4 ~L 
 
 14.3 
 
 Ipi a 
 
 UC-NRLF 
 
 4 B 3 14b 13 
 

L-L , - 
 

CcLc^ 
 
 THE 
 
 PAYSON, DUiNTON, & SCRIBNER 
 
 » ♦ 
 
 r\, ©., & g. 8utl|o#: 
 
 J. W. PAYSON, S. DUXTON, W. M. SCRIBNER, G. H. SHATTUCK, 
 
 A. S. AT ANSON. 
 
 > i > i <■ 
 
 , , , . . • » > v 
 
 1 
 1 ' 
 
 ,* I ..IV t * 9 » 
 
 POTTER, AINSWORTH, AND COMPANY, 
 NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 
 

 EDUCATION DSPT. 
 
 Entered acceding to Act of Congress, in the year 1873, by 
 
 WOOLWORTH, AlNSWORTH, & COMPANY, 
 
 In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington 
 
 c 
 
 I t I 
 
 t . • . 
 
 I I I • I , 
 
 < < I < ' I ( 
 
 I I 
 
 ,V* Z h : 
 Xa»*: A very. dr» Co., Stereotypers and Printers. 
 
OW 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 Our object in this Manual is to present to the teachers of 
 our public schools and seminaries a strictly practical hand-book 
 on the art of teaching penmanship. We have severely ab- 
 stained from all fine poetic flights, and even from the discus- 
 sion of mooted points ; and have simply aimed to present the 
 condensed results ©f the actual experience of the authors of 
 the Payson, Dunton, and Scribner's system of penmanship 
 with scholars in public and private schools throughout the 
 length and breadth of the land. 
 
 It is not intended for '* business-colleges," where the stu- 
 dents practise writing two or three hours every day, and 
 where the teachers are supposed to be professional penmen, — 
 though we think even they will find some useful hints, — but 
 for the schools in which writing forms only one of the many 
 branches of instruction, which are all to be taught by one per- 
 son. 
 
 The instructions given in the copy-books themselves are so 
 full, that, if faithfully followed, they can hardly fail of in- 
 suring satisfactory results. Still so many teachers desire to 
 have a brief and comprehensive text-book on the subject, that 
 it seems desirable to furnish one meeting the wants of all who 
 teach writing, but especially adapted to our series of copy- 
 books. 
 
 Ml.18287 
 
 in 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 The table of contents will enable the teacher to see how com- 
 plete is our treatment of the subject, — better than any enu- 
 meration of topics we could here present. Yet there are one 
 or two points to which we would invite particular attention. 
 One is the method of instruction in which we have presented 
 the true, because the scientific, form of all teaching applied to 
 this art. Another is the illustrations for bringing peculiar 
 difficulties before the scholars on the blackboard. Also the 
 critical points of the principles and letters which embrace 
 those features which are essential in each case. The value of 
 these can hardly be over-estimated, as they are the result of 
 philosophical observation, and have been confirmed by a vast 
 experience. Once more : it will be observed, that, in this 
 Manual, every point of importance is not only treated of in 
 the text, but is fully presented to the eye by illustrations. 
 
 In conclusion, we wish to say a few words on a widely-pre- 
 vailing error. Every new system which makes its appearance, 
 and some of the old ones, base their claims for adoption on 
 the statement, that their peculiar methods will turn out busi- 
 ness-penmen from the schools. It is, perhaps, a pity that 
 they do not point out some average school, where only the 
 average time is given to writing, in which the majority of the 
 scholars prove their assertions. It is further said, that it is 
 an " oft-repeated remark of merchants, that, when boys come 
 from the public schools to the counting-room, their handwrit- 
 ing is impracticable, and soon undergoes an entire change." 
 The merchants do not say that the writing is bad, but that it 
 is " impracticable." It " soon undergoes an entire change," 
 in which developed state we presume it is entirely satisfactory. 
 Observe the word "soon." It tells the whole story. The 
 
PREFACE. V 
 
 change takes place, and that almost immediately, simply be- 
 cause there is constant practice ; and this concurs with tho 
 thorough knowledge of the forms and previous training in 
 movement, which only left the hand "impracticable" from 
 lack of the element which is now supplied. Let a lad who 
 has never had the admirable discipline in writing which is 
 now given in all our large public schools enter the merchant's 
 office, and we fancy his "soon," as related to the acquisition of 
 a business-style, will be prolonged to a very indefinite period. 
 
 Is it really considered how short a time is generally given 
 to this branch in our schools? One hour and a half a week 
 is a fair average. Suppose the schools to be in session forty- 
 two weeks : that gives sixty-three hours, — ten days of six 
 hours each in the whole year to learn writing. Suppose, fur- 
 ther, that the scholar enters at eight, and leaves at fourteen ; 
 and the enormous time devoted to learning writing is six times 
 ten such days ! In a business-college, they write, during the 
 fall and winter, three hours a day ; that is, a third more in 
 one month, when their age is from eighteen to twenty-five, 
 than our children from eight to fourteen do in a whole year ! 
 It is time that this error was exploded. 
 
 We shall, therefore, continue in the belief, that if true 
 movements are carefully inculcated, and the scholars are thor- 
 oughly drilled in the knowledge and execution of the exact 
 forms of the letters, a sure foundation is laid for the develop- 
 ment of a fine business-hand, as soon as sufficient practice af- 
 fords the opportunity. At the same time, we know from ex- 
 perience that those who have a natural aptitude for writing 
 — the artistic faculty — will acquire a business-hand even 
 while at school. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGB. 
 
 Introductory Remarks. . 1 
 
 Method of Instruction . . 2 
 
 Method of imparting Knowledge 3 
 
 Method of teaching Execution 5 
 
 Method of teaching Criticism 5 
 
 Necessary Materials in a Writing-Class . . . .11 
 
 Organizing Classes 15 
 
 The Lesson 17 
 
 Opening and Closing an Exercise 18 
 
 Position 19 
 
 Penholding 23 
 
 Rests 26 
 
 Movements 27 
 
 Counting . . 31 
 
 Movement Exercises 33 
 
 Spacing 36 
 
 Shading 38 
 
 Theory of Penmanship. — Analysis 41 
 
 Classification of Letters 42 
 
 Scale of Proportions 43 
 
 Definitions of Terms and Forms 44 
 
 Elements and Principles 47 
 
 Formation of Elements, Principles, and Letters ... 52 
 
 Figures 93 
 
 On teaching Sentences 94 
 
 vi 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 Vli 
 
 Difficult Combinations 
 
 Business Penmanship 
 
 Marks, Signs, amd Abbreviations 
 
 Variety of Capitals 
 
 Off-Hand Capitals 
 
 Ladies' Hand 
 
 page. 
 96 
 96 
 102 
 103 
 104 
 105 
 
 CUTS AND PLATES. 
 
 Position ....... 
 
 Penholding 
 
 Movement Exercises, Small Letters 
 
 " " Capitals . 
 
 Analysis and Classification of Letters 
 Variety of Capitals. Plate II., III., IV 
 Off-Hand Capitals. Plate V., VI. . 
 Ladies' Hand. Plate VII. . 
 Roman Letters analyzed. Plate VIII. 
 Italic Print. Plate IX. 
 
 Egyptian. Plate IX 
 
 Skeleton. Plate X 
 
 Brush Letters. Plate X. . 
 Marking Letters. Plate XI. 
 Old English. Plate XII. . 
 Cikrman Text. Plate XII. . 
 Text-Hand for Ladies. Plate XIII. 
 
 Plate I. 
 
 21 
 
 25 
 
 34 
 
 35 
 
 42 
 
 103 
 
 104 
 
 105 
 
 107 
 
 108 
 
 109 
 
 110 
 
 110 
 
 109 
 
 110 
 
 111 
 
 112 
 
SPECIAL INDEX FOE TEACHERS. 
 
 DEFINITIONS. 
 
 PAGl 
 
 Dot 40, 44 
 
 Line, — Straight, Upright, Slanting 44 
 
 Curve, — Right Curve, Left Curve 44 
 
 "Wave-Line, Double Curve . . . . . .45 
 
 Base-Line 45 
 
 Top Line .45 
 
 Up-Stroke, Down-Stroke 45 
 
 Main Lines, Connecting Lines 45 
 
 Parallel Lines 45 
 
 Similar Curves 45 
 
 Slant ... 45 
 
 Upper Angle, Lower Angle 45 
 
 Upper Turn, Lower Turn 46 
 
 Space in Height, Space in Width .... 46 
 
 Short Letters 46 
 
 Stem-Letters 46 
 
 Looped Stems .46 
 
 Oval, — Direct. Indirect . • • . . .46 
 
 viii 
 
SPECIAL INDEX FOE TEACHERS. 
 
 THE FIVE ELEMENTS. 
 
 PAGE, 
 
 Element I. — Slanting Straight Line . . . .44, 49, 52 
 " II. — Lower Turn 46, 49, 55 
 
 III. — Right Curve 44, 49, 54 
 
 IV. — Left Curve 44, 49, 55 
 
 V. — Upper Turn 46,50,57 
 
 THE SIX PRINCIPLES OP THE SMALL LETTERS. 
 
 First Principle 
 
 Second " 
 
 Third 
 
 Eourth 
 
 Fifth 
 
 Sixth 
 
 Upper Looped Stem 
 Lower Looped Stem 
 
 50, 55 
 50, 57 
 50, 58 
 50, 61 
 46, 51. 70 
 46, 51, 73 
 
 THE THREE PRINCIPLES OF THE CAPITALS. 
 
 Seventh Principle, — Capital Stem . 
 Eighth " Direct Oval . 
 
 Ninth " Indirect Oval . 
 
 Signals, — Opening and Closing an Exercise 
 Marks, — Ranking the Scholars 
 
 . 45, 
 
 51, 
 
 75 
 
 . 46, 
 
 51, 
 
 85 
 
 . 46, 
 
 61, 
 
 89 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 • 
 • 
 
 19 
 9 
 
SPECIAL INDEX FOR TEACHERS. 
 
 STANDARD LETTERS, COMMON-SCHOOL 
 
 COURSE. 
 
 CAPITALS. 
 
 SMALL LETTERS. 
 
 A 
 B 
 
 C 
 
 D 
 
 E 
 
 F 
 
 G 
 
 H 
 
 I 
 
 J 
 
 K 
 
 L 
 
 M 
 
 N 
 
 O 
 
 P 
 
 Q 
 
 R 
 
 S 
 
 T 
 
 U 
 
 V 
 
 W 
 
 X 
 
 Y 
 
 Z 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 . 76 
 
 83 
 89 
 86 
 87 
 79 
 84 
 79 
 81 
 82 
 80 
 81 
 77 
 77 
 85 
 82 
 91 
 84 
 80 
 78 
 92 
 92 
 91 
 90 
 93 
 91 
 
 a 
 b 
 c 
 d 
 e 
 f 
 
 g 
 h 
 i 
 
 • 
 
 J 
 k 
 
 1 
 
 m 
 
 n 
 
 o 
 
 P 
 
 q 
 
 r 
 
 s 
 t 
 u 
 
 V 
 
 w 
 
 X 
 
 y 
 
 z 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 . 61 
 
 72 
 
 62 
 67 
 63 
 72 
 74 
 71 
 56 
 74 
 71 
 72 
 59 
 59 
 61 
 68 
 69 
 64 
 65 
 66 
 57 
 59 
 60 
 59 
 74 
 74 
 
MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY REMARKS. 
 
 Our aim in this system is to teach the scholars of the 
 public and private schools of our country a practical hand- 
 writing. To do this, we supply a carefully-graduated series of 
 Copy-Books, with special directions at the head of the page, and 
 further instructions on the covers ; this Manual, for those who 
 wish complete information as to our method; and Blackboard 
 Tablets, exhibiting the accurate forms of the letters and the 
 more prominent features of their analysis, of sufficiently large 
 size to present to a class. 
 
 The use of copy-books with lithographed copies at the head 
 of the page has very great advantages. It economizes the 
 time of the teacher ; prevents change of hand should the 
 teacher be changed; gives a better system, the result of a 
 larger and more varied experience than is possible to an indi- 
 vidual ; and causes a very trifling increase of expense. Hence 
 such copies are now almost universally used ; and, where once 
 adopted, are never superseded. 
 
MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Under this head we present the fundamental principles on 
 which the teaching of penmanship must depend. 
 
 Writing is the correct representation of certain forms to 
 a greater or less extent arbitrary, generally by means of an 
 instrument held in the hand. 
 
 Our method, therefore, naturally ranges itself under these 
 three grand divisions in their order : first, Knowledge ; 
 second, Execution ; third, Criticism. There is something 
 to be done, and there must be a best way of doing it : both 
 these must be known. The doing follows. And then the 
 questions immediately arise, Is it correctly done ? and, Was it 
 done in the best manner ? These are answered by criticis- 
 ing. 
 
 Knowledge. — Teachers and scholars, therefore, should 
 know exactly, — 
 
 I. What the proposed work itself really is ; that is, the 
 Matter to be Executed. 
 
 II. How to execute the proposed work ; that is, the Man- 
 ner of Executing. 
 
 I. The Matter to be Executed. — This embraces a thor- 
 ough knowledge (1.) Of the elements ; (2.) Of the six prin- 
 ciples of the small letters and of the three principles of the 
 capitals, and of their connection to form letters ; (3.) Of the 
 distinction between main and connecting lines, and of turns 
 and angles ; (4.) Of the peculiarities arising from the com- 
 bination of letters in words. These are all separately treated 
 in their proper place. 
 
 II. The Manner of Executing. — This involves a correct 
 knowledge (1.) Of the position of the body, of the arms and 
 the hands, and of the books ; (2.) Of penholding ; (3.) Of 
 the rests ; (4.) Of the movements. All these will be found 
 treated of at length under their respective heads. 
 
METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. 3 
 
 METHOD OF IMPARTING KNOWLEDGE. 
 
 The question naturally arises, What is the best method of 
 imparting this knowledge? AVe answer, — 
 
 First, With regard to the Matter to be Executed. 
 
 1. The teacher must himself know what is to be done, and 
 how it is to be done. 
 
 There is no better way for him to learn this than by taking 
 the book his scholars are to use, and writing it himself in 
 advance from day to day. His own writing will be improved, 
 and he will acquire a lively appreciation of the number of 
 minute points which require attention, and of the difficulties 
 to be encountered. 
 
 Let him also study the directions and explanations of this 
 Manual, pen in hand. Many a statement, which, if merely 
 read, would obtain little if any appreciation, will be found to 
 be of great importance if subjected at once to the test of 
 experiment. 
 
 Having thus qualified himself, however poor a writer he 
 may be, he will come before his class with confidence. 
 
 2. He should elicit from his class by questions all that they 
 can discover by observation of the copy and from the instruc- 
 tions at the head of the page, and should tell them the critical 
 points, which will be found in this Manual in the description 
 of the letters. 
 
 It is an excellent rule never to tell them any thing they can 
 find out for themselves. They will thus be trained to habits 
 of careful observation, — the true method of acquiring the 
 foundations of all knowledge. 
 
 3. He should use the blackboard freely. 
 
 Let him rule the lines on the board corresponding to the 
 copy, using red as well as white chalk if convenient. Then 
 require the class to dictate the copy to him, doing exactly 
 what they tell him. This shows them the necessity of exact 
 knowledge. 
 
4 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Next give the illustrations which will be found in the 
 description of the letters, and call attention especially to the 
 critical points. The latter should be impressed on their minds 
 tiii they are thoroughly familiar and can be readily stated. 
 
 4. The forms and critical points of the principles should be 
 fixed on their minds. 
 
 (1.) By example. — Let them be drawn correctly on the 
 board. 
 
 (2.) By contrast. — Let the opposite be drawn. 
 
 (3.) By comparison. — Let erroneous forms be made ; not 
 all possible ones, but those that illustrate the various points 
 in the description, especially the critical points. 
 
 Remark. — It should ever be borne in mind, that a clear 
 mental conception of the form to be written is an absolute 
 necessity before it can be easily and correctly executed. 
 
 And, further, it should be remembered that time and varied 
 presentation are necessary to enable the mind to form the 
 required conception. 
 
 The use of our Blackboard Tablets will also be found ex- 
 tremely advantageous. They are described in another place. 
 
 Secondly, With regard to the Manner of Executing, we 
 would suggest, — 
 
 1. That the teacher should show it by example. 
 
 Let him take a large book, — a geography, for instance, — 
 and place his right arm and hand on it in the correct position, 
 with the pen properly held. Let the scholars view this on all 
 sides. In the same way, let the movements be illustrated. 
 
 2. That the scholars should learn it by experiment. 
 
 For instance, it is directed that the corner of the thumb 
 should be opposite the first joint of the middle finger, and a 
 little under the holder; and it is stated that the object of this is 
 to keep the holder above the knuckle. Let them try with the 
 thumb at the end of the fingers, and it will be found that the 
 least pressure on the pen causes the holder to sink down. A 
 like result follows if the thumb is placed at the side of the 
 holder, instead of underneath it. 
 
METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. 5 
 
 The scholar, thus proving the facts by experience, will see 
 the value of the directions given, and remember them ; for he 
 will perceive that they are not mere arbitrary rules, made and 
 enforced to gratify a fancy, but that they teach the best and 
 most convenient way of attaining certain necessary ends. 
 
 METHOD OF TEACHING EXECUTION. 
 
 With regard to teaching Execution, it may be worth while t<> 
 make a few observations. 
 
 1. Let the teacher determine that he will have correct exe- 
 cution ; that the precise forms of the copy shall be accurately 
 made, not merely by the few who have natural aptitude, but 
 by all. This can be achieved; for it has been again and again. 
 
 2. It will be well also to settle in the mind that correct- 
 ness of form is preferable to mere rapidity of execution. 
 
 Therefore let the scholars proceed very slowly at first. As 
 soon as the forms are correctly made, they may then advance 
 more rapidly, but not faster than is consistent with accuracy. 
 
 3. Whilst they are writing, let their attention be frequently 
 called to position, penholding, rests, and movements. 
 
 Remark. — It is very important that they should aim at 
 writing successively the principles of which the letters are 
 composed, instead of writing the letters as wholes. 
 
 They should understand that the modern style is based 
 upon the oblique straight line and very short turns, formed by 
 an up-and-down or forward-and-backward movement of the 
 pen, whether this is produced by the fingers or by the fore- 
 arm. This movement should be dwelt upon to overcome the 
 tendency to rounded down-strokes and " scooping " turns. 
 
 METHOD OF TEACHING CRITICISM. 
 
 With regard to the art of Criticism, we remark, — 
 1. The scholars should learn this art, and practise it them- 
 selves. 
 
b MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Experience has long shown, that whatever any one will do 
 for us we are seldom inclined to do for ourselves. If, then, 
 the teacher criticises for the scholars, they will not consider it 
 their business to do so for themselves. 
 
 It is, besides, a very difficult thing to judge our own work 
 fairly; and to children, especially beginners, their own writ- 
 ing seems so wonderful, that they cannot .help thinking it 
 excellent. The fact that they can actually read it, and that it 
 can be read by others, confirms them in this idea. 
 
 Therefore the formation by them of the habit of criticism — 
 that is, the training and constant exercise of the faculty of 
 judging form — is of the highest consequence ; in fact, it is 
 one of the great secrets of success. A great many scholars at 
 first, judging from our own experience, cannot distinguish 
 between a straight line and a curve, or between the right and 
 left curves : all varieties of slant are equally satisfactory ; and 
 a turn is a turn, whether it is as sharp as a knife, or as round 
 as a hoop. * 
 
 They must be trained, then, by every means to improve the 
 deficient faculty, and to acquire the habit of always criticising 
 their own work. It is very curious to observe how much more 
 readily and accurately they will criticise any erroneous form 
 the teacher puts on the board than they will their own. 
 
 2. Teach them to criticise, therefore, by questioning them 
 successively on each particular of their knowledge. It will be 
 found desirable to take up the Critical Points first ; afterwards 
 to go through the particulars of the letter in order. 
 
 Suppose a line written, the following questions should be 
 asked : — 
 
 (1.) What are the critical points of the principle, or letter ? 
 Which is the first? 
 
 (2.) How many scholars have this right ? 
 
 Remark. — Instead of putting the question in these 
 words, it is better to make it more definite. Thus, supposing 
 the critical point to be that the down-stroke should be straight, 
 the question should be, How many made it straight ? 
 
METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. 7 
 
 (3.) How many have it wrong? 
 
 Remark. — This question should, in the case just men- 
 tioned, take the shape, How many did not make it straight? 
 
 (4.) What was the cause of the failure? 
 
 Remark. — In the case mentioned, the answer would be, 
 perhaps, Turning too soon. 
 
 (5.) How can it be corrected? 
 
 Remark. — It is not enough to discover the fault. They 
 must know what to do to make the desired change. 
 
 (6.) What, then, are you going to do next time? 
 
 Remark. — This leads them to a definite object in writing 
 the next line. 
 
 Another line should then be written, when the questioning 
 should be thus resumed : — 
 
 (7.) How many have it right now ? 
 
 (8.) How many still have it wrong? 
 
 (9.) How many have it better ? 
 
 The teacher can also show on the board how the error was 
 made, and what must' be done to correct it. 
 
 Line after line is thus written and criticised, and thus each 
 with a definite purpose. 
 
 3. Another excellent method is, as soon as a line is written, 
 to ask, How many can point out a fault? One after another 
 may be called upon to state the one he discovers ; and all who 
 observe a similar fault should raise their hands to acknowledge 
 it when it is mentioned. The question should follow, What 
 must be done to correct it ? 
 
 This method may be varied by telling them to write an- 
 other line, and leave out the faults they have noticed without 
 asking what they are. The question may then be put, How 
 many have written better than before ? When the hands a^e 
 raised, ask in what particulars they have made it better. 
 
 4. We consider this method of teaching them to criticise 
 their own work as of the very highest importance; but it will 
 still be necessary for the teacher to move constantly, about 
 among them, to observe whether they criticise correctly, and to 
 aid their immature judgments by his own remarks. 
 
8 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 We would suggest, that, whenever he discovers a fault, he 
 should embody it in a question to the whole class ; for there 
 are sure to be several other scholars who have made the same 
 mistake. He thus saves himself the labor of many repetitions. 
 
 5. Criticism should not contemplate merely the discovery of 
 an error, but also the causes of failure, and the precise direc- 
 tion that the effort to correct it must take. 
 
 6. Our critical points and our analyses of the principles 
 enable the teacher to bring the knowledge of them before his 
 class in an orderly manner, and suggest the proper succession 
 of questions in criticism. 
 
 The order may be as follows : — 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The main lines in their several 
 particulars of straightness, slant, and height. 
 
 (2.) The turns as to their shape and width. 
 
 (3.) The connecting lines as to their curve and slant, 
 determining width. 
 
 (4.) The connections. 
 
 7. A simple yet exhaustive rule for the teacher's guidance 
 in criticising is this, — that the errors may always be looked for 
 on each side of the truth. Is a line to be curved ? — it will be 
 curved the wrong way, too much or too little. Is a turn of a 
 certain width to be made ? — it will be too broad or too narrow. 
 Is a line to be of a certain slant ? — it will be slanted too much 
 or too little. 
 
 8. Lastly, the teacher should rank the copy of every 
 scholar, at the close or beginning of each exercise, or at the 
 commencement of the next, according to its merit. 
 
 There are some advantages in preferring the commencement 
 of the exercise, because the work is no longer so fresh a pro- 
 duction of the scholar's, and he will therefore more candidly 
 admit its faults : also because the criticism you make will be 
 more immediately of use. 
 
 At the commencement of the exercise, then, we would have 
 the books opened where they last wrote ; and then, going back- 
 ward down the first aisle, we would place with a lead pencil, 
 
METHOD OF INSTRUCTION. 9 
 
 at the bottom of the last column written, a number wnich 
 should mark its merit. Suppose 6 was adopted for excellent ; 
 then 5, good ; 4, middling ; 3, poor ; 2, bad ; 1, very bad. 
 
