SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 
 
SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED 
 
 A DICTIONARY OF 
 
 SYNONYMOUS WORDS IN THE ENGLISH 
 
 LANGUAGE 
 
 ILLUSTRATED WITH QUOTATIONS FROM STANDARD 
 WRITERS 
 
 b; thk latb 
 
 CHARLES JOHN SMITH, M.A. 
 
 'SMRIST CHURCH, OXFORD; LATK ARCHDEACON OF JAMAICA, AND VICAR OF KKITH 
 
 WITH THE author's LATEST CORRECTIONS AND ADDITIONS 
 EDITKD BY 
 
 THE REV. H. PERCY SMITH, M.A. 
 
 OF BALLIOL COLUIGE, OXFORD; VICaR OF «RKAT BARTON, 8UFFOLB 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 
 
 1911 
 

 CHISWlCK'PRE^:\^HiV^Li^W«ITTINGHAM AND CO. 
 > , TOQKS, COURT, CHANCeW LANE, LONDON. 
 
A. 
 
 SYNONYMS DISCEIMINATED. 
 
 ABANDON. Forsake. Deseut. 
 RiLINQUISH. 
 
 The etymological force of Abandon 
 (Fr. abandoniier, a baiidon, at liberty; 
 feudal Lat. bandian, an order y decree; 
 see Brachet) has well-nigh disap- 
 peared from this word. To embandon 
 or abandon was, primarily, to bring 
 under the power of another ; and as 
 this would imply the surrender of all 
 control on the part of the original pos- 
 sessor, it is easy to see how the con- 
 sequential idea has in modern English 
 become the primary, and then the ex- 
 clusive, meaning. To abandon is now, 
 in the most comprehensive sense, to 
 give upjinally and abso lute ly, whether 
 with or without transference of the 
 thing abandoned to some person or 
 power external to ourselves. A ti-ace 
 of the old meaning, that of placing 
 beyond jurisdiction and so disclaiming 
 possession, appears in Shakespeare : 
 " Madam wife, they say that I have 
 
 dreamed 
 And slept alone some fifteen years or more. 
 Lady. Aye, and the time seems thirty 
 
 unto me. 
 Being all this time abandoned from your 
 
 bed." 
 
 Spenser used the form aband. 
 
 No praise or blame is absolutely ex- 
 pressed by the term abandon, which 
 is one of the widest in the language, 
 though it has a tendency to imply 
 blanie when used of persons without 
 qualification. So to abandon friends 
 sounds blame-worthy, because under 
 this simple expression the mind con- 
 templates nothing but a deserted 
 friendship. Yet it is right to abandon 
 friends, if they betake themselves to 
 what is dishonest or disgraceful. 
 We may abandon persons or things ; 
 in particular, places, positions, ideas. 
 
 opinions, hopes, expectations, offices, 
 possessions, good or evil habits, as the 
 case may be. But that which is 
 abandoned is always a thing of con- 
 sideration, not a thing of little value 
 or a matter of petty detail. We may 
 abandon wealtn, but not a purse. 
 Where loss or injury is entailed on 
 the person abandoned, or the abandon- 
 ment is a dereliction of duty, this 
 moral colouring belongs not to the 
 force of the term, which is essentially 
 no more than that of Jinal leaving or 
 surrender^ but to the circumstances of 
 the case. It is only when all efforts 
 to save his ship are hopeless that the 
 captain abandons her to the rocks and 
 waves. In times of early Christianity 
 men were called upon to abandon 
 houses, lands, and relatives in such 
 a way as would be now n:,t only un- 
 called for, but an unjustifiable deser- 
 tion of them. We may observe that a 
 twofold idea seems inherent in abnn- 
 donment. We may abandon directly 
 or indirectly, either by actively trans- 
 ferring, or by avoiding and taking 
 ourselves off. I'he former force was 
 the predominant in the old English, 
 the latter in the new. 
 
 " See how he lies at random carelessly dif- 
 fused 
 As one past hope abandoned, 
 And by himself given o'er." Milton. 
 
 Forsake is the A. S. for-sacan, 
 meaning orig. to oppose, object (Bos- 
 worth). In usage it implies some 
 degree of antecedent habituation or 
 association which is given up. We 
 forsake relatives to whom we were 
 naturally bound, friends with whom 
 we once associated, habits which we 
 had contracted, opinions which we 
 had entertained, places which we used 
 
 252725 
 
*t45 frequent* *TBe cau'se of forsaking 
 is altered taste or habit, variation ot 
 custom, alienated, or abated attach- 
 ment. So, rhetorically, " the blood 
 forsook liis cheek," that is, left its 
 wonted jilace. The term does not go 
 beyond this breaking off of previous 
 habit or association, the makmg that 
 a matter of neglect or avoidance which 
 before was matter of inclination and 
 seeking; and, like abandon, implies 
 in itself neither praise nor blame, 
 which depend on the circumstances of 
 the forsaking. Inasmuch as there is 
 implied in forsake a former personal 
 connexion witli ourselves, we are not 
 paid to forsake abstract forms of good. 
 We forsake houses, lands, friends, 
 possessions, not wealtli, station, or 
 rank. These we are said to abandon 
 or renounce. Persons on being for- 
 saken by those who once loved them 
 have sometimes abandoned themselves 
 to despair. 
 
 " For wele or wo she nill him noiforsake," 
 Chauceb. 
 To Desert (Lat. dish-ae ; to for- 
 sake or abandon ; de and severe, to join 
 or bind together, as opposed to asserere, 
 to fasten — fasten hand to hand and so 
 assert a claim) is applicable to per- 
 sons, places, causes, principles, or un- 
 dertakings in conjunction with others. 
 ^Ve abandon but do not desert efforts 
 or undertakings which are purely our 
 own, and in which we owe no obliga- 
 tion or allegiance to others. The 
 term desert always implies blame 
 except when used of localities. To 
 desert a person, a principle, or a cause, 
 e.g., is by the force of the term blame- 
 worthy ; for it involves the abandon- 
 ment of sympathy, help, countenance, 
 protection, effort, where these were 
 our bounden duty, and where the 
 contrary involves a breach of trust, 
 fidelity, honor, or natural obligation. 
 Not so to desert a locality, which may 
 be indifferent, justifiable, or com- 
 pulsory. It was from overlooking 
 the fact that pbces might be deserted 
 that some have laid it down that all 
 desertion is disgraceful. " A deserted 
 fortress," a " dosertcd village." On 
 the other hand it is opprobrious in the 
 following, where the word laud meaiif 
 more than locality: — 
 
 SYNONYMS [abandon] 
 
 " No more ex, ises or delays, I stand 
 In arms, prepared to combat hand to nand. 
 The base deserter of his native land." 
 
 Dryden. 
 Like forsake, desert implies some de- 
 gree of previous habituation and 
 association, but the bond broken in 
 forsaking is that of attachment, in 
 deserting duty; hence we are not 
 said to desert what there was no moral 
 obligation to adhere to, as, e.g.^ a 
 statement, an expression, or a mere 
 opinion; but principles which we 
 weie bound to support as being 
 pledged to maintain them. Desertion 
 involves tlie withdrawal of active co- 
 operation, forsaking of sympathetic 
 association. Desert is more purely 
 voluntary than forsake. We may for- 
 sake under a feeling of imperative 
 duty, our inclinations giving way to 
 motives which our reason dares not 
 discard ; but we desert when we dis- 
 like our duty, or are prevailed upon by 
 some external preference or allure- 
 ment to escape from it. 
 
 To Relinquish (Lat. rcl'mquere) is 
 to give up under some influence, 
 power, or physical compulsion. We 
 relinquish as an act of prudence, judg- 
 ment, or necessity that which, had we 
 been left to ourselves, we should have 
 continued to hold. The act of relin- 
 quishment may of coui-se prove sub- 
 sequently to have been necessary or 
 unnecessary, wise or unwise. A 
 wounded hand may be compelled to 
 relinquish its grasp. In matters moral 
 1 relinquish my scheme on finding it 
 impracticable, or my opinion on find- 
 ing it untenable, or my hope on find- 
 ing it vain. Some degree of previous 
 struggle with ourselves is gone 
 through before we finally resolve to 
 rehnquish, or some external influence 
 is brought to bear upon us which in- 
 duces us to do so. 
 
 "The Disdaine met him, and brought 
 to him from her Majesty letters of revoca- 
 tion with commandment to relinquish for 
 his own part the intended attempt." — 
 
 IlAKLUVT. 
 
 It may be observed tliat abandon and 
 desert express more positive acts of 
 the mind than forsake and relinquish. 
 He who abandons has finally resolved, 
 he who forsakes has undergone change 
 of mind, he who deserta has sacrificed 
 
[abandoned] discriminated. 
 
 principle or duty, he who relinquishes 
 has ceased to hope or to endeavour. 
 As the others are applicable both to 
 things and persons, so relinquish be- 
 longs to things alone. In troublous 
 times men have sought to preserve 
 their treasure by concealing it under 
 the earth ; if, after a while, it should 
 be discovered by another, the law will 
 not allow him to assume on the part 
 of the original owner an intention to 
 abandon it. Prosperity quickly raises 
 about us a crowd of flatterers, who 
 would be the first to forsake us in time 
 of adversity. It is an aggravation of 
 misfortune, if one who had long pro- 
 fessed attachment should not only 
 capriciously forsake us but also de- 
 sert us in a moment of difficulty and 
 danger. How often do we engage 
 ourselves in pursuits which bring us 
 far more anxiety and labour than profit 
 or pleasure, which yet from habit or 
 some other cause we cannot persuade 
 ourselves to relinquish. 
 
 ABANDONED. Profligate. 
 Reprobate. Unprincipled. De- 
 praved. 
 
 Abandoned (see Abandon) is 
 strictly a part, passive of the verb 
 abandon, though used as an inde- 
 pendent adj. In the former capacity 
 It follows, of course, all the meanings 
 of its verb. As an adj. it has the 
 meaning of self-abandoned, and that to 
 vice; for the ways of wickedness are 
 easy, and not to struggle is to sink. 
 It is used of persons and character, 
 and so, by association, of life and con- 
 duct. It is a voluntary surrender of 
 self to the temptation of self-indul- 
 gence; self-control and the estima- 
 tion of others being disregarded and 
 defied. The abandoned man is em- 
 phatically not the misguided, seduced, 
 or overborne man. The abandoned 
 man is impatient of discipline and 
 even of reflexion ; he is wanting in 
 virtuous ambition ; he is without as- 
 piration, and has nothing worthy to 
 6e called belief. Pleasure and ease 
 are his only happiness, and all else is 
 either a labour or a dream. His 
 Social nature seeks relief in the com- 
 panionship of others like himself. 
 T his systematic character renders the 
 
 tei-m inapplicable to single acts, how- 
 ever atrociously bad. 
 
 " Nor let her tempt that deep nor make tht 
 
 shore 
 Where our abandoned youth 8he sees 
 Shipwrecked in Inxnry and lost in ease." 
 Prior. 
 
 Reprobate (Lat. repr'dbalus, tried 
 and rejected) expresses that character 
 in which a course of self-abandonment 
 to vice results ; one cast away with- 
 out hope of recovery, the very desire 
 and recognition of good being lost, 
 all repentance cast off, the bitter be- 
 coming sweet and the light darkness, 
 by a confirmed blunting of the moral 
 perception. The reprobate is regarded 
 as one whom it would be fruitless to 
 attempt to reclaim. This state the 
 abandoned may not yet have reached. 
 
 " And strength and art are easily outdone 
 By spirits reprobate." Milton. 
 
 The Profligate man (Lat. projil- 
 gave, to dash down) is he who has 
 thrown away, and becomes more and 
 more ready to throw away, all that the 
 good and wise desire to retain, as 
 principle, honour, virtue, possessions. 
 Hence it follows that the very poor 
 or obscure man, though he might be 
 abandoned and even reprobate, could 
 not be profligate. For profligacy is a 
 vice of the great, the powerful, and 
 the rich. We speak of a profligate 
 monarch, nobleman, court, ministry, 
 aristocracy ; of a corrupt or demora- 
 lized, but not profligate, peasantry. 
 Profligacy is characterized by shanio- 
 lessness and a defiant disregard of 
 morals. The old physical use of the 
 term has disappeared, as in Bishop 
 Hall's letter to the Pope: — 
 
 " Is it for thee to excite Christian 
 Princes, already too much gorged with 
 blood, to the profligation and fearful 
 slaughter of their own subjects ? " 
 
 The modern use of it appears in the 
 following : — 
 
 " Hitherto it has been thought the 
 highest pitch of profligacy is to own in- 
 stead of concealing crimes, and to take 
 pride in them instead of beicg ashamed of 
 them."— BoLUsaBROKE. 
 
 The Unprincipled man is not 
 necessarilv abandoned to ways of 
 liceutioMS8elf-indulgence,orproflignte 
 of expenditure. He may, in the atiairt 
 
SYNONYMS 
 
 I abase] 
 
 of sensual enjoyment, be even abste- 
 miouB, and in those of expenditure 
 penurious. But as the abandoned 
 man sins against self-control and the 
 profligate against sobriety, so the un- 
 principled against justice and integ- 
 rity. The abandoned man injures 
 himself primarily and others only 
 indirectly ; the unprincipled is ready 
 to erect his own interests on the i"uins 
 of the interests of others. The term 
 unprincipled, not an ancient one in 
 our language, has a twofold mean- 
 ing ; first, wanting in good principle, 
 or conspicuously marked by an absence 
 of it ; in which sense it is, negatively, 
 applicable to acts, plans, or proceed- 
 ings ; and secondly, not acting on 
 good principle or acting upon the 
 contrary toward others ; in which 
 sense it is applicable to persons only. 
 The first employment appears in the 
 following : — 
 
 "Whilst the monarchies subsisted this 
 unprincipled cession was what the influence 
 of the elder branch of the House of Bour- 
 bon never dared to attempt on the 
 younger." — Burke. 
 
 The second in the following : — 
 "Others betake themselves to State 
 fcffairs '.Tith souls so unprincipled in virtue 
 and true generous breeding, that flattery, 
 and courtships, and tyrannous aphorisms 
 appear to them the highest points of wis- 
 dom."— Milton. 
 
 DEPnAVED is a term which jioints 
 to external circumstances or continued 
 practices which have gradually per- 
 verted the nature. (Lat. depravcn-e, 
 to pervert, d'niort.) Depravity is 
 perversion of the standard of right, 
 and the term is employed not only of 
 morals, but also of manners, taste, and 
 the arts; and in a peculiar physical 
 sense (which however is technical) 
 of the humours of the body ; a phrase 
 which illustrates the radical meaning 
 of the term, corruptly depai-ting from 
 a state of wholesome function. De- 
 pravity involves the substitution of 
 false for true principles, or the less 
 worthy for the more worthy, the 
 pretentious for the meritorious, the 
 showy for the intrinsically solid and 
 valuable, the meretricious for the 
 chastt! ; tliat which attracts the admi- 
 ration of the ignorant and vulgar for 
 that which will bear the test of 
 
 exact criticism ; a conventional stan- 
 dard of morality for the true, the vir- 
 tuous, and the right. It is that de- 
 fective estimation which follows the 
 assumption of a corrupt test. 
 
 " When Reason and understanding are 
 depraved, and as far corrupted as the very 
 passions of the heart— when then the 
 blind lead the blind, what else can we ex- 
 pect than that both fall into the ditch 1 " — 
 Sherlock. 
 
 By tlie constant keeping of evil 
 company a man's taste and character 
 will of necessity become depraved. 
 There is danger that he may grow un- 
 principled in his dealings, that he may 
 abandon himself to allurements and 
 temptations, that he may go on to ex- 
 hibit an open proJ{ig::cy of conduct, 
 and finally sink into" the condition of 
 a reprobate, whom conscience ceases 
 to encourage or to warn. In old 
 English the verb deprave was often 
 used in the sense of to malign. 
 
 ABASE. Humble. Degrade. Dis- 
 GiiACE. Debase. Humiliate. Dis- 
 honour. Depose. Depress. Lower. 
 
 There was a time when the word 
 abase (Fr. abaisser, baSj low) was used 
 in a purely physical sense, as hy 
 Shakespeare : — 
 
 " And will she yet abase her eyes on 
 me?" 
 
 To abase is now only applied to 
 
 f)ersons. It is to bring low or to 
 ower in such a way as that the per- 
 son lowered shall be deeply conscious 
 of the lowering. But this is not of ne- 
 cessity on account of great guilt or 
 disgraceful conduct. That of which 
 the person abased is primarily con- 
 scious is unworthiness in reference to 
 others' estimation of him or to his 
 own. In abasement we suffer a con- 
 tradiction of, or voluntai'ily forego, as 
 the case may be, our own peculiar 
 pretensions. It may even be merito- 
 rious to abase or humble one's self 
 (of these two abase is the stronger 
 term). This could never be said 
 of degrade or disgrace. The penitent 
 man humbles himself, the remorseful 
 penitent abases himself. In either 
 case a conquest is gained over pride, 
 an-ogance, or self-will. He is abased 
 who suffers a diminution of his dig- 
 nity, msrit, or repute. 
 
[abase] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 " Absorbed id that immensity I see. 
 
 I shrink abased, and yet aspire to Thee." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 To Humble (Lat. hiimilis, low), 
 though not in one way so strong a term 
 as abase, has a fuller moral meaning. 
 He who is abased is brought low, he 
 who is humbled recognizes the right 
 of being so brought. It bears refe- 
 rence to some former condition of ex- 
 altation or estimate of self, as the 
 proud man may be humbled by the 
 reverses of fortune. lie who suffers 
 no more than overwhelming shame in 
 his reverses or change of condition is 
 abased without being humbled. He 
 is humbled, who is forced to become 
 acquainted with those vicissitudes of 
 nature or fortune, to which hitherto he 
 had been blinded by unreflectiveness 
 or pride. He is abased, whom con- 
 science or circumstances have unde- 
 ceived in his claims to n'oral or 
 social superiority. 
 
 " The plain meaning of the Apostle is to 
 declare in one continued sentence that 
 Christ when He was in the form of God 
 humbled Himself by condescending to take 
 npon Him the form of man, and not only so 
 but humbled Himself yet further by con- 
 descending to die even the death of a male- 
 factor. " — Clarke. 
 
 Degrade (Lat. de,doivn,nn(igr(idtis, 
 a step) bears reference to some stan^ 
 dard or level, moral or social, below 
 which the person degraded or who 
 Has degraded himself is supposed to 
 have fallen. Unlike abase and hum- 
 ble, which belong to sentient beings, 
 degrade is not confined to persons, 
 but is applicable to anything capable 
 of an accession or diminution ot dig- 
 nity. Art is degraded when it is 
 treated only as a trade. The higher 
 the social position, or the moral re- 
 sponsibility of the person, the more 
 degrading is the dereliction. The 
 higher the standard to which persons 
 may reasonably be expected to con- 
 form, the more degrading is the for- 
 feiture of self-respect. Sensuality, for 
 instance, is peculiarly degi-ading in 
 those who have great powers of mind, 
 meanness of dealing in the affluent, 
 low companionship in the nobly born. 
 " Moments there must be when the sin- 
 aer is sensible of the degradation of his 
 state, when he feels with pain the slavish 
 
 dependence under which he is brought to 
 fortune and the world, to violent passion* 
 and settled habits, and to fears and appre- 
 hensions arising from conscious guilt "- • 
 Blaiu. 
 
 DiscHACE is to depriveof respect (O. 
 Fr. disgrace, dis- and grace, Lat. gratia, 
 favour). He who disgraces another 
 deprives him of such social regard as 
 would otherwise belong to him. He 
 who disgraces himself deprives him- 
 self of the respect of others. Disgrace 
 is to the feeling of respect what Dis- 
 honour is to its outward token. Hence 
 disgrace is rather in a man's self, dis- 
 honour depends rather upon others. 
 While conscience may excite in us a 
 feeling of disgrace, we can have none 
 ofdishonourexceptitbe inflicted upon 
 us by others. Yet in the term dis- 
 grace there seems to be a blending o* 
 the two ideas of the Latin gratia and 
 the English grace, namely, internal 
 comeliness and external favour. The 
 minister who is capriciously dismissed 
 by his sovereign is said to be dis- 
 graced. Yet it is plain that he is m 
 no other sense so than as being mere- 
 ly thrown out of favour, while as re- 
 gards his own character he is rather 
 dishonoured than disgraced. The 
 general who is taken captive after a 
 gallant resistance never could be dis- 
 graced, though he might, by an un- 
 generous victor, be dishonoured or 
 insulted. Dishonour may be only for 
 a moment, disgrace is more perma- 
 nent. We have an exemplification 
 in the following of the twofold idea 
 of grace, from which the double as- 
 pect of disgrace arises : — 
 
 " And with sharp quips joy'd others tc 
 
 deface, 
 Thinking that their disgracing did him 
 
 grace." Spenser. 
 
 " He that walketh uprightly is secure as 
 to his honour and credit ; he is sure not to 
 come off disgracefully either at homa in 
 his own apprehensions, or abroad in the 
 estimation of men." — Barrow. 
 
 When a man is so humbled that his 
 state becomes externally manifest or 
 conspicuous, and is reflected in the 
 condition and circumstances of the 
 person humbled, he may further be 
 said to be Humiliated, that is, 
 brought to a condition and a sense of 
 humility. So strong a part doea this 
 
6 
 
 external element play in the word, 
 that one who is only self-conceited 
 may be humiliated by bemg thrown 
 suddenly into an undignified and lu- 
 dicrous position. The proud man is 
 humbled, the vain humiliated. He 
 who humbles himself endeavours to 
 cherish a feeling of humility, he who 
 humiliates himself places himself in 
 the attitude of humility. Hence we 
 are seldom said to humiliate ourselves. 
 Persons or circumstances may humble 
 us ; but it is circumstances, commonly 
 speaking, that humiliate us. The 
 case is a little different with the noun 
 humiliation, which is the only sub- 
 stantive form of the verb to humble> 
 whose meaning therefore it follows. 
 Yet in such a phrase as a *' Day of 
 Fasting and Humiliation," the term 
 conveys the idea of both internal and 
 external self-humbling. 
 
 " The former was a humiliation of Deity, 
 the latter a humiliation of manhood."— 
 Hooker, 
 
 To Dkbase (De and Eng. base), 
 though of the same etymology as 
 abase, is to deteriorate or make base 
 not the position but the internal 
 nature as regards worth, or essential 
 purity. Debased coin is so mixed 
 with alloy as to have lost much of its 
 intrinsic value. A debased style of 
 architecture has become corrupt by 
 deviation from the type and principles 
 of the pure. In all things debased a 
 noi-mal condition, form, character, 
 nrinciples, or model is implied which 
 Las been forgotten, deserted, or vio- 
 lated. The systematic deviation from 
 the standard of virtue leads to moral 
 debasement, from the standard of cor- 
 rect rule and pure taste to artistic 
 debasement. 
 
 " The great masters of composition know 
 Yery well that many an elegant woi-d be- 
 comes improper for a poet or an orator, 
 when it has been debased by vulgar use,"— 
 Anuisox, 
 
 Depose (Fr. deposer) expresses the 
 formal act of authority or of a supe- 
 rior, and is a complete taking away 
 of the office, or dignity ; Avhile degrade 
 may express a partial lowering in 
 rank, or removal to an inferior grade. 
 
 " A tyrant over his subjects, and thcre- 
 hre worthy to be deposed."— Vryuvz. 
 
 SYNONYMS [aBASEMENTJ 
 
 Depress (Lat. deprtmh-e. part, di' 
 pressus, to press doicn) is physical and 
 analogous. It denotes the exercise 
 of some uniform influence to lower 
 permanently. The muzzle of a ^un 
 IS depressed which is kept pointing 
 towards the gi-ound, the mind is de- 
 pressed which is weighted by some 
 burden of thought or reflexion. He 
 is depressed whose merits, though 
 they entitle him to promotion, are 
 stifled by the jealousy of superiors. 
 " The Gods with ease frail Man depress or 
 raise," Pope. 
 
 Lower, formed fi-om the adj. low, 
 follows the various meanings of that 
 adj. Its forces are in the main three : 
 1, to reduce in physical elevation, as 
 to lower a flag ; 2, to abate the feel- 
 ing of exaltation, as to lower pride ; 
 3, to bring down in value, amount, 
 rank, dignity or estimation, as the 
 price of goods, the rate of interest, 
 professional position, or the respect 
 of individuals, or of the public. Like 
 the simpler and Saxon words gene- 
 rally, its application in proportion to 
 its extensiveness is weak specifically. 
 It stands opposed to " raise," and is 
 as comprehensive and no more pointed 
 in its force. 
 
 ABASEMENT. Lowness. 
 
 An idea of degradation common to 
 these two terms makes them svno- 
 nyms ; but they have strong diffe- 
 rences. Abasement (Fr. abaisser, to 
 loicer) expresses the act of bringing 
 low or the state consequent upon this, 
 and always implies a former state more 
 elevated. Lowness (allied to lie and 
 lay) expresses simply the condition 
 of tliat which is low in any of the 
 numerous seuses of the word low, such 
 as physical depression, meanness of 
 condition or character, absence ol 
 sublimity, meekness, mental depres- 
 sion, an inferiority of degree, a deep 
 pitch or inaudible character of sound. 
 The physical meanings of lowness are 
 not m modern English shared by 
 abasement, which has only a moral 
 application. Abasement is a condi- 
 tion of inferiority bearing reference 
 to our own possible position, lowness 
 or inferiority to others. Abasement 
 is moral or social degradation, and by 
 an extension of meaning the painful 
 
[ABATEj 
 
 consciousness of this. Jesus Christ 
 was willing to be born in a condition 
 of weakness and abasement. Abase- 
 ment is voluntary or involuntary. 
 Voluntary abasement is a virtuous 
 act of the soul, by which it seeks to 
 counteract and repress the natural 
 tendency to pride. A low disposition 
 on the other hand is incompatible 
 with honour, and begets contempt. 
 The low is opposed to the lofty in 
 principle and sentiment, and the re- 
 fined in taste and manners. A low 
 character is one which might be ex- 
 pected to associate and sympathize 
 with the basest of mankind, a low 
 style is such as would commend itself 
 to the vulgar. That abasement which 
 is the result of misfortune does not 
 forfeit the right to consideration. 
 Lowness is not desei*ving of consider- 
 ation. Virtuous sentiment may re- 
 concile the ambitious to a low estate 
 in life, and assure them that by itself 
 it involves no abasement, while yet it 
 is a legitimate object of effort to ex- 
 change a lower condition for a higher, 
 if it be done by just and honest 
 means. 
 
 *' 'Tis immortality, 'tis that alone. 
 Amidst life's pains, abasements, emptiness. 
 The Soul can comfort." Young. 
 
 Lowness consists in want of birth, 
 merit, fortune, or condition. It may 
 be observed that the noun lowness 
 has not the sti-ong character of dis- 
 paragement which belongs to the 
 adjective low. The latter is always 
 derogatory except when employed 
 either physically or of social infe- 
 riority of rank. 
 
 ABASH. Confound. Confuse. 
 
 To be Abashed is the O. Fr. 
 Eshahii'j 10 astonish, part, esbahissant ; 
 connected with the English bay, to 
 gape, whence to stand at bay. 
 
 To be abashed is to be under the 
 influence of shame, and therefore will 
 vaiy according to the degree and 
 character of the sliame felt. The 
 over-modest are abashed in the pre- 
 sence of superiors, the guilty at the 
 detection of vice or misconduct. 
 Abase stands to the reason and the 
 judgment as abash to the feelings. 
 The fonner implies a sentence of un- 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 worthiness felt to be passid against 
 one's self, the latter shows itself in the 
 downward look, the blushing cheek, 
 or the confused manner, and may even 
 be the pure effect of natural modesty. 
 " Bat when he Venns view'd without 
 
 disguise. 
 Her shining neck beheld, and radiant eyes. 
 Awed and abash'd he turu'd his head aside. 
 Attempting with his robe his face to hide." 
 CONGREVE. 
 
 To be Confused (Lat. confundere , 
 part, confums, to pour together, to 
 perplex) denotes a state in which the 
 faculties are more or less beyond con- 
 trol, when the speech falters and 
 thoughts lose their consistency. This 
 may be from a variety of causes, as 
 failure of memoi-y, conflicting feelings, 
 a bewildered j udgment, over-modesty , 
 shame, surprise, a sense of detection 
 to one's dishonour. It is an embarras- 
 sing self-consciousness accompanied 
 by a humiliating sense of shortcoming. 
 We have formed our plan and ai*- 
 ranged our materials ; the former is 
 perhaps forestalled, the latter by some 
 accident disordered. We are thrown 
 into disturbance, the time is lost, 
 whither shall we look for help ? 
 
 '*Till I saw those eyes I was but a l>nmp ; 
 a chaos of confusedness dwelt in me." — 
 Beaumont and Fletcher. 
 
 To be Confounded, though another 
 form of the same word, is far stronger, 
 denoting an utter inability to exercise 
 to any practical purpose the power of 
 thought and speech, the reason being 
 overpowered by the shock of argu- 
 ment, testimony, or detection. To 
 confuse is in its primary and simpler 
 sense a milder tenn than confound. 
 Things are confused, when they are in 
 a state of promiscuous disorder. They 
 are confounded, when they are so 
 mixed up together that they become 
 undistinguished and indistinguish- 
 able, their individuality being lost. 
 
 *' So spake the Son of God, and Satan stood 
 A while as mute, confounded what to say." 
 Milton. 
 
 ABATE. Lessen. Diminish. De- 
 crease. 
 
 With the exception ot the last, 
 these synonyms are employed gram- 
 matically as both transitive and in- 
 transitive verbs. The simplest and 
 
8 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 LABERRANX 
 
 therefore the least ppecifically charac- 
 teristic is LrssEN (A. S. liessa, adj. 
 less), meaning to make or to give less, 
 as m force, hulk, numher, quantity, or 
 value. 
 
 " St. Pa«l chose to magnify his office, 
 when all men conspired to lessen it."— At- 
 
 TERBDBY. 
 
 DiMixisii (Lat. dimtnutre, minus, 
 less ) is the exact Latin equivalent of 
 the Saxon lessen, but is commonly 
 substituted for lessen in the intransi- 
 tive sense. The receding object di- 
 minishes rather than lessens. There 
 is hardly a shadow of difference be- 
 tween the terms, except that the Saxon 
 one is the more conversational, the 
 Latin more likely to be employed in 
 rhetorical, or scientific phraseology. 
 " Hide their diminished heads." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Abate (Fr. abattre, to beat down) 
 refers to firce, and never to size, or 
 anything in which the idea of force is 
 not more or less implied. A storm, 
 pain, mental emotion or excitement, 
 the vigour of youth, and the like, 
 abate. Of old the verb had a strong 
 transitive force in a physical applica- 
 tion, as to abate, that is, beat down the 
 walls of castles. This active force is 
 still preserved, but not in its physical 
 application. The term has grown 
 milder. We speak of abating pride, 
 zeal, expectation, hope, ardour, a de- 
 mand or claim ; and in legal language 
 (though this is of course technical) of 
 abating a writ, a nuisance, or a tax, 
 the idea being that of annulling va- 
 lidity or legal force. The word is 
 employed with singular appropriate- 
 ness in the following passage from 
 Paley's Moral Philosophy. 
 
 " The greatest tyrants have been those 
 whose titles were the most unquestioned. 
 Whenever the opinion of right becomes too 
 
 Credominant and superstitious, it is abated 
 y breaking the custom." 
 
 Decrease (Lat. dlcresctre — de, 
 down, and cresch-e, to grow) differs from 
 diminish in denoting a more gradual 
 and sustained process. We might 
 even speak of an instantaneous di- 
 minution, but not of an instantaneous 
 decrease. To decrease is gradually to 
 lessen or diminish. Yet we use the 
 *orm decrease in some cases to express 
 
 more strongly the idea of diminution 
 by inherent force, or from an internal 
 cause, as distinguished from external 
 and more palpable influences; at least 
 when speaking of physical matter or 
 subjects, as the cold decreases through 
 the season of the year. Property is 
 diminished by extravagance. To de- 
 crease is relatively to diminish abso- 
 lute and positive. Things diminish 
 whicli are simply made less through 
 any cause. Things decreajse which 
 exist in varying degree? of less or 
 more. Of the nouns, diminution ex- 
 presses a state, decrease a process. A 
 diminution in the rate of mortality is 
 the result of the decrease of an epi- 
 demic. The cause which produces 
 diminution, as it is more external, so 
 is commonly more traceable than that 
 which produces decrease. The royal 
 authority may be diminished by a 
 specific revolution, having such di- 
 minution for its object. It may de- 
 crease as the result of a variety of 
 causes, e.g., the tendency of subse- 
 quent legislation, the development 
 among the people of the sense and 
 the claim of self-government. 
 " The olive-leaf which certainly them told 
 The flood decreased." Dra^tox, 
 
 ABERRANT. Abnormal. Ec- 
 centric. Exceptional. Erratic. 
 
 Aberrant (Lat. tiberrare, to wander 
 away) dorotes that which deviates un- 
 accountably from the uniform law of 
 operation or procedure. 
 
 " They not only swarm with errors, but 
 vices depending thereon. Thus they com- 
 monly affect no man any further than he 
 deserts his reason or complies with their 
 aie?Tanc/e5."— Brown's Vulgar Errors. 
 
 The term is applied to natural devia- 
 tion from the type of a class or order, 
 as an aberrant animal or vegetable 
 form; while as regards the actions of 
 responsible agents, or the thoughts of 
 reflecting beings, it denotes a depar- 
 ture from the line of sober conduct, 
 or consistent thought: so moral and 
 intellectual aberrations. That is ab- 
 normal in outward nature which ex- 
 hibits a structure opposed to the usual 
 sti-ucture ; and generally speaking, 
 that whioh exemplifies procedure 
 contrary to the receivet^ rule, law, or 
 svstem. 
 
[abettor] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 EccENTKic (Lat. ex, out, and cen- 
 ti^um, a centre; Gr. eh and xevt/jov) de- 
 fiotes that wliich is a departure, or 
 Rnalogous to it, from movement in a 
 natural orbit. 
 
 ExcEi'TioNAL (Lat. exciptre, part. 
 txceptiis, to except) is applied generally 
 to anything which strikes common 
 observation as unlike what is familiar 
 in similar cases. Of these, the two 
 first are terms enlisted into modern 
 science, while eccentric and excep- 
 tional are applicable to other and un- 
 scientific matters. The former of these 
 was astronomical before it became 
 moral or descriptive. In its technical 
 use, an eccentric body is one which 
 moves in a circle, which, though 
 coinciding in whole or in part with 
 another in area or volume, has not the 
 same centre ; hence deviating from 
 ordinary methods or usual appearance 
 or practice. It is technically opposed 
 to concentric. The primary and se- 
 condary ideas appear combined in the 
 following : — 
 " For had I power like that which bends 
 
 the sphei'es 
 To music never heard by mortal ears ; 
 Where in her system sits the central sun. 
 And drags reluctant planets into tune : 
 So would I bridle thy eccentric soul. 
 In reason's sober orbit bid it roll." 
 
 Whitehead, oti Churchill. 
 Neither Abnormal nor Exceptional 
 are found in the older English litera- 
 ture. 
 
 Erratic (Lat. erraticiis, errure, to 
 wander) has a scientific application — 
 as e.g. to geological material borne 
 away from its original site. Erratic 
 differs from eccentric in being confined 
 to human conduct, while eccentric 
 belongs to character and appearance 
 also. The eccentric character is in- 
 oflfensive and simply odd ; but there 
 is danger that the erratic person may 
 involve himself or others in mischief. 
 Yet this force has been acquired in 
 recent times. Its older use was that 
 of idly wandering, as in the follow- 
 ing :— 
 
 " The season of the year is now come in 
 which the theatres are shut, and the card- 
 tables forsaken ; the regions of luxury are 
 for a while unpeopled, and pleasui'e leads 
 out her votaries to groves and gardens, to 
 still scenes and en-atic gratifications." — 
 Caubler. 
 
 ABETTOR. Accessory. Accom- 
 plice. 
 
 An Abettor (O. Fr. abetter, to 
 deceive, incite) is one who in any 
 way promotes the execution of a 
 scheme without taking a direct part 
 in it. If he do so, he becomes, ac- 
 cording to cii'cumstances, something 
 more than an abettor. He is an 
 Accessory (Lat. Accessorius, Du- 
 cange) if he assists directly, but in an 
 exti-aneous capacity ; an Accomplice 
 ( Lat. ad, to, and compUcare, to fold 
 together) if he is intimately bouna up 
 in the project and responsibility of the 
 scheme as a prime mover. It is in this 
 way that in treason there are no abet- 
 tors, the law not allowing the supposi- 
 tion of indirect agency in the case, but 
 regarding it as necessarily direct. Ad- 
 vice, promises, rewards, or even the ob- 
 sei'vance of silence and a forbearing to 
 oppose may constitute an abettor, but 
 no one can be negatively an accessory 
 or accomplice. Generally speaking, it 
 may be said that abettora urge and 
 promote, accessories aid or assist, ac- 
 complices design and execute. In 
 Law, an accessory before the fact is 
 one who procm-es, counsels, or com- 
 mands another to commit a felony; 
 an accessory after the fact is one who, 
 knowing of the felony, assists, com- 
 foits, or conceals the felon. It de- 
 seiTCs to be remarked, that these terma 
 are by usage restricted almost univer- 
 sally to bad or unlawful deeds oi 
 causes, although Woolaston in his 
 "■ Religion of Nature " speaks oi 
 " abetting the cause of truth." The 
 older use of Shakespeare is still the 
 common one : — 
 
 " And you that do abet him in this kind 
 Cherish rebellion, and are rebels all." 
 
 " An accessory is he who is not the chief 
 actor in the offence, nor present at its per- 
 formance, but in some way concerned there- 
 in, either before or after the fact com- 
 mitted." — Blackstone, 
 
 Dry den uses the tenn accomplice in 
 the sense of a partner in guilt : — 
 
 " Link'd hand in hand th' accomplice and 
 
 the dame 
 Their way exploring to the chamber came." 
 
 The ordinary use is that of Johnson 
 in the following — 
 
10 
 
 "And thou, the curst accomplice of his 
 
 treason, 
 Dechire thy message, and expect thy 
 doom." 
 
 ABHOR. Detest. Abominate. 
 Loathe. 
 
 Of these the plainest is Loathe 
 (A. S. lathmn, to loathe). It is also the 
 most purely physical, being in the first 
 place employed to express nausea or 
 physical disgust. The sick man loathes 
 Lis food. It is employed of moral 
 objects, by a strong metaphor or 
 analogy. In loathing there is a kind 
 of passive disgust, which in the other 
 synonyms is more active and demon- 
 etrative. 
 
 " A wicked man is loathsome and cometh 
 to shame. The word translated loathsome 
 properly denotes such kind of persons to be 
 as nauseous and offensive to the judgments 
 of others as the most loathsome, unsavory 
 things are to their tastes and smells." — 
 Bishop Wilkixs. 
 
 To Abominate (Lat. (ibominor,-pnxt. 
 abomuiatiis ; ab, from, and omen) is 
 literally to shrink from, deprecate as 
 ominous, and so to turn away from as 
 not to be endured. Abominate occu- 
 pies a place midway between loathe, 
 which IS strongly physical, and detest, 
 which is, as we shall see, emphati- 
 cally moral ; and in either case denotes 
 that kind of strong dislike which 
 would excite protest and avoidance. 
 Abhou (Lat. abhorrire, to shrink from 
 with a shudder) differs from abominate 
 in being more expressive of strong in- 
 voluntary recoil, while abominate is 
 more reflective and voluntary. He 
 who abominates would destroy or re- 
 move, he who abhors would v-cape 
 from and avoid. Abominate is more 
 applicable to the concrete forms of 
 things, abhor to the abstract. 
 
 " That very action for which the swine is 
 abominated, and looked upon as an unclean 
 and impure creature, namely, wallowing in 
 the mire, is designed by nature for a very 
 good end and use, not only to cool his body, 
 bnt also to suffocate and destroy noisome 
 and importunate insects." — Ray. 
 
 " I may perceive 
 'I'hwe Cardinals trifle with me ; I abhor 
 Thij dilatory sloth, and tricks of Rome." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Detest (Lat. ditestari, to call upon 
 the Deity as a vntness as^ainst some per- 
 son or iking) denotes a spontaneous 
 And eiiergetic hatred of what is bad in 
 
 SYNONYMS ' [abhor] 
 
 principle or which is strongly disap. 
 provea, and in our mind condemnea ; 
 not the feelings only, but the judg- 
 ment being concerned in it. It is a 
 misapplication of the word to employ 
 it of what is physically impure or per- 
 sonally disagreeable. We abominate 
 what is offensive, we abhor what is es- 
 sentially uncongenial, we detest what 
 is contemptible or evil, we loathe what 
 is nauseous and disgusting. Thus 
 there is more of feeling in abhor, 
 more of reason in detest. Detestation 
 is a kind of hatred which does not 
 rest in feeling, but tends to find ener- 
 getic expression in words and protes- 
 tation. The sick man abhors reme- 
 dies and food, the miserable wretch 
 detests the day on which he first saw 
 the light. 
 
 '* For as the gates of Hades I detest 
 The sordid wretch whom want can tempt 
 to lie." CowPER, Homer. 
 
 ABIDE. Stay. Sojouun. Dwell. 
 Reside. Lodge. 
 
 To Abide (A. S. d6idan, to stay con- 
 stantly) expresses no more than a per- 
 sonal halting or dwelling. It is in- 
 definite as to time, and may be tempo- 
 rary or permanent, according to cir- 
 cumstances. We may abide in a 
 place for a time, or for life. The radical 
 idea is, however, that of a persistent 
 stay. To abide by a decision is to 
 adhere to it with moral fixity of pur- 
 pose. But it involves some counter 
 idea of unsettlement in the habits or 
 acts of the person or persons abiding, 
 and the likelihood of after-removal. 
 An abode is hardly a place of per- 
 petual habitation. Stay marks dis- 
 tinction of place, and has^ as it were, 
 a topogi-aphical force. I stay (con- 
 nected with the Lat. stare, to stand) 
 here, or there, in the town, in the 
 countiy, at home, or in the house of a 
 friend. As to stop is not to proceed, 
 so to stay is not to change one's place. 
 Stay is more conversational than 
 abide, which is more formal and his- 
 torical. Sojourn (Fr. sojourner, Lat. 
 suhdinrnare) expresses a personal stay 
 necessarily temporary, yet implying a 
 living in that place as regards food 
 and shelter ,which are not necessarily 
 implied in either stay or abide. He 
 stayed or abode, but not soiourned, w 
 
[ability] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 11 
 
 the woods all night. It belongs to 
 localities made homes for the time, 
 and not belonging to one's self. A 
 sojourner is by the force of the term 
 a stranger. To D\ve\.i.(A.S. diceltan, 
 which however is an active verb, to re- 
 lard,to ^liasf raj/,"thepeculiar modem 
 use being Scandinavian " : Skeat, 
 Etym. Diet.) indicates a permanent 
 stay in ». place whicli to some extent 
 at least has become one's own home. 
 Tlie idea of permanent resting may be 
 illustrated, as in the case of abide, by 
 other applications of the term, as when 
 a speaker is said to dwell upon a word, 
 or a singer on a note. To Reside (Lat. 
 rcsidere, re- and scdtre, to sit) is a more 
 dignified term, not applicable like 
 abode and dwelling to the inferior 
 animals, and carrying with it a notion 
 of civilization and society, of elegance 
 of living, of responsibilities of office, 
 and of rights of property. The poor 
 man dwells in a liumble cottage near 
 the hall where the lord of the domain 
 resides. Hence the force of reside is not 
 80 strictly continuous as the others. A 
 
 Eerson may be said to reside where he 
 as a residence, which he in the main 
 occupitTo, tnough he should be even 
 frequently absent. Lodge (Fr./o^er) 
 conveys the idea of an occupation of 
 a portion of some larger place of resi- 
 dence, or a spot in a wider ai-ea, and 
 so commonly a temporary stay under 
 a common roof. 1 stay in Pai-is, I 
 lodge in the Champs Elysees. As 
 stay refers to the place, so lodge to 
 the house in tliat place. We stay and 
 abide for a long or short time. We 
 sojourn pleasantly or otherwise. We 
 lodge conveniently or not. We dwell 
 continually. We reside continually 
 or occasionally. 
 
 " There is no virtue whipt out of the court. 
 They cherish it to make it stay there, yet 
 it will uo more than abide" — Shake- 
 speare. 
 " Say, uncle Gloucester, if our brother 
 
 comti. 
 Where shall we sojourn till our coro- 
 nation ? " Shakespeare. 
 " He made the Arabians change their 
 manner of living, who are otherwise called 
 Scenites, as much as to say Tent-dwellers, 
 because they are vagrant people thnt dwell 
 in no other houses but tents, which they 
 ever use to carry with them."— North's 
 flutarch, Transl. 
 
 " His Grace ^Henry VIII.) therefoie 
 willing and minding to revoke j»u all by 
 little and little, except you. Sir Gregoi^, 
 being his ambassador there coniiiiually 
 residing ."—Bv^^^r. 
 
 " Stay, and lodge by me this night." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 ABILITY. Skill. Capacity. 
 Capability. Cleverness. Talent. 
 Genius. 
 
 Of these. Ability (Fr. habile, Lat. 
 MbUis, skilful) is of wide application. 
 It may be shown in things physical, 
 moral, intellectual, social, legal, pro- 
 fessional, casual. It deserves, how- 
 ever, to be observed, that while the 
 adjective able is employed in this 
 wide manner in specific connexion — 
 as he is an able lawyer, able to com- 
 mit passages rapidly to memory, or 
 able to lift a great weight — this ad- 
 jective,when not so connected,is never 
 used (any more than the noun ability) 
 to mean physical power. For in- 
 stance, we might say, " I dotlbt your 
 ability to move that y^one ; " but not 
 "He moved the stonfe with compara- 
 tive ease, being a person of great 
 ability." Ability is partly a gift ol 
 nature, paitly a product of training, 
 study, and experience. The able man 
 is he who makes great use of what he 
 knows. An able general must have 
 commanded with success. "Natural 
 abilities," said Bacon, using the tenn 
 in the plural(after the a;»alogy of pai-ts, 
 talents, wits, and formerly intellects), 
 " are like natural plants that need 
 pruning by study." In its widest 
 sense \bility ia the power of doing, 
 the possession of needful faculties and 
 needful means and opportunities for 
 the performance of a thing, and is op- 
 posed to inability ; the power of ap- 
 plying knowledge to practical ends. 
 The erudite man, for instance, or the 
 philosopher, however profound, is not 
 able until he brings his knowledge to 
 bear upon a purpose. 
 
 " They say that all lovers swear more 
 performance than they are able, and yet 
 reserve an ability that they never perform, 
 vowing more than the perfection often, and 
 discharging less than the tenth part of one." 
 —Shakespeare. 
 
 Quickness of mind, showing itself 
 especially in readiness to contrive 
 means to an end, whether material or 
 
12 
 
 mental, is called Cleveuneso. Clever- 
 ness in things of pure pliysicsl ti-eat- 
 ment is called dexterity. It is re- 
 markable that cleverness is not a term 
 of old English literatui-e, the old ad- 
 jective clever having been only of late 
 put into the form of a noun. It is 
 not a term of the highest order of 
 praise,and belongs to ordinary transac- 
 tions and concerns of life. A modern 
 writer has illustrated this by making 
 one of his characters, a silly young 
 nobleman, apply to Shakespeare the 
 epithet of clever. Cleverness is natu- 
 ral aptitude which dispenses with 
 much insti'uction. That cleverness in 
 things physical which requires not 
 only adroitness of manipulation but 
 judgment and discernment as the 
 result of experience, is Skill. The 
 root-meaning of skill is discernment — 
 such accurate knowledge as sees and 
 allows for differences. So the old 
 
 Shrase "it skilleth not" — it makes no 
 ifference. Hence it came to mean an 
 art distinctly professed, which was 
 called a skill, and finally applied as 
 above. It is special and technical, 
 not general like cleverness. We 
 might speak of such an one as a clever 
 man and skilful physician. Skill is 
 neither of purely abstract knowledge 
 nor of mere physical habituation, but 
 lies midway between the two, and 
 practically comprises both. A skilful 
 man combines theory with practice. 
 
 " The Bliip would quickly strike against 
 the rocks for want of skilfulness in the 
 pilots."— Seaech, Light of Nature. 
 
 Capacity (Lat. cdpdcitdtem) is po- 
 tential rather than actual, and may 
 be no more than undeveloped ability. 
 It is employed commonly of the intel- 
 lectual, though not excluded from the 
 moral nature (as we speak of a capa- 
 city for virtue), and is not employed 
 at all of the physical powers, where 
 capability would take its place. Gene- 
 rally speaking, capacity stands to 
 understanding as ability to action, 
 though the same person may possess 
 both. So the capacity of a great 
 general would be rather in his power 
 of remembering, interpreting, and 
 calculating the movements of the 
 enemy, in grasping and recognizing 
 the chaiacter and resources of a coun- 
 
 8YN0NYMS [ABILITY] 
 
 try, with reference to the movements 
 01 tlie campaign, his ability in his 
 actual direction of those movements, 
 and in the disposition and employment 
 of troops in action. 
 
 " An neroic poem resembles the accom- 
 plishment of some great undertaking whici 
 requires the duty of a soldier, and the 
 capacity of a general." — DbydeN. 
 
 Capability (Lat. citpdMlis, suscep- 
 tible of), Tv'hen employed passively 
 of things and not persons, means spe- 
 cific practicability, as a plot of ground 
 intended for landscape gardening may 
 be said to have great capability for 
 the purpose. When applied to per- 
 sons it may be said that generally, 
 as capacity is the inherent faculty 
 of understanding, so capability is the 
 inherent faculty of use or action, 
 especially of mental action. So we 
 should say of a hopeful student of phi- 
 losophy that he had capacity, the 
 main end being knowledge ; of a 
 hopeful student of oratory that he 
 had capability, the main end being 
 action. It is not impossible, nor even 
 uncommon to find capability com- 
 bined with want of ability in the 
 same person and in kindred matters. 
 For instance, one has great capability 
 for learning, and so becomes learned, 
 yet has no ability to teach, lacking 
 the power of imparting knowledge to 
 others. Hence the common observa- 
 tion that the most erudite men are 
 not necessarily the best instructors. 
 Capable denotes sufficiency of (qualifi- 
 cation, able, the possession of it in an 
 eminent degree. He is capable who 
 is not incapable. He is able who is 
 more capable than others. 
 " Sure he that made us with such large 
 
 discourse 
 Looking before and after, gave us not 
 That capability and godlike reason 
 To rust in us unused." Shakespeare. 
 
 Talent, a term borrowed from the 
 Scripture Parable of the Talents, and" 
 Genius (Lat.genius, the tutelar deity oj 
 a person or place) differ, in that talent 
 is the capacity of learning rules, and 
 the capability of readily acting upon 
 them ; genius is that innate intuition 
 which is hardly conscious of rules, and 
 can in a measure, by natural force, 
 supersede the use, that is, the specifto 
 recognition of them. 
 
l_ ABJURE J 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 13 
 
 " Like many other men oftalent, Fielding 
 was nnfortunate."— Sir W. ScoiT. 
 
 " Homer was the greater genius, Virgil 
 the better artiat." — Pope, 
 
 In the oldest English, as in Chaucer, 
 the word talente is used in the sense 
 of desire or propensity, the Latin 
 animi affectus. This comes, no doubt, 
 fi'om the idea of weight, bias. For the 
 Greek rdXavTov meant a certain weight 
 as well as a certain value of metal. So 
 Gower : — 
 
 " But not to steal a vestmente. 
 For that is nothing my talente" 
 
 I.e., propensity. 
 
 Talent may be hid and require to 
 be searched for, genius develops itself. 
 Genius creates, talent leai*ns, appre- 
 hends, and executes. Talent needs 
 opportunities, genius makes them for 
 itself. 
 
 ABJURE. Recant. Retract. 
 Revoke. Recall. Renounce. Re- 
 pudiate. 
 
 All these terms refer to the verbal 
 undoing of what has been, or in 
 some cases of what might be, main- 
 tained, declared, or professed. Ab- 
 jure (Lat. abjurare, to deny on 
 oath) retains so much of its original 
 a^ to mean a deliberate and solemn 
 giving up. Hence it applies to 
 things seriously maintained and there- 
 fore feeriously abandoned. It is to 
 give up deliberately, as principles of 
 belief or conduct, allegiance to a sove- 
 reign, claims, connexions or obliga- 
 tions, or even pleasures and advan- 
 tages. We abjure what we declare 
 ought not to be held, or not by us. 
 Yet in order to abjure a thing it is not 
 necessary to have actually held it. 
 So in this country and elsewhere men 
 abjure allegiance to the Pope, not the 
 less for having never rendered it. It 
 implies a protest against the thing 
 abjured, whereas we may renounce 
 what we regard as trifling, or what 
 we still value though we renounce it. 
 Policy may induce us to renounce, but 
 principle compels us to abjure. Abju- 
 ration is always taken in a favorable 
 sense as being dictated by a love of 
 truth or right and an aversion to their 
 contraries. The eri'or, if any, is intel- 
 lectual not moral. On the other hand 
 've may recant in form but not in heart. 
 
 " A Jacobite who is persuaded of the Pre- 
 tender's right to the crown cannot take the 
 oath of allegiance, or if he could, the oath 
 of abjuration follows, which contains an ex- 
 press renunciation of all opinions in favour 
 of the exiled family.'' — Paley. 
 
 To Recant (Lat. rccantdre, lit. to 
 chant back, to recall) refers not so much 
 (like abjure) to any inherent solemnity 
 in giving up, as to the formality and 
 publicity of doing it. A man may 
 change his opinions in secret, but he 
 recants them openly. So entirely does 
 the idea of publicity occupy the word, 
 that the recantation is complete 
 though it should be feigned and hol- 
 low, so long as it be openly and pre- 
 cisely made. Moreover a change of 
 opinion real or professed is implied in 
 recant, which as we have seen is not 
 necessarily implied in abjure. 
 
 *' How soon would ease recant 
 
 Vows made in pain as violent as void," 
 Milton. 
 
 To Retuact (Lat. retractdre, to re- 
 handle, reconsider) is a taking back 
 for the purpose of undoing the prac- 
 tical effects of what has been declared. 
 It has a more varied application than 
 recant, being employed of other mat- 
 ters than doctrine or opinion, to which 
 recant is properly restricted. We re- 
 tract promises on which others have 
 calculated, expressions by which 
 others may haye been wounded or mis- 
 led, accusations which we feel cannot 
 be supported. As we abjure on princi- 
 ple and recant either on principle or 
 policy, so we retract under the in- 
 fluence of interest or the force of cir- 
 cumstances. As in strength of pur- 
 pose we abjure, so in the same we 
 often refuse to retract. Though Plenry 
 IV. of France abjured Calvinism, he 
 would not retract the promise of pro- 
 tection he made to the Calvinists. A 
 recantation is primarily by word of 
 mouth, a retractation is also by writing. 
 
 "I would as freely have retracted the 
 charge of idolatry as I ever made it." — 
 SxiLLINGrLEET. 
 
 Revoke and Recall are the same 
 word under a Lat. (rivocdre, to call 
 back) and an Engli sh form ; but 
 though thus identical etymologically 
 they are employed with some little 
 diflference. Recall is more conver- 
 sational and ordinary, less formal and 
 
14 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [abolish] 
 
 authoritative than revoke. We recall 
 generally or in particular, inaccurate or 
 otherwise objectionable expressions ; 
 but formal acts, authoritative deci-ees, 
 orders, and solemn promises are re- 
 voked. 
 
 " The lord in the Gospel really forgave 
 his servant all his debt, but revoked the 
 grant on that servant's new misbehaviour," 
 — Waterlaxd. 
 
 *' In his retractations he recalleth and 
 correcteth this."— Cudworth. 
 
 Renounce (Lat. rcnuntiare, to send 
 a tnessage opposed to a previous one ; cf. 
 prov. Eng-. to " backword ") is a 
 wide term applicable to anything 
 bearing a close relationship to one's 
 self whether mental or external, as 
 hopes, designs, claims, possessions, 
 one's friends, the world. It is to pro- 
 claim against all connexion, actual 
 or possible, between one's self and the 
 tiling or person renounced, even ex- 
 tending to such things as maxims or 
 customs which one intends no longer 
 to follow, and to claims and preten- 
 sions which one is determined to put 
 forward no more. It was to these 
 last that the word primarily applied. 
 It is possible to renounce willingly or 
 reluctantly. As the thing renounced 
 commonly has the nature of a good or 
 supposed goodj or some value or in- 
 terest real or imagined, renunciation 
 ordinarily involves a decided change 
 of sentiment and an act of indirect 
 preference of something else over the 
 thing renounced. 
 
 " A solemn renunciation of idolatry and 
 false worship under the general title of the 
 devil and all his pomps." — Waterlakd. 
 
 Unlike the foregoing, Repudiate 
 (Lat. ■^epYidiare, to divorce) is only ap- 
 plicable where a relation has been 
 established, or sought to be esta- 
 blished, towards us from without, 
 either in the course of nature or by the 
 force of circumstances. We renounce 
 opinions irrespectively of others ; we 
 repudiate them when others have fas- 
 tened upon us the charge of holding 
 them. We repudiate what has come 
 to be closely associated with us. The 
 idea of repudiating obligations or 
 debts is recent, and a deviation from 
 the earlier, which was that of un- 
 worthines.s (not simple rejection) in 
 the thing cr person repudiated. 
 
 " Servitude is to be repudiated with 
 greater care by us than domination is 
 effected by them."— Frysne. 
 
 ABOLISH. Abrogate. Repeat^ 
 Revoke. Annul. Cancel. 
 
 Of these Abolish (Fr. abolir, Lat. 
 Hholcre) is the most general, and is ap- 
 plicable to many things to which the 
 rest are inapplicable. It denotes the 
 voluntary exercise, or the operation of 
 extinctive power. Anything which 
 is entirely done away with so tliat it 
 is as if it had never been, may be said 
 to be abolished. The term ordinarily 
 involves some length of standing in 
 the thing abolished. Asa synonym 
 with the above terms it denotes the 
 total doing away with laws, customs, 
 institutions, and the like, by any 
 power, gTadual or sudden, personal 
 or impersonal ; as, e.g. a specific act 
 of legislation may abolish a right, or 
 as the silent influence of fashion or 
 a change of taste may abolish a cus- 
 tom. The application to persons is 
 obsolete, though Tennyson says : — 
 " His quick instinctive hand 
 
 Caught at the hilt as to abolish him." 
 
 " The rtio/iYion of spiritual courts, as they 
 are called, would shake the very foundationa 
 on which the Establishment is erected." — 
 Warburton. 
 
 Abrogate, though primarily ap- 
 plicable to laws (Lat. abrogare, to re- 
 peal, in the general assemblies of 
 citizens of Rome, literally to ask back 
 or off a law), has been extended to 
 customs as having a force like that of 
 law. The essential force of abroga- 
 tion is the exercise of authority to 
 undo what authority had previously es 
 tablished or recognized. Non-usage 
 may abolish, but a positive act is re- 
 quired to abrogate. To say that a 
 thing was abrogated by disuse would 
 be to imply that disuse furnished a 
 power or ground for causing it to 
 cease. Old practices are often abo- 
 lished by new ones superseding them. 
 What equity had established has been 
 abrogated by despotic power. 
 
 " It appears to have been an usual prac- 
 tice in Athens, on the establishment of any 
 law esteemed very useful or popular, to pro- 
 hibit for ever its abrogation and repeal." — 
 Hume. 
 
 Repeal (Fr. rappeUr, Lat. re-ap 
 peltdrej to call back) is applied charac- 
 
[above] 
 
 teristically to the acts of a number, as 
 an assembly or council may repeal a 
 law. An irresponsible ruler would 
 hardly be said to repeal, because the 
 word wears an air of legality. In 
 the resolutions of deliberative assem- 
 blies, which have not the force of law 
 but are only regulatively binding upon 
 its members, the term employed is re- 
 scind. To Revoke (Lat. rcvucfire) 
 stands to personal, as repeal to collec- 
 tive, authority. As adespot does notre- 
 peal, so a parliament does not revoke. 
 As laws and customs are abrogated or 
 repealed, so edicts are revoked, and, 
 indeed, any formal expression on the 
 part of individuals, especiall}'^ such 
 as affects others, e.g. an epithet or 
 promise, whether in word or writing. 
 The proclaimed law is revoked, the 
 written law is repealed. The revoca- 
 tion, not the repeal, of the edict of 
 Nantes. The repeal, not the revocation, 
 of the Irish Union. The object of re- 
 vocation is that an act or a word 
 should be regarded as if it had never 
 been made ; the object of repeal is 
 that a thing should cease to have 
 force or operation. 
 
 " A devise by writing may be also revoked 
 by burning, cancelling, tearing, or oblite- 
 rating thei'eof by the devisor, or in his 
 presence and \v;th his consent." — BlaCK- 
 
 STOXE. 
 
 Annul (Lat. annnllare, to bring to 
 nothing) expresses no more than the 
 rendei-ing inoperative of what before 
 had force, whether by law, custom, 
 or consent. The term belongs to legal 
 enactments and compacts. Annulling 
 is done by some provision to the con- 
 trary, proceeding either from authority 
 or those from whom the original pro- 
 vision emanated. A reciprocal obli- 
 gation may be annulled by the parties 
 who imposed it upon themselves, but 
 if the binding force were one of au- 
 thority the annulling force must be 
 Buch also. 
 
 " Your promises are sins of inconsidera- 
 tion at best, and you are bound to repent 
 and annul them." — Swift. 
 
 To Cancel is a kind of annulling. 
 (Lat. cajicelliire, to strike through 
 writing by diagonal lines of erasure 
 resembling D-mfi/i^, Lat. cancelli, pi.) 
 It is to undo something the force of 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 15 
 
 which ali'ected the condition of an- 
 other, as a promise, a contract, or an 
 obligation. It is like the erasure or 
 tearing-up of a bond. A thing may 
 be annulled virtually, as by the force 
 of circumstances which neutralize, in- 
 validate, or supersede it ; but it is 
 cancelled by some deliberate or spe- 
 cific exercise of power striking out 
 what had operative force, whether in 
 law or moral obligation. The term 
 wears a legal, social, or conventional 
 air, belonging to ti-ansactions between 
 man and man. 
 
 "Shake hands for ever, cancel all our 
 vows." Drayton. 
 
 ABOVE. Over. Beyond. Upon. 
 
 These terms all have both a physi- 
 cal and a figurative meaning. Phy- 
 sically, Above indicates a superiority 
 of physical altitude, as the sun is 
 above the earth, an interval being 
 supposed, without exact verticality. 
 OvEK indicates what is expressed by 
 above, with the addition of the idea 
 of verticality, as the cloud hangs over 
 the sea. UroN denotes what is ex- 
 pressed by over, with the addition of 
 contact, or the absence of the interval 
 supposed by above, as the crown is 
 placed upon the king's head. Beyond 
 relates to the horizontal or to the 
 measurementof length and not height, 
 though it may chance that this length 
 is measured vertically, and may or may 
 not imply adjacency, as the river and 
 the country beyond ; the ivy has grown 
 beyond the first storey of the house. 
 'J'hese analogies are preserved in the 
 metaphorical uses of the words. So 
 if we said that the general was above 
 the captain we should mean that he 
 was of higher rank in the arm.y ; over 
 llie captain would mean that he exer- 
 cised authority in regard to him spe- 
 cifically. ^Vhen one misfortune comes 
 upon another it is as if there were no 
 respite or interval between. When a 
 thing is beyond conception it is as if 
 the stretch and grasp of the mind 
 were insufficient to reach so far. 
 
 " The Gospel places morafity above rites 
 and ceremonies." — JoRTlN. 
 
 " For He, be sure, 
 In height or depth still flrst and last will 
 
 reign 
 Sole King, nnd of His Itin^dom lose nop«rt 
 
16 
 
 By our revolt, but over Hell extend 
 His empire." Milton. 
 
 " A place beyond all place, where never ill 
 Nor impure thought was ever harboured." 
 Fletcher. 
 
 " He sawe vpon the grene gi-as 
 
 The faire flower freshe springe.' GoWER. 
 
 ABRIDGE. Abbreviate. Cur- 
 tail. Contract. 
 
 Of these ABKiDGEand Abbreviate 
 are etymologically tbe same word, the 
 Latin form abbrcviare becoming the 
 French abrtger (brcviSy short). Yet 
 abbreviate is hardly ever used but in 
 the simple sense of to shorten, while 
 abridge is applied with more play of 
 metaphor, as to abridge powers and 
 privileges. We speak peculiarly of 
 abbreviating words in writing, as Dr., 
 Lieut., Esq. To abridge is to shorten 
 by condensing or compressing, whilst 
 to abbreviate^s to shorten by cutting 
 or contracting. In literary abridg- 
 ments we have the same substance in 
 smaller compass, and if the abridg- 
 ment is well made the original runs a 
 risk of being neglected for it. 
 
 " This book was composed after two old 
 examples of the same kind in the times of 
 Ethelbert and Alfred, and was laid up as 
 sacred in the Church of Winchester, and 
 for that reason, as graver authors say, was 
 railed Liber Domus Dei and by abbrevia- 
 tion Domesday Book."— Sir W. Temple. 
 
 Differences deserve notice between 
 Abridge, Curtail (formerly curtail, 
 Lat. curlus, docked), and Contract 
 (Lat. contrahtre, part, contrac.lus, to 
 dra w together). VV hen used of things not 
 purely physical, abridge seems usually 
 to refer to number and duration, curtail 
 to extent, and contract to compass or 
 sphere of exercise. Hence, for in- 
 stance, pleasures or privileges are 
 abridged and contracted when they 
 are made fewer and shorter, curtailed 
 when the sphere of their exercise is 
 in any way diminished, contracted 
 also when the inherent power of en- 
 joyment is lessened in individuals. 
 Commonly also the exercise of per- 
 sonal power curtails, and the force of 
 circumstances conti'acts privileges or 
 enjoyments. It should be observed 
 tliat unlike Abridge and Abbre- 
 viate, which may accidentally in- 
 volve diminution of value, incom- 
 pleteness, or deficiency, these are 
 
 SYNONYMS [abridge] 
 
 necessarily involved in curtail and 
 contract. We may say, generalh 
 speaking, that pleasures are abridged, 
 privileges or expenditure curtailed, 
 and powers contracted ; but they are 
 employed to a large extent inter- 
 changeably. It may also be said that 
 time is abridged, and space contracted, 
 which fundamental rule may best 
 govern the application of the words. 
 Abbreviate, Abridge, and Cur- 
 tail, belong to artificial processes. 
 Contracted is a term sometimes ex- 
 pressive of natural limitation within 
 narrow bounds, as the stream is by 
 drought contracted within naiTOW 
 limits. A person of contracted mind 
 is so either from want of largeness of 
 sympathy or understanding constitu- 
 tionally, or as the result of narrowing 
 influences which have cramped and 
 fettered it. 
 " That man should thus encroach on fellow- 
 
 Abridge him of his just and native rights." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 " Have the burdens of the war compelled 
 them to curtail any part of their former 
 expenditure ? " — Burke, 
 
 " In all things desuetude doth contract 
 and narrow our faculties." — Government 
 ofihe I'ongue. 
 
 ABRIDGMENT. Compendium. 
 
 Epitome. Summary. Abstract. 
 Draught. Digest. Synopsis. Pro- 
 gramme. 
 
 An Abridgment is anything which 
 
 f)urports to give the substance of a 
 iterary production in a shorter form. 
 Some such abridgments are formed 
 by the simple omission of portions 
 which are regarded as unessential or 
 subordinate, some by a condensation 
 of the diction or style, but tlie sub- 
 stance of the original is in an abridg- 
 ment supposed to be unaltered. It is 
 the same thing shortened, and is itself 
 a work. Itmay be added that Abridg- 
 ment may be used as a generic term 
 under which most of the others might 
 be included. 
 
 *' An abridgment or abstract of anything 
 is the whole in little, and if it be of a science 
 or doctrine the abridgment cogsists in the 
 essential or necessary parts of it contracted 
 into a narrower compass than where it was 
 diffused in the ordinary way of delivery." — 
 Locke. 
 
 Compendium (Lat. a shorteuingf 
 
[abrupt] 
 
 DISCKIMINATED. 
 
 17 
 
 ahndgmg) is not of a work but of a 
 subject, purporting- to give as much 
 as need be known of some branch of 
 science or knowledge in a concise 
 form, and is also a work, as a com- 
 pendium of universal history. Sum- 
 mary (^hsLt.Summnriiun,summa,tliesui7i 
 or total) professes to give heads or 
 general results of the body of a narra- 
 tive or lengthened statement, as in 
 headings prefixed to chapters. Ab- 
 stract (Lat. absirdhcre, to draw off or 
 Away) gives the general drift and 
 tenor, and belongs rather to writings 
 than to printed books. The summary 
 is commonly deficient in consecutive- 
 ness of style ; while the abstract, 
 unlike the abridgment, maybe a pro- 
 duction in which the form has been 
 altered by the reproducer^ who may 
 have assimilated the subject-matter, 
 and re-expressed it in a style of his 
 own. 
 
 " The Sermon on the Mount, which is a 
 summary of a Christian's life." — Bishop 
 Taylor. 
 
 "All those excellent persons of whose 
 acts and sufferings we have a compendium 
 or abridgment in this chapter." — Bishop 
 Hall. 
 
 A Draught (literally, a thing 
 drawn out) commonly precedes the 
 work, and is of the nature of a sketch 
 or outline intended for the guidance 
 of another who is to fill it up and 
 finish it. The term is more technical 
 than literary, as of deeds or judicial 
 proceedings. 
 
 "And thus Poetry and the Writer's art, 
 as in many respects it resembles the 
 Statuary's and the Painter's, so in this more 
 particularly, that it has its original draughts 
 and models for study and praetite." — 
 Shaftesbury, 
 
 Epitomk {iTiirofxh, iTTnifA.yaoj 1 
 abiidge). It is such an abridgment 
 as prunes or lops off all but the most 
 salient and characteristic points or 
 features, and is a summary of all tliat 
 is most distinctive. We may observe, 
 as regards present use, that as com- 
 pendium is of science, so epitome is 
 of facts or history. 
 
 " This sentence (St. Matthew vii. 12), I 
 read unto is very fitly placed towards the 
 close of our Saviour's admirable Sermon 
 111 the Mount, as being in great measure 
 
 the epitome and sura of what the Divine 
 Preacher had there expressed more at 
 large."— Bishop Aiterbury. 
 
 A Digest (Lat. d'lgtrtre, to distri- 
 bute, anange ; part, dlgestus) has for 
 its object arrangement or re-arrange- 
 ment of given materials in an orderly, 
 convenient, and available shape, under 
 
 Eroper letters, as the Digest of Roman 
 ,aws by order of Justinian; and 
 results iu abridgment, though brevity 
 is not its primary or direct purpose. 
 
 " If we had a complete digest of Hindu 
 and Mahommedan laws after the model of 
 Justinian's celebrated Pandects, we should 
 rarely be at a loss for principles and rules 
 of law applicable to the cases before us."— 
 Sib W. Joxes. 
 
 Synopsis (o-Jvo^jj, a collective view, 
 a table of contents) difl['ers from the 
 preceding, with the exception of sum- 
 mary, in not aiming at any style in 
 consecutiveness, and in giving nakedly 
 and disjointedly a view of all needful 
 points, as in a chart or table. It aims 
 at totality and juxtaposition, so that a 
 number of matters may be viewed as 
 a whole, and in their reciprocal bear- 
 ings or concurrence. A synopsis of 
 general history brings into con- 
 spicuous collocation facts which 
 would otherwise lie as it were dis- 
 persed or disconnected in the several 
 particular histories. 
 
 " Not to reckon up the infinite helps of 
 interlinearies, breviaries, synopses, and 
 other loitering gear," — Milto:^. 
 
 As synopsis gives what is to be ob- 
 served, so Programme (TTfoyoaju/ua, a 
 public notice, programme) gives what 
 is to be done. It ia a summary of 
 practical proceedings, and belongs 
 not to the past but the future. 
 
 ABRUPT. Rugged. Rough. 
 
 These terms may be taken in their 
 order to express the same thing in 
 o:radually lessening degrees. Those 
 features of nature, which on a large 
 scale are precipitous ( Lat. prcEcYpifem, 
 headlong) on a lesser are abrupt (Lat. 
 abruinpcre, abruptus, to break off). 
 Abruptness on a smaller scale is Rug- 
 gedness (A. S. hreog, rough, stormy), 
 and this, on a reduced scale again, is 
 ilovcu'S¥.ss(A.&.hreof, rough, scabby). 
 The terms have their figurative uses, 
 An abrupt style or manner is one tlja^ 
 
)ii 
 
 passes from one point to anotlier by 
 jerks, witliout easy transitions. Such 
 abruptness may be sbown in the com- 
 bination of manner and words, as an 
 abrupt salutation, an abrupt depar- 
 ture. Shakespeare must have contem- 
 plated the word in its etymology when 
 he wrote 
 
 «' Oi- if thou hast not broke from company 
 Abruptly, as my passion no\Y makes me. 
 Thou hast not loved." 
 
 Of ruggedness and roughness, the 
 former commonly belongs to appear- 
 ance, the latter to character and bear- 
 ing, yet not exclusively so. Scott, in 
 his " Christian Life," speaks of that 
 unmanly sharpness and ruggedness of 
 humour which renders us perverse and 
 untractable in our conversation. In 
 this sense it is less coarse and violent 
 than roughness, which carries with 
 it the idea of a rude overbearing. 
 Ruggedness is characteristic of the 
 individual only ; roughness passes on 
 to the treatment of others. 
 
 " Sleek o'er your rugged looks." 
 
 Shakespeark. ■* 
 
 " To take a cause out of your hands into 
 mine I do but mine office. You meddle 
 farther than your office will bear you, thus 
 roughly to handle me for using of mine."— 
 Subnet. 
 
 Abrupt is opposed to continuous 
 or unbroken, rugged to even, rough 
 to smooth. The abrupt and the rough 
 may be the result ot nature or the 
 eft'ect of character or art. The rugged 
 is never artificial. An abrupt man- 
 ner, a rough behaviour, a rugged dis- 
 position or humour. The first comes 
 of want of refinement and social 
 training, or in some cases is the sud- 
 den action of feeling ; the second 
 from want of moral discipline ; the 
 third from selfish inconsiderateness. 
 Men of equable temper, good breed- 
 ing, and self-command are not abrupt. 
 He who has sympathy with others is 
 not rugged in his humours. 
 
 ABSENT. Abstracted. DivF.n- 
 TED. Distracted, Absorbed. En- 
 grossed. 
 
 Of these the simplest is absent 
 (J^at. abesse, to be absent), which de- 
 notes either the specific or habitual 
 state of one whose mind is inattentive 
 V} what is goin^ on 1 efore or around 
 
 SYNONYMS [absent] 
 
 liim. Absence may be the result of a 
 habit of abstract thought, or the oppo- 
 site, namely, an impatience of pure 
 reflexion or casual inattention. It 
 implies naturally thought, but not 
 deep thought. 
 
 "What is commonly called an absent 
 man is commonly either a very weak or a 
 very affected man." — Chesterfield. 
 
 Abstractp:d, on the other hand 
 (Lat. abstrtihtre, part, abstractus, to 
 draw away), implies the influence of 
 something sufficiently strong to draw 
 oflf the mind from present things and 
 fix it in a state of rapt contemplation 
 of others. One may be abstracted in 
 solitude, one is absent only in the 
 company of others. The mind of 
 the abstracted man is closely at work, 
 that of the absent man may be en- 
 gaged with light fancies. The absent 
 man is in one place while his mind is 
 in another. He sees not present 
 objects, nor hears what is said. He 
 is at Paris in the midst of London, 
 and when others are talking of love 
 he is engaged with mathematics or 
 the contrary. Absence differs from 
 Distraction in being the result of a 
 single influence, while distraction 
 (Lat. distrHhtire, to draw asunder) may 
 be of many, nor has it the uneasiness 
 and disturbance of distraction. ]M ore- 
 over, distraction implies an influence 
 in contradiction to some proposed 
 matter of thought for which the mind 
 is accordingly incapacitated, while in 
 abstraction it is wholly given to it. 
 The distracted man, taking the term 
 in that sense in which it is opposed 
 to the absent, has his eyes and ears 
 open to everything at once, and so 
 cannot be attentive to anything in 
 particular. In trying to hear every- 
 thing he apprehends nothing clearly. 
 A common cause of distraction is a 
 tiresome talk to which politeness 
 compels us to listen, while words of 
 interest fall upon our ears fi-om an- 
 other quarter. As regards social 
 conversation, the absent do not care 
 for it, and the distracted get no 
 benefit from it. Our own ideas make 
 us abstracted. External objects dis- 
 tract us. Hard study, responsible 
 and arduous duties, strong passions, 
 make persons abstracted. Trifles are 
 
[absolute] 
 
 enough to distract, more especially 
 the young and thoughtless. A dreamy 
 habitude leads to abstraction ; a 
 lively curiosity to distraction. The 
 absent man makes irrelevant answers, 
 the abstracted does not answer, the 
 distracted is continually answering 
 himself. 
 
 " Whether dark presages of the night 
 proceed from any latent power of the soul 
 daring her abstraction, or from the opera- 
 tion of subordinate spirits, has ^leen a dis- 
 pute." — Addison. 
 
 *' As for me, during my confinement to 
 this melancholy solitude, I often divert 
 myself at leisure moments in tiying such 
 experiments as the unfurnishedness of the 
 place and the present disti-actedness of my 
 mind will permit me." — Boyle. 
 
 Diverted is a term of lighter 
 meaning, and is applicable to cases of 
 mental recreation or amusement, in 
 which the mind is turned aside ( Lat. 
 divert tre, to tiii-n aside) from studious 
 or grave thought to matters less 
 serious. Further remarks will be 
 found under Amusement. Absorbed 
 (Lat. absorbire, to suck np, to e7igi-oss) 
 and Engrossed (Fr. gros^ big ; Lat. 
 grossus) differ from the preceding in 
 denoting, not so much a drawing off 
 from present matters, as an intense or 
 excessive contemplation of them. Ab- 
 sorption excludes distraction and 
 diversion of the mind, which is swal- 
 lowed up with present employment. 
 Engrossment of mind is relative 
 absorption ; that is, absorption to the 
 disregard of other matters wliich may 
 possibly have equal or greater claims 
 upon the attention. So it may be well 
 to be absorbed, but it is not altogether 
 well to be engrossed. • 
 
 " Circe in vain invites the feast to share. 
 Absent I wander and absorpt in care." 
 Pope. 
 •' Too long hath lore engrossed Britannia's 
 
 stage. 
 And sunk to softness all oar tragic rage." 
 
 TiCKELL. 
 
 ABSOLUTE. Despotic. Arbi- 
 trary. Tyrannical. 
 
 Of these Absolute (Lat. absolvere, 
 part. absUutus, to hose or free from re- 
 straint) denotes simply the possession 
 of unlimited and irresponsible power, 
 fvithout implying anything as to the 
 way in which it may be exercised, or, 
 
 DISORTMINATEi.. 
 
 19 
 
 necessarily, that it is exercised at all ; 
 only that it exists. Absolute power 
 is independent of all other })Ower, and 
 superior to it. It is rarely employed 
 of the character and acts. When so 
 employed it may be said that tlie ab- 
 solute man expects exact and un- 
 questioning obedience, which may be 
 exacted in a spirit of calm determina- 
 tion. It is a cliaracter of firmness, 
 and makes itself felt continually 
 within the sphere of its influence. 
 
 "An honest private man often grows 
 cruel and abandoned when converted into 
 an absolute prince." — Addison. 
 
 Despotic may be used either in the 
 abstract, of the power, like absolute, 
 or relatively,of the way in which it is 
 exercised. Despotic power may have 
 been acquired with the consent or 
 through the instrumentality of others. 
 The Greek Sfs-Trcr*!? was strictly a mas- 
 ter of slaves, hence an absolute ruler 
 whose subjects were slaves; while 
 Tupttwoc meant a sovereign ruler whose 
 power was unlimited by law or con- 
 stitution. His conduct might be the 
 very opposite of cruel, and he might 
 owe his elevation to the State, or to 
 some party in it. As employed by 
 ourselves in a moral sense, the des- 
 potic character is he who enforces 
 implicit obedience to his will. Abso- 
 lute is a term general and descriptive. 
 Despotic is political or social. A man 
 is absolute in himself, despotic in his 
 rule over others. When absolute 
 power resides in the ruler of a State, 
 the form of government is a despot- 
 ism. The moralist may draw the 
 reflexion how unfit man is to wield 
 absolute power, from the fact that it 
 has been found impossible that the 
 terms tyrant and despot, tyrannical 
 and despotic, should preserve a mo- 
 rally neutral meaning. Tyrannical, 
 in modern parlance, relates not only 
 to the disposition and proceedings of 
 the governing party, but to the result 
 upon the governed. It associates the 
 suffering or oppression of the latter 
 with the domination and caprice of 
 the former. The despotic man may 
 be not less exacting, but he is a more 
 equable character than the tyrannical 
 man. For the despotic feels more 
 sure of his power, while the tyranni- 
 
20 
 
 c&l makes the most of his opportunity. 
 The despotic character will, however, 
 naturally tend to become tyrannical ; 
 that is, when the will is thwarted, or 
 against those who thwart it. The 
 sjjoilt cliild allowed to be a despot 
 will grow into a tyrant. Despotism 
 is measured by the will of the person, 
 tyranny by the excess of legitimate 
 autliority. A democrat would call 
 any monarch a tyrant by reason of 
 his excessive possession of power, 
 though a humane sovereign of a Con- 
 stitutional State could never be called 
 a despot. Despotism is a more esta- 
 blished force than tyranny. Despo- 
 tism is crushing, tyranny vexatious. 
 The former reduces to submission, the 
 latter rouses to resentment. A people 
 lies powerless under a military despo- 
 tism, and rises in rebellion against the 
 tyranny of an aristocracy. 
 
 *' ^TiateA'er the will commands the whole 
 mftn must do. the empire of the will over 
 all the faculties being absolutely overruling 
 and despotic."- South. 
 
 " These poor prisoners eat nothing but 
 rice and drink water, and are tyrannically 
 insulted over by their rigid creditore till 
 the debt is paid,"— Dampieb's Voyages. 
 
 The Arbitrary character (Lat. 
 arhitrdrius, having to do with arhitra- 
 tion; 2, depending on the will) ex- 
 
 f)ects submission where nothing but 
 lis own will or decision constitutes 
 the principle of rule ; hence, as im- 
 pressiveness belongs to the despotic, 
 fickleness is associated with the arbi- 
 trary. The arbitrary character is far 
 less violent than the tyrannical or 
 despotic. The despot enforces his 
 will, the tyrant his power, the arbi- 
 trary man his preference. Tyranny 
 is always hateful. Despotism may, 
 under certain circumstances, be exer- 
 cised with salutary effect and in the 
 interest of its subjects. Arbitrariness 
 reflects upon the character and dis- 
 position of the man, but not on the 
 truth of his opinions or on the justice 
 of his decisions. 
 
 " By an rtr5iYn;ry proceeding, I mean one 
 conducted by the private opinions or feel- 
 ings of the man who attempts to regulate." 
 
 — BUREE. 
 
 A Bsoi.uTE, Positive. 
 
 '"'lese terms are applicable to the 
 
 SYNONYMS [absolution J 
 
 subject-matter of statements. An ab- 
 solute or positive statement. They 
 express an incontestable truth, but 
 under different aspects. Absolute 
 is the Lat. absolidus, part., from abso- 
 lua-e, to loose or detach ; hence that is 
 absolute which is complete in itself, 
 freed and unfettered, and dependent 
 upon nothing for its existence, con- 
 tinuance, or support. Positive (Lat. 
 posifivus, settled by agreervent) is that 
 which has a real substantial position, 
 existence, or force of its own as 
 opposed to what is negative or to 
 what is relative. A positive good 
 is distinguished from a negative 
 good. It is a positive good to 
 be happy, a negative good to live 
 unmolested, a relative good to be- 
 come possessed of a field advantage- 
 ously adjoining one's estate, which, 
 therefore, has a value for one's self 
 which it has not for others. The 
 word absolute is passive, indicating a 
 state; the word positive lias the Latin 
 termination " -wus," which probably 
 marks an inherent quality or force. 
 A positive law is one which has the 
 force of a law laid down as dis- 
 tinguished from a moral obligation. 
 Hence it follows that a positive truth 
 or statement is one which cannot be 
 shaken or impugned; an absolute 
 truth cannot even be touched. An 
 absolute truth is true independently, 
 a positive truth is true incontestably. 
 I know absolutely, and therefore can 
 speak positively. The system of 
 philosophy called Positivism excludes 
 everything but natural phenomena, 
 and properties with their ascertain- 
 able and known, because invariable, 
 relations in time and space. Such 
 relations are called laws, and are dis- 
 covered by observation, comparison, 
 and experiment. The system excludes 
 all inquiry into causes eflScient or 
 final, that is, what produces things, or 
 why they are produced. It declares 
 that such things imply an assumption 
 of absolute knowledge, which is not 
 possessed by mankind. 
 
 ABSOLUTION. Pardon. Re- 
 mission. 
 
 The Pardon (Fr. pardon) is in 
 consequence of an offence, and re- 
 
[absolve] 
 
 g-ards principally the person who has 
 committed it. It depends upon the 
 person offended, and produces recon- 
 ciliation wlien it is sincerely asked 
 and sincerely accorded. 
 
 The Remission (Lat. rcmissionem) 
 follows upon a crime, and relates 
 specially to the penalty with which 
 it deserves to be visited. It is ac- 
 corded by the dispensing power in 
 the State or community, and inter- 
 poses to arrest the execution of 
 justice. 
 
 The Absolut ION (Lat. absMiitionem) 
 is in consequence of a fault or sin, 
 and relates mainly to the guilty state 
 of one who has offended against the 
 laws divine, and who by ecclesiasti- 
 cal authority, after penitence, is re- 
 instated in the condition and rights of 
 the innocent. 
 
 ABSOLVE. Acquit. Exonerate. 
 Clear. Exculpate. 
 
 To Absolve ( Lat. absolvcre, to loose) 
 is against the idea of sin and guilt hav- 
 ing a religious or gravely moral ap- 
 plication. It refers to the loosing of 
 solemn obligations, or tlie setting free 
 from the consequences of moral or 
 religious offence. Even in its lighter 
 significance, absolution is still a loosing 
 from such ties as it would be sin or 
 guilt to violate, as oaths, promises, 
 and the like. 
 
 " Compelled by th-eats to take that bloody 
 
 oath. 
 And the act ill, I am absolved by both." 
 Waller. 
 
 As Absolve applies to offences against 
 the laws of God and man, or from 
 moral obligations towards the latter. 
 Acquit (Fr. acquitter, Lat. adquiitdre, 
 to settle a claim) bears reference to 
 specific charges of offences against the 
 laws of man only. Absolution sets 
 free the conscience, acquittal the 
 
 f)erson, goods, or reputation. Abso- 
 ution sets free the guilty ; acquittal 
 recognizes the innocent. Acquittal 
 is a kind of legal reparation which es- 
 tablishes the accused in his former 
 state. Yet, though the legal effect of 
 acquittal is always complete, the moral 
 effect may be variable. A man may 
 be acquitted on the ground of clear 
 and ample evidence in his favour, or 
 the want of such evidence against liim. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 21 
 
 Absolve is the more moral, acquit 
 the more judicial term. Human au- 
 ♦^hority acquits, the force of circum- 
 stances may absolve. 
 
 "Those who are truly learned will acquit 
 me in this point, in which I have been so 
 far from offending that 1 hare been scrupu- 
 lous, perhaps to a fault, in quoting the 
 authors of several passages which I might 
 have made my own." — Addison. 
 
 To Clear (0. Fr. cler, Lat. cldrui, 
 clear) is the simplest and most general 
 of these terms. A man is cleared by 
 anything, whether fact or argument, 
 which shows him to be innocent. It 
 implies, therefore, the antecedent in- 
 nocence of the l>arty, while absolve 
 implies an antecedent offence, except 
 where it is used in the sense of to free 
 from an obligation. The innocent are 
 cleared, the guilty are absolved. 
 
 "Although innocency needs no defence 
 as to itself, yet it is necessary, for all the 
 advantages it hath of doing good to man- 
 kind, that it appear to be what it really 
 is ; which cannot be done unless its reputa- 
 tion be cleared from the malicious asper- 
 sions which are cast upon it." — Stillikg- 
 fleet. 
 
 Exonerate and Exculpate are 
 both less formal than absolve and ac- 
 quit. They imply a moral, the former 
 a magisterial decision. They may be 
 used of cases in which blame is im- 
 puted without any public indictment. 
 They indicate, however, some superi- 
 ority, real or assumed, in the person 
 who exonerates or exculpates. Tlie 
 terms, however, are also employed of 
 the process of proving, as well as the 
 act of declaring free from blame. Id 
 this sense a man may be exculpated, 
 or he may exculpate himself; he may 
 also be exonerated by himself or an- 
 other. Exculpation ( Lat. c» /pa, 6/a7ne) 
 is a rescue from the guilt, exoneration 
 (Lat. exMirare, to unload) from the 
 charge and liabilities of an offence, or 
 even, in a different sense, from the 
 burden of an obligation. Exculpation, 
 as the term implies, is restricted to 
 fault? and crimes ; exoneration extends 
 to other responsibilities than those 
 of fault or blame. Exculpation is 
 from an actual fault or offence, ex- 
 oneration may be even from the su9^ 
 picion of it. Exculpation is a simple 
 term, exoneration a metaphorical term. 
 
22 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [ab 
 
 STAIN I 
 
 Hence the wider and more varied ap- 
 plication of the latter to things which 
 press upon us as moral burdens, as by 
 obligation external or self-imposed. 
 I am exculpated by the decision of a 
 judge; I may be exonerated by the 
 indulgence of a friend. 
 
 *' I entreat your Lordships to consider 
 whether there ever was a witness brought 
 before a court of justice who had stronger 
 motives to give testimony hostile to a de- 
 fendant for the purpose of exonerating him- 
 self."— 5te?e Trials. 
 
 " In Scotland the law allows of an ex- 
 culpation, hy which the prisoner is suffered 
 before his trial to prove the thing to be 
 impossible." — Burnet. 
 
 ABSTAIN. FoRBEAn. Refrain. 
 Desist. 
 
 Of these Abstain (Lat. abstinere, to 
 hold off, act) is the most general in its 
 sense. It is simply not to do wlien 
 to do would be possible. We may 
 abstain with a slight effort of self-con- 
 trol from what we are inclined to do, 
 or with a stronger effort from what 
 we are powerfully attracted to do, oi 
 with no effort at all from doing that 
 which we might have done in the ordi- 
 nary course, but which we avoid doing 
 from the thought of inconvenient or 
 disastrous consequences. We may 
 abstain under the strongest impulses 
 or the slightest tendencies. Prudence 
 or a sense of duty may cause us to ab- 
 stain from things in themselves in- 
 different. 
 
 " He that can apprehend and consider 
 vice with all her baits and seeming plea- 
 sures, and yet abstain, and yet distinguish, 
 and yet prefer that which is truly better- 
 he is the true way-faring Christian." — 
 Milton. 
 
 As abstain regards mainly an external 
 object with which we refuse to con- 
 nect ourselves, or an external act 
 which we refuse to perform, so both 
 to Forbear (literally, to bear or keep, 
 and^or with tlie sense of negation ; to 
 withhold) and Refrain (Lat. re- 
 frlnare, to bridle, curb) regard mainly 
 the internal impulse which we resist. 
 Refrain and forbear differ in the de- 
 gree of the impulse and in tlie nature 
 of it. In refraining we put a stronger 
 check upon ourselves than in forbear- 
 ing. To refrain from doing a thing is 
 to prevent ourselves from d )ing it. To 
 
 forbear doing a thing is not to do it 
 when we might. We for the most 
 part refrain from what primarily 
 afiects ourselves, we forbear doing 
 that which primarily affects others. 
 Refraining belongs rather to a decision 
 of will, forbearing is the result of ante- 
 cedent judgment or reflexion. The 
 force of refrain appears more plainly 
 in tlie reflexive use of it — to refrain 
 one's self, to which forbear has no 
 parallel. 
 
 " In pretence o^ forbearance they resolve 
 to torment him with a lingering death." — 
 Bishop Hall. 
 
 Desis'i (X-Vit. d'esisltre, to stop from) 
 expresses voluntary cessation of 
 hitherto continuous action. It differs 
 from abstain in not being applicable 
 to objects, but only to actions, and also 
 in implying a notion which abstaining 
 excludes. He Avho abstains from 
 doing a tiling does it not, he who 
 desists does it for a while, or to a 
 certain extent. We desist from a 
 course of action or systematic pur- 
 suits, and, commonly speaking, be- 
 cause we see that they are unseemly, 
 unjust, or profitless ; and sometimes 
 from weariness or dissatisfaction. 
 
