THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES GIFT OF Carleton Shay ^S: THE DEVELOPMENT OF PALESTINE EXPLORATION THE ELY LECTURES PUBLISHED BY CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS The Development of Palestine Exploration. By Frederick J. Bliss, Ph.D. Ixinio. Ket, §1.50. (Postage extra.) The Social Meaning of Modern Religious Move- ments in England. By Thomas ('. Hall, D.D. 12mo. Si. 50. The Bible and Islam. By Henry Preserved Smith, D D. 12mo. §1.50. Oriental Religions and Christianity. By Frank F. Ellinwood, I) 1). 12mo. $1.75. The Evidence of Christian Experience. By Lewis French Stearns, D.D. 12mo. $2.00. THE DEVELOPMENT OF PALESTINE EXPLORATION BEING Ube Elg Xecturcs for 1903 BY FREDERICK JONES BLISS, Ph.D. Author of "A Mound of Many Cities," " Excavations at Jerusalem, 1894-1897," etc. NEW YORK CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS 1906 Copyright, 1906, by CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS Published, February, 1906 TROW DIRECTOR *ND BOOKBINDIN NEW YORK Uf OS KEY-NOTE 1 ' It was like communing with these holy men themselves to visit the places where their feet had trod, and where many of them had held converse with the Most High." So muses Robinson, after following in the footsteps of the Patriarchs and Prophets in an excursion to the north of Jerusalem. Here is an old, old theme, linking together the Pilgrims to Palestine ; through all time the same — no matter to what key it be attuned, no matter with what variations it be expressed. Sung by high- born Dame from the West, haughty Mohammedan, fierce Crusader, poor Jewish Exile, ponderous Scho- lastic, staid Puritan — yes, by modern impressionist: Silvia, Nasir, Saewulf, Rabbi Parchi, Quaresmio, Robinson, Pierre Loti — whatever may have been your song before you came; whatever it may be when you return home; while you are here, this theme, pulsating in the very atmosphere, sings itself into your heart, sing itself how it may on your lips. 81 393 INTRODUCTION This volume presents the Lectures, delivered be- fore the Union Theological Seminary in 1903 on the Ely Foundation, with considerable amplification and one modification. Lecture VII of the given course was entitled " Calvary and the Tomb of Christ. " For two reasons this title disappears, though part of the substance of the Lecture has been incorporated, for illustrative purposes, in Lecture V and elsewhere in the volume. On preparing the material for publica- tion the lecturer realized that in a sketch, treating in a broad way of the development of Palestine Ex- ploration, the elaboration of one particular feature, while others of equal importance were treated only generally, would disturb the symmetry of the whole. In the second place, a far more exhaustive treatment of this subject, begun indeed before the lecture was delivered, has been recently completed by Sir Charles Wilson. As neither Sir Charles nor the lecturer had any personal views to promulgate, the latter is more than content, for the present, at least, to leave the presentation of facts in such capable hands. Until new discoveries furnish fresh data, there is nothing to add to Sir Charles's unbiassed and scholarly work. I accepted the offer made me by the Directors of the Union Theological Seminary to lecture on the subject of Exploration with a grateful feeling that it Vlil PALESTINE EXPLORATION was in a certain sense appropriate. It gave me the opportunity to show that the principles of scholar- ship taught in this Seminary are available to a gradu- ate who has taken up the work of archaeology, as well as to the more normal graduates who have en- tered the ministry. The lectures, indeed, deal only incidentally and briefly with my own explorations, but whatever success I may have had is due to my following out the methods of investigation imparted by a faculty whose motto is : The Truth and noth- ing but the Truth. From a Theological Lecture- room to the Digger's camp seems to be a far cry, but in reality it is not so. All knowledge is cor- related. When in the course of my Jerusalem exca- vations I reached a confused series of ancient walls, at the end of a long tunnel or at the side of a huge pit, I summoned to my aid, in determining the com- parative ages of different portions of the masonry, the methods employed at Union in discussing the composite authorship of the Pentateuch, or the inter- chronological relations of the Synoptists. For the Elohist, the Yahwist, the Priestly Narrator and the Redactor, read Soloman, John Hyrcanus, Herod, and Hadrian, and a problem of Biblical criticism finds its exact analogy in a study of ancient walls which both superimpose and interpenetrate. The scope of this volume is indicated by the title. Here is no compendium of the results of Palestine Exploration. In tracing its development we shall follow the progress made in the art of identifying sites; for lists of sites identified the reader must look elsewhere. We shall note the man in whom first INTRODUCTION h. began to wake the antiquarian spirit; detailed de- scriptions of the monuments themselves are wanting here. The shifting point of view of travellers from age to age; the displacement of the Classic geog- rapher by the credulous pilgrim; the gradual evolu- tion of the pilgrim into the man of science — these are some of the themes we have attempted to illus- trate. L As visitors to the Holy Land have so largely concentrated their attention on Palestine proper, that name alone appears in the title, but we shall touch also on the explorers of Syria. To those acquainted with Rohricht's Bibliotheca Geographica Palaestina, with its 3,515 names of writ- ers on the Holy Land, from a.d. 333 to 1878 — writers who were for the most part actual travellers — we need not say that we have attempted no comprehen- sive bibliography. 2 In a sense our little volume is itself an essay toward an eclectic and comparative bibliography. For brief critical estimates of Works on Palestine we may recommend the lists of Ritter, Robinson, Tobler, Munk, etc. It may be of inter- est to the American reader to know how rich his • As geography is treated only in a secondary manner — that is, in illustration of the varying range of travel, and of the varying atti- tude toward the suhject of Identification — no map is inserted. 2 See also Deutsche Pilgerreisen nach dem Heiligen Lande von It. Iiohricht. Neue Ausgabe, Innsbruck, 1900. This contains lists compiled from every available source, of all German Filgrims known to have visited the Holy Land from 1300 to 1GD9, together with the lists of the works of those who wrote, sketches of the im- portant routes, names of places visited, etc. For critical editions of early texts the reader is referred to the publications of the Societe de l'Orient Latin, as well as to others mentioned in succeeding foot- notes. X PALESTINE EXPLORATION country is in the literature of Palestine. I had sup- posed that I could not complete this work without a visit to England and Europe, but scattered among our various libraries I have found every book that I have sought except Michel Nau's "Voyage nouveau de la Terre Sainte." Kobinson's Palestinian library was bought en bloc by his Alma Mater, Hamilton College, and from it I have had the loan of two works — the "Voyages" of D'Arvieux and the ' ' Voyage de la Terre Sainte ' ' of Doubdan, neither of which I could find elsewhere. I would beg to offer hearty thanks for especial assistance from three Librarians — Dr. Gillett of Union Theological Semi- nary, Dr. Morris Jastrow of the University of Penn- sylvania, and Mr. W. I. Fletcher of Amherst College. I have also consulted books belonging to Columbia, Harvard, Yale, the New York Public Library, the Peabody Library and the Library of Congress. Though the following lectures take for granted a general knowledge of Syria and Palestine, it may be well here to give a fillip to the reader's memory. Used in a broad sense the term Syria means the narrow strip of land at the east end of the Mediter- ranean, about 400 miles long and ranging in breadth from 70 to 100 miles. It is bounded on the north by the Taurus Mountains; on the west by the Sea, and on the east and south by the Desert. Though thus isolated by nature, Syria has been the high- road throughout all the ages between Asia and Africa. But her history is more strongly stamped by this natural seclusion than by her incidental touch with the world. Conquered and held at various times by INTRODUCTION XI Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, Franks and Turks, she has always, even if in a second- ary sense, maintained a degree of home-rule. Pales- tine is that part of larger Syria lying south of the river Litany — the ancient Leontes — which enters the sea between Sidon and Tyre. In contradistinction to Palestine, Syria may be said to extend from the Litany northward to the Taurus Mountains. From a physical point of view, Palestine may be divided into four belts running north and south — the maritime plain which merges into the low hills of the Shephelah, the rocky mountains of Judea and Samaria, the deep cleft of the Ghor or Jordan valley, and the high table-land rising abruptly beyond the river, rent with gorges and crossed by ranges of hills. In Syria proper we find the same four belts in a modified form. The maritime plain is in places effaced by the encroachment of the Lebanon; this range with its continuation in the Nuseiriyeh Mountains is itself the prolongation of the Central Palestinian System ; the place of the Jordan Cleft is taken, at first by the lofty valley of the Buka'a and farther north by the valley of the Orontes, lower than the Buka'a but lofty in comparison with the sub-Mediterranean level of the Ghor. Beyond the Anti-Libanus, the eastern boundary of the Buka'a, and itself a continuation of Mt. Hermon, we find again a broad table-land diver- sified by crossing ranges. Dr. Post, who in his botanical quests has travelled extensively in the land, has well said : ' ' Syria and Palestine present, in a geographical area of say 50,000 (square) miles, more diversities and anomalies XU PALESTINE EXPLORATION than any equal territory of the globe. " l I may add that to realize these diversities and anomalies one has to travel but a few hours. The depression of the Jordan valley furnishes the most violent con- trasts. Leaving es-Salt early on an April morning, I rode at first through the bracing air across the richly wooded land of Gilead, pierced with grassy glades, gay with flowers, gladdened by singing brooks. Soon after noon I was crouching under a bush on the banks of the Jordan, seeking a short respite from the furnace heat before attempting the ride to Jericho across the parched and arid plain. The reverse of this experience may be had by any winter traveller who can leave, if he will, the sleet and snow of Jerusalem, and a few hours later listen to the notes of tropical birds, nestling in the gardens about Elisha's fountain, or bathe in the balmy waters of the Dead Sea, 1,300 feet below the Mediterranean level. The Sea of Galilee is 680 feet below sea-level, and Hermon towers some 10,000 feet above it, and yet, as the crow flies, the distance between lake and mountain is only thirty miles. Equally striking are the geological features of the land. The limestone, which constitutes the greater part of the mountain chains, is in the Lebanon inter- penetrated with layers of sandstone. In the intense and glorifying light that comes from the sun a half hour before its setting, the contrast between the gray limestone, weathered into fantastic shapes of tower and castle, of monstrous plants and anti- diluvian creatures, and the brilliant red sandstone, 1 Q. S. 1890. p. 99. INTRODUCTION xiii stamped with the ink-black shadows of the green pines, is strange and startling. Syria makes little mystery of its geology. Much of it may be studied on horseback. But it has its reserves. From the lower ranges of the Lebanon may be excavated a wealth of fossil fish caught in the very act of swim- ming by some mighty upheaval of nature. Iron ore is found in very large quantities, although at the present day the art of mining it has fallen practically into disuse. Turning to Eastern Palestine, we note that the ancient towns of the Hauran are built of the local black basalt, so hard and indestructible that the modern inhabitants continue in some cases to live in the dwellings of their remote ancestors. To the northeast of the Hauran is the lava region of the Leja, roughly speaking twenty miles square, whose strange- ly undulating surface has been described as a tem- pest in stone. In the peninsula of Sinai, which, though not the Holy Land, is the Beulah land from which the Israelites surveyed in hope the country of their longings, are found mountains of granite, so solid and unbroken as to appear to be Titanic mono- liths. But the enumeration of these rocky features must not cause us to forget the unique fertility of the land. Not only are abundant crops of wheat and barley reaped from the plains of Philistia, Gali- lee, Coele-Syria, Hauran, and Northern Syria, but the hill-sides have been so terraced and tilled that the very stones produce fatness. I speak in no metaphor. I have seen a man ploughing a steep slope whose surface showed no sign of soil between xiv PALESTINE EXPLORATION the stones. From this field of barrenness he was wont to reap a sure if scanty harvest. As to the flora in general our chief expert, Dr. Post, says it is the richest of any country of its size in the world. To the inexhaustible fertility of the ground is added an adequate water supply. The thirsty traveller rid- ing in the summer's heat is comforted by the sight and sound of rivers bursting full-grown from among the rocks. Little rain falls between May and Octo- ber, but so extensive is the rude system of irrigation that during the summer much of the water flowing in the many streams of the land never reaches the sea. The whole country is mined with ancient cisterns. Jerusalem now depends for its main water supply upon similar reservoirs. We may now indicate in barest outline the extraor- dinary historical vicissitudes of Syria and Pales- tine which have so conditioned their exploration. Before the invasion of Israel from Egypt the data are few and unsatisfactory. We have still much to learn concerning the local and petty monarchies brought under the suzerainty of the Egyptian Kings of the eighteenth dynasty to understand their true origin, their ethnic affinities, their relations to the mysterious Hittites of the North. With the account of the Hebrew conquests history begins to have a firmer basis. The establishment of the Jewish king- dom, its subsequent division, the growing influence of Assyria, the scattering of the tribes in Exile, the return of the Jews to their native land, still held by their Persian masters — these points must be at the tip of the tongue of every Sunday-school scholar, not- INTRODUCTION XV withstanding the alarmists who are nowadays deplor- ing the decay of Biblical knowledge. Less fully ap- preciated is the power of the Seleucidan Kingdom, bringing in Greek influences against which the Mac- cabees made their long and partially successful stand. With the entry of the Romans and the subsequent reign of that semi-independent ruler, Herod the Great, the land entered into a new phase. Military roads were extended through its length and breadth ; splendid cities, whose ruins to-day are still rich in inscriptions, sprang up east of the Jordan; the towns of Western Palestine were rebuilt with a magnifi- cence they had never had before. But the old spirit of Jewish independence was still burning and required for its extinction a storm of cataclysmic violence. In the year 70 a.d., only 133 years after Pompey besieged Jerusalem, Titus destroyed the city and temple after a siege unparalleled in history for its horrors. Even this storm left some embers smoul- dering. These Bar Chocheba fanned into flames which were not finally extinguished until he had kept the Romans fighting for two years near Jerusalem. In 135 a.d. Hadrian built, on the ruins left by Titus, a Roman city under the name of Aelia Capi- tolina. The last act of the Jewish drama had closed. When again the curtain rose it was upon a totally new scene. The Nazarene had conquered. The Holy Land was under the sway of a Christian Emperor. Churches began to be erected from Dan to Beersheba. Jerusalem became the centre of pilgrimages which have not ceased at the present day. In following the story of these pilgrimages and their gradual devel- xvi PALESTINE EXPLORATION opment into expeditions in which a scientific interest mingles with and sometimes dominates the religious motive, we shall touch incidentally upon the passing of the land from Christian to Moslem hands, upon the brief reversion to Christian rule under the Cru- saders, upon the loss of the Latin Kingdom, and upon the establishment of that Turkish rule under the Othman dynasty which still controls the Holy Land, and which will continue to control it until some other Power can show better credentials for the mainten- ance of order among its many conflicting interests. Before beginning my story of Palestine Explora- tion, which will involve the mention of many names, I must warn the reader that he will not find among these that of the Ideal Explorer. Robinson in field work and Petrie in excavation come near the mark, but they do not reach it. I hasten to add that the Ideal Explorer is as difficult of realization as the Ideal Man. He may possibly one day be realized in the discoverer of the North Pole, where the mission — than which none is more arduous — is one of magnificent simplicity; but I fear he will never turn up in Palestine. Our sketch of the Holy Land will have been of little avail if it has failed to show that its ideal explorer must combine the qualities of a geographer, a geologist, a naturalist, an architect, an archaeologist, an ethnologist, an historian, an epi- graphist, a Biblical student, a painter, a mystic, and a poet. If he is an excavator as well he must also include the attainments of an engineer and a miner. But first and foremost he must be a man of common-sense, who is your only real diplomatist. INTRODUCTION xvii Tact, hitting the mark in one's dealings with men, hitting the mark in dealing with one's own observa- tions, in building theories upon these — this is the one thing needful. Every explorer who has approx- imated perfection has travelled along this road. All who have been guided by common-sense have fur- nished lasting contributions to the mass of correct knowledge. Our present knowledge of Palestine we may liken to a mosaic of colored tesserae, which, though broken here and there, yet shows broad pat- terns and many curious details. Scattered in the surrounding debris, and sometimes buried by this, are the little cubes waiting to be found and fitted into their proper place. For the parts of the mo- saic now complete we have to thank the Explorers of the Past, for the filling in of the lacuna we look to the Explorers of the Future. October, 1905. Note. — Since this book went to press, exploration has met a great loss in the death of Sir Charles Wilson, Chair- man of the Executive Committee of the Palestine Explora- tion Fund. His personal experience in the exploration of the Holy Land, his minute knowledge of the historical references to the country, and, above all, the scientific spirit with which he approached all questions, fitted him preeminently for this position. CONTENTS LECTURE I. The Dawn of Exploration II. The Age of Pilgrimage . III. The Crusaders and After IV. From Fabri to Robinson . V. Edward Robinson .... VI. Renan and His Contemporaries VII. The Palestine Exploration Fund VIII. The Exploration of the Future . 1 40 75 121 184 224 255 288 PALESTINE EXPLORATION LECTURE I THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION The Century Dictionary defines Exploration as: "The act of exploring; search, examination or in- vestigation, especially for the purpose of discovery: specifically, the investigation of an unknown country or part of the earth. ' ' Linking the word recovery to discovery, and substituting the term "partly forgotten and ruined country " for " unknown country, ' ' we may so amend this definition that it will apply more closely to the exploration of the lands with a great historic past — Babylonia, Assyria, Egypt, Greece, the Roman territories, Syria and Palestine. The problem in exploring these countries is primarily that of identification. Given a series of historical references to a certain land, the aim is to find confirmation of these by investigation on the spot. Recovery here precedes discovery both logically and actually, if by recovery we mean the bringing again to light a site or monument lost, 2 PALESTINE EXPLORATION but known to have existed; and by discovery the adding to our knowledge of facts unknown to us before. The proportion which recovery may bear to dis- covery in a given land, depends upon the extent and availability of the historical authorities. The literature which has come down from the Greeks and Romans is not only large in bulk but is written in languages which have never been forgotten ; and, in the exploration of their lands, recovery may be said to have held the scale against discovery. Long chapters of Egyptian history were inscribed on monu- ments that have never been lost, others upon monuments subsequently buried in the sand; but, buried or unburied, they all were inscribed in characters which lost their meaning. Till near the beginning of the nineteenth century they excited no feeling but dumb wonder. Then, indeed, the Rosetta stone unlocked a library which has only begun to be studied. In Egypt, thus, discovery and recovery so interpenetrate, are so interdependent, that the distinction between them cannot be sharply drawn. The same story may, with local variations, be told of Babylonia and Assyria. In Palestine, however, up to the present time, recovery has greatly out- balanced discovery, and the line of demarcation between them is clear. To produce this result two causes have worked together. In the first place, as the great geographer Ritter has pointed out, the Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments have furnished information in regard to this land "to an extent unparalleled in any other country of the THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 3 globe." 1 Secondly, the impelling purpose of the vast majority of travellers to Palestine, from the time of Constantine to the present day, has been a desire there to find confirmation, illustration and expansion of the facts presented by the Bible. Few, indeed, are the exceptions. Even to the Arab geographers the land of the Patriarchs, of David and Solomon, of "our Lord 'Isa," as the Moslems call Jesus, had a peculiar sanctity. In the eigh- teenth and nineteenth centuries, which saw the development of true scientific exploration, we may find the names of a few men whose interest in the Scriptures was secondary, but these names are, as a rule, connected with very specialized forms of research. Renan's great mission to Phoenicia, it is true, concerned itself chiefly with pagan remains, but his portly volume describing the excavations is not so widely known as his " Life of Jesus," which was a direct result of his visit, and which, whatever may be its historical value, presents a true and glow- ing picture of the Holy Land. The Palestine Exploration Fund calls itself ' ' A Society for the accurate and systematic investigation of the archaeology, the topography, the geology, and phys- ical geography, the manners and customs of the Holy Land, for Biblical illustration." Its raison d'etre is given by the last phrase. Biblical illustra- tion is the explicitly declared aim of the Society, though incidentally its work has covered a wider field. Thus far, we repeat, in the exploration of Palestine 1 The Comparative Geography of Palestine and the Sinaitic Pen- insula, by Carl Hitter. (See Translation by Gage, vol. ii, p. 27.) 4 PALESTINE EXPLORATION recovery has outbalanced discovery. But thanks especially to our own Robinson and to the Palestine Exploration Fund, the former work has now ad- vanced toward completion. Recent excavations, however, have furnished high hopes for extensive discoveries in the future, discoveries that will enable us to fill in many blank places of Scriptural history. As the Bible is the vast store-house from which all travellers to Syria and Palestine have primarily derived the knowledge which they seek to confirm, before examining their accounts, we are bound to consider the scope and character of this informa- tion, although in the main it is furnished by writers who, as natives of the lands they describe, do not fall under the category of explorers. In scope it covers almost every field — geography, the physical aspects of the country, ethnology, history, religious institutions, folk-lore. The Scriptural material, then, is abundant. The character of the informa- tion, however, varies with the subject treated. The religious institutions have come down to us in a sys- tematic form, whatever the date and value of the final systematization may be; the same is true in a general way of the historical portions. But the references to geography, ethnology and folk-lore are only incidental to the narrative, are interwoven with the narrative for purposes of illustration and illumination. Excellent and detailed accounts of the habits and customs of the Hebrews have often been gathered from the Bible, but the work is necessarily one of collation and of compilation. This THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 5 follows not only from the fact that the Bible is a collection of diverse books, written by diverse authors, at diverse periods, but from the nature of each book itself and the point of view of its author, which is never scientific, always eminently practical. Again, as touching geography, " the con- tents of the biblical books," to quote Ritter's happy expression, "are not to be considered as intention- ally or directly geographical; they are so, as a general rule, only in a secondary sense." Tabu- lated lists of cities and descriptions of boundary-lines may be found, but we search vainly for a description of the land as a whole more definite than the state- ment that it was a land flowing with milk and honey. Still, by piecing together the almost count- less references scattered through the histories — ref- erences to cities and towns, to lakes and rivers, to plains and mountains, to military movements — a care- ful reader, relying on no other source, might form a general idea of the country which would be extraor- dinarily accurate. We must emphasize the word general. Should our reader attempt to place his results on a map, there would be many curious lacunce. Take, for example, the main river of Palestine, the Jordan. That it ran through nearly the whole length of the land is proved by the statements that it served as the eastern boundary of the tribes from Naphtali on the north to Benjamin on the south. 1 Its magni- tude is shown by the implication in the narrative, that without miraculous intervention the Israelitish 1 Josh. 19, 34; 18, 20. 6 PALESTINE EXPLORATION host could not have crossed it near Jericho, as well as by the statements that fords occur elsewhere, and that it overflows its banks at the time of harvest. 1 Its topographical relations to Gilead and Bashan are clearly indicated. 2 Its situation in a plain is em- phasized frequently. 3 The phrases "the Salt Sea even unto the end of Jordan," "the Sea at the uttermost part of Jordan, ' ' and ' ' the Salt Sea at the south end of Jordan ' ' point to its final absorp- tion. 4 That it flows through the Sea of Galilee — the Sea of Chinnereth of the Old Testament — might be fairly inferred by collating several passages which elucidate the boundaries of the tribes. 5 But for any indication of its course through the Waters of Merom (the Lake of Huleh), for any mention of its main sources in the copious fountains at Tell-el-Kady and Banias, or its more distant source at the head of the Hasbany River, we look in vain. This somewhat lengthy example will serve to indi- cate the limitations of a purely Biblical geography not supplemented by exploration. The nature of Scriptural information respecting the position of cities has an important bearing on questions of identification. It is hardly necessary to remind the reader that geographical science did not develop the method of fixing a place by latitude and longitude till the second century of the Christian era, but we must here emphasize the paucity and indefiniteness of the Scriptural references to distance •Josh. 3, 13-15; Judg. 3, 28. 'Josh. 17, 5. 8 Gen. 13, 10 ; I Kings 7, 46, etc. "Josh. 15, 5; 18, 19. 6 Deut. 3, 17; Josh. 19, 22 and 34. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 7 and direction. In the Old Testament narratives it is natural to find the chief towns referred to simply by name, as places known to the Hebrew reader. The foreign reader must deduce the mutual relation of places from incidental references, such as the statement that in going from one town to another in one day such and such towns are passed on the way. Deductions like these, however, are only general. In the tabulated lists, where we might legitimately expect more precision, we find, as a rule, merely groups of the towns in a given district. The description of the tribe-boundaries indeed often gives the general direction of one place from another, but without the distance. This topographical in- definiteness is well illustrated by the difficulty in identifying cities once of prime importance, when the ancient name is not undisputedly extant at some site known to the people of the land to-day. The archaeological science of a century has failed to lo- cate, without doubt, either Gath or Megiddo — cities which played great roles in Jewish history. Our excavations at Tell-es-Safi have furnished a high probability that this is the site of Gath. But high probability is not certainty. The majority of ex- perts have placed Megiddo at Lejjun, or at the adjacent Tell-el-Mutasellim ; but Conder thinks he finds a survival of the name at Mujedda', some eighteen miles to the southeast at the foot of Mt. Gilboa. It is to be hoped that the German excava- tions now proceeding at Tell-el-Mutasellim will throw new light on the identification. This matter may be illustrated even more closely. 8 PALESTINE EXPLORATION It may be almost invariably assumed when experts in theology, history, archseology or in fact any science, differ among themselves fundamentally in their interpretations of given data that these data are either insufficient or indefinite, or more probably both. Had the Old Testament references to the divisions of Jerusalem been clear, then the exegetes would never have fallen into two parties, one placing Zion on the Eastern or Temple Hill, the other on the Western Hill. Had the New Testament writers shown more precision in locating Golgotha and the Tomb, then one of the fiercest controversies in con- nection with the Holy City would never have raged. The only actual fact relating to the place of cruci- fixion which a strict exegesis can find in the Biblical narratives is that it was situated somewhere outside the city near a new rock-cut sepulchre. It may also be legitimately inferred that it was near a public highway. But there is nothing to show whether it was north, south, east or west of the city. There is nothing to show whether Golgotha, the Place of the Skull, was on a hill or in a valley. There is no explanation why it was so called. 1 We may now run rapidly over the chief passages in the Old Testament which have, to a certain 'Sir Charles Wilson, who states and criticises the various theories impartially, sums up as follows: "The conclusion which seems to follow from the above discussion is that Golgotha derived its name from a local legend which connected it with a skull, possibly that of Adam, as all the early Christian fathers who mention the subject assert. And the theories which identify 'the Place of a Skull' with a public place of execution, or with a spot, whether on an eminence or not, which resembled a Skull, are of later growth and probably of Western origin." (Q. S. 1902, p. 151.) THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 9 extent, a direct topographical character. 1 In a treatment like the present, which aims to illustrate, in a general way, the methods of the Hebrews in handling their geographical knowledge, we may legitimately take these statements at their face value, without entering into questions of strict his- toricity, date and composite authorship. I may remark, in passing, that the important bearing which Biblical criticism has had upon topographical detail has been pointed out by George Adam Smith in the Preface to his "Historical Geography of the Holy Land." The alleged earlier references are strictly germane to our subject, as they deal mainly with the true ex- ploration of Palestine — with the investigation of a comparatively unknown land by a conquering race and the division thereof among its tribes. Passing over the famous account of the raid of Abram against Chedorlaomer and the allied kings, a passage that concerns ethnology rather than geography, we find in Numbers 13, the record of a genuine exploration — the expedition which Moses is said to have de- spatched from Kadesh Barnea, where the Israelites were encamped, to spy out the land. We have a list of the twelve explorers, the admirable and ex- haustive programme laid down for them by Moses, and the length of duration of the campaign — forty days. But, unfortunately, their report reaches us in an abbreviated form. We learn merely that the limit 1 The chief systematic topographical references in the New Tes- tament are concerned with St. Paul's missionary journeys, which took him largely out of Syria and Palestine. 10 PALESTINE EXPLORATION of their journey was the entering in of Hamath, at the northern end of the plain of Coele-Syria, between the Lebanons; that they visited Hebron and the Vale of Eschol, a specimen of whose grapes they brought back ; that the land was rich in natural prod- ucts, but that the cities were formidable by reason of their fortifications. No list of these cities is preserved, though the names of the tribes or races dwelling in the various districts are enumerated. The geographical value of the list of the forty- two stations of the Israelites in their journey from Rameses to Sinai and from Sinai to the plains of Moab 1 may be gathered from Dr. Trumbull's con- clusion to the section of his ' ' Kadesh Barnea, ' ' en- titled ' ' The Time between the Stations. " "In short, everything combines to show that the mention of two stations in juxtaposition in the record of the Israelites' journeyings gives no indication of the nearness of these stations to each other; gives no reason for supposing that they are only a day's dis- tance apart. Moreover, it is evident that in some cases such nearness is an impossibility. ' ' 2 According to the Book of Numbers, before the Israelites crossed the Jordan the limits of the land which they were to possess were given to them with considerable geographical precision, and, according to Deuteronomy, its main physical divisions were enumerated. The boundaries of the territories of the Kings of the Amorites, east of the Jordan, are also described. 3 But for the great wealth of geo- 1 Numbers, chap. 33. - P. 147. 3 Numbers, chap. 34. Deut. 1, G-7 ; 4, 47-49. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 11 graphical information we must turn to the Book of Joshua. If the Bible is a geographical store- house, then this Book is its inner chamber of jewels. Here we find the topographical results of the trans- Jordanic conquests; here we find the list of the thirty-one Royal Cities, whose kings were overcome, enumerated in a somewhat loose order from south to north; here is a list of places still to be con- quered ; here we may note the names and location of the towns set apart to be cities of refuge ; here are the cities, scattered through the country, assigned to the Levites, who had no especial territory; and here, most important of all, are the boundaries of the tribes, east and west of the Jordan. 1 The explicitness and detail with which these boundaries are laid down, especially in the case of Judah and Benjamin, could have left no mooted point for the inhabitants of the country, to whom every landmark mentioned, every town, village, well or fountain, was well known. For them the description was a chain with all its links complete. But for us it is a problem in Algebra full of unknown quantities. In resolving the relations between a lost site and those which have been preserved we have to deal with many equations. As we have stated before, the difficulty of the problem arises from the absence of distances and the indefiniteness in the indication of direction. After the Book of Joshua, the passages ex- plicitly dealing with topography are less frequent. 1 Joshua 12, 1-6 and 7-24; 13, 2-G; 20, 7-8 (cf. chap. 21 and I Chron. C, 54-81); and chaps. 13-19 inclusive. 12 PALESTINE EXPLORATION We may merely note the most important. In the Book of Judges we find mention of the towns from which the original inhabitants were not driven out. 1 In First Chronicles we have a list of David's mili- tary companions with their habitat. 2 In First Kings are the divisions of the country presided over by Solomon's twelve officers of the Commissariat, in- cluding the chief cities of each district. 3 In Sec- ond Chronicles are enumerated the cities of Judah fortified by Rehoboam. 4 In Nehemiah we find the names of the cities of Judah and Benjamin, rein- habited after the Exile. 5 As bearing directly upon the topography of Jerusalem we must note the ac- counts of the rebuilding of its walls by Nehemiah, and of their dedication. 6 More indirectly topograph- ical but of architectural importance is the detailed description of Solomon's Temple. 7 So much for the character and scope of the geo- graphical references contained in the Bible. How these have been confirmed, explained and supple- mented by Exploration may be gathered from the 1 Judg. 1, 21-35. 7 I Chron. 12, 3-7. 3 I Kings 4, 7-19. * II Chron. 11,6-10. 6 Neh. 11, 25-26. 6 Neh., chap. 3, an chap. 12, 27-40. These accounts are further illustrative of the sort of data which give rise to theories differing from each other diametrically. The course of Nehemiah's wall and the position of the gates are laid down differently by almost every student of Jerusalem topography. The line south of the modern city can now, since the excavations of Bliss and Dickie, be fairly well determined, but the two gates discovered are vari- ously identified. ' I Kings, chaps. 6 and 7 ; cf. II Chron , chaps. 3 and 4. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 13 succeeding lectures, which are to deal with travellers who visited the Holy Land for its own sake. But before we take up the story of the Pilgrims it will be well to consider the relations of a more ancient world to Syria and Palestine. In reviewing the early Egyptian and Mesopotamian references to these countries we must bear in mind the scope of our subject, namely, the development of their explora- tion. To tabulate every reference, a task indis- pensable to a historical sketch, would be here quite unedifying. Our problem is rather to illustrate as far as we can the knowledge available to foreigners during these early ages concerning these lands, and for this certain documents have a value quite out of proportion to their historical bearing. Thus, while the notices prior to the second millennium B.C. may be passed over with the remark that they consist merely of brief and often vague mention of inva- sion, or of reference to exported products, 1 the first document to be considered is not history Jbut a ro- mance. The Egyptian Papyrus which goes under the name of the Romance of Sinuhit — for we shall review first the Egyptian records — dates from the time of Usertesen I., about 1966 B.C. 2 Sinuhit, apparently a son of Amenemhat I. , after a series of adventures in his flight before his father's successor, is hospitably received by Ammianshi, the ruler of Upper Tenu, held by Muller to be simply an abbre- 1 For these early references, see Paton, The Early History of Syria and Palestine, chaps, i-iii ; cf. Conder, Q. S., 1904, pp. 108 ff. 2 Maspero, It. P., New Series, vol. ii, pp. llff. 14 PALESTINE EXPLORATION viation of Upper Rutenu, the early Egyptian name for Palestine and Southern Syria. l Given his choice among the frontier possessions of the land, he fixed upon the district Eaa, rich in figs and vines, in olive- groves and corn-fields, in wine and honey. Herds of cattle were plentiful, and his poultry-yards well stocked, for he feasted on boiled meat and roast goose. He followed the chase with his greyhounds. A rough, merry life he led for many years, enlivened by raids against the neighboring Bedawin, but he was glad in his old age to return to the comforts of civil- ization in Egypt, where, forgetting the vermin of Syria, once again he could anoint his body, wear fine clothes, and enjoy the luxury of a soft bed. The account is pure fiction, but the picture of the land is doubtless true enough. For us its importance lies in the indication that a traveller to Palestine, about 2000 B.C., found there a civilization old enough to have an extended agriculture, and yet still robust and uncorrupted by luxury. For the first detailed historical presentation of Syria and Palestine, found in Egyptian sources, we have to come down some 500 years after Usertesen I. to the time of Thothmes III., who became sole master of Egypt about 1493 B.C. 2 On the walls of the temple of Amen at Karnak are found pictured his 1 Midler, Asien und Europa, p. 47. Maspero holds that Tonu must include at least the district between the Dead Sea and the Sinaitic Peninsula. 2 The extensive conquests of Thothmes I. (c. 1544 b.c.) are very briefly recorded on the tombs of his captains, Aahmes and Pennek- heb. at El Kab. For the account of the former, see Kenouf, R. P., ii, p. 5. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 15 Annals, describing fourteen campaigns in those lands. 1 Light is thrown on their material wealth by the lists of spoil, including vessels of gold and silver, chariots, inlaid furniture of wood and ivory, embroidered garments, jars of incense and of honey, and collections of trees and shrubs. Of still more particular interest is the list of Princes of 119 towns of Upper Rutenu or Palestine, 2 " shut up in the mis- erable town of Maketa (Megiddo)," the siege of which the Annals describe in detail. The names of the towns, inscribed on small tablets attached to the necks of the captive Princes, bear witness to the marvellous tenacity, through all the ages, of the ancient pre-Israelite nomenclature. Scholars differ as to the exact number 3 to be identified with sites known at the present day and also in some cases adopt different identifications, but among others the Egyptian equivalents of Kadesh, Beyrout, Damas- cus, Megiddo, Taanach, Merom, Laish (or Dan), Joppa, Ekron, and Gezer may be recognized with certainty. In the North Syrian list of about 235 names, which reach beyond the Euphrates, the pro- portion of attempted identifications is much smaller and their value more uncertain, the modern geog- raphy of this large district being less known than that of Palestine, but in the district of Amatu we 1 Maspero, Recueil de Travaux, i, ii ; Petrie, History of Egypt, ii, pp. 103 ff. 2 See Conder, Q. S., 1876, pp. 87 ff. and 140 ff. ; Tomkins, It. P., New Series, v, pp. 25 ff; Petrie, History of Egypt, ii, pp. 322 ff. 3 Tomkins suggests identifications of three-quarters of the names, Petrie aD even larger proportion. 16 PALESTINE EXPLORATION may clearly recognize Hamath, and in that of Khalbu, Aleppo. 1 A consideration of the correspondence contained in the 320 famous cuneiform tablets found at Tell- el-Amarna — a correspondence conducted about the fifteenth century B.C., during the reign of Amenho- tep III. and Amenhotep IV. — belongs logically to a 1 Other important records of Egyptian military conquests in Syria are as follows : In the temple of AmeD at Karnak occurs a series of pictures with inscriptions, representing among the other deeds of Sety I. (c. 1347) an attack on Kadesh. (Lushington, Trans. Soc. Bibl. Arch., vi, pp. 509 ff .) The same temple contains lists of the places in Syria conquered by Rameses II. (1324-1258) and Rameses III. (1204-1191) (Sayce, R. P., Xew Series, vi, pp. 19 ff.), together with a copy of the treaty made by the former with the Hittites (Goodwin, R. P., iv, pp. 25 ff.). The Hittite War is also described in the third Sallier Papyrus, by the royal scribe Pentaur (Lushing- ton, R. P., ii, pp. 65 ff.). A badly mutilated list of the towns taken by Rameses II. is found at the Temple of Luxor; and a fuller list of Rameses III.'s conquests at his Temple Palace of Medinet Habu (Sayce, R. P., New Series, vi, pp. 31 ff.). These are illustrated by pictures of the prisoners, whose racial types are clearly differenti- ated. Those that concern our subject are the leader of the Sliasu (Bedawin), the King of the Kheta (Hittites) and the King of the Amaur (Amorites). Tablets which may still be seen at the Dog River, north of Beyrout, celebrate tlie victorious march of Rameses II. The inscription of Merenptah (1258-1235) discovered by Petrie in 1896 at Thebes, is interesting as containing the only explicit ref- erence to Israel yet found in the Egyptian monuments. Unfort- unately, it appears to throw no light on the date of the Exodus. (For discussion of this point with references, see Paton, The Early History of Syria and Palestine, p. 134.) In the temple at Karnak are 133 names of towns captured by Shishak I., c. 926 B.C. (See Con- der, Q. S., 1893, pp. 245 ff.) In the course of this raid, which took place under Rehoboam, he seized Jerusalem and carried off treas u res from the temple and palace. (I Kings 16, 25-28.) Paton notes (p. 194) that his conquests are far less extensive than his prede- cessor's, but he brings up the list to a similar fulness by enumer- ating every obscure village he visited. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 17 strictly biographical or historical study. 1 Practically, however, they have a distinct if indirect bearing on the subject at hand. It was the discovery of these precious letters, written to these kings by their officials and allies in Palestine, in Syria and as far East as Babylonia, that reawakened in the Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund the zeal for ex- cavation. It was the discovery of a letter at Lachish made by myself in 1892, under the auspices of the Fund — a letter belonging to the same general cor- respondence — that served as an inspiration in all my later excavations. It is the remembrance that from Jebeil — the ancient home of the Giblites — from Beyrout, Tyre, Acre, Ascalon, Gaza, Megiddo, Gezer, yes, from Jerusalem itself, were posted the letters found in Egypt, that thrills the explorer to-day when he visits these sites, and fills him with a devouring longing to unearth with the spade the Egyptian answers to these letters. It is the knowl- edge that during an obscure period in Syrian history, unillumined by light from Scripture, writing was common in the land, that fires him with the hope that a local correspondence conducted between these sites, as well as between others not mentioned among the 150 names of the Tell-el-Amarna letters, may somewhere be preserved under the soil. 2 More directly concerned with a sketch of the exploration of Palestine is the Papyrus, dated from 1 See the critical text of Winckler; also Syria and Egypt from the Tell-el-Amarna Letters by Petrie ; and Conder's The Tell-el- Amarna Tablets. 2 Two more tablets were found by Sellin ;it Taanach, in l'J03. Macalister has just reported another from Gezer. 18 PALESTINE EXPLORATION the time of Rameses II. , usually referred to as the " Travels of aMohar." 1 In it are described the adventures of an Egyptian officer, travelling in a chariot from the vicinity of Aleppo to Megiddo, and hence to Egypt via Joppa. Under the title of ' ' The First Traveller in Palestine," Conder has given a valuable topographical notice of the thirty-eight places mentioned in Palestine proper, showing that about one-half are well-known Biblical sites. The narrative is brightened by personal touches, as when we read how the chariot broke down in a precipitous pass near Megiddo, how the horses ran away, how the poor Mohar was afflicted by thirst and by heat, and how finally in Joppa he was able to repair his vehicle. With this account we may compare the later papyrus dealing with another visit of an Egyptian official to Syria about 1070 B.C. 2 Wen Amen's mission was to buy timber for his master, the priest-king Krikhor, from the regions of Gebal, probably the Lebanon. He landed at Dor, near Mt. Carmel, evidently intending to proceed immediately to Gebal, but his journey was delayed for nine days by the theft of the money which he had brought to pay for the timber. On resuming his voyage, he seized a ship of the Zakkala, the kinsmen of the Philis- tines, whom he suspected of being in league with the thief, and partially made good the loss. The king of Gebal found the money too little, and it 1 Chabas and Goodwin, It. P., ii, pp. 107 ff. ; Conder, Q. S., 1876, pp. 74 ff. 2 Erinan, Ag. Zeitschrift, 1900, p. 1 ; cf. Paton, pp. 1G8 ff. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 19 was only after tantalizing negotiations, minutely detailed in the manuscript, and after the lapse of six months, that the timber was piled on the beach. But whether or not our official ever succeeded in transporting it to Egypt is uncertain, for the papy- rus account breaks off suddenly. Topographically it has not the same interest as the Travels of a Mohar, but it is a rich mine of folk-lore, illustrat- ing the state of the country before the days of Saul and Samuel. That much detailed information in regard to Syria and Palestine must have been current among the Assyrians can be inferred from the accounts of the military expeditions of their kings. The com- mon soldiers, followers of Tiglath Pileser I., Ashurnatsirpal III., Shalmeneser II., Tiglath Pi- leser III., Sargon II. and Sennacherib, on their return home doubtless not only recounted their adventures to their wives and children, bat told many a tale regarding the lands they had conquered. From the exiles of the northern kingdom, trans- ported into their midst by Sargon, to the number of 27,000, the Assyrians would have also gathered much information. But the official records left to us are by no means as explicit as those of the Egyptian warriors. Nowhere do we find an ex- haustive list of conquered places, like that of Thothmes III. Nor has there come to light an actual description of the land comparable to the Travels of a Mohar. Tiglath Pileser I. , a contemporary of Saul and the first Assyrian monarch who invaded Syria, left but brief record of his campaign. Al- 20 PALESTINE EXPLORATION though from Ashurnatsirpal III. , who began to reign about the time that Omri ascended the throne of Israel, to Sargon II., 1 under whom the northern kingdom fell, we have abundant material for trac- ing the advance of Assyrian power in the west, the actual geographical information furnished by any given record is meagre. The account of Sennacherib's third campaign — the campaign against Judah, in the time of Hezekiah — is richer in detail, at least, as far as Palestine proper is concerned. 2 A brief resume of this will serve as the best specimen of the Assyrian records. But in the account we miss the touches of local coloring which enliven the story of a later campaign conducted by the same Sennacherib against his more northern enemies, "whose dwellings, like the nest of the eagle, the king of birds, were located upon the pinnacle of Nipur," probably Mt. Taurus. Would that Sennacherib had considered Palestine worthy of a vivid picture like the following: "At the foot of Mt. Nipur I placed my camp, with my followers drawn up and my unrelenting warriors, I, like a strong wild-ox, took the lead. Clefts, ra- vines, mountain-torrents, difficult high floods in a chair I crossed, places impassable for the chair I went down on foot, like an ibex I climbed to the high peaks against them; wherever my knees had 1 Annals of Ashurnatsirpal III. (see Sayce, R. P., New Series, iii, pp. 128 ff.); Black Obelisk of Shalmeneser II. (see Scheil, R. P., New Series, iv, pp. 30 ff. Nimrud Inscription of Tiglath Pileser III. (Strong, R. P., New Series, pp. 115 ff.); Annals of Sargon (Oppert, R. P., vii, pp. 21 ff.). - Taylor Cylinder of Sennacherib (Rogers, R. P., New Series, vi, pp. 80 ff.). THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 21 a resting-place I sat down on a rock ; waters of cold streams for my thirst I drank. Upon the peaks of wooded mountains I pursued them. ' ' But to return to the third campaign. Sennacherib marched victoriously through Sidon, Sarepta, Achzib and Acre into Philistia. The king of Ascalon, after a stubborn but vain resistance, was taken prisoner, and later carried off to Assyria with all his family. The kings of Moab and Edom made their submission with rich presents. At Ekron the leaders of the home party, who had delivered the Assyrian pris- oner Padi to Hezekiah, offered resistance, relying on help from the south. This was cut off by Sen- nacherib, the conspirators against him were slain, and their corpses impaled on stakes set up about the city. The Assyrian conqueror next turned his attention to Hezekiah. Forty-six of his strong cities were taken by storm. Among these, doubt- less, was Lachish, though it is not mentioned by name in this record. However, a splendid bas- relief, now in the British Museum, depicts its siege. Hezekiah was shut up in Jerusalem like ' ' a bird in a cage. " Overwhelmed by the "fear of the bright- ness of the lordship ' ' of Sennacherib, he purchased the independence of his city with 30 talents of gold, 200 talents of silver, precious stones, curious woods, couches and thrones of ivory, the women of his palace, male and female slaves, and by surrendering Padi, who was re-established by Sennacherib as gov- ernor of Ekron. 1 1 For the campaigns of Ashurbanipal (the second king after Sen- nacherib), after whose death the Assyrian Empire rapidly broke up, see Smith, R. P., i, pp. o5 ff. 22 PALESTINE EXPLORATION The above brief sketch illustrates the extent and character of information relating to the Holy Land in the possession of the ancient peoples of Egypt and Mesopotamia. We may now glance rapidly at the references of Greek, Roman and non-Biblical Jewish writers. The apparently confused nomenclature of Herod- otus is explained by a recognition of the fact that he used the term Syria in a wider and in a narrower sense. The former includes Cappadocia, 1 and possibly Assyria, as he states that the Assyrians are called Syrians by the Greeks. 2 In the narrower sense he appears to limit the name to the strip of land between Cilicia and Egypt — in other words, to employ the term in our modern sense. 3 In one pas- sage Palestine is made to include Phoenicia, 4 but in another the Syrians of Palestine are distinguished from the Phoenicians. 5 That he visited the country is proved by his statement that he saw the pillars erected by Sesostris in Palestine 6 — perhaps the tablets inscribed by Rameses II. at the Dog River ; and by his description of the Temple of Hercules which he said he inspected at Tyre. 7 This he found "richly adorned with a number of offerings, among which were two pillars, one of pure gold, the other of emerald shining with great brilliancy at 1 Herodotus I, 6, and 72 ; VII, 72. 2 VII, 63. 1 III, 91 ; VII, 89. * " The Phoenicians . . . fixed themselves on the sea-coas't. . . . This part of Syria and all the region extending from hence to Egypt is known hy the name of Palestine." (VII, 89.) Phoenicia is distinctly mentioned in II, 44. ' II, 104. 6 II, 106. ■ II, 44. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 23 night." But the land seems to have interested him little for its own sake. His reference to places are mere scattered illustrations of the historical narra- tive. For example, his account of the Temple at Tyre is incidental to his notice of the cult of Her- cules ; in referring to the proposed raid of the Scyth- ians on Egypt, he notes the pillaging of the Temple of Venus at Ascalon ; l the twenty-nine years' siege of Azotus (Ashdod) is said to have been the longest known in history ; 2 he refers to the battle of Necho II. at Magdolus, 3 which a comparison with the Biblical narrative shows to be Megiddo. 4 There is no evi- dence, however, that he had even heard of Jerusalem. Necho, after the battle of Megiddo, is said to have made himself master of Cadytis, "a large city of Syria." In this some have seen a reference to vhp, "the Holy" city. But in another passage Cadytis clearly indicates Gaza, 5 and even supposing that Herodotus refers to two cities of the same name, the Cadytis taken after the battle of Megiddo may have easily been Kadesh on the Orontes, passed in the course of Necho 's campaign against Assyria. 6 This silence as to the capital of the Jewish kingdom is eloquent of the early ignorance of the western world in regard to the Hebrew nation. Herodotus wrote about the time Nehemiah was rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem. Would that curiosity had led him to visit it! 1 1, 105. 2 II, 157. ' II, 159. , • II Kings 32, 29 ; cf. II Chron., 35, 22. 5 III, 5. 8 So Paton, Early History of S. and P., p. 273. Paton, how- ever, says Herodotus seems to place (erroneously) the battle of Magdolus at Migdol on the border of Egypt. 24 PALESTINE EXPLORATION The Phoenicians, however, were the objects of his explicit admiration. He touches with enthusiasm on the excellence of their ships ; * on their circumnaviga- tion of Africa ; 2 their skill in mining ; 3 their superi- ority over all other workmen employed in digging the canal of Xerxes across Mt. Athos ; 4 their coloniza- tion of Boeotia; 5 the introduction by them of writ- ing into Greece. 6 After the eastern campaign of Alexander the Great, resulting in the establishment of Greek rule in Syria and in Egypt, both Syria and Palestine be- came for the first time of direct importance to the Greeks. 7 Two of Alexander's generals wrote ac- counts of his expedition, Ptolemy Lagus, first Greek king of Egypt, and Aristobulus. While these his- tories have perished, they served as a basis for a work still extant, namely Arrian's history of Alex- ander. To this work, written under Hadrian and the Antonines, we shall refer in place. "The his- tory of the Jews," ascribed to the Greek Physician Hectaeus, of Abdera, who apparently also accom- panied Alexander on his victorious march, is pre- served only in loose quotations in Arrian's history and in the works of Josephus. Most important among these is a brief passage — barely 200 words 1 VII, 96. 2 IV, 44. 3 VI, 47. 4 VII, 23. 6 II, 49. 6 V, 58. 7 The Periplus of Scylax, written probably during the latter part of Philip's reign, treats this subject cursorily in Sec. 104. In the mutilated form in which it has survived we find little more than a catalogue of the towns, as well as some of the natural features along the coast of Syria and Palestine. (See Geographi Gra;ci. Minores, vol. i, ed. Miiller, 1882.) THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 25 long — describing Jerusalem and its Temple. 1 In this connection we may refer to the tract ascribed to Aristeas, claiming to give an account of the Mis- sion of the Author sent by Ptolemy Philadelphus to Jerusalem to obtain materials for preparing the Sep- tuagint version of the Scriptures. The fifth chap- ter 2 contains a short description of the Holy Land and of the Holy City, the chief stress being laid upon the Temple, its high-priest and its ritual. The best scholarship has pronounced this work to be a forgery by some Jew of Alexandria in the interests of national glorification, but its antiquity is demon- strated by the existence of quotations in Philo and Josephus. Polybius, the Greek historian, who wrote about the middle of the second century B.C., illustrates his accounts of the movements of the Seleucidan armies by a wealth of allusions to places in Syria and Pales- tine. But no general description of these lands is attempted, at least in the extant portions of his his- tory. We are tantalized by his reference to the ' ' sacred town ' ' of Jerusalem : ' ' Concerning this city we have much more to say, especially of its magnificent Temple, but we must put off our narra- tive till another opportunity." 3 Whether the op- portunity never came, or whether the promise was fulfilled in one of the missing parts of the work we can only guess, but we gather from his picture of Seleucia that he was capable of giving us a precious 1 Jos. against Apion, I, 22. 2 Historia de legis Divinae Translatione. For English version, see Palestine Pilgrims' Text Society, vol. xi. ■ XVI, 39. 