 The marks should be determined by the scholar's attention 
 to and execution of the instruction specially given in the 
 lesson on the copy and in previous lessons, and not merely for 
 general appearance ; for some copies, through fineness of lines, 
 and accuracy of slant, will present a good appearance, while 
 the turns are broad, connections bad, and so forth. 
 
 Our habit is to mark right and left as we go backwards 
 down the first aisle, and the same as we come forwards up the 
 third, and so on. Make your decision rapidly, and mark at 
 once. A class of fifty or sixty may be thus ranked in two or 
 three minutes. It is time well employed. 
 
 At the same time that you make the mark, you can drop a 
 word of criticism; for instance, Turns too broad, Bad slant, 
 Down-strokes not straight, and so forth. 
 
 Now, it seems that it would be a convenience to the teacher 
 to remember at the next lesson what this criticism was, that 
 he may observe whether it has been heeded. We have there- 
 fore devised the following simple and convenient plan by 
 which he can place it on record. Certain significant signs 
 easy of execution are placed beside the merit-marks, or where 
 the fault occurs in the writing. 
 
 The meaning of these should be explained to the scholars. 
 
 / Too heavy. 
 
 \ Bad slant. The mark slants the wrong way. 
 
 — Wrong spacing. The mark indicates width. 
 
 X Beginning or ending wrong. 
 
 || Height not uniform. 
 
 = Width of letters uneven. 
 
 •~s w Upper or lower turns too broad. 
 
 A V Upper or lower turns too narrow. 
 
 ( ) Curve instead of straight line. 
 
 S Element I. neglected in Principle 3. 
 
 X T Connection too long above or below. 
 
10 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 A profitable way to use these is to mark one of them above 
 a column, without saying any thing, as you go round and 
 observe a fault. It can be done rapidly, is a standing warning 
 to the scholar, and is a permanent record of your criticism. 
 
 We merely throw out these suggestions. Every teacher can 
 modify, extend, or abbreviate them, as he pleases ; or he can 
 adopt some similar method. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to add, that where so many minute 
 points require attention, as is the case in learning to write, 
 the great secret of success lies in confining the attention to 
 one point at a time. Thus, to make the right use of the cor- 
 ners of the boxes, to touch the top and base lines, to make 
 straight down-strokes, to have correct slant, to place the down- 
 strokes at correct distances, to make fine lines, and so forth, 
 should be taken up in turn, and perfected, by devoting several 
 lines to each, fixing attention on it, criticising it, and correct- 
 ing as we have suggested. 
 
 If, in this statement of our method of instruction, we have 
 seemed to dwell more particularly upon teaching beginners, 
 it is because we feel that this will be particularly useful to 
 teachers. This branch of education differs from other branches. 
 The eye is to be trained to know peculiarities of form, the 
 hand to execute them. In other school-studies, the mind is 
 to be trained to know, to recall, to compare, to judge, and, by 
 the voice, to produce. Observe the difference : here a sense is 
 to be educated, and an organ trained to obedience. If, then, 
 those who are required to teach this branch can only be 
 induced to begin right, they will find little difficulty in carry- 
 ing their scholars on to the most satisfactory results, working 
 out our principles in their legitimate development to suit their 
 own methods. Besides, farther on we give full instructions 
 for teaching classes as they advance. 
 
NECESSARY MATERIALS. 11 
 
 NECESSARY MATERIALS IN A WRITING-CLASS. 
 
 Copy-Books. — Experience lias proved, that for a full 
 course of instruction, and to afford sufficient variety to the 
 scholars, about twelve numbers are required. This does not 
 add to the expense of the system, because the scholar buys 
 and uses but one book at a time. For the actual need of those 
 who remain a shorter time at school, we have prepared the 
 first six numbers, which are designated as 
 
 THE COMMON-SCHOOL SERIES. 
 
 No. 1, for beginners, commencing with the slanting straight 
 line, and embracing all the short letters. 
 
 No. 2, for the next grade, reviewing the lessons of No. 1, 
 with more attention to free movement, and including the whole 
 small alphabet. 
 
 No. 3, the copies of smaller size, teaches both alphabets, 
 and is ruled with guide-lines for the heights of the stem and 
 loop letters and capitals. 
 
 No. 4 is ruled with double lines, to aid the scholars in keep- 
 ing the size of the short letters while thrown upon their own 
 resources for the heights of the taller ones. The words are 
 given in columns. 
 
 No. 5 is a book of short sentences, with a word at each end, 
 ruled with single lines. 
 
 No. 6 has sentences across the whole page, with a capital 
 at each end. 
 
 The successive numbers are thus carefully graded to suit the 
 wants of the several grades of schools or classes. They furnish 
 a uniform style of writing and of instruction, simple and practi- 
 cal in their character. Sufficient directions for understanding 
 and writing each copy are printed on the same page above it 
 
12 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 in clear Roman type. The quality of the paper used in the 
 books is unsurpassed. 
 
 The Ruling of the Copy-Books. — The pages in the 
 copy-hooks are ruled in different ways. Some have double 
 lines and boxes ; others, double lines, and additional lines 
 marking proportions of height; others, merely double lines; 
 others again, single. Some are divided into columns ; others 
 are plain. 
 
 Columns are marked by vertical lines. Boxes are half the 
 width of the column. 
 
 The object of this ruling is to aid the beginner in making 
 the principles and letters correctly in respect to height and 
 width. If he makes each stroke touch both top and base line, 
 he secures the former. If he begins and ends in the corners, 
 and makes the strokes extend and return to definite distances 
 on these lines, as in the copy, he secures the latter, while at 
 the same time he gets the right slants. 
 
 Remark. — 1. In all cases where columns are ruled, it is 
 intended that the scholar should write one column at a time, 
 and not across the whole page. He should write as a news- 
 paper is read. 
 
 In those pages where words are given, he should be called 
 upon to notice how much of the word is contained in each 
 box, and to write accordingly. 
 
 Another method of ruling is with double lines; but, instead 
 of boxes, a single line is used in each column to give the slant 
 of the first line of the letter or word to be written. Thus 
 the pupil is thrown more upon his own resources. 
 
 Another style of ruling, still more advanced, has the top 
 and base lines ruled in red : between these the short letters 
 are written. Two blue lines above, and two below, mark the 
 heights of the stem, loop letters, and capitals, aiding very 
 materially in getting the correct proportions of the last. 
 
 2. The copies in our books are ruled like the pages, in 
 whole or in part, so that the scholar can be taught without 
 difficulty how the ruling is to be used. The most exact 
 
NECESSARY MATERIALS. 13 
 
 observance of the way the letters are to be placed in the 
 ruling should be required. We mention this because we have 
 seen books in which letters half the proper size were placed 
 in the centre of the boxes, not touching the ruled lines any- 
 where, — like little birds sitting in cages on invisible perches. 
 
 Pens. — Steel pens should be used, of the best quality. 
 They should be fine, neither too flexible nor too stiff. These 
 are necessary for beginners as well as for the more advanced. 
 It is a great mistake to suppose that any thing will answer 
 for the commencement. Scholars should not be allowed to 
 use any pen but the kind selected by the teacher. 
 
 Penholders. — These must be long and light. Avoid any 
 thing like iron or ivory : they should be simple in construc- 
 tion, hold the pen firmly, and allow it to be changed without 
 difficulty. Never allow short holders to be used. 
 
 Ink. — The qualities of a good ink for schools are, that it 
 should be thin, so that it may flow readily from the pen ; and 
 black, that the scholar may see at once how his work will 
 appear. The rapid evaporation of the watery part of the ink 
 must be met by frequently adding a small quantity of water, 
 always taking care to mix by stirring. Fresh ink must be 
 added when necessary to keep up the color. Take care to 
 have the ink-stands closed when not in use. Have the ink- 
 wells washed out as often as any sediment accumulates. 
 Always have the ink properly attended to before the writ- 
 ing-lesson begins. 
 
 Caution your scholars in taking ink alwaj^s to observe 
 strictly what they are doing. The pen should be dipped very 
 carefully, — for young scholars, only up to the pen's eye ; while 
 for older ones, especially where shades are to be made, the eye 
 is to be filled. If this point is attended to, almost all blots 
 may be avoided. 
 
 Penwipers. — Every scholar should have one to cleanse 
 his pen when necessary. They may be conveniently made of 
 two or three circular pieces of woollen cloth, stitched together 
 in the centre. The pen should be wiped between the folds, so 
 
14 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 that, if the penwiper should happen to be laid on the page, 
 there may be no blot. They can be collected and distributed 
 by monitors, or each scholar may keep his own in his desk. 
 
 Practice-Paper. — This is needed to try the pen on, to 
 practise the copy a few times before writing in the books, or 
 any letter that presents peculiar difficulty. We furnish it cut 
 in slips, and ruled to correspond to the different numbers of 
 the series. Common ruled letter-paper will also answer, if 
 the other cannot easily be procured. 
 
 Blotting-Board. — A piece half the size of the book is 
 large enough. It is well to have> it tolerably stiff. When 
 writing, it should be placed under the fingers of the left hand, 
 which hold the book steady. When the writing is finished, it 
 should be laid carefully on the page, not slid over it, and 
 pressed to absorb the ink before closing the book. Do not 
 allow the scholars to place it on each word as soon as written, 
 or the color of the ink will be spoiled. ■ 
 
 Covers. — A very nice and convenient cover may be made, 
 for those who wish to keep their books in good order, by cut- 
 ting a piece of Manilla paper the depth of the page, and four 
 times its length. Fold this four times, place the back of the 
 book on the middle fold, and lap the extreme parts over the 
 cover or the pages when written. 
 
 "Writing-Tax. — A good plan is to collect a small tar — 
 three or four cents — from each scholar at the beginning of 
 the term, for which pens, ink, penholders, and blotters are 
 supplied. 
 
 Supervision. — The teacher ought to take charge of the 
 books, pens, and other materials, so that all may be »<<jpt in 
 the best and neatest state. 
 
ORGANIZING CLASSES. 15 
 
 ORGANIZING CLASSES. 
 
 Since there are both graded and ungraded schools, it is 
 evident that the method adopted must be different. It is 
 presumed, that, owing to the efforts of authors and educational 
 publishers, systematic teaching of writing is practised in all 
 cities which have graded schools. It may, therefore, be very 
 briefly stated, that the same room should have the same book, 
 and that the series should be written in regular order. The 
 first six books, forming the common-school series, furnish a 
 three-years' course in the grammar-school. They are care- 
 fully graduated from the simplest element to the sentence 
 across the page, thus supplying material for the acquisition of 
 a good hand even to those whose time at school, owing to the 
 necessities of labor, is limited ; while the higher numbers 
 afford advanced instruction and an agreeable variety for those 
 who remain longer. 
 
 Ungraded schools present a problem far more difficult of 
 solution. The perverse human nature of pupils and the 
 prejudices of parents are factors that must not be lost sight 
 of. as the wise teacher well knows. There are two plans 
 which have hitherto been found most successful. The first is, 
 to satisfy the above troublesome factors by allowing every 
 pupil to have what number of copy-book he likes to amuse 
 himself with, and then require all to have the same number, 
 say No. 1, for a drill-book. Then teach writing in this book 
 for the larger part of each exercise, and afterwards let the 
 scholars write in their other books. If the teacher awakens 
 an interest by the results of this method, he will have little 
 trouble in introducing the second plan. 
 
 The second plan is, to divide the school into two classes. 
 Pass round slips of paper, and dictate a short sentence to be 
 written. Place the best writers in one class, and the poorest 
 
16 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 in the other. Use No. 3 for the higher, and No. 1 for the 
 lower. Have them all write at the same time. Give the 
 lesson to one class, and direct them to write so many lines in 
 the book, and then continue practising on their spare paper. 
 Then give the lesson to the second class, and set them to 
 work. Return to criticise the first class ; let them again write 
 a definite number of lines ; then the second ; and so on. 
 
 But now a question arises, What shall we do with scholars 
 coming from other schools, who, well advanced in other 
 studies, have yet never been taught to write? The following 
 method, which we pursue ourselves, has always been attended 
 with success : We allow the scholar, on entering, to take the 
 book that his class are using ; but, instead of allowing him to 
 write the copies for the first few lessons, we set special ones 
 for him. Remembering that the slanting straight line with 
 the lower and upper turns is the fundamental form in the 
 small letters, give him a copy of single w's, calling his atten- 
 tion specially to the straightness and slant of the down-stroke, 
 shortness of turn, and width of letter; next groups of u; 
 then n and m, noticing the importance of carrying the up- 
 stroke far enough over to make the down-stroke straight and 
 slanting. Keep him on these forms till he masters the idea. 
 Then show him the peculiarity of a, c, e, r, s, the change of 
 slant in the upward movement for the stems and loops, and 
 how to write the lower loops ; always keeping in mind, that, as 
 soon as he knows the principles, he knows the letters. 
 
 Then let him go on with the class, and in a short time he 
 will, with a little special supervision, manage very tolerably. 
 
 Another question is asked, How shall we correct wrong 
 penholding? We answer, Show the reasonableness of good 
 penholding, and then try the effects of a resolute will. 
 
 How shall we correct bad position ? Show the reasonable- 
 ness of a good position, and use persistent effort. 
 
 How shall we interest our scholars ? Qualify yourselves by 
 a thorough knowledge of this Manual, instruct your scholars 
 as directed, keep their attention fixed on one point at a time, 
 
THE LESSON. 17 
 
 and insist on their doing as you tell them. Following our 
 methods, you would find yourself able to interest a class for 
 a whole month in the execution of simple straight lines. 
 Scholars glory in perfection, if the possibility of it is only 
 placed within their reach. 
 
 THE LESSON. 
 
 Under the head of Method of Instruction, we have given 
 full directions for the teacher's guidance. We propose here 
 to give a few particulars as to the lesson. 
 
 If possible, beginners in the grammar-school ought to write 
 half an hour every day ; more advanced classes, forty minutes 
 four times a week. The time selected should not be immedi- 
 ately at the opening of the session or directly after recess, 
 because then the scholars' hands are apt to be heated by the 
 excitement of play. 
 
 The amount written must depend on the advancement of 
 the scholars. At the first commencement, it may be only five 
 or six lines of a column. After the first page, if that is care- 
 fully written, there will be little difficulty in writing half a 
 page at a lesson. Later, as much should be written as can be 
 done well. Much will necessarily depend on the control the 
 teacher has over the scholars in enforcing immediate and 
 exact obedience and lively attention, and also on the number 
 of scholars in the class. 
 
 The books and other materials distributed as suggested in 
 
 the next section, and the class in position, supposing penhold- 
 
 ing and finger movements already taught, the teacher requires 
 
 them to read the directions at the top of the page ; also any 
 
 thing bearing on the lesson from the cover. He then questions 
 
 them as to what is to be written, the name of the form, its 
 
 parts and proportions. Having ruled lines like those of the 
 
 2 
 
18 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 book on the board, he requires them to direct him where to 
 begin, what to write, following their directions exactly. He 
 should next give them such instruction as he finds in the 
 Manual, and point out the true form on the Tablets. 
 
 The common-school series is sufficiently complete, by the 
 fulness of directions at the top of the pages and on the 
 covers, to enable the teacher to do his work successfully by 
 their aid alone ; but the Manual and Blackboard Tablets 
 will be found very valuable auxiliaries by those who desire a 
 thorough knowledge of the subject, as they are prepared for 
 this very purpose. 
 
 When the scholars have acquired exact knowledge of what 
 is to be done and how to do it, the next step is to have them 
 write on their practice-paper by count, to trace the copy with 
 dry pens, to criticise, and then to write in their books, to 
 criticise and correct constantly in the way already directed. 
 
 After the first page is written, five minutes of each lesson 
 should be spent on the movement-exercises. (See page 34.) 
 
 We cannot too earnestty urge upon teachers the importance 
 of class-instruction and class-criticism ; it saves so much labor, 
 and is so much more effective. Though individual instruction 
 cannot altogether be dispensed with, let it nevertheless be 
 reduced to the minimum. 
 
 OPENING AND CLOSING. 
 
 The great object in distributing the materials for writing, 
 which should always be kept in charge of the teacher, is to 
 save time. After trying a variety of methods, we think the 
 following is the most rapid, and occasions the least disturbance. 
 
 A scholar is selected for each aisle, who distributes and 
 collects the books right and left alternately. The piles are 
 placed on the front desks : one scholar then collects the whole, 
 
POSITION. 
 
 L9 
 
 placing the backs of one pile on the fronts of the next, and 
 so on alternately, afterwards carrying the whole to the place 
 appointed for them. 
 
 As soon as the books are distributed, the scholars conic to 
 the teacher, who gives to each, in turn, the number of pen- 
 required for each aisle : they should alwa} r s be carried with 
 their points down. Or a handful of pens may be given to 
 two scholars, who go down and up the aisles, meeting in the 
 middle. They may be collected in the same way. 
 
 The penwipers may be kept in the desks. 
 
 During the distribution and collection, the scholars should 
 all be in their usual position, with arms folded, or any other 
 preferred. No interference with the distributers should be 
 allowed. 
 
 When all is ready, the following method for opening and 
 closing will give a pleasant uniformity : the teacher can give 
 the words or the numbers, as preferred : — 
 
 
 OPENING. 
 
 CLOSING. 
 
 1. 
 
 Take position. 
 
 8. Dry the pens. 
 
 2. 
 
 Adjust books. 
 
 9. Lay down pens. 
 
 3. 
 
 Adjust arms. 
 
 10. Take usual position. 
 
 4. 
 
 Find copy. 
 
 11. Close inkstands. 
 
 5. 
 
 Open books. 
 
 12. Close books. 
 
 6. 
 
 Open inkstands. 
 
 KB. — Give the order "Take 
 
 7. 
 
 Take pens. 
 
 ink " when ready. 
 
 
 
 POSITION. 
 
 The position of the body is of very great importance to 
 correctness and freedom of execution. The proper position 
 of the arms, hands, and books, must also be carefully attended 
 to. The accompanying cuts give admirable illustrations. 
 
20 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 1. Of the Body. — 1. Let the body be erect and self- 
 supported. 
 
 2. Let the right side be turned exactly to the desk; and 
 the feet placed at the side of the seat, flat on the floor. (Fig. 1.) 
 
 Remark. — 1. The relative position of the right fore-arm 
 and book is thus most easily secured and maintained. 
 
 2. The front or back of the desk is a constant guide to the 
 position of the fore-arm. 
 
 3. The body is more easily kept erect : there is less possi- 
 bility of lounging. 
 
 4. The right fore-arm cannot get off the desk : both the 
 rests must remain on. 
 
 5. The teacher can easily see the position of every hand 
 and arm across the rows and down the files. 
 
 If this position has never been tried, we think the teacher 
 will find it worth while to subject it to experiment. 
 
 The only objection that can be made to this position is, on 
 the ground, that in business, when using large account-books, 
 it is unsuitable. The answer to this is, that it possesses very 
 important advantages for learners and for the teacher; and 
 that, when the art of writing is acquired, any other position 
 will be found equally available. 
 
 If, however, any other position should be preferred, — the 
 body fairly fronting the desk (Fig. 2), or with more or less 
 inclination of the right or left side to it (Fig. 3), — attention 
 must be directed to the following points : — 
 
 1. Keeping the right fore-arm on the desk at least as far 
 as half way between the wrist and elbow. This is accom- 
 plished by pushing the book up every three or four lines. 
 
 2. Keeping the books at right angles to the fore-arm. 
 
 3. There must be no leaning against the desk, or resting 
 on the right fore-arm. 
 
 II. Of the Arms. — 1. Place the right fore-arm on the 
 desk, parallel to the back or front edge. 
 
 Much attention must be given to this rule, to guard against 
 projecting the elbow. 
 
?IGHT SIDE TURNED TO THE DESK- 
 (Fig. 1.) 
 
FRONTING THE DESK. 
 (VUr. 2 .1 
 
LEFT SIDE INCLINED TO THE DESK. 
 (Fig. 3.) 
 
PENHOLDLNG. 23 
 
 2. Bring the left arm across, and place the fingers on the 
 left side of the page, to keep the book steady. 
 
 III. Of the Hands. — 1. Keep the right hand in a line 
 with the fore-arm. 
 
 2. Keep the fingers of the left hand on the left side of the 
 book. 
 
 IV. Of the Book. — 1. Turn the book, and place the 
 upper left corner in the corner of the desk, the top at the left 
 side. It is to be pushed up toward the back of the desk 
 when the first column is to be written, and drawn down to the 
 front or over it for succeeding columns, to suit the scholar's 
 convenience. 
 
 2. Place the top of the book on the left edge of a single 
 desk, and at the left edge and middle of a two-seated desk. 
 This should be constantly attended to. 
 
 Remark. — It will be found convenient to double the books 
 back exactly at the stitching, and to place the inner flap of 
 the cover over the written pages. 
 
 PENHOLDING. 
 
 The most effectual method of teaching scholars to hold the 
 pen correctly is to impress on their minds the following simple 
 rules. 
 
 For the middle finger, two rules : — 
 
 Rule 1. — End of the finger at the end of the holder, where 
 the pen is inserted (A). 
 
 Remark. — This allows the pen to project about three- 
 quarters of an inch beyond the fingers, and keeps the finger 
 out of the ink. . 
 
 Rule 2. — Holder at the side of the finger, just under the 
 corner of the nail. If preferred, instead of this, the holder 
 may cross the finger at the root of the nail (B). 
 
24 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Remark. — We prefer the former for beginners ; because, if 
 pupils are allowed to drop the end of the middle finger, they 
 are apt to curl it up too much, and often to hold the pen with 
 only the forefinger and thumb. 
 
 For the thumb, two rules : — 
 
 Rule 1. — End of the thumb opposite the first joint of 
 the middle finger (C). 
 
 Remark. — This is secured by bending the joints of the 
 thumb outwards. 
 
 Rule 2. — Inside upper corner of the thumb a little under 
 the holder (D). 
 
 Remark. — This is very important. If neglected, the 
 holder will fall below the knuckle of the forefinger. The 
 corner of the thumb, being under it, prevents this. 
 
 Two rules for the forefinger : — 
 
 Rule 1. — Shut the forefinger down on the pen, and let it 
 touch the middle finger throughout its whole length (E). 
 
 Remark. — The first and second fingers are slightly bent 
 outwards at the first and second joints. 
 
 Rule 2. — Let the holder cross the third section of the fore- 
 finger obliquely between the second joint and the knuckle (P). 
 
 Remark. — The holder can easily be kept above the 
 knuckle if the corner of the thumb is placed a little under it. 
 
 Two rules for the holder : — 
 
 Rule 1. — It should make an angle of about 45° with the 
 paper. If elevated too much, it is apt to catch in the paper; if 
 not enough, clear lines cannot be made. 
 
 Rule 2. — The top of it should point slightly inwards to 
 the shoulder. This is effected by turning the hand slightly 
 to the right at the wrist. It is thus made to slant nearly like 
 the writing, and the hand is kept from dropping down on the 
 right side. 
 
 Remark. — There is a constant tendency with beginners 
 to let the hand fall over and rest on the little-finger side. 
 Hence this last rule is very important ; for, if the hand is 
 allowed to so rest on the side, it will be found that the move- 
 
PENHOLDING. 
 
 25 
 
 merits are made by moving the whole hand from the wrist, 
 which results in crooked and coarse lines, owing to the use of 
 only the right nib of the pen. 
 
 Several methods may be used with advantage to teach the 
 scholars how to hold the pen. 
 