 " A Politician desists from his designs 
 when he finds they are impracticable." — 
 Blair. 
 
 ABSTINENCE. Fast. 
 
 These terms are technically distin- 
 guished. Abstinence (see Abstain) 
 is a refraining from certain sorts of 
 food. 
 
 " The temperance which adorned the 
 severe manners of the soldier and the philo- 
 sopher was connected with some strict and 
 frivolous rules of religious abstinence ; and 
 it was in honour of Pan or Mercury, of 
 Hecate or Iris, that Julian on particular 
 days denied himself the use of some parti- 
 cular food." — Gibbon. 
 
 Fasting (A. S.fiestan, to fast ; Teu- 
 ton, fast, i.e. firm ; and so tokeep,i.e, from 
 food ; or (?) as an ordinance), whence 
 fast is to refrain from food altogether. 
 
 " Froni hence may an account be given 
 why the inhabitants of hot countries may 
 entlure longer fasting and hunger than 
 those of colder, and these seemingly prodi- 
 gious and to us scarce credible stories of 
 the fastings and abstinence of the Egj-ptian 
 monks be rendered probable."— Rat, On 
 Creation. 
 
[abstraction] discriminated. 
 
 23 
 
 ABSTINENT. Sober. Abste- 
 MFOus. Temperate. ]\Ioderate. 
 
 Abstinence expresses the power 
 and the habit of refraining from in- 
 dulgence of the appetites. 
 
 " 13e abstinent, show not the corruption 
 of thy generation. He that feeds shall die, 
 therefore he that feeds not shall die, there- 
 fore he that feeds not shall live." — Beau- 
 mont AND Fletcher. 
 
 When abstinence refers to matters 
 of food and drink, it is called Abste- 
 miousness. 
 
 *' Promised by heavenly message twice de- 
 scending 
 Under her special eye 
 Abstemicms I grew up, and thrived amain." 
 Milton. 
 
 Sober (Lat. sbhrius, i.e., se-, pre- 
 fix, meaning separation, and ibrius, 
 drunken), denotes the character which 
 by its natural gravity is constitution- 
 ally untempted to excesses of any 
 kind, being content with what is mo- 
 derate and sufficient. It has, how- 
 ever, two characters, according as it 
 is employed of abstinence from intoxi- 
 cating liquors and of the character 
 generally. In the fonner use it de- 
 notes no more than the opposite to 
 intoxicated, so that a man may be 
 called sober who is not drunk, though 
 he be not at all abstemious, and, 
 through strength of constitution, or 
 even habitual drinking, may be able 
 to drink much without being affected 
 by any degree of intoxication. In its 
 more widely moral significance, sober 
 applies to all situations, and even to 
 thoughts and opinions as well as out- 
 ward behaviour. In this way sobriety 
 includes reserve, discretion, modera- 
 tion, restraint. It consists in not say- 
 ing, doing, thinking, feeling exces- 
 sively, but in all these things being 
 according to the rule of right reason. 
 " Sobriety is sometimes opposed in Scrip- 
 ture to pride, and sometimes to sensuality." 
 —Gilpin. 
 
 Temperate (Lat. temptrdre, to tem- 
 per) expresses the character which is 
 well-balanced in its appetites, and to 
 <vhich moderation, even though it be 
 the result of effort, is yet congenial. 
 As abstinence is the power of refrain- 
 ing altogether, so temperance is the 
 power of enjoying with moderation. 
 We are temperate in what is good, we 
 
 abstain from what is not good. Some 
 are compelled to take refuge in absti- 
 nence, feeling their inability to be 
 temperate. Moderation (Lat. mor/e- 
 rdtionem, a limiting) and temperance 
 are very nearly alike ; but moderation 
 is a somewhat wider term, belonging 
 both to the desires and to the subject- 
 matter of their gratification. So we 
 might say a person of moderate de- 
 sires, temperate habits, and sober dis- 
 position, character, or life. But we 
 must press yet farther the distinction 
 between temperance and moderation. 
 Temperance is the regulative measure 
 of the person, moderation of the thing. 
 Temperance is the mean between over- 
 abstemiousness and over-indulgence. 
 Moderation is the mean between too 
 much and too little. The temperate 
 man is content with that which is 
 moderate. Generally speaking, people 
 are abstinent from rule or policy, 
 sober from natural constitution, tem- 
 perate from virtue and upon prin- 
 ciple, moderate from reason and sound 
 judgment, and frugal by philosophy. 
 
 " What goodness can there be in the 
 world without moderation, whether in the 
 use of God's creatures or in our own dispo- 
 sition and courage 1 Without this justice 
 is no other than cruel rigour, mercy unju&t 
 remissness, pleasure brutish sensuality, 
 love frenzy, anger furv, sorrow desperate 
 mopishness, joy distempered wildness, 
 knowletlge saucy curiosity, piety supersti- 
 tion, care wracking distraction, courage 
 mad rashness." — Bishop Hall, Christian 
 Moderation. 
 
 " Temperance permits us to take meat 
 and drink not only as physic for hunger 
 and thirst, but also as an innocent corcfial 
 and fortifier against the evils of life, or 
 even sometimes (reason not refusing that 
 liberty) merely as matter of pleasure. It 
 only confines us to such kinds, quantities, 
 and seasons as may best consist with our 
 health, the use of our faculties, our fortune, 
 and the like, and show that we do not think 
 ourselves made only to eat and drink here." 
 — WooLASTON, Religion of Nature. 
 
 ABSTRACTION. Abduction. 
 These terms are expressive of surrep- 
 titious or unlawful carrying away. 
 The difference lies in their applica- 
 tion. The former is applied to articles 
 of value, the latter only to persons. 
 To pick another's pocket of a purse, 
 or to carry away for one's own use 
 and possession some commodity out 
 
24 
 
 of his house, is Abstraction (Lat. ab- 
 itractionem, abitrHhtre, to draw off or 
 away). The taking away of his wife, 
 child, or ward, whether by fraud, 
 persuasion, or open violence, is Ab- 
 duction (Lat. abductionem, abductre, 
 to lead away). 
 
 ABSTRUSE. Curious. Rkcon- 
 DiTE. Quaint. 
 
 These terms are employed of matters 
 of art or learning. In the things of 
 knowledge, that is abstruse (Lat. ab- 
 strhda'e,part. abslriisus, to thrust away^ 
 hide) which is thrust away, and as it 
 were out of common sight removed 
 from easy understanding — with an 
 occult, rather than a plain meaning. 
 In this way ideas, knowledge, reason- 
 ing, expressions may be abstruse. 
 Anything is abstruse which for any 
 cause is remote from apprehension, as 
 from an involved or enigmatical style, 
 as well as from the generally inacces- 
 sible character of the department of 
 knowledge to which the matter be- 
 longs. It must be observed, however, 
 that some character of remoteness or 
 profundity in the subject-matter is 
 needed to constitute the abstruse, and 
 f hat the term would not be applicable 
 to common every-day matters ex- 
 pressed with a want of clearness. 
 Recondite, on the other hand (Lat. 
 ricoudtre, part, rccondttus, to stow 
 away), belongs purely to the subject- 
 matter of thought and knowledge, 
 and in no degree to the mode of utter- 
 ing it. The recondite is that which 
 lies out of the plain path of observa- 
 tion, or the beaten track of inquiry, 
 and is known to the few who care to 
 search for it without being of neces- 
 sity, when found, perplexing to the 
 understanding, like the abstruse. A 
 matter recondite in itself may sound 
 abstruse to him before whom it is 
 nut, or from the way of putting it. 
 The Cuuious (Lat. cura, care) wears, 
 so to speak, a double aspect, accord- 
 ing as It implies minute care in forma- 
 tion or composition on the one hand, 
 or minute care in inquiry and inves- 
 tigation on the other. Strictly and 
 etymologically, the artist is curious ; 
 and, by consequence, the work which 
 ihows traces of his care and exact- 
 
 SYNONYMS [abstruse] 
 
 ness. Then a third element is im- 
 ported into the word, viz., minute- 
 ness and care in investigating such 
 things. The curious denotes that 
 which is the result of specific investi- 
 gation or accidental discovery, and 
 when found impresses the mind with 
 a mingled feeling of familiarity and 
 use. Curious and cunning artists 
 produce curious works, which by 
 lovers of such arts are made the ob- 
 jects of curious search and study. 
 Such objects are called curiosities. 
 They are neither quite strange and 
 new, nor quite common and familiar, 
 but for the most part strange render- 
 ings of familiar things. They excite 
 interest and stimulate inquiry; they 
 appeal to the faculty of inquisitive- 
 ness, and gratify it. 
 
 "Let the Scriptures be hard; are they 
 more hard, more crabbed, more abstruse 
 than the Fathers?" — Milton. 
 
 " It is true our bodies are made of very 
 coarse materials ; of nothing but a little 
 dust and earth. Yet they are so wisely 
 contrived, so curiously composed."— Beve- 
 
 BIDQE. 
 
 Quaint is from the O. Fr. coint, 
 neat (Lat. comptns). Its primary 
 meaning is, artificially elegant or in- 
 genious, then affectedly artificial, and 
 finally, odd, antique, yet retaining 
 always an element of the pleasing. 
 The idea of quaintness belongs at 
 present most commonly to style of 
 thought and verbal expression in 
 which appears a combination of fancy, 
 originality, delicacy, and force, yet a 
 disharmony with present modes. 
 Quaint architecture, for instance, is 
 in detail antiquated and curious, 
 showing an obsolete beauty and an 
 unfashionable ingenuity. 
 
 " You were glad to be employed 
 To show how quaint an orator you are." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 ABSURD. Foolish. Irrational. 
 Preposterous. Paradoxical. 
 
 Absurd is the Lat. absurdus, irra- 
 tional, disso7iaiit, denoting that which 
 jars against common-sense and re- 
 ceived notions of propriety and truth, 
 as when an argument is reduced to an 
 absurdity on which every man's judg- 
 ment is competent to determine; or 
 men form absurd, that is, practically 
 
[absurd] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 26 
 
 improbable expectations, or conduct 
 themBelves in an absurd manner, that 
 is, one in which even common persons 
 would perceive a palpable unfitness. 
 The ridiculous or ludicrous are not of 
 the essence of the absurd, though the 
 absurd, especially when exhibited in 
 matters of demeanour, dress, action, 
 and the like externals, will be pro- 
 bably attended with ludicrous effects. 
 An absurd remark is out of tune with 
 the general subject, and comes from 
 one who does not see the point at is- 
 sue. It is like a note struck in a dif- 
 ferent key from that of a piece of 
 music. 
 
 " That we may proceed yet farther with 
 the atheist and convince him that not only 
 his principle is absurd but his consequences 
 also as ahsurdly deduced from it, we will 
 allow him an uncertain extravagant chance 
 tgainst the natural laws of motion." — 
 Bektley. 
 
 Irrational (Lat. irrittidnnlis, de- 
 void of reason) is employed to express 
 sometimes the want of the faculty of 
 reason by nature, as in the phrase "the 
 irrational animals;'* sometimes a defi- 
 ciency in its exercise, and, like the 
 rest of these synonyms, is applicable to 
 
 fiersons, to principle, and to conduct, 
 t is a more serious term than absurd, 
 involving more serious results as a 
 dereliction of that reason which is the 
 distinctive light and guide of men. 
 As absurdity lies in false relation, so 
 irrationality lies in absurd conception. 
 Hence it is applied rather to matters 
 theoretical than practical, principles, 
 schemes, suppositions, notions. Ex- 
 pectations may be irrational. Pro- 
 found ignorance or inexperience, or 
 extravagant credulity may lead us to 
 entertain what is irrational. Absur- 
 dity belongs to things, irrationality to 
 our estimate of them. If we could 
 not see a manifest absurdity, we 
 should be ourselves irrational. 
 
 " These are all of them suggestions of in- 
 ternal sense, consciousness, or reflexion, 
 which we belieA'e because we believe them 
 to be true ; and which, if we were not to be- 
 lieve them, would bring upon us the charge 
 of irrationality." — Beattie. 
 
 As irrational denotes the contra- 
 diction of reason, so Foolish denotes 
 the insufficient exercise of it. So the 
 conduct of children is not called irra- 
 
 tional, but silly or foolish. As the 
 irrational is unsound in principle, and 
 contrary to experience, so the foolish 
 ■ is contrary to the practical under- 
 standing. The fool speaks and acts 
 absurdly and irrationally in things 
 practical and moral. Hence folly is 
 closely allied to wickedness, as wisdom 
 to virtue. As the fear of the Lord is 
 the beginning of wisdom, so the fool 
 says in his heart there is no God. 
 He wants, or has lost the natural 
 light which enables a man to choose 
 the better way which coincides with 
 his higher, truer, and more solid in- 
 terests. The fool mistakes the rela- 
 tive value of things. As wisdom is 
 reason perfected by knowledge, so 
 folly is reason deluded or uninformed. 
 Even irrational animals are called 
 foolish when they seem to be neglect- 
 ing the light of instinct in self-preser- 
 vation. Some men of low mental 
 ability are nevertheless too shrewd to 
 be called fools. Some who are philo- 
 sophers in intellect are fools in prac 
 tice. 
 
 " It \s foolishly imagined in France thst 
 to deprive one great man of his dishes of 
 silver and gold, and another of his money, 
 will be of advantage to the poor." — Fox. 
 
 As the absurd contradicts every- 
 day notions of fitness, so the Prepos- 
 terous (Lat. pra-postcruSy reversed in 
 order), the putting, as it were, of the 
 cart before the horse, contradicts 
 every-day notions of right relation- 
 ship. To say that a thing is prepos- 
 terously absurd is to say that it ex- 
 liibits such gross unfitness as to 
 amount to a contradiction of the com- 
 mon sequences of causes and eflfects. 
 The term is now used as a mere syno- 
 nym for very absurd, as by Dryden : — 
 
 '• What's more preposterous than to see 
 A merry beggar, mirth in miserj- ? ' 
 
 The following exhibits the exact 
 use of the term : — 
 
 "Some indeed preposterously misplace 
 these, and make us partake of the benefit 
 of Christ's priestly office in the forgiveness 
 of our sins and our reconcilement t<* Sod, 
 before we are brought under the sceptre 
 of His kingly office by our obedience." — 
 South. 
 
 Paradoxical (wapaJo^o?, contrary to 
 opinion f pwradorica/), belongs to forms 
 
26 
 
 SYNONYMS [a BUSK] 
 
 ot statement. When Southey speaks 
 of a " perverse and paradoxical intel- 
 lect," he only means one which likes 
 to express itself in paradox. A para- 
 dox is a proposition which in form is 
 out of harmony with common concep- 
 tions, yet is not so in substance. It 
 is truth, reason, or consistency wearing 
 the garb of the false, unreasonable, or 
 absurd. By analogy, the term para- 
 doxical may be extended beyond mat- 
 ters of verbal expression to anything 
 which conveys an impression or a 
 meaning in a manner contrary to ex- 
 pectation. For instance, to many 
 persons a man dressed in yellow for 
 mourning would present a paradoxical 
 appearance. The paradox vanishes 
 when he is told that the man is a na- 
 tive of a country where yellow means 
 mourning. 
 
 " A gloss there is to colour that paradox, 
 and make it appear in show not to be alto- 
 gether unreasonable." — Hooker. 
 
 ABUSE. Misuse. 
 
 As verbs and synonyms (the root 
 of both being the Lat. fiti, part, usus, 
 to use) these words seem to be, in the 
 following manner, distinguished. To 
 Misuse is simply to use in a >rrong 
 way, to Abuse is to misuse in such a 
 way that hurt accrues to the thing 
 misused, or to some other. To misuse 
 may be the consequence of inexpe- 
 rience or unfamiliarity with the thing 
 used ; to abuse is intentionally to use it 
 in wrongdoing. In misuse one offends 
 against reason, order, propriety, me- 
 thod, interest; in abuse against jus- 
 tice or honesty. In misuse there is 
 derangement, in abuse excess. Ex- 
 cess is the characteristic in the idea of 
 abusing one's powers, or the patience 
 and forbearance of others. It de- 
 serves, however, to be remarked, that 
 tJie abusing of one's own powers may 
 arise from imprudence or even gene- 
 rosity, as wliere the anxiety to serve 
 or benefit others has made us forget 
 the care and consideration due to our- 
 selves. 
 
 But, generally speaking, to misuse 
 i« to use with waste of power; abuse 
 is to use with wrongfulness of pur- 
 pose. Language is abused when it is 
 employed to deceive, to advocate in- 
 justice, to excite bad passions, in 
 
 blasphemy, and the like. It is mis- 
 used when it is spoken unidioraati- 
 cally or ungrammatically. 
 
 " The gravest and wisest person may be 
 abused by being put into a fool's coat." — 
 
 TiLLOTSOX. 
 
 "How much names taken for things 
 are apt to mislead the understanding, the 
 attentive reading of philosophical writers 
 would abundantly discover, and that per- 
 haps in words little suspected for any such 
 misuse." — Locke. 
 
 ACADEMY. School. College. 
 University. Seminauy. Institute. 
 
 Academy is a term borrowed from 
 the Greek ixa^n/xua, a gymnasium in 
 the suburbs of Athens where Plato 
 taught. Hence the Platonic schools 
 were called academies, and societies 
 of learned men have since been called 
 academies. The term is also applied 
 to societies for promoting the fine arts 
 and sciences, as the Academy of 
 France, the Royal Academy of Pain- 
 ters in England, and many others. It 
 is an affectation to call a school for 
 young boys an academy. It is evi- 
 dent that no common living together 
 is involved in the simple idea of an 
 academy, which is constituted simply 
 on tlie jirinciple of a community in 
 learning or art, and denotes more 
 than their first rudiments. 
 
 " In a conference of the French Academy, 
 one of the Academicians desired to hare 
 their opinions on the conduct of Paul Vero- 
 nese, who, though a painter of great oon- 
 sidei-ation, had, contrary to the strict rules 
 of art, in his picture of Perseus and Andro- 
 meda, represented the principal figure in 
 shade." — Sir J. Reitjolds. 
 
 A School (Greek, a-x^y^n, leisure), 
 commonly expresses among ourselves 
 the idea of youthful students and the 
 discipline and instruction of elders, 
 except where the word is used in the 
 sense of a school of art, as of painting, 
 meaning a succession of artists of the 
 same style. Even here, however, the 
 earlier painters or founders of the 
 style are spoken of as masters, and 
 their imitators as pupils. Like aca- 
 demy, but more strictly, common study 
 is implied in school, but not of neces- 
 sity common living together. Aca- 
 demy and school are also applicable 
 to places where bodily accomplish- 
 ments are practised, as a School of 
 Fencing, or a Riding Academy. 
 
[accede] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 27 
 
 " This place shoald be at once both 
 School and University, not needing a 
 remove to any other honse of scholarship, 
 except it be some peculiar College of Law 
 or Physic, where they mean to be practi- 
 tioners." — Milton. 
 
 In College (Lat. ColUgium^ col- 
 leagueship ; and so antj kind of corpo- 
 ration) is involved, on the other hand, 
 a societv of persons living together or 
 acting officially in concert. And this 
 is tlie essence of the idea, that of learn- 
 ing being accidental. Some colleges 
 are not institutions of learning or 
 science, as the College of Cardinals. 
 A college in the educational sense is 
 supposed to be more under public 
 government than a school, which may 
 be Bti-ictly private. 
 
 " When we consider the greatness of 
 our wants in this kind, we should be 
 tempted to wish for a College destined for 
 the supplial of a sufficient number of able 
 missionaries in constant succession, brought 
 up from their early youth in such a disci- 
 pline as may be judged best fitted for such 
 a service." — Warburtox. 
 
 An aggregate of colleges may form 
 an University, which, however, is 
 not thereby constituted, but rather by 
 being a place oi'universal learning ( Lat. 
 nm versitatem, orig. a guild corporatioii) 
 has commonly a corporate existence 
 and rights which are recognized by 
 the State to which it belongs. A uni- 
 versity may consist of one or more 
 than one college. The building 
 called the University of London is 
 not a college, but represents a central 
 seat of learning to which colleges are 
 affiliated. 
 
 " As it resembled a royal court in regard 
 of those many nobli-mea and persons of 
 quality that lived in it, so one might esteem 
 it an University, for those many accom- 
 plished men in all kinds of knowledge and 
 good learning that were his domestics." — 
 Strype. 
 
 ACCEDE. Assent. Consent. 
 AcnEE. Comply. Acquiesce. Con- 
 
 FOUM. 
 
 Accede (Lat. acctdere, to go to or 
 join) expresses a voluntary going 
 forth of the mind,- to attach itself to 
 some proposed matter. That to whiih 
 we accede is of the nature of some- 
 thing .proposed to our consideration, 
 OS a request, or a plan of action. We 
 accede when we go over to the side, 
 as it were, of another, in consequence 
 
 of his representations made to us. We 
 accede when we agree to the terms of 
 a person or party or a convention. 
 
 " And vain were reason, coui-age, learning, 
 
 all. 
 Till power accede ; till Tudor's wild caprice 
 Smile on their cause."— Shekstoke. 
 
 As we accede to practical proposals, 
 so we Assent( Lat. assenfn'c) to matters 
 of judgment as enunciated in spe- 
 culative propositions. We assent to a 
 thing when we admit it to be true, or 
 recognized as such, whether formally 
 proposed to our acceptance or not. 
 It is opposed to dissent, which is to 
 express an opposite or different 
 opinion, as assent a similar or the 
 same. It is purely mental, but is 
 also taken for the voluntaiy expres- 
 sion of concurrence, as an act of the 
 judgment. 
 
 " Subscription to articles of Religion, 
 though no more than a declaration of the 
 subscriber's assetit, may properly enough be 
 considered in connexion with the subject 
 of oaths, because it is governed by the 
 same rule of interpretation." — Paiey. 
 
 Consent (Lat. consenhre) is to con- 
 cur to some practical pui'pose, to 
 agree to act according to the will of 
 another. But the noun consent bears 
 the meaning of collective assent, as in 
 the phrase, " the universal consent of 
 mankind." Consent is given to others 
 in some matter in which they are in- 
 terested, and which is promoted by 
 such agreement on our part. Some 
 superiority, either personal or of posi- 
 tion, springing out of the circum- 
 stances is implied in consent. Assent 
 may be the result of some proposal or 
 request to express it. Consent is al- 
 ways consequent upon request. The 
 effect of assent is to involve in the 
 responsibility of expressed opinion ; 
 the effect of consent is to implicate in 
 a course of action. 
 
 " My poverty and net my will consents." 
 Shakespkarb. 
 
 Agree (Fr. agrier=^prendre a g"6^ 
 t.e.ad gralum,toreceiiefavourabtu, (rom 
 Lat. grntus,) is the most comprehen- 
 sive. Assent is agreement of opinion ; 
 consent, agreement of action; acced- 
 ing, agreement to proposals : confor- 
 mity, agreement to outward rules or 
 practices ; compliance, agreement to 
 
28 
 
 ittbmit one's self to the wishes of 
 another. As the rest are voluntary and 
 deliberate acts, so a^eement may be 
 voluntary or involuntary. Agi'eement 
 may be between persons and things, 
 or a person and a thing. It may be a 
 harmony of will, moral likeness, me- 
 chanical aptitude, external similarity ; 
 and, in short, anything which is not 
 disagi-eement or difference. Agree- 
 ment may be complete or partial, of 
 all points or of some only. Things 
 agi-ee which harmonize m opinion, 
 feeling, statement, proposal, appear- 
 ance, operation — that is, where they 
 meet in some third tenn, which is a 
 test or standard of judgment, senti- 
 mei.t, expression, or evidence, pur- 
 pose, likeness, or result. 
 
 " Knowledge seems to me to be nothing 
 but the perception of the connexion ana 
 agreement or disagreement, and repugnance 
 of any of our ideas." — Locke. 
 
 Comply and Consent (the former 
 from Lat. complire, tofuljil, through It. 
 complire, not Fr. compiler) very nearly 
 coincide, but compliance denotes far 
 more strongly and personally the 
 surrender of one's own will to that of 
 another. We may comply reluctantly 
 or gladly. We comply with the wishes 
 of another as such ; but we might con- 
 sent to do a thing on its being shown 
 to be for our own interest, or if a 
 sufficient inducement were held out 
 to us, though it should not be of any 
 particular advantage to the person 
 who should endeavoui- to induce us to 
 act. To consent is a more indepen- 
 dent act than to comply. In con- 
 senting we recognize proper ground 
 of action, though at the request of 
 another. I n complying we recognize 
 nothingbuthis desires. Consentmay, 
 and generally does, come from a supe- 
 rior, or one independent of us ; comply- 
 ing, from one who is in some degree 
 the inferior or weaker. If we con- 
 sent wrongly, it is from an error of 
 judgment ; if we comply wrongly, it 
 IS from weakness of character. Not 
 to consent is to refuse ; not to comply 
 is to resist. 
 
 " He that complies against his will. 
 Is of the same ojiinion Btill." 
 
 HUDIBRAS. 
 
 fo Acquiesce {LqX. acqtue&ctre) is 
 
 8YN0NYMS [ACCELERATE] 
 
 to concur with what is said or done 
 in some degree short of a full and 
 hearty concurrence, and even with 
 the mere absence of contradiction or 
 opposition. Acquiescence is a passive 
 act dictated by prudence, dutj^, or ne- 
 cessity. It is a negative or permissive 
 act which refi-ainsfrom challenging the 
 truth of statements, or the justice of 
 decisions and dispositions. It is the 
 act of an inferior by position or circum- 
 stances. It is a kind of consent or 
 compliance, which comes not so much 
 from the will or the judgment as from 
 a determination to have no will and 
 exercis* no judgment of our own in 
 the matter. 
 
 " Submission to God's will, and acquies- 
 cence in the event disposed by Him."— 
 Barrow. 
 
 CoNFOUM (Lat. conformare, to form 
 symtneirically) denotes, as the structure 
 of the word expresses, an external, or 
 at least formal, agreement. We con- 
 form only in externals, or the opinions 
 which affect them, or the rules 
 which regulate them. We conform 
 to habits, customs, and practices ; not 
 to thoughts, but to the modes in which 
 they find expression; not to principles, 
 but the action which is the result of 
 them. An outward confonnity may 
 even conceal an inward dissent. 
 
 '* I think those who make laws and ost 
 force to bring men to Church conformity 
 in religion seek only the compliance ; but 
 concern themselves not for the con^^ction 
 of those they punish." — Locke, 
 
 ACCELERATE. Hasten. Speed. 
 Expedite. Despatch. Quicken. 
 Urge. Instigate. 
 
 Of these Hasten, Speed, Quicken, 
 are used both as active and neuter 
 verbs; Expedite, Despatch, Accele- 
 rate, Urge, only actively. It is as 
 active verbs that they are hei*e con- 
 sidered. 
 
 Accelerate (Lat. acc^lh-dre) has 
 much the sense of the English form 
 Quicken (A.S. civic, quick, alivCy 
 lively, rapid), which is the most 
 generic of all. Accelerate refers to 
 some movement already begun, and 
 except as a scientific ' tei-m, is not 
 applied to the object itself— the rota- 
 tion of a wheel, not the wheel itself, 
 is accelerated ; the speed of a horse, 
 not the horse. In this respect it 
 
[accelerate] 
 
 differs from Hasten, which may be 
 employed where no movement has as 
 yetDe.2:un; and in tlie sense of shorten- 
 ing the interval before something 
 tftkes place, as to hasten a person's 
 departure. It has a character more 
 purely mechanical than hasten. To 
 accelerate is to cause increased ve- 
 locity of movement; to hasten (of. 
 German, hasten) is to cause di- 
 minished occupation of time. la 
 hastening we have a final object, in 
 acceleratmg we may have no more 
 than an operative object. I hasten 
 the despatch of business in order 
 that it may be the sooner concluded ; 
 I accelerate the rotation of the gi-ind- 
 stone that it may grind the more 
 effectually. The setting of additional 
 sail, by accelerating the speed of the 
 vessel, will hasten our an'ival at the 
 port. If we accelerate a conclusion. 
 It is that we accelerate the process by 
 which it is airived at. 
 
 " Motion may be in an endless variety of 
 directions. It may be quick or slow, recti- 
 lineal or curvilineal. It may be equable, 
 or accelerated, or retarded." — Reid. 
 
 " The two Houses, finding things in this 
 posture, hastened the departure of their 
 Commissioners to the Isle of Wight, with 
 powers and instructions to treat with the 
 king." — Ludlow. 
 
 Spekd in this sense ( A.S. spkdan, to 
 hasten) is a little old-fashioned, and 
 is rather used when the idea of pro- 
 gperous or successful furtherance is 
 intended, without of necessity an in- 
 crease in the rate of motion. It be- 
 longs to the enterpiises, undertakings, 
 and transactions of men, which occupy 
 time, and run a prescribed course, and 
 need management and regulation. 
 
 " Speeder of Night's spies 
 And guide of all her dreams' obscurities." 
 Chapman, Homer. 
 
 Urge is employed in matters in 
 which the action of persons is con- 
 cerned, and is only poetically used 
 in the sense of propel mechanically 
 (Lat. urg'ere), as by Gray — 
 
 " To chase the rolling circles' speed. 
 Or urge the flying ball." 
 We say, however, to urge a conside- 
 ration, argument, plea, and the like. 
 It conveys the idea of hastening by 
 pressure, and from a feeling of the 
 danger or undesirableness of light 
 suggestions or delay. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 29 
 
 " My brother did urge me in this act." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 He who urges acts under a grave 
 impulse. Circumstances as well as 
 persons may urge, that is, exercise, 
 strong inducement to action when we 
 reflect upon their nature and conse- 
 quences. When we urge we supply 
 a stimulus to action where it is want- 
 ing, or we regard it as wanting. The 
 use of the whip will urge the horse 
 to his highest speed. Ambition will 
 urge men to arduous, almost to des- 
 perate attempts. We are urged equally 
 by the violent promptings of passion, 
 and by the incontrovertible force of 
 reason. To urge stands midway be- 
 tween incline, which is weaker, and 
 compel, which is stronger. 
 
 Expedite and Despatch (Lat. gi- 
 pcdire, and Fr. dtpScher, It. dispacciare) 
 are employed of transactions in busi- 
 ness, but expedite refers rather to the 
 hastening oi the process, despatch to 
 the attainment of the end ; so that 
 both may concui", in the same phrase, 
 to expedite the despatch of business. 
 The idea of expediting is to free from 
 incumbrances, so as to enable to move 
 faster ; the idea of despatching is to 
 unfasten, and so to set loose or free. 
 A matter is expedited when it is got 
 over more quickly, it is despatched 
 when it is disposed of as done. To 
 despatch a messenger is to send him 
 off, to despatch an enemy is to send 
 him out oi life. 
 
 Insiigate (Lat. instigare) is only 
 used towards persons, and commonly 
 in an unfavourable sense. We urge 
 to honest exertion, and instigate to 
 crime. The idea of instigation is that 
 of goading on to do something ; to 
 this has come to be added that of a 
 secret motive or impulse. Instigation 
 is a means, by stimulation and secret 
 excitement, of urging one to do what 
 he is not otherwise inclined to do, 
 and which he may even resist. He 
 who is instigated is forced on in some 
 way. Sound and sober reasons, how- 
 ever unanswerably forcible, do not 
 instigate, though they may prompt, 
 urge, and even compel. 
 
 *' Your Imperial Majesty's just influence, 
 which is still gi'eater than your extensive 
 power, will animate and expedite the effort* 
 of other sovereigns." — Buuke. 
 
30 
 
 SYNONYMS [accent] 
 
 " Ere we pnt ourselves in arms, despatch we 
 The business we have talked of." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 As the idea of quick is first that of 
 life, and then that of such active 
 movement as flows from life, the verb 
 quicken follows this twofold idea, 
 and besides being employed of the 
 mere acceleration of motion, may be 
 used also of increasing tlie motive 
 faculty, as in the following : — 
 
 " Liice a fruitful garden without a hedge, 
 which quickens the appetite to enjoy so 
 tempting a prize." — South. 
 
 " He hath only instigated his blackest 
 agents to the very extent of their malig- 
 nity."— Warbubtox. 
 
 ACCENT. Emphasis. Stuess. 
 
 Of these. Stress is the most gene- 
 ral, expressing an idea of effort (O. 
 Fr. estroissir, to straighten), while Em- 
 phasis (Gr. EiJt.<f>usig, from ifX'^oiivofjiai) 
 expresses the idea of light and shade, 
 and Accent (Lat. acceiUns) that of in- 
 tonation, flletaphorically, stress is used 
 as the others are not — upon ideas, 
 arguments, or moral considerations. 
 We lay stress upon that to which we 
 attribute importance, to which we 
 desire to assign a prominent place in 
 our representations. As accent and 
 em])ha5is belong not to thoughts but 
 to their utterance in language, so ac- 
 cent is on syllables, emphasis on 
 words. The object of accent is gram- 
 matical, for the purpose of character- 
 izing words; the object of emphasis 
 is rliPtorical, for the purpose of draw- 
 ing the idea which they express into 
 prominence, and illustrating the sense 
 by a marked pronunciation of the 
 word. Accent is a matter of rule, 
 and belongs to the requirements of 
 the lano^uage, and in no sense to the 
 taste of the speaker. It has in some 
 cases its written signs which are in- 
 variable. Emphasis is variable, and 
 depends, where it is deliberate, on the 
 taste and interpretation of the reader 
 or speaker ; where it is spontaneous, 
 on his emotion. 
 
 " Agi-eeably to this (short pronunciation 
 of our words) is a remarkable peculiarity 
 of Engli.«h pronunciation, the throwing the 
 accent farther back— that is, nearer the be- 
 ginning of the word, than is done by any 
 other nation." — Blair. 
 " The voice all modes of passion can express 
 That marky the proper, and with proper 
 
 stress : 
 
 Bat none emphatic can that actor call, 
 Who lays an equal emphasis on all." 
 
 Lloyd's Actor. 
 
 ACCEPT. Receive. Take. 
 
 Of these. Take (A.S. tacan, to take, 
 lay hold of) which is the simplest and 
 most purely physical, is employed in 
 the twofold sense of spontaneous as- 
 suming, and of ready receiving at the 
 hand of another ; in other words, to 
 assume with or without the interven- 
 tion of another person. The force 
 oscillates between the most active 
 and the most purely passive senses. 
 I take a thing by force, or I take an 
 injury — that is, endure without resent- 
 ing it. In this passive sense it is em- 
 ployed of inanimate substances to 
 denote no more than a natural im- 
 pressibility, or capability of being 
 acted upon. Wax will take the im- 
 pression of a seal. In fresco painting 
 the moist ground will take the colors 
 better than when dry. 
 
 Receive (Fr. i-ecevoir, Lat. rcciptre) 
 is purely passive. Like take, it be- 
 longs both to voluntary agents and 
 inanimate substances. I receive a 
 friend at my house ; I receive a blow ; 
 the wax receives the impression. 
 When employed of the former, take 
 is more or less voluntary, even in its 
 passive sense. Receive may be vo- 
 luntary or involuntary. To take a 
 blow is passive and voluntary. To 
 receive a blow is passive and involun- 
 tary. The voluntariness is distinctly 
 prominent in Accept (Lat. acctpere, 
 part, accept us), vi-hich always implies 
 pleasure, or at least readiness. On 
 the other hand, we receive gladly or 
 unwillingly, as the case may be. We 
 accept what we choose to take from 
 another, we receive what he chooses 
 to give us. The difference may be 
 illustrated by the difference between 
 receiving an apology or an invitation 
 and accepting it. It is to be noted 
 that accept is not used in this sense 
 of persons whom we always receive, 
 sometimes gladly, sometimes ungra- 
 ciously, unless the person is in some 
 way presented to our choice. Ac- 
 ceptance is an active, voluntary, and 
 conscious reception. We are com-, 
 monly said to receive thanks and to 
 accept services. Receive may denote 
 
[acceptance] discriminated. 
 
 31 
 
 no more than not refusing. We ought 
 always to be grateful for benefits we 
 hare received, and to be very slow 
 in rejecting what we have once ac- 
 cepted. 
 
 " And toward the education of yonr daugh- 
 ters 
 I here bestow a simple instrument. 
 And this small packet of Greek and Latin 
 
 books, 
 If you accept them, then their worth is 
 great." Shakespeare. 
 
 " Justification always supposes two par- 
 ties, one to give, and another to receive, 
 whether without any act at all on the re- 
 ceptive side, as in the case of infants ; or 
 whether accompanied by receptive acts, as 
 in the case of adults, who may be properly 
 said to accept and assent to, as well as to 
 receive and enjoy." — Waterland. 
 
 " Take, eat, this is my body." — English 
 Bible. 
 
 " Do I fully trust in God as the Giver 
 and Taker away of all earthly things ? "— 
 Gilpin. 
 
 ACCEPTABLE. Grateful. 
 Wklcome. 
 
 That is Acceptable (See Accept) 
 which is gladly to be received as a 
 relative good as coinciding with our 
 circumstances and requirements. But 
 this only within certain limits, for it 
 is not a strong term. Tlie appropriate 
 belongs essentially to the accept- 
 able : we should be speaking ironically 
 if we said of any gift of great value 
 that it was acceptable. That is ac- 
 ceptable which is suitable in itself 
 and pleasant to receive. The accept- 
 able is determined as much by the 
 judgment as by the feelings. 
 
 " If the mind is at any time vacant from 
 every passion and desire, there are still 
 some objects that are more acceptable to 
 us than others." — Reid. 
 
 Grateful (Lat. ^rnf us) expresses 
 not so much what is recognized as a 
 good as rather what is sensibly de- 
 lightful and consonant with the feel- 
 ings. Hence, unlike acceptable, it 
 may be predicted of things which are 
 not gifts at all, nor of the nature of 
 possessions. A donation of money is 
 grateful to the poor man, as gladden- 
 mg his heart with the means of ob- 
 taining what otherwise he could not 
 possess ; acceptable to him as reflect- 
 ing upon the improvement of hig 
 condition consequent upon it. The 
 grateful commonly meets a natural, as 
 
 the acceptable an artificial or casual 
 want. The cool breeze is grateful to 
 the fevered patient. As tlie accept- 
 able excites satisfaction, so the grateful 
 excites joy or pleasure. The accept- 
 able meets a requirement, the grateful 
 a want. 
 
 " Hope's grateful stimulus produces i 
 pleasing and salutary flow of the animal 
 spirits, and diffuses a temperate vivacity 
 over the system." — Cogax. 
 
 Welcome, as the word plainly in- 
 dicates, belongs to that which comes 
 to us gladly, and includes, like grate- 
 ful, many things besides gifts or 
 things offered to our acceptance. 
 What is welcome is always of the 
 nature of an event. It is, strictly 
 speaking, not the person, but his arri- 
 val or coming which is welcome. 
 Welcome expresses, more positively 
 than acceptable or even grateful, the 
 fact that the thing has accrued to the 
 person. That which is acceptable or 
 grateful one would be glad to have, 
 that which is welcome has arrived. 
 The former express the qualities of 
 things, the latter their effect upon 
 ourselves. 
 
 " O welcome hour 1 " — Miltox. 
 
 acceptance. Acceptation. 
 
 Tliese words, which are only diffe- 
 rent modifications of the word accept, 
 have come to be employed with some 
 distinction of meaning; depending, 
 nevertheless, entirely upon usage. It 
 is, however, consonant with tlieir ety- 
 mology that acceptance sliould have the 
 more subjective and active, acceptation 
 the more objective and passive, sense. 
 So acceptance denotes the actor process 
 of receiving, acceptation the mode in 
 which the word or thing is received. 
 The acceptance of a word would 
 mean the recognition and reception 
 of it, either by an individual or into 
 the vocabulary of a language. Its 
 acceptation would be its force and 
 meaning after it had been so received. 
 The acceptation of a word is conven- 
 tional. It depends upon what a parti- 
 cular people or generation may re- 
 gard as its direct and proper force. 
 So, for instance, the Lat. dbuti, to use 
 wrongly, has gone out in different 
 meanings in the French abuser and 
 the English abtise as regards persons, 
 
62 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [access] 
 
 the French notion of abuse in such 
 cases being deception, the English, 
 coarse denunciation. The acceptance 
 of a word lies more commonly in the 
 genius of a language, which seems to 
 possess, 80 to speak, an instinctive 
 faculty of admitting what is con- 
 sonant, and rejecting what is uncon- 
 genial to it. Like all instincts, how- 
 ever, it is not unerring; and we are 
 sometimes surprised to find what we 
 regard as a rejection without a cause, 
 where the a'cceptance of the word 
 would have added to the resources 
 of the language. 
 
 " Such with him 
 Finds no acceptance nor can find." 
 
 Milton. 
 " ' Friend,' quoth the Cur, ' I meant uo 
 
 harm. 
 Then why so captious, why so warm ? 
 My words in common acceptation, 
 Could never give thee provocation.' " — Gay. 
 
 ACCESS. Approach. 
 
 Both these words are employed 
 both of the drawing near and of the 
 line of movement by which it is 
 effected — that is, of the act and the 
 way ; but Access (Lat. accessus, from 
 acctdere, to approach ) bears reference 
 rather to the capabilities, Approach 
 {Fr.approcher, Lat. nppro^priare, Bra- 
 cket) to the way, of drawing near. In 
 approach, the question is as to the ri^ht 
 or wrong line or method, or the safety 
 or expediency of making it at all. In 
 access, it is as to the ease or difficulty 
 of finding or obtaining it. Approach 
 is used in more varied senses than 
 access, which commonly means capa- 
 bility of reaching or being reached. 
 Approach is the act of drawing near, 
 and is applicable to time as well as 
 space, or, in a secondary sense, bears 
 the meaning of resemblance, an ana- 
 logy existing between the ideas of 
 Bimilarity and approximation. Access 
 is a complete, approach a partial, act. 
 Approach may still leave an interval 
 between us and the object approached ; 
 access precludes the idea of such 
 interval. In regard to persons, one 
 would sometimes gladly approach 
 tliem, but cannot gain access to them. 
 In such cases we commonly approach 
 them in order to insinuate ourselves 
 into their good graces, and seek access 
 to them on the ground of some matter 
 
 of interest in which we believe that 
 they may render us assistance. 
 
 " They anon 
 With hundreds and with thousands troop- 
 
 ing came 
 Attended, all access was thronged." 
 
 MiLTOX, 
 
 " By thy approach thou mak'st me most 
 unhappy." Shakespeare. 
 
 ACCIDENT. Contingency. 
 
 Casualty. Incident. 
 
 All these terms express the occur- 
 rence of events in the producing of 
 which, our own design had no part. 
 Of these Accident (Lat. acctdere, to 
 befall) and Casualty (Lat. cdsudlis, 
 fortuitous) are more closely personal 
 than Contingency (Lat. coiitingtre, to 
 fall to the lot) and Incident (Lat. 
 inctdtre, to befall). Although the term 
 accident means in itself no more than 
 a befalling, it is never used without 
 qualification to express the chance 
 occurrence of anything good, but 
 requires a modifying term ; as, a lucky 
 accident. An accident bears refe- 
 rence to some person to whom an 
 event occurs undesignedly. In the 
 phrase " by accident," as, " I met him 
 by accident in the street," the idea of 
 untoward befalling is not implied as 
 in the case of the simple noun, an 
 accident. Accident is the concrete of 
 which chance is the abstract. Chance 
 instanced in somebody becomes acci- 
 dent. We may see how the term 
 accident was on the turn in Shake- 
 speare's time, from an unexpected 
 occurrence to an untoward one, in the 
 line, 
 •' Of moving accidents by flood and field." 
 
 Casualty, like accident, tends to an 
 unfavourable sense. The use of such 
 words seems to indicate the feeling of 
 mankind, that where things occur not 
 as the consequence of human fore- 
 thouglit and desion, they are in the 
 majority of cases infelicitous or disas- 
 trous. A casualty is first a chance 
 occurrence, then an infelicitous one ; 
 as an accident is first a chance occur- 
 rence, then a disastrous one. Casualty 
 is more independent of ourselves than 
 accident. An accident may be, an<? 
 commonly is, attributable to our own 
 acts, a« through rashness or neglect; 
 but there are casualties which no 
 
[accompaniment] discriminated. 
 
 human prudence could foresee or pre- 
 y^ent. A casualty of this kind would 
 be the death of anotlier at a certain 
 moment, or our own. Human life is 
 subject to casualties, but it is only 
 liable to accidents. Accidents spring 
 immediately out of the situation of 
 the individual. Casualties out of the 
 character, condition, or circumstances 
 which he shares with others. Men 
 and women might suffer equally from 
 the upsetting of a carriage, but the 
 life of men being more active and 
 public, involving many dangerous 
 trades and professions, exposes them 
 to more serious and frequent casualties 
 than that of women. 
 
 *' The cause why the children of Israel 
 took unto one man many wives, might be 
 lest the msualties of war should in any 
 way hinder the promises of God concerning 
 their multitude, from taking effect on 
 tliera."— Hooker. 
 
 A Contingency is to a circum- 
 stance or set of circumstances what 
 an accident is to a person or set of 
 persons ; but the effect of an accident 
 IS simple, that of a contingency com- 
 plex. An accident is a chance, a 
 contingency is a chance upon a chance. 
 When one event or set of events 
 happens to fall in with another event 
 or set of events, so as to produce a 
 result of practical moment, this is a 
 contingency. It is a dependent or 
 resultant occurrence, an event which 
 flows out of antecedent circumstances, 
 themselves fortuitous, and so itself a 
 fortuitous combination. 
 
 " The remarkable position of the Queen 
 rendering her death a most important 
 contingenqf"—R&jA.AX.. 
 
 Incident, like accident, expresses a 
 befalling without importing the idea 
 of chance, though it may owe its 
 interest to a certain unexpectedness. 
 It is an event regarded irrespectively 
 of what led to it, but not precluding 
 the plain recognition or ascertain- 
 ment of its cause, as e.g. an incident 
 in a voyage or history. As an acci- 
 dent belongs to things without, and 
 comes in to mar, interrupt, or even 
 stop a course of things, so an incident 
 belongs to that course, and is a varied 
 feature ar episode in it. It is to 
 action what episode is to nan-ative, a 
 
 33 
 
 deviation without loss of continuity, 
 being not untoward or finistrative, but 
 illustrative and helpful. It may be 
 obseiTed that the notion of harm which 
 associates itself with casualty is not 
 attached to casual, which means simply 
 coming in collaterally, coinciding with 
 other mattei-s, but not having any im- 
 portant effect upon them, so that its 
 meaning borders upon that of trivial. 
 
 accompaniment. Concomi- 
 tant. Adjunct. Appendage. 
 
 An Accompaniment (see Accom' 
 pany) is that which goes by nature or 
 may be made to go with another 
 thing by reason of its fitness or har- 
 mony. The purpose of an accom- 
 paniment is to make that which it 
 accompanies fuller, better, and more 
 complete. Being itself of a different 
 nature or character from that which 
 it accompanies, it adds to it in value 
 or efficiency. 
 
 " We have the same representative of 
 Hymen in an epithalamium, the usual in- 
 dispensable accompaniment of a wedding." 
 — Wartox. 
 
 A Concomitant (Lat. conconularey 
 to accompany) is that which follows 
 another thing by its pliysical or moral 
 force and tendency, or belongs to it 
 in time and historically. In conco- 
 mitant the fact of accompaniment, 
 rather than any purpose or fitness, is 
 expressed. 
 
 " The length of this account I flatter my- 
 self will be excused, as it contains a few 
 curious particulars which are not foreign 
 to the subject, and which concomitmitly 
 illustrate the history of the arts." — Wal- 
 
 POLE. 
 
 An Adjunct (Lat. adjniigtre, part. 
 adjunctus, to join to) is that which is 
 joined to another thing, not being an 
 essential part of it, or belonging to it 
 in nature, but which may be with ad- 
 vantage attached to it, or, as a fact, 
 has been, so that the two go together. 
 
 " The nature, properties, adjtmcts, and 
 effects of God's law."— Bakkow. 
 
 Appendage (Lat. appendtcinm) is 
 commonly (where it is not used in a 
 purely physical sense) something or 
 the nature of a privilege or possession, 
 which by its suitableness or agi-eeable- 
 nesg enhances the value of the larger 
 or mere considerable thing to which 
 
34 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [accompany] 
 
 it is annexed. It may be purposely 
 added to it or drawn after, and in 
 some sense required by it. So local 
 privileges may constitute valuable 
 appendages to a title and estates. On 
 the other hand, sumptuous equipages 
 may be a necessary appendage to 
 such a position. Appendages, if not 
 actually onerous, are either valuable 
 or honourable. 
 
 " Modesty is the appendage of sobriety." 
 —Bishop Taylor. 
 
 ACCOMPANY. Attend. Escort. 
 To Accojii'ANY (L. Lat. companid- 
 tieniy {romcon,togellterj andpa/iis, bread, 
 a companion, being literally a 7ness- 
 male) and Attknd (Lat. attendhe, to 
 give heed to, Fr. attendre, to await) 
 are applicable both to things and per- 
 sons; Escort only to persons. When 
 applied to persons Accompany implies 
 some sort of equality between the two 
 persons or parties, Attend some mea- 
 sure of inferiority in one to the other. 
 Hscort (Fr. escorte ; as if from Lat. 
 excorrighe, to set straight) is accom- 
 paniment of or attendance upon per- 
 sons for the sake of protection fi'om 
 danger or insult, though where there 
 is little risk of tliis the escort assumes 
 the character of honourable and de- 
 ferential accompaniment. It is not a 
 term of long-standing in the language, 
 and according to usage may be em- 
 ployed with equal correctness of the 
 protection afforded by one person and 
 by more than one. It is used of a 
 single person in the following: — 
 " To-day shut out, still onward press. 
 And watch the seasons of access — 
 In private haunt, in public meet 
 Salute, escort him through the street." 
 Francis' Horace. 
 
 When used of things. Accompany in- 
 dicates rather a simultaneous, Attend 
 a consequent, association. So we say 
 such a thing is attended with serious 
 consequences where we could not em- 
 ploy accompanied. This force the 
 verb has in common with the noun 
 attendant, which means often not 
 only an inferior companion but one 
 who waits or follows upon another 
 one, accompanies another out of re- 
 gard, or to show him honour, or as 
 an act of friendship, or as deriving 
 pleasure from his society. One escort* 
 
 from fear of danger on another s behalf, 
 toward whom one entertains honour- 
 able regard. One attends out of a more 
 delicate regard, or as discharging a 
 duty which consists in being ready 
 to take his orders or supply his wants. 
 The subordination, implied in atten- 
 dance, may be voluntary, as when a 
 friend, out of friendship, attends 
 another in sickness. 
 
 " The Persian dames 
 (So were accustom'd all the Eastern fair). 
 In sumptuous cars accompanied his march." 
 
 Glover. 
 " All knees to Thee shall bow of them that 
 
 bide 
 In heaven, or earth, or under earth in hell. 
 When Thou aftoirfecf gloriously fi'om heaven 
 Shalt in the sky appear." MiLTO?f. 
 
 We commonly speak of companions 
 as agreeable or not, of attendants as 
 numerous or not, of an escort as strong 
 or not. Accompany and Attend are 
 the terms ordinarily employed to ex- 
 press the causation and sequence of 
 phenomena. In that case we use 
 accompany, when the results are 
 simultaneous ; attend, when one re- 
 sult leads to another. Exploring ex- 
 peditions into unknown countries are 
 invariably accompanied with danger 
 and hardship, and frequently attended 
 with loss of life. 
 
 ACCOiAIPLISH. Effect. Exe- 
 cute. Achieve. Perform. 
 
 Accomplish (Fr. accompUs; Lat. 
 ad and complire, to Jill up) denotes the 
 complete fulfilment of a plan proposed 
 in some measure by one's self. One 
 is not said to accomplish the designs 
 of another as such, though of course 
 we may make them ours. This is 
 done by no adherence to a fixed 
 course, but by the employment of 
 any resources of which we may be 
 possessed, and any insti-uments of 
 which we can avail ourselves. It is 
 no simple or trivial thing which is 
 said to be accomplished, but some- 
 thing of a complex nature, involving 
 sustained effort in labour or in skill. 
 Personal qualifications, generally, 
 being applied efficiently, lead to ac- 
 complishment. To accomplish is to 
 realize a project. We accomplish 
 when we fill up to the needful or 
 proposed extent by doing what is suf- 
 
[accomplish] discriminated. 
 
 ficient for the purpose. So charac- 
 teristic is this of the term, tliat it is 
 
 35 
 
 employed of cases in which the re- 
 quirement is measured by simple du- 
 ration, as to accomplish a period of 
 servitude. 
 
 " And TuUins sayth, that grete tr in.ees 
 ne r)eii not accomplised by strengthe ue by 
 delireraesse (cleverness) of body, bat by 
 good conseil, by anctoritee of persones, and 
 by science."— Chaucer. 
 
 To Effect (Lat, eff'iccre, to effect, to 
 work out a thing) relates to the bring- 
 ing about of a thing as a result, as to 
 Accomplish is to bring it about as a 
 project. \Ve accomplish by doing 
 what is sufficient ; we effect by the 
 appli«ation of right means. As the 
 measure of accomplishment is the 
 capability of the agent, so the measure 
 of effect is the potency of the cause. 
 Yet the term is not associated with 
 the operations of mechanical or im- 
 personal powers, but with personal 
 agents, who are said to effect when 
 they set in operation adequate causes. 
 And so long as these means or causes 
 are ade(juate, they may be in them- 
 selves either momentous or slight. 
 A knowledge of the mechanical powers 
 enables man to effect what cannot be 
 eflected by the most powerful of 
 beasts. Sometimes one person has 
 effected his purpose by entreat}', 
 where another had employed intimi- 
 dation without effect. 
 
 " The Christian Dispensation was neces- 
 sary to fulfil the purposes of God to man, 
 and to effect that which the divine counsels 
 h&d decreed in relation to him." — Bishop 
 
 HURD. 
 
 Execute (Lat. exscqui, part, exsc- 
 entus, to follow out) expresses a mode 
 of action, not a result, like Accomplish 
 and Effect. We do not accomplish 
 or effect till we have ceased to work. 
 We begin to execute when we begin 
 to act. When we seek to accomplish 
 or effect, the object is before us. 
 When we execute, the object is, so 
 to speak, behind us. We have not to 
 gain it, but to realize it or carry it 
 out. That which we have to accom- 
 plish or effect has no existence till it 
 IS accomplished or effected. That 
 which we seek to execute is already 
 in existence, though its effectuation 
 
 is left to us. A law is made, a dt^igj 
 conceived, an object defined, a pro- 
 ject recognized, a plan drawn, a com- 
 mand given, a commission entrusted ; 
 but they need to be carried out, and 
 this carrying out is the execution, 
 whether the thing to be executed 
 emanated from mys«lf or, as more 
 commonly, from another. 
 
 " Would it not redound to the discredit 
 of an earthly prince to permit that the 
 attendants on his person, the officers of his 
 court, the executors of his edicts should 
 have the least injury oiFcred them— should 
 lai'e scantily or coarsely, should appear iu 
 a sordid garb ! " — Barrow. 
 
 Achieve (Fr. achever, a chej\ /<> a 
 head or end) is to accomplish under 
 special circumstances of dirticulty, but 
 differs from the foregoing in that 
 some deo^ree of excellence is attached 
 to the idea, either in the striving or 
 the tiling striven for, or both, ^ione 
 of the other synonyms go beyond the 
 fact, and imply nothing of the merit 
 of doing. And although a matter 
 cannot be in itself more thai: accom- 
 plished, effected, or executed, yet 
 there may be room for reiJexion that 
 it might have been more fully accom- 
 plished, more faithfully or exactly 
 executed, or more permanently ef- 
 fected. But the thing achieved has 
 been pushed to the extreme limit of 
 success, both in the result and the 
 mode in which it has been gained. 
 In the others chance may have com- 
 bined with effort, but he who has 
 been helped by luck in any degree 
 has not achieved. 
 
 " No exploits so illustrious as those which 
 have been achieved by the faith and pa- 
 tience, by the courage and prudence, of the 
 ancient saints. They do far surpass the 
 most famous achievements of Pagan heroes," 
 —Barrow, 
 
 To Perform is to caiTy on with sus- 
 tained or continuous action, to per- 
 form perfectly is to do this out to the 
 end. We perform what is prescribed 
 or marked out by rule as a part or 
 duty, a function or office, a command- 
 ment. In all the rest the end is well- 
 nigh everything, in performance the 
 end is irequently nothing, and the 
 doing everything. A performance 
 as such, has no object beyond itself. 
 It is itseK an end, the thing being 
 
36 
 
 SYNONYMS [ACCOSTJ 
 
 done lor the sake of doing it, or for 
 some purpose which goes along with 
 it, as the exhibition of some quality 
 in the performer, or some pleasure 
 accessory to it. Continuous function 
 according to prescribed rule is per- 
 formance, whether it be physical, 
 mental, moral, or partly one and 
 pai-tly another, as dancing upon a 
 rope, mental arithmetic, an act of 
 benevolence, or playing a musical 
 instrument, or talking part in a dra- 
 matic representation. 
 
 " Some men are brave in battle who 
 are weak in counsel, which daily experience 
 sets before our eyes. Others deliberate 
 wisely, but are weak in the performing 
 part."— Dryden. 
 
 ACCOST. Salute. Auduess. 
 Greet. Hail. 
 
 Accost (Fr.accosfc)', Lat. accostare) 
 is literally to come to the side, Lat. 
 costay of or up to a person, with the 
 purpose of addressing him. In old 
 English writers occurs the form " ac- 
 coast," which was employed as a 
 geographical term. 
 
 " So much of Lapland as accoasts the sea." 
 Fuller. 
 
 The idea of the movement has dropped 
 out of the word, which has come to 
 mean exclusively thf purpose of it, 
 namely, the address. It denotes the 
 ilirection of words to a person in an un- 
 premeditated Avay whom chance cir- 
 cumstances have thrown in one's way. 
 One accosts another as one meets 
 him in the street, the object being in 
 the first instance to bring one's self 
 before his notice. Hence in accost- 
 ing there is some degree of abrupt- 
 ness by the necessities of the case, 
 or familiar acquaintance with the 
 person. 
 
 " If you would convince a person of his 
 mistake, accost him not upon that subject 
 when his spirit is ruffled or discomposed 
 with any occurrences of life, and especially 
 when he has heated his passions in the de- 
 fence of a contrary opinion." — Waits. 
 
 Salute (Lat. sUtutare, to ivish 
 health) is to exhibit on meeting some 
 sign of friendship or respect which 
 may or may not consist in, or be ac- 
 conipanitjd by, words. Among ac- 
 quaintance it is hardly a voluntary 
 act, fcJid is reqviired by the usages of 
 
 society. While accost is of equals and 
 in words, salute is not uncommonly 
 of superiors and without words. To 
 salute is deferential, to accost may be 
 so, or it may be cpiite the contrary. 
 Saluting is momentary and not sus- 
 tained ; while accosting may be mo- 
 mentary in regard to act, and sustained 
 in regard to the words. 
 
 " I shall not trouble my reader with the 
 first salutes of our three friends." — Ad- 
 
 DISOiV. 
 
 Address (Fr. s'adresser, which 
 traces back, through certain changes, 
 to Lat. dirigerCy to direct) may be with 
 or without personal meeting, as by 
 letter. It is more sustained than 
 accost. So we might accost a person 
 for the purpose afterwards of address- 
 ing him at length. Both accost and 
 salute belong more restrictedly to the 
 moment of first meeting. The verb 
 address is applied sometimes directly 
 to the person addressed, sometimes to 
 the thing, as an observation or a letter 
 addressed to him. For further re- 
 marks see the noun Address. 
 
 *' The shortest and best prayer which we 
 can address to Him who knows our wants 
 and our ignorance in asking ;s, 'Thy will 
 be done.' "— Bolikgbroke. 
 
 Greet (A. S. grttan) is to salute 
 with some demonstration of personal 
 feeling. This is commonly favourable, 
 as to greet with smiles, but usage 
 sometimes employs the term in re- 
 ference to the contrary, as the ap- 
 pearance of an unpopular orator, for 
 instance, is greeted with yells and 
 hisses. It is demonstrative recogni- 
 tion by words or other signs and ex- 
 pressions. We accost and salute only 
 persons directly. We may greet their 
 acts or words. By a poetical analogy 
 the term is even extended to events, 
 though, in its older use, it was con- 
 fined to persons, as very elegantly in 
 the following : — 
 
 " Roget, droope not, see the spring 
 Is the earth enammelling. 
 And the birds on every tree 
 Greete this moi'n with melodie." 
 
 Brown. 
 W hen used of events it has the force 
 of welcome or the reverse, but with a 
 stronger element of emotion. 
 
 Hail (Icel. heill, i.e., hale, healthify 
 and connected with heal and healthy 
 
[account] 
 
 DISCKIMINATED 
 
 37 
 
 answering to the Lat. sahe! and so to 
 " salute ") has lost its etymological 
 force, and means now such a short 
 demonstrative accosting as shall arrest 
 the attention, as when we speak of 
 hailing a ship at sea. We hail in order 
 to cause and excite attention by some 
 cry of recognition, or some short and 
 stirring form of words, to which we 
 add effect by the very force and sound 
 which we impart to them. In greet- 
 ing we demonstrate our feelings in 
 regard to the person, in hailing we 
 recognize something in him. A mul- 
 titude, when it greets a man as their 
 Prince, ismoved by feelings of loyalty. 
 In hailing him as their Prince they do 
 no more than give outward token of 
 accepting him as such. This may be 
 a formal act following upon his elec- 
 tion, or an outward acclamation con- 
 cealing inward disaffection. 
 " I pray'd for children, and thought bar- 
 renness 
 In wedlock a reproach. I gain'd a son, 
 And such a son as all then hailed me happy. 
 Who would be now a father in my stead ? " 
 Milton. 
 
 ACCOUNT. Bill. 
 
 As synonyms these words express 
 in common a representation or state- 
 ment of charo-es on money. 
 
 Account (Lat. ad and compiitare, to 
 compute, of which coiuit is an abbre- 
 viation) enters more into details than 
 a Bill (O. Fr. bille, a label or note 
 of the value of an article, L. Lat. 
 billa). Hence bill has commonly but 
 one side to it, embodying a charge of 
 one party against another. An ac- 
 count may have two sides to it, a 
 balance being finally struck in favour 
 of one side or party in the account. 
 " To love's account they placed their death 
 
 of late. 
 And now transfer the sad account to fate." 
 Parnell. 
 
 "Ordinary expense ought to be limited 
 by a man's estate, and ordered to the best, 
 that the bills may be less than the estima- 
 tion abroad."— Bacon. 
 
 ACCOUNT. Naiirative. Nar- 
 ration. Description. Relation. 
 Record. History. Tale. Memoir. 
 Story. Anecdote. 
 
 An Account, being literally a ren- 
 dering of counts, is a detailed state- 
 ment of what makes up a thing, what 
 
 brings it about, and what it is com- 
 posed of wlien it is brought abou,. 
 An account is an explication of facts^ 
 and a true account is an exact explica 
 tion of them. It may be of any com 
 pi ex phenomenon, as of an ordinary 
 personal occurrence, an historical 
 transaction, a physical law or fact, an 
 artificial system or theory. It is not 
 a term of high hi'-torio dignity, but 
 refers to matters of the more familiar 
 kind. We should speak of Thucy- 
 dides' history, rather than account, of 
 the Peloponnesian war. The virtue 
 of an account is not to be lengthy but 
 concise, clear, sufficiently full, and 
 correct. It should contain neither 
 more nor less than the sum of the 
 facts. Its end is to convey instruc- 
 tion with fidelity. Accounts may be 
 vague, coming in from various and 
 unverified sources. On the other 
 hand, narrative, description, and re- 
 lation, imply more distinctly a nar- 
 rator, describer, and relator. 
 
 •' For this cause chiefly we thought it 
 good to yield up an account of our faith iu 
 writing." — Bp. Jewel. 
 
 A Narrative (Lat. narrdve, to re- 
 late) differs from a narration, as the 
 objective fi-om the subjective, that is, 
 the narration is the narrative viewed 
 in connexion with the mind and act of 
 the narrator. A narrative is not like 
 an account of any complex fact or 
 transaction, but only of such as are 
 characterized by an historic sequence. 
 A narrative belongs to occurrencea. 
 It is not only bound to truth of fact 
 and a representation of details in the 
 order of occurrence, but it possesses a 
 rhetoi'ical style. In narration general 
 truth takes the place of minute ex- 
 actitude ; the manner takes pre- 
 cedence of the evidence. It may be 
 the combined result of study and art. 
 It has to do, not with naked facts, 
 but with facts clothed. It does not 
 dispense with interest in aiming at 
 instruction. Its virtue is to be clear, 
 consecutive, striking, touching, ele- 
 gant, descriptive, illustrative. Livy's 
 narratives of the battles of early 
 Roman history cannot be regarded 
 as historical . 
 
 Relation (Lat. referre, part, re- 
 latusy to relate, record) is literally a 
 
38 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 bringiMg bact. To relate in old Eng- 
 lish meant simply to bring back. So 
 Spenser — 
 
 " " Till morrow next agaia 
 
 Both light of heaven and strength of men 
 rdnteJ" 
 
 But before this it had been commonly 
 ased in the sense of bringing back by 
 recital, representing in story. 
 " And relacion 
 Maketh to the Quene how he had do," 
 
 GOWER. 
 
 The terra connects the matter closely 
 with the speaker, making the action a 
 strictly personal one. It is such an 
 account as is given by an individual 
 of facts which he has either actually 
 experienced, or has assimilated and 
 made his own. Therefore the virtues 
 of relation are the virtues of therelater, 
 such as come from a close observation, 
 a lucid intellect, a sound judgment of 
 the relative importance of events, sym- 
 pathy, candour. Unlike narration, it 
 may be verv inartistic yet very efFec- 
 tfve, from the vivid and natural man- 
 ner of the relater. A narrative gains by 
 rhetorical completeness, a relation by 
 unstudied simplicity. The narrator 
 presents you with a finished account, 
 the relater with the aggregate of his 
 own experience in fact and feeling. 
 It belongs, however, to a more familiar, 
 shorter, less grave, and more personal 
 subject than narrative, so that a very 
 commonplace occurrence may become 
 peculiarly interesting fiom the mind 
 and manner of the relater. 
 
 "Those relations are commonly of most 
 value in which the writer tells his own 
 •tory."— JoHxsoN. 
 
 '* In the nnrration of the poet, it is not 
 innteriul whether he relate the whole story 
 in his own chax'acter, or introduce some of 
 his personages to relate any part of the 
 action that had passed hefore the poem 
 opens."— Blair. 
 
 History (Gr. laro^ta, a learning by 
 i7iquiry) is a formal and connected 
 account of many events in series, for 
 which some degree of importance is 
 claimed as illustrative of men and 
 nations, an account standing to a 
 history as an item to a general sum. 
 So we might speak of the account of 
 the Plague of Athens as given in the 
 history of Thucydides. For further 
 remarks see J 1 isV jhy . 
 
 [account] 
 
 " Secondly, we have likewise a most 
 ancient and credible history of the begin- 
 ning of the world. I mean the history of 
 Moses, with which no book in the world in 
 point of antiquity can contend." — TiLtOT- 
 sox. 
 
 The presumption at least is that a 
 history is true. This is not neces- 
 sarily the case with Story (the word 
 is an abbreviated form of History), 
 which may be fictitious. Where it is 
 not fictitious there is still implied an 
 inferior de^-ree of dignity and im- 
 portance, the subject turning gene- 
 rally upon incidents of private and 
 domestic life, as the story of Robin- 
 son Crusoe, the story of Fabricius 
 and the Elepliant, the story of the 
 Babes in the VVood. The interest of 
 history lies in occurrences and trans- 
 actions on a great scale ; the changes 
 of political constitutions ; the delibe- 
 rations of senates, the increase of 
 popular power, the shock of battles, 
 the celebration of triumphs, the pro- 
 gress of armies, the lives of flictious 
 and ambitious leaders, heroes, orators, 
 statesmen. The interest of story lies 
 in the adventures of persons more like 
 ourselves generally, in personal en- 
 terprises, in scenes of home life. In 
 history we look on as upon a grand 
 spectacle. In story we identify our- 
 selves with what is passing, and feel 
 that fortune mio-ht have made us prin- 
 cii)al actors in it. Our minds are oc- 
 cupied engagingly, and the introduc- 
 tion of history plays only a secondary 
 part. A story may instruct, but its 
 first purpose is to entertain. It should 
 combine, in an unpretending manner, 
 the virtues of nairation and relation. 
 "A story in which native humour reigns, 
 'Tis often useful, always entertains." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 In Tale (A. S. tal, a reckoning 
 speech) the si-bject is often fictitious*, 
 not of necessity, but because the 
 primary characteristic is not truth 
 but relation. As a good story is 
 entertaining, so a good tale excites 
 sentiment or sympathy. A tale may 
 be true or false, or a compound of 
 truth and falsehood. A tale is ety- 
 mologically a telling off or coui.ting 
 off (compare ^ccoj/n/) of matters in 
 narration. A tale is commonly a story 
 3f personal experience involving hap- 
 
[accountable] discriminated. 
 
 39 
 
 piness or unhappiness, success or 
 disappointment, prosperity or the 
 reverse. It is a story coloured by 
 human feelings and fortunes, turning 
 on individual cases. A true tale, a 
 false tale, a tale of happiness, a 
 pitiful tale, an ingenious tale, a tale 
 of glorious achievements, a tale of 
 lying wonders. We may tell a tale 
 as it has been told to us, or we may 
 invent it, or mix narrative with inven- 
 •ion. As story borders more closely 
 cpon narrative, so tale upon relation. 
 The character of a story depends 
 xiore upon the matter, the character 
 «f a tale on the reciter. In the phrases 
 tale-bearing, tale-telling, we seem to 
 recognize the ideas of personal in- 
 cident which receive a colour from 
 Jie relater. 
 ** In thy faint slumbers I by thee have 
 
 vratch'd. 
 And heard thee murmur tales of wars." 
 
 ShAK£SP£ARS. 
 
 a Description (Lat. descfibcrey to 
 wnte off, to writs down) professes to 
 be a porti-aiture in langiiage, giving 
 the fact or the object as it strikes the 
 eye or the mind with fidelity of re- 
 presentation. It is delineation in 
 detail. It is not in itself a story or 
 narrative, though it becomes a kind 
 of story or narrative to him to whom 
 it is given ; as, e.g. a description of 
 the whole appearance of a person 
 where the sequence is the order of 
 representation and not of occurrence, j 
 Its excellence consists in fidelity to j 
 the original, and a fine and natural j 
 accuracy. External objects, occur- | 
 rences, transactions, are the common i 
 Bubject of description, while philo- j 
 sophically, description is a kind of 
 popular definition which consists in 
 an enumeration of the essential cha- : 
 racteristics of a thing. As descrip- 
 tion is word-painting, or word-sketch- 
 ing, the measure of description is the 
 power of the describer over the re- 
 presentati ve employment of language, 
 superadded to a natural capacity to 
 receive vivid and exact impressions 
 in himself. The case is somewhat 
 different between descriptions of out- 
 ward objects and mental impressions 
 or sensations. In the former case we 
 ''*>ficribe by commensurate terms, in 
 
 the latter by likenesses and analogies 
 to impressions derived through oUier 
 senses. A description of a man would 
 consist in specifying, numbering, 
 measuring, and delineating, in giviiTj^ 
 his hue, complexion, stature, dimen 
 sions, character oi features, cha- 
 racteristic expression of countenance, 
 apparent age, and so on. The blind 
 man described his impression of 
 scarlet, which was purely a mental 
 one, by saying that he believed it 
 must be like the sound of a trumpet, 
 that is, that it stood to the impres- 
 sions of sight as such sounds to the 
 impressions of hearing. Spenser used 
 the form discrive : — 
 " How shall frail pen discrive her heavenly 
 
 face 
 For fear through want of skill her beauty 
 
 to disgrace." 
 
 An Anecdote (Gr. avIxJoTof, not 
 published) is literally an incident not 
 given out or published, and so in 
 private keeping or circulation. It is 
 the relation of a characteristic matter 
 of fact relating to individuals, and 
 therefore stands to story as species to 
 genus. It is commonly a passage of 
 private life. 
 
 "Antiquity has preserved a beautiful 
 instance in an anecdote of Alexander the 
 tyrant of Phera?, who, though he had so 
 industriously hardened his heart as to seem 
 to take delight in cruelty, even murdering 
 many of his subjects every day without 
 cause and without pity, yet, at the bare re- 
 presentation of a tragedy which related the 
 misfortunes of Hecuba and Andromache, 
 he was so touched with the fictitious dis- 
 tress which the poet had wrought upon it 
 thiit he burst out into a flood of tears." — 
 Sterxe. 
 
 ACCOUNTABLE. Answerable. 
 Responsible. Amenable. Obnoxi- 
 ous. Liable. Subject. 
 
 Accountable (see Account) means 
 literally liable to be compelled to give 
 an account or standing in such a rela- 
 tion as involves it. It is sometimes, 
 like responsible, used in the abstract 
 sense of being possessed of reason and 
 so being master of one's own actions, 
 and by conseouence bound to render 
 an account of them. As a synonym 
 with the above-mentioned it denotes 
 in a marked manner a personal service 
 or relationship which is subordinate 
 to some superior person, as a steward 
 
40 
 
 is accountable to his employer. It is 
 a specific condition springing out of a 
 specific relationship. 
 
 " The first point to be endeavoured after 
 is to impress upon children the idea of ac- 
 countableness, that is, to accustom them to 
 look forward to the consequences of their 
 actions in another world." — Palet, 
 
 This specific subordination does not 
 attach, or not in so marked a manner, 
 to Responsible (Lat. respondcre, to 
 give answer), which is far more gene- 
 ral. A responsible office may be one 
 of g^-eat personal influence and dignity, 
 and of moral responsibility rather than 
 specific accountableness. Hence re- 
 sponsibility extends beyond acts to 
 their issues. I am accountable to my 
 superior for what I do. I may be 
 held in the judgment of others re- 
 sponsible for the consequences of what 
 1 do. I may, by a voluntary agree- 
 ment, make mj'self responsible for 
 what may occur to a person towards 
 whom I stand otherwise in no relation 
 of accountableness. 
 
 ** He has been pleased to ask, ' Is the 
 doctor willing to be responsible at last for 
 the nature, quality, and tendency of all his 
 notions I ' " — Waterland. 
 
 Answerable is in English what Re- 
 sponsible is in Latin, and so expresses 
 the simplest and most generic sense 
 of these tenns. It expresses a relation 
 to simpler and commoner things for 
 one's conduct in matters of minor 
 trusts and mere ordinary duties. 1 am 
 answerable when 1 take upon myself 
 a common risk for the habits or good 
 behaviour of another ; for the safety 
 of some article left in my keeping. I 
 am answerable in cases where some 
 Dledge has been given for the per- 
 formance of an act or the fulfilment of 
 an engagement, the breach of which 
 would involve loss, disgrace, punish- 
 ment, or disappointment. Account- 
 able and answerable rather express 
 the fact, and responsible the nature 
 of condition. Hence there is in an- 
 swerable a latent force which does 
 not belong to responsible, or less ob- 
 servably that of being liable to punish- 
 ment or penalty in case of failure in 
 such trust or duty. 
 
 " If I pay money to a banker's servant, 
 the banker is answerable for it." — Black- 
 
 SYNONYMS [accountable] 
 
 This force of liability to punishment 
 comes out more strongly still in Ob- 
 noxious. This is due to the classic 
 meaning of the term, which is properly 
 applied to " one who, on the ground of 
 a mischief or wrong committed by him, 
 is justly liable to punishment {otf 
 noxam poena: obtigatus). It has what 
 has been termed a lax and slovenly " 
 use, as a "vague, unserviceable sy- 
 nonym for offensive. "We punish, or 
 wish to punish, those whom we dis- 
 like, and thus obnoxious has obtained 
 its present sense of offensive." It 
 may be added, that in this vague sense 
 it has extended beyond subjects ca- 
 pable of punishment, and we speak of 
 obnoxious smells. In its correct ap- 
 plication it expresses not only a liabi- 
 lity but, in some cases, that the stage 
 has been reached when the possible 
 position of the answerable has be- 
 come actual, and punishment or re- 
 sentment may be expected in conse- 
 quence of the liability incurred. 
 
 " Our obnoxiousness to the cui-se of the 
 law for sin had exposed us to all the extre- 
 mity of misery, and made death as due to 
 us as wages to the workman." — South, 
 
 Amenable (Fr. amener, to lead or 
 guide to) means liable to some thing 
 or person which has an inherent power 
 to bind or compel, as laws, rules, au- 
 thority, a parent, a governor^ It 
 sometimes further bears the sense of 
 a natural willingness to recognize 
 such power, and then becomes an 
 epithet of moral conduct or character, 
 as when one is amenable to discipline, 
 advice, or reason, or simply amenable. 
 To be amenable is to be accountable 
 so far as one is bound by laws and 
 regulations. 
 
 " The sovereign of this country is not 
 ametiable to any form of trial known to the 
 laws." — Junius. 
 
 Liable (Fr. Her, Lat. Itgdre, to bind) 
 expresses in a simple and compre- 
 hensive manner a relative capability 
 of beino- acted upon ; and not only 
 has nothing of the strictly personal 
 action involved in accountaWe, or the 
 moral dignity of responsible, but is 
 applicable even to merely physical 
 influences, as silver is liable to be 
 tarnished by damp. It is, like an- 
 SAverable, used for certain common 
 
accredit] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 41 
 
 and familiar obligations, as to he liable 
 for the debts of another. This would 
 mean that a power -would be forth- 
 coming; tf compel their payment. To 
 be answerable for them would rather 
 mean that this power resulted from 
 some relation to the debtor, natural, 
 incurred, or assumed on the part of 
 .he other party. I am liable by law ; 
 I am answerable also by my own acts 
 or obligations. Hence, as the dis- 
 tinctive capacity of a thing is very 
 likely to find exercise, or the distinc- 
 tive quality of a thing to find some- 
 thing to act upon it, the word liable 
 has become a synonym for likely, 
 that is, likely to act or be affected in 
 a certain way under certain circum- 
 stances, as in the following : — 
 
 " In geometry we are not liable to adopt 
 the same paradoxical conclusions as in al- 
 gebra, because the diagrams to which our 
 attention is directed serve as a continual 
 check on our reasoning powers.'' — Stewart. 
 
 It may be worth while in this place 
 to notice the difference specifically 
 between Liable and Subject. Subject 
 (Lat. siibjich'e, part, subjectus, to cast 
 or ■place under) stands to nature as 
 liable to circumstances. JNIen are 
 subject to error from their mental, 
 to aeath from their physical, to temp- 
 tation from their moral constitution, 
 to anger from the in-itability of their 
 temperament. They are liable to 
 catch cold in draught, and to arrest 
 for debt. From one point of view it 
 may be said that we are subject, and 
 become liable ; or, again, we are sub- 
 ject to that which dominates over us 
 as partaking a common nature, we are 
 liable to what affects us as individuals. 
 That to which we are subject, as, for 
 instance, death, will overtake us 
 sooner or later. That to which we 
 are liable, as, for instance, accident, 
 may be happily escaped, or by cir- 
 cumspection avoided. Subject im- 
 plies the pressure of a more uniform, 
 liable of a more casual influence. 
 
 " For what is strength without a double 
 
 share 
 Of wisdom ? Vast, unwieldy, burdensome. 
 Proudly secure, yet liable to fall 
 By weakest subtleties." MiLTON. 
 
 "AH numan hemgs are subject to decay." 
 Dbyden. 
 
 ACCREDIT. Entrust, Dele- 
 gate. Commission. Depute. 
 
 These words express the idea ia 
 common of reposing trust or confer- 
 ring authority on another for a pur- 
 pose of one's own. The simplest and 
 most general is to Entrust, to place 
 in a position of trust or by a converse 
 use to commit to a person's trust or 
 faithful keeping. We entrust persons 
 with offices, property, or even secrets. 
 In all cases we entrust on the ground 
 of a belief of a sufficiency of intelli- 
 gence, and such personal regard to 
 one's self, as well as such probity or 
 character as would induce the other 
 to act for our own interests, or at 
 least not to neglect or oppose them. 
 Him whom we entrust with anything 
 we constitute a guardian on our own 
 behalf. It is great folly to entrust 
 matters of importance to the weak, 
 the careless, tne thoughtless, or the 
 dishonest. 
 
 " He (the Lord of all the families of the 
 earth) will enter into a severe scrutiny 
 how we may have employed all those talents 
 that He hath entrusted us with." — Sharp. 
 
 Accredit (Fr. accriditer) is to 
 place in the position of acting as one's 
 representative, and of showing him to 
 be so iu a formal and public manner, ii 
 necessary, as by giving him creden- 
 tials. It is a term of diplomacy . To 
 accredit is to place in a position of 
 public trust. 
 
 " I am better pleased indeed that he 
 (the reviewer) censures some things than I 
 should have been with unmixed commen- 
 dation ; for his censure will, to use the 
 new diplomatic term, accredit his praises." 
 
 — COWPER. 
 
 To Delegate (Lat. delegare, to 
 entrust), is to cause to be done by 
 another that which one has to do 
 one's self. It is closely allied to De- 
 pute (Lat. depiitare, in the sense of to 
 allot to), but both persons and duties 
 may be delegated, while persons only 
 are deputed. The appointment makes 
 the deputy ; the being sent elsewhere 
 to act makes the delegate. A mem- 
 ber of parliament is the deputy of the 
 people as soon as he is returned ; he 
 18 then delegate when he has gone to 
 the metropolis to represent tlieir in- 
 terests. The term delegate is em- 
 ployed of important matters of public 
 
42 
 
 SYNONYMS [accrue] 
 
 interest. A deputy may 1)6 no more 
 than the representative of an official 
 of low rank. The deputy merely 
 does what the other is not present to 
 do in person. The delegate has a 
 greater freedom of responsible action, 
 and may have but little less than in- 
 dependent powers. 
 
 " This change from an immediate state 
 of procuration and delegation to a coarse of 
 acting as from original power, is the way 
 in which all the popular magistracies in 
 the world have been perverted from their 
 purposes." — Burke. 
 
 " Christes deputie or vicar." — Udal. 
 
 To Commission (Lat. commiifn-^, to 
 entrust) differs from depute in that 
 the latter refers to a continuous charge 
 or vicarious office. He who is deputed 
 is a representative ; he who is commis- 
 sioned has no representative capacity. 
 To commission does not go beyond the 
 act or work, and does not imply neces- 
 sarily a permanent office. We com- 
 mission at will, and in cases where it 
 suits our convenience to act through 
 others. It is in general the superior 
 that commissions the inferior in order 
 to avail himself of his services. A 
 monarch, for instance, appoints a 
 commission of inquiry in the interests 
 of the public. It is evident that the 
 commission depending upon the will 
 and convenience of another may be of 
 any character which it is consonant 
 with^such will and convenience to con- 
 fer, from the execution of a trivial trust 
 to the investiture of official dignity. 
 
 " We are to deny the supposition that he 
 (Moses) was a private person at that time 
 of killing the Egyptian, but that he was 
 even then commissioned by God Governor 
 of Israel, and, consequently, in the right of 
 a governor might revenge the wrong done 
 to his subjects." — South. 
 
 ACCRUE. Supervene. Devolve. 
 Redound. 
 
 The ideas common to these ternis 
 are those of certain things coming 
 upon or out of others, so that persons 
 are affected by them. In Accrue 
 (Fr. accrUf part, of accroitre ; Lat. 
 accrescire, to grow to), that which 
 accrues comes from a natural ten- 
 dency in its cause to produce it, as 
 wealth accrues from industry ; that is, 
 there is in industry an inherent apti- 
 tude to produce wealth, 't is also a 
 
 personally relative term, involving 
 the idea of some person to whose 
 benefit or harm the thing accrues. 
 'J'hat which accrues is of the nature 
 of increase, profit, or damage. It is, 
 as it were, the fruit which a thing 
 bears naturally. 
 
 " Good men consult their piety as little 
 as their judgment and experience when 
 they admit the great and essential advan- 
 tages accruing to society from the freedom 
 of the press, yet indulge themselves in 
 peevish or passionate exclamations against 
 the abuses of it."— Junius. 
 
 Supervene (Lat. sYtpervtturej to 
 come upon) expresses the simple event 
 of one fact occurring upon another, 
 which other may be itself a result. 
 That which supervenes intensifies the 
 preceding cause or pre-existent state 
 of affairs. It comes in unexpectedly 
 with little sequence apparently of 
 cause and effect, yet with very deci- 
 sive results. A man broke his leg by 
 a fall, fever supervened, and he died. 
 The effect of that which supervenes i.«! 
 in proportionto the aptitude of actual 
 circumstances to be affected by it for 
 detriment or improvement. 
 
 *' His good will, when placed on any, 
 was so fixed and rooted, that even super' 
 vening vice, to which he had the greatest 
 detestation imaginable, could not easilj 
 remove it." — Fell's Life of Hammond. 
 
 Devolve (Lat. devolvere) is literally 
 to roll don-n upon, but is employed 
 only in the figurative sense, with an 
 idea of transmission or succession. In 
 the absence of one who has a duty to 
 perform, that duty will often devolve 
 upon one who is the nearest bound by 
 obligation or interest to perform it. 
 On the removal of the proprietor of 
 an estate by death, the estate devolves 
 upon the next heir; that is, alights 
 as it were on him who is the next 
 halting point in the course of the suc- 
 cession. Things which devolve are 
 of the nature of duties, privileges, re- 
 sponsibilities, tasks, offices, obliga- 
 tions, powers, or possessions. 
 
 "Which was augmented by the state ol 
 the sayd Richard, and the devohdion of the 
 same to Henry IV." — Grafton. 
 
 To Redound (Lat. rtdunddre, to 
 flow back, to redound) is to come back 
 as a consequence of good or ill upon 
 an actor, originator, or promoter 
 
[acjiieve] 
 
 That whicli redounds is a remoter 
 effect of human action or something 
 following ujx)n that effect, whether 
 the action be one's own or of another. 
 It is a result of a general and abstract 
 nature, and commonly of the nature 
 of profit, advantage, reputation, in- 
 terest, gain, credit, or the contrary of 
 these. It supervenes as a practical 
 consequence, and accrues as the 
 Becondary product of a fact accom- 
 plished. That which redounds may 
 nave been contemplated in action, but 
 it was not primarily or directly 
 aimed at, being an eftisct of an effect. 
 I perform a gallant or generous action. 
 My motive was the pleasure or satis- 
 faction of benefiting another. The 
 act may redound to my interest 
 through the gratitude of those bene- 
 fited, or to my honour and reputation 
 through public admiration of the 
 deed. 
 
 "There will no small use redound to them 
 from that raanufactare." — Addisox. 
 
 ACCUSTOM. Habituate. Tvure. 
 Use. Train. Familiarize. 
 
 Of these terms to Use (Lat. iili, 
 part. iisuSf to ttse) is the simplest and 
 the generic. It is also the most col- 
 loquial, yet seems to be seldom em- 
 ployed, though its passive participle 
 used is very common. To Accustom 
 (O. Fr.acostuiit ; Lat. constietudinem, 
 whence Eng. custom ) is employed both 
 ofstatesand actions. Habituate (Lat. 
 hdbitiuire) only of states. Hence an 
 alteration of mind is implied in accus- 
 tom, an alteration of conditions only 
 in habituate. 1 may even be accus- 
 tomed to events which happen to me 
 independently of any will or action of 
 my own. One is habituated to what 
 one has often felt, accustomed to what 
 one has often experienced in anyway. 
 I may be accustomed to ill treatment 
 without being at all habituated to it. 
 Inure (Lat. znurire, to brand, impress) 
 advances a step beyond habituate, 
 and indicates the process of habitua- 
 tion against uncongenial influences 
 till use leaves little or no pain or 
 inconvenience. Train (Fr. trainer) 
 is to accustom by a given course of 
 practice to a given capacity. F..ami- 
 i.iARizK (Fr. Jamiiiariser) is to make 
 well known by practice or converse. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 43 
 
 We are familiarized with that which, 
 after we have often witnessed or 
 meditated upon it, has produced a 
 lively and lasting impression upon us. 
 Thus we may be familiar with sights, 
 scenes, processes, facts, truths. 
 Chance or intention may have accus- 
 tomed, habituated, inured, or fami- 
 liarized, but only purpose and system 
 can train us. 
 
 ACHIEVE. Finish. Tkraiixate. 
 
 One Achieves (Fr. achever, chef, 
 a head) by working skilfully, per- 
 severingly, or undauntedly at what 
 has been undertaken or commenced 
 One Finishes {Fr. Jinir ; Lat. J^in'ire, 
 to end) by putting the last stroke to 
 what is far advanced. One Termi- 
 nates (Fr. terminer; Lat. terniinus, 
 an end or limit) what ought not to be 
 continued further, by some act of 
 discontinuance. So that the charac- 
 teristic force of achieve is bringing 
 the undertaking to its last stage, that 
 of finish is the actual arrival of this 
 period, and that of terminate the ces- 
 sation of the thing itself. After 
 achieving one enjoys the sight or the 
 thought of the work or the action 
 brought to a successful end. It is 
 the realization of one's efforts. One 
 may desire to finish what has cost 
 much loss of time and labour, and for 
 other reasons, as, for instance, that 
 one may pass on to something else, or 
 from weariness of the particular em- 
 ployment. Terminate is hardly applied 
 to any other matters than discussions, 
 differences, or disputes, and those 
 which have the nature of a course or 
 career. The achievement of a thing 
 is its complete development, its per- 
 fect and entire execution, the bring- 
 ing it to a state which could not be 
 improved upon, and a point which 
 could not be surpassed. The end is 
 opposed to the beginning, after which 
 there can be nothing to do, as nothing 
 done before the beginning. We have 
 to make an end as we make a begin- 
 ning ; we achieve when we have 
 worked the whole ; we finish when 
 we have worked tlie concluding part. 
 The termination is that point of time 
 or space where & thing stops. It 
 presuj>j)08es duration or continuity. 
 
44 
 
 SYNONYMS [acid] 
 
 One may finish well or ill, ana more 
 or less expeditiously, more or less 
 effectively, but there is only one way 
 of achieving. 
 
 ACID. Sour. Acrid. Bitter. 
 
 The two first words express not 
 diiferent things, but ratlier different 
 degrees of the same quality. "Acid," 
 says Taylor, "is an artificial, concen- 
 trated, corrosive, sourness." Sour- 
 ness (connected with the German 
 saner and other Northern forms) is a 
 kind of mellowed Acidity (Lat. 
 Hciditatem) as acidity is a sharpened 
 sourness. Acrid (Lat. deer, with 
 suflUx -id) denotes the combination of 
 acidity or sourness with harshness. 
 Lemon juice is acid; milk may turn 
 sour ; unripe fruit is often acrid. 
 Bitter (A.S. biter, frnmbitayi, to bite) 
 expresses a different taste altogether, 
 too familiar to need any attempt at 
 description. It may be observed that 
 in their secondary uses, sour is ex- 
 pressive only of human disposition, 
 while bitter is expressive of feeling 
 and expression, as bitter hatred, bitter 
 sarcasm, and also of the character of 
 external events as affecting ourselves, 
 as bitter misfortune. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGE. Own. Con- 
 fess. Avow. Recognize. 
 
 To Acknowledge is to admit that 
 one has knowledge. Its element of 
 publicity it has in common with the 
 other synonyms. It is the opposite 
 to denying, keeping back, or concealing 
 a fact. 
 
 " So ech that denyeth the Sone hath not 
 the fader, but he that knowlechith the 
 Sone hath the fader also." — Wiclif's 
 Translation of the 1st Ep. S. John. 
 
 We necessarily acknowledge only 
 such facts or matters as are personally 
 related to ourselves, because by the 
 supposition the original facts were in 
 our own keeping. The avowal of 
 Buch facts furnishes others with pecu- 
 liar and complete evidence. The 
 extent to which acknowledgment 
 furnishes knowledge to others in the 
 sense of information which they did 
 not previously possess is a matter of 
 degree. To acknowledge one's obli- 
 gations for the kindness of others is 
 little more than to express them. To 
 
 acKnowieuge one s tault may or may 
 not imply that it was not known to 
 otliers. To acknowledge a secret 
 marriage is to give others a complete- 
 ness of information which otherwise 
 they had not possessed. Yet the 
 term where it means more than openly 
 to avow a relationship, as to acknow- 
 ledge a 9on, implies some amount of 
 knowledge, or, at least, tendency to 
 belief in others already existent. 
 " Eke shamefastness was there as I tooke 
 hede. 
 
 That blushed red and darst nat ben a 
 know. 
 She lover was, for thereof had she drede. 
 
 She stood and hing her visage downe 
 alow." Chaucer. 
 
