PC 2937 G8 L5 1895 MAIN UC-NRLF ■ijiiiliii:*')!' 5^ &06 m'S guerpCsky ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE BOARD OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY EDWIN SEELYE LEWIS ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES AT PRINCETON UNIVERSITY BALTIMORE The Modern Language Association of America 1895 GUE^RNSKY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE BOARD OF UNIVERSITY STUDIES OF THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY BY EDWIN SEELYE LEWIS ASSISTANT PROFESSOK OF THE ROMANCE LANGUAGES AT PRINCETON UNIVERSITY BALTIMORE The Modern Language Association of America 1895 QXv X JOHN MURPHY A CO., PRINTERS, BALTIMORE. [Reprinted from the Publications of the Modern Language Association of America, Vol. X, No. 1.] CONTENTS. PAGE. Introduction 1 Phonetic Transcription 10 Signs and Abbreviations 11 Bibliography 12 Chapter I — Tonic Vowels 17 Chapter II— Subtonic Vowels 53 Chapter III — Atonic Vowels 65 Chapter IV — Consonants 67 Life H3 § 310410 Dedicated to Professor A. MARSHALL ELLIOTT, AS A TOKEN OF GEATITUDE AND AFFECTION. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. Introduction. Guernsey, in shape a triangle and sloping toward the North, is divided into twenty parishes. The Lower or Northern Parishes are those most frequently visited by strangers ; here the scenery is quiet, the bays are large, with beautiful white sand-beaches, varied, here and there, by some bold projection. The Southern coast, on the contrary, is beautiful in its very ruggedness ; here, cliffs a hundred feet in height, wild and fierce, sea gulls and crows with their piercing shrieks, waves dashing against the rocks and into the caverns, all contribute to produce a peculiar fascination on the visitor. The climate of the Channel Islands resembles that of the neighboring shores of England and France. The prevailing winds are warm and moist, the easterly being the most violent, and large stones have sometimes been thrown over the wall built at the edge of the water, and across a wide road. The usual state of the atmosphere is one of uncomfortable mois- ture, especially to those accustomed only to the enervating climate of the United States. The natives are strong and healthy, and men, well along in years, are seen with rosy cheeks ; but the Guernsey man is not robust, like the English- 1 Z E. S. LEWIS. man, nor is he as energetic ; he works well and intelligently, but everything is done slowly, and it is, doubtless, this free- dom from hurry, as well as the pleasant climate, that preserves the health and prolongs the life of the islanders. The poor enjoy superior comforts, in their small huts, near a sea into which they do not fear to dip themselves from time to time, with healthy surroundings and no wild desire to acquire wealth in a day. The winters are said to be very mild, and the j summers are delightfully cool. The surface of this island is of about twenty-four square miles, from which a third must be deducted for rocks, cliffs and places not susceptive of cultivation. We must not, there- fore, expect to meet a great variety in the products, nor an , extensive system of agriculture. The extreme subdivision of >i land may perhaps diminish the usefulness of what little ground can be cultivated, but the corresponding advantage of enabling the poorest man to own a little property, in which he can become interested, must be, in the minds of most persons, of sufficient weight to induce the preservation of the present system of the tenure of property. The soil being fertile, and the manure, afforded by sand and sea-weed, increasing this fertility, small farms are seen everywhere, even to the very edge of the sea, and on every inch of the ground something useful is being cultivated. On these farms is raised the famous Guernsey cow, large and of a bright yellow, and the islanders are so proud of their cattle, that every foreign breed is rigor- ously excluded, and only the meat required at the slaughter- house is allowed to enter the island. Fruits and flowers, especially grapes and tomatoes, are the main product of the hundreds of greenhouses that cover the island in all directions, giving it a peculiar appearance, when the sun is reflected from all this glass. This fruit is sold at high prices in London and other large cities in England, and is the chief source of whatever little wealth the inhabitants may possess. xi GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 3 It is not unlikely that, when the early inhabitants of Eng- land, driven before the victorious Saxons, fled to Wales, and thence, across the sea, to Brittany, some should have been attracted to these islands and have been among the first regu- lar colonists. There is a tradition, that the Saracens possessed a stronghold in Guernsey, called the castle of Geoffrey ; this site is now peacefully occupied by a church, but the view from there, overlooking the whole island, easily explains why those fierce warriors had chosen this position in preference to any other. Although no proof exists of the fact, we may, however, reasonably infer that Rollo, in the 10th century, possessed the Channel Islands, as well as Normandy and Brittany. Richard the First, third duke of Normandy, banished the monks of Mount Saint Michael to Guernsey, where they settled and built a church, dedicated to Saint Michael, and around these monks, so many other persons congregated, that their posses- sion of the land was confirmed by Robert, sixth duke of Normandy. In 1061 Guernsey was attacked by a strong band of pirates, who were soon disbanded by the inhabitants and monks, sup- ported by some troops under D'Anneville, an officer sent by William the .Conqueror, who seemed to take considerable interest in these islands. After the conquest of England, the constitution of the islands was in no respect changed, for the inhabitants were on the victorious side, and, to this day, they are anxious to impress on strangers that they have never been conquered by England, but, in reality, have themselves been the conquerors, and, as such, have retained their independence throughout these eight centuries. After the death of William, England and Normandy were separated, and remained so until reunited by Henry the First, in 1106 ; Henry the Second did not succeed his grandfather to the English crown, but was recognized by the barons as duke of Normandy. During these changes, the Channel Islands remained in the possession of the Norman dukes, and the English king, Stephen, had no J 4 E. S. LEWIS. jurisdiction over this bailiwick ; the inhabitants proved thus their fidelity to their dukes, though these were at war with England. Cornet Castle, an imposing structure at the entrance of St. Peter Port, was built at this time by Henry, who feared lest the English king might make an attempt to capture Guernsey, and thus gain a decided advantage over the Nor- man army. J When Henry succeeded Stephen on the throne of England, his youngest son John was appointed Lord and Governor of the Channel Islands. After John had become king, he was summoned by Philip Augustus before the Court of the Peers of France ; on his refusal to appear, his right to Normandy was forfeited, but no data exist as to whether the islands were included in this forfeiture ; we do know that the inhabitants remained true to John, who, with their financial aid, kept a ^| standing army in Guernsey and Jersey. Owing to the loss of Normandy, it became necessary to provide a peculiar adminis- tration for these islands, and John accordingly established in each a jurisdiction of its own, thinking thus to strengthen the devotion of the islanders to his cause ; John may therefore be looked upon by the inhabitants as the real founder of their present independence. The islands were henceforth subject to repeated attacks by the French, and Castle Cornet was captured at this time, but was recovered during the reign of Henry the Third. In this king's treaty with Louis of France, especial care was taken by him to reserve these islands, with the province of Gas- cony, and he constantly showed, as did also his successors, his attachment to these sturdy subjects. Owing to local dis- , turbances, an important fiscal code was drawn up during the "^ reign of Edward the Second, called the PrScepte d^ Assize, in conformity with the ancient customs, as established by John, The French again successfully attacked Guernsey ; the resist- ance of the islanders was gallant, but superiority in numbers / prevailed ; this was in 1339. In 1340 Guernsey was delivered / from French rule, and was granted its old liberties by Edward. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 5 In 1360 the English monarch ceded to France, by treaty, the province of Normandy, but specially reserved to himself the possession of the Channel Islands. This treaty was not respected, for, within twelve years, took place what is popu- larly known in Guernsey as the Descents des 8aragousais; the Guernseymen, numbering only eight hundred, retreated to ,/ Castle Cornet, whence they repulsed every attack of the enemy ; this plucky resistance of the natives saved Guernsey, and the French commander, despairing of success, evacuated the island. In the reign of Richard the Second, a treaty was made between the kings of France and Castile to utterly destroy the Channel Islands, with the Isle of Wight ; but fortunately this confederacy had no results, and King Richard confirmed, before his death, the charters of Guernsey, which were again confirmed by Henry the Sixth, during whose reign, part of Jersey was captured by the French, and held until relieved by the English forces, with help from the Guernseymen, who, as a reward, were granted still greater favors by Edward the Fourth. The privilege of neutrality was also conceded to Guernsey, and quiet reigned in that island until the French, shortly after the accession of Edward the Sixth, made a weak and unsuccessful attempt to invade the Channel Islands; the only result was the capture of Sark, which was held by /^ the enemy until recovered during the reign of Mary. During this reign of Queen Mary, Guernsey was' granted several new privileges, but, toward its end, experienced the horrors of popery, from which it was relieved only by the accession of Elizabeth. In 1563 more serious work was begun on the harbor of St. Peter Port, and the queen, in many ways, showed what importance she attached to the completion of this undertaking. Elizabeth also endowed a grammar school in Guernsey, from which has grown a mag- nificent college, the pride of every true Guernseyman and an influential seat of learning. 6 E. S. LEWIS. This peace was troubled, in the reign of Charles the First, when Jersey adhered to the king, while Guernsey took the part of the parliament, although the lieutenant-governor, fortified in Castle Cornet, remained loyal to Charles and did not scruple, time and again, to fire into the city, to the terror of the inhabitants and the damage of commerce. The Guern- seymen remained stanch in their devotion to parliament, but a succession of petty disputes among their leaders, added to the loyalty of Castle Cornet to the king, were the source of great anxiety to them. Fortunately, Castle Cornet at last capitulated, in 1651, but on terms highly favorable to the besieged, who fully deserved the consideration of their enemies. Upon the restoration of Charles the Second to the throne of his ancestors, the inhabitants seemed to forget their allegi- ance to the commonwealth, and acknowledged the hereditary title of the Stuarts ; the king, by his favors to the islanders, showed no resentment against them for having sided with the parliament. For the next hundred years very little of importance occurred in Guernsey, the only fact worth mentioning being the loyalty of the people to the Protestant religion, which made them welcome with eagerness the landing of the Prince of Orange in England ; the Catholic soldiers were disarmed, and the island was secured to the cause of Protestantism. When the seven years' war broke out between England and France, a strong effort was made by the French to secure the Channel Islands, but the timely arrival of reinforcements from England prevented any great damage being done. From this date to the present time, the histories of Guern- sey are filled with new regulations as to taxes, laws for debt, etc., but no attack of importance was made by the enemy, nor did any decided change take place in the government of the island; the people are still stanch in their loyalty to the British throne, and, in their sympathies, are more English than the inhabitants of Jersey ; every honor was shown Queen Victoria on her visit to the island, and, should she ever need GUEENSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 7 their help, the Guernseymen will no doubt prove as faithful and as brave as did their forefathers, when it became their duty to defend their own rights or those of their rightful monarchs. It has frequently been noticed that on a small island, like the one we are now considering, the dialect has been broken up into fairly distinct subdialects, even more than would occur on an open continent ; we are not surprised, therefore, to find that the Guernsey patois of the Upper Parishes, to the South, differs from that spoken in the Lower Parishes ; in the latter the pronunciation is broader and slower; this deliberate articu- lation, though clearly separating the parishes, is difficult to illustrate accurately. There are also a few specific differences, as, for example, the pronunciation of lahwor (French labour) of the Lower Parishes, but labwar elsewhere. So pa" and hurdif would be heard along the Northern coast, whereas the Upper Parishes would have pa"a" and hurda'^if; kurjce and the infinitive tufe to the North, but kurjam' and tufje almost everywhere else. These last examples can be easily explained when one remembers that it is in the Lower Parishes that' visitors dwell mostly and that there the Guernsey people of wealth have their summer homes ; this intercourse with the outside world, and with persons speaking pure French, has caused the folk to imitate French proper more closely, while the people to the South have retained their old pronunciation.^ Thus are illustrated the inroads thg-t Modern French is constantly making on the patois, with the inevitable result of finally destroying its last living vestiges. But it must be confessed that the French spoken in the courts, and in the city generally, although supposed to be correct, is, to say the least, very peculiar. When a good French word is taken into the patois, it is usually introduced bodily, and, with the help of the schools, this is being done more and more; not so, however, with 1 Further differences in the linguistic results of the Upper and the Lower Parishes are noted in the course of this dissertation. 