 1. The teacher should take a position in front of his desk, 
 and show the correct method with a pen in his own hand. 
 
 2. He should direct the scholars to take the holder by the 
 end between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, and to 
 hold it vertically, with the point of the pen downwards ; then 
 to hold out the right hand, to curl the third and fourth fingers 
 up against the palm, to extend the first and second, and to 
 place the end of the thumb a little beyond the first joint of 
 the forefinger; next, to raise the pen so that the holder may 
 be in a horizontal position, and to move it sideways, and place 
 it between the thumb and fingers along the whole length of 
 the forefinger, the end of the holder next the pen at the side 
 of the middle finger, or across the root of the nail. The 
 holder thus placed, and still held at the top by the left-hand 
 fingers, is below the knuckle : the fingers are still extended^ 
 and the thumb is underneath. Finally, he may direct them U 
 raise the holder by the left hand above the knuckle, bendinj 
 the fingers and the thumb at the first and second joint as 
 they do so ; and the true position will be attained. 
 
 Remark. — Too much stress cannot be laid upon the neces- 
 sity of holding the penholder gently. It must not be grasped 
 or pinched, as this, by the tension of the muscles, destroys all 
 freedom of movement, and soon causes weariness and pain. 
 
26 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 RESTS. 
 
 There are two Rests, — one for the fore-arm, called the Arm- 
 Rest ; and one for the hand, called the Hand-Rest. 
 
 1. The Arm-Rest is the muscle at the thick part of the 
 fore-arm, just below the elbow. By keeping the flat of the wrist 
 well towards the desk, this muscle is brought under the arm. 
 
 It forms a yielding cushion, on which and from which, as a 
 centre of motion, the fore-arm can play easily. By rolling the 
 arm sideways on it, a lateral movement is obtained ; and it also 
 allows a projective and retractive movement of the whole 
 fore-arm. 
 
 This rest should be looked upon as the true support of the 
 arm ; and the hand should be considered as held out at the 
 end of the arm thus supported. 
 
 Remark. — In order to have free motion of the fore-arm, 
 the hand must be kept well up, — that is, not leaning over 
 towards the right, — and the wrist must not touch the paper. 
 
 II. The Hand-Rest is the name given to the corners of 
 the nails of the third and fourth fingers, which are placed on 
 the paper by bending the fingers well under at the first and 
 second joints. It should be used only to steady the hand. 
 The hand should not be allowed to rest heavily on it : if it 
 does, the side movement of the hand will be arrested. 
 
 Remark 1. — The fleshy cushion of the third finger should 
 be on the nail of the fourth, and these fingers should be kept 
 clear of the pen-fingers. 
 
 2. — Let the scholars hold out the fore-arm, and observe 
 that the hand does not sink down for want of support; that it 
 can be held out in a line with the arm without resting on any 
 thing. Endeavor to fix on their minds that the arm is thus 
 to hold out and sustain the hand when writing, and that the 
 Hand-Rest is to be used only to steady it. 
 
MOVEMENTS. 27 
 
 MOVEMENTS. 
 
 The force by which the pen is carried in different directions 
 must work through some instrumentality. The action which 
 results is termed a Movement. 
 
 In writing, the instruments used are the pen-fingers, the 
 fore-arm, and the whole arm, giving rise to the three principal 
 movements, named respectively the finger movement, the fore- 
 arm or muscular movement, and the whole-arm movement. 
 
 The Fing-er Movement is made by the extension and 
 retraction of the pen-fingers by flexion at the second joint of 
 the first and second fingers, and at the first joint of the thumb, 
 which also moves as far as its origin at the wrist. 
 
 To teach this tt> your scholars, hold a pen in your hand so 
 that all can see. Call their attention to the fact, that the 
 fingers are bent down at the second joint, and the thumb out 
 at the first ; thus holding the pen in a medium position, capa- 
 ble of being moved upwards or downwards. Show them, that, 
 if the fingers and thumb were straight, the pen would be fully 
 extended, and an up-stroke could not be made : if they were 
 bent as much as possible, the pen would be fully retracted, and 
 no down-stroke could be made. Hence the convenience of the 
 medium position. 
 
 Next show, that, by straightening the thumb, the pen is 
 pushed upwards ; and that, when the thumb pushes, the 
 fingers yield at the second joint. In this way an up-stroke is 
 made. 
 
 Then show, that, by bending the fingers at the second joint, 
 the pen is pushed downwards ; and that the thumb, in turn, 
 yields by bending at the first joint, and giving way as far as 
 the wrist. In this way a down-stroke is made. 
 
 The scholars should now take their pens, and place them 
 correctly in their fingers, holding them in the medium posi~ 
 
28 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 tion. Give the order " Thumb," upon which they are to push 
 up with the thumb, and observe the upward movement of the 
 pen; then "Fingers," when they are to push down with the 
 fingers, and observe the downward movement of the pen. 
 Repeat this slowly several times, then more rapidly. 
 
 After this has been done ten or twelve times, let them lay 
 down their pens, as their fingers soon get tired, and their 
 minds confused. 
 
 While they are resting, tell them that you shall begin with 
 the same words, and then change to numbers ; that, when 
 you say " One," they are to make the upward movement ; 
 "Two," the downward. Let them take their pens again, 
 holding them in the medium position ; and after saying 
 u Thumb," " Fingers," two or three times, begin " One," 
 " Two," &c. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The correct holding of the pen ; 
 especially that the penholder is in front of the knuckle. (2.) 
 That the pen is in the medium position. (3.) That the hand 
 is not resting on the right side. (4.) That the movement on 
 the part of all the scholars is simultaneous. 
 
 Remark 1. — Absolute obedience is necessary to success. 
 Here is the beginning of that simultaneous work, which, care- 
 fully enforced, will enable you to handle the class as one indi- 
 vidual. 
 
 2. — Do not continue this exercise too long. Remember 
 your own experience when you began to write. 
 
 The Fore-arm or Muscular Movement consists of the 
 forward-and-backward and of the lateral movement of the 
 fore-arm on the arm-rest, — that is, the muscle below the el- 
 bow, — as the centre of motion. The combination of these 
 two produces the oblique movements required. 
 
 The Whole-arm Movement is used mainly for striking 
 large capitals and for flourishing. In this, the hand, steadied 
 on its rest, is moved as required by the action of the whole 
 arm from the shoulder as the centre of motion. 
 
 Combined Movements result from the union of any two 
 or all of the above. 
 
MOVEMENTS. 
 
 29 
 
 Practical Use. — First, For beginners, since the time 
 generally allotted to writing is so short, and the thorough 
 study of the forms of the letters so imperative, the simplest 
 movements we can use are the best. 
 
 Two things are to be accomplished, — the up-strokes and 
 down-strokes of the letters, and the keeping of the hand in 
 the same relative position for each succeeding part by moving 
 it to the right across the column. The finger movement secures 
 the former, and the lateral part of the fore-arm movement the 
 latter. 
 
 • 
 
 fingers ..< 
 
 ! , 
 
 HI 
 
 Bfl - Hfl • BUS 
 
 SandBest 
 
 • - 
 
 Slide Slide Slide Slide 
 Stop Stop Stop 
 
 The diagram shows exactly how the movements are com- 
 bined. The pen being correctly held, and the hand rightly 
 placed, whenever the pen-fingers move up obliquely to make 
 the up-stroke, the hand-rest, and by consequence the whole 
 hand, is moved sideways by the action of the fore-arm. When 
 the pen-fingers move down, the forward movement of the hand 
 and its rest is stopped, because the down-stroke is towards the 
 left, and no advance of the hand is needed. 
 
 The fingers make the up-strokes and down-strokes of the 
 letter ; the rest slides forward on a straight horizontal line for 
 each up-stroke, and stops whilst each down-stroke is made. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The position of the hand, keep- 
 ing it well up, not falling over to the right. (2.) The separa- 
 tion of the hand-rest from the pen-fingers. (3.) The slide 
 sideways without " hitching." 
 
 Remark. — It is very difficult for scholars to acquire this 
 combined movement. Care should be taken, therefore, that, 
 in writing, they do not lift the point of the pen from the paper 
 till the group of letters or the word is written ; except in p T 
 for which special directions are given. 
 
30 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Second, As soon as the hand is somewhat trained, and a 
 tolerable degree of steadiness acquired, an advance in move- 
 ment may be safely attempted. 
 
 The hand-rest should 
 now be made to par- 
 ticipate in the move- 
 ments of the fingers. 
 As they move obliquely 
 up and down, it should do the same, describing a letter of 
 the same form, but making it of less height, because part of 
 the movement is made by the lingers. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Making the hand-rest move with 
 the fingers. (2.) Taking care that the wrist does not touch 
 the paper. 
 
 Third, The muscu- 
 lar movement, which is 
 the true business move- 
 ment, may now be ac- 
 quired. It consists in 
 the use of the fore-arm 
 mainly, the pen-fingers 
 being used only to aid in making the extended letters. 
 
 For the short letters, the fingers are not moved at all. The 
 fore-arm moves the whole hand to form the letter; and conse- 
 quently the hand-rest describes a letter of the same form and 
 size as the pen does. 
 
 For the ex- 
 tended letters, 
 the fingers are 
 extended or 
 contracted t o 
 make those 
 parts of the 
 
 stems and the loops which are above or below the short letters. 
 This is shown in the diagram by the dotted lines. 
 
 For the capitals, the movement of the fingers is combined 
 
COUNTING. 81 
 
 with that of the whole hand, to give the greatest possible ease 
 to the curves and turns. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Making the slightest possible 
 movement of the pen-fingers, except in the extended letters 
 and capitals. (2.) Using the muscle below the elbow as the 
 centre of motion. 
 
 Remark. — The muscular movement can only be acquired 
 by persistent practice. Our own experience teaches us, that, 
 if scholars are thoroughly drilled in the accurate execution of 
 the forms of the letters, as soon as they have sufficient prac- 
 tice they run at once into a business-hand. The most 
 superlative movement without accurate and graceful form is 
 absolutely worthless ; while, on the other hand, real grace and 
 finish can only be secured by free and practised movement. 
 Farther on, a section will be found giving a variety of exer- 
 cises to facilitate the acquirement of this. 
 
 COUNTING. 
 
 As the appearance of the lines forming the letters should 
 be uniform, equable movements are necessary in their execu- 
 tion ; and, as there are a great many things for a beginner 
 to think about in writing, some device for securing sufficient 
 time for thought is very valuable. 
 
 For these ends, no method has yet been found superior to 
 counting. It checks the sudden jerks with which beginners 
 delight to strike off the final parts of letters, and it compels 
 them to such a rate of progress as gives time for thought and 
 care. Besides this, it urges the very slow to a proper speed, 
 and checks the hurried rate of the nervous; while it exercises 
 a peculiarly beneficent influence on the irritable. 
 
 It should always be remembered that it is merely a means 
 to these ends, and not an end itself. If any one doubts its 
 
32 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 utility, instead of speculating on its probable results, let it be 
 subjected to the test of experience, and a wise decision can 
 soon be arrived at. 
 
 When scholars begin the study of penmanship, the first 
 five or six copies of No. 1 may be counted all through. Then 
 it may be found sufficient to count the first column of each 
 new combination ;* afterwards, merely half a column ; later 
 still, only two or three lines. As soon as equable movements 
 are attained, and the class generally are drilled to a proper care, 
 and avoidance of hurry, it may be dispensed with altogether. 
 It will, however, be found useful for any new letter or peculiar 
 combination, and for an occasional check on too rapid a rate of 
 execution. 
 
 Our method is to count generally the odd numbers for the 
 up-strokes, and the even numbers for the down-strokes. 
 
 Thus, in u, we count one, up ; two, 
 down ; three, up ; four, down ; one, up. 
 We count one for the final connecting 
 line, because, in a combination, it is the first line of the next 
 letter. 
 
 Such a method of counting should be used as may best 
 secure the end in view. Thus, in r, for beginners it is useful 
 to count four, — one, up ; two for the very short line return- 
 ing on the same ; three for the little vertical line ; four for 
 the oblique stiaight line, and bend of turn ; one for the final 
 connecting line. In this case, as the lines two and three are 
 very short, the numbers may be counted a little more rapidly. 
 When scholars are more advanced, and the writing is smaller, 
 three may be counted. Thus, one, up; two for the head; 
 three, the oblique down-stroke ; one, up. 
 
 The general rule for counting is, to use a fresh count for 
 each principal change of direction in the lines. 
 
 Cross the t and x, and dot the i and j, after the group or 
 word is finished, saying, "Cross," "Dot." 
 
 It will be found important, also, to show on the board pre- 
 cisely how much of a letter is made at each count. Thus, in 
 
MOVEMENT EXERCISES. 33 
 
 u, one, the whole up-stroke ; two, the whole down-stroke, — 
 that is, the oblique straight line, with the little bend at the 
 bottom for the turn; three, the whole up-stroke; four as two; 
 one as three. Remember to warn the scholars against stopping 
 in the middle of the turn : the motion is continuous through 
 the principle. 
 
 For the capitals the same method may be followed. Thus 
 for Jj, with the full oval front, we may count, for stem, one, 
 double curve down; two, up on left side to the middle of the 
 turn ; three, down and under to the left ; four, over and down 
 to the middle of the turn ; five, up. 
 
 The figures for counting are marked above the copies in 
 the earlier books. 
 
 MOVEMENT EXERCISES. 
 
 The accompanying exercises are designed, after a definite 
 and scientific method, to train the hand in acquiring facil- 
 ity of execution for those movements which the actual forms 
 of writing require. The common practice in many systems 
 of giving a variety of unconnected exercises, leading to no 
 given result, and arranged without rhyme or reason, has 
 brought such exercises into disrepute with practical teachers. 
 They will, nevertheless, be found a most valuable auxiliary 
 when rightly arranged and faithfully used. We therefore 
 call especial attention to the progressive arrangement and 
 definite object of those here given. 
 
 It is desirable that the teacher should place them on the 
 board and explain their object, giving exact directions for 
 their execution, and requiring perfect obedience to his direc- 
 tions. 
 
 Let the pupils have half a quire of letter-paper or a spare 
 blank-book, ruled, without copies ; and insist upon the exercise* 
 
 3 
 
84 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 being written according to the directions given, as carefully as 
 they write their copies, without any scribbling. 
 
 Careful attention should be given to correct position and 
 penholding : without these the exercises will be of no value. 
 
 Exs. A, B. — As scholars are very apt to lean the hand over 
 to the right, these vertical exercises are designed to correct 
 the fault. Draw four horizontal lines on the board to repre- 
 sent the ruling of their paper. Begin at the top line ; go 
 vertically down to the fourth, up, down, &c, counting " one " 
 for each movement: thus, "one," "two," &c, — six in all. 
 Then begin again at a short distance from the last. 
 
 Watch the position and penholding. The movement should 
 be made on the muscle in front of the elbow : the nails of the 
 third and fourth fingers should accompany the movement of 
 the fingers down and up. 
 
 The vertical oval should be written in the same way. In 
 the diagram the lines are made separate, to show that there 
 are several ; but, in writing, they should simply overrun the 
 first lines. 
 
 Ex. 1. — To acquire the sliding movement on the nails of 
 the third and fourth fingers. Draw four lines on the board 
 as before, long enough to represent the width of the page. 
 Write the first line of the exercise on the first line, half across 
 the page only, the next a little below, and so on, the sixth on 
 the next ruled line below; then on the other half of the 
 page ; thirdly, begin on the next ruled line, &c. The muscle- 
 rest remains stationary ; the finger-rest slides forward. The 
 straight line is made by a slight retraction of the fingers to 
 counteract the tendency to curve. 
 
 Ex. 2. — For practice on the sliding movement. In this 
 case, remember the object is the movement, and not the abso- 
 lute straightness of the lines. Count as marked. 
 
 Exs. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. — These are drills on the sliding 
 movement of the finger-rest up and down. Draw six lines 
 on the board. Begin at the top, and write down to the third : 
 when this row is completed, begin on the fourth, and write 
 
MOVEMENT EXERCISES, 
 
MOVEMENT EXERCISES. 
 
MOVEMENT EXERCISES. 35 
 
 down to the sixth. Require the lines to be made by move- 
 ment on the muscle-rest without bending the fingers. In 
 Exs. 7, 8, overrun the first oval, always using the fore-arm 
 movement. 
 
 Ex. 9. — To combine the left-to-right and the up-and-down 
 fore-arm movements. Begin on the second line and slide, 
 slightly rising to half the height between the lines. Make the 
 down-stroke without moving the fingers at the counts "one," 
 "two," giving the order "Slide" as shown. Turn at the base- 
 line. Let this exercise extend across half the page. 
 
 Ex. 10. — Condensing the last. Make four down-strokes 
 across half the page. 
 
 Ex. 11. — This further condensation gives the letter u, 
 showing the scholar that the exercise leads directly to a 
 practical end. Write two groups, of three it's each, half across 
 the page. If beginners make longer groups, they are apt to 
 get out of position. Count one, two, three, four, one, &c. 
 
 Exs. 12, 13, 14. — Similar exercises on the second and 
 third principles, resulting in the letter n. 
 
 Ex. 15. — The »i, for variety, may sometimes have the curve 
 swung round it, as in Ex. 18 ; or the last line may be swung 
 under, and two other groups written on the lines below, as 
 Ex. 36. Do not try to have more than three lines written, as 
 the arm-rest will not allow it for beginners. Count six. For 
 the connecting-line of groups say " Round." 
 
 Exs. 16, 17, 18, 19, 20. —These are illustrations of the 
 way in which all the short letters should be practised. The 
 fore-arm movement is to be used throughout, without using 
 the fingers ; which will, however, slightly participate in the 
 movement, as it is right they should. The object is to drill 
 the scholar on the fore-arm movement ; and therefore we con- 
 centrate his attention on that : the fingers will take care of 
 themselves. 
 
 Exs. 21, 22, 23, 24. — To drill on the shades and extended 
 movements in the stems and looped letters. Write the shades 
 as directed in the chapter on Shading. 
 
36 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Exs. 25, 26, 27, 28. — Further exercises on the loops. 
 
 Ex. 29. — This is an exercise for the direct oval. It should 
 be overrun between three lines. Width half the length. 
 
 Ex. 30. — This is intended to give the power of shading the 
 left curve while the pen is kept in motion. Separate ovals 
 follow, to be struck with a free fore-arm movement. Count 
 one, down ; two, up, &c. ; later, one for the complete oval, &c. 
 
 Ex. 31. — An exercise for the indirect oval. Count one, up ; 
 two, down ; three, up ; four, down, &c. ; the two and three a 
 little quicker. 
 
 Ex. 32. — Varied exercises on the same, introducing the 
 shade on the right curve. 
 
 Ex. 33. — For the capital-stem, to acquire the double curve. 
 It should be overrun. Forms are also given to impart facility 
 in making the shade on the lower curve of the stem. 
 
 Exs. 34, 35. — Drills to give power in shading. 
 
 Ex. 36. — An exercise on writing short words three times, 
 each below the other, connecting them by a curved line 
 swung under. A variety of words should be used. 
 
 Ex. 37. — A group of letters or a word may thus have an 
 oval swung round them several times. 
 
 Exs. 38, 39, 40. — These are varied exercises on the direct 
 oval. Capital-stem and indirect oval adapted to give free- 
 dom of movement, and power of shading. 
 
 SPACING. 
 
 Spacing treats of the width of letters, and of their arrange- 
 ment in words at proper distances. The distances between 
 words and sentences are also embraced under this head. 
 
 The width of each letter is given in the analysis and 
 description of the letters : therefore nothing further need be 
 said about it here. We have shown that the width of a letter 
 
SPACING. 37 
 
 depends upon the slant of the up-stroke. It may be well to 
 repeat, that a condensed style results from carrying up the up- 
 strokes with very little more slant than the down-strokes, and 
 a running hand from giving increased slant to the up-strokes. 
 We pass on, then, to the consideration of the combination 
 of letters. The standard of measurement for width is the 
 width of the letter u between its two upper points : this is 
 termed a space, and depends on the slant of the up-stroke. 
 
 The governing principle in 
 combining letters in a word 
 
 is, that they should look 
 about the same distance apart. This distance is most con- 
 veniently made when the up-stroke is oblique, by giving it the 
 same slant as it has in u. 
 
 If the next letter begins with a turn, as n, it will be a little 
 farther off than a space ; but the correct slant of the up-stroke 
 will place it right. 
 
 When the last line of a letter is a horizontal curve, as in o 
 or v, it supersedes the first line of the next letter ; and the 
 question arises, How long should this horizontal curve be ? 
 We think, about three quarters of a space ; because, this con- 
 necting curve being at the top, the space between the letters 
 shows more than if it were crossed by an oblique line. 
 
 The simple rule, therefore, for spacing letters in a word is, 
 when the last line of a letter is an up-stroke, write it with the 
 usual up-slant, observing those exceptions which arise from 
 any peculiarity of the following letter, — as e, for instance ; but, 
 when the last line of a letter is a horizontal curve, extend it 
 three-quarters of a space, — that is, of the width of u. 
 
 In writing words in a sentence, begin the, first line of a 
 succeeding word vertically under the termination of the last 
 line of the previous w T ord. 
 
 Remark. — It is a very common fault to place the words 
 too far apart. 
 
 Sentences should begin close to the period which terminates 
 the previous sentence. 
 
38 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Paragraphs should begin about half an inch from the 
 
 margin. 
 
 In punctuation, the stops should be placed close to the word 
 they follow. 
 
 Figures should be written about half a space apart. 
 
 SHADING. 
 
 Variety is an element of beauty. To have all the down- 
 strokes in writing equally fine or heavy would become weari- 
 some to the eye through sameness, and the happy effect of 
 contrast would be lost. 
 
 Hence in the modern business style it is customary, while 
 by far the larger number remain fine, to shade the remaining 
 few. 
 
 A fine line (Fig. 1) is one made by simply 
 moving the pen on the paper without pressure. 
 
 A shaded line (Fig. 2) is one made by press- 
 ing on the pen as it is moved. 
 
 PLACE OF THE SHADE. 
 
 I. On the Straight Line. — Whether diminishing or in- 
 creasing, the shade on the straight line is placed wholly on 
 the left, as illustrated by the dotted lines in the illustration. 
 
 Diminishing (Fig. 1), which 
 begins heaviest at the top, and 
 gradually diminishes to its close. 
 To make the top square, care 
 must be taken to spread the 
 points of the pen to the width 
 desired before commencing the downward movement j theD in 
 descending, gradually lessen the pressure. 
 
SHADING. 
 
 39 
 
 Increasing (Tig. 2), which is begun at the base-line, and 
 gradually becomes heavier to its close. 
 
 To make the end of the increasing shade square, the down- 
 ward movement must be stopped before the pressure is released, 
 and the points of the pen are allowed to come together. 
 
 Where there is a turn at the base (Figs. 3, 4), the pressure 
 should be wholly released before reaching the turn. 
 
 Where there is a turn at the top and base (Fig. 5), the shade 
 diminishes equally towards the turns, being heaviest in the 
 middle. 
 
 If the movement of the pen in making these shades is 
 carefully watched, it will be seen how perfectly natural it is 
 that the left point of the pen should spread out to form them, 
 while the right point descends on a perfectly straight line and 
 the usual slant. 
 
 II. Shade on the Oval. — (1.) On 
 the left side of the Direct Oval (Fig. 
 2), the dotted line shows that the shade 
 is formed wholly on the left side of the 
 true curve. This evidently results from the action of the 
 ])en's points, and produces true, beauty of form; for the eye 
 naturally compares the inside of the curve on the left side, 
 which bounds the enclosed space, with the curve that forms 
 the right boundary. 
 
 (2.) On the right side of the Indi- 
 rect Oval, the shade is formed wholly 
 on the right side of the true curve. 
 The pressure must be made to fall on 
 the left point of the pen, leaving the right point at liberty to 
 spread and form the shade. In this case, also, the eye is 
 satisfied with the result, as the inner and opposite lines of the 
 curves bounding the oval are found perfectly symmetrical. 
 
 (3.) In the Capital Stem 
 (Fig. 2), the shade falls wholly 
 on the right of the curve. The 
 right point of the pen begins the 
 
40 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 down-stroke ; but the roll of the hand throws the pressure on 
 to the left point, owing to the direction of the shade, and the 
 right is left free to spread and form the shade. The inner 
 curves are thus kept sjanmetrical. 
 