 Own has two forces: 1, that of 
 simple possession ; and, 2, that of 
 avowing such possession or fact o' 
 relationship to one's self. Both ac- 
 knowledge and own in this latter 
 sense commonly imply some degree 
 of ignorance, doubt, or previous con- 
 cealment, as in the case of offences 
 acknowledged or owned which be- 
 fore were only imputed . We acknow- 
 ledge and own in cases where our 
 evidence supplements the suspicion of 
 others, and imply some degree of sup- 
 posed culpability. The more inti- 
 mately the matter is connected with 
 one's self the better may we employ 
 own ; the more simply we regard it 
 as a matter to which we give publicity, 
 the better may we employ acknow- 
 ledge. I own a state of feeling, for 
 instance ; I acknowledge an action.. 
 I acknowledge that violence was per- 
 petrated in the course of the proceed- 
 ings, but I will not own to having 
 instigated or sanctioned it. 
 
 " And now, my dear, cried she to me, I 
 will fairly own that it was I that instructed 
 my girls to encourage our landlord's ad- 
 dresses."— Goldsmith. 
 
 It should be noted that to Own, ?'.«., 
 to possess, the A. S. dgnian, and t« 
 Own, i.e., to admit, the"A. S. nnnauj 
 are, strictly, different words. Length 
 of use, however, lias go blended them, 
 as to make the disentanglement 
 scarcely possible. 
 
 On the other hand, to Confes* 
 (Lat. conjtteri, part, confessus) may 
 be of some action of which the per- 
 sons to whom we speak may be ab»o 
 
Iacquaintance] discriminated. 
 
 lately ignorant, aa in the voluntary 
 confession of a penitent to a priest. 
 If the action be kno-wii, but not the 
 author, the declaration that we did it 
 would be an owning of it, that is, an 
 acknowledgment of one's authorship 
 of it. The essence of acknowledging 
 an oflfence consists, as we have seen, 
 in declaring our self-consciousness, 
 so that we may acknowledge a fault 
 even after we have been known and 
 proved to have committed it. In that 
 case, to acknowledge a fault is to re- 
 cognize it as it is viewed by others. 
 If both the doer and the deed were 
 known, we should hai-dly use either 
 own or confess. Yet a prisoner is 
 said to make a full confession even 
 afterhehasbeenJudged,convicted,and 
 sentenced. This is probably because 
 his confession is regarded as perfect- 
 ing the evidence against him, or 
 making his crime a matter of abso- 
 1 ute knowledp. We confess actions, 
 opinions, and feelings as we acknow- 
 ledge facts, and own our participation 
 in them. It may be added that Ac- 
 knowledge and Own are applied to 
 matters of less grave moment than 
 confess, which denotes a more formal 
 publicity. We confess sins and 
 crimes ; we acknowledge and own 
 errors, mistakes, faults, and minor 
 offences. So characteristic ol con- 
 fession is the giving of formal publi- 
 city to something connected with 
 one's self, that the term is used where 
 this is the case of matters in which no 
 blame attaches, as in the acknowledg- 
 ment of a belief or opinion in one's 
 self, as in the following : — 
 
 45 
 
 " Spite of herself e'en En^'y mnst confess 
 That I the friendship of the great possess." 
 Author (?) 
 To Avow (Fr. ai?o»er, which orig. 
 meant to swear fealty to, Littre), to 
 declare with boldness and frankness. 
 This implies at the same time our 
 own consciousness of right, and of 
 the fact that others do not think us 
 80, or at least are not fully persuaded 
 of it, for in that case no boldness of 
 utterance would be needed. We do 
 not avow what we are ashamed of, 
 but we avow our motives, reasons, 
 Ofit(ions, actions, spontaneously, as 
 M%scrtinff at the same time what is 
 
 true or right. We confess sponta- 
 neousljr as admitting ourselves in the 
 wrong. We acknowledge and own 
 with less freedom as acting under 
 some necessity or obligation, or as- 
 senting to what we are charged with. 
 " I followed Nature's laws, and must avow 
 I broke my bonds, and fled the fatal blow." 
 Dryden. 
 ACQUAINTANCE. Familiarity. 
 Intimacy. 
 
 Acquaint (0. Fr. acointerj L. Lat. 
 adcognttdre). Acquaintance is that 
 slight knowledge of another person 
 which springs from occasional inter- 
 course. The word acquaintance, how- 
 ever, has a force which may be modi- 
 fied, so tliat we may speak of a slight 
 or an intimate, a superficial or an ac- 
 curate acquaintance with persons or 
 subjects, as, for instance, authors, 
 books, branches of science. That with 
 which we are acquainted we in some 
 degree know, but beyond this know- 
 ledge nothing is implied in the way 
 of feeling towards the object or per- 
 son. We may be sufficiently ac- 
 Quainted with a man to know that we 
 should never desire to be on intimate 
 or even familiar terms with him. In 
 social parlance the word acquaintance 
 is not satisfied by that amount of ob- 
 seiwation and experience which en- 
 ables us to recognize or identify a 
 person. An acquaintance is one with 
 whom we have already held such 
 social intercourse a."? would justify us 
 in renewing it. 
 
 " Contract no friendship or even acqvain- 
 tajice with a guileful man. He resembleth 
 a coal, which, when hot, burneth the hand, 
 and when cold, blacketh it." — Sir W.Jones, 
 Translations. 
 
 Familiarity (Lat. ftimiliMtuiem, 
 fjUmilia being o household, consisting oj 
 the members of the family and the slaves 
 or servants). As acquaintance means 
 first knowledge, then social know- 
 ledge, so familiai'ity has the twofold 
 sense of common conversance and 
 common conversation. A state of 
 familiarity is, as it were, a result of 
 living together, or of frequent inter- 
 course. Those who live in the same 
 house, frequent the same place, are 
 engaged in the same routine of busi- 
 ness or pleasure, who, in short, find 
 themselves often thrown together, be- 
 
46 
 
 SYNONYMS [acquire] 
 
 come femiliar. Such habitual re- 
 unions have two results : the one, that 
 persons become more than super- 
 ficially acquainted with each other; 
 the other, that they come to waive 
 formal rules and usages of society, 
 and throw off ceremonious resti-aints. 
 'I'hese facts coiTespond with the two- 
 fold meaning of fiimiliarity, which is 
 applicable both to things and persons. 
 In the one sense we speak of a 
 familiarity with a particular branch of 
 science, in the other of an imperti- 
 nent familiarity, which is can-ied too 
 far. 
 
 "All this was before his (Plorace's) ac- 
 qnaiutance with Maecenas, and his intro- 
 duction into the court of Augustus, and 
 the familiarity of that great Emperor."— 
 Dryden. 
 
 Intimacy (Lat, inttmus, mmosl) ex- 
 presses in regard to persons such ac- 
 quaintance as has grown into a sus- 
 tained and unreserved intercourse of 
 the closest kind, with friendship and 
 sympathy in thought and feeling. 
 Intimacy, like acquaintance and fa- 
 miliarity, may be employed to cha- 
 racterize our knowledge of facts, pro- 
 cesses, or cu'cumstances. Intimate 
 knowledge arises from very fi-equent 
 repetition and exhibition, so that we 
 have exercised opportunities of varied 
 and close observation. The noun 
 intimacy, however, is confined to 
 persons, though we say an intimate 
 knowledge or acquaintance. The 
 terms acquaintance, familiarity, and 
 intimacy may be regarded as in some 
 cases expressive of degrees of com- 
 parison in practical knowledge. An 
 acquaintance with a foreign language 
 enables us to translate or comprehend 
 it ; a familiarity with it comes from 
 the frequent employment of it; an 
 intimate knowledge would embrace 
 its idioms, authors, and finest shades 
 and distinctions of meaning. 
 
 '♦ If it were so needful before the Fall, 
 when man was much more perfect in him- 
 self, how much more is it needful now 
 against all the soi-rows and casualties of 
 this life to have an intimate aud speaking 
 help, a ready and reviving associate in 
 marriage." — iSliLTON. 
 
 ACQUIRE. Get. Outain. Gain. 
 Win. liARN. Attain. Procure. 
 To Acquire (Lat. acquVere) is a j 
 
 continuous process in which we get 
 something by our efforts an d abilities. 
 Get (A.S. gitan) being the simplest, 
 most vernacular, and therefore most 
 generic of the tei-ms, all the rest of 
 which may be regarded as modes of 
 getting. Industry and talent are 
 commonly requisite for acquiring, and 
 we use the term of solid and beneficial 
 results, though sometimes of things 
 solid, but not beneficial, as to acquire 
 a bad name. As the process of ac- 
 quiring is continuous, that which is 
 acquired comes to us by the force of 
 the term gradually, by sustained en- 
 deavour and in the course of time. 
 Knowledge by sustained efforts in 
 detail, honour as our conduct be- 
 comes more widely known, reputation 
 as our character is more talked about, 
 fortunes as our stock is added to more 
 and more. If successful in our efforts 
 we acquii-e from the time that we begin 
 to seek, and the only measure of our 
 acquirement is our endeavour. A 
 quality of permanence attaches to that 
 which we nave acquired. 
 
 " No virtue is acquired in an instant, hut 
 step by step."— Ba^-us. 
 
 Obtain (Lat. obdn'tre) implies less 
 of continuousness in the efforts to get 
 the thing obtained, which may even 
 be done through the means of others, 
 as when a young man obtains a valu- 
 able appointment through interest, 
 without having acquired through 
 patience and industry the qualifica- 
 tions of the position. One may obtain 
 in a variety of ways, as by patience, 
 energy, honourable or dishonourable 
 means, enti'eaty, fraud, force, luck. 
 We have obtained when we have 
 done something to put into our pos- 
 session a good or supposed good, the 
 idea of chance being excluded. If a 
 man obtains a prize in a lottery, what 
 is expressed is not his luck simply, 
 but the happy circumstance that he 
 bought a ticket. 
 
 •' Some pi-ay for riches, riches they obtain " 
 Dryden. 
 
 Gain {Yv.gagner) says little about 
 the mode, but implies a character in 
 the result, namely, that it is valuable 
 or desirable. To gain is to obtain a 
 good. There is in gain an element of 
 risk and chance, ft is expressive of 
 
;_acquirement] discriminated. 
 
 speculative profit. As we acquire 
 possession, and obtain our object, 
 whatever it may be, so we gain re- 
 wards, distinction, public favour, live- 
 lihood, advancement. Successful 
 gamblers and successful traders are 
 both said to gain. 
 
 " What 8}m11 it profit a man if be gain 
 the trhole world and lose his own soul I" — 
 English Bible. 
 
 To Win (A,S. winnan, to contend^ 
 gain) is to gain with the added notion 
 of certain chances or competitors 
 against us, or as surmounting difficul- 
 ties or opposition. To have gained is 
 satisfactory, to have won is happy oi 
 lucky also. It may be even purely 
 lucky, which gain never is, as to win a 
 toss. A general gains a battle, or ob- 
 tains the victory,buthe winstheday as 
 against his adversary and the chances 
 of war. We gain in so far as we act with 
 intention, we win in so far as we act 
 prosperously. What is gained or won 
 may be only a partial or transitory 
 possession; we gain or win to-day 
 what we may lose to-moiTOW. We 
 gain the good opinions of others by 
 consistently vorthy action ; we some- 
 times win their affection without an 
 effort. 
 
 ••And whereas religion is tlie greatest 
 winner of men's affections, he (Essex) en- 
 deavoured to allure unto him the Puritans 
 and their ministers, whom the Queen did 
 not at all like of, and withal the Papists by 
 seeming to pity their afflicted condition." — 
 Camdek, 
 
 To Earn (A.S. eandan, to gain, 
 orig. to reap) is to do that which 
 entitles to recompense or reward, 
 whether it be actually bestowed or 
 not, but commonly implying that it 
 has accrued. A labourer earns his 
 wages by riglitly doing his right 
 amount of work. A soldier earns 
 distinction or promotion by doing hia 
 duty, or by his bravery. Like acquiie, 
 it is sometimes used in an unfavour- 
 able sense, in which cases it is the 
 product of misdirected effort. In this 
 sense gain also may be employed. 
 
 •• To have gained this harm and loss." — 
 English Bible. 
 
 in earning, the thing obtained is an 
 eouivalent, a balance as it were bein? 
 struck between the thin^ expended 
 and the thing awardea. To earn is to 
 
 47 
 
 purchase with labour, as to buy is t« 
 purchase with money. 
 
 " Yon, then, who are initiated into the 
 mysteries of the blindfold goddess, inform 
 me whether I have a right to eat the bread 
 I have earned by the hazard of my life or 
 the sweat of my brow." — BoRKE. 
 
 To Attain (Lat. attinere), which is 
 used as an intransitive as well as an 
 active verb, indicates a mark proposed 
 beforehand, or abstractedly one which 
 has been reached. All degrees of 
 effort are implied in it, and sometimes 
 no effort at all, as " he has attained 
 the age of forty years." It is in tliat 
 case definitive, not of endeavour, but 
 of progression. When used as an in- 
 transitive verb, it is commonly found 
 associated with some expression indi- 
 cative of decree, as to attain to perfec- 
 tion or to a high pitch of excellence. 
 VVe attain that which we have brought 
 within our reach, or to the level of 
 which we have raised ourselves. 
 
 " While we are curious in tracing the 
 progress of barbarism, we wonder more 
 • that any arts existed than that they attained 
 no degree of perfection." — Walpole. 
 
 Procure denotes acquirement 
 through a careful use of means to the 
 end. It applies to such things as 
 are regarded as needful or desirable 
 to possess. We obtain honour ; we 
 procure the necessaries of life. It is 
 a term of a very practical character. 
 We procure things by knowing where 
 to look for them and how to get at 
 tliem, not by prodigious effort, extra- 
 ordinary knowledge, sudden luck, or 
 profound research. We often procure 
 by simply acting upon rule. By cer- 
 tain substances combined in certain 
 proportions the chemist procures a 
 substance which is not the mere sum 
 of the substances combined, or in other 
 words a compound, but a distinct sub- 
 stance. 
 
 " Such dress as may enable the body to 
 endure the diffierent seasons the most un- 
 enlightened nations have been able to pro- 
 cure." — JoHJfSON. 
 
 ACQUIREMENT. Acquisition. 
 
 Both are from the same verb (see 
 Acquire), but in usage acquisition 
 belongs to material or jphysical, ac 
 quirement to moral and intellectual 
 mings. The acquirements of learn- 
 ing, the acquisition of fortune. The 
 
48 
 
 SYNONYMS [ACQUIREMENTSj 
 
 force of acquire, namely, to get gra- 
 dually, is stronger in acquirement 
 than acquisition. The latter some- 
 times means no more than a happy 
 accession to the stock of what one 
 possesses already. 
 
 " It (the Gospel) is not confined to per- 
 sons whose iutellectij^l excellences are su- 
 perior to their neighbours, or who exceed 
 others in understanding and the acquire' 
 ments of the miud."— Watts. 
 " Her cook, an acquisition made in France, 
 Might put a Chloe out of countenance." 
 Churchill. 
 
 ACQUIREMENTS. Attain 
 
 jiENTS. Accomplishments. 
 
 The idea of developed capacity is 
 common to these terms. Acquire- 
 ments (Lat. acquirtre) are opposed to 
 natural gifts. In the broadest sense, 
 anything which has been learnt, or is 
 the result of study, pain, or practice, 
 is an acquirement. But as commonly 
 used, and in the plural number, the 
 term denotes purely intellectual re- 
 sults, as of history or languages, or 
 the subjects of study as distinct from 
 practice. Attainments (0. Fr. ulein- 
 dre, Lat. attingirej to touch, come in 
 contact with) differs not in the idea of 
 the subject, but in relating to the 
 progress and efforts of the student. 
 Accomplishments (Fr. accomplir, to 
 accomplish) are of those things in 
 which study and art are combined 
 to produce skill or adroitness. They 
 turn upon the elegant, the graceful, 
 the pleasing, the effective, or the use- 
 ful. An accomplished painter, poet, 
 musician, orator. We might even say 
 an accomplished student where the 
 idea was that of the grace rather than 
 the depth of his educational acquire- 
 ments. Varied acquirements, solid 
 attainments, charming accomplish- 
 ments. 
 
 ACRIMONY. Acerbity. Aspe- 
 rity. Animosity. Tartness. Harsh- 
 ness. 
 
 Acrimony (Lat. acrtnibnia) denotes 
 a deep-seated bitterness and, as it 
 were, corrosiveness of feeling, which 
 may show itself in language or man- 
 ner. It may or may not be personal, 
 and may be generally excited by the 
 recollection of circumstances. A dis- 
 appointed man, for instance, is aj)t to 
 
 allude with acrimony to the circum- 
 stances of his disappointment. Acri- 
 mony is the result of disappointment 
 or wrong, real or supposed, or per- 
 sonal dislike, or may be caused by 
 ill-tempered disputations and criti- 
 cisms. It is an habitual sourness, 
 showing itself in small things. It is 
 the mark of a small mind. As a scien- 
 tific term, it has been applied to a certain 
 character of the humours of the body 
 and the juices of plants, as the acri- 
 mony of the bile ; hence its moral 
 meaning of a biting sharpness pro- 
 duced by an embittered spirit. 
 
 " These milks (in certain plants) have 
 all an acrimony, though one would think 
 they should be lenitive." — Bacox. 
 
 "Like- a lawyer 1 am ready to support 
 the cause on which give me leave to sup- 
 pose I shall be soon retained, with ardonr 
 and, if occasion be, with 8ubtle»-y and 
 acrimony" — Bolikgbroke. 
 
 Acerbity (Lat. ttcerUitatem, bitter 
 taste, severity) is less deep-seated and 
 energetic than acrimony, and more 
 chronic. It is not so much ex.iited as 
 acrimony is by external causes as 
 constitutional and innate. Indeed, in 
 the old use of the term, it was seldon 
 connected with human disposition^ 
 but with acts, measures, and opera- 
 tions, as of penalty or bodily pain 
 So Bacon says : — 
 
 " There are some penal laws fit to be 
 retained, but their penalty is too great, and 
 it is ever a rule that any over great penalty, 
 besides the acerbity of it, deadens t he exe- 
 cution of the law." 
 
 Acerbity is the expression of a cha- 
 racter wanting in natural mildness 
 and sweetness. 
 
 Asperity (Lat. aspcritatem, rou^h- 
 ness of surface, severity) relates rather 
 to the manner than to the disposition. 
 It is a rough way of dealing with 
 others which is not incompatible with 
 a love of fairness, and indeed often 
 accompanies it, and, being quite con- 
 sonant with substantial kindness of 
 heart, is widely different from acri- 
 mony and animosity, which are essen- 
 tially uncharitable. A reproof, just 
 in itself, is conveyed with aspeiity. 
 This is the fault of one who is more 
 intent on enforcing than sensitive of 
 the effect of what he is enforcing upoa 
 the feelings of others. 1 1 ofttn S])ri2i<;s 
 
[act] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED 
 
 49 
 
 from a sligLt feeling of resentm*:^'. 
 against a real or supposed insensibi- 
 lity of others to the truth or force of 
 what we say, and so is a spontaneous 
 eifort to make up for what we feel 
 we lack in persuasiveness. 
 
 " I hope it is no very cynical asperity 
 lot to confess obligations where no benefit 
 nas been received." — JoHXSox. 
 
 Animosity (Lat. diiimositatem) is 
 essentially personal. It is an active 
 and energetic dislike. It commonly 
 8j)rings from some personal or party 
 feud, as the animosities of race or 
 religion. It is a violent, irritable, 
 and inconsiderate ill-will, and may 
 he felt exclusively in one (juarter. 
 
 " How apt nature is, even in those who 
 profess an eraineace in holiness, to raise 
 and maintain animosities against those 
 whose calling or person they pretend to 
 find cause to dislike." — Bishop Hall. 
 
 Harshness (Dan. liarsky rancid) is 
 much the same thing in English as 
 Asperity, derived from the Latin. We 
 commonly use the term not of the habi- 
 tual demeanourornature generally,but 
 of treatment on some particular occa- 
 sion, as some incidental act or word ; 
 and it conveys the idea of needless or 
 unwarranted severity of speech or con- 
 duct,proceedingfrom want of consider- 
 ation or feeling, where a more sympa- 
 thetic and thoughtful mind would have 
 seen it to be unmerited and misplaced. 
 It is the characteristic of unfeeling na- 
 tures where it is habitual. Acrimony 
 may subside or vanish on a better 
 knowledge. Animosity may be paci- 
 fied or reconciled, asperity corrected, 
 but harshness is ingrained. Its most ef- 
 fective cure is providential trouble or 
 iBiction. It is both unkind and rude. 
 
 " No complaint is more feelingly made 
 than that of the harsh and rugged manners 
 of persons with whom we have an inter- 
 course." — Blaib. 
 
 Tartness (A. S. teart, tart, severe) 
 is that slight asperity which is more 
 unbecoming than bitter, and indi- 
 cates a union of cleverness with in- 
 considerateness and self-conceit. It 
 is the fault especially of some women 
 and children. When used as it is 
 almost exclusively, it denotes a pun- 
 gent readiness of mind, which is use- 
 ful and justifiable in repartee. 
 
 •♦ One jeeringly saluted him, ' Good mor 
 
 row, Bishop juondam,' to whom Bcnner as 
 tartli/ replieu, • Good morrow, knave sem 
 per.' " — Fuller. 
 
 ACT. Action. Deed. 
 
 Act and Deed are etymologically 
 almost the same thing. Acluniy from 
 the Latin agere, to do, being equiva- 
 lent to deed (A. S. deed), or the thing 
 done. They are, however, viewed 
 from different points. Ihe deed is 
 the result viewed, as it were, his- 
 torically, the act is the result viewed 
 in connexion with the power and 
 will of the doer. Deeds are good or 
 bad. Acts are voluntary or involun- 
 tary. In many cases action and aci 
 inight be used indifferently, yet some 
 distinction between uiem is observ- 
 able. Act is never used of things 
 mechanical. When so used action is 
 equivalent to mode of mechanical 
 movement, as the action of a steam 
 engine, or when nothing else is con- 
 templated, of a horse. An act is the 
 simple exertion of power preceded by 
 volition ; an action is a complex ex- 
 ertion of the same, and is more con- 
 tinuous', and occupies more time. To 
 poke the fire is a physical act, to re- 
 collect a circumstance a mental act, 
 to reconcile friends who have quar- 
 relled a praiseworthy action. Hence 
 the action often comprises several acts 
 under itself which go to make it up. 
 The act denotes power. The action 
 involves the mode in which the power 
 is exercised. To speak generally, acta 
 are primarily physical, and seconda- 
 rily moral; actions are primarily 
 moral, and secondarily physical : a 
 benevolent action and an act of bene- 
 volence. In the former case we think 
 of the quality of benevolence as car- 
 ried out into practice. In the latter 
 of a physical movement prompted by 
 a moral quality or impulse. INIomen- 
 tary intentions and impulses show 
 themselves in like acts, as hasty deci- 
 sions on rash acts ; but as the life and 
 character of a man, such are hia 
 actions. When we speak of the moral 
 character or of any quality as the 
 motive and account of something done 
 speciScaliy, we use the term act, not 
 action. So, on the one hand, gene- 
 rally good or bad actions, faithful, 
 charitable, prudent, foolish, despe- 
 
60 
 
 SYNOiN YMS 
 
 [action] 
 
 rate actions are c'/|uivalent to acts of | 
 faith, of charity, of prudence, of folly, 
 of desperation. An action is used 
 DOth of what is important and unim- 
 >ortant, but an act, if it have any 
 thing moral in it, and be more than a 
 mere physical movement, implies 
 some degree of importance. Our 
 actions are tests and indications of 
 our character ; our acts are sometimes 
 out of harmony with them. The 
 actions of a wise man are so far wise 
 actions, but the wisest occasionally 
 commit acts of folly. Acts of the same 
 character frequently repeated by the 
 same person will create a habit. What 
 is done under the force of that habit, 
 and considered in connexion with it, 
 is an action. A deed is a graver and 
 more emphatic term than an act. An 
 act may be confined to the agent. A 
 deed has its prominence, importance, 
 and influence upon others. It is re- 
 markable that tlie acts of bodies or 
 communities are not called deeds, 
 which belong to individuals only. In 
 many cases act and deed may be used 
 interchano;eably, yet it is no tautology 
 to say, " This is my act and deed." It 
 is my act so far as I and no other do 
 it. It is my deed inasmuch as the 
 tiling itself is done and completed in 
 form and validity. 
 
 " Cato said the best way to keep good 
 acts in memory was to refresh them with 
 new." — Bacon. 
 
 " The Lord is a God of knowledge, and 
 by Him actions are weighed." — Eiwlish 
 Bible. 
 
 ACTION. Gesture. Gesticula- 
 tion. 
 
 These terms may be regarded as 
 belonging in common to the art and 
 practice of oratory. Action when so 
 employed is not general in its relation 
 to the person, but refers to some part 
 of it set in motion, more especially the 
 hands and arms, as being the parts 
 most commonly and naturally moved. 
 On the other hand, the action of a 
 horse is his way of movement in 
 pacing or locomotion. In this sense 
 the term is also mechanical, and we 
 speak of the action of a steam-engine. 
 A Gesture ( Lat. gfer&re, part, gestus, 
 to bear) is a particular, significant, 
 and illustrative action, as when in 
 
 sarcastic speech, for instance, one 
 shrugs the slioulders. When gesture 
 is sustained, frequent, veliement, or 
 demonstrative, it becomes Gesticula- 
 tion (L?it. gesttciilationem). 
 
 " Suit the action to the word." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 " Moi-pheus of all his numerous ti'ain 
 
 express'd 
 The shape of man, and imitated best ; 
 The walk, the words, the gesture could 
 
 supply. 
 The habit mimic, and the mien bely." 
 Dryden. 
 " Indeed that standing is not so simple a 
 business as we imagine it to be is evident 
 from the gesticulations of a di'unken man 
 who, has lost the goverament of the centre 
 of gravity." — Paley. 
 
 ACTOR. Player. Performer. 
 
 Of these Performer is the least 
 specific, inasmuch as performance 
 need not be of a dramatic character 
 at all, such as a performance on a 
 musical instrument or a tight-rope. 
 We may play in private but we per- 
 form in public. The idea of perform 
 has been explained under that head. 
 The difference between Actor (Lat. 
 actorem) and Player (A.S. flesan, to 
 spoilt) is that the latter is incompatible 
 with high art. We speak of an actor 
 of celebrity and a strolling player. 
 A player is essentially professional 
 ana acts for hire, an actor may exhibit 
 his talent in private theatricals or for 
 mere love of the art. When persons 
 perform, as it were, insincere parts on 
 the stage of life, professing what the^ 
 do not feel, or dissembling for their 
 own ends, we call them actors, not 
 players. In the following the poet 
 probably uses the lower word as 
 being the more depreciatory, as ex- 
 pressing the routine and mercenary 
 character of social professions as well 
 as the idea of assigned parts to be 
 fulfilled. 
 
 " All the world's a stage, 
 And all the men and women merely 
 
 players." Shakespeare. 
 
 Not so the following: 
 " Like a dull actor now I have forgot my 
 
 part, 
 A id I am out even to a full disgrace." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 ACTUAL. True. Positive. Veri 
 TABLE. Real. Certain. Extant. 
 Present. 
 
 Of these True ( A.S. treowe^ a trutt ) 
 
[actual] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 5. 
 
 is the simplest, denotes tliat a thing is 
 as represented, that the statement or 
 expression answefs to an objective 
 reality and does so completely, that 
 is, is neither false nor inaccurate. A 
 true relation gives an account of oc- 
 cun*ences which contains neither more 
 uor less than has taken place, arranged 
 in the order of their taking place, and 
 in such proportion of statement as 
 leaves no room for partial or total 
 exaggeration, without counterfeit or 
 adulteration. Truth is expressed 
 whenever subject and predicate are 
 rightly united in an affirmative or 
 negative proposition. But in the broad 
 sense of the word we may distinguish 
 truth of perception, truth of fact, of 
 narration, of statement, of representa- 
 tion, of expression, of conception. 
 In this broad sense truth is conformity 
 to reality in the world of matter or of 
 mind. As regards ourselves truth is 
 right belief or correct impression. The 
 statement •' This is Thomas," is true 
 if I am right in applying the name to 
 the individual before me. My im- 
 pression of the shape of the earth is a 
 true one if I have that of an oblate 
 8{)heroid. I believe wliat is true if I 
 believe that all men are mortal, because 
 the persons denoted by tlie subject 
 are never found but in connexion 
 with the attribute of mortality con- 
 noted by the predicate. 
 
 "Our ideas being nothing but bare ap- 
 pearances or perceptions in onr minds, can- 
 not properly and simply in themselves be 
 said to be tnie or false, no more than a 
 single name of anything can be said to be 
 true or false."— Locke. 
 
 A s the word true marks the precise ex- 
 istence of objective verity, veritable 
 (Fr. vtritubte) expresses truth of re- 
 presentation, or truth in its expository 
 aspect. True, when asserted of any- 
 thing, means that it is what we say it 
 is, veritable that we say what it is. 
 As the fact is said to be true, the 
 medium by which the fact is conveyed 
 is said to be veritable. It is not a 
 veritable history which reports to us 
 the doings of Romulus, if his existence 
 be not true in fact. The use of veri- 
 table is a little strained on purpose in 
 the following, yet it seems to bear out 
 the distinction just drawn 
 
 "This Emperor was so wvee in all things 
 that among them that were merry he was 
 of gi-eat mirth, and in verities he was Tery 
 veritable."— Golden Book. 
 
 "Real works of nature or vintable acta 
 of story," — Brown's Vulgar Errors. 
 
 Positive (Lat. pos^Uivus) denotes 
 that the truth is so ascertained as to 
 exclude all possibility of doubt or 
 question, being a matter of demonstra- 
 tion as distinct from supposition or 
 inference. It has also a subjective 
 sense, in which it means the manner 
 or state of mind of a person possessed, 
 or believing himself possessed, of such 
 truth, and is thus opposed to doubtful 
 in mind. A positive fact is one which 
 is direct and determinate, in opposition 
 to that which is indirect, indetermi- 
 nate, or negative. 
 *' 'Tis positive 'gainst all exception." 
 Shakes PEABK. 
 
 Actual (Lat. actttalis) belongs to 
 that which is beyond the state of mere 
 probability, possibility, tendency, pro- 
 gression, or evolution. As a term of 
 the scholastic philosophy actudlis was 
 opposed to p)itentiaUs, and had its ex- 
 istence in esse not in posse. The 
 actual is the conceivable realized, 
 and where this conceivable thing is 
 not only possible but natural to con- 
 ceive or to be expected in a certain 
 order of things, actual, like the French 
 actuel, comes to have the force of 
 present in time. While the monarch 
 IS dying the heir-apparent to the 
 throne is only not the actual king. 
 
 " How insensibly old age steals on, and 
 how often it is actually arrived before we 
 suspect it."— CowPEB. 
 
 As the actual is opposed to possible, 
 probable, conceivable, or approxi- 
 mate, true to false, positive to indeter- 
 minate, dubious, indirect, or negative, 
 and veritable to supposititious or un- 
 authentic, so Real (Lat. redlis) is 
 opposed to imaginary or feigned. It 
 expresses tliat which has an existence 
 of Its own, and not such as our fancy 
 might attribute to it, or our ingenuity 
 impose upon it. When we speak oi 
 the actual condition of a country we 
 refer to that to which it has been 
 brought, «.g. by previous acts, events, 
 processes, and regard it as the sum of 
 antecedentcauses,which have resulted 
 
52 
 
 in that state. When we speak of its 
 real condition we mean that in which 
 alone it exists as a subject of con- 
 sideration. A real object of com- 
 passion is not artificially made up. 
 A real sentiment is neither disguised 
 nor pretended. 
 
 " Our simple ideas are all real. All 
 agi-ee to the reality of things."— Locke. 
 
 Certain (Fr. certain, Lat. certus) 
 differs from the foregoing in some 
 important respects. Certain is a sub- 
 jective tei-m. That is certain wliich 
 follows necessarily or demonstratively 
 from the inferences of reason, the 
 evidence of the senses, or testimony 
 of men. Certainty is the subjective 
 form of truth. It belongs to persons, 
 and represents states of mind, and is 
 only transferred secondarily to ex- 
 ternal facts. When we speak of a 
 fact as certain we mean that we ap- 
 prehend it as true. Hence, unlike the 
 others, certain may express not only 
 what has happened but what has not, 
 if we conceive its future happening 
 to be a thing of necessity, and so are 
 sure of it. The cause being recognized 
 or ascertained, its effect is certain. 
 The sun will certainly rise to-morrow, 
 that is, this follows (if we believe that 
 it does) from the knowledge and ex- 
 perience which we possess. Things 
 \»hich are actual, true, positive, veri- 
 table, or real, are unalterably fixed. 
 They cannot be set aside ; wt must re- 
 cognize and acquiesce in them. On 
 thf: other hand, 1 am continually liable 
 to find myself mistaken in what I be- 
 lieved to be the certainty of things 
 which may turn out on corrected or 
 more extended evidence to be either 
 ft Ise, or contingent and variable. 
 
 ' I hope before I have done to make it 
 er/dent that this way of certainty by the 
 knowledge of our own ideas goes a little 
 fa( ther than bare imagination, and I believe 
 it vill appear that all the certainty of gene- 
 ra truths a man has lies in nothing else." 
 - Locke. 
 
 3uRE (Fr. sur, Lat. sicurus) is, ac- 
 cording to its etymology, first un- 
 an lious or careless, that is, having a 
 seise of sureness, and thence objec- 
 ti 'ely, having the nature that induces 
 ti is, fixed, permanent, regular, inevi- 
 t hie. As a synonym with certain. 
 
 SYNONYMS [actual] 
 
 and as applied to persons, we may ob- 
 serve that sure is more closely asso- 
 ciated with operation and action, 
 certain with fact and knowledge. The 
 fact is certain, the operation sure. 
 Necessary sequence inaction or cause 
 and effect is expressed by Sure ; as a 
 sure remedy, a sure success. 1 am 
 certain of what 1 have persuaded my- 
 self is true. I am sure of what I be- 
 lieve to be firmly established, and 
 which I do notsomucn feel convinced 
 of as regard as in itself fixed. In pro- 
 portion as we speak of tiuth of nature 
 we use the tei-m sure, in proportion as 
 we rely on the conviction of our own 
 minds we use the term certain. Men 
 are sure of what they have seen, and 
 certain of what they have heard. I 
 am sure of a fact, certain of a theory, 
 sure that the sun is in the sky to-day, 
 certain that it will rise to-morrow. 
 On this supposition that things are 
 generally speaking sure in themselves 
 and certain to us, we may understand 
 how no tautology would be involved 
 in such a phrase as the " sure and 
 certain hope of the resun-ection to 
 eternal life." The term certain seems 
 more generally applicable to matters 
 of speculation and where evidence is 
 in question. First principles are cer- 
 tain. We speak of mathematical cer- 
 tainty not sureness. Practical matters 
 and general rules are sure. One is 
 certain of a point of science, sure of a 
 moral truth. The philosopher claims 
 his right of question on every point 
 which is not certain. The prudent 
 man distmsts that of which he is 
 not sure. 
 
 " It shows indeed, supposing they took 
 up tms practice as a matter of duty, that 
 they were in doubt which was the right 
 way they were obliged to keep, and there- 
 fore for sureness they would keep both." — 
 Sharp. 
 
 We believe what is certain, we count 
 upon what is sure. The friend on 
 whom we can rely we call not certain 
 but sure. When a thing is testified 
 by a sure witness it is certain. 
 
 That is Extant (Lat. ex-stant-etny 
 standing out or forth) which still stands 
 out in prominence, and has not been 
 denuded or overwhelmed by any de- 
 structive, removing, or superseding 
 
[actuate] 
 
 DISCRIMINATE I). 
 
 63 
 
 force, such as violence or the lapse of 
 time. Bentley used the term in its 
 literal and physical sense, when he 
 spoke of a body partly immersed in 
 a fluid and partly extant. 
 
 " There are some ancient writings still 
 extant which pass under the name of 
 Sibylline orat-les."— Melmoth's Cicero. 
 
 It is a term full of picturesque mean- 
 ing. We look, for instance, upon some 
 ancient graveyard. We cannot doubt 
 that it contained formerly other monu- 
 ments or tombstones besides those 
 which are before us. Some have de- 
 cayed, some have been taken away, 
 some by frequent alterations of the 
 level of the ground may yet lie un- 
 known beneath its surface ; but others 
 have escaped these changes, chances, 
 and influences, and are in the strict 
 sense of the word extant. 
 
 That is Present (Lat. pra'sentem) 
 which is before us, that is, an object to 
 us in time, space, or thought, as op- 
 posed to the past, the future, or the 
 absent. It denotes simultaneity in 
 time and place with intelligent beings 
 who take cognizance of things pi esent. 
 Co'ilccation or contemporaneousness is 
 not presence. It may be obsei-ved 
 that presence in space involves pre- 
 sence of time, but that the converse is 
 not true. The twofold aspect of the 
 present is made up of the here and the 
 now. The meaning of the word pre- 
 sent and presence is satisfied if the 
 state of things is such tliat cognizance 
 might take place, though in fact it has 
 not. In this way one person might 
 say to another, " 1 was present at such 
 a meeting, and was surprised after- 
 wards to hear that you had been there. 
 as I did notsee you." In the presence 
 chamber of the monarch may be some 
 who escape his observation. In this 
 sense presence signifies such nearness 
 as is easily and perfectly compatible 
 with personal communication. This 
 involves sameness of place. The fact 
 that it might be just possible to estab- 
 lish a communication, as by speaking 
 to a person in another room or by an 
 electric wire across the A tlantic, would 
 Qot constitute presence. 
 
 " These things have I spoken unto yon 
 eing yet present with you." — Eng. BMe. 
 
 ACTUATE. Impel. Induce. 
 
 Actuate (L. Lat. artuare, to put m 
 action) is to subject to an impulse and 
 so quicken into action. This is ap- 
 parent from the older form which 
 It has supplanted, activate. That is 
 actuated which has its natural powers 
 roused and made more intense or 
 active. So Bacon: " Snow and ice es- 
 pecially being holpen and then cold 
 activated by nitre or salt will turn 
 water to ice, and that in a few hours." 
 
 In the following it is applied to 
 moral or spiritual things : — 
 
 " The soul being an active nature is al- 
 ways propending to the exercising of one 
 faculty or other, and that to the utmost it 
 is able ; and yet being of a limited capacity 
 it can imploybut one in height of exerciseat 
 once: which when it loseth and abates <«f 
 its strength and supreme vigour, some 
 other whose improvement all thiswhile was 
 hindred by this its ingrossing rival, must 
 by consequence begin now to display itself, 
 and awaken into a more vigoi'ous actua- 
 tion."— Ql.ak\'ilu. 
 
 We are actuated when we are in- 
 ternally stiiTed to action by an ex- 
 citing cause. We may be impelled 
 by menaces or induced by sober con- 
 sideration ; we are actuated by pas- 
 sion, desire, instincts of nature, love, 
 hope, fear, which produce an accelera- 
 tion of the movements of our moral 
 life. What most actuates us depends 
 on the peculiarities of our nature or 
 our circumstances at a given moment. 
 One man is actuated by a sense of 
 duty to do what another would only 
 do under great excitement. One is 
 actuated by reason as effectively as 
 another by passion. 
 
 " He that studies to represent one of 
 known and eminent merit to be a mere fcol 
 and an idiot, ^i;»C5 himself the lie and be trajrt 
 that he is either actuated with envy or cor- 
 rupted by a faction."— Bentley 
 
 Impel (Lat. impellerej to drive on) 
 implies nothing of the nature of 
 the force which induces action, be- 
 yond the fact of its strength, which is 
 in-esistible, or at least unresisted. 
 When we are actuated, volition is 
 quickened; when impelled,it is in some 
 measure superseded by a foreign force, 
 lie who is impelled is borne along 
 a course, as he who is Induced (Lat. 
 induchefto lead into)is led ap to a pomt. 
 
54 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [acute 
 
 That which impels us drives us before 
 it — we go along with that which in- 
 duces us. The one has the mastery 
 over us. To the other we give in our 
 adhesion, and are not simply subject to 
 its force but recognize it as adequate 
 to the ends of action. Hence it com- 
 monly expresses such milder con- 
 straints as come of reason, judgment, 
 gnd persuasion, and is applicable not 
 only to matters of external action but 
 of jireference and mental action ; as 
 e.g. to be induced to like or select one 
 thing rather than another, or to expect, 
 ho})?, or believe some thing. 
 
 " Offer a man a gratuity for doing any- 
 thing, for seizing, for example, an offender. 
 He is not obliged by your offer to do it, 
 nor would he say he is, tliough he may 
 be induced, persuaded, j)revailed upon, 
 tempted."— Palky. 
 
 ACUTE. Keen. Shrewd. Sa- 
 gacious. Sharp. 
 
 Sharp and Acute are much the same; 
 Acute being the Lat. (lciitHS,sharpened, 
 fromflcittre, tosharpev. Sharp (A.S. 
 scearp) expresses the lowest order of 
 human quickness of perception, like 
 that of the lower animals, while acute 
 expresses sharpness of observation 
 and understanding. This kind of 
 difference, if there be no other, is 
 usually apparent in cases in which 
 two words represent respectively 
 Saxon and Latin equivalents, the 
 former expressing generally the more 
 jiliysical and primary ideas. The 
 sharp animal or person has his faculties 
 of observation continually on the alert, 
 nothing escapes him. It is a sharp 
 dog whose eyes, nose, and ears are 
 always doing their work. The sharp 
 person perceives and observes every 
 thing before him, the acute one sees 
 deeper into any matter to which his 
 attention is drawn. He discovers 
 well; as, for instance, falsehood 
 underlying truth, or the converse. 
 He goes beyond the sharp person in 
 being not only observant but discrimi- 
 nating. He can deal with specula- 
 tive and abstruse matters, and sees 
 rapidly where the important points 
 lie. 
 
 " Many other things belong to the 
 materia) world wherein the sharpest philo- 
 
 sophers have not yet obtained cleai 
 ideas."— Watts. 
 
 " Chrysoppns,the acutest of all the Stoics, 
 was at first a racer." — Bkntley. 
 
 Sharp, Acute, and Keen (A.S. 
 ct ne, keen, warlike) &rea\\ employed of 
 matters of pure sensation, in which 
 the idea of mental perception is en- 
 tirely subordinate ; as sharp pain, 
 acute disease, a keen sense of shame, 
 where it will be seen that the two 
 former belong more naturally to phy- 
 sical, the last to moral pain. Keen 
 denotes an exceeding degree of sharp- 
 ness. Physically, points are acute, 
 edges are keen, and either might be 
 called sharp. A knife should be sharp, 
 a skewer sharp-pointed or acute, a 
 razor keen. The keen person is one 
 of powerful penetration; he sees 
 clearly and afar off: the acute one of 
 understanding in speculative, and the 
 sharp in practical matters of common 
 life, business, and conversation. 
 
 "In his Etnean forge the god of fire 
 That falchion laboured for the hero's sire 
 Immortal keenness on the blade bestow'd 
 And plunged it hissing in the Stygian flood." 
 Dryden's Virgil. 
 " His acuteness was most eminently sig- 
 nalized at the masquerade, where he dis- 
 covered his acquaintance through their 
 disguises with such wonderful facility." — 
 Johnson. 
 
 Acute, as used of bodily pain or 
 disease, is opposed to chronic, and 
 employed of a specific disease, while 
 Sharp is an epithet of pain generally. 
 Sharp suffering ; acute rheumatism ; 
 a keen sense of injury, disappoint- 
 ment, and annoyance, but also, unlike 
 the rest, a keen relish or enjoyment, 
 a keen sense of the ridiculous. Keen- 
 ness is a more active element of cha- 
 racter than either sharpness or acute- 
 nes^s. The keen person not only feels 
 and perceives, but seeks. He has an 
 appetite to satisfy — he is an eager 
 searcher. He not only sees readily, 
 but hunts up, as it were, what it is to 
 his interest to procure. The keen 
 man is likely to make a fortune, and 
 has a somewhat dangerous skill in this 
 respect. Our appreciation of the 
 quality is tempered by distrust lest it 
 should be inconveniently practised 
 upon ourselves. A sharp remark is a 
 
[add] 
 
 DlSCllIMINATED. 
 
 55 
 
 quick and clever one. An acute re- 
 mark is an intelligent one. A keen 
 remark shows insight into human 
 nature. 
 " Their weekly frauds his fcee7i rep.ies 
 
 detect. 
 He undeceives more fast than they iufect." 
 
 D BYDEX. 
 
 Keenness ought to be in the sati- 
 rist ; acuteness in the lawyer, tlie 
 diplomatist, or the scientific investi- 
 gator ; and shrewdness in the conver- 
 sationalist or the wit. 
 
 Shrewd (which originally meant 
 ill-disposed) denotes one who is prac- 
 ticallj'' clever at analyzing motives 
 and accounting for conduct by a kind 
 of instinctive power. Shrewdness is in 
 matters of common occurrence what 
 acuteness is in matters calling for 
 higher intelligence. 
 
 " Some of the observers on board the 
 •Centurion' shrewdly suspected, from the 
 appearance of her armour, that instead of 
 steel it was only composed of a particulai* 
 kind of glittering pajjer." — Assay's Voyages. 
 
 Sagacity (Lat. s<^^ficitatem) is a 
 higher quality than sarewdness. It 
 manifests faculties of practical intelli- 
 gence and penetration inherent in the 
 nature. It is practical wisdom which 
 is independent of the deductions of 
 reason or the guidance of rules. It 
 is the genius of common-place. It 
 is penetrative and discriminative, but 
 unlike shrewdness, goes on from dis- 
 cernment to action. It detects the 
 hidden, unravels the complicated, 
 tracks the intricate, solves the diffi- 
 cult, elucidates the obscure. Slight 
 indications, wliich would generally 
 be overlooked, are by the sagacious 
 observed and turned to account in ar- 
 riving at conclusions. He sees con- 
 nectedness under apparent discon- 
 nexion. It is not mere conjecture on 
 the one hand nor scientific induc- 
 tion on the other ; yet it partakes of 
 both. The necessities of his animal 
 existence quicken to an almost super- 
 human power the sagacity of the 
 American Indian. On the other hand, 
 Kepler's discovery of the elliptical 
 orbits of a planet from certain observed 
 points in it is, perhaps, the highest 
 recorded exemplification of scientific 
 sagacity. Sag:icity Ls proleptic, good 
 
 at theory and hypothesis. It divines, 
 anticipates, foresees, discloses. 
 
 " A quickness in the mind to find ont 
 these intermediate ideas (that shall dis- 
 cover the agreement or disagreement of 
 any other) is, I suppose, that which is called 
 sagacity."— LocKK 
 
 ADD. Annex. Append. 
 
 To Add (Lat. addcre) is sinijdy to 
 put one thing on to another. It ap- 
 plies to things as they exist in num- 
 ber or quantity, or conceived so to 
 exist, as in the case of a material 
 mass, a numerical sum, or a logical 
 or metaphysical aggregate ; as to add 
 to a heap of gold, or to two hundred, 
 or to the comfort, happiness, misery, 
 benefits, or disadvantages of society 
 or of men. It increases by aggrega- 
 tion the thing added to. Addition 
 is the opposite of subtraction, as aug- 
 mentation is of diminution. Whether 
 addingresults in collocation, junction, 
 or coalition, depends on the nature 
 of the subject and the case. 
 
 " All the praises and commendations of 
 the whole world can add no more to the 
 real and intrinsic value of a man than they 
 can add to his station." — S«tft. 
 
 To Annex (Lat. annectere, pan. 
 annexus, to bind together) is not used 
 of number nor in the unmodified 
 sense of fastening one thing on to 
 another, but implies some whole or 
 main body which is affected by the 
 annexation. It implies also the sub- 
 ordination or relative smallnessr of the 
 thing annexed. The gieater is not 
 annexed to the less, but the less to 
 the greater, as a province to an em- 
 pire or a condition to a gi-ant. A 
 dog is not annexed to his kennel, but 
 seals are to a watch, as they become 
 appendages to the same. Things an- 
 nexed pass into general and perma- 
 nent connexion, which we still, how- 
 ever, conceive as separable. They ac- 
 company, or follow, the fortunes of 
 the things to which they are annexed. 
 As the purpose of addition is to in- 
 crease the quantity of the thing added 
 to, so the purpose of annexation is 
 to increase its value, dignity, impor- 
 tance. Sometimes the thing annexed 
 has a modifying or regulative force 
 over that to which it is annexed. A5 
 
56 
 
 SYKOJNYMS 
 
 [address] 
 
 in the case of a codicil to a will, or a 
 penalty to a proliibitory law, or a re- 
 ward to the fulfilment of certain pro- 
 posed conditions. It is physical, 
 political, and legal, or conventional 
 ui its different aspects. 
 
 •* With regard to the other adjacent 
 islands which are subject to the cro^\^l of 
 \Jreat Britain, some of them are comprised 
 within some neighbouring country, and are, 
 therefore, to be looked upon as annexed to 
 the Slother Island, and part of the kingdom 
 of England." — Blackstoxe. 
 
 To AfPKND (JMt. appendcre, weigh 
 somelhmg to any one) is to join in such 
 a way that the thing to which some- 
 thing is appended shall be more fully 
 competent to answer its purpose. It 
 denotes a posteriority of relationship, 
 and may be the result of afterthought. 
 It is employed like annex in the sense 
 of a physical hanging on, as in the 
 instance given above, to append a seal 
 to a watcli-chain, where the only 
 difference is that between fastening 
 and suspending: and in a figurative 
 sense, as to append notes illustrative 
 of a text. That which is appended 
 stands as an accessory to the principal 
 thing. 
 
 " There is a further purpose appended to 
 the primary one." — J. Tavlur. 
 
 ADDRESS. Speech. Oratiok. 
 Hauangue. Discourse. Appeal. 
 
 Of these, Address (Fr. adiesser) 
 derives its specific character from the 
 character of the occasion, and the 
 person to whom it is made. It is a 
 formal, and more or less continuous 
 speaking to a person, a collection of 
 persons, or a personified object. It 
 may be of great length or very short, 
 in the latter case it is equivalent to 
 Accost. The address may be purely 
 spoken or read, or partly read and 
 partly spoken, or purely written, and 
 recognizes a peculiar capacity in the 
 pei'sons addressed. It bears upon 
 some subject or occasion. The ad- 
 dress should be appropriate, clear, 
 and tempered to the quality, charac- 
 ter, and circumstances of the person 
 addressed, whose attention it is de- 
 sired to jjrocure. It must not be 
 wanting in tact, tedious, unsuitable 
 iu phraseology, bnld, or liigh-flown ; 
 not over-elaborate and absti-use on 
 the one hand, nor shallow and flip- 
 
 pant on the other. The term is used 
 sometimes of the mode as well as the 
 matter of address. 
 
 " See, they approach ! 
 This grove shall shrond me till they cease 
 
 their strain. 
 Then I'll address them with some feigndd 
 tale." Mason. 
 
 A Speixh (A.S. sprecdu, spcecan, to 
 speak) very closely resembles an ad- 
 dress, but belongs to another point of 
 view. It looks at the matter from the 
 side of the speaker, as address does 
 from the side of the hearer. It is less 
 formal than address. So we are ac- 
 customed to hear of an address to tlie 
 throne, and a speech fi-om it. It is 
 presumed to be unwritten, being a 
 kind of spoken dissertation on some 
 subject to which it owes its unity, 
 without being specifically addressed 
 to one or more persons, but rather 
 uttered in their hearing, as bear- 
 ing on topics of common interest 
 to speaker and hearer. It should be 
 ready, fluent, neat. In the case of 
 speeches in Parliament, the speech 
 fi'equently rises to tlie dignity of an 
 oration : on the other hand, speeches 
 from the hustings are commonly Ha- 
 ( RANGUEs. In a play, a set form of 
 j woi'ds of some length is called gener- 
 ally a speech, though it should hap- 
 f)en to be a soliloquy. On the other 
 land, a soliloquy and an address are 
 contradictions in terms. 
 
 " Every circumstance in their speeches 
 and actions is with justice and delicacy 
 adapted to the persons who speak and 
 act."— Addison. 
 
 An OitATioN (L. oratibnem) is a 
 formal and public speech, laying claim 
 to a lofty and refined character, being 
 necessarily what speeches are occa- 
 sionally, the product of premeditation 
 and study, which is due to its gravity 
 and dignity ; for the tenn is applied 
 not, like speech, to ordinary, but to 
 extraordinary occasions of rhetorical 
 effort. The oration commonly turns 
 on matters of criticism or of panegyric. 
 It aims at captivating the imagination, 
 and rousing the passions and emo- 
 tions. Its beauties lie in its being 
 elevated, forcible, delicate, brilliant. 
 It presents different aspects, and in- 
 volves different styles in an effective 
 versatility. It appeals successively 
 
[adduce] 
 
 to fact and fancy, to reason and feel- 
 ing. It deals in history and parable, 
 in hard figures and brilliant simili- 
 tudes. It uses the lightest and the 
 most massive implements of rhetoric. 
 In order to effect this it has its rules, 
 which extend to matters of arrange- 
 ment, style, diction, enunciation, and 
 even taste in expression, attitude, 
 and gesture. 
 
 " And after the procession, the King him- 
 self remaining seated in the qnire, the 
 Lord Archbishop upon the grace of the 
 quire made a long oration."— B/LCoy . 
 
 HARANGUE(Fr./iaran^we, originally 
 from Ger. hring,a circle, an assembly). 
 By it we denote such speeches as 
 have for their special object to raise 
 the feelings, or to give vent to them, 
 and so are not subject to the rules of 
 an oration, but admit of any style, 
 however discursive, and are untram- 
 melled by the laws of taste. They 
 are modes of address often resorted 
 to by persons of more energy than 
 training, or on occasions when ora- 
 tions would be thrown away, or not 
 listened to. They have to be spoken 
 on occasion without time for preme- 
 ditation. The excellence of harangue 
 lies in its life. It is essentially stimu- 
 lative of thought or action. 
 
 '* The author of the Ecclesiastical Polity 
 had in so many books of his own endea- 
 voured to harangue up the nation into fury 
 against tender consciences." — Marvel. 
 
 When Discourse (Lat. discursus) 
 is used synonymously with the.se it 
 conveys tlie idea of a methodical and 
 instructive speech, addressed prima- 
 rily to the understanding. Its object 
 is exposition and explanation, and its 
 excellence consists in being orderly, 
 lucid, exhaustive, logical. Discourse 
 may be familiar, historical, academi- 
 cal, philosophical, theological. Its 
 character is enunciative. 
 
 '* My intention in this and some future 
 discourses, is to set before you the divine 
 authority of the Christian Religion ; and 
 that I may do this the more effectually, 
 and with the greater degree of evidence, I 
 propose to lead your thoughts as it were 
 step by step towards the important con- 
 clusion." — Pearce, Sermons, 
 
 An Api'EAi, (Fr. appeler, Lat. ap- 
 pelldre) is a call made uj)on a person 
 for a .special purpose, as to defend 
 himself, or to give a decision. In the 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 57 
 
 language of the old law. the accused 
 might be said to be appealed as well 
 as the judge. Hence, to appeal is to 
 have recourse to authority and power, 
 especially with a personal interest, 
 and so in an earnest way for the pur- 
 pose of having one's position coii- 
 iirmed, or assured. The orator is 
 said to appeal to anything in human 
 nature, which might be stimulated to 
 induce men to act or speak in the re- 
 quired way. One man in discourse 
 appeals to the reason of another, to 
 his passion, prejudice, common sense, 
 love of justice, selfishness, hopes, 
 fears, or anything else which may 
 gain him over, or induce him to do 
 or feel as desii-ed. The excellence of 
 an appeal lies in its being touching, 
 earnest, powerful, stirring, persua- 
 sive, convincing, sympathetic. Other 
 things besides words have a power 
 of appeal, and may help the words — 
 such are looks, gestures, tears, atti- 
 tude. The word is now of general 
 application, but was in the original 
 use of it, legal and technical. 
 " Long have we sought t'instruct and please 
 
 mankind. 
 With studies pale, with midnight vigils 
 
 blind ; 
 But thank'd by few, rewarded yet by none, 
 We here appeal to thy superior throne ; 
 (Jn wit and learning the just prize bestow. 
 For fame is all we must expect below." 
 Pope. 
 
 ADDUCE. Allege. Assign. 
 Advan'ce. 
 
 These terms are all employed to 
 express what is employed in logical 
 confii-mation. To adduce ( Lat. addii- 
 ccre, to lead to) is simply to impart or 
 apply to the case in hand, something 
 that bears upon it. It may be an 
 argument, an instance, a quotation, 
 an illustration, a general considera- 
 tion, a proof, an indirect confirmation, 
 or its contrary; something which shall 
 invalidate or tend to disprove. It 
 may be regarded as the generic term, 
 of which the rest are exemplifications. 
 
 " The price had it seems before the tax 
 been a monopoly price, and the argument 
 addziced to sho^ that sugar was an improper 
 subject of taxation demonstrated perhaps 
 that it was a proper one." — Adam Smith, 
 
 To Allege (Fr. alltguer, to eite 
 as an authority) is, according to its 
 legal origin, to bring forward some- 
 
58 
 
 SYKONYMS 
 
 [adequate] 
 
 thing whicli is of the nature of a plea, 
 excuse, or justification, and therefore 
 implies some antecedent charge, or 
 hurden of proof. An allegation is a 
 statement of fact bearing upon a 
 moral or legal issue. One alleges 
 facts or reasons to maintain or defend 
 a position or an example, as a justifi- 
 cation of conduct, or a general con- 
 sideration in palliation of an offence. 
 As a legal term, and especially of ec- 
 clesiastical law. Allege applied not 
 only to the plea, but also to the origi- 
 nal charge. This force still survives 
 in the word, though less prominently, 
 as when it is said that certain charges 
 against a person were alleged. 
 
 " Courageous chief. 
 The first iu flight from pain, hadst thou 
 
 alleged 
 To thy deserted host this cause of flight. 
 Thou surely hadst not come sole fugitive." 
 Milton. 
 
 To Assign (Lat. as&ignare) is to 
 mark out something which shall stand 
 in a certain relation to another thing, 
 and is therefore employed in as many 
 connexions as tliere are relations which 
 it expresses. I assign one thing as 
 the cause of another, its limit, its sig- 
 nification, its purpose, its origin, its 
 account, its work, its method, personal 
 use, enjoyment, or possession. I as- 
 sign a point of time for an event, and 
 the like. Assignment has the charac- 
 ter of specification and limitation, 
 combined in connexion with a parti- 
 cular object. It declares that one 
 thing belongs to another and in what 
 respect. 
 
 "The only adequate and assignable rea- 
 son of the difference is that the latter have 
 a source to draw from which was unknown 
 to the former." — Bishop Porteus. 
 
 To Advance (Fr. avancer, avant, 
 before, i.e. ub ante) is voluntarily to put 
 forward; and, especially, something 
 against which we challenge argument 
 or are prepared to make defence. 
 Commonly speaking, in argumenta- 
 tive charge we advance ; in reply we 
 allege. Doctrines or opinions ai*e ad- 
 vanced, and especially such as are new 
 in character and strange to those who 
 hear of them. They betoken some 
 degree of boldness and originality in 
 him who advances them. 
 
 " I have heard of one that having ad- 
 vanced some erroneous doctrines of philo- 
 sophy, refused to see the experiments by 
 which they were confuted." — Johnson. 
 
 ADEQUATE. Sufficient. Com- 
 petent. Proportionate. Commen- 
 suuate. Enough. 
 
 Adequate (Lat. McequuhiSy part. 
 7nade equal) means literally made 
 equal to, or brought to the level of 
 another thing. It expresses the equa- 
 lization, not of simple quantity, but of 
 forces, powers, means, resources. It 
 expresses the coming up to some re- 
 quirement in regard to a material, in- 
 tellectual, or moral standard. That 
 which is adequate either meets a de- 
 mand or fulfils a purpose. 
 
 " To fear God, that is wisdom ; that is, is 
 the proper and adequate wisdom, suitable to 
 human nature and to the condition of man- 
 kind." — Hale. 
 
 Sufficient (Lat. sujftcere, to suf' 
 Jice) has to be distinguished more es- 
 pecially from adequate and Enough, 
 (A.S. genoh, genog).. Adequate is 
 general, Suffici ent is specific. Ade- 
 quate is enough according to the na- 
 ture of the case. Sufficient is enough 
 to meet a specific demand. Ade- 
 quate looks toward the end that is 
 answeredjSuFFiciENT towards the per- 
 son that requires. An adequate re- 
 muneration is one which on the whole 
 is fair — which balances or equalizes 
 what has been done and what is re- 
 ceived. A sufficient remuneration is 
 one which is enough to discharge the 
 obligations of the payer. An inade- 
 quate return for benefits received may 
 be unsatisfactory both in character 
 and amount; an insufficient return is 
 only one that is too small. Adequate 
 regards the force and value of tlimgs, 
 sufficient their employment. This 
 character of sufficient will be seen 
 to hold good when compared with 
 enough. Enough relates to internal 
 satisfaction, sufficient to the demands 
 of a purpose. Enough is the quantity 
 which one wishes to have, sufficient 
 the quantity which one wishes to em- 
 ploy. A miser has sufficient for all 
 his wants, yet has never enough. 
 The prodigal man never has what is 
 enough or sufficient. He cannot be 
 content with what he has, for he is 
 
[adequate] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 5» 
 
 always desiring tc spend more than 
 be possesses. When we have had as 
 much as we want we say it is enough. 
 When we feel that we have heen ade- 
 quately supplied, we say it is suffi- 
 cient. There is a use of enough 
 whicli is expressive simply of the ex- 
 istence of a quality in a satisfactory 
 measure, being equivalent to the ad- 
 verbs rather and very. It augments 
 either slightly or considerably the posi- 
 tive force of adjectives. In the phrase, 
 " The place is pleasant enough," the 
 augmentation is slight. In the phrase, 
 " He will be ready enough to do what 
 you ask him if you pay him well," it is 
 greater. 
 ♦* Whose wealth wft« want, whose plenty 
 
 made him poor. 
 Who had enough, yet wished evermore." 
 Spknser. 
 " Thus with yoar reverence me thinketh 
 that this e^-ideuoe as to this point is suffi- 
 cient." — GEsasn. 
 
 Competent (Lat. compcicre, to 
 coincide, to be suitable) denotes the 
 possession of sufficient personal quali- 
 fications. It is not precisely the 
 same thing as qualified; for quali- 
 fications may be arbitrary or conven- 
 tional. Competency comes of na- 
 tive sufficiency. It mostly respects 
 mental endowments and attainments. 
 A person is competent or not to un- 
 dertake an office, to decide a question, 
 to give advice, to manage a business, 
 and the like ; where the competent 
 man has his advantage, is in matters 
 practical, social, and official. Compe- 
 tency is practical power, which comes 
 of natural ability strengthened by ex- 
 perience, observation, and conver- 
 sance with some particular depart- 
 ment of knowledge or business. 
 
 " A competent knowledge of the world." 
 —Bishop Atierbury. 
 
 Commensurate and Propor- 
 tionate are exclusively terms of the 
 relation of things, and not the quali- 
 ties of persons, except so far as such 
 qualities are treated after the analogy 
 of quantity and number. Propor- 
 tionate (Lat. proportional us) denotes 
 the just relationship of one thing to 
 another in extent, amount, or force. 
 Where the proportion, as in the case of 
 coinmensurateness, is between the 
 
 means and the end, it becomes a 
 synonym with adequate and suffi- 
 cient. Commensurate (Lat. com- 
 viensuratus, adj.) expresses a coin- 
 cidence or equality in measure or 
 extent of a fixed geometrical character, 
 while Proporiionate might denote 
 also a concunent relationship accord- 
 ing to circumstances which may make 
 it variable. Nor is the idea of propor- 
 tion that of commensurateness. In the 
 commensurate there are only two 
 tenns ; in the proportionate there are 
 four necessarily. Proportion presup- 
 poses a ratio. Commensurate means 
 only that two or more things have the 
 same or an equal number or quantity. 
 Two things of the same dimensions are 
 commensurate; two things which bear 
 the same relation to a third thing in 
 point of quantity are in the same pro- 
 portion to that third. " The rental of a 
 man's house is commensurate with liis 
 income," would mean that the whole of 
 his income went to pay his rent. " His 
 rent is in proportion to his income " 
 presupposes a rule that what a man 
 pays in rent of his house ought not to 
 exceed a certain portion of his in- 
 come. Hence in commensurateness 
 there is no idea but that of totality or 
 equal wholes; in proportion there is 
 that of division and distribution also. 
 But Commensurate has become con- 
 founded with Proportion from the cir- 
 cumstance that some attribute or qua- 
 lity of a thing may be conceived as 
 continuously accompanying it for a 
 period of time. This introduces an 
 idea of proportion. For instance 
 Tillotson says : — 
 
 "Those who are persuaded that they 
 shall continue for ever cannot choose bat 
 aspire after a happiness commensurate to 
 their duration." 
 
 Now this is capable of being con- 
 ceived in two ways ; either that their 
 happiness and eternity both lasting 
 together are commensurate, or that 
 their happiness may bear the same 
 relation to eternity that they them- 
 selves will, which becomes proportion. 
 
 " O let us be sure then our confidence, 
 our claims to heaven, improve not above 
 their proportio7i, that we preserve this sym- 
 metry of the parts of grace, that our hope 
 be but commenswdfe to our sincerity, onr 
 daringness to our duty." — Hammond. 
 
60 
 
 SYNONYMS [adherent] 
 
 AUJIERENT. Follower. Par- 
 TizAN. Disciple. Scholar. 
 
 Of these the simplest is Follower, 
 which is employed generically of all 
 the rest, with meanings of its own, such 
 as a pursuer, a lover, a dependent, 
 associate. When the Follower (A.S. 
 fylcgan, to follow) is such from a belief 
 of the truth or right of such doctrines 
 or principles he becomes a Disciple 
 ( Lat. disctptilus), as learning or having 
 learnt to believe in them. Scholar 
 (see School), like disciple, is used 
 of one who learns from another ; but 
 Jie scholar learns from a teacher, the 
 lisciple from a master. The scholar 
 IS trained in the rudiments of things, 
 thedisciplein the more advanced bran- 
 ches. Nor are the lessons used of the 
 same subject-matter. The disciple is 
 engaged with doctrines and principles 
 as they regard philosophical systems, 
 and such sciences as admit of a variety 
 of sentiments and views ; the scholar 
 in such as have been fixed, and have 
 simply to be learnt. The scholar is 
 in common learning what the disciple 
 is in philosophy, politics, or religion. 
 The scholar learns directly from his 
 teacher by simple and personal com- 
 munication, the disciple may be re- 
 moved by an interval of some genera- 
 tions from the time of the master 
 whose principles or system he learns 
 by tradition or by books. The Ad- 
 herent (Lat. Mhirnre, to stick to) 
 manifests his attachment in a public 
 way, the term being employed of 
 tliose who openly support persons or 
 causes, whiles one may be a disciple in 
 secret. The disciple upholds the 
 opinions of another, the adherent his 
 interests. The same person may be 
 both an adherent and a disciple, be- 
 cause a system of principles may also 
 be a cause as regards the vrorld in 
 which it has to be maintained and 
 spread. The Partizan (Fr. partisan) 
 is one strongly and perhaps violently 
 attached to a party, and the interests 
 they represent or have embraced, na- 
 turally accompanied with a strong 
 attachment to those who lead or hold 
 them. It is the relation of disciples 
 or adherents in an energetic and ex- 
 clusive w'ay, and is commonly taken 
 to involve an excessive or illiberal and 
 
 one-sided attachment to a person, a 
 party, or a cause. A faithful follower, 
 a firm adherent, a true disciple, a vio- 
 lent and prejudiced partizan. 
 
 " Luther and his adherents holil this 
 heresy, that all holy order is nothing." — Sir 
 T. More. 
 
 " No Indian Prince has to his palace 
 More followers than a thief to the gallows." 
 
 HUDIBRAS. 
 
 "The monarchic and aristocratical and 
 popular partizans have been jointly lajring 
 their axes to the root of all government, 
 and have in their turn proved each other 
 absurd and inconvenient." — BuRKE. 
 
 " We are not the disciples of Voltaire." 
 —Burke. 
 
 " The Romans confessed themselves the 
 scholars of the Greeks."~JoHKSOJf, 
 
 ADHERENCE. Adhesion. 
 
 These words (Lat. tldha:rire, to 
 stick to), which were once freely inter- 
 changed, have parted almost entirely, 
 so that the former expresses the moral, 
 the latter the physical idea of close 
 conformity or attachment. Adherence 
 to a statement, a duty, or the like ; 
 adhesion to a substance. There is, 
 perhaps, an exceptioii in the solitary 
 case of the phrase " to give in one s 
 adhesion to a principle or a party." 
 
 ADHERENT. Attached. An- 
 nexed. Inherent. 
 
 A thing isA dh er ent( Lat. Udhee^rtrey 
 to stick to), either by a union which is 
 formed by nature, or by the contex- 
 ture and continuity of the material. 
 It is Attached (Fr. attacker) by 
 arbitrary or artificial bonds, by which 
 it is kept in a purposed place, situa- 
 tion, or connexion. It is Annexed 
 (Lat. ann'eciire, })art. annexus, to bind 
 on to) by such a junction as results 
 from the will and appointments of 
 man. Inherent has the force of tliat 
 intimate connexion, which is essen- 
 tially instituted in the nature of 
 things, and may be either physically 
 or morally employed. The wax of 
 the seal adheres to the letter. The 
 sails of a ship are attached to the mast. 
 Sometimes a minor appointment is 
 annexed to a gi-eater, to enhance its 
 importance or emoluments. There 
 are certain evil tendencies naturally 
 inherent in human nature. Adherent, 
 except as a noun in the sense of 
 follower or support, does not lend 
 itself so readily as attached to a monU 
 
[adjust] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 61 
 
 use. The metaphorical employment 
 of attached in the sense of united by 
 affection or interest is familiar enough. 
 
 ADHESIVE. Tenacious. 
 
 The difference between these terras 
 is best illustrated by their etymology. 
 Adhesive is the Lat. Udhaercre, tostick 
 to. Tenacious, ttnacem, holding on, 
 taih-e. to hold. The Adhesive, 
 therefore, may be regarded as one 
 kind of the Tenacious, expressive of 
 that quality by which one thing holds 
 on to another, surface to surface, by 
 the inherent properties or qualities of 
 such surface, while the tenacious ex- 
 presses the property of holding on in 
 any way. oo ivy is tenacious so far 
 as it clings to a ruin ; it is adhesive, 
 inasmuch as it spreads itself over the 
 expanse of the wall, and by its minute 
 fibres forms a surface of vegetation. 
 Adhesive does not share with Tena- 
 cious the secondary sense in which 
 tenacious is employed of a persistent ad- 
 herence to claims, rights, or oj)inions. 
 
 ADJUST. Arrange. Range. 
 Accommodate. Adapt. Compromise. 
 
 Adjust is to set right (O. Fr. 
 ajoster ; L. Lat. adjuxtare, to put side 
 by side). The word implies either an 
 external standard or measure to which 
 matters have to be applied, or some 
 condition of inherent fitness, pro- 
 priety, shape, or order to which they 
 are to be reduced. Dress is adjusted 
 when its several articles are suitably 
 arranged and worn according to their 
 right place and use. Quarrels are 
 said to be adjusted when the alleged 
 wrongs on both sides are referred to 
 some satisfactory decision, arbitration, 
 or agreement. 
 
 " When things were thus far adjusted 
 towards a peace, all other differences were 
 »oon accommodated." — Addison. 
 
 Arrange (Fr. a nan o^er, rang, Eng. 
 rank) deals with particulars, as Adjust 
 with wholes. \Ve adjust by rightly 
 ordering the parts so as to form an 
 orderly whole. We arrangf^ separate 
 and particular articles, whether as 
 parts of a whole or not. We arrange 
 according to the fitness of things to 
 stand by each other, while in ranging 
 nothing more is denoted than the 
 plarini; in a lino of separate articles. 
 
 Items whioh have nothing in common, 
 but that they are movable units, may 
 be ranged, that is, placed in a row. 
 They bear some character in which 
 they stand related to one another 
 when they are arranged, which may 
 or may not be in a line. Practical 
 convenience, seemliness, or order for 
 its own sake is the object in arranging, 
 Articles of furniture in a room are 
 arranged wlien they are relatively 
 placed according to their form, colour, 
 use, and the like. In a procession 
 tlie persons are ranged when the line 
 is formed ; arranged when the order 
 of precedence and accompaniment is 
 fixed. We range books in order to 
 arrange a library. To range is to put 
 in place ; to arrange is to put in right 
 pliice. To range is a physical and, 
 as it were, mechanical art. To ar- 
 range needs thought, taste, know- 
 ledge. When we range we are bound 
 to a certain course. When we ar- 
 range we are at liberty to choose our 
 principle or mode of arrangement, as 
 efficiency, availableness, scientific pre- 
 cision, or pleasurable efl'ect, or any 
 other such cause. 
 
 " In vain you attempt to regulate your 
 expense if into your amusements or youj 
 society disorder has crept. You have ad- 
 mitted a principle of confusion which wilJ 
 defeat all your plans, and perplex anu 
 entangle what you sought to arrange." — 
 Blaik. ^ 
 
 We Accommodate (Lat. accommo- 
 dare) when we make one thing supply 
 what the other requires. Both persons 
 and things are subjects of accommo- 
 dation. When we accommodate our- 
 selves to circumstances, we aim at 
 producing a conformity between our 
 wishes and actions, and the limits 
 imposed upon us by them. In this 
 case some sacrifice of ourselves is im- 
 plied. We contract our desires to the 
 measure of their possible fulfilment. 
 If we accommodate a friend with 
 lodgings or a loan, we put him into 
 such a position that his wants in each 
 respect are commensurate with his 
 means of meeting them. When we 
 accommodate differences we bring 
 persons into such harmony that the 
 demands of neither are in excess of 
 what the other is ready to meet. 
 When we accommodate an event to h 
 
SYNONYMS 
 
 [admirable] 
 
 prophecy, it is by so representing the 
 event, or so stretching or narrowing 
 the terms of the prophecy, that the 
 same space of meaning shall be 
 covered by both as accoraant and co- 
 incident expressions. 
 
 " It is not the endeavour of Moses or 
 the prophets to discover any mathematical 
 or philosophical subtleties, but rather to 
 accommodate themselves to vulgar capa- 
 cities." — Bp. Wilkins. 
 
 CoMPUOMisE (Lat. compromittcre) 
 is in its rudimental meaning a joint or 
 mutual promise, and, in particular, a 
 promise to refer a matter to the deci- 
 sion of an arbiter. Then, singularly 
 enough, the subject of this arrange- 
 ment dropping out, the arrangement 
 alone survived ; and, the idea of arbi- 
 tration being abandoned, the term 
 came to mean almost the opposite to 
 its original idea, namely, that of 
 mutual concession without any extra- 
 neous decision ; an adjustment of the 
 matter between the parties themselves 
 in a spirit of conciliation or policy ; 
 for it would often happen that cases 
 destined for an arbiter were never 
 carried so far, but privately arranged. 
 In the phrase, " The person is compro- 
 mised, the idea of obligation or en- 
 gagement is uppermost ; that is to say, 
 he has done something which places 
 him in a certain position or has impli- 
 cated him in a responsibility, though 
 he may not have seen and intended 
 the full consequences of his act. In 
 the other phrase,"The matter was com- 
 promised," the idea of the private 
 arrangement is uppermost ; that is to 
 say, it was determined by mutual 
 concession, and not carried to law. 
 At present the spirit of compromise is 
 that of forestalling judicial or authori- 
 tative decision by timely concessions, 
 a giving and taking on both sides. 
 Compromise is the resort of persons 
 with whom policy is a stronger motive 
 than principle, or with those who, 
 being desirous of truth and justice, 
 will secure to themselves or their 
 cause as much of them as circum- 
 stanses will permit, rather than run 
 the risk of losing them by too 
 rigorously insisting upon their own 
 views and claims. In proportion as 
 men are inclined to believe that exact 
 
 forms are either irrelevant to truth or 
 obstructive to it, they will advocate 
 compromise ; in proportion as they 
 regard them as essential to its conser- 
 vation they will regard compromise 
 in the light of moral cowardice and 
 unfaithfulness. 
 
 **An abhorrence of concession and com- 
 promise is a never- failing characteristic of 
 religious factions." — Hallam. 
 
 ADMIRABLE. Excellent. Ex- 
 quisite. 
 
 Of these terms the first relates to an 
 impression produced upon our mind, 
 the two others to the character in- 
 herent in objects. That is Admirable 
 (Lat. admirdbilis) which is literally 
 worthy of admiration. And admira- 
 tion is a state of mind produced by 
 the involuntary appreciation of what 
 is excellent in nature, in art, or in the 
 sentiments and actions of mankind. 
 Hence the measure of the Admihable 
 is the faculty of the mind for discern- 
 ing and appreciating such excellence. 
 Admiration is wonder or surprise 
 mingled with approbation, and ac- 
 companied by pleasing emotions. 
 That is Excellent which surpasses 
 (hat.excelltre, to surpass) other things 
 of the same kind in good, desirable, 
 or estimable qualities. Superiority 
 in an object which is purely material, 
 as the fine growth of a tree, or the 
 special costliness of a gem, is not ex- 
 cellence. The excellent always bears 
 reference either to what is morally 
 good, or materially serviceable or 
 desirable in connexion with the re- 
 quirements of men. An excellent 
 person is morally virtuous and esti- 
 mable. An excellent house could no* 
 mean one of architectural beauty, bul 
 one well built for purposes of habita- 
 tion. The excellent is in moral things 
 an object of praise, and in material 
 things an object of advantage. That 
 which is Exquisite (Lat. exqmrhr€f 
 part, exquisllus, to seek ont) exhibits ex- 
 cellence of a peculiar, rare, choice, or 
 delicate kind. It requires refinement 
 of taste and a delicate sensibility to 
 appreciate it. The excellent may be 
 on any scale. The exquisite has never 
 the attribute of size, though it may 
 characterize objects of size. It is a 
 term more artistic than moral, and 
 
[admittance] discriminated. 
 
 Joes not belong to character or acts, 
 yet is not inapplicable to the moral 
 nature, sensibility, and sentiments. 
 It may imply a bigh degree of excel- 
 lence in art, out belongs also to Avhat 
 is not matter of art, as " exquisite 
 torture," that is, rarely, peculiarly, 
 and, as it were, retinedly intense. It 
 has a more superlative force than 
 either admirable or excellent. It is 
 the product of a combination of 
 mental power and delicacy. 
 
 63 
 
 ADMISSIBLE. Pkr.missibi.e. 
 
 These stand related as argument to 
 act. That which is Admissible fLat. 
 admitttre, part, admissiis, to admit) 
 may be conceded as true, just, fair, 
 convenient, probable. That which is 
 Permissible (Lat. permitttre^ part. 
 permissnx, to permit) may be conceded 
 as a thing which may be done. A 
 supposition, for instance, is admis- 
 sible, a proceeding permissible. 
 
 ADMIT. Receive. 
 
 When employed in regard to per- 
 sons the difference in usage between 
 these words seems to be that the 
 former does not imply what the latter 
 does — a peculiar relation to self as the 
 result of the process. To Admit (Lat. 
 admitttre) is to open an entrance to 
 another. To Receive (Lat. rMpcre) 
 is so to open it as to brin^ him into 
 some close relation to one s self. I 
 admit a person into a public building. 
 1 receive him into my own house. 
 Hence receive implies a stronger 
 exercise of the will than admit. I 
 admit him into my house to whom 1 
 do not refuse entrance. I receive him 
 whom I cause to feel welcome. Both 
 Admit and Receive are applicable to 
 merely physical objects and processes. 
 Vet the same analogy is preserved in 
 that case. Admit only involves the 
 absence of exclusion, Receive an 
 adaptation between the two objects. 
 This difference is exemplified in the 
 following sentence of Locke : — 
 
 " There are some ideas which have ad- 
 mittance only through one sense, which is 
 peculiarly adapted to receive them." 
 
 ADMIT, Allow. Grant. 
 These terras are here compared only 
 in regard to matters of speculation and 
 
 argument. In that sense Gravt (O. 
 Fr. gruanter, creanter, to assure) is re- 
 lative to the person of another. It 
 expresses such a concession as benefits 
 or strengthens the position of him to 
 whom it is made. To A dm it is abstract, 
 and belono^s to the propriety, truth, or 
 justice of what is conceded. The 
 concession is the result of the force of 
 argument which renders it impossible 
 to deny, or of a previous knowledge 
 or conviction which one feels must, 
 in justice, be carried to the account of 
 the opposite party. To Allow (Fr. 
 I alloiier, Lat. ad, to,laudare, to praise) is 
 negative, while admit is positive. 1 
 admit what I cannot deny. I allow 
 what ought in fairness to be granted. 
 Logical necessity compels me to ad- 
 mit. Argumentative honesty requires 
 that I should allow. Admit denotes 
 what is due to the case. Allow 
 what is due to him who argues, as a 
 claim. 
 
 " Even a real miracle cannot be admitted 
 as such, or carry any conviction to those 
 who are not assured that the event is con- 
 tradictory to the course of nature." — 
 Farmer. 
 
 " The min'd spendthrift now no longer 
 
 proud, 
 Claim'd kindred there, and had his claims 
 alloic'd." Goldsmith. 
 
 There is more freedom and voluntari- 
 ness in Grant than in either Allow or 
 Admit ; so that the term sometimes 
 refers to such concession as an ante- 
 cedent to all argument whatever, as in 
 the following : — 
 
 " I take it at the same time for granted 
 that the immortality ofthe soul is sufficiently 
 established by other arguments."— Steele. 
 
 ADMITTANCE. Admission. 
 
 Admittance belongs more simply 
 to the mere act of allowing to enter. 
 Admission in a moral sense to the re- 
 ception with some sort of sanction. 
 Hence admittance is purely local, as 
 admittance into a building. Admis- 
 sion rather bears the meaning of a 
 right of admittance, or the power of 
 demanding an entrance. It is the 
 right of admission which procures the 
 admittance. The admission of the 
 truth of a charge ; the admittance of 
 light into an apartment. Admission 
 is more ic the admitter, admittance in 
 
64 
 
 the admitted, lliere is admission 
 when persons are willing to admit. 
 There is admittance when the way is 
 left open. 
 
 " Of the foolish virgins who watched 
 not, neither had trimmed theu" lamps, but 
 were too late to buy oil when the bride- 
 groom came, 'tis observed that they found 
 no more place of admittance than if they 
 had been slothful stiil."— Clarke, 
 
 " Our Bishops are made in form and 
 order as they have been evei', by free 
 election of the Chapter, by consecration of 
 the Archbishop and other three Bishops, 
 and by the admission of the Prince." — 
 Bishop Jewel. 
 
 ADMONISH. Advise. Caution. 
 Warn. 
 
 Admonish (Lat.admbHtre) respects 
 the moral conduct, and is the act of 
 a superior. The personal expression 
 of authoritative advice constitutes 
 admonition. It has two aspects, 
 looking to the past and the future. 
 It bears reference to something done 
 or probably done, thus in force re- 
 sembling censure, and to something 
 also likely to be done in the future, 
 from which the person admonished is 
 sought to be kept, thus approaching 
 to warning. Admonition notes the 
 past with disapproval, and at the 
 same time represents the ill conse- 
 quences of any repetition of the 
 offence. It serves to put persons on 
 their guard against wrong conduct, 
 and is therefore most called for in 
 those who are most prone to trans- 
 gress. It cautions against error only 
 m cases where en-or is a moral fault, 
 vs where it occurs through negligence, 
 indifference, inattentiveness, and the 
 like. It involves reason and remon- 
 strance on the act, and authoritative 
 declaration of its ordinary conse- 
 quences. " Admonitio,"says Cicero, 
 "est quasi lenior objurgatio." Ad- 
 monition is a kind of mild reproof. 
 Coming from superiors in age or posi- 
 tion, and having prevention for its 
 object, it often implies that the ad- 
 monisher himself will visit more 
 severely in the way of punishment a 
 repetition of the offence. Resting in 
 the power of such superior it will be 
 Bubj ect to his discretion in its exercise, 
 and he will admonish a favourite, or 
 one in whose character he feels conli- 
 
 SYNONYMS [admonish] 
 
 dence, where perhaps he would have 
 visited another with punishment. It is 
 of course possible that the superiority 
 implied in the right to admonish 
 should be rather assumed than real. 
 A belief or possibly knowledge of 
 their own moral or intellectual supe- 
 riority will lead some persons to take 
 up the altitude of admonition toward 
 others. 
 
 "It has long been charged by one part 
 of mankind upon the other, that they will 
 not take advice, that counsel and instruc- 
 tion are generally thrown away, and that 
 in defiance both of admonition and example 
 all claim the right to choose their own 
 measures, and to regulate their own lives.'' 
 —Adveriturer. 
 
 Ad V isE ( Fr. aviser, avis, opinion) has 
 reference solely to the future except 
 in the sense, not here considered, of 
 formal notifications. It is positive 
 in its effect, as Admonish is negative. 
 A dvice prompts as admonition deters. 
 We advise per^sors as to their future 
 conduct by giving rules and directions, 
 and imparting informations© far as it 
 may be needed, as we possess it, or it 
 bears upon the matter in hand. As 
 admonition is for the unruly, so ad- 
 vice is for the inexperienced. For 
 further observations see A dvice. 
 
 " The person who pretends to advise 
 does in that particular exercise a superio- 
 rity over us, and can have no other reason 
 for it, but that in company.or with himself, 
 he thinks us defective either in our conduct 
 or our understanding. For these reasons 
 there is nothing so difficult us the art of 
 making advice agreeable." — Spectator. 
 
 Warn (A.S. warnian, to beware, tc 
 warn), bears simply upon the hurtful 
 as a possible event of tlie future, and 
 like Advice, and unlike Admonish, 
 has no reference to the past. It deals 
 with the moral only so far as it is 
 pnident, and with the immoral so far 
 as it is dangerous, that is, not as having 
 a certain character, but as followed by 
 certain consequences. 
 
 Caution (Lat. cautionem, wariness) 
 and Warning are closely allied, but 
 there are differences, lioth respect 
 the personal interest or safety of 
 others,butWARN is a more determinate 
 word than Caution. We might cau- 
 tion another against probable incon- 
 venience aiising frcm a certain 8te|k 
 
[adoke] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 65 
 
 We should warn him against certain 
 evil accruing from it. In caution we 
 draw the attention of another mainly 
 to his own conduct, which we desire 
 him to be careful in regulating ; in 
 warning, to certain evils external to 
 himself which we desire that he 
 should avoid. Warning implies a 
 far greater amount of positive know- 
 ledge in the speaker than caution. I 
 warn another as absolutely knowing 
 the consecjuences of action, whereas 1 
 may caution him for the very reason 
 that I do not know them ; and indeed, 
 generally speaking, the ground of 
 warning is certainty, the ground of 
 caution is uncertainty. Caution re- 
 lates to conduct, warn to the circum- 
 stances or issues of conduct. We warn 
 a man against approaching danger. 
 We caution him against running into 
 it. We are cautioned against speak- 
 ing rashly, we are warned of the con- 
 sequences. Admonitions come only 
 fi-om persons, for personal considera- 
 tions give them their weight; but 
 events may serve as cautions and 
 warnings. In the former case they 
 make us circumspect, in the latter 
 observant. 
 
 " Cautioning us to take heed lest we be 
 overcharged with surfeiting and druukou- 
 ness." — TiLLOTSox. 
 
 " As two broad beacons set in open fields 
 Send forth their flames far off to every 
 
 shi«e. 
 And warning give that enemies conspire. 
 With fire and sword the region to invade 
 So flamed his eyne with rage and rancorous 
 ire." . Spe.nser. 
 
 ADOPT. EjJ BRACE. 
 
 These terms are employed to express 
 the identification of ourselves with 
 opinions, or forms of truth not hitherto 
 professed by us. They difl'er in the 
 feelings, and so, to some extent, in 
 the motives leading to Kuch action. 
 We A ooPT ( Lat. Udoptare, to take for 
 one's belf) views, opinions, a form of 
 
 f)ersuasion, a mode of action, and the 
 ike, from necessity or fitness, or as 
 believing them to be true, or right, or 
 convenient. We Embrace them 
 (0. Fr. embracer) with eagerness, a 
 stronger exercise of the will, and a 
 more complete sympathy. That 
 which we adopt we are prepared to 
 defend and make use of. That 
 
 which we embrace satisfies our needs 
 and meets our mental requu-ements. 
 The term adopt belongs more to the 
 outside of things, embrace more to 
 their inner qualities. I may adopt 
 the statement of another, and make it 
 my own, as effectively or conveniently 
 expressing my own meaning. I em- 
 brace his opinions when I have be- 
 come persuaded of their tmth and am 
 glad to have found them. European 
 travellers in the East often adopt the 
 dress of the Mussulman without em- 
 bracing his faith. 
 
 ADORE, Reverence. Revere. 
 Venerate. Worsuip. 
 
 Auore (Lat. (idordre) is primarily 
 the act of worship which consistB in 
 adili'essing prayer. It im})lies there- 
 fore a belief in the continued existence 
 and superhuman attributes of the ob- 
 ject adored. It is by virtue of them 
 that it is worshipped, or constituted 
 an object of prayer. It is by an ex- 
 aggerated metaphor that the term ia 
 employed to designate the warmest 
 devotion to other persons. It involves 
 a higher and more purely intellectual 
 estimate of its object than worship, 
 which is also more purely external. So 
 the lowest forms of religion consist in 
 the worship of material objects, while 
 the highest consist in the sincere and 
 intelligent adoration of the one su- 
 preme God. It IS the conception of 
 power which leads to \vorship,of purity 
 also which leads to adoration. We adore 
 God forllis perfections. We sometimes 
 adore the creature in spite of its im- 
 perfections. We adore when we pay 
 the tribute of admiration as to a Being 
 of a divine or superhuman character. 
 The term sometimes denotes no more 
 than the fervent attachment of an in- 
 ferior, as good princes are said to be 
 adored by their subjects. Adoration 
 I of God, then, is first, simply ])rayer ; 
 I then the recognition of those attri- 
 I butes which are the ground of prayer, 
 I and the feelings consequent on that 
 recognition. It is the rendering to 
 ' Him the homage of reason which, 
 however, so natui-ally expresses itself 
 in outward homage that the teim is 
 sometimes employed to expi-esa this 
 dii'ectly. 
 
66 
 
 " Rejoicing hut with awe 
 lu adoration at his feet 1 fell 
 Submiss." Milton. 
 
 As Adoration is primarily mental 
 and secondarily external, so Worship 
 (Eng. north, uorthship) is primarily 
 external and secondarily mental . 
 Adoration may be genuine without 
 worship, but worship without adora- 
 tion would be hypocrisy. The radical 
 idea of worship is that of placing on a 
 higher level than one's self for the pur- 
 pose of showing honour, the associa- 
 tion being close betweenexaltation and 
 virtue, as in the word excellent, which 
 means first, raised in position, then 
 exceeding in goodness. To worship 
 is to regard as eminently good or 
 great. It has gone through many de- 
 grees of meaning, from that of paying 
 respect, as in the title of mayors of 
 boroughs, or the phrase " with my 
 body I thee worship," to that of ren- 
 dering divine honours, or venerating 
 with religious rites. It is natural to 
 apply to the gods or God terms ex- 
 pressive of social or political exalta- 
 tion. To adore is a mental or spiritual 
 act ; to worship is partly made up of 
 physical acts. Details of a ceremonial, 
 as for instance the burning of incense, 
 may be so many parts in a complex 
 act of worship. Hence it would fol- 
 low that worship is the wider or gene- 
 ric term, and that adoration is a kind 
 of worship. The prevailing feeling 
 in adoration is our own inferiority 
 and unworthiness, which would lead 
 us to prostrate ourselves in the pre- 
 sence of a being morally superior to 
 ourselves. The prevaihng feeling in 
 worship is the power and superiority 
 of the object worshipped. In wor- 
 shipping we pay ihoinage to the 
 power, wisdom, and goodness of God. 
 ^n adoring we express our own weak- 
 ness and dependence upon Him. 
 
 " If the worship of God be a duty of re- 
 li^on, public worship is a necessary in- 
 stitution, forasmuch as without it the 
 greater part of mankind would exercise no 
 religious worship at all." — Palky. 
 
 Between Revere (Lat. rtvcviri) 
 and Reverence (Lat. rcvtrentia) 
 there is the difference betAveen a sen- 
 timent entei-tained and a sentiment 
 manifested. To rrviMCTice is to show 
 
 SI ANONYMS • [adorn] 
 
 in deportment that which is due to 
 inherent sanctity of character, whether 
 divine or human. Revere is more in- 
 timate to the feelings, and may refer 
 to what is preserved as sacred in the 
 mind, independently of any external 
 signs of respect, as to revere the 
 memory of a deceased friend. It is 
 possible to reverence, though we could 
 never be said to revere, places and 
 objects for the sake of those persons 
 to whom they have belonged, or those 
 persons, things, or uses with which 
 they are closely associated in our 
 minds. 
 