8 E. 8. LEWIS. the English terms, which are generally changed to meet the requirements of the speaker. The dialect has thus to con- tend against two strong foes, and the fight is so unequal that it cannot last much longer. A few words, in conclusion, on how the material for this dissertation was collected may be of some interest. In the middle of May, 1889, I arrived in Guernsey, and, with a letter of introduction to Mr. Corbet, went at once to his home, where I remained until October. Mr. Corbet is one of the principal living poets of Guernsey, and was a good friend of the late Mr. M^tivier, who wrote so much in his beloved patois. With Mr. Corbet's assistance, I learned to speak the Guernsey dialect, while carefully noting his pronunciation ; when opportunity offered, I wandered about the neighbor- hood, talking with every countryman I chanced to meet, and jotting down especially the phonetic results of these conver- sations. All this part of my material was drawn from the Upper Parishes. I soon began, however, to make excursions into the Lower Parishes. Mr. Corbet and I also worked together on the different prose and poetical pieces in the dia- lect, he carefully giving me the pronunciation and meaning of any word or sentence I did not know. On my return to America, in the autumn of 1889, I put together the material I had gathered and, in 1890, presented it as my fellowship-dissertation. In the June of 1891, I landed for the second time in Guernsey, where I remained until September. I first went to Mr. Corbet's home, which I considered as my headquarters and whence I made excur- sions all over the island ; I thus met and conversed with all sorts of people. Eventually, I went to live with Mr. Guil- bert, in the Lower Parishes, where I could hear, every day, the patois as spoken in that part of the island. Mr. Guilbert is another of Guernsey's poets, and, though very modest, one of the most, if not the most, natural and sympathetic. With him I did the same kind of work as with Mr. Corbet, even going over most of my old material. At St. Peter Port, I GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 9 consulted the official records carefully enough to see that no valuable aid on the patois could be obtained from them. I next went to Paris, where I remained several weeks, working, in the National Library, on the Guernsey dialect. It was there that I had the pleasure of meeting Professor Charles Joret, and my researches in the library were made much pleasanter by the interest and sympathy he so kindly manifested in my work. In this dissertation I have carefully avoided the discussion of certain very complicated questions, such as the varied development of o, or the origin of nou (for the French on) and of le den; I intend to take up these points separately, in the endeavor to find some satisfactory solution. Another interesting question that cannot be considered here, is the relation of the old Norman texts to the Norman patois actually spoken at that time. The object of this thesis is to indicate the differences between the Guernsey dialect and French proper ; all results that are similar have been either omitted entirely or simply mentioned. The whole of the Guernsey literature has been examined, so that it may safely be said that if any development is not found in this work, it either is exactly similar to the development in French proper, or is not illustrated by examples from the Guernsey litera- ture or even from the spoken language. The morphology will be treated later, in a separate publication. In the examples, throughout this dissertation, the phonetic spelling comes first, in italics, then the usual spelling of the Guernsey writers, and, lastly, the Latin word that serves as basis to the patois form. Many examples are given that are not found in the Guernsey literature, but I have generally asked Mr. Corbet how he would spell such words. The Latin etyma have nearly all been taken from Korting's Lateinisch-romanisches Worterbuch} ^I wish to state here that through unavoidable circumstances the publi- cation of this dissertation has been delayed more than a year, during which time no alterations have been made in the subject-matter. 10 E. S. LEWIS. Professor Elliott suggested this subject to me; through him I have been constantly encouraged and helped, and it is a pleasure to thank him here for his valuable aid throughout this work. I must also express my thanks to Professor Matzke for having carefully read this dissertation and for having helped me with his suggestions. It gives me pleasure to add an expression of my appreciation of the assistance of Mr. Corbet and Mr. Guilbert, without whom I could not have gathered all this material, and of the help of Mr. John Linwood Pitts, and also of Mr. Guille and Mr. Alles, who so kindly put at my disposal the valuable contents of the public library at St. Peter Port, founded by their munificence. PHONETIC TRANSCRIPTION. a is pronounced as in pdte, » '* u u a patte, e " ii a a beb^, 9 " it i( a p^re, e" t( u ii l6, i " '(C a a fin^, " U n a trdne. o" it a a fort. w" CI a ii sou, w <( a n muY, ce " a u a heitre. h'' (( a ii crin, 9'' u a a ^rain, /" « a a chant, 5" a li a gent, \ " it ii a Italian ^glio, ^" t( (( a campa^ne. i" it ii a bien. «?" means gives, becomes, < a* a: a ji from, comes from, short a, long a, tonic a, subtonic a, nasal a. Common Abbreviations. L. L. stands for Low T^atin, Eom. li i< Romance, Germ. a (( Germanic, O. H. G. a u Old High German, Gr. u (( Greek, It. a (( Italian, masc. a it masculine, fem. u a feminine. sing. u a singular. plur. a a plural, nom. it (( nominative, or subject case. ace. a ii accusative, or direct object case. dat. a ii dative, or indirect object case. obj. a a objective case. Abbreviations of Works. Diet, ExtensioUj cf. No. 14 of Bibliography, a (( ^g (( is a it 4Q a a a a Q'j^ ii ii a i( ^^ a a 12 E. S. LEWIS. F.K, cf. No 39 of Bibliography, F.G., n (( 34 " Hague, a {( 20 " MUangeSy iC ic 13 " Norm, Mund. « (( 8 " P.P., iC u 43 " " P.G., a ii 38 " KG., u a 33 " Saire, aH', with a distinct final *-sound, very short and with a tendency toward wideness. Examples : ai'l (aile) : alam, amai'r (amaire) : amaram, asai' (assaiz) : ad + SATIS, 6Xar (bllai) : *BLATUM,/a^•v (faive) : fabam, fumai' (furaaie) : ruMATA, kai' (quai) : qualem, kjai'r (cUair) : CLA- RUM, k\ai' (cllai) : clavem, kotai' (cotai*) : costatum, mai'r (mair) : mare, nai' (naiz) : nasum, pe^'sad' (pensaie) : pen- SATAM, prai' (prai) : pratttm, ruza:v (rous^ie) : *arrosare, sai'l (sail) : sal, tai' (tai) : talem, lai'vr (laivre) : labrum, TKiai'v (maire) : matrem, pai'r (paire) : patrem. (2) In the modern Norman patois the results vary, being e, a'r or o,^ the diphthong a'i' (written ai by Fleury) being the development for the dialect of the Hague. Joret's first opinion,^ agreeing with Liicking's,^ was that a'i' represented the first stage between Latin a and French e; but as ei (ey) is found in the old Norman mss.,* it is most likely that a'r is a later Norman development of the previous ei {ey).^ Atten- tion might be called to the fact that it was an Old Norman characteristic to write ai (from Latin e).^ We thus see that the Guernsey a'i' represents a phenomenon already found in Old Norman, and still heard in the Hague and in the North of the Cotentin.'^ ^ Joret, Melanges, p. 12; Fleury, Hague, pp. 31, 32; Joret, Bessin, p. 220. ^Melanges, p. 12. ^Aelt.frz. Mund., p. 101. "* Eggert, Norm. Mund., p. 374. 5 Cf. Meyer-Liibke, Gram. Bom., I, p. 214, g 226, and Joret, Melanges, p. 16. ^Suchier, Beimpredigt, p. xviii, 17. ^ Joret, Melanges, p. 12. 2 18 E. S. LEWIS. (3) A few exceptions are to be noted. pa:r (p^re) : parem, without any following *-sound. hjdr (quer, ca6r) : quake, which, in Guernsey, is pronounced with an open 6, and not closed, as Eggert^ would have it. patrem and matrem, when applied to human beings, have the same results in Guern- sey as in French proper, but when referring to animals, they give pai'r and mai'r, as noted above. Owing to the following labial consonant, *gravat > groev (greuve). § 2. — a' + nasal + voc. (1) The result is the same as when a' is followed by an oral consonant : a' > aH\ Examples : ai'm (aime) : amat, foHavn (fontaine) : fontanam, grai'n (graine) : granum, Jcaptai'n (cap'taine) : *capitanum, hastarn (castaine) : CAS- taneam, rai'n (raine) : ranam, smai'n (s'maine) : septima- is AM, fa^'tai'n (chentaine) : centum, and the adjectives having, in the feminine, the same termination as sai'n (saine) : sanam, suvrai'n (souvraine) : superanam, etc. (2) In French, ai in this position began to be pronounced 9 already in 1550.^ The only part of Normandy that has a diphthong corresponding to this one, is the Hague, where, however, the a is nasalized (dy):^ in the Val de Saire,* a remains, in this position, but becomes e in the Bessin.^ § 3. — a'+ final nasal. (1) In the treatment 'of a' in this position, the Parishes differ slightly : the Upper Parishes show the result a'a", or (with the a changed to v under the influence of a"") »V; in the Lower Parishes, the development of a' + final nasal has been pushed further, since the product is 9~, without any trace ^ Eggert, Norm. Mund., pp. 373-4 ; this development is similar to that of * Suchier, Frangais et Proven^, p. 54. =* Fleury, Hague, p. 33. * Komdahl, Saire, p. 11. 5 Joret, Bessin, p. 220, I", fi. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. J9 of diphthongization. Sometimes also both vowels of the diph- thong are nasalized, so that a"'9" (or o"V) is heard. Examples : dma9'' (d'main): de + MANE,/aa" (faim): famem, maa** (main): MANUM, pad"" (pain) : panem, viljad^ (villain) : *villanum. (2) In French proper, the pronunciation a" became general only by the end of the 16th century,^ showing that the develop- ment in the Lower Parishes is more recent than that in the Upper Parishes.^ i" is heard in the Bessin,^ but the result that corresponds the most closely to ours is the ayn of the Hague.* § 4. — h{g or mouille cons.) + a'. (1) The change is twofold : the first is into je or, when an r follows, into p (sometimes d) ; the second is into ^. (2) As illustrations of the first result, we shall take the infinitives in -are, when preceded by a ^ {g). Here we meet with the ending je, the usual pronunciation of uneducated Guernseymen. Examples : bai'zje (baisier), epilfje (^puchier), drhdr^e (herbergier), fikje (fiquier), forjje (forgier), katwailje (catouailler), kwqfje (couachier), lai'sje (laissier), moT-^e (man- gier), mnifje (m'nichier), skje (s'quier), fevqfje (chevauchier), tarjje (targier), tufje (touchier), j,ujje (jugier).^ Some few persons, probably influenced by the written language, pro- nounce -jdVy instead of -je, and indeed the pronunciation -e, without anyj-sound, is beginning to be heard in the Lower Parishes. Beside these infinitives, we find ddrjje (derchie) : CAPUT and jO'ar (chier) : carum.^ (3) These infinitives have been treated according to the Bartsch-Mussafia law, with a pronunciation -J9 at the start, ^ Suchier, Frang., pp. 43 and 54. ^For a series aHyvH, etc., cf. Schwan, Gram. (2nd ed.), § 304, Schwan's ce corresponding to » as used in this dissertation. ^ Joret, JBessin, p. 220, 1", j8. *Fleury, Hague, p. 33. * The same result je is noted in ku'efje (cou^ffier) : O. H. G. kupphja and in pxjef (pUeche) : plateam. •e is found in eger (^gu^re): Frankish *waron and in dt/el (^tchelle): SCALAM. 20 E. S. LEWIS. but -je later ;^ in French, ie of the infinitive was reduced to e at the end of the 14th century, becoming e in other forms only in the 1 5th century.^ In Anglo-Norman, ie was reduced to 6 between 1174 and 1183.^ Neither in Guernsey, nor in the Hague,* where even the step id is heard, is this je reduced to e; ie is also found in the Bessin.* (4) We must now consider the second result, which is L This i comes through the stage iei' (or jei), illustrated by such words as aidieij chiei that are found in the patois of the Hague.* An i' is added to je through the tendency, noticed among the common people, to drawl out or prolong the vowels, and it is in the prolongation of je that a slight z-sound is developed immediately after it, and jei' would then be reduced to ij The examples found are, avzi (alsi) : *ad -f atiare, brafi: (brasshie) : bracchium, irol'ni: (iragnie) : *araneatam, hf"- pd'^ni: (compengnie) : *companiatam, Jco/i: (cauchie) : CALCIA- TAM, mar/i (marshi) : mercatum, p9"/t.- (pinchie) : V :Pic,pu'am: (pouagnie) : PUGNUM,^ and all the past participles of verbs with the termination -je in the infinitive — bai'zi (baisi), epufi (epuchi), etc.^ The i, following a mouill6 consonant, need not necessarily be developed through the stage jei', as explained above, but -je could become directly i under the influence of the preceding mouille consonant, which, being palatal, always has a strong i-, or raising, influence : je > re'> ^'e*> i. This same explanation can also be applied to the development of (k or g -\-)a into i. Since the gutturals, and especially their developed sounds / and 5, require a position of the tongue ^Suchier, Frang., p. 30. * Jd, p. 51. 2 Suchier, Reimp., p. xvi, 1 ; Gorlich, Mak., p. xliii ; Suchier, St. Auban, p. 2, and Busch, Ang.-Norm., p. 66. sole and pane (^ 9) may represent the Anglo-Norman reduction of ie to e, while the French retains the diphthong {soulter, panier), * Fleury, Hague, pp. 32, 33. * Joret, Besdn, p. 220, lo, y. «Fleury, Hague, pp. 32, 33. ^ A result similar to the one mentioned by Schwan in his Gram., § 86. ^ A like reduction is seen in ameti (amSti) : *amicitatem and piti (piti) PIETATEM. ^ V. M, 2. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 21 somewhat related to that of i, they would strengthen the action of this vowel on the following e in the combination re' (or j*e), and the final result would inevitably be the fall or, rather, absorption of e. (5) This reduced stage i cannot interchange, in Guernsey, with je, as Eggert seems to imply : ^ the forms that have je, never have i, and those with i, never have Je. The product i, and also ie, from Latin -atem, -atam, is found in the Anglo- Norman of the 14th century, and even when no palatal pre- cedes.^ In the modern dialects, this result is heard in the Bessin,^ whereas the Hague has id only.* § 5. — a'+ secondary j. (1) When a' is followed by a secondary J the two sounds combine to form the diphthong a'i'.^ Examples : ai'g (aigue) : *ADJUTARE, gai'n (game) : vaginam, hai'n (haine) : Frankish HATJAN, kai' (quait) : cadet,^ mai' (mais) : magis, par (p^is) : PAGENSEM, sai- (sait) : sapit, vai' (vais) : vadeo. (2) In French proper, ai had given di before the 12th cen- tury, becoming, later, 9 J § 6. — k [g or j) -\- a' -\- final nasal. In this position, a' is simply nasalized, with no other change of quality. Examples : doi'a'' (doyen) : decanum, moi'aJ' (moyen) : medianum, pai'a'' (paien) : paganum, tfol" (tchen) : canem. When compared with the change of a'-\- ^ Norm. Mund., pp. 375-6. ^ Joret, Bessin, p. 220, 1«, 7. 2 Busch, Ang.