 Execution of Shades. — All shades in capitals, to have a 
 smooth and pleasing effect, must be made by a quick and firm 
 downward movement of the whole hand, and not merely by 
 pressure of the fingers. 
 
 All shades should increase and diminish gradually. On the 
 ovals, it is generally heaviest at the point of extreme curva- 
 ture. 
 
 The shades must not be sudden or abrupt, and great care 
 must be used that the shaded curves are not straightened. 
 
 The Dot, or Bulb, is sometimes preferred for the beginning 
 or finish of letters. It is here given of larger size than is 
 proper for ordinary writing, for the sake of illustrating its 
 true form. Special pains must be taken in forming it to give 
 it a handsome appearance. 
 
 Figs. 1 and 4 illus- 
 trate it as the finish 
 of an up-stroke. To 
 make it, give a twist 
 to the pen as the pres- 
 sure is gradually increased, that it may have the shape of a 
 pear. 
 
 Figs. 2, 5, and 6 illustrate it when preferred for the finish of 
 a capital stem or other down-strokes. In making this, carry 
 the fine line up and over ; then give a twist to the pen towards 
 the left as the pressure is suddenly increased and gradually 
 diminished. 
 
 Fig. 3 illustrates it when preferred for the commencement 
 of a letter. The method of formation is also by a twist of 
 the pen, as before. 
 
 Shades, where used. — In ordinary writing, shades are 
 used on the ovals of a, g, q, and on the stems of t, d, p, q. 
 The.lower part of I and b is often strengthened, and sometimes 
 
THEORY OF PENMANSHIP. 41 
 
 the last down-stroke in m and the first in w, when it has a 
 point at the top. 
 
 When double letters, which are usually shaded, occur, the 
 practice is various. Sometimes both are made equally heavy; 
 sometimes the second is made only half as heavy as the first: 
 one's own taste must decide. 
 
 There is seldom more than one shade used in a capital 
 letter. 
 
 THEORY OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Writing is the result of movement subjected to law. The 
 law is determined by the forms required to be made. Hence 
 there must be definite knowledge of the forms to be made. 
 This requires analysis, — not merely the taking of the forms to 
 pieces, but such a separation of them as indicates the function 
 of each and the formation of the whole. Thus letters are 
 found to consist of common parts made by similar movements, 
 the knowledge of which is available for all the letters in which 
 they occur, hence classified as principles. The principles, 
 again, have common parts, — the main lines, the lines used 
 merely for connection, and different ways of joining these 
 lines. Hence a true and practical analysis observes also the 
 elements, that the form they compose may be thoroughly 
 known. 
 
 A true analysis must be exhaustive, setting forth the pre- 
 cise number of forms and their modifications, distinguished 
 by the movements which produce them. That analysis is 
 false, which, under pretence of simplifying, classes forms made 
 by entirely different movements under the same head. 
 
 A good system must be carefully graded, beginning with 
 single fundamental forms ; then combining them, keeping 
 constantly in view their similarity; and afterwards advancing 
 to words and sentences. The most important part must be 
 
42 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 embraced within a few numbers for the instruction of those 
 whose time for education is limited ; while a larger and 
 sufficient variety must be provided for those who enjoy greater 
 advantages. 
 
 Under the head of Business Writing, we have explained 
 our reasons for using the less simple forms for the standard 
 letters ; namely, because the simpler are contained in the more 
 elaborate : and hence the acquirement of the latter enables the 
 practised writer to form his own st} T le in accordance with his 
 natural taste. In a word, the acquisition of the standard 
 forms trains the eye most effectually in the appreciation of 
 curves, proportions, and beauty, and the hand in their execu- 
 tion, hence giving control over all other forms, and developing 
 the power of originating them. 
 
 Our theory of penmanship would still be incomplete should 
 we neglect to state what may reasonably be anticipated from 
 school-training in this branch. Only extensive practice can 
 form a business hand. There is not time enough given in 
 school to this study to enable the scholar to acquire and to 
 become confirmed in a free hand. The few who have peculiar 
 natural aptitude may do so; but for the great majority we can 
 only hope to lay such a solid foundation, that, should they 
 ever have sufficient practice, they may then easily acquire it. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OE LETTERS. 
 
 In introducing the letters for practice, it will be noticed 
 that they are not taken up in their alphabetical order: they 
 are, nevertheless, arranged on a definite plan, — that of group- 
 ing them according to their predominant form, and therefore 
 unity of movement. 
 
 The straight line, with its appropriate slant, is the prevailing 
 form in the small letters, being found in all except four. The 
 short letters formed from it, as combined with curves in the 
 
Plate I 
 
 )Jiut;.ou. Duntou & ^tTtim*r$ 
 
 liifih'sis tun/ Class ifhccdion of Letters. 
 
 z 
 
 ELEMENTS 
 hi 
 
 V 
 
 ■ihrli/u-. wet Turn Hi.tlit Cut i Left i iirvr . Upper Turn. 
 
 PR I N CI PLES. 
 
 
 I- / / // /// ~ 77 
 
 SMALL LETTERS. 
 
 Ill 1 III 1- 1 2 3 -' -' 3 3 I 3 3 I IV IV v ui n IV V III IV HI 
 
 II IV IV II Ml II 
 
 CAPITALS. 
 
SCALE OF PROPORTIONS. 
 
 43 
 
 first three principles, are, therefore, first given. The four short 
 letters having a curved down-stroke come next; then /• and .<?, 
 which are exceptional, but still short. These are followed by 
 the stem letters, which require a partially-extended movement. 
 Lastly, the upper and lower looped letters, requiring fully- 
 extended movement above and below the base-line. 
 
 The capitals are arranged according to the same plan. A 
 glance at the accompanying plate will suffice to show the 
 similarity of form, and therefore of movement, required in the 
 several groups. The first six are based on the capital stem 
 and its modifications, the seventh on the direct, and the 
 eighth on the indirect, oval. 
 
 After the letters have been thoroughly learned, they are 
 introduced in their alphabetical order. 
 
 SCALE OF PROPORTIONS. 
 
 As there are short, partially-extended, fully-extended, and 
 capital letters, there must be some definite scale of proportions 
 if they are to be made respectively of uniform size. Now, the 
 longer letters are made of about the same size, whether the 
 writing is larger or smaller, within moderate limits. If 
 the hand is larger, the fully-extended letter and capitals are 
 three times the height of the short letters ; if smaller, four 
 times the height. 
 
 This gives rise to the scale of thirds and the scale of 
 fourths. The first is made by drawing six lines, including 
 
44 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 five height spaces ; the second, by ruling eight lines, includ- 
 ing seven spaces. The short letters in both cases are written 
 between the middle pair of lines. 
 
 In the scale of thirds, the stem letters extend two spaces 
 above the base-line, the upper loops and capitals three spaces. 
 Below the base-line the stems extend one space and a half, 
 the loops two spaces. In the scale of fourths, these letters, 
 though the same height as the others respectively, yet, owing 
 to the smaller size of the short letters, extend, the stems two 
 spaces and a half above the base-line, and two spaces below; 
 while the loops and capitals extend four spaces above, and 
 three below. 
 
 DEFINITIONS OF TEEMS AND FORMS. 
 
 A dot is the smallest mark that can be made. Frequently 
 ft bulb is called a dot : it is described where it occurs. 
 A line is the path of a moving dot. 
 
 Lines are of two kinds, — straight and curved. They may 
 have three directions, — upright, slanting, and level. 
 
 A straight line is one formed by the dot mov- 
 ing in the same direction. 
 
 It is upright when the direction is that of a 
 plumb-line (Fig. 3). 
 
 It is slanting if inclined at any angle (Fig. 2). 
 It is level when its direction is parallel to the horizon 
 
 (Kg- 1). 
 
 A curved line is one formed by the dot con- 
 stantly changing its direction. 
 
 A right curve is one that curves towards the 
 right (Fig. 1). 
 
 A left curve is one that curves towards the 
 left (Fig. 2). These both resemble the lower right and the 
 upper left curves of an oval, as shown in the diagram. 
 
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS AND FORMS. 
 
 45 
 
 A wave-liue, or double curve, is one formed 
 
 by the union of two curves, whose curvatures 
 
 are in opposite directions. 
 
 Curved lines may be written in the same 
 
 directions as those named above for straight 
 
 lines, — upright, slanting, and level. 
 
 The base-line is the level line, 
 
 real or imaginary, on which the 
 
 letters are written. — See the line 
 
 under m. 
 
 The top line is the line, real or imaginary, parallel to the 
 
 base-line, to which the short letters extend. 
 
 Up-strokes are those made by an upward movement, as in m. 
 
 Down-strokes are those made by a downward movement, as 
 in m. 
 
 Main lines are the essential lines of letters, embracing all 
 the down-strokes ; to which must be added the second up-stroke 
 in 0, b, v, and the third in w. 
 
 Connecting-lines are those used to connect the main lines in 
 letters or words ; and are always curves, either slanting or 
 horizontal. 
 
 Parallel lines are those which are equally distant through- 
 out, as in the down-strokes of m. 
 
 Similar curves are those whose curvature undergoes the same 
 changes. Similar curves, when of the same size, cannot be par- 
 allel to each other; but they may have the same slant, as in m. 
 
 The slant of the down-strokes 
 should be an inclination of fifty-two 
 degrees to the base-line. This will 
 be found the most convenient com- 
 promise between legibility on the one 
 hand, and rapidity of execution on the other. 
 
 Upper and lower angles are the join- 
 ings of two lines which have different 
 directions in a point at the top and base 
 lines respectively. 
 
 l, poer Anp le 
 
46 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Upper and lower turns are the joinings of 
 two lines which have different directions by a 
 continuous movement, which forms a narrow 
 curve at the top and base lines respective- 
 ly. A straight line and a curve, or two curves, may be thus 
 united. 
 
 A space in height is the vertical dis- 
 tance between the base and top line, — 
 the height of it. 
 A space in width is the distance between the upper points 
 m u. The letter u, therefore, is to be taken as the standard 
 of measurement for a hand of any size. In a condensed or a 
 large hand, the space in width is less than the space in height; 
 in a running hand, equal to it, or greater. 
 
 The short letters are those which are written between the 
 top and base lines, including r and s. 
 
 The stem-letters are those which have a 
 straight line extended beyond the top or the 
 base line. 
 They are four in number, — t, d, p, q. 
 
 Loops are those parts of 
 letters which are formed 
 by the crossing of two op- 
 posite curves. 
 
 The looped stem is shown (Fig. 2). 
 
 An oval is a form con- 
 tained by similar and op- 
 posite curves (Fig. 1). 
 
 It is a direct oval when 
 the downward movement 
 precedes the upward (Fig. 2). 
 
 It is an indirect or inverted oval when the upward precedes 
 the downward (Fig. 3). 
 
ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES. 
 
 47 
 
 ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES. 
 
 ANALYSIS OF LETTERS. 
 
 Analysis in penmanship is the separation of compound 
 forms into their simple constituent parts. Its object is to pre- 
 sent a single point to the mind, that it may be more accu- 
 rately known, and thus made more available as a standard for 
 execution and criticism. Thus, by analysis, knowledge is 
 rendered no longer general and vague, but particular and 
 definite. 
 
 THE PARTS OF LETTERS. 
 
 THE E1VE ELEMENTS. 
 
 THE SIX PRINCIPLES OK THE SMALL LETTERS. 
 
 THE THREE PRINCIPLES OF THE CAPITALS. 
 
 Two alphabets arc used in writing, — the small and tlm 
 capital. Each contains twenty-six letters. 
 
 The small letters are formed almost entirely from six prin- 
 ciples, the capitals from three. 
 
 A Principle is a form common to two or more letters, ami 
 consists of a main line and such connecting-lines as are joined 
 to it by turns. 
 
48 . MANUAL OF PENMANSHIK 
 
 The principles are formed from five elements. 
 
 An Element is a form common to two or more principles. 
 
 The elements and principles are somewhat modified in 
 form or slant in some letters. If this modification can be 
 executed by a corresponding modification of movement, we 
 consider it to be the same element or principle modified, 
 and not another element or principle. Thus, if the bend of a 
 curve is to the right, and it is on a certain slant, we call it the 
 third element ; if it is made to curve more or less, or to change 
 its slant in some letters, since these changes can be effected 
 by a slight change of the movement required to produce a 
 right curve, we call the form in each case the third element. 
 
 If this method be philosophical, that analysis of the letters 
 is false, which, in order to give the appearance of simplicity 
 to a system, classifies utterly opposite forms under the same 
 head. 
 
 The advantage of this analysis into principles is, that it is 
 necessary to know nine forms only, and their modifications, 
 instead of making a separate study of fifty-two ; whilst the 
 distinction of the elements leads to the accurate knowledge 
 of the principles. 
 
 Remark 1. — When the principles are once thoroughly 
 known, it is not necessary to refer any more to the elements. 
 
 2. — If any teacher prefers to use the descriptive names of 
 the elements, instead of designating them by their numbers, 
 it is just as well, and for their scholars, when beginning, per- 
 haps better. In describing them, therefore, we give both. 
 
 THE FIVE ELEMENTS. 
 
 The numbers designating the Elements are given in Roman ; 
 those of the Principles, in common figures. 
 
 The forms of the elements and principles and the move- 
 ments required to execute them are fully described in con- 
 
ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES. 49 
 
 nection with the letters in which they occur. We shall here 
 give merely a description of them for convenience of reference, 
 and add a few remarks on them which will be found very 
 useful to the teacher in enabling him thoroughly to appreciate 
 the principles formed from them. 
 
 Element I. is the Slanting Straight Line. 
 This is the fundamental line in writing. It 
 forms the main line, in whole or in part, in 
 twenty-two out of the twenty-six small letters ; in all, except 
 r, e, o, s. As soon as the scholars can make it fine, really 
 straight, and with uniform slant, their writing begins to look 
 well. To these three points, therefore, the teacher's attention 
 should always be especially directed. 
 
 Element II. is the Lower Turn. 
 The form of this is oval. It is 
 Li^fi^^^H important to observe that the bend 
 of the turn is wholly on the left side before the downward 
 direction of the movement is changed. In a very bold, large 
 hand, this element begins one-fourth from the base-line ; in 
 smaller hands, very near it. 
 
 It is important to notice that the width of the turn depends 
 upon the height at which it begins. The sooner the turn 
 begins, the broader it is ; and the nearer the base-line, the 
 narrower, as shown in the illustration. (Fig. 2.) 
 
 Element III. is the Right Curve. 
 This is the right side of an oval, and may be 
 known by its bending outwards towards the 
 right hand. This curve is written both upwards. and down- 
 wards, and is generally a connecting-line, though sometimes 
 the whole or part of a main line, as in o, s. 
 
 Element IV. is the Left Curve. 
 This is the left side of an oval, and may be known 
 by it3 bending outwards towards the left hand. 
 This curve is written both upwards and downwards, and 
 is generally a connecting-line, but sometimes the whole or 
 part of a main line, as in c, e, o. 
 
 4 
 
50 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Element V. is the Upper Turn. 
 
 In this turn, the bend of the turn is wholly on 
 the right side after the direction of the move- 
 ment has been changed. It can scarcely be too often repeated, 
 that the up-stroke must be carried well over to form this turn 
 correctly. 
 
 THE SIX PRINCIPLES OF THE SMALL LETTERS. 
 
 The First Principle is the straight line and its connect- 
 ing-line, the right curve, joined together by the lower turn. 
 Its parts, therefore, are Elements I., II.. III. 
 
 It is found in ten letters, — in i, r, t, it, the 
 second part of a, d, k, iv, and the lower part of 
 b, I. When the straight line is higher than the 
 short letters, the principle is said to be extended. 
 
 The Second Principle is the left curve, as 
 connecting-line, joined to the straight main line 
 by the upper turn. Its parts are Elements IV., 
 V., I. 
 
 It is found in three letters, — in n, m, and the upper part of z 
 The Third Principle is the straight man- 
 line, joined to a left and a right curve as con- 
 necting-lines, one on each side, by an upper and 
 a lower turn. Its parts are Elements TV., V., I., II., III. 
 
 It is found in eight letters, — in v, x, the first part of w, y, 
 snid the last part of ?i, m, h, p. 
 
 The Fourth Principle is an oval form, modi- 
 fied by a pointed projection on the upper right. 
 This is for convenience in joining it to the 
 second part of the letter. Its parts are Elements IV., II. f 
 III. It is found in four letters, — a, d, q, g. 
 
ELEMENTS AND PRINCIPLES. 
 
 51 
 
 The Fifth Principle is the Upper Looped 
 Stem. The up-stroke is the connecting-line, 
 joined by a narrow turn to the down-stroke, which 
 is the main line, and consists of a very slight left 
 curve, ending below the crossing in a straight line. Hence its 
 parts are Elements III., V., IV., I. 
 
 It is found in five letters, — b, h, k, I, and the upper part 
 of /. 
 
 The Sixth Principle is the Lower Looped 
 Stem. The down-stroke, consisting of a 
 straight line changed to a very slight right 
 curve below the crossing, is the main line. 
 It is joined by a turn to the left curve. Its parts, therefore, 
 are Elements L, III., II., IV. 
 
 It is found in four letters, — j, (j, y, z. 
 
 THE THREE PRINCIPLES OF THE CAPITALS. 
 
 The Seventh Principle is the Capital Stem. It is a 
 
 double curve, finished with an oval. This principle is variously 
 modified, as is fully explained below in the description of the 
 letters. 
 
 It is found in fifteen letters, — A, B, D, F, G, H, I, K, Z, 
 M N, P, 72, S, T. 
 
 The Eighth Principle is the Direct Oval. 
 
 It i s found in five letters, — C, D, E, G, 0. 
 
 The Ninth Principle is the Inverted Oval. 
 
 It is found in seven letters, — Q, U, V, W, JT, Y, Z. 
 
 Remark. — Some parts of the capitals are formed from the 
 principles of the small letters, as is fully explained in the 
 analysis of the letters in which they occur 
 
52 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 FORMATION OF ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND 
 
 LETTERS. 
 
 Element I., or the slanting straight 
 line, is the fundamental line in writ- 
 ing the small letters. It is found in 
 twenty-two out of the twenty-six ; in all, except c, e, o, s. 
 In five of the principles it forms the stroke immediately above 
 the base-line. 
 
 It is also the simplest form, and is made by the simplest 
 movement : therefore every system ought to begin with it. 
 It is the first copy recommended for practice. 
 
 Remark. — It will be found convenient to set apart a space 
 of three or four feet in length on the blackboard for illustra- 
 tions of penmanship. Let it be selected where it can be best 
 seen by all the scholars. On it rule the scale of thirds, the 
 distance between the lines being three inches. (See diagram.) 
 The boxes may be made by ruling vertical lines a little more 
 than ten inches apart. 
 
 Divide the top and base lines 
 into four equal parts by placing 
 three dots on each, and show 
 how the straight lines are 
 placed at even distances, and 
 made with the same slant by 
 writing them from the upper 
 dots and corner to the lower corner and dots, as shown by the 
 illustration. The other copies may be illustrated in the same 
 way. 
 
 The advantage of this boxing is its aid to the scholar in 
 acquiring correct judgment of spacing and slant; and to the 
 teacher, giving clear and definite illustrations. 
 
 When two or more letters are given in combination, it is to 
 show the modifications necessary to effect it. 
 
ELEMENTS, PllLNCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 53 
 
 In all books ruled in columns, the scholar should be required 
 to write down the column, and not across the page, as he is 
 thus perfected in one thing at a time. 
 
 Knowledge. — Matter. — (1.) There are four slanting 
 straight lines in each box. (2.) The first begins at the top 
 line, one-fourth the distance across, and descends into the 
 fewer left corner; the second, one-fourth farther, or in the mid- 
 dle; the third, one-fourth farther, or half way to the corner; 
 the fourth begins in the upper right corner : in a word, the 
 lines are placed at even distances apart. (3.) All touch the 
 top and the base lines. (4.) All are uniform in slant. 
 (5.) The lines are to be very fine. 
 
 All these particulars should be drawn from the scholars 
 by questions whilst they examine the copy. 
 
 Manner. — (1.) Position and penholding are to be correct. 
 {2.) A simple downward slanting movement of the pen is to 
 be made by bending the first two fingers at the second joint, 
 and making the thumb yield at the wrist, and by bending at 
 the first joint. (3.) The pen is to be held as gently as pos- 
 sible, and the paper touched lightly, without pressure. 
 
 Criticism. — Each of the eight points given above should 
 be criticised in turn. The faults will be found on one side or 
 the other of that which is correct. Thus, if there are to be 
 four lines in a box, some scholars will make too many ; some, 
 too few. Again : if all the written strokes arc to touch the top 
 line, some will be found above it, some below it. 
 
 The faults may be discovered by a few simple questions, 
 leading the scholars to criticise their own work. First, what 
 is right? second, how many have it wrong? third, in what 
 respect is it wrong? and, lastly, what must be done to make 
 it right at the next attempt? 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The straightness and slant of the 
 down-strokes. (2.) Making the lines fine. (3.) They should 
 be placed at even distances apart. (4.) They should touch 
 the top and base lines. 
 
 Remark. — If it be thought that the above method is too 
 
54 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 complicated and elaborate, we reply, that it is important to 
 start right. When the teacher insists, at the start, on exact 
 compliance with his directions, having made his instruction so 
 plain that it is fairly within their comprehension, he places ' 
 his scholars on the right track. Something is learned in each 
 successive copy which is available for the future. For instance, 
 beginning or ending in the corners, writing down the column, 
 placing the letters in the boxes as they are in the copy, touch- 
 ing top and base lines, and making fine lines, — this is taught 
 in the first copy. If carefully enforced there, these particulars 
 hold good for all succeeding lessons, and will only need to be 
 occasionally reviewed and criticised. Hence the instruction 
 really embraces fewer points as we advance. 
 
 Element III., the right 
 curve, as connecting-line, is 
 joined to the straight line in a point at the top, forming with 
 it the Upper Angle. 
 
 Knowledge. — Matter. — (1.) The first line is the right 
 curve written upwards : the second is a slanting straight line 
 written downwards. ("2.) Begin in the lower left corner, and 
 make a very slight right curve to the middle of the top of the 
 box ; stop, and then descend with a slanting straight line, as in 
 copy one. Be sure to make a point at the top. (3.) For the 
 second angle, begin at the middle of the bottom of the box, 
 and carry the right curve to the corner; stop, and descend 
 with slanting straight line, as before. 
 
 Illustration*. — In teaching this copy, much 
 pains must be taken to impress on the scholars' 
 minds the idea of the right curve. One of the 
 best methods is to draw a straight line of the required slant 
 on the blackboard, and then draw the curve from one point 
 to the other. Be careful to make the curve very slight. 
 
 The scholars must also be shown that the down-stroke 
 slants less than the up-stroke, and joins it in a point, not run- 
 ning back on it at all. 
 
 Manner. — (1.) Position and penholding are to be correct. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 55 
 
 (2.) The right curve is to be made by a slanting upward 
 movement of the pen, sinking it a little downwards towards 
 the right as it ascends. This is accomplished by straighten- 
 ing the thumb at the first joint, so as to push the pen up; and 
 straightening the first two fingers at the second joint, allow- 
 ing them to yield to the push of the thumb. The whole hand 
 should at the same time move forward a little; the third and 
 fourth fingers, which are used to steady the hand, sliding a 
 little towards the right on the paper. 
 
 Criticism. — This should embrace, as before, the particulars 
 of knowledge applied in their work. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Joining the up-stroke and down- 
 stroke in a point, and keeping the angle open to the point. 
 (2.) The up-strokes and down-strokes touching the top and 
 base lines at even distances across the box. 
 
 The straight line is here 
 joined to Element IV., the 
 left curve, in a point at the base-line, forming w r ith it the 
 Lower Angle. 
 
 Teach, illustrate, and criticise, as in the previous copy. Be 
 careful especially to enforce the change in movement necessary 
 to make the left curve. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Joining the down-stroke and up- 
 stroke in a point, and keeping the angle open from the point. 
 (2.) The down-strokes and up-strokes touching the top and 
 base lines at even distances across the box. 
 