 " The Jews made him an object of terror 
 more than of awe and reverence, and their 
 religion was a system of the rankest super- 
 stition ; for nothing can be more true than 
 what St. Austin quotes somewhex'e from 
 Varro, that they who are religious revere, 
 and the superstitious fear, God." — BoLlNO- 
 BROKE. 
 
 BetweenREVERExcE and Venerate 
 ( Lat. vtncran) there seems this main 
 difference, that the object of venera- 
 tion is not so far removed from our- 
 selves as the object of reverence ; that 
 there is more of worship in reverence,as 
 of the name of God, and more of esteem 
 in veneration, as of the good and 
 aged. Associations of antiquity lead 
 to veneration, associations of religion 
 and piety to reverence. Veneration 
 is a profound respect; reverence is 
 a respectful fear which inspires a 
 feeling of restraint. 
 
 " Veneration is a higher degree of respect 
 in which the mind seems to be more for- 
 cibly struck with wisdom connected with 
 the sterner virtues. Hence we speak of 
 characters which are more venerable than 
 amiable."— CoQAjy^. 
 
 ADORN. Decorate. Embellish. 
 Garnish. Ornament. 
 
 Of these Adorn (Lat. Udomare) 
 expresses the accession of beauty in 
 its highest and truest character. The 
 process is one of the best taste and 
 value. It is an advance upon deco- 
 ration. A house just built must be 
 Decorated (Lat. dec^rare,to<iecorate). 
 This is done by the paperer, the plas- 
 terer, the gilder. After this is done 
 it may be magnificently adorned with 
 costly and massive furniture, with mar- 
 bles, paintings, and works of art gene- 
 rally. It may be employed of thingra 
 
[adroit] 
 
 purely moral, as oi'a character adorned 
 by many virtues. When a thing is 
 adorned it is as if the adorning affected 
 the whole object and enhanced its en- 
 tire nature, not adventitiously but in- 
 trinsically. A certain degree of worth, 
 beauty, dignity, or value must belong 
 to that which is to be adorned. On 
 the other lumd Dkcoratk never rises 
 above the adventitious introduction of 
 what is materially ornamental. When 
 decoration has no character of natural 
 grace, but is purely artificial with 
 the purpose of atti-acting attention, 
 it becomes Embellishment; which 
 is a tei-m of so little moral dignity 
 that it is not employed, as Adorn and 
 Decorate may be, of the human per- 
 son ; only inanimate objects are em- 
 bellished. The high-born beauty is 
 adorned with costly gems. The nistic 
 beauty decorates herself with wild 
 flowers. The ti-adesman embellishes 
 Lis shop-front. Embellishment is 
 more vivid than decoration when it 
 is purely material. The purpose of 
 decoration may be little more than to 
 avoid over-plainne-s. The purpose 
 of embellishment is to draw observa- 
 tion to itself. Yet embellishment may 
 be othenvise than material. A narra- 
 tive may be embellished by clever and 
 striking anecdotes, while it is adorned 
 with passages of eloquence. 
 
 WeEMB ELLisn by modifying a thing 
 in its constituent parts, and by so inter- 
 spersing the ornamental,thatthe oiTiate 
 cnaracter of certain portions, sections, 
 or features shall affect the impression 
 derived from the whole. We adorn 
 by superadding uniforai beauty ; we 
 decorate by introducing unifonn or- 
 namentation ; we embellish by orna- 
 mental touches. 
 
 Garnish is the Fr. garnir, which 
 is connected with the English warn. 
 The French original has the double 
 sense of fortification and decoration. 
 It is first to provide with what is ne- 
 cessary for binding together or sus- 
 taining, and then to do this hand- 
 somely. This idea survives in the 
 English word, so that to Garnish is 
 to surround with ornament, not to 
 affix ornamentation. That which is 
 garni^ned is ornamentally set up. A 
 flat wall is decorated or embellished ; 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 67 
 
 a dish, a cliamber, a may-pole, is 
 garnished, set up and beset with de- 
 corative sun'oundings. The etymo- 
 logical force is exactly preserved in 
 the following : — 
 
 " The gorgeous citjgamish'd like a Bride, 
 Where Christ for ^ouse expected is to 
 
 passe. 
 With walls of jasper compass'don each side 
 Hath streets all paved with gold more 
 bright than glasse." Shirley. 
 
 The noun Ornament (Lat. omd- 
 mentum) is also used as a verb. This 
 fact denotes its meaning. To orna- 
 ment is to affix one or more orna- 
 ments. An ornament is a specific 
 decoration — in itself a distinct design 
 and work of art. The front of a Greek 
 temple was ornamented, among other 
 things, with triglyphs. Modern vases 
 are sometimes ornamented with Etxus- 
 can patterns. Ornament, as compared 
 "with decoration, is a separate adjunct. 
 The frame of a picture or a mirror is 
 decorated with gilding and orna- 
 mented by mouldings and patterns. 
 We decorate surfaces and ornament 
 certain points or portions of it. We 
 ornament permanently ; it is possible 
 to decorate only temporarily. The 
 ornamentation of a building belongs 
 to its architecture. Its decoration 
 may indicate a festive season. In 
 decoration we beautify the whole, in 
 ornamentation we illusti-ate parts. A 
 fine window with rich traceiy and 
 well-stained glass of correct design, 
 greatly ornainents a church. ]3y too 
 free a use of gdding, colour, or flowers, 
 it is quite possible to over-decorate a 
 churcn. 
 " At church with meek and unaffected 
 
 grace. 
 His looks adorned the venerable place." 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 " I have Deen told by them that have 
 seen both that our Church did then ex- 
 ceed the Romish in ceremonies and decora- 
 <4ons."— MAR^'KL. 
 
 " Milton, though he fetched this beauti- 
 ful circumstance from the Iliad and ^Jieid, 
 does not only insert it as a poetica.\e>nOellish- 
 rtient, like the authors above mentioned, 
 but makes an artful use of it for the carry- 
 ing on of his imhle." —Spectator. 
 
 ADROIT. Expert. Dexterous. 
 
 Adroit (Fr. adroit, a and droity 
 straight) is literally the faculty of 
 going straight to an object. It is used 
 
68 
 
 SYNONYMS [aDVANTAGEJ 
 
 of other matters than those of physical 
 manipulation, as an adroit answer. It 
 implies an unfixedness of subject- 
 matter. So, for example, we may not 
 say adroit upon a musical instrument. 
 It implies a clever versatility, and so 
 may be negative in its character. We 
 -nay elude or parry sis well as thrust 
 adroitly. Adroitness is the product 
 of natural quickness and experience 
 or practice. An adroit act compasses 
 its end with rapidity and effectiveness, 
 whether in speech or action. Its 
 movement is quick, sudden, tellinrr. 
 
 Dexterous (Lat. dextcra, or dextva, 
 the right hand) nearly resembles 
 Adroit, so that in some cases the same 
 act might be designated by either term; 
 but Adroit refers to the thing done, 
 Dext erous to the mode, means, or im- 
 plement of doing it. An adroit stroke ; 
 dexterous management. The adroit 
 use of the bow would consist in cle- 
 verly hitting the mark on one occasion. 
 Its dexterous use would mean the 
 same thing done habitually. We may 
 say, ''Throughout the whole course 
 he managed his horses dexterously, 
 and turned one dangerous corner most 
 adroitly." I n moral matters dexterity 
 is a terai of unreserved approbation. 
 Not so adroitness. The dexterous 
 man manages skilfully, the adroit man 
 ingeniously and elusively. A dex- 
 terous man holds his course through 
 difficulties, an adroit man finds a way 
 of escape from them. Even the dex- 
 terous examiner finds difficulty in 
 dealing with an adroit witness. 
 
 Expert ( Lat. expertus, part, ofexpc- 
 r'lri, to try) is a word implying trained 
 dexterity. Expertness is determined 
 by some art or system of rules. It is the 
 result of practice, that is, of often doing 
 the same thing, until at last it comes to 
 be done with a calculable regularity, 
 so that the effect becomes less intense, 
 and the end more certain and eflfec- 
 tive. 
 
 "There were no marks of expertness in 
 the trick played by the woman of Endor 
 upcjii the perturbed mind of Saul."— CoGAN. 
 
 '• They smooth the plank very expe- 
 ditiously and dexterously with their adzes, 
 and can take off a thin coat from a whole 
 plank without missing a stroke." — Cook's 
 Voyages. 
 
 " M«y taere not be a great deal in the 
 
 ingenious versatile, in the skill and adroit- 
 ness of the artist, acquired as yours has 
 been by repeated acts and continual prac- 
 tice." — Bishop Horne. 
 
 ADVANTAGE. Benefit. Boon. 
 Profit. Tmerest. 
 
 These terms are synonyms in so 
 far as they denote something by which 
 a person is bettered — that is, they 
 are all relative forms of good. But 
 the good is regarded from different 
 points of view. An Advantage (Fr. 
 avantage,avant,fo)-ward; Lat.a6, ante) 
 is that which puts a man forward — 
 that is, places him in a better state as 
 regards society or his position in it, 
 or some office or work which he has 
 to do, as the advantages of a good 
 education. It respects external cir- 
 cumstances of profit, honour, or con- 
 venience, and turns upon the wishes 
 and wants of life. An advantage is 
 not a final form of good, but rather 
 something which puts us in the way 
 of acquiring further good. The ad- 
 vantageous is not only desirable but 
 promotive and helpful. 
 
 " Whatever advantages I obtain by my 
 own free endeavours and right use of those 
 faculties and powers I have, I look upon 
 them to be as much the effects of God's 
 providence and government as if they were 
 given me immediately by Him without my 
 acting." — WooiASTON. 
 
 Benefit (Lat. ht"iitfdcere,sn'^.bmc- 
 factum, to do good) is anything which 
 makes the condition of the person 
 who receives it happier or more pro- 
 sperous. It may be conferred upon 
 us by another, or it may come to us 
 as the result of a process directed to 
 the purpose. Some benefits are con- 
 ferred, others are reaped. A rich 
 man may heap benefits upon a poor 
 man. Ihe man of sedentary habits 
 takes a walk for the benefit of his 
 healtli. Benefits are commonly mat- 
 ters of the body or the estate. The 
 advance of mechanical science re- 
 dounds to the benefit of the human 
 race. 
 
 " He now found that such friends as 
 benefits had gathered round him were little 
 estimable. He now found that a man> 
 own heart must be ever given to gain that 
 of another."— Goldsmith, 
 
 Profit (Lat. prbftcere, to go far- 
 ward, to be useful) is so far like 
 
[adventurous] DISCRIMI>.'ATED 
 
 69 
 
 tinl addition to tlie sum of our well- 
 being, but it comes to us in a peculiar 
 way. Jt is ^ain arising out of a 
 thing — the balance of benefit after 
 something expended, vrhether in 
 action, m labour, or in money. It is 
 in its fullest sense the excess of acqui- 
 sition over expenditure in any way in 
 which those words may be applied. 
 Advantages may come to us adventi- 
 tiously; benefits may be conferred 
 upon us, but profit is always the 
 product of our own doings. 
 
 " The revenue derived from labour is 
 called wages ; that derived from stock by 
 the pei"sou who manages or employs it is 
 called -profit:'— kn AM Smith. 
 
 A Boon (Dan. and Sw. hon, a peti- 
 tion ; see Skeat's Eti/m. Diet.) is a 
 specific benefit, a private and per- 
 sonal good^ a gift peculiarly accept- 
 able, meeting m a peculiar way the 
 circumstances or wants of the indi- 
 vidual. It has a relative, rather than 
 an absolute and universal value. 
 What is a great boon to one man it 
 might not be worth another's while 
 to accept. 
 
 " If you mean to please any people you 
 must give them the boon which they ask; 
 not what 
 
 ou may think better for them, 
 
 out of a kind totally different."— Burke. 
 
 Interest (Lat. iuttrest, it concerns) 
 expresses both the fact and the feel- 
 ing of concern. It is in the former 
 sense that we have to deal with it 
 here. The interest of a person or a 
 community is the sum total of what 
 concerns them ; the aggregate of their 
 well-being ; all that it hehoves them 
 to possess in regard to happiness and 
 prosperity. It is not a form of good, 
 but any and all good, as it relates to 
 them specifically. 
 
 " Divisions hinder the common interest 
 and public good."— Sir W. Temple. 
 
 ADVENT. Arrival. 
 
 Both these terms are employed to 
 signify the coming of objects in space 
 and of events in time. But Advent 
 {Lat. advhure, part, adventus) signifies 
 no more than a coming to. 
 
 Arrival (Fr. arriver, for which see 
 Bn.ACHET) implies progressive move- 
 
 ment, a course and a speciiic destina- 
 tion . Advent is abstract, arrival is spe- 
 cific. Advent regards our anticipation 
 of the thing that comes, which is ac- 
 cordingly fulfilled by its coming. Arri- 
 val regards the movement of the thing 
 that comes, which is accordingly ter- 
 minated when a given point is reached. 
 
 ADVENTURE. Enterprise. 
 
 Both are marked occurrences or 
 transactions of which the issue is de- 
 termined by chance, but the Adven- 
 ture (^Fr.aventnrc, h.J^at. advent fira) 
 befals us, and the Eni ERrnisE is 
 sought. We undertake enterprises, 
 and meet with adventures. An en- 
 terprise {Yr. entreprendre, part, eritre- 
 pris, to undertake) is a bold, hazard- 
 ous undertaking. An adventure is 
 something befalling us of an unusual, 
 perhaps romantic character. The 
 best adventure is that which ends in 
 the safety of the ])arty after strange 
 incidents and a complication of perils. 
 The best enterprise is that which ends 
 in the success of the part}^ after a com- 
 
 flication of dangers and difficulties, 
 t was an indomitable spirit of enter- 
 prise which led the Spanish dis- 
 coverers of the new world. The lives 
 of Columbus,Cortes, and Pizarro were 
 full of adventures. 
 
 ADVENTUROUS. Enterpris- 
 ing. V e ntu r esom e . 
 
 The first of these, the Adven- 
 turous (Fr. aventnre, an enterprise; 
 L. Lat. adventura), is one who is pri- 
 marily led by a spirit of boldness, and 
 either courts, or at least disregards 
 danger. The Enterprising (Fr.cn- 
 treprise,undertakingyenterprise) is pri- 
 marily led by the desire of achieving 
 a bold scheme or undertaking in itself 
 profitable or good. The enterprising 
 combines calculation with boldness 
 to a gi-eater extent than the adven- 
 turous, vvhose character is liable to 
 degenerate iuto the rosh or foolhardy. 
 The enterprising is not deterred by 
 peril, the adventurous loves it for its 
 own sake. Yet adventurous is a lof- 
 tier term than Venturesome. The 
 former expresses the character, the 
 latter the spirit or act of the moment. 
 There is a chivalrous element in the 
 adventurous. The venturesome thing 
 
70 
 
 is orlinary, but attended with risk. 
 An adventurous course, a venturesome 
 act. Columbus was adventurous. lie 
 who would trust his weight upon thin 
 ice is venturesome. 
 
 "I thence 
 Invoke thy aid to mine adventurous song. 
 That with no middle flight intends to soar 
 Above th' Ionian Mount, while it pursues 
 Things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme." 
 Milton. 
 
 " Through hardy enterprise 
 Many great regions are discovered." 
 
 Spenser. 
 '• It must ever redound unto the honour 
 of his memory, that bold and venturesome 
 net of his in so bravely tasting oif the long- 
 usurped power of the Pope in these realms." 
 — Strtpe. 
 
 ADVi:RSE. Contrary. Oppo- 
 site. Inimical. Hostile. Repug- 
 nant. Averse. 
 
 Adverse (Lat. adversiis, turned 
 towards, hostile), belongs both to ex- 
 ternal circumstances or influences, 
 and to the sentiments or acts of men. 
 That whicli is adverse acts to the 
 hindrance or disadvantage of another. 
 It is commonly employed of that 
 which tends to thwart our plans or 
 movements by an opposing force or 
 influence, either actively resisting, or, 
 more commonly, negatively impeding 
 and obstructing. Adverse circum- 
 stances retard and make more difficult 
 the progress of our purposes and 
 schemes. Adverse winds exercise a 
 counteractive force on the movements 
 of the ship. Opposition of sentiment 
 makes others adverse to our designs. 
 
 " Happy were it for us all if we bore 
 prosperity as well and wisely as we endure 
 our adverse fortune." — Southev. 
 
 Contrary (Lat. cojitrdrius, contra, 
 against) does not imply the specific 
 relation involved in adverse, but is a 
 more abstract term. A thing is ad- 
 verse in the way in which it operates, 
 contrary in its own nature. The ad- 
 verse is tlie contrary in operation. 
 Things ai'e contrary which have very 
 great unlikeness to each other in cha- 
 racter and attributes. They are Op- 
 posite (Lat. opponcre, part, oppos^tus, 
 to set over against) when they have 
 this unlikeness in tlie ^eatest pos- 
 sible degree. There is in opposite a 
 
 SYNONYMS [adverse] 
 
 geometrical exactitude which does 
 not belong to contrary. Things may 
 be more or less contrary, but not more 
 or less opposite. The cont^-ary has 
 wide differences, the opposite has 
 nothing in common. The contrary 
 negatives tlie majority of the attri- 
 butes ; the 0])posite negatives them 
 all. Contrary is to quality what op- 
 posite is to position. Opposition is 
 complete and measured contrariety. 
 So virtue is contrary to vice and op- 
 posite to vice — contrary in its total 
 unlikeness in character, manifesta- 
 tions, motives, and practical effects; 
 o])j)Osite in that its definition might 
 consist in affirming all that is denied 
 and denying all that is affirmed of 
 virtue. Contrary is a moral and me- 
 taphysical, as opposite is a mathema- 
 tical term. The opposite side of the 
 street would be the north side, if the 
 speaker were on the south ; the con- 
 trary side would be the opposite to 
 that about which some idea had been 
 entertained or some statement made. 
 Opi)Osite is static in its character, 
 contrary is dynamic. Contrary things 
 are sure to come into some collision 
 with each other ; opposite things are 
 simply utterly removed. 
 
 " Many of them (the bones of the human 
 body) conspire to one and the same action, 
 and all this contrarily to the laws of specific 
 gi-avity." — Ray. 
 
 " Novels by which the reader is misled 
 into another sort of pleasure opposite to 
 that designed in an epic poem." — Dryden. 
 
 The remaining synonyms all ex- 
 press adverseness, contrariety, or op- 
 fosition in human feeling or action. 
 NiMiCAL(Lat. mtmlciis) and Hostile 
 (Lat. hostilis) are very similar, but 
 Inimical is not so strong a term as 
 Hostile, rather implying the posses- 
 sion of such feelings or qualities as 
 would naturally lead to oj)position or 
 a refusal to aid ; while Hostile denotes 
 a more positive, open, and energetic 
 display of such opposition. The ad- 
 verse tends to thwart, the inimical to 
 discourage, the hostile to defeat and 
 destroy. 
 
 " We are at war with a system which by 
 its essence is inimicai to ail other govern- 
 ments."— BuEKK. 
 
 Repugna NT ( Lat. repugnare^ to fight 
 
[adviceJ 
 
 DISCRIMINATED 
 
 71 
 
 against) is now almost exclusively 
 applied to things, not persons. It de- 
 notes that which either excites a 
 feeling of dislike in a person, or is 
 essentially discordant with something 
 else, and so both contradicts its cha- 
 racter and is inconsistent with its 
 working. That is repugnant which 
 possesses an incompatible character 
 or attributes — a contrariety in matters 
 of mind, feeling, emotion, passion, 
 spirit, principle, purpose, character. 
 An act may be consistent with the letter 
 of a law but repugnant to its spirit. 
 
 " liepugnant to the principles of human 
 natiire," — Stillingfleet. 
 
 Like Inimical and HosTiLE,but un- 
 like repugnant. Averse (Lat. auecsas, 
 alienated, part.of ai'fr<t/e,<o turnauay) 
 is applicable only to beings of con- 
 sciousness and will, and that in refer- 
 ence to their inclination and tastes. We 
 are adverse to what we disapprove, 
 averse to what we dislike; though it 
 may often happen that the two states 
 of mind may coexist towards the same 
 object. One may be adverse to cruelty 
 as feeling bound to oppose it, averse to 
 it as feeling an abhorrence of it. We 
 are averse to what is opposed to our 
 reason and to what is uncongenial to 
 our tastes ; to entering upon such 
 courses or taking such steps as we 
 may feel to be on any account objec- 
 tionable; as well as to acts, conduct, or 
 employments which are foreign to our 
 nature. 
 
 "■ What female heart can gold despise? 
 What cat's averse to fish ?" Gray. 
 
 ADVERSITY. Misery. 
 
 Adversity (Eat, adversitdtem) is 
 an untoward condition of circum- 
 stances in regard to individuals. 
 
 Misery (Lat. mHseria') is a pitiable 
 condition of persons in regard to 
 happiness. Misery is great unhappi- 
 ness, which may spring from pain 
 of body or mind, destitution, disap- 
 pointment, bereavement, desertion, 
 and other such causes. Adversity is 
 the failure of the good, the desirable, 
 or the successful in life. 
 
 ADVERTISE. Publish. 
 
 To Publish — literally, to make 
 
 public (Lat. piibllcare) — is the more 
 general, for we may publish by simply 
 speaking openly on a subject, or a 
 general mass of information may be 
 published in a book. 
 
 To Advertise (Fr. avertir, Lat. ad- 
 verttre) is to turn the attention of per- 
 sons or of the public to some specific 
 fact of presumed interest ; and is not 
 taken to include oral but only written 
 or printed forms of notice, when the 
 noun Advertisement is employed. 
 This follows naturally from the fact 
 that such modes of specific publication 
 are the most effective, and therefore 
 common. We publish a thing when we 
 simply give it circulation, notoriety, 
 and authenticity ; we publish what we 
 conceive to be matter of general in- 
 terest under a wish that something 
 known to us shall not be unknown to 
 the world : we adopt such means as 
 are calculated best to make it widely 
 known. That which is published is 
 of the nature of a fact, an event, or a 
 circumstance. The term is not ex- 
 pressive of either praise or blame, 
 rhe occurrences of the day are pub- 
 lished in newspapers to the general 
 convenience. A treacherous friend 
 will publish a fact which was confided 
 to his keeping. That which we pub- 
 lish is new, that which we advertise 
 may be not absolutely new in itself. 
 To advertise is to draw the attention 
 of others to what it is essential that 
 they should know, or which it con- 
 cerns them not to neglect. 
 
 " The great skill in an advertiser is 
 chiefly seen in the style that he makes use 
 of. He is to mention the universal esteem 
 or general reputation of things that were 
 never heard of." — Tatler. 
 
 " Everj- freeman has an undoubted right 
 to lay what sentiments he pleases before the 
 public. To forbid this is to destroy the 
 freedom of the press ; but if he publislies 
 what is improper, mischievous, or illegal, 
 he must take the consequence of his own 
 temerity."— Blackstoxe. 
 
 ADVICE. Counsel. 
 
 Both Advice (^Yr. avis, opinion ; a 
 vis, i.e. ad visum, according to what ha-i 
 seemed right) and Counsel (Fr. con- 
 seil, Lat. consilium) are given for the 
 practical direction of conduct. Advice 
 IS given by one who is, or affects to be, 
 
72 
 
 SYiXONYMS 
 
 possessed of superior knowledge. 
 Hence advisers are often official or 
 professional, as being conversant with 
 some particular branch of knowledge 
 or dejjartment of affairs, as a legal 
 or medical adviser. Advice concerns 
 the result rather ti)an the means by 
 which it is arrived at. If we have 
 gr^-at confidence in the opinion of 
 another, Ave are content to take his 
 advice and act upon it without in- 
 C]uiring into the grounds of it, which 
 in many cases we might not be com- 
 petent to understand. 
 
 Counsel is given by those who 
 are or affect to be of superior wis- 
 dom and experience in the general 
 affairs of life. The trained man is 
 qualified to give advice, the sage 
 or wise man to give counsel. Coun- 
 sel commonly enters more into the 
 reason of things and the grounds of 
 preference for one course of conduct 
 rather than another. Advice is less 
 reciprocal than counsel. Advice is 
 simply given from one to another, and 
 ^ometimes gratuitously and without 
 being welcome. Counsel is asked for 
 as being felt to be needed. By the 
 very force of the term it is a collective 
 or conjoint act. Many may take 
 counsel together, and it has happened 
 in many such cases that the advice of 
 one has determined the rest. Counsel 
 is good or evil ; advice is sound or 
 unsound. Advice should be prompt 
 and confidential, counsel kind and 
 sincere, modest, and without affec- 
 tation of superiority. Advice is au- 
 thoritative, counsel sympathetic. 
 Advice is used also in the sense of 
 formal notification, with which we are 
 no farther concerned here than as it 
 shows that the element of information 
 predominates over that of deliberation, 
 which attaches to counsel. 
 
 " We may give advice, but we cannot 
 give conduct."— Franklin. 
 
 ('J'he saying is one of Rochefou- 
 cauld's.) 
 
 The following is an apt definition of 
 counsel : — 
 
 " Counsel is where a man saith Do, or do 
 not this, and deducetli his reasons from the 
 benefit that arriveth by it to him to whom 
 he saith it." — HoBBJiS. 
 
 [advisedly] 
 
 DiajliKRATKLY. 
 
 ADVISEDLY 
 
 PuitPOSELV. 
 
 He who acts Advisidi.v (see Ad- 
 visr) does so with a full knowledge 
 of the circumstances and consequences 
 of his conduct. He who acts De- 
 lib kh ATELv {dclibtrare, de and I'lbrdre, 
 to weigh ) takes time to weigh the 
 matter. He who acts Puhposkly (see 
 Puhpose) has set it before him by a 
 distinct intention. The first cannot 
 plead that he erred through ignorance, 
 nor the second that he was hurried, 
 nor the last that his deed was acci- 
 dental. 
 
 AFFABLE. Courteous. Con- 
 
 DESCENDIN'G. . ACCESSIBLE. 
 
 Affable (Lat. affdbiUs), is literally 
 easy of address. By usage, a superior 
 in whom no pride makes him difficult 
 of access, who is naturally disinclined 
 to shut himself up in his own dignity, 
 is said to be affable. To be afiable is 
 to be easy without familiarity, and to 
 be gracious without the air of con- 
 descension. 
 
 The demeanour of the affable 
 flows from his nature, as that of he 
 Courteous (literally, him who has the 
 manners of courts) springs from tr in- 
 ing and good breeding. Affabilit; is 
 in superiors. Courtesy may be 'be- 
 tween equals, yet it involves some de- 
 gree of social rank common to the 
 parties. Being more external to the 
 person than Affable, and of the nature 
 of something won rather than inherent, 
 Courteous admits of a more objective 
 use than affable. An afiable disposi- 
 tion ; a courteous reception. Cour- 
 teous expresses no more than the 
 gi-acefully respectful, afl["able implies 
 an insinuation of good-will. One 
 might be punctiliously' courteous, yet 
 by no means affable. Indeed, a 
 studied courtesy is sometimes substi- 
 tuted for affability in the case of those 
 who wish to keep others at a distance. 
 Courtesy, however, extends to acts, 
 while affability is confined to manner. 
 Affability makes people agreeable, 
 courtesy makes them obliging. 
 
 Condescending ( La.t. condesceiidtre, 
 to come down) is a term which denotes 
 no more than such a stooping to the 
 
[affect] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 73 
 
 condition of" inferiors as is compatible 
 with either humility or pride. There 
 is a moral and practical condescensioL 
 rthich is in the highest degree vir- 
 tuous and graceful, as when the strong 
 condescend to the weak, the wise to 
 the ignorant, the bold to the timid, the 
 upright and self-controlled to the de- 
 fects and infirmities of others ; and 
 there is a formal and ceremonious 
 condescension which is compatible 
 with a great amount of pride, carry- 
 ing with it an assumption of the 
 elevated or meritorious, and is in 
 short an arrogant politeness. 
 
 Accessible (Lat. accessibtlis), as 
 at present employed, denotes a kind of 
 official virtue, a readiness to communi- 
 cate where communication is desired, 
 especially on matters of business and 
 with persons high in office. 
 
 " This led him (Charles) to a grave re- 
 served deportment in which he forgot the 
 civilities and the affability that the nation 
 naturally loved, to which Jhey had been 
 long accustomed." — BuRNliT. 
 
 " We cannot omit to observe this courtly, 
 shall I call it, or good quality in him , that he 
 was courteous and did seem to study to 
 oblige."— Strype. 
 
 " Spain's mighty monarch 
 In gracious clemency does condescend 
 Ou these conditions to become your friend." 
 Dryden. 
 
 AFFAIR. Business. Concern. 
 
 There is a loose c-Dnversational use 
 of these words in which it may be well 
 to distinguish them, though the two 
 latter are not dignified enouo;h for any 
 high literary connexion. \Ve speak 
 of an Affair (O. Fr. afaire, i.e. a 
 /aire), when we refer to something 
 which has happened without caring 
 to be specific about it, but allude to it 
 in a liglit and superficial manner. An 
 affair is any fact which personally 
 affects, whether as an occurrence, a 
 duty or obligation, a transaction or em- 
 ployment; and in the plural, Affairs, 
 the aggregate of such things as they 
 interest, affect, or devolve upon,indi' 
 viduals or communities. According 
 to the character so attaching to the 
 idea is the epithet qualifying it. Af- 
 fairs are trivial or serious, onerous or 
 light, political, pecuniary, domestic. 
 
 I personal, simple or complicated, ma- 
 nageable or mysterious, and the like. 
 
 As an affair is that which interests, 
 so a Business (A. S. bysig, busy) 
 is that which occupies or employs. 
 An affair is external, but aflfects per- 
 sons. 
 
 Business and Concern (Fr. con- 
 cerner, Lat. concenicre, to mix together) 
 are personal. A business demands 
 the time or engages the attention — a 
 concern excites the regard and touches 
 the welfare. A business is easy or 
 difficult, slight or troublesome, tedious 
 or quickly despatched, and the like. 
 A concern is public or private, and 
 can hardly be otherwise than grave 
 unless we unduly magnify trifles ; and 
 maj be serious and even momentous. 
 Affairs are said to be administered, 
 business transacted, concerns ma- 
 naged. Men are bound to do their 
 business lawfully and honestly, yet 
 not to allow the aflfairs of this world 
 to supplant the concerns of the next. 
 
 " An affair which had no manner of re- 
 lation to money."— Steele. 
 
 "We may indeed say that our part does 
 not suit us, and that we could perform an- 
 other better; but this, says Epictetus, is 
 not oar business." — AnmsoN. 
 
 " Concerns where truth and honour are 
 engaged." — Steele. 
 
 AFFECT. Concern. Influence. 
 Move. Touch. 
 
 That Affects us (Lat. affectdre^ to 
 draw to oneself) which produces a 
 specific alteration of our condition 
 whether in body or mind. Inanimate 
 as well as animate substances are af- 
 fected by what produces a different 
 physical state. Our frames are af- 
 fected by cold and heat as our minds 
 are afiected by joy and sorrow, or our 
 circumstances by prosperous and ad- 
 verse events. Variations of tempera- 
 ture affect the thermometer. 
 
 " Incorporal it cannot be, because it 
 (light) sometime affecteth the sight of the 
 eye with offence." — Raleigh. 
 
 Concern (see above) is applied 
 only to matters of human interest. 
 That concerns us which has atendency 
 to affect our condition for better or 
 for worse ; and conversely we are said 
 to be concerned when we experience 
 the anxiety or eager interest wliich 
 
74 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [affectJ 
 
 thing's having that tendency are calcu- 
 lated to excite whether on our own ac- 
 count or that of others. Tliat which 
 affects us is of the nature of fact ; that 
 which concerns us is of the nature of 
 probability, except when concern is 
 used in the sense of sympathetic inte- 
 rest. 
 
 To Influence (Fr. influence, Lat. 
 injiiientia) is to affect in a particular 
 mode, that is, by a gentle penetrative 
 or insinuating power. So we use the 
 term of such forces as being effective 
 are also occult; e.g. magnetic in- 
 fluence, planetary influence. In re- 
 gard to intelligent beings, influence 
 extends beyond states to motives. 
 " He was little affected by the argu- 
 ment," would mean that his state of 
 mind, his opinions, or his feelings, 
 underwent little or no change. " He 
 was little influenced by it, "would mean 
 that his acts or resolutions were little 
 likely to be altered in consequence. 
 *' Hfc was much concerned at what he 
 heard," would mean that his feelings 
 were wrought upon and his interest 
 enlisted. That which affects usually 
 acts in a direct and uniform manner, 
 that which influences in a manner 
 more indirect and uncertain. 
 
 " The fall of a cottage by the accidents of 
 time and weather is almost unheeded, while 
 the ruin of a tower which a neighbourhood 
 hath gaaed at for ages with admiration 
 strikes all observers with concern" — 
 Bishop Hurd. 
 
 " It shows the anxiety of. the great men 
 who influenced the conduct of affairs at 
 that great event to make the revolution a 
 parent of settlement and not a nursery of 
 future revolutions." — BuRKK. 
 
 As a moral term, Move (Lat. m6 
 v'tre) preserves the analogy of its phy- 
 sical applications. The idea of the 
 verb Move is, first, that of change of 
 place brought about in the constituent 
 elements of a body or in the whole of 
 it. In that sense movement is op- 
 posed to quiescence or rest. But se- 
 condly, as any movement which is not 
 vibration only removes from one spot 
 and places on another, in that way 
 movement involves the idea of aban- 
 donment and of approximation — a 
 cnange of place as well as mere un- 
 rest. Hence in its moi-al meaning, to 
 move has a twofold sense; first, to 
 
 agitate, disturb, or produce emotion, 
 and secondly to persuade or prompt to 
 action. To move is to bring out of a 
 state of indifference or of inaction. 
 
 To Touch (Fr. toucher) bears to 
 Move the same analogy in its moral 
 as in its physical use. VVhen we touch 
 we produce an impression, and awaken 
 in sentient creatures a sensibility; 
 when we move we produce an agi- 
 tation. We are touched first and 
 moved afterwards. A stern judge may 
 be touched by what he sees or hears 
 without being moved from his purpose 
 or decision. One is touched with 
 the tenderer sentiments, moved with 
 the stronger emotions ; touched with 
 pity, sympathy, compassion, regret ; 
 moved with anger, indignation, 
 hatred, revenge, or with the same 
 tilings as those by which we are 
 touched, but in a stronger degree. 
 "Touched with pity, he was moved 
 even to tears." 
 
 " And in effect there is a strange 
 movingness ; and if the epithet be not too 
 bold, a kind of heavenly magic to be found 
 in some passages of the Scripture." — BoYLK. 
 
 " The last fable shows how touching/]/ the 
 poet argues in love affairs." — Addison, 
 Ovid's Metam. 
 
 AFFECT. Assume. Pretend. 
 
 These w'ords are here taken as ex- 
 pressing the idea in common of taking 
 to one's self and exhibiting as one's 
 own that which in some way or de- 
 gree is not so. The terms might in 
 some cases be used interchangeably, 
 as to affect, assume, or pretend sur- 
 prise ; but the ideas expressed by the 
 words would be different. 
 
 Assume (Lat. assumcre) is the sim- 
 plest term. It is to take to one's self 
 something, by way of appropriating it 
 or wearing it as if it fitted and belonged 
 to us. In this way material articles 
 m ay be assumed if they carry w ith them 
 any significance as a badge or cogni 
 zance. VV hen something morally cha 
 racteristic is assumed, it is implied that 
 the assumption does not sit naturally 
 upon us; as, when a man assumes an 
 air of indifference, either the feeling is 
 not quite real, or the exhibition of it 
 is forced and exaggerated. In such 
 cases we assume with the view of 
 making an impression upon others. 
 
[affectionate] discriminated. 
 
 1% 
 
 " Nothing has been more common in all 
 ages than to see faction and ambition as- 
 suming the mark of religion." — Bishop 
 PORTEUS. 
 
 To Affect (see above) denotes a 
 torced, studied, and sustained as- 
 sumption of something- which is more 
 than an external thing, such as may 
 be simply assumed ; but some quality, 
 feeling, taste, preference, knowledge, 
 desire, love, habit, custom, mode, 
 style, or demeanour. We affect with 
 the view not only, as in assumption, of 
 impressing others, but of misleading 
 them as to our inner mind or state of 
 feeling. We assume arrogantly, we af- 
 fect hypocritically ; we assume in or- 
 der to gain an advantage over others, 
 we affect in order to conciliate them. 
 It is commonly pride which leads us 
 to assume, and deference to affect. 
 
 " Few know thy value and few taste thy 
 
 sweets. 
 Though many boast thy favours, and nffect 
 To understand and choose thee for their 
 
 own." CowPER. 
 
 Pretend (Lat. praiendere) is lite- 
 rally to hold out to observation. It is 
 less demonstrative than Assuw e, and 
 moreunrealthan Affect. One assumes 
 what is not natural, and affects what 
 is not genuine ; but one pretends that 
 which, though in itself false, is put 
 forwai-d as true. It aims at deception 
 and at some profit from the fraud, and 
 this not in demeanour only, but spe- 
 cific words. Yet tliere is anotlier 
 force of tlie word which comes out in 
 the form of the noun -pretensmiy and 
 which is by no means the same as 
 pretence, in this sense to pretend 
 to a thing is to aspire to it. We 
 might say of a man that he has con- 
 siderable pretensions to learning, 
 without at all menning that they were 
 deceptive or groundless. In this way 
 pretension is the putting forth of a 
 claim or the assertion of a right, and 
 pi'etend supposes a justice that ought 
 to be rendered. Pretension thus be- 
 comes a synonym with aspiration. 
 One aspires to what one desires to ob- 
 tain as a lofty acquisition ; one pretends 
 in cases where the hope seems justified 
 by one's estimate of one's own worthi- 
 ness. One aspires in secret, one pre- 
 tends -openly. If we miss the first we 
 
 grieve, if the second we are humiliated. 
 In the following quotation the twofold 
 aspect of pretend is involved : — 
 
 " It is the shallow, unimproved intellects 
 tliat are the confident -pretenders to cer- 
 tainty, as if. contrary to the adage, science 
 had no friend but ignorance." — Glanvill. 
 
 AFFECTIONATE. Kind. Foxo. 
 
 Affectionate ( Lat.affectiunemJ'eel- 
 ing, of mind or body) is literally the 
 quality of being, or the tendency to be 
 moved towards an object with tender- 
 ness and good-will. It regards in parti- 
 cular some endearing relationship ; as 
 we say, an affectionate father, husband, 
 wife, son, daughter, friend. Affection is 
 a natural, instinctive feeling. It has 
 not the reasoning attachment of friend- 
 ship, nor the ardour of love, but is 
 (juite compatible with the first, and 
 may grow into the second. It is kept 
 alive bv habitual converse, and is apt 
 to be altogether lost under separation. 
 It may be felt towai'd the lower ani- 
 mals, and reciprocated by them. 
 
 Kindness (literally, a feeling of kin 
 or kijid) belongs rather to natural 
 temperament than specific association. 
 It is possible to be kind to strangers, 
 and to persons generally. The epi- 
 thet kind qualifies actions ; affection- 
 ate only feelings and dispositions. 
 Affection is measured by feeling, 
 kindness by treatment. Kindness is 
 often a duty or a virtue where affec- 
 tion would be quite out of place, aa 
 from a master to a servant. 
 
 Fond (properly, part, of old verb, 
 fonnen,iohefoolish,t(nlote)ret&insmnch 
 of its etymological character. It ex- 
 presses the weak, self-indulgent side of 
 affection. If this is carried to the extent 
 of over-indulgence, the object has too 
 much power or influence, and fondness 
 becomes servitude, whether to inani- 
 mate things or animate ; for fond is em- 
 ployed, unlike the others, of immaterial 
 objects, and especially of occupations, 
 pursuits, pleasures. So characteristic 
 IS weakness of the tendency of fond- 
 ness, that in some connexions the 
 term fond is used as simply equivalent 
 to foolish, as a fond, that is, unfounded 
 imagination — one in which inclination 
 to believe has taken the place of 
 truth. So in Articles of Religion,xxii.» 
 " a fond thing, vainly invented." 
 
76 
 
 Co. 
 
 AFFINITY. Relationshii- 
 SANGUiNiTv. Kindred. 
 
 Of these, the first stands to the 
 second as species to genus. Rei-a- 
 rioNsniP (Lat. rcldlibnem, reference) 
 expresses in the hroadest way the 
 union of two things in a third, wliich 
 is the foundation of the relationship, 
 or as it was called by the schoolmen, 
 " fundamentum relationis." 
 
 "Thus in the relation of gi-eater and less 
 between two magnitudes, the fundamentum 
 relationis is the fact, that one of the two 
 naagnitudes could, under certain conditions, 
 ne included in without entirely filling the 
 space occupied by the other magnitude. In 
 the relation of master and servant, the 
 fundamentum relationis is the fact that 
 the one has undertaken, or is compelled to 
 perform certain services for the benefit 
 and at the bidding of the other. Examples 
 might be indefinitely multiplied, but it is 
 already obvious that whenever two things 
 are said to be related, there is some fact 
 or series of facts into which they both enter ; 
 and that whenever any two things are in- 
 volved in some one fact or series of facts, 
 we may ascribe to these two things a mu- 
 tual relation grounded on the fact. Even 
 if they have nothing in common but what 
 is common to all things, that they are 
 members of the universe, we call that a 
 relation, and denominate them fellow-crea- 
 tures, fellow-beings, or fellow-denizens of 
 the universe. But in proportion as the fact 
 into which the two objects enter as parts 
 is of a more sj)ecial and peculiar, or of a 
 more complicated nature, so also is the re- 
 lation grounded upon it. And there are 
 as many conceivable relations as there are 
 conceivable kinds of fact in which two 
 things can be jointly concerned." — J. S. 
 Mill. 
 
 Affinity (Lat. ajfmitdiem) is a 
 Kind of relationship, namely that 
 which consists in closeness of ngree- 
 ment, conformity, or connexion, the 
 result of natural and inherent homo- 
 geneousness, or similarity. In human 
 and social affairs, Affinity is relation- 
 ship by marriage, in contradistinction 
 to Consanguinity (Lat. consanguvn- 
 taterri) or relation by blood. There 
 is an affinity between sounds when 
 they are like in character, or are of 
 the same pitch, or enter into the same 
 chord. So colours and languages have 
 their affinities when they have certain 
 elements in common. In chemistry, 
 affinity is that attraction between he- 
 terogeneous particles or bodies which 
 forms compounds. In natural his- 
 
 SYNONYMS [AFFINITTJ 
 
 tory, affinity is a relationship depend- 
 ing on similarity of structure consti- 
 tuting speci<'S or groups. There is 
 an affinity between the husband and 
 wife, in consequence of the marriage 
 tie. It is well if there be also an 
 affinity of sentiment and taste 
 
 " Some have thought the Cameleon'» 
 name not unsuitable unto its nature. The 
 nomination in Greek is a little Lion, not so 
 much for the resemblance of shape, as 
 affinity of condition." — Brown's Vulgar 
 Errors. 
 
 " The most universal public relation by 
 which men are collected together is that 
 of government, namely, as governors and 
 governed, or in other words, as magistrates 
 and people." — Blackstone. 
 
 "Am I not consanguiyieous ? Am I not 
 of her blood?"— Shakespeare. 
 
 Kindred (A. S. cyn, kin) is re- 
 garded by Blackstone as virtually 
 identical with consanguinity, when 
 he says : — 
 
 " Consanguinity or kindred is defined by 
 the writers on these subjects to be ' vincnlum 
 personarum ab eodem stirpite descenden- 
 tium,' the connexion or relation of persons 
 descended from the same stock or common 
 ancestor." 
 
 As the adjective kind expresses the 
 sort of feeling which is prompted by 
 nature among those who belong to 
 the same species, so the adjective 
 kindred expresses that harmony of 
 association which belongs to things 
 of a common descent — (A. S. cj/;i, 
 offspring, and -rkden, state or con- 
 dition) sympathetic, congenial, kin- 
 dred spirits. The philanthropist, 
 through fellow-feeling, claims man- 
 kind as his kindred. Some words have 
 an etjinological affinity, others a 
 kindred signification. 
 
 AFFIX. Attach. Apply. 
 
 Affix (Lat. aff'lgtre, part, affixus) 
 is used in a purely external anil phy- 
 sical sense, as to affix a placard to a 
 wall ; and metaphorically, as to affix a 
 stigma to a person. The notion is 
 that of arbitrarily placing one thing 
 upon another without any amalgama- 
 tion or unity of the two. The object 
 of affixing is, that one thing may be 
 durably and conspicuously placed 
 upon another. We commonly affix 
 to a surface, which serves as a sup- 
 port and ground of the thing affixeil. 
 
[affliction] discriminated. 
 
 A utle is affixed to a book, a seal to 
 a document, a name to an idea. In 
 matters of moral and mental associa- 
 tion that which is affixed and that to 
 which it is affixed have some perma- 
 nent connexion with each other. In 
 merely physical processes this may 
 or may not be the case. The seal 
 which is affixed to the parchment 
 goes with the document to give it 
 authenticity. The bill affixed to a 
 door might have answered its purpose 
 equally had it been affixed to a gate- 
 post. 
 
 " We see two sorts of white bntterflies 
 festening their eggs to cabbage-leaves, be- 
 cause they are fit aliment for the caterpil- 
 lai-8 that come of them. Whereas should 
 they ajfix them to the leaves of a plant 
 improper for their food, such caterpillars 
 must needs be lost." — Ray. 
 
 Attach (Fr. attacker) is to connect 
 tilings that ought, or are intended to 
 go together. One attaches a thing 
 for the purpose of preventing it from 
 separating itself, or becoming sepa- 
 rated, or of changing its place be- 
 yond certain narrow limits. Morally 
 we are attached by interest and by 
 aftection. In such cases, attachment 
 is a bond from which we do not 
 desire to be freed. Physically, we 
 attach by means of some substance 
 or article, such as a hook, a nail, a 
 string. Physically, that whicli is af- 
 fixed rests with the otlier body if 
 stationary, or moves bodily with it if 
 it be in motion. But tlie thing that 
 is attached may have some freedom of 
 motion, while that to which it is at- 
 tached may be fixed. Attach in- 
 volves connexion, but not necessarily 
 contact, as in affix. In regard to the 
 employment of words and ideas, to 
 affix is a primary, to attach a secondary 
 process. If I say I attach a certain 
 meaning to a word, or great import- 
 ance to an announcement, I do not 
 establish, but only recognize that 
 meaning or importance as already 
 existing. I believe 1 am right in at- 
 tributing it. It could only be the 
 force of custom, or of authority, that 
 would affix a definite meaning to a 
 word. 
 
 " There is no man but is more attacked 
 to one particular set or scheme of opinions 
 iJi philosophy, politics, or religion than he 
 
 IS to another. I mean if he hatli employed 
 his thoughts at all about them. The ques- 
 tion, then, we should examine is, how came 
 we by those attachments?" — Masox. 
 
 Apply (Lat. applicare, to join on) 
 is to cause one thing to touch another 
 at many, or all points of contact. We 
 applj-^ the hand to the mouth, a 
 plaster to a sore. It is a purposed 
 and sustained contact. In mental or 
 moral things, there is an idea of con- 
 gruity and permanent relationship in- 
 volved in applying. It is to fix closely, 
 to devote specifically, to atti-ibute 
 pointedly, to connect appropriately, 
 to direct personally. 
 
 " He that applied the words of any lan- 
 guage to ideas different to those to which 
 the common use of that country applies 
 them, however his own understanding may 
 be filled \rith truth and light, will not by 
 such words be able to convey much of it 
 to others without defining his terms."— 
 Locke. 
 
 AFFLICTION. Distress. Trou- 
 BLK. Grief. Sorrow. 
 
 Afi i.icTioN (La.t. ajlictibnem) is a 
 deep and grievous malady of mind 
 or body, which may or may not be 
 retributive — that is, the consequence 
 of blamable conduct or life. So it is 
 commonly said that man inflicts and 
 God afflicts. The term affliction is 
 employed to express both the state 
 of mind and the event whicli pro- 
 duced it. The cause of affliction may 
 be momentary or lasting, but the af- 
 fliction itself is permanent as well as 
 sore. The sudden loss of a friend 
 may produce the affliction of a life- 
 time. The infliction of pain may of 
 course take place upon any sentient 
 being, but affliction implies that powei 
 of reflecting upon the nature and ex- 
 tent of the trouble which is posses.sed 
 only by reasoning creatures. It is a 
 passive state of prostration, sad, si- 
 lent, and sustained. It comes from 
 the loss of friends, health, property ; 
 and from great deprivations, as of the 
 senses or the limbs. 
 " I do remember now; henceforth I'll bear 
 AJJtiction till it do cry out itself 
 Enough, enough, and die." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Distress (Lat. districtionem, punisli- 
 mem) may be from a physical or a 
 mental cause. It is in itself more 
 menial than physical. Distress does 
 
/8 
 
 not imply the acutest degrees of 
 bodily suffering, and indeed is inap- 
 plicable to them. It may be entirely 
 independent of physical pain. It is 
 a painful interference with the mind's 
 calmness and activity, a combined 
 feeling of suffering and helplessness. 
 The crew of a ship in distress may be 
 in physical suffering from want of 
 food and the like; but it is not pain 
 that is primarily expressed by the 
 term, but privation, anxiety, fatigue, 
 exposure, and helplessness. He who 
 is in distress is distracted in mind and 
 uneasy, not knowing whither to turn 
 or how to procure relief. It involves 
 a troubled perplexity of feelings. 
 
 "Of all the distressful calamities to 
 which man's life is subject, sickness is the 
 most afflictive."— WarbuktOiV. 
 
 Trouble (Fr. troubler, to disturb) is, 
 as its name expresses, a disturbance of 
 mind, but it is lighter than affliction 
 and distress. Troubles ruffle the smooth 
 current of life and prevent the usual 
 attention to duties. Trouble is op- 
 posed to peace. It is a lighter dis- 
 tress. A distress is alleviated by 
 being borne patiently, a trouble may 
 often be got rid of by energy and 
 effort. 
 
 "Our people greatly rejoiced of their 
 great good hap to have escaped so many 
 hard eve,nts, troubles, and miseries as they 
 did in that voyage, and had great cause 
 therefore to praise the Almighty who had 
 go mercifully preserved and delivered 
 them."— HacKLUYT. 
 
 Grief (Lat. grtivc, neut. a heavy 
 thing) and Sorrow (A. S. sorg, sorh) 
 are very nearly alike, but Grief is the 
 more active and demonstrative of the 
 two. It expresses a poignant state of 
 mental trouble, while sorrow is more 
 still and reflexive and is commonly 
 tinged with regret. It contemplates 
 things as they might have been, and 
 deplores the fact of their occurrence. 
 Being more reflexive thar sorrow, it is 
 often found mingled with compassion 
 for others, and with remorse on our 
 own account. Grief is caused by bit- 
 ter calamities and misfortunes which 
 come to us from outside. Sorrow 
 may be the consequence of our own 
 acts. Sorrow in the last degree is 
 profound; grief is violent. Sorrow 
 mourns; grief cries aloud. The 
 
 SYNONYMS [afford] 
 
 adjective sorry has a much lighter 
 force than grieved. "1 am grieved 
 that this should have occurred," is at 
 least an earnest statement. "I am 
 sorry for it " might be said very lightly, 
 as a formal or even an ironical apo- 
 logy. Affliction is sharp and deep, 
 and being prolonged affects the course 
 and character of life. Distress is 
 distracting, embarrassing, severe. 
 Trouble is depressing and burden- 
 some; sorrow, deep and brooding. 
 On the other hand affliction is allayed 
 by time and habit. Troubles pass away, 
 grief subsides, sorrow is soothed 
 and cheered, distress is mitigated. 
 " Sorrow is humble and dissolves in tears^ 
 Make not your Hecuba with fury rage. 
 And show a ranting grief upon the stage. ' 
 Dryden, Art of Poetry. 
 
 AFFORD. Yield. Produce. 
 Bear. 
 
 The tree yields fruit, themineyields 
 metal, the sea yields fish. (A. S. 
 geldan, to pay, and so to yield, as, the 
 earth yields produce.) That which a 
 thing yields is that which it sur- 
 renders by virtue of its nature and 
 properties. So the tree yields shade 
 tis well as fruit. A contented life 
 yields happiness — that is, happiness 
 comes out of it in the regular and 
 natural course of things. It is com- 
 monly implied that the thing yielded 
 has some value, and in many cases 
 the yield is in return for something 
 expended in the form, for instance, 
 of money or labour. Ground better 
 tilled will yield the better crop. 
 Money at interest will yield six or 
 seven per cent. The idea in Yield of 
 giving up in answer to the seeking of 
 another, appears in the following : — 
 " There he tormenteth her most tembly. 
 And day and night afflicts with mortal pain. 
 Because to yield him love she doth deny. 
 Once to me yold not to be yold agahi." 
 Spenser. 
 
 But Yield is more absolute than 
 Afford, which is more relative. The 
 tree yields fruit though none should 
 gather it. 
 
 To Afford (0. Eng. aforthen , 
 A. S. ge-forthian, lo further) is to 
 yield in some direction for some end 
 or to some person. ''The sea yields 
 fish " means that fish naturally live 
 in it, and so maj' be got out of it 
 
[after] 
 
 by the efforts of maa to procure them, 
 as valuable and in return for his labour. 
 " The sea affords fish," means that fish 
 represents one of man's natural wants, 
 and that the sea may be made to 
 supply them. That which is yielded 
 is a product or result ; that which 
 is afforded is the supply of a demand. 
 
 " The quiet lanes of Surrey, leading to 
 no great mart or rendezvous, afford calmer 
 retreats on every side than can easily be 
 found in the neighbourhood of so great a 
 town."— Gilpin. 
 
 To Phoduce (Lat. prodncere, to 
 bring forward or fortJi) is to operate 
 as a cause bringing- a thing into 
 existence as an effect. So the sea 
 does not produce fish as the vine 
 produces grapes or drunkenness pro- 
 duces misery. It might be admis- 
 sible to say that the mine produces 
 minerals, but it would be much better 
 to say that it yielded or afforded tliem, 
 for it is the forces of nature which 
 really ])roduce them, while they are 
 yielded to man's efforts at procuring 
 them, and afforded for their various 
 uses. 'J'he spreading tree does not 
 produce shade. This is produced by 
 the interception of the sun's rays. 
 But it affords sliade generally and 
 specifically, yields a cool place of re- 
 pose to the tired labourer lying be- 
 neath its branches. That which is 
 afforded or yielded, be the process 
 slow or rapid, is either part of the 
 substance of the original or in close 
 natural connexion with it. That 
 which is produced may have no natu- 
 ral connexion with that which pro- 
 duces it beyond that of cause and 
 effect. Hence produce is often em- 
 ployed of cases in which a consider- 
 able interval of time or intermediate 
 causation may intervene between the 
 origin and the result. Things are 
 yielded and afforded to our efforts 
 and desires. They may be produced 
 against our wishes and in spite of all 
 our efforts to prevent them, as a spark 
 in a magazine may produce an explo- 
 sion and a concussion by which lives 
 are lost. It is as true that vice pro- 
 duces misery as that virtue produces 
 happiness. The character of the 
 thing produced is as various as the 
 character of the causes or uniform 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 79 
 
 antecedent operations pretsding it. 
 Like or different causes will produce 
 like or different effects. To produce 
 a thing artificially is only to employ 
 those natural agents with the proper- 
 ties of which experience has made us 
 conversant. To set in motion a train 
 of antecedents is to produce. Hence 
 to produce is a synonym not only 
 with afford and yield, but also with 
 
 " White colour can in no manner be ex- 
 plained exclusively by the laws of the pro- 
 duction of red colour. In any attempt to 
 explain it, we cannot but introduce as one 
 element of the explanation the proposition 
 that some antecedent or ot her produces the 
 sensation of white." — J. S. Mill. 
 
 Bkau (A. S. beran) is used, as al- 
 most all Saxon words are, in the 
 simplest and most familiar, which is 
 commonly the most purely physical 
 reference ; and is the plainest synonym 
 of produce. It belongs almost exclu- 
 sively to the processes of natural 
 generation, as the mother bears chil- 
 dren, the tree bears fruit. Less direct 
 bearings are expressed by produce. 
 The plant bears seeds and the 
 seeds produce flowers. The fountain 
 affords or yields, but does not bear 
 nor produce ; but may be said to dis- 
 charge water. Beau conveys the 
 idea of forming within itself. Yield of 
 giving from itself. Afford of giving to 
 another. Produce of forming through 
 another thing. 
 
 " Here dwelt the man divine whom Samos 
 bore." Drydex. 
 
 AFTER. Behind. 
 
 After (A. S. ctfter, a comparative 
 form) respects an order to which two 
 things belong in common : one man 
 comes after another in rank or in a 
 procession. It belongs to the ideas 
 of precedence or antecedence, and 
 subsequence in time or space. 
 
 B ehind( A. S.6e//i«du/i) respects the 
 position in space of two things with- 
 out any idea of consecutiveness. The 
 letter O comes after the letter D in 
 the alphabet. Behind is only used 
 of physical relationship, except to 
 express inferiority in excellence and 
 in the questionable phrase "behind 
 time." After is opposed to before in 
 the sense of earlier or nrecedpnt. 
 
80 
 
 behind to before m the sense of in 
 front of. Aftek has a motl/e. force. 
 Behind has not. 
 
 "Aha! Che Fox, and after him chev ran." 
 Chaucer. 
 " In the journey of life some are left 
 behind because they are natui-ally feeble 
 and slow, some because they miss the way, 
 and many because they leave it by choice, 
 and instead of pressing onward with a 
 steady pace, delight themselves with mo- 
 mentary deviation, turn aside to pluck 
 every flower, and repose in every shade." — 
 Rarablcr. 
 
 AGGRESSOR. Assailant. 
 
 The latter is a stronger term than 
 the former. The Aggressoh (Lat. 
 aggreiiSdrem, aggrtdior^ I assail) is 
 simply the person who begins the 
 qimrrel. This may be by a strong 
 act of provocation yet short of attack. 
 
 The Assailant (Fr. assuiilaiit, part, 
 of asAfli. 7 ir) commits the first overt act 
 of violence. 
 
 " Self-preservation requires all men not 
 only barely to defend themselves against 
 aggressors, but many times ali^o to pro- 
 secute such and only such as are wicked and 
 dangerous." — W'ooLASTON. 
 
 *' An assailant of the Church." — Macau- 
 lay. 
 
 AGITATION, Trepidation. 
 Tremor. Emotion. 
 
 Of these Tremor (which is a Latin 
 word trtmor, a shaking, from trtmtre, to 
 tremble) is a term of purely physical 
 meaning, though the state may have 
 been induced by a mental cause of ex- 
 citement. Alarm, fear, anxiety, eager- 
 ness, or what is familiarly termed nerv- 
 ousness, may produce tremor in per- 
 sons ; or in material substances it may 
 be the result of concussion or any 
 agitating force. The whole frame may 
 be in tremor or some part of it only, 
 as there may be a tremor of the voice. 
 
 " Then the earthquakes mentioned by 
 Josephus shook the whole land of Judea ; 
 and the disaster at Nicomedia, as Marcel- 
 linus informs us, was occasioned by a tremor 
 which went over Macedonia." — Warbur- 
 TON. 
 
 Trepidation (Lat. trq)idatio7ietn) 
 represents the moral aspect of that 
 which is physicftlly represented by 
 tremor. It is not applicable like 
 tremor to j)arts, but only to the whole 
 person. The Latin trtpiddre meant 
 to tremble or be agitated from some \ 
 
 SY^'ONYMS [aggressor] 
 
 mental cause which might be hurry 
 or fear. Tlie former English use of 
 trepidation was co-extensive with this 
 Latin use, but the meaning of bustle 
 Las vanished, and that ot agitation 
 t:cm terror alone survives. 
 
 " The irresolute repugnance of some, the 
 hypocritical submission of others, the fere- 
 cious insolence of Cromwell, the rugged 
 brutality of Harrison, and the general 
 trepidation of fear and wickedness, would, if 
 some proper disposition could be contrived, 
 make a picture of unexampled variety and 
 irresistible instruction." — Idler. 
 
 Agitation (Lat. agitdtionem) is 
 that disturbance of mind which shows 
 itself in a perturbation of demeanour. 
 Yet agitation enforces the manner as 
 trepidation weakens it. When used 
 physically, agitation is the excess of 
 tremor. The light air causes a tremor 
 of tlie woods. The storm agitates the 
 Sti-a. Trepidation of manner is the re- 
 sult of one feeling, agitation may be 
 the result of many conflicting feelings. 
 It is the inquietude and restlessness 
 of the soul. It may come of external 
 occurrences or internal movements, 
 as of grief, hope, desire, disappoint- 
 ment, or any passion. 
 
 " We all must have observed that a 
 speaker agitated with passion, or an actor 
 who is indeed strictly an imitator, are per- 
 petually changing the tone and pitch of 
 their voice as the sense of their words 
 varies."— Sir W, Jones. 
 
 AGREE. Accord. Coincide 
 Concur. 
 
 Of these the most comprehensive 
 is Agree ( Fr. agrter, i.e. from ugre; 
 Lat. griitnni, agreeable). The word 
 expresses aiw and every sort of con- 
 gruity of relationship. For instance, 
 all harmony in taste, fact, form, state- 
 ment, feeling, appearance, motive, 
 purpose, or properties, may be ex- 
 pressed by the word agreement. All 
 statements are reduced to the two 
 forms of affirmative and negative pro- 
 positions, and no more comprehensive 
 term can be found for them tlian to 
 say that they express the agreement 
 or disagreement of ideas. So that the 
 remainder of these synonyms may be 
 regarded as expressing some character 
 or mode of agreement. 
 
 " When we possess ourselves with the 
 utmost security of the demonstratic^ tittt 
 
[agreeable] discriminated. 
 
 81 
 
 tliB three angles of a triangle are eqnal to 
 tv\o right ones, what do we more but per- 
 ceive that equality to two right ones does 
 necessarily agree, and is inseparable from 
 the three triangles." — Locke. 
 
 Accord (Fr. accorder, Lat. ac- 
 corddie) may have been influenced by 
 the idea of the Lntin chorda, a cord, 
 in addition to its genuine derivation ; 
 and so is sometimes used in the simple 
 sense of musical harmony. As a 
 synonym with the aboA'e, it denotes a 
 general agreement, such as may be 
 determined by taste and observation 
 rather than by scientific exactitude. 
 Things are not so much demonstrated 
 as felt to accord. Two equal triangles 
 would be said to agree but not to 
 accord, except in some non-mathema- 
 tical way, as, if they were j)ut in as 
 evidence. Accordance is an undefined 
 agreement in general character and 
 spirit, and in the impression produced. 
 Opinions agree ; feelings, sentiments, 
 narratives, descriptions* statements, 
 impressions, accord ; a resemblance 
 wliich, without being exact, ig con- 
 siderable, would be sufficient to con- 
 stitute accordance. Things agree in 
 their own nature, they accord by 
 virtue of similar impressions which 
 they make upon us, or a common re- 
 lationship which they suggest to our 
 minds. Accordance in things ex- 
 cludes that which is discrepant, and 
 in persons that which is dissentient. 
 
 " My heart accordeth with my tongue." 
 ShAKI'^PEARE. 
 
 Coincide (Lat. eoincidtre, to fall in 
 together)is an analogous term. Things 
 which coincide fall in together, as it 
 vreTf, geometrically, as if covering 
 tlie same space. This may be mere 
 matter of accident, and, indeed, the 
 idea of chance is expressed in the 
 noun coincidence if it be used without 
 qualification. Persons do not coincide, 
 though their wishes or plans may. Co- 
 incidence may be of time as well as 
 space, as one eventor date in a particu- 
 lar history may coincide with another. 
 As feeling verifies accordance, so ob- 
 servation verifies coincidence. As 
 things agree in nature and accord in 
 character, so they coincide in time 
 and space, c^'acidence by itself in- 
 
 volving no unity oi community of 
 
 nature. 
 
 " If a rational being as such is under an 
 obligation to obey reason, and this obedi- 
 ence or practice of reason coincides with 
 the observations of truth, these things 
 jilainly follow." — WooLASTON. 
 
 CoNcvn (Lat. concurrere, to run tO' 
 gether) is a])plied as coincide is not, 
 directly to persons as well as things. 
 Concurrence is a meeting too;ether 
 or, as it were, confluence of forces, 
 causes, motives, influences, senti- 
 ments or opinions, wills. Things 
 that agree are something in common, 
 things that concur do something in 
 common, things that coincide may 
 have nothing in common (beyond 
 their coincidence). Concurrence in 
 things is confluence of causation and 
 eventuality. Concurrence in persons 
 is coincidence of will or opinion 
 voluntarily expressed, as when a 
 judge says that he concurs in the 
 judgment of liis brother judge. It 
 then denotes union of judgment from 
 an independent quarter. Judgments, 
 statements, testimony, are concurrent 
 as moving parallel to and falling in 
 with something else (for such is the 
 twofold idea of concurrence, viz., 
 parallelism and coincidence) and so 
 tending to support the same point. 
 
 " The Egyptians, as we are assured by 
 the concurreiit testimony of antiquity, were 
 among the fii-st who taught the soul sur- 
 vived the hody and was immortal," — War- 
 
 BURTjBTN. 
 
 AGREEABLE. Pleasant. 
 Pleasing. Congenial. 
 
 All these terms are predicable both 
 of persons and things. Agreeable 
 is not so strong a term as Pleasant 
 ( Fr. plaisant). The agreeable is con- 
 genial to us, the pleasant, as the word 
 denotes, executes pleasure. In short, 
 the pleasant is a more active degree of 
 the agreeable, and like it is applicable 
 to tilings both moral and physical. 
 
 Pleasing diflfers from pleasant in 
 not applying to matters purely phy- 
 sical. A fruit of pleasant, not of 
 pleasing, taste. So we apply pleasant 
 to things in their abstract character 
 and relations— a pleasing thought, a 
 pleasing variety, contrast, succession, 
 aspect, uniformity, altornation, and so 
 G 
 
82 
 
 SYNONYMS [AGREEMENT 
 
 JbTth. Again, pleasant belongs rather 
 to the effect specifically produced, 
 pleasing, to the power of producing 
 It. A pleasant manner is one which 
 we fina agreeable, a pleasing manner 
 one which people in general would 
 be likely to think so. ^\'here they aie 
 applied to the same object, Pleasing 
 is more vivid than Pleasant, but less 
 extended. The manners, the counte- 
 nance, make persons pleasing ; the 
 mind, disposition, humour, conversa- 
 tion, make them pleasant. Wit, hu- 
 mour, geniality, and cheerfulness of 
 nature, make men agreeable ; com- 
 plaisance and the absence of affecta- 
 tion make women agreeable. Locali- 
 ties are ])leasant as gratefully affecting 
 the senses. Prospects are pleasing 
 as forming combinations such as 
 artists would enjoy. G enerally speak- 
 ing, that which gratifies the senses is 
 pleasant ; that which satisfies the 
 mind, taste, judgment, or imagination, 
 is pleasing. Moreover, pleasing is 
 active, pleasant has an almost passive 
 sense. That is pleasing which imparts 
 [ileasure. That is pleasant which 
 comports with pleasure, or in which 
 pleasure may be found. A pleasant 
 book is such before it is opened or 
 read ; those who read it will find 
 pleasing narratives and descriptions. 
 The Congenial (Lat. con-, together^ 
 ehiiiUis, genial, pleasant) is that which 
 is agreeable, pleasant, or pleasing, 
 from its natural suitableness to in- 
 dividual taste, habit, temperament, 
 or even the passing mood of the 
 hour. 
 
 " If congeniality of tastes could have 
 made a marriage happy, that union should 
 have been thrice blessed." — Motley. 
 
 " There is great pleasure in being inno- 
 cent because that prevents guilt and 
 trouble. It is plensaiit to be virtuous and 
 
 food, because that is to excel many others, 
 t is pleasant to grow better, because that 
 is to excel ourselves. Nay, it is pleasant 
 even to mortify and subdue our lusts, be- 
 cause that is victory. It is pleasant to 
 command our appetites and passions, and to 
 keep them in due order within the bounds 
 of reason and religion, because this is a kind 
 of empire. This is to govern." — TiLLOTSOX. 
 *' Pym's speech was esteemed full of 
 vreight, reason, and pleasingnes8, and so 
 atiiectionate it was that it gained pity and 
 remorse in the generality." — Wood, 
 At 
 
 AGREEMENT. Contract. Co 
 VENANT. Compact. Bargain. 
 
 Agreement (see Agree) expresses 
 in the broadest manner the consent of 
 individuals or parties, formally or in 
 formally expressed by word or writ- 
 ing. To agi-ee is to come to terms. 
 
 "And thus the covenant that ye made 
 with death shall be disannulled, and your 
 agreement that ye made with hell shall not 
 stand."— i?i6/e, 1539, 
 
 A Contract (Lat. ace. masc. con- 
 tractum, an agreement, cuiitract) is a 
 binding agreement between indi- 
 viduals, formally written and exe- 
 cuted. To contract is to reduce terms 
 to writing. 
 
 " It is impossible to see the long scrolls 
 in which every contract is included, with all 
 their appendages of seals and attestations, 
 without wondering at the depravity of 
 those beings who must be restrained from 
 violation of promise by such formal and 
 public evidences." — Johnson. 
 
 The Covenant (O. Fr. convenant, 
 and covenant; from convenir, to agree) is 
 a contract or item of a contract signed, 
 sealed, and delivered. In technical 
 usage the verb contract has reference 
 to a complex transaction ; covenant to 
 a single act. For example, 1 contract 
 to build a house of such a character, 
 according to such plans, within such 
 a time, for such a sum. I covenant 
 that I will pay a sum of money before 
 a certain time. 
 
 " A covenant to do any action at a certain 
 time or place is then dissolved by the cove- 
 nantor when that time cometh, cither by 
 the performance or by the violation." — 
 HoBBS. 
 
 A Compact (Lat. compHcisci, pa.ri 
 compactus, to make a compact), unliko 
 contract and covenant, may be among 
 many persons or parties, while con- 
 tract and covenant are between two. 
 It may be entirely informal, and is 
 generally grounded on the word 
 passed, as when an association enter? 
 into a compact to preserve secrecy. 
 
 " Wedlock is described as the mdissoluble 
 compact."— Mac AVl^r. 
 
 Compact belongs not to ordinary 
 social aoreements, for the security ot 
 which the law makes provision. 
 
 B A nc AiN ( Fr. barguigner, to haggU , 
 L. Lat. barcaniare ; Liitre) is confined 
 to trade, or at least to matters of giving 
 
Lair] 
 
 and taking. '1 he bargain is so far 
 informal or not legally binding, but 
 only binding in honour. The process 
 and the result of debating the terms 
 of transfer are both called bargains. 
 When the terms of a bargain are de- 
 finitely settled, the parties come to an 
 agreement; but it is often found neces- 
 sary to keep persons to enter into a 
 conti'act, and to go through the com- 
 plete process of a covenant. 
 
 " It is adjusted, however, not by any 
 accurate measure, but by the higgling hikI 
 bargaining of the market, according to that 
 sort of rough equality which, though not 
 exact, IS sufficient for carrying on the busi- 
 nes3."— Adam Smith. 
 
 AIM. Object. End. View. 
 Scope. 
 
 The Aim (0. Fr. uesmer; Lat. cest'l- 
 mare, to estimate, appraise) is the im- 
 mediate, the End (A. S. ende) the 
 ultimate object. 
 
 View (Fr. vue) denotes a definite 
 though wide purpose, and, inasmuch 
 as it signifies such contemplation as 
 has speculation for its purpose, bears 
 the meaning of general opinion or 
 judgment ; especially in the plural. 
 
 Scope (Gr. crxoTrc'f, an aim) is wider 
 still, and stands to speculative purpose 
 as view to speculative opinion. It com- 
 bines the idea of range with that of 
 aim. Some persons aim at amassing a 
 fortune as a step to rank; with others 
 wealth is itself the end. The aim is 
 the object viewed in connexion with 
 the person seeEtMg to attain it. The 
 speaker or writer will sometimes eli- 
 minate superfluous matter as not 
 falling within the scope of his treatise 
 or remarks. The fi-amer of a legal 
 document on behalf of a client in en- 
 deavouring to give technical validity 
 and precision to his wishes will natu- 
 rally ask whether in that shape the 
 document meets his views. Our views 
 are often better felt than expressed or 
 analyzed, so that it is quite possible 
 to entertain imperfect and vague 
 views. The aim and the object are 
 clearly recognized. The end is the 
 most fixed : it is the point that one 
 desires to reach. One follows the 
 routes which one believes to lead to it, 
 and makes efforts to arrive at it. The 
 view ia less distinct. It is that which 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 83 
 
 one wishes to compass, and takes the 
 most suitable measures to carry out. 
 
 The OiiJtCT (Lat. objecldre, to throw 
 against, oppose) is the more definite. It 
 is that winch we desire to attain, and 
 adopt the requisite means for securing. 
 A good prince has no other object in 
 his government than to make the 
 country a flourishing one in arts, 
 sciences, justice, and material wealth. 
 He has the happiness of the people in 
 view. One proposes an end ; one holds 
 views; one aims at an object. Reason 
 would forbid us to have unattainable 
 ends, chimerical views, or worthless 
 objects. If I have just views and 
 honest aims, I propose to in^^self an 
 object which will conduct me to the 
 end of my exertions. 
 "Vain hopes, vain aims, inordinate de- 
 sires." Milton. 
 
 *' It ought not to be the leading object of 
 anyone to become an eminent metaphy- 
 sician, mathematician, or poet, but to 
 render himself happy as an individual."— 
 Stewart. 
 
 "The chief e7ui or happiness of a thing." 
 — Bp. WiLKIXS. 
 
 " Not present good or ill, the joy or curse. 
 But fiiture views of better or of worse." 
 Pope. 
 
 " The main scope and design of all divine 
 revelation hath been the gradual discovery 
 of this great mystery of the mediation."— 
 Scott. 
 
 AIR. Manner. Mien. De- 
 meanour. Bearing. 
 
 Air (Lat. acr, which, like sph'^tus, 
 came to mean disposition) is in this 
 connexion taken to denote the general 
 unanalj'zed impression produced by a 
 person. Anything which by its ap- 
 pearance suggests certain moral or 
 mental associations, may be said to 
 have an air. A certain expression in 
 words, for instance, may wear a le^al 
 or logical air, that is, it seems as if it 
 would be, so to speak, at home in law 
 or logic. Personally, the air per- 
 vades the whole individual, ana is 
 suggestive of his associations, or his 
 condition of mind. He has the air of 
 a gentleman or a common person ; a 
 confident or a bashful air. It is in- 
 dependent of movement, or at least 
 may be expressed in the slightest 
 movements, and strikes an observant 
 person at the first glance. It is the 
 
84 
 
 manifestation of habitual character. 
 It enters into all he does, and is the 
 spirit or way m which he does it. 
 In those thing? of which it can be 
 predicated, it is the character which 
 comprises all other peculiarities in 
 detail. When all has been described 
 in an apartment, for instance, it re- 
 mains to be said whether it has an 
 air of comfort or discomfort, poverty 
 or wealth, a cheerful or a gloomy air. 
 In persons tlie air is so naturally theirs 
 as to seem to liave been born with 
 them. It is the composite result and 
 effect of all that the person is in body 
 and mind — counteniuice, figure, bear- 
 ing, action, disposition, feeling. 
 
 Mien (Fr. mine) is of" somewhat 
 variable usage. It is spoken some- 
 time!* of the countenance, sometimes 
 of the figure, even including the 
 dress ; and sometimes of these as ex- 
 pressive of a state of mind, as, a de- 
 jected mien. It represents the state 
 of the person at the time, and is sus- 
 ceptible of alteration ; while Air is in- 
 separable. A change of circumstances 
 may change the whole mien of a man, 
 but nobility will wear a certain air 
 even in rags. 
 
 "It is certain that married persons who 
 are possessed with a mutual esteem, not 
 only catch the air and way of talk from 
 one another, but fall into the same traces 
 of thinking and liking." — Spectator. 
 
 The term Mikn is used by Boyle in 
 the sense of expression of the eyes: — 
 
 " I observed in her eyes a mien, a viva- 
 city and sprightliness," 
 
 And by Gray in the sense of attitude 
 and gesture : — 
 
 " With thundering voice and threatening 
 mien." Hyvm to Adversity. 
 
 The Manner (¥r. maniere) is the 
 regulation of the movements in social 
 intercourse. In its naiTowest sense it 
 is synonymous with mode or way of 
 doing, and in that sense is considered 
 elsewhere. The meaning under con- 
 sideration is more fully expressed by 
 the plural, manners. In this sense 
 manner is the expression of that feel- 
 ing which is requisite to the very exis- 
 tence of polite society — the outward 
 token of self-restraint and considera- 
 tion of others which civilized inter- 
 course demands, and without whicb it 
 
 SYNONYMS [air] 
 
 could not be conducted. Good man- 
 ners are an insinuation of good-will. 
 Bad manners imply it« absence or 
 its oj)posite. They*^are influenced by 
 training and education. The man- 
 ner of another may be imitated by 
 clever mimicry. The mien is less 
 easily imitated, and might require 
 appliances of art in costume, &c. The 
 air is not to be imitated at all. It is 
 the unconscious outcome of the na- 
 tui-e. Manner is graceful or ungrace- 
 ful ; manners polite or rude. 
 
 " The hoy is well fashioned, and will 
 easily fall into a graceful manner," — 
 Steele. 
 
 IMannfrs has a yet wider meaning 
 when employed of society or communi- 
 ties. The manners of a person ought to 
 conform to the rules and customs of 
 good society. The manners of a 
 people ouglit to conform to rules of 
 right morals. Burke must have been 
 speaking of manners in the widest 
 sense, as personal and public, when he. 
 said : — 
 
 " Manners are what vex or soothe, cor- 
 rupt or purify, exalt or debase, barbarize 
 or refine as by a constant, steady, uniform, 
 inevitable operation, like that of the aii- we 
 breathe in." 
 
 Compare the Lat. mores. 
 
 Demeanour (O. Yr.dimener, to con- 
 duct or manage) is a more pointed and 
 specific term. It is the manner as 
 specifically influenced by the disposi- 
 tion and feelings of the occasion. 
 One gives one's self an air, one affects 
 a manner, one wears a mien, one exhi- 
 bits a demeanour. It is that sus- 
 tained bearing which persons assume 
 consciously or unconsciously, as fit 
 and appropriate, or called for — as in 
 the case of the demeanour of a judge 
 on the bench, of a victor to his cap- 
 tive, of a friend to a friend, or an 
 enemy. Slight changes of feeling 
 may affect the m-anner. A change of 
 mind or opinion in regard to one 
 with whom one had associated fa- 
 miliarly will alter one's whole de- 
 meanour towards him. A manner 
 has to be studied, a demeanour regu- 
 lated. A good air impresses ; a 
 good manner, or good manners, en- 
 gage. An unpleasing impression 
 produced by a lofty air may be after- 
 wards dissipated by a good manner. 
 
[alarm] 
 
 In the plural, airs is always used dis- 
 paragingly, as equivalent to petty 
 affectations and assumptions. Plan- 
 ners which sit well enough when 
 they are easy, become ridiculous when 
 they betray effort at affecting them. 
 Manners are the test by which society 
 judges and prefers. It has been 
 said that a disagreeable manner will 
 seem to make even virtue, talent, and 
 good conduct intolerable. 
 
 " Their demeaning of themselves when 
 they were come to the highest or thrown 
 down to the lowest degree of state." — 
 North, Plutarch. 
 
 Bearing (A. S. heran, to bear or 
 carry) is a simpler word than the 
 French air, manner, and demeanour. 
 The bearing is commonly taken to 
 mean the carriage of the person in 
 regard to circumstances, as the de- 
 meanour is in regard to other persons. 
 The monarch on his way to the scaffold 
 has shown a composed and royal 
 bearing, though he may have pre- 
 served almost entire silence. The 
 bearing is the looking of the character, 
 and the sustaining of the part. It is the 
 manner under circumstances which 
 put it to the test. 
 
 "High of iei^n^rc."— WiCLIF. 
 
 AIR. Atmosphere. 
 
 These terms both express that fluid 
 which we breathe, and wliich sur- 
 ro^inds our earth. Thej' differ in the 
 aspects under which they are viewed. 
 The Air (Lat. atr) is the popular and 
 conversational term. The Atmo- 
 sphere (a.Ty.6;, vapoury and cr<pn7^a, a 
 sphere) is the more scientific. The air 
 IS that which we breathe, which fans 
 our cheeks, in svhich the birds fly about. 
 It is keen or mild, clear or thick. 
 The atmosphere is the same thing, as 
 it surrounds our planet. It is com- 
 pressible, ponderable, and the like, 
 has a certain density, and is analyz- 
 able into oxygen and nitrogen gases. 
 
 ALARM. Terror. Fear. Fright. 
 Consternation. Trepidation. Awe. 
 Dread. Panic. Apprehension. 
 
 Alarm (It. a//' ar.nc, a cry, "to 
 trms!" ) retains the characteristic 
 suddenness expressed by the words 
 from which it is derived. It is 
 first, the summons to self-defence 
 consequent on a common danger; then 
 
 DISCRIMIJSATED. 
 
 8d 
 
 any sound or other indication which 
 may have such effect of warning; 
 and finally the feeling consequent 
 upon such a signal. The character- 
 istic of alarm is suddenness, and the ap- 
 pearance of some phenomenon which 
 is indicative of danger. This may be 
 for others or for ourselves, or for both 
 together. Alarm by no means im- 
 plies an overwhelming or incapacitat- 
 ing fear. It may even arouse to self- 
 defence. The distinct suggestion of 
 an indistinct danger belongs to alarm. 
 In the case of an alarm of fire we com- 
 prehend clearly the character of the 
 danger without as yet knowing the 
 extent of it. 
 
 " All men think all men mortal bnt them- 
 selves. 
 Themselves when some alarming shock oi 
 
 fate 
 Strikes through their wonnded hearts the 
 sudden dread." YoUNQ. 
 
 Terror (Lat. terrorem) is an over- 
 powering and confusing sense of dan- 
 ger. It tends, not like alarm, to arm, 
 but to disarm us, and put us to hazard- 
 ous flight. Under the influence of 
 terror we fly from we know not what, 
 to we know not where. Yet the ob- 
 ject which excites terror may be dis- 
 tinct enough. It is an agitation 
 which is the direct influence and 
 effect produced by the exciting cause 
 of the terror, which, if excessive, in- 
 capacitates us; if short of this, prompts 
 us to escape. Things slight but 
 suggestive may cause alarm. Mag- 
 nitude and power belong to tilings 
 that excite terror. It may be rea- 
 sonable, but it is not sug^sted oi 
 governed by reason. Robinson 
 Crusoe was alarmed when he saw the 
 footprint on the sand. The sudden 
 thunderclap inspires terror. One is 
 struck or filled with alarm, seized 
 with terror. Alarm rouses us, terror 
 makes us tremble. A man of great 
 strength and savage disposition would, 
 but ibr the protection of the laws, 
 be the terror of his neighbourhood. 
 " Through the stern throat of terror 
 breaching war." Drattox. 
 
 Fea R ( A . S.y>r, a sudden danger) is 
 the generic term which coniprises 
 the rest. It is the natural fooling 
 produced by the instinct of self-pr* 
 
86 
 
 servMtion, at the actual nearness or 
 supposed nearness of the dangerous, 
 or, iu a milder way, the odious. In 
 one sense fear is a passion. In an- 
 other it is an intellectual state, and 
 the latter is again actual or hypo- 
 thetical. Hence there may be said to 
 be three kinds of fear, of which the 
 following would be examples. 1. The 
 fear of a savage beast. 2. The 
 fear of the cold. 3. The fear of the 
 consequences of exposure to cold. 
 The first is produced immediately by 
 an impression upon the senses. The 
 second is the result of association. 
 The third of reasoning by anticipa- 
 tion. Thus the feeling of fear is 
 commensurate with, and runs parallel 
 to, man's intellectual faculty ot appre- 
 hending the presence of danger. 
 
 superadding to the animal instincts 
 
 of aj ' 
 his own. 
 
 a power of apprehension peculiarly 
 
 "Fear is a painful sensation produced 
 by the immediate apprehension of some 
 impendiHg evil."— CoGAN. 
 
 When the nearness of danger is 
 rather specuhitive than manifest, it 
 gives rise to the feeling of Appukh en- 
 sign (Lat. apprehevsionem, a gi-asping 
 with the mind), the third land of fear 
 illustrated above. It is the intellec- 
 tual consciousness of possible danger, 
 and is therefore the lowest or least 
 energetic form of fear. Indeed, the 
 idea of fear at all is only incidental to 
 the term, though usage has made it 
 the most promment. As we appre- 
 liend coming pleasure as well as 
 coming pain, the term apprehension 
 might, consistently with its etymology, 
 have expressed hope as well as fear ; 
 hut custom, which is the arbiter 
 of speech, the norma loquendiy has 
 decreed it otherwise. We may fear 
 persons ; we apprehend only occur- 
 rences, whether actions or events, or 
 the results of either. 
 •'The pain of death is most an apprehen- 
 sion." Shakespeare. 
 
 Fright (A.S.fyrhtnJright) is the 
 sudden confusion of the senses by an 
 external appearance, which produces 
 in an instant an unreflecting fear. 
 It is an instantaneous and excessive 
 perturbation. It paralyzes and takes 
 complete possession of the mind. It 
 
 SYNONYMS [alertness] 
 
 makes people stand aghast. It showfi 
 itself in the rigid posture of the body, 
 and the dazed stare of the countenance. 
 " When lo I the doors buret open in a tmse, 
 And at their banquet terrified the miee. 
 They start, they tremble in a deaMy friy hi. 
 And round the room precipitate their 
 flight." Francis, Horace. 
 
 Consternation (Lat. constemati- 
 onem) is that state of powerlessnoss 
 which is the combined result of tenor 
 and amazement, the latter, however, 
 predominating. It seizes the mind, 
 benumbs the reasoning powers, and is 
 a kind of intellectual fright, and may 
 be produced by what we learn as 
 well as by what we see or hear. For 
 further remarks, see the article 
 Surprise. 
 
 Panic (jlavtuov iatfxa, panic Jear, 
 any sudden unaccountable terror being 
 ascribed to Pan, from his having 
 been supposed to have struck terror 
 into the Persians at the battle of 
 Marathon) is commonly taken to de- 
 note that sort of fear which is at once 
 sudden, indefinite, and contagious 
 among a multitude, though sometimes 
 used also in reference to an indivi- 
 dual in the sense of a wild and unac- 
 countable fear. A panic is a fantas- 
 tic fear — a fright without any external 
 cause accounting for it. 
 
 " Consternation : This species of fear is 
 a strong foreboding of tremendous evils, 
 which are likely to follow misfortunes which 
 have already taken place."— CoG AN. 
 
 " But the serpent said unto Adam, Tush 1 
 this is but a panick fear in yon, Adam. Yon 
 shiill not so surely die as yon conceit." — 
 H. More. 
 
 •• The first author of it (the general shout) 
 was Pan, Bacchus' lieutenant-general, in 
 his Indian Expedition, where being encom- 
 passed in a valley with an array of enemies 
 far superior to them in number, he advised 
 the god to order his men in the night to 
 give a geneiul shout, which so surprised 
 the cpposite army that they immediately 
 llci (i-om their camp ; whence it came to 
 pass that all sudden feais impressed upon 
 men's spirits without any just reason, were 
 called by the Greeks and Romans panick 
 terrors." — Potter's Greece, * 
 
 ALERTNESS. Alacrity. Agi- 
 lity. Activity. Briskness. Nimble- 
 
 NESS. 
 
 Ai.KHTNKss (It. aW erta, on the 
 watch) and Alacrity (Lat. itlacrt- 
 tatem) very nearly resemble each 
 
[all] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 87 
 
 other. Alertness comes of natural or 
 constitutional promptitude. He is 
 alert who is eagerly vigilant, whose 
 interest in his position and circum- 
 stances is such as to render him alive 
 to the possibility of occurrences that 
 may affect them. Alacrity comes 
 rather from the impulse of the will 
 set upon a particular movement. 
 This may be on one's own behalf or 
 another's. So one not remarkable for 
 alertness might show alacrity in com- 
 plying with the request of another. 
 
 " The mountain torrents on every side 
 rnshed down the hills in notes of various 
 cadence as their quantities of water, the 
 declivities of their fall, their distances, or 
 the intermission of the blast brought the 
 sound fuller or fainter to the ear, which 
 organ became now more alert." — Gilpin's 
 Tour. 
 
 The ideas of alacrity are humor- 
 ously contradicted in the following : — 
 
 "The rogues slighted me into the river 
 with as little remorse as they would have 
 drowned a blind bitch's puppies fifteen in 
 the litter; and you may know by my size 
 that I have a kind of alticrity of sinking." — 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Agility (^Lat. HgiCitdtem) denotes 
 physical activity, as in the monkey, 
 the runner, the acrobat, or the gym- 
 nast. It is the product of corporeal 
 vigour and lightness of frame. It in- 
 volves flexibility of the body and 
 limbs. 
 
 Nimble (A. S. nemaly nimany to 
 catchy seize) has, contrary to the usual 
 order, been transferred from the men- 
 tal to the bodily capacities. It meant 
 quick of apprehension, then handy, 
 adroit. It is now confined to the 
 agile use of the feet in particular. 
 
 " He that before wholly attended upon 
 his body to make it excel in strength or 
 agility, that he might contend victoriously 
 in the Olympic games, then made it his 
 business to improve and advance his soul 
 in knowledge and virtue." — Bates, Im- 
 mortality of the Soul. 
 
 " Ovid ranged over Parnassus with great 
 nimbleness and agility." — Addison. 
 
 Activity (Lat. actwitatem),ha.ring 
 a derivation in common with agility, 
 is applied to both body and mind, 
 and denotes such a general combina- 
 tion of life and movement as readily 
 meets the practical business of life. 
 The active man has in the physical 
 
 sense a tendency to the use of his 
 body from inherent life and strength 
 and a dislike of sedentariness ; in the 
 moral sense a love of employment 
 and a dislike of remaining unem- 
 ployed. Alertness and alacrity are 
 shown on specific occasions, though 
 they belong to certain characters ; but 
 agility and activity are {)ermanenl 
 qualities. 
 
 "Man is an active creature. lie can 
 not be long idle." — Hales. 
 
 Briskness (Welsh, brysg, quick, 
 nimble) is that liveliness of mind 
 which shows itself in quickness of 
 manner and movement; a constitu- 
 tional alertness shown in the minor 
 requirements of life, and in matters 
 of recreation no less than in matters 
 of duty. Briskness is the outcome of 
 vivacity, as alertness of vigilance, 
 activity of ardour, and alacrity of 
 willingness. 
 
 " Brisk toil alternating with ready ease." 
 Wordsworth 
 
 ALL. Whole. Every. Each. 
 
 These are not so much synonyms 
 as words employed in kindred ways 
 on which it may be well to remark. 
 
 All(A. S.«a/)iscollective. Every 
 (i.e. ever-each; A. S. tifre, ever; (tie, 
 each) is distributive and collective. 
 Each (A. S, u:lc) is distributive and 
 individual. All regards a body in 
 its numerical totality, whole in its 
 quantitative totality. " All men " is 
 equivalent to the whole human race. 
 Every implies first a class, and then 
 the separate members of it dealt with 
 exhaustively. Each implies first a 
 class and then the separate members 
 dealt with one by one. 
 
 Each denotesthings taken severally, 
 Every describes them taken singly. 
 Besides these distinctions, Each re- 
 lates to two or more individuals, 
 Every always to more than two. 
 " Whose serious muse inspires him to ex- 
 plain 
 That all we think and all we act is vam." 
 Prior. 
 
 '• Every thing is endowed with such a 
 natural principle whereby it is necessarily 
 inclined to promote its own preservation 
 and well-being."— WiLKlNS, Natural Re- 
 ligion. 
 
 " Let's each one send unto his wife. 
 And he whose wife is most obedient 
 
88 
 
 SYNONYMS [allegiance] 
 
 To come at once when he doth send for her 
 Shall win the wager which we wifl propose." 
 Shakespkare. 
 " Upon this question, what supported or 
 kept np this chain, would it be a sufficient 
 answer to say that the iirst or lowest link 
 hung upon a second or that next above it ; 
 the second, or rather the first and second 
 together, upon the third ; and so on ad infi- 
 nitum! for what holds up the whole?" — 
 WOOLASTOX. 
 
 But All, like Whole and unlike 
 EvKiiY and Each, is used of quantita- 
 tive totality. It is, however, only of 
 mental subjects that it is so used. In 
 that case, as whole is the sura of the 
 parts, so all is the sum of the species. 
 *' All hope is lost," means hope of 
 every kind. " The whole idea is false," 
 would mean that no portion of it was 
 true. 
 