-Norm., p. 65. * Fleury, Hague, pp. 32, 33. ^ This same diphthong is the result of a^+ mouill^ cons., as in baUii'K (bataille): bataliam, etc. The form fai'f (faisshe): faciam should be noted, and also pljai'fl (pUaignent) : plangunt, with kravn (craignent) : TBEMUNT. ^ CADET gives also the form ki'e or kje (quiet). ■^ Suchier, Frang., p. 43. 22 E. S. LEWIS. final nasal into aa" (»a" or a"")/ this development into a" may- be considered exceptional ; / and j (or ^•), requiring a forward position of the tongue, as does also a% may thus prevent the change into aa% i. e., a" would be dropped in order to avoid the effect of two forward sounds so near each other. A dif- ferent explanation of this result is given further on.^ II. — a' in closed syllable, § 7. — a'-\- oral cons. + cons. In this position, a' remains without change. Examples : gra (gr^) : crassum, hwarar^ (couarage) : C0RAGiUM,^a (p^) : PASSUM, vah (vaque) : VACCAM, vol (val) : vallum, etc. § 8. — k-\- a'-\- oral cons. + cons. This combination forms no exception to the rule just given; a' remains. Examples : ha (ca') : cattum, hart (carte) : char- tan, farm (char me) : carmen, etc. § 9. ariuTriy -ariam. As a resume of the discussion on these endings is given by Suchier,^ there is no need of dwelling upon it here. The result, in our patois, is -re'(r) and -e. The examples are drf^ve (dangler) : *DOMi]sriARiUM, mdni'er (menniere) : manuariam, prumi'e (prumier) : primarium, rivi'er (riviere) : *ripariam, and, for the product e, pane (panne) : panarium, sole (sole) : solarium. For the reduction of re' to e, in the last exam- ples, there seems to be no perfectly satisfactory explanation.^ » V. g 3. « V. § 37, 2. ''' V. Frang., p. 27. * Cf. this phenomenon with the change of intervocalic A into I, ^ 153, 1, and of intervocalic fl into n, § 166. The reduction of the diphthong ie is an Anglo-Norman characteristic, cf. § 4, p. 20, note 3. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 23 § 10. — a'-\- cons. -j-^. Three peculiar products must be mentioned here : fra:z (Mse) : *FRASEAM, pljef (pll^che) : plateam and mnif (m'niche) : *minaciam. fra:z (frase) may have developed from an etymon having a' -|- cons. + cons., the second con- sonant not being an j, or the diphthong a'r may have existed in this word formerly, the r being absorbed later by the forward consonant z} § 11. — a'-f Jc -\- cons. This combination is noted in two words : b (lait) : lactem and brm (lerme) : lacrimam ; the former is the same as in French proper, the latter comes from an older form lairmeJ^ § 12. — a'+ nasal + cons. The result is »". Examples : 'oyje (amplle) : amplum, avoy (sivhnche) : ab 4-*antiam, ftra^'A; (branque): brancam, e/b** (ef ant) : infanteM, ^r»" (grand) : grandem, hv^k (h^n- que) : ANCAM, kT?"" (quant) : quantum, ^»" (t^nt) : tantum. § 13. — k -\- a^-\- nasal -f- cons. A new division need scarcely be made for this combination, since the result is the same as when a k does not precede the a'. Examples : k'o'' (camp) : campum, /»'' (chant) : cantum, yb"6r (ch^mbre) : gamer am, foH (chante) : cantat. ^Ct.frdise, braise in Fleury, Hague, p. 16. ^V. Meyer-Liibke, Oram. Bom., I, p. 235, g 257; cf. also Suchier, Frang., p. 43, and Paris, Alexis, pp. 38 and 73. The k may have had some influence on the preceding a^ in mdrk (merque) : Germ, mark; it is well, however, in this connection, to remember the frequent inter- change of a and » before r. 24 E. 8. LEWIS. I. — e' in open syllable. § 14. — e'+ oral cons. -f voc, e'-\- mute + liquid. (1) One of the results of e', in this position, is e, or, under the influence of a following / or r, 9;^ there is absolutely no trace of an i-sound after this e. Examples : ber (beire) : BIBERE, bur^e (bourgeais) : burgensem, dsdsper (d'sesper) : ^ SPERARE, 9fre (effr6) : *effridare, etel (^teile) : stelam, fe (f6) : FIDEM, krer (craire) : credere, me (me, mei) ; me, me (meis) : mensem, pare (paret) : *paretem, parfe (parfeis) : VICEM, pe (peis) : *pisum, pevr (peivre) : piper, se (seit) : SEAT, se (set) : SITIM, se; (seie) : setam, tel (telle) : telam, tre (treis) : tres, ve: (veie) : viAM, yel (veile) : velam. For the influence of / and r, we have av9i^ (aver) : habere, dv9r (d'ver) : debere, fjd'blje (fieblle) : flebilem, htr (lettre) : LITTERAM, mjdtr (mettre) : mittere, nar (ner) : nigrum, pdl (pel) : PILUM, pdr (pere) : pirum, sawr (saver) : *sapere, sdr (ser) : serum, vdr (ver) : videre, vdr (vere) : verum. (2) Whenever the final r is dropped in the pronunciation of sdr (ser), the e becomes closed, as in the expression osese (^ ce s^), equivalent to the French "ce soirj^ Attention should be called to the accented stems ^ in the present indi- cative of the four verbs from credere, bibere, debere, VIDERE. The first and last verbs are perfectly regular, and have e in all of these four persons : hre (creis), hre (creis), hre (creit), hre: (creient) ; ve (veis), ve (veis), ve (veit), ve: (veient) ; not so, however, with the other two, which have a in the first ^ e + ^or r) + voc. does not always become a : it may remain e ; e, how- ever, gives a only when followed by I or r. ^desssper (d^sesper) and ms^sper (m'sesper) are also heard. Although of no consequence, it might be observed that some Guernsey writers spell all the examples given above with ai, instead of ei. ^ These include the three persons of the singular, and the third person plural. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 25 and second persons singular and lengthen it, but make no change in the quantity of the third person plural : hd: (beis), hd: (beis), he (beit), hev (beivent) ; dd: (deis), dd: (deis), de (deit), dev (deivent). May not the length of the first two persons be owing to the influence of the following s (originally in the second person only), which has since dropped ? (3) At the beginning of this paragraph, it was stated that no i-sound was heard after the e in an open syllable, and it is to be noticed that this statement holds true even when e' is followed by a Z; in Latin, as in al'plje (empll^): implicare, fe (feis) : vicem. Eggert,^ misled by the orthography, says that Latin e(I) gives ei in Guernsey, in such words as seie (;Setam), feis (:fidem), mei (:me), veie (:viam) ; the fact is that no i-sound is heard after e in these words. The spelling with i is no doubt due, at least with the Guernsey writers,^ to the fact that these words, in French proper, are spelt with an i : Uoile, moisy etc. (4) This e is also met with as coming from Latin e + oral cons, in closed syllable,^ and from E -\- k in closed syllable.'* In French proper, Latin e first gave 6^,^ which became oi in the 13th century, and oa in Palsgrave's time (1530).^ The Norman retained the diphthong ei,"^ which was reduced to e already in Old Anglo-Norman texts,^ a reduction found in the Franco-Norman patois since the 16th century,^ usually with a closed e ; in the Hague, the diphthong a'e' is also heard.^® ^ Cf. Eggert, Norm. Mund., p. 378 : " Jn den Patois des Westens hat sich ei zum Theil noch erhalten ; " he then cites the examples given above, and indicates them as coming from Guernsey. ^ These writers especially are mentioned, since they have no orthographi- cal traditions to follow, a statement that probably would not be true of authors on the continent. 3 V. § 20. *Y. ^21. ^Suchier, Frang., pp. 29 and 50. ^Idem, p. 53. ' Idem., pp. 50 and 82, 83. ^ Suchier, Reimp., p. xvii, 4 ; also Suchier, St. Auban, p. 3. ^Eggert, Norm. Mund., p. 378; Joret, Ext., pp. 109, 110; Joret, Besdn, p. 222, 1°; Fleury, Hague, p. 34. ^^Cf. this diphthong aV with a^i' in Guernsey from e^-f- nasal (§ 17, 1) ande^^+^(g81). 26 E. S. LEWIS. In Guernsey, only the closed pronunciation is heard, which would separate this island from the Hague, but would bring it nearer to the Bessin. (5) Another development of e' in open syllable is we' , as observed in the following examples : ho^su'er (bonsouair) : SERUM, dvwer (dVouair) : debere, dspwer (espouair) : spe- RARE, fwe (foue) : fldem, kuvwet (couvouaite) : *cupidita, Iwe (louai) : legem, manwer (manouair) : manere, patwe (patouais) : Vpat, perwe: (perou^e) : praedem, puvwer (pou- vouair) : *potere, rwe (rouai) : regem, rvwer (rVouair) : VLDERE, savwer (savouair) : *sapere, swe (souet) ; seat, su'e: (souaie) : setam, surkerwe (surkerouet) : crescere, vwe (vouai) : vides. We also have the two products re' and w exemplified in a few words : asi'e (assi^') : sedere, muvi'e (mouvier) : movere, puvi'e (pouvier) : *potere, vuli'e (vou- lier): *volere; and also pcez (peuse) : pensat, sa?;cer (saveur) : *sapere/ This variety of result (e, 9, we', i'e' and ce) is heard all over the island, and no single development is charac- teristic of any one Parish. As may be observed from the exam- ples, e and a are the most, and ce is the least, common of these products. A few words represent more than one development and, for the sake of ready reference, are tabulated as follows : i'e' oe e, e we' fe fwe 86 swe se: swe: ve vwe dvdr dvwer sav9r savwer vdr rvwer puvi'e savoer The forms in the first column (under 6, a) are, by far, the most used, excepting the last four, which differ in development ^ PERCIPUNT > apoerf (apeurchent), showing a like product. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 27 according to the meaning : dwr, sawr^ vdr being used as regu- lar infinitives, and dvwer^ savwer, rvwePy puvwer as substan- tives ; for example, iu vas V ver^ i'faut saver chunna, but ch^est ten d^vouair, au r^vouair. (6) we' represents the stage just before the Modern French wa? ce is common in the Eastern dialects of France ^ and is observed in sen (< sitim), a word Meyer-Ltibke considers curious,^ because found in a Norman dialect. § 15. — e'H- final vowel. As difiering from the general rule given in the last para- graph, attention should be called to four verbs which have i: in the third person singular of the present indicative : a'^vi: (envie) : vllre, a/n; (effrie) : *effridare, Tiati: (nettie) : NITIDUM, ra^'vi: (renvie) : viare.'* § 16. — ^ + e'-f oral cons. + voc. e' here becomes i. Examples : marsi (merci) : mercedem, pjezi (pllalsi): placere, fir (chire): ceram. The result i presupposes an earlier stage iei{jei)y as it does in French proper.® § 17. — 6'-f- nasal + voc. (1) e'> a'i% a result similar to that of a' in this position.^ Examples : alai'n (halaine) : anhelare, avai'n (avaine) : ave- NAM, dmai'n (d'maine) : dominium, krai'm (craime) : *crema, pai'n (paine) : poenam, vai'n (vaine) : yen am, vdrvai'n (ver- vaine) : verbenam. This development may be influenced by that of a' (-|- nasal + voc.) into a'i', but it may also represent the Norman characteristic of changing ei into ai^ by which pro- ^ Meyer-Liibke, Oram. Eom., I, p. 96, § 72. « Idem, p. 100 ff. * Cf. Schwan, Gram., § 85. 3/dm,p. 99, §74. «V. §2, L * Notice purki (pourqui) : quid. ''Y. ^1,2. 28 E. 8. LEWIS. cess could also be explained the forms lai'zir (laisir) : licere/ joaf so" (paisson) : PISCEM^andma^•n^^(malnti): medietatem.* (2) mcen (meune) : minat and its compounds amoen (ameune), dmcen (d'meune), purmoen (pourmeune) form exceptions to the rule, the labial m having rounded the following e, § 18. — e'+ final nasal. (1) e'> aV, for which the pronunciation in the different Parishes of Guernsey varies in the same way as for aV < a'+ final nasal.* Examples : frod'' (frain) : frenum, pljod"" (pllain) : plenum, etc. (2) MINUS gives three results : mad'' (maens), mwa'' (mouens), mwad^ (mouaens); according to Schwan,^ this development comes from the Eastern dialects. § 19. — h -{- e'-\- final nasal. The product is 9". Examples : pwafd"" (pouasshin) : pul- licenum, rezd'' (raisin) : racenum. II. — e' in closed syllable. § 20. — e'+ oral cons. + cons. We have here two results, one where e remains, the other where it becomes a. Eggert ^ states that in the Norman dia- lects Latin e(1) in closed syllable usually gives e, sometimes eif but he does not mention whether this e is closed or open, or both. Examples : for 6, dvek (ev^ue) : episcopum, mefni (mime) : metipsimum, mere\ (mereille) : mirabilia, ne: (n6e) : NiviCARE. For a, a^'sdn (ensigne) : insignat, hf'sdl (consel) : consilium, vdrg (vergues) : viRGAS. a, as heard in the second list of examples just given, is doubtless a later development of e.'^ 'V. ^81. ^V. |89. ^ Oram., I 86, Anm. 'V. |85. "V. §3, 1. « Norm. Mund., p. 380. 'Cf. Suchier, Fran^., p. 50, § 19. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 29 § 21.— e'+^ + cons. We have here the single result e. Examples : al^dre (en- drait) : in + directum, de (daigt) : digitum, detr (deltre) : DEXTRAM, dre (dret) : directum, dsplje (espllait) : explici- TUM, orte (ortet) : articulum. rai'n (raine) : reginam is an exception, and may have been formed by analogy to such words as ahvn (halaine) : anhelare, pai'n (paine) : poe- NAM, etc., where e is in open syllable.^ §22.-e'+;i. Two examples of verbs in the third person singular have been found, showing the result i : evi\ (^ville) : *exvigiliat, h)^dX (consille) : *consiliat. The pronunciation of \ has no doubt drawn the tongue further forward and higher in the mouth, with the effect of changing the mid-vowel e into the high-vowel i. § 23. — e'-\- nasal + cons. e'> a% a result that separates it from a'-\- nasal in closed syllable, which becomes if^? Examples : a" (en) : inde, aHr (entre) : intrat, fa'^dr (fendre) : findere, pra'^dr (prendre) : prehendere, suva"^ (souvent) : subinde, and, finally, all adverbs ending in -ma'' (-ment) : mente, which are generally treated, in Romance languages, as if from Latin e. a. I. — a' in open syllable. § 24. — a'+ oi'al cons. + voc, a'+ mute + liquid. (1) The result is generally i9% a form that is older than the Modern French ie. Examples : Jbr (fier) : ferum, i9r (hier) : here, mial (miel): MEL;^^i;r (fi^vre): febrem, lidvr 1 V. ^ 17, 1. 2 V. g 12. 3 cf. also 6ir(bire) : M. H. G. bier. 30 E. S. LEWIS. (li^vre) : leporem, pidr (pierre) : petram. A closed e is heard in jiel (fieil) : fel, siel (cieil) : caelum. (2) These same products {h' and ie') are also found under other headings.^ In Modern French the pronunciation varies according to position.^ In the Hague patois this e is open,^ but it is closed in that of the Bessin.* Guernsey shows the same rule as French proper, excepting in fiel (fieil), siel (cieil), in sie^ (si^ge)^ and in the result from the -ariam termination (> -iVr),^ where, according to the French rule, the e should be open, preceding as it does a pronounced consonant. We find no traces, in Guernsey, of the Anglo-Norman reduction of ie to e, and sometimes to i/ excepting perhaps in the word pi (pid) : pedem, and in amiljorasjo'' (amilioration), etc.,® where 9 is subtonic. In pi (pid), however, the diphthong ia' may have been reduced to i because of the frequent atonic position of this word. (3) In a few forms, 9 > o? under the influence of a labial, either following or preceding : kwoey^ (queure) : quaerere, loev (leuve) : lev^t and its compounds eloev (eleuve), rioev (r'leuve). § 25. — d'-j- k (or g) + voc. (1) The development of a' into r, in this position, is similar to that of 9' (+ ^ + voc.) in French proper. Examples : dis (dix) : DECEM, pri: (prie) : precat, etc. There are however exceptions, in which 9' (+ 5') > ^^', as if no g followed : a"pw (empiere) : impejorat, liar (Here) : legere, pidr (piere) : *PEJOREM, and for which a reasonable explanation would be that they were influenced by such words as sidr (siere) : SEQUERE.