(?alc£11N3 •2 if •3-D 11 3 TJ Land and Equipment can be fairly simple and inexpensive. . . . Only a small capital investment is needed. . . • You can get plans for some of the main pieces of equipment from the University of California. The best place for a hog ranch is where you can grow your own al- falfa, mixed grasses, or Ladino clover cheaply, where you can also grow bar- ley or other feed grains at low cost, and where there is plenty of shade and water. Locate your swine barn and lots where trees give natural shade and where drainage is good. This may be on the top of a gentle slope or where the soil is light and sandy. You will find that such locations make it much easier to keep your hogs cool in summer and clean in winter. Other factors that make for profitable hog raising are nearness to market, good shipping facilities, and rich soil to grow your own feed. If you are located where dairy by- products are available, that's an advan- tage because these are excellent hog feeds. However, they are scarce, because most milk is sold as whole milk to proc- essors, who bottle it for city consumers. If you grow rice or barley, you may find hogs profitable for gleaning. A concrete hog wallow is desirable, but not absolutely neces- sary. If you build one, it should be 8 to 10 feet wide, 14 to 16 feet long, and have a drain so it can be cleaned easily. You need to keep only 4 inches of water or less in the wallow, and this should be drained often and the wallow thor- oughly cleaned. A film of crude or crank-case oil on the water will keep down lice and mange, and helps keep the pig's hair in good condition. Locate the hog wallow where it can be reached easily by the pigs. Tight fences are important. Woven wire 32 inches high is widely used. The diamond-mesh kind, with a barbed wire at bottom and top, is excellent. For small lots, you can build a good fence from 1x6 inch rough boards, 4 boards high, with about 3 inches be- tween the two bottom boards. Wood, concrete, or steel posts are satisfactory. They should be only 8 to 10 feet apart, or even closer. Two kinds of central farrowing houses are used. The one shown in figure 1 has pens for 14 sows. (If this plan does not meet your needs, your farm advisor can help you modify it.) The other is simply a single row of farrowing pens — as many as you need or can conveniently build together — covered with a roof. In both types, the partitions between pens should be at least 30 inches high, and may be built of wood, woven wire, or gas pipe. The farrowing pen should be at least 6 feet wide by 8 feet long. Each pen will take care of one sow and litter at a time or will provide shelter for five to seven 100-pound pigs. In each pen, a door should lead to a separate outside pen where the sow and her pigs can get direct sunlight and can exercise naturally. The floors of both inside and outside pens should be concrete or wood because a dirt floor is impossible to keep clean. Each farrowing pen should have a guardrail about 8 inches above the floor and an electric brooder in one corner. You can make the guardrail from gas pipe or 2-inch lumber. [5] A simple farrowing box, such as that shown in figure 3, is easily constructed on the farm. The pigs can be put into it as they are born, to keep warm until the rest of the litter is far- rowed. An automatic waterer will save labor and furnish fresh, cool water at all times. The waterer in figure 2 is made of two concrete pipes set into a concrete platform. The outer pipe is 10 inches high, 3 inches thick, and 30 inches in diameter (inside). The inner pipe is 36 inches high, 2 inches thick, and 16 inches in diameter (inside). The float and pipe are inside the tall pipe. A small hole or holes at water level in the inner pipe lets the water into the basin, and a 2-inch hole in the outer pipe makes it easy to drain and clean the drinking basin. Fig. 2. You can make this automatic waterer from two sizes of concrete pipe, a float, some galvanized water pipe, and cement for a concrete base. Fig. 3. A box like this will keep new-born pigs warm until the rest of the litter arrives. Movable houses (fig. 4)— > are often used when the sows and lit- ters are put on pasture. They are quite varied. The best type gives protection from rain in the winter and provides shade in the summer. A good size is 8 feet wide by 14 feet long, with sides at least 3 feet high. This will accom- modate two sows and their litters if a partition is put in the middle. A gable roof and a board floor are desirable. By building the house of 4 x 6 inch skids or runners, you can move it from one lot to another and thereby reduce the chances that the pigs will become infested with worms. An electric brooder (fig. 5)-^ pays for itself many times over in sav- ing small pigs. It is actually a triangular hover fastened securely in one corner of the farrowing pen. The two closed sides are about 3 feet long. A 100- watt bulb with a reflector is placed over a hole in the top of the brooder about 12 inches above the floor. This furnishes enough heat to draw the pigs away from the sow, so that there is less danger that she will step or lie on them. It costs only a few cents a day to operate this brooder. [6] Fig. 4. If you put a partition in the center, this house will shelter two sows and their litters. The skids make it easy to move to a fresh pasture. Fig. 5. Pig brooders across the corners of two pens, as seen from the alleyway of a central farrow- ing house. Brooders keep pigs from getting trampled by the sow. Fig. 6. If you put a self-feeder inside a creep like this, the sow cannot eat the ration you intend for the pigs. Fig. 7. A self-feeder this size is large enough for 20 or 30 fattening pigs, because two or three pigs can take turns eating from each space. '"■■'<*• Fig. 8. A rack will keep alfalfa hay from being scattered and wasted. A creep for suckling pigs can be fenced off in a corner of the lot, as shown in figure 6. A small trough or self-feeder can be placed inside, where only the small pigs can get at it. Self-feeders, such as that shown in figure 7, can be used either for a single feed or for a mixture (see page 26). A small pig needs about a 6-inch trough space, a full-grown hog about a 16-inch space. But several pigs can eat in succession from the same space, so that the feeder shown in figure 7 can be used for a herd of 20 to 30 hogs. You will need to inspect each feeder at least once a day to be sure that feed is not being wasted and that the feed opening has not become clogged. Commercial garbage-feeding plants need special equipment. This is briefly discussed on pages 47 to 48. An alfalfa rack can be of benefit when hogs are not on green pasture (see fig. 8). By placing alfalfa (or other legume) hay in it, hogs gleaning stubble fields or hogging- down ripe cereal crops will have access to a feed containing carotene (vitamin A). You can get building plans by writing to the College of Agricul- ture, University of California, Berkeley or Davis. The following are available: Farrowing house . .Plan C144 52 cents Movable house: Shed-type roof . . CI 19 26 cents Gable-type roof C120 26 cents Electric brooder. . B210 16 cents Automatic waterer B195 16 cents Self-feeder on skids B14 16 cents (IV2 cubic foot hopper) Self-feeder without skids B19 16 cents (2 x /2 cubic foot hopper) 9 Choosing your Breeding Herd is one of your most important jobs. Get the medium- legged, fairly -long-and-deep type in whatever breed you prefer. Always use a purebred sire; and if you possibly can, purebred sows too. The type in lard hogs has changed greatly in recent years. Be- fore 1910 or 1920 many animals were too short, wide, and fat. On the other hand, a very long-legged, rangy hog is apt to be a poor feeder. Now the preferred type is between the two — a medium-legged animal, deep and mod- erately long. Probably this shift happened because producers realized that a medium- legged hog grows faster and is a better rustler, and because consumers' de- mands changed. This change in type may partly explain why the average brood sow raises a larger litter now. Probably her added length and depth have given her more capacity, which in turn has raised her milk production. If makes no difference which breed you choose. That's up to your own preference. All breeds fatten in about the same time, and the weather and climate affect them all about alike, except that breeds that are predominantly white some- times sunburn. Most California growers raise lard hogs. The common lard breeds are Berkshire, Chester White, Duroc Jer- sey, Hampshire, Poland China, Spotted Poland China, and some Herefords. There are only a few small herds of bacon hogs, the Large Yorkshire and Tamworth. When building your breeding herd, remember these five important points: 1. ALWAYS get a purebred sire, and purebred sows too, if you possibly can. If you cannot begin with purebred sows, get the best available grade ani- mals with good type and conformation. 2. It's safest to buy from a reliable person or firm. 3. Two-year-olds and over are sel- dom, if ever, bought for breeding. 4. If you buy a young boar or gilt, do not choose one that seems too mature for its age. A deep, moderately long animal with straight, strong legs and back, that shows smoothness and qual- ity throughout, is much preferred. 5. It's often more convenient and just as cheap to buy gilts already bred to a purebred boar. Within certain limitations you can tell an animal's value as a breeder in three ways: by type, by pedigree, and by the progeny. The brood sow (fig. 9) should produce pigs that will make good feeders, gain fast, finish at a mar- ketable weight, dress out profitably, and meet consumer demand. That's the kind of animals you want your breed- ing herd to produce. So you'll want to keep those qualities in mind when buy- ing your breeding animals. The brood sow should be a regular breeder and raise large litters. You can get some idea whether she will be this kind of animal if you know how large the litters of her sire and dam were. You also ought to consider uniformity of type, color markings, and similarity of bloodlines when choosing the sow herd. The ideal brood sow should be big, have large, clear eyes and medium- sized ears, be neat in the jowl, and have a strong muzzle and good width be- tween her eyes. Her back and loin [10 *• ' ■ > k Fig. 9. This is the type of brood sow you should aim for. Notice her arched back, smooth shoulders and sides, full hams, and well-developed udder. should be strong and slightly arched. She should be smooth about the shoul- ders, and have long, deep, smooth sides. Her hams should be deep, full, and not flabby. Her udder should be well de- veloped and have at least 10 to 14 teats. She should have straight, strong legs, not too close together, with bone of good quality, and short pasterns. Her chest should be deep and wide — not pinched — showing a strong constitu- tion. Fine hair, smooth outline, femi- ninity, and refinement about the head indicate quality. She should be even- tempered, easy to handle, not irritable. A nervous sows raises fewer pigs. When the pigs are weaned, check the records and sort out for fattening those sows that for some reason raised small litters or pigs of poor type and quality. The boar should be purebred, since most of the improvement of the herd comes from a good herd sire. There is no excuse for using a grade or scrub boar. Your pure- bred boar should come from a prolific family so his gilts will have the ability to produce large litters. It is a good idea to wait until the boar is at least 4 months old before choosing him for a herd sire. It is practically im- possible to guess at weaning time how a pig will develop. But any serious de- fects will show up by 4 months of age. The boar should be large, rugged, and strong. He should show his mascu- linity in a strong muzzle, large, clear eyes, somewhat larger ears than for a sow, a strong neck, and well-developed shoulders. He should have straight, strong legs with plenty of bone. His pasterns should be straight and short. His body should be thicker than a sow's body, with a wider back. His back and loin should be strong and slightly arched. His sides should be deep and smooth, with full hams. His sex organs should be well developed. The boar doesn't show as much re- finement as the sow, but coarseness is bad, especially wrinkles and creases on his shoulder or side. Temperament in the boar is just as important as in the sow. An irritable boar is hard to handle. This kind should not be chosen unless he has extraordi- nary qualities needed in the herd. [in Feeds fall into five classes. Few, if any of them are complete feeds. Generally, they are relatively high in one or more nutrients and low in others. That is why several are needed for a balanced ration. There are five classes of feeds for hogs: 7 . Carbonaceous concentrates, such as grains and dried fruits, which have large amounts of starch and sugar, some fat, and only a little protein. The starches and sugars and fats produce energy, which is used up day by day in the ordinary body processes, stored as fat, or used for milk production. 2. Protein supplements, including dairy, packing-house, and fish by-products, linseed, cottonseed, and soybean meals. Alfalfa hay and meal are also classed as protein supple- ments. All of these produce growth. Most animal by-products contain all the different proteins hogs need. But most plant products and by-products do not; their proteins are usually incomplete. 