 ALLEGIANCE. Loyalty. 
 Allegiance (older form, aiie- 
 geaunce; Skeat, Etym. Diet. : a-, i.e. 
 Lat. ad, to, and 0. Fr. ligance, homage ) 
 is the recognition of a binding le- 
 lationship toward a superior, and so 
 a principle of action; while Loyalty 
 (Fr. loyal) is a personal sentiment 
 of attachment to an individual ruler 
 (Fr. loi, law). Allegiance has been 
 extended to apply to parties, prin- 
 ciples, systems, and causes. It is 
 evident, however, that personal re- 
 lationship is involved in these. Al- 
 legiance might be to any government, 
 as, e.g. to a republican form of it. 
 Loyalty is even applicable to relation- 
 ships of minor superiority, as, e.g. to 
 leadership of a party, or even of friend 
 to friend. It can-ies with it in that 
 case the ideas of pure, frank, and 
 generous deference, consent, and sup- 
 port rendered at once, without com- 
 pulsion and without effort. Allegiance 
 conveys the idea of formally professed 
 or sworn obedience. A wife bears 
 loyalty, though not allegiance, to her 
 husband, on account of her equality 
 with him. 
 "Hear me, recreant, on thine allegiance 
 
 hear me." Shakespeare. 
 
 " Unhappy both, but loj/al in their loves." 
 Dryden. 
 
 ALLIANCE. League. Confede- 
 racy. Association. Paiunershu'. 
 Combination. 
 
 These terms express in conunon the 
 idea of union and communion ainont>- 
 
 Sersons. They vary in implying a 
 ilferent character and purpose for 
 such unions. 
 
 Alliance (Fr. alliance; allier, te 
 ally ; Lat. alUgare, to bind to) is lite- 
 rally the state of being bound. It is 
 applicable to individuals, families, 
 states, and communities or parties. 
 Alliances are voluntarily sought. Al- 
 liance between persons is for fi-iend- 
 ship, mutual protection, or assistance. 
 It is in this case presumed to be hon- 
 ourable. When between families, it 
 involves union by marriage, and the 
 consideration or influenceof the houses 
 so allied. When between States, it 
 is for purposes offensive or defensive, 
 or both ; when between parties or 
 communities, it is dictated by policy, 
 as an alliance between Church and 
 State. 
 " Adrastus soon with gods averse shal? 
 
 join 
 In due alliance with the Theban line." 
 Poi'E. 
 League (Fr. ligue) is from the 
 snme root (Lat. Itgare, to bind). It 
 attaches men to some common cause 
 or principle ; and, as leagues are 
 generally self-constituted by the in- 
 ferior or weaker for protection against 
 the superior or stronger, their mode oi 
 constitution and action is iiregular. 
 Hence there is often attached to 
 league the idea of self-interest in pre- 
 dominance. Identity of interest will 
 even bind together persons who would 
 never otherwise have associated, in an 
 almost unnatural league. 
 
 " And let there lie 
 'Twixt us and them no league, no amity.'' 
 Denham. 
 A Confederacy (Lat. confxde- 
 ratus, bound together by a covenant) is 
 a fomial and covenanted compact. As 
 we naturally mistrust secrecy in 
 others, we give to confederacy be- 
 tween nations an honourable mean- 
 ing, but confederacy among indi- 
 viduals is a synonym with conspu-acy. 
 A confederacy politically may be re- 
 garded as the union of several inde- 
 pendent leagues. For its relation to 
 individuals, see Caiial. The league 
 is less compreliensive and less ])er- 
 manent than tlie confederacy. The 
 States of the American union are in 
 permanent coTiteJeracy. 'I he Cove- 
 
[alliance] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 89 
 
 nautevs in Scotland were to Calvinism 
 what the League in France was to 
 Catholicism. 
 
 " The Grecian Couimonwealth, while 
 they maintuiaed their liberty, were the 
 most heroic co'>federacy that ever existed, 
 they were the politest, tiie bravest, and the 
 wisest of men."— Harris, Hermes. 
 
 Association (Lat. ass'6cidre, to asso- 
 eiate^ verb act.) is in its full etymolo- 
 gical application tlie most comprehen- 
 sive ot" all, inasmuch as all involve 
 the idea of association. But in common 
 usage an association is something of 
 a lighter and less lasting character 
 than the others. It is often such an 
 union as is kept alive merely by the 
 spirit of union brought to bear upon 
 a temporary object. It will be more 
 or less permanent, according to the 
 end which it proposes. Some asso- 
 ciations quickly achieve their end, 
 and are at once dissolved. Some are 
 for the purpose of common work and 
 continuous employment, as an asso- 
 ciation for investigating the geology, 
 botany, or archaeology of a district. 
 In some cases the association, recog- 
 nizing a permanent end, assumes an 
 organization, and calls itself a society. 
 
 " In my yesterday's paper I proposed 
 that the honest men of all parties should 
 enter into a kind of nssociatiun for the de- 
 fence of one another," — Addison. 
 
 Partnership is that association of 
 two or more persons which is based 
 on a community of personal interests, 
 and which must be secured by more 
 or less formal sanctions. In this 
 sense man and wife enter into part- 
 nership. When extended beyond 
 this it relates to matters of gain and 
 profit in commercial dealing. It in- 
 volves the joint employment of money, 
 goods, labour, skill, or any one or 
 more of these, with a view to a com- 
 munication of proceeds. 
 
 " In this partnership a.\] men have equal 
 rights, bat not to equal things. He that has 
 but five shillings in the partnership has as 
 good a right to it as he that has five hun- 
 dred pounds has to his larger proportion." — 
 Burke. 
 
 Combination, in its fullest sense, 
 belongs to inanimate things, as forces, 
 circumstances, substances, ideas. 
 Combination is a species of oon- 
 aexiou. (. Lat. comb\nare, con- ana 6i/ii, 
 
 a pair). A.8 applied to persons, it 
 tends, like leagiie, to an unfavourable 
 or unlawful sense. It is the associa- 
 tion of many persons in private for 
 the purpose of some object desired ir. 
 common. For the exact idea of com- 
 bination generally, see Connect. Aa 
 lawful purposes can in well-regulated 
 communities be commonly compassed 
 by ordinary means, combination con- 
 veys the idea of conspii'acy or union 
 against some existing power not al- 
 together peaceful or honourable. The 
 term, however, admits being so quali- 
 fied as to neutralize this force. A 
 union for a good purpose, as in the 
 cause of humanity and science, is not 
 spoken of in an unqualified manner 
 as a combination, though persons may 
 combine in it. 
 
 " A solemn combination shall be made 
 Of our dear souls." SHAKESPEARE. 
 
 Alliances, leagues, and confedera- 
 cies admit of every degree of formal- 
 ity and solemnity in their sanctions. 
 The bonds of relationship and ol 
 friendship, the advantages of superior 
 knowledge and experience, and the 
 assurance of assistance in time of need 
 are the ordinary motives to alliances. 
 The object of a league is ordinarily 
 the reduction of a common enemy, or 
 a defence against his attacks. It is 
 an union of force and design to carry 
 out a particular scheme or enterprise 
 in the hope of reaping the fruit of 
 it as against another. A confederacy 
 is an union based on mutual interest 
 and support. League and confederacy 
 are employed only of persons and 
 powersi, alliance also of things, as the 
 alliance of the principles of the world 
 with those of the Gospel, or of the 
 eftbrts of art with those of nature. 
 Alliances are for the gr<^at, the power- 
 ful, and the healthy ; confederations 
 for those under trouble, or oppression, 
 or weakness by their littleness: 
 leagues for the designing and ma- 
 licious. An alliance is sought for the 
 sake of satisfaction ; confederation 
 for action, league for victory, success, 
 or gain ; association for entertain- 
 ment and useful occupation. The life 
 of alliance is harmony ; of confedera- 
 tion, concert ; of league, self-interest ; 
 of association, a common spirit ; of com- 
 
90 
 
 unites. The association brings to- 
 gether. The confederation consti- 
 tutes. The combination co-ordinates. 
 The partnership yokes. The league 
 binds. Friendship will form an al- 
 liance ; patriotism a confederation ; 
 sympathy an association ; policy a 
 partnership ; discontent a league. 
 The wise ally themselves. The pru- 
 dent confederate themselves. The 
 congenial associate themselves. The 
 oppressed league themselves. 
 
 ALLOT. Appoint. Destine. Ap- 
 portion. Assign. 
 
 To Allot (Fr. allotir, an old law 
 tei-m : Littr e) is to give as a lot. We 
 may allot to one or to many. To Ap- 
 i^oiiTiON is to allot according to pro- 
 portion (Lot, portionem^ a portion). Al- 
 lotment determines the thing itself, 
 apportionment determines the quan- 
 tity of it. Allotment is used only of 
 things, not of persons, except where 
 the personality is taken no account of, 
 as to allot certain b-oops to a district. 
 Allotment is more arbitrary than ap- 
 portionment, for allotment may be of 
 different things, while apportionment 
 is of different assignments from the 
 same stock. It has pleased Divine 
 Providence not only to apportion 
 wealth unequally to the rich, but to 
 allot riches to some and poverty to 
 others. Apportionment is regulated 
 by a principle of distribution, allot- 
 ment by the will of him who allots. 
 
 To Appoint (L. hat.appunctare, to 
 arrange, settle) is to assign a particu- 
 lar thing in a particular way for a 
 particular purpose. The orio;in and 
 force of the word, however, is to be 
 traced, not to the Latin, but to the 
 French. The French " point " was 
 used in the sense of condition, ar- 
 rangement, turn, plight, case. Hence 
 the L. Lat. appunctdre, to determine or 
 arrange a controversy. Hence our own 
 expression that a remark is to the 
 point, and that an establishment is 
 well-appointed. To appoint is spe- 
 cifically to arrange, to select, and ap- 
 ply to a purpose in hand. Both per- 
 sons and things are appointed, but in 
 either case it is in reference to some 
 Durpose, work, or end. I allot from 
 6 sense of fitness; I appoint as part 
 
 SYNONTMS [allot] 
 
 of an arrangemeui. To allot is in 
 some sense to give ; to appoint is to 
 fix only. Hence there are many cases 
 in which they would not be jointly 
 employable. If I say I appoint a 
 time for meeting, I mean I select and 
 assign it towards the purposes of tlie 
 transaction. If I say I allot it, I mean 
 that I take it as a portion of the time 
 nt my disposal, and give it to the 
 business in hand. If I say that I ap- 
 portion it, 1 mean that I give it feeling 
 that I give as much as I ought. We 
 should allot judiciously, apportion 
 fairly, appoint precisely. 
 
 " As no man can excel in everything, we 
 must consider wliat part is allotted to us to 
 act in the station in wliich Providence hath 
 placed us, and to keep to that." — Mason. 
 " Man hath his daily work of body or mind 
 Appointed, which declares his dignity. 
 And the regard of heaven on all his ways. 
 While other animals inactive range. 
 And of their doings God takes no account," 
 MiLTOlf. 
 
 " God having placed us in our station, he 
 having apportioned to us our task." — 
 
 Barrow. 
 
 As all the other of these synonyms 
 beai- upon the immediate present, so 
 Destine (Lat. destindre) upon the 
 future. The act of destining is as it 
 were an act in abeyance, and takes 
 full effect in the future, and is at pre- 
 sent in reseiwation. A person has a 
 task allotted to him on which he is 
 supposed at once to enter, or he is 
 appointed to an office the obligations 
 of which he incurs immediately; but 
 he may be destined to the office before 
 the appointment is made. Moreover, 
 destination is not alwaj'-s relative. It 
 may be absolute — that is, things may 
 be destined simply to be or occur. 
 
 " Mark well the place where first she lays 
 
 her down. 
 There measure out thy walls and build thy 
 
 town ; 
 And from thy guide Boeotia call the land 
 In which the destined walls and town shall 
 
 stand." Addison, Ovid. 
 
 ALLOW. Permit. Suffer. Tole- 
 
 RATE. 
 
 It ought to be observed that there are 
 in Allow two distinct forces, the mean* 
 injr. viz., of to permit and to afford. 
 
 I'o Phrmif (Lat. peifniitcre) la 
 used rather in a passive, while Allov 
 
[allude] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 yi 
 
 has a more active sense. If I allow 
 him I give him at least some degree 
 of sanction, however small ; if I per- 
 mit, I only do not prevent him. 
 
 Suffer (Lat. sn^'erre) is more pas- 
 sive still, and may be entirely against 
 the inclination. On the other hand, it 
 jiay be purely negative, as the indo- 
 lent master suffers his pupils to be 
 idle. There are in allow, permit, 
 suffer, and tolerate, degrees as regards 
 the will. I allow what I myself sanc- 
 tion or will. I permit what another 
 wills. I suffer that about which I am 
 content to have no will. I Tolerate 
 (Lat. idler are) that which is against 
 my will. 
 
 •• Without the King's will or the State's 
 allowance." Shakespeare, 
 
 " If by the author of sin is meant the 
 permitter, or not a hinderer of sin, and at 
 the same time a disposer of the state of 
 events in such a manner for wise, holy, and 
 most excellent ends and purposes, that sin, 
 if it be permitted, or not hindered, will 
 most certainly and infallibly follow — I say 
 if this be all that is meant by being the 
 author of sin, I do not deny that God is the 
 author of sin, though I dislike and reject 
 the phrase as that which by use and custom 
 is apt to carry another sense ; it is no re- 
 proach for the Most High to be then the 
 author of sin." — Edwards, Freedom of the 
 WiU. 
 
 It should, however, be observed 
 that in matters not of tlie will of in- 
 dividuals only, but of formal or public 
 sanction. Permit is a stronger term 
 than Allow. In this connexion th'e 
 case is reversed. If the law pennit me 
 to do something, it sanctions my doing 
 it ; on the other hand, it may allow of 
 my doing it fi*om the case not having 
 been contemplated and provided for 
 by law. One tolerates a thing when, 
 having the power to prevent it, one 
 does not exercise the power. One 
 suffers it when one does not oppose, 
 either feigning ignorance, or not 
 ha\«ig power to prevent. Allow 
 supposes the thing allowed to be good. 
 Permit, that it may be good or bad. 
 Tolfrate and Suffer, that it is bad or 
 beheved to be so. 
 
 •• I snfiTer him to enter and possess. ' 
 
 MiLTOX. 
 
 •• Alleging that if God ruled the woi Id 
 CO much wickedness and impiety would not 
 h« ioierated therein."— Barrow. 
 
 ALLOW. GnA>r. Besiow. 
 
 Afford. 
 
 The leading idea in A llow is pro- 
 portionateness, or measured giving ; in 
 Grant, favour, or willing giving; in 
 Bestow — a compound form of stow — 
 substantial benefit, or solid giving; 
 and in Afford, personal sparing or 
 relative giving. A father allows his 
 son a certain sum yearly ; kings grant 
 pensions ; gifts and honours are some- 
 times bestowed upon the unworthy; 
 relief is afforded to the poor or the 
 sick. We allow what is claimed or 
 expected, we grant what is asked, we 
 bestow what is valued, and afford 
 what is needed. 
 
 " If it (my offence) be weighed 
 By itself, with aggravations not sur- 
 charged. 
 Or else with just alloivance counterpoised, 
 I may, if possible, thy pardon find." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 "This mutual convenience introduced 
 commei'cial traffic, and the reciprocal trans 
 fer of property by sale, grant, or convey 
 ance." — Blackstone. 
 
 "Almighty GoJ, though He really doth 
 aud raiinot otherwise do, yet will not seenc 
 to bestow his favonrs altogether gratis, bu* 
 to expect some competent retui'n, some 
 small use and income from them." — 
 Barrow. 
 " Great Dryden next, whose tuneful Muse 
 
 affords 
 The sweetest numbers and the fittest 
 words." Addison. 
 
 ALLUDE. Refer. Advert. 
 
 These words are often used indis- 
 criminately, but they are by no meaois 
 identical in meaning. 
 
 To Allude (Lat. alludere) is indi- 
 rect. Refer (Lat. referre) is positive 
 and direct. If I quote an author, for 
 instance, not by name but by de- 
 scription, subject, period, or style 
 of writing, I allude to him ; but if I 
 attribute something to anotlier, speci- 
 fically and plainly, 1 do not allude but 
 refer to him. Allusion is often so vague 
 that confusion arises from ignorance of 
 the person or period alluded to. The 
 fault of reference is not obscurity, but 
 inexactness. A wrong reference — an 
 obscure allusion. 
 
 Advert (Lat. adverlere, to turn to) 
 has in it a character of casualty, almost 
 of abruptness, as if in adverting, one 
 suddenly turned aside to take notice 
 
92 
 
 of something in connexion with the 
 main matter in hand, but with no in- 
 tention of dwelling upon it. The noun 
 Advertence is equivalent to cou- 
 8cious observation. 
 
 " The people of the country alluding to 
 its foam (Buttermere Lake) call it Sour 
 Milk Force."— Gilpin's Tour. 
 
 "But to do good is not only our greatest 
 duty, but our greatest interest and advan- 
 tage, which is that that Solomon chiefiy 
 refers to in the text."— Sharp, 
 " Now to the universal whole advert. 
 Our earth regard as of that whole a part." 
 Blackmore. 
 
 ALMOST. Nearly. 
 
 Nearly is more strictly applied to 
 matters of quantity, time, space, and 
 fact ; Almost to matters of progres- 
 sion, degree, or force. So if we said, 
 " He is nearly tej years of age," we 
 should mean that his age was sepa- 
 rated from ten by a small interval. 
 Almost ten would mean that in a little 
 he would reach or have reached it. It 
 may be observed that while Nearly 
 is used grammatically with a negative. 
 Almost is never so preceded. That 
 which is begun and approaches its 
 completion is almost done ; that which 
 is on the point ofbeing begun, is nearly 
 begun. A man almost killed has suf- 
 fered a severe injury, a man nearly 
 killed has escaped. 
 
 ALSO. Too. Likewise. Besides. 
 
 Too is a sligliter and more familiar 
 word than A i.so, which is more formal. 
 Also means, as well as. Likewise, in 
 a similar manner. Too,in addition. Be- 
 sides denotes parallel addition. Also 
 cannot be usetl for Likewise if there 
 be only a similarity of position gram- 
 matically , and no community of nature. 
 So "lie is a prince and also a musi- 
 cian" may be said, because it is only 
 a logical or grammatical unity that is 
 expressed, the same person being a 
 subject of two propositions. *' He is a 
 prince and likewise a musician," we 
 could not say, by reason of the ab- 
 sence of any community of charac- 
 ter between the things expressed by 
 the terms. Grammatically, Too cannot 
 begin a sentence, while Also can. 
 
 AIWAYS. Continually. 
 
 One does Always that which one 
 does at all times and on all occasions ; 
 one does Continually that which one 
 
 8TNONY3IS [aLMOST] 
 
 does without intermission or interrup- 
 tion. One is bound always to prefer 
 duty to pleasure. It is inapossible to 
 be continually at work. One is also 
 bound always to speak, when in com- 
 pany, with a certain consideration of 
 others ; this of itself will prevent us 
 from speaking continually. As Con- 
 tinually belongs to prolongation of 
 time, so Always belongs to recurrence 
 of occasion. 
 
 AMBASSADOR. Envoy. Pleni- 
 potentiary. Deputy. Minister. 
 
 Ambassador (Ft. ambassadef an em- 
 bassy) is a minister of the highest 
 rank resident in a foreign country 
 even in times of peace, and keeps up 
 by the style of his living the dignity 
 of the country which he represent! ; 
 while an Envoy ( Fr. eiivoi, a sending) 
 is commonly not permanently resi- 
 dent, but sent on a particular occasion. 
 The term applies especially to the 
 ministers ofmonarchs. Minister (Lat. 
 minister, an attendant on a monarch) 
 being the general term for foreign 
 political representatives. 
 
 " Since the Congress of Vienna, repre- 
 sentatives have been usually divided into 
 three classes : ambassadors, envoys, and 
 charges des affaires, the last of these com- 
 municating not between the heads, but 
 between the foreign departments of Go- 
 vernments. Ambassadors are sent by Great 
 Britain to Russia, Austria, the German 
 Empire, Italy, France, and Turkey ; our 
 other ministers abroad are termed envoys, 
 or ministers plenipotentiary." — Brandk 
 AND Cox, Diet, of Lit., Science, aiid Art. 
 
 The envoy, like the ambassador, ex- 
 ercises his functions in a sumptuous 
 manner. The Plenipotentiary, as 
 his name implies (Lat. plcnus, full , 
 potentia, authority) is one vested with 
 full powers to treat with a foreign go- 
 vernment, especially when its rela- 
 tions are precarious. Personal influ- 
 ence, diplomatic talent, and loyalty, 
 are needed in the plenipotentiary. 
 
 The Deputy {Ft. depute, Lat. dipii- 
 tare, to decide) has much less power, 
 beingsentuponaspecificmissionwhich 
 he is bound to execute with dignity, 
 strictness, and despatch. Ambassa- 
 dors and envoys speak and treat in 
 the name of their sovereigns, but the 
 first are invested with a representative 
 duality; the second are authorised 
 
[amend] 
 
 ministers, but not representative mem- 
 bers in tlie full sense of the term. 
 No such higli rank and power is ever 
 eajqyed by "deputies who appear and 
 speak in behalf of some subordinate 
 section of the community, or some 
 private body. The title of minister 
 comprises the functions of ambassador 
 and envoy ; that of deputy assimilates 
 itself to those of an agent. Mi\g- 
 nificence of living and personal 
 dignity belong characteristically to 
 the ambassador. Cleverness in nego- 
 tiation constitutes the merit of an 
 envoy. Natural talent and aptitude 
 for business are desired in a deputy. 
 Deputies may be sent to sovereigns, 
 though they are not sent by them. 
 The title plenipotentiary commonly 
 accompanies that of ambassador-ex- 
 traordinary, 
 
 "The commerce of the Turkish Company 
 (Irst occasioned the establishment of an 
 ordinary ambassador at Constantinople." — 
 Adam Smith. 
 
 " As when some faithful envoy, who at large 
 Receives commission for a weighty charge. 
 Chides his neglect, recalling to his thought 
 Some valued purpose 'midst his zeal forgot. 
 And ere he sees his lord with eager care 
 Rends every power the omission to repair," 
 HoOK, Ch-lando Furioso. 
 
 "The British Henipotentiaries were di- 
 rected to give the same assurances to the 
 Dutch ministers at Utrecht, and withal to 
 let them know that the Queen was deter- 
 mined by their late conduct to make peace, 
 cither with or without, but would much 
 rather choose the former." — Swift, 
 
 "When I was at Assamea some of the 
 principal inhabitants of several different 
 cities complained to me of the excessive 
 appointments that were decreed to their 
 deputies." — Melmoth, Cicero. 
 
 AM151GU0US. Equivocal. 
 
 Ambiguous (Lat, ambtguus) quali- 
 fies such a form of expression as leaves 
 the sense doubtful. 
 
 Equivocal (Lat, (cquivocus) is the 
 character which belongs to a term as 
 having more than one meaning. So 
 ambiguous is negative ; equivocal is 
 
 Jositive. In an ambiguous sentence 
 do not see the grammatical sense. 
 In an equivocal sentence there is more 
 than one sense, each plain enough, 
 but 1 do not know which to take. 
 Ambiguitjr obscures the expression; 
 equivocation conceals the intention 
 ot the speaker. The former is far less 
 often the result of design than the 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 93 
 
 latter, which is a synonym with pre- 
 varication. In deliberate equivoca- 
 tion, it is intended that the hearer 
 should take what is said in a sense 
 favourable to the speaker ; and this is 
 made possible by the use of variable 
 or elastic terms. Equivocation is pre- 
 sumed to be intentional ; but confused, 
 or inadequate ideas, or a style want- 
 ing in lucidity, will often lead to am- 
 biguity. Primarily, Equivocal is an 
 epithet of terms, Ambiguity, of ex- 
 pressions or sentences. When asaying 
 is equally intelligible in two distinct 
 senses, it is equivocal. The relative 
 " who " as referring to more than one 
 possible antecedent is a fruitful source 
 of the equivocal. "The son of John 
 Jones who committed the theft," 
 leaves it equivocal whether the father 
 or the son was the thief. Puns are 
 another — 
 
 " Tout ce qm porte plume 
 Est cree pour voler." 
 may either express flight as an attri- 
 bute of winged animals, or thie vishness 
 as an attribute of attorneys. It is to be 
 observed, however, that it will fre- 
 quently happen that the same expres- 
 sion may be characterized either as 
 ambiguous or as equivocal . The equi- 
 vocal is always ambiguous, though 
 the ambiguous may owe its ambiguity 
 to otlier causes than the multiform 
 meaning of terms. He who wishes 
 to be ambiguous will resort to equivo- 
 cation as one way of concealing his 
 meaning, and a more available way 
 than the construction of involved 
 sentences, 
 
 " Taking advantage of a sentence or 
 word that might be amfei^ows or doubtful." 
 — SiK T. Elyot. 
 
 ♦' The equivocal title of the ' Apostolical * 
 given to the Roman creed."— Wateklaitd. 
 
 AMEND. Correct. Reform. 
 Emend. Rectify. 
 
 Of these Amend and Emend are 
 
 really the same word, emenddre in 
 Latin becoming the Fr. amender. The 
 root is Lat. menda, a fault. In usage, 
 Amend means positively to better, 
 Emend, negatively to remove faults. 
 Emend is more commonly used of 
 literary matters, amend of moral, and 
 of I" reductions of the understandinf;, as 
 a law or an arrangement. 
 
94 
 
 "Graunt me, Lord, grace oi amendement." 
 Piers Ploughman. 
 
 To Correct (Lat. con-lgtrCy part. 
 correctus) is to bring to a conformity 
 with rule, moral, artificial, or scien- 
 tific, by removing- faults ; and, by an 
 extension of meaning, punishing them. 
 In the latter case the correction is, un- 
 happily, no guarantee for the amend- 
 ment. To Reform (Lsit. rtformare) is 
 to correct or amend by a continuous 
 process and with permanent effect. 
 In reference to })ersous it has the sense 
 of to reclaim from wrongness of life ; 
 and to institutions, from inherent cor- 
 ruption, deterioration, or disorganiza- 
 tion. Correction redresses errors and 
 omissions for the purpose of bringing 
 back to an order or to a standard. 
 Amendment is brought about in that 
 which to some extent has been well 
 done. Reform denotes the state of a 
 tljing re-established in its right order 
 or condition. Correction is more in 
 detail. Amendment and Reform more 
 general, extensive. A correction of 
 faults will constitute an amendment 
 of character, which, if completely 
 sustained, will result in an entire re- 
 form. Reform is predicated of such 
 tilings as wear a character and pursue 
 a course of conduct — that is, are asso- 
 ciated with the individual natures or 
 collective proceedings of men. 
 
 " Under what manner, therefoi-e, should 
 I now submit this book to be corrected and 
 amended of them which can suffer nothing 
 to be well ? "— Tynbal. 
 
 •• The practical definition of what the 
 popular branch of our legislature was at 
 this day he took to be precisely this : an 
 assembly freely elected, between whom and 
 the mass of the people there was the closest 
 union and the most perfect sympathy. Such 
 a House of Commons it was the purpose of 
 the Constitution originally to erect,and such 
 a House of Commons it was the wish of 
 every Iteformer now to establish." — Pitt, 
 Speech on Parliamentary Keform. 
 
 " I hardly left a single line in it without 
 giving it what I thought an emendation." 
 —Mason. 
 
 To Rectify (Lat. recttjlcare) refers 
 to something done, and denotes the 
 adjusting of what is wrong without 
 reference to any continuity of habit. 
 We rectify things only, and wrong 
 things. It belongs to intellectual as 
 well as moral subject-matter; as e.g. 
 to rectify the errors or exaggeration* 
 
 SYNONYMS [amazement] 
 
 of a statement; but it has also as cor- 
 rect a bearing ou cases of purely 
 physical adjustment. Between con-ect 
 and rectify there is a great likeness. 
 But we rectify when we make things 
 right, we correct when we make them 
 exact or true. We correct by adjust- 
 ing to an external test, we rectify by 
 putting into normal condition. 1 rec- 
 tify a timepiece when 1 set it in good 
 order for going ; I correct it when I 
 make it indicate the true time. 
 
 AMAZEMENT. Wonder. Be- 
 wilderment. 
 
 Amazement is connected by Wedge- 
 wood with the Italian smagare, to dis- 
 courage^ dispirit ; Fr. s'esmaier, to be 
 sad, thoughtful., astonished. Skeat, 
 Etym. Diet, considers Amaze, for- 
 merly amase, to be the A. S. intensive 
 prefix d-, compounded with maze; 
 and thus — tocon/oHj'd utterly. Amaze- 
 ment is a combination of Wonder 
 (A. S. wundrian) and a feeling akin 
 to dismay — a blank, open-mouthed 
 astonishment, affecting the senses 
 and the reasoning faculties. Won- 
 der is more calm and rational. Won- 
 der increases with the exercise of 
 reason and contemplation, amazement 
 oppresses the reason. In wonder the 
 mind may be active and the tongue 
 eloquent ; in amazement one is mute 
 and overborne. 
 
 Bewi lderment is literally the wild- 
 ness of perplexity. When it is mixed 
 with wonder it is the strongest form of 
 amazement; but it may haveno wonder 
 in it, in which case it is the result of ex- 
 treme perplexity. A man is bewildered 
 by the presentation before his mind of 
 many aifierent objects, having equal 
 claim to choice or preference in judg- 
 ment or in action, by which he is re- 
 duced to a state of perplexed inaction. 
 
 AMBUSH. Ambuscade. 
 
 These words are both derivatives 
 from the Low Lat. boscus,a huih,wood, — 
 literally, a personal concealment in a 
 wood or trees. Of old the word was 
 Ambush ; Ambuscade is more recent. 
 The latter is, however, seldom used 
 but as a strategic terra, and is also 
 used of the persons in ambush. 1 1 eiice 
 ambuscade is associated with the legi- 
 timate operations of war; a-nbu.sb 
 
[ample] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 with a cowardly attack upon enemies 
 or objects of ill design. The wild 
 beast lies in ambush, tlie commander 
 plans an ambuscade. 
 
 AMIABLE. ESTIMABLK. 
 
 These adjectives follow tlie distinc- 
 tion of the verbs from which they are 
 derived. Love is produced by the 
 exhibition of such moral qualities as 
 are attractive, esteem hy such as are 
 deserving oi' regard. The Estisiable 
 (Lat. (Bsttmdbtlis) person is higher 
 than the Amiable (Lat. UmabtUs), 
 though not so interesting to ourselves. 
 The latter character is contemplated 
 with affection and pleasure, thefonner 
 with affection and respect. The ami- 
 able disposition is often weak, capable 
 of pleasing, and desirous to please, 
 yet, by this very thing, liable to act 
 unthoughtfully, inconsiderately, un- 
 justly. The estimable disposition may 
 be better relied on. It is tempered by 
 right feeling, and not only kindly or 
 comjdiant feeling. He wlio is merely 
 amiable is wanting in independence 
 of character, and so, being willing to 
 please all, will often disappoint and 
 dissatisfy many. He who is estimable 
 exercises justice in small things, and 
 would avoid all cause of offence, not 
 by seeking merely to please all, but 
 to give all their due. 
 
 AMICABLE. FuiENDLv. 
 
 These words are etymologicalr_y 
 equivalent, the Latin 07nicws being the 
 English yr/end (A. S. J'reoud). But 
 Amicable is the more formal word of 
 the two, and so indicates less warmth 
 of feeling personally. Friendly is 
 positive in its force, while Amicable 
 often means no more than the absence 
 of quarrel. And so it often refers to 
 the externals of conduct or to a con- 
 ventional friendship, as in the case of 
 the amicable adjustment of disputes. 
 We are bound in Christian duty to live 
 amicably with all, but it would be, 
 perhaps, impossible to feel friendly 
 towards all in equal degree. Friendly 
 means with the feelings of friends ; 
 Amicable, after the manner of friends. 
 Wher. persons are friendly, their inter- 
 course will be amicable. 
 
 " Even those that break the peace canuot 
 but praise it, how much more should they 
 bid for it that are true friends to it and to 
 
 95 
 
 -Bp. 
 
 that amicableness that attends it ! ' 
 Taylor. 
 
 " There are several texts in the New 
 Testament which interpret the love of our 
 neighbours to mean universal benevolence 
 or friendliness towards the whole kind, as 
 opportunities may offer." —Watkrland. 
 
 AMPLE. Spacious. Capacioi'S. 
 
 These words convey in common the 
 idea of extentor largeness. But Ample 
 (cat. amplus) is always relative to 
 some standard of want or need. Ample 
 is fully enough, as scanty is barely 
 enough. Anything which is moie 
 than sufficient is ample, whether in 
 quantity, number, space, or amount 
 in anyway. It applies, unlike the other 
 two, not only to fixed, but also to vari- 
 able amounts, or to things that can be 
 narrowed or extended ; an ample robe 
 has been made of full measure. 
 
 " How may I 
 Adore Thee, Author of this Universe, 
 And all this good to roan, for whose well-being 
 So amply and with hands so Mberal 
 Thou hast provided 1 " Milton 
 
 Spacious expresses what is of super- 
 ficial largeness in reference to human 
 habitation, movement, or occupation. 
 A spacious garden gives plenty of 
 space for recreation. An ample garden 
 is fully sufficient for this and all other 
 purposes of a garden, as to the supply, 
 for instance, of fruit and flowers. 
 
 Capacious (Lat. cdpacem) is largo 
 in external measurement. In the 
 ample, one has satisfaction, in tlie spa- 
 cious freedom, in the capacious roomi- 
 ness and stowage. Ample is equally 
 applicable to things moral and physi- 
 cal — ample powers, ample ground. 
 Spacious is applicable only to physical 
 extent, except by metaphor; while 
 Capacious belongs in its primary 
 sense to the material, and in the secon- 
 dary to the intellectual. That is ampW 
 which exceeds requirement. That tft 
 spacious which givesnoideaof circum- 
 scription. That is capacious which is 
 not easily overfilled, nor checks the 
 process of depositing or storing. 
 
 " In that spacious place ships of the 
 greatest burden may ride afloat." — Dam- 
 PIER's Voyages. 
 
 "No figure is so eapacious as this (the 
 sphere),and consequently whose parts are so 
 well compacted and united, and lie so near 
 o:ie to aiui^er for mutual strenfljth."— li* y 
 
96 
 
 AMUSEMENT. Diversion. En- 
 rtRiJiiNMENT. Sport. Recreation. 
 Pastime. 
 
 A.MUSEMENT ( Fr. amuscry to amuse) 
 is employed to express both the thing 
 that amuses and the state of being 
 amused. An amusement is an employ- 
 ment or occupation which gives ease 
 to the mind whether purposely sought 
 or not. It is continuous action suffi- 
 ciently interesting to prevent a sense 
 of labour and of time, and may or may 
 not have a special object beyond itself. 
 It is a lull of the mind, and a release 
 from mental efforts and serious re- 
 flexions without beinga merely passive 
 state. Amusement implies something 
 to which the attention is given con- 
 tinuously, and on which itmuses. The 
 mere absence of ennui without the 
 positive sensation of pleasure is suffi- 
 cient to constitute amusement, yet 
 there must be a lightness of occupation 
 tending to the side of mirth, though 
 not necessarily exciting it, and cer- 
 tainly not exciting the contrary. 
 Hence it is in one sense a synonym 
 with beguile. 
 
 " High aboA-e onr heads at the summit of 
 the chff sat a group of mountaineer children 
 amusing themselves with pushing stones 
 from the top and watching as they plunged 
 into the lake."— Gilpin's Tour. 
 
 Diversion (Lat. dzt;ersione/n., a turn- 
 ing aside) is an amusement viewed 
 relatively to the more serious business 
 of life, from which it is a deviation. 
 As we are amused by having our 
 attention turned to a thing, so we are 
 diverted behaving our attention turned 
 from it. Hence diversion is more 
 Btrongly counteractive than amuse- 
 ment, and implies a higher degree of 
 excitement — such, for in stance, as may- 
 amount to positive merriment. Di- 
 version is a livelier term than amuse- 
 ment. When one is amused, the time 
 passes unmarked ; when one is diverted 
 It passes marked only by lively and 
 agreeable sensations. We are amused 
 by a tale, diverted by a comedy. One 
 does not say that the tragedy diverts, 
 because it is too serious ; nor amuses, 
 because it is too earnest. He must be 
 wellnigh weary of life whom nothing 
 can amuse ; he must be deep in melan- 
 Jialy wliom nothing can divert. One 
 
 SYNONYMS [amusement] 
 
 may amuse one's self, one is diverte<] 
 by other things or persons. One may, 
 therefore, be amused in solitude ; one 
 is diverted only in company. It is not 
 well to give way to a fondness for 
 diversions, for it is likely to create an 
 incapacity for quiet amusements, as 
 draughts too strong destroy the relish 
 for those which are weaker, and ex- 
 citing pleasures make common plea- 
 sures tame. Calm, sedentary, and 
 sometimes, unhappily,frivolous,thing6 
 amuse. It requires something more 
 animated to divert. 
 
 " They must act as their equals act, they 
 must, like others, dress, keep a table, an 
 equipage, and resort to public diversiotis. It 
 is necessary according to their ideas." — 
 Knox, Essays. 
 
 Entertainment is a term which 
 has assumed with ourselves a lighter 
 character than belongs to its French 
 original. In Fr. entretien means 
 more sustained conversation. The 
 proceedings of a debating society are 
 more closely allied than anything else 
 to tlie original idea of entertainment. 
 Yet the entertainment with us has so 
 much in common with this that the 
 idea is that of social amusement of a 
 more or less refined character, as a 
 play, a descriptive lecture, a musical 
 performance, and the like. The in- 
 tellect and the taste are sought to be 
 enlisted in entertainment, and those 
 are the most entertaining books which 
 appeal to such capacities of amusement 
 as belong to the refined and educated. 
 Common people prefer diversions, and 
 are incapable of appreciating enter- 
 tainments. 
 " But the kmd hosts their entertainment 
 
 grace 
 With hearty welcome and an open face ; 
 In all they did you might discern with ease 
 A willing mind and a desire to please." 
 Dryden. 
 
 Sport (0. Fr. se desporter, to amuse 
 oneself) represents a species of bodily 
 recreation peculiarly adapted to tlie 
 young and agile, and taking place for 
 the most part in the open air. A game 
 may or may not be sedentary, sport 
 never is. But sport belongs to conver- 
 sation as well as action, and sport in 
 that case means playful talk without 
 serious meaning — irony, banter, jest, 
 
[ai^alysis] 
 
 and the like, are in that sense sport. 
 A sport may be defined to be a diversion 
 of the field such as fowling, hunting, 
 fishing'. It differs from game in the 
 further particular that besides being 
 capable of being carried on in soli- 
 tude, it is not governed by rules of 
 conformity. 
 
 Game, again, is used of mental re- 
 creation, as a game of chess. 
 
 " In areas varied with mosaic art. 
 
 Some whirl the disk, and some the javelin 
 
 dart ; 
 Aside, sequestered from the vast resort 
 Antinous sate spectator of the sport." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 Recreation (Lat. recredre, to re- 
 new) is, like diversion, counteractive, 
 but not necessarily so energetic, and 
 comprises all degrees of relaxation, 
 from the most active to the least active 
 of amusements. Still some amount 
 of action is involved, otherwise, it 
 would be repose. It belongs espe- 
 cially to the studiojs, the industrious, 
 and those who are engaged in the 
 responsible duties of office. To such 
 recreation is a relief from past labours 
 and a preparation for resuming them, 
 [t may be an amusement, a diversion, 
 an entertainment, or a sport, and it is 
 commonly sought and taken with a 
 view to its restorative effects. 
 
 The Pasi I.MK is, as its name denotes, 
 a means of pleasantly passing the 
 lime. It is tlie active amusement 
 which beguiles the leisure hour wliich 
 otherwise might hang tediously. It 
 is a liappy relief to the industrious to 
 find recreation: it is better that for 
 the indolent there should be found a 
 pastime than that he should be left to 
 his own idleness. 
 
 *' So that of necessity they must either 
 apply their accustomed labours, or else re- 
 create themselves with honest and laudable 
 pastimes."— 'Mork'S Utopia. 
 
 ANALOGY. Resemblance. 
 
 Analogy (Gr. avaX'-yia.) is often 
 used familiarly as if it meant no more 
 than moral similarity or resemblance. 
 It is true that the words analogy and 
 likeness might often be used inter- 
 changeably, bnt analogy is not simple 
 likeness. Analogy is a resemblance 
 of relationships. It expresses a fixed 
 f^iiantity. Resemblance may exist in 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 97 
 
 any degpree ; the resemblance of the 
 whole being striking to our sense and 
 observation in proportion to the 
 number of points in detail which are 
 similar. If two trees are very much 
 alike in lieight, growth, sliape of 
 leaves, and general colour, tliere is 
 no analogy, but a resemblance between 
 them. On the other hand, there is 
 an analogy between the branchps ard 
 a man's arms, so that we sometimes 
 speak of an arm of a tree ; for the re- 
 lation of the branch to the trunk of 
 the tree is like that of tlie arms of a 
 man to the human body. If I argue 
 that because the seed dies in the earth 
 before it springs up anew, therefore 
 it is probable that the human body 
 will rise again after death ; this is as 
 to the idea only a resemblance ; as to 
 the argument, an analogy; the prin- 
 ciple bein^ some community in the 
 ground of the likeness ; as, for instance, 
 that as the same God is tlie Author of 
 a natural and of a spiritual world, He 
 may be expected to act in regard to 
 each upon similar or common laws. 
 
 " The schoolmen tell us there is an arwi- 
 logy between intellect and sight, for as much 
 as mtellect is to the mind what sight is to 
 the body, and that he who governs the 
 state is analogous to him who steers a ship. 
 Hence a prince is analogically styled a pilot, 
 being to the state what a pilot is in the ves- 
 sel."— Bishop Bekkelev. 
 
 " To do good is to become most like 
 God. It is that which of all other qualities 
 gives us the resemblance of His Natura and 
 perfection."— Sharp. 
 
 . ANALYSIS. Resolution. Re- 
 duction. 
 
 Analysis (avaXwo-jf) is from Gr. 
 avaXvuv, the equivalent of the Lat. 
 rcsoLvere, to resolve. But though in 
 meaning identical, they differ some- 
 what in application. Analysis is a 
 chemical and metaphysical term. We 
 analyze a substance into its comj)onent 
 parts, or a complex notion into its 
 constituent ideas, or a sentence inUi 
 its parts of speech. Resolution means 
 the" same thing, but is also applicable 
 to other processes than those which 
 belong to human intelligence and 
 skill. The action of the elements 
 may resolve a substance into its com- 
 ponent parts, but it does not analyze 
 it. Resolution expresses the fact or 
 
98 
 
 process, analysis tlie scientific inten- 
 tion as well. Resolution may be ac- 
 cidental, analysis is conducted with 
 the purpose of cognition. Reductio-v 
 (Lat. rtductionem, a brbiging back) i*. 
 like resolution as being the result 
 either of intelligence or of mechanical 
 operation ; but it means a different 
 thing. As to resolve is to loose or 
 separate, so to reduce is to bring back. 
 A thing resolved is taken to pieces, 
 a thing reduced is taken to another 
 form usually inferior, weaker or more 
 elementary. After resolution there 
 are many parts or particles, differing 
 among themselves. After reduction 
 there is one substance altered in form 
 or condition or aspect. Men may be 
 reduced to tribes, animals or vege- 
 tables to classes, many rules to one 
 comprehensive rule, a number from 
 one denomination to another without 
 altering its value, shillings to pence, 
 stone to powder, a metal from other 
 substances with which it is combined. 
 On the other hand the atmosphere is 
 resolved into oxygen and nitrogen 
 gases, or the idea of amazement into 
 wonder and bewilderment, or the 
 commandments of the decalogue into 
 the duty towards God and that towards 
 our neighbour. If we were to use 
 the term reduced, in this last case we 
 should mean that the nximber ten was 
 reduced to the number two, or ten 
 commandments to two commandments, 
 which is no analysis or resolution of 
 the subject matter. Analysis searches, 
 resolution decomposes, reduction- 
 alters in form. 
 
 ANIMAL. Brute. Beast. 
 
 Animal (Lat. Hiiimal) comprehends 
 every creature endowed with that life 
 which is superior to the merely vege- 
 tative life of plants, and therefore in- 
 cludes man. It is sometimes, how- 
 ever, made to express distinctively 
 Dther animals than man. In that case 
 we have to suppose a further distinc- 
 tion drawn between the rational and 
 the irrational animal life. 
 
 "Animate bodies are either such ns are 
 indued with a vegetative soul as plants, 
 >r a sensitive soul as the bodies of animals, 
 oirds, beasts, fishes, or insects, or a rational 
 joul as the body of man and the vehicles of 
 *ngels if any such there be." — Ray, on 
 Creation 
 
 SYNONYMS [animal] 
 
 Brute (Lat. brhtns, irrational) and 
 Bkast (Lat. ftes/m) stand related each 
 in its own way to man. Brute is the 
 animal regarded in reference to the 
 absence of that intelligence which 
 man possesses, Beast (except where 
 the word is used in the sense of cattle) 
 ic. reference to that savage nature of 
 which man is or ought to be devoid. 
 The indolent, senseless, and violent 
 brute ; the cruel, savage, vile or filthy 
 beast. Hence while the term animal 
 is applicable to insects, neither brute 
 nor beast is so, being insusceptible of 
 moral comparison with man. In ap- 
 plying the terms figuratively to the cha- 
 racter and disposition of men, Animal 
 denotes one who follows the instincts 
 and propensities of his lower nature 
 to the neglect of moral restraints and 
 intellectual sympathies; Beast one 
 who grovels in sensuality, Brute 
 one whose nature seems deadened to 
 fine feeling. 
 
 ""We cannot teach brute animals to nse 
 their eyes in any other way than that in 
 which nature hath taught them." — Reid. 
 
 " Inspiring dumb 
 And helpless victims with a sense so keen 
 Of injury, with such knowledge of their 
 
 strength, 
 And such sagacity to take revenge. 
 That oft the beast has seemed to judge the 
 
 man." COWPKR 
 
 ANIMATE. Inspire. 
 
 To Animate (Lat. dnimare) is lite- 
 rally to put life or soul into a thing. 
 To Inspire (Lat. inspirdre, to breathe 
 iiito) is to impart an influence to the 
 nature of another as if by a breath. 
 The difference lies in what is supposed 
 to be communicated. The lower in- 
 fluence is expressed by the word ani- 
 mate, so that the term is applied to 
 the mere imparting of life, or the ap- 
 pearance of life. The soul animates 
 the body, the marble of the sculptor 
 appears animated. The higher, more 
 spiritual, or finer faculties and feelings 
 are said to be imparted by inspiration, 
 as to be inspired with a sublime cou- 
 rage or devotion. Animation quickens 
 the physical and inferior, inspiration 
 the mental, moral, and spiritual im- 
 pulses, as of human nature. So Ani- 
 mate lends itself the more easily to 
 express evil influences ; as to be ani- 
 mated by a spirit of revenge. That 
 
[announce] 
 
 which animates incites to action al- 
 ready begun, accelerates it, and post- 
 pones th'e conclusion of it, giving 
 energy, fire, and warmth. lie has to 
 be animated who is wanting on the 
 score of spirit, who is cold and indif- 
 ferent in action, who requires to be 
 drawn out of apathy, who is to be 
 quickened out ot sluggishness, having 
 a weak will or little earnestness. He 
 who is animated by hope of a reward 
 uses all his faculties more briskly. 
 [le who is inspired with a love of 
 glory will be so enthusiastic as to 
 have little regard for anything but the 
 distinction which is the object of his 
 endeavours. 
 
 " Wherever we are formed by Nature to 
 any active purpose, the passion which ani- 
 rnates us to it is attended with delight, or 
 a pleasure of some kind." — BuRKE. 
 
 ANIMATION. Life. Vivacity. 
 Spirit. 
 
 Ankmatign (see Animate) and Life 
 ( A. S. lif) are employed alike to ex- 
 press the appearance of one actuated 
 by the lively impulses of nature. Life 
 is used both for the possession of the 
 functions oforganic life and the exhibi- 
 tion of them in a demonstrative degree. 
 Vivacity (Lat. v'wdc^itdtem) differs 
 from animation in expressing itself 
 rather by the manner, speech, and 
 movements, while animation may be 
 confined to the countenance. Si-irit 
 (Lat. splritum) stands to action as 
 vivacity stands to movement, and ani- 
 mation to aspect. It is that vivacity 
 which sustains itself in ditliculty or 
 danger, and is accompanied by self- 
 assertion when needed. Animation 
 is in the soul, vivacity in the tempera- 
 ment, spirit in the heart. Animation 
 is subjective, there is a sense in which 
 life is objective. A picture has life 
 when it presents the external character 
 of natural truth. Life in this sense 
 exhibits the facts of life, as animation 
 the feelings of life. Animation is ap- 
 jKirent in the person, life is tlirown 
 into the thing. An exuberance of 
 dninual life and spirits will produce 
 vivacity, which for a time may be en- 
 livening, but afterwards becomes op- 
 pressive. Animation is gentle, spiri- 
 tual, intellectual ; vivacity is animal. 
 A man without vivacity will be a dull 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 99 
 
 companion. He who speaks or de- 
 claims without animation, probably 
 lacks interest in the subject or the oc- 
 casion. He who is known to be want- 
 ing in spirit, will let slij) tiie oppor- 
 tunities of the enterprizing and be a 
 prey to the selfish and the aggressor. 
 
 " Heroes, in animated marble, frown. 
 
 And legislators seem to think in stone." 
 POPB. 
 
 " They have no notion of life and fire in 
 fancy and words." — Felton. 
 
 " Their attitudes, their vivacity, their 
 leaps out of the water, their frolics in it, 
 which I have noted a thousand times with 
 equal attention and amusement, all conduce 
 to show their excess of syiirits, and are sim- 
 ply the effects of that excess." — Paley. 
 
 " With all the warmth of a zealot in the 
 cause of virtue, he (Juvenal) pours his msi- 
 jestic verse, and amid the most spirited in- 
 vective and the finest morality, emits many 
 a luminous irrarliation of poetry beautifully 
 descriptive." — Knox, Essays. 
 
 ANNOUNCE. Proclaim. Pub- 
 lish. Declare. 
 
 'I'hings which are of the nature of 
 intelligence are Announced (Lat. 
 amiuncidre, to announce, proclaim). 
 Facts which are tidings, as well as per- 
 sons, are announced. Announcement 
 often bears reference to something by 
 no means new, but already expected. 
 It implies some degi-ee of formality. 
 An invited guest is announced. A 
 marriage is announced in the news- 
 papers. Announcement may be to 
 many, to few, or to one. It com- 
 monly refers to things just coming or 
 ! just come. The approach of royalty is 
 I sometimes announced by a salvo of 
 I artilleiy. Announcement may be in 
 words, or by signal without words. 
 
 *'Her (Queen Elizabeth's) arrival was 
 announced through the countiy by a peal 
 of cannon from the ramparts, and a display 
 of fire-works at night." — Gilpin's Tour. 
 
 PuocLAiM (Lat. prbcldmare) applies 
 only to what is or may become matter 
 of public interest, and is made in the 
 hearing or cognizance of many. We 
 say in the cognizance, because procla- 
 mation may be of writing ; as, tidings, 
 opinions, the movements of gi-eat men 
 or their edicts. As Announce is in its 
 character official, or personal, so Pro- 
 claim is authoritative. A monarch 
 proclaims, a child might announce. 
 As Announce may refer to what is te 
 
100 
 
 SYNONYMS [annoy] 
 
 take place after an interval of time, as j 
 an intended departure may be an- 
 nounced, so Pnoci.AiM and Publish 
 ( Lat. pubiicdre) usually refer to tilings 
 present. In such phrases as to pro- 
 claim or publish an intention the sub- 
 ject is in fact present. There is a close 
 alliance between Publish and Pro- 
 CLAiM, but Publish may belong to any 
 means for putting a matter in the 
 possession oi the public. We proclaim 
 our own acts or intentions, we pub- 
 lish what interests or concerns others 
 to kflow. We announce in order to 
 apprize, as we Declare (Lat. dicla- 
 rare) to remove obscurity, secrecy, or 
 doubt. We publish that all may 
 know. We proclaim that thej may 
 know whose business or duty it is to 
 know. We announce that they may 
 know who are interested in hearing. 
 When we declare we do not desire so 
 much a wide publicity for what we 
 say, as a distinct understanding. It is 
 spoken out clearly and unreservedly, 
 because we wish it to be well known, 
 understood, and believed. A lover 
 declares his i)assion. A suitor his in- 
 tentions. A criminal his accomplices. 
 Proclamation is authoritative, but 
 short-lived, publication. 
 
 " Now had the Great P>-oclaimer with a 
 
 voice 
 More awfnl than the sountl of trumpet 
 
 cried 
 Repentance, and Heaven's kingdom nigh 
 
 at hand 
 To all baptized." Milton. 
 
 " For the instruction, therefore, of all 
 BortB of men to eternal life, it is necessary 
 that the sacred and saving truth of God be 
 openly published unto them, which open 
 publication of heavenly mysteries is by an 
 excellency termed preaching."— HoOKER. 
 
 " But the attorney answered them that 
 he is not the Declarer of his intentions ; he 
 must be judged by the book, by his words, 
 above all by the effect."— 6Yafe Trials. 
 
 ANNOY. Molest. Tease. Ag- 
 grieve. Persecute. 
 
 Annoy is from the O. Fr. anoier, the 
 modern Fr. ennyer (Lat. in odio esse, 
 to be an object of dislike). Molest 
 (Lat. m'6lestare). Tease (A. S. tccsan, 
 to pluck, to tease). That which offends 
 annoys by its presence. Annoyance 
 is the action of the hateful or offensive, 
 POt of the positively painful. To be 
 
 subjected to what we dislike is the 
 etymological force of annoyance. It 
 may be mental or physical, a re- 
 petition of discordant sounds, a 
 glare of light, the misconduct of 
 a friend. As annoyance depends 
 upon our own feelings or circum- 
 stances, more than in the inherent 
 nature of things, it will often happen 
 that what may be an annoyance to 
 us is not so to others, or to our- 
 selves at some other time. Inapti- 
 tude of times and seasons, disregard 
 of measure and propriety in things 
 may lead to annoyance. We may 
 even be annoyed with ourselves. 
 Molest is physical, and comes only 
 from without. It denotes an active 
 though temporary trouble. That 
 which annoys us is distasteful. That 
 which molests us is oppressive, bur- 
 densome ; it disturbs the order of our 
 being and action. It is like the per- 
 petual sense of a foreign body brought 
 into contact with us. It is difficult to 
 bear. We may sometimes reason our- 
 selves out of annoyance, but molesta- 
 tion is too obtrusive to be so disposed of. 
 The sense of molestation is otten pro- 
 duced by the repetition of causes of an- 
 noyance. One is molested by insults, 
 by begging applications, by the visits 
 of a fly or a wasp. We are not mo- 
 lested by facts or circumstances in 
 themselves, or by what we hear or is 
 reported to us; but by that which galls, 
 fetigues, or haunts us by unwelcome 
 repetition. We feel especially molested 
 in some course which is interrupted, 
 or some state disturbed, or some occu- 
 pation obti'uded upon; as sleep may 
 be molested by unpleasant dreams, oi 
 study by distracting noises. 
 "Savewhere from yonder ivy-mantled towe* 
 
 The moping owl doth to the moon com 
 plain 
 Of such as wandering near her secre 
 bower 
 
 Molest her ancient solitary reign," 
 
 Gray. 
 
 W^e are teased by unpleasant ti-ifles 
 which by their recun-ence cause iiri- 
 tation of mind. Teasing is a lighter 
 foi-m of molesting. We are molested 
 by the importunities of men, teased by 
 those of children. 
 
 " Bat as a whelp starts up with fear 
 
 When a bee's hamming in his ear ; 
 
[answer] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 m 
 
 With upper lip elate he grins 
 As round the little teazer spins." 
 
 Fejctox. 
 
 Aggrieve (nearly the same as ag- 
 gnivate, Lat. aggvKvttre, to biirdeiiy 
 ainiou) Jjoints to an uneasy sense of 
 injurious treatment. He is aggrieved 
 who is wounded in his pride, his 
 liberty, his sense of fairness; as by 
 insult, oppression, extortion. We are 
 aggrieved when we are not dealt with 
 as we think we ought to he. Annoy- 
 ance aggrieves when we reflect upon 
 it as personal, uncalled-for, or incon- 
 siderate, 'i'he aggrieved person con- 
 siders that he has cause to complain 
 that he has not been taken into due 
 account, or that he has been the ob- 
 ject of wrong. 
 
 " Aggrieved by oppression and extor- 
 tion."— Macaulay. 
 
 To Persecute (Lat. perscqui, part. 
 persccntus) is persistently to ag- 
 grieve, to follow up with injury or 
 annoyance, to afilict on purpose, and 
 through dislike or hatred, to punish 
 by harassing inflictions. One may 
 fancy one's self aggrieved by mis- 
 understanding the motives and con- 
 duct of another, but there can be no 
 mistake about persecution, which is 
 always intentional on the part of the 
 persecutor. Persecution is such in- 
 tormal punishment as individuals take 
 upon themselves to administer. Hav- 
 ing no legal or public sanction it can- 
 not inflict as it desires the penalty of 
 displeasure in full. It is therefore 
 induced to fall back upon such instal- 
 ments of it as opportunities allow, or 
 as can be inflicted with impunity to the 
 persecuted. Persecution attests the 
 weakness of the person or the cause 
 which has recourse to it. It proves 
 an inability to conciliate or to con- 
 vince, and often when the immediate 
 cause has passed away, it is the resort 
 of petty vindictiveness and retributive 
 malice. 
 
 " Persecution produces no sincere con- 
 viction, nor any real change of opinion ; 
 rm the contrary, it vitiates the public 
 roorals by di-iving men to prevarication, 
 iud lotnmouly ends in a general though 
 secret infidelity by imposing, under the 
 a&me of revealed religion, systems of doc- 
 trine which men cannot believe, and dare 
 uot exaniiue ; finally, it disgraces the cha- 
 
 racter, and wounds the reputation of Chr'^ 
 tianity itself by making it the author of op- 
 pression, cruelty, and bloodshed."— Paley. 
 
 AxXOMALOUS. Irregular. 
 
 That is Irregular (Lat. in, 7iot, 
 and rigula, a rule) which is a devia- 
 tion fi-om the common rule. That 13 
 Anomalous (Gr. avrw^uaXo?, a.-,not, and 
 ojotftXo?, even) which is out of the com- 
 mon run of things. That which is 
 in-egular is an exception to rule, that 
 which is anomalous is not reducible 
 to rule. That which is ii'regular is a 
 depaiture from a course or process, 
 that which is anomalous stands alone, 
 being unlike the tenour of one's obser- 
 vation or experience. Hence a soli- 
 tary or rare exception to a rule becomes 
 an anomaly, 
 
 ANSWER. Reply. Rejoinder. 
 Response. 
 
 The general idea common to these 
 terms is that of words given in required 
 return for words. An Answer (A. S. 
 ayidswarian, or'ig. to sivear in opposition 
 to, to respond) is given as being speci- 
 fically demanded. So an answer fol- 
 lows a question as the supply upon 
 the demand ; and in a debate an an- 
 swer to a speech meets certain points, 
 according to preconcerted understand- 
 ing and arrangement. To the answer 
 in the latter case the term Reply (Fr. 
 repliqner, Lat. rep[icare, to fold back, 
 to make a reply) would be applicable. 
 A reply is a formal answer to an ar- 
 gumentative assertion which is far 
 ihore than a question or interrogation. 
 It commonly implies a statement to 
 the contrary of that to which it replies. 
 An answer may be simply commensu- 
 rate with the tenns of an interroga- 
 tion. A reply goes beyond them, and 
 does not necessarily suppose interro- 
 gation at all. An answer is asked, 
 a reply may be volunteered without 
 being asked, and to the surprise of 
 the speaker. So we may reply to a 
 remonstrance, a reprimand, or objur- 
 gation. A reply is an answer offered 
 or demanded or expected, or the con- 
 trary, and extending beyond mere 
 affinnation or negation. 
 
 " When a man asks me a question,! have 
 it in my power to answer or be silent, to 
 answer softly or roughly in terms of re- 
 spect, or m terms of contempt." — BeatI'LB. 
 
nn: 
 
 STNONYMS [antic 
 
 " The plaintiff may plead again, and 
 reply to the defendant's plea. The plaintiff 
 in his replication may totally reverse the 
 plea."— Blacksxone. 
 
 Rejoinder expresses not, as Reply 
 does, a formal and lengthened coun- 
 ter-statement, but one -within a sliort 
 compass and of a pointed character. 
 It follows upon a i-emark directly or 
 indirectly personal, and is dictated by 
 a desire to give the speaker something 
 as good as he brings, to place him 
 upon the same level as that to which 
 he would reduce the other. The term 
 bears the technical meaning of a re- 
 ply upon a reply. 
 
 "Rejoinder to the churl the king disdained. 
 But shook his head and rising wrath re- 
 strained." Pope. 
 
 Response CLat.rlspotisum) is some- 
 times only a more learned word for 
 Answeu. But it has also a character of 
 its own in which it differs from Re- 
 joiNDEK in being not an antagonistic 
 but an accordant answer. It extends 
 beyond words to acts and feelings, 
 which are in accordance with those of 
 another. The responses of a liturgy 
 are framed in harmonious correspon- 
 dence, tlie prayers of the people 
 echoing back as it were the sentiments 
 of the priest in prayer. An intelli- 
 gent and feeling remark will often 
 find a response in tlie heart or mind 
 of another. 
 
 " Tertnllian takes notice that the re- 
 sponses in Baptism were then somewhat 
 larger than the model laid down by Christ, 
 meaning than the form of Baptism, and h*e 
 refers the enlargement of the respojises to 
 immemorial custom or ti-adition." — W atek- 
 XAND. 
 
 ANTIC. Gesticulation. 
 
 An Antic (Fi". antique, Lat. aiit'i- 
 quxis, ancient) is literally an antic juated 
 grotesque movement of the w hole body 
 or such a posture of it. Gesticula- 
 tion (^hiit. gesticaUtiibnem) is a move- 
 ment of the whole body or limbs, 
 whetlier accompanied by speech or 
 not, of which the purpose is to ex- 
 press some meaning, to indicate some 
 sentiment, or to signify some direction 
 to another. Ihe gesticulation has its 
 characteristic in illustrating or enforc- 
 ing a meaning ; the antic is often the 
 most striking when it is meaningless, 
 gratuitous, or insubordinate. A for- 
 
 mal and demonstrative act, of which 
 the value or significance bears no pro- 
 portion to the main action or purpose, 
 is called in the language of critical 
 satire, an antic. Gesticulations at the 
 point when they are excessive, so that 
 the manner outstrips the matter, be- 
 come antics. Gesticulations may be 
 connected with the most tragical or 
 the most ludicrous subjects; antics 
 are never serious, though they may 
 be farcically solemn. 
 
 APARTMENT. Room. Cham- 
 
 beu. 
 
 Apartment (Fr. a part, i.e. Lat. 
 ad partem, apart) meant originally, 
 not a chamber, but a portion of a 
 house, a suite of rooms set aside for a 
 pai-ticular purpose ; as it were a com- 
 partment of a house; it came sub- 
 sequently to be apj)lied to a single 
 chamber. Chamber (Fr. chambre^ 
 Lat. cdnii'u ) is a vaulted space, a place 
 with an arched roof. Room is the 
 A. S. rum, space, in the sense in which 
 we say " there is room enough : " 
 hence, space set apart in a house, and 
 enclosed in walls. Hence the charac- 
 teristic idea of apartments is variety 
 of chamber compactness, that of 
 room, accommodation. Apartments 
 should be elegant and sufficiently 
 numerous. A room spacious, com* 
 modious, well proportioned. A cham- 
 ber neat, snug, private. 
 
 APOCRYPHAL. Supposititious. 
 
 That which is Apocuypual (Gr. 
 amv.fv<ipoz, hidden) is negatively un- 
 authenticated or unproved. Thatwhich 
 is Supposititious (Lat. stijrp^siticius, 
 substituted) is positively false or forged, 
 'ihere may be in the apocryphal much 
 tliat is venerable, but the mind tu- 
 rally recoils from that which is put 
 forth under false pretences. The 
 Church of Rome retains in the Canon 
 of Scripture certain books which, hy 
 the Protestants, are regarded as apo 
 cryphal. A slight increase of evidence 
 in its favour might convert the sup- 
 posititious into the apocryphal. On 
 the contrary, tlie story of William 
 Tell, once generally believed, must 
 now, for want of evidence, be ad- 
 mitted to be at least apocryphal. 
 
[apology] 
 
 DISCRIMINATJSD. 
 
 ;1(>3 
 
 It may be observed that the term 
 apocryphal is restricted to matters of 
 statement, and especially literary pro- 
 ductions supported by dubious evi- 
 dence, while supposition is extended 
 generally to wlmt is put forward as 
 true, being counterfeit ; as a sup- 
 posititious child. 
 
 APOLOGY. Defence. Justifi- 
 cation. Excuse. Plea. 
 
 An Apology (Gr. aTTokoyUc) had 
 originally the simple meaning of de- 
 fence, as Bishop Jewel's "Apology 
 for the Church of England." As such 
 it vs'ears a literary air. In such cases 
 it supposes the charge of imperfection, 
 but not necessarily the recognition of 
 it. As at present employed, the word 
 means something said by way of 
 amends, and so becomes practically 
 the contrary to a defence, and an ad- 
 mission of some wrong or impropriety- 
 said or done, or some omission of wh ich 
 the speaker acknowledges himself 
 guilty. It is dictated by a eense of 
 social j ustice or of deference. He who 
 apologises defends himself by acknow- 
 ledging himself in the wrong. 
 
 •• For in the Book that is called mine 
 apology it is not required by the nature of 
 that name that it be any answer or defence 
 for mine own self at all ; but it suf- 
 ficeth that it be of mine own making an 
 answer or defence for some other." — Sir 
 T. More. 
 
 It will be seen that Defence (Lat. 
 dcfendhey to dej'ind) and Justifica- 
 tion (hsLt. jusCi/icationem), although 
 the same as Apology in one of its 
 senses, are its opposite in another; 
 namely, in the fact that they do not al- 
 together admit wrong committed. Yet 
 justification is a stronger term than 
 defence. The apology in the case of 
 an accused personishis defence, which 
 may or may not be complete, while his 
 justification is a proof of more than 
 innocence, namely, that he did right 
 in what he did. Justification is the 
 object of apology, and apology the 
 effort at justification. Like defence, 
 apology presu})poses charge or attack, 
 whilejustification may be volunteered. 
 We apolo";ise to another or to others. 
 We justify or defend what we our- 
 »elve8 have done, and sometimes what 
 
 we advance as a claim. We defend 
 ourselves by either admitting or deny- 
 ing that we have so acted as alleged. 
 Wejustif}- ourselves by first conceding 
 the fact, and then defending the rights 
 of it. Where the defence admits the 
 allegation, it does not extend beyond 
 a palliation of the charge, or a demon- 
 stration of its allowableness. It is 
 possible that a justification may go no 
 farther. On the other haud,'it may 
 prove jiositively a high degree of truth 
 and right. Defence is a more formal 
 word than justification. It may be 
 against proceedings in courts of law, 
 or in answer to some public challenge. 
 Nor is it confined to acts, but is ap- 
 plicable to the vindication of opinions. 
 Justification is lees formal. It is of 
 acts and conduct, and is made in the 
 }>resence of any with whom we may 
 wish to set ourselves right. The 
 grounds of justification are indefinite, 
 and would depend, for their force, on 
 the character and views of those before 
 whom the justification was made. A 
 technical defence may be successful, 
 yet fall short of a moral justifica- 
 tion. 
 
 Excuse (Lat. excusare, to free from 
 blame) is a weaker term than defence 
 and justification, and is applicable to 
 matters of less gravity. Serious of- 
 fences may be defended or even justi- 
 fied; in which case the argument would 
 go to show that they were only appa- 
 rent, not real offences : but they are 
 never excused. An excuse admits 
 the fact charged or the thing done, 
 but endeavours to show that it ought 
 to be leniently dealt with, on the 
 ground of extenuating circumstances, 
 and is often the line adopted by plea- 
 ders when justification seems impossi- 
 ble. It is then tantamount to a weak 
 defence. An excuse may be against 
 an obligation as well as a charge, as 
 when an invitation is met with an ex- 
 cuse. In such cases excuse refers not 
 to something done, but omitted to be 
 done. It depends for its validity less 
 on its intrinsic force, than on the dis- 
 position of those to whom it is made. 
 It commonly carries an unfavourable 
 reflexion, and a good excuse is most 
 probably only apt, clever, and inge- 
 nious. The person who employs tho 
 
^liW: •':.;'•■■; ; 'synonyms 
 
 excuse, is said to excuse himself, while 
 he who accepts the excuse, is also said 
 to excuse him. 
 
 " And there are few actions so ill, unless 
 they are of a very deep and black tincture 
 indeed, but will admit of some extenur-tion 
 at least from these common topics of human 
 frailty, guch as are ignorance or inadver- 
 tency, passion or surprise, company or solici- 
 tation, with many other such things which 
 may go a great way towards an excusing of 
 the agent, though they cannot absolutely 
 lustify the action." — SoUTH. 
 
 A Plea (¥r.plai(},'Lat.pllicttnm, ati 
 ordinance) is a specific point of self- 
 defence. It is as it were an item in 
 the general sense of a defence, so that 
 we may put in successively one plea, 
 and then another. Technically speak- 
 ing, the allegation of the plaintiff is 
 answered by the plea of the defendant. 
 An apology is satisfactory or unsatis- 
 factory, a defence is successful or un- 
 successful, justification is complete or 
 partial, an excuse valid or invalid, a 
 plea strong or weak. 
 
 " Defence in its true legal sense signifies 
 not a justification, protection, or guard, 
 which is now its pojjular signification, but 
 merely an opposing or denial (ft-om the 
 French verb defeitdre) of the truth or vali- 
 dity of the complaint." — Blacksxone. 
 
 "They towards the throne supreme 
 Accountable made haste to make appear 
 With righteous plea their utmost vigilance 
 And easily approved." Milton. 
 
 APPARATUS. Parapheunalia. 
 
 These stand related as the useful to 
 tne ornamental. Appahatus (Lat. 
 'jppltrdre, to adjust) is the aggregate of 
 implements of art, or ])hysical organs 
 necessary to form some ]>roduction or 
 promote some natural function. Para- 
 pij ERNALiA is a L.L.adjective, the sub- 
 stantive bo7ia, i.e. gooi'h, being under- 
 stood. The paraphernalia were such 
 goods as a wife possessed beyond her 
 dowry, and were her own propei'ty 
 independently of her husband : Trapd, 
 beyoudy and <pi^\t}, doner. As this kind 
 of property would naturally consist 
 mainly in personal ornaments and 
 apj)arel, the word came to signify an 
 aggregate of furniture or implements 
 subservient to some ornamental pur- 
 pose ; such as robes, hangings, mov- 
 able decorations, costlv mensils. 
 
 [apparatus] 
 
 APPARENT. Visible. Clear- 
 Distinct. Manifest. Plain. Ob- 
 vious. Evident. Conspicuous. Pal 
 PAiu.E. Perceptihle. Tangible. 
 
 A ppa a ent ( Lat. appdrcre, to appear) 
 is used in the sense of either clear, 
 visible, as opposed to concealed ot 
 dubious; or, secondly, seeming a/; 
 opposed to real ; or, thirdly, seeming 
 in the sense of probable, an<l so oppo- 
 site to certain. It is in the first of 
 these senses that it is a synonym with 
 the above. That is apparent which 
 the bodily eye sees or the understand- 
 ing perceives. The word says nothing 
 of any ])roperties of the thing which it 
 qualifies, but only states the fact. It 
 serves to qualify properties of things 
 visible. Thus the star is visible. Its 
 briglituess is apparent, 'i'his would 
 mean a very different thing from say- 
 ing, the object is apparently grey, 
 in reference to a colour about which, 
 whether from distance, want of light, 
 or some such cause, we were in doubt. 
 
 " When there is no apparent cause in the 
 sky, t he water will sometimes appear dappled 
 with large spots of shade." — Gilpin's Tour. 
 
 Visible (Lat. vmhXlis) expresses 
 what can be seen physically by the 
 sense of sight. It admits of every 
 degree, from the barely discernible 
 to the conspicuous. 'Ihat is visible 
 which is not invisible. Unlike appa- 
 rent, visible expresses the property 
 by which the thing is capable of being 
 seen. That is apparent to me which 
 is, by its own nature and properties, 
 visible. 
 
 "ATaker of Heaven and i^arth, and of 
 all things visible and invisible." — Nicenf 
 Creed. 
 
 The CoNsi'icrous (Lat. consplcuii.s) 
 is the prominently visible. The cause 
 of this prominence is indefinite ; one 
 object being consj)icuous by its size, 
 another by its colour, another by its 
 elevation. That is cons])icuous which 
 makes itself seen. A man may }»o 
 conspicuous by being unlike others, 
 or eccentric. The term, as applied to 
 ])er8ons externally, is either favourable 
 or the contrary. Persons may be un- 
 enviably conspicuous by reason of 
 awkwardness of manner, or conceit, 
 or extravB'iance, outlandislixiess, or 
 
[apparent J 
 
 ovcr-briglit colouring in dress. It is 
 by analogy that conspicuous is em- 
 ployed to express moral distinction, 
 as by Macaulay : — 
 
 "A man who holds a conspiaious place 
 in the political, ecclesiastical, or literary 
 history of England." 
 
 Clear (Lat. clams) expresses pri- 
 marily that on which the light shines 
 with unobstructed brightness. The 
 clear object stands out against the sky 
 and in form well defined. 
 
 That is Distinct (Lat. distiugutre, 
 part, distinctus, to distinguish) which 
 iS clear in its parts and clearly sepa- 
 rated from other objects. The oppo- 
 site to clear is dim or obscure, the 
 opposite to distinct is confused. It is 
 possible to see an object as in a fog 
 clearly witliout seeing it distinctly. 
 It is clearly visible, inasmuch us we 
 can have no doubt of its bein^ there, 
 and understand it to be what it is. It 
 is indistinctly^ visible, inasmuch as the 
 parts which constitute it are not fully 
 distinguishable. At some distance 
 out to sea, I see clearly a boat. I 
 take my telescope, and then observe 
 distinctly that there are four persons 
 in it. Clearness is absolute distinct- 
 ness, as distinctness is relative clear- 
 ness. The terms belong to sound as 
 well as sight. A well-toned bell has 
 a clear sound. In a distant peal I 
 bear the tones most distinctl)^ . A clear 
 truth is well comprehended, a distinct 
 truth is held independently. 
 
 " Things that move so swift as not to 
 affect the senses distinctly with several dis- 
 tinguishable distances of their motion, and 
 so cause not any train of ideas in the mind, 
 are not also perceived to move." — Locke. 
 
 Manifest (Lat. raaiitfestus) ex- 
 presses that which is very plainly and 
 palpably apparent. I'he Latin maui- 
 festiis had the peculiar sense of clearly 
 convicted. Dryden used the term in 
 one of its classic senses when he 
 say* •— . 
 
 " Your eyes beheld 
 The traitor vianifcst." 
 
 And again : — 
 
 " Calistho there stood manifest oi shame.'' 
 
 That is manifest which is brought 
 to light out of comj)arative darkness, 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 105 
 
 and exhibits itself without conceal' 
 ment. A man taken off his guard 
 will often manifest his true character, 
 though he may habitually conceal or 
 keep it in check. A manifest liar 
 stands convicted. A manifest contra- 
 diction needs no criticism, but by its 
 own inherent force makes itself ap- 
 parent. It is a tei-m of mental and 
 moral rather than of purely physical 
 application. Not material objects, 
 but their properties or facts connected 
 with them, as statements and tniths, 
 are said to be manifest. 
 
 Plain (Lat. planus) belongs to 
 matters both of the senses and the 
 intellect. We see, hear, smell, taste, 
 feel, speak plainly. As that is clear 
 which is lucid in itself, so that is 
 plain of which ordinary faculties can 
 take cognizance. The plain path lies 
 open to the view, level and mapped 
 out under the eve. A plain course 
 is distinct, intelligible, unobstructed. 
 A thing may be stated so cleaily 
 as to be plain to the meanest un- 
 derstanding. 
 
 " Why, 'tis a plain case." 
 
 Shakespkark. 
 
 Obvious (Lat. obvins, coming or go- 
 xng to meet) retains the force of its 
 et}nnology. That is obvious which 
 we cannot help understanding, which 
 it is impossible to overlook, which 
 carries its own meaning on the face oi 
 it. Its plainness supersedes all ex- 
 planation or comment. An obvious 
 remark is a truism, for by its nature 
 it is as clear to others as it is to ooe'e 
 self. The literal meaning is set forth 
 in the following : — 
 
 " The hero's bones with careful view 
 
 select ; 
 Apart and easy to be known they lie 
 Amidst the heap, and odvious to the eye." 
 Pope. 
 
 Evident ( Lat. Ividentem) denotes 
 what is easily recognizable as a fact 
 or truth. That is evident which is 
 plainly seen. N\'hat is clearly proved 
 is evident, what proves itself is ob- 
 vious. Some eftbrt of mind is needed 
 to discern what is evident, none to 
 take in what is obvious. The axioms 
 of mathematics are obvious. TiutL* 
 
106 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [appearance] 
 
 deduced from them are evident. It is 
 obvious that the whole is greater than 
 a part. It is evident that moral truth 
 must be morally acce])ted, for it is in- 
 capable of demonstration. The appa- 
 rent is opposed to the indistinguish- 
 able, the clear to the obscure, the 
 visible to the invisible, the manifest 
 to the disguised, concealed, or sup- 
 pressed ; u^e pbin to the unintelligi- 
 ble or doubtful, the obvious to tlie 
 recondite or abstiuse, the evidsnt to 
 the questionable, the conspicuous to 
 the inconspicuous or minute. 
 
 " No idea, therefore, can be nndistiu- 
 guishable from another from which it ought 
 to be different, unless you would have it 
 different from itself ; for from all other it is 
 evidently different."— Locke. 
 
 APPEARANCE. Aspixt. 
 
 Appearance (Lat. appdrcre, to ap- 
 pear) is used for the fact, the charac- 
 ter, and the semblance or seeming na- 
 ture, of appearing. It is in the two 
 latter points that it is a synonym with j 
 aspect. The appearance of a thing is | 
 total. Its aspect is partial. The as- } 
 pect, in short, is a part of the appear- | 
 ance. The fonnation of the word 
 (Lat. asp'ictre, part, aspectas, to behold) 
 shows tins. The human appearance 
 is the human figure, with the acci- 
 dents of dress and others, the human 
 aspect is the human face. The whole 
 of any subject or object, Vi^ith the pro- 
 perties and substance of it, is its ap- 
 pearance. Its aspect is some one 
 characteristic side or face of it, which 
 it presents to us as a point of view. 
 The aspect carries with it an expres- 
 siveness which does not belong to its 
 mere appearance. The appearance 
 wears a character, the aspect wears a 
 meaning. The heavens have a clear 
 or cloudy appenrance, a serene or 
 stonny aspect. The appearance is a 
 conclusion in itself, the aspect sug- 
 gests further conclusions. In the moral 
 as in the natural world wo cannot see 
 an object in its entirety, but can only 
 in series connote those difterent aspects 
 which make up our conception of the 
 thing. 
 
 " Tydides stood, in aspect lion-like 
 And telrible, in strength as forest boars." 
 CowPER, Iliad. 
 
 APPEASE. Ai,la\ Alleviate. 
 Relieve. Pacify. Mitioate. Soothe. 
 Assuage. Calsi. 
 
 Appease (O. Fr. apaisier, O. Fr. a 
 pais, to peace) is literally to bring to a 
 state of peace. It is to reduce a state 
 of violence, tumult, disturbance, ex- 
 citement by luring back to peace ; that 
 is, to the common and proper order 
 and haraiony which belongs to things, 
 and out of which they have been car- 
 ried so as to be in a state of internal 
 commotion. Although not inapplic- 
 able to physical elements and influ- 
 ences. Appease seems to suit moral 
 cases far better. The storm calms ; 
 wrath or the cravings of men and 
 beasts are appeased. In order to 
 appease it commonly happens that 
 something has to be paid, because 
 when moral beings need to be ap- 
 peased, they are in some condition of 
 violent satisfaction, or demand. 
 
 " We, like unskilful or unruly patients, 
 fondly imagine that the only way to appea.fe 
 our desires is to grant them the objects they 
 so passionately tend to." — Boyle. 
 
 Pacify (Lat. pacij'tcare) has ety- 
 mologically the same sense as Ap- 
 pease, but is employed of lesser dis- 
 turbances of mind, and of mind only. 
 Pacify belongs to the feelings of men, 
 and not in any way to the force of 
 things. While violent anger or eager 
 appetites are appeased, importunity, 
 discontent, peevishness, restlessness, 
 or petty tumults are pacified. 
 
 " Not one diverting syllable now at a 
 pinch topacify our mishap."— L'ESTRANGE. 
 
 Calm (Fr. calme) is positive and 
 direct, as appease is indirect. To ap- 
 pease is to put an end to violent mo- 
 tion. To calm is to produce great 
 tranquillity. We have seen that the 
 commotion which needs appeasing is 
 of a special kind. Other kinds may be 
 calmed. As anger, for instance, is ap- 
 peased, so fear, or anxiety, or uneasi- 
 ness is calmed. He who is under vexa- 
 tion, disappointment, or despair,needs 
 to be calmed. He is to be appeased 
 who wields his passions. He is to be 
 calmed also who is overmastered by 
 them. The strong therefore need to 
 be appeased, and tlie weak calmed. 
 Just and full satisfaction appeases, 
 soothing words and assurances are 
 
[appease] 
 
 often needed to calm. In the cases to 
 which they are both applicable, to ap- 
 pease involres a more permanent set- 
 tlement than to calm. Clever ti-eat- 
 ment may sometimes calm, but satis- 
 faction of mind is involved in being; 
 appeased. He who is calmed is for 
 the time set at rest. He who is ap- 
 peased has no more cause of desire or 
 discontent. 
 
 " The affairs of Turkey -were then in 
 great disorder. The Grand Seignior died 
 soon after, and his successor in that Empire 
 gave his subject* such hopes of peace that 
 they were calmed for the present." — 
 BUKXET. 
 
 The tei-m Relieve (Lat. rclevdre) 
 is employed in all cases where a pres- 
 sure of a burden exists, or may be 
 imagined. Pain or grief is said to be 
 relieved Avhen it is either partially or 
 entirely removed. The same may be 
 said of duties, cares, responsibilities, 
 anxieties. On the other hand, that 
 which is Alleviated (Lat. alU-vare, 
 to lighten) is only partially removed. 
 A pain is alleviated by bein^ made 
 less. Commonly speaking, the per- 
 son is relieved when the burden is 
 alleviated. Things which affect our 
 feelings are alleviated. Those which 
 affect our condition or circumstances 
 may be said to be relieved. The 
 object of giving relief to the poor is 
 the alleviation of tlie pressure of 
 poverty. 
 
 " The inferior ranks of people no longer 
 looked upon that order as he had done 
 before, as the comforters of their distress 
 and the relievers of their indigence." — 
 Adam Smith. 
 
 " The calamity of the want of the sense 
 of hearing is much alleviated; compsira- 
 tively speaking, it is removed by giving the 
 use of letters ;ind of speech, by which they, 
 the deaf, are admitted to the jileasure of 
 social conversation." — HoRSLEY. 
 
 Mitigate (Lat. m'ltlgare, to soften) 
 stands to the severe, as relieve and 
 alleviate to the oppressive. Things 
 are mitigated which affect us hardly, 
 harshly, painfully ; as anger, penalty, 
 pain, evil, hatred ; and even physical 
 influences, as cold, or the taste of 
 sharpness. It is, like Alleviate, ex- 
 pressive of a diminishing not a re- 
 moving influence. Cruelty or acidity 
 mitigated remains cruel and acid. It 
 (K used only of things or the qualities 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 107 
 
 of persons, not of pei-sons themselves. 
 Severity in action, suffering, or treat- 
 ment, is susceptible of mitigation. 
 Time, though it may never remove, 
 is sure to mitigate an affliction. It is 
 part of wise legislation to mitigate 
 over-rigorous laws. 
 
 " All it can do is to devise how that which 
 must be endured may be mitigated."— 
 Hooker. 
 
 Assuage (O. Fr. assuager, Prov. 
 assjiaviar, Lat. sudvis, sweet : Skeat, 
 Etym. Diet.) is to soften down. It is 
 very like Mitigate, but is more posi- 
 tive and active. When pain is miti- 
 gated, it is less severe than before, 
 when it is assuaged we have a feeling 
 of relief and ease. It is to pain and 
 grief, that is, to mental and bodily suf- 
 fering, tliat Assuage is ordinarily 
 applied. But it is applicable to any 
 strong emotion, passion, or appetite 
 which is fierce or violent in its cha- 
 racter, as ardour, anger, hunger. 
 
 " But to assuage 
 Th' impatient fervour which it first con- 
 ceives 
 Within its reeking bosom, threatening 
 
 death 
 To hisyouag hopes requires discreet delay." 
 CoWPEB. 
 
 AiLAY (Fr. alltger^ Lat. aUixidre) 
 is employed in reference rot so much 
 to the violent or the painful, as to that 
 which excites, disturbs, and makes 
 unea.sy. If pain is assuaged, irrita- 
 tion is allayed. Harassing tliirst, 
 eager curiosity, feverish restlessness, 
 pain which is more irksome or severe^ 
 sorrow which belongs more to regret 
 than to remorse, are allayed. 
 
 Soothe (A. S.^e5of/iifl7i,rosoot/ie) be- 
 longs both to persons and to what they 
 suffer, while Allay is applicable only 
 to the suftering. It indicates its reduc- 
 tion, and that often only temporary, 
 rather than its removal. It denotes,per- 
 haps, more strongly than Assuage, a 
 feeling of comparative comfort in him 
 whose suffering is softened. The 
 angry man soothed is not only no 
 longer angry, but in a softened state 
 of mind. Ihe pain that is soothed is 
 almost converted into pleasure. 
 
 "Gentle stroking \nth a smooth hand 
 allays violent pains and cramps, and re- 
 laxes the suffering parts from their uj* 
 natural tension." — BUUKB. 
 
108 
 
 "Sacred history ha» acquainted ns with 
 the power of music over the passions, and 
 there is little doubt but the verse as well 
 as the lyre of Darid was able to soothe 
 the troubled spirits to repose."— Knox, 
 Estays. 
 
 APPLAUSE. Praise. 
 
 Altliough these words are applic- 
 able both to persons and things, yet 
 Applause (Lat. appiaudere, part, ap- 
 plamns) is better suited to things, 
 such as actions, discourses, or per- 
 formances. And Praise (cf. Fr. 
 priser, to prize, Lat. pretiare) to per- 
 sons. One applauds in public, and 
 at the moment when the action 
 is done, or the speech pronounced. 
 One praises at all times, on all 
 accounts, and under all circum- 
 stances, the absent and the present, 
 for what they do, or are, or 
 have become. Applause is the lively 
 expression of our satisfaction at the 
 exhibition of excellence in persons, 
 and may be even by gesture or signi- 
 ficant actions, as. clapping the hands. 
 Praise is supposed to be based upon 
 judgment, and to be the expression 
 of discernment. It is manifested in 
 words exclusively. Almost any ap- 
 plause is flattering. But we put 
 praises "to the test, and require that 
 they should be delicate and sincere. 
 Slight applause is so far grateful. 
 Slight praise is often indirect con- 
 demnation. From formal and flippant 
 praises we naturally recoil; the fbrnuT 
 may be hollow ceremony, the latter 
 may be only irony. 
 
 APPLICATION. Attention. 
 
 Study. 
 
 'I'hese terms express different degrees 
 of attention which the mind gives to 
 \lie subjects with which it is occupied. 
 Application is serious and sustained 
 attention. It is needful for knowing 
 tlie Jt/7i()/e of a subject. Meditation 
 (Lat. mtdtiai'wnem) is a reflecting at- 
 tention given in detail, which is need- 
 ful for knowing thoroughly. Study 
 (Lat. stadia, pi. studies) is a sti-ong 
 and laborious attention needful for 
 resolving complex subjects, or over- 
 coming difficulties. Application im- 
 plies the will and desire of knowledge. 
 Meditation implies sympathy with 
 
 SYNONYMS [applause] 
 
 the Bubject^ and a desire to become 
 familiar with it in all its aspects. 
 Study implies difficulty or im])ortance 
 in the subject-matter, a firm resolution 
 to master it, not to be deterred by its 
 difficulties, nor repelled by its hard- 
 ness. Soundness of mind for appli- 
 cation, penetration of mind for medi- 
 tation, f».nd strength and breadth of 
 mind for study. 
 
 Atteniign (Lat. attenti'onem) ig a 
 condition of mind; its ordinary atti- 
 tude, so to speak, in study. It may 
 be casual. We often give attention 
 without being employed in study. 
 We shall not understand the most 
 ordinary observation addressed to us 
 witliout some degree of attention. 
 Attention is no more than the giving 
 of the mind to a subject to the dis- 
 regard of other subjects. Applica- 
 tion (Lat. appticdtionem Hnimi, Oic.) is 
 a wider term than attention, and is 
 not only a state of mind, but a power. 
 A pplication involves attention. Hav- 
 ing application, I am able to give at- 
 tention. Application is the faculty of 
 sustained attention. Many persons 
 are capable of attention (in short, to 
 some extent every thinking being is 
 so), who have not application. Their 
 attention, therefore, is irregular and 
 inadequate. Study should be syste- 
 matic ; its subjects rightly appor- 
 tioned as to arrangement and the 
 time to be devoted to it. It will 
 vary in character according to tlie 
 subject of it, which may be any de- 
 partment of human knowledge. Study 
 should be systematic, application di- 
 ligent, attention close. Habits of study 
 are formed in these earlier stages by 
 converting the attention of the young 
 into application by indirect methods, 
 such as by making the subjects of 
 learning attractive, or by the adven- 
 titious enhancement of them by prizes 
 for competition. 
 
 " That very philosophy which had been 
 adopted to invent and explain articles of 
 faith was now studied only to interest us 
 in the history of the human mind, and 
 to assist us in developing its faculties, 
 and regulating its operations." — Warbur- 
 ■I'OX. 
 
 " They say the tongues of dying men 
 Enforce attention like deep harmony.' 
 Suakespkakk, 
 
AFP raise] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 109 
 
 " Had his application been equal to his 
 talents, his progress might have been 
 greater." — Jay. 
 
 ATPOSITE. Relkvant. 
 
 'I'lipse terms have an exclusive refer- 
 ence to the suitableness or propriety 
 of statements in relation to some main 
 case or argument. Relevant is tlie 
 Fr. relevant, the participle of re- 
 lever, probably in the sense of hold- 
 ing in feudal tenure. Apposite is Lat. 
 pfirticiple app'6situs, placed in juxta- 
 position. Hence Apposite expresses 
 a quality, Relevant a force. A re- 
 mark is apposite which harmonizes 
 with the case under consideration. 
 A n observation is relevant which hel ps 
 tlie main question to a decision. That, 
 iiowever, which is done directly by 
 that which is relevant, may be done 
 indirectly by that which is apposite. 
 The apposite elucidates, the relevant 
 promotes discussion. The apposite is 
 a proposition ; the relevant either an 
 argument, or something which links 
 itself on to argument. Apposite re- 
 marks are commonly made in general 
 conversation by persons not taking a 
 main part in the discussion, but 
 throwing in pertinent sayings as lis- 
 teners. The relevant owes its force 
 solely to its argumentative appro- 
 priateness ; tlie apposite is also timely, 
 and often tells with peculiar effect 
 upon the conjuncture at which it is 
 introduced. 
 
 APPRAISE. AppnECiATE. Esti- 
 mate. Esteem. Value. Prize. 
 
 Appraise and Appreciate are dif- 
 ferent forms of the same word, Lat. ap- 
 pritiare, of which the Lat. prctium, 
 price, is the root. Tlie English praise 
 has the same origin, meaning literally, 
 to set a price or value. Material goods 
 are appraised for the purpose of as- 
 certaining their market value. Things 
 are appreciated at their moral value ; 
 as character, conduct, acts, persons. 
 Appreciate looks, on the favourable 
 side of things. We appreciate not a 
 man's faults, but his merits. This 
 idea of favourable regard appears yet 
 more strongly in the adjective appre- 
 ciative. An appreciative audience is 
 one which appreciates the excellences 
 of the exhibition. 
 