^ ^ V. ^ 30, 1, and also the terminations -arium, -ariam, § 9. ^ Suchier, Frang.y p. 55. ^ Fleury, Hague, p. 35. •» Joret, Bessin, p. 222, 2\ » V. g 30, 1, y. « y g 9^ 'Suchier, Eeimp., p. xvi, 1; Gorlich, Mak., p. xliii, and Busch, Ang.- Norm., pp. 33, 34. V., however, § 4, p. 20, note 3. ® V. ? 89 ; compare these forms with words such as primer, Alisandre found in Anglo-Norman texts (Gorlich, Mak, p. xlv). «V. §32. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 31 (2) We have just seen that ?'+ ^ > * or h'; we shall also find the product ie\^ In Old and Modern French, 9' in these cases develops into ie, which, with a following i, is reduced to i.^ In the modern Norman patois, the result varies. Eggert^ gives the following table for the Manche, which can be com- pared with the results in Guernsey : i^ei — ie (North Manche), & -\-i — iei 4e'i ^v— — e'i — a (Avranchin), ie' (South Cotentin). Joret ^ shows that the modern Norman dialects can be divided into two sections : those of the East, which agree with Modern French in having i, and those of the West, where i^ (or i^) is usually the result. We can thus see that our development is similar to that in the whole of the Manche, but especially to that in the Hague ; our patois is, however, separated from the latter in the development of vidr (vier) : veculum and lidr (liere).*^ Our result mu (mtix) : melius is, however, very similar to mti& of the Hague.^ § 26.— a' + final nasal. 9' changes into Ja". Examples : hjaJ" ^ (bien) : bene, mja* (mien) : meum,^ r/a" (rien) : rem, §'a" (tien) : *teum,® ^*a" (tient) : tenet, vja'' (vient) : venit. d' is drawn back to a because of the nasalization, but it is not certain whether this is what E-omdahP means by the " gutturalization ^' of the ^Qi.U 30 and 31. ^ Suchier, Fran^., p. 30. '^ Norm. Mund., pp. 371, 372. * Melanges, pp. xxiv, xxv and 55-57 ; cf. also Meyer-Lubke, Oram. Bom^f I, p. 161, § 159. ^ vdSs and luSre in the Hague ; v. Fleury, Hague, p. 35. ^ Fleury, Hague, p. 35. ^ I have occasionally heard the pronunciation ft/a" or 6ra". ^The feminine of mja" and ijo^ is mja:n (mienne) and tja:n (tienne) ^V./^aire, pp. 10 ff. 32 E. S. LEWIS. vowels. He writes that gatturalization and nasalization * are characteristics of the vowels of the Val de Saire ; the question is whether he would say that a' (+ nasal) in Guernsey was " gutturalized," a phenomenon that would point to some lin- guistic relation between these two places. II. — a' in closed syllable. § 27. — a'+ oral cons. -|- cons. (1) Just as we noted two results for e' in this position,^ so we find that a' becomes sometimes e, sometimes 9.^ Examples : for e, pel (pel) : pellem, tet (t^te) : testam, sitern (citerne) : CISTERNAM ; for a, bdl (bel) : ^ bellum, nuvdl (nouvelle) : NOVELLAM, pdvdr (perdre) : perdere. (2) dvbr (d'viers) : versus forms an exception, its a' hav- ing developed as if it were in open syllable. The preceding labial consonant may have influenced the a in apwl (appeule) : APPELLAT and rapoel (rappeule), causing it to become ce.^ § 28. ellum. (1) This termination becomes e. Examples : ane (anie) : ANELLUM,/itr9ie (foum^) : furnum, hute (coute) : cultellum, maHe (mante) : mantellum, marte (mart 6) : martellum, morse (mors6) : *morsellum, 'purje (pourche) : porcellum, rnuve (r'nouve) : renovellum, ruse (rus6) : \/mj-^ sdrve (cerv6) : cerebellum, fape (chap6) : capellum, tware (tou- are) : taurum, tune (tounne) : O. H. G. tunna. In the plural, these words change e to jo, and we thus hawefurnjo, kutjoy maHjo, etc.^ The probable explanation of these results 1 Cf. Joret, Melanges, p. xvi. « V. ^ 20. ' Would it be better to state that d^ remains 9 ? Or does d^ first become e, which afterwards returns to the open pronunciation d ? ''Heard in the expression ifdhU (i' fait bel), for the French '^ilfait beau." 6Cf.ni9 and NOTE. ^ The plural aflo is only an apparent exception, since it represents afijOf in which the j has been absorbed by the preceding n. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 3S is that, in the singular -ellum, the a' followed the law for 9' in closed syllable/ and therefore become e, the final I dis- appearing in the pronunciation, whereas, in the plural -ellos, a7 (+ cons.) > 9al > aau > ia'u > ro' ^jo. (2) Two words form exceptions to this development, and have Jo in the singular,^ Jo; in the plural; hjo (biau) : bel- LUM,^ vjo (viau) : vitellum, and, for the plural, bjo: (biaux), vjo: (viaux). (3) Let us compare these developments, in the singular and the plural, with those in France and in Normandy. In Old French, the combination a^ early became eal and eau^ (/becom- ing vowelized before the 12th century);'^ e, before aw, was mute by the 14th century,^ and an was pronounced in the 17th century.^ Joret^ has already so carefully examined the various results of -ellum in the modern Norman dia- lects, that nothing can be added. On comparison, we note that the Guernsey developments -e, -jo correspond to those of the Basse Normandie in the singular, and of Eastern Nor- mandy in the plural, excepting for the two words hjo and vjo which represent, both for the singular and the plural, the same change as in the Eastern half of Normandy. This difference between Guernsey and that part of Normandy nearest to it, is very curious, but our patois probably repre- sents, for this termination at least, the Old Norman dialect more correctly than do the other modern Norman patois, since, in the Makkabder, -el is the direct product of -ellum, becoming -eaiis however before the flectional s;® a further resemblance is observed in the development, in the Makha- 1 V. ^ 27, 1. ' Cf. hi-otai- (biautai). ' Cf. -pjo (piau) : pellem. * Meyer-Liibke, Oram. Rom., I, pp. 163-164, *Suchier, Frang., p. 43; Schwan, Oram., II 231 and 329. ^Suchier, Frang., p. 51. ^ Suchier, Frang., p. 53, where, however, the « is said to be retained, in the pronunciation of such words as beau, until the 17th century. ^ExL, pp. 110-112; cf. Joret, Beadn, p. 222, 3o; Fleury, Hague, p. 35, and Meyer-Liibke, Gram. Bom., I, p. 164, § 163. * Gorlich, Mak., pp. xv, xvi. 3 34 E. S. LEWIS. hder^ of bellum into heau (not hel), an exceptional form thus still preserved in the Guernsey bjo for the singular;^ the singular vjo still remains unexplained, but it might be formed simply by analogy with 6/0, since both words are monosyllabic. § 29. — »'+ nasal + cons. (1) The change into a"" is the same as in French proper. Examples : va"" (vent) : ventum, ^•rt''c?r (vendre) : ven- dere, etc. (2) dksTfpje (exampUe) : exemplum is an exception to this rule, but was also treated in Old JSTorman as if it had an a' (+ nasal + cons.).^ § 30.— a'+cons. H-y.3 (1) The result is here fourfold, being jd, je, ie', i, which represent four successive stages in the development of a'(+ cons. -\-j)' The following examples, in the order respectively of the products just noted, were found ; (a) hjdd (qui^de) : tepidum, vjdj^ (nieche) : *neptiam, rmjdd ^ (r'miede) : remedium. (/3) mekje (m^quier) : ministerium. (7) mie (mi6) : medium, siej (si^ge) : sedicum. (3) efpis (epice) : *speciam, pri (prix) : pretium, Jliz (ch'lise): *ceresiam. (2) The differences in the first three sets are owing simply to the law of least action, or of naturalness : when d' is final, it is likely to become closed, as in mekje and mie, and under the influence of a preceding h, i would tend to be consonant- * Cf. Uhlemann, La Conception und St. Nicholas, p. 76, § 37, 1. * Cf. Suchier, Beimp., p. 71 : " Zu diesen Worten " (words with en) " kommt EXEMPLUM, welches im Normannischen stets a hat ; " also Gorlich, Mak^ p. xvi, 26, and Meyer-Liibke, Gram, Bom., I, p. 110, § 90. * 'For convenience sake, some examples are given under this heading, which do not strictly belong here. * Or ni'9f. * Or rmi'dd, or even rmi'ed. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 36 ized, as is seen in hjdd and mekje, epis probably comes directly from French proper ; pri and fliz have the same development as in Modern French.^ § 31.— 9'+ A; + cons. The result is ie'. Examples : depie (depiet) : despectum and lie^ (liet): lectum.^ § 32.— a'+^i^. The only word with this combination is sidr (si^re) : sequere, and its derivative siet (siMe). i I. — ^' in open syllable. § 33. — -i'-}- cons. + voc. (1) The result here agrees with that in French proper, and need not be dwelt upon. Examples : ^ (fi) : filtjm, livr (livre) : librum, fiv (rive) : ripam, vnir (v'nir) : venire, etc. This same result is observed in all the Norman dialects.* (2) The Guernsey patois agrees with French proper also in the development of i' + final nasal, as in /»" (fin) : FINEM, va" (vin) : vinum, etc. § 34. — ^'+ nasal -j- voc. (1) The i' here becomes e'*', but with a very weak i-sound.* Examples: epei'n (^pine) : 8PiNAM,/m*ri (Prine): farinam, ' V. Schwan, Oram., U 91, 2 and 92. ^ The pronunciation lj9t is frequently heard all over the island ; the plural is li: (lits). tectum cannot help us here, as it has not given anything in Guernsey. ^Cf. the feminine viel (vielle) : ^veculam; under the influence of the r, from final M (v. | 154, 2), we have the pronunciation vi^r (vier) in the masculine. ^Eggert, Norm. Mund., p. 380; also Joret, Bemn, p. 223. ^ Cf. Meyer-Liibke, Gram. Bom., I, p. 62. 36 E. S. LEWIS. krei'm (crime) : ckimejs^, mdd/ei'n (medchine) : medicinam, rajei'n (rachtne) : radicinam, rei'm (lime) : rimam, rwei'n (ruine) : ruinam, fei'm (chime) : cymam.^ In such words as these, the position of the tongue for the production of i has been lowered to that required by e, under the influence of the following nasal, whether dental or labial. (2) The same development is seen with ^, in closed syllable, in abei'm (abime) : abismum.^ (3) In French, i' {-\- nasal -f voc.) remained a pure oral vowel because the nasalization of i into a" took place after the intervocalic n had any power to nasalize the preceding vowel.^ In the Bessin, i before a nasal + voc. becomes e, but apparently without any following ^-sound;* in the Val de Saire, it becomes e before n and d before m.^ In Guern- sey, we have the result e'r before both n and m. § 35.-— final i'. (1) Meyer-Liibke^ notes that final i' is often pronounced open in the Hague ; in Guernsey, on the contrary, it is always closed, as in berbi (berbi) : *berbicem:, etc. (2) The final i' is frequently nasalized in Norman patois, and in many other dialects, the result being such forms as ami^y veni"", etcJ In Guernsey, this nasalization is heard only in the following cases, as far as could be ascertained : i/a" (ichin) : ECCE + Hic, Icrm'^z^ (k'minse) and hm^zol^ (k'min- sole) : CAMisiAM, osa" (aussin) : Val + sic, /osy^" (chunchin) : ^ M^tivier and Corbet both agree in representing this eH' by I. 'Cf. Meyer-Liibke, Oram. Rom.^ I, p. 68, where mention is made of a Norman form abieme. ' Meyer-Liibke, Oram. Bom., I, pp. 62, 63. * Joret, Bessin, p. 223. * Bomdahl, Saire, glossary ; Eggert, Norm. Mund., p. 382. * Oram. Bom., I, p. 67. 'Cf. Meyer-Lubke, Oram. Bom., 1, p. 66, § 40. ^ In hn9^z and hn^^zol, i is not strictly final, nor even tonic in the latter example, but it is, however, at the end of a syllable. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 37 ECCE + HOC.^ The nasalized infinitives, like vewi", and such words as ami'', are never heard in Guernsey. (3) This nasalization is sometimes heard in the Bessin^ and in the Hague/ but it is not at all peculiar to these Norman dialects, since it occurs, as has just been mentioned, in other parts of the Romance field. II. — i' in closed syllable. § 36. — i'-\- oral cons. + cons. Since i' is here treated as in Modern French, no especial attention need be called to these results. Examples : id (lie) : INSULAM, til (tige) : tibiam, vil (ville) : villam, etc. § 37. — V-\- nasal + cons. (1) The development here into d^ is the same as in French proper : fe"^ (liiige) : lineum, etc. (2) We have already noted the five results a", ^a", »", a'^", a", as coming from different combinations. The various pro- ducts of the vowels a, c, and i + final nasal will be discussed first; these are a'^ { 6" > a", whereas a*" (< ^ -f- a + final nasal) andja" (< a + final ^ Mention should be made here oimm'ntV (mainti) : medietatem, noticed in § 89. ** Joret, Bessin, p. 223. ' Fleury, Hague, p. 36. *8chwan, Oram., U 77, 78; Suchier, i^ranp., p. 29; Meyer-Liibke, Oram. Bom., I, pp. 227, 228. •Suchier, Frang., p. 54; Schwan, Oram,, §g 302 and 304. «Schwan, Oram., § 303. 38 E. S. LEWIS. nasal) correspond to the French id^ ; we shall see later that e(-j- nasal -|- cons.) > a""/ and thus a, when no ^-sound fol- lowed, developed, in our patois, into a% without exception, so that in Guernsey the forms moi'oJ' (moyen), 6/a'' (bien), etc., are regular, while the French pronunciation mwajd'', bjY, etc., is exceptional. (3) As to the product of a + final nasal, a'' of the Lower Parishes is similar to the a" of French proper, whereas the a'a'* (or v^d"") represents the older French pronunciation aH ; it is difficult to tell exactly which of the two vowels of the diphthong is nasalized, or whether both are not perhaps thus affected ; the transcription a** V (or w"V) may perhaps be better, as it is certainly older. But few data can be found for the Norman patois of the continent ; in the Bessin, 9 -{- final nasal > iin ^ (whatever may be the exact value of this tran- scription). Just one word now on the changes of i{-\- final nasal), the same in Guernsey as in French proper ; ^ 3/" of the Hague * and in (= a"") of the Bessin '^ are related or, rather, similar results. The common pronunciation of the results from € (-\- nasal + cons.) and from a' and (k -\-) a (-{- final nasal), is not noted in Old Norman mss.,^ but nothing accurate can be ascertained until more data are obtained both from the Old Norman MSS. and from the modern Norman patois. (4) The preceding discussion leaves us free to consider now the (f from e', e'', a', a", and the v'' from a', (Jc -\-) a\ a", when these vowels are in a closed syllable (= voc. + nasal + cons.). *Joret, Bessin, p. 222, 2o; cf. the examples v'i€^yne and tie^yne found in Fleury, Hague, p. 35. ^Snchier, Frang., p. 54; also Schwan, Oram., §§96 and 299. * Fleury, Hague, p. 36. ^ Joret, Bessin, p. 223, 1°. ®V., in the Alexis, Eufemien: -ier, 64, and JEufemien: eristiens: -ier, 68, where the en must have a distinct e-sound. Cf. also Suchier, Beimp., p. xviii, 16 ; Gorlich, Mak., p. xvii, 33, and p. xliii. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 39 (5) In French, en and an were confounded in pronuncia- tion/ but in Norman, and especially in Anglo-Norman, these two sounds were kept separate.