3. Forage crops, which contain minerals, vitamins, some starch and sugar, and give variety to the ration. Legume pastures also sup- ply protein and may partially replace protein supplements. 4, Salt mixtures, or minerals, necessary for good bone growth and other body processes if salts are lacking in the rest of the ration. 5, Vitamins or vitamin carriers, needed for growth, normal reproduc- tion, and other functions. Many hog rations fed in California are low in vitamin A and parts of the vitamin-B complex, because many feeds are low in these vitamins. In plants, vitamin A occurs in the form of carotene. Hogs need starch or sugar, protein, minerals, vita- mins, and some fat; but they can get them from various combinations of these classes of feeds. Most hogs are fed at least some feed from each class. Hogs need more protein supplements and can use less roughage than cattle and sheep because they have a different kind of digestive tract. Usually high- protein feeds must be purchased to sup- plement such common home-grown feeds as barley, grain sorghums, corn, rice stubble, and cull fruits. Fig. 1 0. A mixture of barley and rape makes a good pasture for winter or early spring. :*'#« Fig. 1 1 . This lot of pigs was self-fed a mixture of 1 5 parts of rolled barley to 1 part of tankage, given a salt mixture, and pastured on alfalfa. Carbonaceous Concentrates Barley is used more than any other cereal grain as a hog feed in California. It contains more protein (table 1) and therefore requires less protein supplements than corn. Bacon and hams produced from barley are superior in quality. However, barley is low in vitamins A and D, calcium, and possibly in some of the B vitamins. Its proteins are in- complete for good growth. Pigs fed barley, or barley and wheat-flour mid- dlings in dry lot need more protein. Either an animal protein, or a plant protein from a legume such as soybean meal, green alfalfa, or alfalfa hay, or a combination of animal and plant pro- teins, may be used. Barley is somewhat less valuable pound for pound than corn because it contains more fiber and therefore less total digestible nutrients. Corn is the most important pork-producing feed in the United States, but very little of it is grown in California. In total di- gestible nutrients, it equals or exceeds all other important carbonaceous feeds. Because it is relatively low in proteins and high in starch and fats, it is better for fattening pigs than for growing them. Corn plus skim milk, buttermilk, tankage, or fish meal produces rapid and efficient gains in growing and fat- tening pigs. Because of its carotene (vitamin A) content, yellow corn is better than white corn when corn is fed alone. Wheat produces faster and more efficient gains than either corn or barley when it is ground and fed alone or with protein supplements. However, because of its cost, little is fed to livestock. Oafs are excellent for brood sows, boars, and young gilts which are kept in the breed- ing herd. They can be fed alone or with barley and other feeds. As with barley, if you feed oats to hogs, you will need to add a protein supplement. Oats should not be used for fattening young pigs because they are too high in fiber content and are fairly low in total di- gestible nutrients. [13] Table 1 NUTRIENTS CONTAINED IN 26 CARBONACEOUS CONCENTRATES Feed Barley (Pacific states) Brewers' grains (wet) Corn Wheat (Pacific states) Oats (Pacific states) . Rye Kafir grain Milo grain Sorghum grain, sweet Feterita grain Kaoliang Rice (rough) Rice (brewers') Rice bran Rice polish Molasses, beet Molasses, cane Figs, dried Prunes Raisins Artichoke tubers Beets, sugar Potatoes, tubers Sweet potatoes, tubers Pumpkins, field Potato meal Total dry matter in 100 pounds pounds 90 24 85 89 91 90 90 89 89 89 90 89 88 91 90 81 74 75 75 87 21 16 21 32 10 93 Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Digestible protein pounds 7.7 4.2 6.6 8.3 7.0 10.0 8.8 8.8 5.8 9.5 8.2 6.0 5.7 8.5 9.7 4.4 0.0 4.0 2.4 2.3 1.2 1.2 1.3 0.2 1.3 3.7 Total digestible nutrients pounds 79 16 80 80 72 76 82 80 78 80 82 70 76 67 81 61 54 69 70 80 16 14 18 26 9 71 Nutritive ratio 1:10.2 1:2.8 1:11.1 1:8.6 1:9.3 1:6.6 1:8.3 1:8.1 1:12.4 1:7.4 1:9.0 1:10.7 1:12.4 1:6.9 1:7.4 1:12.8 1:16.1 1:28.2 1:33.7 1:12.3 1:10.4 1:12.8 1:129.5 1:5.9 1:18.3 Mineral matter in 100 pounds Total mineral matter pounds 2.7 1.0 1.2 1.9 3.7 1.9 1.6 1.7 1.6 1.7 1.9 5.2 0.8 13.5 9.6 10.1 9.0 2.1 1.8 2.1 1.7 1.1 1.1 1.2 0.9 4.3 Calcium pounds 0.08 0.07 0.02 0.10 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.74 0.04 0.01 0.03 0.08 Phos- phorus pounds 0.36 0.12 0.27 0.33 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.33 0.32 0.10 1.36 1.10 0.02 0.08 0.06 0.04 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.22 Data for barley are averages of analyses from western experiment stations. Data for dried figs, raisins, and prunes are from analyses of California Agricultural Experiment Station. All other figures are from Feeds and Feeding: a Handbook for Student and Stockman, by F. B. Morrison, p. 1086-1131, published in 1948. Reprinted with permission of the Morrison Publishing Company, Ithaca, N.Y. Rye contains a little more digestible protein than barley and slightly less total di- gestible nutrients, but very little of it is grown in California. Grain sorghums, especially kafir and milo, are popular hog feeds in California and other south- western states. Producers say they are almost as good as corn for growing and fattening pigs. Total digestible nutrients are about equal for all sorghums, and the ratio between protein content and carbohy- drates and fats is about the same. However, their proteins are incom- plete, which means that you must feed some protein supplement to your pigs and brood sows if they have no alfalfa or other legume pasture. Sorghums are also low in calcium and vitamin A. Be- cause they are extremely hard, they should be ground or rolled. [14 Rough, or paddy, rice makes good hog feed in the dry lot when it is ground finely and self-fed (see page 26) with tankage. In this form, it compares well with barley in daily gain and feed required per 100 pounds of gain. When rough rice is fed whole or cooked, even with tankage, it is poor hog feed. Don't feed rough rice to small pigs, even if it is finely ground, because little pieces of rice hulls injure the walls of the stomach and small intestines. Hogs over 100 pounds do well on rice stubble (see page 46), Rice bran is a good feed if you use it with a pro- tein supplement and barley, grain sorghums, or corn; but it has somewhat lower total digestible nutrients than barley. Rice bran has two major defects: it contains more fiber than most concen- trates, and it will produce soft or oily pork if fed alone for a long time. You should never feed rice bran alone to growing or fattening pigs. If you feed 30 per cent or less of rice bran in the ration, you need not worry about soft pork. Rice polish is a more efficient feed than rice bran and has much less tendency to produce soft pork. Because its fiber content is very low, it contains more digestible nutrients than even barley or corn. However, it should always be fed with a protein supplement and another car- bonaceous feed because it is laxative. Pigs self-fed rice polish and tankage will gain about as fast as those fed bar- ley and tankage, though they may eat a little more tankage and less grain. Cassava, or manihot meal, has large amounts of starch but very little protein. It should be supple- mented with proteins for all classes of pigs. Molasses can be substituted for part of the grain ration when it is cheap. But molasses should make up less than 20 per cent of the total ration. Molasses is fed to hogs less than to other livestock. Beet molas- ses is more laxative than cane molasses, and should be fed with more care. It contains a little protein but has less calcium and phosphorus than cane mo- lasses (table 1). Low-grade and cull raisins are rich in sugar, usually exceeding 60 per cent. They are a good feed for growing and fattening pigs if you feed both a protein supplement and barley or some other grain with them. They should be fed only up to 25 or 30 per cent of the ration. If you feed raisins alone, or raisins with a protein supple- ment, pigs often scour severely. This is true either in dry lot or pasture. Pound for pound, raisins are not so valuable as barley for fattening pigs. Dried figs and prunes have about the same feeding value as raisins, and should be fed with barley or grain sorghums, and some protein supplement. Tubers and vegetables, such as artichokes, beets, cooked pota- toes, sweet potatoes, and pumpkins, give variety to the diet and furnish some feed value. Hogs relish them, but they are low in total digestible nutri- ents and high in water. Potato meal is made by drying potatoes artificially or in the sun in the southern San Joa- quin Valley and then grinding them. It has a feed analysis much like barley. It should be fed in small amounts with other feeds, probably 25 to 40 per cent in the ration for pigs weighing 100 pounds or more; for younger pigs, about 10 per cent should be fed. [15] Protein Supplements If your hogs are not on a legume pas- ture, such as alfalfa or Ladino clover, they will need a protein supplement. Even on legume pasture, gains are bet- ter if some protein supplement is fed. Table 2 compares common protein sup- plements. Skim milk and buttermilk are the best supplements to balance the lack of proteins in grains. The milk proteins are relatively complete as com- pared with those of grains. These two dairy products also carry plenty of cal- cium and phosphorus and thus help to balance the lime deficiency of the grains. Parts of the vitamin-B complex are found in them. These nutrients are needed for reproduction, for produc- tion of milk, and for normal growth. Hence milk by-products are especially valuable for the brood sow and young pigs. The difficulty is that skim milk and buttermilk are scarce and relatively ex- pensive. Most milk in California is sold Table 2 NUTRIENTS CONTAINED IN 20 NITROGENOUS OR PROTEIN SUPPLEMENTS Feed Total dry matter in 100 pounds Digestible nutrients in 100 pounds Digestible protein Total digestible nutrients Nutritive ratio Mineral matter in 100 pounds Total mineral matter Calcium Phos- phorus Skim milk Buttermilk Whey Skim milk, dried Buttermilk, dried Whey, dried Tankage (60 per cent) Meat scraps (55 per cent) Fish meal (over 63 per cent) Linseed meal (old process) Cottonseed meal (43 per cent) Coconut meal (old process; Soybean meal Wheat-flour middlings Wheat bran Beans, field Pea seed, field Cowpeas Alfalfa meal (good) . . . Alfalfa, green pounds 10 9 7 94 92 94 93 94 93 91 93 93 91 89 90 90 91 89 93 25 pounds 3.4 3.3 0.8 31.2 29.2 11.0 51.5 45.8 60.1 30.8 36.4 18.1 37.2 16.1 13.7 20.2 20.1 19.2 11.8 3.4 pounds 9 9 7 81 84 78 68 67 74 77 76 78 78 79 67 79 78 76 54 15 1:1.6 1:1.8 1:7.1 1:1.6 1:1.9 1:6.1 1:0.3 1:0.5 1:0.2 1:1.5 1:1.1 1:3.3 1:1.1 1:3.9 1:3.9 1:2.9 1:2.9 1:3.0 1:3.5 1:3.3 pounds 0.7 0.8 0.7 7.8 10.0 9.9 20.2 25.4 15.6 5.6 6.4 6.2 6.0 3.1 6.1 4.2 3.0 3.5 9.1 2.3 pounds 0.13 0.14 0.05 1.30 1.36 0.86 6.37 8.33 0.39 0.23 0.21 0.29 0.09 0.14 0.15 0.17 0.11 1.32 0.35 pounds 0.10 0.08 0.04 1.03 0.82 0.72 3.23 4.04 0.87 1.12 0.64 0.66 0.71 1.29 0.57 0.51 0.46 0.19 0.07 These data are taken from Feeds and Feeding: a Handbook for Student and Stockman, by F. B. Morrison, p. 1086-1131, published in 1948. Reprinted with permission of the Morrison Publishing Company, Ithaca, N.Y. [16] as market milk instead of going into cream and butter so as to leave these by-products for feeds. But if you have a few cows of your own, you may have some skim milk or buttermilk for your hogs. Or you may be able to get some if you are in a district where milk is sold for market cream or butter. By all means use them if possible. Undiluted buttermilk has about the same chemical make-up and total di- gestible nutrients as skim milk. It is as good as skim milk when fed with corn, and almost as good when fed with barley. These dairy by-products should al- ways be pasteurized before being fed to hogs. This will prevent your animals from getting any diseases from them. You can feed skim milk or butter- milk separately or with barley or other grain or grain mixtures as a slop. You'll get excellent results and have a slop with about the right consistency by using 1 pound of rolled barley or grain mix to 3 pounds of liquid. If you have plenty of these dairy by-products, feed 1 pound of grain for each 5 or 7 pounds of liquid. Whey has considerable feed value as a supplement to grains, even though it contains the lowest amount of total digestible nutrients and protein among the protein supplements. Most of the protein is removed during cheese mak- ing or when casein is produced. It takes more whey and grain to produce 100 pounds of gain than skim milk and grain. Despite these drawbacks, whey pro- duces fair gains. The protein that is in it seems to be of good quality. Like skim milk, whey contains parts of the vitamin-B complex. Three lots of 50 pigs each, averaging approximately 69 pounds each, were fed 3, 5, or 7 pounds of whey for each pound of barley, with 1 per cent salt. There was very little difference in the amount of dry matter required per pound of gain among the groups. While the gains were not rapid, the pigs seemed thrifty and the heavier pigs in each lot were in excel- lent condition. There was little or no difference in shrinkage on the way to market, or in yield and quality of car- casses among the three lots. Like other dairy by-products, whey is scarce. You will probably be able to get it only if there is a cheese or casein factory in your district. But it is worth using if it is available. It is fed like skim milk, and should be pasteurized. Dried skim milk and buttermilk contain a little more than half as much protein as tankage, and are priced some- what higher. Because of their price, they are not often used for hog feeding, and there is little information about them. In one test at California, pigs were fed rolled barley and dried butter- milk. They gained about Wz pounds per head daily and consumed about 350 pounds of barley and about 35 pounds of dried buttermilk per 100 pounds of gain. Tankage and meat scraps are among the best hog feeds because: 1. They are extremely rich in digest- ible protein. 