 Estimate (Lat. (vstimdre) is an act 
 
 of judgnient. Esteem (from the same 
 origin) is an act of valuisg or prizing 
 with moral approbation. Nice cal- 
 culation is necessary to estimate, nice 
 feeling also to appreciate. An union 
 of sound judgment with refined sen- 
 sibility enables persons to appreciate. 
 That which has to be estimated is open 
 to view, that which has to be appre- 
 ciated must often be sought out first. 
 Appreciation notes things not only at 
 their moral worth, but according to 
 their individual and peculiar excel- 
 lence. Women have a truer apprecia- 
 tion, that is, a more delicate percep- 
 tion of character, than most men. He 
 who can appreciate perceives the 
 niceties and specialities of a case. 
 He does not overlook what is worthy 
 of regard. He sees the importance 
 of what, to people in general, are un- 
 important differences. I estimate a 
 thing when I determine its present or 
 future value or importance. This is 
 sometimes done in a rough way, and 
 only approximately. I appreciate it 
 when I see characteristics of it in de- 
 tail. I esteem another when I esti- 
 mate his character as worthy of re- 
 gard. Esteem is akin to affection. 
 To Value a thing (Fr. Lat. value, 
 subst., from valoir, to be worth) is to 
 affix the idea of worth, great or small, 
 real or fictitious, pecuniary or moral. 
 Prize (Fr. prix, price) and Esteem 
 denote mental action, the former being 
 commonly employed of external, the 
 latter of moral things, or of external 
 things for the sake of something be- 
 yond themselves. I value a book 
 highly or cheaply. 1 prize it for its 
 intrinsic worth or for the sake of the 
 person who gave it to me. I do not 
 esteem it at all, though I may esteem 
 the author or the donor of it. The 
 state of mind involved in prizing any- 
 thing is one of the highest regard ; 
 tbe thoughts are concentrated on the 
 object; it is treasured with a strong 
 personal feeling. It is jealously 
 guarded, and the possession of it con- 
 fers a happiness on the possessor, 
 which he is fain to think peculiar to 
 himself. He thinks himself more for- 
 tunate than others who have it not. 
 The value we set upon that which we 
 prize may be more than iust. 
 
no 
 
 " No, deal" a* freedom is, and in my heart's 
 Just estimation prized above all price; 
 I had much rather be myself the slave 
 And wear the bonds than fasten them on 
 him," COWPKH. 
 
 Value, like Apprkciatf. and Es- 
 iKKM, takes the favourable side. It 
 commonly moans to set a high value; 
 ns to ap])!-eciate is not only to affix a 
 })rice or value, but its just and due 
 amount. 'I'his favourable leaning 
 does not belong- to Appraise or Esri- 
 MATK. How often are the good es- 
 teemed ! It would seem strange that 
 it should not be so — they do not pro- 
 voke the ill feelings of human nature 
 — they are inoftensive and kind. Yet 
 how seldom are they appreciated for 
 those hidden values and self-denials, 
 into which the world little cares to 
 inijui2-e ! 
 
 " The statute therefore granted this writ, 
 by which the defendants' goods and chattels 
 are not t^old but only irppraised, and all of 
 them except oxen, and beasts of the 
 jilongh, are delivered to the plaintifi" at 
 such reasonable appraisement and price, 
 in part satisfaction of the debt." — Black- 
 STONTJ. 
 
 The strict etyTnological use of ap- 
 preciate appears in the following : — 
 
 •' A sin, a vice, a crime, are the objects of 
 theolo^, ethics, jurisprudence. Whenerer 
 Iheir judgments agree they corroborate 
 each other ; but as often as they differ, a 
 prudent legislator appreciates the guilt 
 and punishment according to the measure 
 of social injury." — GiBBON. 
 
 In contrast with this, Bishop Hall 
 uses the term as follows : He says that 
 the golden vials of incense of the 
 ajigels in the apocalypse represent 
 " both their acceptable thanksgivings 
 and their general appreciatio/i of peace 
 and \velf:ire to the church of God 
 upon earth." 
 "Their wisdom which to present power 
 
 consents 
 Live dogs before dead horses estimates." 
 Daniel. 
 
 " Erteem is the value which we place 
 npon some degree of worth. It is higher 
 than simple approbation, which is a decision 
 of judgment. Esteemis the commencement 
 of affection."— CoGAN. 
 " Authors like coins grow dear as they grow 
 
 old. 
 It is the rust we value, not the gold." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 APPREHEND. Comprehend. 
 Understand. Conoeivf. Perceive. 
 
 SYNONYMS [apprehend] 
 
 To Apprehend (Lat. apprthendere) 
 is, literally, to lay hold of hy the mind 
 after the analogy of grasping with 
 the hand. It is the simplesi act of 
 the understanding, the recognition of 
 a fact. Apprehension in this sense 
 (¥r. apprehension, as a synonym with 
 fear) expresses no process or result 
 of animate knowledge, profound in- 
 sight, or mature judgment^ but such 
 a view or belief as we are inclined to 
 entertain upon the ground of ordinary 
 indications, and our present state and 
 stock of infonnaf ion. I may apprehend 
 a thing as true or false, probable or 
 improbable, desirable or undesirable. 
 Apprehension is a low and limited 
 understanding of a thing. Where the 
 nature of the thing is plain or common, 
 apprehension answers the purpose of 
 understanding it. The axioms of ma- 
 thematics are intuitively, or at least 
 naturally and easily, apprehended. 
 In the following we have such a use 
 of Apprehend as to illustrate the two- 
 fold meaning of understanding and 
 fear. When the fact apprehended ie 
 future, probable and unwelcome ap- 
 prehension combines the ideas of n,-- 
 cognition and dread. 
 
 " It was once proposed to discriminate the 
 slaves by a particular habit, but it was 
 justly apprehe7ided that there might be 
 some danger in acquainting them with 
 their own numbers." — Gibbon. 
 
 Comprehend (Lat. compr^hendhe, te 
 clasp) is an advance upon apprehend. 
 It is very like Understand. To un- 
 derstand is to have the free use of 
 one's reasoning powers in recognizing 
 the nature, properties, relation, use, 
 or meaning of things. We under- 
 stand matters of ordinary discourse 
 and the practical business of life. To 
 comprehend is to embrace a thing in 
 all its compass and extent. I under- 
 stand the meaning of a word. I com- 
 prehend the action of a machine. I 
 understand a thing when I can ex- 
 plain it, and show its relation to other 
 things. I apprehend a thing when it 
 is brought into direct relation to my 
 own mind. I comprehend it when I 
 know all about it. Accordingly 
 Understand marks more commonly a 
 conformity of ideas with terms em- 
 ployed. Comprehend with the nature 
 
[aPPKOPRIATE] inSCRIMlNATED. 
 
 Ill 
 
 of tlie thing- propounded, and Con- 
 ceive (Lat. coiicipcre) with the order 
 and purpose of sometliing presented to 
 the mind. Oneunderstandslanguag-es, 
 compreliendssciences, conceives possi- 
 bilities, and apprehends facts. Con- 
 ceive sometimes belongs to the enter- 
 tainment of an idea, and sometimes 
 of a judgment or belief. In either 
 case one conceives with more than 
 the use of the undei-standing, and 
 with n combination of understanding 
 and imagination. I fill up the void 
 in the actual by importing ideas of 
 the possible. I suppose causes, rea- 
 sons, objects or purposes, by supply- 
 ing which 1 seek to give an account 
 of the thing to myself. I apprehend, 
 understand, and comprehend things 
 present. 1 conceive things future 
 and unrealized. I conceive a plan, 
 purpose, design. The courtier un- 
 derstands the ways of the court. 
 The mathematician comprehends his 
 problem. The man of business ap- 
 prehends that there will be a rise or 
 fall of prices, and conceives that it 
 must be owing to such a cause. The 
 architect conceives the plan of a 
 building. 
 
 *' It was amongst the ruins of the 
 Capitol that I first coiiceivcd the idea of a 
 work which has amnsed and exercised near 
 twenty years of my life." — Gibbon. 
 
 "And how much soever any truth may 
 seem above our wider st a tiding and compre- 
 hension, yet if they come attested by His 
 divine infallible authority,wehaveiii£iuitely 
 more ground to be persuaded of them than 
 we are of any thing thaf we ourselves may 
 seem to comprehend or understand." — 
 Bkveeidge. 
 
 Perceive (Lat. ,iercipere) has a 
 two-fold meaning. We perceive ex- 
 ternal objects, when the mind becomes 
 aware of tneii- presence by the senses, 
 and also perceive ti-uths, when the 
 mind hag been led, whether by 
 reasoning or otherwise, to take cog- 
 nizance of them. It is difficult to 
 understand what is enigmatical, to 
 comprehend what is abstract, to con- 
 ceive what is confused, to perceive 
 what is indistinct, to apprehend 
 what is unlikely iii reason or m 
 fact. 
 
 "Jupiter made all things, and all thmgs 
 whatsoever exist are the works of Jupiter; 
 rivers, and earth, and sea, and heaven, and 
 
 what are between them, and gods and 
 men, and all animals, whatsoever is per- 
 ceivable either by sense or by the mind."— 
 Cud WORTH. 
 
 APPROACH. Approximate. 
 
 These verbs (Lat. appr'^piare and 
 approiiware) are both formed origi- 
 nally from the Lat. pr)!)pt, near, proxt- 
 mus, nearest. They differ in the 
 degree of nearness expressed. When 
 two things approach, tlie interval be- 
 tween them is materially lessened. 
 But they may be said to approximate 
 if the interval is in any degree 
 lessened, though it may after all be 
 very great. An approximate calcula- 
 tion is sometimes professedly inexact, 
 and only the best that can be made. 
 Approximate has a more abstract ap- 
 plication than approach. Approach 
 implies a diminution of distance, or o 
 what may be conceived as analogous 
 to distance. Approximation may 
 mean the diminution of difference, as 
 in character or properties. The 
 character of the lowest savage ap- 
 pro/ imates to that of the brute. In 
 this sense approximation is simila- 
 rity. 
 
 " Let matter be divided mto thp snbtilest 
 parts imaginable, and these be moved as 
 swiftly as you will, it is but a senseless and 
 stnpid being still, and makes no nearer 
 approach to sense, perception, or vital 
 energy than it had before." — Ray, On 
 Creation. 
 
 " The largest capacity and the most 
 noble dispositions are but an approximation 
 to the proper standard and true symmetry 
 of human nature." — J. Taylor. 
 
 APPROBATION. Approval. 
 
 Approbation (Lat. approhationem) 
 is the sentiment of which Approval 
 is the expression. We entertain 
 approbation and express approval. 
 It is possible to feel in our hearts ap- 
 probation of conduct in others, which 
 we may not have the moral courage to 
 sanction by open and unreserved ap- 
 proval. 
 
 APPROPRIATE. Suitable. 
 
 Appropriate (Lat. appropridre, to 
 make one's own) is to Suitable (Fr. 
 suite, a following) as the subjective to 
 the objective, the appropriate being 
 the suitable in conception, and never 
 employed of physical or mechanical 
 adaptation. Suitable is, therefore, the 
 wider term and simpler. That is suit- 
 
112 
 
 SYNONYMS [ArPROPltlAl e] 
 
 able which is in any w ay adapted to a 
 thing. That is appropriate which ac- 
 cords with the conceptions formed of it. 
 Suitable belongs rather to the purpose 
 and use of things. Appropriate to 
 their manner and character. Suitable 
 is It practical term. Appropriate is a 
 term of taste. Suitable may be be- 
 tween two physical or two moral 
 terms ; appropriate implies, at least, 
 one moral. Again, appropriate is a 
 more specific, suitable a more general 
 term. That is appropriate which pecu- 
 liarly fits or suits the general character, 
 or some property or peculiarity of a 
 thing. 1 hat is suitable which is not 
 unsuitable ; the one is an apt, the other 
 a permissible, accompaniment. 
 
 " In its strict and appropriate meaning, 
 especially as applied to our Saviour's para- 
 bles, it (parable) signifies a short narrative 
 of some event or fact, real or fictitious, in 
 which a continued comparison is carried on 
 between sensible and spiritual objects, and 
 under this similitude some important doc- 
 trine, moral or religious, is conveyed and 
 enforced."— Bishop Porteus. 
 
 " Raphael, amidst his tenderness and 
 friendship for man, shows slich a dignity and 
 condescension in all his speech and beha- 
 viour as are suitable to a superior nature." 
 —Addison. 
 
 APPROPRIATE. Usurp. Aruo- 
 GATK. Assume. 
 
 The idea common to these words is 
 that of making or pretending a right. 
 Of these, the widest in signification 
 and most varied in force is the last. 
 To AssuMK (Lat. assumh-e') is to take 
 to one's self. This may be done with 
 or without right, and in any degree 
 from the most teraporai-y to the most 
 permanent assumption. We assume 
 truth, probability, riglit, that is, we 
 conceive them as proved or granted ; 
 in which sense the word is considered 
 elsewhere. We do not assume physical 
 objects simply as such, unless they 
 have some force or significance be- 
 yond themselves. I take, not assume, 
 my hat; but if 1 placed in it a feather 
 as a badge of leadership or party, 1 
 should be said to assume it. It is in 
 connexion with this sense of taking, 
 in order to wear, that assume so often 
 bears the meaning of taking with pre- 
 tence, or falsely assuming. 
 
 " Assume a virtue if you have it not." 
 Shakkspeark. 
 
 Assume and Appuopriaie indicate 
 less demonstrative action than Usurp 
 ( Lat. iisiirpdre, to make use oJ\ and, 
 afterwards, to usurp) and Arrogate 
 (Lat. arrogdre, lo adopt, to claim un- 
 fairly). I appropriate a thing when I 
 make it peculiarly mine; and as this 
 may be to the exclusion of others hav- 
 ing an equal or better right to it, the 
 word is tinged with an idea of injus- 
 tice. The radical idea of appropriate 
 is to make property to belong, to set 
 apart, for a peculiar relation, use, or 
 possession, either in regard to one's 
 self or in regard to some other. In 
 this point it difiers from the rest, which 
 are a])plicable only to one's self. 
 Right and wrong are blended in arro- 
 gate. To arrogate is to assume as 
 one's right in a haughty manner; 
 to usurp is to take to one's self that 
 which is in the use or enjoyment not 
 properly one's own. The term be- 
 longs to power, titles, rights, posses- 
 sions, authority, privileges, and the 
 like. In their most unfavourable 
 senses, appropriation is without right, 
 usurpation is against right, arrogation 
 claims right, and assumption ignores 
 right. Ihe selfish and unfair appro- 
 priate, the audacious and intrusive 
 usurj), the vain an'ogate, the cool, 
 determined, and insolent, assume. 
 
 " Pompey, Crassus, and Cssar, had found 
 the sweets of arbitrary power, and each 
 being a check to the others' growth, struck 
 up a false friendship among themselves.and 
 divided the government betwixt them, 
 which none ol them was able to assume 
 alone."— Dryden. 
 
 " But these (glebe tithes, &c.) are some- 
 times appropriated, that is, the benefice is 
 perpetually annexed to some spiritual cor- 
 poration." — BliACKSTONE. 
 
 " The half lettered are forward, andarro- 
 gate to themselves what a modest, studious 
 man dares not, though he knows more." — 
 
 WOOIASTOX. 
 
 " An usurper can never have right on z 
 side."— Locke. 
 
 APT. Ready. Prompt. 
 
 These terms all denote the posses- 
 sion of mental activity, with, however, 
 some shades of difference. The Apt 
 man (Lat. aptus. Jit) is he who can 
 with comparative ease qualify himself 
 for the exercise of some function of 
 body or mind. Aptness is specific 
 
[arduous] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 113 
 
 capacity rapidly developed. A man 
 may be apt to learn or apt to teach. 
 Inits wider sense Apt means naturally 
 fitted, as having a tendency to produce 
 an effect or even to be affected; hence 
 inclined, liable. 
 
 Ready (A. S. ra'd) expresses both 
 a passive condition of tilings, and an 
 active quality of persons. The ready 
 is he who can meet tlie requirements 
 of a particular case without much 
 forecasting, who from the armoury of 
 his OAvn resources can draAv at short 
 notice what is wanted for immediate 
 use on an occasion. The apt man is 
 go by natural power and fitness. The 
 ready man by natural quickness and 
 versatility of mind. The former in 
 time learns much, the latter in a mo- 
 ment speaks or acts effectively. 
 
 Promptitude (L. Lat. prompliludo) 
 is an attribute of persons exclu- 
 sively. The prompt man is ready 
 for practical purposes and matters of 
 business, as tJie ready man is j)rompt 
 for purposes less grave or exigent, as 
 in reply or rejoinder. The prompt 
 man is so by virtue of an energetic 
 will. The ready man has cleverness, 
 the prompt man decision. He sees 
 the necessity of immediate action, and 
 loses nothing by delay. He who is 
 not ready is slow, he who is not 
 prompt is dilatory. The ready man 
 meets a difficulty, the prompt man an 
 obligation. 
 
 " Apt to teach."— Eng. Bible. 
 
 " Heady in devising expedients." — Ma- 
 
 CAULAY. 
 
 " To the stern sanction of the offended sky 
 
 My prQMpt obedience bows." Popk. 
 
 APTrrUDE. Fitness. 
 
 Fitness is not confined to any kind 
 of subject in particular, being equally 
 moral and material in its application. 
 Aptitude expresses the active fitness 
 of moral beings and character, while 
 Fitness is only passive. In material 
 subjects, fitness is a quality or condi- 
 tion, aptitude a latent force. Oil has 
 naturally an aptitude to burn, and 
 men have an aptitude to acquii-e 
 habits, good or evil. Aptitude im- 
 plies a particular purpose, action, or 
 effect, inherent in the subject, Fitness 
 
 a mere external suitability, congruity, 
 or commensurateness. Fitness be- 
 longs to objects, aptitude to the i uali- 
 ties of objects. 
 
 ARBOUR. Bower. 
 
 The Arbour, a corruption of the 
 word harbour, has come to designate 
 the bower, or rustic shelter which was 
 a conspicuous feature of it. 
 
 Bower is the A. S. bur, a chamber, 
 with wliich in Old English it was 
 simply equivalent; the lady's bower 
 being the lady's chamber. Arbour 
 became confounded with the Latin 
 arbor, and thus probably has come to 
 meana thick-set retreat ofovershadow- 
 ing foliage; and the bower from being 
 the private chamber within the house 
 became the leafy recess or refuge be- 
 yond it. In their modern application, 
 tlie words seem to differ very slightly. 
 But Arbour has the more artificial 
 sound. As an arbour is an artificial 
 bower, so a bower is often a natural 
 arbour. The woods furnish, by the 
 natural interlacing of their boughs in 
 many places, such retreats as would be 
 called bowers rather than arbours. 
 
 ARCHIVES. Records. 
 
 Strictly speaking, and according to 
 tlieir etymology, the latter are docu- 
 ments, and the former places in which 
 tliose documents are preserved. It 
 may be said generally that any authen- 
 tic memorial of facts or proceedings is 
 a Record ( Lat. rccorddri, torememoer). 
 The Greek apx^'^oy meant the court of a 
 magistrate, being the repository of 
 public acts. 
 
 Archives is never used but in the 
 sense of documents connected with 
 the past history and transactions of 
 the state. Records with greater lati- 
 tude is employed of any kind of occur- 
 rences, as of social proceedings or 
 local history 
 
 ARDUOUS. Difficult. Hard. 
 Hard (A. S. heard) expresses in a 
 blunter and more general way what 
 Difficult (Lat. diffXctlis) and Ar- 
 duous (Lat. arduus} express in a 
 more particular and refined way. Any 
 1 tough business of the mind or the hanS 
 
114 
 
 fttNONYMS 
 
 [argument] 
 
 may be called hard. It is simply a 
 strong analogous term. That is hard 
 vfhich seems to resist our efforts and 
 tax our strength. Difficulty is a kind 
 of hardness, namely, that which re- 
 quires some mental a])titude besides 
 mere work and perseverance to over- 
 come. The making of roads is not 
 difficult work. It is simply hard work. 
 But it is difficult for the engineer when 
 the country does not furnish the re- 
 quisite material, and he has to substi- 
 tute some other material which, per- 
 liaps, has to be brought from adistance, 
 while the means of transit and trans- 
 port are not at hand. Hardness is 
 simple. Difficulty is complex. Ardu- 
 ous denotes that which requires the 
 sustained exertion of mind or body. 
 It calls not only for an ingenious mind, 
 and a patient, persevering spirit, but 
 for some loftiness of aim. It will pro- 
 bably be made up of many hai'dnesses 
 and many difficulties which have to be 
 successively encountered, endured, 
 and overcome befoi-e the end, which, 
 from the first, was seen at a distance, 
 shall have been attained. 1 n hardness 
 there is no disproportion between the 
 means and the end, the faculties and 
 the work. The opposite is rather im- 
 
 tdied in the term. To accomplish a 
 lard task needs time, patience, and 
 perseverance. In difficulty, such a 
 disproportion does exist, and it has to 
 be supplied out of the mental resources 
 of the agent. And after all, the diffi- 
 culty may be insuperable. A difficult 
 operation in surgery does not involve 
 great bodily effort, but is constituted 
 by the delicacy of the matter operated 
 upon, and the need of constant care 
 to avoid the serious consequences of 
 slight deviations or of casual ignorance 
 or oversight. In things which are 
 srduous, the difficult}' comes rather 
 from within, the danger of a lack of 
 energy or effort. An arduous under- 
 taking is commonly a demand rather 
 upon a man's moral strength than 
 upon his sagacity or skill. An arduous 
 undertaking is naturally such to all. 
 On the other hand, that which is hard 
 or difficult to one, may be quite easy 
 to another. 
 
 " Have you been evil spoken of, and your 
 haracter injured when you knew yourself 
 
 innocent? this is hard to bear as worldly 
 principles."- Qilpin's Sermons. 
 
 "Was ever anything difficult or glorious 
 achieved by a sodden cast of a thought \ " — 
 South. 
 
 " Hear how learn'd Greece her useful rule.« 
 
 indites, 
 When to repress and when indulge our 
 
 flights. 
 High on Parnassus' top her sons she show'd, 
 And pointed out those arduous paths they 
 
 trod." Pope. 
 
 ARGUMENT. CoNTitovKRsv. 
 
 AnGUxAiicNT (Lat. urgumentum) is 
 that which argues, or is brought for- 
 ward in arguing. An argument may 
 be complex, elaborate, replete with 
 varied reasoning, but it is single, uni- 
 form. CoNTUovKRSY (Lsit. CO lit lover- 
 sia) is antagonistic argument, and in 
 an extended sense the sum of the 
 arguments on both sides of a question. 
 A preacher may have well sustained 
 the argument of his discourse, but he 
 must never flatter himself that it will 
 not be made matter of controversy 
 among his hearers. 
 
 ARISTOCRACY. Nobility. 
 
 The AuisTOCRACY, in the ancient 
 sense of the term, was a governing 
 body of the chief or best men, ipia-To- 
 kpeiria — apiarog, best, and xpaTftV, to rule. 
 So Ben Jonson — 
 
 " If the Senate 
 Right not our quest in this, I will protest 
 
 them 
 No aristoa-acy. " 
 
 Hence it has come to signify among 
 ourselves the upper classes, especially 
 those who are raised above trades and 
 professions. The Nobility (Lat. 
 n'obitttatem) consists of those who hold 
 patents of peerage, and in a widei 
 sense, their families. Hence it follows 
 that though the nobility belong to the 
 aristocracy of the country, there will 
 be a large portion of the aristocracy 
 who are not personally ennobled nor 
 belong by birth to noble families, a<« 
 the landed aristocracy. By an exten- 
 sion of the term we apply it to some 
 who have no pretensions to the claim 
 of patented nobility. There is an 
 aristocracy of talent and of wealth, 
 but those who are in this sense en 
 nobled, depend for their titles ou the 
 conflicting sentiments of mankind. 
 
[ARROGANCE] 
 
 ARMISTICE. Truce. 
 
 These terms are coincident in their 
 general meaninc^ of a temporary ces- 
 sation of hostilities between parties 
 contending in battle. The Tuuce 
 (Old Eng. treu-es, A. S. tryics-iau, to 
 pledge' one's faith) is the less formal of 
 the two, so that it has found its way 
 into common metaphorical language, 
 as Armiptick {hdii. urmistitium ; Lat. 
 arinuj arms, and sisttre, to stop) has not. 
 So the word Thucf. is often employed 
 to express a cessation, temporary or 
 otlierwise, of what is vexatiously an- 
 tagonistic ; as in noisy arguments, or 
 the intermission of tedious or painful 
 action of any kind. The consent of 
 commanders, or according to the laws 
 of honourable warfare, tlie mere ex- 
 hibition under certain circumstances 
 of a flag, may^bring about a truce for 
 some particular purpose, such as a 
 consultation between the rival gene- 
 rals, or an opportunity for burying 
 the bodies of the slain. An armistice 
 is more formal and prolonged, and is 
 regulated by articles and conditions ; 
 as, for instance, that on the cession of 
 a small territory, a besieged town 
 shall be permitted to revictual its 
 garrison. 
 
 ARMS. Weapons. 
 
 Arms (Lat. arma) seems to be used 
 both in a general and a specific sense. 
 In the general sense it means all that 
 a man carries when armed, that is, of 
 oiTensive and defensive. In this gene- 
 ral sense it is distinguished from 
 Weapon (A. S. uirpcH), which always 
 means an im})lenient of active or of- 
 fensive warfare. But usage has in- 
 troduced another distinction. Weapon 
 is employed of such implements as 
 are extemporaneously assumed, or of 
 sucli things as are converted into im- 
 plements of defence, while arms is 
 used of those which are uniformly 
 made and recognized as such. Ac- 
 cording as it is regarded with fixed 
 character, a thing may be called an 
 arm or a weapon. The sword is one 
 of the soldier a arms, and a necessary 
 weapon it is, I'Le tongue may be 
 used as a poisoned weapon. A spade 
 is in itselfan implement of husbandry. 
 li may be a formidable weapon in the 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 115 
 
 hands of an angry rustic. Awms, un- 
 like Weapon, is a rhetoric al term, and 
 stands for the deeds and exploits of 
 war. 
 
 " Arms and the man I sing." 
 
 Drydexs i^irgil. 
 " He lays down 
 His arms, but not his wills." 
 
 Milton, 
 " Woman's weapons, water-di-ops." 
 
 SlIAKKSPEARE. 
 
 ARRIVE. Come. 
 
 To Come (A. S. cuman) is vague, 
 and independent of time, manner, or 
 circumstances. ToARRivE(Fr.ur?jfer) 
 denotes an anticipated or appointed 
 coming. It is used of tilings, persons, 
 events, and time, or points of time. 
 Things come by chance or nature. 
 They arrive by order or arrangement. 
 Tlie train comes when it approaches. 
 It arrives at a certain place and hour. 
 
 " In the Epistles ofS. Paul, 9. Peter, and 
 S. James, we find frequent mention of the 
 comitig of our Lord in terms which, like 
 those of the text, may at first seem to imply 
 an expectation in those writers of His speedy 
 arrit'a/."— Harlky. 
 
 ARROGANCE. Presumption. 
 Self-Conceit. Pride. Vanity. 
 Haughtiness. 
 
 Arrogance (Lat. arr(1»a?;fiam) is ex- 
 actly what the word is formed to ex- 
 press, a habit of arrogating to one's self 
 deference, or, as it has been defined, 
 "exclusive self-deference." It is the 
 extreme of self-assertion. Go where 
 he will, tlie arrogant man carries his 
 claims with him, claims of superi- 
 ority as in social position, tlie expres- 
 sion of opinion, or what not. It is 
 often a partial fault of character, and 
 persons are found arrogant on some 
 matters who are not so on others. 
 Superiority or claim of some kind mubt 
 exist as the foundation of arrogance. 
 It is the fault of the great, not of the 
 little. To demand as a right, though 
 the claim be just, in cases where it 
 would have been conceded, and where 
 tlie demand therefore was superfluous, 
 is still arrogance. Arrogance is a 
 mode of action or behaviour resulting 
 from a condition of mind. Arrogance 
 is not only not self-conceit, but may 
 be in opposition to it. A man in ex- 
 pressing an opinion may be so {^lT 
 
116 
 
 from believing that he is in the right 
 that he may feel himselfin the wrong, 
 jet arrogance will expect that he 
 should be yielded to. 
 
 " Arrogance is always offensive, because 
 in demairding mere thiin its due — for this 
 meaning appears in the etymology of the 
 word— it manifests a petulant and injurious 
 disposition that disdains to be controlled by 
 good breeding or any other restraint.'' — 
 i3EATTIE. 
 
 Arrogance is more overbearing than 
 Si-i.F-CoNCKiT, which is merely the en- 
 tertaniing ot'an overweening opinion of 
 one's self, and may be far less obtru- 
 sive than the former. 1 1 is commonly 
 more ridiculous and less troublesome. 
 Like arrogance, it maybe confined to 
 particular matters, and these may be 
 jjersonal trivialities. He may greatly 
 over-rate himself on one point, and 
 under-estimate himselfin others. Self- 
 conceit is the fault of persons who 
 have had little training, or have re- 
 ceived it apart from others. Contact, 
 and even collision of minds in varied 
 intercourse with others, as in the poli- 
 tical world or at a public school, is it* 
 best corrective. 
 
 "Nothing so haughty and assuming as 
 ignorant-e where self-conceit bids it set up 
 for infallible." — South. 
 
 From these Pride (A. S.;jrt/f) differs 
 in being, so to speak, more true. The 
 arrogant, but more especially the self- 
 conceited, are in intellectual error. 
 Self-conceit blinds a man into mistak- 
 ing ignorance for knowledge. Pride 
 lies only in falsity of degree, or excess. 
 It is an exaggerated estimate of the 
 value of something which really be- 
 longs to us or exists in us, and by 
 consequence involves a disposition to 
 disdain others, converting superiors 
 into equals, and equals into inferiors. 
 A proud man over-rates wliat he pos- 
 sesses, a conceited man imagines him- 
 self to possess what is not his. A 
 man wlio is proud of rank, wealth, or 
 abilities, really possesses these advan- 
 tages, but sets a wrong or dispropor- 
 tionate estimate upon them ; in such a 
 way, for instance, as to overlook the 
 claims of virtue. 
 
 " Pride is that exalted idea of our state, 
 pialifications, orattainment9,which'iXceeds 
 ihe boundaries of joitice and induces us to 
 ovi* -'own upon inppoBed inferiors with 
 
 SYNONYMS [arrogance] 
 
 some degree of nnmej-it«d contempt."— 
 
 COGAX. 
 
 ilAUcnrrNESs seems often constitu- 
 tional, 'ihe haughty person breathes 
 a superior atmosphere to other people, 
 or imigines it. (Fr. hant^ high.) 
 It proceeds from pride, of which it 
 is to a great degi-ee the externa! 
 manifestation, showing itaelf in the 
 manners and deportment. 
 
 " As many more can discover that a man 
 is richer than that he is wiser than them- 
 selves, superiority of understanding is not 
 so readily acknowledged as that of fortune, 
 nor is that Aau^rAfmess which the conscious- 
 ness of gi-eat abilities incites, borne with 
 the same submission as the tyranny of 
 aftluence."— Johnson. 
 
 Vanity may exist with pride or self- 
 conceit, but is not implied by either. 
 It is literally emptiness (Lat. vamta- 
 tern ); thence it came to mean something 
 unreal, hollow, bad. At length, as 
 applied to personal character, it de- 
 noted an excessive desire of applause, 
 approbation, or admiration for quali- 
 ties we possess as well as those we pos- 
 sess not. It differs from pride in having 
 to do with matters more closely con- 
 nected with one's self personally. 
 One is not, generally speaking, vain, 
 for instance, of titles and estates, but 
 proud. The subjects of vanity are 
 good looks, talent, ])ersonal influence, 
 smaller successes, and the like. The 
 vain person cares more to be admired 
 than ap])roved. The proud man is 
 content with his own judgment of 
 himself. The vain man is always 
 looking at himself through the medium 
 of other people's ideas, being greedy 
 of admiration he seeks to occupy their 
 thoughts. Pride is above this, and so 
 in some respects is seen to be almost 
 the opposite of vanity. The proud 
 man is by his very pride above all 
 care to be false. The vain man will 
 accept compliments to an excellence 
 which he does not possess. The 
 proud man is best corrected by setting 
 before him his own shortcomings, or 
 those of the things on which he prides 
 himself. The greatest mortification 
 to a vain man is to take no notice of 
 his claim to admiration. If pride ii 
 hateful, vanity is contemptible. 
 Presumption (ha.t.pt(ji:6u.'»utiofiem ) 
 
[artful] 
 
 is osppcially a fault of the little. It 
 is self-flattery in mattt'is of social pre- 
 c.'deuce. It is so far unlike pride 
 that pride possesses but over-esti- 
 mates.; }»resumption possesses not, 
 but claims to possess, and that over 
 the heads of others. The presumptu- 
 ous man strives to be on a level with 
 those above him, and shows hig cha- 
 racter in obtrusivenessofconduct; or 
 he arraigns the acts and opinions of 
 those who are far better able to judge 
 and act than himself. Presumption 
 is a determined form of self-conceit. 
 Pride makes us esteem ourselves. 
 Vanity makes us desire to be esteemed 
 by others. Presumption flatters us 
 with a vain idea of superiority, privi- 
 lege, or power. It thmks more of the 
 chances of adventure than of the con- 
 clusions of experience. It is hazard- 
 ous in its own favour. Presumption 
 may manifest itself in many ways, and 
 in cases in which other persons are or 
 are not concerned. It is presumption 
 to take precedence of one who is of 
 higher social rank. 1 1 is presumption 
 to come before a critical audience with 
 an unprepared address. In many cases 
 the best cure for presumption is to take 
 the presumptuous man at his word. 
 
 " Vanity is that species of pride which, 
 while it presnmes upon a degree of superi- 
 ority in some particular articles, fondly 
 courts the applause of every one within its 
 space of action, seeking every occasion to 
 display some talent, or some supposed ex- 
 cellency." — CoGAN. 
 
 "And ^irnngh presumption of his matchless 
 
 migdt. 
 All other powers and knighthood he did 
 
 scorn." Spenser. 
 
 ARTFUL. Cunning. Deceit- 
 Fu;.. Designing. Chaftv. Sly. 
 Wily. Subtle. 
 
 AuTFUL is, as the term literally ex- 
 presses, /u// of art, in the sense of con- 
 trivance. But it is tinged with an 
 unfavourable complexion. The artful 
 character exercises for his own pur- 
 poses mecns which baffle the interpre- 
 tation, or escape the observation of 
 others. Artfulness is trained cunning. 
 The artful person will often gain an 
 end which he does not appear to be 
 aiming at, and by the very fact that 
 he does not. He exerU his ingenuity 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 117 
 
 in misleading. He is fruitful in ex- 
 pedients for producing falee impres- 
 sions. He is most artful when he 
 seems most natural, and designs with 
 an undesigning air. He is observant, 
 and measures the capacities of others 
 for the purpose of playing them false. 
 He can both make a trap and set it. 
 
 " Artful in si)eech, in action, and in mind." 
 Pope. 
 
 Cunning (A. S. cunnari, to know) 
 is the same faculty of acting with con- 
 cealment and disguise, as applied to 
 the lowest orders of wants or designs. 
 It is the more simple and animal as- 
 pect of artfulness. Yet this is a recent 
 force of the word. Cunning is lite- 
 rally knowing, and has the same un- 
 favourable sense as knowing. Yet 
 the Bible speaks o( ^' cuniimg artifi- 
 cers." "If I forget thee, O Jerusa- 
 lem, let my right hand forget her 
 cunning," that is, skill. It expresses 
 now the characteristic quality of the 
 fox. AuTFUL is po.iitive and active, 
 Cunning may be in reserve and con- 
 cealment, only being connected with 
 the instincts of self-maintenance and 
 self-preservation. 
 
 '* The fox in deeper cunning versed. 
 The beauties of her mind rehearsed." 
 MuiK, Fables. 
 
 Deceitful (Lat. dect/je/e, part, d't- 
 I ceptus, to deceive) denotes amore settled 
 purpose of leading others astray. In 
 the artful and cunning deceit may be 
 only a means to an end. The artful 
 fencer, or the cunning animal which 
 doubles upon the scent of the hounds 
 is not deceitful. The deceitful is 
 ready, if necessary, to falsify truth 
 and honour to gain his end. 1 1 is only 
 the intellect of a man that can be in the 
 full sense of the term, deceitful. It is 
 a term of the moral disposition rather 
 than the mental nature. Artful and 
 cunning both imply some degree ol 
 natural aptitude ; but a person may be 
 in character deceitful, tliat is, he may 
 have the impulse to deceive without 
 the faculty. For further remarks, see 
 Deceive. 
 
 " But sin, by that deceitfulness which th 
 Apostle speaks of in the text, hides its dc 
 formed appearances from the eyes of foolish 
 men, and sets before them nothing bnl 
 
118 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 >lARTICLE] 
 
 pleasures and profit, joy and vanity, pre- 
 sent security and very distant, very uncer- 
 tain, verj' remote fears." — SoUTil. 
 
 Designixg (O. Fr. designer) denotes 
 artful conduct exercised with a speci fie 
 purpose of effecting desired objects, 
 sometimes to the extent of injuring or 
 misleading others. Indeed, the injury 
 of another may constitute the design. 
 Bat the character of the designing 
 flows from a mental habit of forestall- 
 ing the future. The designing man is 
 always laying plans for the sake of 
 remote consequences. He is artful for 
 the sake of ulterior results. lie is 
 trying to turn others to account. For 
 further remarks, see Design. It may 
 be observed that Designing, in the 
 sense of artful, is of recent use in Eng- 
 nsh literature, though " designement" 
 had a tendency to mean a crafty or evil 
 design. So at present we are more 
 likely to speak of a design against 
 a man, than a design for his benefit. 
 
 " This designment appears both iniquitous 
 and absurd."— Wars URTON. 
 
 Crafty (A. S. craft, artifice, skii) 
 has, from the idea of skill, dropped 
 into that of cunning. Craft is the 
 cunning of practice. It is a way of 
 acting. It designs and conceals. It 
 misleads and eludes. Crafty belongs 
 to the development of human charac- 
 ter. The child may be cunning. The 
 old man is crafty. Craft is wisdom 
 perverted and debased. Its policy is 
 crooked. The crafty man has a talent 
 for dexterous deception in matters of 
 life and business. 
 
 " To prudence, if you add the use of un- 
 just or dishonest means such as usually are 
 prompted to men by fear or want, you have 
 that crooked wisdom which is called craft, 
 which is a sign of pusillanimity." — HouBS. 
 
 Sly {Get. schlmi, sly, skilful ; com- 
 pare A. S. ildw, idle, lazy ?) expresses 
 the character of the artfully cunning. 
 The sly is more observant and vigilant 
 than active or designing. The sly 
 person observes furtively, and has a 
 tendency to act in the same way. 
 Underhanded observation and practice 
 mark the sly man. 
 
 " The eye of Leonora ig slyly watchful 
 while it looks negligent." 
 
 There is often very little design in 
 
 slyness, and persons seem to act tlyljr 
 from disposition vvlien they might have 
 acted openly with equal advantage to 
 themselves. They will be sly from a 
 mere dread of publicity and demon- 
 strativeness. Animals that have been 
 ill-treated become sly. 
 " They tempt-ed me to attack your high 
 
 ness, 
 And then with wonted wile and slyness 
 They left me in the lurch." Swift. 
 
 Wily is literally heingfull of wile, 
 which is the same as guile. Wilinesa 
 shows itself in matters of self-interest 
 and self-preservation. A wily adver- 
 sary quietly waits his opportunity of 
 wounding, and can make opportunities 
 for himself. He is artful in attack, 
 defence, and escape. He employs 
 stratagem in dealing with others. A 
 wile is a low stratagem or insidious 
 artifice. 
 
 " Implore his aid, for Proteus only knows 
 The secret cause and cure of all thy woes ; 
 But first the Jvily wizard must be caught. 
 For naccnstrained he nothing tells for 
 naught." Drydek. 
 
 Subtle (Lat. sublilis, perhaps sub^ 
 under, and tila, a web, bein^ woven 
 fine). It is in itself a term of neither 
 praise nor blame, which depends upon 
 the use to which the quality which it 
 expresses is put. The subtle mind 
 analyzes motives, sees minute aiffe- 
 rences. In its full sense, it is applic- 
 able to nothing lower than the human 
 understanding. The subtleintellect can 
 follow out a subject into its compli- 
 cated relations without becoming per- 
 plexed by its intricacies, or misled by 
 Its casual resemblances to tliat which 
 may be alien to it. Subtlety has the 
 ciuality of mental fineness, sensibility, 
 delicacy. Yet subtlety of thought is 
 not the same thing as delicacy of 
 thought, for delicacy touches the truth 
 only, subtlety may empty itself m 
 creating fallacies. A subtle adversary 
 is formidable, because he will dissect 
 either truth or falsehood as far as i« 
 may suit his purpose. 
 
 Spenser uses tlie term in what haj» 
 been thought to be its etymological 
 meaning when he says. — 
 " More subtle web Arachne cannot spin," 
 
 ARTICLE. CoN-nnioN. Teum 
 
 These terms agree in their relatiot 
 
[artificial] 
 
 to matters of agreement or compact 
 between persons. Article and condi- 
 tion are used in both the singular and 
 plural numbers. Term in this sense 
 only in the plural. 
 
 The Article (Lat. articydus, a joint, 
 s clause, or word) is no more than a dis- 
 tinct portion into which the main sub- 
 stance of a document or literary work 
 is divided. It is of general applica- 
 tion, as the Thirty-nine articles of re- 
 ligion, the articles of the Creed, of a 
 contract, of regulation, of War, of a 
 periodical, and the like. It is, in this 
 connexion, a documentary division 
 varying in nature according to the 
 nature of the document. 
 
 Terms (Fr. terme, Lat. terminus) 
 are declarations or promises which, 
 wlien assented to or accepted, settle 
 the contract and bind the parties. 
 
 A Condition (Lat. conditionem) is 
 a clause in the same, which has for its 
 object thesuspension, defeat, or modifi- 
 cation of the main obligation. Terms 
 imply a more or less complex trans- 
 action. A condition may belong to 
 one of the simplest nature. Terms 
 imply a degree of equality between 
 contracting parties. A condition may 
 be imposed by a superior, as in grant- 
 ing a privilege or a permission. 
 Terms and conditions will, in some 
 cases, amount to the same things 
 viewed in different ways. So far as 
 it is a matter of mutual agreement, 
 that is a term, which, when regardea 
 as essential to the holding good of the 
 compact, becomes a condition. The 
 terms of an agreement are its sub- 
 stance, the conditions are its sanction. 
 Hence in a particular case the terms 
 may be liberal, and the conditions 
 stringent and even severe. Terms 
 are arranged equitably or submitted 
 to from necessity. Conditions emanate 
 from some controlling or modifying 
 power. 
 
 ARTIFICIAL. Fictitious. 
 Factitk as. Conventional, Nomi- 
 nal. 
 
 Artificial (Lat. artificialis) and 
 Fictitious ( La,t. ficttcius) are nearly 
 allied. As Artful means done with 
 hrt, as opposed to simplicity, so Arti- 
 
 DISCRIMINATE1>. 
 
 119 
 
 Fici A l means done by art as opposed to 
 nature. That is artificial which is 
 the production of imitative art. The 
 fictitious is the creation of what has 
 no natural existence. An artificial 
 tale of distress, for instance, would be 
 one of which the circumstances wtdl 
 imitated what was natural or probable. 
 A fictitious tale would be one of which 
 the incidents had no existence but in 
 the deceitful ingenuity of the narra- 
 tor. In the idea of the artificial there 
 are two elements: 1. that of art as 
 distinguished from nature, and 2. that 
 of art as distinguished from simplicity. 
 Dryden uses it in the former sense, 
 when he says: — 
 
 " In the unity of Time you find them so 
 scrupulous that it yet remains a dispute 
 among their poets whether the artijicia. 
 day of twelve houra more or less be not 
 meant by Aristotle rather than the natural 
 one of twenty-four." 
 
 In the second by Tillotson : 
 
 " These, and such as these, are the hopes 
 of hypocrites, which Job elegantly com- 
 pares to the spider's web, tinely and arti- 
 ficiitlly wrought, but miserably thin and 
 weak." 
 
 The term Conventional (Lat. con- 
 ventionalis) expresses first, that which 
 is agi'eed upon among men as members 
 of a community or of society, and 
 then having no existence but in such 
 agreement. A conventionalism grows 
 out of custom, and is sanctioned by 
 usage. Where it has no existence be- 
 yond this, a conventionalism is a social 
 fiction. Conventional morality, for 
 instance, is not truth or right, but 
 such a degree or sort of it as may by 
 society be tacitly agreed upon as suf- 
 ficient to meet its demancls. As the 
 artificial is op])Osed to the natural, and 
 the fictitious to the real, so the con- 
 ventional is opposed to the natural 
 and genuine. 'I'he conventional is 
 artificial, so far as it is the product of 
 an artificial state of existence ; it is 
 fictitious, so far as it is made on pur- 
 pose ; but it may possibly be neither 
 against truth nor right, and only re- 
 present a form commonly in vogue. 
 Almost all professions may be said to 
 have conventional language, that is, 
 forms and terms appropriated to them 
 and distinctively employed by them. 
 
120 
 
 The Nomina i,(Lnt,7(omyHfl/;.s,»onieH, 
 nbmlnts, a name) is that which exists 
 in name only. The nominal is com- 
 monly the creation of artificial neces- 
 sity. It meets a requirement where 
 that requirement does not exact more 
 than a formal supply. It is the sub- 
 stitution of an insubstantial for a sub- 
 stantial fulfilment. 
 
 The Factitious ( Lat. /aciifc/Hs) is the 
 elaborately artificial in tilings of a 
 moral, social, or material kind. A fac- 
 titious demand is one which has been 
 artificL-illy created by pains and effort 
 bestowed to produce it. That is fac- 
 titious which is made up. The term 
 points more to the labour, and less to 
 the skill, which produces the artificial. 
 
 " The conventional language appropriated 
 to monarchs," — Motley. 
 
 " He passed eighteen months in nominal 
 attendance on lectures," — MaCAUIAY. 
 
 " He aequii-es a factitious propensity ; he 
 forms an incorrigible habit of desultory 
 reading." — Dk Quincey, 
 
 ARTIST. Artizan. Artificeii. 
 Mfxiianic. Mechanician. 
 
 All these bear reference to Art 
 (Lat. arlem). The man who applies 
 the resources of art to constructive 
 manufacture isanARTipicER. The term 
 has been, in a great measure, super- 
 seded, or its meaning divided among 
 the rest. It survives, as a rhetorical 
 term, the " great Artificer of the Uni- 
 verse; " and, as a technical term, of a 
 military character. A soldier-mecha- 
 nic is called an artificer. 
 
 " Another lean unwashed artificer 
 
 Cuts off his tale, and talks of Arthur's 
 death." Shakespeare. 
 
 There seems to be little difference 
 between the Artist and the Artizan 
 as regards their professions, beyond 
 the dignity of their employments. He 
 who exercises any fine art well is 
 called an artist. He who exercises 
 any mechanical art well is called an 
 artizan. It is in the superior skill of his 
 labour that the artizan differs from the 
 Mechanic (Gr. fxr,x.^m>i6i, inventive), 
 the mechanic being one who employs 
 instruments other than agricultural 
 in his work. A gunmaker would be 
 an artizan, a shoemaker a mechanic. 
 The artist may be unprofessional, or 
 %o amateur artist. The professor or 
 
 SYNONYMS [artist] 
 
 student of the princii)los of mechanics^ 
 as distinguished from the workman! 
 is called a Mechanician. 
 
 " Art can never give the rules that make 
 an art. This is, I believe, the reason why 
 artists in general and poets principally have 
 
 been confined in so narrow a circle." 
 
 Burke. 
 
 " If workmen become scarce, the manu- 
 facturer gives higher wages, but at first re- 
 quires an increase of labour; and this is 
 willingly submitted to by the artizan, wha 
 can no\y eat and drink better to compensate 
 his additional toil and fatigue." — HuMg. 
 
 "An art quite lost with our mechanics, a 
 work not to be made out, but like the walls 
 of Thejes and such an artificer as Am- 
 phion,"— Brown's Vulgar Errors. 
 
 " The commonwealth of learning would 
 lose too many observations and experiments, 
 and the history of nature v/ould make too 
 slow a progress, if it were presumed that 
 none but geometers and medianicians 
 should employ themselves about writing 
 any part of that history,"— BoYLE. 
 
 ASCEND. Mount. Arise. Rise. 
 Climb. Scale. 
 
 Ascend (Lat. asce» Jcre)and Mount 
 (Fr. monter) are employed as both 
 transitive and intransitive verbs, while 
 Rise and Arise (A. S. risan, drisan, 
 to arise) are used only as intransitives. 
 It is in the intransitive sense that the 
 two former are synonyms with the 
 latter. The simplest of" all is Rise, of 
 which the rest may be considered as 
 modifications. To rise is iirelative, to 
 arise is relative to something out of 
 which the thing arises. To arise is 
 also definite and limited, to rise is in- 
 definite and progressive. A person 
 arises from his bed, and the final 
 point of rising is gained when he 
 stands upright. A bird, or a balloon 
 rises in the air, that is, goes tiigher 
 and higher indefinitely. Rise, like 
 Arise, is used in a figurative as well 
 well as a physical sense. It then ex- 
 presses a gradual increase or enhance- 
 ment, as arise expresses effectuation 
 and result. 
 
 " It is not their nommal price only, but 
 their real price which rises in the progress 
 of improvement. The rise of their nominal 
 price is the effect, not of any degradation of 
 the valne of silver, but of the rise in their 
 real price,"— Adam Smith. 
 " No grateful dews descend from eveuiug 
 
 skies. 
 Nor morning odours from the Oower.' 
 I ansa." Pops. 
 
Lascertain] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 IH 
 
 Mount, like rise, is progressive, 
 but it expresses a process with a limit, 
 and points to tlie limit or end, while 
 Rise has no such limit. Consequentlj 
 mount is a ti-ansitive verb, as rise is 
 not. We say the birds rose, meaning 
 that they took wing upwards. They 
 did not mount, because the action was 
 unmeasured. On the other hand, the 
 tide mounts because we have in our 
 minds a certain line towards which 
 it tends, and which it will not exceed. 
 In mount will always be found to 
 underlie some im})lied degree of rising 
 which is measured or not consider- 
 able, while ascend may express a 
 course indefinite and considerable. 
 Ascend is sometimes employed for 
 mount, in order to give dignity. The 
 rider mounts his horse ; tlie sovereign 
 ascends the throne. Ordinarily speak- 
 ing, we ascend a mountain, but not a 
 horse. To ascend a hill is to go higher 
 and higher up it, to mount is to get to 
 the top of it. Ascend conveys the 
 idea of a more considerable degree of 
 altitude than mount. 
 
 To Climb (A. S. cUmban) is to as- 
 cend, step by step, and with the use 
 of the arms as well as the legs, in a 
 series of personal efforts, lo Scale 
 Lat. scdUi, a ladder) is to pass over 
 -any difficult height by personal exer- 
 •ion. '1 o climb points to the effort of 
 the person to scale to the arduous 
 Mature of the thing. As the idea is 
 that of passing a wall or rampart by a 
 besieging ladder, we speak of scaling 
 when a difficult summit has been 
 ?»»Ached, and a vantage ground gained. 
 
 ' The idlest and the paltriest mime that 
 ev'ir mounted upon bank." — MiLT0>'. 
 
 ■' Its hooked form is of great use to the 
 r«^pacious kind in catching and lioldingtheir 
 l>«'ey, and in the comminution thereof by 
 tearing. To others it (the mouth) is no less 
 sorvieeable to their climbing as well as neat 
 and nice comminution of their food." — 
 l)«RHAJI. 
 
 " The monntam tops confirm the pleasing 
 
 sight, 
 Aod curling smoke ascending from their 
 
 height." Drydkn. 
 
 " Manlius Capitolinus was the first Ro- 
 man knight or man at armes that was hon- 
 oured with a mural 1 crown of gold for skaling 
 over the wall in an assault." — HoLI^ND, 
 
 ASCENDANCY. Empiuf. In 
 
 FLUENCE. 
 
 These three terms express moral 
 power exercised over men. Ascen- 
 dancy (Fr. ascendant, Lat. ascendtre, 
 to ascend) is the power of superiority. 
 Emi'ire (Lat. imp^rinm) is the power 
 of force. Influence ( Fr. injinence) is 
 the power of insinuation. Of these, 
 ascendancy is the most absolute, sub- 
 jecting personal interests, desires, sen- 
 timents, will, to him who exercises it. 
 Empire is the most despotic, being that 
 to Avhich one's desires and will offer 
 only an ineffectual resistance. In- 
 fluence is the most/ni/fi and insensible, 
 causing the sentiments and ideas of 
 another to become one's own. For 
 men direct their conduct by their 
 will, and their will follows their 
 opinions. Ascendancy commonly 
 comes fi-om the stronger mind, but 
 influence belongs even to the weak 
 when they are pure and good. The 
 husband may have an ascendancy over 
 his wife at the same time that she has 
 no little influence over him. Power 
 of chai-acter commonly gives ascen- 
 dancy, detennination ot will gives 
 empire, penetration and address give 
 influence. Where another exercises 
 ascendancy over us, we must feel 
 some regard for him, where empire 
 some fear, where influence some per- 
 suasion of his intelligence. If men 
 would examine themselves they would 
 probably have to acknowledge some 
 propensity which has the ascendancy 
 over them, the empii-e of some passion, 
 or the influence of some prejudice. 
 Influence alone is employed of the 
 subtle, but powerful, forces of nature. 
 The weather has a constant influence 
 upon the body and the health. Some 
 
 have believed in influences of the 
 
 ASCERTAIN. Verify. 
 
 Both these tenns denote the esta- 
 blishment of a thing as true. They 
 difter in the difterent states of mind 
 and tlie different modes of inquiry 
 belongingtc each process. ToAscer- 
 TAiN is to prove whether a thing is ti-ue 
 ornot, to Verify (Lat. vlrificare) is to 
 prove that it is time. Of old. Ascertain 
 had the force of to prove true and to 
 make sure ; these senses it has parted 
 
122 
 
 witli, so tliat tliey are now expresserl 
 by tlie verbs verifi( and secure, while 
 it has retained to itself the sense 
 mentioned above. 1 am in doubt 
 whetlier a circumstance has occurred 
 or not, and I make inquiries to ascer- 
 tain. I feel convinced that it has 
 occurred, but not bein^ iurnished 
 with evidence to prove it, I search 
 for that evidence that so I maj^ verify 
 it. Ascertain commonly relates to 
 matters of practical life, verify to 
 matters of literary or speculative 
 truth. I ascertain a common fact, I 
 verify a point of history or science. 
 
 ASCITITIOUS. Adventitious. 
 
 AsciTiTious or Adscititious is from 
 the Lat. adsciscere, part, oc/scltus, more 
 commonly asc-, to admit, to adopt. Ad- 
 ventitious is from the Lfit.adventlcius, 
 foreign, advhnre, to arrive. Hence the 
 meaning of tlie former is adjoined or 
 assumed, that of the latter foreign, 
 accessary, accidental. Both may be 
 opposecf to what is intrinsic, essential, 
 substantial, and so both may partake 
 of an unfavourable meaning. But 
 properly the ascititious is in the act 
 of the person, adventitious in the 
 ouality of the thing. The former is 
 foreign in introduction, the latter 
 foreign in nature. The foraier is ir- 
 regularly borrowed, the latter irregu- 
 larly supei-venient. 
 
 ASCRIBE. Impute. Attribute. 
 
 'iliese words belong to the process 
 of assigning cause, and apparently are 
 used in accordance with the nature 
 of the cause assigned. Causation may 
 be regarded as physical, moral, or 
 mixed. Mixed causation or human 
 production is expressed by Ascribe 
 (Lat. ascrihh-e). I ascribe such a 
 book to such an author. Ascribe is 
 also used in the simplfe sense of refer, 
 without any idea of causation, but of 
 quality or property ; as to ascribe glory 
 to God, that is, to express an attri- 
 bute of His nature. Like Impute, 
 (^Lat. impiitare) it has commonly, as 
 impute has invariably, a personal 
 reference. Impute expresses moral 
 causation or human motive ; as I im- 
 pute such conduct to his generosity, his 
 cruelty, or his ignorance, as the case 
 may be. Physical and moral causa- 
 
 SYNONYMS [ascititious] 
 
 tion is expressed by Attribute (Lat. 
 attrlhuhe, jiiiri. attrlbutiis). I attribute 
 the loss of the ship to the violence of 
 the storm, or 1 attribute his behaviour 
 to his ignorance. To ascribe is to 
 write one thing to the account of an- 
 other, whether as a quality, an appur- 
 tenance, or as the effect of a cause. 
 To attribute is to form an act of judg- 
 ment by which we connect a thing 
 with a person, or with another thing, 
 as the source or cause of it either 
 immediately or indirectly. To impute 
 a thing to a person is to make hinri 
 morally responsible for it, so as to 
 connect its merit or demerit with him. 
 Hence attribute expresses the nearer, 
 impute the remoter cause. I attribute 
 the fall of the Roman empire to the 
 successful invasions of the barbarians ; 
 1 impute it to internal corruption. To 
 attribute is the plainer, to impute the 
 more complex act. It is remarkable 
 that, except in the theological sense 
 of imputing righteousness or merit, 
 the term is commonly used of bad mo- 
 tives, or untoward causes of conduct. 
 One attributes things, one imputes the 
 good or evil consequences of things, 
 but much more commonly the latter. 
 One ought not to ascribe unjustly, 
 nor attribute lightly, nor impute gra- 
 tuitously. Knowledge or belief as- 
 cribes, judgment atti-ibutes, prejudice 
 imputes. 
 
 " Behold Sir Balaam, now a man of spirit, 
 Ascribes his gettings to I is parts and merit. 
 What late he called a blessing now was 
 
 wit. 
 And God's good Providence a lucky hit," 
 Pope. 
 " Nor yoc, ye proud, impute to these the 
 
 fault 
 If memory o'er their tombs no trophy 
 
 raise 
 Where through the long-drawn aisle and 
 
 fretted vault 
 The pealing anthem swells the note of 
 
 praise." Gray. 
 
 " It is a practice much too common in 
 enquiries of this nature to attribute the 
 cause of feelings which merely arise from 
 the mechanical structure of our bodies, or 
 from the natural frame and constitution of 
 our minds, to certain conclusions of the 
 reasoning faculty," — BuRKE. 
 
 ASHES. Embers, Cinders. 
 Ashes ( A.S. atsce, pi. ccscan) denotes 
 the residue of earthy particles which 
 are exhibited after combustion of com 
 
[ask] 
 
 bustible bodies, wbetlier vegetable, 
 animal, or mineral. Embers (A.S. 
 emnrian, *' an unauthorized word, but 
 apparently of con-ect form": Skeat, 
 Eti/in. Diet.) are smouldering ashes. 
 CiNDEUs (Fr. cendres, L&t.cineres) are 
 things of combustible matter par- 
 tially burnt, whether actually burning 
 or not. A cinder differs from an ash 
 in being capable of furtlier combus- 
 tion or ignition, and from embers in 
 being separated from the burning 
 mass. 
 
 ASK. Request. Beo. Beseech. 
 Supplicate. Emukat. Imploiie. 
 Solicit. 
 
 To Ask (A. S. axcian) is to seek to 
 obtain by words. But the character 
 of these words may vary from the 
 humblest entreaty to a demand. Its 
 further sense of obtaining information 
 by words of inquiry is not here con- 
 sidered. It is the simplest and 
 broadest tei-m for making a request. 
 It implies no particular sort of rela- 
 tionship, as of superiority' or inferior- 
 ity between parties. The master asks 
 the servant, and the servant the mas- 
 ter, to do a thing. It is the ordinary 
 term for expressing ordinary require- 
 ments. 
 
 " And I beseech you come again to-morrow. 
 What shall yoa ask of me that I'll deny, 
 That honour saved may upon asking give ? " 
 Shakespeare, 
 
 Request (Lat. rtqun^re, part. 
 leqnmtus) is a more polite word for 
 die same thing. Nevertheless the 
 latter is sometimes used with an im- 
 plied sense of authority, amounting 
 virtually to a command. Request is 
 not a sti'ong term, carrying with it 
 neither urgency of want nor vehe- 
 mency of word. 
 
 " Requesting him to accept the same 
 in good part as a testimony and witness of 
 '.he" goo<l hearts, zeal, and tenderness 
 "cW rds him iind his country." — Hack- 
 
 To Beg (0. E. beggen, thought to 
 06 a contraction of A. S. bed-ec-ian, 
 and so a frequentative of bid) is more 
 earnest; and, except when used in a 
 kind of irony, is the act of an equal 
 or an inferior, as request may be ot an 
 equal or a superior. To beg is not a 
 term of marked character. We may 
 beg boldly or timidly, but in any case 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 123 
 
 some degree of dependence is in- 
 volved. The term beg is a useful 
 one when the speaker wishes to com- 
 bine impressiveness of entreaty with 
 deference or respect. 
 
 "In begging oiher inferior things it may 
 become us to be reserved, indiffeient, and 
 modest ; but about these matters wherein 
 all our felicity is extremely concerned, it 
 were a folly to be slack or timorous."— 
 Barrow. 
 
 Neither ask, request, nor beg, are 
 so strong as Beseech {be- and O. E. 
 sechen, to seek). To beseech and to 
 Entreat (O. Fv.entraiter, to treat oj) 
 are much the same, but beseech be- 
 longs more to feeling, enti-eat to ar- 
 gument. We entreat an equal by 
 what lie knows, feels, or can under- 
 stand ; we beseech a superior by his 
 goodness or his greatness. There is 
 condescension when we entreat an in- 
 ferior, as a father may entreat a son 
 to be more diligent for his own sake. 
 This is to urge on grounds of affection 
 and argument combined. 
 
 " The servant therefore fell down and 
 worshipped him, prostrated himself at his 
 master's feet, and in the most moving terms 
 besought him, saying, ' Have patience with 
 me and I will pay thee all.' " — Bishop 
 Porte us. 
 " So well he woo'd her, and so well he 
 
 wrought her 
 With fair entreaty and sweet blandish 
 ment." Spexskr. 
 
 To Supplicate (Lat. suppticare, 
 lit. to ask with bended ki.ees) and to 
 Implore (Lat. implovare, to beg with 
 tears) both imply exti'eme distress and 
 earnestness; but we may implore 
 equals, we supplicate only superiors; 
 for supplication denotes abject hu- 
 mility, as in a slave, or an offender, 
 supplicating for pardon. We com- 
 monly beseech on the ground of per- 
 sonal influence, as in the phrase, '* 1 
 beseech you for my sake." In im- 
 ploring we sti-ive to move the feelings 
 as of pity, sympathy, or compassion. 
 
 To Solicit (Lat. solllcttare) has 
 lost its classic force oi' causing anii- 
 etUy though it appears prominently 
 iti the cognate aajective, solicitoti$. 
 To solicit, with us, is to ask with a 
 feeling of strong appreciation or inte- 
 rest in what we ask, and implies what 
 a superior only can grant, or at least 
 what we can receive only from the 
 
124 
 
 SYNONYMS [aspect] 
 
 favour of another. We solicit not 
 matters of vital importance, as the ne- 
 cessaries of life, but rather that which 
 is pleasant, desirable, or advantageous 
 to procure, such, for instance, as 
 places of trust and emelument. 
 
 To Crave (A. S. crajian) is to ask 
 w^ith eagerness so as to gratify a de- 
 sire or satisfy a natural want. It is 
 the expression of a longing oi. the 
 part of one who is reduced to the 
 condition of a suppliant by the 
 urgency of that for which he asks. 
 
 " Whose mercy the most opulent of as all 
 must one day supplicate with all the ear- 
 nestness of abject mendicity." — Knox. 
 " With piercing words and pitifal implore'^ 
 Spenser. 
 
 " To solicit by labour what might be 
 rarished by arms was esteemed unworthy 
 of the German spirit." — Gibbon. 
 
 " For my past crimes my forfeit life re- 
 ceive. 
 No pity for my sufferings here I crave." 
 RoWE 
 
 ASPECT. View. 
 V^iBw (Fr. vue) is subjective, being 
 the application of the faculty of sight 
 to an object considerable or complex. 
 
 Aspect (Lat. aspictre, part, aspectus, 
 to look at) is objective, being the way 
 in which the thing contemplated pre- 
 sents itself to our view. I have a 
 view from my window. This view 
 may have a fertile, a barren, a 
 harsh, or a smiling aspect. The as- 
 pect is often of an individual object 
 in detail. A thing may have a sin- 
 gular aspect. The view is permanent, 
 the aspect variable. I have fi-om the 
 same window a view of the sea ; on 
 no two successive days is its aspect 
 the same. A false view is an en-or 
 of one's own observation. A false 
 aspect is a deceptive character in the 
 object contemplated, though it is 
 possible that something in ourselves 
 may so invest it. Passion and pre- 
 judice may be said to lead to false 
 views of things, or to present things 
 under false aspects. 
 
 ASSliMBLY. Assemblage. 
 Group. Collectiox. Gathering. 
 Company. Meeting. 
 
 Assembly and Assemiilage are from 
 O. Fr. o:ssembler, L. Lat. asstmillare, 
 10 oring together. They are both ap- 
 plicable to persons, and Assemblage 
 
 to inanimate objects also. Where they 
 refer to persons, Assimblv implies a 
 voluntary. Assemblage an involun- 
 tary, collection. A number of persons 
 skating on the ice is not an assembly 
 because, though their employment is 
 common, their object is not. The 
 assemblage might become an as- 
 sembly, should some topic of interest 
 suggest itself to be discussed. As 
 the objects in an assemblage possess 
 a certain amount of conspicuousness, 
 assemblage is said of illustrious, as- 
 sembly of ordinary, persons. In a 
 large assembly may be often observed 
 a striking assemblage of characters, 
 countenances, figures, dresses. 
 
 " He scarce had finish'd, when such mur 
 
 murs fill'd 
 Th' assembly, as when hollow rocks retain 
 The sound of blustering winds, which all 
 
 night long 
 Have roused the sea." Milton. 
 
 " In sweet assemblage every blooming 
 
 grace 
 Fix Love's bright reign on Teraminta's 
 
 face." Fenton. 
 
 Group (Fr. groupe) is applied to 
 objects both animate and inanimate. 
 A group is an assemblage of no con- 
 siderable number, regarded with an 
 eye to its configuration, or such rela- 
 tions of the parts as might be noticed 
 for their artistic effect in colour or 
 form. A group has a completeness 
 of outline which isolates it from sur- 
 rounding objects. 
 
 " Du Fresney tells ns that the figures of 
 the groups must not be all on a sioe ; that 
 is, with their faces and bodies all turned 
 the same way, but must contrast, each other 
 by their several positions." — Dryden. 
 
 Collection (Lat. collectionem) ex- 
 presses a number of persons or things 
 brought together by some force ex- 
 ternal to themselves, which has made 
 them one either as to unity of nature, 
 or by identity of place, while As- 
 sembly denotes a meeting purposely 
 made and purposely sustained. A 
 collection of persons may be the re- 
 sult of a common object, or it may be 
 fortuitous. Assemblage points rather 
 to the unity of the time and place at 
 which the gathering occui-s ; Col- 
 LEciiON to the variety and diversity of 
 quarters from which the component 
 members of it hare come. Collection 
 
[assert] 
 
 DlSCKIMINATED. 
 
 125 
 
 may be fortuitous aud mechanical. 
 Refuse substances are collected at tlie 
 mouths of rivers. 
 
 "Thej (the Collects) are generally so 
 exactly snited to them (the Epistle and 
 Gcspel) that some think they take their 
 name from being collected out of tho^e parts 
 of Holy Writ. liut the use of the word in 
 the Bible and the Fathers being applied to 
 denote the gathering together of the people 
 in religions assemblies, thence some ritnal- 
 ists say the Collects are prayers made 
 among the people collected or gathered to- 
 
 f tether. Others think they are named Col- 
 ects because of their comprehensive brevity, 
 because the priest in tlum sums up the de- 
 siies 'if the jeuple in a little room. I may 
 add in this variety my own conjecture that 
 these prayei-s have been named Collects 
 from their being used so near the time of 
 making the collection before the Holy 
 Communion." — CoMBES. 
 
 Meeting, a body met together 
 (A.S. TO^raH,;omeef,ofefain),isofmanj 
 persons, though in its abstract sense 
 of a coming together, it may refer to 
 two only. It conveys tlie idea of in- 
 volunt'iry union, or of persons finding 
 themselves together. It also implies 
 more sti-ongly the idea of a specific 
 point or locality at which the meeting 
 takes place. Wliere a meeting of 
 persons has been purposely convened. 
 It is still a term of less dignity than 
 assembly. We speak of the meeting 
 of Parliament in the general sense of 
 the reunion of its members. Parlia- 
 ment itself may be regarded as an 
 august assembly. Local matters are 
 discussed at local meetings. A meet- 
 ing conveys also the idea of fewer 
 numbers a nd greater familiarity among 
 its constituents than nssembly. 
 
 " Understand this Stethva to be the 
 meeting of the British poets and minstrels 
 for trial of their poems aud music sufli- 
 ciences, where the best had his reward, a 
 silver harp." — Drayton. 
 
 ASSERT. Affirm. Asseverate. 
 Aver. Avouch, Protest. 
 
 To Assert (Lat. assirere, to take to 
 mteself) and Affirm (Lat. affinnare) 
 both denote the making of a state- 
 ment, but Assert, true to its origin, is 
 8ubjective,AFFiRM objective in its cha- 
 racter. I assert a thing as a truth, or 
 as a conviction of my own mind. I 
 affirm it as a proposition. Assert 
 therefore has a metaphysical, affirm a 
 logical foree. I as.sert boldly, 1 affirm 
 
 distinctl3% The opposite to Assert 
 would be to suppose or to imply. 
 The opposite to Affirm is to deny ; 
 or again, we confute an assertion and 
 deny an affirmation. A man may af- 
 firm a thing because he would rather 
 do so than deny it, or he may affirm it 
 for the sake of discussion upon it. 
 But when he asserts it he takes upon 
 himself the consequences of his state- 
 ment. Hence bold assertions com- 
 monly indicate a combimition of ig- 
 norance and rashness. In delibera- 
 tive assemblies a resolution of fact is 
 said to be affirmed, not asserted bv 
 the meeting, because the moral re- 
 sponsibility of individuals is not the 
 idea of it, but a proposition unani- 
 mously assented to. 
 
 " I can hardly believe that anyone wil 
 assert that a parcel of mere matter left al- 
 together to itself could ever of itself begin 
 to move. If there is any such bold asst-rter 
 let him fix his eyes upon some lump of 
 mutter, fjr instance, a stone, piece of tim- 
 ber, or a clod cleared of all animals, and 
 peruse it well." — Woolastox. 
 
 " If one writer shall affirm that virtue 
 added to faith is sufiicient to make a Chris- 
 tian, and another shall zealously deny this 
 projiosition, they seem to differ widely in 
 words, and perhaps they may both really 
 agree in sentiment, if by the word virtue 
 the affirmer intends our whole duty to God 
 and man, and the denier by the word virtue 
 means only courage, or at most our duty 
 toward our neighbour, without including in 
 the idea of it the duty which we owe tc 
 God." — Watts' Lo,jic. 
 
 To Asseverate (Lat. as.&cvivare') is 
 to assert or affirm in a peculiarly ear- 
 nest and forcible manner for the pur- 
 pose of inducing conviction thereby, 
 or possibly as being one's self under 
 the influence of energetic persuasion. 
 
 " I will come, and some of you shall see 
 me coming. Can it be supposed that in 
 such an asseveration the word to come may 
 bear two different senses? " — Harlky. 
 
 Aver {Vr.averer, \.9.X.. ad-v'trare^vh 
 rus, true) is the more solemn, as asseve 
 rate is the more energetic term. I aver 
 that which I formally declare to be true. 
 To aver, in the technical language of 
 pleading, is to state what one is pre- 
 pared to prove. It belongs, therefoie, 
 to matters of knowledge and fact. 1 
 aver that a thing is so, which I have 
 no right to do unless 1 am prepared 
 with pusitiye demoi is t ration for it. 
 
(26 
 
 " I shall only aver what myselt have 
 Bometimes observed of a duck when closely 
 pursued by a water-dog. She not only dives 
 to save herself, but when she comes up again, 
 brings not her whole body above water, 
 but only her bill and part of her head, 
 holding the i-est underneath, that so the 
 dog, who in the meantime turns round and 
 looks about him, may not espy her till she 
 have recovei-ed bi-eath." — Ray. 
 
 To Protest (Lat. proteslarij to de- 
 clare pxibliclxi, to protest) is to aver in 
 a serious and public manner, indicat- 
 ing not only the truth of the thing, but 
 one's own sincerity in making the 
 statement. Protestation, when it is 
 relative, becomes antagonistic ; and so 
 the noun Protest has come to convey 
 the idea of a declaration against some 
 other thing or person ; but tins is acci- 
 dental, not essential, to its meaning, 
 which is o})en and solemn declaration 
 with the energy of sincerity, expres- 
 sive of the importance as well as the 
 truth of the thing said. It belongs 
 commonly to cases in which the indi- 
 vidual is, as it were, on trial, or where 
 he writes to obtain credit for purity of 
 motive. Affirmation, averment, and 
 assertion, are of facts generally; pro- 
 testation is of such facts as are closely 
 connected with one's self, and so mat- 
 ters even more of feeling than of fact. 
 One protests that he has or has not 
 takep such a part in a transaction, or 
 that he was innocent, or that he is in- 
 fluenced by certain feelings, as of 
 sympathy or regret in regard to it. 
 Protestations sometimes stand in con- 
 tradiction to actions, and seem to ex- 
 press one motive whil? they indicate 
 another. 
 
 " Collecting an army on the borders of 
 Normandy, he protests that his measures 
 are pacific." — Landon. 
 
 Avouch (Fr. a, i.e. ad, to, and png. 
 vouch, Lat.vocare) is to make a declara- 
 tion, not only in a positive manner, but 
 in favour of some person, or in main- 
 tenance of some cause. 'l"o avouch a 
 thing is to place one's self in the posi- 
 tion of a witness for it. So Shakespeare 
 uses the noun Avouch in the sense of 
 simple evidence. 
 
 "Before my God I might not this believe 
 Without the sensible and true avouch 
 Of mine own eyes." 
 
 SYNONYMS [assistant] 
 
 ASSISTANT. Coadjutor. 
 
 Assistant ( Fr. assist er, to assist) and 
 CoAVjvTon^Lat.coadjutor, a colleague) 
 differ only in quality. The menial 
 servant, or one much younger, may be 
 an assistant, but the coadjutor is in a 
 measure on a level with him whom he 
 aids, and with whom he is associated 
 in some honorable office. The assis- 
 tant aids by doing many things which 
 the principal does not do. The co- 
 adjutor aids by doing the same kind 
 of things, and so sharing the burden 
 of duty. 
 
 " In one respect, I'll thy assistant be." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " The plebeian acdiles were chosen out of 
 the common, and were in some respects a 
 sort of coadjutor to the Tribunes."— Mel- 
 moth. 
 
 ASSOCIATION. Society. Com- 
 munity. 
 
 All these terms have both an ab- 
 stract and a concrete signification. It 
 is in the latter that they are here com- 
 pared. 
 
 Association ( Lat. crss'tic tare, to make 
 a companion oj') is literally the institu- 
 tion of companionship. This may be 
 between two or more. An association, 
 as compared with a Society, is less 
 strictly organized. It is the result of 
 a common interest in an objector sub- 
 ject. It springs from a feeling that 
 the efforts of individuals are likely to 
 be more efficient when they are co- 
 operative, and expresses a stage short 
 of that which is expressed by society. 
 Societies are in the main literary, 
 scientific, moral, philantliropical, or 
 religious. In the society the tentative 
 condition of the association has been 
 passed, and it has grown into an insti- 
 tution upon a large and public scale. 
 So we speak of the Zoological Society, 
 the Humane Society, the Society for 
 the Propagation of the Cospel. In 
 its widest sense society is co-extensive 
 with the human race. 
 
 A Community (^hat. comtntimldtem) 
 
 is a society having reciprocal rights, 
 
 privileges, interests, manners, and 
 
 customs ; in short, a common way of 
 
 ! living together. This may be on a 
 
 j large or a small scale, beyond that of 
 
 I the family. Some communities are 
 
[attachment] discriminated. 
 
 127 
 
 states; some are like large families, as 
 in the case of a religious fraternity. 
 " Associations of mysterious sense, 
 Againstjbut seeming for tiie king's defence." 
 Dryden. 
 
 " God, having designed man for a sociable 
 ereatui'e, madehim not only with an inclina- 
 tion and under a necessity to have fellow- 
 ship with those of his own kind, but fur- 
 nished him also with language, which was 
 to be the greater instrument and common 
 tie of society."— LoCKB. 
 
 ASYLUM. Refuge. Shei.ier. 
 Retreat. 
 
 Asylum (l^at. lisylum, Gr. a<>Z\ov, 
 neut. adj., safe from violence) signi- 
 fied orignially a place whose sanctity 
 protected it from lawlessness and war. 
 Asa synonym with the others given 
 above, the idea expressed is more per- 
 manent. 
 
 The Refuge (Fr. refuge, Lat. rc- 
 fugiiim), the Shelter (connected 
 with shield) affords some protection 
 against specific violence or hostile 
 force, as the storm-tost ship seeks 
 shelter from the storm, or men and 
 women in old times sought shelter in 
 monasteries from the lawlessness and 
 violence of the times. 
 
 A Retreat (Fr. retraite) is a placP 
 where we may find rest, quiet, or re- 
 tirement ; as an escape from toils, a 
 cessation of responsibilities, or an 
 ouportunity for leisurely reflexion, as 
 tfie man of active and public life loves 
 some rural retreat for his old age or in 
 the intervals of work. The term asy- 
 lum is not used but in an honourable 
 sense, which is not the case with 
 refuge. The contemplative find an 
 asylum in solitude. Robbers and wild 
 beasts have their places of refuge. 
 The haunts of idlers, gamblers,thieves, 
 and vagabonds are not called asylums. 
 Certain sacred places, as churches or 
 religious institutions, had, and in 
 some countries still have, a right of 
 asylum ; that is, the criminal or ac- 
 cused who could fiy to them might 
 claim not to be removed. Of this 
 character were the Mosaic cities of 
 refuge. 
 
 " Earth has no other asylum for them 
 than its own cold bosom." — SouTHEY. 
 
 •• The hapless unbeliever, while dis- 
 ordered nature is sounding in his ears, hath 
 nowliere to fly for r^uge from its terrors." 
 -Wakburton. 
 
 " That pleasing shade they sought, a soft 
 
 retreat 
 From sudden April showers, a shelter from 
 
 the heat." Dryden. 
 
 ATTACHMENT. Affection. 
 Tenderness. Fondness. Love 
 Liking. 
 
 A feeling of love may be expressed by 
 Attachment (Fr. uttacher, to fasten) 
 or Affection (hat. affectionem). Af- 
 fection is the state of one who feels 
 towards another with warmth and 
 tenderness, Attacbment, that of one 
 who is bound to another by strong and 
 lasting ties, A flection may spring 
 from natural relationship, as the aftec- 
 tion of a child to its parent, or from 
 personal predilection, as in the com- 
 panionship of the purest friends. At- 
 taclnnent is the result of circumstance, 
 ase.^-. association, congeniality of dis- 
 position, tastes, pursuits, or kindness 
 shown. Afi'ection is more a thing ot 
 sentiment. Attachment involves prin- 
 ciple also. A strong affection, a lasting 
 or faithful attachment. So strongly 
 does tlie element of habituation belong 
 to attachment, that the term is applic- 
 able to many things to which ail'ection 
 '.s inapplicable, as the memory of 
 another, one's own principles, pro- 
 fession, country, or even the locality 
 in which one resides, or j)laces of 
 favourite resort. A flection is attach- 
 ment combined with a higher degree 
 of warmth. It is also a Avider term. At- 
 tachment is not felt towards inferiors, 
 while aflection may be felt towards 
 all. I feel aflection towards a favourite 
 dog, which is strong in proportion to 
 his attaclmient to his master. A 
 mother feels affection, but hardly 
 attachment to her child. 
 
 " Conjugal affection, 
 Prevailing over fear and timorous doubt." 
 MiLTOX. 
 
 " There is no man but is more attached tc 
 one particular set or scheme of opinions in 
 philosophy, politics, and religion, than he 
 is to another. I mean, if he hath employed 
 his thought at all about them. The ques- 
 tion we should examine then is, hew came 
 we by those attachments? "— Masox. 
 
 Tenderness (Fr, tendre, tender) 
 has, as a synonym in this connexion, 
 its active and its passive side. In the 
 latter it has the force of tender-hearted 
 
128 
 
 that 18, possessing a seiisitiveness of 
 syinpatlij to an extreme degree, whicli 
 would shrink from inflicting, and can 
 with difficulty bear the si^lit of 
 Buftering. It is in this sense ^lassive 
 benevolence. In the formei it is a 
 quality of affection or a mode in which 
 it is shown. Its characterisac is tlie 
 treatment of others witli gentleness, 
 delicacy, thoughtfulness, and care, 
 entering into feelings, anticipating 
 wants, supplying the smal-.est plea- 
 sures, and studious of comforts. It is 
 tlie accompaniment of affection in its 
 work of tending the weak and depen- 
 dent, the aged or the sick. It belongs 
 to natures refined as well as loving, 
 and possessing that considerateness of 
 which finer dispositions only are 
 capable. 
 
 " Fatherly fond, and tenderly severe." 
 Smart. 
 
 Fondness (0. E.fo7men,tobe foolish, 
 ofwhich verhj'onned is the part.) retains 
 so much of its original meaning as not 
 to apply to any profound attachment 
 or to any predilection for what is 
 lofty or important. It is applicable 
 to inanimate as well as animate things. 
 In regard to persons, it is the caressing 
 expression of a feeling more demon- 
 strative than deep. VV^e may have a 
 fondness for certain pursuits which 
 are of no grave or high character, 
 not scientific, e.g. or philosophical. 
 In attachment and affection there may 
 be self-sacrifice ; in fondness there is 
 eelf indulgence. 
 
 "The profusion of ornaments with which 
 they are loaded are marks of her continual 
 fondness for dress." — Walpolk. 
 
 Love (A. S. lufu) is the most gene- 
 ral of all these terms. It includes 
 natural affection as of parent and child, 
 desire and delight in one of the oppo- 
 site sex, strong and devoted liking, 
 and, in a more general way, good-will 
 and kindness, which desires the happi- 
 ness of its object without any strong 
 feeling of personal tendency. Affec- 
 tion is towards objects not far removed 
 from one's self in nature and circum- 
 stances, so that it implies either com- 
 munity or equality of state. So though 
 man may love God, it would be un- 
 u&tural to 8ay that man could have 
 
 SYNONYMS [attack] 
 
 nffection towards God. Affection 
 longs to benefit, to tend, to protect, 
 l.ove aspires also to obtain and enjoy 
 the mere presence of its object. Love 
 is such a strong mental or sensual 
 drawing to an object as varies in 
 every clegree of purity and right ; 
 affection is more orderly, regular, and 
 constant, less rapturous and passion- 
 ate. 
 
 " In peace love tunes the shepherd's reed ; 
 In war he mounts the warrior's steed; 
 In halls in gay attire is seen. 
 In hamlets dances on the green. 
 Love rules the court, the camp, the grove, 
 And men below and saints above, 
 For love is heaven, and heaven is love." 
 Scott. 
 
 Liking (A. S. lician, to please) 
 expresses that kind of inclination 
 of mind or feeling towards objects 
 animate or inanimate which flows 
 from congeniality of nature. In re- 
 gard to the former, it implies no 
 strong feeling of affection or love (to 
 which, indeed, it stands opposed), noi 
 any disinterested desire of the welfare 
 or happiness of another. It ha.s, like 
 fondness, an element of selfishness, 
 for we like what gives us ])leasure. 
 Liking may be grounded on very 
 different qualities from those which 
 excite love. Love involves some de- 
 gree of admiration, though admiration 
 is not in itself love ; hut we may like 
 persons for amiable qualities, even 
 when those qualities betray weak- 
 ness. 
 
 " The men, though grave. 
 Eyed them, and let their eyes 
 Rove without rein till in the amorous net 
 Fast caught, they liked, and each liis liking 
 chose." Milton. 
 
 ATTACK. Assail. Assault. En- 
 counter. 
 
 Of these Attack (Fr. aitaquer , 
 " really the same word as attacher." — 
 Bracue 1 ) denotes a falling upon with 
 force, whether the object be a perso- 
 nal enemy or an inanimate material. 
 It may be witli material weapons, or 
 with words and the movements of con- 
 troversy. We may attack a man's 
 person, his reputation, or his opinions. 
 The attack may be violent or insidious ; 
 and that which is involved in the idea 
 of attack is premeditated harm, not 
 necessari^ly commencing witli open 
 
[attiicde] 
 
 violence. Some attacks are opened 
 by stratagem. To attack is to perform 
 the first act of hostility. 
 
 " Henry V. drew up his army on a nar- 
 row ground between two woods, which 
 guarded each flank, and he patiently ex- 
 pected in that posture the attack of the 
 enemy."— Hume. 
 
 To Assail (Fr. assailtir) is to attack 
 in a vehement, sudden, and energetic 
 manner, and often involves the idea of 
 repeated minor efforts of attack. It 
 denotes less powerful but more brisk 
 action than attack. Those who are at- 
 tacked naturally think of self-defence; 
 those who are assailed are often so 
 disconcerted by the novelty and variety 
 of the attack, as not to know what 
 course to pursue. 
 
 In Assault {Fr.assant, O. Fr. assalt) 
 the idea is that of a hand-to-hand 
 approach ; in Assail we rather imply 
 tlae use of missile weapons. Moral 
 attack is expressed by Assail, physical 
 by Assault. We attack a man's cha- 
 racter when we speak evil of it ; we 
 assail him with abuse, irony, epithets, 
 as if words were like missiles thrown 
 at him. 
 
 Encounter (0. Fr. enco,i':rer) is a 
 measured attack, though the occasion 
 of the meeting may have been acci- 
 dental. It is the measuring of strength 
 between two parties, while an attack 
 or an assault may possibly be borne 
 without resistance. While Aitack and 
 Assail, too, may be used as against in- 
 animate things, Encounter implies 
 properly a struggle between living 
 beings. 
 *'A thousand battles have assailed thy 
 
 banks." By RON. 
 
 Or, in the moral sense : 
 
 "The papal authority was steadily though 
 gradually assailed."— UxL.'LA.M, 
 
 The assaulting of the papal authority 
 would have implied an unlawful or 
 insulting violence which was not 
 meant. Attack and Encounter have 
 often the sense of coming unex- 
 pectedly upon what is dangerous, and 
 are even extended to what is difficult. 
 We are said to encounter not only 
 perils, but obstacles. An encounter 
 involves movement and counter-move- 
 ment. Two knights or two ships may 
 encounter each other, but the attack 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 120 
 
 or assault made by an army upon the 
 walls of a castle is not an encounter . 
 this takes place subsequently between 
 the besiegers and the besieged. 
 "Ensnared, assaulted, overcome, led 
 
 bound." Milton. 
 
 " Full jolly knight he seem'd, and fair did 
 
 sit. 
 As one for knightly giusts and fierce en- 
 counters fit," Spenser 
 
 ATTENTIVE. Intent. 
 
 These words, formed from the Lat. 
 tendercy to stretch, are, the one passive, 
 or indicative of a state, the other ac- 
 tive. I am Attentive whenmyearor 
 my mind is in an attitude of listening, 
 and I am ready for any impression 
 that may be made upon either. I am 
 Intent when 1 am in an attitude of 
 being stretched forward toward a 
 thing in eagerness, premeditation, 
 and desire. I am attentive to receive, 
 1 am intent upon doin^. He who is 
 attentive allows an object to be pro- 
 posed to him by another ; he who is 
 intent has proposed one to himself. 
 He who is not attentive is heedless, 
 he who is not intent is indifferent and 
 inactive. I am attentive to the voice 
 of persons, to the claims of duty. I 
 am intent on a certain work or design, 
 on reaching a certain point, on gain- 
 ing a proposed end. 
 
 ATTITUDE. Posture. 
 
 Attitude, which word, as "con- 
 nected with the painter's art," came 
 from Italy: Skeat, Etym. Diet. 
 (It. attitudhie, Lat. wptttuduiem), is 
 closely allied to Posture (Fr. posiure, 
 Lat. pMtura). But posture is gene- 
 rally natural ; attitude is studied, either 
 for the general purpose of looking 
 graceful, or as illustrative of some 
 sentiment, intention, action, subject, or 
 words. Attitude is a term of greater 
 dignity than Posture. It is more 
 significant. If Attitude have no mean- 
 ing beyond itself it is mere Posture. 
 It is evident that, according as the 
 uppermost idea is the mere placement 
 of the body, or tlie reasoji ot its bein^ 
 so placed, the same thing is regarded 
 as a posture or as an attitude. The 
 posture of the suppliant is an attitude 
 of supplication. Positions of the body 
 whicn are forced, odd, or ungainly , are 
 called postures. Those which w« 
 
130 
 
 SYNONYMS [attractions] 
 
 noble, agreeable, and expressive, in 
 which the expression of the counte- 
 nance aids the pose of the limbs and 
 bodj, are called attitudes. Postures 
 often are to the body what grimaces 
 are to the countenance. Attitude is 
 to the figure what expression is to the 
 face. The clown deals in ridiculous 
 postures, the tragic actor assumes 
 dignified attitudes. Yet that which 
 is an attitude fit for certain occasions 
 would become a ridiculous posture if 
 exhibited on other. On meeting with 
 something very startling, one often 
 assumes unconsciously an attitude of 
 surprise. It is painful to keep the 
 body long in the same posture. The 
 attitude is the posture with expression. 
 
 " A particular advantage of this attitude 
 so judiciously assigned to Virtue by ancient 
 masters, is, that it expresses as well her as- 
 piring effort or ascent towards the stars of 
 heaven as her victory and superiority over 
 fortune and the world."— SHAFTESBURr. 
 
 " He held his hand in a posture to show 
 that I must be carried as prisoner." — 
 Voyage to Lilliput. 
 
 ATTRACTIONS. Charms. 
 
 These terms are here regarded in 
 their application to personal appear- 
 ance and manners. Attractions (Lat. 
 attr actionem J a drawing together) is a 
 very general term. It may denote 
 what excites admiration in the person, 
 face, or figure. It is more physical 
 than Charms (Fr. charmes, Lat. car- 
 men, an incantation or charm). But 
 both one and the other extend beyond 
 the idea of merely physical beauty, 
 though some amount of this pro- 
 bably is implied in both. Attractions 
 owe to the mind the greater part of 
 their force, while charms involve of 
 necessity amiability of character from 
 which they materially spring. A well- 
 formed figure, bright looks, animation, 
 wit, gaiety, coquetry, may add to fe- 
 male attractions, or are enough to con- 
 stitute them. A kindly smile, an ex- 
 pression of sensibility, candour, sim- 
 plicity, unaffectedness, have their 
 charms. Men are smitten by atti-ac- 
 tions, touched by charms. Attractions 
 may be helped out by study or art, 
 charms are never so effective as when 
 they are perfectly natural. Women 
 ia Jove, it. has fceer said, under-value 
 
 their allurements, neglect their at- 
 tractions, and dare not count upon 
 their charms. On the other hand, she 
 who wishes to captivate should forget 
 the first, make the most of the second, 
 and leave the third to tlieraselves. The 
 term Charms expresses something 
 more pure than allurements, and more 
 morally estimable than attractions. 
 
 ATTRACTIVE. Alluring. In- 
 viTiNG. Engaging. 
 
 That is Attractive (Lat. attracti- 
 vus) which draws attention, interest, 
 observation, admiration, and the like, 
 in a moderate degree. It is an epithet 
 both of things and of persons. That 
 is Alluring (Fr. a leurre, to the bait) 
 which attracts the fancy, the interest, 
 or the desires so strongly as to draw 
 away from other matters, and to 
 create a wish for more and more en- 
 joyment — as for instance the plea- 
 sures of society, which often lead 
 on to a craving for more and more 
 excitement. As Attract is a milder 
 term than Allure, so it does not con- 
 vey in so marked a way the idea of 
 insidiousness in the influence. One 
 may be attracted by what strikes the 
 eye, the imagination, the ear, or the un- 
 derstanding; one is allured by what 
 gives, or is believed to give, enjoyment 
 or pleasure. Though persons, as well 
 as things, may allure, yet the epithet 
 Alluring belongs to the latter. In- 
 viting (Lat. inv'itdre) is not employed 
 of persons, while Engaging (Fr. en- 
 gager) is employed of persons exclu- 
 sively. That is inviting which draws 
 us by a natural and inherent force of 
 persuasion over our movements and 
 actions to derive pleasure from it as a 
 source ; as fine weather is inviting — 
 that is, attracts us to go forth and en- 
 joy it. Engaging belongs to the dis- 
 Eosition and manners of persons, as 
 avingan unstudied power of winning 
 the est(;em or affection. The use of 
 Engaging, in this elliptical sense, is 
 modern. It is, of course, equivalent 
 to engaging — that is, enlisting or 
 securing — the regard. The whole 
 phrase is thus given by Blair : — 
 
 " The present, whatever it be, seldom 
 etigages our attention so much as what is to 
 
[augur] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 131 
 
 That is attractive which awakens 
 interest. That is alluring which 
 awakens desire. That is inviting which 
 prompts to take and enjoy. That is 
 engaging which takes possession of 
 the mind and heart. 
 