^ (6) As for the modern Norman patois, Suchier states that this distinction is still retained in the Yal de Saire and the Perche ; ^ the result, in the former locality, is transcribed an by Romdahl/ In Guernsey we also find a distinction, v^ probably corresponding to the an just mentioned, but being a very difficult sound to transcribe accurately. Since en is pronounced a", as in French proper, a natural explanation of the present distinction, in Guernsey and the Val de Saire, would be, not that an and en were kept distinct in these two places, but that they were confounded, only later than in French, the »" of to-day being then a further development of the a -|- n, to distinguish it, perhaps, from the pronunciation of 6 -f n as a".^ (7) The only example of e -f- nasal becoming »'' is exbm- PLUM > dksfD^'pje (examplle), which has already been explained.^ § 38. — gu -\- i'-{- cons. In rfgul (angiile) : anguillam,^ i' has been rounded under the influence of the preceding u (or w), which itself disappears, but, as we see, not without having given its rounded quality to the previously unrounded i'. ^ Meyer-Liibke, Oram. Bom., I, pp. 110, 111 ; Suchier, Frang., p. 81. * Suchier, Eeimp., pp. 69-71 ; Gorlich, Mat, pp. xvi, 26, and xliv ; Paris, AlexiSf pp. 36, 37 and 82, 83; Koschwitz, Karls Eeise, pp. xxvi-xxviii; Gautier, Roland, p. 416 ; Busch, Ang.-Norm., pp. 12-14. Cf. Meyer-Liibke, Oram. Bom., I, p. 227, g 245, for the Anglo-Norman aun, a result not found in Guernsey. ' Suchier, Frang., p. 81. *Romdahl, Saire, pp. 11, 12. Cf. Eggert, Norm. Mund., p. 381. «V. §29, 2. ^Cf. a similar change in the word mfjai' (suffllair) : sibilare, I 92, 2. 40 E. S. LEWIS. I. — o' in open syllable. § 39. — o'+ oral cons. + voc. (1) Of all the vowels in the Guernsey dialect, o' presents the greatest variety of developments, there being six results from this one vowel in open syllable : ce, u, wo', u'a\ a'w and a' OS". The examples, which are not numerous, will be given first, arranged in the above order of results : (a) huloRV (couleur) : colorem, mml^jpe, (mangeux) : mandu- CATOREM, price (prieux) : pkecare.^ (y8) ' amur (amour) : amorem, fijur (fllour) : florem, gul (goule) : GULAM, liu: (coue) : codam, 1mm (coume) : quo -f MODO. (7) ahwor"^ (accouore) : horam, labu'or^ (labouor) : labo- REM. (8) akwar ^ (accouare) : horam, labwar ^ (labouar) : labo- REM. (e) /aw (chaou) : colem.^ (f) aoe'r (haeure) : horam, daoe' (daeux) : duos, miljace' (millaeux) : meliorem, naoe' (naeud) : nodum, nvaw (nVaeu) : NEPOTEM, sace' (saeu) : solum, also adjectives ending in -ace* (-aeux) : -OSUM: a^'viaw (enviaeux),/amace* (famaeux), kuriaoe* (curiaeux), melodiaw (melodiaeux), poeraoe' (peuraeux), cerace* (heuraeux), etc.* (2) A scheme for the successive developments from Latin O will now be given,^ the results found in Guernsey being all printed in Italics : * In two words, where the French has ce, the Guernsey patois has u : bljii (bM) : Germ, blaw and the plural mesju (m^itix) : seniores. * u'o^ is heard in the Lower Parishes, whereas u'a^ is the pronunciation of « the Upper Parishes. ^Cf. also A;aw (caoup) : COL APHUM. *Cf. also kvace' (k'vaeu): CAPiLiiUM. The a of a^oe', in all the above examples, is not very broad, and is sometimes pronounced almost » (= v^oe'). 'For a discussion of 0, v. Meyer-Lubke, Oram. Mom., I, pp. 132-137. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 41 {> e'u* > CB > a'oer > w > u'o > wo' > vfa' >oV2>£'u3>aV (3) o' first diphthongizes into o'w from which the separate developments spring : (a) of the diphthong o'w is unrounded and pushed for- ward to e, and then this e'w is reduced to ce, which is after- wards diphthongized into a'w. (/8) Here, o'w becomes the single sound u, which is then diphthongized into u'o ; the accent is shifted forward, and, through differentiation, the wo' becomes wa', in which the o has been unrounded. (7) Or o'w gives o'Wj in which the becomes slightly unrounded to a and afterwards still more so, the diphthong changing to a'w. These last two diphthongs (a'w and a'w)^ and especially the latter, which is heard in Guernsey, may come directly from u of the second series, as a'ce from oe, (4) We have just noted, in Guernsey, six results from Latin o ; there are, in all, eight (from 0' and 0" not followed by a ^ or J) : o'w, ce, a'Wy u, wo', wa' , o'w and a'w. (5) In French proper, ou^ eu in the 12th century, and the termination -eur was extended Westward, as far as Guern- sey,'* where w is heard even in ncef (neuches) and jeer (jeur), and in the ending -a'oe' (:-osum). In the Anglo-Norman, this termination already existed by the 14th century.^ For the other examples, where is before an r or Z ^ (excepting the above ending), our patois either has u or diphthongizes into wo'y wa' or a'w. For the Bessin "^ and the Hague,® the results are the same as in Guernsey. ^ A stage observed in sowm (soumme) : summum, § 48. ^ This result is seen with 0^ in closed syllable in drou'l (droule) : Germ. DROLL-, g 43, S. ^This pronunciation is sometimes heard in sau'm or sao'm (saomme) instead of sou'm of note 1. * Suchier, Frang., p. 85. ^ Busch, Ang.-Norm., p. 23, II. «Cf. Meyer-Lubke, Oram. Bom., I, p. 133, ^ 121. ' Joret, jBessin, p. 224. ^FleuTj, Hague, ^. S7. 42 E. S. LEWIS. § 40.— o'+Z; + voc. (1) In this position, h becomes i, and the result is o'Vy or it'r, in which the i, being itself an unrounded vowel, causes the lips to separate a little before the o or w is completed, an a being thus introduced : u'ai' ; the accent is then naturally- pushed forward with the result ua'i'^ as heard in nuai' (nouaix) : NUCEM. Or ^, instead of introducing the vowel a, as just sug- gested, may itself be influenced by the preceding u and be drawn downward and slightly backward, giving e^ as in hrwe (crouaix) : crucem, vwe (vouaix) : vocem. (2) In French proper, o forms a diphthong with the follow- ing t, and eventually is pronounced wa^ just as the oi from Latin e.^ The Guernsey results* correspond to the French pronunciation oe or ^d' of the 13th century.^ § 41. — o'-\- nasal + voc. (1) The results of this combination vary, sometimes being 0, as in French proper, but usually u : ddn (donne) : donat, but genun (guenoune) : O. H. G. winja, hurun (courounne) : CORONAM, minjun (mignioune) : Celtic V^IN-, p9rsun (per- sounne) : personam, pi^un (pigeoune) : pipionem, pum (poume) : pomam. (2) Before a nasal, o did not develop into ou and eu in French proper.^ Palsgrave,^ however, states that om was pronounced with an w-sound between o and the following nasal, and it is thus that sowm (soumme) is now heard in Guernsey.^ In the Old Norman dialect, on the other hand, * For a similar development, cf. o^-\- k -{- cons., 1 44, and o^^-\- k -f- voc, ^ 94. ^ A like result is gotten from the termination -oriam, § 46. ^Schwan, Gram., I 284. "Beside § 40, 1, and note 2 and ^ 45, v., for au, ^g 71 and 72; also the result iie^^ from a^^u, U 114 and 116. ^Suchier, Frang., p. 50; Schwan, Gram., ^ 285, 3. ^Suchier, i^ranp., p. 82. ^ Eclaircissement de la langue frangaise, p. 7, V. 8V. § 48; cf. also drou'l (droule), § 43, 5. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 43 o > It before nasals/ and it is this result which is still retained in Guernsey, as well as in the Hague,^ but apparently not in the Bessin.^ § 42.— .0'+ final nasal. (1) The result is o*". Examples : burdo'' * (bourdon) : bur- DONEM, cfo" (don) : donum, mezo'' (maison) : mansionem, no" (nom) : nomen, etc. (2) This Guernsey product is exactly similar to the one in French proper,^ and also in the Bessin.^ In the Old Norman, o in this position gave u/ which, however, began to develop into ou and o by the 14th century.^ II. — 0' in closed syllable. § 43. — o' + oral cons. + cons. The results here are the same as for 0'-}- oral cons, in open syllable,^ and the physiological explanations must, therefore, be the same. Examples : ^^ (a) for 0, krot (cratite) : crustam. (13) for u*a'," fwar (fouar) : furnum, rwa-^ (rouage) : RUBEUM. (7) for w, kwr (cueurt) : currit, josr (jeur) : diurnum.*^ (S) for o'w, drou'l (droule) : Germ, droll-. ^ Meyer-Liibke, Gram. Rom., I, pp. 140, 141. * Fleury, Hague, p. 37. ^ Joret, Bessin, p. 224, 1°, o. *I have heard Mr. Guilbert (v. Introduction) pronounce this word hur- da"s)** (or perhaps simply hurdaa^). "> Schwan, Oram., U 100, 1, and 133. . ^ Joret, ^68*^71, p. 224, 1®, o. ^ Mejer-Liibke, Gram. Bom., I, p. 140. 8 Busch, Ang.-Norm., pp. 24, 25. » V. § 39. ^"Notice the peculiar form fu'idr (fouidre) : fulgur. ^^ Cf. iveru'afl (iverouagne) : *ebronidm, karu'afl (carouagne) : *caroniam, and also twar (touar) and detwar (ddtouar) : tornum. ^*To this list belong the words with the -orium termination ( >€b), § 47, 1. Cf. also notf (neuches) : %ovtias and rproef (r'preuche) : *reprobicare. 44 E. S. LEWIS. § 44. — o'-\-k -\- cons. The only example found, -^nuar (genouai) : *genuclum, presents a change similar to that of o^-\- k -\- voc. in the word nuai' (nouaix) : nucem.^ § 45. — o'-\- cons. H-./.^ The product is we', the same as for o'-\- k in open sylla- ble.^ Examples: kit'ef(Qousdffe): O. H.G. kvpthj A, pivwen (pivouaine) : paeoniam.^ § 46. driam,^ The result we' has already been examined.^ Examples: glwer (glouere) : gloriam/ istwer (histouaire) : historiam, memwer (memouaire) : memoriam, viktwer (victouaire) : vic- TORIAM. § 47. oriwm, (1) In the following three words, this termination is treated as if no J followed the r, and it thus becomes oe,^ since final r falls regularly in such cases : ^ miroe (mireux) : *miratorium, mufoe (moucheux) : *muccare, pr9^8ce (prinseux) : presso- RIUM. These words may perhaps come directly from etyma with an -orem ending, as miratorem ^^ and mucorem,^^ an ^ V. § 40, 1, where the development into uaH' is explained. The plural is %nu'a: (genou§,). Cf. the word beruai's (berouaisse) : Celtic i/bruxon-. 'Cf. -ORiAM, g 46, and -orium, § 47, 2. *V. § 40, 1. * Notice orge (orgu4'): Germ, urgoli. ^ The two endings -oriam and -oriam are treated together because their results are identical; in French proper, these examples are learned (v. Schwan, Gram., I 260, 2, Anm. 2) ; cf. the -orium termination, g 47. «V. HO, 1. ■^ Cf. also s9^ma\jer (St. MagliSre), the name of one of the oldest churches in Guernsey. 8V. § 39, 1, a. 'OKorting, Wort, No. 5329. * V. § 159. » Korting, Wort., No. 5445. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 46 unlikely supposition, however, on account of the change in meaning which would then have taken place. (2) The second result of the same ending is u'e', the regu- lar development, as we have just seen,^ but it is probable that all such examples have been taken, by the persons using them, directly from French proper, the wa having been changed to we' in order to give the word an appearance of belonging to the patois, the French vwa (voix), for instance, being, in Guernsey, vwe (vouaix). Examples : dormitwer (dormitou- aire), ekritwer (ecritouaire), ho^sistwer (consistouaire), mafwer (m^chouaire), etc. § 48. — o'-f nasal + nasal + voc. smi'm (soumme) : ^ summum represents the first stage in the development of o, according to the scheme already mentioned.^ The usual Guernsey development is seen in otum (autumne) : AUTUMNUM. § 49. — o'-\r nasal + cons. The change is the same as in French proper : o^hr (ombre) : UMBRAM, o^glje (onglle) : ungulam, etc. § 60. — o'-f nasal +J. (1) Two results are noted : waV and wi'^ the former being the regular development and virtually a nasalized ua'i'^ which was seen to be the product of o' when under the influence of a following h or j ;* ua'd^ corresponds to the French wd"". Examples : ^ huaoT (couain) : cuneum, puad"" (pouaing) : PUG- 1 V. §§ 45 and 46. 'This word is sometimes pronounced sao'm (saomme), and also mm. (soumme) ; cf. also g 39, p. 41, note 3. 'V. I 39, 2, also Meyer-Liibke, Oram. Bom., I, p. 135. ^V. §40, 1. ^ This list of examples includes all words in which the n has been aflfected by either a preceding or a following j. 46 E. S. LEWIS. NUM, 'puad'' (pouaint) : *punctum, temucud'' (t^mouain) : testi- monium.^ (2) u'i\ the second result mentioned above, is observed only in pwi (pouit), which, with puad"" (pouaint), has *punc- TUM as etymon. This form may be owing to its frequent proclitic position. § 51. — juvenem} A peculiar development is seen in jan^ (janne) : juvenem. It would naturally be expected that the dento-labial v should keep the o intact, not allowing it to lose its rounded quality ; but, no doubt, o' became a after the assimilation o^ v to n} I. — o' in open syllable. ' § 52. — o'+oral cons. -f voc. (1) This development need only be mentioned, as it is similar to that in French proper. Examples : kjcer (cueur) : COR, moe (meut) : mo vet, nee (neti) : novum, etc.^ With some Guernseymen, there is a tendency toward the diphthong a'ce'y instead of oe. (2) A different result from that in French, but still regu- lar, is seen in roe: (reue) : eotam.^ § 53.— o'+^ + voc. (1) The result is twofold : il'i' and re' ; only two examples could be found, but this inconvenience is lessened by there ^ Cf. hezu(V»^ (besouain) : *sonium ; this word, and also temuaa^ (t^mouain), are sometimes pronounced b'ezu'a^ (besouen), temu'a^ (t^mouen). In all the above examples, some Guernsey people pronounce -u'9% instead of -ua^9^. ^Strictly, this word should come under »''; cf. also ganas ( jannesse). 'I have also heard this word pronounced with a very low a, somewhat rounded. ^Schwan, Gram., §§ 159 and 170. ^ Cf. rproef (r'preuche) : *bepropiare. • ru: (roue) is also used in Guernsey. Cf. also tcerdr (teurdre) : *torquebb. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 47 being several illustrations of o' {-}- k -{- cons.)/ where the pro- ducts are the same as here. We have Jcu'i (tuit) : coquit and ni'e or nje (niet) : nocet. (2) u'i^ is the reduction of the triphthong uoiy as in French proper. § 54. ocum. (1) This termination has three different results in Guern- sey : if ju and a'ce'. In mi\i (milli) : locum and j^i (ji) : JOCUM we observe the first product; the second is seen in Iju (llu) : LOCUM, and the third in faoe' or fvce' (faeu) : FOCUM. (2) In the present state of philological knowledge, no correct solution can be given of the difficult problem pre- sented by the widely varying results of the ending -ocum, and the Guernsey dialect does not furnish sufficiently new or valuable material to enable one to add anything to what has already been written on this subject. § 55. — o'-\- nasal + voc. (1) The usual development, as in son (sonne) : sonat, etc., is similar to that in French proper. But u is sometimes heard among the Guernsey people : etun (6toune) : *extonat, sun (soune) : sonat, etc. (2) hwan (bouanne) : bonam is an exception, in which wa' represents the diphthong u'o\ with the o unrounded under the influence of the following dental consonant. § 56.— o'+ final nasal. This combination forms an exact parallel to the one treated in the preceding paragraph. The regular result if is similar to that in French proper : so"" (son) : sonum, etc., but hwoT (bouan) : bonum forms an exception. 