26 PALESTINE EXPLORATION topographical account of the Holy City. * ' The site of Seleucia," he writes, 1 " and the character of the surrounding regions are as follows: It lies on the sea-shore between Cilicia and Phoenicia, and has near to it a very lofty mountain called Coryphaeus, which on the west side is washed by the end of the sea which is between Cyprus and Phoenicia, while from its eastern slope one may overlook the lands of Anti- ochia Seleucia. On the southern foot-hills Seleucia lies, separated from the main ridge by a deep and impassable ravine. The town slopes down irregu- larly to the sea, and is surrounded for the most part by cliffs and precipitous crags. In the level places along the part facing the sea stand the markets and the lower town, very strongly fortified. In the same way the entire body of the town has been pro- tected by costly walls, and finely adorned with temples and elaborate buildings. It has only one approach from the sea-coast, artificially cut in the form of a stair, interrupted by frequently occurring turnings and irregularities." "With Strabo we find ourselves at last on what we may venture to call scientific ground. This pioneer in biographical learning, born about 54 B.C., devotes a chapter of his work to a systematic treatment of Syria. 2 It seems unlikely that this was based on personal observation. No one who had explored the land even superficially, would have stated that the Lycus — the short, shallow stream known to-day as the Dog River — was navigated with vessels of bur- den ; 3 that the parallel chains of Libanus and Anti- i V, 59. 2 Book XVI, chap. ii. « Sec. 17. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 27 Libanus run from the sea toward Damascus, i.e., west and east ; l that the Jordan flows into the plain between these two chains ; 2 and that Joppa ' ' is said to command a view of Jerusalem. ' ' 3 How- ever, his record is valuable in showing the limita- tions as well as the extent of geographical knowledge current in the Western world about the beginning of the Christian era. He begins by giving the boundaries of Syria — Cilicia and Mt. Amanus on the north; the Euphrates and the Arabian Scenitse on the east; Arabia Felix and Egypt on the south; and the Egyptian and Syrian seas as far as Issus on the west. Proceeding with systematic detail from north to south, he notes the main divisions of Commagene, Seleucia, Ccele-Syria, Phoenicia and Judea; dwells on the historic and actual condition of the chief cities; enumerates the rivers and moun- tains. Like the writers of all later ages, he is struck by the mysterious Dead Sea, confused by him, how- ever, with Lake Serbonis. He notes its density, which prevents a man from being submerged below the waist; mentions its asphaltic properties; and is inclined to believe in the ' ' common tradition of the natives ' ' that earthquakes, eruptions of flames and hot springs caused the lake to burst its bounds and to swallow up some of the cities of which Sodom was the capital. 4 But of especial interest is his strange account of Moses, a priest of the Egyptians, who, with a band of right-minded followers, occupied Jerusalem, establishing there "no ordinary kind of go vera - See. 16. ■ Ibid. 3 Sec. 28. 'Sees. 42-44. 28 PALESTINE EXPLORATION ment," based not upon force but upon the attrac- tiveness of the monotheistic religion which he taught. The site, indeed, was easily acquired and kept. Standing on a rocky place, surrounded by a barren and waterless district — though itself well watered — it was not a spot to excite jealousy. Al- lured by his eloquence, the neighboring nations willingly united themselves to him. God, so preached the Leader, must be worshipped in a sacred shrine, but without any form or similitude. Only those who practised temperance and justice might expect good or some gift or sign from the Deity. "Such," says Strabo, "were Moses and his suc- cessors ; their beginning was good, but they degen- erated. ' ' In later times the priesthood was occupied by superstitious persons and tyrants. New customs, such as circumcision, were introduced. Ambition led to robbery. A large part of Syria and Phoenicia was ravaged. The title of priest was exchanged for that of king. During a season of civil strife, Pompey surprised the contestants, destroyed the fortresses and gave orders to raze the walls of Jerusalem. 1 Like Polybius, Diodorus Siculus, who wrote early in the first century a.d., treats geography merely as explanatory of historical events. For example, he shows how of all the Phoenician states Sidon excelled in wealth. Tripoli, with its three cities called respectively after the Aradians, the Sidonians, and the Tyrians, had the greatest dignity. Tyre was 1 This account is included in Sees. 35-40. His brief but pictu- resque description of Petra occurs in his chapter on Arabia — Book XVI, chap. iv. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 29 celebrated for the mole of Alexander. The great town of Azotus stood the longest siege in history. Two subjects, however, appeal strongly to his im- agination: the Dead Sea, whose strange qualities he details, and the race of Arabs called Nab- atseans, whose life he describes at length. 1 Liberty, he says, is to them a passion. They name as their native land a solitude which has no streams nor irrigating fountains. Solitude thus becomes to them a refuge from the enemy in search of water. This the marauder cannot find, for the native Arabs store the rain in huge excavated cis- terns, whose small mouths, carefully closed up, reveal no traces except to those who have the secret. Their food is meat or milk, and natural products, such as pepper and wild honey. It is a law among them not to plant corn or any fruitful shrub nor to build a house. Whosoever is found to break this law, on him is meted out capital punishment. On its enforcement their independence hangs. For only those who have fixed possessions easily yield to the more powerful. Some of them rear camels, others sheep, wandering through the desert in search of pasture. Still others act as carriers, transporting frankincense and myrrh to the sea. There are other Arab tribes, indeed, so says Diodorus, who practise agriculture, and have other customs in com- mon with the Syrians, but not even they live in houses. Pliny's brief compendium of the topography of Syria and Palestine, written about a.d. 78, is the 'Book XIX, 94; cf. also Book II, 48. 30 PALESTINE EXPLORATION first serious notice of these countries by a Roman author. 1 He gives the length of Syria between Cilicia and Arabia as 470 miles, and its breadth be- tween Seleucia Pieria and the Euphrates as 175 miles. He thus has a fairly accurate idea of the extent of ground it covers, but his account of its divisions appears to reflect the confused condition of the geographical nomenclature as known to the Romans of his day. His Samaria seems to include the sea-coast from near Gaza to Csesarea, as he assigns to it the maritime towns of Ascalon, Ashdod, Joppa and Caesarea, as well as the interior towns of Neapolis and Sebaste. 2 This would relegate Judea entirely to the interior, and so it is placed on Menke's map of Palestine according to Pliny. 3 But he states elsewhere 4 that those who make a more minute division of the country will have it " that Judea in- cludes part of the maritime coast. ' ' The term Syria is used sometimes in a broad sense for the whole country, and sometimes is limited to Syria Antiochia. The limits of Palestine are not defined, nor is it clear whether he regards it as a main, or as a secondary, division, such as Judea or Samaria. But the detail is richer and more correct, showing a distinct ad- vance upon Strabo. He names in order the chief features of the coast — towns, promontories and rivers — from the Egyptian border to the Gulf of Issus. Libanus and Anti-Libanus are correctly placed. The course of the Jordan is traced from its 1 Historia Naturalis, Book V, Sees. 13-19. Barely 1,300 words long. 2 Sec. 14. 3 Bibel- Atlas, PI. VI. 4 Sec. 13. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 31 source at Paneas through the Lake of Gennesaret to the Dead Sea. Measurements of both lakes are given, and camels are said to be able to float on the latter. He gives a list of the toparchies of Judea, as well as the earliest known enumeration of the towns of the Decapolis, which he says are inter- penetrated and surrounded by the tetrarchies. Jeru- salem he dismisses with the statement that it is the most illustrious of all Eastern towns, but adds later, in a comparison pregnant with ignorance of the Holy City, that Engedi is second to it in fertility and its groves of Palms! The only division of the people that attracted his notice was the sect of the Essenes, whose strange life he describes at length. 1 Tacitus, the other Roman writer who claims our attention, published his history under the Emperor Trajan. His neglect to profit by the works of Jo- sephus, issued during the reign of Domitian, the second emperor preceding, accounts for his wild theories as to the origin of the Jews, and is ac- counted for by the acrid and contemptuous tone pervading his entire notice of this people evidently considered by him to be unworthy of critical atten- tion. 2 He condemns them as a people of un- bridled lust, that is, among themselves, for they have no dealings with strangers. Their religious rites he brands as dull and repulsive. "Moses," he says, "prescribed to them a new form of wor- ship, and opposed to those of all the world beside. 1 His brief notice of Palmyra is found in Sec. 21. 2 History, Book V, 1-13. 32 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Whatever is held sacred by the Romans, with the Jews is profane ; what in other nations is unlawful and impure, with them is permitted. " x He does not take the trouble to sift irreconcilable reports re- garding this despised people. In one place he writes, ' ' The figure of the animal ' ' (the wild ass) , ' ' through whose guidance they slaked their thirst and were enabled to terminate their wanderings, is consecrat- ed in the Sanctuary of their Temple. " 2 In another he declares, ' ' The Jews acknowledge one God only and conceive of him by the mind alone, condemning as impious all who with perishable materials, wrought into the human shape, form representations of the Deity. That Being, they say, is above all and ever- lasting, neither susceptible of likeness, nor subject to decay. In consequence they allow no resemblance of him in their temples." 3 Syria is merely mentioned, while the brief notice of the land of the Jews serves but as an introduc- tion to the account of the catastrophe that befell "that celebrated city," Jerusalem, under Titus. He notes the boundaries, correctly characterizes Mt. Libanus, and follows the waters of the Jordan through two lakes to their absorption in a third, where all can float with equal ease whether swim- mers or not, mentioning, however, the name of none of the three lakes. The only city referred to is Jerusalem. Its almost unassailable position and its splendid fortifications are dwelt upon. It was situ- ated, he says, on two hills of prodigious height, sur- rounded by walls with towers 60 feet high where 1 Sec. 4. 2 Sec. 4. 3 Sec. 5. THE DAWN OF EXPLORATION 33 they stood on the hills and 120 feet high where they stood on the low ground. "The city is enclosed by the first fortifications you meet with, the royal palace by the second, the temple by the inmost. ' ' 1 The last-mentioned walls were more elaborate and massive than the rest, enclosing a shrine of immense wealth. 2 The references to Syria and Palestine in Arrian's Expedition of Alexander, written in the second cen- tury a.d. under Hadrian and the Antonines, are merely incidental to the narrative, including no general descriptions of these lands. The topography of Tyre, its harbors, the construction of Alexan- der's mole, are treated with some detail. 3 A few other towns are mentioned, but of these Gaza alone is accorded a description. " Gaza is about 20 stadia distant from the sea; the approach to it is sandy and difficult, and the sea, below the city, is everywhere shallow. Gaza is a large city ; it stands on a lofty mound, and is girt by a strong wall. It is the last inhabited place as one goes from Phoenicia to Egypt, at the beginning of the Desert." 4 Ar- rian's singular geographical indefiniteness may be shown by the following quotation : ' ' Alexander made an expedition into Arabia, into a mountain called Anti-Libanus ! " 5 In his Geographical Narration, Claudius Ptolemy, 1 Sec. 11. 2 Sec. 12. 3 Book II, chap. xvi. " Chap. xxvi. 6 Chap. xx. — Even more brief are the Oriental references of Quintus Curtius, in regard to whose date nothing is known beyond the general induction that he lived in one of the early centuries of the Christian era. 34 PALESTINE EXPLORATION the great astronomer of the second century a.d., takes an advance step in the field of topography. 1 Strabo and Pliny furnish a multitude of names, fol- lowing each other in general order as from north to south, or grouped in a given district. Ptolemy de- veloped a system by which he attempted definitely to fix the position of places. His method of com- puting latitude and longitude is crude, and errors often occur, but Reland points out that he alone of the ancient authors furnishes the material for con- structing a geographical table of Palestine. Reland might have said : "He alone of all the authors before modern times." The precious notices of the Ono- masticon, that last echo of the classic period, are at best lacking in precision. Burchard's attempts to locate sites (c. 1283), by a series of radiating bands, and Marino Sanuto's map (1321), with its network of little squares, are hardly more than child's play. Ptolemy, indeed, took an important step toward a systematic geography of the Holy Land, but few other steps were taken before the time of Reland himself, at the beginning of the eighteenth cen- tury. It is hardly necessary to state that Ptol- emy's point of view has nothing to do with Scripture History. About twenty towns that may be identi- fied with Biblical sites are mentioned, but always under their Greek or Roman names, when these had displaced the Hebrew nomenclature. Bethlehem and Nazareth, of prime importance to the Christian, were of no interest to the Greek writer. So much for the purely literary works, touching 1 reayypa]). 73-80. THE AGE OF PILGlilMAGE 53 middle of a sentence just as Silvia has gone through the Pass of Winds, and gazing across the plain where the Israelites encamped, sees at the other end the splendid roseate mass of Sinai. Crossing the plain she spends Saturday night at the monastery, and on Sunday makes the ascent of the Mountain. ' ' These mountains, ' ' she says, ' ' are ascended with infinite labor, because you do not go up gradually by a spiral path (as we say ''like a snail shell ") but you go straight up, as if up the face of a wall, and you must go straight down each mountain until you arrive at the foot of that central one which is strictly called Sinai. ... At the fourth hour we arrived at the peak of Sinai, the Holy Mountain of God where the Law was given. ... In that place there is now a church — not a large one, because the place itself, the summit of the Mount, is not large, but the church has in itself a large measure of grace. As I was passing out of the church the priest gave us gifts of blessing from the place — that is, gifts of the fruits grown on the mountain. For though the Holy Mount of Sinai itself is all rocky, so that it has not a bush on it, yet down near the foot of the mountains . . . there is a little plot of ground; here the holy monks diligently plant shrubs and lay out orchards and fields; and hard by they place their own cells, so that they may get, as if from the soil of the mountain itself, some fruit which they may seem to have cultivated with their own hands." 1 This quotation from Silvia's careful if some- ■P. V. T., vol. i, S. Silvia, pp. 13-14. 54 PALESTINE EXPLORATION what prolix account may serve to indicate how much valuable material must have perished with the loss of the first part of her manuscript, which doubtless dwelt upon Jerusalem with the same ful- ness of detail, a fulness not attained by any other Western writer before the Crusades. Probably other parts of the land had also been described at length. We read that after her return to Jerusalem, via Egypt, she made an excursion to Mt. Nebo, where she was shown the grave of Moses, and, later, an- other to the land of Ausitis or Uz. A traveller, whose enthusiasm for the Bible led her to cross the Jordan in search of the place where Job once lived, would surely not only have visited but dwelt upon all the sites made memorable by the life of Christ. Moreover, she had ample leisure for a thorough ex- amination, as we learn that, when she finally left Jerusalem for home, she had been in the country three years. A further indication of the explicit- ness with which she probably described the Holy City is shown by her devoting the last half of the portions of the narrative preserved to a descrip- tion of the services in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. On her home journey she made a wide detour from Antioch, crossing the Euphrates into Meso- potamia, where she was shown the Memorial of St. Thomas at Edessa, and the house of Abram at Haran. Everywhere Silvia was treated as a person of consideration. Her letter, moreover, shows a knowledge of the world, a breadth of view, which differentiate her from the ordinary THE AGE OF PILGRIMAGE 55 pilgrim. 1 "While she puts down the legends and fables told her, she sees things as they are, and records carefully what she sees. The manuscript containing these precious fragments remained un- known till 1883, when the learned Italian librarian Gamurrini discovered it in Arezzo, Tuscany. It is quite conceivable that a similar chance may have preserved in some obscure convent a complete manu- script. That its discovery would materially add to our knowledge of Palestine, as it was late in the fourth century, has, I hope, been sufficiently shown. 2 The continued popularity of pilgrimage in the fifth century is evidenced by many historical references, but with the possible exception of the Onomasticon, whose editor, Jerome, died in a.d. 420, only one document of any geographical importance has been preserved. 3 This is the Epitome of Saint Eucherius usually identified with that Eucherius who was Bishop of Lyons from A.D. 434 to 450. 4 The author, who treats only of ' ' certain Holy Places, ' ' does not claim 1 " Had all our accounts been written by persons of ber own class, who bad enjoyed more of the profane learning and worldly enlightenment lacking in many of the pilgrims, we should have had a very different light on the path we are following." (Beazley, p. 79.) 2 For a contemporary account of the customs and religion of the Arabs, and of the life led by the monks of Mt. Sinai, see " Nili Monacbi Eremitae Narrationes quibus cajdes Monochorum Montis Sinai et captivatis Theoduli ejus filii describuntur." (Narratio Tertia (c. a.d. 400) found in Migne's Patrologia Latina, Vol. 79, cols. 483 ff.) 3 Descriptio Parrochiae Hierusalem (c. 4G0) is merely a list of the churches subject to the four Metropolitan Sees of the Patriarchate of Jerusalem. (See Beazley, p. 93.) 4 P. P. T., vol. ii. 56 PALESTINE EXPLORATION to write from personal observation, but "what he had learned either by conversation or by reading ' ' had been carefully digested, and was clearly expressed in a short letter containing barely 900 words, to the Priest Faustinus. The author has almost nothing to say about relics. His description of Jerusalem, his account of the course of the Jordan, and his mention of a few other places in the Holy Land, which he says extends from Dan to Beersheba, show an elementary instinct for topography. Indeed, this brief tract is invaluable to a study of the ancient walls of Jerusalem. Mt. Zion, he states, was at the time included in the city, though it used to be out- side. Siloam, however, was extra mural. Here are clews to help in dating the famous mosaic, serving as the floor of a church in Madeba beyond Jordan, which was discovered in 1897. l Worshippers in this early Byzantine church knelt upon a map of the Holy Land, pictured in white and colored tesserae. Visitors to-day find it in some places destroyed, in others much mutilated, but still preserving many precious details, especially in regard to Jerusalem. Unfortunately, in the place where Siloam should oc- cur, the tesserae are wanting, but the orientation of the south wall, at the point where it breaks off, does not favor the inclusion of the Pool, while Zion is plainly within the city limits. As we know from Antoninus Martyr that Siloam was included in the city by Eudocia, who resided in Jerusalem 449-461, 1 See excavations at Jerusalem by Bliss and Dickie, p. 308 ; also Jerusalem d'apres la Mosaique de Madaba by R. P. Lagrange, Revue Biblique. July, 1S97. THE AGE OF PILGRIMAGE 57 the Mosaic appears to antedate her visit. It must post-date the visit of the Bordeaux Pilgrim, in whose time the Zion wall referred to by Eucherius was not in existence. In contrast to the brief records of the fifth cen- tury, the accounts which have come down to us from the age of Justinian are rich indeed. About 530 we have the anonymous Breviary, or Short Descrip- tion of Jerusalem, and the tract of Theodosius deal- ing with the Holy Land in general. About 560 were written the full accounts of Procopius of Caes- area, relative to the buildings of Justinian, and the Itinerary of Antoninus Martyr. 1 This century is remarkable for the development of the taste for relics, practically ignored by Eucherius. The Brev- iary enumerates the reed, the spear, the sponge, the cup, etc., shown as the very articles connected with our Lord's Passion. Theodosius describes the im- prints left by His countenance, hands, and arms on the Pillar of Scourging, while Antoninus Martyr an- ticipates the habits of the modern traveller by scratch- ing the names of his parents on the couch of Christ at Cana. After these writers, relics and legendary sites multiply till, in the time of Felix Fabri, a.d. 1483, we find the place pointed out where St. John adminis- tered the sacrament to the Blessed Virgin ! It has been suggested that the Breviary, the tract of Theodosius, and the Narrative of Antoninus Martyr owe many of their statements to a common origin, perhaps an authorized guide to the Holy Places. 2 1 For these four writers, see P. P. T., vol. ii. 2 See introduction to the Breviary by Wilsou, P. 1'. T. , vol. ii. 58 PALESTINE EXPLORATION The Breviarius de Hierosolyma contains only about six hundred words and is strictly confined to Jerusa- lem. Theodosius's tract is a general hash of eastern geography, with an especial reference to Syria and Palestine, about forty-four scriptural sites being mentioned. The absence of any personal touches and the gross inaccuracies in fixing sites suggest that the author, in regard to whom nothing is known, was no more than an unintelligent compiler. A cer- tain order is at first preserved, but later there is much skipping about. Long distances are given in miles; short distances, as between sites in Jerusa- lem, in paces. Antoninus Martyr of Placentia, however, is not concerned with geography in general, but devotes himself to describing with much detail his own pil- grimage, remarkable for the extent of ground it covers. Landing at Antaradus (opposite to the Island of Ruad, the home of the ancient Arvites), he followed the coast to Acre and Mt. Carmel; thence he turned inland, visiting Nazareth, Tabor, the Sea of Galilee, the sources of the Jordan, Gad- ara, Scythopolis, Sebastia (the real Samaria), and Neapolis (Shechem, but confused by the writer with Samaria.) 1 At this place he appears to have left the direct highway to Jerusalem, and to have struck the Jordan Valley, following it to the Dead Sea. Jer- icho, the field of the Lord at Galgala (Gilgal), the tree of Zacchaeus, and the Fountain of Elisha are touched upon. Ascending to Jerusalem, he pro- 1 There is much confusion in the text as to the exact order in which the places in Galilee and Samaria were visited. THE AGE OF PILGRIMAGE 59 ceeded thence to Hebron and so on to Mt. Sinai via Eleutheropolis, Ascalon, Gaza, and Ailah. Before returning to Palestine he made a long tour in Egypt. On his home journey he visited Damascus, Heliopo- lis (Baalbec), and Antioch. The original account leaves him on the banks of the Euphrates, and we are not told how this indefatigable traveller got home. 1 Antoninus appears to have written from memory, after his journey was over. That this was not strong enough to bear the tremendous strain put upon it, he frankly acknowledges in his confession that he had forgotten many of the relics shown him on Mt. Zion (c. 22). But he surely remembered a sufficient number! At Nazareth were exhibited the book from which Christ learned the alphabet, and the bench where he worked as Carpenter (c. 5). At Diocaesarea he adored the pail and basket of Mary (c. 4). At Gethsemane he saw the three couches on which the Saviour reclined (c. 17). His memory failed him, however, as to the exact order of the towns between Heliopolis and Emesa. But his con- founding Neapolis with Samaria (c. 6), Caesarea Philippi with Caesarea on the coast (c. 46), and Azo- tus (Ashdod) with Lydda or Diospolis (c. 26) must be set down to sheer ignorance. His topsy-turvy account of the waters of the Dead Sea (c. 10), on which he declares nothing will float, is hard to ex- plain on any ground. That Antoninus could observe carefully when he so 1 The final sentence, briefly mentioning the return to Plaeentia, appears to be a later addition. 60 PALESTINE EXPLORATION desired is shown by several examples, hence we are tantalized by ' ' the things left out. ' ' For instance, the splendid ruins of Baalbec are passed without a word. However, interspersed with absurd trivialities 1 are some notes still of value to-day. Chief among these are his accounts of the ' ' water running under the street ' ' leading to the Pool of Siloam, and of the Church above the Pool (23-24). This street, some twenty-five feet wide, with its curb and manholes leading down to a well-constructed drain, and the church, whose altar was directly above the entrance to the Siloam Tunnel, were excavated under fields of cauliflower by Mr. Dickie and myself in the year 1896. 2 From the Bishop of Berytus (Beyrout) he learned that some 30,000 persons had perished in the earthquake which had recently shaken the Phoenician coast (c. 1). He relates that the people of Samaria had such a hatred for Christ that they burned with straw the footsteps of pilgrims and refused to receive coins from them till they were cast into water (c. 8). At the Fountain of Elisha, near Jericho, he found vines and cedars, as well as palm-trees from which he procured dates to be taken home as presents (c. 14). When the next visitor who has left any record of his travels visited Palestine the conditions of pilgrim- age had greatly altered. Arculf, Bishop of Gaul, found the Holy Land under the sway of Islam. In 1 Note his statement (c. 9), that the dew in the Jordan valley fell like rain and was collected by doctors, who cooked food in it for the hospices ! -' Excavations at Jerusalem, 1894-97, chap. v. THE AGE OF PILGRIMAGE 61 a.d. 615, twenty-two years before the surrender of Jerusalem to the Caliph Omar, the churches of Con- stantino, grouped about the Holy Sepulchre, had been destroyed or greatly injured during the raid of Chosroes II., the Persian. These had been repaired or rebuilt by Modestus after Heraclius restored the Holy Land to Christian rule in 627. But when Arculf visited them about the year 670, it was only by sufferance of the Moslem rulers who had con- trolled the country for a generation. We are bound to note, however, that Arculf's narrative practically ignores the Moslem regime. From the absence of reference to fanatic obstruction we may infer that while the Western Pilgrims of the latter part of the seventh century must have keenly felt the change of rulers, their suffering was sentimental rather than practical. The loss of the land naturally put a stop to the rush of pilgrimage, but those daring souls who attempted it under the Ommayad Caliphs were rewarded by finding things not at all as evil as they must have feared. Still flushed with its first rapid and victorious onslaught upon Christendom, still inspired with the hope of conquering the world, Islam could well afford to show a tolerant spirit in the land where its supremacy was unquestioned. The account which we have of Arculf's pilgrim- age is due to a happy accident. 1 On his return voyage the good Bishop's ship was driven by storm on to the west coast of Scotland. After much suf- fering he found refuge with Adamnan, Abbot of Hy at Iona, who not only listened eagerly to the tales of 1 P. V. T., vol. iii. 62 PALESTINE EXPLORATION his new friend's adventures but took these down on wax tablets and later committed them to parchment. The account was widely circulated, especially in its abbreviated form published by the Venerable Bede. Adamnan's Latin style is both involved and prolix. However indicative of personal modesty, his constant iteration of the phrases : ' ' Arculf the writer of the above-mentioned Holy Places, " ' ' Arculf of whom I have spoken," "The sainted Arculf who has been so often mentioned ' ' becomes both tiresome and ab- surd. That the Abbot had pretensions to learning is illustrated by his claiming to insert into Arculf 's account some excerpts from Jerome. What these pretensions were worth may be gathered from the statement that it was Nebuchadnezzar who joined the Island of Tyre to the main-land. An elementary regard for form is shown by the di- visions of the account into three books, the first deal- ing with Jerusalem and vicinity ; the second with other sacred sites in the Holy Land, with a reference also to Egypt; and the last mainly with Constantinople. The chief interest in the first book lies in the detailed account of the buildings grouped about the Holy Sep- ulchre after the restoration by Modestus. A plan, originally made on a wax tablet, very rude and not drawn to scale, is given. Indeed, there appears to have been little pretence to accuracy, as in regard to the church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives, the narrative states, "A drawing of this round church has been given below, however unworthily it may have been drawn." The other plans in the work are those of the church on Mt. Zion and of the church THE AGE OF PILGRIMAGE 63 above Jacob's Well, near Shechem. 1 Arculf's testi- mony as to the actual existence in his day of a cave in the Round Church of the Holy Sepulchre, is val- uable. "The Cabin of our Lord's Tomb," he writes, "is in no way ornamented on the inside and shows even to this day over all its surface traces of the tools which the hewers or excavators used in their work; the colour of that rock both of the Tomb and of the Sepulchre is not one, but two col- ours seem to have been intermingled, namely red and white, whence also that rock appears to be two- coloured. " 2 We should note also Arculf's reference to the column in the middle of Jerusalem, marking the centre of the World — a feature that became prominent in the later wheel-map schemes. In Palestine Arculf visited the ordinary sites, but these are not always described in itinerary order. For example, the narrative leaps from Mt. Tabor to Damascus and then at once back to Tyre. He was accompanied for part of the trip by a guide called Peter, a Burgundian Monk, well acquainted with the land — too well acquainted perhaps, for, like the drag- oman of to-day, he sometimes hurried poor Arculf away from a place before he was ready to move on. Still, our pilgrim was able to make little notes on the natural features of the land; unlike most of the early pilgrims, his eyes were not closed to everything but sacred sites. His readers are permitted to con- trast the rough and rocky ground, extending north from Jerusalem, with the fertile country stretching 1 Arculf's plans arc the earliest known. 1 Book I, chap. iv. 64 PALESTINE EXPLORATION toward Csesarea on the coast. He notes the woods encircling the Sea of Galilee and the well-watered olive-gardens of Damascus. But all through the land Arculf remains a credulous pilgrim. He puts faith in the story that all attempts to keep vaulted the church of the Ascension on the Mount of Olives were frustrated by a violent blast of wind blowing at mid-day on every anniversary of our Lord's As- cension. Did he not himself witness this dreadful storm one Ascension Day? l Perhaps it is Adam- nan, not Arculf, who should be credited with an elementary use of Biblical criticism. In naming a church near Bethany, built on the spot ' ' where Christ addressed the Apostles," the narrative com- pares the various gospel accounts with a view to de- termining what address is indicated, when it was given, and to what individuals it was addressed. 2 Of the pilgrimage of St. Willibald two accounts were written. He is the first English pilgrim of whom we have any adequate record, and the story of his pilgrimage is the only one of importance which has come down to us from the eighth century. Wil- libald was worthy of his high connection. Nephew to St. Boniface, the Apostle of Germany, and a rela- tive of Winna, King of Wessex, he himself, at the age of forty-one, was consecrated Bishop of Eichstadt, in Bavaria, where by his missionary labors for forty- five years he converted a wild land of forests into a spiritual garden, " shining with churches, presbyter- ies and relics of the saints." He died in a.d. 786, and hence must have been quite a young man in 1 Book I, chap, xxiii. 2 Book I, chap. uv. THE AGE OF PILGRIMAGE 65 the year 722, when he made his pilgrimage to Palestine. Of the two accounts called respectively the Hodoeporicon and the Itinerary, the former is to be preferred as a conscientious record, though the latter is pleasanter reading. 1 The Hodoepori- con was written from Willibald's dictation by one of his relatives, an English nun of the Abbey of Heidenheim. The anonymous author of the Itin- erary was a companion of Willibald's pilgrimage, but he appears to mix up his own recollections with the nun's account as well as with the results of his reading in ecclesiastical history. Still, he is valu- able in furnishing, at times, independent testimony to the accuracy of the other narrative and in filling up some lacunae, occurring in it. Willibald landed at Tharratae or Antaradus, oppo- site the Island Ruad. Proceeding to Emesa (Hums), he was there arrested as a spy and detained till the Commander of the Faithful was convinced of his peaceful intentions. Willibald thus had some difficulty in entering the country, and later he found it hard to get his passports for leaving, but his in- termediate wanderings appear to have been little disturbed by government interference. True, at Tyre, our traveller was bound while his luggage was un- dergoing examination by the customs officials, but that their severity was justified, though not rewarded, is proved by the Saint's confession that he had suc- cessfully smuggled some balsam inside a hollow cane, placed in a large calabash, which appeared to contain nothing but petroleum. 2 Theso wanderings 1 See P. P. T., vol. iii, fur both accounts. ; Hod., xxviii. 66 PALESTINE EXPLORATION were extensive, bringing him four times to Jerusalem. This was first reached by a somewhat long detour via Damascus, Nazareth, the Sea of Galilee, Caes- area Philippi, the Jordan Valley and the Jericho Plain. He entered it again after an excursion to Bethlehem, Gaza, and Hebron. When for the third time he saw it, he had visited the Phoenician coast and had crossed the Lebanon to Damascus. A fourth entry was made after a trip to Emesa, visited for the second time, and to Damascus, visited for the third time. Bidding farewell to the Holy City, he proceeded through Samaria, crossed the plain of Esdraelon, and finally embarked from Tyre to Con- stantinople. When I state that the entire descrip- tion of these wanderings, as found in the Hodoepori- con, can be read aloud in twenty minutes, it will be gathered that they are not given with much detail. Brief references are made to thirty-one Scriptural sites, but long stretches of the land are passed over without comment. Still, as a connecting link be- tween Arculf and Bernard, the two narratives are of value, especially in their notices of churches and sacred sites. Our account of the pre-Crusading pilgrims closes with the brief Itinerary of Bernard the Wise, writ- ten about a.d. 870. 1 The tenth century has fur- nished us with no history of Palestinian travels, and the journey of Altmann, Bishop of Passau, made in 1065, is preserved only in extracts made by several authors and found in the Acta Sanctorum. The brief tract, ' ' How the City of Jerusalem is Situ- 1 P. P. T., vol. iii. THE AGE OF PILGRIMAGE 67 ated," l probably antedates the first Crusade, but it is not composed in narrative form, being rather a sort of impersonal guide-book to the holy places, though the anonymous writer testifies that he has seen them all. Unlike his predecessors, the Monk Bernard en- tered Palestine from the south, and, also unlike them, he suffered from the severity of Moslem rule expressing itself in cupidity. The compara- tively tolerant sway of the Ommayad Caliphs had, in 750, given place to the iron grip of the Abbas- sides, who soon began to see in the new Frankish Kingdom a potential check on their supremacy. Here is a tale of Bukhshish that might be related of many parts of the Turkish Empire to-day. Let- ters recommending Bernard and his two fellow- monks to the Governor of Alexandria were not rec- ognized till the latter was persuaded by a bribe to write similar letters to the chief man of Babylonia, by which name middle Egypt went in those days. He in turn paid not attention to these passports until the same golden persuasion was used, when he also wrote letters. These proved to be of more effect, though later no departure from a given town could be effected without payment for a new permit. After all this detail in regard to the trouble in get- ting to Palestine, we are prepared to read a full ac- count of the Land. But this is not forthcoming. We learn briefly that Gaza was approached by the desert — " white like the earth in the time of snow " — and then that Jerusalem was reached via Ramleh 1 P. P. T., vol. i : Qualiter Civitas Jerusalem sita est. 68 PALESTINE EXPLORATION and Nicopolis. The ordinary sites in and about the Holy City are hardly more than catalogued. Galilee and Samaria remained un visited. We may note, how- ever, the early mention of the Holy Fire in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre on the Saturday be- fore. Easter. For the lack of information in regard to Syria and Palestine, from Western sources, between the Monk Bernard and the period of the Crusades, we have abundant compensation in the wealth of material furnished by Arab and Persian historians and geog- raphers. The extent and value of this material was not properly appreciated by the scholars of Europe and America until the middle of the last century, while its systematization was not effected till the year 1890, when that brilliant Arabic scholar, Guy le Strange, brother-in-law to the mystic genius, Lau- rence Oliphant, published his ' ' Palestine under the Moslems." This work extracts the essence from twenty-four writers, from Khurdadbih, a.d. 864, to Mujir-ed-Din, a.d. 1496. Of these twenty-four authors, Ritter's list of authorities mentions only seven, while Robinson in his bibliography, which claims to be fairly complete up to about the close of the fifteenth century, refers only to four. As the most original work done by the Moslems along geographical lines falls strictly within the province of this lecture, namely, the pre-Crusading period, we may appropriately illustrate the series here by considering two writers of the tenth and eleventh centuries respectively. In a general way these are typical of all their co-religionists. As le Strange THE AGE OF PILGRIMAGE 69 points out in his first chapter, the geographical writers are closely linked together. Desiring to make his work as complete as possible, each incor- porates from earlier authors all that he can gather, adding the results of his own personal observations, in case he happens to be a traveller. We may be pardoned, therefore, if we first briefly review the entire series though it encroaches on the ground of the next lecture. An impulse was given to geographical learning by the translation into Arabic of the geography of Claudius Ptolemy early in the seventh century, under the patronage of the Caliph Al Mamun. The new school of geographical science then formed was thus linked on to the old Greek learning. But the light reflected from the ancient world was not in turn re- flected by the new Europe till after the Crusaaes. For centuries, to change the figure, the steadily increasing stream of Arab science did not stir the stagnant pools of the West. The first systematic geography treating of Palestine is that of Istakhri (951), enlarged and emended by Ibn Haukal (978). While this is an improvement upon the mere Road Books or Revenue Lists of their predecessors, yet it has not the extent of information of the work of Mukaddasi (985), one of the authors reserved for our consideration. Passing for the moment over Nasir-i-Khusrau (1047) and over Idrisi (1154), per- haps the Arab geographer the best known to the Western world, as well as over others of less impor- tance, we come to the geographical lexicon of Yakut, completed in 1225. This vast work, which describes 70 PALESTINE EXPLORATION in alphabetical order every town and place of which the author could obtain any information, covers in the printed Arab text close on to 4,000 pages, large octavo, and places him easily at the head of all Arab geographers. Yakut is the seventeenth on Le Strange 's list; the seven which conclude it are of less importance. However, in Dimashki, c. 1300, Abu-el-Fida, 1321, Ibn Batutah, 1355, and Jemal- ed-Din, 1351, many interesting details may be found. Compared with the parallel Christian writers these authors appear to be masters of science in the pres- ence of schoolboys. Not only is their material far fuller, but this is better digested, more systematically arranged, and, as a rule, presented in a purer liter- ary style. True, from a modern point of view, they lack in precision of diction as well as in an orderly treatment of detail. But the difference between Idrisi and Theodrich — contemporaries of the twelfth century — and between Yakut and Jacques de Vitry — contemporaries of the thirteenth century — is wide and deep. In point of time Mukaddasi is separated from Willibald by only two centuries; in point of development he appears to have outstripped him by more than five. It is by such concrete comparisons that we are made to realize that the morning dawn of Europe coincided with the high noon of Islam. Turn we now to treat with some detail two Moslem geographers. Shams-ad-Din, the Sun of Religion, commonly known as Mukaddasi — that is, the Jeru- salemite — was born in the Holy City in a.d. 946. * His geography, published in 985, was the result of 1 P. P. T., vol. iii. THE AGE OF PILGRIMAGE 71 twenty years' preparation, during which he travelled through the Moslem Empire, measuring distances, searching boundaries of Provinces, practising dialects and studying religions. His chapter devoted to Syria and Palestine comprises only a tenth part of his work. An admirable introduction to this, containing a rhe- torical sketch of the chief places in these lands, is followed by a description of the boundaries of Syria and of its six districts. The section entitled ' ' No- tices of the chief towns," and occupying one-third of the whole chapter, contains a variety of miscellane- ous information. Climate is touched upon : Damas- cus is said to be scorching, Jerusalem neither very hot nor very cold; at Jericho the heat is excessive, while the author bids those who find the Angel of Death delaying to try the evil climate of Segor at the south end of the Dead Sea Valley. Like the modern inhabitants of Syria, who differentiate the qualities of two fountains which seem to the West- erner to be of equal excellence, he pays particular attention to the supply of drinking-water. The water of Jericho (Er-Riha) is lightest and best in all Islam; in Acre the wells are deep and salty: the poor go thirsty and strangers seek in vain ; at Beisan the water is heavy of digestion ; at Tiberias the lake- water is light of digestion. The characteristics of the people are noted. At Aleppo they are culti- vated, rich, and endowed with understanding; at Damascus, turbulent; the men of Hums are witless, of 'Amman illiterate. In speaking of his fellow- townsmen he seems to be impelled by the conflicting motives of loyalty and criticism. When moved by 72 PALESTINE EXPLORATION loyalty, he says : "In Jerusalem are all manner of learned men and doctors, and for this the hearts of men of intelligence yearn towards her. ' ' x But later, in enumerating the disadvantages of the place, he says, "Learned men are few; the mosque is devoid of either congregation or learned men." 2 In his introductory chapter to the whole work he declares that in Jerusalem ' ' one can find neither defect nor deficiency. . . . The people are noted for piety and sincerity. ' ' And yet in the more detailed ac- count we read that ' ' the oppressed have no succor, the weak are molested and the rich envied. ' ' Per- haps the explanation for these discrepancies lies in the statement that ' ' everywhere the Christians and the Jews have the upper hand. ' ' Perhaps he means to attribute the virtues of Jerusalem to the Moham- medans, its defects to the Christians. At any rate here is valuable testimony to the independent con- dition of the Christians of Jerusalem before the fierce persecution of the mad Caliph Al-Hakim at the be- ginning of the next century. In the notes on the towns we naturally find much attention paid to the mosques. On the other hand, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is referred to only in the incidental statement that lest its magnificence should dazzle the true believers the splendid mosques of Je- rusalem and Ramleh were erected. These, together with the mosque at Damascus, are described in full. Contrary to our modern ideas of arrangement, the chapter closes with a section on the general features and peculiarities of the land. It should be empha- 1 P. 1'. T., vol. iii, Mukaddasi, p. 35. 2 Ibid., p. 37. THE AGE OF PILGRIMAGE 73 sized that Mukaddasi is the first to recognize the four physical belts into which it is naturally divided : the maritime plain, the central mountain range, the depression of the Jordan, and the Eastern highlands. 1 In this systematized generalization he anticipates by many centuries the scientific observers of the West. Among the many subjects treated are the rivers, mountains, minerals, revenue, commerce, manners and customs, religion and government. To the chapter is appended a table of distances along the chief roads. Of a somewhat different order is the other Moslem work to be noticed, namely, the diary of the Persian, Nasir-i-Khusrau. 2 In 1047 he passed four months in Syria and Palestine, on his way to Mecca, where he hoped that the influences of the Holy Place might cure his habit of drink. His journal abounds in dates and distances. Crossing the Euphrates he arrived atManbij, the ancient Hierapolis, on January 4th, and thence proceeded to Aleppo. Time forbids our following his itinerary through Hamath and Hums to Tripoli and thence along the coast to Ram- leh, or our tracing his inland excursion to Tiberias from Acre. A few examples must suffice to indi- cate his careful observation. He has a keen eye for flowers, noting that the plain between Hamath and 'Arka was white with narcissus, and that at Jebeil he met a boy carrying two roses, though it was only March 5th. Archaeology also interests him. At Beyrout he measures a splendid ancient arch, under which the road-way passed, remarking that " in vari- 1 F. 85. *¥. P. T., vol. iv. 74 PALESTINE EXPLORATION ous parts of Syria there may be seen some five hun- dred thousand columns, or capitals and shafts of columns, of which no one now knows either the maker or can say for what purpose they were hewn, or whence they were brought. " l A sense of humor seems to underlie his statement that the governor of Tibe- rias, desiring to purify the lake-water from which the people drank, diverted the sewage, which usually flowed into it, with the result that the waters be- came fetid, sweetness not returning till the sewers were again allowed to open into it. 2 In Jerusalem his interest indeed centres in the Mosque of Omar, but the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is not treated as cursorily as it is by Mukaddasi. 3 In the course of his description we learn that it had been given over to pillage by the Caliph Hakim, but that it had been restored by the Emperor of Constantinople. Before proceeding to Mecca, Nasir made an excursion to Hebron, where he carefully examined the tombs of the Patriarchs. 4 1 p. 9. 2 p. ig. 3 Note, however, his adoption of the wilful perversion of the word "Kayameh" (resurrection) to "Kumameh" (dunghill), pp. 59-60. 4 For other llussian pilgrims besides Daniel mentioned in this lecture, see Drevne-russkoe palomnitche-stvo (Early Russian Pilgrims), vol. i, p. 77, vol. ii, pp. 66 ff . ; St. Petersburg, 1896-97. Also the chapter on the Pilgrims in the Holy Land in the Time of the Primitive Church, in Lebedev's Ecclesiastical History — Tzer- kovno-istoriteheskiia poviestvovauiia, pp. 183-222; Moscow, 1900. LECTURE III THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER With the entry of the Crusaders into Jerusalem a new impetus was given to travel in Palestine. From 1099 to 1187 — almost an entire century — pil- grims found the Holy Land under Christian rule. No longer were they entering a hostile country, held by masters professing a hostile religion. At the beginning of this period, while the conquest of the land was still in progress, and toward its close when Saladin, rapid and destructive as a forest fiie, was flashing to and fro between Cairo and Damas- cus, bent on the complete reconquest of Palestine, the country was in a condition more or less disturbed, but during the intervening years, general quiet and security prevailed. No wonder that the spirit of pilgrimage which had fired the Christians of the West early in the fourth century, and which was dimmed, though never extinguished, during the four and a half centuries of Moslem rule, now flamed forth anew. Nor was the Christian ardor quenched by the immense loss of territory following that fatal 5th of July, when on the Horns of Hattin, the tra- ditional site of the Mount of Beatitudes, Saladin ob- tained possession of the Holy Cross. Pursuing his advantage, in three months he had taken Jerusalem, 76 PALESTINE EXPLORATION and in three years most of the cities of the Franks had, one after another, fallen before his vehement attacks until nothing remained to them except Tyre, Tripoli, and Antioch. But the woful tale of disaster shook Christian Europe, and, led by Richard of Eng- land and Philip of France, the armies of the Third Crusade captured Cyprus, destined to remain in Christian hands till 1486; retook Acre on July 12, 1191; avenged the Battle of Hattin at Arsuf, on September 7th, where Saladin met an awful defeat; and during the next year so harried that magnificent enemy, who harried them in turn, that in the sum- mer of 1 192 both parties were glad to agree to a truce, the terms of which continued practically in force for a century. Ascalon was to remain dismantled for three years from September 2d ; Jaffa and the plains reverted to the Christians, and, though the Holy City remained in Moslem hands, pilgrims were al- lowed free access to the Holy City. Soon every important seaport of Syria was regained, and cer- tain inland places came again under Christian rule. Hence, until the final loss of Acre on May 18, 1292, pilgrims were sure of a safe entry into the Holy Land and could visit Jerusalem, Bethlehem, and Naza- reth by especial agreement with the Moslems. Bur- chard of Mt. Zion, who wrote about 1283, visited these places and Hebron, Samaria, and the Jordan district as well. But how inaccessible Eastern Pales- tine had become is illustrated by his identifying the two famous Crusading fortresses of Crac and Mon- treal, which fell after the loss of Jerusalem, not only with each other but with Petra in the Wilderness, THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 77 placed by him at Kerak, the real site of the fortress of Crac. - Thus soon were the trans-Jordanic posses- sions of the Crusaders forgotten. After the final ex- pulsion of the Franks, pilgrimages became more and more difficult. Felix Fabri, whose second visit to Palestine occurred in 1483, was kept in the port of Jaffa for five days before his party could get safe- conduct to Jerusalem; he made the circuit of its walls in the heat of a July day, to avoid molestation by the Saracens, who took their siesta at noontime; he recounts numerous instances of extortion and per- secution ; and finally gave up his longed-for trip to Galilee, in accordance with the advice of the Father Guardian of the Convent of Mt. Zion, who declared that the trip was even more dangerous than the journey to Sinai. Thus, as far as opportunity went, the Jubilee century for the Western traveller to the Holy Land was the twelfth. From the Moslem conquest in 636 to the present day no period has presented a more tempting chance to the Christian geographer and archaeologist. All Palestine, east and west, called to him, but he did not answer the cry for the simple reason that he was not yet born. Inspired by the Crusading spirit, Europe had shaken off some of its lethargy, but this still clogged pure intellectual effort. The writers of this century confine them- selves, as a rule, to a description of the Holy Places which they have venerated — Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Shechem, Nazareth, the Sea of Galilee, with a few intermediate points along the routes — and to a brief catalogue of other places not visited by them, or else 78 PALESTINE EXPLORATION compile a sort of impersonal guide-book, containing, indeed, more names than the personal itineraries, but, like most of these, lacking a firm grasp of broad geographical outlines. The earliest known mediaeval map of Palestine l was prepared by Burchard of Mt. Zion, who wrote in 1283, almost a century after the loss of Jerusalem, only nine years before the final expulsion of the Franks, and thus at a time when identification of sites by personal investigation had become a matter of great difficulty. The guide- book bearing the pseudonym of Fetellus appears to have been written about a.d. 1130, in the heyday of Latin power, but though the writer mentions more Scriptural place-names than any other author of the century, these amount only to 110 over against 155 mentioned by Burchard. However, we hasten to add, as far as critical faculty and true geograph- ical knowledge go, there is not much to choose be- tween the writers of the twelfth century and those of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth, though the latter are to be preferred in matters of order and arrangement. Accordingly, before taking up, one by one, the prominent authors of these four centuries, we may with profit consider some of the principal mistakes in Scriptural identification obtaining during this period. 2 1 See p. 108. This was apparently the first detailed map. For earlier attempts at Cartography, see Rohricht's Bibliography. 2 For the following references, see P. P. T., vol. iv, Saswulf, Abbot Daniel ; vol. v, Fetellus, John of Wurzburg, Theoderich, Phocas ; vols, vii-x, Felix Fabri (two volumes in four); vol. xi, Jacques de Vitry ; vol. xii, Burchard, Marino Sanuto, von Suchem. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 79 One would think that no intelligent inquirer could fail to identify either the Abana or the Pharpar, "rivers of Damascus," with the Barada, which, rising in a plain of the Anti-Libanus, brings life and fertility to the city of Damascus, and then dis- appears in the plain to the east. Modern scholar- ship regards the Barada as identical with the Abana of Scripture, identifying the Pharpar with one of the smaller local streams. But Fetellus (c. 1130), l John of Wiirzburg (c. 1160), 2 and Theoderich (c. 1172) 3 represent both these streams as flowing into the Mediterranean, the former through the plain of Archas (placed by Fetellus near Tripoli), and the latter west of Antioch, being confused, evidently, with the Orontes. The latter error is followed by Marino Sanuto, 1321. 4 The absurd story at least as old as the time of Jerome, that the Jordan took its name from two sources near the foot of the Lebanon, called Jor and Dan, is repeated, with variations throughout the whole period. The Abbot Daniel represents these streams as issuing separately from the Sea of Galilee. 5 Fetellus 6 and John of Wiirz- burg 7 appear to identify Dan with the Yarmuk, or brook Jabbok, which flows into the Jordan south of the Sea of Galilee. Burchard (c. 1283) 8 and Marino Sanuto (c. 1321) 9 come somewhat nearer the mark in stating that these unite before the gate of the city of Belinas or Csesarea Philippi. The true rela- tion of the three main sources of the Jordan (the 1 P. 24. 2 Cap. xxv. ' Cap. xlix. 4 Cap. 1, p. 2 1 Cap. lxxvi. 9 P. 2fi. T Cap. xxv. 8 Cap. iii, p. 23. ° Cap. iii , p. 19, 80 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Hasbany, and the fountains at Tell-el-Kady and Banias) and their exact points of juncture were left for the great Robinson to discover. x Even more confused are the references to Iturea, the present Jediir district extending from Mt. Her- mon southeastward toward the Leja. Finding the name in History, the mediaeval writers appear to have had a blind and uneasy instinct — a geograph- ical instinct, by the way, not confined to mediaeval times — that the place must be located somewhere; rightly if possible, but located at any rate. Jacques de Vitry (c. 1220) places it in the "Valley called Bakar " (the modern Buka'a, between the Lebanon and the Anti-Libanus). 2 Burchard quotes this as ' ' Iturea proper, ' ' but, in recognizing another use of the term, adds two more errors to his list by giving both Iturea and Decapolis as synonyms of Galilee of the Gentiles, whose boundaries he states with general correctness. 3 Accordingly, his list of the ten cities of the Decapolis is quite wrong, with the exception of Bethshean, the one city of this ancient district west of the Jordan. A like inconsistency appears in his use of the term Trachonitis, which to the ancients indicated the district southeast of Iturea, having for its centre the stretch of lava now called the Leja. Trachonitis he first declares is separated from Iturea by the Jordan. 4 Even if he is here referring to his ' ' Iturea proper, ' ' the statement is •I. B. II., iii, pp. 300 ff. 2 Cap. ilvii. 3 Cap. vi, p. 41; cf. cap. iv, p. 31. Jacques de Vitry also place Decapolis entirely west of the Jordan. ' Cap. iii, p. 23. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 81 absurd. But this geographical tangle is further complicated by a later assertion that Trachonitis is yet another synonym for the second Iturea, identi- fied by him, as we have seen, with Galilee of the Gentiles. l In some of these mistakes he is followed by Marino Sanuto. 2 The uncritical attitude of this period may be further illustrated by tracing the identification of Bethel. The Anglo-Saxon pilgrim Saewulf (c. 1103) declares that the site of Solomon's Temple at Jerusalem was anciently called Bethel, and that here Jacob set up a stone. 3 Fetellus (c. 1130) calls the temple Bethel, 4 but places the site of Jacob's vision at Luz or Bethel on Mt. Gerizim above Shechem. 5 John of Wurzburg (c. 1160) has a fine disregard of consistency respecting this event. While dealing with the sites in Samaria, he localizes it at the hypothetical Bethel on Gerizim. 6 In his first ref- erence to the Temple he calls it "this present Bethel;" 7 but later, in discussing a stone there shown as the very stone upon which Jacob laid his head, he declares the incident occurred not here but near the greater Mahumeria, which is probably to be identified with Bireh, north of Jerusalem and not far from Beitin, the true site. 8 Theoderich describes the stone in the Temple without opening up the question as to whether it was in place, 9 and later on adopts the Samaritan site. 10 Burchard 11 declares that the Bible gives no support to those 1 Cap. vi, p. 41. 2 Cap. Mi. 3 P. 15. ' P. .".7. * P. 'M. '' Cap. ii. 7 Cap. iii. "Cap. iv. 'Cap. xv. "Cap. xlii. " Cap. vii, p. (51. 82 PALESTINE EXPLORATION who would identify Jerusalem with Bethel, unless the Temple was so called because it was the House of God. He quotes the testimony of Jerome that Bethel was twelve miles from Jerusalem on the way to Neapolis (Shechem), thus indicating, apparently, the true site. In this identification he is followed, as usual, by Marino Sanuto. 