 THE FIRST PRINCIPLE. 
 
 The straight line is here 
 joined to Element III., the 
 right curve, by a short curve forming the Lower Turn, 
 Element II., on the base-line. 
 
 This is the First Principle. Its form is angular, with the 
 point changed to a turn. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of the F rst Principle are Elements 
 L, II., III. 
 
56 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Knowledge. — Matter. — (1.) The slanting straight 
 line descends nearly to the base-line ; (2) then turns as short 
 as possible, (3) and joins a right curve. 
 
 Manner. — Make the down-stroke as directed for the 
 straight line ; when near the base-line, move the pen down- 
 wards and forwards till the base-line is reached ; then, without 
 stopping, commence the upward movement at once. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The straightness and slant of the 
 down-stroke. Place the first three forms of the diagram on 
 the blackboard: Fig. 1, curved down-stroke; Fig. 2, too much 
 slant ; Fig. 3, too upright. 
 
 To secure the straightness, be sure the turn. is not begun too 
 soon. Illustrate this on the board. 
 
 (2.) The width of the turn. It must not be too broad, on 
 the one hand (Figs. 4 and 5) ; nor pointed, on the other 
 (Fig. 6). 
 
 The first fault is caused by turning too soon on the left 
 (Fig. 4), or by sagging on the right side (Fig. 5). Illustrate 
 on the board. 
 
 The second figure in the box given above is the letter i. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of i are 
 Element III., First Principle, and a 
 dot placed above it. 
 
 Formation. — Join the parts in a point at the top line, 
 and place a dot at one space ; that is, at the height of the letter 
 above it on the slant of the down-stroke. 
 
 Critical Points. — Review all the particulars of knowl- 
 edge already acquired in preceding copies as to the upper 
 angle, the formation of the curves, and straightness of the 
 down-stroke, which are to be made use of here. 
 
 The even distances across the box at the top and base lines 
 will be found very useful, and should be carefully observed in 
 forming the letters. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 57 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of u are 
 Element III. and First Principle 
 repeated. 
 
 Formation. — Join the parts in points at the top line, 
 keeping the angles open. Begin the letter in the lower left 
 corner, and end it in the upper right. Observe the Critical 
 Points of the First Principle, given above. 
 
 Remark. — We refer thus to the Critical Points of the First 
 Principle, not only because we thus save space, but especially 
 because we wish to impress upon the teacher's mind the great 
 value of a thorough knowledge of the Principles and their 
 Critical Points. They are the standard by which all the letters 
 can be criticised. How much easier is it to learn six forms 
 and a few modifications than twenty-six ? 
 
 The width of u between the upper points is called a space, 
 and is used as the measure of width for all the other letters. 
 
 This is a good opportunity for impressing on the scholars' 
 minds that the width of letters depends on the slant of the 
 up-stroke. 
 
 This may be illustrated by writing the 
 First Principle on the board, and then 
 adding additional up-strokes to show in- 
 creased or lessened width. If, then, they have written the u 
 too wide, they must make the second up-stroke slant less ; if 
 too narrow, more. 
 
 Critical Points. — Those of the upper angle and of the 
 First Principle. 
 
 THE SECOND PRINCIPLE. 
 
 The left curve, Element IV., is 
 here joined to the straight line by 
 a short curve forming the Upper Turn, Element V. 
 
 This is the Second Principle : its form is angular, with 
 the point changed to a turn. 
 
 Analysis. — The pi f s of the Second Principle are Ele- 
 ments IV., V., I. 
 
58 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Knowledge. — Matter. — (1.) The left curve is carried 
 well over ; (2) then turns as short as possible, (3) and joins a 
 slanting straight line. (4.) The lines touch at even distances 
 across the box at the top and base lines. 
 
 Manner. — Carry the curve well over at the top line ; then 
 move slightly forward and downward for the turn, and finish 
 with the slanting straight line. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The straightness and slant of the 
 down-stroke. 
 
 This can only be secured by carrying the up-stroke well over. 
 
 This point is so important, that we give 
 the accompanying diagram to show the very 
 common fault of not carrying the up-stroke 
 far enough over. A curved down-stroke is almost sure to result. 
 
 (2.) The turn having the same width as the turn of the 
 First Principle. 
 
 THE THIRD PRINCIPLE. 
 
 The left curve, Element 
 BBsBaffffflffMffi^l^TOm^ffffl I IV.. is here joined to the 
 straight line by the upper turn, Element V., as in the Second 
 Principle ; and the straight line is then joined to the right 
 curve, Element III., by the lower turn, Element II., as in the 
 First Principle. 
 
 This is the Third Principle. Its form is angular on both 
 sides, the points changed to turns. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of the Third Principle are Ele- 
 ments IV., V., I., II., III. 
 
 Illustration. — Place the accompany- 
 ing diagram on the board to show how the 
 Third Principle is formed from the Second 
 and First. 
 
 The instruction for these two Principles is to be used for 
 the Third. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The slant and straightness of the 
 down-stroke. (2.) Carrying the first up-stroke well over at 
 the top. (3.) Not turning too soon in the down-stroke. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 59 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of x are 
 Third Principle and Element I. as 
 the cross-line. 
 
 Formation. — Write the Third Principle, and cross it up- 
 ward with a straight line through the centre on the slant of 
 the curves. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Those of the Third Principle. 
 (*2.) Crossing the Third Principle through the centre. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of n are 
 the Second and Third Principles. 
 
 Formation. — Join the parts in a point at the base-line, 
 keeping the angle open. Make the curves slight, turns uni- 
 form, and the down-strokes straight, with the same slant. 
 
 The width is one space. This is secured by simply making 
 the up-stroke slant the same as in u. It is measured across 
 the middle. 
 
 Take care that the letter is placed in the box as it is in the 
 copy, that it begins and ends in the corners, and that all the 
 lines are fine. Watch the position, penholding, and move- 
 ments. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Those of Second and Third Prin- 
 ciples. (2.) Straightness and uniform slant of the down- 
 strokes. (3.) Turns at top and base lines alike in width. 
 HMRnmngMMgRn^ Analysis. — The parts 
 W km^mW^B^ ^^mf^^J--^^'^. of m are Second, Second, 
 and Third Principles. 
 
 Formation. — Join the parts in points at the base-line. 
 The first three curves are similar, the four turns equal in width, 
 and the straight lines and curves slant alike respectively. 
 Width two spaces, secured by the slant of the up-strokes. 
 
 Critical Points. — Those of Second and Third Principles. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of v are 
 Third Principle modified, dot, and 
 a level curve. 
 
 The Third Principle is modified by carrying up the last curve 
 closer, so as to make the width of v about half a space. 
 
60 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Illustration. — Draw the Third Principle 
 on the board, add the dot and connecting-line, 
 and show that the v thus made would be too 
 wide. Then make the modified line, and impress it on the 
 scholars' minds. 
 
 Remark. — It is to be remembered, that, by previous prac- 
 tice, they have formed the habit of writing the up-strokes with 
 a oertain slant. Fix on their minds that a special habit is to 
 be formed in writing this up-stroke for v and w, that these let- 
 ters may be made narrower as required. 
 
 The dot begins even with the upper turn, and is formed by 
 retracing the curve for a very short distance without pressing 
 on the pen. 
 
 The level curve is carried from the bottom of the dot to the 
 top line. 
 
 When v is followed by itself or another letter, the level 
 curve supersedes the first connecting-line of the letter follow- 
 ing, and joins the main line either in a point or turn. 
 
 The distance between the top point of a v and the turn of a 
 v following is exactly the width of the top of the letter. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The carry in g-up of the third line 
 closer. (2.) Making the dot small. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of w are 
 Third Principle, First Principle 
 modified, dot, and level curve. 
 
 Formation. — The First Principle is modified by carrying 
 up the last curve about half a space closer, as in v. The 
 width of w across the top is about one space and a half. 
 The instruction given for v applies here. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1 .) The modification of the last up- 
 stroke of iv. (2.) Joining the principles in a sharp angle at 
 the top line, and keeping the lines separate, except at the 
 point. 
 
 Remark. — Be careful to have the letters placed in the 
 boxes exactly as they are in the diagram. This will be found 
 very helpful in getting the right slants and widths. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 61 
 
 THE OVAL. 
 
 Two features — the straight down-stroke and the increased 
 slant of the up-stroke — characterize the first three principles. 
 In the oval the down-stroke is curved, and the two sides are 
 parallel. 
 
 Analysis. — Tke parts of © are 
 Elements IV., IV., II., III., V. 
 
 Formation. — Carry the first up-stroke as far over as the 
 beginning of the bend of the turn in ?i, return a little on this 
 line to get the beginning of the curve, continue the down-stroke 
 as a curve, make a short turn, continue the up-stroke to the 
 :op line, and join the down-stroke ; finish with a level curve. 
 
 Illustration. — Give this diagram on the board to show 
 the joining in a point, as in u (Fig. 1) ; in a turn, as in the 
 first part of n (Fig. 2) ; and the different habit now to be 
 acquired of running back a little on the up-stroke to get the 
 .curved down-stroke (Fig. 3). Also to show the angular form 
 of the First Principle (Fig. 4), and the parallel sides of the 
 oval (Fig. 5). 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Running back a little on the up- 
 stroke. (2.) The curved down-stroke. (3.) The parallelism 
 of the two sides. (4.) Closing at the top. 
 
 When o is joined to another letter, the directions given for 
 the connecting-line in v apply. 
 
 When o is followed by o, the distance between the tops of 
 the o's is exactly one space. This is a guide for making the 
 level curve, used as connecting-line, of the right length. 
 
 THE FOURTH PRINCIPLE. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of a are 
 Element IV., Fourth and First 
 Principles. 
 
62 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 An oval modified by having more than the usual slant, the 
 top pointed and projecting on the right side, is the Fourth 
 Principle. 
 
 Formation. — Continue the first curve well over, touch- 
 ing the top line as far forward as the second point of a u ; 
 return half a space on this line, and make a curved down-stroke 
 with enough slant to carry it back to the first lower turn of u ; 
 then ascend like the inner line of u, and finish like u with the 
 First Principle. Width, one space. 
 
 Illustration. — Draw the letter u on 
 the board. Change the first up-stroke to 
 the left curve, and carry it over and for- 
 ward to the second point of the u, — that is, over like the first 
 line of ?i, but not touching the top line so soon, and then for- 
 ward one space; next, return on the same line half a space, 
 and slant back into the first turn of the u; after this, continue 
 and finish exactly like it. It adds to the force of this illustra- 
 tion if the u is made with white chalk, and the a with red. 
 The down-stroke of the oval has more than the usual slant. 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Carrying the up-stroke over, and 
 then forward one space. (2.) The increased slant of the 
 down-stroke, that the letter in which it is used may be one 
 space wide on the base-line. 
 
 Remark. — It should be observed, that two special habits 
 are here to be formed, — (1) of carrying the first line forward, 
 and (2) of giving the increased slant to the down-stroke. 
 Both of the movements necessary to effect this are peculiar to 
 the Fourth Principle. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of c are 
 Elements IV., V., IV., II., III. 
 Formation. — Begin like the Second 
 Principle, — left curve, turn and descend 
 straight and slanting one-fourth a space; 
 stop short, retrace the turn, form the left side and lower turn 
 •of an oval, and finish with the right curve on the usual up- 
 slant to the height of the letter. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 63 
 
 Remark. — Take care that the down-stroke of the turn at 
 the top is on the down-slant ; that it is not made heav} r , or 
 carried down too far. It is also a very common fault to make 
 the back of c too round. This arises from the fact that the 
 down-stroke is a curve. Illustrate on the board, contrasting 
 the correct form and the error. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Narrow top. (2.) Slightly-curved 
 down-stroke, not turned too soon. (3.) Narrow lower turn. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of e are 
 Elements III., IV., II., III. 
 
 Formation. — Begin with a right curve having more than 
 the usual slant; at one-third of the height from the base-line 
 change this to the down-slant, that the sides of the loop may 
 be parallel ; at the top line make a narrow turn to the left, 
 descend, and finish like c, crossing the up-stroke at one-third 
 from the base-line. 
 
 If another e follows, slant low, and then slant up as before. 
 The low slant must be carried far enough to place the second 
 e one space from the first. 
 
 Illustration. — Draw the letter 
 u on the board. Call attention to the 
 uniform slant of the first and of the 
 second up-strokes. Make a mark on each of the down-strokes 
 of u one-third of a space from the base-line. Then draw the 
 first line to this point, and notice the increased slant; in other 
 words, how low the line must be that it may be crossed one- 
 third from the base-line. Next carry the line up, and join it 
 to the top of the u by a narrow turn. Notice that the slant 
 here is less than the usual up-slant. Compare the forms of 
 the two up-strokes, writing them separately on the board, and 
 Asking the scholars which you have made. Repeat this for the 
 second e. Use red chalk, if convenient, for filling in the «'s. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Slanting low, and then lessening 
 the slant at one-third from the base-line. (2.) Making the 
 down-stroke with a slight curve, and not turning too sooil (3.) 
 End the last up-stroke at the height of the letter. 
 
64 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Remark. — Observe the special habit which must be formed 
 for the execution of the first up-stroke as it is found in this 
 letter alone. 
 
 Since e is one of the letters which most frequently occur in 
 the English language, it is very important that it should be 
 well made ; and } T et no letter will give the teacher more 
 trouble. Scholars, unless constantly watched, make it with a 
 round back, nearly upright, and ending on the base-line. Be 
 especially careful, therefore, that the three Critical Points are 
 observed in practice. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of r are 
 Element III., dot, slight vertical 
 curve, and Eirst Principle. 
 
 Formation. — Begin with the right curve, lessening its 
 slant very slightly, and rise one-fourth of a space above the 
 top line. Then retrace a little without pressure to form the 
 dot, and go directly down to unite with the Eirst Principle 
 just below the top line. The width of r at half the height is 
 half a space. 
 
 Place the r's in the box as shown in the copy. 
 
 Remark. — It will be observed, that, in the Anal}*sis, 
 we say "slight curve;' 1 and in the formation, " go directly 
 down." The former is the true form: the latter is used to 
 prevent the scholars, whilst beginners, from making the head 
 project in an awkward manner in front, as is their too-common 
 habit. 
 
 Illustration. — Write u on the 
 board; then, as in the diagram, carry up 
 the first line with lessened slant one-fourth 
 higher, and make the head, joining it to the u a little below 
 its point. Repeat for the second r. Use red chalk, as before 
 suggested. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Small dot and short vertical down- 
 stroke of the head. (2.) Straightness and slant of the down- 
 stroke. (3.) Ending at the usual height. 
 
 This letter will always need special attention. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 66 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of s are 
 Elements III., III., II., dot, and 
 III. 
 
 Formation. — Make the first up-stroke as in r, with 
 slio-htlv-lessened slant, and to one-fourth above the top line. 
 Retrace to the top line, and then form the right side and lower 
 turn of an oval, rising one-fourth of a space from the base-line 
 on the left side. Retrace downward to form a dot on the first 
 up-stroke, project the last up-stroke a little before ascending, 
 and finish at the usual height. 
 
 Illustration. — Make an oval on the 
 board ; draw through it with red chalk the 
 first up-stroke, as in the diagram, cutting 
 the left side of the oval at one-fourth from the base-line, and 
 rising to one-fourth above the top. Retrace this, and join to 
 the right side of the oval. Bend the up-stroke of the turn on 
 the left side down a little to form the dot on the up-stroke with 
 its slant. Show that, if the last up-stroke did not project a 
 little at the base, it would be too close to the s, as in the 
 dotted line. 
 
 The letter s occurs so frequently in writing, and requires 
 attention to so many points, that it will be found worth while 
 to use the accompanying diagram for further illustration. 
 
 Draw on the board the double lines. Make each of these 
 errors in turn, and require those scholars who see any thing 
 wrong to raise their hands ; then inquire what it is. It will 
 be observed that the erroneous forms are not made at random 
 or arranged promiscuously, nor are all possible faults given, 
 but that a selection is made with a definite purpose, to enforce 
 the knowledge of the letter in its particulars by contrast with 
 error. 
 
 The answers will be as follows : Not above the line (Fig. 1) ; 
 
66 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 turn not brought down to the line, making the base double 
 (Fig. 2) ; too high (Fig. 3) ; not retraced at top (Fig. 4) ; too 
 sudden a swell for the oval (Fig. 5) ; left side of turn projecting 
 instead of going up, and being bent back on the first up-stroke 
 (Fig. 6) ; not retraced at the base, but looped (Fig. 7). 
 
 Critical Points. — To go up on the left side of the lower 
 turn, and to bend down the line so that the dot ma} r be on 
 first up-stroke. 
 
 THE STEM-LETTERS. 
 
 The four stem-letters, t, d, 
 p, and q, are so named from 
 the extended straight lines 
 which are found in them. 
 The length and straight- 
 ness of these stems render 
 them peculiarly adapted for 
 shading: hence they are among the most showy letters in 
 writing. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of t are 
 Element III., the Right Curve, as 
 connecting -line, the First Principle 
 extended, and the crossing. 
 
 Formation. — Begin at the base-line with the right curve 
 and the usual up-slant to the height of one space ; then change 
 the slant to that of the down-stroke, and carry it to one space 
 more in height. At the desired height, spread the points 
 of the pen by pressure to the width required for the shade 
 before the downward movement is begun ; descend with a 
 slanting straight line on the usual down-slant, gradually di- 
 minishing the pressure ; and finish like the first principle, at 
 one space in height. Cross it at one-third from the top with a 
 very tine horizontal line one space long, and of even length on 
 each side of the stem. 
 
 To make the crossing level, it must be executed by moving 
 the whole hand sideways, sliding on the finger-rest. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 67 
 
 Illustration. — Place a u on the 
 board. Call attention to the fact that the 
 up-strokes slant more than the down- 
 strokes. Continue the first up-stroke to another space in 
 height without changing the slant. Next draw the upper part 
 of the extended First Principle, and thus show the necessity of 
 changing the slant of the up-stroke at the height of one space 
 from the base-line, that it may be retraced half its height by 
 the down-stroke. 
 
 Show further, that, if the slant is 
 not changed, one of three faults must 
 result : either the stem will form an 
 angle at the top with the up-stroke (Fig. 1), or it will have 
 too much slant (Fig. 2) or a very broad turn (Fig. 3). 
 
 Remark. — Wherever there is any thing peculiar in a 
 form, there must be a corresponding change in the habitual 
 movement to execute it. Hence especial care is needed to see 
 that the new habit of movement is acquired. Remind the 
 scholars of the force of the old habit already formed, and that 
 it is only by intelligent watchfulness that the change can be 
 made. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Changing the slant of the up- 
 stroke from the height of one space upwards. (2.) Making 
 the turn the same width as the lower turn in other letters. 
 (3.) Crossing level by moving the whole hand. (4.) Dimin- 
 ishing shade. (5.) Height. 
 
 "Whenever in any small letter the up-stroke is carried above 
 one space in height, the slant must be changed. 
 BBnBBnn Analysis. — The parts of d are 
 ^i^^^^^^^^^^i Element IV., Fourth Principle, and 
 WsSOSBESeGA First extended. 
 
 Formation. — Begin like a. Change the slant of the up- 
 stroke of the Fourth Principle as in the up-stroke of t, and 
 finish as t without the crossing. 
 
 The Fourth Principle in d is not shaded. 
 
 Critical Points. — Those of the Fourth Principle and of t 
 
68 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of p are 
 Elements III., I., and Third Prin- 
 ciple. 
 
 Formation. — The up-stroke, 
 according to the rule given under 
 t, since it is carried above one space, 
 slants less than usual. This change is to be made from the 
 base-line, and not at the height of one space, as in t, in order 
 that the angle may be kept open to the top point, instead of 
 having the up-stroke retraced. Ascend two spaces from the 
 base-line, stop, and descend straight and slanting to one space 
 and a half below the base-line, beginning to shade at the 
 centre, and increasing the shade to its termination. When 
 the stem is made, stop the movement, then release the pressure 
 to make the end of the shade square, raise the pen, begin 
 again where the stem crosses the base-line, and add the Third 
 Principle. 
 
 Illustration. — 
 Draw the scale on the 
 board. Write the up- 
 stroke as in Fig. 1, 
 with the usual up- 
 slant, to the height of 
 two spaces ; then the down-stroke with its proper slant ; call 
 .attention to the too great width at the base-line. It would be 
 well to write the syllable ap with the last up-stroke of a carried 
 tip as described, and notice that the j> is, in consequence, too 
 far off from a. Returning to the scale, without raising the 
 pen from the bottom of the stem, write the up-stroke with its 
 uisual slant, and finish the Third Principle (see Fig. 1). Notice 
 the double stem thus formed, and the distance between the 
 stem and the Third Principle. Prom this show the advantage 
 of raising the pen at the termination of the stem, and begin- 
 ning again at the base-line. 
 
 Draw the up-stroke as before (see Fig. 2), and then bring 
 down the stem at the correct distance from it on the base-line, 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 69 
 
 and observe that the stem has now too much slant. This is a 
 very common fault, and arises from not changing the slant of 
 the up-stroke. 
 
 Draw the up-stroke as in t (see Fig. 3), changing the slant 
 at the height of one space. If the stem is now written on the 
 eorrect slant, the up-stroke will be retraced through one space, 
 as in t. By adding the up-stroke with the slant lessened from 
 the base-line, show how all these errors are avoided. 
 
 Remark. — Remember the remark under t as to the force 
 of habit. The movement for the up-stroke of f> is peculiar to 
 this letter, and used in no other. There must, therefore, be a 
 special act of the mind whenever p is written, — at the begin- 
 ning of a word, to change the slant of the up-stroke ; when fol- 
 lowing a letter, to change the slant of the last up-stroke of the 
 letter. This act of the mind must be repeated till the habit is 
 formed, and the mental act becomes no longer a conscious one. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Lessening the slant of the up 
 stroke from the base-line. (2.) Increasing shade of stem from 
 its centre. (3.) Raising the pen at the termination of the 
 stem, and beginning again on the base-line. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of q are 
 Element IV., Fourth Principle, and 
 Elements I.. II., IV. 
 
 Formation. — Begin as in a, con- 
 tinue the straight line of the stem 
 downwards one space and a half below the base-line, make a 
 narrow turn, ascend with the left curve nearly parallel to the 
 stem as far as the base-line, thence branch off with the usual 
 slant. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Those for the Fourth Principle. 
 (2.) Carrying up the lower part of the last up-stroke parallel 
 to the stem. 
 
 Remark. — The common fault, arising from the force of 
 habit, is to slant this up-stroke too much from the turn upwards. 
 It will also require much care to join this letter in a point to 
 the letter u, by which it is always followed. 
 
70 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 THE FIFTH PRINCIPLE. 
 
 The upper looped stem is the Fifth Princi- 
 ple. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of the Fifth Princi- 
 ple are Elements III., V., and IV., ending in I. 
 Formation. — Begin with the right curve, 
 as in i, thence lessening the slant according to the rule under t ; 
 carry it to two spaces above the top line ; make a narrow turn 
 to the left ; descend with a very slight left curve, so as to cross 
 the up-stroke exactly on the top line ; finish with the slanting 
 straight line. 
 
 The object of changing the slant in the up-stroke is to make 
 the loop on the down-slant; in other words, to prevent it from 
 falling over in the ungraceful way in which it is generally 
 written. 
 
 Illustration. — Draw 
 tha scale on the board. Write 
 
 an i without the dot. Con- 
 tinue the first two lines two 
 spaces above the top line, with 
 the proper slant of each, as in Fig. 1. Notice the divergence 
 of these lines, and show that it is necessary to modify one line 
 or the other to make the loop. 
 