1 V. a 58. 48 E. 8. LEWIS. II, — o' in closed syllable. § 57.— o'+«. Two words, with a product o, should be noticed here ; fo (fo) : FOLLEM and ko (co) ; collum. § 58. — o^-\- k -{- cons. The results are the same as for o' {-\- k -\- voc.).^ Examples ; (a) for re',^ ni'e or nje (niet) : noctem, ni'er or njer (niere) : NOCERE, vi'ed (viede) : *vocitum. (^) for il'i'j ku'ir (tuire) : coquere, ku'is (tuisse) : ^ cox AM. § 59. oriam. This termination has already been discussed.* § 60. — o'+oral cons. +i- (1) When o' is followed by an oral consonant -\-j (except- ing Ijf already mentioned),* it has two results : u'i^ and i. The < development into u'i^ is observed in ku'ir (tuir) : CORIUM ; and we find i in i:tr (hltre) : ostream, pis (pisse) : *potiam, plji: (pllie) : *PLOViAM.^ (2) It would be well to call attention to the frequent reduc- tion, in Guernsey, of ii'i to t, as just noted in i:tr (hitre), pis (pisse), etc.^ ly. ^53, land2. *This product is noted also in ^'ei (fielle): foliam, i'el (ieil) : OCULUM. 'We also have tfi'es (tschiesse). *V.H6. »V. §58,note2. *Cf. also a^ni (enni) : *inodiare and ki\ (cuille) : colligbre. Note apref {&pprbche) : appropiat and pares (paresse) : parochiam. ' V. § 60, 1, NOTE 6. Cf. bri (brit) : Germ, v^bro, fir (fire) and a^'fir (enfire) : pugire, pis (piss) : puteum. We also have pi (pis), da"pi (den- pis), dpi (d'pts), pisk (pisque), all from post. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 49 (3) Eggert and Joret^ have so thoroughly treated the sub- ject of o' when influenced by a following ^-sound, that nothing need be added here. The usual Guernsey products, re' and i, are similar to those of the Hague and of the Yal de Saire. ily found in our patois,^ is heard in the Cotentin, and m' is similar to the result in French proper. § 61. — longe.^ LONGE > Xjol" (lian), in which the mouillation of the n has been lost. § 62. — o'+ nasal + cons. The development is similar to that in French. Examples : hft (compte) : computum, b"" (long) : longum, etc. § 63. — o'-\- nasal + nasal + voc. (1) This combination is found in nun (noune) ; nonnam, swm(soume): sommitm, um (houmme): hominem.'* Probably under the influence of Modern French, o is sometimes heard instead of u : non (nonne), som (somme), etc. (2) The result u is similar to that of the Old Franco-Nor- man dialect,^ and is still heard in the Hague.® U I. — u' in open syllable. § 64. — u'-\- oral cons. -{- voc. (1) In this position, u' gives three results: the first like the product in French proper — it, the other two being related 1 Eggert, Norm. Mund., pp. 369-371 ; Joret, Melanges, pp. 51-54 ; Joret, Extraits, pp. 154-158 ; Meyer-Liibke, Oram. Bom., I, pp. 185-187. « V. U 108 and 111. » Cf. Meyer-Lubke, Gram. Bom., I, p. 204, § 220. *Cf. this result with that of o^ (+ nasal), U 41, 1, and 48, and with that of 0^^ (+ nasal), g^ 95, 1, and 100 ; also U 106, 1, and 123. * Suchier, Frang., p. 50. ^Eggert, Norm. Mund., p. 369 ; also Fleury, Hague, p. 37. 4 50 E. S. LEWIS. to each other — ce and a'oe,\ Examples for u are hevu (querrue) : CARRUCAM, Imr (cure) : curam, mur (mur) : murum, nu (nu) : NUDUM ; ^ for Q? we find as(x,r (asseure) and rasmr (rasseure) : *ASSECURARE, do& (dcu) : DEBERE, IcoJoefT (caussheure) : cal- CEAM, hroe (cret) : credere, hmm (counneti) : cognoscere, 'pljcR (pUeii) : PLACERE, 'poe, (pefi) : *potere, tvor: (rVeue) : REVIDERE, mercer (sereure) : *serrare, see (seii) : sapere, voe, (veii) : viDERE ; ^ for a'cer we have ace* (aeut) : habere, daoer (daeut) : debere, livaod' (craeut) : credere, hunaoe' (coun- naeut): cognoscere, maosT (maenr) : MATURUMjj^ace* (paeut): POTEREjSace* (saeut) : sapere, sace'r (saeur) : securum, s^raosT (serraeure) : ^ *serrare, tace' (taeut) : tacere. (2) The irregular verbs whose preterit and past participle both end in u in French proper, have two terminations in the Guernsey dialect : a'w for the preterit, but cem the past par- ticiple (counnaeuty counneu; daeut, deu; paeut, pell, etc.) ; the imperfect subjunctive is formed from the preterit {counnaeusse, daeusse, paeusse, etc.). (3) In the Hague also, maturum > meu, securum > seu,^ Meyer-Liibke ® says that the development of Latin u, in the Norman dialects, forms an important question in philology ; he finds that the Old Anglo-Norman texts of the South allow u, corresponding to il, to rhyme only with itself, while in the North no difference is made, either in the writing or in rhyme, between u and o, ou. The Guernsey patois accordingly, in most words with Latin u, represents the development found in texts from the Old Northern Anglo-Norman dialects. § 65. — u^-\- k -{- voc. We notice here two products : re', in li'e (liet) and rli'e (r'liet) : lucet, and i, in ko^'dir (condire) : conducere, si: (sie): *SUDICAM.^ ^ Also bur (burre) : *butirum. *Cf. purveke (pourv^ que). In these examples must also be included jce (ie6) : HABERE. ^ Cf. seroer (sereure), given above. ^ Oram. Bom., I, pp. 73, 74, § 48. * Fleury, Hague, pp. 40 ff. « Cf . ^ 60, 2. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 51 § 66. — u^-{- nasal + voc. (1) This It' becomes 05. Examples: a/cem (alleume) : allu- MINAT, ol'hjcem (enclleume) : incudem, dcen (deune) : Old Irish DUN, fartcen (forteune) : fortunam, kmcen (c'meune) : COM- MUNEM, ko'^soem (conseume): consumat, kutcem (cotiteume): *C0STUMAM, legoeyn (l^geume) : leguminem, loen (leune) : LUNAM, pljoem (plleume) : plum AM, proen (preune) : *pru- NAM.^ u, on becoming nasalized, has been lowered to oe, Nasalization is, however, but slightly heard now in the words noted above, the lowering of it to ce being the only evidence left of its previous existence. (2) Meyer-Liibke^ says that, in the French dialects, the development into un, une is exactly parallel to that of m, iTie; that is also true for the Guernsey patois, since we have as", om corresponding to 9^, en. § 67. — u'-f filial nasal. No examples will be given under this heading, for the result ((xT) is the same as in French proper; but Eggert' should be corrected when, misled probably by the orthog- raphy, he writes that the nasal it-sound remains in Guernsey, being spelt itn by Metivier ; the Guernsey ce™ may sometimes be distinguished from the French ce™ by being a narrow nasal vowel, whereas the tendency of the latter is toward wideness ; but it" is never heard. II. — u' in dosed syllable, § 68. — tt'-f oral cons. + cons. This result is the same as in French proper : puf (puche) : PULiCEM, etc. * Cf, aleofrcem (freume), present indicative of/nimar (frumaiir) : *firmarb. Cf. rp^'fcoen (ranqueune) : *bancoriam. 2 Gram. Bom., I, p. 80, § 57. ^ Norm. Mund.y p. 365. 62 E. S. LEWIS. § 69.-~w'+A; + con8., u'-\- cons. -\-j, (1) As the results under these two headings are alike, they will be examined together. Examples : bri (brit) : *brtjgi- TUM, fri (frit) : fructum, kf'dit (condite) : conducere. w' was drawn forward to ily because of the following k or ^-sound ; this u may then have been unrounded to i under the same influence (u^-{-j > u^i* > il'i^ > i'i' > i). This reduction, in its relation to the other Norman dialects, has already been examined.^ (2) p9rtu (pertu) comes from pertusum, and is not pecu- liar to the Guernsey patois. au I. — a'w in open syllable, § 70. — a'u + oral cons. + voc, a'u -\- mute + liquid. (1) a'u here develops into o. Examples : bo: (baue) : Cymric baw, kljor (cUore) : claudere, parol (parole) : para- BOLAM, por (paure) : pauperem, foz (chose) : CAUSAM, 50; (joe) : GAUTAM. In or (or) : aurum, o is pronounced open under the influence of the following r. (2) As in other Romance languages, hi: (coue) : caudam is an exception to the rule ; u here comes from 0.^ (3) The Guernsey development of a'u into o is the usual one in Norman dialects,^ and this was also the pronunciation of French proper in the 17th century.'^ § 71. — a^u -\-k-\- voc. The change of a'u (+ ^) into we'y in we: (ouaie) : aucam, must be compared with that of 0^ in this position.^ ly. §60, 2. *For o>u, V. ? 39, 1, )8. Notice also the two forms kljaw (cllaou): CLAVUM and/wm (choume) : cauma. 3 Gorlich, Mak., p. xxi, 54. * Suchier, Frang., p. 53. * V. ^ 40, 1. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 53 II. — a'u in closed syllable, § 72. — a^u -\- cons. -\-j. The result here is the same as in the preceding paragraph ; we find fwe (chouaix) : Germ, kausjan and -pi'e: (jouaie) : GAUDIUM. Under the influence of the preceding sibilants, we sometimes hear u' instead of w : fu'e and -^u'e:. Chapter II. SUBTONIC VOWELS. I. — a" in open syllable, § 73. — «''+ oral cons. + voc, a"-|- mute + liquid. A few peculiar developments are to be noted under this head- ing, a" falls in Isi'e (Fsier) : lax are. In irani: (iragnie) : *ARANEATAM, the change of a" into i is owing to differentiation from the second syllable, and, besides, this result is similar to the one found in Old French : iraignie,^ In tvha (tuba') : Indian tabak, the a" becomes u under the influence of the following labial consonant, a" gives a"v in ai'mai' (aimair) : AMARE, ai'nai' (ainai) : natum ; in the first example, this i' develops after the a, when a is tonic, and, from this tonic position, the form in ai' has been extended to a with second- ary accent ; the a"r of the second example is due to the accented form *ANTnjs. § 74,— k (g or qu) -\- a'^-\-r, a", preceded by ^, g or qUy and followed by r, either in open or closed syllable, gives e. Examples: egerai' (6guerair): 1 V. Korting, Worty No. 688. 54 E. S. LEWIS. Frankish *waron, d^ergo'' (djergon) : garg, gerrfd (gu6- rande) : Frankish *waron, gerd (gu^ret) : Cymric gar, TceiroH (querante) : *quadraginta, kerho'' (querbon) : carbonem, heri'o (k^riot) : carrum, keri'er (querriere) : *quadrariam, IcerpaHi'e (querpentier) : carpentarium, heru : (querue) : CAR- RUCAM, fei^i'e (chergier) : *carricare, Jeritav (ch^ritai) : CARiTATEM, fermav (chermair) : carminare.^ The same result is observed when ky g or qu do not precede a", as in eperni'e (6pergnier) : Germ. *sparanjan, erifg (harangue) : Germ, hring, erafi'e (errachier) : *arradicare, ere^ (er^te) : ARISTAM, erpo'' (herpon) : apTnj, eruzi'e (erousier) : *arrosare. § 75.— a''+voc. a'', before a vowel, becomes r in the following two words : agri'ai' (agriair) and agri'a'bje (agriablle) : gratum. II. — a" in dosed syllable, § 76. — a"-\- oral cons. + cons. The result is similar to that observed in French proper : a'' remains. Examples : akatai' (acatair) : *accaptare, batai'X (bataille) : *battaliam, kjartai' (cllartai) : claritatem. § 77. — a" + secondary y + cons. (1) The examples found give the result a''r ; ai'gje (aiguer) : ADJUTAREj^rarXe (grailler) : *CRATicuLARE,par:<;a'' (paisan) : PAGENSEM, trai-nai' (trainair) : *tragimen.^ (2) lakdr (laquer) does not come from laxare, but from *LASKARE, where a" remains regularly. In the Roland we meet with a form lasquent.^ ^ Cf. ek'erbo (^kerbot) : scarabaeum, and the future and conditional of aver (aveir) : habere [ere (^rai), etc.] ; also pljefi'e (pll^chier) : plateam. ^ Notice, however, kastane (castagnier) : castaneam, and cf. etraUe (etra- gnier) : stringere. ^Gautier, Roland, line 3877. For the change of x {=ks) into sk^ v. Schwan, Gram., ^ 218, 2, Anm. 2. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 55 § 78. — A; -f- a"+ oral cons. + cons. a" remains here, as in French proper. Examples : kastavn (castaine): castane am, /ape (chape): CAPPELLUM,/a wo" > It* a", mentioned in connection with o' in open syllable.^ § 98.— o"+cons. +j. o" here develops in the same way as o' in like position.^ Examples : hweXd (bouaillait) and hweko'' (bouaillon) : bul- LIRE, kcUweXje (catouailler) : *cattuculare, nwezje (nou- ly. §41. ^ Also bu7i9 (bounet), corresponding to Modem French bonnet, etymology unknown. ^Cf. § 106, 2. -• V. g 43, y. ^Notice also murtrai' (mourtrair) : monstrabe. «V. §39, 2and3,i3. 'V. §45. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 61 aisier) : *nucarium, pwezo^ (pouaison) ,and al'pu'ezunai' (empouaisounair) : potionem. The triphthong u'a"i' is, however, very frequently heard instead of this diphthong we''. § 99.— o"+/:s. We find the product i in bisif (bisson) and biso''nJ9r (bis- songni^re) : buxum,^ but wi" in bwise (bouiss^) : *buxidam. § 100. — o"-\- nasal + nasal + voc. The result is the same as for o" in open syllable.^ Ex- amples : grunar (grounard) : grundire, numai' (noumair) : NOMiNARE, rhinisTf' (r'counnissant) : recognoscere, etc. § 101. — o"-\- nasal + oral cons. This result is identical with the one in French proper; moHar (montair) : *montare, etc.^ § 102.— 0"+^. We notice a change into Wd""", in the word ohi'dHir (accouaintir) : *accognitare. This result is probably noth- ing but the nasalizing of u'a"i',^ from which the a has fallen {u'a"i- + nasal > ifc-a' V > Wd""") ; the pronunciation wa"?" is actually heard in the Upper Parishes. O o" in closed syllable, § 103. — o"4- oral cons. -|- cons. The o"y in this position, gives two results : o and u. According to the examples, o seems to be the more usual 1 Notice pwjO'e (puchier) : puteum, and v. ^ 60, 2. ' V. ^ 96, 1. 3 According to Korting ( Wort, No. 5401), this word should come under y\ but Schwan ( Oram., I 133) puts it under o'^. * Cf. § 50, 1. 62 E. S. LEWIS. development : kopai' (copair) : colaphum, sodai' (sodair) : SOLID ARE, torma'' (torment): tobmentum, with the single word turnai' (tournair) : tornare as illustration of the change into u. § 104.-0''+//. o" in this combination gives, regularly, it* a". Examples : depwaXje (d^pouailler) : despoliare, mwaXje (mouailler) : *M0LLIARE.* Under the influence of the tonic forms,^ we hsLwefi'eXja-^ (fieillage) and^'eXi^ (fieillu): folium, also i'eXje (ieillet) and reXi: (ieillie) : oculum. § J 05. — o"+ nasal -|- oral cons. It is sufficient simply to call attention to this combination. Examples : kf'parai' (comparair) : comparare, so^'^'e (son- gier) : somniare, etc. § 106. — 0"+ nasal + nasal + voc. (1) 0", before double m, generally falls. Examples : kma'' (c'ment) : QUOMO, kmuHar (c'mandair) : *commandare, kma""/ (c'menche) and kma'^jmol' (c'mench'ment) : *cominitiare, kmod (c'mod§), kmoditai' (c'moditai) and akmod (acc'mode) : commo- DUM. But 0" becomes u in kurrtdr (coumere) : commatrem, kumunje (coumunier) : communem.^ (2) Attention might here be called to a few words in which 0"+ nasal > a*"; for convenience sake, they are all classed under this heading : cCnihu (ennibu) : omnibus, koral'ndl (corennel): Ital. colonnej^lo, vohl'tai' (volentai): ^ Notice the same result in m'ane (souagner) : *sonium. *V. § 58, NOTE 1. Cf. also kiKjdt (cuillette) and akiKir (accuillirent) : COLLIGERE. ^ Cf. also rmMje (mougnier) : molinarium. * Cf. Q^dv^ta^bje (ind^ntablle) : domitare, and also § 95, 2. An opposite development has taken place in bMrM^^ (lond'main) : in + de + mane. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT, 63 U I. — u" in open syllable, § 107. — u"-\- oral cons. + voc. The regular result is the same as in French proper : durai' (durair) : durare, etc., but there are some exceptions : molatr (molfltre) : mulum, where the it" has been treated like a pretonic o ; ^ asoerav (asselirair) : *assecurare and hcemf' (beuv^nt) : bibere, which have ce ; S€er (seur) : sudorem, where u^' has been dropped entirely ; ^ oJ'rimai' (enrhlmair) : RHEUM A. § 108.— iA"+;fe + voc. In rlveznf (r'liesant) : relucentem, the development is the same as for u' in this position.^ Under this heading, would probably come riXse (ruse) : ^bjj-, where the following h, or its developed ^'-sound, has drawn u" forward to u, itself then dropping {u"-\-j > u"i' > u). § 109. — w"+ nasal + voc. The result is the same here as in French proper. Ex- amples : fumai' (fumair) : fumare, uma»'' (humain) :* huma- NUN, etc.* II. — ?-t" in closed syllable. § 110. — u"+ oral cons. + cons. As in French proper, the development is here into ii. Examples : buli'e (btilier) : buculum, putod'' (putain) : puti- DUM, etc. ^Cf. §120. ^In the Vale, one of the Lower Parishes, u^^ is also dropped in bw^ (b'vUnt), bv9 (b'vait), etc. : bibere. 'V. §65. *Note also degunai' (d^junair): jejtjnare. 64 E. S. LEWIS. § 111. — it"4- cons. -\-j. We find two results, ^i•^" and il; the latter has already been examined/ the former is the same as in French proper. Examples : menu'izje (menuisier) : minutum, -^u'ib (juillet) : JULIUM, but egU/je (aiguchier) : acdtiare, rmjo (russiaux) and rusln}"^ (russl^nt) : a^^bj]-? § 112. — u"-{- nasal -f- cons. Wherever this combination occurs, u" becomes ce*", as in French proper : he'^di (lundi) : lunam, etc. au I. — a"u in open syllable. § 113. — a"u-{- oral cons. + voc. The development is here the same as for a'u in open sylla- ble.^ Examples : ore\ or orej (oreille) : AURICUL.AM, ozai' (6sair) : *ausare, pozai' (posair) : pausare, etc. We have an exception to the rule in twa^'e (touare) : taurum. § 114. — a"w + voc. This result is like the one in French proper. Examples : luai' (louair) : laudare, wir (ouir) : audire, etc. We, how- ever, find a''u' in hljawar (cllaouair) : clavum. § 115. — a"u + ^ -h voc. a^'u here gives we", as does a'u in this combination.* Examples : geru'ezilje (guerouaisilier) : Germ, krausel, weze (ouatse): aucellum. iCf. ^§60, 3andl08. ^Cf. § 70. « Cf. also bulje (btillier) : ^buculare. * Cf. I 71. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 65 § 116. — a"u-{- nasal -f voc. As an exceptional product is to be noted the one word fumai' (chouraair) : cauma.^ II. — a'^u in dosed syllable. § 117. — a^'u -\- cons, -{-j. The development here is again similar to that of a^u in the same position :^ fu'ezir (chualsir) : Gothic kausjan. Chapter III. ATONIC VOWELS. a § 118. — pret. a -f cons, -f voc. In this position, pretonic a falls. Examples : kvaoe' (kVaeu) : CAPiLLUM,/m3'' (chimin) : CAMiNUM,/va (chVa) : cabali^um, etc. This result is the same as in French proper ; a difference is noted only in the two words /rm (f 'reine) : farinam and knai'X (c'naille) : *canaliam. § 119. — pret. 9 -j- cons, -f voc. As in French proper, pretonic 9, in this position, falls. Examples : /var (Pvair) : levare, inir (t'nir) : tenere, mir (v'nir) : venire, etc. Under the influence of a neighboring iCf. r/0, 2, N0TK2. '-^Cf. ^72. 5 bb E. S. LEWIS. labial, this a becomes oe, as in Icevre (leuvrai) : levare and doBvai' (eleuvair) : elevare.^ O § 120. — pret. -\- oral cons. + voc. In sole (sauler) : solarium, o gives o, but elsewhere it becomes it'a", or, in a few cases, u. Examples : fward (fouar^t) : *forestem, kwaraj^ (couarage) : *coraticum, mwarir (mouarir) : *morire,^ but kuron (couronne) : CORO- NAM, pljuvd (pllouvait) : *plovere, vuli-e (voulier) : volere. § 121. — pret. -f- voc. When stands before a vowel, we observe two results: a"w and u. Examples : apawai' (appaouair) : *appodare,^ but puet (pou^te) : poetam and puezi: (pouesie) : poesim, which do not, however, represent a popular development. § 122.— pret. o + ^ + voc. A few peculiar products should be noted here, foi'e (foyer) : FOCARIUM represents the regular development.^ njezio^s (ni6- sance) : nocere has been influenced by the tonic form nje (niet).^ Corresponding to the French u^ we find i in fizi (flsi) : focum. ^ We also hear apcdre (appeul'rai) : appelare, thougli the infinitive is generally pronounced aplai' (app'lair). Notice akoevre (akeuv'rai) : *ACCAPARE, and even adoerfje (adeurchier) : *directiab,e and retcerfje (r^teurchier) : strictiare, in which last two examples the vowel is not influenced bj a labial. ^ Cf. also kwafje (couachier) : collocare and niu'afe (mouach^) : mon- TICELLUM. Notice si: (s'cie) : sollicitare, and also peV/a" (perchain) : proprium and ferzu (terjous) : *tottos + diurnos (cf. I 161). 'Corresponding to the French appuier: ^appodiare, is found apiai* (appiair) ; cf. a^niai' (ennya'ir) : *inodiare. * V. Schwan, Oram., § 136. ^V. ^53, L GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 67 § 123. — pret. o + nasal + voc. Pretonic o gives u ^ in bunoer (bounheur) : bonum, etunai* (6tounnair): *extonare, mwna;r (mounaie) : monetam, st^nar (sounair) : sonare, suns (sounet) : sonum, turvBr (tounerre) : tonitrum, unet (hounn^te) : honestum, unetai' (hounn^t^- tai) : HONESTATEM, unoBT (hounneur) : honorem. In dmarn (d'maine) : dominium, o has fallen.^ Chapter IY. CONSONANTS. P § 124.— initial p -\- l. In the one word Tckjoe'^jje (cUiingier) : *plumbicare, initial p has become k, the following I showing mouillation according to the usual rule in Guernsey.^ § 125. — V + cons. V, before a consonant, has fallen in hramoJ' (brament) : Ger- man BRAV, por (paure) and portai' (paur^tai) : pauperem.^ V has also dropped in mo: (maue) : malvam and ne: (n6e) : niveam. § 126.— final v. Final v has disappeared in the Guernsey pronunciation. Examples : boe (boeu') : bovum, noe (neti) : NOVUM, oe (oeu^) : *OVUM.* » Cf. §g 95, 1, and 106, 1. « a. ^ 106, 1. * V. g 150. *Cf. also mere/Xe (m^reille) : mirabilia. * Also derjje (derchid) : caput. 68 E. S. LEWIS. § 127. — voc. -\- dj -\- voc. ^ df followed by a j^ develops into a fronted g. Examples : ai'gje (aiguier) : adjutare, gja'hje (guiablle) : diabolum, gju (guiu) : ^ deum, ogjaJ's (auguience) : audientiam.^ In such words, the dental stop d has been changed to the palatal stop g, under the influence of the following palatal consonant j ; this phenomenon is by no means a peculiarity of the Guern- sey patois.^ § 128. — voc. -{- d -\- voc. Intervocalic d has fallen in le: (laie) : Germ. lai^. § 129.— n + d In one word, d, following immediately an n, has been assimilated to it : repmii (repounni) : respondere.* § 130. — in -f versus, A d is intercalated in oJ'dvi'dr (endviers) : in + versus, one proof that the vowels followed by a nasal were not only nasalized, but that n was also pronounced {cC'ndvvdr) in Guernsey longer than in Normandy, where this result has apparently not been noted in the modern dialects ; this n has now been dropped, but, l)efore it had disappeared, a d was introduced between it and the following sound ; in the passage from the nasal n to the pure oral consonant v, the velum would be raised before the tongue had broken contact with the teeth, thus inevitably bringing in a fe > s in French proper ^ and in the literary JSTorman ; ^ in the modern Norman dialects, as also in Guernsey, the result is /. 8 § 134. — initial gL Initial ^Z becomes dr in drisai' (drissai'r) : O. H. G. *glitzan. § ISb.— g + i. The development of g before i differs from that in French proper, in the one word gilwdt (guilouette) : girare. § 136.— 5^ + a. (1) g, initial or preceded by a vowel, remains here, whether a be unchanged or become e. Examples : gabt (galette) : Breton kalet, gar (gar) : Vci^'^i^j gardd^ (gardin) ; O. H . G. GARTO, gat (gatte) : gabatas, grfb (gambe) : Vcamb, gdrh (guerbe), gdrbai' (guerbair) and gdrbi'dr (guerbiere) : O. H. G. GARBA, ger9 (gu^ret) : Cymric GAR. (2) An exception is noted in d^drgo^ (djergon) : ^/(^a.b.Gc ; this word may have been influenced by the Modern French form. ^ Schwan, 6rmm., g 253, and Meyer-Liibke, Gram. Bom., I, p. 458. * Suchier, Frang., p. 38. guernsey: its people and dialect. 71 § 137.— ^ + aw. Id y): (jaue) : gabatam and jwe (joue) : gaudium, the result is similar to that in French proper. §138.— 5^ + 0. g remains in this position, as it does in French proper. Examples : gore (gorret) : O. H. G. GOR, gul (goule) : GULAM, etc. § 139. — hs + cons. When ks {=x) precedes a consonant, the h is dropped. Examples : dskursjo^ (escursion) : excursionem, dskuz (es- qtise) : excusare, dspXiha^d^ (espllication) : explicare, dsprd (espres) : expressum, dstrordindr (estrordinaire) : extra H- ORDiNARiUM, dspje (csplkit) : explicitum. § 140.— final h Final h usually falls in the following words : fro (fro') : FLOCCUM, hro (cro') : *CROCCUM, mdr (mer) : Germ, mark, trafi (trafi') : *transvicare, and in the proper name iza (Is^) ; but the pronunciation with a ^ is also heard. * § 141. — voc. -\- kj -\- voc. hj, preceded by a vowel, becomes /, sometimes heard as sf. Examples : erifo'^ (h^risshon) : *ericionem, fai'J (faisshe) : FACIAM, hofcer (caussheure) : calceam, majif (machon) : MACIONEM. Wherever k, followed byj, gives/, it must first have been strongly fronted, and then have developed like ^ before a vowel.^ ly. U33, 1. 72 E. S. LEWIS. § 142.-^ + 6 (i). (1) The regular development of k, in this position, is into /. Examples : d^brqfi (embrasshi) : brachium, dwafmoJ' (douach'ment) : dulcem, ehfj (el^nche) : ex + lanceare, liTnaf (limache) : limacem, nwdfen (medchine) : medicinam, mifq/e (mouache) : MONTiCELLUM,pifa/a''(pouasshin); pulle- ciNUM, purj^fjo^ (pourchession) : processionem, 'puf (puche) : PULICEM, rajen (rachine) : radicinam, fa"" (chent) : cen- tum, JmHur (chainture) : cincturam, Jem (chime) : cymam, Je^'k (chinq) : cinque, Jlav (ch'lair) : celare, Jliz (ch'lise) : *ceraseam.^ (2) A peculiar development is noted in pot (p6te) : Germ. POKI. § 143.— A; + a. (1) In this position, k remains. Examples : akatai' (aca- tair) : accaptare, akvai' (ak'vair) : caput, a'Jurkje (enfour- quer) : FURCAM, bek (b^que) : Celtic V^ACC, hrr)"k (bran que) : BRANCAM, hroha (broquet) : broccam, ekapai' (ecappair) : CAPPAM, Jikje (fiquer) : figicare, hv^'k (hanque) : ancam, ka (cat) : cattum, karwan (carouagne) : *caroniam, kastai'n (castaine) : castaneam, kafje (cachier) : *captiare, kaiwalje (catouailler) : *cattuculare, ke?- (quaire) : cathedram, keri'o (keriot) : carrum, kdrbo'' (querbon) : carbonem, kar- tad' (quertaie) : carrum, kdril: (querrue) : carrucam, kljok (clloque) : clocam, ko (caud) : calidum, ko (caux) : calcem, kof (cauche) : calceum, kofi: (cauchie) : calciatam, kofoer (caussheure) : calceam, kvace' (k Vaeu) : ^ capillum, makje (maquer) : MASTICARE, pek (p^ue) : PISCARI, twakje (toua- quer) : ^ Germ. *tukk6n, vak (vaque) : vaccam. ^ Cf. also tfii (tchu) : culum. ' Also pronounced gvaoe', where A; has become voiced under the influence of the following sonant v ; cf. Fleury, Hague, p. 45, and Beetz, c und ch, p. 24. ' This is the pronunciation of the old people ; iwafje, or even tufje, is more usual now. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE ANl5 DIALECT. 73 (2) This development is similar to that in the modern patois of Northern Normandy ^ and in Old Norman.^ (3) Six exceptions have been found, in which k gives /, the same result as in French proper:^ /ape (chap§): cap- PELLUM, /»"(i^/;e (eh audi Her) : candelam, /©""^re (chancre): CANCRUM, femna.'V (chimn^ie) : caminatam, /ms" (chimin) : CAMINUM, fnal (ch'nal) : canalem. Two further exceptions present the stage before /: tfa'' (tchen) : canem and tfai'r tchair) : * carnem.^ (4) In the following words, kj before an a, develops into s : saf (9ache), safje (9achier) and safer (yachaire) : *captiare. § 144. — cons. -\- k -\- a. The k here becomes /. Examples : bjiff (bll^nche) : blan- CAM, ku'afje (couachier) : collocare, marfi (marchi) : mer- CATUM, rakurfje (racourchier) : curtum. This development agrees exactly with that in French proper, being k when the latter is k, and / when the latter is /. Examples : ko:n (c6ne) : CORNUA, ku: (coue) : CODAM, etc., and mufoe (moucheux) : *mxjccare, faw (chaou) : golem, etc. § 146. — s -\- voc. The only examples of the development of s into/, arefuk (chouque): S0CCUM,/i^^r (shuker): Arabic sokkar, and frikafi (fricasshi): Frankish *frek, ^ras/ or Z;m/ (crasshe) : crassam, mafakr (masshacre) : massacrium. It is to be noticed, in these examples, that s becomes/ when followed originally by a vowel ^ Joret, Extension, p. 113. ' Suchier, Frang., pp. 41 and 80. ^ Cf. Joret, Besdn, p. 227, and Beetz, c und eh, p. 25. * The pronunciation of this word with a tf was heard only in the expres- sion mouailli jusqu'au tchair; elsewhere it is always pronounced with the single/. * Cf. also e//e/ (^tchelle) : scalam. 74 E. S. LEWIS. that requires a low position of the tongue, or, in the case of hrafy when final. The reason of this development is thus made manifest : as the blade of the tongue is lower in the produc- tion of our/ than in that of s,^ the former would naturally be produced in passing from s to any sound requiring a low posi- tion of the blade, in going, for example, from s to u or a, or to the position of rest, when s is final. The /-sound then absorbs the preceding s, and first in words where the combi- nation is initial. § 147. — initial sh. In shahe (scabe) : scabellum, the e before s impurum has not been added, as it is in the French word escaheau, § 148. — s -\- cons. In a few words, s, followed by a consonant, falls : dU'r^itrav (enr'gttrair) : regestrum, elzali'e (Scalier): scalam, eMrh^ (ekerbot) : SCARABAEUM, despotem (despottme) : hea-irorrj'^ . It has not, however, disappeared in kastanje (castagnier) : CASTANEAM.^ § 149.— final s. The final s-sound has been retained in some words where it has dropped in French proper ; hus (houss) : Frankish hulis and rus (rouss) : russum ; also pis (piss) : puteum. I § 150. — stop cons. +^' (1) When I is preceded by a stop consonant, or by a dento- labial fricative, it is palatalized, and even develops, in some ^ There has been much discussion concerning the relative positions of s and/; Jespersen {Articulations of Speech Sounds, p. 62) gives, for the French 8, the notation ;8 1 ef, whereas he believes that j8/7>/l indicates somewhat the position of the point and upper surface of the tongue for French /. ^Cf. dskeri'ai' (eskMair) : *exquiritare. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 75 words, into the pure palatal j. There seems to be no fixed rule, whereby we may know when it becomes Ij (or \/), and when it develops into j. The pronunciation varies with dif- ferent people, the better educated being apt to retain the \, no doubt under the influence of the orthography.