1 While many writers quote the Biblical phrase "from Dan to Beersheba" as indicating the extent of the Holy Land, it was long before the latter was given its proper position at Bir-es-Seba' in the far South. Beersheba is wrongly placed by Jacques de Vitry, 2 Burchard, 3 and Marino Sanuto 4 at Beit Jibrin, the Greek Eleutheropolis, the Gibelin of the Crusaders. Robinson holds that in the fourteenth century William of Baldinsel 5 and Ludolph von Suchen 6 recognized the true site. Felix Fabri, 7 in 1483, passes Gibelin without comment, but Bir-es- Seba' appears to have been pointed out to him on his first day's journey southwest from Gaza. 8 We may now follow with some detail the principal 1 Cap. iii, p. 17; cf. his map. 2 Cap. xxxvi. 3 Cap. x, p. 96. 4 Cap. iii, p. 24 ; cf. Robinson's Researches (ed. of 1856), i, p. 205. 6 See his Hodoeporicon, v, in the Thesaurus Canisii (ed. Basnage), vol. iv, p. 345. 8 Cap. xxxvi. As both authors state that leaving " Beersheba " they arrived at Hebron at midday, I am inclined to think that the ruined churches they mention at the former place were at Beit Jib- rin, even though this was out of their direct route. Robinson took twelve hours to ride from Bir-es-Seba' to Hebron. 7 P. P. T., Felix Fabri, vol. ii, p. 489. 8 Other mistakes common to the period are the placing of the Vale of Elah at Wady Beit Hanina, west of Jerusalem ; the locating of Dothan at Khan Jubb Yusif, north of the Sea of Galilee; the identification of Neby Samwil with Shiloh, etc. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 83 records of pilgrimage from the taking of Jerusalem to the time of Felix Fabri, who, in 1483, ushered in a new era in the domain of descriptive travel. The first record to be noticed, however, is one of military- operations rather than of pilgrimage. The monk Fulchre of Chartres, 1 a companion of Duke Robert of Normandy, in the first Crusade, succeeded in shaking off the pious coma which ap- pears to be an invariable condition of pilgrimage pure and simple. His eyes seem to have been wider open even than those of many of his successors; his topographical notes, though unfortunately brief, are to the point. For example, he corrects the current confusion between Aeon (Acre) and Accaron (Ekron) , pointing out that the latter is situated between Jam- nia and Azotus, near Ascalon. In Jerusalem he de- scribes the construction of the so-called Tower of David. When, in a later excursion with the Duke, he made a tour of the south end of the Dead Sea, about which so much nonsense was usually written, he confines himself to facts — its dimensions, the ab- sence of life from its waters, its bitter taste, which he proves by experiment. His description of the ridge of Usdum, which is a solid mass of rock-salt, is vouched for by Robinson as being most accurate. We may add that this curious feature to which the mysterious Dead Sea owes much of its saltness, is mentioned again by no writer till the beginning of the nineteenth century. 1 See Gesta Dei per Francos, Hanovke, 1011. Fulcherii Car- notensis Gesta peregrinantium Franeorum cum armis Hierusalem pergentium. 84 PALESTINE EXPLORATION With the Anglo-Saxon Ssewulf,who wrote in Latin, the story of genuine pilgrimages made in the Cru- sading period properly begins. 1 From internal evi- dence it appears that his visit was made in the year 1102 or 1103. Toward the close of his little work he says : ' ' When we had gone through every one of the Sanctuaries of Jerusalem and its confines, as far as we could, we went on board ship at Joppa. " 2 This statement, taken in connection with the very meagre details in regard to places in the north — Shechem, Nazareth, Cana, Tabor, the Sea of Galilee, Csesarea Philippi — seems to indicate that his actual travels were not very extensive. He landed safe at Jaffa, but immediately afterward a fearful storm arose, causing awful shipwreck, witnessed by him from the shore and described with much rhetoric. 3 Unfortunately, the hope thus raised for a full and pict- uresque narrative is not realized, for after describ- ing the dangers of the two-days' journey to Jerusa- lem, from lurking Saracens on the one hand, and on the other from wild beasts, whose ravages had strewn the road with bodies of former pilgrims, he lapses into brevity. We should except, however, the full accounts of the Temple of the Lord and of the Holy Sepulchre, the latter having especial value in showing the condition of the church before the additions made by the Crusaders. 4 His narrative bears ample tes- timony to the depredations committed by the Arabs. In regard to Bethlehem he states that ' ' There noth- ing has been left habitable by the Saracens as in all other holy places outside of the city of Jerusalem, 1 P. P. T., iv. 2 P. 27. 3 P. 6. * Pp. 9-17. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 85 except the Monastery of the Blessed Virgin Mary. ' ' 1 Hebron had been devastated and Nazareth entirely laid waste. He notes, however, the fertility of the Jericho plain, rich in all kinds of palms and in all fruits. At Hebron, he declares, the precious spices with which the bodies of the patriarchs were anointed still fill the nostrils of those who go thence. 2 On re-embarking at Jaffa he sailed north, past the coast cities as far as Latakia (Laodicea) , naming thirteen of these, but placing them in wrong order. 3 The date of the pilgrimage of Daniel, Abbot of a monastery in Russia, is fixed with considerable cer- tainty in the year 1106 or 1107. 4 While he is sorely deficient in historical geography — confusing Samaria with Shechem, Bethshean with Bashan, Csesarea Philippi (Banias) with Caesarea Palestina on the coast, and identifying the Capernaum of the Gospels with a village of the same name south of Carmel — he has some careful notes on the physical aspects of the land, though these are not worked up into gen- eralizations. As regards Jerusalem, he observes the contrast between the barren, rocky appearance of the soil and the abundance of the crops, and states that the inhabitants are dependent upon rain-water. 5 The Laura of Mar Saba — where, as a member of the Greek Church he was at home — deeply impressed him. "A dry torrent-bed," he writes, "terrible to behold and very deep, is shut in by high walls of rock, to which the cells are fixed and kept in place 1 P. 22. 9 P. 24. 3 P. 27. *P. P. T., iv. 'Cap. livi. 86 PALESTINE EXPLORATION by the hand of God in a surprising and fearful man- ner. " 1 In contrast with this sombre picture we may quote his description of Hebron : "At present the land is truly the land promised by God, and en- dowed by him with all good things. Wheat, vines, olives and all kinds of vegetables grow in abundance ; sheep and other animals bring forth twice a year ; large numbers of bees make their hives in the rocks of these beautiful mountains; their slopes are cov- ered with vineyards and with an infinite number of fruit-trees — olives, figs, carob, apple, cherry, and other trees. ... No place under the sky equals it." 2 Daniel's account is three times as long as Sa3- wulf's and fuller of personal touches. He explicitly states that his descriptions are based on actual ob- servation. In cases where he is dependent on others he makes frank acknowledgment. But his distances and dimensions are not accurate. Haste, the usual bane of travellers, was not forced upon him; he was able to visit the Jordan four times, he stayed ten days on the shores of the Lake of Galilee, and re- mained four days at Acre. He recognized the value of good guides for Jerusalem, whom he paid as lib- erally as his means would allow, and was fortunate in having for dragoman on his northern trip an aged Monk said to be well versed in the Scriptures — bet- ter versed, we may hope, than our Abbot, who makes many blunders in the use of Holy Writ. Though a member of the Eastern Church, he was on friendly terms with the Western Latins, and obtained per- 1 Cap. xxxviii. * Cap. liii. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 87 mission from Baldwin L, who was planning an ex- pedition to the regions of Damascus, to accom- pany the army as far as the Sea of Galilee. He was thus on this trip protected from the Saracens, whose presence in the forests between Bethlehem and Hebron had given him much uneasiness when passing between those places, and whose occu- pation of the Lebanon prevented his journeying thither. The interest of his visit to Jerusalem naturally centres in the Temple and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In regard to the " Templum Domini " he states that the present church was built by ' ' the chief of the Saracens named Amor, ' ' and that noth- ing is left of the Temple of Solomon but the founda- tions. * The church of the Resurrection of Our Lord was open to the sky. The Holy Sepulchre itself was "a small cave hewn in the rock, having an entrance so low that a man can scarce get through by going on bended knees ; . . . a sort of bench cut in the rock of the cavern upon which the body of our Lord was laid (is) now covered by marble slabs. ' ' 2 Though the Crusaders had been in possession of Jerusalem for eight or nine years, the Greeks still had charge of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and kept the keys. During the twelfth century it became the fashion to compile anonymous guide-books to the Holy Land, ranging in length from brief tracts, containing less than 1,000 words, to more elaborate works covering from thirty to fifty pages in the Palestine Pilgrims' 1 Cap. xvii. 2 Cap. x. 83 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Text series. 1 As a rule these are written imperson- ally, and even when the pronoun " I " occurs, the subjective note is entirely lacking. The largest of these guide-books is the work called Fetellus, or Eugesippus-Fretellus, after the name of one of its early editors. Much of the matter contained is re- peated by later travellers, such as John of Wiirzburg and Theoderich, and occurs also in other guide- books, which clearly belong to the twelfth century, though they cannot be more closely dated; hence it is suggested by Tobler that all these authors, includ- ing Fetellus, follow some "Old Compendium" as a common source. 2 The tract which we may conveniently call Fetellus is dated at about 1130 by an allusion to a portion of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre then in process of construction to the east of Calvary, namely, the Latin Choir of the Canons — the present Greek Church. As we have previously stated, it contains about 110 names of Scriptural places in Syria and Palestine, besides a list of the stations in the Desert of the Wanderings of the Children of Israel, accom- panied by a very fanciful etymology. Thus we find not only the mention of the sites ordinarily visited by pilgrims, with distances between sites, references to the Scriptural events for which they were cele- brated, and legends of a marvellous character, but 1 Vol. vi contains translations of the texts of nine anony- mous pilgrims, numbered from I to VIII, thus following the enumeration of Tobler, who distinguishes V l from V 3 . All but the first belong to the twelfth century. For Fetellus, see vol. v. ' J See preface to his edition of Fetellus. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER S9 we may note the beginnings of an attempt to iden- tify Biblical sites connected with events of minor importance, many of which had been unnoticed since the time of St. Jerome. Among these are Timnath- heres, the city and burial-place of Joshua; Keilah and Ziph, associated with the wanderings of David; Baal Meon, a town of Reuben; Kirjath Sepher, the city of Letters; Gath-hepher, the city of Jonah; Engedi, the Ascent of Gur, Libnah, Madeba, Tibnah, etc. Some of these names appear under strange guises, such as Gethocopher for Gath- hepher. The author's sense of arrangement is far from adequate. There is no broad presentation of the main geographical features of the land as a whole. While places in the same district are usu- ally grouped together, his passing from district to district is somewhat arbitrary, and at times he re- turns to a part of the land already described in order to add previously omitted details. In addition to the errors common to the period, Fetellus makes some mistakes on his own account, such as the iden- tification of Eleutheropolis with Emmaus; the plac- ing of Malbech (by which he clearly means to indi- cate Baalbec) one mile from Damascus; and the confusion of Ribleh — actually not far north of Baal- bec — with Antioch. 1 Among other strange legends and traditions he relates that Adam was formed by the Creator at Hebron, 2 that owing to the clearness of the Dead Sea the ruins of the submerged cities may still be seen, 3 and that in the Wilderness of Hor stands Mt. Eden, whose summit is of miracu- 1 Repeated by later writers. 7 1'. 8. 3 P. 13. 90 PALESTINE EXPLORATION lous beauty and fertility. 1 Still, with all his blun- ders, Fetellus marks the beginning of a new era in the study of Biblical geography for its own sake. The itineraries of the two German pilgrims, John, priest of Wurzburg, and Theoderich, perhaps Bishop of the same place, were written at a period when the Crusaders had made their many alterations in the Holy Places. Hence, of especial value are their accounts of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre and of the Templum Domini, into which, as Daniel has told us, the Mohammedan mosque had been transformed. In matters of geography they cover less ground than does Fetellus, mentioning only between seven- ty-five and eighty Scriptural sites each. From in- ternal evidence it appears that John's pilgrimage was made between the years 1160 and 1170, Theo- derich's in the year 1172. Of these two fellow- towns-men, Theoderich is the superior, as well for his breadth of view as for his appreciation of detail. We may then consider him first. Up to this time we have sought in vain for any attempt on the part of the pilgrims to define the broad outlines of the land, but now the mere catalogue of names and dis- tances begins to be accompanied by a larger sense of topography. True, we find no more than a begin- ning. Theoderich is first and foremost a pilgrim; the aim of his journey is principally religious; with him geography furnishes merely a framework for the Holy Places, but we must credit him with the first recognition, on the part of mediaeval western writers, of the necessity of such a framework. Foreshadow- 1 P. 19. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 91 ings of the scientific methods of Robinson and Con- der are shown in his first chapter, entitled ' ' The ruin of the Land and the changing of its names." In this he clears the ground, as it were, noting ' ' that the moderns, being strangers in the land, and not its original inhabitants, know the names of a few places only," and "that although some traces of certain places still remain, yet nearly all their names have been altered. ' ' After stating that the land of Canaan is divided into three provinces, Galilee, Samaria, and Judea, he gives correctly the boundaries of Judea, and adds, ' ' Now Judea is for the most part moun- tainous, and round about the Holy City rises into very lofty ranges, sloping on all sides down to its aforesaid boundaries, even as on the other hand one ascends to it from these. These mountains are in some places rough with masses of the hardest rock, in others are adorned with stone excellently fitted to be cut into ashlar, and in others are beautiful with white, red, and variegated marble. But wherever any patches of earth are found, among these masses of rock, the land is seen to be fit for the production of every kind of fruit — wherefore we have seen the hills and mountains covered with vineyards and plan- tations of olive-trees and fig-trees, and the valleys abounding with corn and garden produce. ' ' l What an advance upon the topographical notices of former Christian writers is this brief but discriminating description! Again, in chapter iii, we find the hills and valleys of Jerusalem, all of which have been catalogued by former pilgrims, now for the first 1 Cap. ii. 92 PALESTINE EXPLORATION time co-ordinated and brought into coherence. He tells us that the Holy City, though built upon a mountain, has about it ridges higher than itself, the highest of which is the Mount of Olives. He traces the valley of Jehoshaphat from its beginning at the north of the town, past the Church of the Virgin near Gethsemane, past the tomb of Jehoshaphat, down to the Pool of Siloam, where it is joined by the valley of Hinnom, which bends around between Mount Zion and Aceldama and thus with the first valley ' ' embraces the two sides of the city with a very deep ravine." In fixing localities he shows exactness. For example, before mentioning the Pool of Siloam he carefully describes the route to it from the Temple. Noticing the tradition that the water from this Pool comes underground from Shiloh (then wrongly identified with Neby Samwil, some five miles to the north), he gives the topographical objections against the view, but, with a shrewd instinct warn- ing him against dogmatism, declines to pronounce any decision. 1 Thus in more ways than one Theo- derich shows himself to be the prototype of the modern explorer. In his introduction, Theoderich frankly states that he relates not only what he has seen himself, but what he has gathered from the truthful tales of other men. His account is not in the form of a con- tinuous narrative, but we infer that his personal ex- periences were confined to Jerusalem, with the sites easily reached from that centre, and to the places ordinarily visited in Samaria and Galilee. Less ac- 1 Cap. xix. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 93 cessible districts are mentioned briefly and unintel- ligently. We miss the personal touches which brighten the parts of the narrative dealing with places that he explicitly states that he saw. Take for an example of these his picturesque description of the view from Quarantania or the Mount of Temp- tation. From this rocky height, as the sun was set- ting, he looked down over the Jericho plain, swarm- ing with tens of thousands of pilgrims, all carrying torches, in full sight of the Saracens lurking in the trans-Jordanic mountains. 1 Or read his account of the journey from Jerusalem to Shechem : "As we passed along this road we were met by a multitude of Saracens, who were proceeding with bullocks and asses to plow up a great and beauteous plain, and who, by the hideous yells they thundered forth, as is their wont when they set about any work, struck no small terror into us. Indeed, numbers of infidels dwell there throughout the country, as well in the cities and castles as in the villages, and till the ground under the safe conduct of the king of Jeru- salem, or that of the Templars or Hospitallers." 2 This little picture makes us realize that though the Holy Land of the twelfth century was under Western masters, its ordinary population remained largely Eastern. Notwithstanding Theoderich's instinct for scien- tific treatment, shown at least in germ, the marvel- lous is not without its attractions for him. He gives an ear to the fairy-tales told about the cities sub- merged in the Dead Sea. ' ' Once a year on the an- 1 Cap xxx. 2 Cap. xli. 94 PALESTINE EXPLORATION niversary of the destruction of these cities, stones and wood and things of all kinds are seen to float upon the surface of the Lake, in testimony of their ruin. ' ' He also repeats the story that the pillar of salt into which Lot's wife was turned, increases and diminishes in size with the waxing and the waning of the moon. 1 Theoderich's description of the Holy Places in Jerusalem is much fuller than any of those we have yet considered, though not as exhaustive as that of John of Wiirzburg ; but his assiduity in copying the Latin inscriptions in the Crusading churches can hardly be set down to an archaeological curiosity. This seems to have been quite lacking, as, in deal- ing with the Temple, though he gives a resume of its history, he does not notice the immense stones of the Enclosure. For John, priest of "Wurzburg, 2 interest in the Holy Land centres directly in the life of Christ. Thus he states that his description starts with Naz- areth, because in this city was begun the Redemp- tion of the world through Our Lord's Incarnation. This notice, however, is brief. He hastens at once to Jerusalem, to the vicinity of which, as he tells us in his introduction, he proposes to confine him- self. Following his motif, the account of the places connected with The Passion is pleasantly interwoven with a fairly continuous narrative of the events, rich in Scripture quotations. Theoderich, too, at- tempts this method, but less consistently. John is not satisfied with the mere mention of tradition ; he 1 Cap. xxxv. 2 P. P. T., vol. v. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 95 must discuss its historical basis. When shown the hair of Mary Magdalene in a glass case, he tries to harmonize the various accounts of the Alabaster Box, and questions whether more than one Mary was involved. l He explains that Golgotha, or the place of a skull, was so called, because criminals, to be there executed, had their hair cut off and their skulls were bleached in the wind. 2 That he took especial pride in his lengthy review of the history and traditions connected with the Temple may be legiti- mately inferred from its closing sentence : ' ' Let this description of the aforesaid Temple and its surround- ings suffice; we shall not be envious of any one who can write a better. ' ' 3 The list of Latin inscriptions copied by him in the Holy Places is fuller even than Theoderich's. John's introductory statement, limiting his ac- count to the vicinity of Jerusalem, makes us uncer- tain which of the many other sites briefly mentioned were actually visited by him. His catalogue of the more distant places reads like a compilation, and it seems safe to assume that his travels did not take him farther north than the Sea of Galilee, where his list of sites is full. In general the distances given between places are inexact. In passing from the records of these two German pilgrims to ' ' The Brief Description of Phocas, ' ' native of Crete, and later Greek priest at Patmos, we seem to be making a transition from chronicle to literature. 4 His information is neither extensive 1 Cap. vi. 2 Cap. x. 3 Cap. iv. * P. P. T., vol. v. His pilgrimage was made in the year 1185. 96 PALESTINE EXPLORATION nor especially valuable, but he presents it in a rapid and flowing style, rich in feeling and color. His best touches are given to places north of Judea: Antioch, the Groves of Daphne, the ice-cold Springs of Lebanon, the lofty water-towers of Tyre, disease- haunted Acre. Especially pretty is the picture of the fair harbor of Beyrout ' ' wrought by art and en- bosomed in the city in the form of a half -moon, ' ' at the two extremities of which ' ' are placed as horns two great towers, from one of which a chain is drawn across to the other and shuts in the ships within the harbor. " 1 A predilection toward the aesthetic leads him to devote a long page to the paintings in the church at Bethlehem: as you read you seem to see them. We regret that his power of portrayal is not more in evidence when he reaches the Holy City. Here the pilgrim-coma falls upon him; his topography is bald, confused. Even the Holy Sepulchre and the Templum Domini are passed over with cursory notices. It is interesting to find, however, that in these times of Latin predominance, the Byzantine Emperor, Manuel Comnenus (under whom Phocas once served as a soldier), adorned the rock of the Holy Sepulchre with solid gold, and fur- nished the mosaics which may be seen to-day in the Basilica at Bethlehem. 2 Once away from Jerusalem Phocas's style brightens again. The monasteries at Mar Saba and in the Wady el Kelt are sketched with spirit. 3 The tract ends all too soon with these words, at once playful and poetic : "If any reader shall think this a useful work, I shall consider my- 1 Cap. v. 2 Cap. xiv. 3 Caps, xvi and xix. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 97 self to be recompensed for my toil and amply re- warded; if not, let this my child return to me who begat it, and by its prattling remind me of those Holy Places, so that I may be sweetly refreshed in my imagination by the remembrance of them. ' ' l From this picturesque tract, interesting more for its style than for its actual information, we turn to the business-like account of the Anonymous Pilgrim (V 2 in Tobler's enumeration) 2 written on the basis of a journey taken before 1187. This fragment, barely 3,000 words long, is a little model of concentration. After giving the boundaries of Pal- estine, the author takes up the religion of the in- habitants. Dividing them roughly into Moslems and Christians, he next enumerates, and in some cases characterizes, the Eastern sects: Greeks, Syrians, Armenians, Gregorians, Jacobites, and Nestorians. Various nationalities are recognized among the Latins; their hierarchical organization is touched upon with considerable detail. His notice of the Holy Places is prefaced by the remark that ' ' all the Land is hallowed because Christ walked in it." Though he signalizes the events for which each place is celebrated, references to relics are omitted. He next turns to the mountains of the lands; its animals, plants and fruits. The systematic account closes with a list of the chief cities, including ' ' those that have changed their names." In the last sentence, which breaks off abruptly, 3 a miraculous rock at Jaffa is mentioned. Comparing the analysis of this 1 Cap. xxxii. 2 P. P. T., vol. vi. a But see note in the P. P. T. edition. 98 PALESTINE EXPLORATION little work with former accounts, we note a widen- ing of interest, especially of a human interest. Our pilgrim desires to satisfy a curiosity, or at least to create a curiosity in regard to Christians holding the faith in a non-Latin form. Again his notice of the flora and fauna, though brief and fanciful, signalizes a fresh point of view. Apart from the guide-books and itineraries, the twelfth-century readers of the West were able to extract considerable information regarding Palestine from the "History of the Crusades" by William, Archbishop of Tyre, who began his work in 1183. l Naturally this information is only incidental to the historical narrative. 2 A reference to the term Syria in connection with a description of Tyre leads to a somewhat elaborate excursus on geographical no- menclature. 3 Syria, he says, may be used in a broad sense for the whole stretch of country from the Tigris to Egypt, from Cilicia to the Red Sea, and also for its various parts. First come Mesopotamia, Syria, and Coele-Syria. The latter touches on Phoe- nicia, which is subdivided into Phoenicia Maritima and Phoenicia Libanica. This latter province is also called Syria and is also subdivided into two parts — Damascena and Emisena, from the two cities Damas- cus and Emesa. Larger Syria also includes two 1 Latin text found in the Gesta Dei : Historia Rerum in Partibus Transmarinis, etc. Edita a venerabili Willermo Tyrensi Archi- episcopo. 2 Note, however, that in the lists of dioceses subject to the "Apostolic Seat of Antioch," we find 255 names of places sys- tematically arranged (Lib. XXIII). 3 Lib. XIII, cap. ii. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 99 Arabias, Idumea and three Palestines. 1 As these terms were evidently but vaguely conceived by the Archbishop, his information gives little illumination, but it is noteworthy as an indication of a growing curiosity regarding broad geographical divisions. William's topographical notice of Jerusalem is in- ferior to Theoderich's, but he presents one of the earliest Western sketches of Damascus, with its great stream rushing out from the mountain-gorge, and at once carried off into canals which create a circle of fertility in the arid plain. 2 Apart from an account of the Assassins there is, in his history, little regarding the Religions of the land. Before passing on to the writers of the thirteenth century, we must briefly note the account of a jour- ney to Palestine taken, in 1163, by a traveller of quite another order, namely, the Spanish Rabbi, Ben- jamin of Tudela. 3 The shrine at Jerusalem, which was the desire of all Christian pilgrims, he refers to contemptuously as the sepulchre of "that man." On the other hand, in each place of importance he mentions the synagogues and the number of Jews, often naming the leading Rabbis. An interest in the history of his people leads him to attempt the identification of sites, often erroneously: Gath is 1 He adopts the division into the three provinces of Palcstina Prima, Secunda, and Tertia, which, before the Crusades, were sub- ject to the Greek Patriarch of Jerusalem. Their capitals were Jerusalem, Caesarea Maritima, and Scythopolis, respectively. (See Lib. VI I r, cap. i). 2 Lib. XVI T, cap. iii. 3 See the critical edition of A. Asher : Benjamin of Tudela's Itinerary, Berlin, 1840-41, 2 vols. 100 PALESTINE EXPLORATION confused with Caesarea; Gath-hepher with Haifa. However, he places the rivers Abana and Pharpar in their right relation to Damascus, and comes near the mark in locating Mareshah (unnoticed since the time of Jerome) at Beit Jibrin. This identification is in- teresting in view of our recent excavations at Tell- Sandahannah, only two miles south of Beit Jibrin, where the Greek town of Marissa was found to over- lay the ruins of Mareshah. Like the Greek Phocas, Benjamin entered Syria from the north. In describing the towns in order, beginning with Antioch, he covers many points un- touched by the ordinary Christian traveller, such as a recent earthquake which had devastated Tripoli; the ruins of a heathen Temple at Jebeil, the city of the Giblites; the newly established sect of the Druzes, who inhabited the rocky heights above Sidon ; the sect of the Samaritans at Shechem. At Jerusa- lem he marvels at the huge stones of the temple area. 1 He describes the accidental discovery, fifteen years before his visit, of the Sepulchre of David on Mt. Zion, by two workmen, who, in quarrying stones from old foundations, came upon a cave which opened into a large hall adorned with gold and silver and full of locked chests. But a sudden blast of wind threw them almost lifeless on the ground, nor, after their escape, could they be persuaded again to enter the cave, which, by ecclesiastical orders, was soon walled up. 2 This seems to be the revival of a story as old as the time of Herod, who, as we learn from Josephus, made an attempt to rob the Sepulchre of 1 Vol. i, p. 70. 2 Ibid., p. 72. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 101 David, with disastrous results. The true Sepulchres of the Patriarchs, however, might be seen at Hebron, so Benjamin declares, by any Jew who volunteered to pay the guardian ; while penurious pilgrims had palmed off on them the spurious tombs erected above by the Christians, and even thus were subject to ex- tortion. 1 Our Rabbi's wanderings in Palestine were very extensive, taking him as far as Tadmor in the Wilderness. 2 We now come to the writers of the thirteenth century, the close of which saw the final triumph of the Crescent over the Cross. Magister Thetmar, or Thietmar, 3 visited Palestine in 1217, thirty years after the battle of Hattin, dur- ing a term of truce between the Christians and the Saracens. It is noteworthy that we owe our best mediaeval accounts of the country to travellers or residents who wrote after the fall of Jerusalem. The world's progress in the art of observation and in free expression has something to do with this, but it seems also likely that interest in the Holy Land was quick- ened by the loss of so great a part of it. Thietmar, 1 Vol. i, p. 76. 2 The work of R. Petachia of Ratisbonne, who travelled exten- sively in 1175-80, is of far less value than that of his contemporary Benjamin. He shares with the latter the object of studying tin- condition of his Hebrew brethren in various lands, including Syria and Palestine. (See Tour du Monde oil Voyages de R. Petachia. Carmoly, Paris, 1831.) :i Manuscript accounts of his travels are variously entitled : Epis- tola Magistri Thetmari ; Thetmari itinerarium in Terrain Sanctam ; Thetmari peregrinatio in Terram Sanctam. The edition here con- sulted is that of Saint Genois, found in the Memoires de L'Acadetnie Royale de Belgique, Tome XXVI, Bruxelles, 1851. 102 PALESTINE EXPLORATION indeed, passes over Jerusalem in a few lines, as hav- ing been described by so many, though his cursory treatment may also be due to the difficulty of detailed exploration at a time when the Church of the Holy Sepulchre — as he tells us — remained always shut, dark within and with no sign of respect without. But he amply makes up for his silence here by his full account of Damascus, glowing with local color. 1 Paradise he says it may be called, with its gardens irrigated by aqueducts, rich in trees of every sort and flowers of every hue, vocal even in November with the nightingale's notes. In the cooks' shops, he tells us, you may have your choice of twenty kinds of bread, and you need not be afraid that the stale food of yesterday will be palmed off on you as fresh, for the sellers are forced by fear of a fine to tell the truth about the baking. Virtue weighs upon the people as lightly as doctrine ; there is no intolerance ; each nation — for there are many of these — can fol- low its trade and its religion here quietly. Surely here is a livelier note than we have heard from the West before! For vividness this little picture of Damascus compares favorably with that of Ludolph von Suchem written some 130 years later. From Damascus Thietmar's story leaps to Bagh- dad, with no account of the way thither. But his individual touch is again felt as we follow his jour- ney from Jerusalem to Mt. Sinai. The awful gorge of the Arnon — a veritable canon — fills him with ter- ror: never had he seen such precipices! Passing through Kerak ("latine Petra," he says) he comes 1 Pp. 23-29. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 103 to Shobek, the Montreal of the Crusaders, where a French widow lady fits him out for the desert jour- ney with biscuit (panem biscoctum), cheese, wine, and fruit, and procures for him cameleers. An un- consciously pathetic touch, this. As we read his brief lines, a dozen questions come rushing up. How long since the widow lady had seen a face from Europe? What kept her in the inaccessible wilds, east of the Dead Sea, among the enemies of her people? Did Thietmar's visit bring her more regret than joy? On these points the Master tells us nothing, but passes on his way to Sinai, stopping to marvel at a rock-cut city which he does not know to be the real Petra. l Perhaps the chief interest in Thietmar's work lies in his voicing the desire, which had begun to stir the West, to get at the real facts regarding Islam and its Prophet. Briefly, but in general fairly, he gives the Moslems' conception of Jesus, stating that they believe in his Virgin-birth, his miracles, his po- sition as Prophet next to Mohammed, but that they deny his baptism, crucifixion, death, burial, resur- rection and Divine Sonship. Mohammed's life is sketched and his teaching regarding Paradise, polyg- amy, circumcision, and fasting is touched upon. 2 The historian Jacques de Vitry was born about the time that Jerusalem was taken by Saladin, and was resident in the land for almost ten years after his con- 1 The following description, p. 42, must apply to Petra : In rupibus istis inveni excisas in petra mansiones honiinum pulchraa valde et ornatas, palatia et caminatas, oratoria et cameras et omnia commoda qua? Talent ad usus hominum. 2 Pp. 51 and 54-55. 104 PALESTINE EXPLORATION secration as Bishop of Acre in 1 2 1 7 . " His History ' ' l contains more passages directly purporting to give information in regard to the land than does that of William of Tyre. Especially full are his notices of the various Christian sects. It is difficult to say which he regards with greater contempt, the mixed race of the Pullani, descendants of the first Crusad- ers by local marriages, or the native Greek Chris- tians. Against these two classes he hurls a volley of opprobrious epithets, hardly fitting his dignity as Bishop. The former he accuses of luxury, effem- inateness, cowardice, jealousy, and ill-treatment of their wives comparable with that of the Saracens; the latter he calls double-dealers, cunning foxes, liars, turncoats, traitors, men who are easily bribed, who say one thing and mean another, who think nothing of theft and robbery. 2 To Mohammedanism he appears to have given no serious consideration as, with a total disregard for its iconoclastic principles, he says: "When they (the Saracens) possess the Holy City, they set up the Image of Mohammed in the Temple." 3 Toward the close of the work we find a series of chapters which at first sight ap- pear to indicate that at last we are to have a good physical description of the land. 4 But, viewed more closely, his observations are found to lack broad outlines, while his details regarding Palestine are mixed up with stories confessedly derived from various authors, dealing not only with the East in 1 Historia Hierosolymitana Abbreviata. Found in the Gesta Dei per Francos. Fnglish translation : P. P. T.. vol. xi (abbreviated). 2 Caps, lxxii-lxxiv. 3 Cap. lxii. 4 Caps, lxxxiii-xci. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 105 general but with other little known parts of the world. He gives the reader the option of accepting or refusing the travellers' tales regarding Amazons, Pigmies, Men with Horns, Men with Tails, etc. This jumble of nonsense serves to illustrate the crude state of science in the thirteenth century, but actual information in regard to the Holy Land is slight. He notes that no rain falls there in the summer, that thunder and lightning occur only in winter time, and that wine in Jerusalem is cooled during the hot sea- son by snow brought from the Lebanon. Earth- quakes along the coast are attributed largely to the action of waves compressing the air in sea-caverns. A notice of the intermittent fountain of Siloam leads to an excursus on the qualities of fountains in general : some waters strengthen the memory, others destroy it; some promote libidinous passions, others remove them; women drinking at one fountain are made sterile, at another are rendered fecundive. In his sections on Plants and Animals he often fails to discriminate between Palestine and other Eastern lands, noting, however, that crocodiles are found in the stream of Caesarea Palestina. Scattered through the volume without much re- gard to order are many geographical notices — for example, the divisions of Syria, which we would nat- urally expect to find at the beginning of the treatise, are enumerated in chapter xcvi, in connection with the statement that Saladin had become master of the whole country. His nomenclature follows, with some variations, that of William of Tyre, but is held with the same loose grasp. More satisfactory are 106 PALESTINE EXPLORATION his descriptions of the four great principalities or- ganized by the Crusaders — Edessa, Antioch, Tripoli, and Jerusalem 1 — and his notices of over thirty coast towns between Egypt and Laodicea (Latakia). 2 We read that Baldwin, fourth king of Jerusalem, rebuilt the ruined town of Gaza; that Ascalon is shaped like a bow, or half-circle, the string lying on the seashore and the round part on the land; that Ashdod had dwindled to the size of a small village, and that ' ' Tyre is well watered with springs and brooks of sweet water and is rich and fair with vineyards, gardens, fruit-trees and cornfields. " A correct picture is drawn of Damascus. But the accounts of other inland places are brief, and ar- ranged with little order, suggesting a compila- tion from older sources. This is not strange when we remember that Jacques de Vitry wrote after the interior of the country had reverted to the Saracens. Brief notice is here perhaps due to the anonymous tract, "The Citez de Jherusalem," written in old French, probably during the first quarter of the thir- teenth century. It lacks a broad preliminary state- ment of the main topographical features, but gives the names of a number of streets and markets. Thus to the student of Mediaeval Jerusalem its value is con- siderable. In some manuscripts the ' ' Citez ' ' is fol- lowed by a description of the Holy Land, which repeats some of its details. From this second part Conder has culled a list of some thirty distances between various places, which on comparison with the results 1 Caps, xxx-xxxiv. 2 Caps, xxxviii-xliv. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 107 of the Survey, he finds on the whole to approximate to correctness. 1 The German Dominican Monk, commonly called Burchard of Mt. Zion, whose name has come down to us under the various forms of Burchardus, Bro- cardus, and Borcardus, appears to have written his account about the year 1283. 2 In his preface, Bur- chard states that, having traversed a large part of the Holy Land on foot, his description is the result of personal observation, supplemented by informa- tion derived from Syrians {i.e., native Christians) and Saracens, whom he carefully questioned. His title, " De Monte Sion," is supposed by some critics to indicate a long residence at the convent there, but there seems to be no evidence of this. As an attempt at systematic arrangement, Burchard 's ac- count is a distinct advance upon earlier writers, though the system is open to criticism. Taking the city of Acre as a centre, he divides the land into four quarters by means of radiating lines, each quarter being further subdivided into three parts. " In each of these divisions," he says in his preface, ' ' I have placed the cities and places mentioned in Scripture, that it may be easy to find the situation of each place." As these radiating bands are taken strictly in order, the reader finds himself constantly brought back to Acre. Possibly, Burchard's early 1 P. P. T., vol. vi. We may note here that chapters vii-x of Ernoul's chronicle (c. 1230) are devoted to the Holy Land (see same vol.) His account is full of errors, and his arrangement very arbitrary. 2 P. P. T., vol. xii. Not to be confused with Brocardus who wrote in 1332. (See Rohricht.) 108 PALESTINE EXPLORATION readers, with his maps before them — the first medi- aeval map of which we have a record 1 — may, as the author hoped, have found the system helpful, but, as this map has not come down to our times, we find nothing but confusion in a purely arbitrary descrip- tion, which, for example, instead of grouping to- gether the towns on the Sea of Galilee, presents Capernaum and Chorazin in one section, Tiberias in another, and Bethsaida with Magdala in a third. Be- fore proceeding to describe the various bands, he quotes with some amplification Jacques de Vitry's divisions of Syria, giving credit to his authority. As to Scriptural place-names, his list is fuller than that of Fetellus by some forty-five sites. He is the first mediaeval pilgrim to mention Ai, Aphek, Azekah, Beth-haccerem, Beth-rehob, Gerar, Kadesh- Naphtali, Lachish, Makkedah, Michmash, Mahanaim, Nob, Ramoth-Gilead, Shittim, Shocoh, Shunem, etc. The general positions of these are indicated, though they are not identified with particular sites or ruins. In Burchard we are pleased to observe, at last, the dawning of an interest in archaeology. 2 "At Kadesh-Naphtali," he says, "there are shown to this day vast ruins and exceeding beauteous tombs." ' ' I have nowhere in the Holy Land seen such great ruins as at Samaria, and yet I have seen great ones. The palace was on the mountain-top and was exceeding fair. There may be seen there to this day many of the marble columns which sup- 1 See, however, p. 78. • Cap. iv, p. 27. Note, however, that in the first quarter of this century, Thietmar describes a rock-cut city, which ho did not know to be Petra. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 109 ported its palaces and colonnades. Round about the mount, below the palace and below the mansions of the nobles, on the site of the public place or mar- ket for buying and selling, we may find to this day, all around about the mount, marble columns, stand- ing within the walls. These columns used to sup- port the vaults of the street, for the streets of this city were vaulted according to the custom of the Holy Land. " l In Northern Syria he notes the Sepulchral Towers of 'Amrit. His topography of Jerusalem is fuller than that of Theoderich, notably in showing how Mt. Zion (by which he means the southern part of the Western Hill) is flanked on the south and west by one deep ravine — the Valley of Hinnom — and on the north and east by a second, which begins at the Tower of David, passes along the north of Mt. Zion, and bending south between Mt. Zion and Mt. Moriah, joins the Kedron Valley. "At this day," he writes, "the whole of the tor- rent-bed is filled up, nevertheless its traces may be made out after a fashion. " 2 As the tourist proceeds to-day along the street leading from the Jaffa Gate to the Mosque of Omar, he finds it difficult to real- ize that he is walking over the course of an ancient torrent-bed. It is interesting to know that over six hundred years ago our Dominican Monk also found this valley filled up, and yet used his sharp eyes to make out its traces. His archaeological instinct is again shown in describing the Valley of Jehoshaphat, 1 Cap. vii, p. 51. ■ Cap. viii, p. 07. So the text of Laurent's edition. Other texts have : " relictis tanien vestigiis prioris concavitas." 110 PALESTINE EXPLORATION where he illustrates the changes of level by noting that the Virgin's Tomb, once above the surface, was at the time of his visit quite underground. * At the end of Burchard's tract are two sections, entitled, respectively, "The Fruits and Beasts of the Holy Land ' ' and ' ' The Various Religions of the Holy 'Land." The latter shows a broad spirit of toleration, declaring on the one hand that the Latin population, containing so much of the scum of Eu- rope, is the worst in the country, and deploring on the other the terror inspired in true Catholics by the very mention of the Eastern Sects, which he says include "men of simple and devout life, yet I do not deny there may be fools among them, seeing that even the Church of Rome itself is not free from fools. ' ' 2 His brief notice of the Moslems is both accurate and temperate, though it must be admitted that in a former section he has referred to the "Abominable Mohammed." Taking into ac- count Burchard's grasp of his subject, his fulness of detail, his interest in archaeology, and his tolerant spirit, I do not hesitate to follow M. Laurent, one of his many editors, in accounting him "the most not- able of all mediaeval pilgrims." Before leaving the Crusading Period, that is, the period during which the Franks had at least a foot- hold in the Holy Land, we must refer to the wealth of information in connection with the official descrip- tions of Fiefs and lists of places belonging to differ- ent Orders and individuals. 3 Conder has shown 1 Cap. viii, p. 72. 2 Cap. xiii, p. 107. 3 See Key's Colonies Franques en Syrie. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 111 that "out of some 700 places mentioned in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries in Western Pales- tine, about 500 are now more or less certainly lo- cated. ' ' l The Crusaders were not, strictly speaking, explorers, but they created abundant material for the explorers of succeeding centuries. We must add that in doing this they uprooted much of the antiquity of the past, without, alas ! properly record- ing its traces. Among the best preserved monu- ments of the land are the ruins of the Crusading churches and castles. The latter invite the travel- ler's attention wherever he may wander — on the shores of the Dead Sea, on the heights overlooking the Lake of Gennesaret, on the foot-hills of Lebanon and Hermon, along the maritime plain, in the in- terior of Northern Syria. 2 During the fourteenth century visits to Palestine pass into a new phase. No longer was their motive exclusively religious. In many cases they are but incidents in more extensive travels, taken in the spirit of Marco Polo, whose exploring enterprise belongs indeed to the preceding century. For the Venetian Marino Sanuto, however, the centre of the universe was still the Holy Land. On September 24, 1321, he presented to Pope John XXI. his vast work entitled "Liber Secretorum Fidelium Crucis super Terrae Sanctse Recuperatione et Conserva- tione " ; or " The Book of Secrets for Crusaders concerning the Recovery and Preservation of the 1 Q. S., 1897, p. 71. Also Conder's The Latin Kingdom of Jeru- salem. 2 See Key's Etude sur les monuments de 1' architecture militaire des Croises en Syrie, etc., Paris, 1871. 112 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Holy Land. ' ' l This work Ritter declares to be "the most complete monograph which the Middle Ages have given us on any similar theme. " To a study of this burning question, both on its historic and practical sides, our Venetian gave a great part of his life. He traces the history of the land from the earliest times through the period of Mohamme- dan rule to the entry of the Franks. He discusses the origin of the Crusaders, the period of Latin power, the reasons for the loss of the kingdom. He points out the easiest places for the landing of an army, shows where the best sailors may be ob- tained, and dwells on the Art of Making Allies. The geography of Palestine is systematically treated in Part XIV of Book III, 2 with cross refer- ences to other portions of the work, where cities and other places are mentioned in connection with the History. Though the author was a frequent visitor to Acre, we miss the personal touch in his informa- tion, much of which, adopted without acknowledg- ment, may be traced to Burchard and to Jacques de Vitry. Still, while closely following the former — mistakes and all — in locating sites, he attempts on his own account about a dozen identifications of places not noticed before in Mediaeval times. 3 He also shows a certain originality in grouping his sup- posed facts, devoting especial chapters to the Rivers and the Mountains, references to which, often er- ' Latin text found in the Gesta Dei Francos. 2 This portion appears in English translation in P. P. T. , vol. xii. 3 These include Abilene, Beeroth, Beth Jesimoth, Eshtaol, Ene- glaim, .Tanesh Gilead, Jokncam, the field of Zoan. None of the sites is located precisely. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 113 roneous, are scattered through Burchard's work. Toward the close of the section we find detailed lists of the pilgrimages to be taken in the Holy Land. Fortunately, of the four maps prepared for the work, three have been preserved: The World, the Holy Land, The Coast of Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. Only the map of the Mediterranean has perished. We also have his plans of Acre and of Jerusalem. The map of the Holy Land is hardly more than a rude sketch, not drawn to scale and full of errors. Damascus appears near Csesarea Philippi and west of Hermon; the Dead Sea shrinks to narrow limits, while in comparison the waters of Merom are too extensive. The map is covered by a network of lines which have no connection with de- grees or meridians, but which, like the bands of Burchard, were supposed to facilitate reference. Our author states that as the Holy Land is eighty- three leagues long and twenty-eight leagues broad, he has divided his map into squares by eighty-three lines running east and west and by twenty-eight running north and south, each space representing a square league. In enumerating the principal places he proceeds longitudinally by spaces, beginning at the northeast corner and thus running down the map twenty-eight times. This method of description rivals that of Burchard in awkwardness, and in- volves, like his, the scattering through the text of the various references to the sites on the Sea of Galilee instead of their co-ordination in a single paragraph. His map of Jerusalem is confirmatory of Burchard's statement, made at the close of the 114 PALESTINE EXPLORATION thirteenth century, that Mt. Zion was within the city wall. In 1896, while trenching across the Western Hill, Mr. Dickie and myself came across a city wall which ran on a different line from that of Eudocia. On boring through its foundations, we found in their very heart a fragment of late- Byzantine moulding, indicating that these were laid in Medieval times. 1 Turning to Marino Sanuto's map we observed upon it a wall running upon the same general lines with the foundations we were tracing. 2 While Marino Sanuto was bending all his energies to considering practical plans for bringing Palestine once more under Christian dominion, a poor exiled Jew was unostentatiously working for the advance- ment of real scientific knowledge regarding the land of his ancestors. In 1314 the Rabbi Esthori B. Mose Ha-Parchi settled in Beisan (Bethshean, Scythopolis) , above the western bank of the Jordan, and from this centre systematically explored both Eastern and Western Palestine for seven years, devoting two of them to Galilee. His work was completed in 1322. Crude as it may now seem, it was a great advance upon contemporary Christian writers. It sounds the note of Robinson, empha- sizing the fact that many ancient towns of the tribes were well known to the inhabitants of the land, though visitors were ignorant of their situa- 1 See Excavations at Jerusalem by Bliss and Dickie, pp. 68-74. 2 This wall appears also on the map accompanying the De Passagiis in Terrain Sanctam found in the Chronologia Magna, dated by Rohricht at about 1330. But Thomas, editor of the De Passagiis (Venice, 1879), thinks it probable that Marino Sanuto made use of this work. Neither map is a direct copy of the other. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 115 tion. 1 He compares his own observations with the statements of former Jewish writers. The account of districts which he visited is accompanied by important notes on frontiers, cantons, distances, botany, etc. Robinson points out that several ancient sites often supposed to have been rightly identified for the first time during the nineteenth century were recognized by him; for example, he identifies Megiddo with Lejjun or Legio on the edge of the plain of Esdraelon. On the other hand, of course many mistakes occur. Mareshah is not north of Lydda, but far to the south. "Dan," he says, "is Leshem, Sefam, Laish, Paneas, Arabic Banias" ; his attempt to correlate these various names is in- teresting, his identification is wrong. Of especial note is his account of the Trans-Jordanic provinces, with mention of Dibon, Aroer, Heshbon, etc. 2 1 This point is touched on by Theoderich (1172), see p. 95. 2 For Parchi, see Zunz On the Geography of Palestine from Jewish Sources, in Asher's Benjamin of Tudela (1840-41), vol. ii, pp. 393 ff. Parchi and Benjamin are the most important of Mediaeval Jewish writers on Palestine. R. Petachia (1175-80) has been already mentioned in i footnote (p. 101). For brief notices of other authors, see Zunz in the same vol., pp. 234 ff. , On the Geographical Literature of the Jews from the remotest times to the year 1841. See also Carmoly's Itineraires de la Terre Sainte des XIII, XIV, XV, XVI et XVII Siecles (Bruxelles, 1847). This contains French translations of the brief tracts of Samuel Bar Simson (1220) ; Iakob de Paris (12ol) ; Ishak Chelo (1334) ; Eliah de Ferrare (1438); Gerson de Scarmala (1561); Uri de Biel (1564); Samuel Jemsel (1641). These authors concern themselves mainly witli the tombs of sacred men of Scripture and noted Rabbis. Com- pare also Neubauer's Anecdota Oxonicnsia. Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles (1895) ; especially for Daniel the Reubenite, who visited Jerusalem and Hebron in 1523. He gives a curious account of the Tombs of the Patriarchs at the latter place. See also Chaplin, Q. S. , 1897, p. 44. 116 PALESTINE EXPLORATION In 1336 Wilhelm von Baldensel and Ludolph von Suchem, rector of a parish in the diocese of Pader- born, began their travels together in Palestine. 1 Wilhelm published first, and from his account Lu- dolph copies many entire sentences in his work writ- ten about the year 1350. But though they run on parallel lines, Wilhelm is bald, uninteresting; Lu- dolph is charming, picturesque. The latter is indeed no geographer; he draws no broad outlines, and his details are often erroneous, such as when he confuses Azotus with Antipatris, and places Gath at Scanda- lium, north of Acre. 2 But inaccuracy in identifica- tion of long-dead cities may be pardoned to a trav- eller who can paint us a vivid picture of the living city of Damascus as it stood in Mediaeval times. Lightly he touches upon its circle of gardens and orchards, full of flowers and fruits; its rivers and brooks and fountains ' ' curiously arranged to minis- ter to men's luxury"; the segregation of divers trades by streets; the rivalry of merchants in dis- play of goods in front of their shops; the singing- birds hung in cages before the dwelling-houses ; the tempting cook-shops redolent with exquisitely pre- pared food. 3 As you read you seem to hear the hum of chatter and the click of busy trade ; you smell the flowers, you admire the prettily arranged wares, you taste the confections of the pastry-cook. He gives 1 Guilielmi do Baldensel Hodoeporicon ad Terram Sanctam. See Canisii Thesaur. Monument, ed. Basnage. Ant. 172o, Tome IV, p. 331. Description of the Holy Land, etc., by Ludolph von Suchem, P. P. T., xii. (This last name sometimes appears as Petrus de Suchen and Ludolphus de Sudheim; see Rohricht.) 2 Cap. xxvii. a Cap. xliv. THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 117 an enthusiastic account of ' ' the glorious city of Acre ' ' as it had been in Crusading times. l Equally lively is the story of the journey from Egypt to Palestine by the way of Mt. Sinai, with its notes on the habits of camels, on the Arab guides, on the hardships of the Desert, on the Monks of St. Catherine. 2 At Hebron he found three renegades — two esquires and their servant — who had renounced their Christian Faith in the hope of gain, and who, as he pathetically re- marks, "had no heart to tell who they had been." 3 As has been noticed in the case of former travellers, the burden of describing the traditional Holy Places in Jerusalem weighs on Ludolph's style. We miss the gay note, the bright personal touch. The places passed on the way between Jerusalem and Damascus are only briefly referred to, and the trip across the Lebanon to Beyrout is barely more than indicated. The earliest known manuscript purporting to con- tain the travels of a Sir John Mandeville, is in French and is dated 1371. The author claiming this name declares that he left England in 1322, and that after wandering through Tartary, Persia, Chaldea, Ar- menia, Palestine, Egypt, Lybia, Ethiopia, India and the Isles round about, he wrote out his adventures in the year 1357. The work was early translated into Latin and English. Its subsequent popularity is proved by translations into seven other languages. This vogue may be accounted for by the curious mixture of credulity with shrewd observation, the whole per- vaded by a genial and liberal spirit. Side by side with descriptions of natural products, we find the 1 Cap. xxv. 2 Caps, xxxv-xxxvi. 3 Cap. xxxvii. 118 PALESTINE EXPLORATION old tales of dog-headed men and one-eyed monsters, which appear in Pliny and Solinus. In view of the uncertainty as to who the author of this curious work was, and as to where he actually travelled himself (though there seems to be little doubt that he really was in Egypt and Palestine) ; as well as in view of the certainty that he stole much of his material from his predecessors, notably from William of Baldinsel, it would not be edifying to our subject to analyze his work closely. But whoever "Sir John" may have been, it is important for us to realize that the fourteenth century produced a Palestine Pilgrim, who, full of superstition indeed, was at the same time a man of the world; whose spirit of toleration in religion was in advance of all who had gone before him, even in advance of Burchard of Mt. Zion. As such a one, he may claim our passing interest. Even when his facts are dubious, his point of view is illuminating. His account of the tenets of Moham- medanism, indeed, contains only a small proportion of error. But whether he ever conversed with the Sultan of Egypt or not, his story of the alleged in- terview serves to emphasize the author's liberal ideas. He puts into the mouth of the Sultan a con- demnation of Christendom as over against Christian- ity which had been betrayed by its followers. The Holy Land will surely revert to the Christians, says the Sultan, when they shall serve God more devoutly, but, until they change, the Saracens have dread of them in no kind. The chief obstacle to the other- wise easy conversion of the Moslems, "Sir John" finds in the bad example of Christians with whose THE CRUSADERS AND AFTER 119 evil living he contrasts the faithful and consistent life of the votaries of Al-Koran. (Chap, xii.) l For a century and a quarter after the time of the alleged Mandeville, though the stream of pilgrimage was never interrupted, there are no intrinsically important records of travel. Some of them strictly follow the traditional lines of description. For ex- ample, John Poloner (1421-22) sometimes copies Burchard word for word, and again appears to fol- low the ' ' Old Compendium, ' ' supposed by Tobler to have been used by Fetellus, Theoderich and others. Even his map (unfortunately lost) adopted the ar- bitrary divisions into squares employed a hundred years before by Marino Sanuto. On the other hand, in the narrative of the Frenchman Bertran- don de la Brocquiere, who visited Syria and Pales- tine in 1432, we hear a new note heralding as it were some of the features of the modern period of travel. 