2. These proteins combine well with those of cereal grains to produce fast growth. 3. They have large amounts of cal- cium and phosphorus. 4. They are a safe feed to use because they are cooked under high pressure and are dried thoroughly. Pork producers everywhere feed tankage and meat scraps. Dairy prod- ucts and fish meal are the only other protein feeds that rank higher with hog feeders. In trials with pigs at the California Experiment Station, tankage fed with barley gave average daily gains of about 1.4 pounds, as compared with [17] 1.6 pounds when skim milk was used with barley. The pigs fed barley and tankage averaged 444 pounds of barley and 41 pounds of tankage per 100 pounds of gain. Those fed barley and skim milk averaged 325 pounds of barley and 692 pounds of skim milk (which would contain about 66 pounds of dry matter). Because of its high protein content, you only need to feed 1 part of tankage or meat scraps to 10 parts of barley or corn by weight to produce excellent gains on hogs in dry lot. This small amount is enough for brood sows, and boars too. If you have alfalfa or other green pasture, you can feed even less tankage. Very young pigs will do better if you add wheat middlings to their barley and tankage ration. A standard 60 per cent protein tank- age is recommended. Fish meal has produced surprising results in feed- ing tests. It contains more digestible protein than tankage. Fish meal con- tains about 15 per cent ash or mineral matter, second only to tankage, and much of this is calcium and phosphorus. A summary of experiments in various experiment stations shows that pigs fed a carbonaceous concentrate with fish meal gain faster and require slightly less feed than pigs fed a carbonaceous concentrate and tankage. Wheat bran is an excellent feed to add to a brood sow's ration, both be- fore and after farrowing, because it is bulky and slightly laxative. For pigs that are off feed or doing poorly, you can feed from 10 to 25 per cent of it in their ration. Wheat bran is not a good feed for fattening pigs because it is bulky and low in protein. Fig. 12. A convenient arrangement of feed bins and weighing equipment will save you time. [18] Wheat middlings, or shorts are low in protein, but still are popular with hog feeders. You can get excellent results with young growing pigs on pasture, before and especially after weaning, by feeding them a mixture of wheat middlings, rolled barley, and either skim milk, fish meal, or tankage. Linseed meal is not used much in California except by hogmen fitting purebred hogs for the shows. A ration of barley, linseed meal, and fish meal, tankage, or skim milk gives excellent results in fattening hogs, but barley and linseed meal alone produce poor gains. This is because their proteins are incomplete. Coconut meal, when not rancid, can be fed with barley to pigs on alfalfa pasture. Use 1 part coconut meal to 3 or 4 parts of grain by weight. When you feed coconut meal and barley in dry lot, always add alfalfa meal and some animal protein such as skim milk, tankage, or fish meal. Cottonseed meal may have some toxic effects if fed in large amounts. If you feed 10 per cent or less in the ration, with alfalfa pasture or hay, you should have no trouble. Cottonseed meal has more than half as much digestible protein as tankage, and is used in small amounts by many hog feeders. Soybean meal, with its high protein content, produces good gains when fed with barley or corn and alfalfa meal or some animal protein such as tankage. This feed is not grown much in California, but more of it has been fed since 1938. Field peas, when they can be grown successfully with oats or barley, make fine feed for hogging-down. Milo and cowpeas make an excellent mixture for hogs to pasture off too, with or without other grains. Navy or lima beans supply both energy and protein; hence they can be used to replace part of the barley as well as part of the tankage. Don't feed beans alone, though, be- cause the carcass will probably be soft. You can use from 15 to 30 per cent in a ration with barley and a small amount of tankage. Beans have little vitamin A and lime; when you feed them you should give the hogs some form of lime, and alfalfa or other pasture. Raw beans have a bitter taste, and hogs will not eat them. They should be cooked or steamed before feeding. If you salt the water during cooking, the beans will taste better. The cooked beans do not keep well, and only one or two days' supply can be cooked at a time. Steaming for 30 minutes gives just as good results as cooking. If the beans are then dried and ground, they will keep, and large lots can be pre- pared at a time. Alfalfa hay, meal, and leaves carry an excellent variety of proteins. They also are high in lime and many vitamins. These nutrients produce the excellent results you get when you add chopped alfalfa hay or alfalfa meal to a ration of barley and protein feed, such as wheat middlings, soybean meal, or tankage. From 5 to 10 per cent alfalfa by weight is usually enough to add to such a ration. For hogs, chopped alfalfa hay or coarsely ground alfalfa meal or leaves are better than unchopped hay or finely ground meal. Alfalfa feeds are too bulky to feed young growing pigs in large amounts. However, during wet winter months when you cannot use alfalfa pasture, you should always feed chopped alfalfa hay regularly to brood sows and a little to growing pigs. Alfalfa pasture is dis- cussed under "Forage." [19 f /!%# Fig. 1 3. Alfalfa pasture furnishes exercise, sunlight, vitamin A, minerals, and some carbohydrate and protein. forage You will gain three important ad- vantages by pasturing your pigs on alfalfa or other forage. They are: 1. Healthier pigs. 2. Faster gains. 3. Less feed for 100 pounds of gain. On pastures, pigs can exercise nat- urally; they get direct sunlight; and the variety of proteins, vitamins, and min- erals in the forage produces thrifty, healthy, fast-growing pigs. All this applies to brood sows, boars, growing, and fattening pigs alike. Best of all, when grain is high-priced or scarce, you can grow hogs with the least amount of concentrates if they also have pasture. Legume forages such as alfalfa especially cut the amount of protein supplements you must buy to balance the ration or put on 100 pounds of gain. Alfalfa pasture is an excellent forage crop for pigs — some people say it's the best — for these reasons: It produces a large tonnage per acre. It can be grazed for a long time. It is palatable. It is high in calcium and vitamin A. Its proteins help to balance the grain proteins. No other forage is used more widely than alfalfa for brood sows, both before and after farrowing. You can get excellent gains with pigs weighing 50 to 200 pounds by pastur- ing them on alfalfa, and also feeding a ration of 15 parts rolled barley and 1 part tankage, by weight. Ladino clover and mixtures of it with grasses have replaced alfalfa on some farms since Ladino was devel- oped as a pasture crop. Their food nutrients are about the same as alfalfa. They may be grown on some soils that are too shallow or heavy for alfalfa, or where alfalfa does poorly because of diseases or weeds. They stand pasturing very well, even on sandy soils. One drawback is that they need to be irri- gated often. Sudan grass yields a heavy tonnage if you get a good stand, and therefore is fast becom- ing popular as a summer pasture. It pro- vides less variety of proteins than alfalfa and less calcium and phosphorus. Barley, field peas, and vetch, mixed together, have given excellent results, according to some hog raisers. This mixture furnishes carbohydrates and a variety of proteins and minerals, but will not stand severe pasturing. A mixture of barley and rape can be substituted where alfalfa, Ladino clover, or other legume pastures cannot be sown. If you seed them in September or October, barley and rape provide ex- cellent winter pasture just when alfalfa grows slowly. Or you can sow them for early spring pasture in January or Feb- ruary. About 50 pounds of barley and 8 pounds of Dwarf Essex rape per acre is a good seed mixture. It can be drilled or broadcast. You'll get best results by letting it grow 8 to 12 inches tall before turning your pigs or brood sows in on it. Sale Mixtures Hog raisers have long known that a balance between proteins and carbo- naceous nutrients (starches, sugars, and fats) is needed for good growth. But only in recent years have the many cases of stiffness and rickets in hogs brought out the importance of salts for normal growth of bones. Calcium (lime) is the mineral most apt to be lacking in hog rations. The common grains are low in it. Dairy by-products, tankage, 21] fish meal, and alfalfa hay and meal have much more of it than grains do. But even if you feed one or more of these, you should also feed either alfalfa pas- ture or one of the salt mixtures given in the next column, to be sure that your hogs get plenty of calcium. Severe lack of calcium, especially in the rations of young pigs and of brood sows, may cause rickets. A hog ration that is low enough in calcium to pro- duce rickets is apt to be low in other nutrients also; and some of the symp- toms that develop may be due to lack of these other nutrients. For example, if young pigs are fed only a straight grain ration without any alfalfa pas- ture or salt mixtures, they will grow slowly, become nervous, stiff in their legs, and finally break down with severe rickets. Their ration is low in protein and vitamins as well as calcium, and the symptoms are due to the combina- tion of deficiencies. Again, a sow may have small, weak pigs at birth if during gestation she is fed a straight grain ration, or grain plus some protein supplement like linseed meal. The unborn pigs develop poorly because the sow's ration is low in cal- cium, vitamin A, possibly some of the vitamin-B complex, and it lacks a com- plete protein. If these deficiencies are continued and the sow produces two litters a year, they often result in steril- ity and rickets. Alfalfa hay has been found very beneficial in improving such diets. If a ration is only a little low in cal- cium, hogs may not grow so well as if they had plenty, but may not show any definite symptoms of rickets. If alfalfa pasture is not available, you can prevent trouble due to lack of cal- cium by feeding one of these four sim- ple salt mixtures: 1. 1 pound of air-slaked lime and 1 pound of common salt. 2. 1 pound of oystershell flour (ground oystershells) and 1 pound of common salt. 3. 1 pound of finely ground limestone and 1 pound of common salt. 4. 1 pound of air-slaked lime or oys- tershell flour, 1 pound of common salt, and 1 pound of finely ground bone meal or spent bone black. In mixtures 1 and 4, be sure to use air-slaked lime, not quicklime, which will burn a hog's stomach. These mixtures can be fed to grow- ing and fattening pigs, brood sows, or Fig. 14. This pig is suffering from rickets caused by lack of both calcium and vitamin D. [22 boars. They can be fed separately in small boxes in the lots where all the animals can get to them. Or they can be mixed with the feed. The amounts given are enough to mix with 100 pounds of feed. You don't need a complex mixture. When a ration is fed which is well bal- anced in other respects, it is usually necessary only to add a simple mixture such as those listed above. Any one of the first three mixtures improves almost all hog rations. In feeding tests at the California Experiment Station, one lot of hogs gained 85 pounds more per head than a second lot over a 20-week feeding period; yet the only difference in their rations was 1 per cent air- slaked lime. Sunlight helps hogs use the calcium in their ration better. This is shown by a feeding test at the California Experi- ment Station, in which pigs were fed nothing but rolled barley and common salt, with and without sunlight. Those without sunlight always developed rickets first. If you cannot give your hogs direct sunlight, you can gi\e vitamin D in their ration (see page 24) and get similar results. Phosphorus is also needed for normal growth in hogs. But an ordinary ration will sup- ply all hogs need. In the first place, they need less phosphorus than calcium. In a 100-pound pig, for example, there is about Vi pound of phosphorus and Va pound of calcium. And in the second place, most hog rations contain more phosphorus than calcium. Grains con- tain much more, and protein supple- ments have some. (Table 9, page 53, gives the calcium and phosphorus con- tent of various feeds.) So you don't usually have to add any phosphorus in a mineral mixture. If you do, you can use mixture 4, above; because the bone meal or spent bone black in it contains phosphorus as well as calcium. The ratio of calcium to phosphorus in the ration should probably be some- where near what it is in the hog's body. The