^ The pro- nunciation wavers in such examples as dekljerje (d^llairier) : DECLARARE, ^'»''6ar (fllambair) : O. H. G. fliedima, kupa'- blje (coupablle) : culpabilem, whereas the country-people always pronounce J in bja"" (bllanc) : O. H. G. blanch, j5fe'6/e (fieblle) : flebilem, kjai'r (cllair) : clarum, jyjezi (pllaisi) : PLACERE, sa^'bje (semblle) : simulat, sd^'pje (simplle) : SIM- PLUM, ta^bje (tablle) : tabulam,^ etc. (2) The question here arises as to the exact pronunciation of the first three examples given, in which was used the tran- scription Ij ; there may be some doubt as to whether this sound should not be written X, or, rather, X; ; the more usual pronunciation seems, however, to be Ij. After all, this palatali- zation is a common phenomenon in the Romance languages.* § 151. — Z + cons. A few peculiar forms come under this heading. I is vowel- ized in mogre (maugr6) or mograi' (maugrai) : gratum and sudar (soudard) : soldatum ; it becomes r in harkul (carqul) and karkulai' (carqulair) : calculare. § 152. — voc. 4-Z + voc. (1) Intervocalic I has suffered mouillation in a number of cases : ekwekjax (ecueillaie) : scutellum, fXjai' (fillair) : ^Mr. Guilbert says that \j (or simple \) used to be heard, when he was a boy, much more frequently than it now is ; the ^-pronunciation predomi- nates to-day. ' Mr. Corbet says that A is heard in these examples, but they are pro- nounced with a j-sound by Mr. Guilbert and other Guemseymen. ^ Meyer-Liibke, Gram. Bom., I, pp. 368-374. It should be noted that / has fallen in pu (pus) : plus and its compounds. 76 . E. S. LEWIS. FILARE, vikjojd^ (villain), viXjcinai' (villanair) and viXjaniz (villanise) : *villanum/ (2) In two words, this I gives j : regujdrma'' (reguyer'ment) : REGULAREM, paHikuje (particuyer) : particularem. § 153. — voc. -{-Ij -\- voc. An opposite development from the last is observed in a few words, where intervocalic Ij, instead of being pak- talized, becomes a pure dental V Examples : evil (eville) : *EXVIGILIAT, fid (fielle) : foliam, fil (file) : filiam, ho^dl (consille) : *C0NSiLiAT, huli'er (cullier) : cochlear.^ This result is also noted in the Picard and the Wallonian dia- lects,^ and in Old Norman.* § 154.— final Ij {kl). (1) Final Ij (kl) develops into a pure dental I in doel (deul) : DOLIUM,/a?)^^^(famille): familiam, fe^'se^ (consel) : consilium, solel (solel) : soliculum. In three words, final Ij (kl) falls, as final / often does : ^ apare (appar6) : pariculum, orge (orgu6) : Germ, urgoli, ti^ava (travas) : *trabaculum. (2) Final kl changes to r in the plural form J9r (iers) : OCULOS and in vi'9r (vier) : *veculum ; this development would be as follows : Z;^ > \ > ^ > r, for it is not likely that A- would give r directly, without going through the stage L The change of ^ to r is easily explained, since the effort to lower the sides of the tongue for / is greater than to simply loosen the point of the tongue for rj ^Cf. Eggert, Norm. Mund., p. 391, and also the development of w + secondary j into n, ^ 167. ^ Cf. this change with that of intervocalic gn (nj) into n, I 166. ' Cf. also huli-e (bMlier) : *buculare. "* Meyer-Liibke, Gram. Mom., I, p. 465. * Gorlich, Mak., p. xxi, 56 ; Busch, Ang.-Norm., pp. 47 and 68. •V. §155, 1. ^Cf. U55, 2. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 77 § 165.— final I. (1) Final I is no longer pronounced in a number of words :^ anima (anima) : animal, bari (bari) : V^ARR, ma (ma) : MALUM, nature (nature) : naturalem, nwe (None) : nata- LEM, nil (nu) : nullum, opita (hopita) : hospitale, porta (porta) : portalem, prd^dpa (principa) : principalem, srxje' (saeu) : solum, /va (chVa) : caballum, and also in the proper names raje (Rache), sd'^mifje (St. Michie) and tortva (Torteva). (2) In a few examples, final / has developed into an r:^ gXja^oer (gllajeur) : gladiolum, b'lfoer (Imcheur) : linteo- LUM and the three persons of the singular of the present indicative from *volere : voer {'f veurs, tu veurs, i' veurt).^ This result is a frequent one in the Romance field.^ § 156. — cons. + ^ + voc. As with r in this position,^ we have metathesis of the I in four words : a^'piljai' (emp'yllair) : implicare, o^biljai' (onbil- lair) : *oblitare, pubiljai' (pubillai'r) : publicare and rpi- Ijav (r'pillair) : plica re. § 157. — voc. + ^ + voc. The change of intervocalic r into I is illustrated by the follow- ing examples : herudl (beruelle) : brueram, gilwdt (guilouette) : GiRARE, prokulce (proculeux) : procuratorem, Jlk (ch'lise) : *ceraseam. § 158. — final rj. In the one word/^r (fere) : feriam, final rj becomes a pure dental r.^ ^ This I may be pronounced sometimes, but very rarely. * Cf. ^ 164, 2. 3 Cf. also kwondl (coronel) : Italian colonello. *Meyer-Lubke, Gram. Rom., I, pp. 408-410. »V. ^ 161. ^Cf. with this one, the development of final Ij {kl) into I, | 154, 1. 78 • E. S. LEWIS. § 169.— final r, Latin final r disappears in some words. Examples : asi'e (assi^^) : sedere, ave (av6) : habere, he (b^) : bibere, kei' (qu^i^) : CADERE, huvri (couvri^) : coperire/ malm (malheti) : AUGURIUM, miljaoe' (milliaeu) : meliorem, pXjezi (pllaisi) : placere, se (se) : serum, sii (sus) : super, ter-^u (terjous) : DIURNOS, ve (v6) : videre, and also the nouns ending in os (for oer), such SLsfofce (faueheux), poe (peti), volw (voleux). The only remaining efiect of this r is the lengthening of the final vowel; although this vowel may not be unusually long, yet it can never be pronounced short. In many words, the custom of dropping the final r is not yet firmly established ; in most of the examples just given, r is sometimes pronounced. In many words, the final r is never dropped ; the exclamation ver (ver) : vere, for instance, is never heard as ve, though of exceedingly common occurrence; the usual pause after this word doubtless pre- vents the r from falling. We always hear, also, saver (saver) : sapere. § 160.— r+/ (n). Before a dental consonant (either I or w), r disappears, hav- ing been assimilated to the following sound. ^ Examples : epa^'n (^pangne) : Germ. *sparanjan, kon (c6ne) : cornua, mel (mdle) : merulam, olo^ (h6loge) : horologium, palar (pMair) : *parabolare, ulai' (olilair) : *orulam.^ § 1 61 . — cons. -\- r -{- voc. (1) This combination is very frequently changed to cons. + voc. -|- r, with sometimes a change in the quality of the vowel. Only a few examples, from a great many, will be * And so with most of the -iV infinitives. *Cf. Fleury, Hague, p. 51, and Eggert, Norm. Mund., p. 390. ^r falls also before an s-sound in pask (pasque), equivalent to the French parce que, and in travso^ (trav'sant) : transversus, with the tenses formed from this present participle. As in French, r drops in such sentences as au^ matin, enV leux dents, etc., where r follows a dental t and precedes a con- gonant. Cf. the proper name mar git (Marguite). GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DIALECT. 79 taken as illustrations of this change : formol' (forment) : fru- MENTUM, adosrfje (adeurchier) : *directiare, perza"" (per- sent) : praesentem. In berbi (berbis) : *berbicem, the Guernsey form seems to be nearer the Latin etymon than is the result in French proper, but such is probably not the case ; if berbi had come directly from *berbicem, the e would have been open, as for example, in pdrtu (pertu) : pertusum. (2) A similar result is seen in words that have as initial consonants a stop (or /, v) -\- r. An e is introduced here, between the consonant and the r : periai' (periair) : precare, berudl (beruelle) : brueram, etc. It is, therefore, probable that such words as the two mentioned above (perza"" and berbi) show a mingling of the two laws just given ; according to the iirst, the combinations pre- and brd- would become per- and bdr- respectively; but the second law would cause the development of pre- and br9- into pere- and be?'?- respectively. per- would, therefore, be a mixture of per- and pere-, and like- wise with ber-, which would be the mixed product of bdr- and ber9-. It should be observed that the pronunciation of e in berbi is not precisely the same as that of e in the French form brebis ; the e is rather between the French e of cheval, brebis, and 9. If this were not so, our berbi would be developed regularly from brebi, according to the first rule mentioned in this section : bre- ]> ber-. (3) These two laws should now be explained. The com- bination of a stop + r was probably the first to change. When an r, following a consonant, is strongly trilled, and conse- quently held for some length of time, an indefinite e-sound is almost unavoidably introduced between it and the preced- ing consonant; if, for example, the r in priai' be trilled (==prrriai')j it would soon develop an e between itself and the p (= periai'). The next combinations to change would be those with consonant -f- ^ + ^ (^ or e), such as pre- ; ^ the ^ An illustration with an e, instead of an 9 or e, is made use of here, because e is further removed from the final result e than are either 9 or e, and what would apply to it, would, a fortiori, apply to the other two vowels. 80 E. S. LEWIS. first step might he pere-j and then, owing to the similarity in sound between the two e^s, the second would drop, but the first would take its quality, to compensate fi3r its loss (i. e., pre- ^ per e- y- per-). The e in this last result (per-) would then become 9 (or e), under the influence of the following r, and such forms as perza"", herhi would be the result; this change in the quality of e would be made easier by the exist- ence of such regular forms as periaVy or, in other words, there would be mixture. Upon this development becoming more frequent, this law would then be easily applied to words with other vowels, like formal' (forment). In all these explana- tions, we must not leave out of consideration altogether the vowel-like quality of /- and the ease with which it can be changed from one position in the word to another. § 162.— added r. An r has been introduced into two words, rudr (rudre) : RUDEM and sudar (soudard) ; soldatum. § 163. — closed voc. -|- r. An important question to be considered, is the effect of r on a preceding closed vowel. A closed vowel always requires a high and tense position of the tongue, and such a position, whether front or back, is accompanied by a withdrawal of the point of the tongue from the teeth. Since, in the production of the Guernsey r, the point of the tongue is raised toward the teeth, the front or back of the tongue would be less tense and be somewhat lowered, in order to allow the point to press for- ward and be sufficiently loose to vibrate freely : ^ thus an open vowel, instead of the closed one, would most naturally be the result. ^ According to Jespersen, this position might be indicated by ^x" —f or even ^%^—fo\ a different notation would be )8/or j8/^. GUERNSEY: ITS PEOPLE AND DLA.LECT. 81 m § 164. — mm. In the pronunciation of the woid fXjvmb (fll^mbe): flam- mam, the velum is raised before the vocal chords cease vibrating, and thus, instead of a long m, is heard the combination mb} n § 165.— n + ^. n becomes r in murt (mourte) and murtrai' (mourtrair) : MONSTEARE; this change is simple, as both consonants are dental. This product is observed also in other languages. § 166. — voc. -f- gn (nj) -\- voc. Instead of becoming 7^, as in French proper, intervocalic gUj in a few words, gives a pure dental n.^ Examples : d^dinai' (indinai) : dignum, kastai'n (castaine) : castaneam, sen (sine) : siGNUM, sinifiai' (sinifiair) : SIGNIFICARB and the proper name almai-n (AlPmaine).^ § 167. — n -\- secondary j. In a few words, where French proper has the pronun- ciation nj, the Guernsey patois has ftj.^ Examples : diftje (dignier) : denarium, manjer (magniere) : manuarium, flje (gniais) : *nidiacem, fo'^sunje (chansougnier) : cantionem.^ § 168.— r + w + r. In rturo'' (r'to^ron), equivalent to the French reioumerons, the n has been assimilated to r. Another example, where n ^ For similar phenomena, v. Passy, Changements phonetiquesy p. 216, § 536. * Cf. this result with that of I from intervocalic Ij, I 153. 'Cf. also grunai' (grounnair) and grunar (grounard) : grunnibe. * Cf. this development to that of intervocalic I into A and j, § 152. ^Cf. also mwafi (moigne) : Greek ix6vtos. 6 82 E. S. LEWIS. has fallen, perhaps through differentiation from the first sylla- ble, is pi'anpi'a (pi^-n-pia), meaning " slowly," " gently." § 169.— voc. + fi. In a few words, fl has nasalized the preceding vowel, or, rather, the nasalization of this vowel, before the following fi, has not disappeared in the Guernsey dialect : epa^'n (epangne) : Germ. *sparanjan, kv^'pa'^fi (campengne) : campaneam, ^o**- poJ'fti: (compengnie) : *companionem.^ § 170. — nasalization of vowels. A few words have been found, in our patois, in which the vowel has been nasalized, even when not followed by a nasal consonant.^ Examples : da'^pi (denpls) : de + postea, ifhi- Ijai' (onbillair) : *oblitaiie, and also fi'^-^ (in the expression mafinge), if from fidem.^ Edwin Seelye Lewis. *Cf. also de"7na'y (Dinmanche): dominicum, de^nat' (dinnair): ^disju- NARE and the preterit ending of the first person plural -6"m (-inmes), corresponding to the French 4me8. ' Cf. the nasalization of final V, § 35, 2. ^era^je (^ragier) : *RABrARE, on the contrary, may be an example of the loss of the nasalization. LIFE 1, Edwin Seelye Lewis, was born in Amherst, Massachusetts, on the 23d of July, 1868. When I was two years old, my family moved to Beirut, Syria, where I lived for eight years, attending, as soon as old enough, the French School of the Sisters in that city. At ten, I went to Geneva, Switzerland, and studied in the schools of that place for five years, after which I returned to America. One year was spent in Westminster, Vermont, with private teachers. I then entered Wabash College, Crawfordsville, Indiana ; obtained the degree of A. B. in 1888, and was awarded "for merit" that of A. M. in 1891. In the autumn of 1888, 1 entered the Romance Language department of the Johns Hopkins Univer- sity, where I remained until taking my Doctor's degree in 1892, being appointed Scholar in 1889, Fellow in 1890, Assistant in Romance Languages and Fellow by Courtesy in 1891. In 1892, I was appointed Instructor in Romance Languages at Princeton University. As a second minor I studied the history of the Renaissance in Italy, my major subject and first minor including the philology and literature of the Romance Languages. I spent Ihe summers of 1889 and 1891 in Guernsey, Paris and London, preparing the present dissertation. While at the Johns Hopkins University, I studied under Professors Elliott, Adams, Todd, F. M. Warren and Bloomfield, whom I respectfully thank for the valuable aid and instruction given me. 83 7E UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY BERKELEY THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW Books not returned on time are subject to a fine of , 50c per volume after the third day overdue, increasing to $1.00 per volume after the sixth day. Books not in demand may be renewed if application is^ made before expiration of loan period. ^^^''* • ^ig30^48W l5l«n52MW asisi' ■ MAR 2 3 1977 J 4 SSS. c- 507n-7.'16 B^;l; U.C.BERKELEY LIBRARIES CD^4D^^^fl3 T UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY