support is an adjustable serrated slide, held by a screw, by which the slide may be maintained in any desired position ; upon this, the horse's hoof rests during the operation of fitting the shoe, paring the hoof, and fastening the shoe to the hoof, the serrated edge of the slide preventing the slipping of the hoof from the head- piece. The use of this support is of importance to the operator, as, instead of holding the horse's hoof between his knees and supporting its entire weight, he is enabled to devote all his attention to the adjustment of the shoe and the keeping of the horse quiet. Improvements in the Construction of Horse-Shoes. Horse-Shoes without Nails. Mr. Sewall Short, of New London, Conn., has recently intro- duced, with success, a new style of horse-shoe, invented by him, the object of which is to avoid the necessity of driving nails in the hoofs of the animal ; a practice always more or less objectionable, and only submitted to from imperious necessity, and which frequently, from misplacing a nail, or splitting a hoof, renders a horse useless, at least for a time. Mr. Short is not the first who has attempted to clamp the shoe to the foot without nails, but is the first to do it in this simple and effective manner. He makes the whole in two pieces, employing, in addition, two small screws to aid in screwing the parts together. Both are made of mal- leable iron ; the lower portion, or " sole," being very similar to the horse-shoe ordinarily employed, but with a groove around its exterior, and without nail-holes. The upper portion, or "vamp," is thin, and has a flange projecting inward from its lower edge to match the groove in the sole. These parts are so arranged as to secure a tight and firm connection ; and the whole is made additionally secure by the aid of the set-screws before mentioned at the heel. A shoe of this kind once fitted, the vamp may be made to wear out a great num- ber of soles. The exterior may be highly finished and plated with silver, which gives a very AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 37 flashy appearance to a team of lively horses, or the shoes may be enamelled jet-black when intended for white or gray animals. One practical advantage to be derived from this stylo of shoes is the facility with which they may be removed or exchanged, so that a skilful hostler may exchange the shoes, or rather the soles, on every occasion when the presence of ice or the like renders it desirable, and it may even be expedient, in extreme cases of ex- haustion, as with race-horses, to remove the shoes altogether for a time, and allow of a more refreshing rest. Elastic Horse-Shoes. Mr. J. 0. Jones, of Boston, Mass., has invented and patented a new style of horse-shoe. It is not any way peculiar in its external appearance, but has a piece of India-rubber inserted between the two surfaces of steel or Swedish iron (the latter pre- ferred on pavements) from either side of the heel most of the way to the toe. These give the shoe an elasticity elsewhere unknown ; diminish the force and abruptness of each concus- sion when the shoe strikes on rock or other solid ; induce the animal to put his foot down firmly and fearlessly ; prevents bruises and consequent tenderness, resulting in lameness ; and sometimes cures diseases of the foot already contracted. The rubber is never displaced, and the shoe is durable of itself, besides making the horse so. Towers' Improved Horse-Shoe. An invention has been patented, during the past year, by W. H. Towers, of Philadelphia, for an improved method of fastening horse-shoes. The in- vention consists in the construction of inclined flanges, or lips, rising from the front sides of the shoe corresponding in form with the parts of the hoof against which they are made to bear when fitted. One of the side-flanges is made separate, and fastened by sliding into a recess in the side of the shoe, and secured by moans of a screw, thus entirely dispensing with the use of nails, and avoiding any liability to injury by pricking. Irresistible Bit for Refractory Horses. MESSRS. TITUS & FBXWICK, of Brooklyn, N. Y., have recently patented a contrivance for governing refractory horses, which seems to be a great and very desirable improvement in certain hard cases, while it will not be an expensive or cumbrous addition to an ordinary harness for general purposes. Stopping the breath has been sufficiently proved by experi- ment to be a sure and very rapid means of arresting the progress of an animal ; but, instead of tightening a cord around the nook, a* invented by somebody a few years ago, these i other parts o; :Vom which oil is extracted. It may be remarked that this tree has been cultivat-- 1 in South Carolina for more than a hundred years, and appears well adapted to the climate. Agricultural Department, Patent Office. On the Construction of Hot-beds. The following remarks, relative to the construction of hot-beds, were recently made at the Farmer's Club, New York City, by J. P. Lowe, Esq. : It is a useful practice, and iml- deal, to Inve the necessary amount of earth col- lected in a he-.n, say latt -r ]>art of A? r it in-iy b- ready for use when required in early spring- at the time of making hot-beds. This heap, during the winter season, in con- sequence of frequent .ies finely pulverized, and not being trodden down. <.r in a - ! ie atmosphere can freely circulate through the mass, and in so doing deposits ammonia, \'c., vhich will prove conducive to its fertility. Next in order, I shall speak of the proper covering ( for the reason that this is generally provided during late winter as preparatory to the making of hot-beds. Moss, hay, and refuse material are frequently but injudiciously made use of, for, during the removal and replacement of such substances at times necessary to give air and light to plants, small portions by accident fall upon them, which soon undergo decomposition ; and the plants, being too tender to withstand the produced effect, very often droop and die. Mats are, doubtless, much better as a covering to prevent the effects of frost than the materials already spoken of; for the objections in the one case are not applicable in the other, and the best kind as well as the most easy to construct are those made by almost every gardener. Two men accustomed to such work can make during a dny from six to seven mats, six and a half feet long by five feet wide, and the mode of operation can readily be understood. A coarse frame of the required size is procured, and from four to five nails, according to the size of the mat required, and at equidistant points from each other, are driven in each of the 64 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. end boards, about one and a half or two inches from the inner margin. The frame is then rested against a wall or other convenient place, and a piece of strong twine is made fast to the first nail in order of those at the top board, and is then continued down to the opposite nail of the end board, and there made fast; the twine is then continued upwards, and brought down again, without being secured, for the putpose of measuring a length twice that of the mat intended to be made, and is then rolled upon a short piece of stick, with a slit in the end, in which the twine may be placed to prevent its unravelling,., when it shall have been wound up to within one and a half feet or two feet of the nail of the lower end board. A like arrangement of the twine is made with the other nails in succession. Then one man, each side of the frame, takes a small quantity of straw in his hand from a heap, necessarily near by, which had previously been arranged evenly for such purpose, and places it over the nails of the lower part of the frame, permitting the ends of the straw to pro- ject, say three or four inches, beyond the side line. His comrade upon the opposite does likewise, and these are looped in by means of the pieces of twine already spoken of, and the operation is so continued until the mat is made. In due time the necessary amount of horse-dung should be saved ; and it should be borne in mind that the richness and heating quality of this manure will depend much upon the food given the horses from which it is produced. If they have been highly groomed, a considerable part of their bedding, which generally accompanies the manure, should be mixed with it, so that the beds afterwards to be made may not be too hot. The use of spent-tan is frequently desirable, and especially so where it can be procured cheaply. Professor Mapes, speaking of this material, says: "Gardeners often find that their hot-beds lose heat before the season is sufficiently advanced to part with their use. By mixing with the horse-droppings a quantity of spent-tan, they continue them in heat long after the horse-manure has ceased to be active; and, by such an arrangement, the slowly-decomposable tan is rendered an efficient manure for the next season's operations; for, when properly decomposed, no manure is more rich in the earthy salts than the decom- posed bark of trees. The large quantity of carbonaceous matter resulting from its decom- position renders it retentive of ammonia, while its free, loose character causes soils, otherwise too compact, to be free and fertile." In regard to the construction of the frames of hot-beds, it may be well to state that the double-board system for the sides, containing a space of confined air, which is one of the best non-conductors of heat, is now fast coming into use, for by its means there is a more evenness of temperature kept up. The mistake of cutting the glass for the sashes square is very frequent; I will quote Prof. Mapes on this point, as his explanation is very clear. He says: " Sashes should never be made with square ends to the glass; where they lap, the water will remain, sometimes in large drops or globules, forming lenses, the foci of which, from the heat of the sun, destroys plants ; but if the ends of the glass be slightly curved, but one drop of water can remain, and thus the joints are always clean and free from the objection before named." The best position for a hot-bed is that which will give it a south-eastern aspect, so that the plants may benefit by the morning sun. Decision being made as to the location, the frame is placed upon the ground, and a mark made around its inner sides ; the earth is then generally dug out to a depth of some eighteen inches. The manure, having been previously well intermixed, is placed in this receiver, and continued to a height say of one and a half feet above the surrounding soil, or higher, as in the case of preparing a bed for egg-plants. Indeed the height will depend much upon the quality of the manure, its compactness in the bed, as well as the temperature required. The frame should then be placed on top of the bed, and more manure thrown in, but leaving a space between it and the glass of about eight inches. Before putting in the soil, the bed should be covered up by means of boards and mats, until it shall become sufficiently heated. The mats and boards are then removed, and about seven inches of soil placed on top, which should be made very even, and not in a slanting direction with the sashes; for in such case, at the time of watering or heavy rains, if there be a leakage on the top, the streaming of the water would be hurtful to the AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 65 plants. The sashes are now slid on, and the mats are placed on top, and a day or more suffered to elapse, as may be required, so that the soil may have its temperature increased sufficiently before sowing the seed, and 'become rather warm ; this will have a tendency to destroy many of those insects that feed on young plants. After this, the covers may be taken off to permit the escape of steam, and driljs are then made by means of the garden rake, over which the seed is scattered broadcast, and the rake is then used to cover it in. Some persons prefer not to make drills, but scatter the seed, and then sift some fine soil over it. Young gardeners should make use of a thermometer to indicate temperature, which may be hung inside of the deeper of the two side-boards of the frame, so that when a person stands in front of the bed, it will be opposite to him. From the time of the seed germinating until the plants arrive at maturity, much care is needed, for a very slight frost would be likely to prove injurious ; but during mild days they should be permitted to have plenty of fresh air, and generally a slight opening to let out steam ; for if the bed overheats during the early growth of the plants, they will grow too rapidly, and consequently be very tender. The proper temperature of the inside air is considered to be from 45 to 60 Fahren- heit's thermometer, when positioned as described. After the plants shall have somewhat grown, they will be likely to require watering, and care should be t;iken that the apertures of the rose of the watering-pot be very small, so that the water in passing through may fall gently upon the plants. If the weather happens to be very cold at the time they require water, it will sometimes be necessary to add a little hot water, to take the chill off that about to be made use of. Moreover, during cold weather, it will be necessary to water at noon, or soon after, but if mild, this may be done immedi- ately before sunset. Working Farmer. Employment of Cotton Waste in Hot-beds. AT the Berlin Association for the Promotion of Horticulture, Prof. Cock made a commu- nication about a substitute for horse-manure for generating heat in hot-beds, which, as a productive of caloric, is far superior to the latter. This substitute is the refuse of cotton- spinning mills. A bed prepared on the previous day had, when examined in the afternoon, a temperature in its interior of not less than 113 of Fahrenheit. Hay-caps. A WRITER in the American Agriculturalist recommends to fanners the use of hay-caps, to be prepared in the following manner: Stout, unbleached sheeting should be taken, from thirty-six to forty-two inches wide; the latter is the best, which should be cut into lengths of forty to forty-five inches. To make forty of them (and no extensive fanner should have less than 100) would require a gallon of linseed-oil, which should be simmered with four pounds of beeswax, and a quart of japan added after it is taken from the fire. When cold, the mixture should be about the thickness of lard in summer ; if not, more oil or more wax may be added. The cloths should then be payed over, to use a sea expression, with the hand or a small piece of shingle, on one side only, and then dried in the sun ; when dry, the females of the family will cheerfully, and in a very short time, sew into each corner a stone of the weight of about seven or eight ounces, which completes the affair. No hemming is required, as the wax and oil will keep the edges sufficiently firm. In respect to their economy and usefulness, the writer says : I do not think I am extrava- gant in saying they will pay the cost in one season, and will last ten years if taken good care of. Within a few days we have had one entire rainy day, when my neighbor's hay was thoroughly soaked, while mine was as as safely covered as if it had been packed away in the barn. My manager thinks that one-third of the cost of some new covers just made were paid for on that day. " Large covers, made in the same manner, to cover the whole of a load of hay, with heavier weights, of course, would also be an admirable protection against sudden showers." 5 66 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. Dederick's Improved Hay Presses. Fig. 1. THE annexed engravings represent the appearance and construction of an improved press adapted for packing hay, cotton, hops, hemp, &c., for which two patents have been recently granted to Levi Dederick, of Albany, New York. One patent is for an improvement on the doors of the press, and the other is for an improvement in operating the follower, giving it a parallel motion, while pressing, by toggle-levers. The Doors. A is the case or box in which the cotton, hay, or other article to be pressed is placed. It has a trap-door B B, and a side-door C. The cotton or hay is placed in the case through the top-opening. The side door, especially, requires to be very securely fastened to resist the great pressure that comes upon it. This door is secured to a stile D, having a small round tenon at each end. These fit loosely in recesses in the top and bottom pieces of the frame. To this stile, and also to the door C, are secured two arms or battens c c, the outer ends of which project a short distance beyond the edge of the door C. E is a stile attached to the top and bottom pieces, like the one at D, but not to the door. This stile E has recesses d d, which, when the door is closed, fit over the end of the battens c c. F is an arm or lever attached to the stile E by a pivot when the door is closed ; the outer end of this arm or lever is fitted in a recess in the stile. The door C is thus made perfectly secure; the outer ends of battens c c fitting in the recesses d d, and the outer end of the bar lever fitting in the recess /. To unfasten the door, raise the outer end of F from the recess /, and turn the stile E around till the end of the battens clear the recesses d d. This door is for dis- charging the compressed material, hay, cotton, &c. The top door, when closed, is secured by ^a bar G, which is attached by a bridge to the front edge of the door. The bar is provided at each end with a flange h to catch in the top side-pieces i i of the frame, and this secures the top door on the hay or cotton when the case is full for pressing. By raising the lever H to a vertical position, the bar G is turned so as to free the flanges h h from the caps i i, and the door can be opened. The Levers. The follower presses horizontally in the case A ; it is not seen, but suffice it AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 67 to say that the inner end's of the levers J K are secured to it, the one above the other. These levers are connected by rods N at their outer ends, and these have pivot-joints passing through the levers. L M are other levers secured by pivots to J K, and to lugs by like joints in the posts. There is a pulley attached to each side of the follower lever K ; below the ends of the connecting arms is a large roller 0. A rope R is secured at one end on the bottom of the frame, then passes over the outside pulley at N, then down around the roller 0, then up and over the nigh pulley N, then down and around the pulley on the bottom of the frame. By pulling on this rope, by winding it upon a windlass, &c., the upper ends of the levers J K are drawn down, and the follower thrust forward, pressing the hay, cotton, or other material with great force. The levers have a quick motion and exert little power when they first commence to act, but have a slow motion and exert the greatest power near the end of the stroke ; this is the kind of motion required. The action of these levers is parallel, like that of the joints of a parallel ruler. The rope P is connected at one end to the follower, then passes over a pulley on the top- scantling of the frame, and down over another pulley. This cord is for drawing back the follower and elevating the levers, when the cotton or hay is pressed and secured in bale. This press may have a door on one or both sides. The foregoing engraving represents a bale in the press, bound ready for removal from the door C, there being another such door on the other side, so that the bale can be removed from either side of the press at pleasure. B B Fig. 2, 68 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. are the upper doors represented open, ready again for the reception of the hay. J K are the levers, which, being drawn down by the system of ropes and pulleys N R R, press the follower forward on the hay, with a power which is alike simple and tremendous. It is so constructed that, for transportation to any great distance, it is taken apart, (the levers, lever-connections, ropes, and pulleys being packed securely in a box,) making in all but seven conveniently handled pieces; and, by the printed directions for putting up and operating which accompany each press, it can be put together again in two or three hours by any two farmers, without the aid of a mechanic. It is so conveniently portable, that it can be moved "from one field or farm to another by a pair of horses or oxto, drawing it, as they would a sleigh, upon its own shoes attached underneath. It is operated by a horse and capstan ; the horse going round eight times to make a bale, and twice without changing his direction to draw back the follower. With two men and a boy it will bale, without any extra exertion, from six to eight * tons of hay per day, according to the number or size of the press. Another form of this improved press is designated the upright or vertical press, (fig. 2, p. 67,) and diifers but slightly from the horizontal already described. When the door C, which, as in the cut of the other machine, is represented open, is closed, the head U is moved over to either side at pleasure ; the hay is then thrown in, and when the box is full, the head is moved back again to the centre of the press ; the power being then applied to the parallel levers J K, operated by the system of ropes and pulleys N R R, press the follower B up against the hay with the same simple power exercised in the horizontal. The door C, and also a similar door on the other side, is then opened, the bale is bound, and the ends of it being relieved by releasing the end of the bar or handle D, it is taken out from either side at pleasure. While this is an excellent stationary press, it is also a conveniently portable one, as (weighing little more than the other press,) it can be readily shoved up a couple of planks on a wagon, or, by spiking on a pair of runners, it can be laid down and moved like the horizontal on the ground. The horizontal press is, of course, the more convenient, but requires some care in tramping in the hay in order to make a bale as nice in appearance as that under ordinary care coming from the vertical. As a cloth-press, one of these presses is in use at the Harmony Mills, Cohoes, New York, and it is easy to perceive that they can be made available for many purposes. One that can press 500 pounds of hay costs about $175, and one that can press a bale of 200 pounds, about $100. A great advantage attending this improvement has been the reduction of the size and weight of the hay-press. Presses of the old form required a separate and entire building for their accommodation, the posts supporting the framework being ten and twelve inches square. The size of the same posts in the improved press does not exceed five inches, all the other parts also being propbrtionate. Instead of being obliged to build as formerly, the farmer may now order a hay-press with as much facility as a mowing machine or horse-power. Manny's Hay-press. In an improved hay-press, recently patented by Pells Manny, of Wad- dam's Grove, Illinois, the bales are pressed into a square form, and the levers act so as to press them when moving both forwards and backwards ; that is, no time is lost, when one bale is pressed, in returning the followers to the point where they commenced, to press in the box a second bale from the point where they commenced to return. On the Manufacture of Cider. THE following article on the manufacture of cider is communicated to the Journal of the London Society of Arts, by Mr. T. W. Booker, M.P. : Mr. Booker states, in commencement, that in a recent conversation with a German baron, the proprietor of celebrated hock vineyards on the Rhine, an opinion was expressed, that many varieties of the common apple were capable of producing as valuable and desirable a beverage as the hock grapes, if a different process of making the liquor were adopted. The process recommended by the baron for the manufacture of hock, and which he considers applicable to the manufacture of cider, is as follows : The liquors, after the fruit is pressed, are strained, so as to separate the coarse muss from the liquor, which is then put into large vessels, when shortly afterwards fermentation commences. This fermentation is watched AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 69 with the utmost care and attention, as every thing connected with the future quality, rich- ness, and value of the wine depends upon it ; the finer muss, that remains in the liquor after it has passed through the straining apparatus, drops to the bottom in the course of a few days, and the wine becomes perfectly clear and transparent, retaining all its original saccha- rine matter, with all its strength, richness, and flavor. At this critical period, xipou which we consider the quality of our wines depend, we adopt the process of racking. This rack- ing must be effected in such a manner as to prevent any part of the liquor coming into con- tact with the atmospheric air ; should it do so, fresh fermentation, in all probability, will take place ; and by the same means, the like causes repeated will operate, and be followed by the same results repeated fermentation until the flavor and richness of the original liquor are destroyed, and the liquor, instead of becoming wine, would become as worthless as your inferior cider. The reason for this Rhenish caution in preventing the liquor from coming into contact with the atmospheric air during the process of racking, is this : The first fermentation is what is termed vinous fermentation, and results in the liquor subjected to it becoming wine ; if repeated, or acetous fermentations are allowed to follow, the vinous and saccharine properties of the liquor are converted into acid, and the wine becomes vinegar. Now, the atmosphere is the laboratory from which the liquor absorbs the chemical agent which produces these distinct and separate fermentations. And now, practically to apply those observations: one fermentation is all that is wanted to convert the juice of the apple into wholesome cider. The plan to insure this is as follows: First, grind the apples in the cider-mill, and squeeze the juice from the pulp, as is done at present. Second, run or pour the liquor, after being squeezed or stniiml, into a vat, capable of containing three or four, or even more, hogsheads. This vat must be placed in an elevated position, at least five or six feet above the floor, to admit the hogshead or cask in which the liquor is to be ulti- mately secured, to be placed under it. At the bottom of the large vat a tube is inserted, of from one and a half to two inches in diameter, for the purpose of discharging into a recep- tacle beneath it. While the process of fermentation is going on, the top of this tube should be corked or plugged up. When the liquor in the vat has settled or clarified, it is drawn off into the receptacle below, retaining all its original saccharine qualities. The operation is now completed, ami the result will be found to bo a liquor wholesome and palatable, full of spirit, richness, and flavor, and of value proportioned to the description or sort of apples which are cultivated. Our firm conviction is, that the difference in value of all the cider produced by these simple means, over and above that produced by our present careless and slovenly method, would amount to tens of thousands of dollars a year, and would be so much clear gain and profit to all those who make cider. The production of good cider depends upon the description of fruit of which it is made, the season, and state of the apples when they are crushed, and the management of the juice while it is fermenting. It will therefore be proper to consider the subject under these three heads separately : 1. The kind of apple which makes the best cider. The acid which gives the peculiar quick and sharp feeling upon the palate, in good cider, having first been noticed in the apple, although it exists in many other fruits, has been termed the malic acid. It may not be amiss to say, that it is the due combination of this acid with saccharine matter namely, the sugar of the apple, properly fermented which is the object to be aimed at in the manufacture of cider. In the selection of the fruit will depend the proportion of malic acid contained in the liquor. The crab has a much greater quantity of this acid than the cultivated fruit ; and, generally speaking, in proportion as we obtain sweetness by culture, we deprive the apple of its malic acid. Hence it follows, that some delicious table fruits will not make good cider ; this rule, however, is not invariable, as the golden pippin and some other fine apples appear to contain the proper admixture of acid and sweetness which is desirable in the liquor. Mr. Knight recommends that the different sorts of fruit be kept separate, and con- siders that only those apples which are yellow, or mixed with red, make good cider ; and that the fruit of which the flesh or rind is green, is very inferior. He recommends that the apples should be perfectly ripe even mellow, but never decayed before they are crushed. Mr. Booker is of opinion that the quality of cider has deteriorated since increased attention 70 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. lias been paid to orchards. This he believes to be owing to the want of a due proportion of the peculiar acid which is found in the greatest quantity in the wild fruit, and suggests that it may be expedient to mix a certain quantity of the crab-apples with the fruit before it is crushed. 2. The best time of the year for malting cider. As Mr. Knight recommends the fruit to be perfectly ripe, even mellow, before it is crushed, the process of making cider, if this course is adopted, can only happen late in the autumn. As it is difficult, also, to manage the fermentation of the liquor in warm weather, it is better to defer the making of cider to as late a period as possible ; if, however, the liquor can be put into a cold cellar after the first fermentation is over, the manufacture might commence earlier. It should be borne in mind that the juice of unripe fruits ferments more quickly than that of those which are ripe. 3. Fermentation of the juice. The researches of scientific men, although very elaborate, have done very little in throwing light upon the nature of fermentation : it appears to par- take, in a measure, of the vital principle, of the phenomena attending which we know nothing. Many curious and interesting facts have been discovered during the investigation, but none of which appear to be of much use in the making of cider. There are three kinds of fermentation, or rather there are some products which pass regularly through three stages of fermentation namely, the vinous, the acetous, and the putrescent. Other sub- stances pass at once to one or other of the latter stages ; gum and water turning to vinegar without forming any spirit, and meat at once putrefying. It is not desirable that the vinous fermentation should be complete in the manufacture of cider, in which case all the sugar of the apple would be converted into spirit ; this never does happen without a portion of vinegar being also formed, the acetous fermentation going on conjointly with the vinous ; as when cider frets a great deal, it may be very strong, but is comparatively of little value, having lost all its richness, and become sour. The vinous fermentation stops naturally before it has run its course, and it is the object of the maker to avail himself of this property in the liquor, and to endeavor to prevent any secondary fermentation taking place ; the number of schemes which have been suggested to prevent this shows that it is the most important point to be attended to in the manufacture of good cider. Mr. Booker is of the opinion that a hundred-gallon cask is much better than one larger, and that the liquor is not only more easily managed, but more likely to be good ; it may be that cider in large casks becomes stronger, but it is not so frequently rich as in small hogsheads. Although it may not be ap- parent, fermentation commences as soon as the juice is expressed from the fruit ; and the sooner the cask is filled and allowed to remain quiet, the more regular and certain will be the process. What should we think of the brewer who, while his beer was working, brewed another quantity, and added the raw wort to the first ? Yet this is constantly done in fill- ing a large cask with cider ; or even worse, for the apple-juice is added cold, whereas the wort might be mixed with the beer while warm. It would be greatly better to keep the liquor in open tubs, till enough be obtained to fill the cask, and then to put it together at once. The application of cold will check fermentation immediately. "I have seen liquor in a state of froth boiling out of a large jar, suddenly reduced to a state of quiescence, by pumping water upon the side. This fact induced me to cause an experiment to be tried during a very bad season for the cider-making, the weather being very warm : a cask of juice was rolled into a brook of cold water, and sunk by stones attached to it ; it remained in that position till nearly Christmas, and was much better than any other made that year. Perfect stillness is very desirable, as motion is found to excite the acetous fermentation. A bottle of wine attached to the sail of a windmill in motion, was, after three days, converted into vinegar, although closely corked. When a second fermentation does take place in cider, there is very little hope of its being rich and good. In such case, I should recommend its being drawn out into tubs, exposed to the cold as much as possible, and, after being thus flattened, put back into the cask, at the same time well stirring up the whites of fifteen or twenty eggs, previously mixed up with a portion of the liquor ; if this succeeds in fining it, which probably it will, it may then be racked into a clean cask, and closed as much as pos- sible from the air. It is probable that a great deal of mischief is caused by some principle of fermentation remaining in the cask ; this might be prevented by well scalding the casks AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 71 before they are filled ; or, what I think would be better, by washing out the casks with clear lime-water. One large piece of lime put into a hogshead of water, and allowed to settle, would answer the purpose. Some brimstone matches burned in the casks would have a ten- dency to prevent fermentation." Journal of the Society of Arts, Krauser's Patent Portable Cider and Wine MilL THE peculiar feature of this mill is an arrangement of reciprocating pistons, which, by their alternate action, will cause a quantity of apples or grapes continually to advance with irresistible force against the passing teeth of a rapidly-revolving cylinder, so that by the action of the latter the whole fruit is at once reduced to pulp, and discharged into the tub beneath the mill. The idea intended, and which is thus beautifully and effectively reduced to practice, is that of exactly imitating the action of the human hand in holding an apple against the teeth of a revolving cylinder until it is entirely reduced to pulp. On the Manufacture of Wine, and the Cultivation of the Grape for the Vintage in the United States. THE following article on the already important branch of American industry the manu- facture of wine and the cultivation of the grape for the vintage has been prepared from three several articles, which have been recently published in the Philadelphia Horticultu- ralist, Putnam's Magazine, and Mansfield's Railroad Journal. The cultivation of the vine, as an article yielding commercial products, has only recently commenced in the United States ; but its extension is so rapid, that the day cannot be far distant when wine will be classed among the great staple productions of the country. In the valley of Ohio, taking Cincinnati for a centre, within a radius of twenty miles are planted fifteen hundred acres of vine-yards, two-thirds of which are in bearing. The average yield will not be estimated at less than two hundred and fifty gallons of wine per acre, which will give, as the present yield, two hundred and fifty thousand gallons of wine, worth from one dollar to one dollar and fifty cents per gallon. The rapidity with which this cultivation increases may be inferred from the statistics, which show that last year were sold in Cincinnati two millions of grape-cuttings, and four hundred thousand roots ; a quantity sufficient to plant more than six hundred acres of vineyards. These were distributed to every part of the Union, from New York to Missouri, and as far south as Georgia and Texas. The average prices were, for cuttings, two dollars and a half per thousand, and for roots, forty dollars per thousand. It is interesting to know that while the increase has been so large in the quantity of wine manufactured, the demand increases in a still greater ratio. The first cultivators found considerable difficulty in obtaining a market for the produce of their vines, but now they have a ready market for their vintage at good prices. In addition to the amount under cultivation for grapes above stated, other parts of the South and West are extensively employed in the same manner. At Hermann, Missouri, there are five hundred acres, and in Indiana, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Caro- lina, and Georgia are probably as many acres more. The quantity of wine made in the United States, according to the details of the two last census returns, is as follows : In 1840, the whole amount returned was 124,733 gallons; in 1850, 219,101 gallons; increase, 80 per cent. An examination of the following table shows that the cultivation of the vine does not succeed in some States where it has been already attempted : In 1840, Pennsylvania produced 14,328 gallons ; in 1850, 25,990 " Maryland " 7,855 ' 1,431 New Jersey " 9,416 " " 1,811 North Carolina " 28,752 " " 11,958 Indiana " 10,265 " " 14,055 Illinois " 474 " " 2,997 Kentucky " 2,209 " " 8,093 Missouri " 22 " " 10,533 Ohio 11,524 " " 48,207 Virginia " 13,911 " 5,408 72 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. This table seems conclusively to show that the culture of the grape is losing ground in the several Atlantic States, and increasing with great rapidity in the valleys of the Ohio and Missouri. The census returns for 1840 and 1850 give the following aggregate of wine production in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina: in 1840, 74,264 gallons; in 1850, 44,998 gallons. For the same period, however, we have the following as the aggregate production of the five States in the valleys of the Ohio and Missouri : in 1840, 25,194 gallpns ; in 1850, 83,935 gallons. A low estimate of the wine produce of the entire Ohio Valley for the year 1855 would be 600,000 gallons; and it may be safely predicted that the production of the same territory in 1860 will be counted by millions of gallons. An attention to localities will show whereto American grape-culture is tending. Thus, in 1840, two-thirds the wine made in Ohio was made in Richmond county, but in 1850 four-fifths the whole was made in Hamilton, Butler, and Clermont counties, in the vicinity of Cincinnati. In Kentucky, most of the wine is made in the vicinity of Louisville and Covington. In Indiana, in the vicinity of Laurenceburg and Jeffersonville, (opposite Louis- ville.) These places are all in the space of 100 miles on the Ohio River. It is an interesting question how this increased production of wine will affect our popu- lation, viewed in relation to the subject of intemperance. By the census of 1850, it appears that the imports of foreign wines into the United States for that year amounted to little over six millions of gallons, while our home manu- factures of whisky, ale, and spirituous liquors reached the enormous sum of eighty-six millions of gallons ; one quarter of a gallon for each person, and in value only ten cents per year; while France consumes nine hundred millions of gallons of wine, equal to 25f gallons to every man, woman, and child (of either sex) in her population. These facts are well worthy of consideration, especially when we reflect that France sustains the reputation of being a most temperate country. Indeed, if we compare the vine- growing with the non-vine-growing countries of Europe, we find that drunkenness, with its carloads of evil, traverses the non-producing North only, while the South furnishes a prevailing example of sobriety. In regard to the limits within which the culture of the grape for commercial purposes in Europe is restricted ; The cultivation of the vine is confined to the district within the parallels of Lisbon, 38 42' (sea-board,) and Titiacum, (Caspian Sea,) 46 20', making a range of 8. But it must be observed that there are large districts within this range where the vine will not grow. These are the elevated and exposed plains of the interior. In Asia and Africa, the vine limit runs further south, to about 30, but hardly as far north, making in all about 12 of latitude. In the United States, the vine limits are El Paso in New Mexico, latitude 32, and Ann Arbor, (Michigan,) 42, making a geographical zone of about 10. But it must be remem- bered that there are large districts within these limits, which, on account either of the humidity of the climate or the height of the land, will not bear vines. The grape, to make good wine, requires a temperature of at least 67 Fahrenheit, in summer. Hence, the grape will not make wine to profit north of Cleveland ; and as the northern half of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois is a high plain, swept by lake-winds, it is not at all probable that wine can be made profitably north of the centre of these States. So also, the vine will not make good wine in a very hot or a humid climate. The culti- vation of the vine for wine is, therefore, confined to a very small district ; and in the United States that district will probably be found chiefly in the valleys of the Ohio and Missouri. Notwithstanding the adaptation of this section of our country for the cultivation of the vine, few are aware how difficult a matter it was to introduce this branch of domestic industry. Many years were spent in unsuccessful attempts, and not a few instances of severe loss and disappointment to the early cultivators occurred, before success was attained. Although, from the earliest settlements of the West, various efforts were made to cultivate the vine, both by importing foreign varieties and by selecting the best pro- ductions of our native wilds, not one of these early vineyards is now in existence, and AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 73 no one has, to this day, in any part of the United States, been successful in obtaining even a tolerable vineyard from any foreign grape.* Thousands of individuals have tried it, on a small scale, in various parts of the Union ; and several persons as, for example, Mr. Loubat, Mr. Longworth, c., of great experience abroad or knowledge at home, joined to abundant capital have tried it on a large scale. The result, in every case, has been the same : a season or two of promise, then utter failure, and finally complete abandonment of the theory. The only vineyards ever successful in America are those of American grapes. We might add here that one foreign grape has been successfully acclimated here, and only one. The " Traminer," from the Rheingau, a small-berried vine, has been per- suaded to thrive here, by Mr. Longworth. But this, for the manufacture of wine, is almost valueless. Nor has one of the hundreds of nurserymen and amateurs who have been, and still are, industriously striving to obtain new seedling varieties, yet produced one which has been sufficiently valuable in all respects to come into general cultivation. While the attempt to introduce the culture of the grape was maintaining a doubtful con- flict with apparently insurmountable obstacles, it received the timely aid of Mr. Long- worth, of Cincinnati, who, after spending more than one small fortune in fruitless attempts to introduce the foreign vine and vine-dressers, obtained and proved the value of the Catawba Grape, which now constitutes nine-tenths of the vineyards cultivated in the West. This is a native grape, obtained from the mountains of North Carolina. In the manufac- ture of wine, Mr. Longworth has rendered to the country no less signal service ; for, with- out any experience to guide him which was adapted to our new circumstances, a multi- tude of vexatious disappointments and losses were met and overcome. Even after years of successful manufacture, a year or two since, through some untoward circumstance, he lost by bursting, in a single season, thirty-six thousand bottles, valued at one dollar per bottle enough to have ruined any ordinary fortune. No wonder then that all the vine-dress- ers of the country regard Mr. L. as the father of wine-culture in the United States ; lie having accomplished, by his own private fortune and uutiring enterprise, that which must otherwise have failed or only succeeded by slow degrees. Mr. Longworth is still extending his arrangements for the manufacture of his ' sparkling Catawba," by building yet other cellars, where the process peculiar to the manufacture of this wine may be perfected. His cellars furnish this year (1855) one hundred and twenty thousand bottles of the "spark- ling," and next year he expects to increase the amount to two hundred thousand bottles. The "still" or "dry" wines are the kind chiefly made by other cultivators; indeed no vine- yard, however small the cellarage of its proprietor, seems to be without its casks of wine, but the manufacture of the "sparkling" requires a deep cellar with large tuns for its fermentation. Great efforts are being made by the most enterprising cultivators to produce and introduce new varieties of the grape, but at present none have been sufficiently tested to entitle them to a very prominent place in general cultivation. Thus far the Catawba stands unrivalled. The Isabella in this climate ripens its berries unequally; and the "Cape" is even being dug up as not worth cultivation. Mr. Longworth, Mr. Buchanan, Dr. Mosher, and all who have tried it express great hopes of the "Herbemont," and it is forming a large share in the new planta- tions now being made. It is said to blossom about eight days later than the Catawba, and to mature its fruit several days sooner. It is a small, nearly black berry, growing very close on the cluster very sweet, with tender pulp and thin skin, and not as liable as other varieties to be affected by the "rof." * Of the various experiments made with regard to cultivating foreign grapes here, we will mention a few. Mr. Parmentier, of Long Island, established a vineyard of foreign grapes there, and was finally compelled to abandon it M. Loubat planted forty acres at New Utrecht, L. I., with one hundred and fifty thousand imported vines, and they throve not, neither did they bear. Mr. N. Longworth, of Cincinnati, also tried a variety of grapes from Bordeaux and the vicinity of Paris. These he obtained from M. Loubat's vine-yard. They did not succeed. From Madeira he imported six thousand vines of their best wine grapes; these were rooted up, after trial, as worth- less. Lastly, he procured seven thousand vines from the Jura, and. after trial of five years, these also were thrown away. The vine-dressers of Vevay, la., attempted the culture of vines from Switzerland, with no better suc- cess. The imported vines planted in the early vineyards of Pennsylvania, Alabama, and Kentucky all died after a few years. And yet there is not a grape of any reputation to be found in the United States (with the exception of the Catawba) that is not reputed to be of foreign origin. 74 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. The most approved method of preparing the ground for a vineyard is by trenching with the spade two or three feet in depth during the fall and winter, previous to planting. Cuttings are mostly used, and are by many preferred to roots, even at the same price ; the argument in their favor being that the roots which are produced from the foot of the cutting, when once disturbed, will not readily grow again, and these lowest ropts are for the grape admitted to be the most important. The cuttings are planted two in a hill in the place where they are in- tended to remain; and if both grow, one is cut off or removed to fill vacancies; the usual distance being about three by six feet apart. The cost of trenching a vineyard varies, with the nature of the soil, the amount of stone encountered in the subsoil, and the amount of under- draining, from sixty to two hundred dollars per acre ; and the planting, including the cost of cuttings, from fifteen to twenty dollars more. The labor required during the first three years is very slight ; thorough hoeing two or three times in a season, and spring and summer pruning, are all that is necessary. In the second year the vineyard is supplied with stakes, usually of good white-oak heart, costing about twelve to fifteen dollars per thousand. Locust stakes are better, and cost about double that sum. The common practice is to have only a single stake to each vine ; although some very successful cultivators use two stakes with two "bows" to each vine. The " bow-and-spur" method of trimming is the most general method, although many prefer, instead of bending the branch in the shape of a "bow" or circle, to train each vine across to the next stake in the row. The great enemy of the vintner is the rot. Of this there are two kinds ; although some persons think there is but one, with a slight variation in its manifestations. The first makes its appearance in the form of a spot of yellowish-brown upon the berry, and is called the "spot rot." This spot rapidly enlarges, so that in twenty-four hours from its first appear- ance in a vineyard, one-half of the crop is often blackened, and presents the appearance of having been for weeks affected with decay. The other variety of this disease first shows a slight discoloration under the skin of the berry, sometimes in veins or blotches, and has hence derived the name of "blue rot." All the searching and experimenting of the best vine- growers have failed thus far to discover aught of its cause or remedy. Some have in despair given up the attempt to make any discoveries in this direction, and are in hopes to escape the difficulty by finding new varieties not subject to the disease. The following statistics furnish some idea respecting the products and profits of the grape- culture in Europe and the United States. In 1828, the aggregate number of acres devoted to the culture of the vine in Europe was estimated at 72,537,500 acres, producing 1,574,680,000 gallons per annum. This gives an average per acre of 137 gallons. According to a careful French estimate, the profits of vine-culture, after deducting all charges, amounted only to five per cent, on the capital employed. The total amount of capital employed was estimated at 200 per acre ; this includes the price of land, machinery, improvements, permanent labor, etc. In regard to the profits and products of the vine in the United States ; Mr. Robert Buchanan, one "of the most experienced vine-growers in Ohio, has furnished reliable statistics, basing his estimates on the cost of getting a vineyard of six acres under thorough cultivation and bearing at Cincinnati, and upon its subsequent produce. The price of land from fifteen to fifty miles from the city of Cincinnati is estimated at $50 per acre: Price of six acres $ 300.00 Trenching two feet deep 370.00 Cuttings, sodding, and planting 205.00 Cutting and setting 14,500 hickory stakes 490.00 Labor of vine-dressers and attendants for first year 231.00 " " second " 256.00 Hauling cuttings and contingencies 238.00 Interest on capital 180.00 Total cost of six acres 2,270.00 Actual capital, per acre 378.33 This estimate from experience, it is found, can be relied on by those wishing to plant vine- yards for profit. The products, according to a careful table prepared by Mr. Buchanan, average of six years, were about 490 gallons per acre. The results of other experiments correspond so nearly AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 75 with this, that the cultivator may rely with much certainty on 400 gallons per acre, after two yea ix, provided the vineyard is well cultivated and planted. The following table gives the cost and profit of production : Interest at 7 per cent, on a vineyard of six acres, as above $ 158.90 Cost of attendance and culture 360.00 Taxes 10.00 Cost of making wine... 150.00 Contingencies for machinery, tools, etc 50.00 Cost of crop 828.90 Average product 2400 galls. " price 2,400.00 Nett profit 1,512.10 Profit in investment, when wine is $1. per gal 70 per cent. " " " 75 cents " 40 " 50 " 16 " It thus appears that while the vine is unaffected by any great increase of insects, parasites, or other causes of blight, the grape may here be cultivated at a large profit, even when the wine is reduced to fifty cents per gallon. But such is the demand for pure Catawba wine, and such is the consumption of wine in this country, that it is safe to say that in full thirty years to come wine cannot be reduced to fifty cents a gallon. In all that time the good culti- vators must realize heavy profits. It is true that now and then, as in the drought of 1854, there will be a failure almost of the grape ; but the heavy crop of another year will more than bring up the average. There must \>efive millions of acres planted in vines before the price can be reduced to a minimum in the United States. This fact is enough to insure cultivators against any hazard of an over- stocked market. There will probably be 600,000 gallons of Catawba wine raised in the Ohio V:ilK-y in 1855; but this is nothing to the demand. If it were doubled (which cannot be) every yc.-ir for five years to come, the market would not be overstocked. An experienced cultivator of the vine in Kentucky writes as follows : "\Yine can be made as cheap in Kentucky as it is in France or Germany; it can be made as cheap as cider, and at fifteen cents per gallon it will pay better than any of our staple pro- ductions. And now for the proof; Say that an acre of vines will average 400 gallons. 400 gallons of wine, at fifteen cents, is $60. An acre of our best land in hemp will average six hundredweight. 600 weight of hemp, at $5, is $30. Leaving a balance in favor of the vine- yard, 30, or 100 per cent. One acre of corn will average fifty bushels, worth thirty cents per bushel. 50 bushels, at thirty cents, is $15. Leaving balance in favor of the vineyard, $45. The expenses of establishing a vineyard will be balanced by the cost of seeds of hemp and corn sown annually, making all things equal in that respect. The tillage of the vineyard and making wine is not so laborious nor near so expensive per acre as the tillage and labor of securing the products of an acre of corn or hemp. If we could get one dollar per gallon for wine when ready for market, or fifty cents per gallon from the press, what a source of wealth it would be ! Set it down at half these figures, and the gold-mines of California would be poor in comparison. Only to think that 100 acres in vineyard, the products at fifty cents per gallon, amounts to $20,000 per annum! A man having five acres, which he could manage himself, would find them more profitable than a Kentucky farm of two hundred acres, with three negroes to cultivate it. Let us turn from these pleasing prospects for Kentucky, and look at the annual income France derives from the poorest and (for other purposes) the most worthless of her lands. The actual returns from the departments of France show a grand total of about 924,000,000 of gallons as the yearly produce, of which, in round numbers, about 24,000,000 of gallons are exported. It is impossible to estimate the value of these wines, so various are the quali- ties and prices ; the vintage of a favorite year, in some districts, will command double and triple the price of those preceding or succeeding. Estimating the entire crop at fifteen cents the gallon, however, we find the net amount reaches the not inconsiderable total of $138,600,000. One hundred and thirty-eight millions six hundred thousand dollars ! And this from wine at five cents a bottle ! A sum more than sufficient to pay off our national debt, or purchase Cuba, or buy a large piece of South America, perhaps enough to include the Amazon; and 76 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. all in a single year. Here, in a country of such vast extent, embracing every climate, with hill- sides and plains favorable for the cultivation of the grape, and native vines overspreading the forests and marshes in almost every State, we, professing to be a great agricultural people, so far have closed our eyes to these great facts, and, except in a few instances,, neglected to avail ourselves of the most fruitful source of national wealth ever within the reach of man. Manufacture of Wine in Georgia. THE Southern Cultivator states that the attjmpt to manufacture wine from a native grape has been successfully tried by Mr. A. Leary, of Munroe county, Georgia. The grape is known as the " Warrenton," and the produce is at the rate of eight hundred gallons per acre. The wine resembles the Madeira, and is high-flavored and mild. Improvements in the Manufacture of Sugar, C. HUSTINGS COLLETTE, of London, has recently obtained a patent for improvements in the manufacture of sugar, the specification of which we give somewhat in full, knowing how important a manufacture this is to a very large class of agriculturists. This invention consists in an improved mode of treating cane-juice, molasses, beet-root juice, and other saccharine juices and syrups, for the purpose of obtaining sugar therefrom, freed or separated from the impurities and other substances with which it is mixed. It has been for some time known that the yield of sugar from cane-juice, molasses, beet- root juice, and other saccharine juices, is smaller than it ought to be; and the cause of this small yield has been attributed to the use of a large quantity of charcoal to clarify the syrup, whereby a considerable proportion of sugar becomes absorbed, notwithstanding the most careful manipulation ; the molasses produced by many of the ordinary processes often containing nearly as much as 50 per cent, of crystalline sugar. For the purpose of avoiding these evils, the following process is employed: The juices, molasses, or syrups (obtained by any of the usual means from the sugar-cane, beet-root or other plants containing saccharine matters) are introduced into the defecation pan, together With the quantity of lime or lime-water necessary for defecation. About 30 or 40 per cent, of lime is sufficient for this purpose. As soon as the lime has produced the requisite effect upon the liquid, a sufficient x quantity of superphosphate of lime is added to it for the purpose of neutralizing the lime, usually in the proportion of about 3 parts of the superphosphate of lime to 100 parts of the juice. The superphosphate of lime may be used at 4 Beaume's hydrometer, or at any higher degree ; and it is to be added as long as any reddish litmus- paper, dipped into the juice, is turned blue. Should too much superphosphate of lime happen to be added, this error can be rectified by the immediate addition of as much lime or lime-water as the superphosphate of lime in the solution will neutralize. The mixture will, by the above process, become thick and turgid, and must be filtered, which may be done in the ordinary manner through filtering-bags; and the filtered juice or syrup is then to be concentrated to 18 Beaume, when it will again become turgid or thickened. For the purpose of separating any impurities which may still remain in the juice or syrup, super- phosphate of lime is again added, so long as litmus-paper, dipped in the juice, is turned blue, after which the mixture is again passed through the filter ; and the filtered fluid thus obtained must be concentrated, so as to produce the crystallization of as much sugar as can be separated in this manner, and the vacuum pan and crystallizing tubs may be used in the usual way for this purpose. Sugar refined or purified in this manner may be again dissolved or converted into syrup, and again submitted to the process, for the purpose of further purifying it. The crystallized sugar thus formed is then to be separated in the usual way from the resi- dual juice or syrup with which it is mixed. From this residual juice or syrup a further quantity of sugar may be obtained by the following process: The juices or syrups are diluted to about 28 Beaume with water or with some sweet juice, (the defecated juice of beet-root being preferred,) and lime or AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 77 lime-water is added ; and about half as much as was used for the first process will generally be sufficient to produce the requisite defecation. Heat is then applied, and before the syrup boils superphosphate of lime is added until the syrup ceases to produce any apparent alka- line action upon the test-paper; and by these means the phosphate of lime will be precipi- tated. The syrup must then be filtered as before, for the purpose of separating it from its impurities ; after which the filtered juice or syrup is to be concentrated and crystallized as before, for the purpose of obtaining from it a further quantity of sugar. Centrifugal machines may be used for separating the crystallized sugar from juices or syrups. The second residual syrup obtained by this last-mentioned process may also be subjected to the same process as that just described for treating the first residual syrup, in order to obtain, as results, a further quantity of crystallized sugar, to be separated from a third resi- dual syrup as before. In the same manner the process above described may be repeatedly applied to each resi- dual syrup, which may remain after a previous process, until the syrup or juice operated upon shall be exhausted of sugar, or as much so as may be economically practicable. The Tile-laying Machine, HORACE GREELEY, in a recent correspondence with the New York Tribune, states "that the tile-laying machine of which only drawings and descriptions, so far as I am aware, have reached our country, is commending itself to the judgment of British improvers. This machine, now worked with movable steam instead of horse-power, takes up its position at one side of the field to be drained, and commences the first drain at the point opposite on the other, slowly drawing thence to itself a chain, to which is attached an apparatus which cuts a mere crease from the surface downward to the required depth, at which it makes a hole barely larger than the tiles, which closely follow on a string, being firmly attached to the perforating apparatus, and paid out from the starting-point just as fast as required. Thus each foot of the drain is perfected the minute after it is begun, while the labor of throwing out and replacing several cubic feet of earth for every foot of drain is obviated. Obviously, this would not answer in a rocky nor in a miry soil, though in the latter this mode of cutting would tend to give firmness to the earth immediately surrounding the drain, at least for a time. . Machine for Thinning Turnips. At the recent Exhibition of the Royal Agricultural Society (England) at Carlisle, a machine for "thinning turnips" was exhibited by Messrs Garret & Son. This invention, shown in the engraving, is designed for thinning ont the plants in the drills, leaving only small bunches at regular intervals, varying from ten to eighteen inches apart. This is effected by means of a wheel which revolves at right angles to the axis of the machine when in motion, to the outer edge of which are attached a series of horizontal seg- mental knives revolving with considerable rapidity, describing, in consequence of the forward 78 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. motion of the machine, a sort of spiral curve, as the knives travel over the ridges. By this means they sweep away all the plants in the intended interval, leaving nothing to do but to single the plants out by hand, which is done with great ease and rapidity by a boy. Five or six acres may be thus thinned out in a day. Steam for Agricultural Purposes, b AT the late Fair of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, a premium "of 200 (one thousand dollars) was offered "/or the steam- cultivator that shall in the most efficient manner turn the soil, and be an economical substitute for the plow or the spade." In view of the great attention which this subject is exciting, the English Agricultural Gazette published the following article, addressed to the "Committee of Award," in which are set forth the alleged advantages of the steam-cultivator or digger over the plow or spade. We recommend the article to the attention of American inventors, as clearly setting forth the requisite ends which must be obtained to render any such invention practical and successful. Editor. "Turn the soil." Mark this expression; for the whole character and efficiency of the machine depends on this point. Break up, loosen and commingle the soil as much as you please, in preparing a seed-bed for any crop, but if weeds and grasses be left still green on the surface, if the seeds of our annual infesting enemies remain in favorable exposure to the vivifying sunshine and feeding dews, your tillage will be utterly abortive. On the other hand, if the ground be a stubble, bury every weed and withering stalk, and you promote its decomposition in the soil, making manure of what would otherwise injure as well as encum- ber ; if it be a sward or a lea, still more urgently must you inter every blade and plant that might spring up among your intended crop. In the fundamental operation of tillage, the destruction of all remnants of old crops, and the loosening up of the staple for a succeed- ing one, you must "turn the soil." Was it not for this very purpose of burying obnoxious vegetation, and opening up a fresh surface of earth, that plows with mould-boards super- seded the imperfect scratching instruments of yore ? Is not the chief fault of the plow itself that it does not completely hide all surface vegetation, but too often (especially when the plowman is blamable) leaves grass or other living growth to shoot up among the seams of its furrows, and defy the weeder of the coming crop ? For many tillage purposes, such as autumn cleansing or spring grubbing, no such inversion is needed; but in the first and foundation-work of breaking up after a crop, and to the full depth of the intended staple, you must "turn the soil." Perhaps an instrument able to stir and mix every portion of a deep staple might be made to bring up repeated instalments of earth long buried, and thrust down the long-exposed surface to take its place, at the same time forking out root-weeds and rubbish. As far as fertilization is concerned, perhaps a frequent commixing of soil and sub- soil might suffice, instead of alternate exposure of each upon the surface ; but the considera- tion of weeds alone inculcates the necessity of "turning the soil." Therefore we maintain that the first condition of the society's offer is well chosen, and that the premium will be misappropriated, in the opinion of practical men, if given to a machine (no matter how expert at comminution) that cannot entirely bury the surface. Then it must be also "an economical substitute for the plow or the spade." If there shall be an engine that turns over furrows effectively at less cost than the plow, (first expense included,) although it may be incapable of any other labor, give it the prize. And should there be a machine unable to plow at all, but able to dig in as perfect a manner as men can with spades, if it will perform this work alone more cheaply than men, it is entitled to the prize. Plowing ought to be accomplished for less money than by horses, and digging (though this of course is a more expensive operation) at less cost than by men. The judges have not to determine whether or not digging a la spade will be too expensive for the farmer, although indispensable to the market gardener ; whether or not a cheaply- digging engine would not inaugurate miracles upon the clays ; but, (useful or not,) according to the terms of the offer, they must award the premium either to an engine that digs more econo- mically than the spade, or that plows more economically than our present horse-plow. AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 79 Should a machine be produced of sufficient versatile powers to execute both shallow work like a plow and deep work like a spade, such a doubly-clever contrivance will of course merit the palm. Before awarding the prize, and so pronouncing some invention to be an "economical sub- stitute" for the implements with which to break up and invert whole ground, not merely for the grubbers and harrows with which we stir and pulverize soil already broken, let the judges well weigh this point of "economy." Besides the working expenses, they must calculate the wear and tear and the interest of the first outlay in purchasing the machine ; and on the other side of the account they must be prepared with similar estimations of the charges for food, attendance, depreciations, c. attaching to horses and common implements. On the credit side they will have to compare the excellence or inferiority of the respective operations, and particularly they should fix a money value upon the time saved in the performance of the work, inasmuch as there is a great advantage in having a breadth of land prepared for sow- ing in less time than usual, though the acreage expense may be the same; and any means (without incurring any neutralizing disadvantage) which gives the husbandman greater com- mand over his soil, and more independence of the weather, is certainly to be valued jis a pecu- niary gain. Steam Machinery for Cultivating Land. THE annexed engraving represents an English invention, patented by Mr. John Bethel, of London, for adapting steam machinery for the cultivation or digging of land for agricultural purposes. In this arrangement, as will be seen in the engraving, the digger is placed behind the apparatus, which is mounted on four wheel?, and is intended to be drawn forward by horses : a a represents the boiler and engine supplying the power ; b b the lever frames, at the outer end of which the dig- ger c c is located. Motion is communicated fro'm the crank-shaft d, on which is a band- wheel d, from whence a band passes around another band-wheel / on the axle of the lever arms b b. Motion is by means of this band communicated from the band- wheel/, at one end of the lever arms b, to a similar band- wheel/, on the axle of the digger- wheel c, at the opposite end. The depth to which the prongs of the digger enter the ground is regulated by raising or lowering the screw-shaft r by means of a winch at its upper end. Fisker's Steam Plow. THE London Agricultural Gazette furnishes the following description of the construction and operation/ of a new steam-plow, recently invented by Messrs. Fisker, of Stamfordsham, Eng- land, and exhibited at the agricultural fair at Carlisle, June, 1855 : " The whole apparatus is novel, and, we may say, uncommonly promising. Instead of a heavy wire rope to drag the plow frame by main force, a light endless hemp rope, only three- eighths of an inch thick, communicates power to the plow carriage, which we may call locomo- tive, as it propels itself in the following manner : a grooved wheel set in motion by proper spur-wheels from the rigger actuated by the hemp rope, winds, as it were, along a strong wire rope laid upon the ground ; and the frame, being thus carried slowly forward, drags plows or other implements after it. The hemp cord does not touch the ground, but is held up at every forty yards' distance by a ; horse,' or small friction pulley-frame, about three and a half feet high. This cord travels at the rate of twenty miles per hour ; but the speed being reduced by the wheel-work upon the plow carriage, the latter travels only two miles per hour. When 80 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. two plows are in work at once, having the draught of four horses, the strain upon the rapidly- running cord will thus be less than half a horse's draught. We were informed by the exhi- bitor that a four-horse engine is sufficiently powerful to work two plows, and that with four hun- dred-weight of coal it will plow four acres in a day, the expense for labor being only that of two men and a boy. If this be strictly the fact, we have a complete invention able to plow light land at a cost of say 3*. per acre. That it is not far from the truth we are sure, for we our- selves saw one plow drawn at the rate of at least two miles per hour when the engine had only seven pounds or eight pounds pressure upon the square inch, and this was an'engine of six- horse power at 40 pounds pressure. To be s r :re, the land had been previously plowed, pul- verized, subjected to the trial of all sorts of drills, and been afterwards well trampled by hundreds of people, and consolidated with rain, so that the possible quantity and quality of the work could not well be ascertained. The plowing we saw was respectably though roughly done, but there was one point really performed the furrows were well turned. If a steam cultivator can invert the soil thoroughly and cheaply, we may put up with a little imperfection in the straightness of cutting and evenness of laying. The method of anchoring the pulleys, and the arrangement of the pulleys and ropes, is very ingenious, and can hardly be explained with brevity. The anchorage consists of a plate or plow, a few feet in length, and eight inches only in depth ; this can be easily drawn forward in the ground without the trouble of digging holes, taking up, setting down again, &c., and yet it presents a sufficient resistance sideways to the pull of the ropes. A wheel, pinion, and crank, on each anchor is used to draw it by means of a rope towards a fixed post, when it is required to be shifted. The arrange- ment of the ropes about the anchored pulleys is like that of the chains in a travelling crane, the anchorage being shifted forwards at intervals without altering the length of the rope. The plows are not rigidly attached to the travelling frame, but are hung by short iron beams, which form levers, having a slight degree of play up and down. There are four plows two before and two behind the carriage, pointing opposite ways, a neat lever movement lifting two out of work and dropping the other pair of plows in ; so that the machine can plow both ways without having to turn round at the land's end." Boydell's Steam Horse, or "Traction Engine." A NEW carriage without a name, but which is described as a sort of portable railway ma- chine, has been exhibited in London. It is a carriage that takes its own railway along with it rails, plank-bearings, and all and keeps putting down and taking up its track as it pro- ceeds. This strikes one at first like the idea of getting into a basket and lifting yourself by the handles, but the editor of Chambers's Journal has seen the machine operate, and thus de- scribes it : " It is evident that a flat deal-board will not, weight for weight, sink so far down into a bed of mud as will the narrow tire of a cart-wheel. It is evident, too, that cart-wheels may have a railway tire or edge, instead of an ordinary tire or edge : and that a line of rails admits of being laid down upon a wooden plank. A person, likewise, may readily conceive the idea of laying down one of these rail-planks under each wheel ; and this, indeed, is very much like what is ordinarily done in the construction of a common railway. The problem, therefore, was this : to construct the wheels in such a manner, that by means of certain mysterious-look- ing levers, pins, screws, and iron arms, these railway-planks, when passed over by the wheels, should be taken up by the machinery, and laid down in a new spot ; and this problem has actually been solved. Each wheel admits of being represented as consisting of a circle in- scribed within a hexagonal frame of flat boards, each furnished with railway-trimmings. If the hexagonal frame be supposed cut or divided into six component planks, one of these planks laid down beneath each carriage-wheel, and the carriage itself pushed forward, there would be supplied for it a short railway, having a length equal to the length of each plank ; and the carriage having run on to the extremity of the rail-planks, might easily be transferred to another pair, if they could be placed in due opposition with the last. In this manner, by means of two sets of alternating planks, the carriage might be made to run to any required distance. Now, this is just that which is accomplished by the rotation of the wheels them- AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 81 selves in the carriage under consideration ; only, instead of the alternation of two pair of planks merely, the changes are played on no less than six pair, one pair alone being in plane contact with the underlying ground at one time." This machine was exhibited at the recent exhibition of the Royal Agricultural Society, Carlisle, England. Mr. S. W. Johnson, of the N. Y. Country Gentleman, who witnessed its operations, speaks of it as follows : " It seems to involve a valuable principle, and excites vast interest. I did not see it in operation, but saw a one-horse cart with wheels rigged on the same plan, which was pretty heavily loaded with tiles, and driven about, backed, and turned short, over ridged and recently- plowed land, and its action was very good. I doubt if the load would have been nearly so easily drawn with a common cart. In crossing the dead furrows, the shoes in a manner bridged the hollow, not allowing the wheels to run so low as they must have done otherwise. This cart is of course mainly intended for soft or plowed land, and doubtless it will not be long in becoming useful and used." Farm Steam-Engine. A CORRESPONDENT of the Scientific American, writing from Chillicothe, Ohio, states that a portable steam-engine for driving a grain-separator and thrasher, has been constructed in that place and in operation since the 5th of last July, thrashing and cleaning from five to six hun- dred bushels per day. It is capable of doing more than this, but H. Wade for whom it was built says that this is excellent work. The boiler is tubular ; the cylinder is of six inches bore and twelve inches stroke. It makes one hundred and seventy-five revolutions per minute, with steam at forty pounds pressure, and does more work than any common thrashing machine driven by eight horses. It is placed on broad tread-wheels, four feet in diameter, is easily drawn from place to place by two horses, with the boiler filled, and is very economical in the use of fuel. This engine is capable of driving various agricultural machines and sawing firewood for the family. Improvements in Rotary Spades and Diggers. Gibbs's and Mapes's Rotary Spade. This machine, the invention of Mr. L. H. Gibbs, of Washington, and Professor Mapes, consists of two cast-iron circular plates, about two inches apart ; and working between them are eight stout, narrow, wrought-iron teeth, curved some- what like the old-fashioned cultivator teeth. These teeth are hung, and have a trigger to throw them out as the machine revolves. A yoke of oxen are sufficient to draw the machine, and as it progresses each tooth in succession is pressed into the earth by the weight of the machine : and, when the weight falls upon the trigger, the tooth is thrown out with its load of earth, which is thus mixed and pulverized as thoroughly as if forked over. The two wheels cut a furrow about two feet wide and nine inches deep, which can be increased to any desired width and depth. It requires no holding, yet is provided with handles so fixed as to throw the machine out of the ground. Gibson's Digging Machine. This implement, an English invention, which has recently, to a considerable extent, come into use, consists of a number of cylinders, of about three and a half inches in diameter and six inches long, revolving on a fixed axle. On each of the cylinders is cast a disc, twelve inches in diameter, which is furnished with ten teeth or prongs of mal- leable iron or steel, of a curved or cat-claw form, springing from its periphery, and which, partly by the weight of the implement and partly by the strain of draught, is forced into the ground, and, as the implement advances, digs or forces up the soil ; in fact, each prong per- forms precisely the office of a pick or hack in loosening the soil. This forking-up or loosen- ing of the soil is not the only important office of the implement ; but from the curved form of the teeth, it brings all roots and fibrous matter within the depth of its operation to the sur- face ; thus producing a clean as well as a free tillage, or at once acting most effectively as a grubber in bringing up root-weeds, and at the same time performing the most important function of the plow in aerating the soil. The implement is mounted on a strong frame, 6 82 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICc LTi uK. partly of cast and partly of malleable iron, and furnished with a simple but most ingenious apparatus for regulating the depth of its working in the soil. Samuelson's Rotary Digger, This invention, by Mr. B. Samuelson, of Banbury, England, consists of a simple frame, running on two wheels, which, in their revolution, cause a series of forks or prongs to loosen and pulverize the earth to a depth of eight or ten inches, and over a width of three feet. Five or six horses, according to the state of the soil, attended by two men, are able to work over five or six acres a day. As the prongs coine round, they bring up the soil and let it fall backward hi a well-pulverized and mixed state ; and to keep them free from earth, each circle of prongs works between a corresponding set of stationary clearing-teeth on the frame. This machine has been extensively introduced into Scotland ; and the Royal Agricultural Society of England awarded it a silver medal after a thorough trial at Gloucester. The depth of entrance of the prongs is adjusted by a handle, geared to a pinion, working in a segmental tooth-rack on the framework. It will be readily apparent that this machine will pulverize the soil more effectually than the plow and the harrow. The only objection to it is the great amount of power necessary to operate it; but this may be obviated by reducing the width of the machine or simplifying the machinery. It will undoubtedly be many years before an implement of this sort will supersede the time-honored plow ; but the principle of digging the soil and reducing it to a finer tilth than it is possible for the plow to do, is fully established. Country Gentleman. The Plow. An Improvement Wanted. IN the report of a lecture by the Professor of Agriculture in the University of Edinburgh, we find the following remarks, which contain a suggestion well deserving of consideration. To indicate and point attention to a want is, at all events, one of the most likely ways of ob- taining a supply. Although the necessities of man compel him to use the plow in preference to the spade, it is admitted by all that the work done by the two implements is of a very different character the plow leaving the soil in a condition far less suited to the purposes of vegetation than the spade. This is more prominent on heavy soils than on light. By the operation of the spade the soil is left loose, the original surface with its weeds and exhausted mould being completely buried, and a fresh surface exposed. But the plow is a tool of a rougher nature. It is, in reality, a wedge forcibly dragged through the soil at a certain depth, lifting up that portion which is above it, at the expense of making that which is below it more compact, this latter receiving virtually all the force required for the separation. The consequence is, that more or less, according to the soil, this lower surface is compressed to such a degree as to leave a dense and compact surface, through which the roots of plants must find it difficult or im- possible to penetrate. The furrow-slice, too, instead of being completely inverted, is not turned over to more than one-half or three-fourths of the way ; the surface weeds are imper- fectly buried, and the soil is not changed to the same extent as by the spade. The great desideratum in practical agriculture is, therefore, to obtain an implement that shall have, like the plow, the capability of doing a large amount of work; and like the spade, of doing it in such a manner as to satisfy those conditions which we consider desi- rable for the purposes of successful cultivation. Many implements and machines have been constructed, and much skill and ingenuity from time to time expended in the endeavor to realize this great desideratum ; hitherto, however, the results have not been very satisfac- tory. In no form of it does the plow cultivate thoroughly ; it requires to be followed by roller, or harrow, or other tools, to complete the work, which, after all, is not so well done as by one operation of the spade. What we want is not flowing so much as cultivation, or that process of disintegrating and fitting the soil which the farmer by necessity performs by three, four, or five separate opera- tions, and then not so effectually as the gardener accomplishes in one. Country Gentleman. AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 83 Plowing. Amount of Travel. THE amount of work required on a given surface varies, of course, -with the condition of the soil. Certain parts of the vrork may, however, be accurately calculated. In the Soil of the South, a table is given showing the space travelled in plowing an acre, with a given width for the furrow. These calculations are approximations to the truth, but not quite accurate. In plowing a field 500 feet square, more than 500 feet must be " travelled" in by the team, or even by the plowman. The team must travel at least 10 feet at each end beyond the termination of the furrow. Taking this estimate as accurate, and supposing the field to be square, (for with the shape of the field the number of furrows and the "space travelled" will be materially changed,) and the breadth of the furrow seven inches, the distance tra- velled by the team in plowing one acre will be about 15f miles instead of 14, as in the table. With a "furrow-slice 14 inches" the travel will not be, of course, "seven miles," as given in the table, but something more than 7J, and so on. The calculation, thus corrected, may be of some interest. The table, as given, is as follows : Breadth of furrow-slice. Space travelled in plowing an acre. 7 inches 14J miles. 8 " 12i " 9 11 10 " 9A " 11 9 12 " 8i " 13 . 7* " By this rate of calculation, a furrow once in 2| feet 3| miles. 3 " : 2J Hall's Side-Hill Plow. THE peculiarity of this side-hill plow is, that the beam and handles together turn round upon a pivot formed of the top of the standard. The share has a straight land-side, two feet ten inches long, with points at each end exactly alike. Suppose you are turning a right- hand furrow, and wish to change to the left ; you give a rod under the right handle a little jog, which unlooses a catch, and you walk round with the handle in your hand until the beam points directly the other way : now, pull the rod and close the catch, stoop over and give the mould-board a flap, and it turns back, bottom up, disclosing another under it exactly like the first, also bottom up, and pointing forward : turn this also, and you have before you a perfect plow the reversed mould-board lying under the other, quite out of the way, and the reverse point forming the heel of the land-side. The length of beam in this description of plow is four feet ; handles, four feet six inches ; width of share, nine inches ; length from point to upper angle of wing, two feet nine inches ; length of wing from the joint to upper end, one foot seven inches ; height of standard, one foot two inches ; height of fin-cutter, nine inches. This plow was invented and patented by L. Hall, of Pittsburg, Pa., and is called the " Patent Hill-side, or Flat-land Swivel-beam and Double-flapped Mould-board Cast- 84 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. iron Plow." This plow can be operated by a small boy, the share, which rolls under in changing from side to side, being easily shifted. We think it must prove to all interested a most acceptable improvement. Plow Cultivator. THE accompanying engravings represent an improved plow cultivator, or horse-hoe, re- cently invented by W. S. Hyde, of Ohio, and H. Wright, of South Byron, New York. Fig- 1. Fig. 1 is a perspective view, and fig. 2 is a section, showing one of the adjustable wings connected with the plow-shoe. A is the beam ; B is the plow-shoe ; D D are two adjustable cultivator teeth behind the shoe ; and C C are the adjustable wings. Infiff. 2, c c represents two slots in each wing, and b b are screw-bolts to secure the wings in these slots. The wings C C are flaring, and designed for hilling-up ; consequently, as they can be adjusted by the slots c c and the bolts further in or out on the plow-shoe, they are rendered fit to hill-up high or low, and made suitable for narrow and wide rows. The bar which connects the two culti- vator teeth D D has bolts which also work in slots in their respective legs, and they swivel at the top ; consequently, they can be set near and wide apart, to cut as close to the rows as may be desired. To use this plow cultivator, the ground should be plowed deep, well harrowed, and marked both ways with a good marker. As soon as the rows can be seen, commence using the imple- ment. Take off the wings from the shovel, and do not use them while the crop is small. Set the teeth to run as near the hills as possible ; to work fast, have a man or boy follow while crossing, when the corn is small. As soon as the corn is a foot or more high, put on the wings, and set them level on the lower edge ; and as the crop grows, set the hind teeth nearer together. To hill-up any crop, take off the woodwork to which the teeth are attached, and you have a most perfect implement for hilling. It is designed for corn, cotton, or any crop requiring to be hoed. Mapes's Lifting Subsoil Plow. THIS new implement is so constructed as to elevate the soil for a short distance, but from a great depth, its whole force being upward and outward, like the action of a mole on its superincumbent soil ; and although the greatest width of the plow itself is but eight inches, still, when running at a depth of fifteen inches, it renders the soil finely divided to a width of four feet at the surface, and without elevating the subsoil or turning over the surface-soil. It may, therefore, be used to renew old meadows, where the grass-roots have become too compact for vigorous growth ; for it will lift the sod one or two inches with a foot of soil attached, the cut through which the plow passes closing behind it in its course, and loosening the soil around every grass-root, thus giving free admission to atmosphere, rains, dews, etc. AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 85 When used in corn-culture, it may be run through in striking out for the corn, leaving the soil finely pulverized to a great depth immediately where the roots will form ; and, after the corn is ready for the first hoeing or cultivating, this lifting plow may be run half-way be- tween the rows, loosening the whole distance, and causing every corn-plant to wave as it passes along. When used strictly as a subsoil plow, it is moved by a separate team following the surface-plow, and entering twelve inches below the bottom of the surface-furrow, under- cutting the land-side so that the next surface-cut will crack down to the subsoil track, and requiring less power for its accomplishment, while the turned furrow-slice on the other side of the plow, by its under-running, is slightly lifted and rendered pulverulent. Improved Ditching Plow. THE peculiarities of a new ditching plow, invented by John Lyon, of Farmington, Iowa, consist in a new and useful arrangement of mechanism, so as to constitute a machine for throwing up embankments in forming roads and foundations for fences, and for making open drains. Its construction is as follows : To a triangular-shaped frame a plow is attached, resembling in construction an ordinary plow, except the mould-board, which is so shaped that, instead of turning a furrow over, it merely passes under the soil, and raises it to a suffi- cient inclination to be deposited upon an endless conveyor as fast as it is cut up. The mould- board has one of its side edges raised slightly higher than the other, so that the dirt will always clear the frame, and fall upon the endless conveyor, placed behind and at right angles to the land-side of the plow. This is composed of slats attached to two endless chains, and is thus made flexible. The connects 1 ^l.iN are arranged upon revolving rollers, and move in a manner similar to an endless-chain horse-power. Guide-boards are also attached to the con- veyor, for the purpose of confining the dirt. By the conveyor, the dirt is taken from the plow and deposited in the place di'Mred, cither for the purpose of forming a road or founda- tions for fences. By thus^receiving the dirt, and depositing it at right angles to the plow, a road of any length can be formed with great ease and despatch. By raising and lowering a lever connected with the attachment of the plow to the frame, the plow can be adjusted so as to cut more or less deep. The operation of the plow is as follows : As the machine advances, the plow enters the ground and raises the soil, which is forced, as the operation proceeds, upon the endless con- veyor, and carried by the same as it revolves at right angles to the line of travel, and dis- charged at the end of the conveyor in a continuous stream, where it is laid either to form a road or foundation for fences. Planting Plow. THE annexed engraving represents a planting plow, for which a patent was granted to B. M. Snell, on the 20th of March, 1 - The nature of the improvement consists in constructing a planting plow, by combining a plow, resembling a subsoil one, with a seed-dropping apparatus, operated by the wheel of the plow, for the purpose of depositing the seed under the surface in the soft and pre- pared bed. A is the beam, from which descends the stock or coulter-post B ; c is the coulter ; the share is secured on the post, B ; E is a bar extending from the rear of the share and united to an upright F, whose upper end passes through the rear of the beam. This upright is furnished with holes and a pin, by which the plow is made to plant deep or shallow, as required. The seeding-apparatus consists of a hopper G and dropping-tube H, secured by a strap I to the upright F and to the end of the beam. This hopper has a sliding bottom and hole therein, which when the slide is forced in, an opening is made for the passage of the seed into the tube. On the back of the hopper and dropping-tube is secured the axis of a pair of wheels, k, (one shown,) one of which is furnished with a cam or angular striker that forces in the slide of the hopper on each rotation of the wheel. 86 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. The object of this improvement is to create a soft bed for the reception of the seed in the earth, without the disadvantage attending the open furrow made when the soil is thrown out, and the frequent deposition of the seed on a hard soil or bed, and, of course, disadvantageous^ to its growth ; also, to obviate a difficulty in planting corn on a hill-side, wherein the open fur- row made is liable to create a wash of the land in heavy rains, occurring soon after planting, which frequently renders replanting necessary, besides the loss of soil where most needed. By this improvement, all the properties of a light bed and retention of the fertilizing pro- perty of the manure is obtained, particularly where such as guano or other volatile manure is used, as it is not thrown to the surface, as would be the case if the ordinary tine or small mould-board planter were used. Various Recent Improvements in the Construction of Plows. Williams' s Lever Plow. This improved plow, the invention of Mr. Williams, of England, is built on an open rectangular frame, supported by two fixed front wheels and a rear swivel- ling wheel ; on each end of the frame are vertical guides to receive the ends of a set of lever- beams, which have attached to them whatever plows or cultivators may be desired. Pro- vision is made for altering the depth of the plow's penetration, by means of chains attached to the lever-beams, and passing over bearing pulleys, and thence to a lever-handle at the stern of the plow. By turning this handle, the plowman can give any required depth of cut, or he can take the cultivating parts clear *out of the ground. A front frame-piece, to which the chain-pulleys are attached, has a cross transverse action, so as to give the cultivators a power of deviating from the straight line of working. New Subsoil and Trench Plow. At the recent exhibition of implements by the Royal Agri- cultural Society, at Carlisle, England, a silver medal was awarded for a new subsoil and trench plow, invented by Cotgreave. This implement combines the common plow, trench plow, and subsoil plow in one, and is capable of tilling the land to any required depth from ten to eighteen inches. To the beam of the plow is attached a foot for regulating the width and depth of the furrows, to which are affixed revolving discs, acting both as coulters and wheels ; this is followed by the part resembling the common plow, to be again succeeded by the trench plow, which brings the soil up an inclined plane to the surface ; lastly, the subsoiler comes into operation, pulverizing the subsoil the required depth. It is worked by four horses. In connection with this plow, there was exhibited a new subsoiler, invented by Lord Beau- clerc. The subsoil is stirred by means of a so-called Archimedean screw; it is a revolving iron shaft, of about a foot in length, on which are spirally arranged a number of stout spikes ; AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 87 the axis of this shaft runs lengthwise of the plow, and, as the implement is drawn along, it is set in motion by the spikes, which, it would seem, must pulverize the soil in the best manner. Warlick's Improved Plow. A plow improvement, patented April 4th, 1855, by Noah War- liek, of Lafayette, Alabama, has for its object the augmentation of the strength of plows without adding to their weight, so as to make them better adapted for operating in rough, stony, and rooty lands. It has a Y-shaped brace, with its point to bear on the ground when required, and to give support to the plow, and enable it to be used as a crowbar or lever with safety, for prying up stones, stumps, roots, &c. Plow Standards. A patent has been granted to George Easterly, of Heart Prairie, Wis- consin, for a peculiarly-constructed plow standard, so arranged that mould-boards of different sizes may be secured to it ; likewise, shares of different thicknesses, to adapt it for plowing different soils. The improvement is, therefore, designed to make one plow more universal in its application to different kinds of work. Plows without Plowmen. UPON the occasion of the recent presentation of a plow to Hon. H. L. Ellsworth, of In- diana, as an acknowledgment of services rendered to American agriculture, Mr. E. stated, that, in all his farming operations, he had dispensed witli the plowman so far as it relates to holding the stilts. He said, " For years no one has held my plow or dropped the corn. My plow-beam obtains its .-u-i-linr-s by being attached to an axle or two mole-wheels; and a wheel of eighteen inches diameter, made of one and a half-inch board, having an artificial finger fastened at one side, that dips into a measure of corn at each revolution, deposits the seed, which is covered by the next furrow." Gang Plow. THE annexed engraving represents a gang plow, invented by G. W. IliMreth, of Lockport, New York. It is made entirely of iron, except the pole to draw by. The main frame is in ' -^- _-^ .^> - 1 - - the form of a triangular ellipse A, for the purpose of shrinking on a wrought-iron band, to make it of any desired strength. The forward end of the said frame rides on an axletree, connected by a king-bolt and bolster-plates D, allowing it to turn freely. The pole is attached by a device, which the driver can easily change, to make the gang run more or less to land, which pole guides the whole gang with precision, by the off-horse walking in the furrow, and it requires no holding. The wheels E E are large, and can be easily changed so as to carry the plow clear of the ground, in moving from one field to another, and also to run the poles B B B any desired depth in the ground, from one to six inches, cutting and turning the whole surface clean. The gang will turn round without being touched by the hand, on a circle of three feet radius, and by lifting the rear end by the handle F, it will turn at right angles. The plows are made strong, and ground smooth, and are made on a sharp angle ; they 88 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. draw light and score easy, and are locked to the frame by a hook tongue and groove C C C, and one carriage-bolt, which bolt is the weakest part of the fastening ; and in case of run- ning hard against any obstacle, where something must break, the bolt will break first, merely letting the plow drop off. A new bolt, costing less than five cents, repairs the break per- fectly. The inventors say of it : " This implement is designed for all kinds of crop-plowing or summer fallow ; also for plowing corn, oats, and barley stubble, and fitting land for seed generally. It. is a good im- plement for covering all kinds of seed sown broadcast; it has been used in almost every variety of soil, and has given universal satisfaction. It is well adapted to the soil in the Western States and the plantations of the South. It works first-rate in muck, clay, and gravel. The material of which this plow is made, being iron, is strong and durable ; the wheels are large, and having wrought-iron spokes and tire, are strong and light ; it affords facility for changing the depth of the plows, and changing the quantity of land ; it requires no holding, and is easily turned round ; a boy that can drive the off-horse in the furrow can do as good work as a plowman ; and it will work hard land that cannot be worked with a cultivator. The shears cut the whole surface of the ground, and turns it over ; it is very convenient for carrying off loose stones from the field while plowing." Improved Rotary Cultivator. THE annexed engravings represent an improved rotary cultivator, the invention of H. M. Johnson, of Carlisle, Pennsylvania. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 1 represents the machine in perspective, and fig. 2 represents a section, the nature of which will be shown in the following description : It is only within the past three or four years that this class of agricultural implements has appeared to dispute the ground so long occupied by the ordinary cultivator in general use ; and in England, where so much attention is bestowed upon this important branch of AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 89 industry, we notice the very general introduction of the rotary cultivator. This improve- ment seems to present some advantages which are worthy of attention ; and to render it more clear to the general reader, we will describe its construction : The frame A B supports three sets of coulter or toothed wheels ; the first set, a a, are merely circular rotary coulters, and are made of the usual plow steel, or, for general pur- poses, of cast iron, as thin as is consistent with due strength ; they are bevelled to an edge, and at the height of the bevel are slightly thicker than in the interior part, to lessen friction. Their distance apart may vary to suit the soil intended to be cut through. The second and third sets, b b and c c, are so placed as to come alternately in the centre of the sections made by the first set, and consist of a coulter precisely like those of the first set a a ; their edges are set with wings or knives w w, projecting laterally at such an angle, that, as the wheel revolves and advances, they descend edgewise with the least practical re- sistance, and come up flatwise, bringing up the earth from the bottom of the cut. The inclination of these knives, and the effect of their position, is shown \nfig. 2, in which the lines op show the direction of the plane of the knives, and their length is equal to the space between the coulter a a, so as to cut up all the earth as the machine passes over it. The advantage of the circular form of knife is, that all hard substances, such as loose stones, are pressed one side, and they are made adjustable, so that if one breaks, it may be conveniently replaced. The patent provides for an increase of the coulters or wheels, and also for the attachment of the cultivator to a carriage, whereby it may be raised and lowered at pleasure when formidable obstacles are presented ; and each coulter or wheel may have a separate axle, and play up and down under the pressure of a weight or spring, thus readily adjusting itself to uneven surfaces. Trial of Plows at the Paris Exhibition, DURING the progress of the National Exhibition at Purls, during the past summer, a trial of the various plows exhibited was made. The one found most effective was an English plow, contributed by Messrs. Howard, of Bedford, England. This plow, as carefully tested by the dynamometer, on clover sod, being drawn by two smartly-walking horses, turned a furrow ten inches wide and six and a half deep with a medium draught of only one hundred and eighty-two pounds, or a little more than half its own weight, (over three hundred pounds.) There are a good many men who could draw this plow at that gait, and almost any two men could easily do it. There were no plows entered from the United States, there being none on exhibition ; but one from Canada was tried, and did good work. Most of the plows entered from the continent proved beneath contempt, as was to be expected. Some of them required over quadruple the power to propel them that was exacted by the winner ; and one from Austria, that was confidently bragged on before the trial, actually twisted around, broke off, and gave up the ghost, in light clover soil, free from root or stone, and with but a single span of horses before it. New York Tribune. Knox's Horse-Hoe. THE construction of this hoe may be understood by conceiving of the handles and beam of an ordinary plow, having two pieces of wood running backward from its sides, letter A-fashion, at a point near the place where the horse is to be attached to the beam. At the point of the main beam in which these two sides meet is a cimetar-cutter or coulter, the office of which is merely to enter the ground and steady the machine during its action. At each of the other extremities of the two arms formed by the letter A is a miniature plow. In the rear of the main beam, and directly under the handles, is placed a V-shaped share, point for- ward. Upon the rear of the wings of this share are teeth, each tooth being about three inches long, and projecting backward. A wheel and regulating clevis are placed upon the front of the beam, to which the horse or mule may be attached. The action of this hoe is as follows : The cimetar-cutter, as already stated, steadies it ; the miniature plows throw the soil to the centre, and the comb again distributes it. Let it 90 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. be borne in mind that in the planting of corn the rows should be straight, and the horse- hoe used before the weeds grow too large. This is also true of other crops. In hoeing corn, it should be passed down the side of one^ row, and then above that of the next in order, through the length of the field, and afterwards crosswise in the same manner. It is gene- rally used with the mould-boards side in for other crops as well as corn, unless it be de- sired to throw the soil against the plants, flat cultivation being now more generally adopted. The amount of labor necessary for corn cultivation, when the common plow and hand-hoes only are used, deters many from giving this important crop the care it so justly deserves. By the use of this hoe, with a single horse or mule, it is stated that a farmer may hoe as much corn in a single day, and do it as well, provided the rows are straight, as could be ac- complished by twenty men by means of ordinary hand-hoes. Robinson's Improved Cultivator. THE accompanying engraving is a perspective view of an improved cultivator invented by J. A. Robinson, of Fremont, New Hampshire, patented February, 1855, which is designed for garden or field cultivation, and particularly adapted to drill-sown wheat and other small grains. The machine or implement consists of cutters attached to the two ends of a yoke of such height as to pass over the tops of the plants, the knives being adjusted to run as near the plants as may be desired, and the whole being made to travel on wheels. A is a yoke or bow, to the lower ends of which are secured the cutters B B, each being allowed to swivel around the point a, the nut b serving to hold them secure when placed in the required position. By this method of adjusting the cutters, they are made to cut more or less distant from the rows of plants. C C are the handles for guiding the machine. They carry short shafts D, on which are the wheels ; c c are square-headed pins which pass through the lower ends of the handles, and screw into the end of the yoke bow, which allows the bow a limited motion to make the cutters dip more or less beneath the surface ; a shows another square-headed pin which passes through a slot in the butt of the handle, (one for each handle,) and also screws into the yoke A the length of its slot. The yoke is by these pins set in position for the purpose of adjust- ing the dip of the cutters. By tightening this screw the cutters are held in place. A device is employed to make each cutter move at an equal distance from the row of grain, or whatever it may be; / is the guide point: it is held over the centre of the space between the points of the cutters by a bent wire //, which is attached to each arm of the yoke, and is supported by a chain g from the apex f of the yoke A. The machine is used by wheeling it forward like a barrow, the guide-point j being kept at the exact distance from the row. It will be observed that as the cutters can be set and adjusted to any distance to and from the plants, the weeds and grass can be cut up very near the rows. AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 91 Mr. Robinson informs us that he has hoed small carrots with this machine, the points of the cutters being 1^ inches apart, and he walked right along, hoeing them perfectly. As the cutters are adjusted to cut a little more than half-way to the adjoining row, the work is done thoroughly, no unhoed space being left between the rows. The cutters being set at an acute angle, they cut the weeds easily. They can also be adjusted to take the earth away from or carry it up to the rows. Scientific American. Two-Horse Cultivator. A CORRESPONDENT of the New York Country Gentleman recommends the use of a style of cultivator called the "two-horse" cultivator, and constructed as follows: You want nine culti- vator teeth ; or you may have less or more, as the strength of your team may be ; you can have cast-iron or steel teeth, (the latter far preferable;) place one in front, the others oppo- site to each other; have the teeth about eighteen inches apart in the timbers, and a drag tooth in each hind end of the side pieces. This is to prevent a track being left by the two hind cultivator teeth. This must be rather longer than the old-fashion crotch drag, and flare at the ends, or else it will work rather bad. The side pieces should be three inches by five. The teeth must point exactly ahead. Have a hook on top of the forward end to hitch your team to, and not exactly at the end, as we usually do on harrows. This implement will do the work of three common harrows on land that has been plowed in the fall. I use the harrow once or twice in a place, then go on with the cultivator ; and if your ground is dry enough to work good, you get well paid for your labor, for getting in wheat, barley, oats, or any kind of grain. This implement is far before the common harrow. We know how the corn culti- vator works in our cornfields. In like manner does the two-horse cultivator work for sowed grain. /'.giyen them. The 4th Point "Durability and reliability" is of much more importance. Any machine, however good in other respects, is an immense evil to the farmer if it fails in time of need. Having relied upon it to save his grain, and it proving worthless, and having made no other provisions, he is obliged to hire harvesters at largely-increased cost, if, indeed, he can get them at all, or perhaps submit to the loss of a valuable crop, wholly or in part. Opinions would vary greatly as to the number this should be set at. The 5th Point "Adaptation to varied and uneven surfaces, and to cutting at different heights" should be set much lower than the previous one. The 6th Point "Freedom of the knife from clogging" seems to merit much consideration; though not so important in reaping as in mowing. Some machines, it is known, choke or clog by fibres being drawn in the opening of the fingers in cutting damp or wet grain. This is particularly the case where there is much undergrowth. It is important to be able to cut when the dew is on, because it is cooler, and the grain shatters less. But if the knife constantly clogs, little progress can be made.* The 7th Point " Motive power, or power required for a given amount of work." The difference in team required to work any two reapers is never more than one pair of horses, the value of which for a harvest will vary considerably in different sections. Large farmers who have plenty of horses would only consider the cost of an extra pair as the worth of the extra grain they had to feed during the reaping. Probably putting this at the same as the 1st point, "cost," will be fair and certainly high enough, particularly as the inconve- nience of using an extra pair has its weight in the estimate of 3d point. The 8th Point "Manual labor in raking." To establish the value of this point, it is first to be considered that there is considerable difference between hand-raking reapers in the ease with which grain can be raked from them. It would not be too much to allow ten to estimate the difference between them. Then a self-raker saves a hand, and that, too, at the very hardest of work, over the best hand-raker. As wages were last year, and will be the present, this hand in harvest, with his board, costs at least $2 a day. If a little less than that in some sections, it will be enough more in others to make it equal this and more too. The wheat-harvest will last from eight to twelve days say ten and oats, rye, barley, &c. say five days. The latter is, perhaps, a day or two longer than Southern farmers would generally have grain for ; but it is too little by five days for the North, so that fifteen days' work would be a moderate allowance, making the saving $30. Something more should be added to this, because of the excessive labor that is saved, one hand being hardly sufficient to work all day long, and day after day in raking off. For this five is added. Add the previous ten, giving forty-five for this point. The 9th Point "Rapidity, or amount of harvesting in a given time." Suppose reapers cost on an average with transportation $140, and are worn out in five years ; that is, $28 a year ; the interest is $8.40. The team, two pair, $18. The rake $30, and driver $20. The latter not having as hard work and a cheaper hand answering, his labor is estimated a little less than the raker. The total is $104.40. The narrowest reaper cuts four and a half feet, and the widest six feet, (with a very few exceptions not necessary to be allowed for,) making * Thus far it has been impossible to find data by which to estimate the relative value of the points, and opi- nions will perhaps vary very much concerning them. But in the others, we can get sound data to base them upon, and though in carrying out the estimates some come to high figures, they are not, therefore, to be rejected or considered wild. AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 117 a difference of one quarter. Then one quarter of the above figures would give the value of this point at twenty-six. The 10th Point "Manner of leaving the grain for binding." More difference than one hand can be made in binding by the gavels being well or badly laid. Between the best and worst machine to rake from there is in the manner of depositing the grain at least a differ- ence of a hand and a half, costing for the fifteen days $45, making this point, therefore, forty-five. The llth Point "Saving of grain in cutting, binding, and handling, and in the stack." Those who have compared the working of different reapers, know that some will save largely as compared with others, and it is very easy to make a difference of several bushels in each day's work of ten to fifteen acres, even to the amount of a bushel or more an acre, particu- larly if the grain is over ripe. There is, first, the loss in not cutting clean ; second, shattering by the reel and in cutting ; third, shattering in raking off; fourth, loss from scattered grain being badly raked off ; fifth, loss in handling the sheaves, the grain not having been raked straight, and consequently being imperfectly secured in the sheaf; and sixth, liability to injury in the stack by the weather, if the heads are not all laid one way in the raking. These losses, though depending much upon the hand, will all be found to exist, and greatly to vary between different machines with good hands. Some of them are trifling ; yet in the aggregate they make a point of much more value than any other. Suppose the difference of loss in extreme cases is only half a bushel to the acre that one hundred and twenty acres of wheat and sixty acres of other grains are cut which would be twelve acres per day for the season of fifteen days. Thus there is saved sixty bushels of wheat, worth say $1 per bushel, and thirty bushels of oats, barley, rye, &c., worth say forty cents, making the saving $72. Though seventy-two seems at first to be large for this point, it ought to be set higher rather than lower. If this scale is at all correct, there is, of course, great difference in machines. If the forty or fifty varieties invented, and of which some thirty are more or less in use, could all be brought together, some would run very low in the scale, while others would go high. Of the points in the scale, two hundred and six (less ten in the 8th point of raking) equal one hundred and ninety-six, are estimated in money value of say only $14 a season, making $210. Some of the reapers would not in thorough trials reach sixty on these points, while others would reach one hundred and sixty and over, thus showing there may be a difference in reapers of over $100 in a single season's use. With so large a difference in reapers, and the demand so rapidly increasing, and it being difficult almost impossible for farmers to compare them themselves, it is not strange that so many attempts should be made to test them by farmers, united in their State and county societies. Yet how few of the numerous trials have as yet resulted in any permanent good ! Wherefore this abortive result in efforts which have cost so much in time, labor, and money to societies, committees, reaper-builders, and the public generally ? Is not the failure chiefly owing to the want of a systematic plan to insure thoroughness and guard against mistakes ? If so, a good scale of this kind will correct the evils, and it is useless to go into trials without something of the sort. Scab of Points in Trials of Mowers. No. Perfect at 1 9 Cost of machine. 8 Simplicity of construction to do its work. Facility of management, including time and room required for turning. 4 30 Durability and reliability. 10 Adaptation to varied and uneven surfaces. 6 16 Adaptation to cutting close to the ground. 7 70 Freedom of the knife from clogging by fibrous and gummy matter. Motive power, or power required for a given amount of work. 20 Rapidity, or amount of cutting in a given time. 10 30 The manner of leaving the grass for curing. 212 118 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. REMARKS UPON THE MOWING SCALE. After the full remarks upon the reaping scale, it is unnecessary to add much here. The plan is easily understood. The first four points are unaltered. The 5th in reaping is divided, making the 5th and 6th, and increasing the ag- gregate ten. The 7th is largely increased, because of the difficulty and importance of get- ting machines that will cut without choking. The 8th is not altered, though it might, per- haps, be reduced. The 9th is reduced six, because of reduction in expenses of working the mower as compared with the reaper. The 10th is also reduced, for though an important point, there is not the difference in mowers in the manner of leaving the grass, to make a higher amount necessary to fairly compare them. Nearly all leave the grass spread per- fectly. Scale for combined Reapers and Mowers. 300 212 38 550 The reaper scale. The mower scale. Ease of convertibility. Were all machines alike easily converted from reaper into mower, and vice versa, the best combined machine would be that which reaches the highest aggregate in the two scales ; but, in consequence of varying in this respect, this other point must be added, making the points in a perfect combined machine reach five hundred and fifty. Bowen's Thrasher and Grain-Separator. THE annexed figure represents a longitudinal section of a grain-separator, for which a patent was recently granted to Archibald Bowen, of Wadesville, Clark county, Virginia. The nature of this improvement consists in combining two reciprocating beds the upper perfo- rated and inclined towards the foot of the machine, and the lower inclined in an opposite direction, so that the grain and straw shall be received from the thrashing cylinder upon the upper bed, which, while it causes it to traverse its entire length and leave the machine at its foot, permits the grain to fall through its perforations upon the lower bed, which by its incli- nation and reciprocating motion, carries the grain to the chaff-separating portion of the ma- chine, where by blast and screens the grain is thoroughly cleaned. In the engraving, A is the thrashing cylinder, rotating as shown by arrow 1, and acting on the over-thrashing principle, the grain and straw entering as indicated by arrow 2 ; but this separator is equally well adapted to the ordinary under-thrashing machine. B is the upper bed, composed of sheet metal, having the perforations a punched in it from the top ; these perforations diminish in size from b to b f . The upper extremity of this bed is supported by the bar c, which by reason of two cranks d, or eccentrics, one at each end of the bar, revolves around the shaft e, causing the end of the bed to rise and fall, and reciprocate longitudinally, two straps t keeping the bed upon the bar c as the bar revolves. This bed is jointed at g, and is supported near that joint by the long arms h of two bent levers C, placed one on each side of the bed. The extremity 6 / is supported by the arms k of two bent levers D. The lower bed E, which is a plain sheet of metal, inclines towards the head of the machine, and is sup- ported by the arms k of levers D, arms h of levers C, and at the head by two levers 6, one on each side of the bed. The arms F of the bed E are jointed with the rods G connecting the bed E with the levers D, and through which motion is communicated to the bed E from the bed B. The levers b, besides sustaining the head of the bed E, also support one extremity , AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 119 of the screens m and n, the other ends of these screens being supported by the levers b and b ; these levers have their fulcra at g g' g". The termination of the screen m is an inclined plane p, connected with the screen by the steeper plane r. P is the fan revolving, as shown by the arrow 3, within the chamber H. S are the elevators which receive the cleaned grain and convey it up the spout W, where it is discharged into bags. The beds B and E are so con- structed as to be capable of separation at g g', for facility of transportation. V is the driving- wheel which gives motion to the wheel X, and through it the pinion Y, for driving the thrash- ing cylinder and rotating the shaft. The simplicity of the construction and operation of this machine renders it a valuable im- provement in grain-separators, as the grain, being received on the upper bed, is thoroughly separated from the straw during its passage over the bed, and by the action of the bed E descends in the opposite direction to the mill, while the straw passes over the tail of the ma- chine, thus effectually making the first separation. The second separation is no less thorough, as the grain receives the blast under the best possible circumstances to insure the blowing off of the chaff, while from the confining of the blast above the screen m, and the arrangement of the inclined planes r and /?, the liability of the grain to be blown off is greatly diminished. In relation to this invention, the Winchester (Va.) Republican says By this machine the wheat is thrashed and bagged, the straw is completely separated and delivered by itself, while the chaff is completely separated from the wheat and thrown by itself, without the least con- flict of one with the other ; in fact, a place for each, and each in its own place, seems to have been the great object of the inventor. Improvements in Grain and Seed-Gleaners and Winnowers. Beech's Improved Chain and Seed-Fan. In this fan, patented August, 1854, the improve- ments consist mainly in dispensing with the shoe, which, as commonly used, is loaded with riddles and directing-boards, and swings in the blast, very much obstructing its force. The air is used as it comes direct from the drum, unobstructed by any fixture whatever. The current is upwards and forwards, through the descending column of grain ; and with the arrangement of inclined planes, between which the air passes, the grain is suspended in the upward current, falling according to its specific gravity from the drum to the tail of the fan ; thus the full force of the blast is used, taking out the lighter impurities without wasting a sound kernel. After the grain has passed through the blast, it falls on the sieve, and the heads, sticks, &c. are separated from it. There is sumcient power in the blast to separate the cheat, cockle, &c., for preparing wheat for market, thereby dispensing with the screen, and saving the small sound grains which must be lost in separating with a screen. In cleaning wheat for seed, advantage is taken of the above-described arrangement, whereby the grain falls according to its weight. By taking out a board which directs the grain, the sound and perfect kernels, falling through the strongest current of air, are caught on a screen below and carried over it to the front of the fan, while the lighter grains and all the impurities fall under the fan or are carried over the tail-board. Leach's Grain-Cleaner. A patent was granted in March, 1855, to George Leach, of Owego, New York, for an improved machine for cleaning grain. The device consists in the furrowing of the rubbing-stones in a peculiar manner ; also a peculiar device for maintaining the pa- rallelism of the stones. The face of the bed-stone has four grooves cut in it, tangential with the spindle orifice, and they extend about half-way between the spindle and the periphery. At the edge of the face of the stone there are four furrows, slightly curved, that extend in- wards nearly half-way to the spindle. The runner-stone has four furrows in its face, which also curve and extend from the edge about half-way to the eye. Between these furrows are others which are curved from the edge to points near the eye, and from these points to the eye they are tangential with it, (the eye.) Keech's and StillwelVs Combination Fanning Mill. This mill is constructed upon strictly philosophical principles, and is said to answer most perfectly the end desired. The blast generated by this fan is so proportioned as to overcome the weight or gravitating power of all the impurities possessing less weight than the grain ; which impurities are forced out of the 120 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. mouth of a vertical trunk, while the grain falls into a receptacle by its own weight, clean and free from chaff, dust, &c. The machine can also be arranged as to act with equal facility in cleaning grass or any kind of seeds possessing different specific weights from wheat. Grain and Smut Machines. The nature of an improvement, patented February 6, 1855, by Messrs. Bean and Wright, of Hudson, Michigan, consists' in combining the grain-separator with the smut apparatus in such a manner that the air, in passing to the fan of the separator, goes through the smut screen, and materially assists in cleansing the grain more perfectly than by other machines. Indian Meal Sizing. A patent has recently been issued in England for the employment of finely-ground and bolted Indian meal for sizing, stiffening, and finishing textile fabrics, such as cotton and linen goods ; that is, for the use of corn flour as a substitute for wheat flour for stiffening goods. Home's Improved Corn-Sheller and Winnower. In this improved corn-sheller, patented by J. V. Home, of Magnolia, Illinois, the ear passes between a toothed cylinder and a concave plate, whereby the grain is instantly stripped off ; the corn and cob then fall into a revolving screen, which conveys the cob away out of the machine, while the corn falls through the meshes of the wire on to a concave receiving-pan. The winnowing is done by a fan which sends a blast of air lengthwise through the screen. The grain is elevated high enough for bagging by means of miniature elevators. This improvement combines all the conveniences that could possibly be desired in a corn- sheller viz. it shells, separates the cob, cleans and bags the grain, all by the turning of one crank. Improvements in Grinding Mills. Felton's Improved Mill. An improvement in mills for grinding feed has been made by Amory Felton, of Troy, New York, which consists in the employment or use of a corrugated cylinder and a concave and cap having spiral flanges and reciprocating teeth. The grain to be ground is placed in a hopper above the corrugated cylinder, and is made to rotate when the grain passes between the concave described and the cylinder, and is crushed between the spiral flanges of the concave and the corrugations on the cylinders, and is then discharged, ground, by an opening in the end of the concave. This mill is now in use, and grinds four bushels per hour by one-horse power. Scientific American. The following figures represent an improved hominy mill, recently invented and patented by B. Bridendolph, of Clearspring, Md. Fig. \ is perspective view of the mill. A is the hopper- box ; B is a metal cylinder with projections on its inner surface ; C is the hulling-shaft, working in cylinder B. It is of a compound spiral shape ; it has a spiral face and spiral edges on its threads. This shaft revolves in the cylinder B by the bevel-gearing u P. The shaft of the bevel-wheel u is rotated by hand by a crank lever, or it may be driven by any other power, /is a fan which is rotated by a band from pulley w passing around pulley d, on the shaft of the fan. The corn is put into the inside h of the hopper-box, and the shaft C being rotated, the corn passes gradually from the hopper down through the cylinder B. The spiral threads of the shaft C beats the corn against the rough interior surface of the cylinder, carries it down, and at the same time packs it in a mass at the bottom, while the spiral edges (which run reverse to the spiral of the threads) act so as to strip the hull from the grain, and break and take the eyes out of it. The outlet of the hollow grinding cylinder is regulated by a small vent-gate at the one side at the bottom, which allows it to escape just as fast as the mill hulls it. It then falls upon a sieve s, (fig. 1,) and the hulls, eyes, and other impurities are there separated from it by the blast from the fan /, when it passes down and out in a clear state from a shute under the fan. This mill can be made of any size, from a hand up to a horse-power. A hand-power mill, the patentee informs us, hulls one bushel per hour ; a horse-power from 50 to 80 bushels per day. Several thousands of them have already come into use. It can be made on a large scale, so as to convert it into a corn and cob mill. Fig. 2 represents a vertical section of a cylinder and shaft, when used as such a mill. It is made like fig. 1 in every respect, excepting AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 121 the addition of the conical nut n and corresponding seat at the lower end of the shaft. This nut is secured to the shaft C, and a key passes through the shaft under it. The shell or concavity in which this nut works is separate from that of B, the cylinder, and it can be taken off and attached to the framing, so as to renew those parts when they get dull, which can be done at a very small cost. The nut n grinds the hominy into meal : it can be enlarged as a corn and cob mill to grind fifteen bushels per hour. Wilson's Corn-grinder and Crusher. In a corn-grinder and crusher recently patented by W. D. Wilson, of Richmond, Indiana, the grinding roller of the mill has a V-shaped groove on its periphery, and the concave in which it runs has a similar shaped tongue, so that a great amount of grinding surface is obtained in a small space. Crushing and Grinding Mill. A patent for an improved machine for grinding corn and cobs was granted to Jacob Weigle, of Erie county, Pennsylvania, and described with diagrams in the Scientific American, March 31, 1855. The nature of the invention consists in forming a crushing and grinding apparatus by uniting with each other, upon the same shaft, the smaller 122 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. ends of two corrugated segments of cones, and combining with them corrugated, enclosing casings supplied with two feeding apertures, and arranged in such a manner that corn and cobs can be fed into one opening, and ground-shelled corn be fed into the other aperture, and both be converted into meal. Shearman's Method of Feeding Grain to Millstones. An Improvement recently patented by Simeon Shearman, of Goshen, Indiana, consists in an arrangement placed between the ordinary hopper and the grinding stones, whereby the grain, in passing from the one 4o the other, is winnowed and dusted by means of a fan-blast and appropriate arrangements. The blast also acts upon the spindle, keeping both it and the grain cool and clean. Leavitt's Portable Grain Mill. THE accompanying figures represent an improved portable grain mill recently invented and patented by Charles Leavitt, of the city of Quincy, Illinois, and for which the first premium for grain mills was awarded at the State Agricultural Fair of Ohio, 1855. The nature of the invention consists in applying to a portable corn mill (in which the ex- ternal portion or concave revolves upon a fixed cone) the following improvements : First, the combination of the bed-plate, legs or supports, the breaker, and the main pivot, cast in one piece. Secondly, in combination with the foregoing, a lever in two parts, attached to an external revolving concave, constructed and arranged substantially as hereinafter described. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 1 is a vertical section of the mill ; fig. 2 is an elevation ; fig. 3 is a plan view of the mova- ble rings; and fig. 4 is a plan view of the annular conductor. Similar letters refer to like parts. The bed-plate a, legs or supports 6, ogee-breaker c, and vertical main pivot or journal d, are cast in one piece. Upon a flange projecting from the lower edge of the bed-plate a is placed an annular grooved conductor e, which has an outlet at /. Between the top of the breaker c, and the base of the pivot, is an annular groove i, with an outlet at the bottom thereof, for the purpose of collecting and discharging the oil from the pivot d, and preventing it from mixing with the meal. A sleeve g fits upon the pivot d and revolves thereon, its lower edge resting upon the bottom of the groove i. A top plate or cover h, having a circular open- ing in its centre a little less than the base of the breaker c, is joined to the sleeve g by four strong arms I. The plate h extends to the outer edge of the conductor e, and carries on its under side square projecting scrapers n, which fit in the conductor and revolve therein. The arms I are toothed on their under sides to correspond with the teeth in the breaker c. AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 123 forming together an effective crusher for the corn and cob when ground together. In the space between the base of the breaker c, and the inner edge of the conductor e, are secured by bolts (in such a manner as to be readily removed when required) a flat ring of steel or hardened iron m, with grinding teeth on its upper side, of any convenient form ; but it is preferable for crushing or coarse grinding to use teeth the transverse section of which pre- sents one side inclined and the other vertical. The mill is run in such a direction that the vertical sides of the upper and lower grinding surfaces shall meet each other. In a groove in the upper plate h is placed another ring o of the same size, material, and form as m, with the teeth of the same form, and arranged as before described : this is also removed when required. Between the ring o and the central opening is a circle of large teeth inclined to the rear, and verti- cal to the front, and bevelled upwards on their inner edges for the purpose of forcing or crowding the grain on to the rings. It is preferable in grinding fine meal to run the grinding surfaces in such a direction as to oppose the inclined sides of the teeth in one ring to the inclined sides of the teeth of the other ; and with that view another pair of rings are made to fit in the same places as the others, with the inclined sides of the teeth reversed. Upon the top of the pivot d is a cap p which rests on the sleeve g. Through the cap, pivot, and bed-plate a screw q passes, having its nut at the bottom; the object of this screw is to regulate the mill by press- ing the grinding surfaces together. Upon a flange on the edge of the central opening is a suitable hopper. Upon each side of the hopper, resting upon the top plate A, and secured thereto by bolts, is placed a piece of scantling extending to about twelve feet from the centre of the mill ; they there meet at a very acute angle, forming a lever secured to a bolt, by which the horses are attached. A board s extends from one of the ends of the scantling to the other, upon which a man can stand to feed the mill. This mill is best adapted for crushing and grinding corn and cob together, or by using the rings which present the inclined sides of their teeth to one another for fine meal, etc. If the teeth should wear out or break, fresh rings can be put in at a trifling expense. The annular conductor is a good improvement upon mills of this description, which allow the meal to fall from all parts of the base of the concave. Granger's "Magic" Corn and Cob Mill, THIS invention, patented September, 1856, and which received the first premium for grind- 124 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. \ ing mills at the Pennsylvania State Agricultural Fair for 1855, is claimed to possess some advantages over all other similar inventions both in respect to the small amount of power required to operate it, and in the quality of the work performed. The striking peculiarity about this mill is found in the fact that the centre or core is stationary, while the outer casing revolves, the power being thus applied most advantageously at the point of greatest resistance. A disadvantage is thus obviated which pertains to some other mills namely, that the weight of the driving arms applied to the movable centre bears unequally, causing it to grind fine upon one side and coarse upon the other. The movable casing of Granger's mill has an attachment of small rollers at its base, on the outside, which renders the motion and consequent grinding action of the mill uniform, and prevents the rotary casing from changing its position. The mill may be made to grind coarse or fine, as may be desired, by elevating or lowering the outside casing by means of a screw. This external casing revolves on a case-hardened pivot attached to the top of the stationary core or centre a point easily accessible for the purpose of oiling the bearings. The centre is firmly supported upon three triangular legs. A great advantage claimed by the manufacturers of this mill, Messrs. Cresson, Stuart, and Peterson, of Philadelphia, is, that in imparting the motion to the outer casing, instead of the centre, the corn and cobs by the outer revolution are caused to descend and adhere to the inside, while in the opposite case, the same materials, by the centrifugal force imparted from the revolving centre, have a tendency to work upwards and away from the points where the grinding action takes place. The construction of this mill will be easily understood by reference to the engraving, which represents it as seen in section. Great Flouring Mills, BOTH in England and the United States, great exertions have been made in the last fifteen years to improve flouring mills and make them produce the largest amount of flour in a given time. At the Great London Exhibition, a conical mill was exhibited, which was afterwards examined by a committee of Parliament and a number of scientific gentlemen, and pro- nounced to be a wonder of its kind. Two of these conical mills were put up in an establish- ment alongside of two old-fashioned flat mills, and the following is given in an English paper as a result of the trials : There were three trials as regarded the old system and the new. The first experiment on the old mill gave a discharge of 16 pounds of flour in five minutes, which was equal to 192 pounds per hour; while upon the patent mill there was a discharge of 38^ pounds in five minutes, or 462 pounds per hour. The difference, therefore, on that experiment was against the old system 270 pounds per hour. The second experiment tried was even more favor- able as regarded the new system. Two conical mills worked against two on the flat princi- ple for one hour, ascertained exactly, and with the following results : Conical mill (No. 1) produced 8| bushels. " " (No. 2) " 7| " Flatmill (No.l) " 3 " " " (No.2) " , 3 " This was regarded as a wonderful achievement, and the scientific committee declared in their report that these conical mills must very soon supersede the old flat mills. Now we are glad to have it in our power to say that our scientific millers in Pennsylvania have been improving the old flat burrs, so as to make them completely eclipse and throw in the shade these celebrated English conical mills. Messrs. Wilson & M'Cullough have recently completed a new steam mill in our borough, in which they run 4 feet flat French burrs, two hundred revolutions a minute, that turn out flour faster than we ever saw it run from a mill- spout. These gentlemen calculate to grind regularly from six to seven barrels of extra flour per hour, on each run of stones, and they may be abl to do more. As high as thirty bushels of wheat have been ground on one run of stones in this mill in an hour! We ask if this has ever been beaten anywhere ? Harrisburg Union. AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 125 Manure Excavators. A PATENT has been recently granted to A. R. Hurst, of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, for the improvement in manure excavators represented by the annexed figure, which is a perspective view. The object of the implement is to loosen the manure, to allow of its being easily shovelled. The nature of the invention consists in attaching a strong durable implement, very similar in construction to an ordinary pitch-fork, to the hindmost part of a sled, having suitable attachments to render the implement effective in its operation, by hinge-joints, in such man- ner that its teeth can be adjusted so as to be caused to take a strong hold on the manure as the sled is drawn forward ; and consequently to loosen and separate its particles in the most effectual and speedy manner, and when not excavating, can be adjusted so as not to come in contact with the surface of the ground. A represents the sled, strongly braced by the iron straps B B, each of which terminates at its front end in a hook a, to which the power is attached ; C is the swinging cross-bar, which has the excavating or separating teeth D secured in it. This bar is hinged to the sled by joints c c, and is capable of swinging on said joints when necessary. The teeth D may be placed at any stfeble distance apart, and may extend from one side of the sled to the other. E is an upright lever for throwing the teeth in operation; it is attached to the swinging cross-bar c. e is a slot cut through said lever. F is a curved swinging stop-bar for keeping the lever E in place, while the excavating operation is being carried on. The bar F moves in the slot e of the lever E, and holds the said lever in the position shown in full lines, by means of the stop /, which fits in the recess g in the lever. By means of this lever, it may be seen that when the resistance is greatest on the teeth, the operation of the bar as a stop 126 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. is the most effective. The lever E can be depressed and the teeth thrown out of operation by moving the end of the bar F to the position shown in dotted lines ; this operation drawing the stop / out of the recess g. The position of the teeth when elevated, or out of operation, will be seen in the lower dotted lines, and their position, when in operation, in full lines. The lever E rests on the shoulders i i of the bar/, when the teeth are not in operation. The teeth of the implement are forced into the manure, and the sled is drawn over the same by hand or horse-power, the former, as the latter is drawn forward, taking a firm hold upon a large portion of the manure, and loosens and separates its particles ready for shovelling. What it Costs to Fence the Country. THE amount of capital employed in the construction and repair of fences in the United States would be deemed fabulous, were not the estimates founded on statistical facts which admit of no dispute. Burknap, a well-known agricultural writer, says: "Strange as it may seem, the greatest investment in this country, the most costly productions of human indus- try, are the common fences, which divide the fields from the highways, and separate them from each other. No man dreams that, when compared with the outlay for those unpretend- ing monuments of art, our cities and our towns, with all their wealth, are left behind. You will scarcely believe me when I say that the fences of this country cost more than twenty times the amount of specie that is in it." In Germany, and many other parts of Europe, no fences are seen for miles, either between the highlands and fields, or between the lots occupied by different individuals. In some dis- tricts, the boundaries of each proprietor are required by law to be marked by trees, and the owners are compelled to plant fruit and ornamental trees upon the line of highways against their land, at prescribed distances, and kept constantly growing. Public officers, at stated intervals, examine and survey the streets and public ways, and report to the public authori- ties any failure of compliance with these legal provisions. In some parts of Germany, the highways are lined for miles with rows of fruit-trees, bending with fruit over the passing traveller, adding grace and beauty to the landscape, and refreshing him with grateful shade. There seems to be in this country a mania for fences. Not only are our fields and pastures enclosed, but divisions and subdivisions of our farms are made, and in addition to these, small yards and gardens close about our buildings are often multiplied till they mar the whole beauty of the homestead. This is particularly noticeable about old establishments. The first occupant enclosed a small garden, and after it had grown up to trees, he fenced off another for his vegetables. Then, from time to time, a small yard for poultry, another for the calves, and another for the house, a barn-yard, and so on, not omitting a front-yard, follow, until an acre or two of the best part of the farm is cut up like a chequer-board, hav- ing neither utility nor beauty to commend it. By-and-by the old farm changes hands, and the old rubbish is cleared away, and a sudden and almost magical change occurs in the scene. We see at once that system has taken the place of accident and caprice, and good taste has triumphed over conformity to old-fashioned notions of convenience. We believe that, as a matter of economy, a great change is required in the matter of fences in New England. Fences are for two purposes, protection from cattle and sometimes unruly boys, and shelter from the wind and cold. In the first place, we believe that nearly all fences between the highways and our fields might be dispensed with. But what, then, shall protect us from cattle wandering at large, and from droves passing to market, and to and from pasture ? As to droves of cattle, they are soon to cease. The railroads convey them nearly all, and if they are still to travel by means of their own locomotives, how muclrenore reasonable would it be to compel their owners to drive them in yokes, or secured by ropes, or otherwise, than to insist that the owners of land shall fence them out a road from the place where they are raised to the market-towns. As the cows and oxen kept for use on our farms, they might easily be conducted in the same way to and from their pastures. Our pastures must still be enclosed. There is much rough land that can profitably be used for no other pur- pose. But the saving in dispensing with the fences about fields would be immense. No AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 127 amendment of the law of the New England States generally, we apprehend, is necessary. Owners are not now obliged to fence against cattle in the highways, but persons driving or suffering their cattle to run loose in the road are bound to see that they do no injury. All that is needed is, that public opinion, which rules every thing else in our country, should be set right on this subject. As to shelter from the wind and cold, we apprehend that a rail fence or a stone wall round a field affords but very little. For gardens and fields, even in exposed positions, shelter is often necessary, and fences may sometimes be profitably con- structed with this view. Generally, however, a judicious planting of belts of pine or hem- lock-trees, on the northerly and westerly sides of our lots, will be found far more effectual and economical than any thing else, except for very small enclosures. We see many subdivisions of farms which seem to us worse than useless. Fields are often divided into two, three, five or ten-acre lots, which had much better remain in one. This is often done for convenience in fall feeding, so that cattle may be turned into the fields before the crops are off in the fall. Our answer to this is, that this whole system of fall feeding on fields is an error. We believe that it is a fair estimate that a good mowing field will, with- out being fed at all, keep in grass better for ten years than it will Jive, if annually fed closely late in autumn. Soft lands are almost ruined by the treading of cattle, and the short bul- bous roots of the herds-grass are pulled up and destroyed by the feeding of neat cattle that are not provided by nature with teeth enough to cut the grass evenly. It is better economy to feed our cattle at the barn in the autumn, than to allow them thus to injure the crops of future years. We would advise farmers, therefore, rather to remove the division fence which they already have in their fields, to escape the temptation to do what they know to be wrong, than to construct others for convenience in feeding their cattle in their mowing fields. If a fair estimate could be made of the actual cost of maintaining our unnecessary fences, and of the waste of valuable wood and timber used about them, so that each fanner should know the amount of his tax annually for this object, we think a great change for the better would soon occur. New England Farmer. Improved Wire Fences. JOHN NESMTTH, of Lowell, Mass., has recently invented and patented a machine for the manufacture of wire fencing, adapted for farm or ornamental purposes. This fence consists of a strong netting, woven by the machine, varnished with asphaltum blacking, coated with coal-tar, painted or galvanized, rolled up in portable rolls, from thirty to sixty rods in length, and sold to consumers at from sixty cents to $1.50 per rod the price varying according to the height of the fence, the size of the mesh, (or squares,) and the num- ber of the wire. It can be readily set up by any ordinary farmer, and no nails are necessary, but the netting is fastened by wire or staples to post* of wood, iron, or stone, placed from eight to fifteen feet apart, and the edge of the netting is to be kept on a level from one termi- nus to another. When properly set, it is strong enough to " hold" an ox, and too close to be penetrated by a chicken. It offers so little resistance to wind and tide, that no gale can blow it down, or flood wash it away. If fastened to posts, set upon feet instead of being set in the ground, this fence may be laid flat on the land, or entirely removed on the approach of the flood-season in districts subject to floods, and set up again as good as ever when the flood has subsided. It excludes none of the rays of the sun ; it harbors no weeds or vermin ; it covers none of the soil, like hedges and walls, and the peculiar mode of its texture enables it to un- dergo, without the slightest injury, that alternate expansion and contraction to which all me- tallic substances are subjected by the changes of temperature incident to the atmosphere. Mr. R. S. Fay, of Massachusetts, in a communication to The New England Farmer, states that he has used this fence for folding sheep at night on land that he wished to manure, shift- ing once or more every week, and has found it answer the purpose perfectly. Mr. F. further says : "I have had some iron rods made with a double foot, which I drive into the ground and attach the fence to it either by copper wire or stout twine. A man and a boy will enclose a quarter of an acre in less than an hour, having these posts, which should be set not more than a rod apart. When I change the fence to a new spot, I unfasten it from the posts, throw it down, begin at one end, and roll it up as you would a carpet. And so in re- 128 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. setting, reverse /the process, rolling it out where it is to be set ; drive down the posts, and then raise it and attach it to them. My fence cost $1.50 per rod, and it is a cheap mode of handling or enclosing at that price." Prindle's Improved Field Fence. THE accompanying figures represent an improvement in the construction of field fences, recently invented and pa- tented by I\ R. Prindle, of East Bethany, Genesee co., N. Y. Fig. 1 is a perspective view of the fence embracing three panels and posts, from 1 to 4 inclusive. Fig. 2 is a view of one of the metal spikes which unite the panels. Fig. 3 is a view of fig. 2, embracing the form it assumes when the panels have been united and set in position ; and fig. 4 is a view of the wedge which is employed to secure the metal connection. The nature of the invention consists in the mode of fas- tening together the adjacent posts or standards of a field fence, by passing a piece of metal having a head on one end through two adjacent posts, and securing the same by a wedge or its equivalent at the other end, the posts being so bevelled as to cause any desired angle to be made by the separate panels. Fig. 1 is a perspective view of three panels of this fence, embracing three different kinds combined, as at A B C, and posts or standards, 1 to 4 inclusive ; A is narrow board, (five inches wide,) one inch thick, connected to posts 1 and 2 by mortising ; B a square rail (two and a half inches) or pole, inserted into posts by boring only ; C a panel made by nailing, as at posts 3 and 4, nailed upon reversed sides, the posts being differently sawed ; c c are small metal con- nections one-fourth to five-sixteenths of an inch in diame- ter, and passing through the adjacent posts 123, and con- necting the different panels ABC, firmly supporting the same; w w are small wedges or keys two and a half inches long, driven into the posts to secure the whole, firmly locking each pair of posts alternately, and forming a lever upon each side ; are holes in the posts for the above metal connections, and also represent the heads of the same ; b b b are narrow boards nailed firmly to the middle of each panel or length. To take down or remove this fence, withdraw the wedges w w. Fig. 5. This fence is designed to be set up a little crooked or at any desired angle, as is shown "by fig. 5. It can also be used straight by staking, etc., or in a continuous circle, foi AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 129 stack-yards or other small enclosures. In exposed situations, the posts or standards may rest upon stones, and be connected therewith by metal pins, inserted in the stone and bottoms of the posts. The metal connection readily bends, accommodating itself to any desired angle, as at posts 2 and 3, fig. 1. The posts may be made of split logs, the convex surfaces being placed in contact, the panels united, and the required angle given, as above described. The great advantage of this invention consists in the peculiar-shaped standard or post, so connected with the metallic fastening, that the fence will sustain itself without having its posts set in the ground. These posts will enable the builder to make almost any kind of a fence, from almost any variety or form of timber whether boards, bars, rails, poles, &c., or mostly of wire or pickets, if desired, rendering the same a portable or hurdle fence, easily and quickly transferred from place to place. The work of construction, very conveniently for the farmer, can be performed mostly in winter, as it is formed of separate panels or lengths, ready for setting up in the field. By adding a different connection, any panel will serve as a gate a fact of much importance to the farmer. To make small enclosures, such as stack, sheep, and poultry-yards, is but a few moments' labor with this fence. Thompson's Circular Self-Acting Gate. Fig. 1. THE accompanying engraving is a perspective view of an improved peculiarly self-acting gate, recently invented and patented by William Thompson, of Nashville, Tenn. The invention relates to gates for farms, parks, and'enclosures of any kind, and consists in constructing the gate A of a circular form like a wheel, as shown, and allowing it to rest, when closed, on a vibrating rail D, which is operated by a person, wagon, or carriage on the track, to make the gate roll to the one side and open when approaching it, and then roll back when the carriage or wagon has passed through to close it. A A is the gate ; B is a post formed in two separate pieces to leave a channel d between them from the bottom to the cap-piece. F is a double fence at one side, to allow wheel A to roll through the qjiannel of the post B to the left-hand side, as shown by the dotted lines A when the gate is open. C is the right-hand post, with a channel in it, but not through it, to receive 9 130 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. a part of one side of gate A, and retain it when the gate is closed. The gate rests on a vi- bratory lever D, sunk a little below the roadway at the middle of the track, but elevated at the one side. This lever railway is hung upon a pivot, with its long end towards the opening of the gate, so as by its weight at that end to tilt down the gate into its place, self-acting, when the lighter end is relieved from the weight or pressure of a carriage, &c. on the road- way, after it has passed through. E is the platform ; it is secured to the short end of the rail D at the left-hand side, and extends both in front and back of the gate. Supposing a person or carriage to be approaching the -gate, his weight or that of the carriage on the platform will depress the now elevated end of the lever D at the left, and the gate will roll into the position shown in dotted lines A, until the person or carriage has passed off the platform E on the other side ; the lever D will then rise to the position as shown in the figure, and tilt the gate into its place and close it. The vibrating rail D may be so hung that its long end will be to the left of the pivot or vibrating point, as by a weight on the platform it can be so adjusted to open and close the gate independent of the point at which it is hung on its pivot. Different methods of securing the platform to the tilting-rail may be employed. The platform, also, may be provided with any suitable fastening, such as a spring switch with a vertical lever at one side, which will set free a catch on the platform, and allow it to act so as to prevent ani- mals opening the gate by merely getting on the platform. The inside corners of the posts at the ground may be extended as close to the gat as pos- sible, so as to fill up the space between the gate and the posts, to prevent hogs, &c. from thus passing through. The filling up of these spaces may be executed neatly, to accord with the general contour of the gate. Various modifications of this gate may be adopted, embracing the same general principles of construction and operation, according to the taste of those who put them up. In fig. 2 the gate A rests upon a rail C sunk in the lever platform D a little below the road-way in the middle of the track, but elevated at one side and extending some distance to the left. This platform D extends both in front and back of the gate. The rail C is firmly fastened to the platform D, which itself rests upon a fulcrum next the short end of the rail upon which the gate rolls, and the platform has a weight F at its edge sufficiently heavy to keep the short end of the rail upon the ground, and the long end in an inclined position, thus shutting the gate. By the pressure of a carriage or person upon the platform, the position of the rail is reversed and the gate rolls open. The platform D may be provided with any proper catch or fastening, so that the gate cannot be casually opened by animals, a plan of which is shown at fig. 3. There is claimed for this gate great simplicity of construction ; and when its cheapness, utility, and beauty (if desired) shall be remembered, and it is likewise borne in mind what little skill is required to make it, and how little its liability to get out of repair, it is believed that it will be regarded as preferable to the common gate swinging on hinges ; and may pos- sibly be esteemed superior to any form of gate among the various inventions of more modern date. AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. Improvements in Gates. 131 THE accompanying engraving is a perspective view of an improved farm-gate, for which a patent was recently granted to Henry B. Lumm, of Sandusky, Ohio. This gate is so con- structed and arranged, that it may be opened or closed by a person in a carriage or on horse- back. D D are the two posts of the gate ; they are hollow, and have an opening near the cap, in each, in which is secured a grooved pulley e e ; ff are cords or chains secured to the top of the side bars a a, and passing over the pulleys e e into the hollow posts. To the inner ends of these cords are secured balance-weights, so that when the gate is up or closed, these hold it plumb in position, keeping the gate A closed. This gate has a lower bar C, which is hinged at c c to the sill between the two posts. It therefore folds upwards when closed, and down- wards when open. The gate is formed with the side bars a a, the lower bar C, and top bar B, and strong smaller bars bbb. When folded down, these bars are received in the openings made for them in the road-way d. When the gate is open, therefore, it lies flat between the road-way sleepers 6, which act as fenders, and the carriage drives over it. F F are posts a little distance from the gate on each side ; G G are handles to upright levers, which are con- nected at the middle to two strong crossing wires or iron rods g g, which are secured at one side to a lug i on the lower bar C. The levers turn or vibrate in their sockets ; and by turn- ing the handles G G to the one side or the other, the gate is opened and closed, folded up and let down. Operation. Allowing the gate to be in the position shown, (closed,) and a carriage going forwards from the nigh side to pass through, the driver has but to take hold of the lever G and push it forwards, when the then off wire g will be thrown further back, and draw the gate down flat between the sleepers of the road-way d, and the carriage is allowed to proceed through the gate. When it arrives at the other side, the driver takes hold of the other handle G and draws it to the one side, and thus changes the wires g and raises up the gate, closing it after him. 132 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. A patent for an improved gate was also granted to W. G. Phillips, of Newport, Delaware, in March, 1855. The nature of the invention consists in providing the gate-post or pivot and the platform with springs, so arranged that a vehicle passing on to the platform will press upon a spring, and so operate the gate as to allow the vehicle to pass 'through, and in going from the plat- form on the opposite side, another spring is pressed by the carnage, which causes the gate to close. An automaton gate, which is highly recommended, has recently been invented by Mr. C. Wine- gar, of Union Springs, New York. This contrivance, not unlike a clock, consists of two principal parts, the running and regu- lating parts. A weight which opens and shuts the gate is contained in a tall box fixed at the side of the gate, resembling in external appearance a large post. The weight in descending turns a crank. A rod placed between this crank and the gate, and connected to each, receives by this means a reciprocating motion, and would open and shut the gate in rapid succession until the weight reaches the ground, were its motion not controlled by a latch which fastens it shut when it strikes the post, or which fastens it open, as soon as it reaches a smaller post placed at the proper point for this purpose. The opening and shutting is effected from the carriage or saddle by simply giving a slight pull or jerk to a loop suspended from the arm of a tall post a short distance from the gate. A wire, extending from this loop to the hinge-post, and thence across the top of the gate to the latch, instantly sets it free whenever a slight pull is given, and the crank and rod imme- diately draw it open, where it is retained by the latch. On passing through, the loop is pulled on the other side, loosening the latch again, and causing the gate immediately to close. By placing the two tall posts with the loops sufficiently distant from the gate, the opening may be accomplished at any desired time before arriving there, an increased length of the wire being all that is required. As an ordinary weight will move the gate about fifty times, all that is commonly necessary is to wind it up regularly once a week. In extreme cases, a workman who goes regularly to his work each morning may be employed to raise the weight as he passes, requiring only a few seconds. Improved Method of Building Stone Houses. MR. L. P. BALL, of Worcester, Massachusetts, in a communication to the New England Farmer, calls attention to a new method of constructing houses, recently introduced into New England. He says Last year (1854) a stone machine shop, 400 feet long, 40 feet wide, and two stories high, with walls 21 inches thick, was built in Worcester of a kind of slate in the following manner: The entire mass of stone blasted from the ledge was carried to the building, the nature of the ledge being such that a very large portion of the stone obtained by blasting was in small pieces ; into the mortar, which was made of lime and coarse sand, were put, and intimately mixed with it, all the small chips and fragments. All the larger stones were reserved for the process of filling in. The walls were made by filling the mortar into boxes, made by placing planks outside and inside of the wall, a distance apart of the desired thickness of the wall. These planks are kept in their places by plumb straight-edges of sufficient strength, placed and fastened upon the outside of the planks. When the planks have been thus properly dis- posed in their places to a height of three or four feet above the foundation, the mortar, in a very plastic state is brought from the mortar-bed in hods, and poured into the space between the planks. Into this soft, yielding mass were disposed all the larger stones in such a man- ner as to make the wall one solid mass of mortar and stone. These processes of alternately filling with mortar and larger stones are repeated until the mould is full. The mould or planks forming the wall are allowed to remain upon the walls until the mor- tar has set, say twenty-four hours or more, according to the quality of the mortar ; and are then removed and reset, and all the foregoing operations repeated until the walls of the build- ing are completed. The windows and door-frames are made and set in the same manner as they are for brick buildings ; over the doors and windows is put a wood or stone lintel to hold AGRICULTURAL MECHANICS AND RURAL ECONOMY. 133 the pressure of the wall until it is dry. Care is to be taken in placing all of the stone around the windows and doors to have them permanently fixed in their places, so as to form a solid jam. The flooring timbers are placed and anchored into the walls in the same manner as they are in brick buildings. As this kind of wall is somewhat uneven for the reception of the flooring timber, a piece of scantling, say 24 by 6 inches, should be placed and levelled upon the walls, and be firmly bedded with mortar to receive the joists and other flooring timber. The exterior of buildings constructed as above can be finished, if desired, with either " stucco" or mastic, and the expense of the whole stated to be not far from the cost of common wood dwellings, or from $1.25 to $1.50 per square yard of the wall all finished. This price, however, must vary some with the price of lime in particular vicinities, and with the facility with which the sand and other materials could be obtained. On the Drying of Fruit. "WE recently noticed," says the American Agriculturist, "a simple apparatus for drying fruit at the residence of a farmer in Dutchess county, a description of which may furnish a hint to others. Upon the south side of his kitchen is a ' stoop' some ten feet high. Just below the roof is arranged a bhelf or platform, the full size of the stoop, and resting on small rollers upon each side; a sort of railway is formed, each rail consisting of two narrow sluts or boards nailed together, but kept separated about an inch from each other by short bits of board placed between them at short intervals; these railways are nailed up against the two sides of the stoop, and project out eight feet from the roof. Upon these the drying platform is supported by a number of wheels or pulleys, formed by sawing off sections of a round stick after a three-. |irirtfi- inch au^ r-hole has been bored through its centre; these are arranged in the opening between the two slats forming each side rail, and are held in place by wooden pins put through the side pieces. The wheels or pulleys stand a little above the surface of the rails, and over them the platform moves easily. Plums, cherries, apples, and other fruits are spread upon the platform, and during drying days it is rolled out upon the projecting supports, exposing the fruit to the sun. At evening, or upon the approach of rain, the platform is easily shoved back under the roof. Such an apparatus can be constructed in a single day; it will last for years, and be amply sufficient to dry a large quantity of different kinds of fruit annually. ' .V similar apparatus might be arranged upon a garret floor, to be shoved out through a temporary opening under the eaves trough. In this case the inner portion of the platform should be held by pulleys over it to prevent the outer end from tipping downwards. If this is done there will be no necessity for projecting supports." American Agriculturist. At a recent meeting of the New York Farmers' Club, the following remarks respecting the drying of fruit were made by Solon Robinson, Esq. : At the West, where apples and peaches grow in such luxuriant abundance as to be utterly valueless in a grain State, a very rude kiln is in common use. They are built in this way : parallel walls of stone are built about a foot high, and covered with flat stones, the joints plastered with clay, and the flues between the walls connected at one end with a short chimney to carry off the smoke of fires built at the other end. Upon these flat stones, when heated, the fruit is spread until dry. I have known these kilns built, where there were no stones, all of clay. A smooth log is laid down as a mould for the flue, and the clay built over it, and then it is withdrawn, and so on a succession of flues, which are all covered and smoothed off on the top, and thereon the fruit is placed to dry. It is sometimes badly burnt. There is another rude kind of drying kiln at the West. A wooden house, say six feet square, has such a flue as I have described, or a stove with the mouth open on one side of the house, for convenience of firing, with the pipe or flue carried out on the opposite side. This heats the air inside of the house very hot. Then one side of the house is filled with drawers that pull out like a bureau. These are made only two inches deep, with basket-work bottoms to hold the fruit and let the air pass through. This plan is better than the kilns I described, but not perfect. The North American Phalanx in New Jersey had a drying kiln built in the form of a large brick chimney, with drawers in three stories of the building, that operated very well in drying fruit, green corn, beans, okre, 134 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. and other vegetables, but the mistake in its formation was that it was not open at the top, to create a draught and carry off the moisture. If such a chimney were very tall, with the heat in an oven at the bottom to heat the air drawn in from outside, I think fruit would dry very rapidly. Any and every farmer can have one of these drying flues ; and where fuel is cheap and fruit plenty, I have no doubt that the profit would be very large. It is worth trying. There is another plan of building a drying chimney that may be more effectual than one with an open top, and that is the plan adopted in some foundries to dr the wet clay- work of cores used in casting. There the current of heated air is introduced at the top and draws downwards, and escapes at the bottom. But, after all, I do not think that we have arrived at the true way of drying fruit. I have full faith to believe that the time will come when fruit will be made into a pulp, and freed from skins and cores and seeds by machinery, and the water evaporated by heat, somewhat upon the same plan it is now from pulp of rags to make paper. What we want is an invention to facilitate this purpose. That it can be done I know, for it is done in a rude way at the West in an article called " peach leather," or, as the chairman suggests as a better name, we will call it peach marmalade. Peaches are pulped and spread upon plates or tin platters, and dried in the sun or a slow oven. Pumpkin meal is an article made by the Shakers, and sold in this market to a limited extent. The process ought to be better known, and more widely applied. And if so juicy a fruit as pumpkins can be dried and ground into meal, I want to know why apples cannot be treated in the same way. Adaptation of Trees to Economic Purposes. As in the case of metals, timber is provided in manageable masses. The size of trees is adapted for human, not Cyclopean artisans. Had they generally approached the Gigantic Sequoia, what could have been done with them with logs, one of which, laid along the pave- ment of some streets, would fill them to the roofs of three-story houses ! The difficulty of felling, transporting, handling, and slitting such into beams or into boards, would have been seriously embarrassing, whereas the most useful trees are never too large for easy control, rarely exceeding four feet in diameter, and a fair average would give from fifteen to eighteen inches nearly. The mahogany-tree is remarkable for its magnitude, and yet the largest recorded log was only seventeen feet long by fifty-four and sixty-four inches. Another fea- ture of the world's timber is, the heaviest woods are not found in the largest bolls, but gene- rally in the smallest a provision that vastly facilitates man's control over them. Fir is only as heavy as oak, while ebony, lignum-vitae, and box are rather shrubs than trees. Hickory is rarely seen a foot in diameter, and exceedingly few sticks of rosewood are met with as large. Thus the largest trees are light and easily worked. Had they been light and porous as the cork-tree, or heavy and dense as lignum-vitoo, they had been of comparatively little use to man. But we are ordained to be elaborators in wood as well as in the metals ; and hence the facilities for its acquisition, its varieties of masses, properties, and adaptations. Ewbank, The World a Workshop. ggricultol jpu$tnj anfo tolcgtj. On the Utilization of Sewerage Products for Agricultural Purposes. R. MEG HI, the well-known English agriculturist, at a lato meeting of the London Farmer's Club, delivered the following lecture on the utilization of sewerage products, especially those of London, for agricultural purposes : One hundred years hence, which is not long in the history of a country, our successors will scarcely believe that a nation, wanting annually many millions of quarters of grain to fill up its own inadequate production of food, should waste the only means by which siu-h dofu-iency might be made good. I mean the productions of the land when they have fulfilled their office of nutrition to man and boast. Every one now at all conversant with the theory of modern agricultural che- mistry must know that our agricultural produce loses little by such a process, and that the bulk of its elements are returned to us in the shape of excretse, if we take the trouble to col- lect them. I am aware that the practicability of doing so has been questioned ; but I pur- pose this evening to show that there is no difficulty in the matter, except what exists in the brain of man. The same power that brings your water into London will take it out again ; for, according to Professor Way and other chemists, 2,500,000 inhabitants will only add three thousand seven hundred and sixty tons in solids and fluids to the quantity of water. If agriculturists' studied attentively Professor Way's able paper on Town-sewage, (see Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, vol. xv. part 1, p. 135,) it would teach them a great and pro- fitable lesson. They would learn that of all the manure made by human beings (and I have no doubt by animals) twelve parts out of thirteen in weight escape as urine, only one-thir- teenth part being solid ! Well may farmers love the sheep-fold, and well may they deplore yard-feeding, where the rains from the untroughed roofs may, in too many instances, thus take away nearly all their manure. Mr. Way has found that, taking the average of men, women, and children, each individual of the population will, in the course of twenty-four hours, contribute to the sewage of a town one-quarter of a pound of solid and three pounds of liquid excrement. A knowledge of these facts shows us how trivial is the question of solid manure ; for, at a quarter of a pound each, daily, the total solid manure of 2,500,000 people will only weigh two hundred and seventy-nine tons. According to Mr. Way, the excrement of each person is di- luted with or distributed through twenty gallons, or fourteen hundred times its own weight, of water. It must appear singular to a disinterested observer that, while farmers seek eagerly after every new manure, and are subjected to much imposition in such purchases, they appear to be apathetic on the question of town-sewage. Omitting the sanitary consideration, there can be no class so deeply interested in the question of town-sewage as the farmer. Those sewers carry away to our rivers all the products which he has at so much care and cost produced for the food of the people. To repair the exhaustions caused by these supplies, he rushes to Peru for birds' dung, at an expense of some millions, while the very graveyards of foreign nations are taxed to supply bones for his turnips. The rapid increase of water-closets and new sewers, with a more abundant water supply, are daily lessening the supply of human excretae in a solid form, diminishing, in fact, pro tanto, the ordinary channel of supply, so that shortly we may expect that only the stable-manure and ashes of London will be available for agricultural 135 136 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. purposes, while the weekly supply of 6000 or 7000 bullocks, 40,000 sheep, and all the other vast solid and fluid consumables of the metropolis, from tea to turtle, will be floating down the sewers unheeded and unsolicited. This cruel neglect can only arise from a disbelief of the value of such manure, or from a doubt of the possibility of applying it economically. I purpose, therefore, this evening, to go into statistical details with a view to ventilate the question, and to prove how easily such an operation may be successfully carried out with individual and general benefits. Water alone is manure ; who can doubt this ? Look to the costly water-meadows in various parts of the kingdom ; and what farmer who has a water-meadow does not appreciate its great value to him as producing early, late, and most abundant vegetation ? My own experience, with two miles of pipes on my farm of one hundred and seventy acres, has proved that fluid applications of manure are far the most profitable, and that their influence is quite as im- portant and advantageous to cereal as to other crops. In proof of this I have threshed some fields of wheat, producing six quarters per imperial acre;* oats, thirteen quarters, and bar- ley, eight quarters, which latter is one quarter more than I estimated in my balance-sheet. Now, such productions as these on a naturally wretched soil prove more than volumes of argument, and I have no hesitation in saying that, had my neighbors to pay 2 per acre annually in interest for improvements over and above their present rent to obtain similar results, they would be considerable gainers. If it answers my purpose to lay down pipes, erect an engine, make tanks, erect pumps, and so on, for the mere purpose of applying the manure made on my farm in a fluid state, with a large supply of water from my spring, surely it must equally and more certainly pay a farmer to receive back his corn, bullocks, sheep, and other productions, after they are done with, at a very much smaller cost ; for their very essence will return to him, accompanied by all the good things that metropolitan luxury can command from every foreign part. If we go into a statistical inquiry of the weekly sup- ply of London in tea, coffee, and sugar; wine, spirits, and beer; fish, flesh, and fowl, (foreign and British;) the tons of soap, and the thousand-and-one refuses of our manufactories, gas- works, &c., one becomes amazed at the fructifying power involved in such a consideration. The alkaline and grauited solutions of our pavements by trituration and abrasion, the smuts from our smoke, have all a considerable value. The mere wear and tear of shoe-leather has its value, as it grinds down the pavement into hollows. I apprehend that the daily cost of feeding each individual in this metropolis, taking the average of rich and poor, young and old, would not be less than ten-pence per day, or thirty-seven and a half millions sterling per annum. Now, in parts of Lincolnshire it is the custom to value the manure at half the cost of the oil-cake consumed. On this principle, which appears to be a sound one, the agricultural value of the manure from thi!S^iirty-seven and a hal millions of food ought to be something very considerable, to say nothing food consumed by the animals of the metropolis. The rubbing, washing, and agitating which the solid excrement receives in passing through miles of tortuous sewers, cause it to be dis- solved and pass away in a fluid state, which we may any day prove by an examination of the sewers' mouths at low-water. I think farmers cannot be aware that all the solid and liquid manure of men and animals is liquifiable by solution or suspension, and can be applied in a shower, sinking deeply into the subsoil of drained land. Perhaps I may be here permitted to explain why I consider this mode of application far superior to the solid form. If you make a transverse cut or opening in the soil, you will find that the British agricultural pie- crust is only five to eight inches thick. The slips and railway cuttings plainly reveal this humiliating fact. Below this thin crust we see a primitive soil, bearing most unmistakable evidence of antiquity and unalterability. The dark shades of the cultivated and manured surface have not been communicated to the pale subsoil ; and we have evident proof that solid manure plowed in, in the ordinary way, exercises little influence on the subsoil. Nor can this be wondered at, when the plow sole has been polishing and solidifying the floor at the same depth for the last few centuries. Now, when I apply liquified manure, (which * The "quarter" of English agriculturists is eight buskds; so that the yield of wheat was forty-eight bushels per imperial acre of four rods, each forty-six perches or rods. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 137 means all the solid and liquid excrements of the farm animals mixed with water,) it soaks deeply into the subsoil to the depth of the drains, which I have seen, on the very strongest clays, discharging the liquefied manure at a depth of four and five feet. Here, then, is the secret of my great crops on a miserable soil. The manure vitalizes, warms, and chemically changes the miserable subsoil; the roots of the growing crops know this, and send down their fibres or mouths to appropriate and elaborate the subterranean treasures now for the first time placed at their disposal in an available condition. I could show you twenty loads of rich oil-cake bullock pudding, or manure ; I would mix it with water, apply it in a shower, and you should search the surface in vain for any proof of its whereabout. It has gone down to do its work. I will not drag you through all the details of the modus operandi of this method of manuring ; you may see it all any day you choose on my farm, or on any of those of others who are practising the same process. What I want you to believe is, that town- sewage is liquid guano, applicable to every soil and every crop, and worthy of your utmost attention. It is true that uudrained land, requiring drainage, such as heavy clays and spring soil, must undergo that operation before they can derive the benefit of such an application ; but there are extensive tracts of chalks, sands, and hot gravels, almost praying to be fertil- ized by the sewage of our towns. Although I apply my liquefied manure on the surface, I am quite convinced that, during the summer season and among the growing crops, it would be far more advantageous to apply it subterraneously, as effected by Mr. Wilkins. lly this means, the openings and tillage of the surface is undisturbed ; the rays of heat and light are employed in warming the earth, and evaporating from the leaves the subterranean supply of fluids which the plants absorb by their roots, and which arise to them by capillarity. The question is a lai'ge one, involving 1. 'rations of cost; but most certainly production is vastly increased and stimulated by the new method. One important reason for the superiority of liquefied over solid manures, is, that water is the great arrester and conveyance of ammonia that invisible and truant spirit which is ever escaping unseen fn>m recking dung-heaps. It is this ammonia which dissolves the silica of the soil, and makes the kernel of our wheat and the lean of our flesh ; and it is lor this ammonia that we so affectionately prize unwashed Peruvian guano or birds' dung. When. you have learned to apply fluid manure to the soil, you will find your crops yield as much as they do after the sheepfold, and you will get corn as well as straw ; that is, if you do not sow too much seed. You must give up all hopes of obtaining town-sewage in a solid form, for Professor Way's paper, (which every agriculturist should read,) in the Royal Agricultural Society's Journal, and other evidences, are conclusive on that point. Now, in railroad undertakings we find landed proprietors and other interested parties join- ing with town capitalists, and affording them every inducement and opportunity to open up a country with general benefit. Let the same be done with sewage. Depend upon it, without this co-operation no town capitalists will be so miscalculating as to place their capital at the mercy of local prejudice or neglect. It therefore remains with agriculture itself to determine whether this interesting question shall receive its proper solution. But supposing that the new company has laid down its main line of pipes for the country distribution, where will you find the 3 per acre for the network of iron pipes, &c. requisite on every farm ? It appears to me that, where the capital is required, it may be readily obtained from the Lands Improvement Company or Land Drainage Company, and that the annual charge which would liquidate principal and interest in a few years would leave a large margin of advantage for both landlord and tenant. To those who desire to see the mode of applying town-sewage may be quoted the instance of G. H. Walker, Esq., who takes the town of Rugby, &c. ; W. Worsley, Esq., near Manchester, who uses the sewage of a neighboring district. In both these cases steam-power is applied. Of course, if the London sewage is used, I apprehend it would be pumped to elevated dis- trict reservoirs, whence it would flow from main pipes connected with smaller ones on the various farms, so that they would be always charged with a sufficient pressure to cause a jet; this would render unnecessary any steam-engine or tank on the farm. A register of quantity, 138 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. like a gas-meter, would enable the company to make their periodical charge. I annex the following statistical account, with which I have been favored by Edwin Chadwick, our greatest authority in such matters : The gross daily quantity of water pumped into the metropolis was, in the year 1850, forty- four million gallons. The actual quantity consumed for domestic purposes, or that you could estimate for sewage as containing house refuse, or house-manure in suspension or solution, at times when there is no rain applicable as manure, would not be more than twenty million gallons per diem. I say house-manure, because rain and storm waters bring, as surface wash- ings, dung from the streets, and soot and birds' dung from the roofs of houses. You may judge of the daily quantity visibly by the fact, that forty -five million gallons would bo deli- vered in twenty-four hours by a brook nine feet wide and three feet deep, running at the rate of three feet per second, or a little more than two miles per hour ; and three sewers, of three feet diameter and of a proper fall, will suffice for the removal (for distribution) of the same volume of refuse or soil water. The total weight of this annual supply of water is nearly seventy-two millions of tons. The daily cost of raising the whole supply by engine-power one hundred feet high (for distribution) would be about 25, or 9000 per annum. Sup- posing the supply were equally distributed, i. e. the forty-four millions, it would be about fifty pailsful for each house, and would weigh about thirteen hundredweight. Those who doubt the cheapness at which water can be raised may be assured by visiting the Croydon Water-works, where six hundred and fifty thousand gallons are forced to a mile distant, and elevated one hundred and fifty feet, at a cost of thirteen and a half hundred- weight of dust-coal per diem of twenty -four hours. With regard to the mode of conveyance, it appears to me that our railway lines might be availed of to lay down lines of pipes ; but, of course, all such questions would be easily arranged by competent engineering authorities. Perhaps it will be as well to state, that fifteen yards of three-inch iron pipe per acre will be all that is required, or about five and a half hundredweight of iron per acre. This is the quantity on my farm ; I have one hundred and seventy acres piped. The value of London sewage has been variously estimated; but Professor Way has calculated it by its ammonia at two millions sterling. He has made no valuation of the water alone ; I apprehend that fifty millions of gallons daily, or two hundred and twenty-four thousand tons, would have, even when unmixed with manure, a considerable irrigating value. In order to ascertain whether this application of sewage will pay the farmer a profit, and leave a sufficient interest for the capital invested by a company, let us calculate seventy-two million tons of sewage, at one penny per ton, would be 300,000. Now, take the pumping or raising this quantity at the exaggerated sum of 50,000 annually, there would remain 250,000 as interest on the capital invested, which, at six per cent., would be also the exag- gerated sum of 4,000,000 sterling. I have assumed the sum of one penny per ton as representing that which would leave the farmer and landlord a very large profit on their pipe investment. I can confirm this by my own practical experience. But it must be obvious to any one who reasons, that, as one hun- dred tons of water per acre represents a rain fall of twenty-four hours, this alone, without the saturation of manure, must be worth one penny per ton, or 3s. Qd. per acre, and, indeed, in dry weather, for grass crops very much more. As to the quantity required per acre, Mr. Telfer, of Ayr, tells me that he applies five hundred tons of water per Scotch acre at five dressings to his Italian rye-grass, with five hundredweight of guano at each dressing, making a total annual application of twenty-five hundredweight of guano per Scotch acre, (one- fourth larger than the English acre.) This is in a naturally moist climate : therefore, we may estimate the water- absorbing power of the barren sandy wastes in the neighborhood of the metropolis far more considerable. That those wastes would be rendered highly pro- ductive after the application of town-sewage cannot be doubted. The experiments of Mr. Wilkins, who grew two crops of hemp and flax in one season, last year, settle the question. Now, if you apply five hundred tons per acre, you will only re- quire one hundred and fifty-two thousand acres to absorb your seventy-six millions of tons. As six hundred and forty acres are a square mile, you would at that rate require two hundred and thirty-seven square miles, or a square area whose diameter would be about fifteen miles. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 139 I have a strong conviction that a very much larger quantity of sewage, say one thousand tons per acre, at least, may be profitably applied to our sandy, gravelly, and chalky wastes. This would afford a great economy in distance and expense. On the Edinburgh meadows as much as six thousand tons per Scotch acre are applied ; but that appears to me hardly a necessary quantity. Still, if such large quantities could be applied to so limited an area, it is clear that, instead of one penny per ton, the cost need not much exceed one farthing. Six thousand tons, at one farthing per ton, would be 6, 5*. per acre. This would pay; for the average letting of the Edinburgh meadows to the cow-keepers was, I am informed, last year, 21 per acre a pretty good evidence of the beneficial effects of town-sewage on waste lands that wore, a few years since, worthless and barren. I apprehend that no one will doubt tho economy of transmission of fluids by tubes, seeing that by road-carriage the charge of carting near the metropolis would be, at least, eight-pence per ton, per mile. There is no fear of our being overwhelmed with cheap hay or superabundant milk by this process, for our wants become annually more and more gigantic. In conclusion, I do hope that this club of practical agriculturists will, by their resolution this evening, stamp their opinion of the necessity for this great national economy. Subterranean Application of Liquid Manure. A MR. WILKINS has patented in England an ingenious plan for applying liquid manure directly to the bottom of the roots of plants, in the subsoil, instead of using it upon the sur- face of the ground in tho usual way. There is but one serious objection to it and that i.s its expensiveness, which is likely to prevent its general adoption. Tho liquid manure is con- veyed under the surt'aro-soil and growing crops in tubes, not unlike draining tile, allowing a line of pipes to each row of turnips, corn, potatoes, or other agricultural plants. To avoid the loss of manure by its infiltration into the subsoil and deep earth, the whole area opera trd upon has the surface-soil removed to the depth of twenty or more inches, and the denuded surface is covered with water-lime, cement, or pounded clay, to render it impervious to water, when the surface-soil is restored to its former place. In all cases where the subsoil is naturally retentive, it would appear to be a needless expense to pave or cement it to pre- vent the loss of manure, however liberally it may be used; but, on all pervious land, some- thing should be done to avoid the washing away of the liquid food of agricultural plants, where one manures highly. Mr. Wilkins has pipes leading from liquid manure tanks that convey the fertilizer to the underground conduits, through which it is brought into contact with the rootlets of every plant under cultivation. The manure rises up to the surface of the tilled soil by capillary attraction. Care, of course, is taken not to have the liquid so strong as to injure any crop, and not to give the soil, which in truth lies in a tight basin, too much water for the healthy growth of plants. Mr. W. selected last season a piece of ground one hundred feet square, which he had prepared on his principle, and by the side of it he had one hundred feet square of the same kind of soil, which was treated on the old system. Both pieces were planted and sown alike, and he had advertised the day when the roots on both would be taken up, and invited the public to come and see and judge for themselves. The results were, as re- ported in the London Agricultural Gazette, that on the prepared land the mangel-wurtzel grown was at the rate of sixty-nine tons two quarters and twenty-two pounds to the acre ; the Indian corn grown on it ripened and came to perfection, but not on the unprepared piece ; the potatoes were taken up in eleven weeks, and when weighed were found to be more than double the weight of those grown on the unprepared land ; and one of the cabbages weighed sixteen poiinds, although its stem remained in the ground, and had at the time of the ex- amination fifteen young cabbages upon it. Mr. Wilkins exhibited some lucerne, which he said was the third cut, and contrasted it with the first of some grown on the old system. Remarkably fine specimens of flax and hemp were exhibited, grown by this new process. Only four inches of liquid was allowed to stand at any time at the bottom ; and the soil above must be from twelve to eighteen inches. 140 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. The leading idea is not to permit any element of fertility to escape, either by solar evapo- ration or leaching and washing, but compel growing plants to absorb and assimilate the maximum of their appropriate food. Chinese Economy of Manure. A CORRESPONDENT of the London Literary Gazette gives the following memoranda respecting the economy of manures, as noticed in China : My first excursion was to a place called Gading, thirteen miles from Malacca, where I had permission to reside in a house occupied by some Chinese Christians, who are cultivating a garnbir and pepper plantation. The house was a mere huge shed. I lived in it a fortnight, as, strange to relate, the Chinese (I trust because they were Christians) kept it clean. No people in the tropics really cultivate the soil as these do. They do not merely plant and reap ; they dig and trench and level ; they eradicate weeds and stumps ; they keep the ground clean, and they manure. The process of manuring, indeed, was the only thing I objected to, as the tank was a large bucket kept standing for convenience in a corner of the house. The rage for liquid manure is such, that, in the Chinese villages, a bucket often stands near the door for public use. The pigs, for the same reason, are far better lodged than with us, having a floor of poles with a tank beneath, in which all the manure is collected. Mr. Mechi and Tiptree Hall. ALL have heard of Mr. Mechi, the celebrated English agriculturist, and of Tiptree Hall, where his experiments in farming have been carried on ; but few are acquainted with the history and details of this gentleman's experiences. We derive the following abstract from the correspondence of the New York Tribune : Americans, who may have known London twenty or five-and-twenty years ago will remem- ber a constant affix to the dead walls of the metropolis "MECHI'S MAGIC PASTE." This, in time, was succeeded by "Mechi's Magic Strop" and " Mechi's Magic Razor," until at last these articles, by constant puffing and advertising, became of almost universal use throughout Great Britain. As the result of his enterprise and tact, Mr. Mechi became possessed of no inconsiderable wealth, a portion of which he resolved to devote to agricul- tural experiments, still retaining his shop in town. Although the advertising of Mechi's articles had, in a great measure, ceased, it was im- possible that a keen and enterprising man of this sort could be entirely forgotten. It was not his character to allow himself to sink into oblivion together with his paste. After the decline of that commodity, some time elapsed before Mr. Mechi again turned up ; but when he did turn up, he turned up with a vengeance ! It was during that exciting period when "free-trade" was agitating the minds of Englishmen and threatening to produce a revolu- tion in the nation, that Mr. Mechi again came before the public. The scene was the House of Commons ; the hour, twelve at night. Ministerial and Opposition benches were thronged ; the galleries seemed ready to sink under the mass of "strangers" crowding into them. "Hear! hear!" was most vociferous; "Oh! oh!" unusually sarcastic. Amid a volley of both, some " honorable member" had just sat down, when, amid a silence as profound as death, up rose Sir Robert Peel. That great statesman commenced, of course, in his blandest tones. He touched lightly on the theme by the last speaker ; he treated tenderly two or three salient points which had occurred in the debate ; and, after eliciting a cheer or two from those who sat around him, came at once to the topic of his speech. He wanted that night, he said, to address himself to the agriculturists of England. He desired to tell the landlords to their faces that the science of agriculture in this country was most imperfectly understood. England, he wanted to impress upon them, was at least a quarter of a century behind the age in agriculture, and would be outstripped even by Russia, if we did not speedily adopt new methods. It was his opinion that, in many respects, the English farmer had the very A B C of cultivation yet to learn. [At such an assurance as AGRICULTUKAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 141 tins, I need not tell you how great was the astonishment. It became greater as Sir Robert Peel contimied.] Within a very few days past lie had visited, at no great distance from the metropolis, a model farm. [A sarcastic cry of Oh !] Yes, a model farm, from which the agricultural member who cried " Oh !" might take many a useful lesson. It was the farm of a well-known citizen of London of a tradesman of great enterprise and of considerable pro- perty ; but of one, be it observed, who had not been used or accustomed to farming, and who was yet able to teach English agriculturists a lesson in agric^ture. Upon a barren heath Mr. Mechi had planted a model farm; and such were his improved methods of cultiva- tion, of draining, of manuring, and of subsoil plowing, that upon that barren heath there stood at that moment the very finest crops throughout the length and breadth of Britain, He admonished country gentlemen that new methods of cultivation had been too long neg- lected. He warned them that, instead of being before the rest of the world, they were lamentably behind it. He cautioned them to take care lest they were outstripped as farmers by people of whom they appeared to entertain much too light opinions. And the text from which he preached throughout was this same farm of Mr. Mechi, of which nobody, before that day, had ever heard ; but which, from that day and long after, became the battle-field on which protectionists and free-traders, corn-law men and anti-corn-law men, fought many a heavy fight of words, both before Parliament and the people. " The Model Mechi" and " Mechi's Model Farm" became the watchwords of one party, while by the other the dic- tionary of the English language was dissected for every defamatory and disparaging dissyl- lable the dialect afforded to designate Mechi as disgracefully as they desired us to deem that he deserved. Since all this occurred, eight or ten years have run their course. Free-trade has become the law of the land ; the averments of Sir Robert Peel as to the backwardness of English agriculturists have been recognised as partly, if not wholly, true ; and Mr. Mechi, who held mplaeently while the tempest howled around him, now enjoys the favoring gales and gladdening sunshine of a prosperous career. I need scarcely tell you that he is what he always AV.-I<. It is the world that has changed not the man. But Mr. Mechi knows (no one better) how to turn the changes and chances of the world to account, and I will proceed to tell you how he now applies his knowledge. Once every year, just at the close of the London season, when every one in town is sighing for a breath of country air, just before the commencement of the harvest, Mr. Mvchi lias an "agricultural gathering" at Tiptree Hall. To this gathering are invited all the notabilities of the day. Farmers, imitators, and admirers, all turn out to see " Mechi's Model Farm." To these, collected at his hospitable hall, Mr. Mechi proceeds to show his improvements. He walks them over his fields and through his stock-yard ; he expatiates upon his difficulties and explains his improvements ; he discourses on his crops, exhibits his machines, lectures learn- edly on his manures, shows how he distributes them, and when the party have acquired suffi- cient information and astounding appetites, he concludes the day by setting them down to a banquet, such as a Londoner alone knows how to manage. As a place of country-resort, Tiptree Hall has few attractions. Situated on an elevated, bleak, and barren heath, without a tree within a mile of it larger than a laurel, it boasts not a single rural beauty, such as we regard rural beauty in this country. Mr. Mechi has made a great effort to compensate for this by artificial gardening ; but though every thing has been done that a cultivated taste and a lavish expenditure could effect, yet the result, as a whole, is eminently unsatisfactory. Terraces and embankments have been thrown up to relieve the flat monotony of the landscape ; a bog has been converted into a series of little lakes ; walks of every possible variety have been wound around plantations ; tender shrubs have been planted and effectually reared on spots where Nature never intended that a shrub should grow ; flower-beds have been laid out with all the elaboration of which the Italian style of gardening is susceptible ; color has been properly introduced where nothing was to be seen but drab-colored heather ; but still the result is unsatisfactory. The place, in fact, as a re- treat, has no capabilities. Nature has predetermined that there shall be about it none of the specialities of an English farm, and Nature has yet, in this respect, been too strong for man. But what of Tiptree as a " model farm ?" Is it what it professes to be ? Is it what Sir 142 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. Robert Peel described it? Is it an example which the farmers of the world may advan- tageously consult and imitate ? Now, as to this point, I must frankly say that my notions are poised so very equally in my mental scales that I am unable to give a distinct or satisfac- tory reply. I have seen better things in farming than Tiptree Hall, many better tilings ; but while I declare this, I must also acknowledge that I never sUw so remarkable an example of what industry and enterprise may accomplish under the most unfavorable circumstances. Certainly no one but annn accustomed to get sharp edges from the collision of steel and stone ever would have thought of trying to cultivate such a place at all. One would fancy that Mr. Mechi had taken up an idea from his bhop that you could get a good crop out of stones as well as a keen edge. You should have heard his own account of what Tiptree Farm was when he came there ! "Vainly," said he, "did I try by solid manures to render this vile, plastic clay a useful pasture. It was like bird-lime in winter, and like cast-iron in summer. Poor, indigenous, and drab-colored grasses choked and eradicated the finer kinds I had sown, and the animals wandered about hollow and dissatisfied. Now, fine and fattening grasses clothe the fields with perpetual verdure, the land keeps three times as many animals, and the close and shaven pasture indicates their affection for it." And this description of Mr. Mechi's pasture is a fine description of his whole farm. Where the drab-colored grasses were alone seen ten years ago, crops of the finest wheat, barley, and oats now clothe the wold and greet the sunshine as it merrily glances from the heavens. Every one admits that there can be no finer crops. They are grown from very small quantities of well-selected seeds ; but these small quantities, under Mechi's system, seem to be more productive than large quantities anywhere else. How, then, have these results been produced ? The answer is simple. By deep drainage and liquid manures, regardless of expense. Mr. Mechi's knowledge of chemistry taught him that the worst soil might become better by allowing their pores to be fermented by the sweet rains of heaven. Every clod in the hard clay at Tiptree was choked by stagnant water. He drew it off by deep drainage. Then the plow let in life and light upon heaps of earth which had never felt the influence of either. Still, though the land was broken up though from a hard, cold clod of clay it had been converted into a dry mould still it was poor and needy. Mr. Mechi's next application to it was, accordingly, intended to give it strength and heat. By means of pipes carried all over the estate, liquid manure was laid on freely wherever it seemed to be required, and the ground soon showed how much it was strengthened, and how much it was disposed to give a grateful and hearty acknowledgment of the favor conferred upon it. In bygone times, it used to be a great joke with the farmers to ask Mr. Mechi where was his "balance-sheet?" You may grow a crop upon one of your own razors, was the argu- ment, but what will it cost you ? For many years, while the price of wheat was low, Mr. Mechi was compelled to acknowledge that he had invested more in the soil than the soil returned him. But things have now changed, and Mr. Mechi retorts the joke upon the farmers. " It is not," says he, " the man who farms with the least expense who makes the most money. When prices were low, and labor was low, I invested large sums of money in the land ; now that prices are high, I invest no longer, but I reap the benefit of my invest- ment at low prices. My fields produce more than yours; my returns are, consequently, greater than yours. And it is the result of investment in improvements at periods when improvements can be made at low rates of wages." Such are the arguments of Mr. Mechi. They are, to a great extent, of world-wide application. Mr. Mechi held his annual gathering in July of the present year, 1855, as usual some three hundred farmers, savans, and statesmen being present. Mr. M. stated that he realized $3500 from Tiptree last year, and that his balance-sheet can no longer be considered unsatis- factory. Stock, which is at present unprofitable to feed, is not kept by him in any great quantity. Several of his largest sheds are empty pigs and bullocks in diminished num- bers, and the sheep in the fields. Mr. Mechi does not like looking behind him. He seems afraid of the fate of Lot's wife, if he did so ; and therefore, once a principle is conceded and successfully illustrated at Tip- tree and other model farms, he leaves contentedly to time its full realization over the face of AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 143 the country. While the bulk of English agriculture still struggles to arrive at deep draining and deep disintegration of the soil, at clean fields, liberal manuring, and the clearing away of useless hedgerow^ and trees ; while it is still miles away from such elaborate applications as that of liquid manure by underground pipes ; and while the use of steam in any form is still very exceptional, Mr. Mechi and his coadjutors are looking forward confidently to steam drainage and steam cultivation. A machine, invented by Lord Dundonald, was exhibited for the accomplishment of the former object ; and, though the trial was not carried to a sufficient extent to enable a very confident opinion to be formed on its merits, its ingenuity and sim- plicity of construction were readily acknowledged by some of the most practical* men present. To bring about steam cultivation, a very pretty little working model was shown. This model went up a steep embankment, along a rough road, turned in different directions with great ease, and dug away with its spades in soft garden mould. It appears to be rather complex in its parts, and otherwise open to objection; but, taken in connection with other recent improvements, it must be admitted that Mr. Mechi has fair grounds for his conviction that we are brought close to the application of steam-power to the cultivation of the soil. Toward this result the mechanical treatment of the land, in the best-farmed districts of England, has been long tending, and the Royal Agricultural Society has at length acknowledged the want by inviting the attention of inventors to it in their prize-list. Draining of Lake Fucino, in Italy. ONE of the most gigantic operations, involving drainage, is now in progress at the Lake Fucino, or Celano, in Southern Italy. This lake is about eighty miles east of Rome and one hundred and ten north of Naples ; and, being surrounded by the highest Apennines, is, as it were, the reservoir into which fall all the rain and melted snows which flow down from its gigantic neighbors. From the effectual manner in which it is enclosed on all sides, there is no natural outlet for its waters, and thus it happens that an immense space of land is sub- merged ; a yet larger space is continually threatened by the possible rising of the body of the lake ; much land and capital have been lost ; and the inevitable consequence would be, that capital would be completely withdrawn, and what might be made a garden would become a desert. Yet, notwithstanding these uncertainties and dangers, such is the fertility of the soil, that a population always springs up in its immediate neighborhood, just as it does on the ashes of Vesuvius. The object of the present undertaking is not merely to drain the lake, but to form a channel of communication with the Liris, whereby all future accumula- tions of water may be carried off. The attempt to drain this lake is not altogether a new one. Julius Caesar intended to have it drained, and might have done so, had it not been for his death. Claudius was the next emperor who undertook the work, and that, too, in good earnest ; " not merely for profit," says Suetonius, " but for glory." It is interesting to observe that the mode of completing the enterprise was similar to that now adopted. Certain persons offered to drain it at their own expense, provided the land redeemed was conceded to them. Partly by tunnelling, and partly by cutting the mountain, he, with difficulty, completed a canal, after working eleven years incessantly with thirty thousand men. Pliny, speaking of it, says "Among the great works of Claudius especially deserving of notice, though destroyed by the jealousy of his successor, was the tunnelling of a mountain to carry off the Lake Fucinum ; * * and all was done in the midst of inner darkness facts beyond the conception of all, except of such as have seen them, and incapable of being described by him in language." The praise is not too great, when we consider the low state of science which marked that age, and the want of powder. All the details of the outlet were not completed, however, by Claudius ; and Nero, so far from finishing them, suffered it to fall into ruins. Adrian repaired it. From that time, or from the fall of the Roman empire, up to the thirteenth century, this grand public work experienced the same fate with all other public monuments in Italy. Frederic the Second, in 1240, Alphonse the First of Arragon, and Prince Colonna, at the beginning of the seventeenth contury, made several efforts either to drain the lake or to limit its ravages; all of which, from various reasons, failed. Under the reign of Charles thj 144 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. Third, the waters of the lake became so low that the remains of Marmvio, one of three sub- merged cities, were discovered, and all sense of danger passed away; but, from 1783 to 1787, the floods returned yet stronger than ever, and wholly destroyed the fertile lands in the neighborhood. From that time till now, various plans have been presented, adopted, and begun, though fur several reasons suspended. The work ii now, however, it is to be hoped, in a fair way of being completed, having been undertaken by a French company. The com- mencement of the operations will be upon the old tunnel of Claudius, which is incomplete, and is sixteen feet below the lowest part of the bed of the lake. Its actual height is from seven to fourteen feet ; but it is now proposed to enlarge it to the height of twenty feet, and sixteen feet in breadth. When completed, a dam is to be erected at the mouth of the tunnel, with a number of sluices at different levels. The highest sluice will be opened, which will carry oif the first few feet of the surface water. While these works are in course of execu- tion, dredging machines are to be used, with the view of clearing a canal for the sluices to the deepest part of the lake. The sluices will afterwards be removed, one after another one only remaining in permanence to regulate the flow of the water into the tunnel. To this must be added, that the formation of a reservoir, as a temporary recipient for rain or river water, enters also into the plan of the company. In this way modern science and enterprise will triumph over obstacles whi<}h Nature has ever interposed to the cultivation of a vast tract of land, and will complete a work which was designed so far back as the time of Julius Caesar. There is this difference, however, that, whereas the ancient plan contemplated only the limiting of the inundations of the lake, the actual plan attempts the complete drainage of it. Of enterprises of this character, it is said to be the grandest that has ever been undertaken. Lake Haarlem, in Holland, extended, indeed, over a larger area ; but it was not so completely drained as the lake of Fucino will be. A few words now as to the benefits arising from this mighty operation. Thirty-three thousand acres of the richest soil will be reclaimed, which become the perquisite of the company. This is not all, however ; for an end will be put to the uncertainty and insecurity which arise from the periodical rising of the lake, and which forbid the employment of capital on land which may be submerged the next season. This probability, or possibility, depends on a curious feature in the natural history of the lake. This is the sudden rises in the water-level to which the lake is sub- ject, the causes of which have never been explained, though speculation has been busy. The variation in its level, within twenty years, has amounted to so much as forty feet, it having been, in 1816, higher, by forty feet, than it was in 1835. Since that year, it has again been gradually rising, until it has now risen twenty feet higher than it was in 1835. These are no slight variations, and prove how much danger attends the cultivation of the land bordering the lake for a considerable space. Strabo, in a note which I quote from Suetonius, alludes to the yet greater height to which the waters attained in his days, and suggests an explana- tion of the cause similar to one which has been adopted in the present day. It is a most curious question. One favorite theory of the present day, though without any facts to sup- port it, is as follows : There is a certain drainage area belonging to the lake ; but a con- siderable belt of high ground above it has no drainage at all. It is suggested that, in the winter-time, with a prevailing wind from one direction, the streams are carried toward the lake, increasing its bulk and its height. With a contrary wind, these streams are carried off, and a corresponding diminution ensues. Another theory is, that there are fissures in the rock whereby the water escapes ; that by some causes these fissures are closed ; that during other years these fissures are again opened, and the water flows. The drainage of the water, it is supposed, leaves sand and earth, which choke up these fissures ; that the water conse- quently rises, and, when high, bursts through and finds for itself a channel. Whichever theory be right, or whether either, it is clear that an immense benefit will be conferred by the drainage of the lake, not merely by the restoration of much land that is constantly sub- merged, but by giving security to the proprietors in the neighborhood. Nor is this vast undertaking without great interest to the antiquary. Three cities and a large number of country-houses, have, at various periods, been swallowed up by the waters of the lake. His- tory preserves the names of these three cities Valeria or Marruvium, Penna, and Archippus which contain a treasure of antiquities perhaps not less precious than that of Pompeii. In AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 145 the reign of Charles the Third, about the latter end of the fourteenth century, the waters of the lake fell so low that the ruins of the ancient Valeria were exposed to view. The statues of Claudius, of Agrippina, and of Nero, were found there, and now adorn the Palace of Caserta. Among other objects, have recently been discovered the ruins of a house on the borders of the lake, and a large stone bearing an inscription, on which is recorded the name of a freedman of Tiberius Csesar. The curiosity of the antiquary will, therefore, be now especially directed to the lake of Fucino. On the Collection and Preservation of Liquid Manure. A CORRESPONDENT of the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, England, describes the following method adopted by him for the collection, preservation, and distribution of liquid manure. He says Knowing something of the value of urine, and the profit to be derived from it, I am the more anxious to induce others to try it, and will, therefore, take this opportunity of saying something about the mode I have adopted to collect it, and the expense of the tanks to retain it, which may be useful to those who have not yet set about so important an operation in agricultural pursuits. My land is clay, two hundred and fifty deep ; in this soil only have I had experience, so for this only do I prescribe. Having well considered where the liquid is to be used, as well as where it is to bo made, and resolved upon the most convenient situation, I have a hole dug full seven feet in diameter and twelve feet deep, the bottom being shaped like a basin, and well rammed, with a litUe water, into a good puddle. The construction of the tank is commenced by the bricklayer forming a circle with bricks (four-inch work) round an opening of five feet, leaving a space behind the brick-work to be filled and rammed well in with clay- puddle by the laborers as the building is worked up, no mortar being used with the bricks, or any thing else till the dome is to be formed ; mortar or cement is then required, the roof is then arched in, a man-hole left in the centre of each tank, and covered with a three-inch yellow deal cover, (two-inch oak would be better.) One of these tanks, containing one thousand gallons, cost 2 17. 6d., (about $14.) Several of these tanks should be made adjoining each other ; they then form a most excel- lent filter to keep back any hay or straw that would prevent the egress of the liquid from the water-cart, receiving it into the first from the stables, and pumping it out from any other one of them. It must be observed, also, the tanks being formed, the drainage into them is the next feature to be considered. I have adopted a mode economical and effectual, by laying down in the pavement what is called at the iron-works an angle-iron gutter of very small size, and covering the surface of it with a flat iron bar, just to lie within the surface of the gutter, wherein all the urine is received and conveyed away immediately, and all the straw, dung, and dirt is kept out. This is highly advantageous, as the urine is conveyed away immediately, without escape of ammonia, and the little gutter may be uncovered as often as you please, and swept out with a broom. There is no under-drain to get stopped ; all can be seen and kept in order by a commonly useful person, without the aid of what is called a tradesman. I should like to see three of these little gutters down a stall, whereby all the urine would be caught ; three gallons per day from each moderately-sized horse, more from cart-horses that drink freely, considerably more from cows, and a much larger quantity from pigs than is usually calculated. If all the water is caught from farm-horses, cows, pigs, farm-servants, and household-people, the tanks would be filled very quickly ; and, whenever the tank con- taining one thousand gallons of urine is filled the second time, and properly applied to Italian rye-grass, the result will show it is not too high an estimate to calculate the tanks and drains paid for. The first application will convince the grower of ten acres of this grass, that his present stock is insufficient to eat it. He must add to it, and thereby increase the quantity of urine considerably, and so go on to keep a much larger farming stock altogether. The often-asked question, "How shall I obtain urine enough?" will cease to be asked, and the amount of solid faeces so much increased as to obviate the necessity for a constant outlay of capital to procure it." 10 146 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. Liquid Manure for Plants. FEW things, in the management of plants, are more overlooked than that of applying liquid manure. When the roots of plants are confined within a garden-pot, the soil soon becomes exhausted ; and, if it be desirable to grow the plant rapidly, it must be turned out of the pot, and the exhausted soil shaken from the roots, and replaced with fresh earth, or recourse must be had to liquid manures. Floriculturists cannot be aware of the advantages of applying manure in a liquid state, or it would be more frequently used. I have found that all free-flowering plants, such as petunias, geraniums, some of the calceolarias, balsams, and cockscombs, are improved ; and, indeed, I have not found any flowering plant whatever that has not been benefited by a greater or less quantity of this element. In watering plants with liquid manure, it will be observed that the soil, after having been watered a few times, does not dry so soon as when watered with clear water, and this inde- pendent of the extra nutritious qualities left in the soil by the application of manure-water ; it is, then, a great point gained, by whatever means effected, when plants, whether in pots or in the natural soil, can be cultivated without the necessity of frequent waterings. As there is no more labor required in using manure-water than in applying the same quantity of water without any mixture of manure, considering, too, that its advantages must be obvious to all who give it a fair trial, it does seem somewhat unaccountable to see persons exerting a great amount of labor to accomplish very small results. It must be regarded as so much labor misapplied, when, had half the same labor and attention been bestowed, using at the same time liquid manure, far more satisfactory results would have been obtained. Floricultural Cabinet. Manuring Fruit-Trees. THE Dutch, who are admirable gardeners, had, in the great London Exhibition, an instru- strument called "Earth-Borer," for manuring fruit-trees without digging the ground. A circle of holes is bored around the tree at two feet distance from the tree, and a foot from each other. Taking the tree at a foot diameter at the surface of the soil, the circle will be five feet in diameter and fifteen feet in circumference ; and, if the holes are three inches diameter and a foot apart fifteen inches there will be about twelve holes, more or less, according to the diameter of the tree. They are eighteen inches deep, (where there is enough depth of soil,) and slanting towards the centre; are filled with liquid manure, diluted more or less in dry weather, and stronger as the weather is clamper. For the time of application, Dr. Lindley tells us " For fruit, the proper time for using liquid manure is when the fruit is beginning to swell, and has acquired, by means of its own surface, a power of suction capable of opposing that of the leaves. At that time, liquid manure may be applied freely, and continued from time to time as long as the fruit is growing. But, at the first sign of ripening, or even earlier, it should be wholly withheld. If liquid manure is applied to a plant when the flowers are growing, the vigor which it communicates to them must also be communicated to the leaves ; but when leaves are growing unusually fast, there is sometimes a danger that they may rob th% branches of the sap required for the nutrition of the fruit ; and, if that happens, the latter falls off. And we all know that, when ripening has once begun, even water spoils the quality of the fruit, although it augments the size, as is sufficiently shown by the strawberries prepared for the London market by irrigation ; great additional size is obtained, but it is at the expense of flavor; and any injury which mere water may produce will certainly not be diminished by water holding ammoniacal and saline substances in solution." Covered and Uncovered Manures. THE following is an abstract of the result of some experiments on the comparative value of covered and uncovered manures, recently made by Lord Kinnaird, of England, and reported in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society of England for 1854 : In 1851, a field of twenty acres, of very equal quantity, being a rich loam naturally dry AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 147 and in good heart, with an exposure to the south, was selected for the experiment, and divided into two equal portions. The manure was applied at the rate of twenty cart-loads per acre. The whole field was planted with potatoes ; the seed all of one kind, and planted the first and second week in April. All braided well and showed no difference in growth till the first week in July, when a decided superiority began to manifest itself in the half of the covered yards. The vines on the portion of the field manured from the exposed yards began to decay by the latter end of July, while the other portion of the field still retained its dark-green. The crops were taken up on the 1st to the 4th of October, and, after careful measurement, and weighing of two separate portions in each division, the result was as follows : With Uncovered Manure. Measurement Tons. Cwt Ibs. One acre produced 7 6 8 of potatoes, do. do. 7 18 99 do. With Covered Manure. Measurement. Tons. Cwt. Ibs. One acre produced 11 17 56 of potatoes. do. do. 11 12 20 do. As soon as possible after the potatoes were harvested, the field was plowed and wheat drilled in, at the rate of three bushels per acre. As soon as the weather was suitable in the spring, the whole field got a dressing of three hundredsweight of Peruvian guano per acre. During the winter, very little difference was apparent ; but, shortly after the applica- tion of the guano, the wheat on that portion manured by the covered dung took a decided lead, which it retained all summer. The whole field was cut on the 26th of August, 1851 ; the portion manured by the uncovered dung being at least four days earlier than the other. As before, the two separate portions in each half of the field were measured, cut, and stacked separately. On the 4th of September, each portion was thrashed, the grain carefully measured, and the straw. On account of a wet season, the grain was lighter weight than usual, in Great Britain, per bushel. The result of the experiment was as follows : With Uncovered Manure. Product in Grain. Weight per bushel. Product in straw. Acre. Bushel. Ibs. lb. Stones. Ibs. 1st 41 19 6U 152 of 22 2d 42 38 61* 160 of 22 With Covered Manure. Product in Grain. Weight per bushel Product in straw. Acre. Bushel. Ibs. Ibs. Stones. Ibs. 1st 55 5 61 221 of 22 2d 53 47 71 210 of 22 These and similar experiments have satisfied Lord Kinnaird of the advantages to be de- rived from having farm-yard manures put under cover. On the value of Gas-lime for Agricultural purposes. GAS-LIME differs from ordinary lime only in consequence of having imbibed, during the purification of the gas, sulphuretted hydrogen and more or less ammoniacal salts. In num- berless instances it has been used with great advantage in compost heaps. In the neighbor- hood of Edinburgh it has been extensively employed by some of the most spirited farmers. Formerly it used to be given for the carting away ; but now it is sold at 3d. a ton, and the demand is greater than can well be supplied. Some farmers, who have applied liberal dress- ings, state that the succeeding crops have been better than after the ordinary applications of farm-yard manure ; others affirm that, compared with newly-burned lime, it is, in every respect, superior. In Glasgow, the refuse lime is sold at from 1*. 6d. to Is. Gd, a ton. Some have applied it to red land, like caustic lime ; but it will be found much more profitable to compound it with earth, peat, couch-grass, or other vegetable matters. The ammoniacal water of gas-works, in large cities, is generally used in chemical manufactories for the preparation of commercial ammonia ; but in small works, in country villages, it is often 148 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. thrown out with the tar. It is a most valuable fertilizer, containing, in some cases, as much as one and a half pounds of sal-ammoniac in the gallon. It may be used to promote the fermentation of peat or couch-heaps, or may be mixed with any earthy or carbonaceous composts. In England, it has been used, in some cases, in conjunction with saw-dust, and gave very beneficial results. If applied to grass-land in too large quantities, it is liable to scorch the surface ; but, diluted, it produces fine, dark-coloured herbage. The lime-water of gas-works is also' a potent fertilizer ; but hitherto it has been little used. Thte lime em- ployed to purify the gas is, to a certain extent, liouified ; and, after considerable evaporation, a quantity of fluid, somewhat viscid, and smelling strongly of hydro-sulphuret of ammonia, is run off to an underground tank. This lime-water, about five hundred tons of which are annually produced at the Edinburgh Gas-Works, has hitherto been given for the carting away. One or two farmers have used a. good deal of it ; but very large quantities are still allowed to run to waste. If mixed with bibulous substances, more especially if they are capable of being fermented, an excellent compost for use, along with other manure, will be produced. Gas-tar may also be employed in a similar manner with advantage, only it is necessary to use it rather cautiously and along with other substances, or it may injure the crops to which it is applied. Transactions of the Highland Agricultural Society, Scotland. In regard to the value of gas-lime, great difference of opinion exists among American agriculturists. Much of the gas-lime, as it comes from the purifiers, is in the state of hyposulphite of lime, most of which, by exposure to air, moisture, and vegetation, passes into sulphate of lime, (gypsum.) Some carbonate is also undoubtedly formed. So long as the lime remains a hyposulphite, its value for agricultural purposes cannot be very- great. The hyposulphites, as is well known, are all depilatories or hair-removers. The depilatory powders sold by druggists are compounds of this character. We have heard of an instance where a gentleman farmer added fresh gas-lime to his hog-pen, with the intent that the swine should incorporate it with the compost-heap. This was effectually accomplished; but at the expense of the bristles and hair of the hogs, which was, in a great measure, removed during the operation. The editor of the Horticulturist, who has a poor opinion of it, says: Some years ago we were informed, by a very intelligent gentleman near Toronto, that it was not worth hauling two miles ; that they had tried it to their entire satisfaction ; yet it might be valuable elsewhere or under other cir- cumstances. We have seen an ^analysis by Professor Johnson, in which he found in one hun- dred and twelve pounds fifty-six pounds of water, twenty pounds of carbonic acid, and thirty- six pounds of lime and sulphur. This thirty-six pounds is about the same as gypsum, and is all we should consider of any particular value. Dr. Ure, the celebrated chemist, has described it as "vile refuse, which should be buried many fathoms deep in some barren region ; for, when spread on the farmer's field, after dis- charging sulphuretted hydrogen with vapor of prussic and other malignant gases, its sulphur gets oxygenated into sulphurous acid two volatile products alike detrimental to plauts." The following is a paper on the use of gas lime, by J. F. W. Johnston, of England: Refuse Lime of the Gas Works. This refuse lime consists of a mixture of carbonate of lime with a variable quantity of gypsum and other salts of lime containing sulphur, and a little coal-tar and free sulphur, the whole colored usually by a little Prussian blue. The follow- ing table exhibits the composition of two gas-limes which have been analyzed in my labora- tory from Edinburgh and London. The first two columns show what they were when sent to me ; the second two, what they will become after long exposure to the air, after being made into compost, or after being, thoroughly and for a length of time incorporated with the soil. This table shows that these gas-limes differ much in composition, especially in the propor- tions of sulphur or of the acids of sulphur they contain. This arises chiefly from the kind of coal which is employed in the manufacture of gas in different works. The most marked difference between the two samples here analyzed is in the compounds called sulphite and hyposulphite of lime. The latter of these substances dissolves readily in water, and its presence in such very different proportions satisfactorily accounts for the very different effects which have followed from the application of gas-lime to the land in different districts. The rains dissolve the hyposulphite and the sulphuret, and carry them down in AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. Composition of Gas Limes. 149 As they are. As they will become. Edinb. Lon. Edinb. Lon. 12-92 69-04 2-49 7-33 2-28 0-20 1-10 2-70 9-59 58-88 5-92 L'-77 14-89 0-36 0-92 1-80 3-40 1-29 12-91 67-39 '9-59 56-41 Carbonate of lime Sulphate of lime (gypsum) 1146 29-32 Sulphite and hyposulphite of lime 2-70 1-80 3-40 1-29 0-64 0-64 98-69 99-82 100-09 101-81 too great quantity to the roots of the young corn, and hence the complaints of some that the gas-lime has killed their wheat, while others have found, when applied as a top-dressing in a similar way, that it greatly improved their crops of corn. Unless its compo^tion be satisfactorily ascertained, therefore, unless, for example, it be found that water dissolves very little of it, there will always be a degree of risk in applying it directly to the land while auy corn crop is growing. There may not be the same danger in putting it between the turnip or potato drills, and afterwards ridging up the laud in the way that quick-lime is applied in many districts. To fallow land, however, to land which it is intended to reclaim, and especially to mossy land, the Scotch varieties at least may be applied directly with safety and with great benefit. In the neighborhood of Paisley it is in constant demand for the improved moss land, and sells at about Is. 6d. a cart-load. But those varieties which contain the largest quantity of the soluble hyposulphite of lime also form at last the largest quantity of gypsum. Thus the Edinburgh lime analyzed would never come to contain more than seventeen per cent., but the London lime might eventually contain as much as thirty per cent, of gypsum. This suggests the propriety, therefore, of laying it on and harrowing it slightly in some months before any crop is sown, in the spring, for instance, before the turnip sowing, or of making it into composts, perhaps the best and safest method of all. This lime ought in no case, if possible, to be wasted ; and from what has been above stated, it appears that it may always be safely used Directly upon mossy land, upon naked fallows, and in spring when preparing for the turnips. In composts, in which, by the action of the air, the whole of the soluble salts of lime will have a tendency to be converted into gypsum, and consequently the benefits which result from a large application of gypsum will be obtained by laying such composts upon the land. As it appears usually to contain only a small proportion of caustic lime, it may be with safety mixed at once with the manure, though not in too large quantity. It may also prove a valuable admixture with guano, on which its action will ultimately be to fix rather than to expel the ammonia. Strewed sparingly over the young braid, it is said to prevent the attacks of the turnip-fly, and harrowed in in considerable quantity, when the ground is naked, slugs and wire-worm disappear before it. The action upon this last pest of the farmer will probably be greatest when the soluble hyposulphite is largest in quantity. If as dry as the specimens of which I have given the analysis above, the gas-lime is worth to the farmer, at least, one-half as much as an equal weight of quick-lime. If applied in too large quantity in this way, however, it is sometimes injurious to the young corn crop, which has not time to recover from its effects till much of the season of early growth is past. But grass land, though at first browned by the' application, soon recovers, and repays the cost of application by a greener and earlier bite in spring. 150 THE YEAK-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. Nascent Manures. THE following article on the above subject has been published by Dr. David Stewart, Chemist of the Maryland State Agricultural Society: ., Reasoning from analogy, all manures must be presented to the plant in the nascent state, in order to their assimilation ; but a safer proposition, perhaps, would be, that many ele- ments of plants, while they exist iu their normal or natural condition, are as perfectly unas- similable, or as incapable of affording nourishment to them, as they are to animals. A hundred illustrations of the law will at once occur to every intelligent mind ; and the facility with which even inorganic compounds unite while in the nascent form is familiar to all. Every molecule of matter, whether composed of compound or simple atoms, seems to have a form of its own, and until it has assumed this form, or state of aggregation, it is in the nascent state, or in an allotropic condition. While in this nascent state, its tendency to unite with other bodies which have an affinity for it is wonderfully increased ; indeed, it is often the only condition in which two substances will combine. Lime and magnesia, when recently slaked, are capable of uniting more freely with other substances ; if, however, the slaked lime or magnesia is kept for a long time, even although perfectly excluded from the air, it will gradually assume the form of granules, and subsequently these molecules will form crystals, or the lowest order of organism ; and these organisms seem to possess a de- gree of resistance to external force analogous to the resistance of the higher organisms ; in- deed, the more perfect crystals, of the same substance and in the same solution, will grow and become more perfect at the expense of those which are irregular. Upon this principle, the perfect crystals may be said to be approximating to the allotropic condition or nascent state, while the perfect crystal is in the normal condition. It may be said that extent of surface is one of the causes of this, and a better illustration is sand or quartz, which is perfectly insoluble in its natural or normal condition, however fine the powder, even in some of the strongest acids. But sand or silica is frequently found in the nascent condition, and then it dissolves readily in water ; moreover, it can be kept in this condition for years ; but if heated to the temperature of 260, it assumes the normal condition, and becomes perfectly insoluble even in acids ; whereas, before, it would dissolve in acids, alkalies, or pure water. Lime and magnesia, while in the caustic state, are capable of converting sand into soluble silica ; and this is perhaps one of the good effects of liming, especially when we consider the remarkable influence that soluble silica exerts in absorbing ammoniacal manures. We may also account thus for the crumbling of stable walls, the moist condition of old walls, and especially those that are exposed to ammoniacal exhalations. Moreover, we have a plausible mode of accounting for nitre-beds, and the remarkable value of old plaster ; also the purifying influence of whitewashing, if it is done with caustic lime, and not with whiting or carbonate of lime. Lime, while caustic and moist, in contact with sand, converts a small part of the surface of the grains of sand from the insoluble to the soluble silica ; and this is the reason why caustic lime is necessary to the formation of good mortar, as it is not (as is almost universally supposed) a mere mechanical mixture of lime and sand, neither is it grains of sand cemented together by the induration of lime ; but the actual solution of the surface of the grains of sand produces a still more intimate union. Well, this soluble silica gradually absorbs from the atmosphere the ammonia, for which it has a remarkable affinity ; and as ammonia is the vehicle of poisonous exhalations of dis- ease, as well as the perfume of flowers, these exhalations are so concentrated upon the walls of hospitals, that it sometimes becomes necessary to remove the plastering, in order to get rid of erysipelas and other diseases. Nearly or quite all of the nitric acid of commerce was no doubt originally derived from ammonia in the order above referred to ; for if my theory, as above stated, is admitted, then every authority will sustain me in saying that old plaster contains ammonia, and this ammonia is converted into nitric acid on the wall. Salts of nitric acid can be seen by any one on the surface of old walls. Moreover, the leachings of old walls have frequently been used in the manufacture of gunpowder, and old plaster always enters into the composition of artificial nitre-beds. It will be readily admitted that AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 151 silica can never enter the rootlet of a plant, however fine the powder, unless it is in solu- tion ; and that the finest powder of sand or silica differs as much in solubility from nascent silica as sand differs from sugar. The importance, then, of soluble silica to grasses and wheat, and especially in corn, and, indeed, its value as manure, has long been recognised. (See Liebig's Chemistry, American edition, 1841, p. 200.) It was first supposed that potash was the vehicle for its conveyance to every part of the plants ; but the modern idea is, that ammonia is the main instrument of its conveyance. Certain it is, that it loses its base at the instant of its deposition on the stem ; and if potash were the base, then it would be neces- sary that the potash be carried back again to the earth, and the plant would be constantly embarrassed by excrementitious matter ; whereas, the ammonia being volatile, evaporates, and leaves the glassy coating, or element of strength, on the surface of the stem. Thus, it is found that more ammonia is actually exhaled from plants than we ever give them in the form of manure ; and it is strongly suspected that soluble silica is really the manure, while ammonia is merely the vehicle for the conveyance of soluble silica through the plant. When the carcass of an animal falls in the field, the luxuriant grass or grain " falls," on account of the absence of the relative amount of soluble silica, or the excess of ammonia uses up at once all of this necessary element that is available. Two years since, I manured two lands in the centre of my oatfield, the one with Peru- vian guano, the other with soluble silica, leaving a land unmanured between. The propor- tion of straw on the guanoed land was very much increased ; but last summer the same field was in wheat, and a corresponding diminution in the proportion of straw was noticed on the land that had been guanoed two years since ; and what is more remarkable, the land on each side of the guanoed land averaged seven hundred and forty-six pounds more of wheat- straw per acre, although no manure of any kind had been applied to either since it was in oats ; whereas the silicated land not only produced more straw than either of its unmanured neighbors, but also excelled the guanoed land in wheat nearly throe bushels per acre, and ripened earlier than any oth'er part of the field. The difference between the silicated land and the unmanured averaged nineteen hundred and sixty-six pounds, while it also produced nine and one-tenth bushels of wheat more than the adjoining unmanured lands. A part of my oatfield of last summer exhibited the same increase in the weight of the straw, although no silicates have been applied since it was in corn two years since. But the most remarkable result was obtained in my cornfield of this year, where the corn on the silicated portion averaged ninety-three pounds per shock, while one part unmanured only weighed forty-two pounds per shock ; each shock represented sixty-four hills of corn, and the average of thirty-one shocks was taken. This manure was applied in my presence, and I personally gathered and weighed the produce of each separate shock in the field with my own hands ; therefore I can vouch for the correctness of the re- sults. And now, can we not account for the well-known and remarkable efficacy of dissolved bones on this principle, when compared with normal phosphate of lime, whether it be in the form of bone-ash, ground bones, or phosphate guano ? "Bones have been used with profit at the rate of from $20 to $60 per acre ;" and it has been repeatedly demonstrated that one bushel of dissolved bones, for immediate effect, is equal to five times as much ground bones ; in other words, that one pound of nascent or soluble phosphate of lime is worth more than five pounds of normal or natural phosphate of lime, or bone-earth. It will be admitted that every acre of land on the face of the earth contains from one-tenth of 1, to 4 per cent, of lime and magnesia; and if only one-tenth of 1 per cent, at the depth of cultivation, even then each acre must contain from fifteen hun- dred to two thousand pounds of lime and magnesia. Now, it is manifest if ten or even thirty bushels of dissolved bones were applied to an acre, the first rain would convert all of the free phosphoric acid or biphosphates that they contain into neutral nascent subphosphates ; and it is therefore nascent subphosphate of lime that is taken up and assimilated by the plant. Thus we are enabled to account for the wonderful effects of what are called in com- merce biphosphates, which really contain very little free phosphoric acid, but all of the phosphoric acid exists as neutral nascent phosphate of lime. The fact is, that dissolved bones are unmanageable as a manure in this country, (in England biphosphates are applied 162 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. in solution,) untU reduced from a fluid to the form of a powder, by the means of ivory -black, guano, or some less valuable diluent ; and the universal distribution of carbonates of lime, c. in these, converts nearly all of the biphosphates into neutral nascent phosphate or sub- phosphates. During the past summer, I have been experimenting on two separate fields with four of these compounds two of which were made in New York, and two in Baltimore ; the most remarkable results were obtained from experiments made upon a few hills of corn. But I will confine my statement to two series, where whole rows of shocks wete compared with contiguous unmanured rows ; the average of twenty-three shocks, each shock repre- senting sixty-four hills, exhibited a difference of about 25 per cent. ; or the manured weighed forty-two pounds per shock, while the unmanured weighed forty-two pounds ; and these manures were applied in my presence, at the rate of ten bushels per acre broadcast, and I gathered and weighed the corn in the field myself. Now, it is most probable that no atom of free phosphoric acid, or phosphate of lime, ever enters the rootlet of a plant without de- stroying it ; and, having proved that a solution of bones would necessarily become precipi- tated in contact with any soil, we are driven to the conclusion that this precipitate or nascent subphosphate is the valuable manure, and we take it for granted that it will preserve the nascent form for some time in moist situations, as we know that moist oxide of iron will con- tinue to preserve this form, as the antidote for arsenic, for weeks together. Ultimately, however, it also loses the nascent and assumes the normal form, and becomes so insoluble, that five times the dose is required, in order to afford the soluble material for the same proportion of arsenic. Thus it is with phosphatic guanos and bone-dust ; none of them are absolutely insoluble in pure water, and when thus dissolved as subphosphates, they are con- verted in the nascent form, and more readily redissolved than before their solution. The contact of a piece of wood or string has been known to hasten the solubility of the most in- soluble substances ; for instance, the inner part of the metallic worm of a still, opposite a wooden support, has been known to dissolve in the distilled waters passing through it ; and the same remark is made with regard to hydrant pipes : the normal condition of insoluble bodies is then disturbed, and the allotropic or nascent condition produced, by contact with vegetable substances in a state of change ; this, then, may account for the influence of organic manures, and indicates the philosophy of the modern plan of manuring in Europe, which is by hauling out the manure on the field, load by load, as it is generated, instead of permitting it to ferment in heaps in the stableyard. Now, query, would it not be still better to stratify it with powder of feldspar, phosphorite, or phosphatic guano, and concentrate this disturbing force of fermentation upon the elements, which, when reduced to the nascent state, are worth more than the 1 or 2 per cent, of alkalies, &c. in the manure itself? It is still the question with physiologists whether nitrogen is ever assimilated by plants, much less by animals, in its normal condition ; and it is a curious fact that both the plant and animal may starve when fed on carbonaceous food exclusively, although both are bathed in an atmosphere containing four-fifths of nitrogen, which is perfectly useless to both, be- cause not presented in the nascent form. American Farmer. Methods of Preparing Muck for use as Manure. THE Annual Report of the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture, for 1855, furnishes the following statements relative to the preparations of muck for use as manure, each being the results of the writers' (practical farmers) observations : A Middlesex farmer says: "I use swamp muck most successfully composted with stable manure, on different varieties of soils, but think it does best on high land of a loamy soil. I notice it is used very extensively by farmers, with satisfactory results, when composted with other manures thoroughly." A farmer of Worcester county says: "I use it extensively on my hard, clay soils ; it works well on dry lands to keep them moist, and on clay soils to keep them light." Another writer, from Dukes county, follows: "It should be hauled out in the fall, and exposed to the frost during winter, and mixed with stable manure in the pro- portion of two parts muck to one of manure ; it should also be used in the hog-pen, barn- yard, and barn-cellar. I have found it a good manure on loamy, gravelly, and sandy land, AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 153 especially for top dressing for grass when composted as above." A Norfolk county farmer, who has met with great success, says : " The best way of using swamp muck is to dig it and expose it to the sun, air, and rains one year ; and then, when in a dry state, place it in a barn- cellar, where it will take the droppings of the cattle above until it is thoroughly saturated ; then mix it well, and it is ready for use. It is good for all high lands." He estimates it at about three dollars by the cord of one hundred and two bushels. A Middlesex farmer, of great experience, states that "swamp muck is of different qualities, and varies as much as wood when used for fuel. Pdat mud, the older the better, consists principally of vegetable matter. It has most effect on high and dry ground. Wood-ashes are the best article to cor- rect its acidity." Similar accounts come from every section of the State. From Hampshire county we have the following: "The best method of using swamp muck, judging from experiments of my neighbors and my own, is to cart it out in the autumn, expose it to the frost and snows, then spread and plow it in in the spring on sandy, dry soils ; or in other words, on soils of an oppo- site nature to its own. I plowed in twenty-five loads on one quarter of an acre last spring, and planted it to early potatoes, corn, peas, cucumbers, squashes, and melons. It was a great preventive against drouth. That ground has been sown to rye, and it looks first rate." And from Plymouth county "Swamp muck, as also upland soils, are valuable to mix with various kinds of manure to retain and absorb the salts. For upwards of two years I have adopted a different course with my swamp land from any I know of. I employ men with long-bitted hoes, sward-hooks, etc., to dig up the hummocks and bushes, in bodies large and small, as is convenient, and pile them in bunches for a few days to dry ; after which I select a central bunch, in which I form a cavity or hole near the bottom or surface of the ground. Then I set fire to some of the dryest and most combustible, and as it burns I replenish it from the other bunches, smothering in the coal-pit form, though more combustible, till it is burned down to a perfect body of ashes and sand. I have not carried the experiment into full effect, as I designed to ; but so far as I have used the ashes, they have given me entire satisfaction. Their nature is to improve exhausted lands ; and my belief is that they may be spread upon the same land upon which the ashes were made, and increase the growth of English grass. Much has been said upon the subject of reclaiming wet, swampy lands ; but after all that has been done, as I understand it, a coat of manure is required to produce a good crop of Eng- lish grass. Now, if our worthless swamp lands possess the very article required to produce such grass by the simple process as above named, I think it would be an improvement in one point of agriculture." A farmer of Barns table county says "The best compost manure is made in our barn and hog-yards, of swamp muck, sea-weed, and animal manure. Swamp muck and sea-weed are accessible to all who will take the trouble to procure them. My barn and hog-yards are so excavated and dug as to absorb the liquids passed into them. Every spring and summer, after my barn-yard is emptied, I replenish it from time to time with swamp muck, peat, sea-weed, and other materials from the farm, which, with the animal manure produced by yarding my cattle, furnish me in the autumn with 200 loads of good compost, which I either stack in the yard or cart on to the land I intend to plant in the spring. I again re- plenish the yard, giving me, with the proceeds of my hog-yard, from 100 to 150 loads more in the following spring. In addition, I have for two years past composted in the field adjoin- ing my peat-bog from 75 to 100 loads of peat, (thrown from the pit in summer or autumn,) with sea and rock-weed, or ashes and animal manure, which I esteem of equal value to barn- yard manure. I estimate the value of a cord, or four ox-cart loads, of barn-yard manure composted as above at from $4 to $5. We esteem the value of this for a corn crop and the improvement of land higher than pure animal manure." I give one more extract, from a farmer of Berkshire county. He says " I have used swamp muck for a number of years past with good results, by mixing it with yard and stable manures in the proportion of one-third to one-half muck, and consider it worth $1 per load to use for agricultural purposes on soils that are a mixture of loam and gravel." The testimony is uniformly in favor of composting muck with other manures. Its power of absorbing valuable liquid and gaseous substances is very considerable ; and this makes it 154 THE TEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. an excellent substance to mix with guano, when the latter is to be used as a top dressing. The importance of a free use of dry swamp muck as an absorbent of the liquid manures of the barn and stable can hardly be overestimated. The loss throughout the State from the neglect and consequent waste of these rich manures, which with a little care might all be saved, is almost incredible. T^he attention of farmers was but lately called to this subject ; but the value of these substances is acknowledged by some, and efforts are now made to save them by means of the use of muck and loam, either properly composted in the b'arn-ccllar, or supplied daily to the stalls of cattle. No judicious farmer should neglect to save all such substances as tend to increase the value and productiveness of his lands. It is poor economy and bad calculation to buy concentrated manures, or to buy any manures abroad, till every thing of the kind is saved at home. From what has been said, we may infer that good dry swamp muck is worth on an average from $1.25 to $1.50 per cord; that it is best on light, loamy, sandy, or gravelly soils; and that it is valuable as a compost with barn-yard manures or with guano. Top Dressings. AT a recent meeting of the Highland Agricultural Society of Scotland, results of a series of trials of various substances for top dressings were detailed. The manures employed were nitrate of soda, sulphate of ammonia, Peruvian guano, and common salt sometimes simple, sometimes mixed together. These were applied to wheat, to grass, and to potatoes with results, however, not so similar as is desirable. In the trials with wheat, the results per acre of I., those of Mr. Finnic, and II., of Mr. Hope, will be found in the subjoined table. In the trials of Mr. Finnic, the gross produce per acre is given in quarters and bushels ; in those of Mr. Hope, the increase in bushels per acre, compared with an unmamired portion of the same field : I. II. Nitrate of soda, 112 Ibs 5 3 Ditto, and common salt, 224 Ibs 55 3 Sulphate of ammonia, 87 Ibs 5 4 Ditto, with common salt, 224 Ibs 52 5 Peruvian guano, 137 Ibs 56 3 Ditto, and common salt, 224 Ibs 5 2 Nitrate of soda, 37 Ibs ~) Sulphate of ammonia, 29 Ibs V 5 5 Peruvian guano, 46 Ibs J Ditto, and 2 cwt. of common salt 6 2 In considering the results of these and other valuable experiments upon saline top dress- ings, our readers will not omit to remember how great and varying is the influence of wet or dry seasons upon such applications. The greater number of these are indeed most bene- ficial in wet seasons : they seem to act with very diminished power in dry springs and summers. The good effects produced by a mixture of various fertilizers has never, we think, obtained that careful consideration which this branch of the inquiry deserves ; and yet many facts should surely lead us towards such a path ; the very great advantage, for instance, of using common salt mixed with soot, rather than by itself, for carrots and potatoes, is well known; and, some time since, Professor Johnston illustrated the advantage of this inquiry by a series of valuable experiments. The Professor found that in a field of 40 acres of potatoes, which had been manured throughout with 40 tons of farm-yard dung per acre, a top dress- ing of various salts gave the subjoined increased of bulbs : Tons. Nitrate of soda (cubic petre) 3i Sulphate of soda (Glauber salts) One-half of each 5 Sulphate of ammonia If Sulphate of soda One-half of each 6J Nitrate of soda 3i Sulphate of magnesia (Epsom salts) i One-half of each 92 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 155 In the more extensive trials of Mr, Fleming, planted on the first of June, and top dressed on the first of July, the produce from these various saline applications was as follows : Tons. Cwt Farm-yard dung, 30 tons 10 2 Farm-yard dung, 30 tons Sal. ammoniac, 1 cwt Epsom salt, 1 cwt Glauber salt, 1 cwt Farm-yard dung, 30 tons Cubic petre, 1 cwt... Epsom salt, 1 cwt.. Glauber salt, 1 cwt Farm-yard dung, 30 tons Sulphate of ammonia, 1 cwt.. Glauber salt, 1 cwt Epsom salt, 1 cwt Farm-yard dung, 30 tons Peruvian guano, 1J cwt Epsom salt, 1 cwt Glauber salt, 1 cwt Common salt, 1 cwt 11 19 13 14 19 15 Our readers may derive, we think, considerable benefit from carefully attending to these points when they are about to employ top dressings. Mark Lane Exprets* Fish Manures. THE following is an abstract of a lecture recently delivered by Prof. Way, of England, on the applicability offish as a substance for fertilizing: Prof. F. ounmiMii-cil by adverting to the importance of the subject. The employment of artificial manures, however much it might have extended, was yet in its infancy, and in the course of ten years it was probable that one hundred acres would be artificially manured for every acre that was so treated now ; but this could only happen with the aid of fresh sources of supply of the raw material for the manufacture of such manures. There was the greatest difficulty in obtaining the material to supply the manure market. In the case of phosphate of lime, the demand had so increased that the price had nearly doubled in the last two or three years. It was, however, fortunate that phosphate of lime, occurring very largely as a mineral deposit, had been searched for and found in several localities, and other supplies of it were opening up, which promised eventually to meet any demand. No less important than phosphate of lime, as an element of manure, was some form of nitrogen, of which the value was so abundantly proved. Now, it could not be doubted, as he hoped to show, that such a source of nitrogen, in the highest degree available for the wants of vegetation, existed in fish. This source of nitrogen was practically unlimited, and he could not think that the obstacles in the way of obtaining it in sufficient abundance and at moderate price were by any means formidable. Of the value of fish and fish-refuse as manure there could be little dispute. The use of fish, however, in its natural state was necessarily confined to a comparatively short distance from the place where it was caught; so valued, however, was this manure, that he had seen hop and wheat-fields covered in the winter with sprats at a distance of twenty-five miles from the sea, and that before the days of railways, and when the farmer had to send his teams to fetch them home. The question, however, of importance was, To what standards is the value of fish as a manure to be referred ? In respect to this, Prof. Way remarked that the quantity of water in fish was not nearly so great as was usually thought. It was a vul- gar error to suppose that fish was less solid than flesh ; on the contrary, while the flesh of the ox contained as much as 77 per cent, of water, different kinds of fish varied from 60 to 65, and some contained much less than this, even. The quantity of nitrogenous matter in fish varied considerably; to this ingredient no doubt a great portion of the manuring pro- perty of the fish was due. We had experience of the value of dried blood, woollen rags, of horses' hair, and other animal substances, all of which were powerful manures; and the nitrogenous parts of flesh being of the same composition, could not fail to have the same 156 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. effect upon vegetation. The next ingredient in fish was the oil. The proportion of this differs very much in different fish. In the flesh of the herring, 13 per cent, had been found. In the mackerel, Prof. Way had found as much as 24 J per cent, of oil, or one-fourth part of its entire weight. In this fish the oil seemed to substitute part of the water found in other varieties ; for it did not contain more than 44 per cent, of moisture, or two-thirds of that usually present. The quantity of nitrogen and of ash was also very large ; both of them very considerably larger than in any other fish of which the comparison was known. If available in quantities, therefore, this fish would be very valuable for manure. Now, con- sidering the large proportion of oil in fish, it became important to consider of what value it might be in manure. It had become the fashion of late years to give too exclusive a con- sideration to the importance of nitrogen in vegetation ; not that we could too much value this important element, but that we were in danger of neglecting those substances which took a less prominent, but a no less necessary part, in the economy of vegetation. That carbona- ceous matter in the soil was beneficial, if not indispensable, to profitable cultivation, did not seem to admit of a doubt; and if so, there might be clearly a choice between carbonaceous substances, according to their rate of decomposition, &c. Now oils were very susceptible of oxidation, with the production, of course, of carbonic acid. He might only mention in illustration, the spontaneous combustion often occurring when oily rags used for machinery, &c. had been thrown into a heap, and by the absorption of oxygen and heat consequent thereupon, it had, in many cases, caused great destruction of property. Then again, the manufacture of "drying oils," as they were called, by boiling linseed and other oils in contact with the air, the experiments of Saussure, who placed different oils under receivers of air, and found at the end of the experiments that all the oxygen had become carbonic acid at the expense of the oil, were also *o the purpose. Now it was easy to see that oil distributed through a porous soil would, on account of the great surface exposed, suffer rapid oxidation, and give off a ready supply of carbonic acid, which at par- ticular periods of their growth might be most important to some plants. Mr. Way quoted passages from the work of Dr. Home, printed in 1762, and the "Georgical Essays" of Dr. Hunter, a few years later, to show that a very high opinion of the value of oil as manure was held by early writers. He also referred to the experiments of Earl Spen- cer with oil, to the use of whale-blubber, which, however, no doubt owed much of its value to the flesh. He showed also that many of the substances known as powerful manures, and containing nitrogenous matter, also contained oil. Thus woollen rags, rape-cake., &c. might owe part of their efficacy to this cause. Rape-cake contained about 4 per cent, of nitrogen, while its oil varied from 12 to 15 per cent. On the whole, this subject of oil, as manure., was well worth looking into ; not that oil would be likely to be used directly as a manure, (its value for other purposes being opposed to such a use of it,) but that we might be able to value more correctly substances in which occurred, and could not profitably be extracted, as suitable for manure. The other main ingredient of fish was the ash or mineral matter, which, although of less importance than the others, (on account of the smallness of its proportion,) was not to be overlooked. Mr. Way here referred to the analyses of different fish, showing that in the lobster the quantity of phosphate of lime was as much as 5 per cent, of the fish in its dried state, and about the same in the mackerel : this phosphate of lime could not be without its use. Mr. Way next directed attention to the various methods of preserving fish that had been proposed, including those of Mr. Petit, by sulphuric acid; of Mr. Elliott, by the use of alkali ; of Mr. Bethell, by the employment of tar-oils; and of M. de Molons, by treatment with high- pressure steam. He also mentionod the plan which was adopted by a manufacturer of manure, (Mr. Stevens,) who had a contract for the refuse fish of Billingsgate market, of incor- porating the fish in super-phosphate of lime, the quantity of water in the fish serving to dilute the acid, and being dried up by the natural heat of the process. He remarked, how- ever, that there would be no difficulty in preserving the fish, if it could be obtained. It was not so much a question of this or that process, but of the supply of raw material. He could not help believing that this was not an insuperable difficulty, if systematic measures were taken to effect the purpose. Was it affirmed that our system of taking fish was incapable of AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 157 improvement? "Were the nets and other appliances of the fisherman, which were the same in kind as we read of 1800 years ago, although possibly improved in detail, were they the last and supreme effort of ingenuity and invention? Was nothing to be accomplished in the way of extracting from the waters of the sea a greater supply of its teeming population? Surely it was open to improvement. But it seemed to him that the calculations and argu- ments on this question were not usually quite to the point. Everybody talked of " refuse" fish, that is to say, the offal .of edible fish, and the fish accidentally caught which were unfit for the food market; and it was said by those who certainly well understood the subject, "a boat with so many men will take in the day such-and-such a quantity of fish, of which the uneatable fish will amount to so-and-so, and that quantity will not keep a factory in work or create a manufacture of any national importance." But he said that fishing for manure must be the primary, and the capture of edible fish the secondary, consideration, if they desired to raise this into a great national question. And we had yet to learn what would be the result of a day's labor of a given number of men, when their attention was directed, not as now,' to the comparatively rare and valuable fish, but to those which hitherto they had despised and avoided. In his opinion, the statistics hitherto put forward were worth nothing, because they were not derived from this point of view. In the search after fish for the manufacture of manure, the proverb that "All is fish that comes to the net" ought to be varied to "All is fish that the net can reach." Prof. Way concluded his lecture, as he had begun it, by urging the necessity of encourag- ing every attempt to obtain new sources of raw material for the manufacture of manure. Without this, a term would be reached when the competition for manufactured manures, with an insufficient supply, would raise the price up to the extreme limits at which their use would be remunerative; for a time the deficiency would be met by adulteration and inferiority of the article ; and this, together with the scramble to get manure, would soon wean farmers from their partiality to artificial manures. Then, indeed, the progress of agriculture in this country, at all events in the use of artificial manures, would receive a serious check. lie did not wish to draw a gloomy picture, but such a state of things must inevitably result, if the increasing demand for manures were not met with some new and abundant supply of the raw material. Farmer's Magazine. Sewage Manure. THOMAS WICKSTEED, of Leicester, England, has secured a patent for making sewage manure, by mixing charcoal reduced to fine powder with milk of lime, of the thickness of cream, and then causing this mixture to flow ihto a stream of the sewage water by means of pumps. A Fact in Manuring. A PERSON carrying some orange-trees from China to the Prince of Wales' Island, when they had many hundred fruit on them, expected a good crop the next year, but was utterly disappointed ; they produced but few. A Chinese, settled in the island, told him if he would have his trees bear, he must treat them as they were accustomed to in China; and he described the following process for providing manure: "A cistern, so lined and covered as to be air-tight, is half-filled with animal matter ; and to prevent bursting from the genera- tion of air, a valve is fixed which gives way with some difficulty, and lets no more gas escape than is necessary : the longer the manure is kept the better, till four years, when it is in perfection; it is taken out in the consistence nearly of jelly, and a small portion buried at the root of every orange-tree, the result being an uncommonly great yield." A person hear- ing of the above fact, and wishing to abridge the term of the preparation, thought that boil- ing animals to a jelly might have a similar if not so strong an effect. Accordingly, he boiled several puppies, and applied the jelly to the roots of a sterile fig-tree: the benefit was very great, the tree from that time for several years bearing in profusion. Hints of this kind are well worth preserving, for though a farmer may neither have the apparatus of the Chinese, 158 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. nor puppies enough to become an object of attention, yet the reduction of manure to a muci- laginous state ought perhaps to be carried further than it is. Horticulturist. How to Use Guano. THE London Mark Lane Express, gives the following directions respecting the use of guano. First. Never mix it with any thing ; all lime, compost, ashes, and similar ingredients, too often contain enough caustic alkali to drive off the ammoniacal parts before the soil can surround and absorb them. A vast amount of mischief and loss often follows this sad mis- take. If applied alone, the soil will best adapt it for plants. Second. Mix as much as possible with the soil, not too deeply, but plow it in after sowing it broadcast, unless it be for beans or drilled and ridged crops, when it may be sown on tho surface before the ridges are made. Third. If applied as a top dressing, always apply it, if possible, before rain, or when snow is on the ground ; and if on arable land, harrow, hoe, or scuffle, if possible, immediately after the operation. Fourth. The best mode to apply it is by water. A slight solution of it is by far the most powerful and speedy application. Fifth. If sowed with drilled grain, or indeed any seed whatever, it should never come in contact. It is not a bad plan to sow broadcast, after the corn-drill, and then harrow, as it is kept in the nearest proximity to the seed, without coming in contact with it. Lastly. Be sure to get, if possible, the genuine article; cheap guano there is none. The quantity of genuine guano per acre used is from two to three hundred pounds. The latter quantity, when the land is deficient and requires speedy renovation. Guano Deposits of the Atlantic. IT is now well known that the guano of the Chincha Islands and other sources, under rain- less skies, is a product of a peculiar fermentation, in which ammoniacal salts and nitroge- nous products are formed from a variety of animal matter. Not only the dung, bodies, and eggs of several varieties of birds, but a large amount of flesh and bones of seals, make up the substance of the decomposing mass. On the islands of the Atlantic, the dung, bodies, and eggs of birds are found ; but the frequency of rain modifies the decomposition, so that the resulting matter differs essentially from that of the Peruvian shores. It possesses, however, a high value in special applica- tions, and presents some interesting scientific points. Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Boston, has fully investigated the composition of the guanos of different islands, including ancient as well as recent deposits. On some of these, two species of birds are still found in countless numbers, which make daily additions to the accumulated remains of former years. The substance of this kind of guano is matter derived from the fish-food of birds. Its color is light, yellowish brown, becoming, when air-dried, nearly white. It has no ammo- niacal odor, but smells strongly of freshly-disturbed earth. It is never so finely divided as the Peruvian, its particles being sometimes as coarse as mustard-seed, resembling closely the sand from oolite limestone. There is,- however, always some finely-divided organic matter, in the state of humus, either between the particles or making part of the substance of them. An average composition is the following : Moisture after being air-dried 4-40 Organic matter, crenates, humates, oleates and stearates, magnesia and lime 6-40 Bone phosphate of lime 46*60 Carbonate of lime 39-80 Phosphate magnesia 1"20 Sulphate lime '80 Sand -21 Traces of chloride and sulphate of soda - 99-41 AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 159 The carbonate of lime here given is an essential part of each particle of the bone re- mains, and does not exist, except occasionally as mixture to the amount of one or two per cents., independently. The humic acid is often in union with ammonia and magnesia, the whole percentage of ammonia, or rather nitrogen, not exceeding in the ancient deposits more than two per cent. A more solid aggregate of grains afforded Moisture from air-dried state 5'40 Organic matter, huinates, humus Oleates and stearates 8-40 Bone phosphate lime 64-80 Carbonate of lime 16-20 Sulphate 2-80 Phosphate magnesia. 1-60 Sand -46 99-66 The grains adhered slightly ; the dry mass was /of a pale, nankin color, and exhibited the first step in a change which results in a consolidation of the arenaceous remains into a solid rock. It will be observed that, if we admit the moisture and organic matter, there are seventy- five parts of bone phosphate of lime in one hundred of the dry guano, constituting a source of this prime requisite in the constitution of fertile soils highly important. From the nature of the decomposition, this bone phosphate is soluble to some extent in water, and thus adapted to application when the immediate effects are desired. Comparing the composition here given with that of fish-bones, we observe an increased amount of phosphate of lime, and are led to the consideration of the cause of this anomalous composition. Another variety of this guano appears as a solid compact rock, banded in lines by dark- brown colors. Although the irregular forms of the masses mark it as an aggregate, its hard- ness, next to that of feldspar and greater than that of fluorspar, removes it from the class of ordinary calcareous aggregates. But the chemical composition is more remarkable. One hundred parts afford Moisture from air-dried state 0'80 Organic matter and water 11-00 Bone phosphate of lime 110-20 Sulphate of lime 790 Sand and dirt -80 130.70 The 50-47 parts of phosphoric acid are, for convenience of comparison, supposed to be united with lime to constitute bone phosphate of lime. For economical purposes; it is neces- sary to grind the masses to a fine powder ; it then dissolves slowly in water. This compound generally forms a covering of ten to twenty-four inches thick over the guano on those islands not frequented by birds. Some rough masses are found in the mass of the arenaceous guano ; but they appear to have been once a surface-covering. Dr. Hayes explains the singular composition of this aggregate and the guanos more rich in bone phosphate than the bones of birds by referring to the kind of fermentation which organic animal matter undergoes in presence of excess of humidity. Briefly, it is the reverse of that which produces ammonia salts in the Peruvian guano, acids being the result here. The whole series of acids, the products of humus decomposition, carbonic acid, and probably acetic acid, being generated in the mass, have dissolved the carbonate of lime of the deposit, while the resulting salts have been washed away by the rains, leaving the phosphate of lime in excess. Where daily depositions are taking place, this effect does not follow, as the first de- composition produces ammonia ; but, under other conditions, the carbonate of lime of the bony structure is removed, and the phosphate is left in excess. The occurrence of rocky masses at the surface is explained by the well-known fact that the solutions of salts formed tend to the surface ; and, as the water evaporates under the sun's rays, the earthy salts dissolved by the acid fluids below are left in the interstices existing in the sand-like deposits of food-remains until they are filled, and every trace of granules ob- literated. The increased amount of sulphate of lime, the uniform acid state of these guanos 160 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. and cavities lined with crystals, are all according facts in favor of the conclusion adopted. The experiments, in their extended application to other aggregates, are proving that many compact rocks may be formed at common temperatures by a similar action, not always in- volving a chemical solution of the materials. On the Mixing of Common Salt and Guano, THE following experiments, performed by Mr. Barral, editor of the Journal tf Agriculture Pratique, prove the value of common salt as a fixer of ammonia. M. Barral took two sam- ples of guano : the one he kept pure the other he 'mixed with a refuse salt obtained in the manufacture of gunpowder, (and consisting principally of common salt with a small quan- tity of saltpetre, nitrate of potassa,) in the proportion of 50 per cent, of this salt. "The sample of pure guano which we analyzed," says M. Barral, "contained 12-56 per cent, of nitrogen ; the sample mixed with salt contained only 6-23 per cent. We do not take into account the nitrogen in the state of nitrate mixed with the salt. We subjected equal weights of the two samples to heat for three hours in the same stove, in a current of air, maintained at 100. They were spread out so as to have the same thickness, and occupy an equal sur- face, and they had been equally pulverized. At the end of the three hours, on examining the two samples, we found that the pure guano had lost 5'7 per cent, of its nitrogen, while the mixture had lost only 1-9 per cent, of its nitrogen. " Though this experiment appeared to us to be in favor of the preservative power of salt, we repeated it under another form. We left in the open air, in plates, during fifteen days, equal weights of the pure and the mixed guano. At the end of that time we examined anew the amount of nitrogen, and found that the pure guano had lost 11-6 per cent, of its nitrogen; while that mixed with salt had lost only 5 per cent. Thus we see salt can be usefully employed for mixing with guano." This property of salt, as a fixer of ammonia, has not been sufficiently attended to in agri- culture. While chemists recommend gypsum, nitrate of lead, chloride of zinc, sulphate of iron, and chloride of manganese for this purpose, common salt is but rarely alluded to. It has been used extensively of late, with nitrate of soda as a top dressing, with the view of strengthening the straw of the cereals. It has been alleged that guano tends very much to increase the growth of vines in the potato crop. We are of opinion, from numerous experi- ments before us, that, when applied to this crop, the guano should always be mixed with some fixer of the ammonia, such as gypsum, salt, or charcoal: at present prices, the most expensive of these, at the rate of one hundredweight per acre, will not cost more than 2s. per acre. Another important fact, independent of the value of the salt, brought out by M. Bar- ral' s experiment, is the great waste of ammonia which takes place on exposing guano to the air. It will be remarked that, in the case before us, upwards of one-tenth of the nitrogen was lost in the course of fifteen days. This shows the necessity of farmers hus- banding as much as possible this important ingredient of their manure. Instead of throwing their guano in exposed sheds, as is too often done, it should be carefully covered up, and mixed, immediately on their receiving it, with some preserver of its ammonia. Superphosphate of Lime for Root Crops. SUPERPHOSPHATE of lime is used to a great extent in England as a manure for turnips, ruta bagas, mangel-wurzels, and other root crops. When sown broadcast, it has very little influ- ence on the crop ; but when drilled with the seed its effects are oftentimes astonishing. Philip Pusey and some others have shown, too, that, when the superphosphate is dissolved in water and applied in the seed-drills in a liquid form, the effect is still more beneficial. Alfred S. Ruston, in the London Farmer's Magazine, gives the results of some carefully-conducted experiments on the subject. There were seven separate experiments made ; but. as the results agree pretty closely, we select one as a sample of the whole. Three plots were dressed with eleven loads of barn-yard manure per acre, thrown into ridges, and sown with mangel-wurzels, April 17th. The first plot received no artificial AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 161 manure. The second, one hundred and twelve pounds of Lawes's superphosphate of lime per acre, drilled in dry, and the third plot, one hundred and twelve pounds of Lawes's superphos- phate of lime drilled in a liquid state. The crops were weighed October 4th. The first plot yielded per acre eight tons and fifteen hundredsweight ; the second, thirteen tons and fifteen hundredsweight ; and the third, seventeen tons and seven hundredsweight. In other words, one hundred and twelve pounds of superphosphate per acre, drilled in dry, gave an increase of five tons, and the same quantity applied in a liquid state, an increase of eight tons and twelve hundredsweight per acre. The cost of the superphosphate was $1.80 per acre. This is a good result, although it is usually found that superphosphate has a more marked effect on turnips than on ruta bagas, and even still more than on mangel-wurzel. The above yield will appear small to those who are frequently reading of crops of one thousand five hundred to two thousand bushels per acre. The great drought of last year, doubtless, materially injured the crop, especially where no superphosphate was applied. But, as the weather in England last summer approximated more closely to what it usually is in this country, the experiment may be looked upon as pretty correctly indicating what would be the effect of an application of good superphosphate of lime, in a dry and in a liquid state, to mangel-wurzels in this climate. Albany Cultivator. Amount of Manure applied per Acre. THE following, from the Rural New Yorker, displays the minute quantity of concentrated manure which falls upon a square yard of surface-soil when applied at ordinary rates : An acre of land contains forty-three thousand five hundred and sixty square feet, four thousand eight hundred and forty square yards, or one hundred and sixty square rods. By those who have used guano, it is said three hundred pounds is sufficient to manure an acre ; two hundred and two pounds would give just one ounce avoirdupois to the square yard. One cubic yard would give a trifle over one cubic inch to the square foot. A cubic yard of highly- concentrated manure, like night-soil, would, if even and properly spread, manure an acre very well. A cubic yard of long manure will weigh about one thousand four hundred pounds ; a cubic foot not far from fifty pounds. A cord contains one hundred and twenty- eight cubic feet ; a cord and a quarter would give about a cubic foot to the square rod. If liquid manure be used, it would take one hundred and seventy barrels to give one gill to a square foot upon an acre, which would bo equal to about fifty pipes or large hogsheads. It would be quite useful if farmers would be a little more specific as to the amount of manure applied. Natural Supply of Ammonia in Ordinary Soils. AT a recent meeting of the Royal Agricultural Society, Professor Way, in the course of some remarks on the atmospheric supply of manuring or fertilizing matter, called attention to the large amount of ammonia constantly taken up by the soil, and washing into the land by rain, and to the great importance^ consequently, of exposing the soil in such a manner to atmospheric influences as may best tend to this ammoniacal absorption. Fallowing of land, he remarked, had given way to rotation of crops ; but that there was no such thing as such a simple resting as fallowing was supposed to imply in this case, for an alteration of the soil under the influence of oxygen was constantly going on. Every interval, even, between one crop and another, was in reality a fallow. Land should be laid up as lightly as possible, for the purpose of its aeration. The working of the land, with a view to this abundant aeration, was one important means of improvement. He regarded it as indispensable, to the full de- velopment of the powers of soil, that steam-power should be brought to bear effectively upon its cultivation. The amazing bulk of ammonia locked up in the land itself could not be taken up by plants, and would therefore remain in a form unavailable for vegetation, unless the management of soil tended to release such manuring matter, and bring it within reach of the roots. He had calculated, from data furnished by some rich loamy land of tertiary drift, that the soil within available depths contained ammonia at the rate of one ton (equal 11 162 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. to six tons of guano) per acre. This was a stock of wealth which would repay the most active measures being taken for its release and distribution. British Farmer. In a lecture before the Massachusetts Legislative Agricultural Society, in the spring of the present year, by Dr. A. A. Hayes, of Boston, substantially the same views were ex- pressed. Dr. Hayes has found, by experiment, that the quantity of ammonia contained in the majority of the soils of New England is very great, far beyond what is generally sup- posed. In the state in which it exists, however, it is unavailable for fertilizing purposes, being combined with vegetable and organic acids, and forming neutral and insoluble salts. In applying manures, therefore, to lands in this state, the object sought for it is to produce & fermentation, or a chemical action, which will break up the ammonia compounds in the soil, and render them available for the support of vegetation. The type of manures best calculated to effect this is dried blood or animal matter, which, under nearly all circumstances, when exposed to ordinary temperatures and moisture, fer- ments most powerfully. Editor of Agricultural Year-Book. Use of Nitrate of Soda as a Fertilizer. THE Royal (English) Agricultural Society having offered a prize for a manure equal to guano, at a cost of 5 a ton, Mr. Pusey has shown that the conditions are satisfied by nitrate of soda, and at a charge less than that specified. He says, in illustration, that forty-six acres of land, if cropped with barley, and dressed with seventeen hundredsweight of nitrate, would yield an increase of eighty sacks beyond the quantity usually obtained. A cargo of this fertilizer was brought to England in 1820, but for want of a purchaser, was thrown overboard. A second importation took place in 1830; and from that date up to 1850, the quantity brought from Peru, where the supply is inexhaustible, was two hundred and thirty- nine thousand eight hundred and sixty tons; value, 5,000,000. With the price reduced to 8 a ton, Mr. Pusey observes " Our farmers might obtain from their own farms the whole foreign supply of wheat, without labor, and with but a few months' outlay of capital. I do not mean to say that no failures will yet occur before we obtain a complete mastery over this powerful substance ; but I am confident that, as California has been explored in our day, so vast a reservoir of nitrogen the main desideratum for the worn-out fields of Europe can- not be left within a few miles of the sea, passed almost in sight by our steamers, yet still nearly inaccessible, at the foot of the Andes." Experiments with Manures. FROM the Report of the Superintendent of the Model Farm of the Virginia and North Carolina Union Agricultural Society, published in the ''Southern Farmer," we extract the following results of some experiments on oats with various manures : 200 pounds of Peruvian guano gave 2240 pounds of oats per acre, say 70 bushels. 250 pounds of De Burg's superphosphate of lime gave 1712 pounds, say 53 bushels. 227 pounds bone-dust gave 1676 pounds, say 52^ bushels. An acre without any manure gave 1140 pounds, say 35 bushels. On another portion of the field, which contained 30 acres, where the soil was of " a slightly lighter texture," 100 pounds of Peruvian guano gave 1672 pounds per acre, say 52 bushels. 183 pounds of Chilian guano gave 800 pounds, say 25 bushels. 100 Bounds of Mexican guano gave 1225 pounds, say 38J bushels. Experiments made last season with artificial manures on carrots, on the State Farm of Massachusetts, gave the following results. The manure was apportioned according to its cost, each acre being dressed with twelve dollars' worth : Barn-yard manure 753 pounds per acre. Guano 660 " Potash....*. 628 De Burg's superphosphate of lime 586 " Mapes's improved ditto 572 Reservoir manure..., 540 " AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 163 Experiment with Nitrate of Soda and Guano on a Peat-Bog, THE land on which the following experiment was made, was a peat-bog, reclaimed in 1850, thoroughly drained, and six inches of clay applied over the whole surface ; the only crops raised upon it had been oats, turnips, and again oats sown out with grass. In March last, I sowed on one portion of the new grass two hundred and twenty-four pounds of nitrate of soda, with one hundred and twelve pounds of salt ; on another portion, four hundred and forty-eight pounds of guano ; and on the remainder of the field no manure was applied. The nitrate gave, per imperial acre, 6600 pounds of hay, at $56.00 Guano gave 5940 pounds, value 50.40 Nothing gave 3080 pounds, " 26.13 Independently of the increase of weight of hay from nitrate, I prefer that manure for either new or old grass, as it appears to require little moisture to put it down to the roots of the plants. A strong dew in the course of one night appeared sufficient for that purpose, and in about thirty-six hours after its application the grass turned to a luxuriant dark-green color ; whereas the guano requires a good shower of rain to put it down : unless it gets such fall of rain, it does little good. My trial of nitrate on oats and barley last year leads me to prefer guano for these crops. I applied one hundred and sixty-eight pounds of nitrate on one portion, and three hundred and thirty-six pounds of guano on another ; but the oats, top dressed with nitrate, kept a blueish sort of color throughout the season, did not ripen equally, and left the ear soft; while those which had guano ripened equally, had a harder, crisper ear, and weighed better. The land upon which that experiment was made, had not been previously cropped, and was of a mossy loam, with a mixture of clay. JAMES DYCB NICOL, in Journal of Royal Agricul- tural Society. Experience in Land Drainage. THE London Agricultural Gazette gives the following results of the experience in draining on several of the largest estates in Great Britain : Mr. G. Guthrie states : During the last thirty years I have drained many thousand acres ; the result in all cases was highly satisfactory, the tenants being generally willing to pay 6 J or 7 per cent, on the expense, and the advantage to them, I am aware, greatly exceeds that interest. The drainage I have adopted is the parallel system. For some years I have allowed no drainage under 3J feet deep in hard land, and in moss or bog, 4J or 5 feet. At one time (twenty years ago) our drains were only 27 or 30 inches ; but experience has shown us the great advantage of deeper drains. Our present drains are 3 J feet deep, at 24 feet distance. The direction of our minor drains is with, the fall. We do not regard the furrows, the land in this district being sown out flat. I have used 2-inch and 2-inch pipes for minor drains, and 4-inch to 6-inch tiles with soles for leaders. Collars or socket-pipes have not been used in this district, although I believe they ought to be. We have generally stones thrown out of drains, with which we fix the joints of pipes very firmly. I have not tried the practice of giving air at places to drains, and do not consider it at all necessary. The average number of acres to one outlet I cannot accurately say ; perhaps 8, 10, or 12 acres, according to circumstances. In conclusion, I believe there is no expenditure of capital more profitable than that of drainage. The agent of the estates of Lord Yarborough states, that until within the last four years the drains were put in from 16 to 24 inches from the surface ; but during the last four years a great part of these have been taken up, and put in not less than 3 feet. No difference is made between arable and grass land. The soil generally is clay, with the subsoil of the same character ; where the latter has sand veins, or is at all gravelly, a greater depth is adopted in some few cases they are 5, 6, and even 8 feet deep, the object being to go wherever the water is. On the strong soils, 3 feet draining is found so far to be effectual ; the system is to drain down each furrow, the lands being generally about 8 yards wide. Egg-shaped pipes, 2| inches by 1, without collars, have been partially used; but open tiles (with sides 164 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. where necessary) have been more generally used, and are preferred. The average depth of rain-fall in the neighborhood is a little over 20 inches. Mr. G. T. Bosanquet gives the following as the result of his experience in draining ; he says : The result of our drainage operations on all descriptions of land has been most satis- factory. I believe nothing pays better than draining land. The drainage adopted has been generally on the parallel system ; but that must depend a good deal upon the nature of the ground and the fall. The prevailing depth of the drain is about 3 feet. I^have not laid drains quite so near each other on grass land as on arable. The direction of the minor drains has been generally with the fall. I have found 2-inch pipes answer best for the minor drains ; I would not advise that smaller should be used on any ground. I have never used collars, as I think they would have a tendency to displace the pipes and destroy the regu- larity of the channel. I have not sufficient experience to say if there is any benefit by giving air at places to either main or minor drains. The average number of acres dis- charging at the several outlets is about 3 acres, sometimes more. I am quite convinced, from experience, that nothing pays better than draining, if well done, and the drains are not placed at too great a distance. I have one field on my estate which was utterly worth- less until drained : it would not grow the poorest grass ; it now produces good crops of corn and roots. But I strongly advise that whatever is done in draining should be well and effec- tually done, and that the pipes should never be less than 2 inches. I am of opinion, also, that although the water will find its way down to very deep drains, say 4 or 5 feet, this does not obviate the necessity of close draining. We are also less careful than we ought to be in forming the outlets. Clay-Ball Draining. A PLAN for draining, entitled "Clay-Ball Draining," has been recently patented in England by Capt. Norton, R. A., which consists in using hard spherical balls of clay as the draining medium. The clay of which the balls are made is moulded by any convenient machinery, preserving the spherical form as accurately as possible. When dried, the balls are burned to a crystalline hardness, so that when deposited in the earth they will literally endure for ages. The size or diameter of these drainage balls must be varied to suit different circum- stances ; but a diameter of four or five inches is the average size preferred. Such balls, when laid in drain cuts in the soil, allow the surface water to descend and pass freely through or between them, and thus get clear off the land. Spherical stones would obviously perform just as effectively as the clay balls, but the latter are preferred, for the reason that in them absolute sphericity may be secured, while that would be impossible even with the use of the smoothest and roundest pebbles. Fig. 1. is a longitudinal section of a portion of a field drain of this kind, &ndjig. 2 is a cor- responding transverse section. A rectangular cut A is first made in the soil B in any conve- nient manner ; and when a sufficient depth has been attained, the bottom of the recess is le- velled off, and made hard and substantial as a base, by laying thereon lengths of slate or other Fig. i f pig. 2. conveniently and economically available material C, filling up the entire width of the drain cut. In this condition of the work, a bottom row or layer of spherical clay balls D is laid into the drain, the two diameters of each transverse pair of balls being in the same transverse line of the drain as indicated in. fig. 2. This drain is supposed to be eight inches in width, so that two clay balls, each four inches in diameter, suffice to fill it. When the entire base of the drain is thus filled in, a second layer of balls E is set above the lower layer, the diametrical lines of the balls coinciding vertically in the manner shown in^. 2. This completes the draining medium, and the two layers of balls are then covered over with a cover layer of slates F, to carry the AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 165 earth thrown in above in levelling and making fair the field. It is preferred that the sod-side of the superincumbent earth should be downwards. This relation of the balls gives a clear thoroughfare for the drainage water through the central space enclosed by each set of four balls, as in fig. 2 ; at the same time there are three half passages or thoroughfares for the water at the bottom and top of the ball layer, and one half passage on each side. Hence there is always a free passage for the water to drain down, and percolate through the enclosed spaces due to the contour of the balls, getting clear away along the slate base of the drain channel to the main outfall. Captain Norton illustrates his contrivance under several forms, the balls being variously disposed in the drain cuts, while, in one instance, three several sizes of balls are used in com- bination. Drains made in this way always present a full, free passage for the descent of the water, as the spaces between the balls can never be diminished except by the introduction of other solid bodies ; and the roundness of the balls is itself a point in favor of the avoidance of such foreign deposits ; like the links of a chain, the balls will always conform to the ac- tual surface of the ground, and no sinking can effect any serious dislocation, or prevent the drainage from being full and free. Analysis of the Ashes of Oak and Pine Leaves, and their Comparison with those of Cotton and Corn. AT the request of the Black Oak Agricultural Society, of South Carolina, Prof. C. U. Shep- herd has recently analyzed the ashes of the oak and pine leaves, together with those of the cotton and corn plants, with a view of ascertaining the value of the former as a manure for the latter, so far as the mineral ingredients of the oak and pine leaves are concerned. From the published report of Prof. S. we derive the following particulars : " The agreement Hfetween the ashes of the pine and of the oak leaves, in regard to soluble and insoluble substances, is striking ; the ratio being as one to twelve in pine-leaf litter, and as one to thirteen in that of the oak ; while a very remarkable contrast subsists between their contents of carbonate of lime and magnesia and of silica. The carbonate of lime and of magnesia in one hundred pounds of oak-leaves is six times greater than in the same weight of pine-leaf, while the silica of the latter surpasses that of the former by two and a half times. In all other respects the difference between the two species of ash are inconspicuous. " Prof. Shepherd states that one hundred pounds of pine or oak leaves contain but one- third the quantity of the highly-important alkaline carbonate requisite for one hundred pounds either of cotton or corn ; but as this ingredient is afforded to some extent by all clayey soils, through the gradual decomposition of the feldspar and mica they contain, it seems probable that this amount of leaf-litter would be adequate to maintain the soil in fertility for both of these crops.* Table, showing (in pound* and decimals of pounds) the Mineral Constituent* in 60 pound* Indian Corn, in 60 pound* Pine-Leave*, and in 60 pounds Oak-Leave*. Corn. Pine- leaves. Oak- IfVTffc Potash Ibs. 0-1111 Ibs. 0-0596 Ibs. 0-800 Phosphate lime and magnesia..... Carbonate lime and magnesia Silica 0-1766 1-0265 0-2192 0-1566 0-1987 0-5647 0-223 1-172 0-267 Sulphate potash 0-0127 0-0082 0-042 " One hundred pounds (or rather one hundred and ten pounds, making allowance for hygro- metric moisture in the atmospherically dry leaf) of either of these kinds of leaf-litter will fully supply the phosphates indispensable for the same weight of cotton and corn ; while of the less important carbonates of lime and magnesia, it will (except in the case of the pine- leaf for cotton) generally give a large surplus. In the one hundred pounds of pine-leaves, * Still it might be useful to add, along with this quantity, all the wood-ashes at command upon the plantation. These usually contain about fifteen per cent, carbonate potash. 166 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. there are three times too much of organized silica for corn, and forty for that of cotton. In the one hundred pounds of oak-leaves, there is only a sufficiency of the same element for the corn, but eleven times more than is needed for the cotton. Of sulphate of potash and the chlorides, the one hundred pounds of leaves of either kind will supply all that is demanded by either crop, in like quantity. k On the Absorption of Nitrogen by Plants. A DEBATE of great interest has been entered into in the French Academy between the cele- brated agricultural chemist, M. Boussingault, and M. Ville, respecting the absorption of ni- trogen by plants, which has been conducted with unusual interest and some acrimony. The question discussed by these gentlemen was this : May we ascertain whether or not vege- tables possess the faculty of directly absorbing to their advantage a portion of this gaseous azote which forms the greatest part of the atmosphere ? The importance of the question is evident : if the free and gaseous azote may directly enter into vegetable organisms without passing through some intermediate combination, the veritable source of agricultural wealth is in the atmosphere ; if, on the contrary, before the azote commingles with the plant, it must unite itself to some other element, the agricultural chemist must turn his attention to the search of some new and better method of favoring the slow and difficult formation of combi- nations of azote. In both of the hypotheses the importance of manure remains incontestable, but their functions will not be so important. If azote gas is not capable of assimilation, if it is simply destined to temper the action of the oxygen with which it is mixed in the air, it is evident how important organic matters are in manures, bringing as they do the elements of the azotic principles elaborated by the plants. If, on the contrary, the azote of air is ab- sorbed during the act of vegetation, if it becomes in this way an integral part of the vege- table, then the mineral substances of manures contain the greatest part of their fertilizing pro- perties ; for the azote element would have been abundantly furnished by the atmospheric air. Why, then, has the chemist not yet determined this important point, whether gaseous azote is or is not directly assimilated by plants. The great obstacle lies in the difficulties of making the experiment, which should resolve the question. When the chemist would place a plant under a definitive regimen, to ascertain what it obtains from the mineral kingdom, whence it extracts a portion of its aliment, it is indispensable to measure, to weigh, to analyze every thing the air it respires, the water which moistens it, the soil which upholds. M. Boussin- gault and M. Ville use different methods, of which they are tenacious. It cannot be denied that M. Boussingault exhibits a great deal of art in the process he used in his experiments. He first abandoned the ridiculous pretension commonly entertained before him of measur- ing by default the azote a plant would have absorbed while it lived during a certain time in a limited quantity of air. He substituted in its stead, raising the plants in a completely sterile soil, and comparing the composition of the seed and the composition of the small crops so ob- tained at the expense of air and water alone. A handful of earth previously calcined, and watered with distilled water, evidently can furnish no organic matter to the plant which is developed there ; and consequently, if, after the crop is gathered, the chemical analysis shows it contains more azote than the grains sown contained, it is manifest that this azote came by the air : this result M. Boussingault obtained by experimenting with the seed of clover and of peas. But in communicating this result to the world, M. Boussingault did not pretend to do more than to exhibit the bare fact. He made no deduction to demonstrate that it came by the air in its normal state, or by the rare ammoniacal vapors from which the atmosphere is never ex- empt. M. Ville did not imitate his silence. He studied the question, and found the azote of the crops was ten, twenty, thirty times greater than the azote of the seed. However, M. Boussingault, pursuing his researches, (using a different method,) attained diametrically op- posite results, or results which are completely negative. To avoid any objection which might be urged on the ground of the permanent communication of the apparatus with the external air, he planted the objects of his experiments in a completely closed vase, and furnished them in the beginning with the quantity of carbonic acid and of water necessary to their alimenta- AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 167 tion during the whole course of their development. The apparatus was thus made extremely simple, being nothing but a large glass globe, capable of holding some sixty or eighty quarts ; he placed in the bottom of the globe (after having made it sufficiently humid) a certain quan- tity of pumice-stone, pounded, which had been washed, heated red hot, and, after it had cooled, mixed with the ashes of barn-yard manure and of seed similar to those about to be planted. The opening of the globe was immediately covered with a cork, which was itself covered with a caoutchouc cap. Forty-eight hours after this had been done the cork was again removed, and enough pure water added to bathe the base of the pumice-stone, which had been disposed in a heap. Then the seeds were planted they being inserted in a glass tube, which guided them to the place where they should lie. After the seeds were introduced, the tube was again closed, and, when the seed had germinated sufficiently, the confined atmo- sphere was charged with carbonic acid gas, by substituting in the place of the cork a second globe superposed on the first, having about one-tenth of the capacity of the first, and con- taining the acid gas prepared beforehand ; the juncture between them was then filled with sealing-wax, and half of the apparatus was buried in the ground. The experiment was now abandoned to itself, and the experimenter had little more to do besides to observe the plants' progress, to take advantage of the opportune moment to transfer them to his laboratory. The result of M. Boussingault's experiments is, that there is no azote fixed in an appreciable quan- tity during the course of the vegetation : the azote of the seed passed into the plant, the azote of the air remained fixed in the air. M. Ville urges that a positive result is of more import- ance than a mere negative result ; that he has, to sustain his position, the gramme of azote which he discovered in the plants he reared on a perfectly sterile soil ; besides that, during his experiments, he ascertained the circumstances in which M. Boussingault placed his plants are peculiarly unfavorable to the health of the plant, and to the exercise of the function of assimilating : they pervert the function whose office they both are studying. This discussion, although no positive results were attained, will nevertheless be read with interest. The following is an abstract of a communication previously presented to the French Acade- my by M. Ville, on the absorption of nitrogen : After stating that it has often been asked if air, and especially nitrogen, contributes to the nutrition of plants, and, as regards the latter, that this question has always been answered negatively, the author remarks that it is, however, known that plants do not draw all their nitrogen from the soil, the crops produced every year in manured land giving a greater pro- portion of nitrogen than is contained in the soil itself. The question which he has proposed to himself for solution is, Whence, then, comes the excess of nitrogen which the crops con- tain, and, in a more general manner, the nitrogen of plants, which the soil has not furnished ? He divides his inquiry into the three following parts : First. Inquiry into and determination of the proportion of the ammonia contained in the air of the atmosphere. Second. Is the nitrogen of the air absorbed by plants ? Third. Influence on vegetation of ammonia added to the air. 1. The author remarks, that since the observation of M. Theodore de Saussure, that the air is mixed with ammoniacal vapors, three attempts have been made to determine the proportion of ammonia in the air ; a million of kilogrammes of the air, according to M. Grayer, contain 0-333 kil. ammonia ; according to Mr. Kemp, 3-880 kil. ; according to M. Fre*senius, of the air of the day, 0-098 kil. ; and of night air, 0-169 kil. He states that he has shown the cause of these discrepancies, and proved that the quantity of ammonia contained in the air is 22-417 grms. for a million of kilogrammes of the air, and that the quantity oscillates between 17-14 grms. and 29-43 grms. 2. The author states that, though the nitrogen of the air is absorbed by plants, the ammonia of the air contributes nothing to this absorption. Not that ammonia is not an auxiliary of vegetation, but the air contains scarcely 0-0000000224, and in this proportion its effects are inappreciable. These conclusions are founded upon a great number of experiments in which the plants lived at the expense of the air, without deriving any thing from the soil. For the present, he confines himself to laying down these two conclusions : 1. The nitrogen of the air 168 THE YEAR-BOOK OP AGRICULTURE. is absorbed by plants, by the cereals, as by all others. 2. The ammonia of the atmosphere performs no appreciable part in the life of plants when vegetation takes place in a limited at- mosphere. After describing the apparatus by means of which he carried on his experiments on the vegetation of plants placed in a soil deprived of organic matter, and the manner in which the experiments were conducted, he adduces the results of these experiments in proof of the above conclusions. 3. With reference to the influence of ammonia on vegetation, the author states that, if am- monia be added to the air, vegetation becomes remarkably active. In the proportion of four ten-thousandths, the influence of this gas shows itself at the end of eight or ten days, and from this time it manifests itself with continually increasing intensity. The leaves, which at first were of a pale-green, assume a deeper and deeper tint, and for a time become almost black ; their petals are long and upright, and their surface wide and shining. In short, when vegetation has arrived at its proper period, the crop is found far beyond that of the same plants growing in pure air, and, weight for weight, they contain twice as much nitrogen. Be- sides these general effects, there are others which are more variable, which depend upon par- ticular conditions, but which are equally worthy of interest. In fact, by means of ammonia we can not only stimulate vegetation, but, further, we can modify its course, delay the action of certain functions, or enlarge the development and the modification of certain organs. The author further remarks, that, if its use be ill directed, it may cause accidents. Those which have occurred in the course of his experiments appear to him to throw an unexpected light upon the mechanism of the nutrition of plants. They have at least taught him at the expense of what care ammonia may become an auxiliary of vegetation. These experiments, which were made under the same conditions as those upon the absorption of nitrogen, are then de- scribed, and their numerical results given. To the conclusions already stated, the author adds that there are periods to be selected for the employment of ammonia during which this gas produces different effects. If we com- mence its use when several months intervene before the flowering season of the "plants, it pro- duces no disturbance ; they follow the ordinary course of vegetation. If its use be commenced at the time of flowering, this function is stopped or delayed. The plant covers itself with leaves ; and if the flowering takes place, all the flowers are barren. Chemical Investigation of the Phenomena of Vegetation. THE following are the details of experiments recently presented to the French Academy by M. Boussingault, on the phenomena of vegetation, the researches described being mainly undertaken for the purpose of settling the question, whether plants obtain their supplies of nitrogen from the atmosphere directly, by absorption: On the 17th of May, 1854, the author sowed three seeds of the garden-cress (Cresson aUnoisa) in a flower-pot containing three kilogrammes of earth ; and at the same time three similar seeds were placed in the same quantity of earth, enclosed in a glass vessel capable of containing 68 litres, which was then closed so as to exclude all air. On the 16th of June, the plants in the closed space were twice as large as those in the flower-pot, which had remained in the open air. On the 15th of August, the plants were collected : the enclosed plants had flowered normally, and bore the usual quantity of ripe fruit. In the second series of experiments, the seeds were placed in a soil which had previously been calcined. To this the ashes of various plants were added. The plants vegetated in an air-tight case of plate glass, capable of containing about 104 litres. Air was then constantly drawn in by an aspirator, after passing over pumice-stone moistened with sulphuric acid. By a simple arrangement of the apparatus, carbonic acid was allowed to enter the receiver in such quantity, that the air carried with it from 2 to 3 per cent, of this gas. The pumice- stone in which the seeds were placed was contained in pots containing 4 decilitres ; the pots being previously heated to redness. The ashes were prepared with particular care, in order that no carbon should be mixed with them. The carbon, which is of no consequence in itself, would possess an influence if nitrogenous bodies were contained in the ashes. The amount AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 169 of nitrogen in the ashes was carefully determined : they contain cyanides. The author found in one gramme of the ashes of Meadow hay 5 milligrammes of nitrogen. Ears of corn 5-8 " Peas 3-1 Oats (grain) 5 Couch-grass *>5 The mixed ashes mentioned in the following experiments were those obtained by the com- bustion of the stems and leaves of beans and lupines: 1 grin, of these ashes contained 0-1 miiligrm. of nitrogen. Besides this, the washed ashes of stable manure were frequently added. The seeds of beans and lupines employed in the experiment contained the following quantities of nitrogen: dwarf beans, 4-475; lupines, 5-820 per cent. The experiment lasted two months and a week. A seed weighing 0-337 grins., and consequently containing the amount of nitrogen stated below, was sown on May 12, 1854. The soil consisted of pumice- stone, to which 0-05 grm. of mixed ashes were added. On July 19th, the plant had eleven leaves, and the cotyledons were withered. In this experiment, 37,000 litres of air were passed through the apparatus in which the plant was enclosed. The result of the first experiment was as follows : In this, as in all the other experiments, A represents the amount of nitrogen found in the plant and in the soil at the conclusion of the experiment, and B the nitrogen contained in the seed from which the plant was raised. In this case no nitrogen was taken up by the plant: A == .. 0-0187 grm. B=i 0-0196 " Loss of nitrogen during growth = 0-0009 " Vegetation of a Sean in two months and ten days. The seed weighed 0-720 grm. It was sown May 14, 1854: 0-01 grm. of mixed, and 5 gnns. of washed ashes, were added to the soil. On June 22d, the plant had six normal dark-green leaves. The seed-lobes were strong and very fleshy ; they had withered on July 2d. The plant began to bloom on July 20th, when these leaves had fallen from the stem. On July 25th the plant bore four open flowers, twelve fully-developed leaves, of a pale-green color, and three young dark-green leaves : the stem was 23 centims. in height. The plant, dried on the water-bath, weighed 2 grms. During its growth, 41,500 litres of air had passed through the apparatus. No nitrogen was absorbed. A = 0-0325 grm. B = 0-0322 " Gain in nitrogen = 0-0003 " Two Beans vegetated for three months and a week. The two seeds weighed 1-510 grm. They were sown on May 12th. The soil had added to it 0-3 of mixed, and 8 grms. of washed ashes. On July 17th, the plants had twenty-six leaves and thirteen flowers. On the 25th, there were four small, dark-green pods, and the leaves were very pale. On the 10th of August, two of the pods were fully developed; they contained three well-formed seeds, nearly as large as those from which the plants were grown ; they weighed 7 centigrms. The dried plants weighed 5-15 grms. During the experiment, 55,500 litres of air passed through the appa- ratus. Result: A = 0-0666 grm. B = 0-0676 " Loss = 0-0010 " In this case, also, there was no absorption of nitrogen. In the following experiments, all the preceding arrangements, as regards the soil, the addition of ashes and water, were retained ; but the pots in which the plants were grown were placed so that the wind could not move their leaves, while the plants were sheltered from rain by a glass apparatus. They stood upon a balcony, 10 metres from the ground. A Bean vegetated for three and a half months in the open air. The seed, which weighed 0.78 170 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. grms., was sown on June 27th. Manure ashes were added to the soil. On October 12th, the plant bore one pod, containing a single imperfect seed. Result: A = 0-0380 grm. B = v 0-0349 " Gain = 0-0031 " Vegetation of Oats three months and a half in the open air. The stalk bore grains. Four grains of oats, weighing 0-151 grm., were sown on May 20, 1852. Manure ashes were added to the soil. On September 1st, the plants had from six to nine leaves, and each of them a lateral shoot. The straws were very straight, find each bore a ripe, well-formed, but very small seed. The five seeds together weighed two centigrms. The dry plants weighed 0-67 grm. Result: A== 0-0051 grm. B = 0-0041 " Gain= 0-0010 " Vegetation of a dwarf Bean in two and a half months. The plant was watered with water saturated with carbonic acid. The seed weighed 0-655 grm. ; sown May 17, 1853 ; manure ashes added to the soil. On July 9th the plant had seven expanded flowers. On August 20th the flowers had produced no fruit. The stalk was 33 centims. in height, and bore 15 leaves : the cotyledons and seed-lobes had withered, but still adhered. The plant was strong, and weighed 2-72 grms. Result: A = 0-0270 grm. B = 0-0293 " Loss = 0-0023 " Vegetation of two Lupines in two months. The two seeds weighed 0-630 grm. : they were planted June 30, 1854. 2 grms. of washed ashes were added to the soil. On September 5th, each lupine bore eight leaves: the cotyledons were withered: the plants 11 centims. high: A = 0-0387 grm. B= 0-0367 " Gain= 0-0020 " Vegetation of Cress in two months. Seeds were produced. The seed weighed 0-50 grm., and was sown on July 15, 1854. The soil had an addition of 0-1 grm. of mixed, and 1 grm. of washed ashes. The water given to it was saturated with carbonic acid. The seed-leaves were evolved on July 24th, and normal leaves appeared on the 30th. On August 6th, the seed-leaves were withered: they were taken off and preserved. The plants began to flower on August 18th. The leaves were very small. The flowering went on from the 18th to the 28th of August: the flower-leaves became dry in proportion as the upper ones flourished. On September 15th, each stalk bore a very small seed, although the fruit differed but little in size from that of garden-cress: A = 0-0272 grm. B = 0-0259 " Gain= 0-0013 " These last results of the vegetation of plants in the open air show that the quantity of nitrogen which may be absorbed from the atmosphere by plants is not greater than may be accounted for by errors of determination. It certainly appears that a little nitrogen was taken up. In his memoir, the author further refers to the question, whether this nitrogen is derived from the minute organic bodies which float in the air, or from carbonate of ammonia. He observed the formation of green spots, produced by minute green cryp- togamia, on the outside of the flower-pots, which were never seen on those excluded from the air. He also saw those green filaments produced in rain water, which had been collected at the beginning of a shower, and kept in a flask. Bineau has observed that these filaments consume all the ammonia of rain water. The author concludes with some observations on the part played in vegetation by the nitrogenous body pre-existing in the seed, or that formed by the aid of the manure. He describes the vegetation of a plant from seeds which weighed only y'y milligrm., and which must therefore have contained a scarcely ponderable quantity AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 171 of nitrogen, and finds in the vegetation of this plant a convincing proof that the gaseous nitrogen of the atmosphere is not assimilated by plants. Comptes Rendus, Oct. 2, 1854, p. 601. On the Agricultural Value of Gypsum. BY SAMUEL W. JOHNSON. IT is nearly one hundred years since gypsum (plaster of Paris, sulphate of lime) began to acquire its agricultural significance. Since that time it has become celebrated on account of the successes that have attended its use ; while the ill results, and want of results, that have followed its application, have not failed to make it many enemies. Franklin, in the United States, and Schubert Von Kleefeld,* in Germany, towards the close of the last century, simultaneously gave a great impulse to the use of gypsum. Within the last seventy years, an immense number of observations and experiments have been made with it ; and yet to this day the method and condition of its action are very imperfectly understood. Before we attempt to learn that which is now unknown, we must first of all carefully ex- amine our existing stores of knowledge ; we must have in mind all that has been done and learned relating to the subject : we thus acquire points of departure, discover the trails which may guide us through the maze, and save ourselves the trouble of repeating what has been already either well or vainly done. What is gypsum f When pure and unburned, 100 pounds contain Lime 32J pounds. Sulphuric acid 46* " Water... 21 " 100 < The water is in chemical combination with the sulphate of lime. By heating the com- pound, the 21 per cent, of water is driven off; and what remains, called burned or boiled plaster, consists in 100 parts of Lime 41 parts. Sulphuric acid 59 " 100 The agricultural effect of burned and unburned plaster, so far as we know, is precisely alike ; for when the former is exposed to dews or rains, it immediately recovers its water, unless it has been too strongly heated, in which case it attracts water slowly or not at all. This at- traction of water is in itself no advantage, for the water attracted combines chemically with the plaster, and can never be of avail to the plant any more than the water already contained in xinburned gypsum. When the plaster has thus satisfied its chemical thirst for water, it has no more absorbent power for that substance than so much ordinary soil ; and hence the notion that plaster helps vegetation to water, and is thus of agricultural value, is not sup- ported by a particle of evidence. The advantages of burned plaster are, that it is more easily reduced to a fine powder, which facilitates its solution in water and its distribution through- out the soil. Besides, by its use the transportation of 21 per cent, of water is saved. On the other hand, unburned plaster is cheaper by so much as the burning costs ; and burned plas- ter, if too strongly heated, may become a little less readily soluble in water. This latter con- sideration is not probably of much weight, so that it is reasonable to suppose that on the soil 79 pounds of plaster = 100 pounds of unburned plaster. Actual experiments have failed to establish any superiority in the agricultural effect of one form over the other, in case both were equally pulverized. The above statements refer to pure sulphate of lime ; but plaster, as quarried for agricul- tural purposes, often contains several per cent, of admixture, as clay, carbonate of lime, &c. These are of little consequence unless their quantity be quite considerable. The presence of quick-lime in calcined may perhaps account for the ill success of some in fixing ammonia * Schubert of Clover-field, so knighted by Joseph I., on account of his merit in extending the cultivation of clover. 172 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. with help of gypsum ; for, as is well known, caustic lime expels ammonia from all substances that contain it. What crops are benefited by plaster? It were not difficult to find authentic cases of plaster having proved useful on almost every field crop, and there is no lack of instances in which it has failed on every one. But the loose way in which thfe statements of farmers are often given to the public makes many of them of little or no value. It is a well-recognised fact that circumstances alter cases ; when we know the circumstances, we can understand the difference in the cases. Usually, in the records of experience and experiment which we find in the papers, so few circumstances are taken into the account that we are actually no better enlightened at the end of the story than before ; there is no making out the case. This is especially true of the statements with regard to plaster ; and hence we find contradiction upon contradiction, and contradiction contradicted. It is not that statements do not contain the truth ; they may contain nothing but the truth, but they rarely include the whole truth. This is not at present to be entirely helped, but there is vast room for improvement. In attempt- ing, therefore, to give a summary of the results of practice in the use of gypsum, it is only possible to assume as facts those statements which have been confirmed by the according voices of many observers. It is the result of all experience that plaster is especially advantageous to the cultivated leguminous plants viz. clover, lucerne, esparsette, vetches, peas, and beans. Its effects upon clover in particular have been remarkable. European writers assert that to gypsum is largely due the introduction of clover into agriculture, and the many improvements that have followed its cultivation. On other crops it seems to be beneficial only by way of exception, and yet the exceptions are numerous and often striking. After the above-specified plants, tobacco, cabbage, rape, hemp, flax, and buckwheat are mentioned by Girardin as benefited by plaster. All writers agree that grain crops are rarely influenced by it. In the United States, gypsum has been reported useful on almost all crops. It is a favorite application to meadows. Professor Norton used to mention the case of meadows near Springfield, Massa- chusetts, on which the mere application of a few bushels of gypsum (two to three bushels, if I remember rightly) per acre ensured a good yield of grass, where otherwise the growth was very inferior. It is also very common to apply a handful of plaster to each hill of corn and potatoes at the time of planting, or when the plants are some inches high ; how often profit- ably, we have no means of knowing. It has indeed been found useful on wheat. There is obviously need of new trials on every kind of crop. W reasonably hope one day to learn under what circumstances plaster can be useful, even to those crops for which it is not usually recommended. Undoubtedly, those conditions which cause the occasional failure of plaster to benefit the leguminous plants, are closely related to those which make it more generally unreliable when applied to other crops ; and the conditions that make it generally useful to the former, make it sometimes valuable for the latter. What part of the plant is most developed by plaster ? With regard to this question, expe- rience answers that the increased development of a plant consequent on the use of gypsum is disproportionately great in the stem and foliage : the production of seed is not greatly in- creased. This observation stands naturally connected with the fact that plaster is most effi- cacious on those plants used for fodder which yield a large mass of vegetation, and least valu- able on the grains which are cultivated mostly for their seed. Tobacco and maize, which have much foliage and stem, potatoes, which develope much foliage under cultivation, and produce fleshy tubers and little seed, are further examples. A few experiments are on record in which plaster applied to peas produced a decided increase of straw, but hardly affected the amount of seed. Stockhardt, however, says that the seed-production is usually increased, though not proportionately to the straw. The effect of gypsum on the quality of the plant. Whether crops, which have attained a larger growth in consequence of the use of gypsum, contain a larger proportion of sulphuric acid and lime than similar crops produced by the same without plaster, is not yet fully ascer- tained, since experiments made to determine this point have not agreed in their results. New investigations would easily settle this matter one very important for the theory of the action of plaster. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 173 It is well known that peas often refuse to cook soft, even after hours of boiling. The reason of this is not at all understood. It has been asserted that manuring the crop with plaster gives the peas this quality ; but the contrary is also asserted. This is a point to bo studied. Influence of the soil on the action of plaster. The character of the soil must necessarily greatly affect the operation of this fertilizer. A soil already rich in sulphate of lirne of course cannot be greatly benefited by addition of more. A poor, light, or exhausted soil, deficient in mineral plant-food, as phosphoric acid, potash, &c., cannot be expected to become fertile by treatment with plaster ; for this substance cannot supply those matters which are want- ing, and without which no plant can flourish. Cold, wet, heavy, and impenetrable soils are usually almost unaffected by plaster; sometimes, its use has been apparently disadvantageous on them. Porous soils, either sandy or loamy, which readily dry after rains, and which are well dunged, experience the most benefit from plastering. Excess of moisture and poverty of the soil are the chief hinderances to the action of gypsum. On lime and chalk soils it is no less effectual than on others. In general, it may be stated that unless the other conditions of good culture be observed and provided for, the farmer who uses gypsum will "lose his money and his trouble." It is undoubtedly a fact, that the circumstances which insure the best effect from gypsum are nearly identical with those which are otherwise most favorable to vegetable growth. Effect of climate and weather. Countries, like South England, the greater part of France, Bohemia, &c., where, on account of the vicinity of the* sea, or the existence of forest and hill ranges, the climate is uniform ; and where, during the growing season, the rain-falls are fre- quent, but moderate ; where, in other words, it is neither too wet nor too dry, there gypsum stands in greatest favor. It is doubtless the fact that the frequent wetting of the soil assists the action of plaster by bringing it into solution ; yet the weather probably exerts more influ- ence on the plant itself directly than on the action of the plaster with which it is manured. Climate modifies the conditions of vegetable growth to a wonderful degree. In the more northern part of our temperate zone, a stiff clay soil is very intractable and unproductive ; while in Egypt, where it never rains, a similar soil yields the most profitable returns. We should, therefore, expect to hear from a Canadian farmer that plaster has little good effect on clay soils ; while in the warmer South, they might be benefited most of all. Quantity and time of application. In England and Germany, it has been found that 250 to 400 pounds per acre is the best quantity to apply. The advantage of larger applications is usually very inconsiderable. Gypsum is usually applied in the spring, and in case of clover, &c., when the vegetation is 3 to 4 inches high. In the United States, it is applied to corn and potatoes in the hill at planting, but more frequently when they have attained the above- mentioned height. Many farmers are of opinion that plaster acts best when it remains adhering to the leaves for some time. Accordingly, it is highly recommended to sow plaster just before or after a gentle rain, or when the dew is on the plants. Warm, moist weather insures the full action of plaster. If the weather be cold at the time of sowing, its effect is stated to be very insig- nificant. This is, however, doubtful. In Germany, the first of May is generally considered the best season for plastering ; and experiments made in Saxony, especially to ascertain the most favorable time, have confirmed the opinion. Not a few, however, deem it indifferent whether the plaster adhere to the plant or fall directly upon the soil. Dombasle employed the following method : He plastered his meadows at the time of seed- ing, and repeated the dose in the following spring. Clover treated in this way grew very luxuriantly; sometimes even to the detriment of the grain with which it was sown. It is re- ported that clover thus plastered is less injured by frosts, and is ready to cut a week or two earlier than when gypsum is not applied. Duration of effect. According to Girardin, " experience has established that plastering (of clover?) should not be repeated oftener than once in five or six years, if any action is to be expected from it." Other writers agree in admitting that its benefit continues nearly or quite as long. Its effect has often been observed to be greater the second than the first year after application, and is often unabated the third season. The duration of its action is doubtless 174 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. somewhat dependent on the quantity applied, and must be materially influenced by the weather in the second, third, and following seasons, as well as in the first. I have thus given a condensed statement of the results and opinions of practical men rela- tive to the use of plaster. The conclusion adopted are those which are sustained by the ma- jority of facts. It is apparent what uncertainty prevails 1 in our knowledge of this subject. It remains, by means of new and more careful observations and by more rigid experiments, to determine the actual value of these statements, and to acquire additional information. Hundreds of single results that have been published are of no value whatever in deducing general rules, because the vagueness of many agricultural terms makes it impossible to know what degree of truth a statement possesses. A soil is a very complex thing, and may include many conditions which effect the action of a fertilizer ; yet in a report of a trial of plaster we find nothing written of the soil except the prefix clayey, or sandy, or loamy. The important characteristics upon which the whole result of the experiment hinges may never be recognised nor mentioned ; and hence, while the fact is true that the crop was benefited or not, we have no logical ground to assume that any of the mentioned causes or circumstances had any thing to do with the effect, more than a number of other unnoticed causes which must have been present and operative. Admitting that much remains to be learned, still it is evident that for practical purposes so much may be accepted viz. : 1. Leguminous plants are especially benefited by plaster, while 2. All other plants of large foliage, whose agricultural value does not consist in the produc- tion of seed, are usually aided by it in growth, upon 3. Soils not already containing sulphate of lime, but 4. In which all other parts of mineral plant-food are present in available form, and in suffi- cient quantity ; which are, in practical language, well dunged, if not rich without manure ; and which, further, 5. Present no physical obstacles to vegetable growth which are dry, sufficiently porous, and well tilled, when 6. The climate and weather are favorable to vegetation, when the temperature is mild, and rains are frequent but moderate. Does plaster exhaust the soil. This frequently-asked question is easily answered, and by the word no. A soil is never exhausted by what is added to it, but always by what is re- moved. But a little explanation is needed, for although plaster cannot exhaust the soil, plastering is usually followed by exhaustion; and for the simple reason, that by its use nothing but sulphate of lime (ammonia indirectly?) is added, while phosphoric acid, potash, silica, &c. are removed. A purse soon gets empty if eagles are constantly taken out, though cents be now and then put in. The crops which plaster enables the farmer to remove from the soil exhausts it. Suppose that a few bushels of plaster raise the yield of clover upon a field ten per cent. ; then, ten per cent, more of phosphoric acid, potash, &c. pass from the soil into the crop than would have passed had no plaster been used. If plaster only be added, then the field will be exhausted in one-tenth less time than if nothing at all had been applied. In both cases, the total amount of vegetation produced until exhaustion supervenes will be the same, and the amount of exhaustion the same. In the one instance, the final result might be reached in ten years ; in the other, in nine years. The difference is merely one of time. If benefit is to be derived from the use of plaster, it must be accompanied with other manure, or its action, however good at first, will ultimately cease. Manuring a poor soil with nothing but plaster is attempting to sustain vegetation on plaster alone ; and this, like feeding chil- dren on little else than arrow-root, is a stupendous folly. It is trying to build brick houses without brick. Plants cannot be made of sulphate of lime any more than men can be made out of starch. "Out of nothing, nothing comes." The healthy plant is the result of the co-ope- ration of many causes the coincidence of many conditions. One cause, one condition can only act favorably when all the others but this are present. There is, there can be, no agricultural panacea. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 175 New Method of Determining Nitrogen. DR. SIMPSON, of Dublin, has presented to the Chemical Society a communication re- specting a new process for estimating nitrogen. There are two modifications of his method. The first served for determining the comparative amount of nitrogen and carbonic acid formed during the combustion of an azotized organic substance. It did not differ widely from Liebig's process now in use, except that oxide of mercury, diluted with oxide of cop- per, was employed for burning the substance, and chlorate of potash was placed at the end of the tube to yield a supply of oxygen. The absolute method resembled Dumas's in prin- ciple; carbonate of manganese, however, being the substance employed for the production of carbonic acid, and some peculiar arrangements being introduced, especially in the receiver over the mercury trough. These processes had been worked out in Bunsen's labora- tory ; and were equally applicable to the determination of nitrogen in such substances as the vegeto-alkaloids, in nitrates, or in salts of ammonia. Phosphate of Lime A New Test. THE action of boracic acid upon the phosphate of lime, as described by C. Tissier in the Comptes Rcndus, (Paris,) is exceedingly interesting to agricultural chemists: If to an acid solution, either nitric or muriatic, containing phosphate of lime (or a soluble phosphate and chloride of lime) and an excess of boracic acid, there be added borate of soda in sufficient quantity to saturate the acid which holds the phosphate in solution, no borate of lime is precipitated, but all the phosphoric acid is thrown down in the form of phosphate of lime. This precipitate has not a variable composition, like that formed by being saturated with ammonia, but has a constant composition and a well-defined formula. It corresponds with that for which Berzelius gives the formula, 8 Ca. 0, 3 P O 5 , and which contains phosphoric acid, 49-09; lime, 50-91. This method of precipitating phosphoric acid from its solution will greatly facilitate the determination of the quantity of phosphates contained in soils and manures. Value of Soil-Analyses. AT a late meeting of the Farmers' Club in New York, Prof. Mapes adduced the follow- ing circumstances, as showing the value of soil-analyses: At the meeting of the National Agricultural Society in Washington, Mr. G. W. Custis stated that he was owner of the Arlington Estate, containing some 5000 acres of land and several hundred negroes. For several years he had found it necessary, in order to pay his own expenses and those of his family, (including the negroes,) to mortgage the estate. He had an analysis made of his soil, with a view to ascertain its deficiencies for a wheat crop, and, under proper instructions, he had those deficiencies supplied; and "Now," said he, "gentlemen, I can say, instead of mortgaging my estate, I am continually lessening the mortgages I had previously obtained, and this year I have ten thousand bushels of wheat for the miller, while until the analysis was made I never was able to sell a single bushel of wheat above what was used for the hands." Mr. John Jones, of Delaware, the largest wheat-grower within two hundred miles of Washington, said he bought a farm for $10 an acre, which he agreed to pay in small instalments and on a very long mortgage ; the owner being glad to sell at that low price and on those easy terms. When he commenced operations, his first crop of wheat was some seven or eight bushels to the acre, on the plan of cultivation usual in the neighborhood. He sent his soil North to have it analyzed. On the basis of the analysis he planned his operations ; and, " Gentlemen," said he, " I raised a larger crop of wheat than any other man within the same distance of Washington. The assessors this year valued my land at $70 an acre, cal- culating from the value of the crop of wheat." These cases had come under his (Prof. M.'s) supervision, and the preparation which he recommended, after analyzing the soils, was a mixture of guano with bones dissolved by sulphuric acid. They had added sulphate of ammonia, which had cost them only as much as the carting of barn-yard manure had usually 176 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. cost. The soils of those gentlemen contained rather more potash than usual. But he had yet to find the first soil which is not capable of being benefited by the addition of the super- phosphate of lime. Phosphates in Turnips. LIEBIG, in his recent work, appends the following note on the amount of phosphates found in turnips. The note occurs in connection with the following sentence, and ; has special reference to some experiments of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert, of England, which are in oppo- sition to the views of Liebig: "The small percentage of phosphates contained in the turnip is the reason why, in Ger- many and France, there is often obtained after grain a stubble crop of this root in the same year." The note is as follows: "If we calculate from the results of ash-analyses the quantities of phosphoric acid which are required respectively by a wheat crop, including grain and straw, and by a turnip crop, including roots and leaves, we find that wheat removes less of this substance from the soil than turnips. This result is apparently in contradiction to the fact so well established by practical experience, that wheat requires more abundant supplies of phosphoric acid in the soil than the turnip. The two facts become reconciled when we take into account the longer time that the latter has in which to accumulate this mineral ingredient. " The turnip requires phosphoric acid to be supplied through the whole of its long period of growth, four or five months, but uniformly and always in small quantity only in a given time. Wheat needs the greater share of its phosphoric acid during the growth of the seed. This is the period in which, as practical men believe, the soil suffers the greatest is most exhausted. If the wheat-plant finds a sufficient quantity of phosphoric acid within reach of its roots during the few weeks in which its seed is formed, then each kernel attains a full and normal development; if there be a slight deficiency of phosphoric acid, then the seeds are less numerous or less large ; if the deficiency be very considerable, then nothing but straw is produced. "The quantity of phosphoric acid which a wheat soil should contain does not therefore stand in relation to the sum total which the plant needs, but to the quantity which the ker- nels require during the period of their development. "When we compare the quantity of phosphoric acid which the soil must yield to a wheat crop during the month in which its seeds are forming, with that needed by a turnip-crop in any equal space of time, it is plain that wheat requires the presence of a far larger amount of this indispensable body in the soil than the turnip. This is a fact not to be disregarded in manuring the soil for these crops. " The produce of a field stands related to the amount of that mineral ingredient which its soil contains in smallest quantity. "As a general rule, the manuring of a field should not be calculated from the sum total of mineral ingredients which the plant takes from the soil, but must be proportioned to that maximum of these substances which is required by the plant in a certain period of its growth." In respect to the above, Mr. S. W. Johnson, of England, in a letter published in the Working Farmer, says: "The above makes evident how necessary it is that not only the kind and quantity of substances removed by a plant from the soil be considered, but also the time and circum- stances in which the supply should be made. The latter are of equal moment with the former. Plants differ physiologically and structurally. These differences must be investi- gated, and taken into account. The chemist has hitherto too much neglected them. He has attempted in many cases to deduce the whole list of the plant's chemical needs from its chemical analysis. Nothing could be more fallacious. He has found that an average crop of wheat and turnips contain nearly the same amount of phosphoric acid. He cannot, therefore, conclude that, so far as this ingredient is concerned, they will both flourish equally in the same soil." AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 177 Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert deduced from their experiments that turnips require more phosphoric acid in the soil than wheat, because that, on what they considered an exhausted soil, the addition of superphosphate of lime enabled them to raise turnips. Prof. Liebig, in his new work, has objected to this that the soil was not exhausted, as is proved by the fact that it yielded tolerable crops of wheat; and expresses his belief that the yield of turnips was not due to the supply of phosphoric acid, but to the solvent action exercised on the silicates of the soil by the free sulphuric acid of the agricultural superphosphate which was applied in large quantities. The considerations contained in the above note explain why wheat requires a soil richer in phosphoi'ic acid than the turnip does. It is an interesting fact that a soil does exist which produces wheat, but refuses entirely to grow turnips, as the experimental soil of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert. In the majority of cases we should expect the reverse. This shows the danger of too hasty generalization, and the importance of having a thorough knowledge of all the circumstances which act in any particular case. On the Amounts of Ammonia and Nitric Acid in Rain Water. AT the British Association, Dr. Gilbert and Mr. Lawes communicated the results of their investigations on the amounts of ammonia and nitric acid in rain water. Their results during many months of the last two years were tabulated and compared with those of Boussingault ; the great result being that rain water contains not quite one part of nitrogen to the million in the form of ammonia, and about five parts to the million in that of nitric acid. The ammonia is found in largest quantity in mists and dews, as might naturally be expected from its being evolved at the surface of the earth, and being absorbed by any moisture. In answer to questions put to him afterwards, Dr. Gilbert stated that the nitric acid was found most nl>uii'l:mtl y :it't-r storms, and varied very greatly at different periods of the year. The amount of ammonia which descended in a month's rain was more constant. The doctor expressed hi.-- opinion, but with hesitation, that nitric acid and ammonia were about equally efficient in supplying nitrogen for plants ; and therefore, as nitric acid is the more abundant in the atmo- sphere, he conceived that it afforded actually the larger quantity of azote to the vegetable world. Boussingault has recently published some additional researches on the above subject, from which it appears that the rain of the country contains less ammonia than that of the city, and that the ammonia is more abundant at the beginning than at the end of a shower. He has also examined the dew, and always found it to contain ammonia. The proportions by several trials were six milligrammes to the litre ; but the amount is reduced to 1^02 after a rainy day. On the 14th to the 16th of November, a thick mist prevailed so rich in ammonia that the water had an alkaline reaction ; a litre of the water contained about two decigrammes of carbonate of ammonia. Seventy-five rains, including the dew and mist examined, contained as a mean half a milligramme of ammonia. The great quantity of ammonia contained in the mist appears interesting in its bearing on vegetable pathology ; in fact, although ammonia in small quantity is favorable to vegetation, a large proportion would be injurious, and would show its effects, especially on the leaves of flowers. Moreover, such a storm might have a deleterious influence upon respiration, and especially on the lungs of persons with pulmonary affections. New Theories in Agricultural Science. M. BAUDRIMONT, professor of chemistry at the Faculty of Sciences at Bordeaux, has pub- lished a work "On the Existence of Interstitial Currents in Arable Soil, and the influence which they exert on Agriculture," in which, after a long study of the subject, he states that there is a natural process at work by which liquid currents rise to the surface from a certain depth in the ground, and thus bring up materials that help either to maintain its fertility or to modify its character. Many phenomena of agriculture and of vegetation have at different times been observed, which, hitherto inexplicable, are readily explained on this theory. Such, for example, the improvements which take place in fallows ; and there is reason to believe that these currents materially influence the rotation of crops. 12 178 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. In Germany, Schleiden is attracting much attention by his masterly views on the phe nomena of vegetation ; and it will surprise many to hear that he admits of no relation between the fertility of a soil and the quantity of fertilizing matters expended upon it. "The good- ness of the soil," he says, "depends upon its inorganic constituents, so far, at least, as they are soluble in water, or through continued action of carbonic acid; and the more abundant and various these solutions, the more fruitful is the ground." Arguing from this view, it is not richness of soil or humus that produces the multiplied varieties of Alpine- plants in Ger- many, or the absence of it that produces but few. " Soluble mineral constituents" are shown to be the characteristic of our cultivated field; and "an agricultural plant" is defined as one "distinguished from wild individuals of the same species by peculiar qualities which consti- tute its fitness for culture, and which depend upon a modification of chemical action." The amazing yield of Indian corn in Mexico from two hundred to six hundred-fold is something which, with all our skill, we cannot accomplish, and is a fact in favor of the argument "that in no case do the organic substances contained in the ground perform any direct part of the nutrition of lants." The annual destruction of organic matter all over the earth is estimated at one hundred and forty-five billions of pounds, equal to two and one-fourth billions of cubic feet ; and if all vegetation depends on organic matter for nutrition, to satisfy this consump- tion "there must have been, five thousand years back, ten feet deep of pure organic substance on its surface." Another illustration is furnished by taking the number of cattle and other animals in France in a given year, (1844,) and observing the amount of food they consume. The process of nutrition would require 76,789,000,000 pounds of organic matter; six times more than the whole number contribute of organic matter towards reproduction, and in one hundred years "the whole organic material of the country would be consumed." Again: look at a farm. How much more is carried off from it than is given back again! Generally the amount of its yield is three times greater than that of the organic matter it receives; while of the manure applied, the greater part is not taken up, but imperceptibly decomposed. Carbon is the most important of the constituents of plants: an acre of sugar plantation produces 7500 pounds of canes, of which 1200 pounds are carbon, and yet sugar plantations are rarely manured, and then only with the ashes of the burnt canes. With bananas the result is still more striking: the yield is 98,000 pounds of fruit in a year from a single acre, and of this 17,000 pounds more than a fifth is carbon; and the same acre will give the same return year after year for twenty or thirty years; and the ground at the end of that time will be richer than at the commencement, from nothing more than the decay of the large leaves of the plant. Here in Europe, too, the difference in weight and in carbon between the seed and the produce has often been noted: in wheat, 89 per cent; in red clover, 158 per cent. ; and in peas, 361 per cent. These facts afford evidence of a supply of carbon derived from other sources than those commonly supposed to exist; and while we know that seeds will germinate and become vigorous plants in pure quartzose sand, or in cotton-wool, or on a board, we seem to have proof that the chief source of supply is the atmosphere. This is an interesting point, which further research will verify : Schleiden shows the process to be eminently simple. He says, in his work, of which a translation has been published by the Horticultural Society "According to Link, Schwartz, and others, an acre of water-meadow contains 4400 pounds of hay, which, when dry, contains 45-8 per cent, of carbon. The hay then yields 2000 pounds of carbon, to which 1000 pounds may be added for the portion of the year in which the grass is not cut, and the roots. To produce these 3000 pounds of car- bon, 10,980 pounds of carbonic acid is requisite, which may be raised to 12,000 pounds, to compensate for the nightly expiration. Now, Schubler has shown that an acre of so wretched a grass as Poa annua exhales in 120 days (too low a computation) of active vegetation, 6,000,000 pounds of water. To supply the exigencies of the plants, therefore, it is only necessary for the meadow to imbibe 3 grains of carbonic acid with every pound of water. Mr. Lawes has found, also, that in a plant of any one of our ordinary crops, more than 200 grains of water must pass through it for a single grain of solid substance to accumulate within it. He states the evaporation from an acre of wheat during the period of its growth to be 114,860 gallons, or 73,510,000 gallons per square mile. With clover, it is rather more: with peas and barley, less. When we apply these calculations to a county or a kingdom, we AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 179 are lost in the magnitude of the processes by which nature works ; but we see the more clearly that, on such a scale, the quantity of material supplied by the air, though minute to the individual, becomes vast in the aggregate. We see, moreover, the necessity for under- standing the relations between evaporation and rate of growth, and the laws and effects of absorption in soils. A thousand pounds of dry calcareous sand will gain two pounds in weight in twelve hours when the air is moist, while pure agricultural clay will gain thirty- seven pounds. The source of nitrogen comes next to be considered ; and this also is seen to be independent of manures. Hereupon, it is observed that " our domestic plants do not require a greater supply than in a state of nature. A water-meadow which has never received any dung, yields yearly from forty to fifty pounds of nitrogen, while the best plowed land yields only about thirty-one pounds. The plants for which most dung is used, as potatoes and turnips, are in fact proportionally the poorest in nitrogen." That there is a supply independent of the soil, is further seen in the millions of hides furnished every year by the cattle of the Pampas, without any diminution of produce; and in the great quantities of nitrogenous matters, hay, butter, and cheese, carried off from pasture-land ; far more than is returned by the animals fed thereon. Experiments with various kinds of plants on various soils have satisfactorily demonstrated that increase of nitrogen in the land and in the crop does take place, quite irrespective of supplies of manure. With respect to ammonia, "it appears that one-thirteenth of a grain in every pound of water is sufficient for the exigencies of vegetation, and there is perhaps no spring-water in the universe which contains so little." Then as to sulphur and phosphorus, which are also among the constituents of plants, the quantity needed in proportion to the time of vegetation is so small, that 540,000th of a grain of sulphuretted hydrogen per cubic foot, diffused through the atmosphere to a height of 3000 feet, is all that is required. The consideration that cereals would soon disappear from the north of Europe, if not culti- v.itfl. Mini perhaps from nearly the whole of this quarter of the globe, adds weight to the arguments in favor of enlightened attention to the inorganic constituents of plants. The point is to bring the soil into harmony with the conditions by which growth may best be pro- moted. Much depends on the nature of the soil ; the darkest-colored lands are generally the highest in temperature ; hence the advantage of vegetable mould ; while deep, light sands, and clay, which turns almost to stone in dry weather, weary and vex the cultivator by their unprofitableness. It is to be remembered, however, that soils which have the highest tem- perature of their own, may not be those most susceptible of receiving heat that is, from the sun, because some lands are* warmed by the springs that irrigate them. Here we have an explanation of the phenomena of certain soils which are warm in winter and cool in sum- mer. The application of humus evolves heat by the process of combustion; and sand, lime, clay, and humus are the combinations needed, the clay being in a proportion of from 40 to 60 per cent. ; if less than 10 per cent, the land will be too light and poor. Although Schleiden's views apply chiefly to the practice of German agriculturists, they will be found to bear on the whole science of cultivation. In summing up, he insists strongly on the necessity for selecting good seed; that from a barren soil, he observes, is likely to be more true to its kind than from well-manured land. Also, that the time of sowing should be adapted to the requirements of the plant; rye and barley, for instance, should be sown in drier weather than oats. And it will surprise many to read that he advocates a less frequent use of the plow. He holds plowing to be a "necessary evil, one to be employed only so far as necessity requires;" because, by the too frequent loosening of the soil, the decomposition of humus is so rapid as to overbalance the benefit supposed to arise from exposure to the atmosphere. He shows, too, that covered fallows are in most cases preferable to naked fallows, as the latter tend to waste the valuable qualities of the soil; while, in a field sown with clover, the quantity of humus and carbonic acid is increased by the leaves preventing evaporation. Naked fallowing is to be adopted only when the soil cannot be loosened in any other way; but there is to be no stand-still; "the notion of rest, so prevalent among culti- vators, is clearly wrong, except it be rest from the destructive influence of the plow:" and always must it be borne in mind "that manures do not act immediately on vegetation by 180 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. means of their organic contents, but by reason of the inorganic substances which they involve." Such is a brief outline of some of the views of one who holds a high position among men of science ; and though in some particulars they may seem to be at variance with practice in this country, there is much in them worthy the attention of intelligent cultivators. It is remarkable how different branches of science help in advancing the question, and facts arise in support of the philosopher's theories. By a recent inquiry into the amount and nature of the rain-fall at the observatory, Paris, it has been proved, that from the 1st of July, 1851, to the end of 1852, the quantity of azote combined therewith was omitting fractions 22 kilogrammes per acre, being 12 kilogrammes iu the form of azotic acid, and 10 kilogrammes of ammonia. The quantity of uncombined ammonia in the same time was 13 kilogrammes per acre ; and of uncombined azotic acid, 46 kilogrammes. In the months when azotic acid was most abundant, there was least ammonia; the former always increases with stormy weather. Besides these elements, the quantity of chlorine present was equivalent to 18 kilo- grammes of marine salt, leaving out the insoluble matters held in suspension. In all this we seem to get a glimpse of the law of supply and demand in the great vegeta- tive operations of nature ; and we see that those who advocate a more sparing employment of manures are not without good reason for their arguments. In the middle of Russia, corn is grown year after year on the same land, with no other fertilizer than the burnt straw ; and in parts of Spain, wheat and barley succeed each other without any manure at all. And, without going so far for facts, we have them close at hand, in one of our midland coun- ties. A few years ago, the Rev. S. Smith, in the neighborhood of Banbury, England, in- stituted a course of experiments on this very point, and with results which are singularly interesting. He took a field of four acres, having a gravelly soil, with clay, marl, and gravel as the subsoil. It had been hard worked for a hundred years ; but except a thorough plow- ing, no other means were taken to improve it: not a particle of manure was supplied. Wheat was then sown in single grains, three inches apart, and in rows a foot apart, a space of three feet being left quite bare between each three rows, and this was con- tinued in alternate stripes all across the field. The sowing took place at the begining of autumn ; and in November, when the planted rows began to show, all the intervening three-feet spaces were trenched by the spade, and six inches of the subsoil made to change places with the surface. "In the spring," says the reverend agriculturist, " I well hoed and hand-weeded the rows of wheat, and stirred the intervals with a one-horse scarifier three or four times, up to the very period of flowering in June." The crop looked thin and miserable until after April, when it began "to mat and tiller;" it did not turn yellow in May, and the stalk grew so stout and strong as to bear up well against the storms. When harvested, the result was highly gratifying, for the yield amounted to from thirty-six to forty bushels per acre, or rather per half-acre, seeing that as the alternate stripes were left bare, only one- half of the field was really planted. The quantity of seed used per half acre was a little more than a peck. Adjoining the field in which these experiments were carried on was another which had four plowings, ten tons of manure, six or seven times as much seed, and yet it gave a quarter less to the acre. This might be looked on as an accident, were it not that Mr. Smith has repeated his experiment year after year, and always with greater success. He believes that if all the conditions be literally fulfilled, the same favorable result may invariably be obtained. No manure whatever is to be used ; and in the second year, the stripe is to be sown which was left bare in the first ; and so on, changing from one to the other, year after year. Here arises the question as to cost, and in contrasting the expense of plowing with that of spade-labor, he finds that he takes up only so much of the subsoil as the atmosphere will readily decompose in the year four, five, or six inches, descending gradually to two spits. He employs six men at 2s. a day, and they dig an acre in five days, making an outlay of 60s. for the whole; but as only one-half is to be dug for the year's crop, the time and cost are reduced by one-half, and thus brought down to the cheapest rate of plowing. The cost per acre, in the instance above mentioned, was 3 14s. ; the return from the four quarters and two bushels of wheat and the straw, 11 14s., leaving a profit of 8. It should be under- AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 181 stood that the cost includes rates, taxes, interest, scarifying, reaping in short, all the opera- tions from digging to harvest. The parish in which Mr. Smith resides contains two hundred wheat-growing acres ; he calculates that fifty laborers would have dug these in two months and eight days, so that, beginning the last week in September, all would be finished by the first week in December, leaving five months for the occurrence of casualties and their reparation before the crop has grown. His system, after the first plowing, it will be seen, is based entirely on spade- husbandry; he is of opinion, that it is applicable to thousands of acres "of hitherto imprac- ticable and unremunerating clay." Schleiden and Smith agree in their faith in nature's unassisted fertilizing powers, if not in their mode of clearing the way for the exercise of those powers. The system of the latter combines fatlow without loss, for the yield is double ; nature is left to drop the ammonia, and the time is given for its combination with mineral matters in the soil. The atmosphere con- tains all the organic elements of wheat, and if the ground be kept stirred, uncrusted, and loosened to a suitable depth, they will find their way in ; and nitrogen even, as late experi- ments demonstrate, will be absorbed. As for inorganic constituents, Mr. Smith believes that they always exist in sufficient abundance, if sought for by frequent digging. Capillary Attraction of the Soil. FROM numerous observations which have been made at different times on the peculiar ap- pearance of the surface >t - . .luring the warm summer months, and the fact that they, when covered with boards, stones, or other materials, so as to prevent them from supporting vegetation, become, in a comparatively short time, much more productive than the adjacent uncovered soil, led to the belief that the soil possessed some power within itself, aside from the roots of plants, of elevating soluble materials from deep sources to the surface. To throw some light upon the subject, in May, 1852, I sunk three boxes into the soil one, forty inches deep ; another, twenty-eight inches deep ; and a third, fourteen inches deep. All three of the boxes were sixteen inches square. I then placed in the bottom of each box three pounds of sulphate of magnesia. The soil to be placed in the boxes above the sul- phate of magnesia, was then thoroughly mixed, so as to be uniform throughout; the boxes were then filled with it. This was done on the li-"ith <>f May, 1852. After the boxes were filled, a sample of soil was taken from each box, and the percentage of magnesia which it contained accurately determined. On the 28th of June, another sample of surface soil was taken from each box, and the percentage of magnesia carefully obtained as before. The re- sult in each case pointed out clearly a marked increase of magnesia. On the 17th of July, a sample of the surface soil was taken for a third time from each box, and carefully examined for the magnesia. Its percentage was found to be very perceptibly greater than on the 28th of the preceding month. On the loth of the months of August and September following, similar examinations severally were made, with the same evident gra- dual increase of the magnesia in the surface soil. The following are the results as obtained : Box 40 inches high. Box 28 inches high. Box 16 inches high. Percentage of magnesia, May 25 0-18 0-18 0-18 " " June 28. 0-25 0-30 0-32 " July 17 0-42 0-46 0-47 " " Aug. 15 0-47 0-53 0-54 " " Sept. 15 0-51 0-58 0-61 Before the middle of October, when it was intended to make another observation, the fall rains and frosts had commenced ; on this account the observations were discontinued. The elevation of the magnesia, as shown in the above experiments, depends upon capillary attrac- 182 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. tion, or the property which most liquids have to rise in tubes, or between plane and curved surfaces. The minute interstices between the particles composing the soil are, to all intents and pur- poses, small tubes, and act as such in elevating moisture from below to the surface. The particles held in solution by the water are likewise elevated with it, and are left, on the eva- poration of the water, distributed throughout the surface soil. This explains the reason why manures, when applied for a short or longer time upon the surface of soils, 'penetrate to so slight a depth. Every agriculturist is acquainted with the fact that the soil directly under his barn -yard, two feet below the surface, (that is, any soil of any ordinary fineness,) is quite as poor as that covered with boards or otherwise, two feet below the surface, in his meadow ; the former having been for years directly under a manure-heap, while the latter, perhaps, has never had barn-yard manure within many rods of it. The former has really Wn sending its soluble materials to the surface soil, the latter to the surface soil and the vegetation grown near, or upon it, if uncovered. The capillary attraction must vary very much in different soils ; that is, some have the power of elevating soluble materials to the surface from much deeper sources than others. The pores or interstices in the soil correspond to capillary tubes. The less the diameter of the pores or tubes, the higher the materials are elevated ; hence, one very important con- sideration to the agriculturist, when he wishes nature to aid him in keeping his soil fertile, is to secure soil in a fine state of mechanical division and of a high retentive nature. Nothing is more common than to see certain soils retain their fertility with the annual addition of much less manure than certain others. In fact, a given quantity of manure on the former will seem to maintain their fertility for several years ; while a similar addition to the latter quite loses its good effects in a single season. The former soils have invariably the rocks, minerals, &c. which compose them in a fine state of division; while the latter have their particles more or less sandy and coarse. S. M. SALISBURY, M.D., in Prairie Farmer. Benefit of Droughts. IT may be a consolation to those who have felt the influence of long and protracted dry weather, to know that droughts are one of the natural causes to restore the constituents of crops and renovate cultivated soils. The diminution of the mineral matter of cultivated soils takes place from two causes : 1. The quantity of mineral matter carried off in crops, and not returned to the soil in manure. 2. The mineral matter carried off by rain water to the sea by means of fresh- water streams. These two causes, always in operation, and counteracted by nothing, would in time render the earth a barren waste, in which no verdure would quicken and no solitary plant take root. A rational system of agriculture would obliterate the first cause of sterility, by always restoring to the soil an equivalent for that which is taken off by the crops ; but as this is not done in all cases, Providence has provided a way of its own to counteract the thriftless- ness of man, by instituting droughts at proper periods, to bring up from the deep parts of the earth food on which plants might feed when rains should again fall. The manner in which droughts exercise their beneficial influence is as follows : During dry weather, a con- tinual evaporation of water takes place from the surface of the earth, which is not supplied by any from the clouds. The evaporation from the surface creates a vacuum, (so far as the water is concerned,) which is at once filled by the water rising up from the subsoil of the land ; the water from the subsoil is replaced from the next below, and in this manner the circulation of water in the earth is the reverse to that which takes place in wet weather. This progress to the surface of the water in the earth manifests itself strikingly in the dry- ing up of springs and of rivers and streams which are supported by springs. It is not, however, only the water which is brought to the surface of the earth, but also all that which the water holds in solution. These substances are salts of lime, and magnesia of potash and soda, and, indeed, whatever the subsoil or deep strata of the earth may contain. The water, on reaching the surface of the soil, is evaporated, and leaves behind the mineral salts, which AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 183 I -will here enumerate namely, lime, as air-slaked lime ; magnesia, as air-slaked magnesia ; phosphate of lime, or bone-earth ; sulphate of lime, or plaster of Paris ; carbonate of potash and soda, with silicate of potash and soda, and also chloride of sodium or common salt, all indispensable to the growth and production of plants which are used for food. Pure rain water, a* it falls, would dissolve but a very small proportion of some of these substances; but when it becomes soaked into the earth, it there becomes strongly imbued with carbonic acid from the decomposition of vegetable matter in the soil, and thus acquires the property of readily dissolving minerals on which it before could have very little influence. I was first led to the consideration of the above subjects by finding, on the re-examination of a soil which I analyzed three or four years ago, a larger quantity of a particular mineral substance than I at first found, as none had been applied in the mean time. The thing was difficult of explication until I remembered the late long and protracted drought. I then also remembered that in Zacatecas and in several provinces in South America, soda was ob- tained 1 from the bottom of ponds, which were dried in the dry, and again filled up in the rainy, season. As the above explanation depended on the principles of natural philosophy, I at once instituted several experiments to prove its truth. Into a glass cylinder was placed a small quantity of chloride of barium in solution ; this was then filled with a dry soil, and for a long time exposed to the direct rays of the sun on the surface. The soil on the surface of the cylinder was now treated with sulphuric acid, and gave a copious precipitate of sulphate of baryta. The experiment was varied by substituting chloride of lime, sulphate of soda, and car- bonate of potash, for the chloride of barium ; and on the proper reagents being applied, in every instance the presence of those substances were detected in large quantities on the sur- face of the soil in the cylinder. Here, then, was proof positive and direct, by plain experi- ments in chemistry and natural philosophy, of the agency, the ultimate beneficial agency of droughts. We see, therefore, in this, that even those things which we look upon as evils by Provi- dence, are blessings in disguise, and that we should not murmur even when dry seasons afflict us, for they, too, are for our good. The early and the later rain may produce at once abundant crops; but dry weather is also a beneficial dispensation of Providence, in bringing to the surface food for future crops, which otherwise would be forever useless. Seasonable weather is good for the present ; but droughts renew the storehouses of plants in the soil, and furnish an abundant supply of nutriment for future crops. JAMES HIQGINS, Mary- land State Chemist. New Method of Using and Dissolving Bones. AT a recent meeting of the Hillsborough Agricultural Society, at Manchester, New Hamp- shire, General Riddle being called upon by the president to relate his experience in the use of guano and other special manures, made some statements in regard to the way of dis- solving and using bones, of which the following is a condensed summary : General Riddle took sixty gallons of ley from oyster-shell lime to two hundred pounds of bones, and boiled them together a few hours, and the bones were all dissolved or reduced to a powder. A bushel of lime, he says, will make six gallons of ley ; and further, that bones dissolved or reduced in this ley make a dry powder, which may be applied like ashes. He put a gill of this powder to a hill, on twenty rows of corn, and omitted it on five rows through the field. There was an astonishing difference in the appearance of these different portions of the field. The corn where the bone-dust was applied was much the largest, and of a far deeper green in color. NasKs Valley Farmer. Liebig's Fifty Propositions. THE following fifty propositions are copied from the recent work of Liebig on Agricultural Chemistry, or his reply to the statements and experiments of Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert. These fifty propositions are claimed by him to be distinct truths, established by the researches of chemistry as applied to agriculture. 184 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. The growth of a plant presupposes a germ, a seed ; the land-plant requires a soil ; with- out the atmosphere, without moisture, the plant does not grow. The words soil, atmosphere, and moisture are not of themselves conditions ; these are lime, clay, sand-soils, soils origin- ating from granite, from gneiss, from mica-slate, from clay-slate, all entirely different in their compositions and qualities. The word soil is a collective word for a large number of conditions. In a fruitful soil these conditions are combined in proportions adapted to vege- table growth ; in an unproductive soil some of them are wanting. In the same, manner, the words manure and atmosphere include a plurality of terms or conditions. The chemist, with the means at his command, analyzes all kinds of soil ; he analyzes manures, the air, and the water ; he resolves the collective words which express the sum of the conditions of vegetable growth into their single factors, and, in his explanations, substitutes the individual for the combined values. In this process, it is evident there is nothing hypothetical. If it pass for a perfectly-established truth that the soil, the atmosphere, water, and manures exercise a influence upon the growth of the plant, it is no less beyond doubt that this influence is entirely due to the constituents of the soil, &c.; and the province of the chemist is to set these ingredients before the eyes of those occupied with vegetable cultivation, and to illus- trate their qualities and relations. 1. Plants in general derive their carbon and nitrogen from the atmosphere; carbon in the form of carbonic acid, nitrogen in the form of ammonia. From water (and ammonia) they receive hydrogen. Their sulphur comes from sulphuric acid. 2. Cultivated in soils, situations, and climates the most various, plants contain a certain number of mineral substances, and, in fact, always the same substances, whose nature is learned from the composition of the ash. These ingredients of the ash were ingredients of the soil. All fruitful soils contain a certain quantity of them. They are absent from no soil in which plants flourish. 3. In the produce of a field is carried off and removed from the soil the entire quantity of those soil-ingredients which have become constituents of the plant. The soil is richer at seed-time than at harvest. The composition of the soil is changed after the harvest. 4. After a series of years, and after a corresponding number of harvests, the productive- ness of a field diminishes. When all other conditions remain unchanged, the soil alone becomes different from what it was previously ; the change in its composition is the pro- bable cause of its becoming unproductive. 5. By means of manures, as stable-dung and animal excrements, the lost fertility may be restored. 6. Manures consist of decayed vegetable and animal matters, which contain a certain quantity of soil-ingredients. The excrements of animals and of man represent the ashes of food burned in the animal or human body; i.e. the ashes of plants which have been gathered from the soil. In the urine are found those ingredients of the plant, derived from the soil, which are soluble in water ; the solid excrements contain those which are insoluble. Manures contain the materials which the consumed crops have removed from the soil. It is plain that by incorporating manures with the soil the latter receives again the withdrawn ingredients. The restoration of its original composition is accompanied with the recovery of its original fertility. It is certain that one of the conditions of fertility is the presence of certain mineral ingredients in the soil. A rich soil contains more of them than a poor one. 7. The functions of the roots of plants, in reference to the absorption of atmospheric food, are similar to those of the leaves; i.e. the former, like the latter, possess the property of taking up and assimilating carbonic acid and ammonia. 8. Ammonia, which is contained in or added to the soil, comports itself as a soil-constitu- ent. The same is equally true of carbonic acid. ' 9. Animal and vegetable bodies and animal excrements enter into putrefaction and decay. The nitrogen of the nitrogenous matters is thereby converted into ammonia, a small portion of the ammonia decays (oxydizes) further into nitric acid. 10. We have every reason to believe that nitric acid may replace ammonia in the processes of vegetable nutrition; i.e. that its nitrogen may be applied by the plant to the same pur- poses as that of ammonia. Animal manures accordingly furnish the plant not only with AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 185 those mineral substances which it is the function of the soil to furnish, but also with those forms of food which it naturally derives from the atmosphere. This supply is an addition to that quantity which the atmosphere contains. 11. Those forms of vegetable food contained in the soil which are not gaseous or volatile enter the plant through its roots. The vehicle of their transmission is water, by the agency of which they become soluble and transportable. Many of these kinds of food dissolve in pure water, others only in water which contains carbonic acid or a salt of ammonia. 12. All those substances which exert a solvent action on such ingredients of the soil as are themselves insoluble, cause, by their presence, a given volume of rain water to take up a larger quantity of vegetable food than it otherwise could. 13. From the progressive decay of the organic matters of manure originate carbonic acid and ammonia salts; they constitute an active source of carbonic acid in the soil, whereby the air and water present in the soil are made richer in carbonic acid than they could be in their absence. 14. Animal manures not only offer to the plant a certain amount of soil and atmospheric food, but in their decay is supplied, in the form of carbonic acid and ammonia, an indispen- sable means of rendering soluble and available to the plant the insoluble ingredients of the soil in greater quantity and in shorter time than could occur in the absence of decaying organic matter. 15. Other things being equal, vegetation receives less water through the soil in warm, dry seasons than in wet years ; the harvests in different years stand in relation thereto. A field of given quality yields smaller crops in dry seasons ; by the same average temperature the yield increases to a certain limit with the increase of the quantity of rain. 16. Of two fields one richer, one poorer in plant- food the richer yields in dry seasons more produce than the poorer, other things being equal. 17. Of two fields alike in character, and containing an equal amount of soil-ingredients, one of which, however, has besides a source of carbonic acid viz. decomposable vegetable or animal matter the latter yields more in dry seasons than the former. 18. The cause of this difference in yield lies in the unequal supply of matters, both as con- cerns quality and quantity, which the plant receives from the soil in a given time. 19. All obstacles present in the soil, which hinder the solution and absorbability of the plant-food, proportionally destroy its ability to serve as food; they make the plant-food ineffective. A certain physical state of t^e soil is a needful preliminary condition to the efficacy of the food therein contained. The soil must allow the access of air and moisture, and permit the roots of plants to extend themselves in all directions, and seek out their nutriinant. The expression, telluric conditions, comprises every thing necessary to vegetable growth that depends upon the physical qualities and composition of the soil. 20. All plants need as nourishment phosphoric acid, sulphuric acid, the alkalies, lime, magnesia, and iron. Certain families of plants require silica ; those that grow on the sea-shore and in the sea itself require common salt, soda, and iodine. In some families of plants the alkalies may be in part replaced by lime and magnesia, and vice versa. All these bodies are collectively designated as mineral food. The atmospheric food of plants is carbonic acid and ammonia. Water serves itself as food and also as a general medium of nutrition. 21. The bodies that are necessary as food for the plant have an equal value in this respect; *'.. if any one of the entire number be wanting, the plant cannot flourish. 22. Fields which are adapted to the cultivation of all species of plants contain all the soil- ingredients that are necessary for these plants ; the words poor or unfruitful, and rich or fruitful, express the relations of these soil-ingredients in quantity or quality. Among qualitative differences are understood differences in the solubility of the mineral ingredients, or in their capability of entering the vegetable structure through the agency of water. Of two soils which contain equal quantities of mineral food, one may be fruitful, (con- sidered as rich,) the other unfruitful, (considered as poor,) when in the latter these nutritive inces are not free, but exist in the state of chemical compound. A body in chemical combination opposes, by its attraction for the bodies it is combined with, an obstacle to 186 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. another body that tends to unite with it. This opposition must be overcome before the two will unite. 23. All soils adapted for cultivation contain the mineral nutritive matters in both these forms. Taken together they represent the capital of the soil ; the freely soluble parts are the movable or available capital. 24. The improvement enriching, making fruitful of a soil by proper means, but with- out addition of mineral plant-food, implies a conversion of a part of the inactive, unavail- able capital into a form available for the plant. 25. The mechanical operations of tillage have the object to overcome chemical obstacles, to set free and render directly useful the plant-food that is in insoluble chemical combina- tion. This object is accomplished through the co-operation of the atmosphere, of carbonic acid, oxygen, and water. This action is called weathering. The presence of standing water in the soil, which cuts off the access of the atmosphere to the chemical compounds in the soil, hinders the process of weathering. 26. Fallow is the period of weathering. During fallow, by means of air and rain, car- bonic acid and ammonia are added to the soil. The latter remains there when substances are present capable of fixing it, i.e. depriving it of volatility. 27. A soil is fruitful for a given species of plant when it contains the mineral substances needed by that plant in proper quantity and proportion, and in a form adapted for enter- ing it. 28. When this soil has become unfruitful by continued use, by the removal of a series of crops without replacing the mineral ingredients carried off, it will recover its productiveness for this kind of plant by lying one or more seasons in fallow, if, in addition to the soluble and removed ingredients, it had contained a certain store of the same substances in an insoluble form, which, during the fallow, by mechanical division and weathering, are capable of becoming soluble. By the so-called green manuring this result is effected in a shorter time. 29. A field which does not contain these mineral forms of plant-food cannot become fruit- ful by lying in fallow. 30. The increase of the productiveness of a field by fallow and tillage, and the removal of soil-ingredients in the crops, without a return of the latter, brings about, in shorter or longer time, a state of permanent unfruitfulness. 31. In order that the fertility of a soil be permanent, the removed substances must be replaced at certain intervals ; i.e. its original composition must be re-established. 32. Various species of plants require the same kinds of mineral food to their develop- ment, but in unlike quantities, or at different times. Some cultivated plants need that silica be present in soluble form in the soil. 33. When a given field contains a certain amount of all kinds of mineral plant-food in equal proportion, and in suitable form, it will become unproductive of a single species of plant so soon as, in consequence of continuous cropping, any single kind of plant-food e.g. soluble silica is so far exhausted that its quantity is insufficient for a new crop. 34. A second plant which does not require this ingredient (silica, e.g. ) will yield one or more crops on the same soil, because the other, for it necessary, ingredients, although in changed proportions, (i.e. not in equal quantities,) are yet present in quantity sufficient for its perfect development. After the second, a third kind of plant will flourish in the same field, if the remaining soil-ingredients be enough for its wants ; and if, during the growth of these kinds of plants, a new supply of the wanting plant-food (soluble silica) has been made available by weather- ing, then, the other conditions being as before, the first plant will again flourish. 35. On the unequal quantity and quality of the mineral ingredients of the soil, and on the differing proportions in which they serve as food for the different kinds of plants, is based the alternation or rotation of crops in general, as well as the peculiar method accord- ing to which it is carried out. 36. Other things being equal, the growth of a plant, its increase in bulk, and its perfect development in a given time, stand in relation to the surface of the organs whose function is to take up the food of the plant. The quantity of plant-food that is derived from the AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 187 atmosphere depends upon the number and surface of the leaves ; that which is taken from the soil, upon the number and surface of the roots. 37. If to two plants of the same species, during the formation of leaves and roots, an unequal amount of nourishment be offered in the same space of time, their increase of mass is unequal in this time. That plant which has received more food increases more, its de- velopment is facilitated. The same difference in growth is manifest when two plants receive the same amount of food, but in unlike forms as to solubility. The rapidity of the development of a plant is facilitated by furnishing it with, all the necessary atmospheric and telluric nutritive matters in proper form and at the right time. The conditions that shorten the time of development are the same as those that contribute to its amount. 38. Two plants, whose roots have an equal length and extension, do not flourish so well near or after each other as two plants whose roots, being of unequal length, acquire their nourishment at different depths in the soil. 39. The nutritive substances needed by the plant must act together in a given time, in order that the plant attain full development in this time. The more rapidly a plant develops itself in a given period, the more food does it need in that time. Annuals require more rapid supplies than perennials. 40. If one of the co-operating ingredients of the soil or of the atmosphere be partly or entirely deficient, or want those qualities that adapt it to absorption, the plant does not develop itself in all its parts, or only imperfectly. The deficiency of one ingredient renders those present ineffectual, or diminishes their effect. 41. If the absent or deficient substance be added to the soil, or, if present, but insoluble, be rendered soluble, the other constituents are thereby rendered efficient. By the deficiency or absence of one necessary constituent, all the others being present, the soil is rendered barren for all those crops to the life of which that one constituent is indis- pen-able. The soil yields rich crops if that substance be added infdue quantity and in an available form. In the case of soils of unknown composition, experiments with individual mineral manures enable us to acquire a knowledge of the quality of the land and the pre- sence of the different mineral constituents. If, for example, phosphate of lime, given alone, is found efficacious that is, if it increases the produce of the land this is a sign that that substance was absent, or present in too small proportion, whereas there was no want of the others. Had any of these other necessary substances been also wanting, the phosphate of lime would have had no effect. 42. The efficacy of all the mineral constituents of the soil taken together, in a given time, depends on the co-operation of the atmospheric constituents in the same time. 43. The efficacy of the atmospheric constituents in a given time depends on the co-operation of the mineral constituents in the same time ; if the latter be present in due proportion and in available forms, the development of the plants is in proportion to the supply and assimilation of their atmospheric food. The quantity and quality (available form) of the mineral constitu- ents in the soil, and the absence or presence of the obstacles to their efficacy, (physical qualities of the soil, ) increase or diminish the number and bulk of the plants which may be grown on a given surface. The fertile soil takes up from the air, in the plants grown on it, more carbonic acid and ammonia than the barren one ; this absorption is in proportion to its fertility, and is only limited by the limited amount of carbonic acid and ammonia in the atmosphere. 44. With equal supplies of the atmospheric conditions of the growth of plants, the crops are in direct proportion to the amount of mineral constituents supplied in the manure. 45. With equal telluric conditions, the crops are in proportion to the amount of atmospheric constituents supplied by the air and the soil, (including manure.) If, to the available mineral constituents in the soil, ammonia and carbonic acid be added in the manure, the fertility of the soil is exalted. The union of the telluric and atmospheric conditions and their co-operation in due quantity, time, and quality, determine the maximum of produce. 46. The supply of more atmospheric food (carbonic acid and ammonia, by means of am- moniacal salts and humus) than the air can furnish, increases the efficacy of the mineral 188 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. constituents present in the soil, in a given time. From the same surface, there is thus ob- tained, in that time, a heavier produce perhaps in one year as much as in two without this excess of atmospheric food. 47. In a soil rich in the mineral food of plants, the produce cannot be increased by adding more of the same substances. 48. In a soil rich in the atmospheric food of plants, (rendered so by manuring,) the produce cannot be increased by adding more of the same substances. 49. From land rich in the mineral constituents, we may obtain in one year, or for a series of years, by the addition of ammonia alone, (in Its salts,) or of humus and ammonia, rich crops, without in any way restoring the mineral substances removed in these crops. The duration of this fertility then depends on the supply ; that is, the quantity and quality of the mineral constituents existing in the soil. The continued use of these manures produces, sooner or later, an exhaustion of the soil. 50. If, after a time, the soil is to recover its original fertility, the mineral substances ex- tracted from it in a series of years must be again restored to it. If the land, in the course of ten years, has yielded ten crops, without restoration of the mineral substances removed in those crops, then we must restore these in the eleventh year, in a quantity tenfold that of the annually-removed amount, if the land is again to acquire the power of yielding a second time a similar series of crops. > Weeds in Walks. THE following modes of preventing the growth of weeds in gravel-walks, are copied from the correspondence of the London Gardener's Chronicle : In order to prevent weeds from growing on walks, put a layer of gas-lime under the last inch of gravel. This also helps to bind the gravel. The following is the way in which I managed walks when I was a gentleman's gardener. In one situation I held I had three miles of gravel-walks to keep in order. In winter, when there was sufficient frost to freeze the gravel in the mornings, I employed the laborers in cleaning the walks with a half-worn out birch-broom, sweeping backwards and forwards, and then removing with a new broom what the old ones took off the surface. When the walks were covered with moss, it was scraped off with a hoe before the broom was used. After having pursued this practice for six years, my walks looked as fresh and clean as if they had been newly gravelled. Last season very few weeds made their appearance during the sum- mer ; by performing the operation when frost is on the ground, you not only remove all small weeds, but you sweep off most of the seeds deposited there to vegetate the following summer. If docks, thistles, or dandelions appear, cut out their crowns and put a little salt on them ; you will not have to repeat the salting twice in one place. On the Composition of the Salt best Adapted for Dairy Purposes. THE nature of the salt best adapted for the dairy has long formed a subject of discussion among dairy farmers, and many opinions, and not a few fanciful prejudices, exist regarding it. It is well known that, for a long time, very decided opinions existed as to the superiority of bay-salt, and at one time the imports of that variety of salt were considerable. Bay-salt is produced in Spain by the spontaneous evaporation of sea-water, which at high-water is allowed to run into shallow ponds, in which it is gradually concentrated by the heat of the sun's rays. The salt so deposited is always in crystals of considerable size, and generally of a brownish color. In spite of the color, it is a very pure salt, and contains but little of the magnesian compounds present in the sea-water, which are entirely left in the mother-liquor from which the crystals have been separated. Lime and magnesia especially the chloride of magnesia existing in salt have a very powerful affinity for water, and retain it in considerable quantity. The chloride is even a deliquescent substance that is to say, it absorbs moisture from the air ; so that a sample of ealt containing it, even if artificially dried, will again become moist, if kept for some time. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 189 For this reason the dryness of a salt is an excellent criterion of its purity, and, in the ab- sence of an analysis, may serve to guide the purchaser. As far as the use of salt for the dairy is concerned, it seems obvious that we must mainly depend on its purity; and it was, doubtless, for this reason that bay-salt was formerly preferred. It is necessary to be remai'ked, however, that the form of the salt is not immaterial ; and that when in fine powder it is clearly preferable to large grains or crystals, and that because it admits of more thorough incorporation with the butter, and its antiseptic effects will be secured by the use of a smaller quantity than would be necessary if in large crystals. As a general rule, the salt now met with in commerce is very fine ; but instances are some- times met with in which the magnesia salts are present in considerable quantity. I have seen specimens containing as much as 3 per cent, of chloride of magnesium and sulphate of magnesia, and such samples contain much water ; so that the amount of pure salt does not exceed from 89 to 90 per cent. Such salt should be carefully avoided for dairy purposes ; and all care should be taken to obtain it as pure as possible. Prof. Anderson, Highland Ag. Soc. Qualities of Pasturage. THE following remarks on the qualities of pasturage are taken from the Transactions of the Croyden Farmers' Club, England : What is the cause that some pasture will readily fatten stock fit for the butcher, while others, with an tt'inndance of grass, will only keep stock merely in a growing or thriving condition? That such is the fact, all farmers are and have been aware of for ages past, but as to the > of these differences no good or sufficient reason has been assigned. I will, however, state what I consider an explanation why the one does fatten so readily, and why the other does not, and also give reasons and authorities for such opinions. First, the tutu-uing quali- ties of what are termed rich grazing lands may probably be owing to all the several elements of nutrition being present in such quantities in relation to each other, and in states of com- binsitiou, that are well adapted for being assimilated and deposited as fat and muscle, thereby requiring no unnecessary expenditure of the vital power or principle to produce such effect. Dr. Thomson, in his "Experimental Researches on the Food of Animals," says "Besides the necessity for the presence of the same materials in the food which exist in the blood, it is requisite that each should bear a certain relation to the whole." Now it is reasonable to think that it is so, and also that where one or more elements in the food are in excess, that there must be an expenditure of vital power to get rid of such excess. Prof. Johnston also says "It has been ascertained by physiologists that all the parts of the body undergo a slow and sensible process of renewal, the place of that which is removed being supplied by new portions of matter derived from the food, and that this renewal goes on so rapidly, that in the space of time the whole body of the animal is renewed. I may observe that we know by experience when a rich pasture is broken up, it takes many years when again laid down to pasture before it at all approaches to its former fattening powers, and also before it again produces all those numerous grasses (if ever it does again) which grew upon it before it was broken up. There may be another cause which aids in the fatten- ing qualities of such pastures ; and that is the presence of some plant or plants containing one or more of those classes of compounds which have the property of changing one compound into another, thereby saving an expenditure of the vital power in digestion." Why is it, that the majority, I may say, of meadows which produce an ample crop of herbage to satisfy the appetite of animals grazing thereon, will not fatten them fit for the butcher without the aid of some artificial food ? Here again, as in the former case, we can only conjecture. We are certain that all the elements requisite to form the animal are pre- sent in the herbage and hay grown thereon, from the fact that animals bred on, and fed upon, the produce of such pastures or meadows come to full maturity in health and strength ; still, it does not follow that the several quantities of these elements are in such a relation to each other, and in such combinations of forms, as not to require considerably more expendi- 190 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. ture of the vital powers to convert them into the various compounds to be assimilated end appropriated by the different organs and parts of the body, than would be required in tho former case upon the good grazing land ; added to which, another, and I think, perhaps the principal, disturbing cause may probably be owing to the presence of some plant or plants among the herbage which exercise an unfavorable actiofi upon the fat-producing powers, and which, from the soil being peculiarly adapted for their nourishing growth, may be pro- duced in bulk, as compared with the aggregate herbage grown, sufficient to bring about the marked difference noticed. To make myself and meaning here more clearly comprehended, I will suppose a case: We know that some piants excite the kidneys to increased action. Supposing, therefore, that in any pasture (however abundant it might be in quantity) there were growing some plant or plants which exercise an exciting influence upon the kidneys, provided that influence was not energetic enough in the first instance to produce disease of those organs, the secretion from them would be much, as well as permanently, increased under the daily stimulant taken with food. Now, as that secretion is wholly derived from the blood, we can readily form an idea that there must be a much larger quantity of blood required to furnish the increased quantity of urine secreted, with all its salts and other organic compounds, whether immediately derived from the food, or from the disintegration and breaking up of the already formed parts of the body. Such being the case, it would be natural to conclude that the animal would not become what we call fat under the increased consumption of the blood in that direction. This may seem to be putting an extreme case ; but we should reflect that there is no organ or part of the body, varying, of course, in the different species of animals, on which there is not some vegetable production that exercises a certain specific influence, more or less, according to the constitution, the breed, and sus- ceptibility of the individual animal. The same effects are also true as regards the inorganic elements of nature ; and it is upon those facts, the results of observation, that the art of medicine is founded. I say again, if we consider this, there may be some reason for sup- posing that the accumulation of any superfluous quantity of fat and muscle, to the extent that we consider an animal to be fatted, may be retarded by the presence of any such plant or plants, in an undue proportion to the requirements of nutrition. "The next consideration is, What can be done to improve those pastures? All agree that where drainage is required it benefits their feeding qualities in most instances ; draining is more often required in pasture lands and meadows than is generally supposed. It increases the number of the finer sort of grasses, as well as increases the bulk of those already grow- ing; it also gets rid of, or greatly weakens, those plants which delight and flourish in most soils, which, though they may not be called wet ones, still generally retain water to a con- siderable extent in the subsoil ; and among those plants which flourish in moist soils are many not favorable to animals. These pastures will also be greatly improved by high manuring, more especially where draining was required and has been done ; for supposing all the inju- rious plants to remain which are natural to the soil, their bulk and produce, as compared with the more nutritious grasses, will be greatly lessened by the soil being made more rich and congenial for the growth of the finer sorts, which will, by their greater numbers and more vigorous growth, check and weaken the others; consequently there would be in a given weight of herbage a much larger proportion of the really nutritious grasses to the injurious ones, than when the pasture was in its natural state, therefore with a less disturbance of the natural functions of the organs of the animals grazing upon it. Much benefit, I think, would arise if botanists, and those who make plants their study, were to direct their attention specially to the qualities and properties of those plants and grasses which grow in our meadows and pastures. Farmers have not time for such details ; nor, indeed, is it necessary that we should enter into them. All we can do is to observe for ourselves, and bring our reasoning faculties to bear upon the experiments and facts which are and may have been brought to light by the chemist, the botanist, the physiologist, the entomologist. Our endeavor should be to think and reflect whether any or what relation a new discovery or fact already known bears upon any department of farming. The improvement which has taken place in our breeds of cattle, sheep, and pigs, and which, I have no doubt, has quite doubled our supplies of animal food in fifty years, has not been brought about by scien- AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 191 tific men, but by men of close observation and deep reflection, which qualities are generally the parents of sound judgment. It has been accomplished by practical farmers in every sense of the word, who by observation of a few of the laws of organic life, as manifested in animals living under different conditions as to food and climate, and availing themselves of those laws, have gradually brought about this vast improvement in our breeds of stock. London Farmers' Magazine. ' Hay Making. THE following article from the Irish Economist, with extracts from Morton's Cyclopedia of Agriculture, (English,) although referring in part to methods and grasses foreign to this coun- try, still contains truths worthy of consideration by every farmer : Chemistry informs us that of the various ingredients which compose grass, those portions which are immediately soluble in water are the most fitted for purposes of nutrition ; and, therefore, it should be cut at that period when the largest amount of gluten, sugar, and other matter soluble in water is contained in it. And that period is not, generally speaking, when the plants have shot into seed ; for the principal substance is then woody fibre, which is totally insoluble in water, and therefore unfitted for being assimilated in the stomach. It has been shown that " when the grass first springs above the surface of the earth, the chief constituent of its early blades is water, the amount of solid matter comparatively trifling ; as its growth advances, the deposition of a more indurated form of carbon gradually becomes more consi- derable, the sugar and soluble matter at first increasing, then gradually diminishing, to give way to the deposition of woody substance," the saccharine juices being in the greatest abun- dance when the grass is in full flower, but before the teed is formed. During all the latter part of the process of fructification, the formation of the -35 73-65 26-30 73'70 Veal 26-00 74-00 25-55 74-45 According to these numbers, we should arrange the meats in the following order of their relative nutritive powers : pork, beef, mutton, chicken, veal. This order is, however, not the true one ; because the leanest meat contains a certain amount of fat ; and because this substance is not so important an article of food as the pure muscles, it is necessary to ascer- tain how much a certain quantity of meat contains before we can judge properly of its rela- tive nutritive value. M. Marchal accordingly treated the dried flesh with ether to dissolve out the fat, and obtained the following results : Fat soluble Pure muscle in ether. insoluble in ether. Beef 2-54 M 24-95 Chicken 1-40 24-87 Pork 5-97 24-27 Mutton 2-96 23-38 Veal 2-87 22-67 The last table shows that the true order should be beef, chicken, pork, mutton, and veal ; a result which experience confirms. It may, however, be remarked, that there is consider- able difference between the same kind of meat derived from different animals, and that the same amount of two different kinds of beef-broth, both containing the same amount of water, may have different nutritive values. Comptes Rendut de V Academic. Liebig on the Improved Manufacture of Bread. IT is known that the vegetable gluten of the various kinds of grain undergoes a change when moist; in a fresh condition it is soft, elastic, and insoluble in water, but in contact with water it loses these properties. If kept a few days under water, its volume is gradually in- creased until it dissolves, forming a thick mucilaginous fluid, which will no longer form a dough with starch. The ability of flour to form a dough is essentially lessened by the property of vegetable gluten to hold water, and its change to the state, for example, in which it is con- tained in animal tissues, in meat and in coagulated white of egg, in which the absorbed water does not moisten dry bodies. The gluten of grain, in flour not recently ground, undergoes a change similar to that which it suffers when in a wet state, for the flour absorbs moisture from the air, being in a very high degree a water-absorbing substance; gradually the property of the flour of forming dough is lessened, and the quality of the bread made there- 200 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. from injured. It is only by artificial drying and keeping from the air that this deterioration is prevented. In rye flour, this change occurs as soon, perhaps sooner, than in wheat flour. About twenty-four years ago, the Belgian bakers commenced the use of a remedy by means of which bread equal to that made from the freshest, best flour, was manufactured from flour which, by itself, would give only damp, heavy bread. This remedy consisted of an addition of alum, or of sulphate of copper, to the flour. The effect of both these substances in the preparation of bread rests upon the fact that when warm they form a chemical t combination with the gluten, (previously made soluble in water, and changed thereby,) which restores to it all its lost properties ; it is again insoluble, and capable of holding water. The relations of vegetable gluten to caseine, with which it has sc many properties in common, induced me to make some experiments, whose object was to replace both of the substances (sulphate of cop- per and alum) so deleterious to health and to the nutritious properties of bread, by some substance having the same effect, (as regards the gluten,) but devoid of injurious qualities. This substance is pure cold-saturated lime-water. If the lime-water be mixed with the flour intended for dough, and then the yeast or leaven added thereto, fermentation progresses in the same manner as in the absence of lime-water. If at proper time more flour be added to the "risen" or fermented dough, and the whole formed into loaves, and baked as usual, a sweet, beautiful, fine-grained, elastic bread is obtained, of exquisite taste, which is preferred by all who have eaten it any length of time to any other. The proportion of flour to lime-water is as follows: for 100 pounds of flour, take 26 to 27 pounds or pints of lime-water. This quantity of lime-water does not suffice for mixing the bread, and of course common water must be added, as much as is requisite. As the sour taste of bread is lost, much more salt may be used to give it a palatable quality. As to the amount of lime in the bread, 1 pound of lime is sufficient for 600 pounds of lime-water. In bread prepared as above there is nearly the same amount of lime as is found in an equal weight of leguminous seeds, (peas and beans.) It may yet.be established as a physiological truth, by investigation and experiment, that the flour of the cereal grain is wanting in the property of complete nutrition ; and from what we know thereof, the cause would seem to lie in its deficiency in the lime necessary for the formation of the bones. The cereal grains contain phosphoric acid in abundance, but they contain far less lime than the leguminous seeds. This fact may explain many of the phenomena of diseases observed among children in the country or in prisons, if the food consists principally of bread ; and in this connection the use of lime-water by physicians merits attention. The amount of bread pro- duced from a given quantity of flour is probably increased in consequence of an increased water-compound. From 19 pounds of flour, without lime-water, seldom more than 24 pounds of bread were obtained in my house ; the same quantity of flour, baked with 5 pounds of lime-water, gave 26 pounds 6 ounces to 26 pounds 10 ounces of good, well-baked bread. Now, since, according to Heeren's determinations, the same quantity of flour gives only 25 pounds 1J ounces, the increase of weight, in consequence of the use of lime-water, appears to me indubitable. The Preservation of Cheese. THE following article on the preservation of cheese is translated from the Maison Rustique, Paris, for the Working Farmer, by H. S. Olcott, Esq. : The preservation of cheeses is a most important point to those engaged in their manufacture, especially when they are intended for export. Their consistence and their state of fermenta- tion more or less advanced in the storehouses or cheese-rooms should serve as a guide. The method of manufacture also affects largely their preservation. Those cheeses which have received pressure in a too fresh state, and from which the whey is not entirely separated, are liable to rise, and have in their centres holes or reservoirs of air, which give to the paste a spongy and disagreeable look. When this accident arises during the manufacture, and if the fermentation is considerable, place the cheese in a cool and dry place, and pierce it with skewers of iron in the places where it rises the most; the air or the gases escape by these openings, the cheese subsides, and the interior presents fewer cavities. To prevent this AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 201 accident, the English make use of a powder, which is sold under the name of cheese-powder ; it is composed of a pound of nitre and one ounce of powdered Armenian bole intimately mixed. Before salting the cheese, and while it is about being placed in the press, they rub it with an ounce of this mixture ; a stronger dose would produce a bad effect. The part that the salt plays is very important. We know, indeed, that the caseine in the dry state exists in an indefinite condition ; but then it possesses only a weak flavor, and not agree- able. The addition of the salt on the one hand, and the preparation or perfection in the storehouse on the other operations which require the greatest care and vigilance succeed in procuring a gentle fermentation, or a gradual reaction between the elementary substances of the cheese. This reaction proceeds so much the more rapidly as the cheese is softer and as the place is warmer and more moist. In proportion as the fermentation has been gentle, so much the more is the flavor of the cheese sweet and agreeable. It is at this precise moment, when the reaction between the elements has produced combinations agreeable to the taste, that it is necessary to perfect the cheese : sooner than this it is not finished ; later, it is in a state of decomposition more or less advanced. When the cheese is in the right condition, it is put in a place cool and not too moist, in a good cellar which does not contain any liquor in fermentation ; those where wine will keep well are equally good for cheese, but the two together in the same cellar will mutually exercise a bad influence. Some cheeses with soft and fine paste are put in boxes of fir or beech. By closing these boxes tightly, and giving them a coat or two of paint, the cheeses will be preserved for a longer time and in a better'condition. Chaptal and others claim that cheese after transporta- tion is never so good as when it is just taken from the cellars. The fact is, it decomposes during its transportation, and it is for this reason that in a tight varnished-box the cheese will retain those qualities which constitute its excellence. The cheeses of Holland are usually covered with a coating of linseed-oil varnish: this preparation is doubtless one of the principal causes of their preservation on long voyages ; their small bulk may also be adduced as a reason. The insects which attack cheeses are 1. The fleshworm or cheese-mite, (acarus siro,} which devours them when partly dried. These animals are so much the more dangerous, because they hatch beneath the crust, whence they spread throughout the interior, causing great injury. When one is careful to brush the cheeses frequently, to wipe them with a cloth, to wash with boiling water the shelves on which they lie, one can protect himself against these mites. But the most certain way is, after having rubbed the cheeses with a brine, to let them dry, and smear them over with sweet oil. It is in this way that they treat Gruyere cheese when it is attacked by this destructive insect. 2. The larvae of the gilded green fly, (musca cesar,) of the common fly, (musca domestica,} and above all of the fly of putrefaction, (miuca putris.) These larvae introduce themselves into the cheese and make ravages. The presence of there vermicular insects, which denotes an advanced state of putrefaction, excites much repugnance with the great number of con- sumers ; some persons, on the contrary, prefer the cheese in this state, because it is then stronger and of a more pungent flavor. We can destroy all these animals by vinegar, the vapor of burning sulphur, or by washes of chloride of lime. When the storehouse contains these insects in abundance, take up the cheeses, and scrape and wash the shelves with water holding in solution chloride of lime ; then scrub at the same time the floor, and apply to the walls a coating of whitewash. When the cheese-room is dry, replace the cheeses, which have been previously washed with a weak solu- tion of chloride of lime, dried, wiped with a cloth or scraped, if they need it, and finally rubbed, as has been said, with a cloth soaked in oil. If the cheeses have arrived at an advanced state of decomposition, they are put in powdered charcoal, mixed with a small quantity of chloride of soda, which destroys their offensive odor, and haste must be made to finish their manufacture before they become entirely putrid. As to mould, this can be prevented by scraping the cheese, by brushing it, and by rubbing it with the oil. To give to new Gloucester cheese the taste and appearance of old cheese, with a probe we take from the two sides and centre penetrating as far as the middle in each case cylinders 202 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. of the paste, which are replaced by similar ones from an old and fine cheese. After keeping the cheeses thus prepared for a few days, they will have acquired all the agreeable qualities of old Gloucester. Preserving Timber. ANTOINE LE GROSS, of Paris, has recently obtained a patent, the object of which is to pre- serve all kinds of timber by a cheap chemical solution, which does not injure its fibre. For this purpose he employs a solution of hydrochlorate of manganese, saturated with chalk and the oxide of zinc. The logs or pieces of timber are steeped in this solution about twenty-four hours. The vessel to hold the timber is placed vertically, so that the timber can be placed on end to allow the liquid to flow through the pores by capillary attraction. If placed hori- zontally, the liquid will not flow through the fibres of the timber. Some creosote may be added to the liquid, and with a good effect. On the Preservation of Vegetables. THE following extracts on the preservation of vegetables are taken from the work of a French author, M. Appert, entitled ''The Art of Preserving all kinds of Animal and Vegetable Substances for several years. Published by order of the French Minister for the Interior, in the Report of the Board of Arts and Manufactures." The author states that "this method is not a vain theory. It is the fruit of reflection, investigation, long attention, and numerous experiments, the results of which, for more than ten years, have been so surprising, that not- withstanding the proof acquired by repeated practice, that provenders may be preserved two, three, and six years, there are many persons who still refuse to credit the fact." After stating the experience he has had in the cellars of champagne, in shops, manufac- tories, and warehouses of confectioners and grocers for forty-five years, he proceeds to say "I owe to my extensive practice, and more especially to my long perseverance, the convic- tion 1. That fire has the peculiar property not only of changing the combination of the con- stituent parts of vegetable and animal productions, but also of retarding, for many years at least, if not of destroying, that natural tendency of those same productions to decomposition. "2. That the application of fire in a manner variously adapted to various substances, after having, with the utmost care, and as completely as possible, deprived them of all contact with the air, effects a perfect preservation of those same productions with all their natural qualities. " The details of the process consist principally 1. In closing in bottles the substances to be preserved ; 2. In corking the bottles with the utmost care, for it is chiefly on the corking that the success of the process depends ; 3. In submitting these enclosed substances to the action of boiling water in a water-bath for a greater or less length of time, according to their nature, and in the manner pointed out with respect to each several kind of substance ; 4. In withdrawing the bottles from the water-bath at the period described." As an example of his practice, we give his method of preserving dwarf kidney-beans: "I cause the beans to be gathered as for ordinary use. I string them and put them in bottles, taking care to shake them on the stool, to fill the vacancies in the bottles. I then cork the bottles and put them in the water-bath, which is to boil an hour and a half. When the beans are rather large, I cut them lengthways into two or three pieces, and then they do not require being in the water-bath longer than one hour." When they are to be used, he gives the following instruc- tions : " Scald the French beans as if they were fresh, in water, with a little salt, when not sufficiently dressed by the preserving process. This often happens to them as well as to artichokes, asparagus, and cauliflowers. If sufficiently boiled, on being taken out of the bottles I have only to wash them in hot water in order to prepare them afterwards for vege- table or meat soup." This author furnishes several recipes for other vegetables, all of which are on the bottling principle ; but there is another process, which consists in evaporating the watery parts of vegetables, and preserving them dry. We recollect some years ago receiving from Holland a few packages of sugar-peas, kidney-beans, and other vegetables, in this dried state, which, when cooked, were as well flavored as they would have been in the green state. AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 203 These we believe are obtained by drying in chambers, through which currents of heated air were introduced : they were completely dried and shrivelled up, and had the appearance of strips of thick parchment or leather until they were boiled, and then they swelled out to their usual dimensions. We have also seen kidney-beans preserved by first boiling them tender, and afterwards drying them in a warm, airy place, when they may be kept for any length of time in bags or boxes, till ready for use. This drying process may be applied to peas, beans, kidney-beans, cabbages, cauliflowers, spinach, beets, parsnips, carrots, potatoes, &c., the latter being cut in slices. There is no subject in domestic economy of which so little is known generally as the preservation of vegetables and vegetable cookery. We know, for in- stance, that some potatoes require steaming, and others boiling, to have them in perfection ; some require to be boiled in their skins, and some without; and we are informed by M. Soyer, that the soil in which the varieties of potatoes are cultivated has a great deal to do with the mode in which they ought to be cooked. London Gentleman's Companion. On the Results of Experiments on the Preservation of Fresh Meat. THIS inquiry, presented to the British Association by Mr. G. Hamilton, was undertaken with a view of discovering a method by which beef could be brought in a fresh state from South America. The experiments were made by enclosing pieces of beef in bottles contain- ing one, or a mixture of two or more, of the following gases : Chlorine, -hydrogen, nitrogen, ammonia, carbonic acid, carbonic oxide, and binoxide of nitrogen. Of these the last two only possessed the power of retarding putrefaction. Beef that had been in contact with car- bonic oxide for the space of three weeks was found to be perfectly fresh, and of a fine red color. Binoxide of nitrogen is capable of preserving beef from putrefaction for at least five months, during which time the beef retains its natural color and consistence. When meat that had been preserved by the last process was cooked by roasting, it was found to possess a disagreeable flavor. If cooked by boiling, the ebullition must be continued for a much greater length of time than is necessary for fresh meat. Dr. Calvert remarked, that he had opportunities of observing the well-known valuable anti- putrid properties if carbonic acid, and instanced the case of the carcass of a horse that was at present in a fresh state, although four years had elapsed since it had been soaked in liquor containing the acid. He recommended the use of this acid for preserving bodies intended for dissection, as it neither affects the tissues nor discolors the organs. New French Method of Preserving Meat and Fruit. The French have been experimenting upon this subject, and it is reported that a mode of preserving meat and fruit has been dis- covered by which they are not altered in size or appearance, so that at the end of six or eight months, when placed on the table, they would be taken to be perfectly fresh. MM. Delabarre and Bonnet have submitted to the French Minister of War some samples of meat preserved by their method. This consists in drying it by natural means, and then preparing it with materials furnished by the animal. When the water which composes a large part of fresh meat is driven off, the osmazome supplied by the animal is applied as a varnish, to the increase of the nutritious properties of the meat. By desiccation the meat is reduced in size and weight one-half, and this is done without the application of artificial heat. It may be eaten in this state, and is not disagreeable. When cooked, half an hour's immersion in hot water is sufficient to increase its bulk to what it was originally, and to render it as pala- table is if fresh meat 4iad been cooked. Practical Mechanics' Magazine. In addition to the above, a kindred process has been devised by a Hungarian for preserv- ing the potato, which, valuable as it is, especially in view of its cheapness, is nevertheless rendered far less widely available than it should be, by reason of its bulk and its perishable nature. But both these qualities are due to the great proportion of water it contains about seven-eighths of its entire weight. The Hungarian's process divests the potatoes of their water, and reduces them to a dry powder like Indian meal, which may be cheaply transported any distance, and will keep in any climate ; a ton of potatoes being reduced to less than three hundredsweight of the potato meal, which can at once be restored to the state of mashed potatoes, by simply boiling in fresh water. 204 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. On the Influence of Water in Cooking Vegetables, MR. S. W. JOHNSON communicates to the New York Country Gentleman the following recent memoranda of Professor Boethger, of Frankfort, " On the influence of water in cooking vegetables" : "If one portion of vegetables be boiled in pure (distilled or rain) water, and another in water to which a little salt has been added, a decided difference is perceptible in the taste and odor, and especially in the tenderness of the two portions. Vegetables boiled in pure water are vastly inferior in flavor. This inferiority may go so far, in case of onions, that they are almost entirely destitute of odor or taste, though, when cooked in salted water, they possess, in addition to the pleasant salt taste, a peculiar sweetness and a strong aroma. They also contain more soluble matter than when cooked in pure water. Water which con- tains l-420th of its weight of common salt is far better for cooking vegetables than pure water, because the salt hinders the solution and evaporation of the soluble and flavoring principles of the vegetables. This explains the advantage of the general use of salt in cook- ing, and the impossibility of correcting, by subsequent additions of salt, the want of flavor in vegetables that have been boiled without it." Use of Coffee among the Natives of Sumatra. A COKRESPONDENT of Hooker's Journal of Botany gives the following account of the man- ner of using coffee among the natives of Sumatra ; he says : In going up the river Chenaku, I saw everywhere coffee planted about the houses, and in every case the fruit dropping and decaying on the ground. Upon inquiring, I found these people drank an infusion of the leaves and entirely neglected the berries. I was anxious to taste this and see it prepared, and had an opportunity of doing so. A number of young twigs of the plant were gathered, with their leaves, and, after being cut to about a foot in length, were placed closely together between two strips of bamboo, tied at the ends, so as to form a dense disc of green leaves about eighteen or twenty inches in diameter. This was then held over a clear, blazing fire (the ends of the bamboo serving for a handle) until the leaves were of a rich, brownish-green color, and perfectly crisp and brittle. The latter part of this process requires some care, as, when nearly dry, the leaves are almost as inflammable as gunpowder, and if once they catch the flame the whole is consumed in a mo- ment. When dry, the leaves are pounded by crushing in the hand. The powder of the leaves is infused in boiling water, exactly like tea, though in much larger quantities ; it pro- duces a dark-brown liquid, looking like coffee, smelling like green tea, and tasting like a mixture of the two. It is very pleasant, however, and refreshing, and I can understand how these people are passionately fond of it. The curious part of it is, that, while theine, caf- feine, and theobromine have been found (nearly identical as they are in composition and pro- perties) in use in three distinct parts of the world, and valued for the same exhilarating qualities, here is a people, little raised above savages, using in an independent manner one of these very plants, being evidently uninstructed, as otherwise they would have used the berry. Chinese Method of Scenting Tea. A CHINA correspondent of the London Athenceum furnishes the following information re- specting the methods of scenting tea, as practised by the Chinese. He gays: "I have been making inquiries for some time past about the curious process of scenting teas for the foreign markets ; but the answers I received to my questions were so unsatisfactory, that I gave up all hopes of understanding the business until I had an opportunity of seeing and judging for myself. During a late visit to Canton, I was informed that the process might be seen in ope- ration in a tea-factory on the island of Honan ; and accordingly embraced an opportunity to visit the place with an eminent Chinese merchant. When we entered the tea-factory, a strange scene was presented to our view. The place was crowded with women and children, all busily engaged in picking the stalks and yellow or brown leaves out of the black tea. For AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 205 this labor each was paid at the rate of six cash a catty, and earned, on an average, about sixty cash a day a sum equal to about threepence of our money. Men were employed giving out the tea in its rough state, and in receiving it again when picked. With each por- tion of tea a wooden ticket was also given, which ticket had to be returned along with the tea. Besides the men who were thus employed, there were many others busily at work,' passing the tea through various-sized sieves, in order to get out the caper, and to separate the various kinds. This was also partly done by a winnowing machine, similar in construc- tion to that used by farmers in England. Having taken a passing glance at all these objects on entering the building, I next directed my attention to the scenting process, which had been the main object of my visit, and which I shall now endeavor to describe. " In a corner of the building, there lay a large heap of orange-flowers, which filled the air with the most delicious perfume. A man was engaged in sifting them, to get out the sta- mens and other smaller portions of the flower. This process was necessary, in order that the flowers might be readily sifted out of the tea after the scenting had been accomplished. The orange-flowers being fully expanded, the large petals were easily separated from the sta- mens and smaller ones. In 100 parts, 70 per cent, were used and 30 thrown away. When the orange is used, its flowers must be fully expanded, in order to bring out the scent ; but flowers of jasmine may be used in the bud, as they will expand and emit their fragrance during the time they are mixed with the tea. When the flowers had been sifted over in the manner described, they were ready for use. In the mean time, the tea to be scented had been carefully manipulated, and appeared perfectly dried and finished. At this stage of the process, it is worthy of observing that, while the tea was perfectly dry, the orange-flowers were just as they had been gathered from the trees. Large quantities of the tea were now mixed up with the flowers, in the proportion of forty pounds of flowers to one hundred pounds of tea. This dry tea and the untried flowers were allowed to lie mixed together for the space of twenty-four hours. At the end of this time, the flowers were sifted out of the tea, and by the repeated sifting and winnowing processes which the tea had afterwards to undergo, they were nearly all got rid of. Sometimes a few stray ones are left in the tea, and may be detected even after it arrives in England. A small portion of tea adheres to the moist flowers when they are sifted out, and this is generally given away to the poor, who pick it out with the hand. " The flowers at this part of the process had impregnated the tea-leaves with a large por- tion of their peculiar odors, but they had also left behind them a certain portion of moisture, which it was necessary to expel. This was done by placing the tea once more over slow charcoal fires in baskets and sieves prepared for the purpose of drying. The scent communi- cated by the powers is very slight for some time, but, like the fragrance peculiar to the tea- leaf itself, comes out after being packed for a week or two. Sometimes this scenting process is repeated when the odor is not considered sufficiently strong ; and the head man in the fac- tory informed me he sometimes scented twice with orange-flowers, and once with the 'Mo-le,' (Jasminum sambac.) " The flowers of various plants are used in scenting by the Chinese, some of which are considered better than others, and some can be had at seasons when others are not procura- ble. The different flowers are not all used in the same proportions. Thus of orange-flowers there are forty pounds to one hundred pounds of tea ; and of the aglaia there are one hundred pounds to one hundred pounds. The quantity of flowers used seemed to me very large, and I made particular inquiries as to whether the teas that are scented were mixed up with large quantities of unscented kinds. The Chinese unhesitatingly affirmed that such was not the case ; but I have some doubt on this point. The length of time which teas thus scented re- tain their flavor is most remarkable. It varies however, with the different sorts. Teas scented with orange-blossoms will keep well for two or three years. Other flower-perfumes, it is said, may be retained as long as six years. On the Use of the Red Camomile (Pyrethrnm roseum) for the Destruction of Insects. FOR some years a vague report has reached us of a Caucasian plant having astonishing and eminently useful properties that of destroying fleas and bugs ; it was also known that 206 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. this marvellous plant belonged to the genus Pyrethrum, but the specific character was uncer- tain. This plant has been recently introduced into Brussels in the rich collections of the botanical garden. We hope that in some years the red camomile shall have freed our people from one of the most abominable plagues which afflict sensitive humanity. Some details of a plant of so certain a future as that of the red camomiles will be, without doubt, acceptable to our readers. In Transcaucasia, its country, this plant bears also the name of the Persian Camomile, the flea-killer, and flea-wort; it forms a little shrub with perennial roots, branched twelve to fifteen inches high, bearing many flowers at first of a deep red, after- wards a clear or rosy red, and an inch and a half in diameter, (the size of the flowers will also cause this plant to be cultivated as an ornament in our gardens ; ) the stalks dry up after the ripening of the seeds, but the roots are perennial, and for some years may be mul- tiplied by division. Freshly gathered, the flowers are not very odorous, but dried they acquire an odor so strong and penetrating that it kills all the insects and all the vermin, of which until now no certain agent of destruction has been found. The red camomile can bear 20 Centigrade of frost, a temperature to which it is often submitted on the Caucasian mountains and on the plains, elevated from 4500 to 6500 feet above the sea level. Although it inhabits virgin soil, it is easily brought into cultivation in gardens, and, since its ener- getic properties have been recognised, it is cultivated in a large way in different parts of Southern Russia. One very remarkable fact is, that the knowledge of the secret of the manufacture of the red camomile powder for the destruction of fleas, &c. only dates, even in Caucasia, back about ten years, while the employment of this strong powder was known in regions far distant from Circassia. It seems that an Armenian merchant, named Sumbi- toff. travelling in the south of Asia, observed 4;hat the inhabitants sprinkled themselves with a powder to prevent the stings of insects. This powder was nothing else than that made of the flowers of the red camomile. Returned to his country, our Armenian told his son of the discovery, and taught him to recognise the plant. This son became poor by reverses of fortune, but bethought himself of his father's secret; he set himself then to make this powder, and retired with very large profits from this trade. In 1818, he sold a pood (about twenty kilogrammes) of camomile powder at twenty -five roubles, (near one hundred francs;) and although the secret had been published, and every one knew the preparation of this powder, more than twenty villages in the district of Alexandropol were actually given up to the cultivation of the red camomile. The flowering of the Pyrethrum roseum commences in June, and continues more than a month. The flowers are gathered in dry weather. In one day a good harvester can collect from thirty to eighty pounds of these wild flowers. They generally dry them in the sun ; but it is remarked that those dried in the shade have more virtue. The bed of flowers is stirred from time to time to help the drying ; three or four days is sufficient to drive off every trace of moisture. To obtain one pound of dried flowers it requires about one hundred pounds of fresh ones ! They are then reduced to a coarse powder with the hand, and by means of a little millstone, or a little brass mill, a very fine powder fit for use is obtained. We see by this that the process is very simple ; the most difficult question is how to operate upon a sufficiently large number of flowering plants. To give an idea of the importance of the manufacture of this powder, we must state that in Transcaucasia alone there are made each year for consumption in the Russian Empire more than 40,000 kilogrammes. Baron Folkersahm has recently published a valuable paper on the cultivation of the red camomile. His memoir terminates with the following remarks: That this powder preserves you from fleas and bugs ; it kills flies, gnats, maggots, lice, and even the worms which are produced in the wounds of our domestic animals. To kill insects provided with wings, they mix a little of this with a substance which will attract them ; for instance, to destroy flies, it is mixed with sugar. M. Folkersahm desires that the effects of this powder should be tried on other insects and worms hurtful to man or to his horticultural plantations. He adds, that if experiments demonstrate the efficacy of this powder, each person could cultivate in the corner of his garden a certain number of plants of red camo- mile to kill the insects, caterpillars, &c. which ravage his field. From an approximative calculation, it is found that a space of eighteen square versts furnishes a quintal of powder. Mr. B. Roezl, who lived a long time in Russia, states that the Insecten pulver (powder of the AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 207 Pyrethrum) is imported every year from Persia and the Caucasian provinces into all parts of the Russian Empire ; and that used fresh, sprinkled over the window-sills, it makes all the flies fall instantly, asphyxiating them ; but that at the end of a year it loses its energy. He also states that it is the Pyrethrum carneum and roseum which produce this powder. Journal d 1 Horticulture de Belgique. Alcohol from the Tubercles of the Asphodelus ramosus. THE tubercles of Asphodelus ramosus have been employed for some years in Algeria for the manufacture of alcohol. It has been asserted that they contain neither starch nor sugar, and the experiments of M. Clerget fully confirm this opinion. When grated and pressed, they yield 81 per cent, of juice, of specific gravity 1-082. When treated with iodine, not the slightest indication of starch can be obtained. The juice has no action on polarized light, but if it be heated with hydrochloric acid at the boiling temperature, it rotates the plane of polarization to the left very powerfully. When mixed with two per cent, of yeast, it enters rapidly into fermentation, and yields eight per cent, of alcohol, being about twice as much as can be obtained from the juice of sugar-beet. The dried tubercles of the plant do not yield more than three per cent, of alcohol. M. Clerget is engaged in the investigation of the principle which undergoes fermentation. Odors of Flowers. SCIIUBLER and Kohler have made many interesting observations on odors as well as colors. They found that, of the various colors of flowers, some are more commonly odoriferous than others, and that some colors are more commonly agreeable than others. Color. No. of species. Odoriferous. Agreeable. Disagreeable. White 1193 187 175 12 Yellow 951 75 61 14 Red 918 85 76 9 Blue 594 31 23 7 Violet 307 23 17 6 Green 153 12 10 2 50 3 1 2 Brown ... 18 1 .. 1 The white most odoriferous and agreeable the yellow and brown most disagreeable. Prof. Darby. On the Aroma of American Wines. AT a recent meeting of the American Wine-Growers' Association at Cincinnati, the fol- lowing was read from N. W. Thatcher, of Chillicothe : * " The great desideratum in wine-growing is, doubtless, to procure a grape possessing at once sugar in abundance and an agreeable aroma; probably the Catawba (there are some spurious varieties of this grape) possesses these qualities to a more profitable degree than any grape we now cultivate, inasmuch as it is perfectly hardy ; but this grape should not be regarded as the type of American grapes, for we shall yet surpass it ; and to those whose palates do not accord too much with the foxy aroma of the Catawba, the Herbemont is the most acceptable grape, but the latter is not sufficiently hardy for exten- sive and profitable cultivation ; but as we have several varieties of that class of grapes, we may look for the production of seedlings from them that will surpass any of the Fox family. Doubtless a cross of the Herbemont and Cataicba would produce a valuable grape as to flavor and juiciness. It is, doubtless, a desideratum to obtain a grape possessing all the requisites for good wine ; that is, it should be productive, hardy, juicy, sweet, and well-flavored. Until we can get one grape possessing in a sufficient degree all these, we can cultivate several varieties and attain our object by mixing the berries in the mash-tub. This is desirable, at least, to afford variety in our wines, as well as to give flavor to strong-bodied wines which are without it. The taste of the juice of the grape, as well as for various kinds of food, becomes fixed to some particular sorts by custom, and finally to the exclusion of any thing 208 THE YEAR-BOOK OF AGRICULTURE. new ; and hence I infer it will be difficult, after a few years, to eradicate the predilection of Ohio wine growers, even for the foxy aroma of their Catawba wines. If we look forward to the exportation of wines to foreign countries, we must look for their production in grapes of the Herbemont type. I am a wine-grower to a very limited extent, and only as an amateur ; but still my experiments are, so far as they are successful,- -as valuable in their results as if I crushed the grapes of a township. I shall make no wine this season. I am satisfied that we can make as good wines in this country as in any other, and at equal pfcice. I would prefer the best Cincinnati wine to any foreign I have ever seen, except, perhaps, the pure Xeres, Sherry, and Mangannelta, which we rarely see." New Use for Buckwheat Straw. IT has been recently stated that the straw of the buckwheat has been applied with success in Russia as a substitute for quercitron, or yellow-oak bark, in dyeing. The Effect of Colored Light on Germination. To determine the commercial value of any seeds, one hundred of them are placed in a pot in a stove, made for the purpose of quickening the process of germination. If all the seeds germinate, the seed obtains the highest value in the market. If only eighty germinate, the seed loses 20 per cent, in value. This process ordinarily occupies from twelve to fifteen days ; but Mr. Lawson found that by using blue glass they are enabled to determine the value of seed in two or three days : and this is a matter of such commercial importance to them, that it is quite equal to a gift of 500 a year. Proceedings of the Royal Polytechnic Society. Plants Under Different Conditions. DR. GLADSTONE, F.R.S., has communicated to the London Chemist some interesting facts in relation to certain experiments made by him upon plants under different colored glass, and under different atmospheric conditions: Darkness promotes a rapid and abundant growth of thin rootlets ; it prevents the formation of chlorophylle, but does not interfere much with the general healthiness of the plant, nor with the production of the coloring matter of the flowers. Partial obscurity produces the same effects in a modified manner, but greatly facilitates the absorption of water ; and the cutting off of the chemical or blue ray under such circumstances seems to make very little difference. The withdrawal of all but the caloric rays interferes with the length of the roots, and produces a badly-developed plant. The pure luminous ray causes the rootlets to be few and straggling, and diminishes the absorption of water. Hyacinths were well developed under the pure chemical influence. Experiments were made on the germination, under like influences, of wheat and peas, as samples of the two great orders of plants. The first series was made in common air, the plants being placed on damp bricks, twelve seeds of each kind being employed in each separate instance. The periods of germination, and all the circumstances that marked the growth of the plants, were carefully noted ; drawings were made, and at the close of the experiment the height of the plants, the length of their roots, their weight, and the number of seeds that had germinated, were recorded. The effect of the same solar radiations on the two plants was extremely different. In respect to the wheat, it was found that, under the given circumstances, the absence of the chemical rays favors the first growth, and the pre- sence of the luminous rays does not impede it. Afterwards the opposite effect takes place ; the roots are retarded in their development by the yellow ray much more than by all the rays of the spectrum in combination. The calorific ray is, on the whole, the most favorable to their growth even more so than the complete absence of all solar radiations. The shoot- ing forth of the plume is favored also by the withdrawal of the chemical rays, especially just at first ; but the full and healthy development of leaves requires all the rays of the spectrum, the luminous being particularly necessary. In respect to peas under the given circum- AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY AND GEOLOGY. 209 stances, it was found that the cutting off of the chemical rays favors the first germination of the seed ; and this appears to be the principal, if not the only, advantage of the darkness obtained by burying the seeds in the soil.