2 Like a multitude of his successors, he presupposes the reader's interest in his private adventures, with which the work is largely concerned. We hear more of the difficulties in visiting places than of the places them- selves. For compensation we get a good deal of inci- dental information in regard to the social conditions of the country near the beginning of the fifteenth cen- tury. What interests him he describes in a way to in- 1 For the most accessible discussion of the authorship of this work, see art. Sir John Mandeville, Dictionary of National Biogra- phy. For Old English version the reader is referred to Halliwell's edition, 1866 : The Voyage and Travaile of Sir John Maundeville. 2 Modern French in Memoires de l'lnstitut, Tome V, Paris, 1804. See also Early Travels in Palestine (Wright) for English trans- lation. 120 PALESTINE EXPLORATION terest us : the difficult landing at Jaffa with the crowd of hungry officials and dragomans on the shore; the illness which interrupts the author's visit to Mt. Sinai, but which gives him the chance to experience the kindly hospitality of an Arab camp, accurately described; the violent contrast between the heat of the day and the cold at night on the journey across the Lebanon to Damascus; the trouble he had at the gate of that city which no Christian was per- mitted to enter on horseback ; his detention in prison until released by the intervention of the Venetian Consul; the return of the Mohammedan pilgrimage from Mecca; the purchase of an Arab attire which he had to assume for his journey by caravan to Brusa; his wonder at the immense water-wheels which to-day strike the traveller's attention at Hamath. Twice he was deterred from making the trip to Nazareth and vicinity by advice given at Jerusalem and at Acre respectively, but his de- termination surmounted all obstacles and he finally visited the desired places, starting from Beyrout alone with a single muleteer. LECTURE IV FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON If in Bertrandon de la Brocquiere, with a notice of whose travels we closed the last lecture, we found signs of a transition from mediaeval to modern methods in descriptive travel, we may affirm that with Felix Fabri (1480-83) the transition has finally been made. 1 Standing at the threshold of a new period, this Dominican Father of Ulm looks both backward and forward, but his likeness to Robinson is greater than his likeness to Burchard. Still, we must remember that he is only on the threshold. The analogy with modern times pre- sented by his work is more in form than in content. His geography shows little or no advance on his predecessors. Archaeology, as such, has small in- terest for him. He uses little fresh material. But he arranges the old material with discrimination ; he attempts to discuss it critically; and he presents it to us with a fulness never before contemplated. Fabri's second trip to the Holy Land was con- temporaneous with that of Bernhardt de Breyden- bach, Dean of Mayence, and the journey to Sinai 1 Felix Fabri : Eigentliche Besehreibung der bin und wider- Fahrt zu dera heyligen Landt gen Jerusalem, Ulni, 1556. For the references here, see The Wanderings of Felix Fabri, P. P. T., »ii-x. (Two volumes bound in four.) 122 PALESTINE EXPLORATION they took in company. Good friends they were, and, indeed, the Dean invited Fabri to visit him at the Cathedral town, where they might compose their works together. Felix praises his friend's book highly, declaring that his perspicuous account of the religious sects is fuller than his own, 1 and that his pen-picture of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is so vivid that the reader feels himself to be standing in the very court-yard and gazing at the building itself. 2 Comparing the two works, we note that Breydenbach's is the better adapted for reference, as the itineraries are kept, separate from the histori- cal discussions and from the detailed descriptions. 3 His style is more condensed than that of Fabri's, but at the sacrifice of those personal and humorous touches which illuminate the otherwise prolix ac- count of the latter. Notwithstanding his more scientific arrangement, the critical Robinson finds Breydenbach less accurate than Fabri. Hence, all things considered, we shall keep to Fabri as the bet- ter representative of the new era in travel. This choice will enable us to illustrate the bond of common experience that unites all travellers to the Holy Land, whether mediaeval or modern. We may quote, then, a few of Fabri's humorous passages, showing that tourists visiting this country ten years before Columbus discovered America, had just about the same adventures, and showed just about the 'Vol. i, pp. 438-39. 2 Vol. i, p. 427. 3 Hern, de Breydenbach, Itinerarium Ilierosolymitanum ae in Terrain Sauctuin, Mogunt, 148C ; Spira;, 1490, ib., 1502. German : Die Heiligen Keisen gen Jherusalem, etc , Maynz, 1480, etc. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 123 same sort of human nature as may be exhibited in the latest grand cruise of 1904. When I read how the German Pilgrims, on the morning of their start from Jaffa, were met by a horde of donkey-drivers with such an onrush that "it not seldom hap- pened that two or three drivers were dragging one pilgrim, one in one direction, one in another," * my mind instantly parallels the scene with the recollec- tion of an Austrian pilgrim I once saw in the Jeru- salem bazar, whose terrified expression told that he feared he would be torn limb from limb by the des- perate onslaught of the sellers of olive-wood and pearl ware. Felix and his party were conducted to the Siloam Tunnel, but what satisfaction they got out of it may be gathered from Felix's own words: "Those in front cried out against the impatience of those behind, and those who were last cried out at the slowness of those who were in front, and those who were in the middle cried out because they were squeezed by both the others. ' ' 2 Cameleers, it appears, have not altered a whit during the last 400 years. Inspired by hopes of extra bakhshish, they delayed the start of our pilgrim's caravan by leaving on the ground, after the camels were charged, a bed, a basket or a bag, declaring that nothing else could go on the loads. Says Fabri: " We cursed them in German and they cursed us in Arabic, and we shouted at one another without either side understanding the other. " 3 On the way from Jerusalem to Jericho Felix's cavalcade was followed by a rabble of Arab boys, with an eye to fun and plunder. He main- 1 Felix Fabri : I, p. 240. 2 1, p. 527. » II, p. 492. 124 PALESTINE EXPLORATION tains that the plight of his party was worse than that of the man who fell among thieves along this same route, ' ' for, ' ' he says, ' ' we brought our thieves with us at our own charges." 1 His fondness for finding a parallel between his own experiences and those of Biblical characters is further illustrated by his account of the terrible thirst experienced by the Pilgrims in the Wilderness of Sinai when ' ' we murmured for water, saying to the dragoman Cal- inus, who was our Moses, ' Give us water that we may drink.' " 2 Fabri's description of this Calinus, by the way, proves that the dragoman-fever, the chief symptom of which is the hallucination that your own particular dragoman is a unique incarna- tion of disinterested perfection and that with him all virtue will perish, is a disease not confined to modern times. Like his successor of to-day, Calinus would not willingly discourage this idea. ' ' He was much troubled," says Felix, "to know how after his death pilgrims would be able to be guided through the desert and through those countries. Indeed I myself am also disquieted about this, and I dread his death." 3 On returning to Germany from his first visit to Palestine, made in 1480, when he "ran about the Holy Places without understanding or feeling what they were," 4 Felix painfully realized that he had no clear answer to give to questions about the Holy Land. Determining to make a second journey under different auspices, he devoted a year to an elaborate »II, p. 10. 2 II, p. 032. »H, p. 10G. *See Introduction to his Wanderings. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 125 study of the literature of the subject, which further revealed to him the superficial and irregular char- acter of his own observations. His new record took the form of a diary, minutely detailing each day's happenings ; a resume of the condition and history of a given place was inserted on the day on which it was visited. The main object of the work being the elucidation of the Bible, he recognized in the life of the Holy Land, as he found it, a wealth of illustra- tion of ancient manners and customs. His account of the different religious sects is fair on the whole as regards the facts, but it is occasionally embittered by an intolerant spirit. As we have already inti- mated, his geography, whether in general descrip- tion or in Scriptural identification, shows no advance upon Burchard's. Let us follow this second journey somewhat more closely. In 1483 Felix Fabri was attached as guide and domestic chaplain to a party of four nobles, who travelled in considerable state. At Venice they made a contract with the captain of a galley, who, for forty ducats apiece, agreed to pay all the ex- penses of the ordinary tour, on sea and land. The trip to the Jordan was included, but not the excur- sion to Mt. Sinai. Mt. Carmel was sighted on the 1st of July amid a joyful outburst of music from trumpets, flutes, and bagpipes, but the party was detained in the Jaffa harbor for five days, awaiting the return of messengers from Jerusalem with pa- pers of safe-conduct. A further detention of four days was suffered in a foul chamber on shore, so that the start for Ramleh was not made till the 126 PALESTINE EXPLORATION 9th of the month. At this place the Father Guardian of the Jerusalem convent of Mt. Zion read them a list of twenty-seven rules to govern their conduct in visiting the Holy Places, and their relations to the Saracens. 1 Most of these I heartily recommend to the consideration of modern travellers. Our pilgrims were told to beware of their conduct with Moslems, lest they bring shame on the Chris- tian name; to refrain from entering mosques, from laughing at the prayers of the Saracens, or from drinking wine in their presence; not to write their names on walls nor to chip off bits from the Holy Places. Unfortunately, these last two injunctions were badly observed, for we hear of one pilgrim who smeared his name with red paint so ubiquitously that Felix declares ' ' his companions wished that they never had known the name which he had been of such pains to paint up everywhere," 2 and of an- other whose mutilation of the Tomb of St. Catherine at Sinai threatened to cause a serious quarrel at the Convent, happily averted by the admirable Calinus, who managed secretly to regain the missing chip and to restore it to the indignant monks. 3 From Ramleh the pilgrims proceeded to Jerusalem under a strong escort, passing the night on the ground, too excited for sleep. Like modern pil- grims, they went straightway to the Holy Sepulchre, where many manifested their emotion in violent, hys- terical forms. Felix bears interesting testimony to the attitude of the Moslems to this tomb. They regard it, he says, as the grave where was interred 1 I, pp. 248 ff. 2 II, p. 88. 3 II, p. G25. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 127 the man crucified in the place of Jesus. To them as to their successors to-day the Cross of Christ was both a stumbling-block and foolishness. Felix was taken to a heap of stones near the Church of Mt. Zion — a quarter of a mile south of the Holy Sepul- chre — and was told that the place was venerated by the Saracens as the true burial-place of Jesus. Later he visited the spot secretly, scattered the stones, and unearthed the loaves of bread buried as offerings by the Arab women. 1 The chief interest in his notes on the Holy Sepul- chre lies in his attempt — perhaps the first in the Middle Ages — to employ genuine historical criticism in discussing the site. 2 We hasten to add that it is not the site itself which he calls in question ; for him the problem is to ascertain whether the Sepul- chre shown as the grave of Our Lord be in verity the actual tomb in which He was laid. He prepares the way for the discussion by presenting a vivid picture of the tomb and its surroundings as they must have appeared at the time of Christ, stating that he is indebted for his reconstruction not so much to the Scriptural references, which he shows to be vague, as to an analogy with the many rock- cut tombs about Jerusalem, carefully explored by himself. He next describes the actual condition of the place, quoting the account of J. Tucher of Nuremberg, who in 1479 made careful measure- ments, and adds the results of his own observations. The difficulties of the problem, he says, arise from three causes : from the inconsistent accounts given 'I, p. 332. 2 I, pp. 398-416. 128 PALESTINE EXPLORATION by ancient and modern writers, from the various destructions to which the Holy City has been sub- jected ; and especially from the fact that in his day the ordinary pilgrim found the whole place covered with marble, so that ' ' neither within nor without, neither in the monument nor in the place where the body was laid, is there any stone or rock to be seen, but the whole . ... is covered over with white polished marble, which it was not originally." He traces the references to the marble covering from Arculf's statement that while the exterior of the cave was thus covered, the interior showed the original rock, through the account of an anonymous pilgrim of the year 1200, who gives similar testi- mony, down to the description of travellers of his day, who agree that no part of the original Sepul- chre is visible, though they differ in their views as to whether any portion of this remains. He repu- diates the theory, held by some critics, that when the Christians were driven from Jerusalem, they removed the entire Sepulchre piecemeal, on the ground that no church in Europe claims to own, among its relics, a chip from the rock. His own view is based upon a final examination of the in- terior by candle-light which revealed that the parti- tion containing the door between the outer and inner caves was not encased with marble like the walls on either side, but was bare. Hence he was able to note that it was ' ' cut out of the rock, not made of ashlar work, but all of one piece, with the marks of tools plainly to be seen upon it; in the upper part there seemed to have been a fracture which had FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 129 been mended with stones and cement." "From this," he concludes, "it is apparent to me that the Lord's Sepulchre had once been destroyed but never completely rooted up; that what is now there is a restoration, and that it has stood for more than 200 years as it appears to-day. ' ' That Fabri does not hold his theory dogmatically is shown by the words closing the discussion : ' ' From all that has been said, the devout and quiet pilgrim should grasp the fact that whether the cave as it stands at the pres- ent day be the true and entire monument of Christ, or whether a part of it be there, or whether none of it be there, matters very little either one way or the other, because the main fact connected with the place abides true ... to wit, that this was the place of the most Holy Burial and Resurrection of Christ . . . where there is a monument erected to Christ, and where the Sacrament of his Body has been often celebrated." I commend the spirit of these words to the Iconoclast who finds in the Holy Sepulchre nothing but degrading superstition, re- minding him that, whether or not he agrees with Fabri in regard to the authenticity of the site, he may surely allow himself a thrill of sympathy in remembering that to this "monument erected to Christ" have flocked in all ages multitudes from every tribe and nation and kindred and tongue. The spirit of this discussion justifies us in classing Felix Fabri with modern travellers. Its logical arrangement, historical research, personal investiga- tion, and, above all, its unprejudiced tone, all show the Dominican father to be the worthy predecessor 130 PALESTINE EXPLORATION of the founders of the " Ecole Pratique d' Etudes Bibliques " at Jerusalem. The original band of pilgrims left Jerusalem for Jaffa on July 22d, after making the usual excur- sions to the Jordan and to Bethlehem, leaving be- hind Felix, with a few companions, to prepare for their trip to Mt. Sinai. The journey north to Gali- lee was given up on account of supposed danger, but not without a good deal of bitter feeling on the part of the minority, bent on seeing Nazareth at any risk. In the meantime Fabri undertook some minor explorations of Jerusalem and its vicinity on his own account. With a Jew as guide, "in fear and silence," he entered the vaults called Solomon's Stables by a breach in the wall of the Temple Area. * The Mosque of Omar he was able to view only from the Mount of Olives. He was dissuaded from going to the Dead Sea, but not by the dragoman's "some- what theological argument, that the pilgrims had come to visit Holy, not Accursed, places." 2 At last, on August 24th, the party set out toward Gaza on donkeys, with twenty-two camels to carry tents, bedding, and provisions. Like the traveller of to- day, at Hebron they were allowed only to approach to the steps of the Mosque containing the sepulchres of the Patriarchs. As he proceeds toward Gaza, Fabri attempts to identify the sites along the route, but without much success. Still, we are indebted to him for his description of a place which he suggests may be Ziklag. 3 He arrived at Gaza at nightfall, 1 Vol. ii, pp. 126-29. s Vol. ii, p. 105. 3 Vol ii, pp. 428-20. FROM FABBI TO ROBINSON 131 having passed at noon a lofty mound, with an ex- tensive view, whose slopes were covered with fallen masonry, and whose top was surmounted by strong walls as of a city, not of a castle. Robinson holds that Fabri is describing Tell-el-Hesy. 1 If this be so, the walls seen by Felix were those of Lachish, not of Ziklag, and were subsequently to his visit buried in their own debris until the excavations of Dr. Petrie and myself. 2 At Gaza the party was so demoralized by a short but sharp epidemic of sickness that a panic for re- turn home seized most of the members, who, how- ever, could not agree on any one route. After a wretched day of plotting and counter-plotting, health and reason returned together, and with a solemn compact to stick by each other whatever happened, they re-determined to go forward into the wilder- ness. I wish we could follow Fabri through his thirteen days' journey to Sinai, when privation and discomfort often caused him to wonder ' ' that the Scriptures should so bitterly reproach the children of Israel for their murmurings, and that they should have been so grievously punished for so doing. " 3 I wish that we could dwell upon his minute accounts of the Holy Mount and the associated places, but we have already given him proportionally more space than he intrinsically deserves. In explanation of this apparent favoritism we must allege that his 1 Researches, ii, p. 48. 2 Note, however, that the city walls excavated at Lachish were of murl-brick ; cf. Volney's account, Voyages, ii, p. 311. :t II, p. 516. 132 PALESTINE EXPLORATION importance for us lies in his place in the History of Palestine Exploration. For on Felix Fabri shone the first rays from the sun of the modern world, which had been heralded by a slowly but constantly brightening dawn for 200 years. The light of this dawn we have seen reflected in our Palestine travellers from Burchard onward. The spirit of enterprise firing the first globe-trotter, Marco Polo (who wrote in 1298), influenced the spirit of pilgrimage, gradually mini- mized the subjective element which had dominated since the days of Helena, intensified the objective side. Curiosity began to stimulate observation; observation demanded an adequate record; the stereotype phraseology which makes one pilgrim- account read so much like every other, gave place to individual expression. This matter of free descrip- tion is indeed Fabri 's distinguishing characteristic, is the link that binds him to the world of to-day. His originality consists in his manner of treating old subjects rather than in a choice of new subjects to be treated. But after him we find new subjects of research, new points of view, logically associ- ated with the widening of the field of knowledge consequent upon the discovery of America (1492), of the Cape route to India (1486-98) and of the ocean way round the globe (1520). The dissemi- nation of classical learning in the West after the fall of Constantinople (1453) opened the eyes of European visitors to the Holy Land to monuments hitherto unnoticed — monuments illustrating that splendid part of its history unconnected with Script- FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON ' 133 ural events. Each important traveller added his especial contribution to the gradual accumulation of knowledge — one in the line of archaeology, another in the field of botany, another in a picturesque pres- entation of natural scenery. The growth of a curi- osity regarding the habits and customs of the natives is well illustrated by Rauwolf (1573-75), who de- scribes the whole gamut of daily life at Tripoli and Aleppo: the construction of houses, even to the wooden keys and bolts; the town drainage and pub- lic baths ; the dress of the people ; their judicial pro- ceedings; their trades and imports; their religion and morals ; their manner of sepulture. * Progress in geography, however, and especially in the correct placing of Scriptural sites, was not com- mensurate with advance in other directions. The false identifications of the Crusaders persisted with extraordinary tenacity. Here and there we find an attempt to get away from these, as in Pococke (1738) , but almost to the end of the chapter, to mention two examples, the Vale of Elah is usually placed at the Wady Beit Hanina, near Jerusalem, and Dothan at Khan Jubb Yusif , north of the Sea of Galilee. Eastern Palestine was practically ignored till the time of Seetzen and Burckhardt, near the beginning of the nineteenth century. Indeed, before them little at- tempt was made to identify places off the main lines of travel, and owing to the increased severity of Moslem rule under the Turks, some of the high-roads were often closed to tourists after the second decade 1 Some thirty years before Rauwolf, the French doctor Belon du Mans had written on the habits of the Turks. 134 PALESTINE EXPLORATION of the sixteenth century. Tolls were extorted from pilgrims at short intervals along the various routes. These are constantly reported until the time of La- martine (1833), who states that the blackmail levied by the terrible chief of Abu Ghosh had been abolished by Ibrahim Pasha, the conqueror from Egypt. The excursion to Jericho and the Jordan could ordinarily be made only on Easter Monday, under escort of the Governor of Jerusalem. Sandys (1611) was obliged to forego this trip, as he arrived in the Holy City too late. Thevenot (1658) states that the governor was supported by 300 horsemen and 200 foot- soldiers, the pilgrims numbering 4,000, as that year the Greek and Latin feasts coincided. On their return from the Jordan they passed in single file before the governor one by one, lest he lose any portion of his precious tax. The trip which he desired to make to the Dead Sea (barely an hour's ride out of the way) was absolutely forbidden. Maundrell (1697) declares that the pilgrims were taxed whether they took the trip or not, but count of the actual visitors was still made in the Jericho plain. More fortunate than Thevenot, he obtained a special escort to visit the Dead Sea. Similar experiences are narrated by Pococke in 1738. Cha- teaubriand, who was in Jerusalem in October, 1806, congratulated himself on being able to visit the Jor- dan and Dead Sea by secret arrangements with a man purporting to be the Governor of Jericho. The tradition of blackmail along this route is kept up to-day, all tourists being warned at their consulates to take a guard from the Sheikhs of Abu Dis, near FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 135 Bethany, who claim the hereditary right to safe- guard travellers. The tax is cheerfully paid by those who like to imagine the dangers of the route where the man "fell among thieves," and, indeed, were it refused, there would probably arise some in- convenience, the source of which might be traced to the rejected escort. 1 Samaria and Galilee were for a long time in an es- pecially dangerous condition. We have noticed that Felix Fabri was warned against the journey north from Jerusalem. Pierre Belon du Mans passed through Shechem on his way to Nazareth in 1548, but Zuallardo, who visited Palestine in 1586, when, according to Conder, 2 Christian influence was at its lowest ebb in the country, did not even make the at- tempt, and George Sandys in 1611, on his way from Jerusalem to Carmel, skirted the western base of the mountains, taking an unusual route from fear of the Arabs. After waiting long at Acre for the chance of an escort of merchants to Nazareth and the Sea of Galilee, he was obliged to sail for Sidon without visiting the early home of his Lord. Thevenot (1658) reached Nazareth and the Sea of Galilee from Acre, but describes the land route through Samaria only from hearsay, as the tolls made it too expensive for him. Van Egmond and Heyman, who travelled between the years 1700 and 1723, also avoided the inland route. Pococke, whose extensive wanderings in 1738 took him over many untrodden routes in 1 Inhabitants of Jerusalem, native or foreign, can to-day take this route in safety, unguarded. 2 See Conder's art. on Zuallardo'.s travels (Q. S , l',»02, p. 98) for the indignities heaped on pilgrims. 136 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Syria and Palestine, went by sea from Jaffa to Acre. * The early part of the period under consideration is noteworthy for the inception of an interest in archae- ology; the latter part for its scientific development. While reviewing the course of this interest in Pales- tine, it may be instructive to bear in mind that this runs parallel with its course along Classic lines. During the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries the European habit of collecting ancient sarcophagi for modern burial purposes — a habit which had obtained for some time previous — led to the collection of sculptures as models for the studies of artists. Early in the seventeenth century this enthusiasm for Classic Art for Art's sake gave way to a more purely antiquarian interest. Actual exploration of the monuments of Greece was not conducted till 1675-76, when Spon and Wheler made an exten- sive tour. The year previous to their arrival the sculptures of the Parthenon had been drawn by the French artist Carrey. With the discovery of Herculaneum in 1720, and of Pompeii in 1748, the antiquarian spirit yielded to an historical and scien- tific method, best exemplified by Winckelmann (1717- 68). 2 It is interesting to note that the Palestine 1 That the inland route was possible, though difficult, is proved by the successful attempts to pass over it by Cotovicus (1598), Pietro della Valle (1616), Monconys (1646), D'Arvieux (1660), and Maundrell (1697). 2 See pp. 344-45, art. Classical Archaeology, Encyc. Brit., by Dr. Murray. Cf. Systematik und Geschichte der Archseologie dcr Kunst, by Dr. C. B. Stark, Leipzig, 1880 ; especially sections l."< and 14 of Chapter 3, dealing with the beginnings of Archaeo- logical studies in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries in the spirit of the Renaissance; and the Arehajology of Art in the seventeenth FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 137 archaeologists De la Roque and Maundrell closely followed upon Spon and Wheler, the pioneer students of Greek monuments; and that Pococke's extended researches among the ruins of the Holy Land oc- curred after the discovery of Herculaneum and be- fore that of Pompeii. The Palestinian pioneer in this science appears to be Kootwyk, better known under his Latinized name Cotovicus, who visited the Holy Land at the very close of the sixteenth century (1598-99). The travellers earlier in this century touch on the sub- ject only cursorily. While the French physician Pierre Belon du Mans (1548) briefly mentions ruins all along his route, notes a Greek epitaph of Caius Caesar on an ancient masonry tomb near 'Hums (Emesa), measures the platform of the Temple of Nahleh in the Anti-Lebanon, and attributes the ter- racing of the Judean hills to the ancient Jews, yet, though he seems to be the first European traveller after the Crusades to visit Baalbec, he dismisses the wonderful temples in a few words. Indeed, that he does not claim to be an archaeologist is proved by the close of his brief description : "A man curious re- garding antiquities could not see all there is in Baal- bec in eight days, for there are many things, an- cient and most notable, which were outside of our range of observation; also we did not stay there long." l The state of his geographical learning is and the first half of the eighteenth centuries under the domination of an antiquarian interest. 1 Les Observations de Plusieurs Singularitez et Choses Meraora- bles, trouvees en (Jrece, Asie, Judee, Egypte, Arabic, et autres pays estranges. Par Pierre Belon du Mans. Paris, 1555 ; p. 153 b. (First edition is dated 1553.) 138 PALESTINE EXPLORATION illustrated by his identification of Baalbec with Caesa- rea Philippi, which he acknowledges was near the sources of the Jordan ! As Rauwolf (1573-75) concerned himself chiefly with botany, his references to archaeology, though often shrewd, are merely incidental. 1 He notes at Jerusalem that the Tyropoeon valley between Zion and the Temple has been so filled up, since the Deso- lation, that no depth appears at all; 2 that the splen- did marble building shown as the Palace of Herod is a later construction on the old site, 3 and that the old walls and arches outside of Helena's church at Bethlehem show that only half of the original struct- ure remains. 4 The point of view of Johann Zual- lart (Zuallardo, 1586) was that of an ordinary pil- grim. 5 He, indeed, mentions the ruined church at Siloam, but his interest in it was probably more ecclesiastic than archaeological. However, his draw- ings throw some valuable light on the state of ruins during his day, and he is the first modern traveller to give an account of the so-called Tombs of the Kings, north of Jerusalem. Cotovicus (Kootwyk), however, recognizes the 1 L. Rauwolf, Aigentliche Beschreibung der Reyss so er ain die Morgenlaender, fiirnehmlich Syriam, Iudiiam, etc., selbst vol- bracht. Augsb., 1581. Englisb translation in Ray's Collection of Curious Travels and Voyages. (London, 1G93.) References bere are to this work. 2 P. 289. 3 P. 313. * P. 375. * II devotissimo Viaggio di Gierusalemme, Roma, 1587. French edition enlarged by the author : Tres-devot voyage de Jerusalem, etc. Anvers, 1004, etc. German edition Job. Schwallart's Deli- ciae Hierosolymitanae, oder Pilgerfahrt in das heil-land. Colin, 1G0G. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 139 claims of archaeology at each place he visits. 1 But he does not go out of his way to hunt up ruins. In going from Damascus to Hums he takes the easier route via Kuteifeh, thus missing the Temples of Baalbec. At Tyre he describes the traces of Alex- ander's mole, the ruined towers, the remains of the Cathedral. At Jerusalem he measures the Porta Speciosa, the monuments in the valley of Jehosha- phat, and the Ecce Homo Arch ; notes the ruin shown as the Tower of Antonia, and makes a thorough exploration of the so-called Tombs of the Kings. This was motived, he says, by "the desire which leads men to know hidden things," and was per- sisted in till the uttermost recesses were reached, notwithstanding that the explorers were ' ' wearied and drenched with perspiration. ' ' 2 The resultant description is fairly scientific. Of the former splen- dors of Samaria, he tells us, none are left but three rows of marble columns. At Shechem, besides not- ing several ancient remains, he copies a Greek in- scription found on a pedestal built into the wall of an ancient tower in the New Bazaar. This he lo- cates so precisely that a later traveller could not fail to find it. He notes that the end of the inscription is illegible from weathering. 3 These may be small matters, but they indicate a new trend. In Coto- vicus a genuine archaeological spirit had begun to work. To this subject the most important contributions 1 Itinerarium Hierosolymitanum et Syriacum. Auctore louuiu' Cotovico. Antverpiae, 1619. 2 Pp. 304-5. 3 Pp. 341-42. 140 PALESTINE EXPLORATION of the seventeenth century were made toward its close by De la Roque, Halifax, and Maundrell. Still, archaeology was not ignored by travellers earlier in the century. Sandys, journeying along the coast in 1611, turned aside, "in the hopes of seeing some- thing of antiquity," to examine the ruins of Umm-el- 'Awamid. Sandys did not know either their ancient or their modern name, but notes that a solitary column is standing above the half-ruined foundations of an ample building. 1 Quaresmius (1616-26) touches on the antiquities about Jerusalem and along the various routes of pilgrimage, but this ponder- ous ecclesiastic had neither the archaeological sense nor the archaeological curiosity of his predecessor, Cotovicus. He does not attempt to verify personally the local statement "that the waters of the Virgin's Fountain flow through a subterranean tunnel to the pool of Siloam," a fact apparently unknown to former travellers. 2 However, he got his friend Verhouen to test the matter, but this gentleman could proceed no farther than the middle, where he was stuck. Quaresmius, however, adds that a certain Father Julius was said to have been more successful, having passed through the canal from end to end. In Moconys (1647-48) we find an interest in 1 George Sandys's Travailes, etc., London, 1G15, etc. Reference here to ed. of 1073, p. lG'J. Umm-el-'Awamid signifies "The Mother of Columns " ; it was excavated by Kenan in 18G0 and iden- tified with a town of the name of Laodicea. 2 Quaresmius : Ilistoriea Theologiea et Moralis Terne Sanctae Elucidatio. Antv., 1G:>!>. Bk. IV, Cap. 27. See also edition of 1880-81, edited by Cyprianus de Trevisio, Venice. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSO.V 141 minute structural detail. * He describes the construc- tion of a partly ruined ancient cistern at Ramleh, noticing the layer of potsherds placed under the outer coating of cement to make the latter adhere better. His little description of the Baalbec 2 ruins shows a far more intelligent conception of the plan of the great Temple than does the more pretentious treatment of De la Roque. Recognizing the Roman style of architecture, he scouts the theory of a Solo- monic origin. In paying a quarter of a piastre to get the base of a column cleaned, in order that the inscription might be read, he little dreamed that he was furnishing the first precedent followed some 450 years later by the German archaeologists, who spent thousands upon thousands of piastres in cleaning up the whole place! Doubdan's (1652) accounts of the tombs in the vicinity of Jerusalem are excellent. 3 To short descriptions of the ruins of the country, ordinarily visited, D'Arvieux (1658-65) adds those of Chateau Pelerin, Caesarea, and Ascalon. We must credit this traveller with his alleged discovery of a ruin rising three feet out of the Dead Sea more than 200 paces in circumference. To this island ruin his party rode out on donkeys which were sub- 1 Journal des Voyages de M. de Monconys, conseilleur du Roy, etc. Ou les scavants trouveront un nombre infini des nouveautez, en Machine de Mathematique, Experiences Physiques, Raisonne- mens de la Belle Philosophic, Curiositez de Chymie, et Conversa- tions des Illustres de ce Siecle; outre la description des Divers Animaaxet Plantes rares, plusieurs secrets inconnus pour le plaisir et la sante, les ouvrages des Peintres fanieux, les Coutumes, et Moeurs des Nations, etc. Lyon, 1075. 2 Vol. i, pp. :'>4 7-">l 3 Le Voyage de la Terre Sainte, par M. J. Doubdan, Paris, 1GGC. 142 PALESTINE EXPLORATION merged to the girths. D'Arvieux found traces of columns and indications that it had been burned. Naturally, he supposed it to have been one of the five cities which had been destroyed in this vicinity. 1 Among other archaeological notes the Jesuit Father Nau (1674) minutely describes the ruins of 'Adlun (Ornithopolis) , between Tyre and Sidon — a site that has no Scriptural association whatever ; 2 he also ap- pears to be the first traveller to mention Tell Hum, which he says was shown in his day as the site of Capernaum. 3 The Flemish artist De Bruyn (1681- 83) furnishes many drawings of ruined buildings and other antiquities, with a running commentary. Among these we note the sketch of a sarcophagus in the so-called Tombs of the Kings, and a page of fac-similes of coins, found at Aleppo. 4 The first archaeological discussion, based on a careful and prolonged study of ancient monuments, seems to be that of De la Roque, who, in 1688, spent fourteen days in Baalbec, recording his notes every night and verifying them on the ground the last day. 5 Of the three sections devoted to the subject, the first contains a very general description of the ' Memoires du Chevalier D'Arvieux, edited byLabat, Paris, 1735, vol. ii, pp. 193-94. 2 Mich. Nau, Voyage Nouveau de la Terre Sainte, Paris, 1679, pp. 545-48. 3 Ibid., p 572. 4 Corn. De Bruyn, Reyzen door de vermaardste Deelen, etc., Delft, 1099. French : Voyage au Levant, par Corneille Le Brun, Delft, 1700; see cuts 124 and 128. 5 De la Roque, Voyage de Syrie et du Mt. Liban, Paris, 1717. (References here to ed. of 1722 ) Vol. i, pp. 105-90. See also Voyage de la Palestine, Amsterdam, 1718. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 143 Great Court and the remains of the large Temple, the plan of which he seems not to have understood ; the immense size of the foundation-stones is, of course, noted. The second gives a circumstantial account of the small Temple and a description of the round temple outside the enclosure. In no case are ground-plans given, but the author inserts a restora- tion of the small temple within the court and an en- largement of its gateway. The third is an historical dissertation on Baalbec. Its identification with He- liopolis is maintained by a review of the literary notices and by a discussion of the coins. While he cites a great variety of authorities, the notice of John of Antioch (about the seventh century) , ascrib- ing the building of the Temples to Aelius Antoninus Pius, escapes him, for he asserts that history gives no account of their origin. For us the interest in this discussion centres not in its intrinsic value, which is small, but in its adoption of what we call modern methods. De la Roque's interesting investigation was soon followed by a similar undertaking on the part of an enterprising Englishman. In 1691 Rev. William Halifax made a careful study of Palmyra, embody- ing his results in an elaborate paper published in England in October, 1695. His account is profusely illustrated with copies of Greek inscriptions ; he also gives a fac-simile of a Palmyrene inscription, the letters of which he does not recognize. 1 1 A relation of a Voyage from Aleppo to Palmyra, sent by the Rev. Mr. William Halifax to Dr. Edw. Bernard : Philosophical Transactions, London, 101)5. A translation is found in the French edition of Le Brun. 144 PALESTINE EXPLORATION The antiquities of the Syrian coast north of Bey- rout are first seriously noticed by Maundrell in 1697. l Though travelling with great rapidity, he made brief but accurate observations on the Theatre at Jebeleh (the ancient Gabala) ; on the Castle and Church at Tortosa; on the strange sepulchral tow- ers at 'Amrit (the ancient Marathus), which, 400 years before, struck the wonder of Burchard; on the Crusading Castle at Jebeil (the home of the ancient Giblites), and on various tomb-chambers and sar- cophagi seen along the route. Of the judicial charac- ter of these observations, we shall give illustrations later. Palestine proper is treated in a comparatively cursory manner, and he adds little to what was previously known of Jerusalem. At Baalbec, like his predecessor, De la Roque (whose description is far fuller), he does not seem to recognize the extent and meaning of the ruins of the Great Temple. The interest of Van Egmond and Heyman (1700- 23) in archaeology is evidenced at the beginning of the work describing their travels by numerous in- scriptions copied in Smyrna, Ephesus, Sardis, etc., before Palestine was reached. 2 In the Holy Land these Dutch Protestants often took a fresh point of view. While tradition had little value to them, they were quick to observe actual conditions. For ex- 1 Henry Maundrell, Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem at Easter, 1697. Oxford, 1697, etc. References here to edition of 1749. 2 Van Egmond en Heyman : Reizen door een gedeelte van Europa . . . Syrien, Palaestina, Aegypten, den Berg Sinai, etc. Leyden, 1757. The references here are to the English edition, London, 1759. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 145 ample, while the authenticity of the so-called Tower of David at Jerusalem is repudiated, 1 concerning Scandaiium (Alexandroschene) we find the observa- tion: " Here we see ruins of structures built in dif- ferent ages, plainly indicating that the first ruins had been again built on." 2 Again, reasons are given for the theory that the sepulchres at 'Adlun were, in fact, dwelling-houses. 3 Between Aleppo and Alexandretta one of these travellers turns out of the road to examine the remains of the Church of St. Simeon Stylities, and to copy the inscriptions of the neighboring sepulchres. 4 Archaeology, however, was not pursued by them systematically. Their ac- counts of the antiquities of the North Syrian coast are cursory compared with Maundrell's, and al- though their observations on the monuments at Je- rusalem are in general full, in a walk around the city walls no notice is taken of the massive stones of the temple foundations. Thomas Shaw (1722) made a specialty of Nat- ural History and Physical Geography. 5 Still, his work contains many precious contributions to the subject under our consideration. He explicitly states that as he is following in Maundrell's steps, he takes notice only of ' ' such things as seem to have been mistaken or omitted by him." Attention should be called to his brief comparative study of ancient 1 Vol. i, p. 374. 2 Vol. ii, p. 231. 3 Vol. ii, p. 240. * Vol. ii, pp. 3G7-71. 1 Travels, or Observations relating to several parts of Barbary and the Levant. By Thomas Shaw, London, 1738. The refer- ences here are to the Edinburgh ed. of 1808. 146 PALESTINE EXPLORATION tombs, 1 and to his recognition that the ruins of 'Area, the ancient city of the Arkites, are built upon a mound, which was " not a work of nature, but of art and labor. ' ' 2 The especial value of this latter notice lies in its containing apparently the first recognition of the Syrian mounds, which are to play so large a part in the discoveries of the future. That Shaw's scientific spirit was interpenetrated with a genuine archaeological atmosphere — that feel- ing which regards antiquities not merely as objects to be measured or to be catalogued for museums, but as mirrors of a once living past — may be seen in his description of the natural setting of the sepul- chral towers at Marathus. ' ' The situation of the country round about them, ' ' he writes, ' ' has some- thing in it so extravagant and peculiar to itself that it can never fail to contribute an agreeable mixture of melancholy and delight to all who pass through it. The uncommon contrast and disposition of woods and sepulchres, rocks and grottoes; the medley of sounds and echoes from birds and beasts, cascades and waterfalls; the distant roaring of the sea, and the composed solemnity of the whole place, may naturally remind us of those beautiful descriptions which the ancient poets have left us of the groves and retreats of their rural deities. ' ' 3 Here Thomas Shaw touches a string of the harp so exquisitely played upon in after years by Chateaubriand, La- martine, von Schubert, and Renan. 1 Note that this subject had been treated in 1706 in a monograph by J. Nieolai entitled I)e Sepulcbris Hebneorum. Quarcsinio also touched upon it. - Vol. ii, p. 24. 3 Vol. ii, pp. 21-22. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 147 The archaeological observations of Pococke l are both complementary and supplementary. He did for the antiquities of Palestine proper what Maun- drell had done for those of Syria, though he also notices these with even greater fulness. He was ap- parently the first to suggest that the so-called Tombs of the Kings, north of Jerusalem, were the Sepul- chres of Queen Helena of Adiabene. 2 Of these he gives a plan with measurements. The interior of Samaria he did not visit, but he carefully examined the ruins of Caesarea and Athlit, the Chateau Pe- lerin of the Crusaders. The plain of Acre he trav- ersed by several routes with an eye to the various antiquities. He went out of his way to visit places of archaeological interest. Thus he explored the rock-hewn fortress in the Wady Hammam, west of the Sea of Galilee, with its great number of apart- ments. 3 This cliff-castle which, as we gather from Josephus, was the haunt of robbers during the time of Herod, was certainly out of the beaten track of travellers. Thomson, who was practically a native of the land, writing about a century later, says that his own visit to the place had all the romance of a veritable discovery. He had never even heard of it. 4 Pococke ascribes its making to the Druze Emir Fukhreddin Ma' an, who had died only 100 years be- fore. A chapter is devoted to the Temple at 'Ain 1 A Description of the East and some other countries, hy Richard Pococke, LL.I). London, 1743-45. - Vol. ii, p. 20. » Vol. ii, p. 67. 1 The Land and the Book (ed. 18">!>), vol. ii, p. 117. Note, how- ever, that Burckhardt had also described the place (Travels, etc., p. 330). 148 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Fijeh, the secondary source of the Barada, and to the rock-hewn aqueducts of this valley. 1 He gives plans of both Temples at Baalbec, 2 thus preparing the way for the great work of Wood and Dawkins in 1751. 3 We should note that while Pococke often mentions inscriptions, yet, unlike the indefatigable Maundrell, he does not reproduce many. His achieve- ment along archaeological lines can hardly be said to be commensurate with his opportunity. 4 The first two decades of the nineteenth century opened up a new era of archaeological research in the Holy Land. Seetzen and Burckhardt were veritable pioneers in the exploration of the ruins of Eastern and Southern Palestine. Seetzen lead the way in 1805-7 by visiting Caesarea Philippi, described by no previous European traveller after the Crusades, by exploring the 'Hauran, and by discovering the mag- nificent remains of Gerasa and Philadelphia at Jerash and 'Amman. 5 Burckhardt, in 1810-12, followed 1 Pococke, vol. ii, chap. xi. 2 Ibid, chap. vi. 3 The Ituines of Balbek, otherwise Heliopolis, by Robert Wood. London, 1757. Mr. R. Phene Spiers credits Wood with " having made one of the most marvellous surveys ever executed." (Q. S., 1004, p. 58.) See also the Ruins of Palmyra, otherwise Tedmor in the Desert. (Wood) London, 1753. * After Wood and Dawkins, the eighteenth century has no nota- ble contributions to the archaeology of Syria and Palestine. Nie- buhr's visit in 1766 was too hurried for original work. Volney, 1783-85, concerned himself chiefly with the actual condition of the land. His elegant description of Baalbec is an exception. Note also his account of Tell-el-Hesy. (Lachish) Voyage, vol. ii, p. 31 1. 5 U. J. Seetzen's Reisen durch Syrien, Paliistina, Phonicien, die Transjordan-Liinder, Arabia, Petraea und Unter Aegypten. Her- ausgegeben und commentirt, von Prof. Dr. Fr. Kruse. Berlin, 1854. See also his letters in Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz, especially vols, xvii, xviii, xxvi, xxvii. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 149 closely in his track, but also constantly made diver- sions from this, adding new observations, and, like Seetzen, illustrating his work with a great wealth of inscriptions. To him belongs the glory of the dis- covery of the long-lost Petra. l He was also the first scientific traveller to explore the Greek cities of Apamea and Larissa in Northern Syria. As a guide to explorers who might come after him, he gave lists of places and ruins which he was not able to visit, with a careful transcription of the Arabic names. He thus laid a scientific foundation for identifications based on philological affinities. Pococke and Seet- zen both collected place-names, but the English re- productions of the former are sometimes quite un- recognizable at first sight, even to one who knows the ground well, while the latter, though he adopts a scientific method of transliteration, appears to have had a defective ear. After Seetzen and Burckhardt 2 there is no epoch-making event in the field of archaeol- ogy until the detailed researches of Robinson, unless we except the work of Bonomi, Catherwood, and Arundale, who, in 1833, succeeded in obtaining ad- mission to the Haram Enclosure and in making the first survey of its buildings. Before taking a chronological view of the chief explorers of Syria and Palestine between Fabri and 1 Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, by the late John Lewis Burckhardt, London, 1822. Burckhardt's somewhat hurried obser- vations at Petra were supplemented in 1828 by the splendid plates accompanying the work of Laborde and Linant (Voyage de l'Arabie l'etrue, Paris, 1830). 2 The less important work of Buckingham, Legh, Bankes, Irby and Mangles, etc., will be noticed in the chronological review, pp. 181-82. 150 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Robinson we may glance rapidly at the advance made during this period along the lines of the Natural Sciences, especially Natural History, Physical Geog- raphy, and Geology. Many specialists, indeed, are found, but almost all writers make observations of some value. Just as attention to the past was no longer confined to traditions centring in the Chris- tian religion, so travellers began to take broader views of the actual conditions of the land. Interest in the Flora of the East closely followed on to the publication of the first botanical printed work, by Ermolao Barbaro in 1492. Thus the French physi- cian Belon (1548) dwelt lightly on the Holy Places, but everywhere his eyes were open to the flora and fauna, as well as to the manners and customs of the inhabitants. His work is illustrated by rude wood- cuts of costumes, animals, and plants; of the latter he gives the Latin names. 1 But the pioneer botanist of Syria was Rauwolf , physician of Augsburg, who started on his travels in 1573, " enflamed with a vehement desire to search out and view foreign plants growing spontaneously in their native places. ' ' 2 His expenses were paid by his brother-in-law, an apothecary, who hoped that his trade might benefit by the investigations into drugs and simples. Thus, as so often since, busi- ness and science clasped hands, but Rauwolf never forgot his scientific mission. His collection of dried plants, comprised in four large volumes, finally be- came the property of the University of Leyden. His two years' rambles were mainly confined to Northern 1 For title, see p. 137. 2 See p. 138 for title of bis work. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 151 Syria, the visit to Palestine being brief and more in the nature of an ordinary pilgrimage. The fullest and most picturesque description is that of the Lebanon, including a minute account of the famous grove of cedars. He also made an excursion to the Euphrates. The title of the work of M. Balthasar de Mon- conys (1647-48) has shown us the wide range of his scientific interest. 1 His brother-in-law, M. de Liergues, was said to have formed in his museum at Lyons one of the best collections of medals, coins, paintings, cameos, inscriptions, stones, insects, etc. , found in Europe. The preface to the work by Sor- biere states that Monconys's journeys were motived by the desire ' ' to penetrate the causes and to seek out the natural reasons of these curiosities. ' ' Nat- urally, we find his science mingled with superstition. Practitioners of the magic art attract him at various places. In Aleppo he collects stones with occult properties, and "herbs for knowing the wet and the dry." At Sidon he takes down notes from a celebrated savant who recommends as a treatment for epilepsy that the physician should say in the ear of the sick man, " Memento Creatori tui in nomine, etc. " But Monconys's work contains many practical observations; he describes the cultivation of cotton in the plain of Esdraelon; he notes, on Christmas day, the trace of the last year's snow on a pass over Lebanon; he revisits Siloam to study the alleged in- termittence of the water, though, as it happens, at a wrong hour. 1 For title, see p. 141. 152 PALESTINE EXPLORATION At the close of the seventeenth century we find the labors of another celebrated Frenchman, the botanist Tournefort (1700). 1 Previously in the century the flora of the Holy Land had been treated by Ursinus (1663) 2 and Cosquiis (1664), 3 and the fauna by Bochart (1646) 4 and Majus (1685. ) 5 Thomas Shaw (1722) was the first exponent of the natural sciences in the eighteenth century. He does not write for specialists, but gives a graphic and popular sketch, in broad outlines, of the general physical aspects of the land. 6 He notes the prevailing winds, the early and latter rains, the seasonal variations for the ripening of crops, caused by differences in latitude and altitude. He vindicates the Scriptural assertion that Judea was a land of natural fertility, pointing out that its modern unfruitfulness is due to the paucity of inhabitants and to the political insecurity. 7 He proves by statistics that the preservation of the level of the Dead Sea (which has no known outlet) can be more than accounted for by evaporation, there being no need for the assumption of some that it must have a subterraneous outlet. 8 His notes on geology are sketchy and superficial, but he mentions 1 Institutione8 Rei Herbariae (1700) and other works. 2 Arboretum biblieura, Norimbergae, 1663. 3 Historia ac contemplatio sacra plantarum, arborum et herbarum, quarum fit raentio in Sacra Scriptura, 1664. 4 Hierozoicon sive bipartitum opus de aniraalibus S. Scripturae. Londini, 1663. ' Brevis et accurata Animalium in sacro cum primis codice me- moratorum, historia; Francofurti et Spine, 1685. 6 See foot-note, p. 145. 1 Shaw, ii, p. 145. 8 II, p. 156. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 153 the stratum containing fossil-fish in the Kesrouan Mountains, north of Bey rout. 1 In 1747 Linnaeus, in one of his botanical lectures at Stockholm, stated that the world knew less of the natural history of Palestine than of that of the remotest parts of India. His pupil, Fridrich Hassel- quist, then only twenty-five years old, resolved to supply the wanting information at any cost, although he was suffering from diseased lungs. He paid the price of his life, dying at Smyrna in 1752. During the years 1749-52 he travelled in Egypt, Asia Minor, and the Holy Land, specializing in botany, but making observations in other branches of physi- cal science. After his death his collections — com- prising dried plants, specimens of rocks and soils, drugs, serpents, insects, Arabic MSS., and Egyptian mummies — were seized by his creditors, to whom he owed £350. Linnaeus could not lay his hand on the money at the moment, but the Queen of Sweden redeemed the collections out of her own private purse. She also directed Linnaeus to arrange and publish Dr. Hasselquist's own original MSS. "I have, accordingly," says he, in his Preface, 2 "di- gested the work in the best manner I could; ranged 1 II, p. 154. Le Brun (1681-83) gives a wood-cut (No. 154) of the fossil-fish. 2 Frid. Hasselquist : Iter Palestinum, etc. Stockholm, 1757. The above quotation is from the English edition : Voyages and Travels in the Levant in the years 1749-52, containing observations In Natural History, Physick, Agriculture, and Commerce, particularly of the Holy Land, and the Natural History of the Scriptures. Written originally in the Swedish language by the late Frederick Hasselquist, M.I). Published by order of her present Majesty the Queen of Sweden, by Charles Liniueus. London, 17(iG. 154 PALESTINE EXPLORATION everything under its proper tribe; added names to animals and plants; altered the technical terms and manner of writing, without changing in the least the author's meaning." Hasselquist's journals ap- pear to have been published with little alteration, as well a's his letters to Linnaeus, but the tabulated lists were compiled by his master. To him the original notes gave every assistance, as they furnish precious indications of date and locality. In the section entitled the ' ' Natural History of Palestine ' ' the items are arranged according to geographical distribution. The heading of another section reads : ' ' Plants and animals mentioned in Scripture : those that may and may not be identified in the present land." In Hasselquist's journals we can follow the wide range of his interests. He notes at Bethlehem ' ' a compendious method of watering the earth in dry weather," an ingenious device by which a peasant may plough the earth and water it at the same time. l He carefully follows the methods of bee-keeping in Galilee. 2 At Sidon he seizes a long-looked-for oppor- tunity to observe the habits of the silk-worm 3 — a study that he had been unable to pursue before, owing to a wide-spread superstition that the eye of a stranger blights the life of the worm. 4 1 P. 146. * P. 154. 3 P. 167. 4 Other botanical works of this century are as follows : Hierophy- ticon sive Commentarius in loca Scriptura, etc., by M. Hillerus, 1706 ; the Hierobotanicon sive de Plantis Scripturse Sacrae, by A. Celsius, 1745; the Natural History of Aleppo, by Alexander Rus- sell, 1756, noteworthy for its carefully prepared list of the Oriental names applied to the Flora of the East; the Flora Palestine, by B. T. Strand, 1756. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 155 In 1783-85 Volney made a considerable contribu- tion to the Physical Geography of Syria and Pales- tine. l His work, which deals rather with the modern conditions of the land than with the past, is divided into two parts: Etat Physique and Etat Politique. Though based on personal travels, the account does not take the narrative form. His broad outlines, showing a firm grasp on his subject, are filled in with a wealth of picturesque detail. He deals with his material in a scientific, philosophic spirit, thus sounding again the note of Shaw. In the depart- ment of popular meteorology he advances upon the latter. Far more scientific are the meteorological notes of Ruppell (1826-31), 2 but these touch only the edge of our subject at the point where they deal with Arabia Petrsea. Besides long lists of meteorological and astronomical observations, taken daily, we find notes on the Arab tribes — their classification, character, and habits. In the matter of geology Russegger (1836-38) 3 may be said to have led the way, though judicious notes touching on this subject and on general physical characteristics may be found scat- 1 C. Volney, Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte, etc., Paris, 1787. See also Oeuvres Completes de Volney, Paris, 1837. 2 Eduard Ruppell : Keisen in Nubien, Kordofan, und den Petra'i- schen Arabien, Frankfurt, 1829. Also : Keisen in Abyssinien, Frankfurt, 1838-40. In tbe latter work the author describes another visit to the peninsula of Sinai taken in 1831 in order to make more accurate observations of the elevations of the mountains. 3 Keisen in Europa, Asien und Afrika, etc., unternominen in den Jaliren 1835 bis 1841, von Joseph Kiissegger. Stuttgart, 1841-4'J. 150 PALESTINE EXPLORATION tered through the works of Seetzen, Burckhardt, Irby and Mangles, Laborde, von Schubert, etc. 1 Having now followed the trend of exploration from Fabri to Robinson along the specialized lines of research, I must, at the risk of some repetition, take a rapid chronological view of the chief among the visitors to the Holy Land during this period. From this great horde each historian, who would seek to illustrate the period by examples, is bound to make a choice differing in some particulars from that of every other. Ritter, in his critical bibliography, accords the highest praise to writers to whose names Robin- son does not affix the distinguishing star. In the present sketch, while endeavoring to include every great writer, I have also noticed a few whose general intrinsic importance is slight, but who, by fitting into some particular niche, or by illustrating some char- acteristic failing, serve to fill out my story of the development of Palestine Exploration, understood in a broad sense. Belon du Mans (1548) and Rauwolf (1673-75) have already been sufficiently considered, as their value is largely in the field of physical observa- tion. 2 In the Fleming Johann Zuallart (better known by the Italianized form of his name — Zual- lardo) the religious element is dominant, ranking 1 During the first third of the nineteenth century the contribu- tions to Botany were not many. However, Clarke (1801) in his preface claims to have added " not less than 60 new discovered species " to the science; Seetzen (1805-7) and von Schubert (1837) also paid especial attention to the subject. 2 For titles of works of authors already mentioned, see foot notes to pp. 137-55. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 157 him, indeed, with genuine pilgrims, though with pilgrims of the more educated class; but he is dif- ferentiated from his predecessors by his successful attempt to illustrate his work with sketches and ground-plans made by himself. 1 Prominent among these is a bird's-eye view of Jerusalem as it was in his day, on which is marked the theoretic line of the second wall in a manner to include the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. In another are seen the ruins of the Crusading Castle of Toron, near the western border of the Judean Hills, but in a far more com- plete condition than they are now. The rock-hewn scarp which towers to-day above the Protestant Cemetery in Jerusalem, and which once formed the southwest angle of the city, appears in his picture of Mt. Zion. Other engravings show the Ecce Homo Arch, the Via Dolorosa, the monuments in the Kedron Valley, various views of the Holy Sepul- chre, Bethany, Bethlehem, Jaffa, Tripoli, etc. Many of these engravings were copied by writers for forty years, by Cotovicus of Utrecht (1598-99), by the Englishman Sandys (1611), and by the Spaniard Castillo (1627). Zuallardo's party spent only seventeen days in the Holy Land proper, confining their visits to Jerusalem and the immediate vicinity. On their return to Jaffa, the pilgrims proceeded by sea to Tripoli, whence they waited almost a month for a ship to Venice. Ample leisure was thus given Zuallardo for exploring the only Syrian town visited by him. 1 The work is rare. An excellent resume of its contents by Conder is found in Q. S., 1002. pp. 97-105. 158 PALESTINE EXPLORATION His account is rich in detail, especially as regards the different costumes worn by Turks, local Mos- lems, Greeks, Maronites, and Jews. It is not difficult to agree with Robinson, who de- clares that the work of Johann Kootwyk (Latinized form: Cotovicus) (1598-99) is more complete and important than any other of the sixteenth or pre- ceding centuries. But as I have already dwelt upon what appears to me to be his most important contri- bution, namely, the discriminating archaeological notes which mark him a pioneer in this science, I can here give only a passing tribute to his exact description of routes, his learned marginal refer- ences, his close observation, his condensed style. It should be noted, however, that he owes much to the voyage of Zuallart, copying not only his pictures, but apparently also various' prayers and hymns re- peated by the monks. George Sandys, whose visit to Palestine formed only a part of extended travels made in 1610-11, states that according to his knowledge his account of Jerusalem and its vicinity is the first written in the English language. x In this he declares his aim to be " to deliver the reader from many erring re- ports of the too credulous devotee, and too, too vain-glorious." His aim he accomplishes, present- ing a picture of the natural features of the city and of the Holy sites with fidelity and without exaggera- tion. The extent of his trip was curtailed by the danger of travel in his day; the clearness and pre- cision with which he details the routes he was able 1 Sandys, p. 120. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 159 to take lead us to regret his enforced limitations. Listen to this little description of his ride from Gaza to Ramleh: * " We passed this day through the most pleasant and pregnant valley that eye ever beheld. On the right hand a ridge of high mountains (whereon stands Hebron) ; on the left hand the Mediterranean Sea bordered with continued hills, beset with variety of fruits. . . . The champion between, about twenty miles over, full of flowery hills ascending leisurely, and not much surmounting their ranker valleys, with groves of olives and other fruits dis- persedly adorned." As I read, many half -forgotten details of this route, taken so often over ten years ago, when Gaza was the post-town of my camp at Tell-el-Hesy, rise before me with delightful vivid- ness. The single letter in which the great traveller Pietro Delia Valle (1616) describes his journey from Cairo to Aleppo along the ordinary pilgrim routes, adds little or nothing to our previously gained knowledge of the land. 2 But the Vatican Library preserves to-day a precious monument of this rapid trip in the copy of the Samaritan Pentateuch — said to be the first ever brought to Europe — which, to- gether with a copy of the Targum, he bought at Damascus. The huge work of Francesco Quaresmio (1616-26) is the apotheosis of scholasticism. In it the tradi- 1 Sandys, p. 117. 2 Viagge di Pietro Delia Valle il Pellegrino. . . . Descritti da lui medesimo in 54 Lettere familiari, etc. Roma, 1(!50. Also in many other editions and in translations into French, English, German, and Dutch. 160 PALESTINE EXPLORATION tions of the Holy Places, largely erroneous, which had been increasing for years, took on a stereotyped form which has enjoyed little variation since in ec- clesiastical circles. The book is full of learning, but this is often learning running riot around matters essentially trivial. The colossal prolixity of the writer lures him sometimes into a sort of ' ' House- that- Jack-built " treatment of his material. We find a series of chapters expounding the difficulties in understanding the reasons why God allowed the Holy Sepulchre to be possessed and devastated by infidels; probable reasons for said possession and devastation; objections to these reasons; answers to these objections, and so on ad infinitum. It is not sufficient to have a whole chapter devoted to the dis- covery of the crown of thorns and the nails by which the Lord was fastened; this must be followed by another entitled ' ' The condition of the crown of thorns and the number of the nails. " It is worthy of note that Quaresmio refutes to his own satisfac- tion the arguments of " Western Heretics " — topo- graphical and other — directed against the authen- ticity of the Holy Sepulchre. 1 Thus early had scepticism in regard to the traditional sites begun to voice itself. The subject-matter, whatever may be its scientific value, is arranged in eight books. Book I gives the boundaries and divisions of the Holy Land, with elaborate accounts of the religious sects, Christian and otherwise. In Book II we find the Latin Orders described at length, besides sections on In- 1 Lib. v, Peregr. ii, Cap. 14. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 161 dulgences. Book III treats the subject of pil- grimage theoretically, while Books IV to VIII (in- clusive) tabulate the various routes and stations of the pilgrimages in a systematic manner. For ex- ample, the first pilgrimage from Jaffa to Jerusalem has ten sub-headings of places (Loci). The full history of a place is given in loco. While Qua- resmio often refers to his own experiences, the itin- eraries do not take the personal form. There are gaps between itinerary and itinerary such as the leap from Beyrout to Tripoli. The work is illustrated with well-engraved pictures and plans. We have already noticed the scientific pretensions as well as the shrewd archaeological observations of Monconys (1647-48.) Equally shrewd are his con- densed, very clear notes on everything that catches his eye during his somewhat rapid journey from Jerusalem to Adana. I find, to name one example, the route between Baalbec and the Cedars, which crosses the backbone of the Lebanon, described with detail which, though brief, is strikingly accurate. Early in the third quarter of this seventeenth cen- tury two Frenchmen travelled in Palestine, record- ing their impressions in works of some importance, but of very different quality. The personal investi- gations of M. J. Doubdan, Canon of St. Denis, were confined mainly to the vicinity of Jerusalem and Nazareth, but he supplemented his observations by abundant quotations from the chief writers of Classic, Patristic, and Mediaeval times. He saw nothing new, he saw a small part of what had been described be- fore, but he exhibits a learning and research which 162 PALESTINE EXPLORATION gives real value to his work. The Chevalier D'Ar- vieux, gentleman of Provence, illustrates the debt that Exploration owes to Commerce. His connection with the French Factory at Sidon from 1658 to 1665 gave him abundant opportunities to travel all over the country with the especial facilities for obtaining accurate information as to its actual condition avail- able to a man of affairs, able to converse with the natives in the vernacular. These opportunities he used with intelligence. His accounts of the chief cities — their public buildings, gardens, produce, commerce — are full and authoritative. Interwoven with the narrative is much current history, richly illustrative of folk-lore. From his itemized list of expenses we are able to know the cost of a tour in the Holy Land during his day. A visit to the Grand Emir, Chief of the Arab Princes, encamped at Mt. Carmel, furnishes him with material for more than a score of chapters on the Manners and Customs of the Arabs. 1 Different as were their points of view, both D'Arvieux and Doubdan seemed to feel the necessity of describing the landmarks along their routes so clearly that "the wayfaring men, though fools, should not err therein." In this precision their contemporary and fellow-countryman Thevenot shares : at a perplexing point of cross-roads he tells you which path to take, which to avoid. Thevenot, however, has little to add to our subject. He took 1 Before the Memoires, appeared, this account was published separately under the title Voyage dans Palestine vers le Grand Emir, etc., edited by De la Roque. Paris, 1717; Amsterdam, 1718. Note that D'Arvieux was also Consul in Aleppo, 1682-86. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 163 few routes, but described many, filling in his own lacunce from the accounts of others, but without showing the learning of Doubdan. * The Jesuit Father Michel Nau is one of the ear- liest examples of the missionary — explorer — a type so well illustrated during the last century both by Roman Catholics and Protestants. Robinson ranks him with Maundrell and Pococke as among the lead- ing travellers to Palestine. We have already noticed that he is the first to record the association of Tell- Hum with Capernaum. Robinson notes that the Crusading Castle of Toron, referred to by Nau when he passed that way in 1674, had been apparently un- visited and unknown since the time of the Crusades. He surely must have had ample opportunity for visiting out-of-the-way places, as, according to De la Roque, he passed thirty years in the land. De la Roque himself (1688-89) made considerable preten- sions in the geographical line, which were, however, misguided. His attempt, as he sailed along the coast between Tripoli and Sidon, to square Strabo's descrip- tion of Lebanon and Anti-Libanus as running in parallel lines eastward from the coast with his own observations which naturally contradicted this absurd statement — this attempt led him into an equally ab- surd set of statements about double triangles with bases almost touching, presenting the appearance of an apparently continuous ridge facing the sea! Thus Tyre, for him, was at the foot of the Anti- Libanus. More edifying are his accounts of his 1 Relation d'un Voyage fait ail Levant . . . par M. de Thevenot. Paris, 1665. Also published later under other titles. See liohricht. 164 PALESTINE EXPLORATION actual visit to the Lebanon, and of the ruins of Baal- bec, which we have already noticed. On February 27, 1697, the Rev. Henry Maun- drell, Chaplain of the English Factory at Aleppo, started for Jerusalem to witness the Easter cere- monies. The published diary of his trip went through numerous editions, and was translated into French, German, and Dutch. Says Robinson: ' ' His book is the report of a shrewd and keen observer, and still remains perhaps the best work on those parts of the country through which he travelled." Turning to the diary we find the four traits — eminently characteristic of Robinson himself — which doubtless operated in securing to Maundrell such high praise from his critical suc- cessor: minute observation; fertility in suggesting theories; abstention from dogmatism in presenting these; acknowledgment of self -limitations. While travelling along the coast north of Tripoli, Maun- drell is on the lookout for the river Eleutherus, fol- lowing the somewhat indefinite indications of the classical geographers, and aware that the identifica- tion with the river Kasmiyeh between Tyre and Sidon, commonly held in his day, 1 must be incor- rect. To this end he notes all the streams in the plain of Junieh — among these, the Nahr-el-Kebir, the real Eleutherus, making several suggestions and summing up as follows : ' ' But I will not determine 1 Maundrell is apparently unaware that the identification held in his day was questioned by l)e la Itoque, who also places the Eleu- therus in the plain of Junieh. Doubts had previously been ex- pressed by Doubdan. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 165 anything on this point, contenting myself to have given an account of several rivers as we passed them. ' ' l After noting that the apse of the other- wise ruined church at Tyre stood tolerably complete, he makes the following observation, based on an examination of a hundred ruined churches : ' ' Whether the Christians when overrun by infidels redeemed their altars from ruin with money ; or, whether even the barbarians, when they demolished the other parts of the churches, might voluntarily spare these out of an Awe and Veneration; or, whether they have stood thus long, by reason of some peculiar Firmness in the nature of their Fabrick; or whether some occult Providence has preserved them . . I will not determine. . . . This might justly seem a trifling Observation were it founded upon a few examples only. But it being a Thing so often, and indeed so universally observed by us, through our whole journey, I thought it must needs proceed from something more than blind Chance, and might very well deserve this Animadversion." 2 Such passages which illustrate Maundrell's temper of mind cause us to regret that so candid, so scientific a writer was only incidentally an explorer, that he travelled so hastily and along only a few routes. Leaving the sea-coast at Acre, he struck across the plain of Esdraelon to Samaria and thence proceeded to Jerusalem. His journey back to Sidon was prac- tically by the same route with a detour to Nazareth. From Sidon he crossed the Lebanon and Anti- Lebanon to Damascus. On his return to the coast 1 P. 2. r >. 2 p. 49. 166 PALESTINE EXPLORATION from that city he visited Baalbec and the Cedars. His archaeological observations we have noticed in a previous paragraph. But he does not pay much at- tention to Scriptural Identifications. He slept at Lejjun on the plain of Esdraelon, but he makes reference neither to Megiddo nor to the neighboring Jezreel. However, he questions the traditional site of the Mount of Transfiguration at Tabor. l At Je- rusalem he confined himself principally to visiting the places ordinarily shown to travellers, but he paced the circuit of the city walls, declaring their circumference to be two and a half miles, not far from the correct figure. We have now to consider a work of ' ' composite authorship," in which, however, the initial letters, by which the two manuscripts might be denoted, represent the names of historical persons, and the "redactor" was an ordinary physician in Ley den. John Hey man, Professor of Oriental Languages in the University of Leyden, travelled in the East from 1700 to 1709; the journeys of J. E. Van Egmond, Dutch Ambassador at Naples, were taken between the years 1720 and 1723. Many years after, Dr. J. W. Heyman fused together their journals in such a way that the observations of the two travellers are not distinguished. The question whether they can be distinguished without a harking back to the original diaries, I leave for polychrome critics to consider. In the meantime, in the absence of an indefinite English pronoun, the use of the third person plural may be conceded me despite its inaccuracy. »P. 113. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 167 It has already been hinted that these Dutch Prot- estants tried to free themselves from the incubus of unintelligent tradition. At the Dead Sea, which they visited under especial escort, they disproved by actual experiment the statement reiterated from hoary antiquity to their own time that birds flying over its surface fell dead by reason of the horrible effluvia emanating from the water. Plucking the wing feathers from some birds, they let them loose on the sea and watched to see what would happen. After a short flight the birds ' ' fell into, or rather upon, the sea ' ' and got safe ashore. l They attribute the origin of the so-called Greek fire to ecclesiastical policy, noting that while the Romish Fathers were avowedly doing their best to expose the ' ' juggle and delusion," they date the deceit only from the schism, holding that the fire did previously have the virtue of not consuming those that handled it. 2 Ge- ography and Scriptural identification receive little at- tention, and this little is often wrong. For example, it is suggested that the remains of a town at the end of the Lake of Tiberias may possibly represent Beth- shean (Scythopolis) , which really is some fifteen miles to the south. 3 But the Dutch travellers are among the first to give a true account of the origin and of some of the tenets of the Druses, in regard to whom so much nonsense had been believed. 4 As late as 1647 Monconys had declared that they were descendants of the Crusaders, but had lost the Chris- tian religion through neglect to practise its rites ; as 'Vol. i, p. 339. 2 Vol i, p. 357. • Vol. ii, p. 38. 4 Vol. ii. pp. 293 ff. 168 PALESTINE EXPLORATION they had not embraced Mohammedanism, they were without any religion. 1 Our authors recognize Hamza as the real founder of this sect early in the eleventh century, but show that its name was derived from Durzi, who preached the doctrine in Syria. 2 We have noticed how scepticism in regard to the authenticity of the sites enshrined in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre aroused the indignation of Qua- resmio early in the seventeenth century. About 100 years later the subject was vigorously handled by Jonas Korte (1738), a bookseller of Altona. One of his chapters he boldly entitles: " Concerning Mt. Calvary, which now lies in the middle of the city and cannot therefore be the true Calvary." 3 Without assigning a reason for his own view, he places Cal- vary to the west of Jerusalem, on a slight elevation southeast of the Birket Mamilla. In form the magnificent folios of Pococke (1738) are much more pretentious than anything that came before him. Turning over the pages of his ' ' De- scription of the East ' ' we are struck by the wealth of illustration and the numerous maps and plans. Close inspection brings disappointment. His plan of Jerusalem and its environs is a topographical joke. Robinson, without much exaggeration, observes that it can hardly be said to bear the slightest resem- 1 See Monconys, vol. i, p. 33G. 2 Apart from his valuable observations on antiquities, physical geography, and natural history, noticed sufficiently before, little is added to our subject by Thomas Shaw, who travelled in Palestine in 1722, and later became Professor of Greek at Oxford. 3 Jonas Kortens, ebemaligen Buchhandlers zu Altona, Iteise nach deni gelobten Lande, Aegypten, Syrien mod Mesopotamien, Altona,' 1741, etc. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 169 blance to its original. The professed copies of the Sinaitic inscriptions are equally misleading. But the letter-press contains much of value. Richard Pococke (who died in 1765 as Bishop of Meath) was a scholar, though his learning was along classical rather than along Biblical lines. Still, in matters of Biblical Identification he attempts with considerable success to break the bonds of ecclesiastical tradition. He denies that the Vale of Elah is identical with the Wady Beit Hanina near Jerusalem, on the ground that the Bible places it between Shocoh and Azekah, which he rightly says must have been farther west. 1 Dothan, he observes, could not have been at the Crusading site north of the Sea of Galilee, but was probably somewhere near Shechem. 2 He refuses to locate Shiloh at Neby Samwil, placing it on his map ten miles south of Shechem, very near the true site of Seihln. 3 He discusses the merits of the rival Canas, 4 and correctly identifies Gibeon with ej-Jib, 5 Dor with Tantura. 6 The rock-cut channel which connects the Pool of Siloam with the Virgin's Fountain he wrongly supposes on hearsay to lead down into the Pool from the Temple. 7 And yet he almost hits the truth in his 1 Vol. ii, p. 47. 2 Vol. ii, p. 77. 3 Vol. ii, p. 50. 4 Vol. ii, p. 66. 6 Vol. ii, p. 49. « Vol. ii, p. 57. 7 Vol. ii, p. 24. Pococke shows considerable confusion in regard to this district. He places conjecturally the Pool of Bethesda at the site usually regarded as the Pool of Siloam. The true Pool of Siloam he suggests may be the Lower Pool. Water once flowed into it, he says, from the Fountain of Siloam, which he identifies with the Virgin's Well. The true course of the Siloam Tunnel he does not know. How then does he suppose that the water Mowed from the Virgin's Well to the Old Pool ? The levels are against this connection being through the Valley. We are led to conclude that hearsay was responsible for most of his statements. 170 PALESTINE EXPLORATION suggestion that the water from the Virgin's Fountain "was carried in under the city by channels leading to certain reservoirs from which they might draw up the water. " Such a passage leading off from the Siloam Tunnel under the hill of Ophel was found by Sir Charles Warren. 1 These examples will serve to show the trend of inquiry at this period when the subject of identification was opened up anew without being pursued with much minute investigation. Scepticism had taken the place of blind subservience to tradition, but it had not as yet been accompanied by positive reconstruction. Pococke, as we have just seen, will not accept the Crusading Vale of Elah, neither will he take the trouble to ride in search of the right site in the region west of Jerusa- lem where he supposes it generally to lie. Between March 10, 1738, when Pococke embarked at Damietta for Joppa, and October 25th of the same year, when he set sail from Tripoli for Cyprus, he had travelled very extensively over Palestine and Syria. He had carefully explored the coast from Csesarea to Latakia, a distance of some 250 miles. He had taken some unusual routes in Galilee, such as following the Jordan from the waters of Merom to the Sea of Tiberias. He had crossed the Leb- anon to Baalbec, proceeding thence to Damascus. During his stay at this place he took several ex- cursions, one a day's journey to the south on the Jerusalem road; one to the northeast, visiting Ma'lula, where, strange to say, he ignores its chief point of interest, namely, the survival of the Ara- 1 Recovery of Jerusalem, pp. 194 ff. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 171 maic as a living dialect ; and a third to the temple of Fijeh above the secondary source of the Barada. Leaving Damascus he proceeded north to Aleppo, visiting Hums, Hama, Ma'arrah. From Aleppo he struck eastward to the banks of the Euphrates. On his journey down the Syrian coast he crossed over to the Island of Ruad, a spot unvisited by Maun- drell, and probably also by Shaw, whose style of description leaves uncertain just what places he per- sonally examined. To his observations relating to the antiquities of the Syrian coast Renan pays the compliment of frequent quotation. Among impor- tant omissions we note that he failed to explore Phi- listia, Western Judea, and Eastern Samaria. Sinai was visited the next year, but is described in the first volume dealing with Egypt. The work of the next distinguished traveller, the botanist Hasselquist (1749-53), has already been sufficiently noticed in our review of the researches in Natural History. The Abbe Mariti 1 should be mentioned for his excellent portrayal of native life. Carsten Niebuhr (1766) is called by Robinson "the Prince of Oriental travellers; exact, judicious, and persevering." Unfortunately for our subject, his Principality lay in Arabia, the treasures of which he freely exhibits. His visit to the Holy Land was brief and hurried, and the observations there made are very general in character. His plans of some of the towns through which he passed are merely rude 1 Viaggi per PIsola die Cipro e per la Soria e Palestina fatti da Giovanni Mariti Fiorentino dall' anno 1700 al 1768, Lucca 17G9-7C, etc. ( >ften translated. 172 PALESTINE EXPLORATION sketches. l Our review of eighteenth century explor- ers closes with the name of Volney (1783-85), who, without intruding an account of his own personal adventures, presents in a series of essays a well- arranged mass of new and instructive detail, especially in regard to the Lebanon. Dr. Edward Daniel Clarke, who passed only seven- teen days in Palestine in 1801, demands our atten- tion as the prototype of some later Anglo-Saxon Protestants, who, determining not ' ' to peer through the spectacles of priests, ' ' in their reaction against traditional "holy places," have hastily picked out rival sites and have supported these by argumenta- tion, at once hazy and audacious. 2 Clarke regards it to be probable that the Hill of Evil Counsel, separated from the traditional Zion by the deep Wady-er-Rababeh identified by him conjecturally with the Tyropoeon, may be the true Zion. 3 ' ' Ruined walls and the remains of sumptuous edifices "(!) appear to him to show that the summit was once within the city walls. The tombs on its slopes may include the Royal Sepulchres. Another rock-chamber may be the tomb of Christ. As he has stated that this tomb was clearly without the city, one won- ders in what convenient line he would draw the wall from the Temple to this hill, at once to include its 1 C. Niebuhr's Reisebeschreibung nacb Arabien und andern um- liegenden Landen. lid. I and II, Copenhagen, 1774-78. Bd. Ill, Hamburg, 1837. It is this last volume that contains the account of the Palestine trip. - Travels in Various Countries of Europe. Asia, and Africa, by Edward Daniel Clarke, LLP., Cambridge, 1810-23. 3 Part II, Sec. I, chaps, xvi. and xvii. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 173 summit and to exclude this particular tomb. One is further tempted to wonder whether his theories were anything more serious than the outcome of his enthusiasm in exploiting his supposed ' ' discoveries. ' ' Clarke describes with much exaggeration monu- ments that several travellers had mentioned before. While he concedes that Sandys may have alluded to these tombs in his brief notice of ' ' divers sepul- chres ' ' in the Wady-er-Rababeh, he is ignorant of the references in Fabri, Maundrell, and Pococke. We must credit this enthusiasm, however, with one good result : he was the first to make a copy of the inscriptions. Clarke's absurd theory in regard to Zion gained no lasting support. Would that those following his fanciful methods in the matter of identification had done as little mischief ! It has already been noted that the earlier decades of the nineteenth century were signalized by the ex- ploration of Eastern and Southern Palestine. On April 9, 1807, the pioneer explorer of these districts affixed on the wall of a chamber in the convent at Mt. Sinai a paper inscribed (in French) to this effect : "U. J. Seetzen, called Mousa, a German travel- ler, M.D. and recorder (Assesseur) of the College of H. M. the Emperor of all the Russias in the Seigneurie of Jever in Germany, came to visit the Convent of St. Catherine, the Mountains of Horeb, Moses and St. Catherine, etc. ; after having trav- ersed all the ancient Eastern provinces of Palestine, namely: Batanea, Decapolis, Gileaditis, Ammonitis, Amorrhitis, and Moabitis, as far as the frontiers of Gebelene (Idumea) and after having twice made the 174 PALESTINE EXPLORATION tour of the Dead Sea, and having crossed the desert of Arabia Petraea, between the town of Hebron and Mt. Sinai, after a sojourn of ten days he continued his journey to the town of Suez. ' ' l What a cata- logue of previously unexplored sites is this! But Seetzen did not confine himself to unexplored dis- tricts. Leaving Aleppo in April, 1805, after a so- journ of over a year, spent in mastering the Arabic language, he trod in Southern Syria and Western Palestine all the familiar paths, from which, how- ever, he frequently diverged. Every department of knowledge interested this indefatigable traveller : he collected lists of the names of villages which he could not visit; he tabulated all the little streams about Kerak; he copied some 150 Greek inscriptions; he made a list of Arab race-horses ; he paid careful attention to the mineralogy, zoology, and botany. But he did not live to put the result of his painstak- ing and judicious researches into book form. In 1811 he died, the victim to poison, in Arabia. More than fifty years later his journals, comprising his daily jottings up to his arrival in Egypt, were pub- lished in Berlin. Those who wish to follow Seetzen's well-considered conclusions, as well as the tale of his wanderings, may compare these journals with his letters previously published in Zach's Monatliche Correspondenz. Seetzen illustrated the advantage held by an explorer who is a doctor as well. In his true character of a Christian physician in the Holy Land, ne allayed the Bedawin's suspicion of his 1 This paper was seen by Burckhardt; see his Travels in Syria and the Holy Land, p 55:5. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 175 paper and pencil by collecting herbs and curious stones. In the Hedjaz he passed as a Moslem doctor. The travels of 'Ali Bey el 'Abbassi in Syria and Palestine, in 1807, 1 have a certain curious interest that does not centre in his observations on antiqui- ties, which are meagre, nor his account of the con- dition of the land at his time, which, though full, is sometimes superficial. Many tourists have travelled in disguise, but his is the only case known to me of a traveller who preserves his disguise in his book. For four years continuously the Spanish Christian Badia y Leblich, with the purpose of founding a European colony in Morocco, passed himself off as a Moslem, deceiving alike the Frenchman Chateau- briand, whom he met at Alexandria, and the Emperor of Morocco, whom he visited on his native soil. His book gives no hint of his real origin. His observa- tions on the Turks conclude with this sentence: "Therefore though a Mussulman myself, I must own that the Turks are still barbarians. " 2 In the guise of a Moslem he journeyed to Mecca, where he escaped the vigilance of the official poisoner. In the guise of a Moslem he entered the Mosque at Hebron, where he was shown the cenotaphs of the Patriarchs, though he did not seem to be aware of the real tombs in the cave below. He was welcomed also in the Mosque of Omar in Jerusalem, closed to all but the 1 The Travels of 'Ali Bey el 'Abbassi in Morocco, Tripoli, Cy- prus, Egypt, Syria, and Turkey between the years 1803 and 1807. London and Philadelphia, 1816. 2 Vol. ii, p. 411. 176 PALESTINE EXPLORATION followers of Mohammed, and took measurements of the interior. 1 Two old men lying in wait for black- mail between Ramleh and Jerusalem, noting that his burnoose was of blue, a color worn by Christians only, seized his bridle, shouting : ' ' Thou art a Chris- tian ; ' ' nor were they satisfied till the rider declared that he had just performed the pilgrimage to Mecca, repeating as proof the Mohammedan faith. 2 On his return by the same road, some days later, the same two old men received him with extravagant signs of penitence, weeping and kissing his feet. They had meanwhile been told that the traveller whom they had insulted was no less than the son of the Emperor of Morocco. " 'Ali Bey " is supposed to have died while on a second journey toward Mecca in 1810, and to have been buried at the Castle of Belka, on the Haj route. The work of the celebrated Frenchman Chateau- briand (1806-7) 3 anticipates that of his fellow- countryman Lamartine (1832-33) 4 by his brilliant and poetic style, as well as by his inaccuracy. To Chateaubriand, however, we are indebted for his description of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre be- fore the great damage it received two years after his visit. To him also are indebted the dogmatists holding to the authenticity of the Holy Sepulchre for what Robinson calls " the clearest and most 1 Vol. ii, p. 215. 2 Vol. ii, p. 242. 3 Itineraire do Paris a Jerusalem, etc., Paris, 1811, etc., etc., also in many translations. 4 Souvenirs, Impressions, et Paysages, pendant un voyage en Orient, etc., par Alphonse de Lamartine, Paris, 1835. Often trans- lated. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSOX 177 plausible statement of the historic testimony and probabilities which may be supposed to have had an influence in determining the spot." 1 "Eloquent and superficial; " thus curtly Robinson dismisses Chateaubriand in his bibliography. Lamartine he does not notice. Robinson's interest is confined to scientific merits. But there is another side to the question. A painted landscape may be correct in broad outlines as well as in its smallest details, but there will be no picture if atmosphere is wanting. Atmosphere is the contribution made to our subject by Chateaubriand and Lamartine, lending to their descriptions a general light of truth not always par- alleled by their details. Von Schubert, who travelled in 1836-37 as a spscialist in natural history, and who was a serious scholar in general, improves upon these writers by illuminating his more correct de- tails with an equally true atmosphere. 2 It was left to George Adam Smith, the successor of von Schu- bert by half a century, to flood his broad outlines with a light that throws into proper perspective every minute feature accurately painted on his stu- pendous canvas. 3 But we must return to the earlier decades of the century. The travels of Johannes Ludwig Burck- hardt in the Holy Land were in intention only a preparation for the exploration of a country far less known. In 1809 the English "Association for promoting the discovery of the Interior parts of 'Rob. Res., i, p 411. 2 Reise in das Morgenland in den Jahren 18fSP> und 1837 von Dr. Gotthilf Heinreieh von Schubert. Erlangen, 1838-39. 1 Historical Geography of the Holy Land, 1894. 178 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Africa ' ' sent this Swiss explorer to Aleppo ' ' to acquire the language and manners of an Arabian Mussulman in such a degree of perfection as should render the detection of his real character extremely difficult. ' ' To this same end he was instructed to make occasional tours in the parts of Syria least fre- quented by European travellers. The main object of his mission was defeated by his death at Cairo in 1817, at the moment when he was preparing for immediate departure for Fezzan. However, his journals, published posthumously, afford important information in regard to Egypt, Nubia, Arabia, Mt. Sinai, and the eastern and southern parts of the Holy Land. It is with these last-mentioned districts that we are here concerned. How thorough a preparation he made for the mis- sion which he was destined never to accomplish is illustrated by almost every page of his journals. On the one hand, he shrank from no necessary privation or suffering; on the other, he allowed no legitimate curiosity to interfere with his future plans. On his first tour in the Hauran he reluct- antly but deliberately gave up a visit to Draa be- cause he could get no guide, following his constant rule not to expose himself at any hazard, "well knowing," to quote his words, " that this was not the place where duty and honour obliged me to do so; on the contrary, I felt that I should not be jus- tified in risking my life in this quarter, destined as I am to other and it is hoped more important pur- suits." l A visit to the attractive site of Bozra 1 Burckhardt, p. 109. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 179 was also omitted from this tour — though the loss was made good later, under other conditions — not because the route was dangerous, but because he feared to meet in the garrison Moggrebyn soldiers, who, as they often passed from one service to an- other, might later recognize him in Egypt. l He sat- isfied the wonder of his guards at this omission by declaring that he had been warned of God in a dream not to visit Bozra. Indeed, his fertility of resource was boundless. In his wanderings he wore the na- tive dress, now passing for a manufacturer of gun- powder, now as a lay brother sent by the Greek Patriarch of Damascus, now, like Seetzen, as a physician in quest of herbs. His discovery of the long-lost and hitherto inaccessible Petra was due to his declaring to the Bedawin that he had vowed to slaughter a goat in honor of Aaron, whose alleged tomb is on Mt. Hor near Wady-Musa. This sacri- fice he actually offered with one eye gazing up at the tomb and the other making scientific observa- tions, while his guide exclaimed: " Haroun! look upon us ! it is for you we slaughter this victim ! Haroun! protect us and forgive us! Haroun! be content with our good intentions, for it is but a lean goat ! Haroun ! smooth our paths and praise be to the Lord of all creatures ! " 2 The principal geographical discoveries of Burck- hardt are summed up by his editor as follows : 3 " The nature of the country between the Dead Sea and the Gulf of Aelana, now Akaba; the extent, conforma- tion, and detailed topography of the Haouran; the 1 P. 104. 2 Pp. 430-31. 3 See preface, P. V. ISO PALESTINE EXPLORATION site of Apameia on the Orontes . . . the site of Petra . . . and the general structure of the penin- sula of Mt. Sinai, together with many new facts in its geography." The innate justice of the man is shown by his giving credit, wherever it is due, to his predecessor, Seetzen. And he is as modest as he is just. He makes no boast of his discovery of the site of Petra, which Seetzen inquired for in vain. He is content merely to suggest its identification with the rock-cut city in the Wady-Musa, proposing to leave the discussion to Greek scholars. 1 He apolo- gizes for the incompleteness of his notes here, due to the enforced brevity of his visit. We may add that his observations were supplemented in 1828 by the splendid plates accompanying the work of La- borde and Linant. It is to be regretted that Burckhardt's plans pre- vented his including Western Palestine in the field of his acute observation. His determination to avoid well-known routes kept him away from Jeru- salem and the rest of Judea, from Samaria, Southern Phoenicia, Philistia, and most of Galilee. At Naza- reth and the Sea of Galilee alone did he touch im- portant places in Western Palestine proper. In striking contrast to the modest record of Burck- hardt are the volumes of J. S. Buckingham. 2 "I 1 P. 431. 2 Travels in Palestine through the countries of Bashan and Gilead, etc., London, 1821. See also Travels among the Aral) tribes in- habiting the countries east of Syria and Palestine, including a jour- ney from Nazareth to the mountains beyond the Dead Sea, and from thence through the plains of the Hauran to Bozra, Damascus, Tripoli, etc., and by the Valley of the Orontes to Seleucia, Antioch, and Aleppo. London, 1825. FROM FABRI TO ROBINSON 181 crossed the country, ' ' he boasts in his preface, " in a greater number and variety of directions than has ever been done by any individual traveller before, as far as I am aware of. ' ' He affirms that his travels in Bashan and Gilead may be termed ' ' entirely new, ' ' as the discoveries of Burckhardt and Seetzen "were scarcely known even by name. ' ' Had he taken the trouble to find out where Seetzen went, he would not 5. EDWARD ROBINSON 223 only knows." God, who made Man in His own Image, never makes any man in the exact image of his fellow. Robinson's book has never been com- pleted on the lines which he laid down, but, while Dr. Hitchcock was speaking, a Scotch lad, barely seven years old, was beginning the studies which in later days led him into the great region opened up by the American Pioneer. George Adam Smith's "Historical Geography of the Holy Land" has not the mass of systematized detail that would have charac- terized the vast work planned by Robinson, but the power to illustrate the interaction of forces, physical and historical, a subject requiring not only knowl- edge based on personal investigation and wide read- ing, but a handling at once vigorous, subtle, and sympathetic, is all his own. On him willingly would Robinson have cast his mantle. LECTURE VI RENAN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES The attempt to cover in a single lecture the inter- val between 1838 and 1865 — the interval between the earlier journey of Robinson, the first scientific explorer of Palestine, and the establishment of the Palestine Exploration Fund, the first scientific soci- ety devoted to the study of the Holy Land — presents many difficulties. In a postscript to a later edition of his ' ' Sinai and Palestine, ' ' referring to a second journey taken in 1862, nine years after his first visit, Dean Stanley says: "In these same nine years the geography of Palestine has been almost rewritten. Not only have new discoveries been made in almost every part (with which I have hardly been able to keep pace in the correction of my successive editions), but the historical and topographical details of the subject have been worked up in a far more com- plete form than any to which I can lay claim." An explanation of the Dean's somewhat sweep- ing statement as to the progress effected during those nine years illustrates our difficulty in dealing with the longer period under review. Robinson's methods of investigation were followed by scores of other travellers in considering one point or RENAN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 225 another, 1 but followed, as a rule, un systematically as applied to the country at large. At the beginning of the period stands Tobler, at the end Guerin, both general investigators on the grand scale and of the first class. Between these names the claim to dis- tinction is earned by specialists in the various fields of science, not by general investigators. These indeed are not wanting. In ' ' The Land and the Book, ' ' Dr. Thomson, resident missionary in the land for a great part of his active life, transcribed the observations made during constant tours, 2 but his work was de- signed, so frankly states the author, ' ' for general and popular reading, rather than for the professional stu- dent." Biblical illustration was its declared pur- pose, and hence almost one-half of its pages, in the early edition, is devoted to folk-lore. De Saulcy's name is more connected with his excavations at the so-called Tombs of the Kings than with the discrim- inating notes jotted down during his rapid journeys. Van de Velde indeed criss-crossed over the country pretty thoroughly when making what was one of the best route-surveys extant before the work of the Palestine Exploration Fund. But his often shrewd observations are almost buried in his report of per- sonal adventures, conversations with his guide, and pious ejaculation, sometimes taking the form of apos- trophe of biblical characters ! Porter shows a similar 1 The ratio of increase of books on Palestine after the third dec- ade of the last century may be gathered from Rohricht's Bibliog- raphy, which claims to be inclusive from ad. .'538 to 1878. In his list, comprising 3,515 names, Robinson's number is 1,886. ' Kenan credits Thomson with being the most extensive traveller in Palestine. 226 PALESTINE EXPLORATION lack of scientific method. In the valuable work of Dr. Sepp, too, we find fact and fancy blending in a popular style, grievous to those who prefer their science undiluted. Taken together, the works of these writers — and indeed of many others — form a mine of topographical and other information, but to extract the ore often requires the patience of a miner. With no dogmatic assertion that it is the best, the plan we shall adopt in following the development of Palestine Exploration, from Eobinson to the estab- lishment of the Palestine Exploration Fund, is, after acknowledging the claims of Tobler and Guerin, to pass over the names of lesser travellers and to pro- ceed to a review of the specialists eminently charac- teristic of the period, including a few representative writers on questions concerning Jerusalem in that long line of special pleaders in the controversy re- garding traditional sites started by the heterodoxy of Robinson ; as well as the specialists in the depart- ments of archaeology, architecture, and the natural sciences. Among these especial prominence is given to Renan, the first Syrian excavator on a large scale. It was as a result of a pleasure trip, taken in Palestine in 1835, that Dr. Titus Tobler was fired with the ambition to become a scientific explorer. On his return to Germany he began to prepare him- self for a second visit by mastering all the literature concerning the history of the Holy Land and of its actual exploration up to date. But even while this German scholar was fitting himself to be a pioneer, Robinson appeared on the field and reaped the first harvest for America. Much, however, remained to REN AN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 227 be accomplished. During a period of twenty weeks, in 1845-46, Tobler conducted a fuller study of Je- rusalem and its environs than was possible in the much shorter time devoted to this region by his pred- ecessor. Unlike the latter, whose Protestant prej- udices kept him away from the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, he furnished a clear and thorough descrip- tion of its complicated construction. The topo- graphical features of the city, its walls and gates, its chief buildings, ancient and modern — mosques, synagogues, churches — are treated with detail in the first volume of the chief work resulting from this campaign. 1 In the second volume the same method is applied, first to the immediate surroundings of the Holy City, and next, to that part of Judea ex- tending from Jaffa to the Jordan, from Solomon's Pools to Bethel. About seventy sites are described in alphabetical order. Like Robinson, he supple- ments an account of present conditions by the history of each place as far as it is known. The value of the work as a book of reference is enhanced by the sup- pression of the personal element, the free indulgence of which on the part of other writers aroused his scorn. In a third journey, taken in 1857, the same methods were employed in a more extended examina- tion of Judea. 2 Returning again in 1865, Tobler planned the exploration of Nazareth. Cholera pre- vented his actual visit to the spot, but, nevertheless, 1 Zwei Biicher Topographie von Jerusalem und seinen Umge- bungen. Berlin, 1853. For special monographs resulting from this journey, see Ilohricht. 5 See Dritte Wanderung nach Paliistina im Jahre 1857. Gotba, 18.VJ. 228 PALESTINE EXPLORATION by careful inquiry from authoritative sources he was able to produce a detailed monograph on this site. Here is no place for more than reference to his vast literary labor in distinction to the record of his per- sonal work. It is, however, difficult to separate the two forms of activity. To the editorship of the texts dealing with pilgrim-travel, which engaged him till his death in 1877, he brought a knowledge that could have been gained only by an experience of the Holy Land itself. It is interesting to note that in the scientific ex- ploration of Palestine, America was followed by Ger- many, Germany by France, and France by England. Guerin forms part of the great quartette completed by the names of Robinson, Tobler, and Conder. The range of his experiences in Palestine, extending, with long interruptions, over a period of twenty- three years, permits us to call him a contemporary of the other three members. The year of his first visit, 1852, was the date of Robinson's second journey. During his last visit, in 1875, Conder was actually engaged on the Survey. His intermediate explora- tions alternated with those of Tobler, though the two were not in the country together. 1 The work 1 H. V. Guerin was five times in Palestine. In 1852 he travelled only along the grand routes ; in 1854 he occasionally broke away from the traditional paths. His great work, in seven volumes, Description Geographique, Historique, et Archeologique de la Palestine, was the result of three special missions, with which he was charged by the Minister of Public Instruction, conducted in 1863, 1870, and 1875, and dealing respectively with Judea, Samaria, and Galilee. Jerusalem was treated in a separate volume. Guerin's record is in itinerary form, but his personal experiences are sup- pressed, except in cases where they serve to illustrate the state of the land. REN AN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 229 of these four men shows a logical progression. Robinson established the correct principles of re- search. Tobler applied these more minutely, but over a limited geographical range. Guerin endeav- ored with the same minuteness to cover the whole field — Judea, Samaria, Galilee — but was subjected to the limitations of an explorer travelling singly and with straitened resources. Conder, heading a Sur- vey expedition adequately manned and splendidly equipped, was enabled to fill in the numerous topo- graphical lacunae left by his predecessors. To compare Guerin 's map with that resulting from such a Survey would be manifestly absurd. But one may fairly judge of the extent of his geographical material and of the character of his archaeological observations by comparing his ' ' Description de la Palestine" with the ''Memoirs" of the Survey. For example, opening Vol. III. of the latter (Judea) at the pages dealing with the archaeology of sites on sheets xxi and xxii of the great map, we note a large number of names of minor ruins not known to Guerin. This is not surprising; but it certainly is surprising to find that at least nine names on the lists are there by virtue of Guerin 's notes, and do not occur on the Fund's map, for the simple reason that they were not found by the Survey officers. Again, in at least twenty cases (still in connection with these two sheets) the brief notes of the latter are supplemented by quotations from the fuller de- scriptions of Guerin. Thus, in regard to Khurbet Mejdel Baa', a ruin some nine miles southwest of Hebron, the Survey notes are limited to the following 230 PALESTINE EXPLORATION catalogue, scarcely differentiating the ruins from scores of others : ' ' Walls, a reservoir, caves, and rough cave-tombs. An ancient road leads to it." According to Guerin, a stone building, constructed of great blocks for the most part rudely squared and roughly embossed, crowns the hill like a fort; round about several houses are still standing; columns lie prostrate ; everywhere the sides of the hill are pierced with cisterns and vast caverns, and so on through a description of 125 words, which gives a little individuality to Me j del Baa' and illustrates the patience of the author in examining uninteresting sites. On the other hand, the next ruin in Guerin 's itinerary, Khurbet 'Aziz, described by him in a few lines, is accorded over two pages in the Survey's folio, with general measurements of buildings, ma- sonry details, etc. Thus admirably do the two works complement each other. But in examining the ruins of Palestine, Guerin, equally with the officers of the Fund, lacked the clew to chronology furnished by the subsequent studies of ancient pottery which were inaugurated by the excavations of Flinders Petrie at Lachish. 1 To the initiated an examination of the sherds strewn over the surface of a mound may indicate the date of its abandonment. In cuttings, made for one purpose or another at its base, may be found other sherds, which throw light on the period of the first occupa- 1 Conder states that he had seven years' experience of pottery of every age in Palestine and always examined that found at the ruins. His observations, however, are rarely recorded. They appear not to have led him beyond a recognition of the broad distinction between " ancient pottery " and " Roman or Byzantine." See Q. S. 18 l JU, p. 329. REN AN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 231 tion of the site. In cases where the lowest stratum is exposed at no point, certain general inferences as to the duration of occupation may often be gathered by estimating the total amount of debris. To the explorer before Petrie the amount of debris had hardly more meaning than the pottery. Guerin, describing the lofty hill of Tell-el-Hesy, identified by Conder with Lachish, does not discriminate be- tween the natural bluff and the sixty feet of super- imposed accumulation, the result of many centuries of alternate construction and destruction. He did not know that the ruins of mud-brick dwellings may counterfeit the appearance of the soil itself. Other- wise he could hardly have made the statement, so subversive of the doctrine of the indestructibility of matter, that important cities have been not only entirely razed, but, as it were, effaced from the soil. Conder's identification of Lachish with Tell-el-Hesy was correct, but it was based on topographic and onomastic arguments. On similar grounds he placed Eglon at Khurbet ' Ajlan — an identification absolutely contradicted by the extent and character of the debris. The work of Guerin and Conder in collecting names of ruins and in correctly locating these was of prime value, but this might have been doubled had they possessed the simple key to chronology — the only key available in the case of ruins uncharacterized by known architectural features — which may be found by comparing the surface pottery with the amount of accumulation. Here is no adverse criticism. It is only saying in other words that the development of Palestine Exploration would have been more rapid 232 PALESTINE EXPLORATION had the general Survey been preceded by a particular examination of a few important mounds by excava- tion. And in the logic of events this was hardly to have been expected. l We may now glance at the extraordinary mani- festation of interest in the topography of Jerusalem incited by the publication of Robinson's heterodox views in 1840. Robinson had confined himself to proving to his own satisfaction that the traditional site of Calvary and the Tomb of Christ could not be correct. Inborn conservatism prevented his pro- posing a rival site. But in 1842 such a site was actually put forward by Otto Thenius, 2 namely, the hill el-Heidhemiyeh to the north of the city, now popularly called Gordon's Calvary, in consequence of his strong adherence to this theory. Shortly after, Dr. George Williams, Fellow of King's College, Cam- bridge, appeared in the field, claiming to be the first modern traveller to put in a plea for ancient Jerusa- lem traditions against modern objections. His zeal outran his sense of courtesy. In the preface to the second edition of his ' ' Holy City ' ' he tells us that he had expunged the ' ' harsh insinuations and per- sonal reflections on Dr. Robinson," to whom he had already apologized in private. 3 Schultz, for three 1 For an elaboration of this theme, see Lecture VIII. * In the Zeitschrift fur d. Hist. Theol., 1842. 3 See The Holy City : Historical, Topographical, and Anti- quarian Notices of Jerusalem by George Williams, B. D. Second Edition, London, 1849. The Supplement to Vol. I contains an interesting commentary on the plan of the city made in 1840, after the bombardment of Acre, by the Royal Engineers, Alderson and Aldricli, as part of the Ordnance Survey of the country from the Orontes to the Dead Sea. REN AN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 233 years German Consul in the Holy City, took a like conservative position. 1 So also did Krafft. 2 But Dr. Williams, carrying the war into his own camp, says that the former's claim to have reached his con- clusions independently of Krafft and himself is not justified. The next heavy gun was fired by Fergusson at long range, for this prince among arm-chair critics had never visited Palestine. The most radical disbelievers in the traditional site of the Holy Sepulchre had never doubted that the buildings surrounding it occupied the place of Constantine's constructions. Fergusson maintained, mainly on architectural grounds — though he backed his arguments by interpreting or rather misinterpreting in his favor the topographical notices of the Bordeaux Pilgrim — that the so-called Mosque of Omar was built by the "Byzantine Emperor on the site which he believed to cover the Lord's Tomb, and that the site, as a " holy place, ' ' was transferred from the Eastern to the Western Hill some seventy years before the entry of the Crusaders. His deal- ing with the apparent difficulties of this assumed transference is delightfully simple. Standing firm on his "indisputable arguments" that Constantine must have built the Mosque of Omar, he says : "I myself have very little hope of any great success being attained in elucidating the history of this transaction ; but, at the same time, it appears of the least possible consequence whether it is obtained or not. If Constantine built the Dome of the Rock, the 'Jerusalem: Eine Vorlesung. 1845. 1 Die Topographic Jerusalema. 1845. 234 PALESTINE EXPLORATION fact of the transference is certain, and the motive is only too clear. It was done because it had become absolutely necessary for the protection of the Chris- tians in Jerusalem in the eleventh century. They were forcibly dispossessed of their own church on the Eastern Hill, and they of necessity erected one on the only available site on the Western Hill, and there, in consequence, we now find it. It may be unfortunate that this should be so, but I can see no reason why the fact should not be acknowledged if it can be proved ! " 1 Could special pleading further go? Fergusson's disappointment that Robinson, the great sceptic in regard to the so-called Holy Sepul- chre, did not "hail with enthusiasm the view that an alternative had been found, ' ' but rather ' ' was the first to turn upon ' ' its discoverer, led him into reprisals, characteristic of all war, holy or otherwise. After accusing the American explorer of garbling the text of Eusebius in the interests of his own arguments, he adds : "He knew, of course, that he was stating what was not true when he put these words into the mouth of Eusebius, and it seems all the more strange that he should have condescended to do this, as he had not even the excuse of religious zeal to justify his misrepresentations." 2 In such manner raged the battle over the grave of the Prince of Peace. In 1855 was published a work called " Antient Jerusalem," in which the author, J. F. Thrupp, 1 The Temples of the Jews, by James Fcrgusson ; p. x, Preface. His peculiar views were first promulgated in An Essay on the An- cient Topography of Jerusalem, 1847. 