 " Cato's Sonl 
 Sbiues out iu every thing she acts and 
 
 speaks. 
 While waning mildness and attractive 
 
 smiles 
 Dwell on her looks, and \nth becoming 
 
 gi-ace 
 Soften the rigour of her father's virtues." 
 , Addison. 
 
 *' Though caution'd oft her slippery path to 
 
 shun 
 Hope still with promised joys allicred them 
 
 on ; 
 And while they listen'd to her wmning 
 
 lore 
 The softer scenes of peace could please no 
 
 more." Falconer. 
 
 " If he can bat dress up a temptation to 
 look invitingly, the busmess is done." — 
 Shakp. 
 
 AVARICE. Cupidity. Covet- 
 
 OUSNESS. 
 
 AvAniCE (Lat. fifvarYfia) is employed 
 of the specific passion for money; 
 while Cupidity (Lat. ciipiditdtem) and 
 CovETOUSNESs (O. Fr. covoiter, from 
 Lat. ciipid^tare) are used, the former 
 of valuable possessions, the latter of 
 goods in the abstract. Hence one 
 may be said to be covetous of rank or 
 celebrity, to which both avarice and 
 cupidity would be inapplicable. The 
 avaricious man is inordinately desirous 
 of gain. He heaps up and cannot 
 bear to part with his wealth. The 
 covetous man desires property, wealth, 
 or possessions, especially when he sees 
 them in the hands of others. The 
 covetous, though eager to obtain 
 money, are not so desirous of retain- 
 ing it. The same man may be covetous 
 and a spendthrift, but the avaricious 
 are not fi*ee spenders. Cupidity is 
 the eager love of gain, avarice the sel- 
 fish love, covetousness the unjust love. 
 
 '• To desire money for its own sake, and 
 to hoard it up, is avarice, an unnatural 
 passion that disgraces and entirely debases 
 the soul." — Beattie. 
 
 " For that tyrant, blinded and glutted 
 with the cupiditie of ruling and sovereignty, 
 commanded Edward my brother and me 
 to be slain and despatched out of this mor- 
 tal life ; " Henry F//— Hall. 
 
 " The word in Greek is irXfov«fi«, which pro- 
 perly signifies covetousness, or an intempe- 
 rate, ungoverned love of riches." — LoCKK. 
 
 AVENGE. Revenge. Vindicatb. 
 
 These are all derivations of the 
 Lat. vhidicare, which, in the case of 
 the two former, have come through the 
 French. The idea common to all is 
 that of taking up a cause against 
 opposition or wron^. Grammatically 
 there is a difference iu the ways in 
 which the Avords are employed. I 
 avenge myself upon another, or I 
 avenge another, or I avenge a wrong. 
 I revenge myself upon another. I 
 vindicate, not persons, but their acts, 
 rights, claims, and the like. To 
 Avenge is to inflict pain for the sake 
 of retaliation, either one's own or 
 another's. This may be an act of 
 justice. To Revenge is simply to in- 
 flict pain for pain, or wrong for wrong, 
 to satisfy vindictive desire. To Vin- 
 dicate is always presumed to be an 
 act of generosity and justice. The 
 infliction of pain may come of it, but 
 this is not the object sought, which is 
 to reinstate what has been oppressed 
 or misrepresented, in the way of 
 claims, rights, causes, statements, 
 principles, conduct, of persons. We 
 avenge others, we revenge ourselves. 
 To vindicate is an act of spontaneous 
 justice, to revenge of passionate re- 
 taliation. We avenge another's 
 wrongs and vindicate his rights. 
 
 " How httle reason this king had to im- 
 pute the death of Hotham to God's aveyige- 
 ment of his repulse at Hull may easily be 
 seen." — MiLTOK. 
 
 " Revenge is an insatiable desire to sacri- 
 fice every consideration of pity and hu- 
 manity to the principle of vindictive jus- 
 tice."— CoGAX. 
 
 "Yea, and we shall by daily experience 
 see in the world that if one proud man in- 
 jure or oppress an humble man, it is a thou- 
 sand to one another undertakes his patron- 
 age, defence, and vindication, and very 
 oftentimes is a means of his protection and 
 deliverance." — Hajle. 
 
 AUGUR. Presaoe. Forebode. 
 Betoken. Prognosticate. Portend. 
 
 The idea common to these terms is 
 that of declaring something fiiture 
 on the ground of some present indi- 
 cation. With the exception of Pre- 
 sage, in which its use in .-egard to 
 
132 
 
 persons seems somewhat forced, these 
 terms are equally employed of persons 
 and events or cu-cumstances. Augur 
 and Presage are peculiarly near 
 akin. Augurv (Lat. augurium) — 
 probably formed from the word arts, 
 a bird, and a root gnr = telling : cf. 
 Skt. gar, to shout, garr'ire, &c. — was 
 drawn originally from the song, flight, 
 or other action or condition of birds ; 
 whence the term augury has come to 
 be applied to specific conjecture con- 
 cerning future consequences. Pre- 
 sage (Lat. prasdgium) comes from 
 aaglre, that is, according to Cicero, 
 De Divin,, to perceive or discern acutely; 
 so that to presage is originally to be 
 wise beforehand — to declare facts be- 
 longing to the future. An augury is 
 an idea of anticipation. A presage is 
 a sign which announces the future. 
 Presage partakes more of the nature 
 of proof, augury of inference. The 
 augury is more in our minds, the 
 presage more in the object, though in 
 our minds also. The augury is the 
 more uncertain, the presage the more 
 ceitain indication. The former turns 
 upon the imaginary, speculative, and, 
 possibly, vague or frivolous ; the 
 latter upon what is real, certain, 
 probable, or known. Hence Augury 
 amounts to a more light or vague, 
 Presage to a gi*ave and seasonable, 
 conjecture. Beside these distinctions. 
 Presage relates to the fact or event, 
 AuGURYto the felicitous or infelicitous 
 nature of it. The presage is sure or 
 doubtftil, the augury happy or un- 
 happy. In the presage one considers 
 the nature, the force, the reality of its 
 relation to the thing pointed to ; in 
 augury the smiling or sinister look of 
 it, the evil or the good which is at- 
 tached to it, tlie agreeable or disas- 
 trous end to which it points. Hence 
 Presage points to more specific re- 
 sults than Augur. I augur well for 
 tje man when I see the ingenuous- 
 ness of the boy. On the other hand, 
 from his successes at school I presage 
 distinction in after life. 
 
 •' I shall do well: 
 Tho people love mt, and the sea is mine. 
 My powers ace crescent, and my auguring 
 
 hope 
 8aya it will eome to the fall." 
 
 Shakbspbarb 
 
 SYNONYMS [augur] 
 
 " Plotinus observes, in his third Ennead, 
 that the art of presaging is in some tort 
 the reading of natural letters denoting 
 order, and that so far forth as analogy 
 obtains in the universe there may be vati- 
 cination." — Stewart. 
 
 Forebode (fore, and A. S. bodian, to 
 command, to order) is, literally, to de 
 clare beforehand, but is by usage re- 
 stricted to the prescience or anticipa- 
 tion, rather than the verbal announce- 
 ment of evil. To forebode is vague, 
 dim, imaginative. Evils of no definite 
 character, or number or precise time 
 of appearing, are foreboded ; while 
 augur and presage belong equally to 
 evil and to good. 
 
 " Mj he&rt forebodes 1 ne'er shall see you 
 more/' Drydkn. 
 
 Betoken (A. S. ge-tacnian, to be- 
 token, signify) and Portend (Lat. 
 (pbrtendere, to indicate) relate to 
 tendencies of events, and do not 
 belong to any personal prediction. 
 They differ in being suggestive, the 
 former of ordinary, the latter of ex- 
 traordinary sequences, whether pre- 
 ternatural or not. The aspect of the 
 sky betokens rain, or portends a storm. 
 But Betoken differs from all the rest 
 in being not restricted to matters of 
 the future. A certain act of a moral 
 kind betokens the spirit which dic- 
 tated it. 
 
 " A de^vy cloud, and in the cloud a bow 
 Betokening peace." Milton. 
 
 " It was the opmion of the Gentiles that 
 if one victim proved faulty, or portended 
 e^'i], another victim might have a more pro- 
 pitious aspect, and be accepted."— JoRTiN. 
 
 To Prognosticate {ir^oyycuG-Tinoq, 
 prescient) is exclusively personal, and 
 an act of mind. It applies to gi-eat 
 and small forthcomings, which are, as 
 it were, heralded by certain charac- 
 teristic symptoms or indications, 
 which observation has shown to pre- 
 cede them. Prognostication is pre- 
 diction based upon indication, and 
 regulated by induction ; augury is 
 based upon external appearances com- 
 bined with conjecture. 
 
 " The causes of this inundation cannot 
 indeed be regular, and thei'efore their 
 effects not prognosticable like ecl\|>ce9."— 
 Brown's Vulgar Erron. 
 
[austerity] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 133 
 
 AUSPICIOUS. Propitious. Fa- 
 vourable. Genial. 
 
 The Auspicious ( Lat. ausptcium, lit. 
 bird-inspection) and Propitious (Lat. 
 vr6pitiui)&xe both forms ofthe Favour- 
 able (Lat. ^vordW/ is). Theterm Fa- 
 vourable la the most comprehensive 
 and the least specific in its meaning'. 
 It is applied to anything which tends 
 to further our designs, whether it be 
 *-he goodwill of men, or the forces of 
 nature, as a favourable wind ; or the 
 confluence of events, as a favourable 
 moment or circumstance. That is 
 propitious which is favourably in- 
 clined; that is auspicious which looks 
 favourable, and seems an indication 
 of coming good or success. Auspicious 
 cannot therefore be applied, like Pro- 
 pitious and Favourable, to persons, 
 but only to events and appearances. 
 That is auspicious which looks as if 
 success were at hand; that is pro- 
 pitious Avhich causes or grants suc- 
 cess ; that which inclines or is well 
 disposed to us, wliich aids, seconds, 
 or IS ready to serve us, is favourable. 
 That which is above us, or stronger 
 than we, yet ready to protect or assist 
 us, or having that tendency — which 
 comes to our succour, and having 
 power exerts it on our behalf, is pro- 
 pitious. The inefficient may be fa- 
 vourable ; the powerful only can be 
 propitious. Persons and circum- 
 stances show themselves every day 
 as favourable or unfavourable to us. 
 It is in trouble, danger, or enter- 
 prise, that men say they hope that 
 heaven or fortune may be propitious. 
 
 " Thz favourableness oi the present times 
 to all exertions in the canse of liberty." — 
 
 BURKB. 
 
 " Thus were their \i\es auspiciously began. 
 And thus \Tith secret care were carried on." 
 
 Dryden. 
 " And now to assuage the force of this new 
 
 flame 
 And make thee more propitious in my 
 
 need, 
 I mean to sing the praises of thy name, 
 And thy victorious conquest to areed." 
 Spenser. 
 
 The Genial (Lat. ghiialis: see Ge- 
 nius) is that which warms and fosters 
 into life, vivifies, and nurtures ; hence 
 filtering the natural enjoyment of life 
 — eympathizing wi'-h it and promoting 
 
 it. The genial is opposed to the chill- 
 ing in natural effects, and the austere 
 in human dispositions. The genial 
 breeze invigorates ; it freshens while 
 it warms. The genial disposition is 
 bright, warm, and pleasant, and has 
 pleasure in the pleasure of others. 
 Originally, genial meant natural, or 
 inborn ; " genial pride " was the pride 
 of a person's nature. 
 "For me kind nature wakes her genicU 
 power." PoPK. 
 
 AUSTERITY. Severity. Rigour. 
 Sternness. Strictness. 
 
 The primary meaning of Austere 
 (Lat. austirus) is harsh, like the fla- 
 vour of inferior or unripe fruit ; and 
 in this sense English writers have 
 sometimes used it, aa Bishop Harley: — 
 
 " The sweetness of the ripened fruit is 
 not the less delicious for the austerity of 
 itaaruder state." 
 
 Austerity is the result sometimes of 
 constitutional disposition ; sometimes 
 of a stern view of the nature of life ; 
 sometimes of both combined. When 
 austere is applied to looks, manners, 
 and the like, what is meant is, thnt they 
 are the looks, manners, and the like, of 
 an austere person — of one who takes a 
 somewhat sour view of the enjoyments 
 and relaxations, and dwells habitually 
 upon the duties and denials of exis- 
 tence. The austere man is accordingly 
 exacting upon himself as well as upon 
 others. An austere master speaks but 
 to command, and commands so as to 
 be obeyed. The countenance of the 
 austere seldom relaxes into a smile. 
 Those views, doctrines, principles, 
 precepts, habits, persons, which are 
 painful to the moral taste and unpa- 
 latable to human nature are austere. 
 Austerity shuns luxury and social en- 
 joyment, and courts self-mortification, 
 and preaches this to others. 
 " Such was the life the frugal Sabines led ; 
 So Remus and his brother God were bred. 
 From whom th'aiw^ere Etrurian virtue rose; 
 And this rude life our homely fathers chose." 
 Dkydex. 
 
 Severity (Lat. stvcritatem) is the 
 constitutional tendency to enforce the 
 rigour of discipline or retribution, 
 without being deterred by pity from 
 the execution of punishment ; or to 
 insist on such things as might be hard 
 
134 
 
 SYNONYMS [authoritative] 
 
 or painful to others. Austerity is a 
 
 J art of the nature ; severity a ten- 
 ency which appears in the treatment 
 of particular cases: hence severity 
 may be, on principle, resorted to in 
 specific instances. 
 
 " I am very apt to think that gi'eat 
 severity of punishment does but very little 
 good, nay, great harm in education." — 
 Locke. 
 
 Rigour (Lat. rtgorem, stiffness, se- 
 verity) is an unbending adherence to 
 rule or p]-inciple,an inflexibility which 
 renders inaccessible to allurement, 
 entreaty, or any force employed to 
 induce one to relax the strictness of 
 his adherence. Severity is a way of 
 thinking and judging. Rigour is a 
 way of punishing and exacting. The 
 severe man condemns, and excuses 
 not ; the rigorous man enforces, and 
 relaxes not. Rigour is seldom desi- 
 rable except where an example has to 
 be made. 
 
 " Capitation taxes are levied at little ex- 
 pense, and where they are rigorously ex- 
 arted, afford a very sure revenue to the 
 state."— Adam Smith. 
 
 SiRiCTNEss (Lat. sfr/cfjis, severe^ is 
 rigour in reference to "ule, and is an 
 abridger of liberty in favour of method. 
 It is commonly taken in a favourable, 
 as Sev erity in an unfavourable sense. 
 Unlike the rest, strict is used in an 
 objective sense. Not only is the en- 
 forcer and multiplier of rales called 
 strict, but rales themselves may be 
 sti-ict. In this manner we speak of 
 strict obligations, duty, regulations, 
 the strict meaning of an expression. 
 In these cases it bears the sense of 
 rigorously nice, limited, or restricted. 
 A strict rule is that which does not 
 admit of being relaxed. A sti-ict 
 meaning is Liat which is commensu- 
 rate with the term ; which comprises 
 all that it signifies, and leaves no room 
 for importing or associating what is 
 foreign or irrelevant. 
 
 " We greatly deceive ourselves if we 
 imagine that God requires greater strict- 
 jiess oflife at one time than at another."— 
 Gilpin. 
 
 Steunnk5s( A.S.stern ; stem, severe) 
 is more applicable to look, demeanour, 
 and manners than to nature or dispo- 
 sition. The stern man may be severe 
 ftnd even cruel ; on the other hand, 
 
 sternness is sometimes assumed as a 
 disguise of tender feeling. The com- 
 mander may sternly order a punish- 
 ment, while he is much moved in- 
 wardly, and would have gladly been 
 spared the occasion. The severe man 
 has no such compunction. 
 
 " The public father who the private qnell'd 
 As on the dread tribunal sternly sad." 
 
 Thosison. 
 
 AUTHORITATIVE. Impera- 
 TivE. Imperious. Commanding. 
 
 Authoritative denotes either a 
 character or a manner which pos- 
 sesses or pretends authority. It also 
 follows the twofold sense of authority 
 — that is, having power to establish, 
 and power to command; and is an 
 epithet both of things and persons. 
 Hence it is in its turn a sjaionym with 
 determinative, magisterial, and dicta- 
 torial ; or having binding authority, 
 exercising authority, and assuming 
 authorit;^^. It differs from Co«imand- 
 iNG in implying some right to be 
 followed or obeyed. Nor does Com- 
 manding (Fr. commander^ belong to 
 the internal force of things, or the 
 power and authority of persons, but 
 only to their personal attributes. A 
 commanding presence or voice is one 
 which has a tendency to procure to 
 itselfdeference and attention. It seems 
 that, when directly applied to per- 
 sons. Authoritative implies the un- 
 due assumption of an air of authority. 
 On the other hand an authoritative 
 manner, though not ordinarily agree- 
 able, may be called for by circum- 
 stances. 
 
 The following will illustrate the 
 twofold use of authoritative • — 
 
 " The mock authoritative manner of th* 
 one, and the insipid mirth of the other." — 
 Swift. 
 
 " A layman should not intrude himself 
 to administer the sacred functions of autho- 
 ritative teaching."— Barrow. 
 
 Of Imperious and Imperative 
 (Lat. imph-are, to command) the for- 
 mer is the more personal. Imperious 
 characterizes a disposition to com- 
 mand, showing itself in an exacting be- 
 haviour; wliile Imperative belongs 
 lo the thing required or to the feel 
 
[authentic] discriminated. 
 
 135 
 
 ing, not habitual, but on the occasion, 
 of the person commanding. An im- 
 perious person is selfish arfd overbear- 
 ing. We may be imperative, or 
 speak imperatively, from a sense of 
 necessity, and even cii'cumstances 
 may render a thing imperatively ne- 
 cessary. The imperious character 
 manifests itself especially under con- 
 tradiction, and with some degree of 
 temper. 
 
 " The suits of kings are imperative."— 
 Bishop Hall. 
 " Oh, that my tongue had every grace of 
 
 speech. 
 Great and commanding as the breath of 
 kings." RoWE. 
 
 '• Hi« bold, contcmptuoas, and imperious 
 spirit soon made him coaspicnons,"— 
 Macaulay. 
 
 authentic. Genuine. 
 
 The distinction drawn by Bishop 
 Watson is as follows, between the 
 Authentic (sci.9£>T<xo'f, uarranted) and 
 Genuine (Lnt. g^tilnus) : — 
 
 "A genuine book is that which was 
 written by the peison whose name it 
 bears as the author of it. An authentic 
 book is that which relates matters of fact as 
 they really happened. A book may be 
 genuine without being authentic, and a 
 book may be authentic without being 
 genuine. The books written by Richard- 
 son and Fielding are genuine books, though 
 th» histories of Clarissa and Tom Jones are 
 fal les. The history of the island of Famosa 
 is a genuine book. It was written by 
 Psalmanazar, but it is r^ot an authentic 
 book, though it was long esteemed as such, 
 and translated into different languages ; 
 for the author in the latter part of his life 
 took shame to himself for having imposed 
 U|ion the world, and confessed that it was a 
 mere romance. Anson's Voyages may be 
 c<msidered an authentic bock. It probably 
 contains a true narrative of the principal 
 events recorded in it ; but it is not a genuine 
 book, having not been written by Walter, 
 to whom it is ascribed by Robins." 
 
 In reference to this, Archbishop 
 Trench says ("Select Glossaiy," un- 
 der Authentic) : — 
 
 •• Of * authentic,' he has certainly not 
 seized the true force, neither do the uses of 
 it by good writers bear him out. The true 
 opposite to aiS«vTiieo{ in Greek is aiirTrorof 
 {i.e. not owned, anonymous) and authentic is 
 properly having an author, and thus com- 
 ing ^v^th authority, anthontative ; the con 
 nexion of author and authority in our own 
 language, giving us the key to its successive 
 meanings. Then an authentic document is 
 m its drst meaning a document written bj* 
 
 the proper hand of him from whom it pro- 
 fesses to proceed. In all the passages 
 which follow it will be observed that the 
 word might be exchanged for authorita- 
 tive." 
 
 I venture to suggest, as a reconcilia- 
 tion of these conflicting authorities, 
 that Bishop Watson's view exactly 
 coincides with the force of the French 
 authentiqiie ; as also the word genuine 
 in English is opposed not only to 
 what is adulterated or fictitious, bu' 
 also to what is spurious m origin. 
 
 According to the French use of the 
 term, that is an authentic act which 
 has formality, legality, proof, and so 
 inherent validity. An authentic copy 
 is one which may be used for the 
 purposes of the original. That is au- 
 thentic to which our credence is in- 
 contestably due. An authentic report 
 of facts is relied upon not simply on 
 the authority of the person who 
 drew it up. The following remarks, 
 extracted fi'om Webster's " Syno- 
 nyms," are much to the purpose : — 
 
 " We call a document genuine when 
 It can be traced back ultimately to 
 the author or authors from whom it 
 professes to emanate. We call a docu- 
 ment authentic in the primary sense 
 of the term, when, on the ground of its 
 being thus traced back, it may be re- 
 lied on as true and authoritative ; and 
 in this sense the tenn is used in re- 
 spect to legal insti-uraents. But in 
 general literature it has obtained a 
 wider signification. We can often 
 rely upon statements a.s true without 
 knowing the name of the person with 
 whom they originated. Their claims 
 to be believed may rest on collateral 
 evidence of the most unquestionable 
 nature, and such statements are ac 
 cordingly spoken of as authentic. 
 This secondary use of the term is the 
 one now most in use. Thus we speak 
 of an authentic report of facts, authen- 
 tic history, &c. Hence writers on 
 the evidences of our religion speak of 
 the genuineness and the authenticity 
 of the sacred Scriptures, meaning by 
 the foiTuer that the books have coiue 
 down to us uncon-upt from their 
 original sources ; and by the latter 
 that they may be relied upon as ti-ue 
 and authoritative in all matters of 
 faith and practice." 
 
136 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [authority] 
 
 Jul 
 
 AUTHORITY. Power. 
 DICTION. Dominion. 
 
 Authority (Lat. auctoritdtem) is 
 the right of exercising Power (Fr. 
 pouvoir)f no matter what the character 
 of the power may be. It is bnsed 
 upon the grounds of some relation- 
 ship, so that it is natural, moral, 
 domestic, social, political, and the 
 like. Under moral authority might 
 be included that which comes 
 from superior knowledge generally, 
 or better specific information. Au- 
 thority is based either upon conven- 
 tional or natural right, otherwise it 
 becomes usurpation. As political au- 
 thority is limited by right, so pai-ental 
 authority is limited by age. It is in 
 their moral significance that Autho- 
 rity and Power are here regarded as 
 synonyms. Authority leaves the 
 more liberty of choice, power has the 
 greater force. Superiority of mind 
 and stature gives authority. Attach- 
 ment to persons contributes much to 
 the power which they exercise over 
 us. Such power lives by entreaty or 
 persuasion, inducing us to yield our- 
 selves to what others desire of us ; or 
 it gains its ends by art. The art of 
 finding out weak points, and seizing 
 the advantage to be derived from 
 them, gives a great amount oS power. 
 The authority which we have over 
 others is always honourable. It comes 
 of some degree of merit or excellence. 
 Power comes of some binding influ- 
 ence of the heart or interests. To the 
 good and Avise friend we ought to ac- 
 cord an authority in matters of opinion, 
 and a certain power over us for prac- 
 tical guidance, so long as we do not 
 part with our discretion, or render an 
 unreasonable compliance or submis- 
 sion. In their political aspects, too, 
 authority and power difl^'er. In this 
 relation, authority is the right of civil 
 or political administration. It is the 
 principle of which power is the action. 
 Authority is derived from the laws, 
 and power is derived from authority. 
 Of God alone it can be said that His 
 authority is unlimited or His power 
 absolute. Strictly speaking, the only 
 natural authority is that of the parent 
 over tlie child. Every other autho- 
 rity comes of law or positive enact- 
 
 ment. Power is no more than the 
 possession of means to compel to an 
 action or condition. 
 
 "For that which obtaineth nniversally 
 must either have some for«e in itself to 
 command acceptation or else must be im- 
 posed by some over-ruling authority."— 
 Bishop Hau.. 
 
 "Power gradnally extirpates from the 
 mind every humane and gentle virtue." — 
 Bdrke. 
 
 Politically, Authority is the active 
 right of administi-ation. Power is 
 the faculty of cairying into execution 
 such orders as come fi-om a superior 
 authority. Authority is derived from 
 the laws. Power lies in those whose 
 office it is to execute the laws. Hence 
 power is subordinate to authority. 
 Authority which is excessive militates 
 against divine and natural law, as 
 power which is excessive transgresses 
 the limits of right jurisdiction. 
 
 Jurisdiction (Lat. jurisdictionem) 
 IS tlie possession or exercise of political 
 authority within limits legally de- 
 fined — that is, over certain persons or 
 within certain localities, or on certain 
 subjects and in certain cases. In its 
 widest sense. Jurisdiction is the ad- 
 ministration of justice by means and 
 under conditions furnished by the 
 laws. 
 
 "But at present, by the long uniform 
 usage of many ages, our kings have dele- 
 gated their own judicial power to the judges 
 of their several com'ts, which are the gi-aud 
 depositories of the fundamental laws of the 
 kingdom, and have gained a known and 
 st&ted jurisdiction regulated by certain and 
 established rules, which the Crown itself 
 cannot now alter, but by Act of Parlia- 
 ment."— Blackstoke. 
 
 Dominion (L. Lat. domimdnem, dh- 
 niinns, lord) is a term of general, 
 rather than technical or exact import. 
 It means lordship or the exercise of 
 it; and, politically, a territory within 
 which it is exercised. Like Powkh 
 and unlike Authority, it implies no- 
 thing necessarily as to lawfulness. 
 Man has dominion over the inferior 
 animals. The dominion is in itself 
 given him by God, but as man exer- 
 cises it, it IS sometimes a merciful, 
 sometimes a merciless dominion. 
 Dominion is as vague as Jurisdiction 
 is definite and exact, and is used in a 
 great variety of analogous cases. The 
 
[average] 
 
 dominions of a Sovereign are the 
 territories under bis crown, regarded 
 iiTespectively of the local modifica- 
 tions of his authority. So India and 
 Canada, though in very different 
 forms, are included in the British do- 
 minions. 
 
 " Though for a while the pleasure of sin 
 may captivate, and unlawful gain may 
 bring its present advantage, yet we may 
 depend upon it a time will come when sin 
 will assert his dominion." — Gilpin. 
 
 AUTHORIZE. Empower. Ex- 
 able. 
 
 The idea common to these terms is 
 that of' imparted, delegated, or trans- 
 mitted power. 
 
 Enable {see Able) is the widest. 
 It may denote the giving of physical, 
 moral, mental, or official competency. 
 To enable a person is to put him into 
 a position to do a thing, and by an ex- 
 tended application to Ho it rightly, or 
 with propriety. He who is enabled 
 is made intrinsically sti-onger. 
 
 " Temperance gives nature her full play, 
 and enables her to exert herself in all her 
 force and vigour." — Addisox. 
 
 He who is EsiPOAVEnED (pref. en, in, 
 and power, Fr. pouvoir) receives an ex- 
 ternal accession of sti-ength. A docu- 
 ment empowers a man to act officially ; 
 food enables him to bear fatigue. 
 Authorize belongs exclusively to the 
 exercise of active rights. Empower 
 belongs also to the bestowing a ca- 
 pacity, or conferring passive quali- 
 fications. 1 authorize an agent to make 
 a demand for money, and empower him 
 10 receive it. Empower Las a force 
 more strongly technical, or legal ; Au- 
 thorize more general and moral. I 
 am authorized to conclude a fact when 
 I do so upon authentic and sufficient 
 evidence. To such a case, implying 
 the rightful exercise of my own powers 
 of mind, the word Empower does not 
 apply. Persons or the state of cir- 
 cumstances authorize ; the State or the 
 law empowers. The law authorizes 
 the magistrate to impose a certain 
 penalty — that is, avouIq bear him out i{ 
 any (question of his right to do it were 
 to arise. But it also empowers him 
 to do it — that is, invests him with 
 Ubertjr to act for himself in the matter, 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 137 
 
 conferring upon him a jurisdiction 
 which in his private capacity he does 
 not possess. 
 
 " For let a vicious person be in never so 
 high a command, yet still he will be looked 
 upon but as one great vice empowered to 
 correct and chastise others." — SoUTH. 
 
 " Since God evidently designed the re- 
 gular course of nature for the support and 
 comfort of man, we seem authorized to con- 
 clude that He will apply its irregularities 
 and disorder to his punishment, correction, 
 and admonition." — BiSHOP PORTEUS. 
 
 AUXILIARY. Subsidiary. An- 
 cillary. 
 
 That which is Auxiliary (Lat. 
 auxilidrius) operates in conjunction 
 with that which it aids, so as to pro- 
 duce a result. That which is Sra- 
 siDiARY (Lat. subsididrius, subsidium^ 
 support, being originally the ti'oops 
 stationed in the third line of battle as 
 a reserve, from snbsidire, to settle down) 
 is in the relation of means available 
 for the purpose of producing that re- 
 sult '1 hat which is auxiliary is di- 
 rectly promotive, that which is sub- 
 sidiary is. subserviently applicable. 
 That which is auxiliary is already in 
 action, that which is subsidiary may 
 remain in reserve: the foiiner is of 
 use, the latter may be. Auxiliary tes- 
 timony increases the evidence. Sub- 
 sidiary testimony has this property. 
 Hence there is an ecjuality implied m 
 the auxiliary, an inferiority in the 
 subsidiary. Ancillary ( Lat. ancilla, 
 a handmaid) is a term formed to 
 express a more mai"ked inferiority or 
 subserviency of co-operation. Being 
 a purely metaphorical term, it is com- 
 monly employed of abstract rather 
 than material operations, in the sense 
 of subordinately promoting intel- 
 lectual, scientific, literary, or political 
 ends. That which is ancillary con- 
 tributes to the work, that which is 
 subsidiary contributes to the means, 
 that which is auxiliary contributes to 
 the end. 
 
 AVERAGE. Mean. Meoium. 
 
 Average (L. Lat. awragium, orig. 
 a vortion of work done bif cattle; pi. 
 averia) is a mean proportion, a medial 
 sum or quantity made out of ieveral 
 unequal sums or quantities, or, in » 
 
138 
 
 SYNONYMS [aw Alio] 
 
 general way,»tt medial statement or 
 estimate, derived from several specific 
 cases. If A contributes ten pounds, 
 B twelve, and C fourteen, the sum is 
 thirty-six, and the average twelve. 
 It is the opinion of some persons that 
 a principle of compensation runs 
 through human affairs; that if one 
 enjoys more than another, that other 
 suffers less ; tliat if one has more 
 'esn-es gratified, another has fewer 
 aesires ; and so that, though it is not 
 capable of demonstration, yet an 
 average of human happiness may be 
 conceived to exist. 
 
 A Mean (Fr. moyen, Lat. jiudinin) 
 is the point or place intermediate be- 
 tween two exfremes — the middle rate 
 or degree. If nine and seven are the 
 extremes, eight is the mean. The 
 mean is sometmies the same as the 
 average, that iSj it is formed by add- 
 ing the quantities together and divid- 
 ing by their number. This is the 
 arithmetical mean. The geometrical 
 mean is the square root of the product 
 of tlie quantities. But a mean is not 
 always a quantity having an inter- 
 mediate value between several others 
 from which it is derived ; it is some- 
 times expressive of that which is 
 moially equidistant between opposite 
 extremes. Thus moral virtue, accord- 
 ing to Aristotle, lay in a mean state or 
 condition, each particular virtue being 
 a mean between a vice of defect and a 
 vice of excess ; as liberality between 
 niggardliness and prodigality, courage 
 between fear and foolhardiness; and so 
 on. Medium, in addition to the sense 
 of mean, has also that of an intervening 
 substa nee — as an atmospheric medi um , 
 a circulating medium. Where this 
 intervening object is an instrument 
 by which a thing is done, it is nearly 
 equivalent to the plural means, but the 
 medium may be an agent as well as 
 an instrument. 
 
 AWARD. Adjudge. 
 
 The difference exists between these 
 tei-ms which exists between the office 
 of the arbitrator and the judge. Every 
 arbitrator is a judge, though every 
 judge is not an arbitrator. To Adjudge 
 issimply to decide by a judicial opinion 
 or sentence; where this is between 
 
 persons of opposing interests, the ad- 
 judication is an Awahd (O. Fr. «5tmr- 
 deir, formed from O. H. G. war ten, to 
 look at, guard). The term Adjudge 
 (Lat. adjud'icare) is applicable to the 
 case as well as the object; Award, only 
 to the object. Accordingly, those who 
 adjudge act upon law and rule, to 
 which they are bound exactly to ad- 
 here ; those who award act often upon 
 their own judgment, or their views of 
 the comparative merits of cases and 
 persons. 
 
 AWARE. Conscious. Sensiule. 
 
 Aware (A. S. gewitr, icary) belongs 
 to the knowledge which is needful for 
 one's own sake in the regulation of 
 conduct or the regulation of interests. 
 It refers to matters of ordinary, com 
 men, or practical information, or to anj 
 facts or truths as bearing upon our- 
 selves. We are not said to be aware 
 of what is matter of pure science, un- 
 less it practically concerns us in some 
 way. I am aware of a thing, when my 
 knowledge of it is such as to lead me 
 to take it into due consideration. Such 
 knowledge is the result of observation 
 and experience. When we are aware 
 of a thing, we bear in mind its relative 
 nature and consequences. I know a 
 certain scientific truth : if I enter into 
 argument connected with it, it is ne- 
 cessary that I should be aware of it, 
 otherwise a false step in the reasoning 
 may be the result. 
 " Fastidious or else listless, or perhaps 
 Aware of not' /ng arduous in a task 
 They never undertook, they little note 
 His dangers or escapes, and haply find 
 There least amusement where he found the 
 most." CowPER. 
 
 Conscious (Lat. conscins) belongs 
 to reflexive, as Sensible (Lat. sensi- 
 bilis, perceptible to the senses) tx> per- 
 ceptive knowledge. I am sensible of 
 a thing when 1 feel it. I am conscious 
 of it when I reflect upon it. I am 
 aware of it as a fact wnich concerns 
 me, but is external to myself. Botli 
 conscious and sensible imply the per- 
 sonal nature of the matter of knowledge 
 and its character as intrinsic to one'a 
 self. A sick man is sensible of a change 
 for the better when he experiences a 
 bodily improvement. He is conscious 
 of it when he could not with truth 
 
[azure] 
 
 deny it. I am conscious that another 
 has behaved to me in a certain way : 
 I feel sensible of gratitude to him. 
 
 " Conscio'us7iess is the perception of what 
 passes in one's o^vn mind." — LoCKE. 
 
 *' It is the good acceptance, the sensible- 
 ness of, and acrjuiescence in, the benefactor's 
 powlness Ihat constitutes the gratitude." — 
 Barkow. 
 
 A WKWARD. Clumsy. Ungainly. 
 Uncouth. 
 
 AwKAVARD (0. E. auk, contrai-yy 
 wrong ; and tennination, ward — i.e. in 
 the direction of) denotes untowardness 
 of movement, which is also to some 
 extent expressed by Clumsy, which 
 seems, originally, to have meant be- 
 numbed, cramped; cf. Du. klemmen, to 
 pinc/i. Awkward has an active,CLUMSY 
 a passive meaning. Clumsiness comes 
 of natural heaviness of limb and want 
 of symmetry of figure. Awkward- 
 ness is specific in relation to some 
 particular action which may be the 
 result simply of wantof experience — as 
 the novice in the use of an implement 
 is necessarily awkward till he has be- 
 come familiar with it, though he may 
 even have a natural aptitude for it. 
 A person is awkward in movement, 
 clumsy in shape. The latter is a 
 natural cause of the fonner. 
 
 " Au-hcnrdncss is a more real disadvan- 
 tage than it is commonly thought to be. It 
 often occasions ridicule. It always lessens 
 digni ty."— CHESTERFIELD. 
 
 " The manufacture would be tedious, and 
 at best but clumsily performed."— Spectator. 
 
 In the phiase " an awkward excuse " 
 we regard the maker of it. A clumsy 
 excuse points to the nature of it when 
 made. In the colloquial expression 
 *• an awkwa id affair." the etymological 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 139 
 
 force of the word seems kept up. It 
 is an affair that goes wrong, and in a 
 contrary way to the right way. 
 
 Ungainliness is a chronic awkwaid- 
 ness of manner. 1 1 is the want of that 
 which was once expressed by the word 
 gainly, now obs,, meaning gracious ; 
 and, though in form of expression 
 negative, like almost all such nega- 
 tives, expresses a positive defect. 
 
 " Flora had a little beauty and a great 
 d»al of wit, but then she was so ungainly 
 in her behaviour, and such a langhing hoy- 
 den." — Taller. 
 
 In the moral sense Hammond speaks 
 of "misusing knowledge to Ungain- 
 ly," that is ungracious, unsuitable, 
 " ends." 
 
 Uncouth (A. S. uncud, unknown, 
 uncouth) is in matters of general de- 
 meanour, what awkward and clumsy 
 are in movement or action. Strange, 
 odd, awkward things are said by the 
 uncouth, and unconventional things 
 done, from want of knowledge and 
 familiarity with the ways of the trained 
 society in which he finds himself. 
 It belongs to style of language and 
 thought, a.s well as manner and dress. 
 The uncouth person gives the notion 
 of one who has been allowed to run 
 wild without systematic education, 
 
 " The dress of a New Zealander is cer- 
 tainly to a stranger at first sight the most 
 uncouth that can be imagined," — Cook's 
 Voyages. 
 
 " The uncotithTiess of his language and 
 the quaintness of his thoughts will not, it 
 is hoped, disgust the delicacy of readers 
 unaccustomed to the writings of our old 
 divines."— Knox. 
 
 AZURE. Blue. 
 Blue (Fr. bleu) is the generic term. 
 Azure (0, Fr. azur) is the blue of 
 the sky — cerulean blue. 
 
140 
 
 B 
 
 BABBLE. Prattle. Chatter. 
 Chat. Prate. 
 
 To Babble (onomatop. cf. Fr. babil- 
 ler) is to talk small talk in an easy but 
 monotonous flow. Babbling is a 
 fluency which takes no note of the re- 
 lative importance of matters of con- 
 versation. As the object of the bab- 
 bler is rather to relieve himself than 
 to instruct others, he is apt to become 
 indistinct and unintelligible in his 
 speech, and to speak in a murmurous 
 flow. Old men who have lost energy, 
 and employ speech merely as a vent 
 to mental impressions and recollec- 
 tions as they successively arise, or are 
 revived, are apt to babble. As bab- 
 bling excludes reflexiveness and re- 
 straint in speech^ a babbler sometimes 
 means an indiscriminate talker, hence 
 a tale-bearer or gossip. Poetically, 
 the term has been applied to the per- 
 petual babbling sound of running 
 water, " babbling brooks." 
 
 •* When St. Paul was speaking of Christ 
 and His Resurrection, the great Athenian 
 philosophers looked upon all he said to be 
 mere babbling.'^ — Bkvekidqe. 
 
 Chatter ^onomatop. cf. Fr. caque- 
 ter.) The English chatter is em- 
 ployed of the inarticulate sounds of 
 some animals, as of birds; hence talk 
 which consists of the rapid repetition of 
 sounds without much sense. An old 
 form of the word was chitter. As 
 babbling is often the product of infir- 
 mity, as in the aged, so chatter comes 
 from over-activity of mind in little 
 matters. When quick perception and 
 nervous activity are combined with 
 want of mental power, they produce 
 that which is called chatter. 
 
 Chat, a shorter form, is confined 
 to the easy and social interchange of 
 conversation on matters of no high 
 moment, but sufficiently interesting 
 to the parties engaged. Chattering 
 is especially manifest among women 
 and children in parties of themselves. 
 The chatterer is a person of fussy self- 
 importance. As babbling is subdued, 
 80 chattering is loud and harsh. As 
 a single person babbles, an assembly 
 
 SYNONYMS [babble] 
 
 of persons provoke one another to 
 chattering, which is often the life ol 
 such gatherings. 
 
 " Birds of the air, perceiving their young 
 ones taken from their nest, chitter for a 
 while in trees thereabout, and straight after 
 they fly abroad, and make no more ado."— 
 Wilson's Arte of Rhetorike. 
 " The mimic ape began his chatter. 
 How evil tongues his life bespatter. 
 Much of the censuring world complain'd 
 Who said his gravity was feign'd." 
 
 Swift. 
 " She foaml as on a spray she sat 
 The little friends were deep in chat." 
 Cotton's Fables. 
 Prate and Prattle are connected 
 with the Dutch praaten; prov. Ger. 
 praten. Prattling is the innocent talk 
 of young children, while prating be- 
 longs more to elders, and is talking 
 much but to little purpose. The 
 former is innocent, lively, childlike ; 
 the latter is graver, impertinent, and 
 obtrusive. Solemn or pompous talk 
 combined with a shallow knowledge 
 of the subject is prating. 
 
 "This is the reason why we are so much 
 charmed with the pretty prattle of children, 
 and even the expressions of pleasure or un- 
 easiness in some part of the brute creation.*' 
 —Sidney's Arcadia. 
 
 " These praters afiect to carry back the 
 clergy to that primitiA'e erangelic poverty 
 which in the spirit ought always to exist in 
 them (and in us too, however we may )ike 
 it), but in the thing must be varied." — 
 Burke. 
 
 BAD. Evil. Wicked. Naughty. 
 Of these, Bad (cf. Cornish, bad, 
 stupid J insane ; and Gael, baodh, vain, 
 giddy : S k e at, Etym . Diet. ) is the sim- 
 plest and widest term. Every thing 
 IS presumed to have, in its true and 
 normal state, a distinctive nature, cha- 
 racter, and force, by which it mani- 
 fests itself aright, and answers its 
 proper idea and purpose. When this 
 is so, it may be pronounced good, 
 when the contrary, it is bad. The 
 term Bad denotes that wliich is 
 wanting in good qualities in any sense, 
 moral or physical, and this in any de- 
 gree hurtful, defective, or only un- 
 favourable. A man is bad wlien, in- 
 stead of the characteristic qualities of 
 human nature in its rightful state — 
 as, for instance, sobriety, humanity, 
 equity, justice, kindness — he exhibit* 
 habitually the contrary vices, or eny 
 
DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 [badly] 
 
 one in particular. It may be observed 
 that a thing is sometimes called bad 
 as being relatively offensive or noxi- 
 ous, as a bad, tliat is, offensive smell. 
 An air which is in itself pure yet 
 keen, is spoken of as bad for a person 
 of delicate lungs. 
 
 " Every one must see and feel that bad 
 thoaghts quickly ripen into bad actions, 
 and that if the latter only are forbidden, 
 and the fonuer left free, all morality will 
 soon be at an end."— Bishop Porteus. 
 
 Evil (A. S. yfel) is now only em- 
 ployed in a moral sense. It is the 
 potentially bad— tliat which has a na- 
 ture or properties which. tend to pro- 
 duce badness. It belongs to persons 
 and their properties, words, or deeds, 
 and to abstract causes, not specifically 
 to material substances. Evil is in- 
 herent and malignant. Badness is a 
 quality ; evil is that quality as it is 
 judged of and recognized, or forecast 
 by rational and intelligent beings. 
 1 hat is evil which produces unhap]n- 
 ness, misery, pain, harm, suffering, 
 injury, calamity. Hence, any devia- 
 tion from conscience, law, or sound 
 religion, is evil. Bad expresses a 
 condition, Evii « principle or power. 
 A bad condition ; an evil influence. 
 Badness is an attribute of present 
 things, evil may take effect npon the 
 future. Badness may be in default of 
 good, evil is always in opposition or 
 antagonism to it. A stubborn dispo- 
 sition is a bad one, but not so far an 
 evil one. Badness may be negative : 
 anything which exhibits a great de- 
 gree of inferiority may be called bad ; 
 but evil is positive and pernicious. 
 •' E}cil news rides fast, while good news 
 baits." MlLTO'. 
 
 Though the best men have in them 
 something of the sinful and the evil, 
 they are not therefore to be called 
 WicKF.D. The term is used of things 
 as well as persons, in which case it is 
 only employed reflexively — a wicked 
 act being the act of a wicked person. 
 The wicked person is so in his wliole 
 nature, and systematically. He lives 
 in sin and wrong. He contradicts, 
 whenever he desires it, any law, 
 liman or divine ; hence wickedness 
 includes immorality and sin, or offences 
 iiumaa and divine. As evil is malig- 
 
 141 
 
 nant and internal, so wickedness is 
 mischievous and active. 
 
 " Self-preservation requires all men not 
 only barely to defend themselves against 
 aggressors, but many times also to perse- 
 cute such and only such as are wicked and 
 dangerous." — Woolastox. 
 
 Nauohty (A. S. nawiht, 7idwt, no- 
 thing ; good for nothing) had of old 
 the same extensive kincf of application 
 as bad, and was applicable to anything 
 which was not what it ought to be — as 
 " naughty figs " in the English ver- 
 sion of tlie Book of .lereraiah. It now 
 denotes those minor offences which, 
 are the results of little self-indul- 
 gences, waywardness, and self-will, 
 and expresses characteristically the 
 faults or children. There is an inge- 
 nious combination of the old and the 
 new idea of" naughty "in the follow- 
 ing. 
 
 " Play by yourself, I dare not venture 
 thither. 
 
 You and your naughty pipe go hang to- 
 gether." Drydex's Theocritus. 
 
 BADGE. Cognizance. 
 
 The Badg e (L. Lat. bagia ; Fr. baga ; 
 I.e., bacca, a ring) is a personal mark 
 of distinction used, except where the 
 contrary is specifically expressed, in 
 an honourable sense. Where it is a 
 party distinction, this would depend 
 upon the estimate formed of the party. 
 
 A Cognizance is a French term, 
 more purely heraldic. The badge is 
 personal, the cognizance is of the 
 family or house. A servant might 
 bear the cognizance of his master's 
 family with his livery, but he could 
 have no right to bear his badge. 
 Nevertheless, the cognizance might 
 be spoken of in reference to the ser- 
 vant who bore it, as the badge of his 
 retainership ; that is — as being, in re- 
 gard to himself personally, a distinc- 
 tive mark. 
 
 " Charity, which Christ has made the 
 yery badge and discriminating mark of His 
 religion.'^— Bishop Portbus. 
 
 '* For which cause men imagined that he 
 gave the sun in his full brightness for his 
 cognixaunce or badge."— Haxl, Henry VI. 
 
 BADLY. III. 
 
 Badly belongs more naturally to 
 the thing done, and the act of doing it ; 
 III to attendant circumstances, ab< 
 
142 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 Btract character, and to the conception 
 of things ratlier than their execution. 
 If we wished to disapprove a matter 
 both in purpose and performance, we 
 mio:ht say that it was ill-conceived 
 and badly executed. A thing may be 
 ill-judged without being badly done — 
 that is, it may be objectionable, not 
 in itself, but in regard to the season 
 3r circumstances of it. 
 
 BAFFLE. Defkat. Disconcert. 
 Frustrate. Discojipose. Foil. 
 
 Baffle (a corr. of Lowland Scotch, 
 baucJde, to treat contemptuously; for 
 change of c^ to^', cLtough,rflugh,S)C. : 
 Skeat, Etym. Diet.), like the rest of 
 these synonyms, is used both of the 
 schemer and the scheme. He who 
 baffles does so by skill, forethought, 
 address. Tlie baffled finds that the 
 baffler has been before him, and has 
 taken just so much out of his arrange- 
 ments as to make his plan ineffectual. 
 Hence, Baffling commonly implies 
 versatility in the baffler, and repeated 
 little counteractions. Baffling winds 
 seem to shift with the ship's course. 
 It is evident that it is only as em- 
 ployed of persons that baffling in- 
 volves skill. An obstinate disease 
 tmy baffle the skill of the physician. 
 
 " Experience, that great bajler of specn- 
 lation."— Go». of the Tongue. 
 
 The chess-player who plays a losing 
 game is baffled by the play of his 
 adversary, but he is not of necessity 
 thereby defeated (O. Fr. dtfait, part. 
 oi (lefaire, to undo). HDEFEATis final, 
 while Baffling may ne final or pro- 
 gressive, unless it be used of some 
 one design said to be baffled. Baffling, 
 then, is a kind of defeat, not, as defeat 
 may be, by superior force or skill, but 
 by skill only; so that one may be 
 baffled yet still strive, but wben one 
 :s defeated, the strife is over. ' 
 " Too well I see and rue the dire event 
 That with sad overthrow and foul defeat 
 Hath lost us heaven." Milton. 
 
 Disconcert (O. Fr. disconcerter ; 
 originally, from Lat. coyisacre, to join 
 together), whether applied to persons 
 or their plans, is to throw into confu- 
 sion, such as may or may not terminate 
 the proceeding. He is disconcerted, 
 whose ideas fall, as it were, to pieces, 
 and cease to be ioined together. Se- 
 
 [baffle] 
 
 auence, continuity, consistency, are 
 destroyed for the time, and the actor 
 or speaker, if he is not to be entirely 
 baffled, must institute them anew. 
 Those persons who have strong self- 
 love, but no great readiness of mind, 
 are apt, in the common intercourse ot 
 life, to be disconcerted by trifles 
 Disconcerting falls far short of defeat. 
 The disconcerted man is thrown off the 
 line of thought, speech, or action, and 
 does not know how to find his way back. 
 "Far from being overcome, never once 
 disconcerted, never once embarrassed, but 
 calmly superior to every artifice, to every 
 temptation, to fevej-y difficulty."— Bishop 
 Porteus. 
 
 What Disconcert is to the purpose 
 and the plan. Discompose (Lat. dh- 
 apart, and componere, to put together 
 is to the feelings. He who is dis- 
 composed is thrown out of a state c" 
 serenity, as he who is disconcerted in 
 thrown out of self-possession. A man 
 maybe discomposed without being in 
 the smallest degree disconcerted. He 
 may have his feelings disturbed, while 
 his judgment remains unaffected. 
 Persons of irritable temper are apt to 
 be discomposed. He who is discon- 
 certed becomes more or less silent. 
 He who is discomposed may become 
 more energetic in speech. 
 
 " Every opposition of our espoused 
 opinions discomposeth the mind's serenity." 
 — Glanvill. 
 
 Frustrate ( Lat. /rusfran, or -re) 
 is to make a purpose miss its end — tc 
 cause that it shall not attain or secure 
 that which it sought. In common 
 parlance, schemes, designs, or move- 
 ments, are baffled, efforts are defeated, 
 arrangements are disconcerted, policy 
 is confounded, purposes or hopes are 
 frustrated, feeliii^s or thoughts are 
 discomoosed, attempts are foiled. 
 
 The term Foil, which most re- 
 sembles baffle {Yt. fouler, to trample 
 upon, to hurt) seems to imply an un- 
 dertaking already begun, but defeated 
 in the course of execution. One may 
 be baffled by anticipation, one is foiled 
 by counteraction. 
 
 " Is it to be supposed that He should 
 
 disappoint His creation, and frnstrat* this 
 
 very desire (of immortality) which He has 
 
 Himself implanted ?" — Beattie. 
 
 " I have endeavoured to find out, i! 
 
[band] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 143 
 
 possible, the amount of the whole of these 
 demands, in order to see how much, sup- 
 posing the country in a condition to 
 furnish the fund, may remain to satisfy 
 the public debt and the necessary esta- 
 blishments, but I have been foiled in my 
 attempts." — Burke. 
 
 BALANCE. Poise. 
 
 Balance (Fr. balancer; Lat. Vi- 
 Uincem, balance, scales) and Poise (Fr. 
 poids; Lat. pond us, weight) both de- 
 note the establishment of an equili- 
 brium. Balance is of different ob- 
 jects, Poise of one. I poise a thing 
 m a given point ; I balance it bj- 
 counteracting its weight with another 
 equal weight. The empty scales in a 
 just balance are balanced each by the 
 other. If one were taken and placed 
 upon a needle upon its absolute 
 centre, without any disturbing force, 
 as of the atmosphere, it would be 
 poised. Balance is consistent with 
 movement in the body balanced or 
 balancing itself. That which is poised 
 is stationary. The bird, through its 
 whole flightjbalances itself on its wings. 
 It sometimes stops its flight and poises 
 itself in mid air. A man may balance 
 himself along a tight rope. If he 
 poises himself, he is at one point of it. 
 
 " Him science taught by mystic lore to 
 
 trace 
 The planets wheeling in eternal race. 
 To mark the ship in floating balance held, 
 By earth attracted, and by seas repelled." 
 Falconer. 
 " Earth upon 
 Her centre poised." 
 
 Milton. 
 BALL. Globe. Sphere. Orb. 
 BALL(Fr. balle) expresses any lx)dy 
 which is round, or even approximate 
 to rotundity — a ball ofcotton, a cricket- 
 ball, a snow-ball, the ball of the toe. 
 It is presumably solid. 
 
 " Why was the sight 
 To such a tender ball as th' eye confined ?" 
 Milton. 
 
 Globe (Lat. globus), on the other 
 hand, regar'ds entirely the fonn and 
 not the composition. It is presumed 
 to be perfectly, or almost perfectly 
 round, and may be solid or hollow. 
 
 "Mercator in some of his great globes 
 hath continued the West Indies laud, even 
 to the North Pole, and consequently cut 
 off all passage by sea that way." — Hack- 
 \.VYT 
 
 Sphere (La:, sphtrra, Gr. a-'^aipa) is 
 in Greek what Gi.oBE is in Latin. Like 
 Globe, Simieii k beiirs reference only to 
 form, not to composition or substance. 
 It is more strictly a geometrical term 
 than globe, and is defined, " a body 
 contained under a single surface which 
 at every part is equally distant from 
 a point within it, called the centre." 
 In its secondary meaning, Sphere de- 
 notes a limited extent of operation, a 
 proper action and influence. 
 
 " There is but little variety of other ve- 
 getable productions, though doubtless se- 
 veral had not yet sprung up at the earl/ 
 season when we visited the place, and many 
 more might be hid from the narrow sphere 
 of our observation." — Gook's Voyages. 
 
 Orb (Lat. orbis) has at present a 
 somewhat rhetorical character, and i? 
 commonly associated with costliness 
 of material, brilliancy or luminous- 
 ness — as the orb of the royal crown, 
 the orbs of the firmament, or the eyes. 
 "And her bright eyes, the orbs which beauty 
 
 moves. 
 As Phoebus dazzles in his glorious race." 
 DrummonD. 
 
 An orb is a circular surface. A 
 sphere is a circular envelope. Taylor 
 says, *' Rotundity is the common pro- 
 perty of all these bodies; but the circle 
 IS a hoop, the orb a disk, the sphere a 
 shell, and the globe a ball." 
 
 *' Within the visible diurnal sphere." 
 Milton ; 
 that is, the concave region of day. 
 " Ex solidis globus ; ex planis autem, cir- 
 culus aut orbis." CiCKRO. 
 
 In its secondary sense, Sphere is to 
 human duties what Circle is to social 
 acquaintance. 
 
 BAND. Company. Crew. Gang. 
 Troop. Horde. 
 
 Of these, Company (Fr. compagnte, 
 Lat. con-, together, and pants, bread ; a 
 companion being, literally, a mess- 
 mate) is the generic term. A Com- 
 pany may imply permanent or tran- 
 sient association; and this for the 
 graver or lighter purposes of life, 
 for pleasure or for profit, voluntarily, 
 or as part of a larger organization; 
 as we speak of a company of travel- 
 lers, elegant company, a trading or 
 mercantile company, a ship's com- 
 pany, a company of persons thrown 
 together by chance, or lastly, in its 
 
IM 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [bane] 
 
 abstract sense, company as opposed 
 to solitude. Occupation, recreation, 
 interest oi duty may be the bond of 
 a company. The tei-m lias no un- 
 favourable sense of itself, but depends 
 for this on the qualifying context. A 
 company of thieres, or a company of 
 angels. 
 
 " The blessed angels to and fro descend 
 From highest heaven in gladsome covi- 
 panee." S penser. 
 
 Band (Fr. bande) is a number, not 
 large, and generally smaller than com- 
 pany, of personsbound together having 
 a work, design, or employment in com- 
 mon. They may be bound by consent 
 or as an organized body — as a band of 
 soldiers, a musical band. 
 " Ye see how all around them wait 
 The ministers of human fate. 
 And black misfortrnes' baleful train ; 
 Ah, show them w^ ere in ambush stand. 
 To seize then- prej , the murderous band — 
 Ah, tell them they are men." Gray. 
 
 Chew (0. Icel kru, a stvarm, crowd, 
 ** like many sea- 1€ rms, of Scandinavian 
 origin : " Skeat, .^tym. Diet.), a word 
 often honourably employed. 
 
 "At oble crew 
 Of Lords and Ladies stood on every side." 
 Spenser. 
 
 Its common technical use now is 
 that of a ship's company, in which the 
 legal application assumes the officers 
 to be included. It has picked up an 
 ignoble meaning, according to which 
 it seems to combine the idea of insig- 
 nificance in the members with a mis- 
 chievous character of the aggregate. 
 
 " Being sufficiently weary of this mad 
 creiv, we were willing to give them the slip 
 at any place from whence we might hope 
 to get a passage to an English factory." — 
 Dampikr's Voyages. 
 
 Gang (A. S. gang, a going, a crew) 
 is a number of persons going in com- 
 pany — as a gang of thieves; also a 
 gang of workmen, which is a company 
 cf workmen not only seeking, but also 
 employed in a common labour. A 
 large piece of work, especially manual 
 labour, will often be undertaken by 
 labourers working in gangs. Where 
 tsed in an unfavourable sense, like 
 Crew, it has a more energetic and for- 
 midable meaning : as a Crew of men 
 suggests mischief, so a G a vc .suggests 
 violence. 
 
 " In order to furnish at the expense of 
 your honour an excuse to your apologists 
 here for several enormities of yours, you 
 would not have been content to be repre- 
 sented as agatig of Maroon slaves suddenly 
 broke loose from the house of bondage, and 
 therefore to be pardoned for your abuse of 
 the liberty to which you were not accus- 
 tomed, and were ill-fitted."— Burke. 
 
 BANE. PisT. Ruin. 
 
 The Bane of anything (A. S. bana, 
 a killer) is that which, as it were, 
 wounds or poisons it, inflicting injury 
 or serious detriment on what would 
 be otherwise sound or pleasurable ; 
 but though spoiling, not destroying 
 it. The word is not associated with 
 the idea of purely physical hurt or 
 injury, but also with that of moral 
 deterioration of what has an abstract 
 value — as virtue, happiness, well- 
 being, prosperity, hope, success, and 
 the like. 
 
 *' A monster and a bane to human society." 
 Blackwood. 
 
 A Pest (Lat. pestis, plague) is that 
 which interferes in a noisome, vexa- 
 tious, or irritating manner. A pest 
 haunts and annoys ; a bane may be 
 inherent. Any bad habit is a bane of 
 happiness to tne individual. A pest 
 is always external. 
 
 " Of all the virtues justice is the best. 
 
 Valour without it is a common pest." 
 Waller. 
 
 The Ruin of a thing (Lat. rinna, 
 ruire, to full) is that which destroys it 
 utterly, causing it, as it were, to fall 
 headlong, and to pieces. That which 
 is ruined is marred, spoilt, and for 
 its specific purpose destroyed. 
 " The ruin of the clock-trade."— Dickens. 
 
 BANISH. Exile. Expel. Trans- 
 port. Expatriate. 
 
 To Banish (O. Fr. baiiir) is literally 
 to eject by a Ban or public proclama- 
 tion. To Expel (Lat. expelltre) is to 
 drive out. To Exile is to send to a 
 place of banishment (Lat. exilium). 
 The idea common to the three is that 
 of coercive removal of persons ; for it 
 is only by a figure of speech that hopes 
 are said to be banished, or thouglits 
 expelled. He is banished who is in- 
 terdicted from any place to which he 
 has been accustomed, or to which he 
 may desire to resort. The nature of 
 the banishment will dei)end aimplj oa 
 
[bankruptcy] discriminated. 
 
 145 
 
 the nature of the interdiction. Exile 
 is that specific sort of banishment 
 which relates to one's native country. 
 Banish is the more social, exile the 
 more political term. Exile may be 
 voluntary or involuntary. To expel 
 is merely to drive out with disgrace, 
 and relates to some particular com- 
 munity or section of society. 
 
 Transport (Lat. transportare, to 
 carry across), as a synonym of the a- 
 bove, is to carry bej'ond sea to a penal 
 colony as a penalty, the expenses of 
 which are borne by the State. Banish- 
 ment may be domestic, or from private 
 circles of society, and denotes more 
 forcible and authoritative, as well as 
 more ignominious removal than exile. 
 We speak of honourable exile, hardly 
 of honourable banishment, save in 
 exceptional cases where the banish- 
 ment was unjust, and with no fault 
 of the banished, or where the 'ight 
 was on his side. In that respect his 
 sympathizers might call it honourable. 
 Banishment is moral, social, and po- 
 litical ; exile only political. Banish- 
 ment involves a formal public or ju- 
 dicial decree : on the other hand, one 
 goes spontaneously into exile. Ban- 
 ishment is pronounced by a decree 
 of a judicial tribunal ; exile by an 
 authoritative order. The Tarquins 
 were banished from Rome by a public 
 decree, Ovid was sent by Augustus 
 into exile. Banish expresses the idea 
 of being forbidden a certain place, 
 Exile the assignation of a place of ban- 
 ishment. Expulsion implies some 
 feeling of dissatisfaction or indigna- 
 tion on the part of those who expel 
 on the ground of moral unfitness, or of 
 offence against social or political order. 
 It is the severing of a corrupt limb 
 from the body, the casting out of an 
 unworthy member. The banished 
 man feels the force of law or social 
 power. The exiled has exchanged the 
 comforts of home for a strange and 
 distant solitude. The expelled carries 
 with him the mark of disapprobation 
 from those who have rid memselves 
 of his society and presence. 
 
 " Haste thee, and from the Paradise of God 
 Without remorse drive out the sinful pair. 
 From hallow'd ground th' unholy, and de- 
 
 ucuiice 
 
 To them, and to their } rugeuy, from thence 
 Perpetual banishment." ' MiLTOX. 
 
 " Brutus in the book which he writ on 
 virtue, related that he had seen Marcellus 
 in exile at Mitylene, living in all the hap- 
 piness that human nature is capable of, &nd 
 cultivating with as much assiduity as e^er 
 all kinds of laudable knowledge." — BoLlNG- 
 BROKE. 
 
 " One great object is pursued throughout 
 the Scriptures, from the expulsion of our 
 first parents out of Eden to the last of the 
 prophets of Israel, namely, the coming of a 
 great person under various titles, the de- 
 liverer from death and destruction, the pro- 
 mised seed there was to come of the woman, 
 not of man, and therefore of a virgin."— 
 Sharpk. 
 
 The term transport is equally ap- 
 plicable to persons and commodities. 
 
 "All these different commodities are col- 
 lected at Manilla, there to be transported 
 annually in one or more ships to the port 
 of A^apulco, in the kingdom of Mexico." — 
 Anson"S Voyages. 
 
 Expatriate (Lat. ex, out of, and 
 patria, mitive coimtry) denotes the 
 specific alienation from one's native 
 land, for whatever cause, whether in 
 political exile or voluntary emigra- 
 tion. Its characteristic force lies in 
 the negative idea of separation from 
 the relations of home and kindred, tlie 
 renunciation or loss of privileges of 
 citizenship, and the need of finding 
 by adoption a new country for one's 
 home. 
 
 "The allied Powers possess also an ex- 
 ceedingly numerous, well-informed, sensi- 
 ble, ingenious, high-priucipled, and spirited 
 body of cavaliers in the expatriated landed 
 gentry of France." — BuRKB. 
 
 BANKRUPTCY. Insolvency 
 Failure. 
 
 These, which are terms of the mer- 
 cantile world, follow practically in the 
 following order — insolvency, failure, 
 bankruptcy. 
 
 The Insolvent (Lat. in- not, and 
 solvere, to pay) is simply one who is 
 unable to pay his debts, or meet his 
 obligations and pecuniaiy liabilities. 
 These may be merely of a personal 
 nature ; that is, he may not be in 
 business at all, or he may be in too low 
 a way of dealing to be bankrupt. 
 
 The Failure (Ft. faiilir, to fail) 
 is an act or a state consequent upon 
 the pK)sitive or presumed insolvency, 
 being a cessation of business pro- 
 
146 
 
 claimed or kuowu,from want of means 
 to carry it on, and so conveying no 
 reproach. 
 
 BANKRiJPTCy (Fr. banqtieroute) is 
 the condition of insolvency, when it 
 has passed into the recognition of the 
 law, which deals with the case and 
 its liabilities according- to principles 
 established by legislation ; and these 
 may vary in diflferent nations. 
 
 ** Truman was better acquainted with his 
 master's affairs than his daughter, and se- 
 verely lamented that each day brought him, 
 by many miscarriages, nearer bankruptq/ 
 thaa the former." — Tatler. 
 
 ♦'Whether the insolvency of the father be 
 by his fault or his misfortune, still the sou 
 is not obliged."— Bishop Taylor. 
 
 " The greater the whole quantity of 
 trade, the greater of course must be the 
 positive number of failures, while the ag- 
 gregate success is still in the same propor- 
 tion."— BUBKE. 
 
 BANQUET. Feast. Cahousal. 
 Entertainment. Treat. 
 
 Of these, Feast (O. Fr./cs/e, Lat. 
 festa^ pi. offestuin) extends in some 
 of its senses to more than the idea of 
 eating and drinking ; and is synony- 
 mous with festival or holiday. In 
 regard to the former. Feast points to 
 no more than the abundance and suf- 
 ficient goodness of the viands, and the 
 satisfaction derived from them. An 
 ample and enjoyable supply, with free- 
 dom from the calls of business and 
 leisure to enjoy it, constitute the notion 
 of a feast, and govern its metaphorical 
 application, as in the proverb, " A 
 contented mind is a continual feast. " 
 
 " There my retreat the best companions 
 
 grace — 
 Chiefs out of war and statesmen out cf 
 
 place. 
 There St. John mingles with my friendly 
 
 bowl, 
 The feast of reason and the flow of soul." 
 Pope. 
 
 Banquet (Fr. banquet; baiique, a 
 bench, literaWy, a feast at which persons 
 iit) conveys the idea of sumptuous, 
 choice, or magnificent feast. 'I'here 
 are no materials, and there is no com- 
 pany too common for a feast, but 
 dainty and exquisite fai'e is needed for 
 a banquet, which has accessories of 
 elegance such as would be thrown 
 away upon coarse natures. 
 
 SYNONYMS [BANQUETj 
 
 " Christianity allowis us to use the world 
 provided we do not abuse it. It does not 
 spread before us a delicious banquet, and 
 then come with a * Touch not, taste not, 
 handle not.'"— Bishop Porteus. 
 
 Entertainment (Fr. entreienir) 
 refers to other pleasures than those of 
 the palate. Its characteristic is that it 
 is given by some one for the benefit of 
 others, and hence involves the idea of 
 reception, or courteous and hospitable 
 treatment. He who gives an enter- 
 tainment not only feeds his guests, 
 but studies their enjoyment, throws 
 open his house to their use, and during 
 ifs continuance places himself at their 
 disposal. It may sometimes happen 
 that an entertainment shall pass with 
 little or no eating and drinking, or 
 that these shall have been made sub- 
 ordinate to other and more intellec- 
 tual pleasures. Entertainments may 
 be musical, and literary, or even con- 
 nect themselves with the arts and 
 with science. 
 
 " His office was to give entertainment 
 And lodging unto all that came and went. 
 SPENSKR. 
 
 A Carousal (Fr. carrousel, a titt- 
 ing-match, a carousal) is in its charac- 
 ter opposed to Entertainment. It is a 
 feast in which the obligation to strict 
 sobriety is disregarded. It needs little 
 refinement or vivid interchange of 
 thought among a number. Two or 
 three dull persons may sit down to- 
 gether for a night's carouse. 
 
 Treat (Fr. trailer) conveys the 
 idea of a kind of entertainment speci- 
 fically selected, or consonant with the 
 circumstances and relation of the giver 
 on the one hand, and the condition 
 and tastes of the receiver on the other. 
 Any inconsistency in the latter would 
 neutralize the treat, however hospi- 
 table and kind might be the intention 
 of the giver. He has exhibited not only 
 liberality, but tact also, who has suc- 
 ceeded in furnishing another with a 
 treat. Superiors give treats to infe- 
 riors, and elders to children, and per- 
 sons who have access to certain sources 
 of enjoyment to those who could not 
 command these for themselves. It 
 denotes innocence and simplicity of 
 enjoyment. How much a treat de- 
 pends upon the character of the re- 
 
[barbarous] discriminated. 
 
 cipient may be infeiTed from the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 " Carrion is a treat to dogs, ravens, vo!- 
 tores, and fish," — Palkt. 
 
 BANTER. Rally. 
 
 We Banter (not an old word ; per- 
 haps slang ?) when we play upon an- 
 other with words ill good-humour. We 
 Rally (Fr. raiiler) when we slightly 
 rail, that is, speak with slight con- 
 tempt or sarcasm, of some specific 
 fault, ofience, or weakness. So Banter 
 has always a mischievous force, but 
 Rally often means such lively remon- 
 strance as may induce another to act 
 more properly, more energetically, 
 or loss despondingly. Bantering is 
 slightly vexatious and provoking, as 
 rallying is slightly remonstrative. 
 Banterm^ owes its force more to the 
 way in which the subject is shown up, 
 rallying to the way in which the person 
 is touched. We more commonly banter 
 a superiority of which we are jealous, 
 and rally an inferiority with which we 
 are dissatisfied. Wit must be, accord- 
 ing to present notions, an ing^-edient 
 in both. 
 
 *' When wit hath any mixture of raillery 
 it is but calling it banter, and the thing is 
 done. This polite word of theirs was first 
 borrowed from the bullies in Whitefriars, 
 then fell among the footmen, and at last 
 retired to the pedants, by whom it is 
 applied as properly to the protluction of wit 
 as if I should apply it to Sir Isaac Newton's 
 mathematics," — SwiFl'. 
 
 " The only place of pleasantry in ' Para- 
 dise Lost' is where the evil spirits are de- 
 •cribed as rallying the angels upon the 
 (success of their new-invented artillery." — 
 Adi>isox. 
 
 BARBAROUS. Inhuman. Cruel. 
 Brutal. Savage. 
 
 These words indicate much the 
 same thing £is contemplated from dif- 
 ferent points of view. Cruel (Fr. 
 cruel, Lat. crud'dis) expresses that 
 kind of disposition which derives 
 pleasure from inflicting pain on other 
 creatures — as the child sometimes, or 
 as the tyrant. Such cruelty is an 
 animal propensity. It must be ob- 
 served, bowever, that acts are often 
 called cruel when they are such as 
 wouM be produced by a propensity, 
 thoiii^h they have not been in fact so 
 •••roduci'd. To desert wife and child is 
 
 147 
 
 a cruel act by reason of its nature and 
 consequences; yet it may proceed, 
 and commonly does, from an excess ot' 
 selfishness, and not from any plea- 
 sure derived from subjecting them to 
 privation. It is by no happy analogy 
 that we speak of cruel disappoint- 
 m-ents and the like, meaning severe, for 
 in such cases the essence of cruelty — 
 namely, the gratification derived from 
 inflicting of pain — is altogether want- 
 ing. The cruel inflict moral as well as 
 physical pain. In the former kind 
 onlyrational animals share : the cruelty 
 of the lower animals is instinctive and 
 subservient to their natural appetites, 
 that of man may be subordinated to a 
 refined revenge. 
 
 " This man [Jefferies] who wantoned in 
 cruelty, had already given a specimen of 
 his character in many trials where he pre- 
 sided, and he now set out with a savage joj 
 as to a full harvest of death and destruc- 
 tion." — Hume. 
 
 Inhuman, like many other such 
 words, as, for instance, inconvenient, 
 unpleasant, though negative in form, is 
 in force positive and strong. It denotes 
 that character of person or act which is 
 not checked or guided by principles 
 and sympathies of humanity, or human 
 nature in its kindlier and worthier as- 
 pect. Inhumanity, therefore, amounts 
 to premeditated or at least conscious 
 cruelty ; and so we speak not of the 
 inhumanity (tliough we speak of the 
 cruelty) of children, but of grown per- 
 sons, as having that mature apprecia- 
 tion of the evil they inflict, which is 
 needful to the idea of inhumanity. 
 We more commonly associate cruelty 
 with the execution of deeds, and in- 
 humanity with the ordering or causing 
 of them. The inhuman tyrant gives 
 an unscrupulous order of execution, 
 though he may not think of seeing it 
 carried out. He is dead to compunc- 
 tion and compassion, inexorable and 
 stony-hearted. 
 
 "When Alexander bad in his fury tn- 
 kumanZy butchered one of his best friends 
 and bravest captains, on the return of 
 reason he began to conceive a hoiTor suit- 
 able to the guilt of such a murder."^ 
 Burkk. 
 
 The Barbarous, the Savage, and 
 the Brutal are epithets which likes 
 
X 
 
 148 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [bare 
 
 tlie conduct or disposition to those of 
 barbarous (Lat. barMrus) savages 
 (Fr. sauvage, Lat. silvdticus) and 
 brutes (Lat. briitus, irrational). These 
 terms therefore are only analogous 
 expressions, and might be taken, as 
 they often are, to express other quali- 
 ties, or to qualify other conditions — as 
 barbarous rudeness, savage manners, 
 brutal ignorance. Barbarous and 
 Savage are epithets of manners pri- 
 marily, and of disposition secondarily ; 
 Brutal and Crukl of disposition pri- 
 marily, and of conduct secondarily ; 
 and indeed are hardly applicable to 
 the manners of a community, though 
 they may well be predicated of cus- 
 toms or habits. As the barbarous 
 bears relation to the civilized, we 
 could never speak of the inferior 
 animals as barbarous, yet we speak of 
 them as savage or cruel. In this way 
 the savage is a wild form of cruelty, as 
 the barbarous is a rude, and the brutal 
 an unfeeling foi-m of it. Hence cruelty 
 itself may be characterized as barba- 
 rous, savage, or brutal, according to 
 the nature and exhibition of it. The 
 same act may be the result of either 
 barbarity or cruelty, and often an act 
 is called cruel, which ought rather to 
 be called barbarous. The exposure 
 of infants to death is a bai'barous act, 
 but has been a custom of some nations, 
 publicly sanctioned and not dictated 
 by ci'uelty — in some cases by State 
 policy, and in some by peculiar notions 
 of humanity. The barbarous, inhuman, 
 and brutal, can only be said of men ; 
 the cruel and savage of beasts as well. 
 Barbarity inflicts death unworthily, 
 cruelty delights in witnessing its in- 
 fliction. African tribes barbarously 
 put their captives to death, when a 
 civilized people would have spared 
 them ; cruelly, when they aggravate 
 the pain of death ; savagely, when they 
 dance round their victims in wild glee. 
 'J'he Greeks called all nations barba- 
 rians, as countuig them inferior to 
 themselves in arts and refinement of 
 manners. Barbarity comes fi-om igno- 
 rance consequent upon the want of 
 development of the moral faculties, 
 cruelty from inherent badness, sav- 
 agery from excessive wildness of tem- 
 perament. 
 
 " Pyrrhos, seeing the Romans marshal 
 their army with some art and skill, said 
 with sui^jrise : These barbarians have no- 
 thing barbarous in their discipline." — 
 HUMK. 
 
 " So much was he altered by a long suc- 
 cession of haidships that he passed entirely 
 without notice, and in the evening when he 
 was going up to the Przetor's chair he was 
 bi-utally repulsed by the attendjig Lectors.' 
 —Goldsmith. 
 
 BARE. Mere. 
 
 Bare (A. 3. beer, bare, open) is 
 sometimes used in a restrictive sense 
 in the sense of no more than, and as 
 a synonym of Mere (Lat. mtrus, sim- 
 ple, pure) ; as we might say either the 
 bare necessaries, or the mere neces- 
 saries of life. But the force of Bare is 
 sometimes positive, so that Mere is 
 more suitably followed gi'ammatically 
 by some term expressive of negation, 
 while Bare is best construed with an 
 affirmative sentence ; as, the bare re- 
 cital of such a tale would move to 
 tears ; the mere shedding of tears is 
 an imperfect compassion. Bare is 
 purelif restrictive ; Mere is used when 
 the restriction is matter of insufficiency 
 or incompleteness. Thus, if I wished 
 to say that a thing was no better than 
 foolishness, I should say that it was 
 mere folly, not bare folly. On the 
 other hand, if I wished to express 
 an insufficiency, not in quality but 
 quantity, I should say the amount 
 was barely, not merely, sufficient. 
 
 So in the following examples, 
 " barely as a man " means not also 
 " as a gentleman ; " "mei-ely conjec- 
 tural " means no better than conjec- 
 tural — that is, not ascertained. 
 
 " The study of morality I have above 
 mentioned as that that becomes a gentle- 
 man, not barely as a man, but in order to 
 his business as a gentleman." — LoCKK. 
 
 " As for the rest of the planets their 
 uses are to as unknown, or merely conjec- 
 tural,"— Ray. 
 
 BARREN. Unproductive. 
 
 Barren (O. Fr. baraigne) points 
 rather to the nature. Unproductive 
 (Lat. produccre, to bring forth) to the 
 condition. The rock is barren, the 
 field untilled and neglected is unpro- 
 ductive. The desert would not be 
 called unproductive, but ban^en. Bar- 
 ren, too, does not admit so easily as 
 
[base] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 149 
 
 unproductive the idea of degree. The 
 barren field produces no crops, the 
 unproductive field may be not alto- 
 gether barren, but bear in scanty pro- 
 portion. 
 
 BARTER. Change. Exchange. 
 Truck. Chaffer. Interchange. 
 
 Of these CiiA^G^ (Ft. changer) may- 
 be taken as the simplest term. Of it- 
 self it expresses no more than to eflfect 
 an alteration, whether this amount to 
 an entire removal, and substitution of 
 another thing or not. It is therefore 
 abstract and indeterminate. I may 
 change the appearance of a thing or 
 the thing itself. As a synonym with 
 the above, it expresses no more than 
 to take one person ©r thing for an- 
 other. Sotne persons change their 
 friends as they change their clothes. 
 The term, however, when so em- 
 ployed, refers to things of the same 
 class or nature. When we liave 
 changed our opinions, those which we 
 have adopted anew may be unlike and 
 even the opposite to what we held be- 
 fore, but they remain at least opinions. 
 
 To Exchange is to change one 
 thing for another, whether of the 
 same or of a different kind, while to 
 change is only to part with one thing 
 and take another of the same kind. 
 I change my book at the reading-room 
 when 1 put it back and take another. 
 I exchange it for another or for an 
 article of a different description. 
 
 " What shall a man give in excJiange for 
 his soul 'f "—English Bible. 
 
 " We all know how often those masters 
 who sought after colouring changed their 
 manner, whilst others, merely from not 
 seeing various modes, acquiesced all their 
 lives in that which they set out with." - Sir 
 J. Reynolds. 
 
 Barter (O. Fr. bareter) refers, 
 strictly speaking, to commercial ex- 
 change of certain commodities for 
 others of the same, but most commonly 
 of different kinds. He who barters is 
 still on the road to market. He is 
 improving his stock by exchanging 
 less negotiable for more negotiable 
 commodities. In the moral sense it 
 is used unfavourably. Mercenary 
 persona will barter coijscience for 
 gold. 
 
 Truck (Fr. Iroqiury to exchange, to 
 truck) is a familiar word, applied to 
 the private bartering of articles of nu 
 great intrinsic value, but of common 
 convenience and use. He who barters 
 exchanges goods with a view to the 
 market ; he who trucks does not go to 
 market perhaps at all, but makes hig 
 
 frofit on the spot in the article itself, 
 t is therefore a term of much less 
 dignity than barter. 
 
 " To truck the Latin for any other vul- 
 gar language is but an ill barter. It is as 
 bad as that which Glaucus made with Dio- 
 medes when he parted with his golden 
 arms for brazen ones." — HowELL. 
 
 Chaffer is to purchase as the result 
 of frequent attempt ; it is to the talk 
 what higgle is to the ti'ansaction. It 
 is connected with A. S. ceaf, a bar- 
 
 fain. So chapman, a seller of wares, 
 t is never used but in a mean sense. 
 *' To chaffer tor preferments with his gold." 
 
 DUYDEN. 
 
 Interchange is distinguished from 
 exchange as denoting not a single act, 
 but a system and repetition of acts of 
 exchange. It is as often employed of 
 moral as of material benefits or com- 
 modities. An exchange has no other 
 limit than that of the transaction. An 
 interchange is circumscribed by a 
 circle of society. A methodical ex 
 change is an interchange. 
 
 " Interchanges of cold frcets and piercing 
 winds." — Bishop Hall. 
 
 BASE. Vile. Mean. low. Ab- 
 ject. 
 
 Base is the Fr. bos, low ; Vile the 
 Lat. vilis^ cheap, worthless; Mean the 
 A. S. mctiie. Base is stronger than 
 Vile, and Vile is stronger than Me 4N. 
 Base expresses the morally degraded, 
 ViLP cne morally despicable, Meas 
 the morally paltiy. Low (peibap* 
 akin to lay, lie), unlike the rest, ha* 
 not only a purely physical, but an 
 analogous social force, out of which 
 that of moral degi-adation has flowed, 
 but which is independent of it. A 
 low rank is near the bottom of the 
 social scale. A low price is near tlie 
 bottom of a scale of charges. That 
 conduct in a man is low which is 
 either wanting in dignity morally, or 
 derogates fi-om the dignity of his social 
 condition. A low profession is one 
 
150 
 
 which would only be exercised by 
 persons who had no social staixling. 
 A low act is one worthy only of a low 
 profession. Yet a man in a low rank 
 of life may entertain sentiments and 
 exhibit a character worthy of a higher. 
 The epithet low is expressive of such 
 petty dishonesties or meannesses as 
 are unworthy of persons who have 
 even a moderate degree of self-respect. 
 What is base excites our abhorrence, 
 as confa-adicting all loftiness and gene- 
 rosity of na^'i "^ — e.g. treachery and 
 ingratitude. sVhat is vile excites dis- 
 gust, as the gaming of a living by the 
 trade of the informer. What is mean 
 excites pure contempt, as prevari- 
 cation, cringing flattery,niggardliness. 
 Meanness is associated with a dis- 
 honourable regard to self-preservation 
 or self-interest ; baseness with a dis- 
 honourable treatment of others. We 
 feel more hatred and resentment 
 against the base,we loathe the vile, and 
 despise the mean. Low habits indi- 
 cate a kind of hopeless meanness, 
 depravity', and dishonourableness, 
 the result of an essential incapacity 
 of what is high, pure, noble, gene- 
 rous, or refined. The opposite of 
 lowness is loftiness ; of baseness, mag- 
 nanimity ; of vileness, nobility ; and 
 of meanness, generosity in feeling and 
 liberality in treatment. 
 
 " Yet sometimes nations will decline so Imv 
 From virtue." Mii^ton. 
 
 '♦ ' Si ingratum dixeris omnia dicens,' 
 says the Latin maxim : ' If you call a man 
 ungrateful, you have called him everything 
 that is base. You need say nothing more." — 
 Beattie. 
 
 " Though we caress dogs, we borrow from 
 them an appellation of the most despicable 
 kind when we employ terms of reproacli ; 
 and this appellation is the common mark of 
 the last vileness and contempt in every 
 language."— Burke. 
 
 " There is hardly a spirit upon earth so 
 mean and contracted as to centre all regards 
 on its own interest, exclusive of the rest of 
 mankind."— Berkeley. 
 
 The state of the Abject (Lat. 
 abjicere, part. abjecUis, to cast aicuy) 
 is one of profound humiliation. Men 
 are low in place or character, vile 
 iE the opinion of others, mean in con- 
 duct and disposition, base in a pro- 
 found badness, abject in feeling and 
 
 SYNOKYMS [basis] 
 
 under the weight of circumstances. 
 The abject is rejected of fortune and 
 of men. An abject sentiment is one 
 in which honour and self-respect have 
 been tJirown away — one past sensi- 
 bility and uttered without blushing. 
 Abject superstition is of the lowest 
 kind. The man who is in an abject 
 condition has ceased to think of the 
 opinions of others, under the feeling 
 that others have ceased to think of 
 him. He is at once in degi'adation 
 and in isolation. The mean, the vile, 
 and the abject have to some extent 
 parted with their independence and 
 are despised, but men in power may 
 do base things, and may be dreaded 
 without being at all despised, 
 
 " There needs no more be said to extol 
 the excellence and power of his wit, than 
 that it was of magnitude enough to cover a 
 world of very great faults— that is, a narrow- 
 ness in his nature to the lowest degree, an 
 abjectness and want of courage, an insinu- 
 ating and servile flattery." — Cumberland. 
 
 BASIS. Foundation. Ground. 
 Base. 
 
 Basis (Lat. basis, Gr. Qacrii;, that on 
 which c thing stands or moves) and 
 Base (Fr. bus) are used interchange- 
 ably ; but while Basis always means 
 the part on which a structure rests. 
 Base means what approximates to this, 
 or the lower part generally Ihe 
 basis of a column is that on which it 
 rests. This, strictly speaking, is hid- 
 den from view. On the other hand 
 its base is an architectural feature of it. 
 Base is not commonly used in a figu- 
 rative sense, which is the case with 
 Basis : as when we hear of matters 
 being set upon a surer basis. 
 
 " Every plague that can infest 
 Society, and that saps and worms the base 
 Of th' edifice that policy has raised." 
 
 Cowper. 
 " This university had in the conclusion 
 of the last century, the honour of giving 
 birth to a stupendous system of philosophy 
 erected by its disciple Newtou on the im- 
 movable basis of experiment and demon- 
 stration."— Porteus. 
 
 Foundation {ha,t.JnnJdtionein)a.nd 
 Ground (A.&. grand) speak forthem- 
 selves. In architecture Foundation i« 
 employed of large and complex struc- 
 tures. Figuratively we use Basis b« 
 that on which rest Uie proceedings oi 
 
[bashful] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 151 
 
 thought, arj^ument, or tlie transactions 
 of men, as being the principles on which 
 they are conducted — as the basis of a 
 conception, a conviction, of reason- 
 ing, of traffic, of negotiation, and so on . 
 Ground expresses the warrant or 
 substantial cause, as the ground of be- 
 lief, feeling, action. So we speak of 
 groundless fears,suspicions, jealousies, 
 meaning imaginary ; grounds of legal 
 proceedings and the like. ForxDA- 
 TiON belongs more peculiarly to matters 
 of belief, feelings, hopes, and the like, 
 rather than matters of practice, in re- 
 ference to which we use the tenn 
 Ground or Basis. In many cases they 
 might be used interchangeably, as we 
 speak of groundless or unfounded cla- 
 mours. In their figurative employment 
 in regard to human interchange of ar- 
 gumentation or business, Basis is the 
 more conventional, Foundation the 
 more deeply seated. We may say that 
 the basis of a transaction is the pro- 
 position on which it is grounded, and 
 which furnishes its principle and the 
 end towards which it is conducted. 
 It is necessary tliat this basis should 
 itself rest on sure and solid founda- 
 tions of fact or policy, sound and re- 
 cognized. A hypothesis may be as- 
 sumed as the basis of our reasoning, 
 and confiiTned by facts harmonizing 
 with it ; but hypothesis is generally an 
 insecure basis of action. 
 
 " From thence I draw tlie most comfort- 
 aljle assurances of tlie future vigour and the 
 ample resources of t]us great misrepresented 
 country, anl can never prevail on myself to 
 make complaints which have no cause in 
 order to raise hopes which have no foiaida- 
 iion."— Burke. 
 
 BASHFUL. Modest. Diffident. 
 Coy. Reserved. Shy. 
 
 Basiifulness is a constitutional 
 feeling, IModesty a virtue, Diffi- 
 dence, except in specific cases where 
 it is grounded on self-knoAv ledge, 
 an infirmity. Bashfulness (to nhnsh, 
 from O. Fr. e.^baliir, tu asioiiish) is ex- 
 cessive or extreme modesty. It is an 
 instinctive, almost animal sensation, 
 though involving intelligence. It is 
 not unbecoming in young persons 
 of eitlier sex, especially in the pre- 
 sence of elders or superiors. It be- 
 trays i«°"^^in a look of self-conscious 
 
 timidity, and in grown-up persons 
 is a defect amounting to a mental 
 disease. It would be hard to define 
 bashfulness, especially as it is un- 
 defined in those who are subject to 
 it. Bashfulness is best honoured by 
 overcoming the manifestations and 
 not despising the emotion of it. 
 
 " Our orators, with the most faulty 
 bashfulness, seem impressed rather with 
 an awe of their audience than with a just re- 
 spect for the truths they are about to deliver. 
 They of all professions seem the most bash- 
 ful who have the greatest right to glory in 
 their commission." — Goldsmith. 
 
 Modesty (Lat. modestiam) is the 
 absence of all tendency to over-esti- 
 mate one's self, while diffidence (Lat. 
 (iiffidentia) is the positive distrust oi 
 ourselves. 
 
 " Modesty is a kind of shame or bashful- 
 ness proceeding from the sense a man has 
 of his own defects, compared with the per- 
 fections of him whom he comes before." — 
 South. 
 
 " There is a degree of pain in modest 
 diffiAence, bnt it is amply recompensed by 
 the glow of satisfaction derived from the 
 favourable opinion* of others, and by the 
 cncouraicement thus inspired, that the de- 
 ficiency is not so great as was apprehended, 
 or too gi'eat to be surmounted." — CoGAN. 
 
 Modesty is one of those virtues which 
 may be regarded as lying in a mean, 
 the mean between diMdence and pre- 
 sumption. Modesty is in some re- 
 spects very unlike diffidence, for 
 though inclined to claim less than his 
 due, and to accord more than theii 
 due to others, the modest man is not 
 deten-ed from such efforts in the 
 struggle of life as are needful to do 
 justice to himself, while diffidence, it 
 it bo a habit of the disposition, leads 
 to positive injustice to one's self, and 
 one's own powers. We may remark 
 that the word DiFFioEf.T was for- 
 merly used sometimes objectively, 
 and as synonymous with distrustful 
 oJ\ doubtful of. 
 
 Cov (O. Fr. coi, orig. coit ; Lat. 
 quietus) is a teiTn expressive of the 
 reserve of youthful modesty. It is 
 that maidenly reserve in particular, 
 which combines a shrinking shynes.-i 
 with the absence of dislike or dis- 
 pleasure, and may even receive ad 
 vances with a timid satisfartion. 
 
162 
 
 "When the kind Qyni(h wctld coyness 
 
 feign. 
 And hides-but to be fonnd tgain." 
 
 DRYDEN. 
 
 Shy ( 1 A.S. sceoh, askew, ferverse, 
 connected with the German sclieu, 
 timorous) is a terra of more compre- 
 hensive import. Shyness is never a 
 virtue. It is in some of the lower 
 animals an instinctive feeling an- 
 Bwering purposes of self-preservation. 
 It is therefore allied to fiear and sus- 
 picion. It is a tendency to avoid, aris- 
 ing out of ignorant distrust, afeeling of 
 the absence of the ease which comos 
 from familiarity. Hence habituation 
 to the unfamiliar presence is its natu- 
 ral remedy, and may even lead to 
 the opposite extreme. The child 
 which begins by being shy will some- 
 times go on to be over-bold. Yet in 
 grown-up persons it assumes a charac- 
 ter somewhat different, and the ele- 
 ment of one's sensitiveness orself-con- 
 sciousness issuperadded. Hence, so far 
 from being equivalent to modesty, it 
 is often in no small degree the result 
 of a kind of pride, involved in the 
 fear of not appearing to advantage. 
 
 Rf.siiuvE (Fr. reserve, literally, a 
 holding back) is sometimes a proud, 
 always a calculating shyness. It be- 
 longs to those who are more completely 
 masters of themselves. It is only in 
 its extremes that reserve is a fault — 
 that is, when it approaches too nearly 
 to shyness on one side, or pride on 
 the other. We mean no disparage- 
 ment when we speak of a dignified or 
 prudent reserve. Reserve is a keep- 
 ing of one's self, whether sufficiently or 
 too much, within bounds of demea- 
 nour ; where it is of the mind, it is 
 more premeditated ; where of the tem- 
 perament, more involuntary. 
 
 "Men have a shj/7iess and jealousy 
 against such truths as they have not been 
 acquainted with."— MoRK. 
 