ordinary ration, with calcium added in a salt mixture, should gi\Q you a satisfactory calcium-phosphorus ratio. Take a ration of 85 pounds of rolled barley, 10 pounds of chopped alfalfa hay, and 5 pounds of tankage, for example. It contains 0.34 pound of calcium and 0.45 pound of phosphorus. That's a little low in calcium. If you add 1 pound of ground limestone, which contains 0.40 pound of calcium, the ration then would have 0.74 pound of calcium and 0.45 pound of phos- phorus. This calcium-phosphorus ratio is about right for all classes of hogs — for growing and fattening pigs, and for pregnant and lactating sows. Common salt, you will notice, is included in all the salt mixtures. This is added because it makes the ration taste better and stimulates the digestive system. If your hogs are getting enough calcium from protein supplements and alfalfa pasture so that you do not need to give it to them in a salt mixture, then you can add salt alone. The best way is to mix it with your feed at the rate of 1 pound per 100. Other salts, such as potassium, are also needed for normal growth of hogs. But any ordi- nary hog ration will supply plenty of these, and you do not need to add them in a salt mixture. There is one situation where certain of these other salts may have to be supplied: this is when suckling pigs are kept on a concrete floor and do not have access to pasture. The sow's milk does not supply all the iron and copper they need. But these minerals are not added to the salt mixture. Ways of sup- plying them are discussed on page 36. [23] Vitamins Vitamin-A deficiency is likely to develop if barley or grain sorghums are your main feeds and if you feed no alfalfa hay or green feed. A lack of vitamin A sometimes causes pneumonia, reproductive troubles, night blindness, watery eyes, and harsh- ness of hair, and pigs may stop growing. To protect pigs from vitamin-A de- ficiency, give them access to green feed or give them from 5 to 10 per cent of leafy, green alfalfa hay. If you can't furnish green feed or alfalfa or other legume hay, 1 teaspoon of cod-liver oil per week no doubt would protect young growing pigs from any shortage of vitamin A. It can be given by mouth or mixed with or poured over the feed. Deficiency of vitamin-B complex can cause extremely slow growth, loss of appetite, dry, curly hair, loss of muscular control, and often death, ac- cording to recent findings at the Cali- fornia Experiment Station. There are several vitamins in the B group. Riboflavin is found in dairy products and green grass. Thiamin comes from the outer covering of grain — such feeds as wheat bran and wheat-flour middlings. Nicotinic acid is found in the leaves of plants. Good sources of pantothenic acid and pyri- doxine are rice bran, cane molasses, dried skim milk, peanut meal, wheat bran, and alfalfa mela. Vitamin-D deficiency, or rickets, might develop if pigs have no direct sunlight. It would show up as Fig. 15. The rate of growth in the University of California herd to 28 weeks of age. . HOW FAST SHOULD SWINE GROW? WHEN PIG IS THIS MANY WEEKS OLD BIRTH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 IT SHOULD WEIGH THIS MANY POUNDS 3 4 8 10 13 16 20 25 29 33 36 42 47 [24] lameness, stiffness, or swollen joints. You can remedy this by giving pigs free access to direct sunlight, or by feeding them chopped, sun-cured alfalfa hay. In cases of marked deficiency, cod-liver oil has helped greatly. One lot of pigs, fed equal parts of rolled barley and rice polish for 13 months, gained only 65 pounds during that time — from 90 pounds to 155. Then their ration was changed to 99 per cent rolled barley, 1 per cent salt, and cod-liver oil. In the next 12 months, they more than doubled their weight — from 155 pounds to 320. That was a gain of 165 pounds with cod-liver oil. Other vitamins are either not needed by pigs or are needed in such small quantities that any ration would contain enough. How Fast Do Hogs Grow? The growth curve below shows how fast animals in the University of California herd grow. It applies both to breeding and fattening hogs under average conditions. The fig- ures at the bottom show the average weight for each week. Many conditions affect the growth rate of swine. But you can compare the growth rate in your own herd with this chart, and thus measure your own feed- ing efficiency under your own condi- tions. Breeding animals usually average around 400 pounds at 12 months of age. Mature sows should weigh at least 500 pounds and boars 600 pounds or more in breeding condition. ■::,::, mm ' mm. 4.s 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 AGE IN WEEKS >1 69 75 82 89 96 106 114 122 136 148 157 167 176 183 WEIGHT IN POUNDS [25 feeding Methods Hogs are fed in several ways. You can choose or combine them to suit your own conditions. Sometimes, for example, you may hand-feed one con- centrate and self -feed another; or you may self-feed grains to hogs on pasture. Self-feeding is the method most often used to give grains and other concentrates or sup- plements to fattening hogs. In self- feeding, you put the feed in a self-feeder and let the hogs feed at will until they clean it up. If you are using two or more feeds, you can put each one out separately and let the hogs make their own mixture. Or you can mix the feeds in the proportion you want the hogs to have and self- feed the mixture. You may find the second way better if you want to get the hogs to take more of some feed they do not like very well. A good self-feeder is shown on page 8. Garbage plants usually self-feed the garbage on concrete floors; figure 26, page 46, shows such equipment. Hand-feeding is used when you want to limit the feed, such as keeping hogs from getting too fat, or for brood sows before and just after farrowing, or herd boars between breeding seasons. In hand-feeding you weigh or measure out the amount you want the hog to have. If two or more feeds are used, they are usually mixed first. Gleaning is a good way to fatten hogs weighing 100 pounds or more. Hogs are turned out to clean up waste grain in barley, rice, wheat, or other stubble after har- vest. You may feed the stubble alone, or supplement it with alfalfa pasture or a protein concentrate. Further informa- tion is given on page 46. Hogging-down is a labor-saving way to fatten hogs, and can be used with hogs weighing 85 pounds or more. Hogs are turned into the fields to harvest their own feed; many farmers are now harvesting milo or milo and cowpeas this way. This is discussed further on page 45. Pasturing is good for all classes of hogs, but is especially valuable for the breeding herd and young pigs. When pasture is available, this is the best way to feed alfalfa and other forage crops. Hogs get sunlight and exercise in addition to an excellent feed. Preparing Feeds Cooking grains or forage does not increase food value; in fact, it probably decreases food value. Cooked corn, barley, wheat, oats, and grain sorghums have a feeding value about 10 per cent lower than uncooked. Cooking whole potatoes or beans, on the other hand, increases their value for hogs. Potatoes can also be prepared by drying at a temperature of 145° and grinding into a meal (see page 15). Dry heating is not satisfactory for beans; but steaming, drying, and grinding into a meal is just as good as cooking and usually takes less labor in the long run. Raw beans have a bitter taste, and hogs do not eat them well. Grinding, rolling, or crushing is advisable for barley, wheat, and grain sorghums. If you cannot do this, then feed them soaked. Chopping or grinding alfalfa hay usually pays; hogs make better use of it than of whole alfalfa hay. Do not grind feeds so fine that they are dusty. A good rack for feeding alfalfa hay is shown in figure 8, page 9. 26] Feeding andManaging the Breeding Herd are key factors in successful hog raising. Feeding the boar and sows .... caring for the sow at farrowing time .... feeding and caring for the young pigs during and after weaning .... ear- notching the pigs .... breeding records: all are important. A boar should be fed carefully, especially during the breeding season, when his condition must be maintained during heavy service. At this time he should be fed a ration with plenty of energy, protein, vitamins, and minerals. If he has green pasture, a ration that will meet his needs is a mixture of rolled barley and tankage in the ratio of 9 to 1. In place of the barley, you can use a mixture of 4 parts of rolled barley to 1 part of wheat middlings. The amount of feed depends on his condition and the intensity of the breeding season. If he is working to full capacity, it is not too much to feed him all he will clean up twice daily. After the breeding season is over, reduce his daily ration and slowly change it to one with more carbohy- drates and less protein. If he has lost weight, let him regain at least medium condition before reducing his ration. The boar lot is usually located apart from the rest of the herd. A quiet place, accessible to forage, and large enough for plenty of exercise is desirable. Clean, dry, well-ventilated quarters, with shade in summer, are necessary. Boars often become nervous, restless, irritable, and refuse to eat. Generally this condition can be overcome by plac- ing a barrow or bred sow with him. There are 2 breeding methods: hand or individual mating, which is better, and promiscuous mating, where the boar is allowed to run with the sows. With hand-mating, a mature, vigor- ous boar can serve about 30 sows during the active breeding season. The best practice is for him to serve one sow a day. He may be mated to two sows a day, if one is bred in the morning and the other in the evening, and if he has a day of rest occasionally. When the sow is in heat, she may be brought to the boar or the boar may be driven to her pen. Not over two services should be permitted, for this is enough to insure pregnancy if both are normal. After the sow is bred, it is good practice to separate her from the open sows. Also, write down her number and the date of mating on her breeding record. When either boar or sow is overly large you can use a breeding crate. A young boar is fed and managed much like a mature animal. For best growth, a young boar needs a ration high in protein with plenty of calcium and phosphorus. Rolled barley, alone or with wheat mid- dlings, supplemented with skim milk, buttermilk, tankage, or fish meal, will provide energy and growth-promoting nutrients. In addition, he should have access to alfalfa pasture, where he can exercise naturally also, and free access to a salt mixture (page 22). A good ra- tion is given on page 38. A young boar should be kept in a lot away from the sow herd, especially dur- ing the breeding season. An animal 8 to 9 months old may be used on a few sows without checking his growth. A day or two of rest between services is advisable. [27 The brood sow should produce two litters a year with proper management, one in spring and another in fall. Some garbage-feeding plants prefer to leave the pigs with the sows about 12 weeks and hence plan to have each sow produce three litters every two years. Most of these plants distribute the breeding of their sows so that litters are farrowed every month of the year, instead of just in spring and fall. Spring litters should be farrowed on or after March 1. However, if pigs are born in February, they do very well in most sections of the state if weather is normal. Sows should farrow before May 1, because after that date hot weather and flies often slow the growth of young pigs. Fall litters should be born on or after September 1. It's best not to have sows farrow during winter months because too many baby pigs die from cold, wet weather. Also, it's much harder to keep suckling pigs in a thrifty, vigorous con- dition during winter. Breeding for spring litters should be- gin about November 10, and for fall litters about May 10. Swine, like cattle, may become in- fected with brucellosis (infectious abor- tion). When this happens, they do not reproduce naturally. If at all possible, avoid this disease. More details are given on page 49. The age to breed a gilt depends more on her growth than on her age. She should be mature enough so the demands of her growing litter and their later suckling period will not greatly affect her own development. In general, it is all right to breed a gilt to farrow at 12 months of age. If you want size in the mature sow, let her rest one season after she farrows her first litter. Another method to get large-sized sows is to breed them to farrow at 18 months of age. This way, a gilt is prac- tically full-grown when she farrows her first litter, and she should produce reg- ularly every 6 months thereafter. As a general rule, gilts farrow fewer and smaller pigs than mature sows. At breeding time, the sow should be medium fat and gaining Vi to 1 pound daily. For best results in get- ting sows into this active breeding con- dition, put them on good pasture, preferably alfalfa, or one of the recom- mended permanent pastures, and feed them enough concentrates to gi\e the desired gain. A good mixture is 12 pounds of barley to 1 pound of tankage, plus a suitable salt mixture (one of those given on page 22). The sow's condition largely accounts for the size of her litter and vigor of her pigs at birth, provided the boar is normal and vigorous at time of service. A sow that is too fat or very thin may Fig. 16. About 4 days before a sow is due to farrow, wash her care- fully with soap and warm water and place her in the farrowing pen. not