 Repeat the same form, and make the loop on the up-stroke, 
 as in Fig. 2. Notice that now the loop has too much slant. 
 It would offend the eye accustomed to the regular slant of the 
 own-strokes. 
 Repeat again, and lessen the slant of the up-stroke so as to 
 make the loop on the down-stroke (Fig. 3) ; after the upper 
 turn, make a very slight curve on the left side of the straight 
 line. Observe that the loop is half a space in width, and that 
 two-thirds of this width are on the right side of the straight 
 line, and one-third on the left. Point out the object of this 
 slight curve on the left, — to make the loop more graceful. 
 Finally, notice the change from the curve to the straight line. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 
 
 71 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Lessening the slant of the up- 
 stroke from one space in height upwards. (2.) Crossing ex- 
 actly one-third the height of the letter. (3.) Ending with a 
 slanting straight line. (4.) Making it three spaces in height. 
 
 THE UPPER LOOPED-STEM LETTERS. 
 
 Five letters have the upper looped-stem, — h, k, I, b, f. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of h are 
 the Fifth and Third Principles, joined 
 in a point at the base-line. 
 
 Critical Points. — Those for the 
 Fifth and Third Principles. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of h are 
 the Fifth and First Principles united 
 by Element IV. and a loop. 
 
 Formation. — Make the Fifth 
 Principle as before directed ; carry up the left curve closer to 
 the stem than in h, and one-fourth of a space higher than the 
 top line ; turn ; form a small loop on the slant of the up-stroke, 
 and finish with the First Principle slightly bent to the left at 
 the top. The width of the lower part of k, the last part of w } 
 and o, v, b, r, s, is each one half a space. 
 
 Illustration. — Write h in the scale on the 
 board. Then make the left curve closer to the 
 stem than that of the Third Principle ; carry 
 it one-fourth above, and well out to the right ; 
 make the loop, and finish it on the top of the First Principle. 
 The last down-stroke should, however, be a third closer to the 
 stem : it adds to the beauty of the letter. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Carrying up the second up-stroke 
 closer to the stem than in h. (2.) Making the loop one-fourth 
 higher, throwing it well over, and coming well under with 
 it. (3.) Making the last down-stroke slant the same as the 
 stem, and a third closer than in h. 
 
72 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of I are the 
 Fifth Principle finished with Ele- 
 ments II. and III. 
 
 Formation. — Make the Fifth 
 Principle ; turn, and finish like the First. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The same as the Fifth Principle, 
 especially the straightness and slant of the lower part. (2.) 
 Making the turn the same width as in the short letters. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of b are the 
 Fifth Principle, Elements II., III., 
 dot, and level curve. 
 
 Formation. — Make the Fifth 
 Principle as before ; turn, and finish like v. The width of b 
 is about half a space. 
 
 Critical Points. — Those of the Fifth Principle and of v. 
 
 Analysis . — The 
 parts of / are the Fifth 
 Principle and a loop, 
 formed by continuing 
 the Fifth Principle two 
 spaces below the base- 
 line, folding it up in 
 front, drawing it in to the base-line, and finishing it with 
 Element III. (Fig. 3.) 
 
 Formation. — Make the Fifth Principle ; continue the 
 straight line with a veiy slight left curve, having a swelling 
 shade to two spaces below the base-line; make a narrow turn 
 to the right, ascend with the right curve, and draw it in to the 
 stem at the base-line; finish with the right curve. The width 
 of the upper and lower loops is the same. 
 
 Illustration. — Place the scale on the board. Draw a 
 slanting straight line (Fig. 1); draw the Fifth Principle, and 
 continue the straight line (Fig. 2) ; then show the perfect let- 
 ter (Fig. 3). Contrast the error of a curved form with the 
 slanting straight line (Figs. 4 and 5). This is a difficult 
 h'tter. a^a require «!c3e attention. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 73 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The change of slant in the first 
 up-stroke is especially important. (2.) The general straight- 
 ness of the letter. 
 
 THE SIXTH PRINCIPLE. 
 
 The lower looped stem is the Sixth Princi- 
 ple. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of the Sixth Principle 
 are Element I., continued with Elements III., 
 II., IV. 
 Formation. — Begin with the slanting straight line to the 
 base-line, continue on the same slant with a very slight right 
 curve two spaces below, make a narrow turn to the left, ascend 
 with the left curve, cross the down-stroke at the base-line, and 
 finish with the same curve and the usual up-slant. 
 
 It will be observed that this Principle is the Fifth inverted 
 and reversed. 
 
 Illustration. — It will 
 be well to place on the 
 board the four errors shown 
 in the diagram. They are 
 those most frequently made. (1.) Running the down-stroke 
 off to the left. (2.) Making a projection to the left at the 
 turn. The narrow turn must be made by reversing the move- 
 ment of the pen, with only sufficient movement to the left at 
 the bottom of the turn to avoid a point. (3.) In changing 
 from the straight line to the curve, a shoulder is made by curv- 
 ing too much. (4.) The curve of the lower part of the down- 
 stroke, that it is not begun at the base-line. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Keeping the same slant throughout. 
 (2.) flaking a narrow turn. (3.) Crossing exactly at one-third 
 from the top of the letter. (4.) Length. 
 
 The size of the looped letters renders them a prominent 
 feature in writing : great pains should therefore be taken to 
 execute them accurately. 
 
74 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 THE LOWER LOOPED-STEM LETTERS. 
 
 Four letters have the lower looped-stem, — j, y, g, z. 
 
 Analysis. . — The parts of J are 
 Element III., Sixth Principle, and 
 dot, as in *. 
 
 Formation. — Begin with the 
 ght curve as connecting-line, and add the Sixth Princi- 
 m\ Place a dot one space above it, on the slant of the 
 straight line. 
 
 Critical Points. — Those of the Sixth Principle. 
 
 I5*H^|ggK% Analysis. — The parts of ?/ are 
 
 the Third and Sixth Principles. 
 Formation. — Unite them at the 
 Wm top in a point. 
 
 Critical Points. — Those of the Third and Sixth Prin- 
 ciples. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of g are 
 Element IV., and the Fourth and 
 Sixth Principles. 
 
 Critical Points. — Those of a 
 and the Sixth Principle. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of z are 
 
 the Second Principle and a short 
 
 turn uniting it to the loop of the 
 
 Sixth Principle. 
 
 Formation. — Begin like the first part of n; and, when the 
 
 base-line is reached, form a short upper turn, and descend and 
 
 finish with the loop of the Sixth Principle. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Making the down-stroke of the 
 Second Principle straight and slanting. (2.) Being sure to let 
 it rest on the base-line. 
 
 This closes the analysis and explanation of the principles 
 and letters of the small alphabet. Care must be taken that 
 the scholars do not neglect the small letters when they begin 
 the capitals. They must be constantly criticised. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 75 
 
 THE SEVENTH PRINCIPLE, OR CAPITAL STEM. 
 
 Analysis. — Left curve, right 
 curve, and left curve. 
 
 This principle is subject to several 
 modifications. They will be explained 
 under the letters in which they occur. 
 
 Remark. — It is very important to start right on this 
 Principle; for it occurs in fifteen letters, — A, N, 31, T, F, H, 
 K. S y L, I, P. II R, G, D. 
 
 Formation. — Begin at three spaces in height, and from 
 the top descend with a left curve to half the height of the stem ; 
 then, without stopping, change into a right curve, continue to 
 the base-line, and make a broad turn upwards with the left 
 curve ; carry it well over to form a slanting oval, rising to half 
 the height of the letter. The width of the oval is about half its 
 length, and the upper curve ends near the stem. 
 
 The curves on the upper and lower sides of the oval are 
 similar and reversed. The slant of the oval, shown by the 
 long diameter, is a little below the middle of the letter. 
 
 The shade is made on the lower part of the stem, and 
 increases and diminishes gradually, the widest part being in 
 the middle of the curve. 
 
 Movement. — Do not grasp the pen. Let the hand move 
 freely and lightly. The fore-arm movement of the whole hand 
 and finger-rest should accompany the finger-movement. The 
 movement should be uniform throughout. Beware of stopping 
 when the base-line is reached ; also of throwing the last curve 
 over with a jerk, consequently flattening the upper curve of 
 the oval. 
 
 Illustration. — On the board 
 draw four horizontal lines, as in the 
 diagram. In these draw with a fine 
 mark two ovals touching one another 
 in the middle. Their widths should equal half their lengths. 
 Mark the point where the second oval touches the top line. 
 
76 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Start from this point with red chalk if convenient, and 
 strengthen the line to the middle, forming the left curve. 
 Pass now to the lower curve of the first oval, make the swell- 
 ing shade, run out a little beyond the left side of the first oval, 
 and finish with the right curve carried over half the height, 
 and ending near the stem. 
 
 This will he found very useful in showing the scholars that 
 they can get the upper curve of the stem by beginning like an 
 ; also in showing the precise nature of the change of the 
 curve at the middle. Again, in illustrating the obliqueness of 
 the final oval, and the way which the curve must be carried 
 forward after the base-line is touched. It also affords a beauti- 
 ful illustration of the precise slant of the capital stem in its 
 normal form. 
 
 Exercise. — The scholars should now be drilled on Move- 
 ment Exercise No. 33. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of 
 capital A are Seventh Princi- 
 ple, Element IV. very slightly 
 curved, and a crossing curve. 
 Formation. — The capital stem is here modified by mak- 
 ing the upper curve very slight, in order to give an agreeable 
 form when the second down-stroke is added. It must also 
 have more slant than the down-strokes generally do, as may be 
 seen from the above diagram. 
 
 For the second part, begin again at the top, and make a left 
 curve, very slight indeed, and nicely adapted to the stem. It 
 slants a very little less than the usual down-slant. To finish, 
 begin close to the right side, make a short left curve down- 
 wards, cross half a space from the base-line with a level curve, 
 and carry it to the top line. Observe the width of the letter 
 carefully. 
 
 Illustration. — Draw two straight lines, 
 in a scale of three spaces, from the top down- 
 wards, on the slant respectively of the two 
 sides of A. Then write the capital stem on 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 
 
 77 
 
 the first line, and show the very slight upper curve, and how 
 the lower curve runs off from the straight line to give the 
 proper slant to the oval. 
 
 Next observe how ungraceful the straight line on the right 
 side is, and write the proper curve, noticing how very slight it 
 is. 
 
 Remark. — It interests the scholars very much to draw a. 
 Roman A on the board, and then show what changes are made 
 to adapt it to the requirements of writing. The same method 
 may be followed with all the other capitals. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Slight upper curve, and full slant 
 of the stem. (2.) The oval finish of the stem, similar on both 
 sides, half the height of the letter. (3.) The width of the 
 letter. 
 
 Analysis. — The first two- 
 parts of the capital JV are the 
 same as in A. The last part 
 is Element IV., ended at two- 
 thirds the height of the letter. 
 
 Formation. — Make the first two parts as in A, with the 
 lower part of the second down-stroke curved a very little more 
 than before. When the base-line is reached, move the pen for- 
 ward very slightly to take off" the sharp point, and then carry 
 up the left curve the same distance from the second down- 
 stroke as that is from the first at half the height, and end at 
 two-thirds the height of the letter with increased curvature. 
 Across the middle, then, we have two equal distances. 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The same as in A. (2.) The dis- 
 tance of the last line, its height, and increased curvature at the 
 top. (3.) Connection of the curves at the base-line. 
 
 Analysis. — The 
 parts of M are the 
 Seventh Principle, and 
 E lenient IV. three 
 times repeated, the last finished with Element II. and a wave- 
 line one space in height. 
 
78 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Formation. — Make the first three lines as iVJ extending 
 the third to the same height as the first, and making them a 
 little closer together ; then the left curve, very slight, as in the 
 second down-stroke, at the same distance as before, ending 
 with a turn and a wave-line to the height of one space. Ob- 
 serve the distances across the middle of the letter. 
 
 Remark. — The capitals K, X, 31, Q, H, U, when written 
 singly, without being joined to the following letter, may be 
 handsomely finished with a simple turn and a wave-line. If 
 joined, the last line is modified as required. The letters J, 
 Y, Z, are also finished with a wave-line. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Those of A and N. (2.) Carrying 
 the third line a little over at the top. (3.) Narrow turn at 
 the bottom of the fourth line. (4.) Three nearly even dis- 
 tances across the middle. 
 
 Analysis. — The 
 parts of T are the 
 Seventh Principle, and 
 the top, formed by a 
 small inverted oval and a horizontal double curve. 
 
 Remark. — The capital stem in T and F differs from that 
 in A, N, M in four particulars. (1.) It is shorter. (2.) It is 
 more curved. (3.) It has a little less slant. (4.) The oval 
 finish is a little shorter. 
 
 Formation. — Begin at the height of two and a half 
 spaces, and make the capital stem with its curvature a little 
 increased, and the oval a little shorter. Observe that the first 
 curve forming the front of the top is one space from the stem. 
 Therefore, allowing for this distance, begin one space and a 
 third from the full height of the letter, and continue the left 
 curve to the top, turn and descend with the right curve one 
 space and a third, turn and make the left curve one-third of a 
 space inside the first, cross a little below the top, and make a 
 horizontal double curve about two spaces long. 
 
 Movement. — To make the top handsome, it is necessary, 
 after making the oval with the finger-movement, to move the 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 
 
 79 
 
 whole hariJ to the right with a wave motion, sliding on the 
 finger-rest. Let the scholars practise on this movement on 
 their spare yaper. 
 
 Crixical Points. — (1.) Make the stem half a space 
 shorter than die full height. (2.) Make the front of the top 
 on the slant oi the writing, and close to the stem. (3.) Do 
 not let the top rest on or cross the stem. (4.) Fore-arm 
 movement for vhe top. 
 
 Analysis. — The 
 parts of .F are the 
 capital stem crossed 
 through the centre, and 
 this line crossed by a short straight line on the right side of 
 the stem ; and the top. 
 
 Formation. — Ma ve the stem as in T ; carry the upper 
 line of the finishing oval across the stem, and cross it on the 
 right side with a short slanting straight line. Make the top as 
 in T. 
 
 Critical Points. — The same as for T. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts 
 of H are Element III., 
 Seventh Principle modified, 
 Element IV. and a crossing- 
 curve. 
 
 Remark. — u The capital stem is modified by being made 
 half a space shorter, and making the upper part almost 
 straight instead of curving it. 
 
 Formation. — For the first part, begin on the base-line 
 and make the right curve two spaces and a half high, descend 
 nearly straight and slanting, run under with the right curve, 
 and finish as in the capital stem. For the second part, 
 begin at the full height, and descend with a full left curve, 
 straightening it gradually to the base-line. The width of II 
 at the height of one space is three-quarters of a space. Make 
 the crossing-curve as in A. 
 
 Critical Points. ^~ (1.; Making the stem half a space 
 
 /:..:.„. .y.vr.:.. 
 
 
80 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 shorter, and the upper parts straight. (2.) The width of the 
 letter. (3.) Gradual straightening of the last curve from the 
 top. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts 
 of K are Element III., Sev- 
 enth Principle modified as 
 in H, and Element IV. 
 joined to the First Principle by a small loop at the cent-re of 
 rhe letter. 
 
 Formation. — Make the first part as in H. For the sec- 
 ond part, begin at the full height, make the left curve, turn 
 under and back at half the height, and cross the stem ; make a 
 narrow loop pointing upwards to the left, and finish with the 
 First Principle, giving it a little less slant and broader turn 
 than usual, and changing the up-stroke to a wave-line one 
 space high. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The stem as in H. (2.) The 
 double curve of the second part above the loop. (3.) The loop 
 at half the height, pointing upwards at the left. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of 
 S are Element III. and the 
 Seventh Principle modified. 
 Remark. — The Seventh 
 Principle is modified by increasing the curvature of the upper 
 half. 
 
 Formation. — Begin at the base-line with the right curve, 
 having increased slant to half the height of the letter; thence 
 lessen the slant to the full height to make the loop on the slant 
 of the writing; make a narrow turn, descend with the left 
 curve to half the height, cross, and change at the crossing to 
 the right curve, run under, and finish as capital stem, with the 
 oval a little shorter. Begin the shade below the crossing. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Bold sweep of the up-stroke, and 
 change of slant for the loop. (2.) Crossing at the middle to 
 make the loop half the length of the letter. (3.) Change 
 from left to right curve at the crossing. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 
 
 81 
 
 Remark. — This letter is one of those, which, from the 
 simplicity of their construction, depend upon the accuracy of 
 their execution for their beauty. Especial attention is there- 
 fore necessary to eacli particular of the Critical Points. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of L 
 are Element III. and the Sev- 
 enth Principle, finished with 
 a horizontal loop and double 
 ;irve instead of an oval. 
 Formation. — Form and shade like S from its beginning 
 to the base-line ; then make a horizontal loop and double curve 
 rising with a wave-line to one space in height. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The same as for S. (2.) Making 
 the loop horizontal, and being careful that the double curve 
 touches the base-line on the right side of the stem. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of 
 I are Element IV., and the 
 Seventh Principle modified. 
 Remark. — The Seventh 
 Principle in this letter is a single curve. 
 
 Formation. — Observe the style of the introductory line, 
 a long, full curve, rising with a graceful sweep clear to top. 
 It has full curvature below the height of one space, which 
 brings the curve in this part almost at right angles to the 
 main slant. Begin at the base-line with the left curve, and 
 carry it well to left at the start, letting it rise on main slant 
 to the full height of the letter ; here combine the first curve 
 in a short oval turn with the main right curve; bring this 
 curve on the main slant to base, and finish it with a full base- 
 oval. Let the shade fall on the lower part of the stem, where 
 the curvature increases to form the oval. Make the width of 
 the loop, or upper oval, one space. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Giving full curvature to first curve 
 at the start. (2.) Having the stem cross first curve at the 
 height of one-third of a space above the base-line. (3.) The 
 main slant of the capital stem. 
 
 6 
 
82 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of 
 J are Element IV., and a main 
 right curve terminating in the 
 Sixth Principle. 
 
 Formation. — Begin a lit- 
 tle below the base-line with 
 the left curve, and carry it 
 well to left at the start, letting it rise on the main slant to the 
 full height of the letter; here combine the first curve in a 
 short oval turn with the main right curve; let this curve de- 
 scend on the main slant, and unite with the Sixth Principle. 
 Shade the lower part of stem below the base-line. Make the 
 width of the upper loop, or oval, one space. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Giving full curvature to first curve 
 at the start. (2.) Having the curves intersect in a point at 
 the base-line. (3.) Main slant of stem. 
 
 Remark. — It is a very common error to give too much 
 curvature to the stem. 
 
 The graceful character of both / and J depends upon the 
 right slant and easy flow of the long curves. If the latter are 
 too full, the letter will have too great width, and be inelegant; 
 if the curvature of the introductory line be not increased at 
 the start, the letter will be thrown out of balance. Impress 
 the form on the mind of the pupil by blackboard illustration. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of 
 P are the capital stem and the 
 left and right curves. 
 
 Formation. — Begin halt 
 a space below the full height, make the capital stem with a 
 little more slant than the writing; when the base-line is 
 reached, make a broad oval turn to the left, and form the left 
 side and top of an oval ; finish at half the height with a small 
 line carried in through and back to the stem, forming a small 
 dot. The width in front of the stern is one space and a third ; 
 of the lobe on the right, half a space. Make the shade on the 
 lower half of the capital stem. 
 
ELEMENTS. PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 83 
 
 Illustration. — Make an inverted oval 
 on the board whose width is half its length. 
 Put in the capital stem and the finishing 
 lobe. 
 
 Exercise. - - Drill the scholars on Movement Exercise 
 No. 31 before writing P, B, and R. 
 
 Remark. — In writing P, B, and It, scholars are very apt 
 to run to the left on the base-line, from the habit acquired in 
 forming the finishing oval of the capital stem, and thus make an 
 awkward projection which leads to two other bad errors, — the 
 flattening of the oval at the upper left, and then making a peak 
 on the right side of the stem before descending for the lobe. 
 
 A moment's reflection will show that the 
 last two faults are almost unavoidable if the 
 first is made ; for if, from the projection to 
 the left, a curve were carried up on the proper 
 slant, the width of the front would be enormous. The only 
 resource, therefore, is to flatten the oval ; but, when this is done, 
 they cannot descend till the peak is made beyond the stem. 
 This is so important, that we give an illustration. 
 
 The simple means for avoiding these errors is to move 
 upwards immediately after touching the base-line. Of course, 
 a curve can touch a straight line only in one point. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Turning upwards as soon as the 
 base-line is reached. (2.) The width of the front and lobe. 
 (3.) Finishing the lobe at the middle. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of B are 
 the capital stem, left curve, right 
 curve, narrow loop, right and left 
 curves. 
 
 Formation. - - Begin and form like P; and, instead of the 
 finish, make a narrow loop extending across the stem, and 
 pointing upwards ; descend with the right curve far enougli 
 below the base-line to allow the left curve to be carried up one 
 space from the stem at its farthest distance, and let it end 
 near the narrow loop. 
 
84 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The same as for P. (2.) The nar- 
 row loop pointing upwards on the left. (3.) The slant of the 
 right curve in the lower lobe. (4.) Going below the base- 
 line. (5.) Left curve one space from the left side of the 
 stem. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of H are 
 the same as those of B, excejDt that, 
 after the loop, it is finished with the 
 First Principle bent a little to the 
 left at the top. 
 
 Formation. — Make R like B till the narrow loop is 
 made ; then, with a very slight curve, run into the First Prin- 
 ciple, which finishes with a wave-line rising one space in 
 height. 
 
 Remark. — The upper part of the stem slants more, and 
 the upper lobe is a little wider, than in B. The down-stroke 
 of the First Principle has a little less slant than usual. The 
 turn is a little broader, and it ends with a wave-line. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The same as for B. (2.) More 
 slant given to the upper part of stem than in B. (3.) A little 
 more width to the upper lobe. (4.) A little less slant to the 
 down-stroke of the First Principle. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of 
 G are the loop of Fifth Prin- 
 ciple, and Seventh Principle 
 modified, joined by a turn. 
 Remark. — The capital stem is modified by being made 
 one space shorter, and making the upper part almost straight, 
 similar to H and K. 
 
 Formation. — Begin at the base-line, make the right 
 curve with a bold sweep, and at one-third the height lessen 
 the slant, ascend to the full height, make a narrow turn to the 
 left, descend with the left curve two-thirds, turn to the right 
 with a bold turn, ascend to one-third from the top, and finish 
 with the modified capital stem. 
 
 The width of G is one space ; of the loop, half a space. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 85 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Change of slant in the first up- 
 stroke. (2.) Crossing of the loop at one-third from the base- 
 line : this is the level of the turn. (3.) Making the stem 
 two-thirds of the height. (4.) Straightness of the upper part 
 of stem. (5.) Running the lower part of the stem under, and 
 making the finishing-oval half the height of the letter. 
 
 THE EIGHTH PRINCIPLE, OR DIRECT OVAL. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of the 
 Eighth Principle, or Direct Oval, 
 are the left, right, and left curves. 
 This principle is subject to some 
 modifications, which will be noticed under the letters where 
 they occur. 
 
 Remark. — This principle is found in five letters, — O, I), 
 E, C, G. 
 
 Formation. — Begin at the top, make a full left curve, with 
 a swelling shade heaviest in the middle of the curve, then a 
 broad turn, ascend with the right curve similar to the left, turn 
 a little below the top, and descend with a left curve one-fourth 
 of the width from the first, ending near the base-line. 
 
 The width of the oval on its short diameter equals half its 
 length. 
 
 Remark. — It should be especially noticed that the sides 
 of the oval are parallel. 
 
 Illustration. — 1. Place a simple oval on 
 the board, having the required proportions. 
 Draw its long diameter, and then a horizontal 
 line through its centre. Call attention to the 
 character of the several curves thus separated. Fig. 1 is long, 
 and comparatively slight; Fig. 2 short, fully curved, and form- 
 ing the bend of the turn; Fig. 3 long and slight, like the 
 first ; and Fig. 4 short, fully curved, and forming the bend of 
 the turn, like the second. 
 