5 Ibid., p. 196. RE NAN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 235 strongly advocated a revolutionary theory, already advanced by Fergusson. He maintained that the earlier or true Zion which the Bible identifies with the City of David ' ' was none other than the Temple Hill, now occupied by the Haram-esh-Sherif ; that the old Jebusite stronghold or Castle stood on the north- ern part of the hill and formed the original nucleus of the City of David, and that after the building of the Temple, which occupied the southern part of the present Haram area, the terms Zion and the City of David were sometimes used in a larger sense so as to include the Temple ; sometimes in a more confined sense to denote only the original city or the buildings to the north of the Temple " (pp. 12 ff.). He holds that the identification of Zion with the City of David obtained through the time of the Jewish Monarchy, but that, for the Maccabees, Zion was probably on the Western Hill. This erroneous identification was probably handed down to the early pilgrims, and later transmitted without break to modern times. Thrupp's arguments made little immediate impres- sion, and appear later to have been quite overlooked. The Encyclopaedia Biblica in its list of modern sup- porters of the general theory 1 — a list which includes many notable scholars — appears to regard W. F. Birch, 1878, as its first advocate. We may note that Thrupp supported his view by the same argu- ments that are used to-day, quoting the topographical passages of Nehemiah and the reference in II Chron. 32, 30 to the engineering works of Hezekiah, in connection with the Upper Spring of Gihon. 1 That is, the placing of Zion at some point on the Eastern Hill. 236 PALESTINE EXPLORATION The name of M. de Saulcy is best known in con- nection with his excavations at the so-called Tombs of the Kings, to the north of Jerusalem, in the in- terests of the identification assumed by the name, but disputed by most critics, beginning with Pococke. De Saulcy 's partisanship of the earlier tradition dates from his first visit to Jerusalem in 1850-51, when he discovered in the tombs several lids of sarcophagi. In the autumn of 1863 he returned, armed with a Turkish permit to excavate. Uncovering the broad steps leading down to the great Court, he found in the latter a stone fragment which he took to be part of the propitiatory monument erected by Herod after the abortive attempt to recover treasure, and subse- quently persuaded himself that he had discovered the place where this had stood. Within the sepulchre he found a sarcophagus inscribed with the name of a queen, which he suggested might be that of Zede- kiah's wife. Notwithstanding the eloquence with which he plead his cause, the fact that the most ele- mentary topographical arguments are against it de- prived him of adherents. 1 The esteem in which de Vogue's Jerusalem labors are held is shown by the following quotation from the paper entitled ' ' The History of Jerusalem Ex- ploration ' ' found in the Survey volumes of the Palestine Exploration Fund : ' ' The work of the modern explorers has in great measure rendered obsolete the writings of all their predecessors, with the exception of the learned Robinson and the scien- 1 See De Sauley's Voyage autour de la Mer Morte ct dans lea Terres Bibliques, 1853; and Voyage en Torre Sainte, 1805. REN AN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 237 tific work of de Vogue." The latter's architectural labors in Jerusalem and vicinity were begun in 1854, when he made studies of the Church of the Holy- Sepulchre, of the Basilica at Bethlehem, and of sev- eral other churches. They were continued in 1862, after the completion of his mission to the 'Hauran and Northern Syria, by a minute investigation of the Haram. The results of these studies were published in " Les £glises de la Terre Sainte " (1860) and " Le Temple de Jerusalem" (1864), two magnificently illustrated works. 1 So much for the Holy City. We may now proceed to consider some of the specialized scientific missions conducted during this period in various parts of the land. The results of the United States Expedition to the Dead Sea in 1848, under the leadership of 1 Mention is perhaps, due to two other works on Jerusalem. The City of the Great King (1858) contains the observations of Dr. Barclay, for three and a half years resident in Jerusalem as mis- sionary physician. In association witli a Turkish architect, sent by the Sultan to repair the Mosque of Omar, he enjoyed, for sev- eral weeks, official and unrestricted admission to every part of the sacred enclosure. The results of these exceptional opportunities are disappointing : he took many detailed measurements but fur- nished no general plan. Far more technical in form are the pre- tentious folios of Pierotti's Jerusalem Explored (1863). In his preface he claims that as architect-engineer to the Governor of Jerusalem he had been constantly occupied for eight years in exca- vating, in retracing the walls, and in examining the monuments. His ground-plans and rock-sections were an advance upon earlier work ; their defects may be seen by a comparison witli the results of the Ordnance Survey and the excavations of Warren. Instances of his gross inaccuracy in plan and description are noted on pp. 30- 31 of The Recovery of Jerusalem. Among his actual discoveries may be counted the northern portion of the Ecce Homo Archway and the subterranean passage under the Daughters of Zion. 238 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Lieut. W. F. Lynch, U.S.N., who had obtained an especial firman from the Sultan, can best be stated in his own words, found in his official report to the Secretary of the Navy: "The exploration of this sea was now complete ; we had carefully sounded its depths, determined its geographical position, taken topographical sketches of its shores, ascertained the temperature, width, depth, and velocity of its tribu- taries, collected specimens of its own and of its tributary waters, and of every kind of mineral, plant, and flower, and noted the winds, currents, changes of weather, and all atmospheric phenomena. These, with a succinct account of events, exactly as they transpired, will give a correct idea of this sea as it has appeared to us. The same remark holds with respect to the Jordan and the country through which it flows." i At Beyrout, Lynch was joined by the geologist, Dr. Anderson, formerly professor in Columbia Col- lege. On April 8th, three boats were embarked on the Sea of Galilee, two of metal, built in sections, and one of wood, which, however, soon foundered. The progress down the Jordan was a succession of dangers and excitements, due to the frequent rapids. For twenty-two days the metal boats were afloat in the waters of the Dead Sea, but this period included an excursion to Kerak. An especial geological re- port was prepared by Dr. Anderson, embracing his 1 Official Report of the United States Expedition to Explore the Dead Sea and the River Jordan, by Lieut W. F. Lynch, Baltimore, 1852, p. 42. The author obtained official permission to publish a Supplementary Narrative, containing much matter of general inter- est, though unfit for an official report. RE WAN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 239 researches in this department in the district between the Lebanon and the Dead Sea shore. Sixteen years later another mission, having the Dead Sea for its centre of operations, was organized by the Due de Luynes. Its scope, however, was wider than that of the American Expedition. Al- most exactly the same length of time was spent in making observations of the Dead Sea itself, but extended excursions were made into Ammon and Moab and down the Wady Arabah to the Gulf of Akaba, with a visit to Petra on the return journey. A supplementary trip was taken to Palmyra by de Vignes, Officer of Marine, who had commanded the boat on the Dead Sea; and another to Kerak and Shaubek by Mauss, architect of St. Anne's at Jeru- salem. These, together with Lartet, the noted geol- ogist of the expedition, furnished separate reports, which appeared in the second and third volumes of " La Mer Morte," published in sumptuous form after de Luynes' death, under the editorship of the Comte de Vogue. The duke's especial scientific contribu- tions to the work — mainly archaeological — are found in his journals, which fill the first volume, but the editor regrets that the leader of the party, who con- trolled all the departments of research, was unable to carry out his plan of presenting a synthesis of the entire work of the expedition. Still, notwithstand- ing its lacunce, he declares that the book "is destined to take an important place in the series of works devoted to the Holy Land." De Vogue acknowledges that his chief inspiration toward the investigation of the Orient came from the 240 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Due de Luynes. Accompanied by M. Waddington, the epigraphist, he conducted, in 1861 and 1862, the first serious examination of the monuments of Central Syria, by which name he includes the region bounded on the east by the desert and on the west by the three rivers, the Orontes, the Leontes, and the Jordan. This region is the main source of ma- terial for the study of Syrian architecture during the first six Christian centuries. The wonderful preservation of its ancient buildings — sometimes in- tact all but the roof — and their inaccessibility to the ordinary traveller bear a close mutual relation. Where man is living in prosperity, antiquity is in danger; where man cannot go in safety, the remains of the past have been kept immune. Standing in places either deserted or sparsely inhabited for centuries, the monuments of the 'Hauran and Northern Syria have largely escaped the fate of those on the thickly- populated sea-coast, where, from remote times to the present day, the constructions of one period have served as a quarry for the builders of another. On the other hand, the explorer who would penetrate the regions held by the Arabs must count with his hosts. 1 The gain to architecture and epigraphy resulting from the expedition of de Vogue and Waddington was immense. Its results were published in ade- quate form. On 151 plates accompanying "La Syrie Centrale " are represented, often with minute architectural detail, a number of temples, churches, 1 The pioneer explorer of the TIauran was Seetzen (1805-7). The region was visited not long before de Vogue by Cyril Graham (1857) and VVetzstein (1860-61). REN AN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 241 convents, private dwellings, funerary monuments, etc. For forty years, until the American Archae- ological Expedition to Syria in 1899-90, this work remained the sole authority on the subjects treated. 1 In 1863-64 the Rev. Canon Tristram headed an expedition, the chief object of which was to study the geology and natural history of Palestine. Es- pecial attention was given to the Dead Sea basin, but other parts of the land were examined with con- siderable thoroughness ; for example, ten consecutive days were spent on the shores of the Sea of Galilee and three weeks were devoted to the exploration of the region between this lake and the southern spur of Hermon. 2 In a former lecture we explained our apparent favoritism in devoting what might strike the reader as disproportionate space to Felix Fabri, by stating that his importance for us lay not so much in his individual achievement as in the position he occupied at the beginning of a new era of Palestine Explora- tion. That we are now about to treat the work of Renan with a similar fulness is due to a similar rea- son. He claims our especial attention, not for the actual results of his explorations, less important in- 1 La Syrie Centrale, by the Comte de Vogue, in three volumes. The volume with the sub-title Inscriptions Semitiques was pub- lished several years before the Architecture Civile du I er au VII a Siecle (2 vols.). The Greek and Latin inscriptions collected by Waddington appeared first in the large work of Le Has and were later published separately. 2 The Land of Israel, by II. B. Tristram, 1805. The Land of Moab treats of a trans-Jordanic trip taken in 1871. Canon Tristram prepared the volume of the Survey of Western Palestine entitled Flora and Fauna. 242 PALESTINE EXPLORATION deed than those of de Vogue, whom we have treated with brevity, but because he was the first man to excavate on the Holy Land — or to speak more accu- rately, on the borders of the Holy Land — on a large scale. As excavation has now begun to play so large a part in exploration, we may appropriately dwell with considerable detail on its pioneer exponent, even though his methods may now appear to be crude and his results not commensurate with his opportunities. l Renan landed at Beyrout in 1860 as the archae- ological envoy of Napoleon III. , but representing to the Christian natives of the Lebanon a friendly people who had delivered them from the power of their enemies. The appointment of Renan to con- duct an Archaeological Mission in Phoenicia was almost exactly synchronous with the breaking out of the massacres in the Lebanon, when the butchering of thousands of Christians by Druses led to the French military occupation. This connection of events Renan calls a bizarre coincidence, but it was a chance leading to the happiest results. When so desired, the French soldiers, by Imperial command, exchanged their swords for spades. Their officers became overseers of the excavations laid out by Renan himself. The captains of war-vessels rapidly carried the explorer from one end of his long field of excavation to the other — from Tyre to Aradus, from Aradus back to Tyre. When transportation of an- tiquities became necessary, again the Navy was at his command. Nor was he indebted alone to the 1 See Mission de Pkenicie, dirigee par Ernest Kenan. Paris, 1864. RENAN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 243 army of occupation. Local French archaeologists of note gave him valuable assistance. Gaillardot was unfailing in advice and practical service. Thobois, the architect, brought his especial studies to the examination of ancient buildings. Fuad Pasha, espe- cial Turkish envoy after the massacres, furthered the work in strictly Ottoman territory, as distinguished from the Lebanon. The Patriarch, Spiritual Lord of the Maronites, and practically Temporal Lord as well, placed clergy and people at his disposal, even permitting him to remove inscribed stones which had been built into the churches. The search for inscriptions in the regions of Batrun and Jebail was pretty well exhausted, so Renan thinks, by the eagerness of the Maronite peasants, after he had announced to them that the great Napoleon wanted their aid in preparing a history of the land. At first thought there is something amusing in this view of Renan as a Christian Hero„ "While writing in the very heart of Maronite territory his "Vie de Jesus," which antagonized the dogmas of this religious but bigoted people, he must often have smiled quietly to himself. We, too, are in- clined to smile, but the smile fades away when we remember how many of the Christian virtues Renan showed in dealing with the peasantry. Moslems showed their hostility at Ruad in overt acts; non- Catholic Christians viewed his researches with sus- picion; but his references to all are full of that charity which seeks not to blame but to under- stand. Renan was in Syria just one year, from October, 244 PALESTINE EXPLORATION 1860, to October, 1861. Immediately on landing he began a preliminary survey of the coast-district from Sidon as far as Jebail. Four campaigns in Phoenicia were decided upon, with the following places as centres, from which the surrounding districts could be explored: the campaign of Aradus (now Ruad), the home of the ancient Arvadites; the campaign of Byblos, still earlier Gebal, the city of the Giblites; the campaign of Sidon; and the campaign of Tyre. Researches in these regions were to be supplemented by tours in Palestine, the land which, as he held, for the history of art formed an appendix to Phoenicia. This tremendous programme had to be carried out by the 1st of June, when the climate would interrupt ex- cavations on the sun-baked Syrian plains, and when the co-operation of the army would no longer be available. Its details were in the hands of assistants, military and civil, while Renan acted as general director. But the accomplishment of the work thus laid out by no means exhausted our Frenchman's activity. His rapid passages from point to point to survey the various excavations ; his personal exami- nation with extraordinary detail of the districts sur- rounding each centre; his long tours in Galilee and in Southern Palestine had left him full of ardor to explore the higher Lebanon. At the termination of this tour at the end of July, he retired to the village of Ghazir, above the exquisite little bay of Juneh, but not even then to rest. "I profited," he says, ' ' by the profound tranquillity to write out the ideas which had been suggested to me by Palestine." Here, then, was begun the "Vie de Jesus," the RENAN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 245 first life of Christ to present a vivid and accurate picture of His earthly surroundings. The writing of this book was sanctified by a terrible loss. It is dedicated to " the pure soul of my sister Henriette," who died at Jebail (Byblos), September 24, 1861. ' ' Recallest thou, in the bosom of God where thou dost repose," he says in his dedication, "Recallest thou the long days at Ghazir where, alone with thee, I wrote these pages, inspired by the places which we visited together? Silent at my side thou didst re- read each leaf, and copy it as soon as it was written ; while the sea, the villages, the ravines, the moun- tains, unrolled themselves at our feet. . . . Thou sleepest now in the land of Adonis near the holy Byblos and the sacred waters where the women of the ancient mysteries came to mingle their tears. Reveal to me, good Genius, to me whom thou lovest, the verities that dominate death, that forbid us to fear and make us almost to love it. ' ' Pros- trated by the same kind of fever that caused his sister's death, Renan lost consciousness for thirty- two hours. When again he came to himself, he was alone. We may now glance rapidly at the results of the four campaigns above mentioned. The campaign of Aradus takes its name from the little island now called Ruad, off the Syrian coast, but the chief work was done on the main-land opposite. The sturdy insu- larity of the Moslem Arvadites did not favor archae- ological researches. Still, in the few days of his visit, Renan was able to examine the sea-wall, which he pronounces to be "the most authentic construction 246 PALESTINE EXPLORATION of ancient Phoenicia, ' ' and to secure for the Louvre several antiques and inscribed bases of statues. On moving to the main-land, the brief period of sixty days, available for excavation, forced upon his atten- tion alternative plans. He had to choose between the examination of the mass of ancient monuments at Amrit, the ancient Marathus, and the excavation of the numerous graves in the plains south of Tar- tus — the Greek Antaradus, the Crusading Tortosa. The aim of his mission, which was a comparative study of Phoenician monuments, rather than the search for small objects, led him to the choice of Marathus. In the plains near Tartus the coffins had, as a rule, been placed immediately in the ground, hence the vast sepulchre had no especial architect- ural interest. He points out that the search for objects in graves may be left to the cupidity of the natives, provided first that they do not destroy im- portant monuments, and secondly that their wares reach the proper market — two provisions that have been proved to be difficult of realization. Others besides Renan have also been forced to choose between two tempting forms of work. A similar alternative was forced upon me at Tell-Sanda- hannah in the summer of 1900, when my time was also limited. I had to choose between the thorough excavation of the Greek town buried by the upper layer of debris on the mound, and the tempting chance to devote myself entirely to looking for un- opened graves in the surrounding cemeteries, already largely exploited by the Fellah in. My choice of the former work was justified in my own eyes by the KENAN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 247 plan which my colleague, Mr. Macalister, was able to make of almost a complete city, with its walls, gate, streets, and houses. Nor in the subsequent discov- ery of a richly painted tomb, where Drs. Peters and Thiersch found inscriptional substantiation of our identification of the place with Marissa, do I find a reason for regretting my decision. 1 The excavation of the town could not have been undertaken except by an expedition, such as those conducted by the Palestine Exploration Fund. This tomb, with many others, was bound to be discovered in time, and might have been overlooked in our short cam- paign, even if we had devoted this entirely to grave-hunting. Before concentrating his attention on Amrit, Renan made a study of the walls of Tortosa, built by the Crusaders. This, taken in connection with studies of masonry at many other places, helped him to ex- plode the theory that drafted and bossed stones are invariably signs of great antiquity. This style he shows to be found in Syria at every period. Of the monuments scattered over the plain of Amrit — monuments doubtless built by the islanders of Arvad — some had long been known to the Western world, others were discovered by Renan himself, but none, he says, had received adequate attention previously to his campaign. These monuments he held to be unique. Unlike that of all other Phoenician remains, their art appears to owe nothing to the West. The glory of Marathus had departed before Syria was 1 Painted Tombs at Marissn (Mareshah). Described by Rev. J. P. Peters, D.D., and Dr. Hermann Thiersch. Published by the P. E. F. 248 PALESTINE EXPLORATION transformed by the combined influence of Greece and Rome. Hence the absence of inscriptions, so rare in the early days of Phoenicia. Among the splendid plates of M. Thobois, we find none more beautiful than those on which are reproduced the stately sepul- chral towers which dominate the landscape, and which attracted the attention of Burchard in the thirteenth century. Thorough excavation was made of the underlying tomb-chambers. But the most interest- ing among the remains is the place of worship de- scribed by Renan as the oldest and almost the only temple of the Semitic race known to be extant in his day. In the midst of a rock-hewn enclosure once completed by masonry, he found the foundation of a sort of cella which he compares with the taber- nacle of the Hebrews. The archaeological field of Jebail presented great attractions to our explorer. Philo of Byblos sup- ported the legend that his city was the oldest in the world. The Giblites played an important role in the constructions of Solomon. Here, early in the Chris- tian era, the East and the West interpenetrated in a remarkable manner. During the time of the An- tonines, into the ancient local cult — the sensuous cult of Thammuz or Adonis — was infused another element, highly spiritual and symbolic, namely, the sanctification and idealization of Death. As an ob- stinate centre of Paganism, it suffered still later from Christian iconoclasm. When the Crusaders seized the place it was probably only a mass of ruins. The small town which they built on part of the ancient site remains, so Renan says, almost stone for stone to this RENAN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 249 day. * No wonder that he approached its excavation with the deepest excitement, tempered by his knowl- edge of the destructive nature of its vicissitudes. No wonder that the work here enjoyed his personal super- vision to an extent unparalleled at the other centres. The results of this campaign, however, are dis- tinctly disappointing. The soil of the ancient town was hardly touched. In the large fields to the south of the modern village, under which doubtless lies a large part of the Phoenician Gebal, with the dwell- ings of the Greek Byblos superimposed, he made but few trenches, and these were, on the whole, unpro- ductive. Near the Crusading Castle, at the south- east angle of the tower, he found a cube of masonry sixteen feet square, consisting of large stones. Not far away he turned up a capital of a column, three alabaster slabs with a characteristic Giblite orna- ment, and a bas-relief of a lion, showing no affinities with Western art, but resembling the work at Nine- veh. From these meagre elements, by a study of historical authorities, as well as of coins on which is represented a temple adjoining a colonnaded court enclosing a pyramid, he reconstructs part of the Temple of Venus and Adonis, mentioned by the author of " De Dea Syria. ' ' In the cube of masonry he proposes to find the base of the pyramid; the stones of the temple itself he recognizes tentatively in the bossed masonry re-used in constructing the Crusading Castle; in the alabaster slabs he sees the ornamented facing of the pyramid base. That this 1 A much exaggerated statement, except as applied to the town walls and the castle. 250 PALESTINE EXPLORATION had been repaired in later times he thinks is sug- gested by slabs of inferior material discovered in the vicinity. We admire Renan 's learning and ingenu- ity, but we cannot help feeling that these are here set to work on slight and insufficient data. Had he supplemented his free use of his learning with a freer use of the spade, the world might have been richer in actual knowledge. To exhaust the search for data before constructing theories should be the prime law of the scientific excavator. Renan doubt- less exhausted the search for correlated objects in the vicinity of his masonry cube, but a large field in which clearer signs of the Temple of Venus and Adonis may yet remain buried was untouched. A note of levity sounds in the sentence near the end of his chapter on Byblos: "To sum up, apart from a few tombs and the monument which we discovered near the Castle, Canaanitish Gebal has disappeared." This may be so, but Renan did not prove it. Proof or disproof rests with the excavator of the future who shall turn over all the ancient debris, wherever it may be found, within or without the modern town. And disproved his statement will be unless analogy with other buried sites, which have been seriously excavated, fails altogether. The examination of sepulchres in Jebail and vicinity was as thorough as the time permitted. That it was not exhaustive has been illustrated by the discovery of an ornamented sarcophagus at this site while I have been preparing this lecture. In the Giblite tombs, Renan recognizes almost every known form of sepulture, from a simple cavern, RENAN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 251 analogous to the Cave of Machpelah, down to Roman sarcophagi and narrow ditch-graves of the Christian era. Adequate representation, however, of these is not forthcoming. Instead of a series of sheets with plans of typical tombs, showing the chronological development, we find a few free-hand sketches. It is also unfortunate that, with hardly an exception, the cemeteries which he examined had been robbed at some previous period. "The ex- ploration of By bios, " he exclaims, "has been made fifty years too late. " In the search for small objects to sell to collectors, sometimes tombs containing in- scriptions had been destroyed. No better example can be given, he says, to show " how the petty curiosity of the amateur is the enemy of the noble curiosity of the savant." In further illustration of the recent destruction of monuments, he points to the ancient materials, sometimes inscribed, which had been taken from Jebail and built into the modern houses of the neighboring village of 'Amschit. Even among the majestic precipices and noble glades of the sacred river Adonis, above whose banks he ex- amined temples and rock-sculptures, he is forced to cry out against the recent vandalism of the peas- ants. "To build a miserable hovel," he tells us, ' ' the natives have destroyed curious edifices ; in the search for treasure, they have demolished sanctu- aries preserved intact until our day ; to find a few pieces of gold, offerings of the last of the pagans, they have broken down altars and overturned Baal from the pedestal where, I am assured, he still sat enthroned only three or four years ago! " \ 252 PALESTINE EXPLORATION The work at Sidon was concentrated upon the clearing out of the large rock-cut cemetery acquired and still owned by the French Government. M. Gaillardot superintended the complete excavation of the tombs within a radius of sixty metres from Mugharet 'Adlun, where, only a few years before, was made the discovery of the inscribed sarcophagus of Eshmunazar, which so fired the hopes of Phoeni- cian epigraphists. Renan's Mission was not re- warded by the finding of inscriptions in this Sidon cemetery, but, notwithstanding the fact that rob- bers had previously explored it from end to end, the party recovered several beautiful anthropoid sar- cophagi, which now ornament the Louvre. The chief spoil from Sidon, however, is in the Museum at Constantinople. The discovery, by a peasant in 1887, of the so-called sarcophagus of Alexander, whose delicate sculptures rival the Elgin Marbles, was the result of pure accident. Chance is your great discoverer. Chance found the Tell-el-Amarna tablets. Chance found the Siloam inscription. Chance brought to light the Map Mosaic of Madeba, when the ruined church of which it forms the floor- ing was rebuilt by order of the Greek Patriarch. Beyond the radius just mentioned Gaillardot ex- cavated more rapidly. Three sheets with elaborate plans and sections illustrate his analysis of the tomb-chambers, and cause us to regret, by contrast, the meagre record and inadequate representation of the large numbers of cemeteries found all along the coast from Latakia to Umm-el-'Awamid. The chief interest of the campaign of Tyre centres RENAN AND HIS CONTEMPORARIES 253 not in the ancient town itself, where Renan's recon- struction is almost purely theoretic and without monumental basis, nor in the adjacent cemeteries, which he says were only partially examined, but in the discoveries at the so-called Hiram's Tomb in the near vicinity, and at Umm-el-'Awamid — formerly a town called Laodicea, some ten miles to the south. At the former place was uncovered a fine mosaic, which was taken up and transported to the Louvre by the Roman mosaist Taddei. The remains of Graeco-Phoenician antiquity at Umm-el-'Awamid, in- cluding a series of Phoenician inscriptions, led Renan to recommend this site, above all others, to the at- tention of future explorers. We may note that his prognostications have been recently justified by the discovery of the fragment of a statue with a Phoeni- cian inscription. The above sketch hardly does justice to Renan's activity in accomplishing his year's mission. The amount of ground covered by the expedition explains at once its merits and its deficiencies. What Science gained in data for a comparative study of Phoenician monuments is considerable. Had he confined him- self to one point, Jebail, for instance, while his account of that place would have been far richer, it could not have been so well correlated with other Phoeni- cian centres, as can be the more meagre account actually furnished. We cannot regret, then, that lie did not confine himself to Jebail. And yet we could wish that he had put more of his time, there available, into the examination of the ancient debris and less into pursuing minute questions relative to 254 PALESTINE EXPLORATION the tombs. In other words, he did not make the most of his unique opportunity for actual excavation. He seemed not to have considered that his advan- tages for surface-exploration might be enjoyed, to a large extent, by future travellers, but that, humanly speaking, never again would a digger be allowed so free a hand in Syria. In compensation, however, we must remember that while the future excavator of Jebail must comply with Ottoman regulations, must turn all his finds over to the Imperial Museum, and must satisfy the lawful demands of land-owners and planters of crops, l he will bring to his work more scientific methods of digging than were known in the day of Renan's mission. The great and mod- est Frenchman would be the first to recognize this were he still among us. In his own work he saw only a preparation. "We do not pretend," he says in conclusion, "to have exhausted a land which for centuries will continue to exercise the labors of archaeologists. We have sought less to shine than to serve the progress of Science. We shall be suf- ficiently recompensed if those who come after us find in this book useful indications." In seeking to compare the results of his own digging with Phoenician monuments already known, the future excavator of Jebail will find himself under great obligations to the author of the ' ' Mission de Phe- nicie." 1 The excavation even of those parts of the ancient city which lie beyond the town walls would now be very expensive, owing to the numerous mulberry-groves. LECTURE VII THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND On June 22, 1865, a large and distinguished body of men, meeting in Willis's Rooms, London, under the chairmanship of the Archbishop of York, for- mally organized the Palestine Exploration Fund. As far as its aims were concerned this organization was but a re-institution of a Society formed about the year 1804 under the name of the Palestine Associa- tion. This Society proposed to procure and publish information regarding the state of the Holy Land; its geography, its people, its climate, and its history. The only volume which appears to have been issued was "A Brief Account of the Countries Adjoining the Lake of Tiberias, the Jordan, and the Dead Sea (1810)" — a translation of papers written by Seetzen, which came into the Society's possession through the National Institute of Paris. The Association ap- pears, however, to have despatched two especial agents to conduct an exploration, but they are said to have got no farther than Malta, owing to rumors of the dangerous condition of Palestine. There is no evidence that the Committee held meetings between 1805 and 1834. At this latter date it was decided to dissolve the Association and to hand over a balance of some £135 to the Committee of the Royal Geo- 256 PALESTINE EXPLORATION graphical Society, on the ground that its scope cov- ered the aims of the Palestine Association. More than forty years later, in 1876, a request was made to the President of the Royal Geographical Society by a number of the Fellows, many of whom were at the same time serving on the General Committee of the Palestine Exploration Fund, that the above sum should be transferred to the new Society, which was successfully carrying out the work that had been temporarily abandoned. Whether this request was granted or not I have not ascertained, but in any case it is interesting to note that the General Com- mittee of the Palestine Exploration Fund recognized an organic connection with the earlier Society. 1 In a prospectus presented by a sub-committee at the second meeting of the Fund, it was clearly rec- ognized that much careful work along various lines had been accomplished by explorers since Robinson had laid down the principles for true scientific re- search. "But," so runs the prospectus, ". . . their researches have been partial and isolated, and their results in too many cases discrepant with each other. What is now proposed is an expedition of thoroughly competent persons in each branch of re- search, with perfect command of funds and time, who should produce a report on Palestine which might be accepted by all parties as a trustworthy and thoroughly satisfactory document." The key-note of the prospectus is found in the 1 The statement is quite explicit : "The Society thus dissolved in 1834 was instituted again in 1865." See Letter to the Royal Geo- graphical Society ; Q. S., 1870, p. 154 ff. THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 257 phrases ' ' thoroughly competent persons ' ' and ' ' per- fect command of funds and time." Competent per- sons had indeed explored the Holy Land, but upon most of them had been enforced an economy of funds or time, sometimes of both. No one felt the limita- tions hedging in the single traveller better than Robinson. Proper exploration, he says in substance, cannot be regarded as within the power and oppor- tunities of any single individual. Illness thwarted his own plans for visiting Northern Syria. Illness and other causes were destined to interrupt the work of individual officers of the Fund, but they rep- resent a home-committee always ready and able to supply a vacant place. The Constitution of the Palestine Exploration Fund is as follows: There is a large General Com- mittee, under the patronage of the Throne, whose aggregate names, to quote the late Honorary Secre- tary, Sir Walter Besant, forms almost a list of British worthies from 1865 to the present day. 1 The original membership included the Archbishop of York, three bishops, the Dukes of Argyll and Devonshire, the Earls of Shaftesbury and Derby, the Speaker of the House, Dean Stanley, Dr. Plump- tre, Sir Gilbert Scott, Professor Owen, Canon Tris- tram, Sir Henry Rawlinson, Messrs. Grove, Fergus- son, and Williams, etc. This Committee is called together but once a year to hear the report of the Executive Committee, chosen from its members. The business of the Society is transacted at bi- 1 Sir Walter wrote in 1892; see The City and the Land: Lect- ures, p. 101. 258 PALESTINE EXPLORATION monthly meetings by this smaller body, whose num- bers average almost twenty. The Office and Museum are in charge of the paid Secretary. Sir Walter Besant held this post from 1868 to 1886, and acted as Honorary Secretary from the latter date to the time of his death. His acceptance of the Secretaryship was, he tells us, the result of a fortunate accident, namely, his being for the moment one of the unem- ployed. Fortunate it certainly was for the Society. Though, strangely enough, never in Palestine him- self, he had an immense enthusiasm for the cause. Of the £85,000 collected up to the year 1892, £65,000 were obtained by his efforts. Fortunate it also appears to have been for Sir Walter. For one person who knows of his connection with explo- ration, twenty know only of the successful novelist. With no detriment to his office duties, in his spare hours this indefatigable worker laid the foundation for his wider reputation. Indeed, he has somewhere recommended would-be writers to obtain a similar post, which would secure them a moderate income while adventuring the uncertain paths of literature. Mr. George Armstrong, Sir Walter's successor, brought to his work a personal knowledge of the land, gained during his long connection with the Survey party. To the general public he is known as the clever constructor of the beautiful raised maps. By the inner circle his devotion to the Society is recognized as being equal to that of his distinguished predecessor. It has been my good fortune to come into close contact with two chair- men. Sir Charles Wilson, indeed, did not occupy THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 259 the chair till after my connection with the Fund had ceased, but, as former surveyor of the Holy City, he had an especial interest in my Jerusalem excavations, and later visited my camp at Tell-Zaka- riya. In 1901 he succeeded Mr. James Glaisher, the famous aeronaut, who, during his twenty years' oc- cupancy of the chair, had missed hardly a single meeting. Mr. Glaisher continued to hold a position on the Executive Committee till his death in 1903, at the age of ninety-four. It has been the aim of the Fund to choose specialists for the Executive Committee. Architecture, numis- matics, epigraphy, philology, art, natural science, his- tory, archaeology, and military tactics have all been represented by well-known names. Touch has also been kept with other scholars. The Committee has shown a large-minded conception of the relations to be borne toward officers in the field. Instructions once given, explorers have seldom been hampered by martinet orders respecting detail. In cases where the members are capable of giving exact specifica- tions, as, for example, in the well-studied field of Jerusalem topography, such specifications are forth- coming, but in other cases, such as the excavation of the mounds, the explorer is left to his best judg- ment as to methods, provided that appropriations are not exceeded. Indeed, I doubt if many other organ- izations, workings at long range, can tell such a story of harmonious relations between home-committee and men on the field. But what is still more exceptional, the men on the field have been at peace among them- selves, and the Committee itself has never been split 260 PALESTINE EXPLORATION by inner quarrels. No wonder that the Society, now in its fortieth year, is still flourishing! At the preliminary meeting of the new Society in 1865, the Archbishop of York laid down the following principles for its guidance: 1. That whatever was undertaken should be carried out on scientific prin- ciples. 2. That the Society should, as a body, abstain from controversy. 3. That it should not be started, nor should it be conducted as a religious Society. Strict adherence on the whole has been given to these principles. The men who have officered the expeditions have been specialists in their own line of work. The first excavations at Jerusalem and the Survey were conducted by Royal Engineers lent by the War Office. The Geological party was headed by Professor Hull. Petrie brought to the unravelling of the mound of Lachish his vast experience of excavation in Egypt. Nor have the agents conducting smaller un- dertakings been less trained to their work. No man ever knew his Jerusalem as Dr. Schick knew it. No Palestinian archaeologist has shown greater erudi- tion than Professor Clermont-Ganneau. In regard to the second point, while the pages of the Society's organ, the Quarterly Statement, are occasionally en- livened with pretty sharp discussion, it is distinctly stated in each number that the individual authors are alone responsible for the positions taken. The Committee pronounces no opinion. The Committee, as a Committee, says Sir Walter, has no opinion. Again, the non-committal platform as to religious matters is illustrated by the roll of members, which, besides a number of Jews, includes Roman Catholics, THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 261 Greeks, Anglicans, and Protestants of other churches, including Unitarians. ''It simply invites support," says Besant, " from all those persons who happen to be interested in a certain collection of books, apart from any doctrine which may have been deduced from those books, or any opinion as to the weight of those books, and apart from the fact that to very many these are and always will be the most precious books in the world." It should be noticed that when the Committee first appealed for funds in support of the Society, the members hoped to accomplish the work of the Ex- ploration of Palestine in a few years. Accordingly, they asked for donations rather than for annual sub- scriptions. The sum of £8,000 obtained during the first three years falls almost entirely under the first category. When the Jerusalem excavations were announced in 1867, response to the appeal for money came from many and various quarters. The Queen gave £150; the University of Oxford, £500; the University of Cambridge, £250; among other cities, Edinburgh and Glasgow made handsome contribu- tions. A vast number of small donations, some of which came from people of very modest means, fore- shadowed the list of annual subscribers who were later to form the main-stay of the Fund. For the larger part of its existence, in the matter of support, the Society has resembled the great Missionary Boards. As an accredited Institution its mainte- nance has become a tradition. Turning over the list of annual subscribers, we find many names re- peated from year to year, from decade to decade. 262 PALESTINE EXPLORATION The number of members who contribute from $2.50 to $10 ranges from 2,500 to 3,000. The majority are in the United Kingdom, but subscriptions come from Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, etc. Dr. T. F. Wright, of Cambridge, Mass. , is Honorary General Secretary for the United States, and there are Honorary Secretaries in twenty States. When an important expedition is in the field, the membership is apt to rise; when a given exploration is over, it drops. Large donations are not entirely unknown, but little dependence is placed on these. This large clientele of subscribers of small sums has secured to the Society a per- manence, a continuity which it could not have enjoyed had it been started as the pet scheme of a small group of millionnaires. Such a clientele has, however, certain disadvant- ages. The subscribers must be interested, or they may cease to subscribe. To interest by the same journal all the members of a heterogeneous body is the almost impossible task set before the editor of the Quarterly Statement, which has been the Organ of the Fund since 1869. Among the supporters of the Society we find the Biblical and Archaeological spe- cialists of Europe and America; we find a large number of clergymen and others who, though not specialists, yet approach the subject of exploration in a scientific spirit ; we find a mass of people inter- ested in anything that concerns the Bible and the land of its birth, provided that the material is pre- sented in a popular way ; and finally, we find the cranks with an especial axe to grind. We hasten to say THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 263 that the last-named class has little consideration accorded it by the Editor. Occasionally such a heading as ' ' Where are the Sacred Vessels of the Temple?" may cause the judicious to grieve, but this sort of article appears, I am glad to note, only by exception. However, the juxtaposition of papers having a popular character with the scientific reports of the accredited agents of the Fund robs the Quar- terly Statement of the unity which it might have had were it either a strictly popular or a strictly scientific journal. The successive numbers form a series of surprises, agreeable and otherwise. A given number, issued when no campaign is in prog- ress, may furnish no food for the scholar, while the number succeeding may be full of important matter, original and critical. Still, the thirty-six volumes, from 1869-1905, form a storehouse, vast and rich, of all sorts of information regarding Syria and Pal- estine. Viewed as a collection, it is simply indis- pensable. Here are the ad-interim reports of the Officers conducting the great campaigns, upon which have been based the books published by the Fund, showing in some cases how opinions were formed which are merely stated in the books themselves. Here is a multitude of papers by Dr. Conrad Schick, who, as a local architect enjoying the confidence of Moslems and Christians alike, was able to make de- tailed notes on buildings difficult of access, and to visit almost all the holes dug in the precious debris of Jerusalem during a long series of years. * Here are 1 Dr. Schick wrote much for the journal of the German Society also. 204 PALESTINE EXPLORATION the narratives of Dr. Post's botanical tours. Here are the notes on folk-lore made by Mr. Baldensper- ger, bee-keeper in the land of the Philistines. Here are the meteorological tables of the late chairman of the Executive Committee, Mr. Glaisher. 1 The fuller title of the Palestine Exploration Fund is : A Society for the Accurate and Systematic Inves- tigation of the Archaeology, the Topography, the Geology and Physical Geography, the Manners and Customs of the Holy Land for Biblical Illustration. The attempts that have been made to carry out the main items of this programme we may now illustrate by a rapid review of the chief expeditions sent out during the last forty years. The fact of my con- nection with three of these must naturally condition my treatment of them all. The allotment of consid- erable space to my own work does violence to my theoretical sense of proportion, but, on the other hand, the practical side of exploration can best be illustrated by personal experience, even when the range of this is limited. In treating of the work of those whom, in a broad sense, I have the honor to call my col- leagues, the attempt will be made to follow a method descriptive rather than critical. Six months after the founding of the Society the first expedition was organized under the command of Captain (now General Sir Charles) Wilson, who, in the interests of a scheme for bringing water to the city, had just completed the Ordnance Survey of 1 Our account of the organization and early history of the Fund is based mainly on Thirty Years' Work : a Memoir of the Work of the Society, by Sir Walter Besant. P. E. F. THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 265 Jerusalem. 1 He was accompanied by Lieutenant Anderson. While the principal object of this expe- dition, which was in the field from December, 1865, to May, 1866, was to indicate spots for further investigation, several definite results were obtained. A series of reconnoissance maps was formed, on the scale of one inch to the mile, showing the whole backbone of the country. An especial study was made of the Synagogues noticed in Galilee by Robinson, but inadequately described by him. Excavations were made on Mt. Gerizim, where were laid bare the foundations of an octagonal church, built in turn on a rough platform which may possibly be that on which the Samaritan Temple stood. When Lieutenant — now General Sir Charles — Warren left England in 1867, it was the hope of the Committee that the two main problems connected with Jerusalem topography would be settled once for all: namely, the exact position of the Temple within the walls of the present Haram enclosure, and the course of the three northern walls of the ancient city, so closely connected with the discussion of the site of the Holy Sepulchre. But owing to the tremendous convulsions which the Holy City has suffered during the course of the ages; to the jeal- ous care with which the Moslems guard their sacred sites ; and to the impossibility of making systematic excavations under modern constructions — the data for solving these problems were either destroyed or unavailable. Warren came and went, but Wilson 1 See Thirty Years' Wurk, p. 42. 266 PALESTINE EXPLORATION still holds to Fergusson's theory of the site of the Temple at the southwest corner of the enclosure, as over against a position near the present Mosque of Omar. Warren came and went, and controversial- ists still draw the second wall in a line to include or to exclude the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, as may best suit the theory held. But wherever may have been the exact site of the Temple itself, Warren left no doubt as to the solid- ity and splendor of the Temple enclosure. In achiev- ing his results he was engaged in a constant strife with man and matter. The Governor interposed almost daily obstacles. The soil burying the Temple walls consisted of the most treacherous debris. The first difficulty he combated by robust diplomacy ; the second, by daring engineering. By an extraordinary series of shafts and tunnels he proved that in many cases the enclosing walls descend from 80 to 125 feet below the present surface. So secure were made these galleries by wooden frames, that numer- ous travellers were able to touch the massive founda- tion-stones and to wonder at the graffiti in Semitic characters scratched on these ages ago. Measure- ments were taken to the fraction of an inch ; minute variations in stone-dressing were noted; every clew that might point to the chronology of the construc- tion was followed up. This, however, was not set- tled in a way to satisfy all experts. Warren him- self, for example, saw grounds for referring parts of the south and west walls to the Solomonic era, parts to the Herodian. Conder thinks that the founda- tions of the entire structure, except at the north- THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 267 east angle of the present Haram Court, represent the Herodian period. But Warren's activity was not confined to the Temple enclosure. Following up the clews given by Robinson's Arch, he laid bare further remains of the viaduct once connecting the Temple with the Western Hill. The wall of Ophel abutting on to the southeast angle of the enclosure was traced for over 800 feet ; various ancient aqueducts outside the city were followed and measured; rock-levels were ascertained at numerous points; and small excava- tions were made within the city where my later per- mit did not allow me to work. Apart from the Jerusalem investigations, a rapid reconnoissance Sur- vey was made through the country, and cuttings were made in the Jericho mounds. In " The Recovery of Jerusalem," edited in 1870 by Walter Morrison, M.P., Honorary Treasurer of the Fund, may be found Warren's report, prepared under heavy pressure immediately on his return to England, while suffering from fever and exhaustion. It is unfortunate that his work should have first been known through this medium. In a narrative compiled under such circumstances we are not sur- prised to find a mass of undigested material — a sort of patchwork made up chiefly of extracts from his own letters, in which the record of shafts and tunnels alternates with personal details of no scientific rele- vance. 1 It was not till 1884 that the results of his 1 In a popular work nailed Underground Jerusalem, Warren complains with some bitterness of his having been obliged to pre- pare this abbreviated report. 268 PALESTINE EXPLORATION splendid work appeared in adequate scientific form, in his own contribution to the Jerusalem Volume of the Survey of Western Palestine. This was accom- panied by a portfolio of plans, greatly supplement- ing those published in connection with the earlier work. The onerous task of surveying Western Palestine on the scale of one inch to the mile was undertaken in 1871 by the advice of Wilson, Warren, and An- derson. In other words, it was determined by the Committee to substitute an actual Survey for the numerous reconnoissances that had previously been made. The best map then available was that of Van de Velde, which combined the results of his own observations with those of former cartographers. These, however, had not been made with scientific precision. On Van de Velde 's map the hill-shading was merely sketched in, the courses of the valleys were laid down roughly, the position of sites had been determined mainly by the reckoning of time taken in passing from place to place. But the information thus furnished was not only indefinite in character: it was limited in extent. The whole number of place- names indicated upon it amounted to about 1,800. How vast a labor lay before the Survey Officers the reader may gather from the statement that for every name found on Van de Velde's map, they were des- tined to collect five. The chronicle of the Survey is briefly told. The party, landing in Palestine in 1871, consisted of Captain Stewart, R.E., officer in command, with Sergeant Black and Corporal Armstrong as staff- THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 269 assistants; and of Mr. Tyrwhitt Drake, Archaeol- ogist, fresh from the exploration of the Desert of the Exodus, which, in company with the Arabic scholar, Professor Palmer, he had traversed on foot, for the Fund. 1 While measuring the base-line on the plain of Esdraelon, Captain Stewart was struck down by fever and invalided home. The work, however, suffered little interruption. When Cap- tain Conder arrived in July, 1872, to replace Cap- tain Stewart, he found that 500 square miles had been surveyed with a thoroughness that left un- noticed nothing of value in the district. For over three years Conder labored with hardly a break, except for a three-months' holiday in 1874, when he was obliged to recruit his health by a trip home. In July of the next year the work came to an abrupt stop in consequence of an attack made on the party at Safed. Soon after, cholera breaking out, the ex- plorers left for England. Four-fifths of the Survey was then complete. The remaining portion was accomplished in the year 1877-78 under the direc- tion of Captain (now Lord) Kitchener, who had joined the earlier expedition after the death of Mr. Drake in 1874. The great map, published in 1880, extends over an area of 6,000 square miles, from a point near Tyre to the Egyptian Desert, from the Jordan to the Mediterranean. This Survey remains the monumental work of the Palestine Exploration Fund. It is not, perhaps, too much to say, with Sir Walter Besant, "that nothing has ever been done for the illustration and right 1 See Q. S., Jan., 1871. 270 PALESTINE EXPLORATION understanding of the historical portions of the Old and New Testaments, since the translation into the Vulgar tongue, which may be compared with this great work." The successful attempt to approxi- mate in Palestine the accuracy of the Ordnance Sur- vey of England involved the overcoming of obstacles non-existent in the home-land. Passing over the matters of a strange climate, of transportation and commissariat, of a population whose suspicions were aroused by the mere sight of scientific instruments, we may signalize the difficulty of correctly ascertain- ing place-names previously quite unknown except to the people of the land. Colonel Conder states that he had to contend not only against ignorance and fanatical feeling, but sometimes also against a tendency on the part of the Fellahin to substitute for the real name of a ruin an appellation caught from some European bound to exploit an identifica- tion. Notwithstanding the mistakes that occur among the 9,000 Arabic names collected, the list contains a vast treasure-chamber of Biblical nomenclature. Conder proposed many new identifications. Some of them have been disputed ; others will be disputed in the future. But in proposing, in a given case, an alternative site, the disputant may find his first clew in a study of this very list. The publication of the great map was followed by that of the explanatory Memoirs. 1 While all topo- graphical work undertaken previously to the Survey was but a preparation for this great map, which has, 1 The Survey of Western Palestine (7 volumes). P. E. F. THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 271 as it were, spoken the final word, we are bound to state that the sections in the Memoirs dealing with archaeology may be regarded in general as recon- noissance work. This is no more than might have been expected. It was one thing to fix the position of hundreds of ruins ; it was quite another to examine each one of these exhaustively. The unequal charac- ter of the work in this department has been indicated in a former lecture where we compared it, not un- favorably, with that of Guerin. 1 In 1881 the Committee despatched Conder to effect the Survey of Eastern Palestine on the same scale with that of Western Palestine. The attempt to make the old Firman serve for the new work was unsuc- cessful, and after a campaign of ten weeks, during which 500 square miles were covered, the party was obliged to withdraw. 