come in heat. Such a sow, if she accepts the boar, may fail to conceive, or her litter often will be small. Sows usually come in heat 3 to 5 days after weaning the pigs. The period of heat lasts about 3 days and occurs every 20 to 21 days. Only during this time will the normal sow accept the boar. Time from breeding to farrowing averages 114 days, but may vary from 112 to 116 days. By keeping an accurate breeding record, you can figure the far- rowing date closely. It is highly impor- tant to know this date so you can take extra good care of the sow during the week before farrowing. Table 3 will help you to figure farrowing dates. In feeding a bred sow, try to gi\e her enough nourishment for her developing litter, but not so much that she will be too fat at farrowing time. This condition results in poorly developed pigs and difficult farrowing. She will need very little grain during the first 12 weeks after she is bred, if she has good pasture, plenty of fresh, clean water, and shade, and if it is summertime. During her last month of pregnancy, she will need a heavier ration, because 75 per cent of the growth of her litter takes place during this period. The bodies of the unborn pigs consist mostly of protein, minerals, and water; hence you must be sure to feed plenty of pro- Table 3 WHEN SHOULD A SOW FARROW? If sow She will If sow She will If sow She will was bred farrow was bred farrow was bred farrow Jan. 1 April 24 May 6 Aug. 27 Sept. 3 Dec. 25 Jan. 6 April 29 May 11 Sept. 1 Sept. 8 Dec. 30 Jan. 11 May 4 May 16 Sept. 6 Sept. 13 Jan. 4 Jan. 16 May 9 May 21 Sept. 11 Sept. 18 Jan. 9 Jan. 21 May 14 May 26 Sept. 16 Sept. 23 Jan. 14 Jan. 26 May 19 May 31 Sept. 21 Sept. 28 Jan. 19 Jan. 31 May 24 June 5 Sept. 26 Oct. 3 Jan. 24 Feb. 5 May 29 June 10 Oct. 1 Oct. 8 Jan. 29 Feb. 10 June 3 June 15 Oct. 6 Oct. 13 Feb. 3 Feb. 15 June 8 June 20 Oct. 11 Oct. 18 Feb. 8 Feb. 20 June 13 June 25 Oct. 16 Oct. 23 Feb. 13 Feb. 25 June 18 June 30 Oct. 21 Oct. 28 Feb. 18 Mar. 2 June 23 July 5 Oct. 26 Nov. 2 Feb. 23 Mar. 7 June 28 July 10 Oct. 31 Nov. 7 Feb. 28 Mar. 12 July 3 July 15 Nov. 5 Nov. 12 Mar. 5 Mar. 17 July 8 July 20 Nov. 10 Nov. 17 Mar. 10 Mar. 22 July 13 July 25 Nov. 15 Nov. 22 Mar. 15 Mar. 27 July 18 July 30 Nov. 20 Nov. 27 Mar. 20 April 1 July 23 Aug. 4 Nov. 25 Dec. 2 Mar. 25 April 6 July 28 Aug. 9 Nov. 30 Dec. 7 Mar. 30 April 11 Aug. 2 Aug. 14 Dec. 5 Dec. 12 April 4 April 16 Aug. 7 Aug. 19 Dec. 10 Dec. 17 April 9 April 21 Aug. 12 Aug. 24 Dec. 15 Dec. 22 April 14 April 26 Aug. 17 Aug. 29 Dec. 20 Dec. 27 April 19 May 1 Aug. 22 [29 tein supplements and mineral mixture during the last month. If the sow doesn't get enough nutri- ents in her feed at this time, the grow- ing fetus will take them from her body. Then she will farrow and begin nour- ishing her pigs somewhat weakened. In this condition, her litter will not get enough milk, and the result will be a large share of weak, unthrifty pigs and some dead ones. Every pig farrowed dead, or which dies while young, costs at least 140 pounds of wasted feed. That is why it is important to give sows good care before they farrow. It is also important to regulate feed- ing so that the sow will not be too fat at farrowing time. This condition also results in poorly developed pigs and difficult farrowing. For short periods during winter months when you have no pasture, feed plenty of concentrates such as barley, milo, or corn, supplemented with skim milk or tankage. You can substitute leafy alfalfa hay for alfalfa pasture, and feed it in racks, scattered on feeding platforms, or chopped and mixed with grain. Although alfalfa hay is bulky, it should make up 10 to 25 per cent of the ration when there is no alfalfa pasture. Roots and tubers provide succulence. Here are some suggested rations for sows before farrowing. DURING THE FIRST 12 WEEKS AFTER BREEDING On pasture Lbs. feed per 100 lbs. mix Barley or other grains 85 Soybean meal 8 Tankage 5 Oystershell flour 1 Salt 1 In dry lot Lbs. feed per 100 lbs. mix Barley or other grains 70 Alfalfa meal 14 Soybean meal 8 Tankage 6 Oystershell flour 1 Salt 1 You should feed enough so the sow gains from V2 to 1 pound daily. FROM 12th TO 15th WEEK On pasture Lbs. feed per 100 lbs. mix Barley or other grains 69 Alfalfa meal 10 Soybean meal 10 Tankage 9 Oystershell flour 1 Salt 1 In dry lot Lbs. feed per 100 lbs. mix Barley or other grains 61 Alfalfa meal 15 Soybean meal 12 Tankage 10 Oystershell flour 1 Salt 1 Feed this ration at about 2 per cent of the sow's body weight. DURING LAST 10 DAYS BEFORE FARROWING On pasture or in dry lot Lbs. feed per 100 lbs. mix Barley or other grains 40 Alfalfa meal 25 Soybean meal 10 Wheat bran 25 Feed this ration at about 2 per cent of the sow's body weight. [30] Housing is more of a problem in winter than in summer. Just before they farrow, sows too often have poor shelter or are turned into barns or sheds with other livestock. This is poor prac- tice. It is much better to have clean, warm, well-bedded sleeping quarters with enough ventilation and plenty of room outside for exercise. Good management at farrowing can easily mean the difference between profit and loss. You work just as hard and use almost as much feed for a sow with only 4 pigs as for one with 8. You can overcome most losses at farrowing time by proper feeding and manage- ment. You will find it beneficial to reduce the ration 30 to 50 per cent at farrowing time. During the week before farrow- ing, 25 or 30 per cent wheat bran added to the ration tones up the system, pre- vents constipation, and makes for nor- mal birth of pigs. Scrub the floor and walls of the far- rowing pen with a scalding lye solution (1 pound of lye to 30 gallons of water) and thoroughly disinfect the pen. If it is dry, airy, well-lighted, and free from drafts, you'll raise more pigs. If you place the sow in the farrowing pen about 4 days before her pigs are due, she can get used to her new sur- roundings and to the herdsman. Wash her thoroughly with soap and warm water before bringing her into the far- rowing pen (fig. 16) and disinfect her with a mild germicide such as Lysol or other coal-tar preparations. You can do this with a pressure sprayer or with a common sprinkling can. Use clean bedding free from dust. Straw, hay cut in 6-inch lengths, or wood shavings make good bedding. Avoid too much of it, because baby pigs may get tangled and be crushed by the sow. Use enough bedding to keep the sow clean and warm. All bedding should be removed at least once a week and replaced with clean material. Ma- nure should be removed daily. As farrowing time approaches, the sow becomes restless, gathers bedding, and makes a nest for her litter. The vagina becomes swollen, and milk comes into her udder 12 to 24 hours before farrowing. One light feed of bran as a thin slop, plus fresh, clean water, will be enough during the 24 hours before her pigs are born. Sows ordinarily have little difficulty in farrowing on their second and later litters if they have been handled prop- erly during pregnancy. However, a gilt sometimes has trou- ble bearing her first litter. She demands close attention. If continued labor doesn't seem to help, give her aid. The unskilled use of forceps usually kills the pigs and often injures the sow's reproductive organs. It is generally best to use just a well-greased hand and arm, clean and disinfected. Pigs that are not presented head first should be forced back and turned so as to make delivery possible. If the sow is having extreme trouble delivering her litter, get a competent veterinarian quickly. As the pigs are born, remove the membrane from the nose and mouth, and wipe the body dry. As soon as they have gained a little strength, they should be allowed to suckle. If a pig is weak or can't suckle, you can probably get him to nurse by stripping a little milk into his mouth. If you can make him swallow, he will soon gain strength and manage by himself. If the pigs get chilled, you can gen- erally revive them in a warm box, or in direct sunlight, or by rubbing them vigorously between your hands. Often a pig looks dead when born, but you can sometimes start his breathing by re- moving the mucus covering his mouth and nose, and gently slapping him on his side. [31] If a sow is nervous or irritable when gi\ing birth to her litter, let the pigs suckle and then put them in a warm farrowing box lined with straw and lightly covered to keep in the heat. When farrowing takes a long time, it's good practice to return the pigs to the sow every hour or two and let them suckle. If some small, weak pigs are born in a litter of strong pigs, take the stronger ones away now and then to give the weaker ones a chance to nurse. Occasionally a sow will farrow more pigs than she can properly nourish. When this happens, give some of them to another sow that has recently far- rowed a small litter. When sows do not provide milk at farrowing time, you can often start the milk flow by apply- ing hot packs to the udder and by vig- orous massage. The sow should be disturbed as little as possible while farrowing. Only the attendant should enter the pen at this time. When it appears, the afterbirth should be removed with a long-handled shovel or manure fork, and buried or burned. If it is left in the pen, the sow generally will eat it. You can't wot ch the sows too closely during all the farrowing season. You'll save many pigs by inspecting the litter every 2 or 3 hours, because some new- born pigs may wander away, become chilled, or be unable to suckle. The time from birth to weaning is the most critical in a pig's life. Good care then is sure to pay good profits later on in more live pigs per litter, healthier pigs, and faster gains. Normal sows will not eat their pigs if fed properly during pregnancy. It is commonly believed that rations low in protein and minerals, if fed during the last two months before farrowing, may help cause this habit. In some cases you may be able to remedy the situation by feeding tankage, meat meal, or fish meal after farrowing. If a sow has formed the pig-eating habit, fatten and market her. Fig. 17. The electric brooder should be left on as long as the pigs snuggle under it. 32 ] An electric brooder (fig. 17) helps to save a larger share of pigs farrowed (see page 6). It may be used any time except during the hot summer months. The pigs themselves are the best guide as to how long to keep it going. As long as they crawl under it for warmth, it will pay you to leave it on. If you have a central far- rowing house, you can arrange the brooders as shown in figure 5, page 7. This makes it easy to take the pigs out for marking and other operations. "Wolf" or "black" teeth are 8 needle-like teeth in the upper and lower jaws of a young pig. They seem to be useless. They should be removed about a day after farrowing by care- fully cutting them with small diagonal pliers, as shown in figure 18. If not removed, they are likely to cause trouble. Pigs bite each other while nursing, and this often results in cuts around the mouth that become in- fected. The pigs also bite the sow, and she jumps and sometimes injures or kills some of her litter. Fig. 18. The pliers at the upper right are useful in removing "wolf" teeth. Fig. 19. Ear-notching a suckling pig. Pigs should be marked when they are a few days old, with either an individual number, or a litter number — that is, the same number for every pig in one litter. This identifica- tion will tell you the number of pigs raised by each sow, so that you can pick out the unproductive sows and fatten them. You can also choose breed- ing stock of known parentage. For identification, some growers have tried metal tags in the pig's ear, but this system doesn't work out too well and is not recommended. Metal tags usually tear out, no matter how care- fully you put them in, and a tag in each ear is just so much extra trouble. Be- sides, tags don't work very well on small pigs because their ears are too small, and in any case the numbers are hard to read. Most growers use the ear-notch sys- tem because it's easiest and best. You can mark young pigs only a few days old without injury (fig. 19), and they stay marked for life. The numbers are easy to read if you make the notches large enough. Here is the system used at the University of California at Davis: The pig's left ear is used for numbers 1 through 9, and his right ear for 10, 20, 30, and so on up to 90. If a pig was num- [33 Notches are numbered from outside to inside 200 100 and 200 are indicated by tip notches Notches for number 297 Fig. 20. You can number litters or pigs up to 399 with ear notches. bered 69, the 60 would show on his right ear and the 9 on his left. The position of the notches on the ear tells you the pig's number. There are five notches around each ear, indi- cating numbers 1 through 5, or 10 through 50, as shown in figure 20. No- tice that numbers 1 and 10 are always on the outside and the numbers read around the pig's ear toward his nose. How do you get numbers 6, 7, 8, or 9? Just put two notches in the ear and add the figures which they represent. For instance, to show number 7, you'd notch the number 5 and 2 spaces. Don't use the number 4 and 3 notches because they are both too near the tip of the ear, and ears notched this way tear too easily. To show number 6, use the 4 and 2 notches; for number 8, the 5 and 3 notches; for number 9, the 5 and 4 notches. Figure 20 shows a pig marked as number 297. A good ration for orphan pigs is about 1 quart of whole cow's milk per pig, at each feeding, plus mixed shelled corn or rolled barley and