 This will be found very helpful to the scholars in writing 
 
86 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 this letter. The two great difficulties are, moving out to the 
 left at the beginning to get the curvature of the first curve, 
 and turning soon enough in the lower curve to get a broad 
 turn. 
 
 "2. The force of habit is here strikingly 
 illustrated, and the scholars should be cau- 
 tioned accordingly. What is the general 
 habit we have striven to form? Is it not to 
 make a straight down-stroke, a narrow turn, and the curved 
 up-stroke with increased slant ? Our second illustration shows 
 the generally made by scholars in their first attempts. It 
 is really the First Principle turned into an 0. Place the 
 error on the board, draw the First Principle on it, and give 
 the required warning. Then write the First Principle, and 
 turn it into the incorrect O, so that they may fully compre- 
 hend the idea. 
 
 Next place the First Principle again on the 
 board, and write the over it, noticing the 
 curved down-stroke instead of the straight 
 one, the broad turn instead of the narrow one, 
 and the parallel sides of the oval instead of the angular sides 
 of the principle. Show that none of the lines coincide. 
 
 Exercise. — Drill the scholars on Movement Exercises 
 Nos. 29, 30. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts 
 of D are Seventh Principle 
 modified, horizontal loop, 
 Element III., and Eighth 
 Principle. 
 
 Formation. — Begin the Seventh Principle one space from 
 the top, and write it with increased slant ; at the base-line 
 make a horizontal loop as in L, touch the base-line again on 
 the right side, ascend with the right curve, going well over to 
 the left to reach the full height on the left side of the stem, 
 and finish with the Eighth Principle slightly modified in size. 
 By reference to the diagram of width given above, which 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 87 
 
 should bo placed on the board, it will be perceived that the 
 width of I), on the short diameter of the oval front produced, 
 is divided into five equal distances, — one between the left 
 curves, two between the inner left and the right, and one on 
 each side of the stem. 
 
 Illustration. — Place an oval with broad 
 turns, two and a half spaces wide, on the 
 board. Introduce the stem, horizontal loop, 
 and line touching the base-line on the right, 
 then the oval front. Use red chalk, if convenient, for the 
 first oval, shown by the dotted line ; and fill in the D with 
 white. 
 
 This illustration shows that the general outline of the letter 
 is a broad oval. 
 
 Remark. — The force of habit here again 
 asserts itself. The back of the D is carried up 
 on the usual up-slant : this makes a peak at the 
 top on the right side of the stem, before a turn 
 can be made to descend for the front, which is, consequently, 
 also spoiled. This fault will be avoided by noticing that 
 the back of the D is the right side of an oval, as indicated by 
 the dotted line in the diagram. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Slant of the stem. (2.) Touching 
 base-line on right side of stem. (3.) Narrow lobe, half a space 
 wide. (4.) Highest point to the left of the stem. (5.) Full 
 front of correct proportions as to width and depth. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of E are 
 an oval top, joining loop, and Eighth 
 Principle modified. 
 
 The Eighth Principle here is nearly 
 two-thirds the height of the letter. 
 Formation. — Begin at the top, with the left curve slight- 
 ly shaded ; descend two-thirds of a space ; make a narrow turn ; 
 ascend with right curve ; turn at the top to the left, and descend 
 with left curve, dropping it a little as it comes forward as far 
 as a slanting line through the right curve of the top ; make 
 
88 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 the narrow loop, throwing the curve well over to the left, 
 and finish with the Eighth Principle modified in size. 
 
 The width of the top oval is half that of the lower. The top 
 is placed over the middle of the lower oval (see the second 
 part of the diagram below). The joining loop is one-third of 
 the height of the letter from the top. 
 
 The joining loop points downwards towards the right. The 
 downward inclination of this little loop is the key to the whole 
 letter, as will be shown in a succeeding illustration. 
 
 Illustration. — Draw the scale 
 on the board, place in it an oval two 
 spaces high, and then a small oval one 
 space high, and half the width of the 
 lower oval, intersecting the larger oval, as shown in the dia- 
 gram. Then make the E in it. 
 
 This shows that the outline of the letter arises from two in- 
 tersecting ovals, and that the joining loop points downwards. 
 
 This latter point being, as we have said, the 
 key to this very difficult letter, the accom- 
 panying diagram is given to prove it. If the 
 lower curve of the loop is carried up, which is 
 the natural tendency, or even made level, it is evident that it 
 is impossible to carry the upper curve of the loop over in such 
 a way as to form the rounding back of the lower oval half a 
 space bej'ond the left side of the head. The diagram (Fig. 1) 
 shows that the line will so descend as to make the whole back 
 of the letter on the same straight line ; and the more an effort 
 is made to carry the line' back, the worse is the result. 
 Another error also necessarily arises, — making the lower oval 
 slant out too much in front. 
 
 The whole difficulty will be avoided if the top is made as in 
 the diagram (Fig. 2), with the lower line of the loop descend- 
 ing and reaching forward as far as a line on the slant through 
 the front of the top. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Making the top one-third and the 
 lower oval two-thirds the height. (2.) Making the joining 
 
ELEMENTS, 'PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 
 
 89 
 
 loop incline downwards to the right. (3.) Broad turn at the 
 bottom. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of C are 
 the loop of the Fifth Principle and 
 the Eighth Principle modified. 
 
 Remark. — The Eighth Principle 
 is here only half the height of the 
 letter. 
 Formation. — Begin on the base-line with the right curve, 
 give it full slant, and at one space in height lessen the slant, 
 us directed for the Fifth Principle; ascend to the full height, 
 make a narrow turn, descend with the left curve, cross, and 
 begin the turn at one-third from the base-line, make the turn 
 broad, ascend with the right curve, turn at half the height, 
 and finish with the left curve, ending near the base-line. 
 
 The width of the loop is half a space ; of the oval, one space 
 and a third. The length of the loop is two-thirds the height 
 of the letter. The distance between the left curves is one- 
 third the width of the oval. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Changing the slant of the first up- 
 stroke at the height of one space. (2.) Crossing one-third 
 from the base-line. (3.) Broad turn at the base. (4.) Mak- 
 ing final oval half the height. 
 
 THE NINTH PRINCIPLE, OR INVERTED OVAL. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of the 
 Ninth Principle, or Inverted 
 Oval, are the left, right, left and 
 right curves. 
 
 This Principle is subject to modifications, which will be 
 noticed as they occur. 
 
 Remark. — This Principle is found in seven letters, — X, 
 Z, Q, W, V, U, Y. 
 
 Formation. — Begin at half the height of the letter; make 
 the left curve upwards ; turn to the right a little above the 
 
90 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 height of the main part of the letter; descend with the right 
 curve, and turn to the left one space above the base-line ; 
 ascend with the left curve two-thirds of the distance across the 
 oval ; turn to the right, and cross a little below the top of the 
 first oval ; and descend with the right curve shaded, ending on 
 the base-line. 
 
 The length of the oval is, therefore, two-thirds of the height 
 of the letter. The width of the Principle across the short 
 diameter of the oval is about two spaces ; the distance be- 
 tween the sides of the looped part, one space ; and between 
 the curves on either side, half a space. 
 
 The shade is heaviest opposite the centre of the oval 
 front. 
 
 Illustration. — The force of habit again 
 leads the scholars into error. They usually 
 make the curvature and slant of the first up- 
 stroke like that of the Second Principle, as 
 shown in the diagram. To correct this, the first line must 
 have the full curvature and the slant of the first side of an 
 oval. 
 
 Exercise. — Drill the scholars on Movement Exercises 
 Nos. 31, 32. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The curvature and slant of the 
 first up-stroke. (2.) The proportions. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of 
 X are the Ninth Principle, and 
 the Eighth modified, the two 
 parts touching at the middle. 
 Formation. - • Make the Ninth Principle as before 
 directed. Next begin well out to the right at the top, make 
 the left curve touching the first part in the middle, and finish 
 with the direct oval, as in C, rising to half the height of the 
 letter. 
 
 The width of this final oval is one space and a third. 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Those of the Ninth Principle. 
 (2.) Those of final oval in C. 
 
ELEMENTS, PRINCIPLES, AND LETTERS. 
 
 91 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of Z are 
 the Ninth Principle, and the Sixth 
 joined to the upper part by a loop 
 and turn. 
 
 Formation. — Make the Ninth 
 Principle, and, when the base-line is 
 reached, ascend on the left side to 
 form a loop half a space high, turn to the right, and make the 
 lower looped-stem. 
 
 Remake. — When one Z comes under another, care must 
 be taken to slant the main down-strokes correctly, and to place 
 the head of the lower Z beside and close to the lower loop of 
 the upper one. If this is not attended to, each succeeding Z 
 will be farther to the right, and the appearance of the copy 
 will be spoiled. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Making the last down-stroke of 
 the upper part slant under enough. (2.) Keeping the lower 
 loop on the proper slant. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of Q are 
 the Ninth Principle, a horizontal loop, 
 and double curve. 
 
 Formation. — Make the Ninth 
 Principle, carrying the lower part of the last down-stroke a 
 little more under ; go forward to make the horizontal loop, 
 return to the base-line on the right side, and finish with a 
 double curve rising one space above the base-line, as in L. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Those of the Ninth Principle. 
 (2.) Carrying the down-stroke well under and forward. (3.) 
 Touching the base-line again on the right side of the main 
 down-stroke. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of 
 W are the Ninth Principle, 
 the right curve, and the left 
 curve repeated. 
 
 Formation. — Begin with the Ninth Principle, and from 
 the point on the base-line make a slight right curve extend- 
 
92 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 ing to the full height ; descend with a slight left curve, giving 
 this line a little bearing to the right ; at the base-line move 
 the pen forward very slightly to take off the sharp point, and 
 finish with the right curve to two-thirds the height. The 
 curvature of this line is somewhat increased in the upper 
 part. 
 
 The extreme width of the letter, as will be seen in the 
 above diagram, is three spaces. Across the middle are three 
 equal distances. 
 
 Take care to keep the lines separate, except at the point at 
 the top and base line. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Those of the Ninth Principle. 
 (2.) Keeping the successive parts separata except at the 
 joining point, and yet close enough to it. (3.) The set of the 
 third part. (4.) The even distances across the middle. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of V are 
 the Ninth Principle, turn, and left 
 curve. 
 
 Formation. — Make the Ninth 
 Principle, and, when near the base-line, make a narrow turn 
 to the right, and finish with the left curve at one space from 
 the top, as in W. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) The main down-stroke : take 
 care not to twist it. (2.) Ending the last line at two spaces 
 in height. 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of 
 TJ are the Ninth Principle, 
 
 turn, right curve, and First 
 Principle extended an addi- 
 tional space. 
 
 Formation. — Begin with the Ninth Principle, and turn 
 on the base-line, as in V ; ascend with the right curve two 
 spaces in height, finish with First Principle, terminating with 
 a wave-line one space above the base-line. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) That of the first part, as in V. 
 (2.) The width between the main down-strokes. 
 
THE FIGURES. 
 
 93 
 
 Analysis. — The parts of 
 1" are the Ninth Principle, 
 turn, right curve, and Sixth 
 Principle with the straight line 
 extended an additional space. 
 Formation. — P>egin with 
 the Ninth Principle, and, when 
 near the base-line, turn as in U. and ascend with the right 
 curve two spaces in height ; descend with a straight line, and 
 linish with the Sixth Principle. Observe carefully the width 
 of the letter. 
 
 Critical Points. — (1.) Those of the Ninth Principle- 
 (2.) Those of the Sixth Principle. 
 
 THE FIGURES. 
 
 The figure 1 is about one space and a half high. It is gen- 
 ially written as a simple slanting straight line, beginning fine,, 
 with increasing shade to the base. 
 
 The figure 2 begins a little higher than one space, descend* 
 \rith right curve to half the height of the figure, ascends with 
 left curve to about one space and a half, descends with shaded 
 right curve, and is finished like Q. Its head is an inverted 
 oval. 
 
 The figure 3 begins like 2 ; but its head occupies one-third 
 instead of half the figure. A small loop is formed, project- 
 ing a little to the left ; and it is finished with the shaded 
 right curve and the left curve. The general form of the lower 
 part is oval. 
 
 The figure 4 begins one space high, with a slanting straight 
 line to one-fourth of a space from the base-line; then a hori- 
 zontal straight line is projected to the right. The latter is 
 
D4 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 crossed by a slight left curve one space and a half high. The 
 first line has a decreasing shade. 
 
 The figure 5 is like 3, except that the top is a straight line 
 instead of an inverted oval. It has also a small curve from 
 the top of this upper straight line. Its height is one space 
 and a half. 
 
 The figure 6 begins one space and three-quarters in height, 
 descends with a slanting straight line having a decreasing 
 shade, and is finished with a direct oval one space high. 
 
 The figure 7 begins about one space and a quarter in height 
 with a short and slight right curve, having a decreasing shade ; 
 from the bottom of this starts a double curve ; and the figure is 
 finished with a left curve having an increasing shade extend- 
 ing half a space below the base-line. 
 
 The figure 8 begins at the height of one space, with the 
 right curve carried over to the left to the height of half a space, 
 then a double curve shaded in the lower half, and is finished 
 with a left curve crossing the double curve through the 
 middle. 
 
 The figure 9 consists of pointed oval, as in a, extending from 
 one space and a third to a third of a space from the base-line ; 
 ^nd is finished with a straight line, having an increasing shade, 
 to half a space below the base-line. 
 
 The figure O is a simple oval, one space in height. 
 
 ON TEACHING SENTENCES. 
 
 The directions hitherto given have been especially directed 
 to elementary instruction, and apply more particularly to the 
 first four Numbers of our series. The scholars, if our direc- 
 tions have been faithfully followed, will have a thorough 
 knowledge of the letters and their critical points, as well as 
 -of their combination in words ; and ought also to have acquired 
 
ON TEACHING SENTENCES. 95 
 
 the ability to execute them accurately with a tolerably easy 
 movement. 
 
 The two following numbers introduce them to sentences. 
 These are much more difficult, on account of the much greater 
 variety of combinations. The work of the teacher now 
 assumes a more general aspect. He directs attention to what 
 have been neatly termed the five S's, — size, slant, shape, 
 spacing, and shading. 
 
 The first two or three copies may be written with especial 
 attention to size and slant, remembering that size includes, 
 besides the uniform height of the short letters, the correct 
 extension of the stems and loops above and below, and the 
 height of the capitals ; while slant must not be confined to 
 the short letters and capitals only, but must include the stems 
 and loops. 
 
 Then shape may assume prominence in its various features 
 of straightness of down-strokes, shortness of lower turn, car- 
 rying the up-strokes well over for the upper turn, making the 
 side of the oval and fourth principle parallel, correct loops, and 
 capitals. 
 
 Next, spacing may be taken up for criticism, according to 
 the directions we have already given. 
 
 Lastly, shading should receive especial attention, according 
 to our previous directions. 
 
 We need scarcely say that we do not mean that any of 
 these should be neglected at any time by the scholars, but 
 that the teacher will do well to concentrate the attention of 
 the class, and his criticism, now on one point, now on another. 
 
 The sentences should, of course, be written across the page, 
 and not word by word down it, or the very purpose of the 
 training will be defeated. The words must be kept exactly 
 under each other. 
 
 The position, penholding, and movements of the scholars 
 should be carefully watched, and frequently criticised- 
 
96 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 DIFFICULT COMBINATIONS. 
 
 In writing sentences, a few difficult combinations of letters 
 occur, which will require special attention. When the right 
 curve at the end of a letter unites with a left curve at the 
 beginning of one following, the curve is changed at the mid- 
 dle of the height, as when n follows u. 
 
 If the lower looped stems, which are generally finished with 
 the left curve, are joined to letters which begin with the right 
 •curve, the latter supersedes the former from the crossing, as in 
 h or i following g. 
 
 To write e after the level curve-finish of b or o, the curve 
 must be dropped half a space, and then carried up with the 
 down-slant to form the loop of e; which is, therefore, a little 
 shortened for acommodation. In combinations like or, os, care 
 must be taken to make the level curve very short, and not to 
 carry it too high for the r and s. The curve must be made 
 short, and the slant changed, when t or 2^ follow this curve, as 
 in ot, op. When a follows, the curve must be carried far 
 enough forward to make the pointed projection of the fourth 
 principle. 
 
 The double letters bb, 11, ff, will require much care, in ac- 
 cordance with the principles already laid down. 
 
 BUSINESS PENMANSHIP. 
 
 When the eye and hand have been well trained on the accu- 
 rate and elaborate forms of the standard letters, continued prac- 
 tice naturally runs, from the urgency of business, into sim- 
 plicity : therefore, in the course of this chapter, it will be seen 
 that the forms given for business are more simple than those 
 for the standard letters. 
 
 It may naturally be asked why the more simple forms 
 
BUSINESS PENMANSHIP. 97 
 
 should not be given first. We answer, Because they are 
 derived from the standard forms by modification or contrac- 
 tion ; and hence a knowledge of the latter conduces to a hand- 
 some execution of the former. 
 
 It will be found that the essential movements are the same 
 in the execution of both ; hence there is nothing to unlearn : 
 and attention to the almost mathematical exactness of pro- 
 portion in the forms of the standard letters prepares admira- 
 bly for the thorough perception and the free and rapid execu- 
 tion of the exquisite curves of a business style. 
 
 It should always be borne in mind, that the more simple the 
 letter, the greater is the perfection of form needed for its 
 beauty of appearance. 
 
 In our series of copy-books, Nos. 7, 11, and 12 are devoted 
 to the exhibition of business-writing. No. 12 gives a great 
 variety of letters used by business men ; No. 11, various 
 words and short forms, such as ledger-headings used in busi- 
 ness ; while No. 7 contains forms of notes, due-bills, receipts, 
 and accounts. 
 
 We now proceed to show the various forms which our best 
 penmen use, and which are valuable for their grace, ease, and 
 rapidity. 
 
 The forms 
 Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5, 
 may be used 
 generally, if preferred. The w has the first lines united in a 
 point like u ; r begins like n, but the second up-stroke leaves 
 the main line at the shoulder, to prevent its being mistaken 
 for v ; x is crossed by a line parallel to the down-stroke, just 
 to the right of the lower turn ; c is written by returning a lit- 
 tle on the up-stroke, which in this case is the right curve, then 
 forming the head, and crossing the up-stroke like the e, from 
 which it is distinguished by the semi-loop in the head. 
 
 The forms -bigs. 3 and 6 are used for final letters. The r 
 in this style makes a very graceful finish to a word ; and the s 
 is used in this form at the end of words for the sake of rapid- 
 
V)8 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 ity, the lower turn and dot and tlie usual finishing up-stroke 
 
 being omitted. 
 
 These forms, except Figs. 2, 3, and 6, are used only a? 
 finals : those excepted may be used in any position. Observe 
 that stems ending square on the line are made with an 
 increasing shade, and that the shade is transferred from the 
 stem to the oval in the forms Figs. 4 and 5. 
 
 This 2 J an d % can De used 
 anywhere, as preferred : the / 
 is a final. The stems are 
 straight, with graduated shade 
 and very narrow turn. The 
 up-stroke must be carried up 
 close to the stem. 
 
 These are very 
 commonly used in a 
 free hand as finals, 
 and are applicable to 
 all the lower looped stems. In Fig. 1 the loop is changed 
 into a simple straight and shaded line, as shown ; in Fig. 2 
 it has a narrow turn, and is carried up on the right side; in 
 Figs. 3 and 4, curved more or less, and shaded ; and in Fig. 
 5, swung under with a fine unshaded stroke. 
 
 The stem given in Fig. 2 cannot, of course, be used for g,. 
 i.s it would then become a q. 
 
 The looped stems, 
 if preferred, may be 
 begun and finished 
 with a waved line. 
 Figs. 1 and 2 show 
 how happily they ac- 
 
BUSINESS PENMANSHIP. 99 
 
 cord when thus made. The length of the initial and final 
 lines is in this ease somewhat increased. Figs. 3 and 4 show 
 elegant forms of initial and terminating lines. The double 
 curves are as easily made as single ones ; and are certainly 
 more graceful, and agreeable to the eye. The accomplished 
 penman will not be satisfied without them. They are espe- 
 cially suited for ladies. 
 
 This diagram 
 shows various be- 
 ginnings and ter- 
 minations, which 
 may be used for 
 those letters to which they are adapted. 
 
 Fig. 1 is an off-hand beginning to such letters as usually 
 begin with a single curve, as shown by the curve below (see C, 
 G, H, K, L, S, in the standard forms). To a practised hand 
 this is quite easy, and should be written with a free fore-arm 
 movement. It will be observed that the lower curve crosses 
 the final oval of the stem through the middle. 
 
 Fig. 2 is a smaller beginning, and is suited for letters writ- 
 ten with a straight stem, as shown below in P, B, R, H, K, 
 W. For these same letters Fig. 3 may be used, if preferred : it 
 should begin below the base-line. Sometimes, also, a simple 
 curve is used, as below. In the selection, natural taste, and 
 facility of execution, should be the guide. 
 
 In writing the oval beginnings, it is important to observe 
 their slant, and to take care that they do not sink down or 
 project on a level, but have their long diameter on the same 
 slant as that of the cval termination of the capital-stem. 
 
 Figs. 4 and 5 show a strengthened termination to an easily- 
 struck line, used by many writers to increase the firmness of 
 character, or to avoid an unfinished appearance. It is not a 
 dot or bulb, but simply a shade arising from a slight and 
 gradual increase of pressure ended abruptly. 
 
 Fig. 7 is the oval finish used in standard letters. For 
 greater rapidity, this has been superseded by Fig. 8, — a turn 
 
100 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 of medium width rinished by a wave-line. Sometimes Fig. 
 6, the last down-stroke of the letter, is carried downwards 
 and forwards below the base-line, and thrown back through 
 the letter, completing an oval form. Succeeding small letters 
 may be begun close to the down-stroke, and written through 
 the up-stroke without objection. 
 
 The capital may be finished in the same way ; or, for the 
 >ake of variety, the up-stroke may be thrown back with a 
 wave-line. Another method of finish for this letter is to carry 
 ■ lie last down-stroke through the base of the letter, and go up 
 on the right side like the wave-finish (Fig. 8). 
 
 The standard capital- 
 stem is frequently 
 changed, as above, to one 
 written downwards, 
 nearly straight, and with increasing shade. It is sometimes 
 begun with a single curve (Figs. 3, 4) ; or with a wave-line, as 
 in Fig. 3 of previous diagram. In some letters it has a nar- 
 row turn and up-stroke on the right, as shown in Fig. 4 and 
 in the next diagram. 
 
 This diagram illustrates the application of the changed 
 capital-stem to various letters. 
 
 Further adaptations of the capital-stem are here shown. 
 In writing this L (Fig. 1), the dot is made by a downward 
 movement, and retraced. In Figs. 2 and 3, the connecting 
 line is carried from the dot below the base-line to the next let- 
 ter. Fig. 4 shows a rapid style of stem for the F, in which 
 
BUSINESS PI.NMANSHlk 
 
 lot 
 
 the oval termination is written nearly on the usual slant of the 
 writing. The last letter shows a convenient head for T (Fig, 
 7) : while 5 and G show how it may be finished with a dot, or 
 with an oval and dot. 
 
 Th e natural 
 variations of the 
 standard form 
 (Fig. 1) arising 
 .n rapid writing are here shown. The tendency is to diminish 
 the size of the loop ; and, in very rapid business-writing, to dis- 
 pense with it altogether. Fig. 3 is especially recommended 
 for ladies : it is very elegant. 
 
 We here illustrate the application of the fourth form of the 
 last diagram to various letters, for the convenience of business 
 penmen. 
 
 The same principle further illustrated, showing the ten- 
 dency in business-writing to dispense with all superfluous 
 lines. We have added a very handsome and popular form of 
 S and G. 
 
 These letters are formed from the standard direct oval 
 modified. They are the natural results of free movement in 
 
102 
 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 rapid writing, necessitated by the urgency of business. They 
 are all derived, as may be easily seen, from the standard forms 
 given in previous pages ; except A, which is a capitalized form 
 of the small a. 
 