2 What an especial expedition was unable to do, has, however, been largely accom- plished during the last twenty years by the work of a single individual, exploring sometimes for the Fund, sometimes for the German Exploration Society, some- times under other auspices. Dr. Gottlieb Schu- macher, of Haifa, illustrates the great advantages for exploration enjoyed by a foreign resident who has an organic connection with the life of the Holy Land. Officially recognized as an engineer surveying for a proposed railway, he was able as early as 1885 to be- gin a series of maps which now cover almost all the trans-Jordanic districts. Part of the work is still 1 In Tent Work in Palestine, Conder presented the story of the Survey in popular form. * The Survey of Eastern Palestine (1 volume), by C. R. Conder. P. E. F. 272 PALESTINE EXPLORATION mere reconnoissance, but for accuracy of detail and extent of archaeological information his labors in the district of 'Ajlun are comparable to those of the Sur- veyors of Western Palestine. As Dr. Schumacher is still in the prime of life, we may hope that the whole territory will be surveyed with similar detail. The Archaeological Mission intrusted to M. Cler- mont Ganneau in 1873-74, while the Survey of West- ern Palestine was going on, was very general in its nature. Several years before, while connected with the French Consulate at Jerusalem, he had shown great energy in the unfortunate matter of the Moab- ite Stone. It was owing to his efforts that the larger fragments left after its wanton demolition by the Arabs were finally secured for the Louvre. For a year and ten days M. Ganneau, notwithstanding the embarrassment consequent upon the non-arrival of the expected Firman, attempted to follow up every clew he could gather from the natives which might lead to discoveries in Jerusalem and the vicinity. He also examined with some minuteness the region be- tween Jaffa and Jerusalem, and made an excursion to Samaria and thence to Gaza. The somewhat mis- cellaneous results of these investigations, published at first in the Quarterly Statement, may now most con- veniently be read in his ' ' Archaeological Researches in Palestine," in two volumes, which appeared in 1896 and 1899, or twenty-two and twenty-five years respectively after the date of his Mission. Prominent among these were the studies of Crusading Mason Marks ; the discovery of the Gezer boundary-stones ; the examination of various ancient cemeteries; and THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 273 explorations in the interior of the Haram, where he was accorded especial facilities. In the winter of 1883-84 a geological Survey of the Wady-el-'Arabah and adjacent districts was con- ducted by Prof. Edward Hull. Major Kitchener, who accompanied his party, made a complete trian- gulation of the district lying between the Mountains of Sinai and the Wady-el-'Arabah, together with that of the Wady-el-'Arabah itself, bounded on the west by the table-land of the Tih and on the east by the mountains of Edom and Moab. 1 With the consent of Dr. Flinders Petrie to leave for a brief period his Egyptian field of research, the work of Palestine Exploration entered upon a new phase. Whether Petrie was or was not actually the founder of the school in whose view no ancient object, however humble, is negligible, he is certainly its most notable exponent. In 1890, after a long period of disappointment, the Fund was in possession of an Imperial permit authorizing excavations for two years in a district of Southern Palestine rich in ruins. Among these were Khurbet 'Ajlan, identified on onomastic grounds with Eglon ; and Umm Lakis and Tell-el-Hesy, claimants for the site of Lachish. Con- vinced after a brief examination that the remains at the two former sites had neither the extent nor the antiquity to warrant identification with towns im- portant in early history, he turned his attention to the mound of Tell-el-Hesy, which, to the eye of most travellers, counterfeited a natural hill, but which to 1 Sop The Geology of Palestine and Arabia Petraea, by Prof. E. Hull. 274 PALESTINE EXPLORATION his trained vision promised rich results even before systematic excavations were begun. Pocket-knife in hand, he climbed the steep slope to the east, where, owing to the encroachment of the stream during the course of ages, a section of the artificial mound had been practically laid bare. The story of the site was suggested in outline by fragments of pottery of various ages, some strewing the surface, others dislodged from the side, as well as by the indi- cations of strong walls of mud-brick not easily to be distinguished by the ordinary observer from natural un worked soil, but clear enough to Petrie's eye, and clearer still after a little scraping with the pocket- knife. This story, thus early hinted, grew daily clearer through the course of a brilliant campaign of six weeks, during which Dr. Petrie personally super- intended the trench-work of some thirty diggers. When these deserted him for the joys of the harvest, our archaeologist, relying for his chronological data chiefly on the pottery, was in a position to maintain that Tell-el-Hesy represented the site of a strongly fortified town, founded in the dim ages before the Hebrew conquest, and occupied with more or less continuity almost until the period of the Seleucidan Kings. In other words, the history of the place was found to run parallel with that of Lachish, and, ac- cordingly, the arguments for their identity, strong before the excavations, were placed on a firm ar- chaeological basis. 1 Bearing away with native modesty his rapidly won Palestinian laurels, Petrie returned to his preferred 1 Lachish, by Prof. Flinders Petrie. P. E. F. THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 275 sphere of Egyptian research, leaving the Committee of the Fund with a permit to dig on their hands. In honoring me with the appointment to carry on Petrie's work at Lachish, the Committee made it easier for me to accept this by sending me to Egypt for a short apprenticeship to my predecessor, in the art of practical digging. As the site had yielded up all the secrets that could be extracted by trench- work, Petrie pointed out that there was nothing left for me to do but to cut down the mound itself, layer by layer, in order to ascertain the number of the oc- cupations and the character of each. Accordingly, one spring day in the year 1891 found me pacing the lofty top of Tell-el-Hesy, estimating the amount of time it would take to investigate, with the minute- ness, which I had learned to be the digger's only sal- vation, the mass of debris accumulated to a height of some sixty feet on the natural bluff, itself also rising some sixty feet above the level of the stream-bed. That this could not be accomplished in the time still available, including the year's extension of the permit which the law allowed, became evident at once. My plans, then, were modified by the decision to confine the work to the northeast part of the hill, where al- most one-third of each town could be examined in an area enclosing portions of the ramparts. When I rode away from the site almost two years later, the hill presented an appearance to startle the unwary geolo- gist. The northeast corner had been shifted down sixty feet, and reappeared in slopes of earth above the stream-bed to the east and the barley-field to the north. This earth (over 700,000 cubic feet) repre- 276 PALESTINE EXPLORATION sented the material out of which had been built suc- cessively eight mud-brick towns, all bearing the name of Lachish, and covering a period of over 1,200 years. A plan of the excavated area of every town — its ramparts, houses, granaries, etc. — had been made previous to its piecemeal removal in baskets. Pend- ing the development of the law of the X-rays or the practical application of the mysterious fourth dimen- sion, such piecemeal removal of a town is the only possible condition for the exhaustive examination of an underlying occupation. Two cliffs, at the limits of the excavated area, furnished corroborative evi- dence to the testimony of the plans, by revealing at various heights sections of walls that had been cut through. The varying civilizations had been illus- trated by various finds in stone, earthen-ware, bronze, iron, and paste. A cuneiform tablet of the fifteenth century, B.C., linked the place with Tell-el-Amarna in Egypt. The objects in pottery illustrated the development of ceramic art from early pre-Israelite to Greek times. In a word, while the results of my long campaign were naturally far richer than those of Dr. Petrie's reconnoissance, they did not materially alter his conclusions. 1 The next campaign, conducted at Jerusalem by myself, with the assistance of Mr. A. C. Dickie, in- volved phases of digging quite other than those which had confronted me at Tell-el-Hesy. At the latter place, the simple decision made before ground was broken sufficed for two years. The plan to cut down one-third of the mound had merely to be carried out. 1 A Mound of Many Cities; or, Tell-el-Hesy Excavated, by F. J. Bliss. P. E. F. THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 277 No new major problem arose. Within the circum- scribed field of excavation, of course, minor problems demanded constant attention ; notably, the necessity of distinguishing between mud-brick in situ and mud- brick fallen or decayed. In other words, we had to guard against the constant danger of confounding portions of buildings still standing with the similar material in which they were buried, and which, indeed, had once formed component parts thereof. During the course of our three years' work at Jerusalem (1894-97), however, fresh problems arose with the striking of every fresh clew. Our field of actual ex- cavation was indeed limited, in the main, to the slopes of the hills to the south of the present city wall, but in tracing the ancient south walls at various periods, and in following up accidental discoveries made in connection with our chief work, we never could pre- dict in what exact portion of this large area we might soon be called upon to break ground. Once, in open- ing up a new shaft in a field under which a portion of the city wall was buried, I was asked by the peas- ant proprietor : ' ' How long will you be working here?" "Perhaps only three days, perhaps three months," was my answer. My uncertainty was based on experience. While tracing a line of wall near the Pool of Siloam we came across an ancient stairway of noble proportions leading down to the Pool. The following of this clew led to the striking of others, which had in turn to be followed up. Thus weeks were devoted to the excavation of an early church which had been built down over a portion of the neglected stairway. 278 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Again, at Tell-el-Hesy we were always working in the open air ; at Jerusalem our diggers were rarely above ground. It was always imperative to ex- amine the foundations of a given wall, and as these were usually buried under a mass of debris, we were obliged to pursue the system of tunnelling practised by Sir Charles Warren. This debris, which may be termed Ancient Jerusalem in Decay, was found to vary greatly in character. Sometimes shale and chippings, pouring down from the roof of the tunnel, rendered the latter so unsafe that it had to be aban- doned. Usually, however, danger of caving-in could be averted by the use of wooden frames. And some- times the made soil consisted of earth so compact and solidified that for scores of yards no protection was used at all. When the rock sloped, the tunnel had to be bored up or down hill, as the case might be. When the air became foul, a fresh shaft had to be opened up farther along the line. Near the open drain, which pours its inky fluid into the Lower Pool of Siloam, the oozing galleries had to be sprinkled with carbolic acid, to the discomfiture of the long line of basket-boys, who declared a preference for the more natural conditions. Our deepest shaft was in the cen- tre of the Tyropcean Valley, where rock was reached at seventy feet from the surface. Our most difficult shaft was sunk against the wall crossing the valley below the Old Pool, where the work took the form of quarrying away a solid retaining wall built against the original rampart. This is no place for exploiting the reasons which led to our assigning one rampart to one period, one THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 279 to another. Briefly we may state, that of the three distinct lines which we traced on the south slopes, the first appears to us to antedate the destruction of Jeru- salem by Titus — parts of it to antedate Nehemiah; the second is apparently the wall of the Empress Eu- docia, who, in the fifth century, included the Pool of Siloam within the city; and the third, undoubtedly mediaeval, appears to be that which occurs on the map of Marino Sanuto, a.d. 1321. 1 While long portions of these walls were traced, their ruin was proved to be complete at several points. How to regain a lost clew was always an anxious problem. In one case this was at our dis- posal some days before we suspected it. In cleaning out an ancient drain, cut like a trench in the rock, but roofed by covers, we were obliged to secure fresh air from time to time by sinking new shafts from the sur- face of the ground and removing the slabs. One day, in re-examining the shafts, I noticed that in one or two cases the slabs had not only covered the drain, but extended to one side or the other. Here, then, was a simple clew for finding the lost wall : the drain clearly ran under a paved street ; the paved street was doubt- less within the city; followed in the right direction, it must lead to a gate; to discover a gate would be to rediscover the wall. And so the matter turned out. In another case the loss of clew was due not to the destruction of the wall, but to its disappearance under a modern Jewish cemetery, where excavation was, of course, impossible. Would it reappear on the other 1 Excavations at Jerusalem, 1804-97, by F. J. Bliss; plans and illustrations by A. C. Dickie. V. E. F. 280 PALESTINE EXPLORATION side, and if so, where? Fortunately the line ran on unaltered in direction, and was recovered in a trench at the point hoped for. Identity was proved by comparison of the character of the stone-dressing of the two portions, as well as of their thickness. Again, the clew was rendered uncertain for the moment by the objections of a Moslem proprietor to our digging in his field. Regaining it in the field beyond, we were able to push ahead. But when, months later, we came to terms with the Moslem gentleman, the portion of wall temporarily neglected proved to be of prime importance in determining chronological questions. In the autumn of 1898 a two-years' permit was available for the excavation of several sites in the Shephelah, that once-debated ground between the Hebrews and the Philistines. My associate for this campaign was Mr. R. A. S. Macalister. Unfortunate- ly, the investigation of the chief problem set before us by the Committee — namely, the identification of Tell-es-Safi with Gath — was hampered by the modern encumbrances of the site — a village, a Moslem shrine, and a cemetery — which preempted a large part of the area. However, the excavations which we were able to make were, on the whole, favorable to the identi- fication. We proved that the place was certainly as old and as important as Gath, and that its fortifica- tions, traced in detail, probably date from Jewish times when Gath had a city wall. At a depth of twenty feet we found a heathen ' ' High Place ' ' of pre-Israelite times — three monoliths, still upright, in a line running east and west, enclosed by rude walls, THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 281 possibly of a temple. We came across an ancient rubbish heap containing objects of various periods — statuettes, pottery, scarabs, beads, amulets, etc. The site was especially rich in pottery illustrating the period prior to the invasion of the Hebrews. Excavations were also conducted at three other mounds. At Tell-Zakariya — probably the ancient Azekah — was uncovered a large fortress, possibly the work of Rehoboam, who fortified the towns of this district. At Tell-ej-Judeideh (unidentified) the city wall traced all around the summit was of Greek or Roman date, but an examination of the soil at different points within the enclosure resulted in con- siderable additions to our stock of Jewish pottery. Under the crop of Indian corn covering the summit of Tell-Sandahannah we traced the foundations of the little Greek town of Marissa which overlie the Jewish Mareshah. For a short period, before we were obliged to restore the ground to the state in which we found it, visitors could pass within the town wall by the gate-way, wander from street to street, make out the public buildings, and examine the courts and chambers of private dwellings. Seleu- cidan pottery was found in large quantities. The importance attached to malignant magic in the second and third centuries B.C. was illustrated by impreca- tory tablets, and "revenge-dolls " consisting of small lead figures shackled with chains, and doubtless once named after enemies, who were supposed thereby to become the victims of similar tortures. Important among the features of the general campaign was the detailed examination by Mr. Macalister of numerous 282 PALESTINE EXPLORATION examples of the subterranean rock-chambers with which the Shephelah is honey-combed. 1 It is too early adequately to characterize the cam- paign of Abu Shusheh — the ancient Gezer — begun by Mr. Macalister in 1902, and only just closed at date of writing. From his reports we gather that the memoir of his work will yield in interest and importance to no other account of Palestine excava- tions. He has followed the fortunes of Gezer from dim antiquity down through the Maccabean period. The early Semitic High Place is far more elaborate than that discovered at Tell-es-Safi. The jar depos- its prove that the inhabitants of this period sacri- ficed infants. The city walls with gates have been traced through several periods. A large Maccabean castle has been planned. Among the numerous ob- jects discovered are two cuneiform tablets (frag- ments) of the seventh century B.C. With this brief review of the work thus far com- pleted by the first established and most practical of the organizations for the scientific examination of the Holy Land, we propose to close our sketch of the Development of Palestine Exploration. No different principles of research have been enunciated or illus- trated in other quarters. To record the solid results of individual efforts along parallel lines during the last forty years is a task beyond our present purpose. Appropriate, however, it will be to append to this lecture a brief notice of other agencies organized with a view to the exploration of Palestine. 1 Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900, by F. J. Bliss and R. A. S. Macalister. P. E. F. THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 283 The story of the short-lived American Palestine Exploration Society, organized in 1870 for the de- tailed Survey of Eastern Palestine, may be gathered from its four published statements (1871-77). Its failure to accomplish its purpose appears to have been due to lack of financial support, as well as to lack of harmony between the conductors of the Sur- vey and the home committee. Relations with the English Fund were, however, perfectly friendly, as evidenced by a letter to the American Committee, written by the Archbishop of York, President of the older Society. Two Surveys of a preliminary nature were made: one by Lieutenant Steever in 1873; the other by Mr. J. C. Lane in 1875. With the second expedition Dr. Selah Merrill was associated as archaeologist. In December of the same year he was placed in control of the exploration work. In his "East of the Jordan," which appears to be the only direct literary result of the Society's labor, are to be found the accounts of two out of four expedi- tions undertaken by him in 1875-77. The German Society — Deutscher Palastina Verein — was definitely constituted on September 28, 1877, much on the lines of the English Fund. Accurate scientific research in all branches was contemplated by inviting the co-operation of German colonists, by urging travellers in Palestine to take an interest in certain definite questions, and by sending out especial expeditions. The first number of the Zeitschrift, the Society's journal, appeared in 1878. As an inter- pretative record of discoveries made in every depart- ment, whether by its own agents or by other indi- 284 PALESTINE EXPLORATION viduals, this journal is indispensable to the Biblical student. Much exploring work has been done east of the Jordan, as attested by the maps published by the Society, based on the Surveys of Schumacher and Stubel, the geologist. Until recently, not much stress has been laid on digging. In 1880 Dr. Guthe made a series of trenches on Ophel and near the Pool of Siloam at Jerusalem. As I write, the exca- vations at Tell-el-Mutasellim (Megiddo), begun in 1903 by Drs. Benzinger and Schumacher, are still proceeding. These have already produced most important results. Toward these excavations the Emperor William contributed liberally. The excava- tions conducted for the Austrian Government by Dr. Sellin at the neighboring Taanach were closed in 1904. Among the finds here were several cuneiform tablets. 1 In 1888-91 investigations were conducted for the Berlin Museum by Dr. von Luschan at the mound of Zenjirli, once a city in the land of Sham'al. The mound is near the northern limit of Syria, being situated just south of the Issus, about forty miles inland. The excavations laid bare an outer double wall, enclosing a nearly circular area. Within this area was the citadel, itself enclosed by a double wall. The sculptures of the gate-ways were Hittite in character. Here was found the famous stele of Esarhaddon, with an inscription of fifty-nine lines, recording his second Egyptian campaign. In the neighborhood of the mound was found a huge statue of the god Hadad, with the earliest known Aramaic in- 1 See Ta'anek, by Dr. Sellin, describing the earlier excavations. THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 285 scription, dating from about 800 b.c. Other Aramaic inscriptions found in the mound itself were of great value in illustrating early Syrian civilization. 1 At the Dominican convent of St. Stephen at Jeru- salem there was established in 1890 " The Practical School of Biblical Studies ' ' in connection with a Theological Faculty. The first number of the Revue Biblique, the organ of the School, appeared two years later, and has ever maintained a high level of critical learning. The exploring spirit of the Insti- tution is illustrated by its programme, which in- cludes an archaeological promenade once a week, a day's excursion once a month, and three tours a year, lasting from one to three months, or even longer. Thus a band of ardent students, under scien- tific guidance, roams over the land from time to time, engaged in checking the reports of travellers, in ro- copying inscriptions, in reinvestigating sites which still have secrets to yield — in a word, in following up every available clew. Cordial interest is taken in the work of others by professors and pupils alike. It was ever a pleasure to welcome such enthusiasts to my excavation camps in Jerusalem and the Shephe- lah. The success of this French Institution should greatly encourage the two archaeological schools re- cently founded at Jerusalem, the American School for Oriental Study and Research in Palestine (1900), and the German Evangelical Archaeological Institute (1902). The American Archaeological Expedition to Syria conducted in 1899-1900 by Dr. Howard Crosby 'Sec von Luschan's memoir, Ausgrabungen in Sendschirli, 1893. 286 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Butler, and financed by four American gentlemen, greatly supplemented de Vogue's work in Northern Syria and the Hauran. Taking his itinerary for a basis, the party made frequent diversions from this, and were thus enabled to avail themselves of a great amount of fresh material. To give two examples : Of the sixty churches delineated, only ten appear on the plates of de Vogue; of the four hundred Greek inscriptions copied, the majority have hitherto been unpublished. The results of the expedition are pub- lished by the Century Company in five parts. No more splendid work concerning Syria has ever been issued. 1 In 1904 Dr. Butler, with two of his col- leagues, made a second expedition to Syria. In the autumn of 1898 Emperor William of Ger- many visited Baalbec, and was so interested in the site that he later applied certain funds at his dis- posal to a complete excavation of the ruins. This work was begun in 1900 under the academic direc- tion of Professor Puchstein and under the immediate superintendence of Messrs. Schultz and Krencker, architects. The object was to free the actual re- mains from the debris which covered the floor of the Temples to a great depth. It was found that the court of the large Temple had been used to protect an Arab settlement built within its walls. On clear- ing away these houses (after they had been properly planned) many lost details of the ancient shrine 1 American Archaeological Expedition to Syria in 1899-1900. Part I. Topography and Itinerary (Garrett) ; Part II. Architecture and other Arts (Kutler); Part III. Greek and Latin Inscriptions (Prentice) ; Part IV. Semitic Inscriptions (Littmann) ; Part V. Anthropology (Huxley). THE PALESTINE EXPLORATION FUND 287 appeared. Among these were two richly sculptured pools or tanks and a large altar of burnt sacrifice with ascending stairway. A splendid flight of steps leading up to the small Temple was also recovered. LECTURE VIII THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE In beginning this lecture it will be well for us to explain its title. Here is no definite prophecy con- cerning what the future explorer may bring to light. Here is no definite programme which he is advised to follow. The whole ground is by no means covered. But here is an attempt to point out in a general man- ner a few of the lines which exploration may be ex- pected to take, together with the offer of a few prac- tical hints based on personal experience. If I appear to over-emphasize certain phases, my excuse must be that these have come within my own range more closely than others. The last lecture has failed of its purpose if it has not clearly indicated that the Palestinian Explorer of the future must be a specialist. The surface of Palestine is an open book whose main lessons have already been learned. With the Survey of Western Palestine an accomplished fact, and the Survey of Eastern Palestine a sure promise, exploration above ground will soon become restricted to the study of particular questions. Time was when any intelligent traveller of pluck and enterprise, breaking away from the beaten tracks, might chance upon unexpected dis- coveries on a large scale. To-day all this is changed. Though chance may bring him to another Moabite THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 289 Stone, no longer may he expect to come suddenly upon an unknown town. In seeking to add to the general stock of knowledge, he must enter Palestine with an especial purpose. But while surface exploration must in the future confine itself to the elucidation of problems already stated, excavation has all the possibilities of an infant art. The debris of ages has only just begun to reveal its treasures. Scattered under the soil are countless "documents" — documents in stone, in metal, in earthen- ware — documents inscribed and uninscribed, but each waiting to tell its tale of the past. Of the hundreds of buried sites in Syria and Palestine, those in which excavation has been attempted on any large scale do not reach the number of twenty. The Ex- ploration of the Future, thus, must be largely con- ducted underground. And here, too, the specialist alone may be trusted. Mistakes made by one surface explorer in reporting topographical features or in measuring unburied ruins have been rectified by an- other, but the unscientific excavator may do damage that can never be remedied. In cutting huge trial trenches through a mound, consisting of ruined mud- brick dwellings, he may make the easy mistake of failing to distinguish between fallen or decayed brick and brick in situ, and thus destroy forever parts of some important building hitherto preserved for thousands of years. When his scientific successor, excavating systematically, comes to this building, he will have to deplore the fact that no plan was made of the parts destroyed. But before dwelling on the claims of excavation, 290 PALESTINE EXPLORATION we may illustrate the nature of the problems de- manding the attention of the surface explorer, by giving a detailed presentation of one of these which will serve to show how the specialist may still throw new light upon places often visited. An entirely new department of research was opened up by the "pottery-scale " of chronology, worked out by Petrie at Lachish and amplified by myself not only at that site, but at four others where I was associated with Mr. Macalister, who at date of writing is extend- ing his studies still further in this line at Gezer. A minute examination of tens of thousands of pot- sherds and of numerous whole vessels, together with a record of the archaeological levels in which they were found ; a comparison of site with site ; the proved association of certain local types with foreign imports, the chronological range of which is known — Myke- nean, Phoenician, Cypriote, and Greek, or with styles copied from these — these investigations have resulted in a general chronological classification of the pottery of Palestine from the earliest times to the Roman period. We thus have a key to chronology indis- penbsale at the numerous ruined sites whose remains are otherwise undateable. This key has already fitted several locks. My decision to risk an expenditure of time and money on the excavation of Tell-Zakariya and Tell-ej-Ju- deideh was based upon an hour's examination of the surface pottery upon each of these mounds, so denuded of visible remains that they formed fields for growing crops. Nor, as was subsequently proved, was I deceived in either case in the estimate thus THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 291 formed of the age of the sites. At Tell-Sanda- hannah the surface examination was supplemented by only two shafts to the rock before we deter- mined to devote several weeks to its investiga- tion. Our theory, formed on the pottery-data, that the civilization of the inhabitants had been Jewish be- fore it was Greek, was fully confirmed later by other dateable objects exhumed by the spade. So accus- tomed we became to the association of certain types at a given archaeological level, that we could guess be- forehand what to expect. Thus, when a stratum re- vealed fragments of a certain sort of cooking-pot, tiny black jars, and long-footed ointment-vessels, we at once began to clean all broken-off jar-handles, knowing that our pains would be rewarded by the discovery of stamps bearing precious Hebrew inscrip- tions. The knowledge gained from these studies in pot- tery will be useful in two ways. First, it will serve as a guide to others, as it has served to us, in the choice of sites to be excavated. Secondly, it may lead others, as it has led us, to reopening the discussion of such Biblical Identifications as have been based merely on the supposed survival of ancient town- names and on a general correspondence with indefinite topographical references. Petrie, bringing his pot- tery-key from Egypt, was able to disprove, almost at a single glance, an identification formerly accepted by many scholars. The site of Khurbet 'Ajlan had seemed to suit well enough what was known of the position of Eglon, and in the modern name was sup- posed to be heard an echo of the ancient. But Eglon 292 PALESTINE EXPLORATION was a member of the Amorite league which included the neighboring town of Lachish. For many cen- turies the histories of the two places ran parallel. Their remains, then, should show the same charac- teristics. Those of Lachish — Tell-el-Hesy — rise to a height of sixty feet and contain pottery from an early pre-Israelite period almost to Seleucidan times. At the small site of Khurbet 'Ajlan, Petrie found but a very slight accumulation above the virgin soil strewn with Roman pottery. Eglon, then, must be sought for elsewhere, perhaps, as Petrie suggests, three miles south of Lachish at Tell-en-Nejileh, where he found a large and lofty mound whose pottery indicated ex- treme antiquity and long-continued occupation. My application of the pottery-scale to Khurbet Shuwei- keh, a site above the Valley of Elah, proved it to be late, thus confirming my suspicions that these slight remains could not be those of the city of Shocoh once fortified by Rehoboam. Robinson did an immense service in proving that the ancient nomenclature has so largely survived in the modern Arabic names. These are of the highest value as clews. But in some cases sites are known to have shifted. In the modern Shuweikeh we probably find a survival of the name Shocoh, which must be looked for in the vicinity, possibly, as I have suggested, at Tell-Zakariya, which is either Azekah or Shocoh. The ancient name Mare- shah clings to a small Roman ruin under the form of Mer'ash, three-quarters of a mile away from Tell- Sandahannah, which has been proved by excavation to be the site of the ancient town known to the Jews as Mareshah, to the Greeks as Marissa. But in at- THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 293 tempting a precise identification based on onomastic and topographical grounds, it is necessary to bear in mind that the remains must be commensurate in ex- tent with what may be gathered from the historical references regarding the size of the ancient town to be identified; that these remains must show a depth of accumulation sufficient to account for its historical range, and that the indications of age furnished by the pottery must agree with the notices. These indications are far more available to the sur- face explorer than is usually supposed. Every ruin is covered with potsherds, and much may be learned without excavation. The last occupation of Tell-ej- Judeideh seems to have been late Greek or early Roman, but the surface gives signs of a still earlier civilization. For, mingling with the prevailing late types of pottery which strew the top, are Jewish jar- handles, many of these having traces of Hebrew writing, which came to the existing surface when the foundations for the last occupation were laid, and which again saw the light of day when the ruined Tell was ploughed for cultivation. At Lachish, as we have mentioned before, the whole east side of the mound had been so undermined by the stream that Petrie found a vertical section of strata practically laid bare. By a little scraping he could study the pottery of a dozen centuries — climbing up and down the ages, as it were. At Ascalon the action of the waves has laid bare a similar section. In quarrying away the sea-cliff of Jebail, the modern inhabitants have exposed a section of the superimposed debris, full of fragments of ' ' comb-faced ' ' ware used by the Gib- 294 PALESTINE EXPLORATION lites of pre-Israelite times. This same ware strews the slopes of Tell-el-Kady, the ancient Dan. In a valley south of Tell-Sandahannah we gathered hun- dreds of Rhodian jar-handles, stamped and inscribed in the second or third century B.C., which had been washed down by the rains from the mound. At many a mound we can find trenches and cuttings made by the fellahin for the purpose of extracting stone. When these trenches pierce through the outer crust of the mound, formed by denudation from the top, the original stratification of pottery can be ex- amined. By an analogy with the results of excava- tions at other sites, even from mounds which have been entirely undisturbed, much may be inferred by comparing the surface pottery with the amount of accumulation. A mound only ten feet high, which is characterized by Jewish pottery on the surface, probably represents the ruins of a town both built and abandoned in Jewish times. But Jewish pottery on the top of a mound thirty feet high indicates almost surely that the site was occupied in early pre-Israel- ite times. It may now be gathered what we mean by the phrase ' ' a given archaeological level. ' ' The term is entirely relative. Absolute level is no cri- terion of age. Thus a Jewish stratum, for example, may occur on the rock, as was proved at a small area excavated at Tell-Sandahannah ; in the centre of the mound, as at Tell-es-Safi ; or near the surface, as at Tell-el-Hesy. Though they occur at different levels, relative to the rock, these strata are archaeologically identical. Great accumulation, of course, involves a long series of occupations, hence the lowest stratum THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 295 of a lofty mound must be early. Slight accumula- tion usually indicates only one period, but this may be of any age. An important quest, then, for the explorer of the future will be a re-examination of certain identifica- tions of ruins which were made before the criteria of which we have been speaking were available. Let us repeat that we refer particularly to sites where other chronological clews are lacking. At many a place the pottery-key is rendered superfluous by more distinc- tive indications of chronology: inscriptions, coins, architectural details, etc. In stating our belief in the dating power of pottery, we are aware of its lim- itations. That our deductions are broadly general is shown by our classifying the pre-Roman types in Palestine under four categories only — early pre- Israelite, late pre-Israelite, Jewish, and Seleucidan. How indefinite is the line of demarcation between class and class has been shown elsewhere by our ex- planation of the choice of nomenclature. But the power to make a broad generalization is better than the inability to make any generalization at all. To state with authority that one mound is exclusively Seleucidan and that another was deserted in pre- Israelite times is an immense advance upon the single description serving to cover them both: an ancient mound. To the explorer who would examine the ruins of Palestine with the pottery-key we would give a few hints. In the first place, he must bear in mind that pottery alone cannot be expected to establish an iden- tification. Its mission does not go beyond confirm- 296 PALESTINE EXPLORATION ing or contradicting suggestions made on other grounds. And its negative proofs will be stronger than its positive proofs. Khurbet ' Ajlan, so declares the pottery, is not as old as Eglon. Therefore it cannot be Eglon. Tell-es-Safi, so declares the pot- tery, is as old as Gath. But on that account it is not necessarily Gath, though the general argument for the identification is thereby strengthened. Again, in his search throughout the land, our ex- plorer will find numerous potsherds of each period that might belong to any other. On the surface of some sites he may find no fragments determinative of date. The same clay is used from age to age. Certain simple shapes, designed to meet elementary and universal demands, are constantly recurrent. You may buy to-day in the Jerusalem market lamps of recent make which resemble the earliest Phoenician open types. The Roman and Byzantine lamps known to us are closed, but I do not dare affirm that the open lamp ever fell into disuse. But each age has types differentiated from those of all others by cer- tain characteristics. l Among these we may mention the type of glaze or burnishing ; peculiar surface mark- ings; above all, some form of decoration. Thanks to the recent excavations, we now know how vessels were ornamented in pre-Israelite times. 2 Race-individu- ality is also shown in extraordinary shapes. The 1 Some of the pottery found in our excavations is placed in the Constantinople Museum. The larger portion is arranged in a small Museum in the Government School at Jerusalem near Herod's Gate. Representative types of the different periods are figured on fifty plates in Excavations in Palestine, 1898-1900, hy Bliss and Macalister. 3 See Plates 3G-44. THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 297 ledge-handle or wavy handle, stuck on to the side of a jar like a shelf, characterizes the earliest pre-Is- raelite ware in Palestine. 1 The form is found in pre-historic Egyptian ware. Was it brought from Syria to Egypt, or vice versa ? That question has not been satisfactorily answered, but an early commercial connection between these lands is implied by the dis- covery of these bizarre types in both places. Our explorer will do well to look out for these unmistak- able handles, which point to so high an antiquity. The pseudamphora, or false-necked jar, of the Myke- neans is a freak. It might be copied by contem- porary races — doubtless it was — it never would be invented a second time. 2 It is found in Syria, and hence furnishes an important date-clew. Another important clew to age is found in inscribed pottery. As we have indicated above, jar-handles with Hebrew writing may be gathered from the surface. Some of these bear a symbol representing a beetle with four extended wings; on others the symbol takes the form of a winged disc. In both cases we find a dedication "To the King " and the name of a town, probably the seat of a Royal Pottery. Other handles show merely the name of the maker or potter. All, however, belong to a late Jewish period. 3 The Rhodian jar-handles with Greek inscriptions date from the second and third centuries B.C. 4 Tiles bearing the name of the tenth Roman legion are turned up at a slight depth in the outskirts of Jerusalem. 5 So much for the nature of the problems awaiting : Plates 23 and 2G. '' Plate 48; No. 17. * Plate 56. 4 Plate G4. 6 Excavations at Jerusalem (18D4-97). Plate xxvii. 298 PALESTINE EXPLORATION the surface-explorer. They are distinctly problems for specialists. An equally good illustration would have been a detailed statement of the need for a comparative study of the hundreds of tombs which the vandalism of the peasants has made available without further excavation. Renan began the study of tombs long ago. Mr. Macalister in the course of his excavations has made valuable contributions tow- ard the subject. But it is very far from being exhausted. Leaving, then, the question of surface exploration, we come to the matter of excavation, which now looms so large before the would-be dis- coverer. We have, early in the lecture, disclaimed the idea of prophecy. This has danger even in its negative form. Twenty-five years ago prophecy would have refused to state that notable works of Art might be expected from Syrian soil. Twenty- five years ago prophecy would have denied the hope that cuneiform tablets would be unearthed in Pales- tine. And yet the soil of Sidon has yielded the exquisitely sculptured Sarcophagi, now in the Im- perial Museum at Constantinople, and cuneiform tablets have been found at Lachish, Taanach, and Gezer. Bearing in mind the extraordinary historical vicissitudes to which Syria and Palestine have been subjected — lands once the highway for the armies of Assyria and Egypt; lands which again and again have passed with violent shock from one foreign master to another; lands that have been harried and ravaged and plundered as few other lands have been — bearing in mind the destructive climatic influences so strongly in contrast with the conditions of the THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 299 Nile Valley, where, for century after century, desert air and desert sand have preserved pigments in all their pristine brilliancy ; bearing in mind the poverty of Syria and Palestine in pre-Roman days, as com- pared with Egypt on the one hand and Mesopotamia on the other; bearing in mind the actual results of excavations thus far — results interesting indeed and full of value, but, with very few exceptions, intrin- sically poor in comparison with those from other lands; bearing in mind all these conditions, were I to prophesy, I would prophesy a continuation in the future of the experiences of the past — a gradual aggregation of small things from which large infer- ences may be drawn, rather than some sudden and startling revelation on a grand scale. But bearing in mind the exceptional surprises of the past, I pre- fer, in this matter of excavation, not to prophesy at all, but, as I have said before, to confine myself to the presentation of a few practical conditions which confront the excavator. And as, apart from such tombs as have escaped robbery in one age or another, the most valuable discoveries may be expected in the mounds, I shall speak with some minuteness of mound- structure. Scattered over the surface of Syria and Palestine are numerous mounds or tells. Some counterfeit in appearance a natural hill; others, even to the ordinary observer, show their artificial nature; in the case of still others it is hard for the trained eye to deter- mine the line between a real hill, once chosen as the site of a town, and the surmounting debris, con- sequent on its destruction. 300 PALESTINE EXPLORATION The secret of a mound is very simple. From age to age the inhabitants of a given site have been ordinarily content to build on the ruins of their an- cestors, without a rock foundation. To produce the height of a tell, men of successive ages have worked in unconscious bond. To produce the final sym- metry, nature has lent its rains and winds. Con- struction and destruction have gone hand in hand. Love of the ancestral site ; fire, war, and pillage ; the desire for better buildings; natural decay and denu- dation — thus have contrary forces worked toward one final result : the formation of a mound that may be sown and reaped. A mound, thus, consists of a series of strata, each stratum representing an his- torical period. Sometimes the stratification remains clear and distinct; in other cases it has been dis- turbed. The most perfectly stratified mounds are those where the building material demands the mini- mum of disturbance of the underlying occupation, or, in other words, of the parts of the mound already formed when the foundations of the new occupation are laid. Such a material is sun-dried brick. Let us briefly follow through the ages the fortunes of a town built of this material. The first inhabitants, having chosen a site, rear on the rock or the virgin soil their constructions of bricks formed of clay dried in the sun — usually made with straw. When the first occupation falls into ruins — through war, age, or temporary abandon- ment — the conditions are as follows : The lower por- tions of the walls remain in situ, but are surrounded and buried by the fallen upper portions, that is, by THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 301 precisely the same material as that of which they are made, and, what is more important, by precisely the same material as is to be used in the next construction. The rough platform thus formed furnishes a ready-made foundation. The second town rises on the ruins of the first with no neces- sary interference with its ground-plan. Moreover, the objects left in the ruins of the first town — ves- sels, weapons, tablets — are completely buried by the buildings of the second town, and thus remain in- tact forever, or at least till the excavator of future ages may discover them. This process may go on for centuries, until we have a perpendicular series of towns, as at Lachish, where, as already stated, the excavator was able to furnish partial plans of eight distinct occupations, covering a period of some twelve or fifteen centuries — plans where the walls in the various occupations are along different lines, are sharply distinguished in each case from those below, and do not interfere with these. 1 In a mound where the accumulation, through the ages, is due to the successive erection and ruin of stone dwellings, the anatomical conditions are some- what different. In the first place, given an equal lapse of time, the accumulation is by no means as great as in the case of a mud-brick mound. This is obviously due to the fact that in the former case, from age to age, the same material is easily available 1 See A Mound of Many Cities. In each of the eight plans blank places appear where the buildings hud been entirely ruined, but the remaining walls abundantly prove and illustrate the strati- fication. 302 PALESTINE EXPLORATION for re-use. On the other hand, in a town built of mud-brick, when a wall falls, already partly dis- integrated, it is left on the spot for further dis- integration, and helps to make the mound grow. When a new town is built, fresh material is usually, though not always, brought from the outside. 1 Fallen stones, however, may readily be reshaped and re-used in a later age. Forming part of the new construction, they minimize the amount of new material to be imported. The excavations at Tell- es-Safi (presumably Gath) prove that the historical range of the town was even longer than that at Tell-el-Hesy (Lachish) , but the latter site has a maxi- mum of sixty feet of accumulation over against only thirty at the former. At Tell-es-Safi mud-brick is the exception, the main building material having always been stone. In the second place, at such a mound the strati- fication is less distinct. Old lines of walling may be re-used without alteration. The ground-plan of one building is often interpenetrated with the foundations of a later construction. Thus recon- struction of a given stratum must be based upon a series of most careful deductions, and even then must be regarded as tentative. An example of this is found in the proposed reconstruction of the rude 1 Dr. Hilprecht notes instances of re-use of clay at Nippur : "We know positively that earlier building remains were frequently razed to the ground by later generations, often enough for no other reason than to obtain building material, worked clay, as well as burnt bricks, for their own constructions, in the easiest and cheapest manner possible." Exploration in Bible Lauds in the Nineteenth Century, pp. 541-2. THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 303 temple discovered at a depth of twenty feet at Tell- es-Safi. 1 Two plans appear side by side: one shows a confused mass of wallings; the other, one fairly symmetrical construction — the second plan being made simply by eliminating from the first such walls as various considerations suggested, if not proved to be later than the original temple. Again, important stone buildings, of whatever age, have to be founded upon the rock. Thus at Tell-Zakariya the stratifi- cation was disturbed, though not destroyed, by a large fortress (built probably several centuries after the first settlers) whose massive walls, requiring a rock foundation, were sunk down through the re- mains of earlier times. 2 Before leaving the question of mound-structure I may touch upon a thoughtless but popular miscon- ception. It is often supposed that the winds play an important part in covering up ruins. A certain amount of shifting of the loose earth on the surface of any given site undoubtedly occurs, but that the amount of soil brought by the winds from a distance is inappreciable is proved at Tell-ej-Judeideh. Here 1 See Excavations in Palestine, 1897-1900; Bliss and Macalister. ' Stratification over any large area is practically non-existent in the debris of ancient Jerusalem — which may be called a huge ir- regular mound, or a series of mounds — where the accumulation has constantly been disturbed by the erection, in every period, of im- portant buildings requiring rock foundations. Note our phrase over any large area. In following the line of the south wall in our excavations, we were able to distinguish between various periods. At particular points, away from the wall, we could work out the chronological relations of superimposed and interpenetrating re- mains. Rut the reader must banish the idea that the data exist for the detailed reconstruction of any large section of ancient Jerusalem at any given period. 304 PALESTINE EXPLORATION we have a long summit, only one-third of which was occupied. Along the unoccupied portion the rock crops up everywhere, often like a flat platform, clean and smooth. Had the accumulation on the occupied area been in any degree due to the winds, these would have acted in the same way on the other portions of the hill. The surfaces of mounds, de- serted for centuries and never disturbed by the plough, are strewn with potsherds: had the winds played any part in the growth of a mound these would have been covered up long ago. The above remarks have indicated, I hope, that the price of success in excavating a mound must be eternal vigilance. Every phenomenon should be ac- counted for. The buildings in each stratum should be isolated from the surrounding debris, and then exactly plotted and planned before they are removed, in order to make possible the examination of the underlying stratum. It is not sufficient to extract all the treasures the mound contains : the level and position of every object, however apparently un- important, should be noted. Every basket of earth should be examined, lest a precious scarab or in- scribed bead be thrown away. Every broken-off jar-handle should be scrutinized in the hope that it contain some stamp or inscription. Every tap of the pick should be directed with caution, lest some vase, preserved intact for ages, should be broken at the moment of discovery. In a word, the excavator should regard no phase of the work as too trivial for his personal attention. As excavation in the Turkish Empire is theoreti- THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 305 cally impossible without a permit, it will be well to say a few words here concerning the Turkish Law regarding antiquities. Considerable ignorance pre- vails in regard to the attitude of the Porte toward archaeology. This is often assumed to be one of hostility. The failure of a given explorer to obtain a permit to dig in some distant portion of the Em- pire is set down to a deep-rooted prejudice of the Turk, not only against science but against foreigners. Great injustice is done to the Turk in this matter. Foreigners are too apt to expect to act with carte blanche in Turkish territory and then to blame the authorities if anything goes wrong. Naturally the Porte ex- ercises wariness in permitting a stranger of unknown antecedents to excavate in a disturbed district pop- ulated by suspicious tribes. The Occidental excava- tor may be a man of mere scholastic training, utterly unpractical, devoid of tact in dealing with native workmen of an alien religion, unused to desert life. Such a man may easily get into serious trouble, and, unable to go on with his work, will probably complain to his Government. And his Government will prob- ably try to hold the Porte responsible. When the next man proposes to excavate in a similar district the Porte may be conceived, in diplomatic language, to reply "No." Additions to the Imperial Museum come too dear when purchased at the cost of possible international friction. On the other hand, if the excavator exercises tact, patience, and, above all, honesty, he may complete his campaign successfully, enrich the Constantinople Museum with antiquities, and, in consequence, become a persona grata to the 306 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Porte. Hereafter he will find no difficulty in secur- ing other permits. The Turkish Law regarding antiquities is a docu- ment full of theoretic wisdom. The preservation of ancient remains, both above and below ground, is possible only upon the theory that these are in- herently the exclusive property of the Government. Did this theory hold in England, the recent hue and cry as to the threatened destruction of Stonehenge would have been impossible. As a natural corollary to the proposition, the Turks hold that a man has no right to search for antiquities in his own land with- out a permit. This is in the direct interests of science. Left to himself, the discoverer of antiquities may destroy these or dispose of them in such a way that the knowledge of their provenance, which often greatly enhances their value, is lost. In antiquities accidentally discovered, the land-owner has a certain share, regulated by law. The objects he discovers by permission belong exclusively to the Government. A permit to excavate in the land of another or others carries with it no authority over such territory. Thus the rights of individuals are strictly guarded. Terms must be made by the excavator himself. In cases of dispute the Government may sometimes act as arbitrator, though this point is not covered by the law itself. The excavator must, bind himself not to endanger sacred or military buildings. I have excavated in the lands of scores of people. In case of damage to crops I have always given compen- sation ; sometimes I have paid ' ' ground-rent. ' ' Dif- ficulties in working about the Pool of Siloam vanished THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 307 when I agreed to build a new and better stairway down to the Pool, using the great stones I had exca- vated in the vicinity. In Jerusalem land-owners often begged me to excavate in their properties, encouraged by the discovery of ancient cisterns, or by the exhuming of valuable building materials in the land of their neighbors. In outlying districts, owing to the Turkish flag flying over the tent of the Imperial Commissioner (always accompanying the excavator, in order to take over the finds on the part of the Museum), our right to dig was unques- tioned. When digging in arable land, we either restored the ground to its original condition, or paid the owner to restore it himself. An exception was made at Tell-el-Hesy, where I cut down one-third of the mound, but the area of cultivable soil was not diminished, though now appearing at two different levels. Admirable as is the Turkish Law on excavation in theory, its strict enforcement is rendered impossi- ble by various conditions. It seems to assume that the agents of the Museum are ubiquitous, or, rather, that the general officials of the Government can fol- low up and punish all cases of illicit digging. In a country so abounding in ancient remains as Turkey, a proper carrying out of the law would require a force of thousands of archaeological police. The law deals not only with excavated objects but with the preservation of ruins above-ground. Yet in remote parts of the Empire noble monuments are destroyed for the purpose of obtaining building material before the authorities can check the vandalism. Thus the 308 PALESTINE EXPLORATION splendid remains of 'Amman (Philadelphia) were al- ready partly despoiled by the Circassian Colony be- fore the Government stepped in. The search by the peasants for glass and other objects in ancient cem- eteries abounding in the district of which Beit Jibrin (Eleutheropolis) is the centre, begun many years ago, checked temporarily when we were working on the spot, was resumed after we left. In Galilee this grave-robbing has spread far and wide. The law, in fact, defeats its own purpose in one respect. Not only does the Museum lose the objects discovered, but Science cannot be sure where these came from. Antiquities may be bought in large quantities, but fear of exposure prevents the history of their dis- covery becoming known. Petty and illicit excava- tion is easy, while scientific excavation on a large scale is hampered by the tedious but necessary proc- ess of obtaining a permit. Application to the local Consul, transmission of the request to the Depart- ment of Public Instruction through the Embassy, agreement between this department and the Museum, correspondence with the local authorities for assurance that no local difficulties exist, the final authorization of the Sultan, the appointing of a Commissioner — at best these processes take almost a year, and it is not reasonably to be expected, at least by a novice, that they should take less. The would-be excavator, burning to ply the spade, is apt to feel that Con- sulates, Embassies, and the Sublime Porte exist chiefly to further his scientific designs. Personally I have little complaint against these various agencies in the expedition of the business with which I was THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 309 intrusted. In Egypt the obtaining of a permit is a much shorter affair. But then Egypt differs from Turkey both geographically and administratively. The Department of Antiquities is thoroughly organ- ized; communication is easy; the population is uni- fied; sites requiring excavations are, as a rule, un- hampered by modern constructions. Once having obtained his permit, the excavator who would avoid trouble will find his chief hope lying in strict conformity to Turkish Law. In Egypt the discoverer must turn over to the Museum at Cairo one-third of his finds, including all unique specimens ; must promise to give one-third to foreign museums ; and may keep the remaining third himself. This seems certainly to be more reasonable than the Otto- man law, which requires that all objects, including duplicates, be delivered to the Imperial Commissioner for the Museum. Temptations to evade the law will present themselves, but these should be stead- fastly resisted. Hamdy Bey, Director-General of the Museum, has proved himself very generous in grant- ing duplicates to those discoverers whom he has found worthy of his confidence. On the other hand, the excavator who is known successfully to have smuggled his finds out of the country will find it im- possible to get another permit. The explorer who would keep the Turkish Law re- garding the antiquities he discovers may comfort himself with the knowledge that these will be well looked after if they reach Constantinople. Under the learned and artistic direction of Hamdy Bey and his brother and colleague, Khalil Boy, the Imperial 310 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Museum furnishes a generous and beautiful housing for antiquities. The explorer of whatever nationality may well be proud to see his finds placed here. Long may the Museum continue under such a regime ! Such, then, are some of the problems awaiting solu- tion by the explorer of the land itself, above and be- low ground, as well as some of the conditions under which he must work. But exploration in the broad sense, as conceived by the founders of the Palestine Exploration Fund, includes an examination of the re- ligious rites, of the social manners and customs of the modern inhabitants of the land. A scientific in- vestigation in these fields demands immediate atten- tion. If put off much longer it will be too late. The tide of Western civilization is passing over Syria and Palestine, gradually obliterating much that illustrates the past. This branch of inquiry has not been as thoroughly and systematically pursued as others have been, though its importance has been long recog- nized. 1 Even Thomson's "Land and the Book," rich as it is in the detailing of manners and customs, has left much to be done. Some years ago the Palestine Ex- ploration Fund issued a series of questions regarding the various races and sects of the land, drawn up by specialists in folk-lore, and covering a variety of sub- jects — birth, marriage, death, religion, superstitions, government, land-tenure, etc. These were widely scattered, but thus far the returns have been meagre. Perhaps the best results are those embodied in the papers of Mr. Baldensperger, published from time to time in the Quarterly Statements of the Fund. As 1 Rauwolf treated the subject carefully in 1575. THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 311 Bee-Keeper in the hills and valleys of Judea, he mingled freely with the peasants, living their daily life, enjoying their confidence. What he has done for the vicinity of Jerusalem should be accomplished at a hundred other points. But it is difficult to find the people to do it. Strangers to the land, however well equipped by previous knowledge, are hampered by lack of time, by an imperfect knowledge of the language, by the consequent uncertainties arising from the necessity for an interpreter, too eager to please his employer. 1 Resident foreigners are too busy. There are missionaries of many nationalities scattered through the land, who come in daily con- tact with the most interesting facts, but whose stren- uous life prevents the daily and exact record which alone would give scientific value to all their observa- tions. The same is true of other residents : doctors, merchants, consuls. The ordinary native is to be trusted only as far as his own particular sect or dis- trict is concerned, and even then is to be taken cum grano salis. The ideal investigator in these depart- ments of knowledge would be a native graduate of the Syrian Protestant College at Beyrout, trained to observe acutely, to weigh evidence scientifically, to record his observations in a form at once systematic and dispassionate. To such a man I would recom- 1 Interesting investigations in these lines, however, were recently pursued by the late Rev. Dr. S. I. Curtiss of McCormick Theologi- cal Seminary. Summer after summer he returned to Syria, always choosing new routes, availing himself of the experience of the mis- sionaries, often joining them on their tours. In 1902 he published Primitive Semitic Religion To day, in which he attempted to prove the survival of early sacrificial ideas. 312 PALESTINE EXPLORATION mend this quest, urging him to seek to find out the truth regarding his country rather than to glorify it, to treat the life of those of opposing faith with a candor he shows to his own, and, above all, to verify his alleged facts. The urgency of this quest is due to two causes. The life of the country is being rapidly altered, not only by the bringing in of foreign influences by Euro- peans and by Americans, but also by the return of natives who have sojourned in other countries. Turn we to the first cause. This works both through in- dustrial forces and through education. Foreign machinery is being imported which will drive out the time-honored hand labor. Our Consul at Beyrout was recently present at the inauguration of an Amer- ican reaper. Other agricultural implements will follow. The natural products will be greatly in- creased. But the parable of the Sower will no longer be enacted on every plain, on every hill-side. Sev- eral American water wind-mills have been erected in Beyrout and the Lebanon. It is conceivable that in the near future these may replace the picturesque water-wheel. The chief interest of Hamath, noted by travellers from early times, will be destroyed. No longer will be heard the music of N auras, each, as it turns on its axle, sending out a different note — in some cases a series of notes, a veritable motif, — no longer will bucket after bucket, on the circumference of these vast wheels, sometimes eighty feet in diam- eter, dip into the stream, rise again slowly, cast out its water, descend and rise again in stately revolu- tion. Railway systems are rapidly increasing with THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 313 their tendencies to unify the land on the basis of modern civilization. In the winter of 1901-1902 the letters of a resident missionary in Ras Baalbec, a day's journey north of Baalbec, two days' journey from Beyrout, were full of descriptions of local cus- toms, some of which were unknown to me. Since these letters were written, the shrieking engine pulls up at Ras Baalbec on its way from Hamath, and the train takes on passengers to Beyrout in a few hours. How much longer will Ras Baalbec, no longer isolated, continue to mirror the past, continue to be differ- entiated from other parts of Syria? The modern traveller, if so disposed, may find a billiard-table at Nazareth; he may dine at table d'hote at Jericho; he may play roulette to the sound of an Italian band in a hotel on the heights of Lebanon ; he may converse in French with the Sheikh of Palmyra. But the bil- liard-table, the Italian band, the broken French of Sheikh Mohammed, typify a state of transition which the student of folk-lore must regard with alarm. The transforming power of education must also be counted as an agent working against the preserva- tion of the old life. The influence of the foreign schools is far-reaching. The French led the way. They were followed by Americans, English, Italians, Germans, and more recently by Russians. Institu- tions also have been established by the local churches on foreign models. Beyrout boasts of four colleges. Two of these, the Syrian Protestant College (Amer- ican) and the Jesuit University of St. Joseph (French) , have medical departments. The Maronite College of Bishop Dibs and the Patriarchal College of the Greek 314 PALESTINE EXPLORATION Catholics are under native control. The American College, with over seven hundred and fifty students, has its Commencement, its Field-Day, with all the usual athletic events, its Literary Societies, its Y. M. C. A., and its College Yell. Among its Syrian stu- dents, who still form the majority, though the numbers include Egyptians, Greeks, and Armenians, have been enrolled scions of princely Druse families and de- scendants of Khaled, the Sword of God, who con- quered Syria for Mohammed. The distinction between peasant and noble is forgotten in a game of foot-ball. Native costumes, except in neglige, have yielded al- most without exception to European dress. When its graduates desire to marry, their wives are chosen from the girls also educated in foreign institutions. But Beyrout is only the focus of the educational movement in Syria. It has spread all through Syria to Damascus, to the villages of the Lebanon, to Hums, to Hamath, to other cities of the coast. Palestine, too, has its numerous foreign schools, not only in Jerusalem, but scattered far and wide, and these, as in Syria, have stimulated education under local Turk- ish administration. The Government School for Moslem girls in Jerusalem was put under the charge of an American lady. While excavating near the small Moslem village of Zakariya, I was pleased to yield up one of my juvenile workmen to the turbaned pedagogue on the ground that he had been the star of the local school : the influence of the Director of Public Instruction at Jerusalem was felt twenty miles away. Thus hundreds of young people of both sexes return every year from school to their homes THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 315 bringing with them new ideas which must lead to new habits and customs. The second cause of change in the life of the land is found in the new ideas introduced by returned emigrants. In this temporary emigration the Leb- anon led the way. Thousands of Lebanese are to be found in the United States, in South America, in Australia, in South Africa. The original impulse was simply one of trade. Genuine emigration was not contemplated: each voyager into the unknown hoped to return with a fortune. Many did thus return. By travelling from town to town with a pack on the back, peddling Oriental curiosities or cheap French wares, living cheap and selling dear, the formerly poorer inhabitants of the villages in the Cedar district were able often on their return to rival their once richer neighbors in the grandeur of their houses. Then "going to America" became the craze. Notwithstanding the difficulties placed in the way by the Government officials, alarmed lest agriculture in the mountains should suffer, every steamer to Marseilles was packed with men, women, and children. Gradually the impulse spread to Da- mascus, to Jerusalem, and to the cities of the coast. And not even now is it on the decrease. But there are signs that the character of the movement is alter- ing: peddling has become overdone; large commer- cial houses have been established ; many individuals are employed in factories or are pursuing some set- tled trade. While the love of the ' ' water of their village," of its figs and grapes, is still strong within them, some are forced to take root in the United 316 PALESTINE EXPLORATION States. Their children go to its public schools. I met a man at the Cedars who had returned for a wife, whom he was to take to his Kansas farm. At Jebail, the ancient Byblos, a man informed me that he was coachman to the Governor of Vermont. A popular local estimate which I have heard repeated in the Lebanon is this: a third of the emigrants settle in foreign lands, a third die, and a third re- turn. It is interesting to remember how, from the cities at the foot of this same Lebanon, the Phoeni- cians sailed away to trade and ended by founding colonies. Whatever may be the proportion of returned emi- grants, these are sufficiently numerous to produce an impression on the mother country. Habituated to new ways of doing things, they regard the customs of their forefathers with a critical eye. In some cases they bring back with them children born in America to whom the old ways must seem strange. Both children and parents form a leaven which may leaven the whole lump. Thus far the so-called emigration has been con- fined almost entirely to Christians. But there are signs that the voyage-germ has inoculated the Mo- hammedans as well. I have heard of several who are working in American factories. In the Winter of 1903 I travelled with two Mohammedan brothers, bound to seek their fortune in South America. It is significant that on arrival at Marseilles they ex- changed the traditional fez for the despised hat. The process of change varies, naturally, in different parts of the land. It is most rapid in the centres of THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 317 trade or of education, as in the large cities or in the Lebanon, where the reactionary forces of emigration are chiefly at work. It is less in evidence in the rural districts, where the population is homogene- ously Mohammedan. Such a district is that be- tween Gaza and Jaffa, between the Mediterranean and the Judean hills. And a precious district this is, embodying ancient Philistia and a part of Judea. But through this district must inevitably pass the railway which in the near future is bound to connect Egypt with Syria. Philistia — the highway of Egyp- tian invaders, the thorn in the side of Judea, the stronghold obstinately contested by Saracens and Crusaders— Philistia has led its daily life with little variation for four thousand years. Masters have come and masters have gone. One religion has re- placed another. But probably the people have from age to age followed the same customs as they ' ' sat down to eat and to drink and rose up to play. ' ' They are now threatened with a disturbing power stronger than any they have felt before; that they will have to catch a railway train is a suggestion pregnant with wonderful possibilities. Comparison of their own ways of eating and drinking and playing with those of others will be made easy. And comparison is the mother of change. But even in the districts most touched in the daily life by foreign influences there are special occasions when the old costumes are brought out, the old cus- toms are revived. On the summer feast-days the inhabitants of Bsherreh, Hasrun, and other villages full of returned emigrants assemble at the grove of 318 PALESTINE EXPLORATION the Cedars. Old chests have been ransacked for richly embroidered garments. The bride of twenty- five years ago reappears in her former finery. Sword- dancing, now seen so rarely, is practised under the stately trees. Each sect has its peculiar festivals where old customs may be studied. The student of folk-lore should make a list of these festivals and ascertain where they are celebrated with the great- est pomp. He should mingle with the crowds at some great Maronite convent during the week in August in which falls the Assumption of the Virgin. He should follow the Moslem procession on Thurs- day of the Greek Holy Week out from St. Stephen's Gate at Jerusalem, past the slopes of Olivet, dotted with scores of tents, over the barren hills of Judea to Neby Musa, the alleged tomb of Moses, where, for three days, peasants and nobles keep holiday. He should plan to arrive at Kubb Elias, on the plain of Coele-Syria, on the same week of another year, when a descendant of the Prophet, mounted on an Arab horse, rides over the prostrate bodies of a score of men lying side by side. He should also keep in touch with current events, ready at short notice to attend the enthronement of a Patriarch or the funeral of some great Druse Sheikh. This question of the survival of the ancient life brings us back very close to the controlling motive of Palestine Exploration. Few explorers have not been pilgrims also. What traveller in the Holy Land with any historical imagination does not find this dominated by one Figure ? At the foot of Her- THE EXPLORATION OF THE FUTURE 319 mon, around the Sea of Galilee, in the coasts of Tyre and Sidon, among the fertile valleys of Samaria, on the rocky hills of Judea, in the streets of Jerusalem, by the banks of the Jordan — wherever the traveller goes there this Figure glides before him. But clearer still is the Figure mirrored in the life of the people to-day, territorial descendants of those who lived in the land nineteen hundred years ago. Riding up the steep hills which mount westward from the Sea of Galilee, I met, one morning in Spring, a poor Arab walking beside a donkey which carried his sick wife. He called to me to stop; he seized my bridle : Did I know of one who healed at Tiberias ? Was he wise ? Was he kind ? Would he cure the woman ? And as I rode on toward Nazareth, hav- ing reassured the man, I fell to thinking that just such a scene might have been enacted on that very road in the days of Him in whose name the mission- ary doctor at Tiberias ministers to the suffering to- day. For down every road leading to the Sea of Galilee there flocked men and women bearing the sick, half in doubt, half in hope that One who healed, whom they knew only by hearsay, might be gracious to them also. INDEX Aahmes, 14 /. Abana, 79, 100. Abbassides, 67. Abilene, 112 /. Abraham, Abram, 9. Abu Dis, 54. Abu-el-Fida, 70. Abu Ghosh, 134. Abu Shusheh (Gezer), 282. Abyssinia, 155 /. Aceldama, 92. Achzib, 21. ^Lcre, 17, 21, 58, 71, 73, 76, 83, 86, 96, 107, 112, 113, 116, 117, 120, 135, 136, 147, 165, 200. Acre, bishop of, 104. Acta Sanctorum, 66. Adam, 8/., 89. Adamnan, 42/., 61, 62, 64. Adana, 161. 'Adlun (Ornithopolis) , 142, 145. Adonis, cult of, 248, 249. Adonis, river of, 251. Adriatic, 36. Adrichomius, 43. Adummim, 50. Aelana, Gulf of, 179. Aelia (Jerusalem), 47. Aelius, Antoninus Pius, 143. Africa, Interior parts of, 111 '. Ai, 108. Allah, 59. Ajalon, 50. Ajlun, 272. .4/.Y//,a, 179, 194, 203. Akabah, 203. Aleppo, 16, 18, 71, 133, 142, 145, 151, 159, 164, 171, 174, 178, 180 /. Alexander, Bp. of Cappadocia, 45. Alexander the Great, 24, 33, 185. Alexander, Mole of, 29, 33. Alexander, sarcophagus of, 252. Alexandretta, 145. Alexandria, 25, 36, 67, 175. Alexandroschene (Scandalium) , 145. 'Ali Bey el 'Abbassi, 175, 176. Altmann, Bp., of Passau, 66. Amanus, Alt., 27. Amatu, 15. Amaur (Amorites), 16/. Amazons, 105. Amenemhat I, 13. Amenhotep III, 16. Amenhotep IV, 16. American Archa'ological Ex- pedition to Syria, 241, 285. American Expedition to the Dead Sea, 239. American Palestine Explora- tion Society, 283. American School for Oriental Study and Research, 285. 'Amman, 71, 148, 308. Ammianshi, ruler of Upper Tenu, 13. A mm on, 239. Ammonitis, 173. Amor (Omar), Saracen chief, 87. Amorite League, 292. Amorites, 10, 16 /. Amorrhilis, 173. Amrit (Marathus), 246, 247. 'Amrit, Sepulchral Towers of, 109, 144. 'Amschit, village of, 251. 321 322 INDEX Anab, 210. Analhoth, 210. Anderson, Dr. , geologist, 238. Anderson, Lieutenant, 265, 268. Anonymous Pilgrim, 97. Antaradus (TartHs), 58, 65, 246. Antilibanus, 26, 30, 33, 79, 80, 137, 163, 165, 180 /., 209. Antioch, 36, 46, 49, 54, 59, 76, 79, 100, 106, 200. Antiochia Seleucia, 26. Antipatris, 48, 116. Antonine Itinerary, 35, 46. Antonines, the, 24, 33, 248. Antoninus, martyr (of Placen- tia), 45, 56, 57, 58, 59. Antoninus, martyr, Itinerary of, 57. Apameia, 149, 180. Aphek, 108. Aphrodite, site of shrine to, 215, 217. Arabia, 30, 33, 174, 178. Arabia, Felix, 27. Arabia, Petraea, 155, 174, 196. Arabias, three, 90. Arabs, 29, 84, 135, 155, 162, 182, 240. Aradus, 242, 244 {Rudd), 245. 'Arak-el-Emir, 183. Area ('Arka), 146. Archas ('Arka), 79. Arculf, Bp. of Caul, 42/., 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 128. Arezzo in Tuscany, 55. Argyll, Duke of, 257. Aristeas, 25. Aristobulus, 24. 'Arka, 73. Arkites, 146. Armenia, 117. Armenians, 97. Armstrong, Mr. George, 258, 268. Armstrong's "Names and Places," 210/., 213. Arnon, 102. Arocr, 115. Arrian, 24. Arsuf, 76. Arundale, 149. Arvad, 247. Arvadites, 244, 245, 247. Ascalon, 1, 21, 23, 30, 59, 76, 83, 104, 141, 200, 293. Ascension, site of the, 218, 219. Ascent of Gur, 89. Ashdod (Azotus), 23, 30, 59, 106, 200. Ashurnatsirpal III, 19, 20. Asia Minor, 181, 46, 153, 181. Assassins, 99. Assyria, 1, 2, 20, 21, 22, 23, 298. Assyrians, 19. Athos, ML, 24. Augustus (Caesar), 36. Ausitis (Uz), 54. Austrian Government, 284. Azekah, 108, 109, 281, 292. Azotus {Ashdod), 23, 29, 59, 83, 116. Baal, 251. Bdb-Neby Baud, 47. Baalbcc (Heliopolis), 59, 60, 89, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143, 144, 148, 161, 164, 166, 170, 187, 199, 286. Baal Mcon, 89. Babylon, 207. Babylonia, 1, 2, 67. Bad'ia y Leblich ('Ali Bey), 175. Baghdad, 102. Baldensperger, Mr., 264, 310. Baldinsel, 82. Baldwin, I., 87, 106. Banias, 6, 80, 85, 115, 199. Bankes, William John, 149/., 181, 183. Barada, 79, 148, 171. Barbara, Ermolao, 150. Barclay, Dr., 237/. Bashan,6,H5, 180/., 181. Batanea, 173. Batrun, 243. Beazley's "Dawn of Modern INDEX 323 Geography," 40,46/., 52/., 55 /. Bedawin (Shasu), 16/., 174, 179, 210. Bede, Ven., 62. Beisdn, 71, 114. Beitin, 81. Beit Jibrin, 38, 82, 100, 201, 206, 308. Belgrade (Singidunum) , 46. Belinas (Banias), 79. Belka, Castle of, 176. Belon du Mans, Pierre, 133/., 134, 137, 150, 156. Benjamin of Tudela, 99, 100, 101, 115/. Benzinger, Dr., 284. Berghaus, 181, 195. Berytus (Beyrout), 60. Berlin Museum, 284. Bernard, Dr., 217. Bernard the Monk, 45, 66, 67, 68, 185. Bernard the Wise, Itinerary of, 66. Bernhardt de Breydenbach, Dean of Mayence, 121, 122. Bertou, traveller, 189 /. Bertrandon de la Brocquiere, 119, 125, 186. Besant, Sir Walter, 257,, 258, 260, 261, 264/. Bethany, 48, 135, 219. Bethel, 42, 47, 52, 81, 82, 157, 210, 227. Beth-hacccrem, 108. Beth Jesimoth, 112/. Bethlehem, 34, 48, 50, 66, 76, 77, 84, 87, 96, 130, 138, 154, 157, 200 /. Bethlehem, Basilica at, 237. Bethorons, Two, 50. Bethshean (Srythopolis), 46, 80, 85, 114, 168. Beth-rehob, 108. Bethsaida, 108. Bdh-Shemesh, 211. Beto Gafjra (Beit Jibrtn), 201. Beyrout, 15, 16/., 17, 60, 73, 96, 117, 120, 153, 161, 183, 197, 198, 199, 238, 242, 311, 312, 313. (Berytus), 60. , its colleges, 313, 314. Birch, W. F., 235. Birket Mamilla, 168. Bir-es-Seba, 82. Bireh, 81. Black, Sergeant, 268. Bliss, F. J., 12/., 114/., 279/., 282/., 296/., 303/. Bochart, 152. Bocharti, 43. Boniface, St., 64. Bonomi, 149. Book of Numbers, 10. Book of Wisdom, 49. Bordeaux (Bordigala), 46. Bordeaux Pilgrim, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 57, 185, 204, 232. Bordigala (Bordeaux), 46. Botta's "Monument de Nin- eve," 208. Bozra, 178, 179, 180 /. Brusa, 120. Bsherreh, 317. Buckingham, J. S., 149/., 180. Buka'a, 80. Burchard of Mt. Zion, 42, 43, 76, 77, 78/., 80, 81, 82, 107, 108, 110, 112, 113, 118, 119, 121, 125, 132, 148, 186. 204, 248 (Burchardus, Bro- cardus, Borcardus). Burckhardt, Johannes Ludwig, 133, 149, 156, 174/., 177, 179, 180, 181, 188, 195, 202, 210/. Butler, Dr. Howard Crosby, 285, 286. Byblos (Jebail), 244, 245, 248, 249, 250, 251, 316. Byzantine lamps, 296. Cadytis, 23. Casarca Palcstina, 46, 85, 105. Cocsarca Philippi, 59, 66, 79, 84, 85, 113, 13S, 148. Cwsarea Maritima, 99 /. Caiaphas, House of, 47. 324 INDEX Cairo, Museum at, 309. Caius, Caesar, 137. Calinus, a dragoman, 124. Caliph Al-Hakim, 72. Caliph Al Mamun, 69. Caliph Omar, 61. Calvary, Gordon's, 232. Calvary, ML, 88, 168, 217, 232. Cana, 84. Canaan, Land of, 91. Cape of Good Hope, 132. Capernaum, 85, 108, 142, 209. Cappadocia, 22. Carmel in Judah, 210. Carmel, ML, 18, 46, 58, 85, 125, 135, 162, 200. Carmoly's, Itineraires, 115 /. Carrey, French artist, 136. Castillo, 157. Castle of Hyrcanus, 183. Catherine, Tomb of St., 126. Catherwood, 149, 208. Cedars, The, 161, 166, 199, 316, 318. Celsius, A., 154 /. Cenotaphs of the Patriarchs, 175. Chabas, 18 /. Chaldea, 117. Chaplin, Dr. Thomas, 115/. Chateau Pclerin, 141, 147. Chateaubriand, 134, 146, 175, 176, 177, 188. Chedorlaomer, 9. Chinnereth, Sea of, 6. Chorazin, 108. Chosroes II, the Persian, 61. Christian sects, 104. Christians, Native, 72, 97, 128, 175, 176, 186, 242, 263. Chronicles, First Book of, 12. Chronicles, Second Book of, 12. 1 Chron. vi, 54-81: xiii-xix, 11/. 1 Chron. xii, 3-7, 12 /. 2 Chron. hi, iv, 12/. 2 Chron. xi, 6-10, 12/. 2 Chron. xxxii, 30, 235. 2 Chron. xxxv, 22-23. Church of the Resurrection of our Lord, 87. Church of St. Simeon Stylities, 145. Church of the Virgin, 92. Cilicia, 22, 26, 27, 30, 98. Circassian Colony, 308. City of David, 235. Clarke, Dr. Edward Daniel, 172, 173. Claudius Ptolemy, 33, 69, 185. Clermont-Ganneau, Professor, 260, 272. Coele-Syria, 10, 27, 98, 318. Colmar, Monk of, 35. Commagene, 27. Conder, Col. C. R., 13/., 15/., 16/., 17/., 43, 91, 106, 110, 135, 157 /., 205, 228, 229, 230/., 231, 266, 270, 271. Constantine, Emperor, 3, 45, 61, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 233. Constantinople, 36, 46, 48, 62, 66, 132, 182 /., 309. Constantinople, Emperor of, 74. Constantinople, Imperial Mu- seum at, 252, 298, 305, 306. Coryphaeus, ML, 26. Cosquiis, 152. Cotovicus (Kootwyk), 136 /., 137, 139, 140, 157, 158, 187. Crac (Kerak), 76. Crusaders, 69, 75, 76, 77, 82, 84, 90, 103, 104, 106, 111, 112, 133. 147, 167, 187, 188, 211, 233, 247. 248, 317. Crusades, 137, 148, 163, 204, 211. Curtiss, Dr. S. I., 311/. Cypriote pottery, 290. Cyprus, 26, 49, 76, 170. Dalmatius, Consul, 45. Damascus, 15 27 59, 63, 64, 66,71, 72, 75, 79,87,89, 99, 100, 102, 106, 113, 116, 117, 120,139,159,165,170,180/., 199, 209. Damascus, Greek Patriarch of, 179. INDEX 325 Damietta, 170. Dan (Laish), 15, 56, 82, 294. Daniel, Abbot, 78/., 79, 85, 86, 90. Daniel the Reubenite, 115 /. Daughters of Zion, 237 /. D'Arvieux, 136 /., 141, 142,162. David, 3, 12, 47,51,89. David, Sepulchre of, 100. Dawkins, 148. De Bruyn, 142. De la Roque, 137, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 162/., 163, 164/., 187. De Luynes, 239. De Saulcy, 225, 236. De Vignes, 239. De Vitry, Jacques, 70, 78 /., 80, 82, 103, 106, 108, 112, 186. De Vogue, Comte, 236, 237, 239, 240, 241 /., 242, 286. Dead Sea, 14/., 27, 29, 31, 36, 48, 58, 59, 71, 83, 89, 93, 103, 111, 113, 130, 134, 141. 152, 167, 174, 179, 180/., 181, 189/., 196, 237, 238, 239 241 Decapolis, 31, 80, 173. Derby, Earl of, 257. "Description of the East," by Pococke, 168. Desert of the Exodus, 269. Deut. i. 6-7: iv, 47-49, 10/. Deut. iii, 17, 10/. "Deutscher Palastina Verein," 283. Deuteronomy, Book of, 10. Devonshire, Duke of, 257. Dkoherhjeh, 220. Dibon, 115. Dibs, Bishop, 313. Dickie, A. C, 12/., 60, 114, 270, 279 /. Dictionary of National Biog- raphy, 119/. Dimashki, 70. Diodorus Siculus, 28, 29. Dionysius Perie£;etes, 35 /. IHospolis (Lydda), 59. Dog River, 16 /., 22, 26. Dome of the Rock, 233. Dominican Convent of St. Stephen at Jerusalem, 285. Dor, 18, 169. Dothan, 82 /., 133, 169. Doubdan, Canon M. J., 141, 161,162,163, 164/. Draa, 178. Drake, Mr. Tyrwhitt, 269. Druses, 100, 167, 242, 314. Druze, Emir Fukhreddin Ma'an, 147. Du Mans, 187. Durzi, 168. Due de Luynes, 196, 239, 240. Due de Raguse, 183. Early Travels in Palestine (Wright), 119/. Eastern Hill at Jerusalem, 232, 233, 234. Eastern Palestine, 76, 133. Ebal, ML, 41. Ecce Homo Arch, 139, 157, 237/. Ecole Pratique d' Etudes Bi- bliques, 130. Eden, ML, 89. Edessa, 54, 106. Edom, 21. Edom, Mountains of, 273. Eglon (Khurbet 'Ajlcin), 273, 291 296. Egypt, 1, 2, 14, 16/., 17, 19, 22, 23, 27, 50, 54, 59, 62, 67, 98, 106, 117, 118, 153, 174, 178, 179, 182, 260, 275, 276, 291, 297, 298, 299, 309, 317. Egypt, Sultan of, 1 18. Egyptian records, 13, 17, 40. Egyptian Sea, 27. Egyptian writers, 22. Egyptians, 27, 184. Ej-Jib, 169. Ekron, 15, 21, 83, 204. EUih, Vale of, 169, 170, 211, 292. Eleutheropolis (Beit-Jibrin), 50, 82, 89, 201, 206, 211, 308. Eleutlierus, river, 164. 326 INDEX El - Heidhemiyeh (Skull - hill) , 232. Elijah (Helias), 47. ElKab, 14/. Elgin Marbles, 252. Eliah de Ferrare, 115/. Elisha, Fountain of, 58, 60. Elusa, 194. Emesa, 59. {Hums), 55, 137. Emmaus, 89. Emperor William of Germany, 284. Encyclopaedia Biblica, 38 /., 235. Eneglaim, 112 /. Engedi, 50, 89. Ephesus, 144. Erman, 18 /. Ermolao Barbaro, 150. Ernoul's Chronicle, 107 /. Er-Riha, 71. Er-Rnheibeh, 212. Esarhaddon, 284. Eshmunazar, Sarcophagus of, 252. Esdraelon, 50, 66, 115, 151, 165, 166, 183, 269. Eshtaol, 112. Eshtemoa, 210. Essenes, 31. Ethiopia, 117. Eucherius, St., 55, 57. , Epitome of, 55. Eudocia, the Empress, 56, 114, 279. Eu»;esippus-Fretellus, 88. Euphrates, 15,27,30,54,59,171. Eusebius, B. of Ca?sarea, 41, 43, 46, 48, 214-219, 234. , his Onomasticon, 34, 41, 42, 185, 215. Eustochium, 49, 51. Ezekiel, 39. Father Julius, 140. Father Nau (Jesuit), 142. Faustinus, Monk, 56. Felix Fabri, 45 /., 57, 77, 78 /., 82, 83, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, 131, 132, 135, 149, 173, 187, 241. Fellahin, 246, 270. Fergusson, Mr. James, 233, 234, 235, 257, 266. Fetellus, 78, 79, 81, 88, 89, 90, 108, 119, 185, 204. Fezzan, 178. Franks, 67, 77, 78. Fuad Pasha, 243. Fulchre of Chartres, 83. Gabala (Jebeleh), 144. Gaillardot, 243, 252. Galgala (Gilgal), 58. Galilee, 37, 39, 50, 51, 68, 77, 91, 92, 114, 135, 154, 170, 198, 200, 208, 228/., 229, 244, 308. Galilee of the Gentiles, 80, 81 . Galilee, Sea of, 66. 86, 169, 180, 23*, 241, 319. Galilee, Synagogues in, 265. Gamala, 181. Gamurrini (It. Libr.), 55. Gate of St. Stephen, 48. Gath, 7, 99, 116, 280, 294, 302. Gath-hepher, 89, 100. Gaza, 17, 30, 33, 45, 50, 59, 66, 67, 82, 130, 131, 159, 200, 204, 272, 317. Geba, 210. Gcbal (Jebail), 18, 244, 249, 250. Gebelene, 173. Genesis, xiii, 10-6 /. Gcnnesaret, Lake of, 31, 111. Gcrar, 108. Gcrasa, 148, 181. Gerizim, ML, 42, 47, 81, 265. German Evangelical Areha?o- logical Institute, 285. German Emperor William, 284, 286. Gerson de Scarmala, 115/. Gesenius, 192. Gethocopher, 89. Gelhsemane, 92. Gezer, 15, 17/., 19, 272, 282, 290, 298. INDEX 327 Gezer, excavations at, 282. Ghazir, 244, 245. Gibelin, 82. Gibeon, 169. Giblites, 17, 100, 144, 244, 248, 249, 250, 293. Gilboa, ML, 7. Gilead, 6, 180 /., 181. Gileaditis, 173. Gilgal (Galgala), 58. Glaisher, Mr. James, 259, 264. Golgotha, 8, 95, 215 /. Goliath, 47. Goodwin, 18 /. Gordon's Calvary, 232. Graham, Cyril, 240/. Grand Emir, 162. Great Temple at Baalbec, 144. Greece, 1, 24, 136, 181, 248. Greek Christians, 104. Greek pottery, 290. Greek writers, 22, 69. Greeks, 22, 24, 35, 97, 158, 184, 185, 261, 281. Gregorians, 97. Grove, Sir George, 257. Groves of Daphne, 96. Guerin, H. V., 225, 226, 229, 230,231,271. Gulf of Akaba, 239. Gur, Ascent of, 89. Guthe, Dr., 284. Guy le Strange, 68. Hadad, the god, 284. Hadrian, Rom. Emp., 24, 33, 49. Hadrian's Aclia {Jerusalem), 47. Haifa, 100, 271. Halifax, Rev. William, 140, 143. Hamalh, 10, 16, 73, 120, 171, 312. Hamdy Bey, Director General of Museum at Constanti- nople, 309. Hamilton College, 191. Hamza, founder of the Druses, 168. Haram Enclosure at Jerusalem, 149, 208, 267, 273. Haram-esh-Sherif, 235, 237. Haran, 52. Hasbany River, 6, 80. Hasbcga, 199. Hasrun, 317. Hasselquist, Fridrich, 153, 154, 171, 188. Hattin, 73, 74. , Battle of, 101. 'Haurdn, 148, 178, 180/., 183, 200, 237, 240, 286. Hebrew, Hebrews, 184, 207, 280. Hebrew inscriptions, 291. Hebron, 10, 48, 50, 59, 66. 74, 76, 82/., 85, 86, 87, 101, 115/., 117, 130, 159, 174, 175, 210, 220, 229. Hecata?us of Abdera, 24. Hedjaz, 175. Helena, St., 46, 132, 138, 217, 219. Helias (Elijah), 47. Heliopolis (Baalbec), 59, 143. Henriette, Renan's sister, 245. Heraclius, 61. Hercules, the god, 23. Hercules, Temple of, 22, 23. Herculaneum, 136. Hermon, ML, 42, 80, 111, 113, 199, 209, 241, 318. Herod (the Great), 39, 100, 147, 236. Herodotus, 22, 23, 184. Heshbon, 115. Heyman, Prof. John, 135, 144, 166. Heyman, Dr. J. W., 166. Ilezekiah, 20, 21, 235. Hill of Evil Counsel, 172 Hillerus, M., 154/. Hilprecht, Dr. H. V., 302 /. Ilinnom, Valley of, 92. Hiram's tomb at Tyre, 253. Hitchcock, Dr. Roswell D., 189, 190, 194, 203, 222, 223. — , his life of Dr. Robinson, 190 /. 328 INDEX Hittite, Hittites, 16 /., 284. Hodceporicon, 65, 66, 82 /., 116/. Holy City, 66, 70, 76, 91, 92, 96, 104, 128, 134, 232, 233, 237, 259, 265. Holy Land, 40, 44, et passim. Holy Places, 57, 62, 90, 94, 97, 117, 124, 126, 130, 150, 159, 160. Holy Sepulchre, Church of the, 47, 54, 61, 63, 68, 72, 74, 84, 86, 88, 90, 96, 102, 122, 126, 127, 128, 129, 157, 160, 168, 176, 213, 214, 215-219, 221, 227, 233, 237, 265, 266. Hor, Wilderness of, 89. Hor, ML, 179, 221. Horns of Hattln, 75. Hospitallers, 93. Huleh, Lake of, 6, 211, 212. Hull, Professor Edward, 260, 273. Hums (Emesa), 71, 73, 137, 139, 171, 200. Hy (Iona), 61. Hyrcanus, son of Joseph, Castle of, 183. Iakob, de Paris, 115/. Ibn Batiitah, 70. Ibn Haukal, 69. Ibrahim Pasha, 134, 183. Idhna, 201. Idrisi, 69, 70. Idumea, 99, 173. India, 117, 132, 153. Invention of the Cross, 216- 219. Iona, 61. Irby, Charles L., 149/., 156, 181, 182, 188, 204/. Isaac's wells, 212. Island of Rudd, 171. Ishak Chelo, 1 15 /. Islam, 60, 70, 71, 103. Israel, 10/., 20, 131. Israelites, 10, 53. Issus, 284. Issus, Gulf of, 30. Istakhri, 69. Iturea, 80, 81. Jabesh Gilead, 112 /. Jabbok, 79. Jacob, 81. Jacobites, 97. Jacob's Well, 47, 63. Jacques de Vitry, 70, 78 /., 80, 82, 103, 106, 108, 112, 186, 187. Jaffa, 76, 77, 85. 97, 120, 123, 125, 130, 136, 157, 161, 227, 272, 317. Jaffa Gate, 109. Jamnia, 83. Jatlir, 210. Jebail, 17, 73, 100, 144, 243, 244, 245, 248, 250,251. 253, 254, 293, 316. Jebeleh, 144. Jedur, 80. Jehoshaphat, Valley of, 92, 139. Jemal-ed-Dtn, 70. Jenin, 183. J crash, 148. Jericho, 6, 42, 48, 58, 60, 66, 71,85,93, 123, 134,207,267, 313. Jerome, St., 41, 42, 43, 44, 46 /., 49, 50, 52, 55, 62, 79, 82, 89, 100, 204, 210. , his Onomasticon, 185, 228/., 232, 236, 259, 260, 201, 203, 265, 268, 272, 276, 278, 279, 284, 285, 296, 297, 303/.. 307, 311, 314, 315, 319. Jerusalem, 8, 16 /., et passim. Jerusalem, Breviary of, 57, 58. Jerusalem, Cemetery in (Prot- estant), 157. Jerusalem, excavations at: by Warren, 265; by Bliss and Dickie, 270; by (iuthe, 286. Jerusalem, Governor of, 134. Jerusalem, Siege, 37. Jerusalem, St. Stephen's Gate at, 318. Jerusalem, Temple of, 37, 87. Jerusalem topography, 38. INDEX 329 Jewish writers, 22. Jews, 32, 137. Jezreel (Stradela), 46, 47, 166, 211. Job, 54. Johann Zuallart (Zuallardo), 138, 157, 158. John, St., 57. John XXI, Pope, 111. John of Antioch, 143. John of Wurzburg, 78/., 79, 81, 88, 90, 94. Jokneam, 1 12 /. Jonah, 89. Joppa, 15, 18, 27, 30, 49, 84, 170. Jor and Dan, 79. Jordan, 5, 6, 10, 11, 27, 30, 48, 50, 52, 56, 60, 66, 73, 76, 79, 80, 86, 93, 114, 125, 130, 134, 138, 170, 184, 200, 227, 238, 240, 284, 319. Jordan Valley, 189 /. Josephus, 24, 25, 31, 36, 37, 39, 40, 100, 147, 208. Joshua, Book of, 11. Joshua, 89. Joshua, iii, 13-15, 6 /. , xii, 1-24; xiii, 2-6; xx, 7-8, 11/. , xv, 5; xviii, 19, 6 /. , xxii, 5, 6 /. Joshua, xviii, 20; xix, 34, 5 /. , xix, 22, 34, 6 /. Judah, 12, 20, 210. Judea, 27, 30, 31, 37, 39, 91, 152, 185, 200, 227, 228, 229, 311, 317, 318, 319. Judea, Western, 171. Judean hills, 137, 157, 317. Judges, Hook of, 12. Judges, i, 21-35, 12/. Judges, iii, 28, 6 /. Juneh, 244. Junieh, plain of, 164. Justinian, 57. Jultah, 210. Kadesh, 15, 16/. Kadesh- Bar nea, 9. Kadesh (on the Orontes), 23. Kadesh-Naphtali, 108, 209 /. Karnak, 14, 16/. Kasmiyeh, river, 164. Kasyun, 209 /. Kedron Valley, 48, 109, 157. Kefr Dikkerin, 38. Kefr Kuk, 206. Keilah, 89. Kerak (Crac), 77, 102, 174, 238, 239. Kesrouan Mountains, 153. Khaled the Sword of God, 314. Khalil Bey, 309. Khan Jubb Yusif, 82/., 133. Kheta (Hittites), 16/. Khurbet 'Ajldn, 231, 273, 291, 296. Khurbet 'Aziz, 230. Khurbet Fahil, 204 /. Khurbet Mejdel Baa 1 , 229. Khurbet Shuweikeh (Shocoh) , 292. Khurdadbih, 68. Kiepert, 204 /. Kings, First Book of, 12. 1 Kings, iv, 7-19, 12 /. 1 Kings, vi, vii, 12 /. 1 Kings, vii, 46, etc., 6/. 1 Kings, xvi, 25-28, 16 /. 2 Kings, xxxii, 29, 23 /. Kirjath Sepher, 89. Kirkland, Miss Eliza (Mrs. Robinson), 191. Kitchener, Lord, 273. Kootwyk (Cotovicus), 137, 158. Korte, Jonas, 168. Krafft, 233. Krencker, architect, 286. Krikhor, 18. Kubb, Elids, 318. Kubeibeh, village of, 207. Kula'at Kurein, 211. Kurmul, 210. Kuteijeh, 139. Laborde, 149/., 156, 180, 183, 195, 196. Lachish, 17, 21, 50, 108, 131, 148/., 207, 230, 231, 260, 330 INDEX 273, 274, 275, 276, 290, 292, 293, 298, 301, 302. "LaMerMorte,"239. Lagrange, R. P., 56. Laish {Dan), 15, 115. Lake of Gennesaret, 31, 111. Lake of Huleh, 6. Lamartine, 134, 146, 176, 177, 183, 188. Lane, Mr. J. C, 283. Laodicea, 83, 106, 140/., 253. Larissa, 149. Lartet, geologist, 239. Latakia, 85, 106, 170, 252. Laura of Mar Saba, 85. Laurent, 109/., 110. Layard's "Nineveh and its Remains," 208. Lebanon, Lebanons, 9, 18, 42, 66, 80, 87, 96, 105, 111, 117, 120, 151, 161, 163, 165, 170, 172, 199, 200, 222, 239, 242, 243, 244, 312, 313, 316, 317. Le Brun, 153/. Legh. Dr. Thomas, 149/., 182. Leja, 80. Lejjun (Legio), 7, 115, 166, 211. Leontes, 240. " Les Eglises de la Terre Sainte," by de Vogue, 239. Leshem, 115. Le Strange, Guy, 68, 70. "Le Temple de Jerusalem," by de Vogue, 239. Levites, 11. Lexotius, 49. Leyden University, 150, 166. Libnah, 89. Liergue, de, 151. Linant, 149/., 180. Linnams, 153, 154, 188. Litany, Natural Bridge over,200. Lot's wife, 94. Louvre Museum, 246, 252, 253, 272. Ludolph von Suchem, 82, 102, 116, 117, 186. Luise, Therese Albertine (Mrs. Robinson), 192. Lushington, 16/. Luxor, 16 /. Luz {Bethel), 81. Lycus, 26. Lydda, 48, 115. Lynch, Lieut., 189/., 238. Ma'arrah, 171. Macalister, R. A. S., 17 /., 247, 280, 281, 282, 290, 296 /., 298, 303 /. Macarius, Bp. of Jerusalem, 216, 217, 220. Maccabees, The, 235, 282. Machpelah, Cave of, 251. Madeba, 56, 89. Madeba, Map Mosaic of, 252. Magdala, 108. Magdolus, 23. Mahanaim, 108. Mahumeria, 81. Majus, 152. Maketa (Megiddo), 15. Makkeda, 108. Malta, 255. Ma'lula, 170. Mandeville, Sir John, 117, 119, 186. Mangles, James, 149/., 156, 181,182, 188,204/. Mannert, 36 /. Manuel Comnenus, 96. Maon, 210. Marathus ('Amrit), 144, 140, 246, 247. Mar Saba, Monastery of, 85, 96. Marcella, 49, 51, 52. Marco Polo, 111, 132. Mareshah (Marissa), 100, 115, 211, 281,292. Marino Sanuto, 78/., 79, 81, 82, 111, 114, 119, 186, 204, 279. Marissa, 100, 247, 281, 292. Mariti, Abbe, 171. Maronites, 158, 243, 318. Maronites, Patriarch of the, 243. Marseilles, 315, 316. Mary Magdalene, 95. Maspero, 14/., 15/. INDEX 331 Maundrell, Rev. Henry., 134, 136/., 137, 140, 144, 145, 147, 148, 163, 164, 165, 171, 173, 187, 206. Mauss, architect, 239. McCormick Theological Semi- nary, 311 /. Mecca, 73, 74, 120, 175. Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles, 115/. Medinet Habu, 16 /. Mediolanum (Milan), 46. Mediterranean Sea, 36, 79. 159, 189 /., 317. Megiddo, 7, 15, 17, 18, 23, 115, 166, 211, 284. Mejdel Baa', 230. Memoires de l'lnstitut, 119/. Men with horns, 105 Men with tails, 105. Menke, 30. Mer'ash, 292. Merenptah, 16 /. Merom, Waters of, 6, 15, 113, 170, 211. Merrill, Dr. Selah, 283. Mesopotamia, 22, 52, 98, 207, 299. Mesopotamian records, 40. Mesopotamians, The early, 184. Michmash, 108, 210. Migdol (near Egypt), 23 /. Moab, 21, 239. Moab, Mountains of, 273. "Moab, The Land of," 211 /. Moabite Stone, 272, 288. MoabUis, 173. "Modern Traveller," 195. Modestus, 61. 62. Moggrebyn, 179. Mohammed, 103, 110, 176, 314. Mohammedanism, 104, 168. Mohar (a traveller), 18. Monastery of the B. V. Mary, 85. Monconys, Balthasar de, 136/., 140, 151, 161, 167. Mont fort, 211. Montreal, 76, 103. More and Beke, 189 /. Moriah, ML, 39, 109. Morocco, 175. Morocco, Emperor of, 175, 176. Morrison, Walter, M. P., 267. Moscow, 182 /. Moses, 27, 28, 31, 54. Moses, Alleged tomb of, 318. Moslem, 61, 68, 71, 73, 75, 76, 77, 97, 102, 133, 158, 175, 186, 187, 243, 245, 263, 265, 280, 318. Mosque at Hebron, 175. Mosque of Omar, 74, 109 130, 175, 233, 237/., 266. Mount Moriah, 109. Mount of Olives, 130. Mount of Temptation, 93, 218. Mount Zion, 109. Mugharet 'Adlun, 252. Mujeddd', 7. Mujir-ed-Din, 68. Mukaddasi, 45/., 69, 70, 73, 74, 186. Midler, 13, 14/. Mykenean pottery, 290, 297. Nabata>ans, 29. Nahleh, Temple of, 137. Nahr-el-Kebir, 164. Naphtali, 5. Napoleon III., 242, 243. Nau, Michel, Jesuit Father, 163. Nazareth, 34, 77, 120, 135, 161, 165, 180/., 183, 227. Nasir-i-Khusrau, 45/., 69, 73. Naiiras, 312. Nazareth, 47, 48, 58, 59, 66, 76, 84, 85, 94, 130, 135, 313, 319. Neander, 192. Neapolis, 30, 47, 59. Neapolis (Shechem), 47, 58, 82. Nebo, 54. Nebuchadnezzar, 62. Neby M Asa, 318. Neby Samwil, 82/., 92, 169. Neby Yilnis, 198. Nec'ho II., 23. Nehemiah, Book of, 12, 235. 332 INDEX Nehemiah, Jewish leader, 12, 23, 235, 279. Neh., iii, xii, 27-40, 12 /. Neh., xi, 25-26, 12/. Nestorians, 97. Neubauer (geographer), 38, 115/. Nicolai de Sepulchris Hebrseo- rum, 146 /. Nicopolis, 68. Niebuhr, Carsten, 148/., 171, 172/. Nile Valley, 299. Nineveh, 249. Nipur, ML, 20. Nippur, 302 /. Nob, 108. Normandy, Duke Robert of, 83. Northern Syria, 109, 111. Nubia, 178. Numbers, xxxiii, 10 /. Numbers, xxxiv, 10 /. "Old Compendium," 88. Oliphant, Laurence, 68. Olives, ML of, 48, 62, 64, 92. Olivet, The slopes of, 318. Olshausen, 205. Ommayad Caliphs, 61, 67. Omri, 20. Onomasticon (Eusebius and Jerome), 34, 41, 43, 44, 52, 55, 185, 201. Ophel, Hill of, 170, 267, 284. Ornithopolis , 142. Orontes, 23, 79, 180, 240. Ottoman territory, 243, 254. Owen, Professor, 257. Padi, 21. Paganism, 40. Palace of Herod, 138. Palestine Association, 256. Palestine Exploration Fund, 3, 4, 17, 132, 156, 184, 204, 205, 206, 224, 225, 226, 239, 247, 255-287, 310, 318. Palestine, 1, 2, 3, et passim. Palestina Prima, 99 /. Palestina Secunda, 99 /. Palestina Tertia, 99 /. Palmer, Professor, 269. Palmyra, 31 /., 143, 148 /., 239. Palmyra, Sheikh of, 313. Paneas, 31, 42, 115. Parchi, Rabbi, 114, 115/. Parthenon, 136. Pass of Winds, 53. Paton, L. B., 13/., 16/., 18/., 23/. Paul the Apostle, 9 /. Paula, 41, 49, 50. Pella, 200, 204/. Pennekheb, 14/. Pentaur (royal scribe), 16/. Perea, 39. Persia, 68, 187. Petachia of Ratisbonne, 101 /., 115/. Peter, Burgundian Monk, 63. Periegesis of Dionysius, 35 /. Persia, 117. Peters, Dr. J. P., 247. Petra, 28 /., 76, 102, 103, 108 /., 149, 179, 180, 182, 183, 187, 208, 221, 239. Petrie, Dr. Flinders, 15/., 131, 230, 231, 260, 273, 274, 275, 276, 290, 291, 293. Petrus de Suchen, 116/. Peutinger Table, 35. Pharpar, 79, 100. Philadelphia, 148, 308. Philip, King, 24 /. Philip, King of France, 76. | Philistia, 21, 171, 180, 317. I Philistine, Philistines, 18, 200, 264, 280. Philo of Byblos, 25, 248. Phocas, 78/., 96, 100. Phienicia, 3, 22, 26, 27, 28, 33, 60, 66, 180, 242, 244, 246, 248. Phoenicia Libanica, 98. Phoenicia, Northern, 50. Phoenicia, Southern, 180. Phoenician inscriptions, 253. Phoenicians, 22, 23, 28, 316. Phoenician pottery, 290, 296, 296/. INDEX 333 Pierotti's "Jerusalem Ex- plored," 237 /. Pietro della Valle, 136 /., 159. Pigmies, 105. Pilate's prcetorium, 47. Pilgrims, 119, 123, 124, 126. Placentia, 58, 59. Pliny, 29, 34, 118, 185. Plumptre, Dr., 257. Pococke, Dr. Richard, 133, 134, 135, 137, 147, 148, 149, 163, 168, 169, 170, 173, 188, 206, 236. Poloner, John, 119. Polybius, 25, 28. Pompeii, 136, 137. Pompey, 28. Pool of Bethesda, 169. Pool of Siloam, 92, 169 /. Porta Speciosa, 139. Porter, Dr. J. L., 209 /. Post, Dr. Geo. E., botanist, 264. Procopius of Caesarea, 57. Ptolemy, 34. Ptolemy, Claudius, 33, 185. Ptolemy Lagus, 24. Ptolemy Philadelphus, 25. Puchstein, Professor, 286. Pullani, 104. Quarantia, 93. Quaresmio, 140, 146/., 159, 161, 168. "Quarterly Statement," 260, 262, 263, 272, 310. Queen of Great Britain, 261. Quintus Curtius, 33/., 160. Rabbi Esthori R. Mose Ha- Parchi, 114, 115/. Raguse, Due de, 183. Rameses II., 16/., 17,22. Rameses III., 16 /. Ramleh, 67, 72, 125, 126, 141, 159, 176. Ramoth-Gilead, 108. Rds Baalbec, 313. Raumer, 195. Rau wolf, L., botanist, 133, 138, 150, 156, 187. Rawlinson, Sir Henry, 257. Red Sea, 98. Rehoboam, King, 12, 16 /., 281, 292. Rehoboth, 212. Reland, Hadrian, 34, 43, 189, 195 Renan, 3, 140, 146, 171, 199, 206 /., 209 /., 225 /., 241-254, 298. Renan's "Vie de Jesus," 244. Renouf, 14 /. Reuben, 89. Revenue Lists, 69. Rey, 111/. Rich, C. T., 207. Richard, King of England, 76. Ritter, Carl, 2, 3/., 5, 68, 112, 181, 182, 195, 205. Road Books, 69. Robert, Duke of Normandy, 83. Robinson, Edward, 4, 43, 68, 80, 82, 83, 91, 114, 115, 121, 122, 131, 150, 156, 158, 163, 164, 168, 171, 176, 177, 183, 184, 187, 188, 189, 190-223, 224, 226. 227, 228, 229, 232, 234, 236, 256, 265, 292. Robinson's Arch, 208, 267. Robson, Dr., 199. Rohricht, 78/., 114/., 225/., 227 /. Roman Empire, 35, 36. Roman pottery, 290. Roman work in building, 141. Roman writers, 22, 30. Romans, 32, 35, 40, 185. Rome, 1, 2, 36, 248. Royal Geographical Society, 255. Ruad', Island of, 58, 65, 171, 243, 245. Riippell, Eduard, 155. Riissegger, Joseph, 155, 1S3, 185/., 188. Russell, Alexander, 154 /. Russia, 85. , Steppes of, 185. Srcwulf, 78/., 81,84, 86. 334 INDEX Saladin, 75, 76, 103, 105. St. Anne's at Jerusalem, 239. Salt Sea, 6. Samaria, 37, 50, 59, 60, 68, 81, 85,91,92,108,135,147,165, 200, 272. Samaria, 30, 58, 66, 76, 139, 180, 228 /., 229. Samaria, Eastern, 171. Samaritan Pentateuch, 159. Samaritan temple, 265. Samaritans, 100. Samuel, 19. Samuel Bar Simson, 115/. Sandys, George, 134, 135, 140, 157, 158, 173, 204. Sanson, 43. Saracens, 87, 93, 101, 104, 106, 107, 118, 126. Sardis, 144. Sarepta, 21, 47. Sargon II., 19, 20. Saul, 19. Sayce, Professor, 16 /. Scandalium (Alexandroschene) , 116, 145. Scenitoe (Arab), 27. Schick, Dr. Conrad, 260, 263. Schultz, Mr., 232, 286. Schumacher, Dr. Gottlieb, 271, 272, 284. Scott, Sir Gilbert, 257. Scylax, Periplus of, 24 /. Scythians, 23. Scythopolis (Bethshean), 46, 58, 99/., 114, 167. Sea of Galilee, 47, 48, 58, 64, 66, 77, 79, 82/., 84, 87, 107, 113, 133, 135, 147. Sea of Gennesareth, 51. Sebastia (Samaria), 30, 58. Seetzen, U. J., 133, 148, 149, 155, 173, 174. 179, 180, 181, 188, 210/., 240/., 255. Sefam, 115. Seilun (Shiloh), 169. Seleucia, 25, 26, 27, 180 /. Seleucia Pieria, 30. Seleucidan (armies), 25. Seleucidan kings, 274. Seleucidan pottery, 281, 294, 295. Seleucidan times, 292. Sellin, Dr., 17 /., 284. Sennacherib, 19, 20, 21. Sepp, Dr., 226. Sepulchral Towers of 'Amrit, 109. Sepulchre of David, 100. Sepulchres of Queen Helena of Adiabene, 147. Sepulchres of the Patriarchs, 101 , 130. Sepulchres, Tfie Royal, 172. Serbonis, Lake, 27. Sesostris, 22. Sety I, 16 /. Shaftesbury, Earl of, 257. Shalmaneser II., 19, 20 /. Sham'al, Land of, 284. Shams-ad-Din, 70. Shasu (Bedawin), 16 /. Sliaubek (Shobek), 239. Shaw, Thomas, 145, 146, 152, 155, 171, 188, 204. Shechem, 42, 47, 63, 77, 81, 82, 84, 85, 100, 135, 139, 169, 198. Sheikh Mohammed, 313. Sheikhs of Abu Dis, 134. Shephelah, 280, 282, 285. Shiloh, 82 /., 92, 169, 211. Shiskak I., 16/. Shittim, 108. Shobek, 103. Shocoh, 108, 169, 210, 292. Shunem, 108. Shuweikeh (Shocoh), 292. Sichar, 47. Sidon, 21. 28, 45, 100, 142, 151, 154, 163, 164, 165, 199, 206, 244, 252, 298, 319. Sidon, French factory at, 162. Sidonians, 28. Siloam, 47, 56, 60, 105, 138, 140, 151, 208. inscription, 252. , Pool of, 60. 92, 169, 208, 277, 284, 306, 307. , Lower Pool of, 278. INDEX 335 Siloam Tunnel, 60, 123, 140, 169 /., 170, 208, 214. Silvia of Aquitaine, St., 52, 53. Sinai, Monastery at Mt., 55 /., 117, 120, 173. Sinai, Mt., 53, 57, 77, 102, 103, 117, 125, 130, 131, 174, 178, 180, 194, 196, 222. Sinai, Mountains of, 273. Sinai, Wilderness of, 124. Sinaitic inscriptions, 169. Singidunum (Belgrade), 46. Sinuhit, his travels, 13. Sinuhit, Romance of, 13. Skull, Place of the, 8, 8 /. Smith, Dr. Eli, 194, 196, 198, 199, 202, 206. Smith, Dr. George Adam, 9, 21 /., 177, 223. Smith, Dr. H. B., 193. Smith's Dictionary of the Bible, 37. Smith's "Historical Geography of the Holy Land," 223. Smyrna, 144, 153. Solinus, 118. Solomon, 3, 12, 49, 81, 248. Solomon's Pools, 227 '. Solomon's Stables, 130. Solomon's Temple, 12, 81, 87. Speaker of the House of Com- mons, 257. Spiers, R. Phene, 148 /. Spon, a traveller, 136, 137. Stanley, Dean, 224, 257. Stark's Archseologie, 136 /. Steever, Lieutenant, 283. Stewart, Captain, 268. Stockltolm, 153. Strabo, 26, 28, 30, 34, 163, 185. Stradela (Jezreel), 46. Strand, B. T., 154/. Stuart, Professor Moses, 192, 289, 297, 298, 299, 310, 313, 314, 317. Stiibel, the geologist, 284. Suez, 174. Sultan of Turkey, 237 /., 238. Sweden, Queen of, 153. Syria, 1,9/., et passim. Syria, Central, 240. Syria Damascena, 98. Syria Emisena, 98. Syria, North, 15, 109, 145, 149, 150, 200, 221, 237, 240, 257, 284, 286. Syria, Southern, 174. Syrian Mounds, 146. Syrian Protestant College at Beyrout, 311. Syrians, 29, 97, 107. Taanach, 15, 17/., 284, 298. Tabor, Mt., 58, 63, 84, 166. Tabula Peutingeriana, 35. Tabula Theodosiana, 35. Tacitus, 31. Taddei, a mosaist, 253. Tadmor in the Wilderness, 101, 148/. Talmud, Babylonian, 38. Talmud, Palestinian, 38. Tantura, 169. Tartary, 117. Tortus (Antaradus, Tortosa), 246. Taurus, Mt., 20. Tekoa, 50. Tell Duweir, 207. Tell-ej-Judeideh, 281, 290, 293, 303. T 'ell-el- Amarna, 16, 17/., 17, 252, 276. T ell-el- Amarna (tablets at), 252, 276. Tell-cl-Hesy, 131, 148/., 159, 206, 231, 273, 274, 275, 276, 278, 292, 294, 302, 307. Tell-el-Kady, 6, 80, 294. Tell-el-Mutasellim, 7, 211 /., 284. Tell-en-Nejileh, 292, 294. Tell-es-Safi, 7, 280, 282, 296, 392 303 Tell-c's-Sultdn, 207. Tell Hum, 142, 209. Tdl-Sandahannah, 100, 246, 281, 291, 294. 336 INDEX Tell-Zakariya, 259, 281, 290, 292, 303. Templars, The, 93. Temple area, 130, 266. Temple at 'Ain Fijeh, 147. Temple at Jebail, 100. Temple at Jerusalem, 25, 49, 84, 87, 94, 95, 104, 130, 138, 172, 208, 235, 265, 266, 267. Temple Hill (at Jerusalem), 8, 235, 266, 267. Temple of Fijeh, 171. Temple of Hercules (at Tyre), 22, 23. Temple of Nahleh, 137. Temple of Solomon, 87, 266. Temple of Venus (at Ascalon), 23. Temples of Baalbec, 139, 148. Templum Domini, 87, 90, 96. Temptation, Mt. of, 93. Thammuz, Cult of, 248. Tharratw (Antaradus), 65. "The Citez de Jherusalem," 106. Thebes, 16 /. Thenius, Otto, 232. Theoderich, 70, 78/., 79, 81, 88, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 99, 109, 119, 185,186,187. Theodosius, Emperor, 35, 57. Theological Seminary, N. Y., 192. Thetmar (or Thietmar), 101. Thevenot, 134, 162, 163/. Thiersch, Dr. H., 247. Thietmar (or Thetmar), 101, 103, 108/. Thobois, 243, 248. Tholuck, 192. Thomas, St., 54. Thomson, Dr. W. M., 199, 211, 225. , his "The Land and the Book," 225, 310. ThothmesL, 14/. Thothmes III., 14, 19. Thnipp, J. F., 234, 235. TH)crias, Lake of, 36, 71, 73, 74, 108, 167, 170, 319. Tibnah, 89. Tiglath Pileser I., 19. Tiglath Pileser III., 19, 20 /. Tigris, 98. Tih, Table-land of, 273. Timnath-heres, 89. Titus, 32, 279. Tobler, Dr. Titus, 88, 119, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229. Tomb (of Jesus), 8, 172, 217, 218, 232, 233. Tomb of Joseph and Nicodemus, 214. Tombs of the Kings, 138, 139, 142, 147, 172, 225, 236. Tomkins, 15/. Toron, Crusading Castle of, 157, 163. Tortosa, Castle and Church at, 144, 246 (Tartus), 247. Tournefort, 152. Tower of Antonia, 139. Tower of David, 83, 109, 145. Trachonitis, 80, 81. Trajan, 31. Trans-Jordanic provinces, 115. "Travels of a Mohar," 18, 19. Tripoli, 28, 73, 76, 79, 100, 106, 133, 157, 161, 163, 164, 170, 180/. Tristram, Canon H. B., 196, 200,211,241,257. Trumbull, Dr. Clay, 10. Tucher of Nuremberg, 127. Tyre, 17, 22, 23, 28, 33, 45, 63, 65, 66, 76, 96, 98, 104, 106, 142, 163, 164, 165, 200, 211, 242, 244, 252, 319. Tyre, Island of, 63. Tyre, Ladder of, 200. Tyre, William of, 185. Tyrians, 28. Tyropcean Valley, 138, 172, 278. Umm-el- Awamid, 140, 252, 253. Umm Ldkis, 273. Union Theological Seminary, 189, 192, 220. University of Cambridge, 261. INDEX 337 University of Oxford, 261. Upper Rutenu, 14, 15. Upper Spring of Gihon, 235. Upper Tenu, 13. Uri de Biel, 115/. Ursinus, 152. Usdum, 83. Usertesen I., 13. Uz (Ausitis), 54. Vale of Elah, 82 /., 133, 169, 170, 211, 292. Vale of Eschol, 10. "Valley called Bakar," 80. Valley of Hinnom, 92, 109. Valley of Jehoshaphat, 92, 109, 139. Van de Velde, 225, 268. Van Egmond, 135, 144, 166. Vatican Library, 159. Venice, 125, 157. Venus, her shrine destroyed, 216. Venus, Temple of, 249, 250. Verhouen, 140. Via Dolorosa, 157. Virgin's Fountain, 140, 169, 170, 208. Virgin's Tomb, 110, 169. Volney, Voyages of, 131 /., 148/., 155, 172, 207/. Von Luschan, Dr., 284. Von Schubert, 146, 156, 177, 183, 195. Von Suchem, Ludolph, 112, 116, 117, 186. Waddington, M., 240. Wady Beit Hanina, 82/., 133, 169. Wady-el-'Arabah, 239, 273. Wady el Kelt, 96. Wady-er-Rabdbeh, 172, 173. Wady Hammfim, 147. Wady-M Asa, 179, 180, 182 /. Warren, Sir Charles, 170, 208, 237/., 265, 267, 268, 278. Wen Amen, 18. Western Hill at Jerusalem, 233, 234, 235, 267. Wetzstein, 240 /. Wheler, a traveller, 136. Wilderness of Hor, 89. William of Baldinsel, 82, 116, 118. William, Archbishop of Tyre, 98, 104, 105, 185. Williams, Dr. George, 232, 233, 257. , " The Holy City," 232/. Willibald, St., 64, 65, 70. Wilson, Sir Charles, 8/., 37, 215 /., 258, 264, 265, 268. Winckelmann, 136. Winckler, Dr., 17/. Winna, King of Wessex, 64. Wood, 148. Wright, Dr. T. F., of Cam- bridge, 262. Xerxes, Canal of, 24. Yakut, 69, 70, 187. Yakut, his Geographical Dic- tionary, 187. Yarmuk, 79. Yedhna, 201. York, Archbishop of, 255, 257, 260, 283. Zach's Monalliche Correspon- denz, 148/., 174. Zakariya, 314. Zakkala, 18. _ Zedekiah's wife, 236. Zenjirli, Mound of, 284. Zenophilus, Consul, 45. Zera'in, 211. Ziklag, 130, 131. Zion, 8, 42, 47, 50, 56, 57, 59, 62, 76, 77, 92, 100, 109, 114, 127, 138, 157, 172, 173, 208, 235. Zion, Convent of ML, 126. Ziph, 89, 204, 210. Zoan, Field of, 112 /. Zuallardo (Johann Zuallart), 135, 138, 156, 157, 158. Zunz on the Geography of Palestine, 115/. Ube Els Xectures tor 1899 THE SOCIAL MEANING OF MODERN RELIGIOUS MOVEMENTS IN ENGLAND By THOMAS C. HALL, D.D. l2mo, 283 pp.. $1.50 CONTENTS Introduction. Radicalism and Reform. The Beginning of Methodism. The Broad Church Movement. The Methodist Movement. The High Church Reaction. England's Condition and the Evan- The Social Significance in Gen- gelical Party. eral. The Evangelical Party and Social A Review. Reform. "An admirable book. The purpose is comprehensive and historic, and is pursued with liberality of feeling and with insight. The author conceives clearly the immense importance of the social and religious changes that have taken place in England in the present century and the last portion of the previous one. . . . Free of dogmatism, he finds his way among these great events as an Alpine road threads ravines and passes right and left the lofty summits. '' — The Dial. " An unusually interesting review of English religious development from the social point of view." — Review of Reviews. "Dr. Hall's volume is marked by great breadth of view, depth of insight, and illuminating fairness of statement. The entire treatment is judicious, instructive, hopeful, pertinent to the time. Its spirit is one of warm human sympathy and its literary style is that of a master of good English. "■— Chicago Tribune. " Stimulating, informing, inspiring." — The Standard. " An admirable and valuable volume." — Philadelphia Press. " The treatment is a philosophic one, and it is flavored with deep religious feeling and an appreciation of the significant presence in the sweep of events of the guiding spirit of truth." — Boston Transcript. Zhc Els Xectures for 1897 THE BIBLE AND ISLAM! OR, The Influence of the Old and New Testaments or the Religion of Mohammed By HENRY PRESERVED SMITH, D.D. 1 2mo, 319 pp., $1.50 CONTENTS I. The Apostle of Allah. VI. Revelation and Prophecy. II. The Common Basis in Heathenism. VII. Sin and Salvation. III. The Koran Narratives. VIII. The Service of God. IV. The Doctrine of God. IX. The Future Life. V. The Divine Government. X. Church and State. "We should be inclined to regard this volume as perhaps the very best for one who desired to get a clear understanding of the doctrines rather than of the practical workings of Mohammedanism." — The Outlook. " The general reader will not meet with a more complete compendium of the religious teachings of the Prophet of Arabia." — New York Commercial Advertiser. Zbc Els Xectures for 1891 ORIENTAL RELIGIONS AND CHRISTIANITY A Course of Lectures Delivered Before the Students of Union Theological Seminary, New York By FRANK F. ELLINWOOD, D.D. Secretary of the Fwsbyterian Board of Foreign Missions. 1 2mo, S84 pp., $1 .75 CONTENTS I. The Need of Understanding the False Religions. II. The Methods of the Early Christian Church in Dealing with Heathenism. III. The Successive Developments of Hinduism. IV. The Bhagavad Gita and the New Testament. V. Buddhism and Christianity. VI. Mohammedanism Past and Present. VII. The Traces of a Primitive Monotheism. VIII. Indirect Tributes of Heathen Systems to the Doctrines of the Bible. IX. Ethical Tendencies of the Eastern and the Western Philosophies. X. The Divine Supremacy of the Christian Faith. THE ELY LECTURES " The special value of this volume is in its careful differentiation of the schools of religionists in the East, and the distinct points of antagonism of the very fundamental ideas of Oriental religions toward the religion of Jesus. " — Outlook. "A more instructive book has not been issued for years." — New York Observer. " The author has read widely, reflected carefully, and written ably." — Congregationalist. "It is a book which we can most heartily commend to every pastor and to every intelligent student, of the work which the Church is called to do in the world." — The Missionary. TTbe Bis Xectures for 1890 THE EVIDENCE OF CHRISTIAN EXPERIENCE By LEWIS FRENCH STEARNS, D.D. 12mo, 473 pp., $2.00 CONTENTS I. The Evidences of To-day. II. Philosophical Presuppositions — Theistic. III. Philosophical Presuppositions — Anthropological. IV. The Genesis of the Evidence. V. The Growth of the Evidence. VI. The Verification of the Evidence. VII. Philosophical Objections. VIII. Theological Objections. IX. Relation to other Evidences. X. Relation to other Evidences — Conclusion. " His presentation of the certainty, reality, and scientific character of the facts in a Christian consciousness is very strong." — The Lutheran. " An important contribution to the library of apologetics. " — Living Church. '' A good and useful work." — The Churchman. " The tone and spirit which pervade them are worthy of the theme, and the style is excellent. There is nothing of either cant or pedantry in the treatment. There is simplicity, directness, and freshness of manner which strongly win and hold the reader." — Chicago Advance. ftbe flDorse ^Lectures for 1904 THE CRITICISM OF THE FOURTH GOSPEL By the REV. WILLIAM SAND AY, D.D., LL.D. Lady Margaret Professor and Canon of Christ Church Oxford, England 8vo, 268 pages, $1 .75 net. Postage 1 6 cents " A work of marked ability, and evinces genuine scholarship mingled with profound reverence for the gospels. " — The Interior. 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" These excellent lectures, which discuss one of the long-debated questions in New Testament study, will surely appeal to a far wider audience than that which heard them delivered." — Brooklyn Eagle. " The whole work certainly clears the ground of no little amount of the rubbish of hostile criticism and prepares for further advance in the direction of acceptance of the Fourth Gospel." — The American Messenger. XTbe /IDorse Xcctures for 1898 THE CHRISTIAN CONQUEST OF ASIA Studies and Personal Observations of Oriental Religions By JOHN HENRY BARROWS, D.D. 12mo, $1 .50 CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS, PUBLISHERS Contents : — I. Beginning at Jerusalem ; or Christianity and Juda- ism. — II. The Cross and the Crescent in Asia. — III. Observations of Popular Hinduism. — IV. Philosophic Hinduism. — V. Some Difficulties in the Hindu Mind in Regard to Christianity. — VI. Christianity and Buddhism. — VII. Confucianism, and the Awakening of China. — VIII. Success of Asiatic Missions : America's Responsibility to the Orient. Dr. Barrows's book gives an account of the results achieved by the introduction of Christianity into Asia during this century. The exact religious condition of the Asia of to-day is clearly detailed ; and a hope- ful forecast is given with regard to the continuance of the work already auspiciously begun in the Far East. XTbe flDorse Xectures for 1895 THE WHENCE AND THE WHITHER OF MAN A Brief History of his Origin and Development, through Conformity to Environment By JOHN M. TYLER Professor of Biology, Amherst College 1 2mo, 3 1 2 pp., $ 1 .75 Contents : — Introduction. — I. The Problem : The Mode of its Solu- tion. — II. Protozoa to Worms : Cells, Tissues, and Organs. — III. Worms to Vertebrates: Skeleton and Head. — IV. Vertebrates: Backbone and Brain. — V. The History of Mental Development and its Sequence of Functions. — VI. Natural Selection and Environment. — VII. Conformity to Environment. — VIII. Man. — IX. The Teachings of the Bible. — X. Present Aspect of the Theory of Evolution. — Chart showing Sequence of Attainments and of Dominant Functions. — Phylogenetic Chart of the Animal Kingdom. — Index. " It is thoroughly strong and able, and in a perspicuous way presents the doctrine of evolution in its relation to man in his social, moral, and religious nature. To the question ' Whence?' the author answers, as all evolutionists do, ' Protoplasm ' ; to the question Whither' his reply is, ' Everything points to a spiritual end in animal evolution.' The whole discussion is calm and evidently in the interest of truth rather than of tradition." — The Outlook. ttbe flDorse Xectutres for 1894 THE RELIGIONS OF JAPAN From the Dawn of History to the Era of the Meiji By WILLIAM ELLIOT GRIFFIS, D.D. Formerly of the Imperial University of Tokio; Author of "The Mikado's Empire" and " Corea, the Hermit Nation " 1 2mo, 4-57 pp., $2.00 Contbnts : — I. Primitive Faith : Religion before Books. — II. Shinto : Myths and Ritual. — III. The Kojiki and its Teachings. — IV. The Chinese Ethical System in Japan. — V. Confucianism in its Philosophical Form. — VI. The Buddhism of Northern Asia. — VII. Riyobu, or Mixed Buddhism. — VIII. Northern Buddhism in its Doctrinal Evolutions.— IX. The Buddhism of the Japanese. — X. Japanese Buddhism in its Missionary Development. — XI. Roman Christianity in the Seventeenth Century. — XII. Two Centuries of Silence. — Notes, Authorities, and Illustrations. — Index. "The book is excellent throughout, and indispensable to the religious student." — The A tlantic Monthly. "To any one desiring a knowledge of the development and ethical status of the East, this book will prove of the utmost assistance, and Dr. Griffis may be thanked for throwing a still greater charm about the Land of the Rising Sun." — The Churchman. Ube /IDorse Xectures for 1893 THE PLACE OF CHRIST IN MODERN THEOLOGY By A. M. FAIRBAIRN, M.A., D.D. Principal of Mansfield College, Oxford 8vo, 556 pp., $2.50 SUMMARY Introduction.— THE RETURN TO CHRIST. Book I. — Historical and Critical. Division I. — The Law of Development in Theology and the Church. Division II. — Historical Criticism and the History of Christ Book II. — Theological and Constructive. Division I. — The New Testament Interpretation of Christ. Division II. — Christ the Interpretation of God. Division III. — A. God as Interpreted by Christ the Determinative Principle in Theology. B. God as Interpreted by Christ the Determinative Principle in the Church. " One of the most valuable and comprehensive contributions to theology that has been made during this generation." — London Spectator. "Suggestive, stimulating, and a harbinger of the future catholic theology." — Boston Literary World. "An important contribution to theological literature." — London Times. I UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. DISC J RL JUL '" 9 m? l~i r o fa »zs Ffe 11988 BRITTLE REJECT BY BINDERY 315 ■ 111 I! 1 1 III II I 1 1 1 3 1158 00732 9302