tank- age, which can be self-fed. You can add green alfalfa meal or alfalfa leaves to this diet. For best results give this feed five or six times daily for awhile, and gradually cut it down to three feedings. These are the recommendations based on a five-year study by Iowa Experi- ment Station workers. in feeding a sow after farrowing, you should increase her ration slowly at first. You may or may not feed her the first 24 hours after her pigs are born, just as you choose. Practical hogmen have followed both methods with good results, but a lot depends on the sow's condition. All agree, however, that sows should be fed lightly the first 3 or 4 days after her pigs are born. A good rule to follow for the first feeding is to give 1 or 2 pounds of a suitable concentrate mixture, such as [34 rolled barley and wheat bran, equal DURING THE FIRST 14 DAYS parts by weight. On the next day, gi\e L iooibs d mS 2 or 3 pounds, and increase the amounts Barley or other grains "'"(B daily until you're feeding 5 or 6 pounds Alfalfa meal 15 at the end of the first week. Under nor- Soybean meal 10 mal conditions, the sow can be on full Wheat bran 10 feed in 10 to 14 days after farrowing. Tankage 10 You should constantly watch for any Oystershell flour 1 digestive disturbances that show up in Salt 1 suckling pigs, and should regulate the sow's feed accordingly. Overfeeding the FE °^™ E «L~ "* DAY s y , , . - *> . AFTER FARROWING sow, constipation, and lack of exercise Lbs feed may cause scours in pigs. If this hap- looibs.mix pens, it's often helpful to reduce the Barley or other grains 67 sow's feed. If she is constipated, give Alfalfa meal 10 her 5 ounces of Epsom salts in her feed. Soybean meal 12 Tankage 9 The feed requirements of a sow suck- ystershell flour \ '. V. V. 1 ling a litter are much the same as for a Sa j t ! high-producing dairy cow. She needs nutrients to maintain her body and to During this period feed as much of produce plenty of milk for her litter, this mixture as the sow will clean up in To satisfy these demands, feed her a 20 to 30 minutes twice a day. ration high in proteins, vitamins, and mineral matter, especially calcium and FROM 15th DAY UNTIL PIGS phosphorus. You can supply these ma- ARE WEANED terials with home-grown grains, sup- On pasture plemented with such high-protein feeds L io6ib| d mS as wheat middlings and tankage. Under- Barley or other grains 78 feeding often makes the sow lose too Soybean meal 12 much weight. Tankage 8 It's surprising how hard a sow works Oystershell flour 1 to feed her litter. Production records Salt * were kept on two sows for 10 weeks. During that time, each produced, on Lbs feed per ,.-,~ i r -ii i-i lOOlbs.mix the average, 539 pounds of milk, winch Bar , ey Qr other graing 59 contained 100 pounds of solids, in ad- Alfalfa meal 15 dition to maintaining herself and in- Soybean meal 15 creasing her weight. Tankage 9 You can see how important it is to Oystershell flour 1 feed sows well after their pigs grow Salt 1 large enough to consume lots of milk. If you do, they will grow fast and the At this sta S e > feed the sow a11 she sow will keep her own good health. wl11 eat - Even when on ful1 feed > heav y- Some suggested rations for sows after milking sows will lose 25 pounds or farrowing are given in the next column. more during lactation. The number of Changes in rations should be gradual, pounds for a full feed varies with the Feed the first ration carefully, not sow and her litter. If you feed her a more than 2 pounds for the first 3 days, little less than she will clean up readily and gradually increase it up to 8 or 9 twice a day, she's on full feed. Her ap- pounds on the seventh day. petite is a good guide in feeding. [35] Put sows and pigs on clean pasture from 10 to 14 days after farrowing, weather permitting (fig. 21). Forage is valuable because it helps produce milk, provides proteins and plenty of min- erals and vitamins, and allows pigs lots of exercise in direct sunlight. Legume pasture, growing on recently plowed lots, is best. After you have raised hogs on a pasture one season, you should not use it this way again for at least a year. If you use pasture repeatedly without such a rest, you may have trouble with roundworms or other parasites. Your pastures should be large enough for two to four sows and their litters, and they should be tightly fenced. Clean, warm, well-bedded houses are essential. A good type of house is shown in figure 4, page 7; this is big enough for two sows and litters. You'll get best results by running a few sows together. You can give the smaller pigs more attention in feeding and they will have a better chance to grow normally if they do not have to compete with larger pigs. If you have no small pasture, you can put more sows and their litters on a large pasture, but the pigs should all be about the same size. Don't turn a sow with 2- or 3-weeks'-old pigs in with a sow whose pigs are ready to wean. This usually makes for too many small, unthrifty pigs. When pigs are 2 to 3 weeks old, they will eat a little grain. They should feed from their own self-feeder placed inside a small enclosure or "creep" so larger animals can't disturb them. The common farm grains meet their de- mands at this age, but as they grow older and eat more grain, give them some protein supplement like skim milk, dried skim milk, middlings, tank- age, fish meal, or soybean meal. Skim milk plus grain is one of the best feeds for young growing pigs. By all means, feed it if you can. Give small amounts at first and increase the amount gradually, just what they will clean up. When baby pigs are kept on concrete or board floors longer than their first 10 days, they are likely to develop anemia. Mild cases are hard to detect, but in later stages, anemic pigs breathe hard, their skin turns pale, they grow poorly, and some of them may even die. These things happen because sow's milk, which is their only feed, does not con- tain enough iron and copper, and baby pigs apparently use up their own sup- ply, which is stored in their liver, soon after birth. The best way to provide iron is to move the sow and litter to pasture when the pigs are 10 days old. They can usually get enough iron and copper from the soil. If you can't do this, throw a shovelful of fresh, clean dirt into the pen every few days. Fig. 21. Pigs do best if they are put on clean pasture when they are 10 to 14 days old. You can also mix 3 J /2 ounces of iron sulfate in 5 quarts of water and gi\e 1 teaspoon of this solution to the pigs daily. Or you can throw a little of it on the floor where the baby pigs will lick up enough of it to meet their needs. Or you can paint the sow's udder with it. The iron sulfate contains enough cop- per impurities to supply the pigs' needs. Young pigs can be castrated easily and without much danger if you take proper precautions. The best time to castrate is while the pigs are from 3 to 6 weeks of age and still suckling. At this age pigs are small enough to be handled easily, which makes the op- eration simple. It hardly slows their growth, because there is almost no shock to the pig. A good plan is to feed nothing but mother's milk the day be- fore and the day after castration. If your hands and the knife are clean and disinfected, and if you make the cuts large enough to insure good drain- age, you'll have less danger from infec- tion. Afterward, sows and pigs should be placed in clean pastures or lots. You will find castration and similar operations easier if you have a table or a cart such as that shown in figure 22. Roofing can be prevented before the pigs are weaned. If hogs are allowed to root, they may dig up the pasture. Then, too, they are more apt to get infected with parasites in the soil, especially lungworms. Placing a small ring in the cartilage of the snout is the most common method of preventing rooting. With a small pig, one man holds the pig and another inserts the ring with the ringer. Older and larger hogs can be snubbed to a post by loop- ing a small rope around the upper jaw. Then the ring can be inserted as with smaller pigs. Rings and a ringer can be purchased at most hardware stores. It is not good practice to cut the snout to prevent rooting. Fig. 22. A cart like this is convenient for cas- trating young pigs. Pigs are weaned between 7 and 9 weeks of age, under the two-litter-a-year system, which is the common one. At this age they'll be eating a pretty heavy feed daily. The best practice is to leave the pigs on the same pasture which they used while suckling, and put the sows on another pasture. About a week before weaning, grad- ually reduce the sow's ration to de- crease her flow of milk. This helps indirectly to avoid possible injury to her udder. If you're feeding skim milk to pigs at weaning time, it should be gradually increased, but never feed more than they will clean up in a short time. Keep on feeding the same grain ration to pigs at this time. If you must change the feed, stretch the change over a 3- to 5 -day period. Any sudden change probably will upset the pigs, and some- times will kill them. After the pigs are weaned, put the sow in a separate pasture and feed her lightly until her milk flow stops. Then increase her feed, according to her condition. You should be feeding her heavily enough at breeding time so she gains from Vi to 1 pound daily. [37] While caring for pigs after weaning, you should select the gilts and boars that you intend to save for breeding stock and separate them from those to be fattened. As a rule, only gilts and boars out of the best-type and best- producing sows should be kept. Here's where that ear-notching sys- tem of identification comes in handy. If you're raising a fairly large number of hogs, it's hard to pick out the stock from your best sows unless young pigs are marked. Experiments at the University of California show that pigs can be made to gain a pound a day after weaning if they are fed right. More important, pigs on pasture gain faster and need less concentrates per pound of gain than similar pigs in dry lot. The gilts you save for breeding stock, and how you feed and care for them, determines your future sow herd. With these animals, you're aiming for as much thrifty growth as possible, not for fat. The results depend largely upon the common sense and judgment of the feeder. To obtain good growth, put your gilts in a pasture. In most cases, you'll get best growth by hand-feeding, espe- cially after they reach about 100 pounds in weight. Their ration should include plenty of energy-producing carbohy- drates and large amounts of proteins, salts, and green pasture or green alfalfa meal or chopped hay. A good combina- tion of feeds to promote a gilt's growth is alfalfa pasture plus 3 parts of skim milk or buttermilk to 1 part of grains or other carbonaceous concentrates by weight. Young boars saved for breeding should be fed and managed much like the growing gilt. The two should be separated after weaning. Here is a suggested ration for young boars and gilts in the breeding herd, weighing 175 to 250 pounds: Lbs. feed per 100 lbs. mix Barley or other grains 90 Soybean meal 5 Tankage 3 Oystershell flour 1 Salt 1 Feed this ration from 2 to IVi per cent of body weight, plus green pasture. The production-registry program is one for testing and proving the effi- ciency of purebred swine. It has been adopted and is supervised by the various national breed associations. The litters which are tested must be purebred, and the sows and boars must be registered. To qualify a litter for the Production Registry, a sow must raise at least 8 of her own pigs to a minimum litter wean- ing weight at 56 days depending on her age. If she is over 15 months old at farrowing, the minimum litter wean- ing weight is 320 pounds; if she is younger than 15 months, 275 pounds. For further information write your national breed association. Accurate breeding records are important, whether your herd is grade or purebred. Keep them up to date. Your records for each sow should show breeding date, boar used, farrow- ing date, number of boars and gilts farrowed, and number of each raised. You can make up 3 x 5 inch cards show- ing this information. [38 fattening Pigs for Market may be done in several ways and with many rations. But the best is usually full feeding of a grain plus free access to protein-rich legume pasture. There are six ways of fattening hogs for market. They are: 1. Full feeding (self- feeding) of grain on alfalfa or other pasture from wean- ing until marketing. 2. Feeding a limited ration (hand- feeding) on pasture. 3. Garbage feeding. 4. Full feeding (self-feeding) in dry lot. 5. Hogging-down crops. 