 In writing this form of Z), carry the stem down to the line, 
 and make the loop point downwards : the final line is carried 
 down on the right of the stem, instead of passing over to the 
 front. 
 
 MARKS, SIGNS, AND ABBREVIATIONS. 
 
 We here append certain marks, signs, and abbreviations 
 which are generally used in business, with such explanations 
 as may be useful to those unacquainted with them. 
 
 Fig. 1 is 
 the business 
 abbreviation 
 for " at : ' for 
 
 instance, two pairs of shoes at three dollars a pair. The a 
 should be written smaller than the figures, and the final up- 
 stroke swung easily and gracefully over and round it. Fig. 2 
 is the abbreviation for " cents : " the c should be made nearly 
 at the height of the figures, as shown ; and small, like the a. 
 Fig. 3 is a common form for "per cent." Observe the position, 
 size, and connection of the o's. Fig. 4 is the usual abbrevia- 
 tion for the Latin words "et caetera," meaning ''and so forth." 
 The first form is sometimes called the " ampersand," and stands 
 for "et," and ; the " c " for " caetera," " so forth," or " the rest." 
 The ampersand is begun on the right-hand side. 
 
 r? <-:'>' 
 
 .£#: 
 
 / , / 
 
 s 
 
 Fig. 1 is the sign used for the word "number" on boxes 
 
VARIETY OF CAPITALS. 103 
 
 and in bills of lading : it is formed by drawing two parallel 
 lines, and crossing them by two oblique parallel lines. Fig. 2 
 illustrates an abbreviated method of writing "one-half :" in 
 Fig. 3 the half is expressed fractionally. Fig. 4 shows the 
 sign for the United-States dollar: it was probably derived 
 from one of the pillars with a scroll on the Spanish dollar; but 
 on this point antiquarians are not agreed. 
 
 We here 
 append a 
 few forms of 
 
 figures frequently used by business-men, which will be appre- 
 ciated for their freedom and beauty. 
 
 / 1 ■ -V / ■ " 
 
 VARIETY OF CAPITALS. 
 
 Our object in the three accompanying plates under this 
 title is to show the natural modifications and developments of 
 the standard forms of the capitals. The first three lines show 
 those of the three principles ; then the letters themselves are 
 given in alphabetical order. 
 
 We have already called attention to the fact that our present 
 script is derived from the Roman letters through the Italic. 
 This is important; because, whatever variety of form we may 
 invent, we must always be careful to preserve the distinguish- 
 ing characteristics of the Roman type, or the identity of the 
 letter will be lost. It also furnishes us with a guide as to the 
 directions in which we may give free play to our fancy. We 
 shall merely indicate these, without going into an examination 
 of the whole. 
 
 Take the capital-stem for instance, as shown in the first two 
 lines. It is the script representation of the vertical straight 
 line in the Roman letter. As to form, it may be waved, 
 straight, or simply curved. As to commencement, it may be 
 
104 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 made without an initial line, with one, or, in a letter like H y 
 may begin with a small inverted oval. As to termination, it 
 may end with a simple or compound oval, witli a dot, or be 
 devoid of any. Shade may be variously used, or altogether 
 dispensed with. It may be made of different heights. Yet 
 in all these varieties it will be observed that the stem-charac- 
 ter is preserved. 
 
 If we consider a letter, the same fact is apparent. The Ro- 
 man B consists of a stem and two lobes : whatever form we 
 invent for it in script, these features must be retained. 
 
 For practical use, the teacher may place these varieties of 
 form in order on the board, and point out their modifications 
 and developments as a stimulus to the inventive powers of 
 the scholars, and a guide to their taste, allowing them to use 
 those which they think most beautiful. 
 
 OFF-HAND CAPITALS. 
 
 The subject of Penmanship would hardly be presented in a 
 complete shape unless a few words were said on Off-hand 
 Capitals, of which a complete set is given in the accompany- 
 ing plates. 
 
 In these the attainment of practical writing culminates. 
 They are the adornment of business-penmanship, besides 
 affording a most valuable training for the hand in acquiring 
 perfect movement. 
 
 They should be written with the whole-arm movement. The 
 shoulder, in this case, is the centre of motion ; and no part 
 of the arm should touch the desk or paper except the nails of 
 the third and fourth fingers, used to steady the hand. They 
 should be struck with a bold and fearless movement, and 
 practised constantly, without being discouraged by failure to 
 obtain handsome forms at first. Care is needed to keep the 
 
LADIES' HAND. 105 
 
 pen in a good position, so that the points may, by a roll of the 
 hand, be constantly kept at right angles to the changing direc- 
 tion of the shade. 
 
 The Movement Exercises should be used in connection with 
 these capitals. The principles involved are the same as in the 
 standard letters, — the capital-stem, the direct oval, and tin- 
 inverted oval. 
 
 Watch the movements, and adapt them to the work. Study 
 the examples given ; endeavor to acquire a clear mental con- 
 ception of them ; then aim to produce them. Criticise the 
 work done 5 try and discover the causes of failure in any par- 
 ticular ; consider definitely what must be done to correct it ; 
 then make the effort. Do not hesitate to allow the natural 
 play of the fingers and wrist in connection with the move- 
 ment of the arm. Persistent practice will certainly lead to 
 success. 
 
 LADIES' HAND. 
 
 We are satisfied, from experience, that it is desirable for 
 girls to write the six numbers of the Common-school Series 
 with the same thoroughness and drill as are required of boys. 
 They may then take up the special numbers (Nos. 8, 9, 10) 
 prepared for them. 
 
 No. 8 contains a drill on the small letters, words beginning 
 with capitals, and short sentences. 
 
 No. 9 consists partly of single sentences, and partly of 
 couplets from standard authors. 
 
 No. 10 contains notes of hand, and of invitation and reply, 
 bills, and extracts, both prose and poetry. 
 
 The accompanying plate shows the proportions of the letters 
 for our Ladies' Hand ; gives a set of standard capitals, and also 
 of those most frequently used by writers of acknowledged 
 taste. To these is added a suitable style of figures. 
 
106 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 The small letters are given singly, so that each represents 
 the connecting-line to be used either for beginning or ending 
 a. word. This line, it will be seen, begins or ends a little 
 helow or above the letters. For the loops a wave-line is used, 
 as peculiarly adapted to the natural grace of a lady's style. 
 
 A few other features may be noticed. In the capitals the 
 shades are more delicate, because less muscular power and 
 movement are employed in their execution, and more of finger 
 and hand, than in business-writing. Fortius reason, also, the 
 shades are placed higher on the stems, and the indirect oval 
 beginnings are made smaller. In the advanced style of capi- 
 tals they will be found very much reduced in size, — the 
 natural tendency of a rapid style. 
 
 We would add the caution, to beware of writing too small ; 
 for it should always be remembered that legibility is of the 
 first importance. Rapidity and beauty, valuable as they are, 
 hold but the second place. 
 
Plate n 
 
 lariety of Capitals. 
 
 PARTS OF LETTERS 
 The Seventh Principle and modifications. 
 
 Parts used for the Seventh or Ninth Principles. 
 
 Zhs Eighth Principle and mcdyicatums . 
 
 The Ninth PnncipUnujdified. 
 
i^iate ill 
 
Plate IV. 
 
 Ihrietij of Capitals. 
 
Plate V. 
 
Plat- 
 
Plate YD 
 
 I 
 
 —to 
 
 ■ s / f/' sM / / /M / /'/<n <: //s~r/us^sff^S/ryyy///sJ/ < :1 i 
 
 ~y s 
 
 
 / / , t 
 
 / 
 
ROMAN LETTERS ANALYZED. 107 
 
 ROMAN LETTERS ANALYZED. 
 
 To render this manual complete, we append the accompany- 
 ing plates, giving the several Text Hands most in use, to- 
 gether with one presenting them of reduced size for ladies. 
 A Book of Alphabets forms part of our system, and may be 
 advantageously placed in the scholar's hands, containing sev- 
 eral styles besides those here given, and equally beautiful. 
 The ability to execute the Roman, Italic, Egyptian, and Brush 
 Letters, and the Old English and German Texts, is so great a 
 convenience, that every boy and girl ought to learn them at 
 some period of their school education. A comparatively short 
 time only is needed for their acquisition by those who have 
 been instructed in penmanship on the thorough method which 
 this Manual advocates. 
 
 Although the execution of letters by hand preceded the 
 discovery of the art of printing, yet the old text hands were 
 adhered to ; and the present script followed, and was the result 
 of that discovery. Hence the formation of the script letters 
 may be easily traced from the Roman through the Italic to 
 their present state. This fact gives additional interest to the 
 study of those styles, and the parallel forms of the Old Eng- 
 lish and German Text. 
 
 Our analysis of the Roman letters renders any extended 
 description, unnecessary. Each letter is placed on a frame- 
 work of small squares, which is formed by ruling five lines 
 horizontally and vertically, taking for a standard the width 
 desired for the thick parts of the letters. If preferred, these 
 squares can be drawn by hand. 
 
 It will be perceived, that, by the adoption of this plan, the 
 letters can be increased or diminished in size at pleasure by 
 simply observing how the various parts of the letters cross the 
 squares. As soon as the scholar becomes thoroughly acquainted 
 with the proportions of the letters, the squares may be dis- 
 
108 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 pensed with, and the work done on a single line, or between 
 two horizontal ones. 
 
 The best method for the learner is to draw the letter with 
 fine, light lines, using a hard lead pencil (an H, for instance), 
 and, when the form is perfected, to line it in with a fine pen. 
 For ornament, the right-hand line of a pair may be thickened, 
 which produces a very beautiful effect ; and, in addition, a 
 pattern may be made in the inside that good taste may select. 
 
 The lowest line of this plate shows how to adapt the scale 
 to form letters oblique to the right or left, as well as how to 
 extend letters in breadth by widening the spaces between the 
 vertical lines. 
 
 ITALIC PRINT. 
 
 By a reference to the last line of the previous plate, it will 
 be seen that slanting letters are narrower than vertical, be- 
 cause the slanting lines of the scale, though drawn from the 
 same width apart at the bottom to the same width at the top, 
 necessarily approach nearer to each other as the slant is 
 increased. 
 
 Two patterns of this letter are given, — the solid and the 
 open : either may be used as preferred. To execute the solid, 
 the letters should be drawn and " lined in " as directed for the 
 Roman ; and then they should be filled in, great care being 
 taken not to go beyond the boundary-line. 
 
 If letters are drawn on a very large scale, the filling-in 
 should be done with a camel's-hair brush, as this method is 
 more rapid, and gives a more even surface. 
 
MARKING LETTERS. 109 
 
 EGYPTIAN PRINTS. 
 
 The proportions of the letters are the same as before. The 
 distinguishing peculiarity of this style is, that all the lines of 
 the letters are the same thickness, and the " spurs " arc 
 omitted. They should be executed in the manner above 
 stated. 
 
 Some exercise of the judgment is necessary in all these 
 styles to so place the letters that they shall appear to be 
 equally distant apart. To effect this, it will be found neces- 
 sary to place some a little closer than others, on account of the 
 greater space which their peculiar profiles would otherwise 
 leave between them. Of this the trained eye alone can 
 judge. 
 
 MARKING LETTERS. 
 
 Every housekeeper will appreciate the value of these. And 
 what youth would not feel proud to be able to relieve his 
 mother of this care, and mark her linen tastefully for her ? or 
 to execute these letters gracefully on a handkerchief in pencil 
 for his sister to embroider ? What lady would not feel glad 
 to possess the ability to execute this work for herself, if neces- 
 sary ? For although stencil plates have nearly superseded this 
 old-fashioned accomplishment, yet still there are cases in which 
 it is very useful. 
 
 The peculiar art of writing these letters is to make all the 
 lines by downstrokes : the danger of the pen's spattering by 
 catching in the cloth, as it is very apt to do in an upstroke, is 
 thus avoided. In the A, for instance, we should begin with 
 the right side, and make the heavy line downward ; next add 
 the left line in like manner, and add the ornamental, beginning 
 by a similar movement downwards. So the D is made by 
 three movements. 
 
110 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 Great care must be taken to keep the letters upright, and 
 to give the same slant to the oblique parts. 
 
 Whether the Marking Letters are written with inclination 
 to the left or right, the same method should be used. 
 
 The "Numerals are given, half of them inclined each way, 
 as the rest can easily be adapted to the style preferred. 
 
 SKELETON LETTERS. 
 
 This is a very elegant and useful form of letter for inserting 
 names in maps, &c, and for giving variety in ornamental 
 work. 
 
 If the capitals alone are used for a word, the spurs are 
 sometimes omitted. 
 
 BRUSH LETTERS. 
 
 These are almost indispensable in a business education. 
 The ability to execute them well and rapidly with a pen ren- 
 ders the acquisition of the power to make them with a brush 
 for marking packages very easy. 
 
 They are made entirely by downward movements like the 
 Marking Letters, as already explained, and increase gradually 
 in thickness. 
 
 OLD ENGLISH. 
 
 To execute this beautiful ornamental style, lines should be 
 ruled as indicated by the marks on the margin at the left of 
 the letters. As soon as facility is acquired, they may be dis- 
 pensed with. 
 
GERMAN TEXT. Ill 
 
 The elbow should be kept somewhat out from the body, and 
 the pen so managed by the lingers, that, when the points are 
 spread, a line from one point to the other should be at a right 
 angle to the direction of the part of the letter then being 
 made. 
 
 It will be observed that the joinings of the oblique and 
 vertical parts are always angular, as in the upper part of the 
 first line of m : this must be carefully done. At the bottom of 
 the same line the joining is more abrupt : this is made either 
 by raising the pen at the termination of the vertical line, and 
 then adding a small square in an oblique position ; or by con- 
 tinuing the line, making an angular joining as in the upper 
 joint, and afterwards by a touch of the pen giving the projec- 
 tion. The latter is the more rapid method, and sufficiently 
 effective. 
 
 The heavy lines should always be drawn first, and the fine 
 lines added afterwards, as in o. 
 
 To form the horizontal lines, the under part of the pen 
 should be turned directly to the right, and the holder held in 
 the direction of the base line. 
 
 GERMAN TEXT. 
 
 This differs from the Old English in the predominance of 
 curved instead of angular joinings ; yet, at the same time, 
 those of the latter kind which occur must not be neglected. 
 Let attention be given, for instance, to tile difference between 
 the upper and lower joints of the two parts of u. 
 
 As in Old English, the heavy lines should be written first, 
 and the fine lines added afterwards. 
 
 It will be well to compare the two sets of Numerals, and to 
 note the differences, illustrating the fact stated in the first 
 paragraph as to the letters. 
 
 Some general remarks will be added on these different 
 hands in connection with the next plate. 
 
112 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP. 
 
 TEXT HANDS FOR LADIES. 
 
 Tn this plate the styles are given of smaller size, so as to 
 render them more suitable for ladies. The instructions already 
 given apply equally here ; and we shall, therefore, only add a 
 few general remarks. 
 
 If it is desired to make oblique letters look of the same size 
 as vertical, they must be written of less vertical height, because 
 their slant, making them longer, gives an appearance of greater 
 height than they really have. 
 
 The principal difficulties to be encountered are to preserve 
 uniformity of spacing, evenness of height, similarity of slant, 
 and, when required, to make them all accurately vertical; 
 also, as stated under the Old English, to so handle the pen as 
 always to keep the spread of the points at right angles to the 
 line of direction of the movement. 
 
 If the Numerals are used with a word composed of capitals 
 only, they should have the same height ; if with words in 
 which small letters are also used,' they should exceed the short 
 letters by half the difference between their height and that of 
 the capitals. 
 
 The marks at the left margin show the height of the let- 
 ters ; those on the right, of the numerals. The short letters 
 are about two-thirds the height of the capitals. It will be 
 found easier to copy the exact size of the model : this should, 
 therefore, be used at first. 
 
 Marking Letters and Old English are more compactly writ- 
 ten, Italic and German Text more open. Old English is 
 generally heavier than German Text ; it is also written with- 
 out flourishes : while the latter admits of the most elaborate 
 ornamentation; in which, however, a severe taste must preside, 
 lest the form of the letter be lost in the strength of the lines 
 intended merely for its adornment. 
 
Plate Vin 
 
 ROMAN LETTERS ANALYZED. 
 
 1 2 
 
 E 
 
 A 
 
 7\ 
 
 01) 
 
 A 
 
 T 
 
 J± 
 
 w 
 
 A 
 
 :q". 
 
 :n 
 
 QJJ- 
 
 m- 
 
 &: 
 
 m 
 
 ' /\ 
 
 . 
 
Plate IX , 
 
 ITALIC PRINT. 
 
 JBCDEFGHI 
 
 abed e f g h i 
 
 JKLMNOPQR 
 j k I m no.p-g r 
 
 s t u v w x y z 
 
 & 1234567890 
 
 EGYPTIAN 
 
 A BC D E FC H I 
 
 a b c d e f g h i 
 
 JKLMNOPQR 
 
 j k I m n o p q r 
 
 T U V W X Y Z 
 
 sf u ¥ w x y 
 
 &I234567890 
 
Plate X 
 
 SKELETON 
 
 7 7~1 
 
 / 
 
 a b c d e 
 
 t 
 
 k I m n o p g r 
 
 i 
 
 S I U V 
 
 X 
 
 BRUSH LETTERS. 
 
 
 € 
 
 
 :\ 
 
 ^Y c l^oCA^0 
 
Plate XI 
 
 MARKING LETTERS. 
 
 .V^C ^^vY £v^\ 
 
 c\ 
 
 . — — _ i — 
 
 A<B C<Z> K FGH I 
 
 abed e / ' t g h / 
 
 / k I m n o /j q r 
 
 <¥ T U l ; UUt ¥ X 
 
 v w a* , 
 
 j 
 
 ^\ C VS\^ 6 7 8 9 O cB 
 
Plate XD. 
 
 OLD ENGLISH. 
 
 A B <& H t I (!) 1 Jl 
 
 a h c J* t f 9 I) i 
 
 I I I ill W ® 9 <$ K 
 
 j k I m n 
 
 o p I] 
 
 X 
 
 v 
 
 7 
 
 GERMAN TEXT. 
 
 a 6 c 6 c f () fj i 
 
 | k i m n o p (] r 
 
 i 
 
 5> 
 
 S\ 
 
 E 3 
 
 t li P f i J) 
 
 4 
 
Plate Xm 
 
 MARKING LETTER. 
 
 oA> c Cs^eS 0|V\\\\\\\\\\o^ *\v s.\\v\ yj x v, - 
 
 -v^> c \^ v« Cv\\\ a \vv^>; o ^ q. 
 
 GERMAN TEXT. 
 
 aft c 6 c f jj ii f j (\ Cmno jtqrsluimixg ; 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 18 3 
 
 ITALIC. 
 
 a b cdefg h ijk Im n opqrs t u rwxy 
 
 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 SO 
 
 AB C DEFGHIJKLMJVOP 
 QR STTYWXYZ &. 
 
 z 
 
 OLD ENGLISH. 
 
 ctbctufgbijkimtt0pijrstutJtoxxi2 
 
 1234507800 
 
The best, most popular, and most extensively used, of any 
 
 System in the world. 
 
 THE SYSTEM COMPRISES 
 
 PAYSQN, DUNTON, AND SGRIBNER'S COPY-BOOKS, 
 
 IN THREE DISTINCT SERIES. 
 
 COMMON-SCHOOL SERIES. BUSINESS SERIES. LADIES' SERIES. 
 
 IN SIX BOOKS. IN THREE BOOKS. IN THREE BOOKS. 
 
 Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6. Nos. 7, 11, and 13. Nos. 8, 9, and 10. 
 AND A BOOK CF ALPHABETS. 
 
 PAYSON, DUNTON, k SCRIBMS'S 
 
 NATIONAL WRITING-TABLETS. 
 
 NEWLY ENGRAVED AND ENLARGED. 
 
 BIGHT IN NUMBER. SIZE 24X30 INCHES. CAPITALS 6 INCHES IN HEIGHT. 
 
 These Tablets are engraved and printed by an entirely new process, and are de- 
 signed to imitate chalk-work on the blackboard. The letters are printed in white, on 
 black ground, and are of such extended proportions as to be distinctly seen across the 
 largest schoolroom. They embrace all the principles, and their application in the 
 formation of small and capital letters, rendering them the most useful and instructive 
 Writing- Tablets ever published. 
 
 PAYSON, DUNTON, & SCRIBNER'S 
 MANUAL OF PENMANSHIP FOR TEACHERS. 
 
 This is not a revision of any former edition, but an entirely new work, expressly 
 prepared to accompany the new Copy-Books and Writing-Tablets, and contains a full 
 statement of the most approved methods of conducting classes in Penmanship. Fully 
 illustrated with one hundred and fifty cuts, — five full-page illustrations and thirteen 
 full pages of lithographic matter. 
 
 For further information, address 
 
 POTTER, AINSWORTH, A CO., 
 
 New York and Chicago. 
 
>H|# 
 
 
 Primary Schools. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW'S PRIMARY DRAWING-CARDS. 
 
 These Cards are put up in ihree sets, — Nos. i, 2, and 3, — of twenty-four exam- 
 ples each. . 
 
 They are arranged progressively, and present a great variety of pleasing and useful 
 subjects for practice, including lessons in printing and writing. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW'S PRIMARY DRAWING-SLATES. 
 
 This Slate is designed to accompany the Cards, is ruled for writing and musical 
 exercises, and is made with or without rubber corners. Size, 6x9. 
 
 TEACHERS' GUIDES. 
 
 A Guide for Teachers has been prepared to accompany each set of Cards, explain- 
 ing their use, and how to teach the examples. 
 
 Grammar Schools. 
 
 BARTHOLOMEW'S DRAWING-BOOKS. 
 
 A series of Books, — Nos. t, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, — of six lessons each, presenting a 
 carefully-prepared Course of Drawing, progressively arranged, and especially adapted 
 to the various grades of schools. They embrace an elementary and advanced course 
 in Flat Outline Drawing, Object Drawing, Perspective, and Shading. 
 
 TEACHERS' GUIDES. 
 
 Guide No. 1 is divided into four parts, and explains all the examples in Books 
 Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. Guide No. 2 is divided into two parts, and explains all the exam- 
 ples iu Books Nos. 5 and 6. 
 
 High Schools. 
 
 Bartholomew's Drawing-Books, Nos. 7, 8, 9, IO, 11, and 12. 
 Bartholomew's Linear Perspective. 
 
 Send for circulars, containing descriptions and recommendations, to 
 
 POTTER, AINSWORTH, 8c CO., 
 
 New York and Chicago. 
 
RETURN TO the circulation desk of any 
 
 University of California Library 
 
 or to the 
 
 NORTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY 
 Bldg. 400, Richmond Field Station 
 University of California 
 Richmond, CA 94804-4698 
 
 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 
 2-month loans may be renewed by calling 
 
 (415)642-6753 
 1-year loans may be recharged by bringing books 
 
 to NRLF 
 Renewals and recharges may be made 4 days 
 
 prior to due date 
 
 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW 
 
 alov tcoa 
 
 SENT ON ILL 
 
 NOV 5 1993 
 
 U. C. BERKELEY 
 

 
 1 
 
 RETURN EDUCATION-PSYCHOLOGY LIBRARY 
 
 1 TO— ■* 2600 Tolman Hall 642-4209 
 
 I LOAN PERIOD 1 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 ^rmONIH 
 
 ■ nilADTCD I HAM 
 
 
 4 NC . H IEWALS 
 
 6 
 
 ALL BOOKS MAY BE RECALLED AFTER 7 DAYS 
 
 2- hour books must be renewed in person 
 
 Return to desk from which borrowed 
 
 DUE AS STAMPED BELOW 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY 
 ^i0, 5m, 3/80 BERKELEY, CA 94720 
 
 PS 
 
I' 
 
 :•