6. Feeding barley and rice stubble. Full feeding on forage fattens pigs most rapidly; but local con- ditions will determine whether it is workable and economical. The rations given in table 4 were fed at this station, with the results shown. You can see that the pigs self-fed barley and tankage, or ground milo and tankage (lots 2 and 5), did not eat a great deal of tankage if they also had good alfalfa. Table 4 FULL FEEDING ON ALFALFA PASTURE Lot no. and ration Average initial weight Average daily gain pounds pounds 90 1.27 90 1.34 88 1.04 103 1.27 103 1.54 83 1.66 82 1.76 81 1.48 Feed consumed for 100 pounds of gain pounds Barley 434 /Barley 421 1 Tankage 18 (Barley 299 [Coconut meal . Ill ] Barley 360 | Wheat middlings 110 f Ground milo 400 1 Tankage 10 [Barley 361 1 Tankage 24 Barley 136 Raisins 136 Rice bran 136 Tankage 27 Raisins 220 Rice bran 220 Tankage 29 1. Rolled barley, self -fed 2. Rolled barley and tankage, self -fed 3. Rolled barley and coconut meal 4. Rolled barley and wheat middlings 5. Ground milo and tankage, self -fed 6. Rolled barley, 15 parts . . . I By weight, mixed Tankage, 1 part / and self-fed 7. Rolled barley, 5 parts ) Raisins, 5 parts [By weight, mixed Rice bran, 5 parts and self-fed Tankage, lpart 8. Raisins, 7}4 parts. . Rice bran, 7 } £ parts Tankage, lpart [ By weight, mixed and self-fed All data from California Agricultural Experiment Station feeding tests. [39 Those self-fed mixed barley and tank- age on pasture (lot 6) made their gains on less feed than any other lot, but they gained slower than lot 7. They used less feed because in a given amount of barley there are more total digestible nutrients than in raisins or rice bran. On one Tulare County hog ranch, 50 good-quality 3-month-old feeder pigs, averaging 57 pounds in weight, were put on a ration of barley, figs, yellow corn, and skim milk, with Sudan grass pasture. They gained 1.7 pounds a day and consumed 315 pounds of concen- trates and 680 pounds of skim milk (377 pounds of feed on a dry basis) per 100 pounds of gain. Thirty of these hogs shown at the State Fair placed second. Their carcasses graded Good to Choice hard hogs, and the dressing per- centage was 78 — unusually high. There is simply no substitute for protein-rich pasture for growing pigs. They seem healthier and thriftier than if kept in cramped quarters. Pigs on legume pasture need less protein sup- plements than those in dry lot. With limited grain and pasture, it is good practice to feed 1 or 2 pounds of concentrates for each 100 pounds of live weight. You can use cull fruits, vegetables, and grapes under this scheme. At the California Experiment Sta- tion, 31 pigs were rotated between two V^-acre plots of alfalfa from June to November. They also were fed a lim- ited ration of 1 part of rolled barley to 3 parts of skim milk by weight. The aim was a 1 -pound daily gain per pig, using as much alfalfa pasture and as little grain mixture as possible. The pigs gained 0.9 pound per head and re- quired 275 pounds of barley and 825 pounds of skim milk for 100 pounds of gain. Table 5 gives some suggested rations for different weights of hogs on pasture. Pigs may be fattened in dry lot if you have no pasture or only a little of it. But you will need to feed more pro- tein supplements, such as dairy by- products, tankage, fish meal, linseed meal, soybean meal, and wheat mid- dlings, than if your pigs were on pas- ture. This must be done to make sure they grow properly. You can put pigs in dry lot (fig. 23) soon after weaning, when they weigh from 45 to 75 pounds. They should have plenty of shade and clean water and a suitable salt mixture. Their quarters should be kept clean. Growing and fattening pigs need vi- tamin A. Pigs in dry lot may develop a deficiency in about 45 days on most rations. To avoid this, add alfalfa hay or meal, or some other vitamin-A car- rier to the ration. A young pig uses almost all his feed for maintenance and growth. Besides Fig. 23. If you fatten pigs in dry lot, feed alfalfa meal and extra protein supplement. [40 Table 5 SUGGESTED RATIONS FOR FATTENING PIGS ON PASTURE AND IN DRY LOT Weight of Pigs, pounds Expected daily gain, pounds Rate of feeding, per cent of body weight On green pasture In dry lot Feed Pounds per 100 pounds mix Feed Pounds. per 100 pounds mix 40-75 0.90 4.5 Barley or other grains Soybean meal Tankage or fish meal Oystershell flour . . . . Salt 76 14 8 1 1 Barley or other grains Soybean meal Tankage or fish meal Alfalfa meal Oystershell flour . . . . Salt 63 15 10 10 1 1 75-124 1.50 4.5 Barley or other grains Soybean meal Tankage or fish meal . Oystershell flour . . . . Salt 86 8 4 1 1 Barley or other grains Soybean meal Tankage or fish meal Alfalfa meal Oystershell flour . . . . Salt 74 8 6 10 1 1 125-174 1.75 4.0 Barley or other grains Soybean meal Tankage or fish meal Oystershell flour . . . . Salt 92 4 2 1 1 Barley or other grains Soybean meal Tankage or fish meal Alfalfa meal Oystershell flour . . . . Salt 82 6 3 7 1 1 175-224 1.80 4.0 Barley or other grains Soybean meal Tankage or fish meal Oystershell flour . . . . Salt 94 2 2 1 1 Barley or other grains Soybean meal Tankage or fish meal . Alfalfa meal Oystershell flour . . . . Salt 84 6 3 5 1 1 providing energy, his ration should contain nutrients to build muscle and bones. The common farm grains do not furnish enough of these materials for fast growth, so protein-rich feeds are needed as supplements. You gain two advantages by adding a protein supplement to barley or corn in dry-lot rations. First, pigs fatten faster; and second, they need less feed for 100 pounds of gain. Pigs make ex- cellent, economical gains when fed bar- ley and tankage, barley and skim milk, or ground milo and skim milk, as table 6 shows. Barley and corn are about equal when supplemented with either tankage or skim milk. As the pigs grow older and the weight increases, you can gradually cut down the amount of protein supple- ments and substitute more grains or other carbonaceous feeds. Table 5 sug- gests some rations at different weights. You can add more nutrients, succu- lence, and variety to dry-lot rations by feeding roots, tubers, pumpkins, or al- falfa hay occasionally. Table 6 summarizes dry-lot feeding trials with various combinations of the more common feeds. [41 Table 6 FATTENING PIGS IN DRY LOT Lot no. Ration used Feed used per 100 pounds of gain, pounds Number of trials Average initial weight, pounds Average daily gain, pounds Self-fed, each feed in separate self-feeder, mineral mixture self-fed in addition 6 7 8 9 10 11 Rolled barley Rolled barley Tankage .... Rolled barley Raisins Tankage (45 per cent protein in one trial). Rolled barley Rice polish Tankage Rolled barley Alfalfa meal (in racks) Corn Corn Protein supplement. Corn Skim milk or buttermilk . Rough rice, finely ground . Tankage Ground milo. Skim milk. . . Ground milo. Whey 546 436 288 567 / 461 I 56 j 289 1 896 j 349 \ 1,346 ( 3 74 1 86 2 65 2 110 35 88 35 118 1 118 10 60 2 80 1 73 1 73 0.7 1.5 1.2 1.9 0.9 1.0 1.5 1.3 1.4 1.6 1.3 Tankage self-fed in separate self-feeder, other feeds mixed and self-fed ; mineral mix- ture self-fed in addition 12 13 14 Rolled barley, 50 parts Rice polish, 50 parts . . Tankage Rolled barley, 50 parts Rice bran, 50 parts . . . Tankage Rolled barley, 33 } & parts Raisins, 33 J 3 parts Rice bran, 33 ] 3 parts . . . Tankage 183 183 33 202 202 54 161 161 161 31 57 56 57 1.4 1.3 1.1 [42] Table 6— (Continued) Lot no. Ration used Feed used per 100 pounds of gain, pounds Number of trials Average initial weight, pounds Average daily gain, pounds Mixed and self-fed, mineral mixture self-fed in addition 15 16 17 / Rolled barley, 25 parts \ Skim milk, 75 parts . . . Rolled barley, 25 parts Whey, 75 parts Rolled barley, 12^ parts Raisins, 123^ parts Skim milk, 75 parts 48 54 55 1.6 1.4 1.5 Mixed and hand-fed twice daily 18 19 20 21 22 Rolled barley, 78 parts Alfalfa hay (chopped), 20 parts Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, 1 part Rolled barley, 85 3^ parts Tankage, 7 Y 2 parts Alfalfa meal, 5 parts .... Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, 1 part . Rolled barley, 83 parts . . Tankage, 2 l A parts Soybean meal, l l / 2 parts Alfalfa meal, 5 parts Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, 1 part . Rolled barley, 783^ parts Tankage, 2 l A parts Linseed meal, 12 parts . . Alfalfa meal, 5 parts .... Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, 1 part . Rolled barley, 78 parts . Soybean meal, 5 parts. . Linseed meal, 10 parts . Alfalfa meal, 5 parts . . . Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, 1 part 392 99 5 5 348 31 20 4 4 293 9 27 18 33^ 305 10 47 19 4 4 / 275 18 35 18 3K sy 2 60 0.9 57 1.1 56 1.4 56 1.3 56 1.4 Table 6 concluded on page 44. [43 Table 6— (Concluded) Lot no. Ration used Feed used per 100 pounds of gain, pounds Number of trials Average initial weight, pounds Average daily gain, pounds Mixed and hand-fed twice daily— (Continued) 23 24 25 26 27 28 Rolled barley, 81 parts . Soybean meal, 12 parts Alfalfa meal, 5 parts . . . Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, 1 part Rolled barley, 75 parts . Linseed meal, 18 parts . Alfalfa meal, 5 parts . . . Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, 1 part Rolled barley, 79^ parts Soybean meal, 12 parts . Alfalfa meal, 5 parts .... Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, 1 part . Bone black, 1^ parts . . . Rolled barley, 603^ parts Tankage, V/i parts Alfalfa meal, 5 parts Lima beans, raw, ground, 30 parts . Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, lpart Rolled barley, 60^ parts Tankage, 2^ parts Alfalfa meal, 5 parts Lima beans, steamed for 30 minutes, dried and ground, 30 parts Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, 1 part Rolled barley, 60 3^ parts Tankage, 23^ parts Alfalfa meal, 5 parts Salt, 1 part Oystershell flour, 1 part Lima beans, cooked 2 hours, cooled, fed separately, 30 parts 285 42 18 291 70 19 4 4 t 269 41 17 3V2 sy 2 5 307 13 25 152 5 5 230 10 19 114 4 4 t 226 9 19 3M 112 2 56 2 57 > 1 61 1 66 1 66 1 66 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.0 1.5 1.4 All data from California Agricultural Experiment Station feeding tests, except for corn tests, which are averages of several experiments reported in Pork Production, by W. W. Smith, revised edition, p. 173 and 300; published by the Macmillan Company, New York City, N.Y., in 1937. [44] Hogging-down has been successful in tests at this sta- tion (fig. 24). Hogs do at least as well when they harvest the crop themselves as when hand- or self-fed in the feed lot. You will get faster and cheaper gains during hogging-down if you feed a protein supplement or legume forage. In some places, barley is hogged- down, but this practice has not been tested experimentally yet. Producers have found, though, that a fairly small area should be hogged-down at one time, that water should be close at hand, and that there should be either natural or artificial shade. Fig. 24. A herd of 85-pound fattening pigs was put on the field of dwarf milo and cowpeas shown at the top; the bottom picture shows the same field after the "harvest." [45] Is Fig. 25. Brood sows on permanent pasture. Gleaning of stubble fields (barley, rice, or wheat) is an important method of fattening hogs in California. But your hogs should weigh at least 100 pounds before they are turned into stubble. Younger pigs will not gain well on stubble. Two systems are used. In the more common one, no effort is made to pro- vide any protein, either as pasture or supplement. Hogs are just turned into the stubble fields and kept there until they are fat or they have cleaned up the field. Water and shade are provided. This method produces excellent gains on rice stubble in the Sacramento Val- ley, where it is common practice. It is a practical and economical way to fatten hogs, and most of them are marketed directly from the stubble fields. Rice is better than barley or wheat stubble. In the second system, some producers provide alfalfa pasture in addition to barley or rice stubble. In some cases where there is no alfalfa pasture, they supply tankage in a self-feeder. Fig. 26. Garbage is usually self-fed on concrete platforms. 46 Garbage feeding (fig. 26) in California is an important part of the hog business. Probably no other state has more large garbage- feeding plants than California. In nor- mal times one third of the hogs in the state are fed garbage as part or all of their ration. Garbage-fed hogs averag- ing about 220 pounds are marketed throughout the year. From a nutritional standpoint, there is probably no difference between the pork from grain-fed hogs and from garbage-fed hogs. However, the car- casses of garbage hogs are usually softer than grain-fed hogs. This is due to the larger amounts of oils and fats found in garbage. Because the carcasses are softer, garbage hogs often sell at a dis- count when hogs are plentiful. Garbage-feeding plants cover fairly small acreages and are made up of al- leys, feeding floors, shelter sheds, far- rowing houses, and small lots. Fences are 1x6 inch boards or woven wire. The farrowing houses are usually small. On one side of the farrowing pen is an outdoor pen with a concrete floor. On the other side is a small unpaved lot. While in the farrowing houses, the sows and their litters are fed garbage in the outside pen on the concrete floor. The usual arrangement for fattening pens is to have an alley with a concrete feeding floor on either side. Feeding floors are usually 8 to 12 feet wide and have enough slope so they can be thor- oughly washed. Behind the feeding floors are lots with shelters. They pro- vide exercise, shade in summer, and protection from rain and cold in winter. This type of equipment is usually found in southern California and the central valleys. Around San Francisco, equipment and feeding methods are different because hogs usually are kept inside and only occasionally are they allowed to range outdoors. No. 1 garbage, the best, comes from hotels, restaurants, hospitals, and Army and Navy camps. No. 2 garbage, which is more bulky, comes from city resi- dential areas and the refuse from vege- table markets. Garbage feeders generally sign contracts on a tonnage basis. Gar- bage from Army and Navy camps is usually on a per-man-per-day basis. In most cases, garbage is hauled by truck. However, garbage from Los An- geles is shipped by rail. Pigs that are fed garbage are some- times bought as feeder pigs; usually garbage feeders raise their own pigs. Experience has taught them that mov- ing pigs long distances and changing from grain feeding to garbage feeding often causes heavy losses. Also, they have found that small pigs should be fed garbage at an early age so their di- gestive systems can get used to the bulky feed. Most pigs do fairly well on a garbage ration, but Hampshires are most popular in southern California. Garbage is a bulky feed with fairly high moisture content, as table 7 shows. Table 7 FEED VALUE OF GARBAGE FOR HOGS Number of samples Moisture, per cent Composition of dry matter, in per cent of total dry matter Type of garbage Crude protein Nitrogen- free extract Ether extract 17.7 18.8 Crude fiber Ash No.l No. 2 2 11 71.3 75.7 17.0 17.0 39.0 38.5 13.7 14.4 12.4 11.2 [47 Most garbage feeders feed only gar- bage. Others, however, feed some grain. The more progressive feeders are be- ginning to feed more grain than for- merly. In one of the largest plants, when pigs weigh about 100 pounds, they are self-fed grain and are allowed to consume what garbage they want. In other plants the sows are fed a little barley or other concentrates shortly be- fore farrowing. In many establishments, it is common practice to feed both grain and garbage to the sows during part of their lactation period. It is possible to keep garbage plants clean if the equipment is good. Most establishments clean up once a day by clearing off the feeding floors and then washing them clean with water and broom. After the hogs have cleaned up what garbage they will, the bones are usually picked up and put in piles to dry. The other refuse is removed from the floors, spread about 8 inches deep on other concrete floors, and allowed to air-dry. It is usually turned over once a day. When dry, it is ground, put in sacks, and sold as fertilizer. How much feed does it take to produce 100 pounds of live hog? Some answers are given by cost studies made by the California Agricultural Extension Service, in cooperation with hog producers. These and records on the University of California herd give the following figures for California: If hogs are fed concentrate feeds in dry lot, it takes about 500 pounds of concentrates to produce 100 pounds of live hog in California. These figures are higher than are shown in some feed- ing tables in this circular; this is be- cause they include an allowance for the feed to maintain the breeding herd. If pasture, farm wastes, and stubble are used, they replace some of the con- centrates. On the average, they replace about 100 pounds of concentrates on California hog ranches. How many pigs are marketed per sow each year? The cost studies mentioned above give the following figures on numbers of pigs farrowed, weaned, and marketed in California. These figures have been checked with the opinion of hog producers. Average number of litters farrowed per sow per year 1.6 Average number of pigs weaned per litter 6.1 Average number of pigs marketed per litter 5.7 Average number of pigs weaned per sow per year 9.8 Average number of pigs marketed per sow per year 9.1 Theoretically it is possible to raise two litters a year; and many producers get this from most or all of their sows. But the average is considerably below this, because in practice there may be difficulties. On some farms, because of local conditions, there is only one litter a year. And some garbage plants raise about three litters every two years. Losses among young pigs are high in most garbage-feeding plants because of their all-year breeding program and digestive disturbances among the pigs. These losses reduce the average pigs weaned and marketed per litter. The best market weight for both producer and consumer is from 175 to 235 pounds. Hogs are sold to local butchers, shipped directly to packers, marketed through cooperatives, or consigned to commission firms for sale at union stockyards. A cooperative hog auction in the southern San Joaquin Valley and cooperative shipping groups in the Sacramento Valley have been highly successful. It is good business to produce the kind of hogs the public demands and to sell them to the highest bidder, no mat- ter who he is. [ 48 1 Diseases, Worms, and Parasites can be reduced by a little care and attention to preventive measures. This will cut your losses and increase your profits* Up to 35 per cent of all pigs farrowed die before they are marketed, according to reliable estimates. You can cut down your own losses from diseases, which may run into a good many dollars, if you will do these things: 1. Provide clean premises. 2. Keep your barns well lighted and ventilated. 3. Plow the lots close to the barn once or twice a year, and seed them to some annual crop such as barley and rape. This helps to control roundworm in- festation. 4. Scatter air-slaked lime in the pens and on the feeding floors occasionally. 5. Keep the troughs and feeding equipment clean. These steps will help keep down in- fection and provide healthy surround- ings for the growing pigs. Hog cholera, pneumonia, swine en- teritis, brucellosis, and parasitism are the diseases causing the heaviest losses in swine. It is essential that strict steps be taken to control these diseases, in- cluding getting competent veterinary advice. The suggestions given here will not take the place of a veterinarian. Hog cholera is caused by a virus and is highly con- tagious. Usually many animals are af- fected at once. The first signs are loss of appetite and high temperature, fol- lowed by weakness and staggering gait. Pigs usually die in 2 or 3 days after symptoms appear. You can control hog cholera by vac- cination with serum and virus, with serum alone, or with other vaccines, such as B.T.V. or crystal violet. Your local veterinarian can tell you which to use under the conditions in your herd. Pneumonia often causes heavy losses in swine of all ages. The symptom you can recognize easiest is heavy, labored breathing, or thumping, as it is sometimes called. If you can't get a veterinarian, sep- arate the sick hogs and divide them into small groups. They should be housed with plenty of bedding and provided with water and a little feed. Swine enteritis is usually related to unsanitary condi- tions, overcrowding, and faulty nutri- tion, but its actual cause is unknown. These suggestions are given: separate the affected animals, feed them a lim- ited ration of bulky feeds, part of which might be wheat bran, and disinfect the premises. Brucellosis, also called infectious abortion, is caused by the porcine strain of the same abor- tion germ which causes Bang's disease in cattle. Some results of the infection in swine are sterility in gilts, loss of litters, pigs weak at birth, uneven size of pigs in the same litter, and litters with some pigs dead, others weak, and maybe a few strong ones. There is no known cure or immuni- zation for this disease at present. The only way to stop brucellosis is preven- tion. The only sure way of knowing whether it is in your herd is a labora- tory test of a blood sample. Brucellosis is very infectious. You can easily bring it into your herd by buying infected animals. If you are starting a herd, or if your herd is nega- tive, be sure that any hogs you buy are tested. Never bring a positive reactor into a negative herd! 49] The California State Department of Agriculture has set up a system of certi- fying brucellosis-free herds of swine. Any licensed veterinarian can conduct this program for you. You can get more information about it from the State De- partment of Agriculture in Sacramento or your local farm advisor. Pork measles can be prevented by keeping human excreta away from pigs. Roundworms can be controlled by following the McLean County system, first used in Illinois. It gives excellent results. Before farrowing season begins, wash and scrub the farrowing house thor- oughly with scalding water and lye (1 pound to 30 gallons of water). Do an especially good job on the walls, par- titions, and floors of the farrowing pens. Then disinfect the pen thoroughly with any standard disinfectant and put in fresh, clean straw. Before putting the sow into this pen, wash her thoroughly with warm soapy water, especially her udder and under- line, to prevent her from carrying roundworm eggs into the clean pen. After she has farrowed and her pigs are strong enough, put them on clean, non- infested pasture. A pasture is considered noninfested if it has grown a crop since hogs were on it or if it has lain idle for one or preferably two years. Lice can be controlled easily if you have a hog wallow. A very effective way is to keep a film of about V2 inch of crude or any other cheap oil on the water. If you have no hog wallow, dip the whole herd in a dipping vat if you find lice. Add enough crude oil to the water so that each animal gets a thin covering of oil. The water should be a little warm if you dip in the late fall, winter, or early spring. Another system for oiling pigs is to crowd them into a small area and spray them with oil. You can use either a power or hand-spray outfit. Or if you are only spraying a few animals, you can use an ordinary garden sprinkling can. Pigs should be dipped or sprayed a second time in about 10 days. Mange can be controlled by dipping or spray- ing the hogs just as for lice. In severe cases you may need to scrub them first. The premises should be cleaned and dis- infected with any recognized commer- cial coal-tar or lime-sulfur dip. Myiasis is an infestation of wounds with mag- gots. To prevent it, first clean the wound with a 90 per cent solution of commercial benzol and then cover it with pine-tar oil or similar material. Carcasses should be burned. Lungworms get into hogs by way of earthworms. Therefore, if you prevent pigs from rooting by ringing their noses, you re- duce the chances of infection. The lots and pastures should be kept free of trash, litter, boards, and other debris. Chances of infection will be reduced if the hog lots are well drained. For kidney worms, a precautionary measure is to have a bare area around the sides of the pas- ture and around the feed and water troughs. Thorny-headed worms can be stopped largely by keeping the pigs from rooting. Trichina infection can be reduced or perhaps wiped out by keeping the premises en- tirely free of rats. It may be spread to garbage- fed hogs through uncooked pork scraps in the garbage. [50 Checking Hog Rations will tell you whether a ration you plan to feed has all of the nutrients hogs need. If you feed the rations suggested earlier for the different ages and classes of hogs, your hogs should get the nutrients they need for normal growth. But you may have other feeds or would like to use different proportions of the same feeds. You can find out whether the ration you are planning to use contains the needed food values by using tables 8 and 9- It will pay you to check a new ration this way. If you try to balance a ration by guess, one or two of the needed nu- trients may be low enough to keep you from getting the best results. The fail- ure of the pigs to gain all they might can cost you many times as much as it would to balance your ration. Table 8 tells you how much of each nutrient your hogs need. The amounts will be different for the breed- ing herd and for fattening pigs, and even for different weights of pigs. Table 9 shows the amounts of the nutrients found in 1 pound of many common hog feeds. Garbage feed- ing is discussed on pages 47 to 48. Table 10 shows how fo use tables 8 and 9. The sample ration given in table 10 is tested for a 100-pound pig hand-fed in dry lot. The steps taken in filling out the columns are listed. When we compare the total nutrients in the ration with the amounts needed by the pig, this ration turns out to be adequate for its purpose. If the one you test is not, you can change the propor- tions of it or add other feeds to increase whatever nutrients are deficient. If pro- tein is low, for example, you can in- crease the percentage of tankage or some other protein supplement. If hogs are self-fed, they usually balance their ration fairly well themselves, provided the feeds of- fered contain all of the needed nutri- ents, and provided the feeds are ones hogs like. But if, for example, you feed raw beans as the protein supplement, the hogs will not eat enough of them to get the protein they need. You can test whether they are getting a properly bal- anced ration if you know how much of each feed they are eating each day; the test is then made just as with the hand-fed ration in table 10. If you are feeding some liquid, such as skim milk, you will need to make an allowance for the high water content. The total daily ration given in table 8 is, you may note, on an air-dry basis. Skim milk and buttermilk are about 90 per cent water, so that for each pound of these you feed, you would count only 0.1 pound toward the total daily feed on an air-dry basis. But enter the full weight in column 3, because the amounts per pound in table 9 are given on a wet basis. If your hogs are on green pasture, they will get some of their nutrients from that. Of course you cannot tell how many pounds of pasture your hogs are eating each day, but you can make some allowances for the nutrients they get from pasture. You can assume that they will get all the vitamin A and riboflavin they need, so that you will not need to give additional amounts of these. If the pasture is legume, they will get a part of their protein needs from it and about 5 or 10 per cent of their total digestible nutrients. 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