 " Where is that ancient seriousness and 
 resei'vedness and modesty that heretofore 
 has been thought not only essential to the 
 •pirit of a Christian, but natural to the 
 temper of an Englishman ? " — Sharp. 
 
 BATTLE. Combat. Engage- 
 ment. Action. 
 
 Battle (Fr. hataille) \& a generic 
 term. A« an act, fighting, like the 
 term fight (which is, however, of 
 
 SYNONYMS [battle] 
 
 less dignity), refers to the jihysical 
 contests of individuals, of sniall par- 
 ties, and of large armies. In any 
 case it is suggestive of such fighting 
 as involves an issue of importance, 
 whether it be a matter of personal 
 right or political struggle. In old 
 'times personal claims were sometimes 
 decided by wager of battle. Persever- 
 ing, independent, and resolute men 
 will do battle for what they believe 
 a righteous cause. Battle is strenuous 
 and sustained resistance, with a view 
 to the conquest or destruction of an 
 opposing party, even though it should 
 be a beast and not a man. 
 
 " The Scipios battled, and the Gracchi 
 spoke." Dykr. 
 
 Combat (O.F.comfcflt?*g)is used with 
 a more direct reference to the recipro- 
 cal trial of strength, and is employed 
 of small parties or of individuals, as 
 the combat of the Horatii and Curratii. 
 A combat is a close hand-to-hand en- 
 counter, and draws attention to the cha- 
 racteristic qualities of the parties, the 
 weapons they use, or the rules under 
 which they fight. A combat is a 
 spectacle to those looking on. A com- 
 bat may be a portion of a battle, as in 
 a general battle two combatants may 
 single out each other. The verb com- 
 bat is used directly of the object of the 
 struggle when it is used in a secon- 
 dary sense. The astute reasoner com- 
 bats his opponent's position generally, 
 or his arguments in detail. 
 
 " What had I 
 T' oppose against such powerful arguments ? 
 Only my love of thee held long debate 
 And combated in silence all these reasons 
 With hard contest." MiLTON. 
 
 A fight may be accidental ; a com- 
 bat is prearranged ; a fight does not 
 imply of necessity the use of weapons ; 
 a combat does. 
 
 Engagement (0. F. engager, to 
 pledge) and Action (Lat. actionem) 
 stand to the battle or the combat as 
 the process of the thing to the thing 
 itself. Engagement is a favourite 
 term for naval fights, and action is 
 not used of personal encounters. Ac- 
 tion is a wider tenn than Engage- 
 ment ; the latter being the former so 
 far as it refers onlv to the struggle 
 with the enemy. The verb Enoaos 
 
[beam] 
 
 might be employed of two combatants, 
 Dut hardly the noun engagement. 
 1'he action is spoken of as decisive 
 aiii sliarp oi not, the angagement as 
 protracted and severe or not, and, be- 
 tween equal or unequal forces, the 
 battle as important or unimportant. 
 Ac r'ON has a more comprehensive force 
 than Engagement. In naval battles 
 the decks are cleared for action before 
 the engagement commences. To say 
 that the troops engaged well would 
 mean that they fought well ; that they 
 behaved well in action would com- 
 prise other qualifications, as that they 
 manoeuvred well under command. 
 
 " A decisive action." — Macaulay. 
 
 " The battle proved decisive in favour of 
 the house of York, and in consequence of 
 it Edward was, in June, 1461, crowned 
 King of England, There were killed in 
 this engagement 36,776 men." — Hawkes. 
 
 BEAM. Gleam. Glimmer. Ray. 
 Glitter. Sparkle. Shine. 
 
 These words, not excepting Ray, 
 are employed both as nouns and as 
 verbs. Their use as verbs will be 
 sufficiently indicated by noticing their 
 difference in the former capacity. 
 They all express the steadier or less 
 fitful and violent emissions of light, 
 and so stand contrasted with such 
 other synonyms as /tame, glare, Jiare, 
 flash, and the like. 
 
 Beam in A. S. meant a tree, post; 
 and also (2) a ray of light: and so is 
 analogous, perhaps, to the Lat. rKdhis, 
 whence Ray, which meant properly a 
 staff, or spoke of a wheel. Beam is 
 more nearly allied with Ray in the 
 above list, and Gleam (A. S. gleam, a 
 gleam), with Glimmer (akin to gleam) 
 and Glitter (cf. O. S. glittan, to 
 shine). The beam is ordinarily larger 
 and more powerful than the ray, 
 though not invariably so. The great 
 luminaries of the sun and moon send 
 forth both beams and rays. Smaller 
 luminous bodies, as a lamp, send out 
 rays. The sun emits rays whenever 
 its light is unobstructed : between 
 clouds the same light often escapes as 
 a beam. Ray expresses more directly 
 than Beam the notion of one among a 
 number of lines of light diverging 
 from aluminous centre. A^ain, Beam 
 is never applied but to light, while 
 ray is also applied to substances ana- 
 
 DI8CRIMINATED. 
 
 xOd 
 
 logons to the spokes of a wheel, as 
 for instance, those which form a star- 
 like pattern ; as, the rays of the flowers 
 called Composite, or as an order 
 of chivalry might consist of a star 
 with an enamelled centre and dia- 
 mond rays or points. Gleam, Glim- 
 mer, and Glitter have much in com- 
 mon, but Gleam is commonly used of 
 light not very brilliant but unde- 
 veloped, yet steady, and beginning, as 
 it were, to make itself visible thi-ough 
 surrounding darkness, as the first 
 gleams of the sun at dawn. Glimmer 
 is an unsteady gleam, making itself 
 visible in a tremulous way,and perhaps 
 at intervals. Glitter and Sparkle 
 (A.S. spare, spark) are again much 
 alike, with this important difference, 
 that Sparkle is properly applied to 
 luminous bodies, and Glitter to those 
 that are not so. The fire sparkles, 
 that is, rapidly emits minute frag- 
 ments of light; but diamonds, properly 
 speaking, do not sparkle, but glitter, 
 as they emit light only in the sense of 
 reflectingit. \\ hen wesayof the jewel, 
 as we sometimes do, that itsparkles.we 
 lend our imagination in some degree, 
 and think of it as what it is not — a tiny 
 source of light. Shine (A.S. scinan, 
 to shine, glitter) denotes the steady 
 emission of light, whether by inherent 
 force or by reflexion. The sun shines 
 when its full flood of light is poured 
 out unobstructedly. Shining talents 
 are uniformly conspicuous, though 
 they will exhibit themselves occasion 
 ally in brilliant efforts and successes 
 But Glitter in its secondary sense ex- 
 presses the idea of a false light, a 
 brightness which is above the inherent 
 value of the substance itself. Sparkle 
 belongs in this application to thf 
 sudden sallies of intellectual bright 
 ness, as when conversation is en 
 livened by a sparkling wit. Glisten 
 (allied to glitter) expresses a fitful but 
 soft light, especially as modified bx 
 moisture. The deAvdrop glistens o. 
 the glass. Eyes glisten with tears. 
 
 " The bleating kind 
 Eye the black heaven, and next the glisteH 
 
 ing earth 
 With looks of dumb despair, then sad dis- 
 persed. 
 Dig for the wither* 1 herb tlirongh heaps •' 
 snow." Thomsok. 
 
154 
 
 " I saw a l>eanty from the sea to rise. 
 That all earth look'd on, and that earth 
 
 all eyes. 
 It cast a beam as when the cheerful sun 
 Zs fair j?ot up, and day some hours begun." 
 Ben Joxsox. 
 
 •• Those nncertain glimmer ivgi^ of the 
 light of Nature would have prepared the 
 minds of the learned for the reception of 
 the full illustration of this subject by the 
 Gospel, had not the Resurrection been a 
 part of the doctrine therein advanced." — 
 Watsox. 
 *' Though fainter raptures my cold heart 
 
 inspire. 
 Vet let me oft frequent this solemn scene. 
 Oft to the abbey's shatter'd walls retire, 
 What time the moonshine dimly ^toms 
 between," MiCKLE. 
 
 ♦' Bodies in respect of light may be di- 
 vided into three sorts : first, those that 
 emit rays of light, as the sun and 
 fixed stars. Secondly, those that transmit 
 the rays of light, as the air. Thirdly, those 
 that reflect the riiys of light, as iron, earth, 
 &c. The first are called luminous, the se- 
 cond pellucid, the third opake." — LoCKE. 
 
 " A reliance on genius, as it is called, 
 without application, gives a boldness of 
 utterance and assertion which often sets 
 olf base metal with the glitter of gold." — 
 Kxox. 
 
 " She observed to me that she had 
 divers times observed the like alterations 
 in some diamonds of hers, which sometimes 
 would look more sparklingly than they 
 were wont, and sometimes more dull than 
 ordinary." — BoYLE, 
 
 " Of gold shone her corouue." — R. 
 Bruiwe. 
 
 BEAT. Stuike. Hit. 
 
 To Beat (A. S. bedtan) is an act of 
 repetition, meaning' to continue to 
 give blows. It is the result of repeated 
 aims and efforts with such implements 
 as are retained in the hand, or with 
 the hand itself. It is, therefore, ex- 
 clusively the act of an intelligent 
 agent, voluntary and performed in 
 close proximity to the object. To 
 Strike (A. S. strica, a stroke, a 
 point) is a single act, though it may be 
 successively renewed. When it is a 
 voluntary act it may be by a missile 
 at a distance. But it may also be ac- 
 cidental, 'or purely mechanical. A 
 missile or implement aimed at one 
 object may strike another. To strike 
 denotes no more than locomotion end- 
 ing in contact. 
 
 To Hit (cf. Icel. hitta, to hit upoyi) 
 is to strike as the result of aim, and 
 
 SYJS^ONYMS [beat] 
 
 involving the idea of chances of miss- 
 ing it. So we speak of a good or 
 lucky hit. To beat is alwjiys designed. 
 To strike is designed or accidental. 
 To hit is the combined result of pur- 
 pose and chance, or of purpose acting 
 in contingent circumstances. 
 
 ♦' Thrice was I beaten with rods." — Eng- 
 lish Bible. 
 
 " They struck him with the palms of 
 their hands." — Ibid. 
 
 " Just as we experience it in the flint and 
 steel. You may move them apart as long 
 as you please to very little purpose, but it 
 is the hitting and collision of them that 
 must make thera strike fire." — Bkxtley. 
 
 BEAT. Defeat. 
 
 As these words are used synony- 
 mously, Bkat is of more extended 
 application than Df.feat. Beat re- 
 gards rather the power which has 
 gained the victory ; Defeat ( 0. Fr. 
 dtfait) the condition to which the 
 beaten person has been reduced. lie 
 who is beaten has fallen under Ihe 
 power of his opponent; he who is 
 defeated has been compelled by supe- 
 rior force to abandon his attem])t. 
 Power and skill beat, but vigilance 
 may defeat ; that is to say, Bicat im- 
 plies a close, wliile Defeat admits also 
 of a more indirect and remote compe- 
 tition. An open competitor beats; 
 an occult cause, an uncalculated force, 
 and Unforeseen contingency, may de- 
 feat the best-laid plans. Persons only 
 are beaten, efforts also and schemes 
 are defeated. Unsuccessful competi- 
 tors in a race are beaten by the supe- 
 rior activity of the winner, and de- 
 feated as regards their own exertions 
 to win. He who is beaten is humi- 
 liated. He who is defeated is disap- 
 pointed. 
 
 " He beat them in a bloo;ly battle.'' — 
 Pkescott. 
 
 " Yet Almighty God himself often com- 
 plains how in a manner his designs were 
 defeated, his desires thwarted, his ofl'ers 
 refused, his counsels rejected, his expecta- 
 tions deceived."~BARROW. 
 
 BEATIFICATION. Canoniza- 
 
 The former (Lat. beattficare; bedtut, 
 blessed, and/cYcej-e, to make) is a pri- 
 vilege more privately granted by the 
 Pope, to the memory of certain persons 
 
[beautiful] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 166 
 
 to be regarded nfter death as saints, 
 whose hves Iiave been considered il- 
 lustrious for piety and miracles. 
 
 The latter (Gr. x«vovj^(w, / J'idge 
 bi) rule) is a more formal and public 
 trial of the merits of the deceased, 
 pi-evious 10 his admission to the Ca- 
 lendar. This distinction may seem 
 partly to explain the crowd of names 
 of saints which connect themselves 
 with the Eoman Catholic Church. 
 Both acts emanate from the Pontifical 
 authority declaring the blessedness 
 of a departed person, and the kind of 
 religious veneration to be paid to him. 
 In the act of beatification, the Pope 
 
 Eronounces, as an individual ; using 
 is authority to grant to private per- 
 sons or religious orders the privilege 
 of rendering a certain cultus to the 
 beatified person, which is then pro- 
 tected from superstition by his seal 
 and sanction. In the act of canoniza- 
 tion, he acts oflUcially as judge, and 
 the Bull of Canonization becomes a 
 law of the Church binding on all the 
 faithful. 
 
 BEAUTIFUL. Handsome. 
 Pretty. Lovely. Fixe. 
 
 Of these. Handsome is applicable 
 to persons, to certain objects, and to 
 acts moral ; the rest, both to persons 
 and other objects of sight, whether 
 natural or artificial. 
 
 Beautiful (Fr. beaute, Lat. belCi- 
 tatem) is the strongest of these, except, 
 perhaps, Lovely, but neither Beau- 
 tiful, PREi"ry, nor Lovely is applic- 
 able to men, who are never permitted 
 to be more than Handsome. Treatises 
 Ijave been written for the purpose 
 of explaining wherein the idea or 
 feeling of the beautiful consists. In 
 a work like the present, we have to 
 do with it so far as it is practically 
 illustrated by the use of the terms. 
 The beautiful possesses entirely that 
 which the handsome, the pretty, and 
 the fine possess in part. It involves 
 a certain softness or delicacy, which 
 makes it inapplicable to men. The 
 beautiful comprises fairness and excel- 
 lence of the parts, as constituting a 
 whole of the same character. Form, 
 colour, proportion,and even movement, 
 are included in it. The beautiful face 
 is j»erfect in all its features, in com- 
 
 plexion, and in symmetry. The beau- 
 tiful landscape is an assemblage of 
 admirable objects balanced and con- 
 trasted in form, gi-ouping, and colour- 
 ing, as an artist would desire ; being 
 also soft and striking. The beautifiil 
 is often the result of association of 
 ideas in the mind of the person. A 
 beautiful smile, for instance, is an as- 
 sociated influence. Yet we may well 
 believe that tliere is a primitive in- 
 fluence in form, to produce that kind 
 of emotion which enters into the com- 
 positions of fine art. 
 
 " In like manner I have heard it ob- 
 served by thoughtless people, that there are 
 a few women possessed of beauty in compa- 
 * nson of tliose who want it; not considering 
 that we bestow the epithet of beautiful only 
 on such persons as possess a degree of beauty 
 that is common to them with a few." — 
 Hume. 
 
 . The beautiful woman, like the beau- 
 tiful landscape, is an assemblage of 
 admirable objects, yet with all this 
 she may not be Lev ely. This implies 
 the supei-addition to external beauty 
 of an exquisite delicacy ; and the stamp 
 of those moral graces of purity and 
 tenderness, without which physical 
 beauty, however striking, falls short 
 of being lovely. 
 
 " Beauty is an over-weening self-sufficient 
 thing, careless of providing itself any more 
 substantial ornaments; nay, so little does 
 it consult its own interests, that it too often 
 defeats itself by betraying that innocence 
 which renders it lovdy and desirable." — 
 Spectator. 
 
 Handsome (derived from hand, and 
 the tennination -some, like the German 
 -sam) is a term of the second class of 
 admiration. It meant at first dex- 
 terous, and, reflexively, handy, and 
 then comely ; as expressing nvore 
 than pretty, and less than beautiful. 
 There are certain associations con- 
 nected with the handsome, which 
 seem a little arbiti*ary and hard to 
 account for. It is easier to note them. 
 For instance, men, women ; horses, 
 do^s,and other animals ; tiees,dresses, 
 articles of furniture, houses, parks ; 
 but not views or prosj)ects. The 
 Handsome denotes a coinbination of 
 the fair or comely and the bold. A 
 slight figure, a face of small features, 
 is not handsome. It does not imply 
 so strict an adherence to rule as beauly 
 
156 
 
 SYNONYMS [becoming] 
 
 Without being regularly beautiful, a 
 face may be handsome if it is finely, 
 though not exactly formed. The term, 
 when a])plied morally to actions, re- 
 tains that second-rate quality which 
 belongs to it, as an epithet of what is 
 admirable physically. The handsome 
 act is not of the highest description, 
 not one of self-devotion, or heroic 
 generosity, but of liberality, and of 
 something more than fairness — a libe- 
 ral kindness of giving where less 
 liberality would have been quite con- 
 sistent with justice. Nor, again, is 
 Handsome applied physically to ob- 
 jects of small size. The handsome 
 implies a certain scale beyond the 
 Pretty (etym. uncertain), which be- 
 longs to the little in form, nor is the 
 beauty which it denotes of a high 
 order, but a combination of delicacy 
 and gi-ace ; yet, inasmuch as we do not 
 prefer by rule, it may be more win- 
 ning than the other. 
 
 " The Romans were so convinced of the 
 power of beauty, that the word ' fortis,' 
 strong or valiant, signifies likewise, fair or 
 handsmne.'" — Fawkes. 
 
 " If tall, tht name of proper stays ; 
 
 If fair, she's pleasant as the light. 
 
 If low, her prettiness does please." 
 Cowley. 
 ^ Fine (Fr. Jin, fine, slender; Lat. 
 i\nitus, finished ) seems to have taken to 
 itself by usage a force not originally be- 
 longing to it: the fine, being the slender 
 or highly finished, as we speak of a fine 
 line, has come to mean also that which 
 is not little, and implies a certain degree 
 of size and conspicuousness. In short 
 it is op])osed to coarse (which is the 
 same as courses current, or ordinary), 
 and hence denotes that which is no 
 ordinary thing of its kind, thus invol- 
 ving characteristic excellences, and 
 excluding specific defects. 
 
 " The fine original of Thomas Howard, 
 Duke of Norfolk, with the staves of Earl 
 Marshal and Lord Treasurer, from wheni.e 
 the print is taken, is at Leicester House." — 
 Walpolk. 
 
 Beauty involves a degree of fine- 
 ness which prettiness excludes. Soft- 
 ness and symmetry without size are 
 the characteristics of prettiness. A 
 pretty landscape is pleasing. Beauti- 
 ful scenery is strikingly attractive. 
 Fine acenery may be beautiful, but 
 
 contains also elements of the bold 
 and grand. Beautiful thoughts have 
 a loftiness and power of sentiment 
 and expression. Fine thoughts are 
 elevating, and clothed in choice ex- 
 pressions. Pretty ideas have a clever 
 and unsubstantial grace, which fita 
 them for versification. 
 
 BECOMING. Decent. Proper. 
 Seemly. 
 
 The Bkcoming (of which the deri- 
 vation speaks for itself) expresses that 
 which is harmoniously graceful or 
 attractive from fitness. The becoming 
 sits well upon the person. A becom- 
 ing dress is congruous with the height, 
 appearance, age, and station of the 
 wearer. Unbecoming conduct reflects 
 discredit upon the character and con- 
 dition of the person so behaving. 
 Modesty is becoming in youth, gravity 
 in a judge. An innocent cheerfulness 
 of disposition is never unbecoming in 
 any. A remark may be unbecoming 
 in certain society, or at a certain time 
 or place, which might otherwise have 
 been made unobjectionably. The be- 
 coming is always in external manifes- 
 tation, though it may be regulated by 
 moral or abstract princij)les. It al- 
 ways relates to persons. 
 
 " He received the homage of the people 
 with becoming dignity." — Bkydoke. 
 
 The Decent ( Lat. deccre, to become), 
 like the Becoming, is external or in- 
 ternal. It is a graver term, turning 
 more upon moral fitness. It has a 
 restrictive or negative, rather than a 
 positive force. It is praise to say of a 
 thing that it is Becoming. It is only 
 right that it should be decent. The 
 decent is that species of the becoming 
 which results from the absence of 
 laxity or excess, and has no meaning 
 of the positively graceful. A person 
 becomingly dressed is an agreeable 
 object. A person decently clad has 
 appropriate and sufficient clothing, 
 and possibly no more. Decency is 
 such a measure of attention to moral, 
 personal, and social requirements, aa 
 is demanded by the rules of the com- 
 munity in which we live. Hence de- 
 cency is based upon a modest defe- 
 rence to the exactions of nature and 
 society, while a defiant disregard of 
 these is indecent. 
 
[bEGINNTNG] DI8CKIMINATED. 
 
 "As beauty of body with an tigreeable 
 carriage pleases the eye, and that pleasure 
 :»n8ists in that we observe all the parts, 
 with a certain elegance, are proportioned to 
 each other, so does decency of behaviour, 
 which appears in our lives, obtain the ap- 
 probation of all with whom we converse 
 from the order, constancy, and moderation 
 of our words and actions." — Spectator. 
 
 Proper (Lat. proprius) means pri- 
 marily, peculiarly connected, or speci- 
 fically belonging. Hence in this con- 
 nexion it implies an adaptation to 
 a character, person, end, or purpose 
 morally. Propriety is moral fitness, 
 and involves conformity to a law 
 of association. It is a principle which 
 regulates the minor and more ordinary 
 matters of life. Hence an impropriety 
 falls short of a crime, and is an offence 
 against rule, order, taste, custom, and 
 the like. Like Decent, it denotes the 
 fulfilment of a standard-requirement, 
 and no more. It is a term of approval 
 rather than of praise. A proper ex- 
 pression fairly represents its subject, 
 and conforms to the usage of lan- 
 guage, and has no blamable signifi- 
 cance ; an improper expression would 
 be the contrary of these. 
 
 " Visitors are no proper companions ib 
 the chamber of sickness." — Johnson. 
 
 Seemly, that which beseems, or 
 seems well, occupies a middle place 
 between Deck NT and Becoming, being 
 more than the first and less than the 
 second. As propriety is a thing of 
 rule, seemliness is a thing of taste ; 
 the former belongs to the nature of 
 things, the latter" to the effects pro- 
 duced by them. 
 
 " I cannot understand that any man's 
 bare perception of the natural seemliness 
 of one action and unseerniiness of another 
 should bring him under an obligation on 
 all occasions to do the one, and avoid the 
 other at the hazard of his life, to the de- 
 triment of his fortune, or even to the dimi- 
 nution of his own ease." — Bishop Hakley. 
 
 BEGGAR. Mendicant. 
 
 He who Begs (prob. A. S. bed-ec- 
 lan, contracted into beggen : Skeat's 
 Etym. Diet.), though generally con- 
 nected with bag into which the beg- 
 gar puts alms or scraps of food, is so 
 far a Beggar. 
 
 The Mendicant (Lat. mendicare, 
 <o beg) expresses more formally one 
 •^hose trade is begging, as in the case \ 
 
 157 
 
 of the Mendicant Friars of the Churcb 
 of Rome, 
 
 BEGIN. Commence. 
 
 Begin (A. S. beginnan) and Com 
 MENCE (Fr. commencer) are employed 
 with slight differences. Thus Begin 
 sometimes refers only to time or order, 
 while Coaimence implies action. Tht 
 alphabet begins, but could not be said 
 to commence with the letter A. So 
 to enter upon a new state may be ex- 
 pressed by Begin, but not by Com- 
 mence, as "after walkin^^twenty miles 
 I began to feel tired." The same ap- 
 plies to an alteration of mind, thought, 
 or opinion. * ' I begin to think that after 
 all you are mistaken." Commence 
 commonly applies as a verb directly 
 to its object, which is some work or 
 thing to be done, and if the subject 
 be anything else, the term Commence 
 should be dispensed with. It is an 
 absurdity, for instance, to say : *' At 
 this part of the performance, the au- 
 dience commenced to show signs of 
 weariness." The opposite to begin is 
 end, the opposite to commence is com- 
 pete. Begin is used also in the pe- 
 cu/tiar sense of being the first to do a 
 thing, as distinguished from the act 
 of prosecution, or joint action on the 
 part of another. James is most to 
 blame, for it is he that began the 
 quarrel. Like all words of Latin 
 origin (for the Lat. tivitium, a begin- 
 ning, is at the root of the French coni' 
 mencer, Lat. com-Vn^iare), Commence 
 has a more dignified character than 
 Begin. Formal and public transac- 
 tions, ceremonies, and the like, are 
 said to commence ; common, and fa- 
 miliar things to begin. 
 
 " But to begin that which never was, 
 whereof there was no example, whereto 
 there was no inclination, wherein there 
 was no possibility of that which it should be, 
 is proper only to such power as Thine, the 
 infinite power of an infinite Creator."— 
 Bishop Hall. 
 
 " On the 29th, the Queen removed to St. 
 James's, passing through the park, and took 
 her barge at Whitehall, and so to Rich- 
 mond, in order to her progress, which was 
 chiefly commenced to meet her beloved, the 
 Prince of Spain."— Strypk. 
 
 BEGINNING. Commencement. 
 Origin. Original. Rise. Source. 
 
 The distinction between the nouns 
 
158 
 
 SYNONYMS [BEGINNING 
 
 Beginning and Commencement is 
 concurrent with that between the 
 verbs begin and commence, as given 
 above. It follows from these con- 
 siderations that Beginning is a term 
 more proximately connected with its 
 subject than Commencement. The 
 beginning of a thing is that part of 
 it which is first in order, whether of 
 observation or action. The com- 
 mencement of a thing is that which 
 results in the thing itself. The com- 
 mencement of hostilities between two 
 nations might be the grievance or ex- 
 citing cause of them ; the beginning 
 could only be the full overt act of 
 fighting. 
 
 Origin (Lat. (inginem) is used both 
 for the first cause of a thing, and also, 
 with less propriety, for the beginning 
 or earlier part of it. Original was 
 once used in the same way, but has 
 come to undergo a scientific restric- 
 tion — e.g., some believe the wolf to be 
 the original of the dog. It has the 
 peculiar sense of type or earlier form 
 from which a later form is naturally 
 or artificially derived. The original 
 of a picture or a writing is opposed to 
 a copy or a translation. Hence, origi- 
 nal expresses a substantial form ; 
 origin an ideal cause, or a cause as 
 conceived in the mind. Origin is a 
 term which admits of complex and 
 abstract thought. For instance, the 
 origin of evil is a subject of profound, 
 and perhaps fruitless, speculation. 
 
 Rise (Sax. risan) is a more prac- 
 tical and familiar term, as Origin is 
 more speculative. Among quarrel- 
 some persons a very trivial matter will 
 give rise to dispute. Rise often means 
 that early portion of a thing's exis- 
 tence in which the origin having taken 
 place, the thing is still in a state of 
 progressive development — as the his- 
 toric rise, progress, and decline of the 
 Roman Empire. 
 
 Sou RC e ( Fr. source, from the Lat. sur- 
 g'cre, to rise, through a late fonn, sursa : 
 Brachet) conveys the additional 
 idea of something which can be re- 
 feiTed to as an origin, whether in the 
 mind only, by way of account, or 
 actually, and for the purpose of draw- 
 ing material results ; aa in the one 
 case, when we trace an evil to its source, 
 
 or in the other when we are said to ex- 
 haust every source of pleasure; the 
 teinn Source thus involving a conti- 
 nuous supply. Source and Origin, 
 though they are of course used also 
 analogously, both refer to physical not 
 logical sequence. A source of infor- 
 mation is not only the point at which 
 our infonnation begins, nor that 
 whence it flows to us, but also that to 
 which, as to a spring or fountain, we 
 may recur to draw fresh diaughts of 
 knowledge. Consciousness of right 
 is a source of fortitude — that is, sup- 
 plies continuously the power of en- 
 durance. Origin, on the other hand, 
 is not expressive of continued action 
 or operation, so that it may possibly 
 denote no more than a cause which 
 acted for a while, and then passed 
 away. Families,dynasties, discoveries, 
 languages, nations, facts, have their 
 origins, which are the circumstances 
 to which the mind refers as having 
 brouo^ht them about. Casual meet- 
 ings have proved the origins of friend- 
 ships which have afterwards been 
 sources of much happiness. Gene- 
 rally speaking, the origin is plain or 
 obscure, the source fruitful or barren. 
 The origin is the beginning of things 
 which have sequence or continuity. 
 The source is that kind of beginning 
 which produces succession. The ori- 
 gin gives birth to what before had 
 none. The source opens out what 
 before it contained in itself. Every- 
 thing in its origin is small until it 
 grows. Everything in its source is 
 weak until it strengthens. It is 
 curious knowledge which teaches us 
 the origin of things. It is practical 
 wisdom which sends us to their source. 
 It is the due consideration of time, 
 occasion, and opportunity, which de- 
 termines the commencement of pro- 
 ceedings. Almost every subject of 
 thought or action of which the mind 
 takes cognizance may be resolved 
 into a beginning, a middle, and an end. 
 When we know the beginning of a 
 quarrel, we know how long it has 
 lasted. 
 
 " In the beginning was the Word, and 
 the Word was with God, and the Word waa 
 God."— English Bible. 
 
 " Iq the last Lecture, the aatare and 
 
[behold] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 159 
 
 origin of the Hebrew Elegy was explaineil, 
 the form and commencement of that species 
 of poetry was traced into the solemn dirges 
 which are chanted at funerals by the pro- 
 fessed monruers." — LoWTH. 
 
 " This mixed system of opinion and senti- 
 ment had itsorigin in the ancient chivalry." 
 — BlRKE. 
 
 " If there is any one English word which 
 is become virtually literal in its metaphorical 
 application, it is the word source. Who is it 
 that ever thought of a spring or fountain 
 of water in speaking of God as the source 
 of existence, of the sun as the source of 
 light, and of land as one of the sources of 
 natural wealth, or of sensation and reflexion 
 as the only sources, according to Locke, of 
 human knowledge? propositions which it 
 would not be easy to enunciate in any other 
 way."— DcGALD Stewart. 
 
 " O glotonie, full of cursednesse, 
 O cause first of our confusion, 
 O original of our damnation 1 " 
 
 Chaucer. 
 
 " All wickedness takes its rise from the 
 heart."— Nelson. 
 
 BEHAVIOUR. Demeanour. 
 Conduct. 
 
 Behaviour (A. S. behaibban; for 
 change of meaning, see Skeat, Etym. 
 Diet!) refers to all those actions 
 which are open to the observation of 
 others as well as those which are 
 B;jecifically directed to others. As 
 behaviour refers more especially to 
 actions, so Di.meanour (Fr. demeiier, 
 to lead or conduct) refers more directly 
 to manners; or in other words, Di- 
 MEANOUR regards one's self, Bf.ha- 
 viouR regards others. A man's demea- 
 nour may be a question of taste, his 
 behaviour is a moral question. He 
 demeans himself well who has self- 
 respect. He behaves well who lias 
 respect to others. The two are very 
 closely allied, because all conduct in 
 society, whether intended to do so or 
 not, affects others than the actor him- 
 self, at least indirectly. VVJien Queen 
 Elizabeth boxed the ears of the Earl 
 of Essex, her behaviour was undigni- 
 fied and insulting, and the proceeding 
 was too demonstrative to be a question 
 of demeanour only. 
 
 " We are not, perhaps, at liberty to take 
 for granted that the lives of the preachers 
 of Christianity were as perfect as tl.eir les- 
 sons, but we are eatitled to contend that 
 the observable part of iheir he/uiviour must 
 have agreed in a great measure with the 
 «latiea which they taught." — Palkt. 
 
 " I have been told the same e /en of 
 Mahometans, with relation to the propriety 
 of their danemiour in the conventions of 
 their erroneous worship." — Toiler. 
 
 As Behaviour belongs to the minor 
 morals of society, so Conduct (L. Lat 
 co7iductus, guard, escort) to the grave; 
 questions of personal life. But con- 
 duct may be intellectually tested as 
 well as morally. A man behaves 
 himself well or ill ; he conducts him- 
 self well or ill, ably or inefficiently. 
 Behaviour should be seemly, conduct 
 should be wise. We speak of a man's 
 behaviour in the social circle, of his 
 conduct in his family, as a citizen, or 
 in life. Good conduct is meritorious 
 and virtuous. Good behaviour may 
 be natural or artificial. The con- 
 duct has relation to the station of men's 
 lives, or the circumstances in which 
 they are placed. Good conduct wil5 
 include right behaviour as a part o^ 
 it, and a proper demeanour will flow 
 necessarily out of it. 
 
 •' Wisdom is no less necessary in religioas 
 an 1 moral, than in civil conduct." — BX.AIE. 
 
 BEHOLD. See. Look. View. 
 Eve. Contemplate. Regard. Oa 
 SERVE. Perceive. Scan. 
 
 Behold (A.S. behealdan, to hold, to 
 observe) denotes a looking with fixed 
 observation. We behold only objects 
 of some size and importance, as being 
 worthy of such fixea observation. It 
 may indicate the lowest degree of it, 
 and may be the result of accident. 
 " As I was passing, I beheld such an 
 one so engaged," means little more 
 than 1 saw him. On the other hand, 
 ** I beheld him with gladness," implies 
 more of such interest, but the interest 
 is independent. No more is neces- 
 sarily implied in beholding than an 
 attentive looking. It is a voluntary 
 act, and involves a sustained regard, 
 which is more prolonged and serious 
 than Looking (A.S. locian, to look 
 upon), which is an action precedent to 
 Seeing. As soon as we turn the 
 er ?s in the direction of an object, 
 and before it has made a full and dis- 
 tinct impression upon the eye. we 
 have begun to look at it. I am look- 
 ing in the direction of the object which 
 you describe, but I cannot see it. 
 The object of seeing is not, therefor*. 
 
160 
 
 always obtained by looking. Hence 
 the term is used in tbe general sense 
 df presenting an aspect in a certain 
 direction, as when we say of a house 
 that it looks to the north. Distinct 
 perception of objects is less involved 
 in this than in any of the correspon- 
 dent terms. 
 
 " ITieu came Jesus forth, wearing the 
 cro\Yn of thorns and the purple robe, and 
 Pilate saith unto them : Behold the 
 man." — English Bible. 
 
 " The emotions produced by Tragedy are 
 upon this supposition somewhat analogous 
 to the dread we feel when we look down from 
 the battlement of a tower." — Stewart. 
 
 See (A. S. seon) is the result of 
 voluntary or involuntary looking. To 
 see involves no more sustained or 
 specific exercise of the faculty of 
 vision than is necessary to be aware 
 of the existence or proximity of an 
 object, and is therefore applicable to 
 such rapidly passing objects as from 
 their very rapidity would not allow of 
 being beheld or looked at. The flash 
 of lightning is only just seen and dis- 
 appears. To see a thing is to take 
 cognizance of it, so that those who 
 have their eyes open cannot help see- 
 ing. If you look at the moon, you 
 may see its shape. In a secondary 
 sense, on looking at a question, we 
 sometimes see the difficulties with 
 which it is surrounded. In regard to 
 the faculty of sight, as employed in 
 this secondary sense, Reid has the 
 following remark: — 
 
 " It is not without reason that the faculty 
 of seeing is looked upon not only as more 
 noble than the other senses, but as having 
 something in it of a nature superior to 
 sensation. The evidence of reason is called 
 seeing, not feeling, smelling, or tasting. 
 Yea, we are wont to express the manner of 
 the divine knowledge by seeing, as that kind 
 of knowledge which is most perfect in us." 
 
 " The organ of seeing is the eye, consist- 
 mg of a variety of parts wonderfully con- 
 trived for the admitting and refracting the 
 rays of light, so that those that come from 
 the same point of the object, and fall upon 
 different parts of the pupil, are brought to 
 meet again at the bottom of the eye, where- 
 by the whole object is painted on the retina 
 that is spread there." — Locke. 
 
 Curiosity prompts us to look, inte- 
 rest causes us to behold, and nature 
 enables us to see. When the person 
 looks, the eye sees. As it has been 
 observed that we may look without 
 
 SYNONYMS [behold] 
 
 seeing, so it is also true that we may 
 see without looking, as when I see an 
 object in one direction, though I am 
 looking in another. The exercise of the 
 mind is so necessary to beholding that 
 we speak of infants as looking, never 
 beholding, for the feeling cannot rise 
 above curiosity. I sometimes look at 
 finery, in which I have very little in- 
 terest. I behold the forest tree in 
 admiration of its grandeur, or some 
 spectacle which meets my view with 
 astonishment, pity, love, hatred, or 
 contempt. 
 
 To Eye, is to regard indirectly but 
 earnestly, as gratifying some passion, 
 or as under the influence of some emo 
 tion or desire of which we are anxious 
 to give no manifestation. The lover 
 eyes his rival's movements with 
 jealousy, the envious man eyes with 
 envy the indication of wealth or great- 
 ness in another. 
 
 " What but faith, eyeing the prize, will 
 quicken us to run patiently the race that 
 is set before us." — Barrow. 
 
 A more exact and scrutinizing ob- 
 servation is expressed by Contem- 
 PLATE (Lat. contempldri, part, contem- 
 platus). It indicates such a sustained 
 notice as extends to the distinctive 
 nature of a thing. It is sometimes 
 used of the purely ideal, as to contem- 
 plate a possibility or a project, in 
 which case it has a force equivalent to 
 imagine and intend. Meditate is also 
 used in this sense, and is, in some re- 
 spects,a synonym with Contemplate. 
 In regard to this, we may observe 
 that we may contemplate sensible 
 objects, present and future things ; but 
 can only meditate on actions, qualities, 
 and contingencies, or past events. 
 The starry heavens, or the setting or 
 rising sun, are fit objects of contem- 
 plation ; the attributes of the Creator, 
 the ingratitudeofman, or his combined 
 strength and weakness, his virtues, or 
 his successes, are common subjects of 
 meditation. As used in the sense of 
 intending. Contemplate bears more 
 directly on the intended action than 
 meditate. We contemplate what we 
 distinctly intend; we meditate what 
 we think we shall one day undertake. 
 But in the simpler meaning of con- 
 template, we have to recognize a 
 
[belief] 
 
 strong action of the mind. For further 
 remarks, see jMeditatk. 
 
 " Some few others sought after Him 
 (God), but Aristotle saith, as the Geometer 
 doth after a right line only, if Ssariif tou a^n- 
 4oo{ as a contemplator of truth ; but not as 
 the knowledge of it is any way useful or 
 conducible to the ordering or bettering of 
 their lives." — Hammoxd. 
 
 As we contemplate to get an intelli- 
 gent, so we view or scan to get a 
 general impression. To Scan (Lat. 
 scundere, to clhnb) is to take a rapid, 
 as to View (O. Fr. veu, part, of voir) 
 is to take a more leisurely observation. 
 We scan curiously, by rapidly noting 
 one point after another ; we view by 
 taking in the whole at once. 
 
 " Viewing things ou every side, observing 
 how far consequences reach, and proceeding 
 to collect and hear evidence, till reason 
 saith there needs no more, is grievous labour 
 to indolence and impatience, and by no 
 means answers the ends of conceit and affec- 
 tation."— Secker. 
 " Who, finite, will attempt to scan 
 The works of Him that's infinitely wise ! " 
 POMFRET. 
 
 To Regard (Fr. regarder) has a 
 moral and discriminative force. It 
 implies certain feelings, or a judgment 
 accompanying the observation. We 
 regard a thing with pleasure, dislike, 
 satisfaction, disgust, and tlie like ; or 
 we regard it as important or unim- 
 portnnt, as an indication of somethmg 
 else, or as likely to lead to certain 
 consequences; while Observe (Lat. 
 bservdre) is to look at for tlie purpose 
 if noting facts connected with the 
 object, its circumstances, or proper- 
 ties. Pehceive (Lat. perciptre) ex- 
 presses the active and intelligent ex- 
 ercise of the faculty of sight. We 
 observe carefully or superficially, we 
 perceive distinctly or confusedly. A n 
 animal watches' the movements of 
 another animal, a naturalist observes 
 them. That which we perceive has 
 always some interest for us. That 
 which we see may have none at all. 
 We perceive as the result of an effort 
 to see. Some stars are too remote to 
 be perceived by the eye. One sees in 
 a foce much, perhaps, to constitute 
 Deauty, yet may perceive, by looking 
 more closely at it, a lurking expression 
 of some unamiable quality. We view 
 things for the sake of general im- 
 
 DISCKIMINATED. 
 
 161 
 
 pressions, we contemplate thorn when 
 we supply their associations ; we ob- 
 serve them when we desire to gain a 
 distinctive knowledge of them. 
 
 "He valued his religion beyond his own 
 safety, and regardtd not all the calumnies 
 and reproaches of his enemies as long as he 
 made this his constant exercise, to keep a 
 conscience void of otience towards God, and 
 towards men." — Stillixgfleet. 
 " But pardon, too, if zealous for tlie right, 
 A street observer of each noble flight ; 
 From the fine gold I separate the allay. 
 And show how hasty writers sometimes 
 stray," Drydex. 
 
 "Jupiter made all things, and all things 
 whatsoever exist are the works of Jupiter- 
 rivei-s and earth, and sea, and heaven, and 
 what are between these ; and gods and 
 men, and all other animals— whatsoever 
 is perceivable, either by sense or by the 
 mind." — CuDWORTH. 
 
 BELIEF. Credit. Trust. Faith. 
 Affiance. 
 
 Belief (A. S. ge-lufan) is the ac- 
 ceptance of a fact or statement as true 
 without immediate knowledge ; and 
 admits of all degrees, fiom suspicion 
 or surmise to moral conviction. It is the 
 widest of all these terms, the rest being 
 forms of belief. Belief is an assent of 
 the understanding to a thing as pro- 
 bable or true. This may or may not 
 be on logical or sufficient grounds. 
 Belief is confidence in a certain se- 
 quence ofthings, whether ideas or facts, 
 whereby one phenomenon succeeds 
 another. In its simplest and rudi- 
 mentary forms belief exists in tlie 
 minds of irrational animals and infants. 
 The philosopher believes that a cer- 
 tain chemical combination will pro- 
 duce a certain effect. The savage may 
 believe that a charm, an incantation, 
 or a sacrifice will jiroduce the same 
 result. The stag believes in a con- 
 nexion between the glistening brook 
 and the satisfaction of his thii-st,tliough 
 he cannot pass beyond such particular 
 belief to siich as are founded on gene- 
 ralizations. Belief may be stated in 
 positive or negative propositions, but 
 this is a difference only of form : the 
 mental state expressed by belief is one 
 and the same. Belief will affect our 
 minds very differently, according as it 
 is an a^su'l^(e of a coming good or a 
 comin? evil — the absence or the pre- 
 
162 
 
 flence of the desirable, the probability 
 or improbability of a o^ain or a loss, a 
 pleasure or a pain. This belief has to 
 do with human action and happiness, 
 which are only very remotely con- 
 nected with such scientific belief as is 
 purely speculative, as for instance that 
 the earth is an oblate spheroid. The 
 sources of belief have been divided 
 into three. The Intuitive or Instinc- 
 tive, Personal Experience, and the 
 Influence of the Emotions. These may 
 be and generally are more or less in- 
 termixed. 
 
 " That there is satisfactory evidence that 
 many professing to be original witnesses of 
 the Christian miracles passed their lives in 
 labour, dangers, and sufferings, voluntarily 
 undergone in attestation of the accounts 
 which they delivered, and solely in conse- 
 quence of their belief of those accounts ; and 
 that they also submitted from the same 
 motives to rules of conduct." — Palev. 
 
 Credit (Lat. crcdtre, part, criditus, 
 to believe) and Trust (connected with 
 true), on the other hand, owe their 
 force to something more than external 
 facts of evidence. I give credit to a 
 statement because of some apparent 
 worthiness of belief either in the thing 
 itself or in the person who communi- 
 cates it. Trust is less purely intellec- 
 tual and more practical than belief 
 and credit. It is, in short, a practical 
 reliance upon a person or object, 
 grounded on abelief that it is adapted 
 to, or worthy of it. I trust the phy- 
 sician, his word, or his medicine. We 
 sometimes trust ice that is not solid, 
 persons that are dishonest, opinions 
 that are unsound. 
 
 •' Sith the ground of credit is the credi- 
 bility of things credited, and things are 
 made credible either by the known con- 
 dition of the ntterer or by the manifest 
 likelihood of truth which they have in 
 themselves, hereupon it riseth, that what- 
 soever we are persuaded of, the same we are 
 generally said to believe." — Hookkr. 
 
 " In a word, every man implicitly trusts 
 nis bodily senses concerning external ob- 
 jects placed at a convenient distance, and 
 eveiy man may with as good a reason put 
 even a greater trust in the perceptions of 
 which he is conscious in his own mind." — 
 Bishop Harlky. 
 
 Faith (earlier form/«i/, O. Yr.fei 
 taxdfeid; Lait.ficiem)is very likeTausT, 
 ^admiij^'ht iu many cases be substituted 
 
 SYNONYMS [bEMOANJ 
 
 for it. But it is less instinctive and 
 more speculative. The child tnists 
 his pai-ents ; I have faith in the efficacy 
 of a certain medicine. I have trust in 
 God, that is, I feel myself safe in His 
 hands. I believe that He will deal 
 with me mercifully. ^' I have faith in 
 God " would imply this, but it would 
 imply more ; as for instance, that 1 be- 
 lieve what He tells me simply because 
 it is Himself who says it. In order to 
 have arrived at this I must have come 
 to an antecedent conviction of the per- 
 fect character of God. Belief and 
 credit are specifically given on oc- 
 casions. Trust and faith are habitudes 
 of mind. I'he former may stop with 
 intellectual assent, the latter prompt 
 to action. The former may even lead 
 to the latter, as the cause to the effect, 
 as the speculative may become the 
 operative. Faith is always practical. 
 Belief on the other hand may lead to 
 no action at all. While faith removes 
 mountains, the devils believe and 
 tremble. To set aside reason in be- 
 lieving is credulity, not faith. Men's 
 beliefs are swayed not merely by their 
 intellects, but by the logic of their pre- 
 judices and passions. A full defi- 
 nition of faith in the theological sense 
 is thus given by Clarke : — 
 
 •' Faith is that firm belief of things at 
 present not seen, that conviction upon the 
 mind of the truth of the promises and 
 threatenings of God made known in the 
 Gospel, of the certain reality of the rewards 
 and punishments of the life to come, which 
 enables a man, in opposition to all the temp- 
 tations of a corrupt world, to obey God in 
 expectation of an invisible reward here- 
 after." 
 
 BEMOAN. Bewail. Lament. 
 Dei'lore. 
 
 These are words expressive of tlie 
 external manifestation of sorrow. Be- 
 moan (A. S. hi-m(znan, compounded of 
 the prefix hi- and m&nan, to rmmn) 
 takes its complexion from its etymo 
 logy, and denotes a deep and siJjnt 
 grief too deep for words. It belongs 
 to causes of permanent son'c,sr — as to 
 bemoan one's hard lot, or adverse fate. 
 He who bemoans wh'A has happened 
 seeks solitude, and dwells upon the 
 loss he has susta-'aed or the evil that 
 has befallen hiir, and upon the change 
 which it has ade in the whole tiflsu" 
 
[BENEFACTIOX] DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 163 
 
 and complexion of his life. He gives 
 himself up to despondency or despair. 
 
 •♦ When a poor-spirited creature that died 
 at the same time for his crimes bemoaned 
 himself mimaafully, he rebuked him with 
 this question: Is it no consolation to such a 
 man as thou to die with Phocion?" — Spec- 
 tator. 
 
 Bewail (0. E. be-wailen — be-, and 
 waileHy to wail) expresses a less pro- 
 found and more energetic form of sor- 
 row, commonly for specific events, as 
 such as to bewail the loss of a friend. 
 He who bewails makes frequent re- 
 ference to the subject of his grief or 
 disappointment. It is unrestrained, 
 and so far from seeking solitude would 
 find some relief in uncontrolled grief 
 by loudly making it known to ethers. 
 
 " And if I must bewail the blessing lost 
 For which our Hampdeasand our Sydneys 
 
 bled, 
 I would at least bewail it under skies 
 Milder, among a people less austere. 
 In scenes which having never known me 
 
 free. 
 Would not reproach me with the loss I 
 
 felt." COWPKR. 
 
 Lament (Lat. Lamentdri) has less 
 poignancy and more formality than 
 the others. It applies to much lighter 
 causes of trouble, so that we may even 
 lament the folly or weakness of an- 
 other. It commonly involves strong 
 regret that circumstances should be as 
 Ihey are when they might have been 
 otherwise, as in the case of injudicious 
 conduct which might have been a 
 voided. 
 
 " Thammuz came next behind. 
 Whose annual wound in Lebanon allowed 
 The Syrian damseis to lament his fate 
 In amorous ditties all a summer's day." 
 Milton. 
 
 Deplore (Lat. diplorure) is to feel 
 or express great and deep dissatisfac- 
 tion. 
 " To find her or for ever to deplore 
 Her loss." MiLTON. 
 
 We lament for that which brings 
 sorrow, we deplore when the sorrow 
 itself is reflected upon— as for instance 
 how it might have been avoided, or 
 something specifically infelicitous in 
 the nature of it. So for instance we 
 lament an honourable, and deplore a 
 discreditable misfortune. A father de- 
 plores his son's misconduct, and la- 
 
 ments his early death. Otner senti- 
 ments besides mere sorrow are with us 
 when we deplore. We lament occur 
 1 ences, we deplore circumstances con- 
 nected with them, causes which led to 
 them, or the character which attaches 
 to them. To deplore is to lament in a 
 reasoning and reflexive way, tlie mind 
 contemplating the nature of the event 
 or act, and feeling that " pity 'tis, 'tis 
 true." 
 
 BENEDICTION. Blessing. 
 
 The Benediction (Lat. bentdic- 
 tionem) is the invocation of the Bless- 
 ing (A. S. bletsian, to bless). The 
 blessing is the benefit invoked. A 
 blessing is such a ^ood thing as may 
 be regarded as an item in the general 
 sum of human prosperity and happi- 
 ness ; especially as conferred by some 
 higher person or power. He who i» 
 not able to bestow a blessing may, bj 
 virtue of his office or relationship, pro- 
 nounce a benediction. 
 
 BENEFACTION. Donation. 
 
 Benefaction (Lat. bhitfactionen ) 
 and Donation (Lat. dondtioiiem) both 
 express the act of giving or the thing 
 given for some liberal or charitable 
 purpose ; but a donation may be small 
 or large, though it may not be incon- 
 siderable: abenefaction is large enough 
 to have a material eflFect upon, and ta 
 be of lasting benefit to the object. 
 Hence it is frequently employed of 
 the gift of money and lands to institu- 
 tions by way of endowment or perma 
 nent source of income. A very large 
 sum of money given as a donation, 
 if it be funded so as to produce an 
 annual return, becomes a benefaction. 
 Donations benefit individuals. Bene- 
 factions augment institutions. Dona- 
 tion is also used to mean a single gift, 
 as distinct from subscription, which 
 often implies a repeated giving. 
 
 *• Here idle and useless and therefore 
 necessitous persons are tau^t the best 
 lesson, labour, inured to it, and tb»n sent 
 out with such a stock of industry as will do 
 them more real service than any other kind 
 of benefaction."— Attkhsuby. 
 
 " They had an opportunity of distinguish 
 mg themselves from the lower classes b, 
 voluntary donations to the charity box."— 
 Anecdotes of Bishop Watson 
 
164 
 
 BENEFICENT. Bountiful. 
 
 Munificent. Generous. Liberal. 
 Benevolent. 
 
 Beneficent (Lat. hentficus, bene- 
 ficent) is a term denoting hi^h ex- 
 cellence. It denotes largeness of 
 bounty springing from the highest 
 purity and goodness of nature, and in 
 Its highest form appertains most ap- 
 propriately to the Creator, and is not 
 confined to any one kind of gifts. It 
 is the outflow of great kindness com- 
 bined with ample powers. He who, 
 from largeness of heart, confers upon 
 another some great advantage is 
 beneficent, though what he gives be 
 not such a gift as diminishes his own 
 store. Self-denial does not belong to 
 beneficence, because the beneficent is 
 above the condition of suffering from 
 a diminution of what he possesses 
 when he bestows upon others. The 
 term has in modern parlance come to 
 express almost restrictively an attri- 
 bute of the divine nature. Benefi- 
 cence also gives not only largely, but 
 wisely and well. 
 " Whose work is without labour, whose 
 
 designs 
 No flaw deforms, no difficulty thwarts. 
 And whose beneficence no charge ex- 
 hausts." CowPER. 
 
 Bountiful, fall of bounty (Fr. 
 hoiite, Lat. b'6iiilatem)y is of an inferior 
 kind. Bounty is a natural liberality of 
 giving. The bountiful man takes 
 pleasure in the fulness of what he be- 
 stows. He thinks little of the merits of 
 the giving, but to him the sight of the 
 full measure of his gifts is pleasant. 
 
 " It is true, indeed, the direction of the 
 public weal is in the hands of a single per- 
 son, who, for the general good, takes upon 
 himself to ease us of the whole weight and 
 care of government ; but still that bounti- 
 ful source of power permits, by a very 
 generous dispensation, some streams to 
 flow down to us." — Melmoth, Pliny. 
 
 Munificent (Lat.7wrmi/"i'cus) stands 
 to costliness as Bountiful to amplitude 
 or quantity. It is frequently applied 
 to tne object given — as a munificent 
 donation. It is rather external than 
 moral, drawing attention more to the 
 rich quality of the gift, than to any 
 goodness or beneficence of the giver'; 
 though these are by no means ex- 
 cluded. The munificent man is one 
 
 SYNONYMS [beneficent] 
 
 of lordly liberality, and profusely 
 grand in w hat he gives. Hence muni- 
 ficence may be either the natural 
 manifestation of a princely liberality, 
 or it may be the product of ostenta- 
 tion or selfishness, but the large and 
 costly quality of the gift will, in either 
 case, ensure the term Munificent. 
 Like the beneficent, the munificent is 
 above the feeling of any loss in giving 
 what he gives. He who should give 
 very largely, but should impoverish 
 himself by so doing, would be self- 
 sacrificing rather than munificent ; but 
 the munificent man looks with some 
 indifference on the greatness of his 
 own gift. 
 
 " The institution of a School of Statuary 
 in the house of a young nobleman (the 
 Duke of Richmond) of the first rank, 
 }-ivals the boasted munificence of foreign 
 princes." — Walpole. 
 
 Generous (Lat. ffcno-osttj, well-bom, 
 generous) differs fi-om the foregoing 
 in not relating exclusively to matters 
 of external giving. Generosity is a 
 mental disposition irrespective of the 
 opportunities which may exist for 
 exercising it. It is that nobleness of 
 nature, which not only gives largely 
 but is ready to do so at the cost of sacri- 
 fice to self. Hence it applies to for- 
 giving, as well as giving. Ii comes 
 of a disposition which is alien to 
 meannesses of all kinds, whether 
 niggardliness, malice, or any other. 
 Generosity is nearly allied to magna- 
 nimity. It gives when it might 
 withhold ; it forgives when it might 
 punish. It will accord praise if due 
 to an enemy. It refuses to take un- 
 fair advantages, and will be at pains 
 to do good. It is a virtue of an equal, 
 whom circumstances have maae a 
 superior. Hence the Deity, though 
 He may be called Beneficent, Boun- 
 tiful, and even Munificent, could not 
 be called generous. 
 
 " All men affect to seem generous and will 
 say they scorn to be base, but generosity is 
 W nothing more seen than in a candid esti- 
 mate of other men's virtues and good 
 qualities. To this, generosity of nature, 
 generosity of education, generosity of prin- 
 ciples and judgment do all conspiringly dis- 
 pose."— Barrow. 
 
 Liberal (Lat. Hfecra/is), like Boun- 
 tiful, denotes a character which,wheii 
 
[BE1<EV0LENTJ DISClllxMINATEK 
 
 165 
 
 it gives, gives largely, but like Gexk- 
 iious applies to more than matters of 
 material giving. Liberality is a ten- 
 dency to avoid exact circumscription, 
 and to allow margins in judgment and 
 dealing to the advantage of others. To 
 take a liberal view of a case is so to 
 give width to its facts and interpreta- 
 tions as to admit favourable rather 
 than to force unfavourable, or even 
 exact, and rigid constructions. To give 
 liberally is to avoid calculating what 
 is precisely sufficient or exactly just, 
 and not to fear to exceed lines of 
 rigid dealing in such cases. 
 
 "The decency.then, that is to be observed 
 in liberality seems to consist in its being 
 performed with such cheerfulness as may 
 express the godlike pleasure that is to be 
 met with in obliging one's fellow-crea- 
 ♦ares." — Spectator. 
 
 Benevolent (Lat. hhievolens, ivish- 
 ing well), like Generous, belongs to 
 the person rather than the act. The 
 benevolent man may want the means 
 of being liberal in matters of money 
 or gifts, but he will naturally give 
 when he can, and according to his 
 means, from a disposition of wishing 
 well to others. '1 he benevolent will 
 spare to injure as well as be glad to 
 benefit, lienevolence is the principle 
 which is manifested in beneficence, 
 but it may exist passively. The op- 
 posite to benevolence is not niggardli- 
 ness, though the man who is not be- 
 nevolent will be niggardly in good 
 offices ; but selfishness or more posi- 
 tively malevolence. The benevolent 
 man is glad of more happiness in 
 others than he can be himself the in- 
 sti'umeut of producing. 
 
 " When our love or desire of good goes 
 forth to others it is termed good-will or 
 benevolence. Benevolence embraces all 
 beings capable of enjoying any portion of 
 good, and thus it becomes universal bene- 
 volence which manifests itself by being 
 pleiised with the share of good every crea- 
 ture enjoys, in a disposition to increase it, 
 in feeling an uneasiness at their sufferings, 
 and in the abhorrence of cruelty under 
 every disguise or pretext. When these 
 dispositions are acting powerfully towards 
 every being capable of enjoyment, they are 
 called the benevolent affections, and as they 
 become in those who indulge them opera- 
 tive rules of conduct, or principles of action, 
 we speaii or the benevolent prijiciple."— 
 CoGAN. 
 
 BENEVOLENCE. Benignity. 
 Humanity. Kindness. 
 
 Benevolence. ^See *' Benevo 
 lent," preceding article./ 
 
 Benignity (Lat. bhiigmtatem) is i 
 less active quality than benevolence. 
 Benignity is, as it were, dormant, or 
 passive benevolence. It is a matter 
 more of temperament tlian will. It is 
 a tendency to benevolence, but so far 
 short of it that it is sometimes applied 
 metaphorically to other influences 
 than the human will ; as the benign, 
 that is, propitious, aspects and influen- 
 ces of the sea sons. ^Vhen employed of 
 persons, benign denotes some degree 
 of superiority in the person. We 
 should be more likely to speak of the 
 benignity of a rich or powerful man 
 than of a poor man. Indeed, benig- 
 nity is tantamount to a benevolent con- 
 descension which enters more into it 
 than sympathy does. It lies in aspect 
 and manner, and is mild, open, genial, 
 pleasing. As benevolence is inherent, 
 so benignity may be shown on special 
 occasions only. 
 
 " In a thermometer 'tis only the present 
 and most sublimated spirit that is either 
 contracted or dilated by the benignity or 
 inclemency of the season." — Spectator 
 
 Humanity (Lat. humdiutdtem) e^ - 
 presses an impulse rather than a quality. 
 It is that specific manifestation of active 
 kindness which man as such is, or 
 ought to be, prompted to exhibit to his 
 fellow-man, or to any living creatures 
 with which he is brought into con- 
 tact. Humanity stands over against 
 special cases which stand in need of 
 it and evoke it. The act of tlie good 
 Samaritan Avas emphatically an act of 
 humanity. Yet humanity is not so 
 much a virtue when exhibited as 
 something the absence of which is 
 positively disgraceful and evil. Hu- 
 manity shows itself in treating none 
 with harshness, in excusing the fiiil- 
 ings, in supporting the Aveakness, and 
 in consoling the sorrows or mitigatmg 
 the pains of others when possible. 
 
 " It is a rule of equity and humanity 
 built upon plain reason, that rather a 
 nocent person should be permitted to 
 escape than an innocent should be con- 
 strained to suffer."— BakROW. 
 
 KiNDNi-ss (A. S. cyndCf naUcral'. i& 
 
166 
 
 SYNONYMS [bent] 
 
 very like benevolence, but is rather a 
 social than a moral viitue. It applies 
 to minor acts of courtesy and good- 
 will, for which benevolence would be 
 too serious a term. " Have the kind- 
 ness to do so-and-so," is a phrase of 
 social courtesy. To say that the good 
 Samaritan performed an act of kind- 
 ness would be not untrue, but very 
 inadequate. 
 
 " If Achitophel signify the brother of a 
 fool, the author of that poem -will pass 
 with his readers for the next of kin. And 
 perhaps it is the relation that makes the 
 kindness. " — D RYDEJf . 
 
 BENT. Bias. Inclination. Turn. 
 Propensity. Tendency. Prone- 
 NESS. Disposition. 
 
 All these terms denote a prepou' 
 derating influence of mind. Bent 
 (participle of bend) applies to the 
 will, the intellect, the affections, or 
 the entire nature. As the force of 
 Bent is general and constant, so that 
 of Bias (Fr. biais, a slope or slant) 
 is peculiar. A man's bent is his dis- 
 position, natural or acquired. He is 
 biased on a particular occasion. So 
 far as he has a bent, it will affect his 
 thoughts, his occupation, his choice 
 of a mode of life. So far as he has a 
 bias, he is swayed in choice, preference 
 or judgment. A bias is like a lateral 
 dip in an inclined plane, or a weight 
 introduced into a ball, which pie- 
 vents the judgment from following an 
 undeviating course, but sways it 
 aside. The word is used in its ety- 
 mological sense in the following : — 
 
 " If you suppose a die to have any bias, 
 however small, to a particular side, this bias, 
 though perhaps it may not appear in a few 
 throws, will certainly prevail in a great 
 number, and will cast the balance entirely 
 to that side."— HuMK. 
 
 " I am of opinion there has not for these 
 many years appeared anything more 
 finished of the kind, if indeed my great 
 affection for him, and the praises he be- 
 stowed upon me, do not bias my judg- 
 ment."— Mklmoth, Plini/. 
 
 " It is the legislative policy to comply 
 with the common bent of mankind, and 
 give it all the impi-ovements of which it 
 is susceptible." — Hume. 
 
 Inclination (Lat. incrmdtionem) isa 
 tendency of the will to exercise a cer- 
 tain preference, or of the judgment 
 to adopt a certain belief or conclusion 
 rather than others. Its motive prin- 
 
 ciple IS within the person, as BIA^ pro- 
 ceeds externally from something in 
 the case or circumstances. Tempera- 
 ment may give an inclination, educa- 
 tion a bias. In their primary force 
 inclination belongs to bodies both at 
 rest and in motion, bias only to those 
 in motion ; inclination is more volun- 
 tary and conscious, bias more uncon- 
 scious and involuntary. Inclination 
 may lead practically to strong results, 
 but it belongs itself to tenderness of 
 the gentler kind. 
 
 " Shall I venture to say, my Lord, that m 
 our late conversation you were inclined to 
 the party which you adopted rather by the 
 feelings of your good nature than by the 
 conviction of your judgment ? " — BuRKE. 
 
 Propensity (Lat. propensuSy inclin- 
 ing towards) is an unreflecting, con- 
 stitutional, or even animal proneness, 
 which may be natural, or simply the 
 result of habit. It is always in the 
 direction of action of some kind, ex- 
 ternal or mental. It is mostly used 
 in an unfavourable sense. We do not 
 speak of a propensity to virtue, or 
 noble or wise actions ; but to errors, 
 weaknesses, faults, and vices. Incli- 
 nation which has become habitual and 
 energetic through want of reflexion 
 and self-control is Propensity. Incli- 
 nation should be distinguished from 
 DisposnioN, as the active from the 
 passive. Inclination is positive ten 
 dency towards an object. Disposition 
 is a state of aptitude for it. Inclina- 
 tion has reference to single acts, dis- 
 position to the general frame of mind. 
 He who is inclined to study will pro- 
 bably find a way for himself of begin- 
 ing it. He who is disposed to study 
 will probably yield to any incentive 
 which may be brought to bear upon 
 him. I am inclined to do what 1 wish 
 to do. I am disposed to do that to 
 which I have no objection. Inclina- 
 tions are yielded to or repressed, dis- 
 positions are cherished or overcome. 
 The disposition comprehends the 
 springs and motives of many different 
 actions ; the inclination sets in the 
 direction of one. We may expect that 
 sooner or later a man will do what he 
 is disposed to do, but we cannot cal- 
 culate on his executing that to which 
 he is inclined : for other considerations 
 
[bequeath] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 167 
 
 may suggest themselves to induce 
 him to refrain from following out 
 that inclination. 
 
 " It is the duty of every man who would 
 be true to himself to obtain, if possible, a 
 disposition to be pleased." — Steele. 
 
 " For as this strong natural propensity 
 to vice and impiety cannot possibly con- 
 sist with the hypothesis of the soul's coming 
 just out of God's hands pure and immacu- 
 late, so doth it most aptly suit with the 
 doctrine of its pre-existence." — Glanvill. 
 
 Turn (Fr. tourner, to turn) is a col- 
 loquial word, and commonly expresses 
 an innocent preference for a thing, as 
 suiting the taste, and indicative of a 
 natural aptitude for some occupation 
 which is therefore taken up, being that 
 for which there is a natural capacity. 
 As regards the tendencies, not of per- 
 sons but events, the word Tunx ex- 
 presses such an alteration in the course 
 of things as has resulted from causes 
 not calculated upon. 
 
 " There is a very odd turn of thonght re- 
 quired for this sort of writing (the fairy 
 way of writing, as Dryden calls it), and it 
 is impossible Jor a poet to socceed in it who 
 has not a particular cast of fancy." — Addi- 
 son. 
 
 Tendency (Lat. tendh-e, to tend) 
 is, perhaps, the most general of all, 
 and, on that account, the least speci- 
 fically expressive. It denotes a torce 
 uniformly operating in a particular 
 direction, whether it be of a moral or 
 a physical kirid, and may be the re- 
 sult of mechanical influence, or nature 
 or habit. A tendency is an inherent 
 inclination, sufficiently sustained to be 
 associated with a certain result or end. 
 Yet, like Propensity, it connects itself 
 with unfavourable, rather than desir- 
 able results. A tendency is a sustained 
 turn, as a turn is an unforeseen ten- 
 dency. Whether or not it be that 
 movement, spontaneous and unregu- 
 lated, is likely to go wrong, certain it 
 is that tendency is seldom a term of 
 the fortunate. Things take a favour- 
 able or unfavourable turn, but they 
 have a bad tendency. We do not 
 speak so often in common parlance of 
 a good tendency. Yet this is by no 
 means absolute, and the following is 
 an example to the contrary : — 
 
 " lu every experimental science there is 
 a tendency toward perfection." — MacaU- 
 
 It will be observed, however, that 
 this is not a tendency of circumstances, 
 but of internal growth and develop- 
 ment. 
 
 P RON EN ESS (Lat. pronus, inclined 
 forwards) denotes a moral proclivity 
 or constitutional tendency, and is al- 
 most universally restricted to an un- 
 favourable sense. It is that condition 
 of an agent which makes him pre- 
 disposed to certain conduct. It is 
 somewhat like the leaning of a body, 
 which falls immediately that a prop or 
 restraint is removed. Proneness ex- 
 presses the more active form of dispo- 
 sition, yet, like Propensity, though 
 less strongly, is a term of unfavourable 
 rather than favourable meaning. 
 JMen are disposed to virtue and prone 
 to vice. Yet this rule is not absolute. 
 Pope says — 
 
 " Malice prone the virtues to defame." 
 On the other hand — 
 
 "An honest, hearty simplicity, and 
 proneness to do all that a man knows of 
 God's will; is the ready, certain, and in- 
 fallible way to know more of it."— South. 
 
 BEQUEATH. Devise. Demise. 
 
 Bequeath (A.S. be-civethan, to de- 
 clare) points to times anterior to writ- 
 ten testaments, when property was 
 devised by uord of mouth in the pre- 
 sence of witnesses. Bequeath is 
 {)roperly applied to a gift by will, or 
 egacy, that is, of personal property ; 
 and he who receives it is called a lega- 
 tee. But it is popularly extended, and 
 construed by the Law Courts to em- 
 brace what is propei-ly expressed by 
 Devise. 
 
 To Devise (0. Fr. deviser, to be- 
 queath) is properly used for the gift by 
 M ill of real property. 
 
 Demise (O. Fr demise, fem. part. 
 o{de(s)me e, to dismiss) is strictly the 
 leaving of property at death to one 
 who has already a claim to it as the 
 heir. Hence the term " demise of the 
 Crown," which is the ti-ansfer at the 
 death of the sovereign of the kingdom 
 to the lawful successor. The idea of 
 expectancy belongs to the last, not to 
 the two former. 
 
 " I have often read with a gi-eat deal of 
 pleasure, a legacy of the famous Lord 
 Bacon, one of the greatest geninser that 
 our own or any country has protlnced Aft«r 
 
168 
 
 SYKONYMS 
 
 [liEltliAVEJ 
 
 having bequeathed Jiis soul, body aud estate 
 in the usual form, he adds, — My name and 
 memory 1 leave to foreign nations, aud to 
 my countrymen after some time be passed 
 over." — Tatler. 
 
 BEREAVE. Deprive. Strip. 
 
 Bereave (A. S. beredjian, be- and 
 redjian, to steal or rob) is so to take from 
 another as to leave a feeling of priva- 
 tion or destitution. The things of 
 which we are bereft are of the nature 
 of cherished possessions. 
 
 Devriv k( hQ.t.d'(^prwdre) is so to take 
 as to leave with a feeling, or in a con- 
 dition of incompleteness. 
 
 Strip (Low Ger. siripe, a stripe or 
 line, Ger. streif) denotes a sudden, 
 violent, or arbitrary taking away, so 
 as to leave in a condition of destitu- 
 tion. Only sentient creatures are be- 
 reaved. Inanimate substances may be 
 deprived or stripped. We are bereaved 
 only of actual and substantial sources 
 of comfort or happiness, we may be 
 deprived of what has only si specula- 
 tive existence — as hope, opportunity 
 of action, or absti'act goods. We are 
 sti'ipped of what is attached to us, 
 belongs to us, is worn by us, or with 
 which we may be regarded as in- 
 vested. We are bereft of comforts, 
 blessings, possessions, deprived of 
 means, faculties, powers, offices, pri- 
 vileges, and stripped of anything 
 without which we are bare, naked, 
 destitute. Bereave has the most 
 purely moral. Strip the most purely 
 physical force, and Deprive partakes 
 of both. In winter the tree is stripped 
 of its leaves. The widow bemoans 
 her bereavement, while the cold de- 
 prives the first of it^ foliage, and 
 death the second of her natural pro- 
 tector. It is power that bereaves, and 
 force that strips. It may be fraud 
 that de])rives. 
 
 ♦' Me have ye bereaved of my children." 
 —English Bible. 
 
 " Mr. Pym, in a long-form'd discourse, 
 lamented the miserable state and condition 
 of the kingdom, aggravated all the parti- 
 culars which had been done amiss in the 
 
 government, as done and contrived mali- 
 ciously and upon deliberation to change the 
 whole frame, and deprive the nation of all 
 the liberty and property which was their 
 birthright by the laws of the land."— Cla- 
 renuox. 
 "Opinions which at the time of the acces- 
 
 sion of James, no clergyman could have 
 avowed without imminent risk of being 
 stripped of his gown, were now the bes: 
 title to preferment." — MacauLAY 
 
 BID. Cal;. lNvn>; f^uwaioN. 
 Cite. 
 
 Of these Call is the most general 
 (A.S. ceallian). It is to raise the voice 
 to attract attention. It is an act of 
 sentient but not necessarily human 
 beings, as in the call of a bird. It im- 
 plies no relation in particular between 
 the parties calling and called. The 
 strong may call to account, the weak 
 call for help. ]\Ietaphorically, cir- 
 cumstances may call for especial 
 exertion. The characteristic of a call 
 is its distinctness. It may be an an- 
 nouncement, a demand, a request, a 
 summons, an invitation, and imper- 
 sonally a necessity or obligation. 
 
 "How often have I stood 
 
 A rebel to the skies. 
 
 The calls, the tenders of a God, 
 
 And mercy's loudest cries." WatTS. 
 
 lb Invite (Lat. inv'itdre) is to cal. 
 in such a way as to leave, the answer 
 to the will and pleasure of another; 
 but it may be with or without spoken 
 words, as by a look, by inarticulate 
 sounds, by writing. Invitation im- 
 j)liessome degree of equality between 
 parties, and is an act of persuasion, or 
 courtesy, or affection. Its characte- 
 ristic is attractiveness, or an effort of it; 
 and so fine weathej- is said to invite to 
 exercise or travel. 
 " Ask of no angel to reveal thy fate : 
 Look in thy heart, the mirror of thy state. 
 He that invites will not the invited mock. 
 Opening to all that do in earnest knock." 
 Waller. 
 
 To Bid (A.S. beodan), and to Sum- 
 mon (hat. su}n7n'6nt:re, to retnind) both 
 imply the authoritative use of words, 
 or other media of communication ; but 
 Bid extends to action generally, Sum- 
 mon to the i)articular action of ap- 
 pearing at a particular place. Bid is 
 imperative and formal ; Summon, offi- 
 cial, legal, or compulsoi-y. We may 
 bid also through kindness or courtesy, 
 as the host bids his guest welcome. 
 
 " Sir Roger, who is very well acquainted 
 with my humour, lets me rise and go to bed 
 when I please, dine at his own table, or in 
 my chamber, as I think fit, sit still and say 
 nothing without bidding me be merry.' — 
 Spectator. 
 
[bind] 
 
 'AH men, both small and great, dead 
 bnd living, shall be summoned to appear be- 
 fore a dreadful and impartial tribunal, and 
 give an account of all their actions."— 
 Sharp. 
 
 Cite (Fr. cUer, Lat. cttare) has the 
 particular sense of to call by name, in 
 which it is a synonym with Quote. 
 But as compared with Summon, it ex- 
 presses more vividly the authority 
 which has jurisdiction over persons. 
 A person is summoned to appear be- 
 fore a court, he is cited to appear be- 
 fore a judge or a superior. Legally, 
 also, witnesses are cited to give evi- 
 dence, pers^»3 are summoned to an- 
 swer charges. It is the jurisdiction 
 of the individual which cites, and the 
 authority of the law which summons. 
 Hence, by a kind of metaphor, Sum- 
 mon is applied to the force of circum- 
 stances, that is, to such calls as are 
 urgent without being authoritative ; 
 as when one is summoned to the 
 country from town by important busi- 
 ness. 
 
 " A Synod was called by the Bishop of 
 Winchester, the Pope's Legate, to right the 
 Bishop ; when the King was cited to appear, 
 who sending to know the cause, answer was 
 made that it was to answer for his imprison- 
 ing of Bishops and depriving them of their 
 goods, which, being a Christian king, he 
 ought not to do."— Baker, Stephen. 
 
 BIG. Great. Large. 
 
 Big (etym. uncertain) expresses 
 such size as gives the impression of 
 burdensomeness, or bulk, as a big box, 
 or a big mountain. Like Large, it 
 lends itself more easily than Great to 
 express the existence of relative or 
 comparative, but not actual size, as an 
 animal not sobigas a flea; whileGREAT 
 implies some degTee of actual size. 
 Big can-ies the idea of physical turgi- 
 dity and rotundity, as well as size ; 
 and then what is morally analogous 
 to these, the moral use feeing much 
 the less common. The frog that 
 swelled herself out asked her young 
 if she was bigger than the ox. In 
 Buch a phrase as a year big with events, 
 the idea is metapliorical, and equiva- 
 lent to pregnant. 
 
 "Big-honed and large of limbs, with 
 sinews strong." Dryden. 
 
 Great (A. S. gredt) has not so 
 much of this abstract force, but im- 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 169 
 
 plies some degree of actual size. As Bio 
 belongs to bulk, so Great to extent, 
 and Large (Lat. largus, wide, ample) 
 to width or capacity. A big building 
 is made of a great mass of material ; a 
 great building is lofty, wide, and ex- 
 tensive. A large building would hold 
 a great number of persons or a great 
 quantity of goods. Big is only in- 
 elegantly applied to nouns expressive 
 of number, quantity, or extent, but 
 belongs to the subjects of those quali- 
 ties. We do not say a big number of 
 persons. Greatness of circumference 
 makes things big. Great is used of 
 degree in a Avay in which Large could 
 not be so well used,as,I was greatly dis- 
 appointed or delighted ; and Large of 
 quantity where Great could not be so 
 well used,as. He Avas largely rewarded. 
 Big is always physical, except when 
 used in metaphor. Great is also moral 
 and applicable to almost anything that 
 may be conceived to exist in degree, 
 as, a great general, or a great noise. 
 Large is physical when employed 
 directly of persons, but may be 
 used morally of qualities. A large 
 man is tall, broad, and heavy ; a big 
 man is excessively or irregularly 
 large. A great man is so by reason 
 of liis talents or energy, or perhaps 
 only by station and the accidents of 
 bu-th. Number, quantity, and extent 
 are represented as lar^e. Power, 
 knowledge, strength, wisdom, and 
 such abstract qualities, with their op- 
 posites, as ignorance, weakness, and 
 folly, are great. 
 
 " Greatness of soul is more necessary to 
 make a. great man than the favour of the 
 monarch, and the blazonry of the herald, 
 and greatness of soul is to be acquired by 
 converse with the heroes of antiquity, not 
 the fighting heroes only, but the moral 
 heroes."— Knox, Letters. 
 •' Such as made Sheba's curious Queen 
 
 resort 
 To the Zaw-hearted Hebrew's famous 
 
 court.*' Waixer. 
 
 BIND. Tie. Lace. 
 
 To Bind is the A. S. bindan, to 
 Tie, the A. S. tigan. They express 
 difterent modes of fastening by em- 
 ploying long and flexible material. 
 Tie is applicable to involutions and 
 knots of the material itself— as the 
 string was tied in a knot. Bind im- 
 
170 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [bind] 
 
 plies the circumvolution of the bind- 
 ing-material around what is bound. 
 The horse in the stable is tied up, but 
 not bound up. When two things are 
 tied together, that which unites them 
 is, in some measure, intermediate ; 
 when they are bound, it is not inter- 
 mediate but consti-ictive. When a 
 thing is tied the whole is in restraint 
 as regards what is external to it ; when 
 they are bound, the parts are in re- 
 straint as regards one another. The 
 insane patient is bound in a strait- 
 waistcoat, the martyr is tied to the 
 stake. When used metaphorically — 
 that is, morally — the same distinction 
 prevails. The moral tie is an external 
 restraint, as the ties of kindred ; the 
 bond is internal, as to be bound in 
 conscience. We are bound by honour, 
 we are tied by party. Some things 
 are tied without being bound, others 
 bound without being tied. Hence the 
 force of the expression — 
 
 " Tied and bound with the chain of our 
 sins." — Eng, Liturgy. 
 
 Lace (O. Fr, las, a snare; Lat. 
 Wqueus') is to tie together by inter- 
 woven strings, which fasten by con- 
 necting at several different points, 
 especially at the edges of a pliable and 
 extended material — 
 
 " Look, love, what envious streaks 
 Do lace the severing clouds in yonder east." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 BIND. Oblige. Compel. Con- 
 strain. Coerce. 
 
 To Bind {see above) is to oblige by 
 the force of such circumstances as are 
 intrinsic to the individual and not im- 
 posed upon him by the will and power 
 of another, except in such cases as 
 are purely technical and legal ; as for 
 instance, a bond or bail to keep the 
 peace. 1 am bound by moral obliga- 
 tions, as duty, consistency, honour,pio- 
 mises. I am bound to assist my friend 
 in his trouble if I can.. I am bound in 
 lionour to speak the truth, keep my 
 word, adhere to engagements, and to 
 make restitution if 1 have taken un- 
 justly or dishonestly. Hence a man 
 is his own judge of what binds him, 
 or may be bound to do something 
 which he neglects or refuses to do. 
 Men are bound by manifold ti^s which 
 
 they recognize or feel for themselves, 
 as affection, interest, policy. 
 
 " Even in those actions whereby an 
 offence may be occasioned though not given, 
 charity binds us to clear both our own 
 name and the conscience of others."— 
 Bishop Hall. 
 
 Oblige (Lat. o6/%are, to bind), de- 
 notes the operation of an external 
 force, as of another's will, but more 
 commonly the force of circumstances, 
 it is commonly employed in cases in 
 which no strong opposition of will in 
 the agent is supposed. It is not so 
 strong as bind, but though not so 
 sti'ong, it is more practical, for, as we 
 have seen, a man may be bound to do 
 what he does not, but that which he is 
 obliged to do he does. Neither Bind 
 nor Oblige excludes necessarily the 
 will of the agent. Conscience binds. 
 Prudence and necessity oblige, so that 
 that which obliges may have the assent 
 of the judgment. 
 
 " A man is said to be obliged when he is 
 urged by a violent motive resulting from 
 the command of another. And from this 
 account of obligation it follows that we can 
 be obliged to do nothing but what we our- 
 selves are to gain or lose something by, for 
 nothing else can be a violent motive to us." 
 - Paley. 
 
 Compel (Lat. compellcre, to drive), 
 unlike the former, denotes either ab- 
 solute opposition of the will, or that 
 it was powerless, or taken no account 
 of. Compulsion may proceed from 
 persons or from circumstances, whose 
 force we are unable to resist. 
 " Before the sun has gilt the skies, 
 Returning labour bids me i-ise ; 
 Obedient to the hunter's horn 
 He quits his couch at early morn ; 
 By want compell 'd I dig the soil ; 
 His is a voluntary toil," Cotton's Fables 
 
 Constrain (O. Fr. constraindre, 
 Lat. constrin^tre) differs from Compel 
 in not implying the same disregard or 
 annulling of the will of the person. 
 Compel denotes a purely external force. 
 Constraint may be internal. I exercise 
 moral force when 1 constrain myself, 
 and 1 lend myself to moral influences 
 when 1 am constrained — as for in- 
 stance when, from a feeling of com- 
 passion, I act in a certain way. The 
 piinciple of compulsion is force, that 
 of constraint is motive. But constraiut 
 
[blame] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 171 
 
 sometimes comes very near to compul- 
 sion, as in the following: — 
 
 " Thy sight, which should 
 Make out eyes flow with joy, hearts 
 
 dance with comforts. 
 Constrains them weep." Shakespkark. 
 Coerce (Lat. coerclre),\ike Compel, 
 seems to combine the external action 
 of Compel with the internal action of 
 Constrain. Hence the external force 
 of compulsion is simple and direct, of 
 coercion, complex and indii'ect. In 
 coercion a moral medium is employed 
 as a fulcrum for the lever of compul- 
 sion. " Vote for which candidate you 
 please, but if you vote for B, you 
 know the consequences " — this is coer- 
 cion. In short, coercion is the exercise 
 of any powerful interference with the 
 free exercise of the will of another. 
 Yet it has a social character, and bears 
 more especially upon such acts as men 
 
 Eerform not merely as individuals, but 
 rought into contact with society and 
 their fellow-men. It may be added 
 that, unlike the other terms, which 
 have only a positive. Coerce has also 
 a negative force, in which it is nearly 
 allied to restrain, as in the following: — 
 " Therefore the debtor is coerced his li- 
 berty nntil he makes payment." — Bl^kk. 
 
 BISHOP. Prelate. Diocesan. 
 
 Bishop (Gr. ETriVxoirof, overseer) de- 
 notes the spiritual order. The Bishop 
 is one of the Episcopal Order in the 
 Church, as distinguished from the 
 orders of Priests and Deacons, and if 
 there be any other inferior orders. 
 
 The Prelate (Lat. pretf'erre, part. 
 prcJtldtHs), denotes the rank or prefer- 
 ment of the person. 
 
 The DiocF-SAN (Gr. JtowJiJ-j?, a pro- 
 vince, a diocese) denotes the relation- 
 ship to a sphere of jurisdiction. In 
 the Church of Rome there are Pre- 
 lates not in Episcopal orders. 
 
 BLAME. Censure. Condemn. 
 Reprove. Reproach. Upbraid. 
 Reprimand. Rebuke. Chide. Ani- 
 madvert. Denounce. Objurgate. 
 Vituperate. Scold. 
 
 To Blame (Fr. bldmer, L. Lat. blas- 
 phimare) is simply to ascribe a fault 
 to a person, or to refer to him as the 
 cause of something in itself wrong or 
 untoward. It is too weak to extend 
 *o crimes. We do lot blame persons 
 
 for committing murder^ but for acoi- 
 dents or injuries when their occur- 
 rence may be imputed to neglect, dis- 
 obedience, and the like. The idea of 
 imputing fault constitutes blame. 
 But faults consist both in defect and 
 in excess. Kindness is commendable, 
 but over-indulgence is to be blamed. 
 Blame may be exercised by anyone 
 towards another, without distinction 
 of rank or rights, and may extend to 
 motives as well as acts. We often 
 blame the absent, for the object of 
 blame is sometimes not so much tr 
 visit others with censure, as to ex- 
 
 S-ess our own unfavourable opinion, 
 lame may be indirect, as by adopting 
 one policy or party, we inferentially 
 blame the policy of the opposite party. 
 We may blame ourselves for what we 
 have done or caused. Where there has 
 been no choice there can be no blame. 
 We may blame in secret — that is, in 
 our own minds. 
 
 " A wise man may frequently neglect 
 praise, even when he has best deserved it ; 
 but ill all matters of serious consequence, 
 he wU most carefully endeavour so to re- 
 gulate his conduct as to avoid not only 
 blameworthiness, but as much as possible 
 every imputation of Wame." — Smith, A/oraZ 
 Sentiments. 
 
 To Censure (Lat. censiira, a judg- 
 ment, opinion) is the formal, open, 
 or public expression of fault by a 
 superior, or one who assumes to be 
 so for the occasion. To censure is 
 more an act of personal authority than 
 to biame, and is supposed to take place 
 in the presence, or at least the cogni- 
 zance of the person censured; vehereas 
 we may blame the absent or the dead. 
 The conduct may be blamed, as well 
 as the person, but it is only the person 
 that is censured. A certain gravitv 
 of oftence is implied in censure which 
 seems to be midway between light 
 faults and heavy crimes. The force 
 of blame is proportioned to its moral 
 justice and deserving; but censure is 
 supposed to carry some degree of 
 punishment in its own seventy, and 
 the character, moral or official, of him 
 who expresses it. Censure expresses 
 a kind of acknowledged right to ex 
 presp blame. A person may be blamed 
 for his good nature, and censured foi 
 his negligence. 
 
172 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 blame] 
 
 " Of this delicacy Horace is the best 
 master. He appears in good humour while 
 he censures ; and therefore his censure has 
 the more weight, as supposed to proceed 
 from j udgment, not from passion."— Yot nq. 
 
 To Condemn (Lat. condemndre) ap- 
 plies to grave ofFences and those who 
 commit them. It is the solemn pro- 
 nunciation of an adverse judgment, 
 either formally and openly, or in 
 one's own mind. He who condemns 
 passes an adverse judgment with the 
 consciousness that his expression of 
 it will be followed by personal conse- 
 quences. Condemn is simple, abso- 
 lute, final. Condemnation implies 
 that the time for extenuation, defence, 
 apology is passed. Censure or blame 
 aiay be modified, condemnation is 
 complete. 
 
 " When Christ asked the woman, ' Hath 
 no man coiidemned thee ?' He certainly 
 spoke, and was understood by the woman 
 to speak of a legal and judicial condemna- 
 tion. Otherwise her answer, ♦ No man. 
 Lord,' was not true. In every other sense' 
 of condemnation, as blame, censure, reproof, 
 private judgment, and the like, many had' 
 condemned her; all those, in short, who 
 brought her to Jesus."— Paley. 
 
 Reprove (Lat. rtprobare) is more 
 strictly personal than any of the fore- 
 going, though it has not the weight 
 of CoNUEMN. It is personally to 
 express one's disapprobation to an- 
 other, commonly one's junior or infe- 
 rior. It may be no more than to 
 express it simply and in few words, 
 or even by a sign, and so differs from 
 censure, which enters upon the nature 
 of the oflfence or supposed offence. 
 The wish to convince another of his 
 fault in such a way that he may re- 
 member it as a warning for the future 
 dictates reproof. As we may blame 
 and condemn either ourselves or 
 others, so we censure and reprove 
 others only. We reprove others, not 
 80 much for the purpose of punishing 
 them as of awakening and benefitmg 
 them. Though reproof is not the 
 same thing as blame, censure, or con- 
 demnation, it may enter as an element 
 into all three. 
 
 'And as a bird each fond endearment 
 
 tries 
 To tempt its oew-fledged offspring to the 
 
 •kies. 
 
 He 
 
 tried e«ch art. reproved each anil 
 delay. 
 Allured to brighter worlds, and led the 
 way." Goldsmith. 
 
 Rebuke (Fr. rebouquer, to blunt a 
 weapon thrown : see Littr£, s. v. rebou- 
 cher) is more energetic and less didac- 
 tic tlian Reprove. It is to reprove in a 
 certain manner, that is, with sharp- 
 ness, or outspokenness. It implies 
 some degi-ee of moral indignation in 
 the rebuker, and may be an indica- 
 tion of moral courage, as when an 
 inferior rebukes a superior, or one 
 blames another to his face as not 
 afraid to do so. A rebuke is ad- 
 ministered on the spur of the moment 
 as a sudden check upon another. 
 Reason reproves, impulse rebukes. 
 
 " The proud he tamed, the penitent he 
 
 cheer'd, 
 Nor to rebuke the rich offender fear'd." 
 Drydex. 
 
 Reproach (Fr. reprocher, Lat. re- 
 propriare, to bring near, before the eyes) 
 differs from the foregoing in its whole 
 tone and spirit. It is the reproof of 
 the inferior, the suffering, or the 
 weak. Its etymological force is to 
 bring near or home to another the 
 fault or wrong that he has done. It 
 is between persons related by some 
 kind of tie. The subject of the re- 
 proach is an assumed violation of 
 moral obligation, which has redound- 
 ed to the injury of the reproacher or 
 the reproached, as a son might re- 
 proach his father with his own ne- 
 glected education, or one reproaches 
 another with his neglect of his own 
 duty or interest. According as the 
 fault that has been committed is against 
 one's self or not, will be the nature 
 and degree of indignation 8r protest 
 roused in the mind against the object 
 of the reproach ; but in any case the 
 aim is to raise in the mind of another 
 a feeling of dissatisfaction with him- 
 self, ''setting before him the things 
 thathe hath done." Reflexion may lead 
 one to reproach one's self, in which 
 case the effect of reproach is only infe- 
 rior to that of remorse. To be without 
 reproach is to be without anything 
 that another might bring home to 
 one's dishonour or discredit. 
 
fBLANCnl 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 175 
 
 " The Chevalier Bayard, distinguished 
 among his contemporaries by the designa- 
 tion of ' 1 he Knight without fear and re- 
 proach: "—Robertson. 
 
 Upbraid {A.S.upgebredan) is akin 
 to reproach. It is to reproach in a 
 certain way, that is, energetically and 
 demonstratively. One may reproach 
 with a look, but one upbraids with 
 earnestness and forcible words. We 
 reproach to make others sorry, we 
 upbraid to make them ashamed. He 
 who reproves does it under some sense 
 of moral responsibility. He who up- 
 braids may possibly do it to serve his 
 own ends, as in the follomng : — 
 
 " He discourages the weak, and weakens 
 the hands of the strong, and by upbraiding 
 their weakness, tempts them to turn it into 
 rashness or despair."— Bishop Taylor. 
 
 Reprimand (Fr. rtprimander, Lat. 
 riprimenda,rtprima-ejtocheck:hnTRV.) 
 belongs to such censure of individuals 
 as is expressed by a superior in the 
 discharge of his duty as such. When 
 it is ofificial it can-ies with it the cha- 
 racter of a minor penalty. It has also 
 the character of official warning, and 
 is suggestive of heavier punishment 
 on repetition of the offence. The 
 father reprimands his disobedient 
 child, the master his servant, the pre- 
 ceptor his pupil, the commanding 
 officer his subordinate. We do not 
 censure inferiors, nor reprimand su- 
 periors. 
 
 Chide (A. S. cidan, to chide, brawl) 
 is a minor and less dignified upbraid- 
 ing — a finding common fault in a clam- 
 orous and an^ry manner. An appeal 
 to the imperfect reason and childish 
 fears of the young is manifested by 
 the chiding of their children by im- 
 patient mothers. We chide the young, 
 the thoughtless, the self-willed. 
 
 " A« children should be veiy seldom cor- 
 rected by blows, so I think frequent, and 
 especially passionate chiding of almost as 
 ill consequence. It lessens the authority 
 of the parent, and the respect of the child." 
 —Locke. 
 
 Objurgate (Lat. objurgare) is more 
 naturally used towards equals, as 
 Chide and Scold (Du. schelden, to 
 scold) towards inferiors and juniors. 
 Scold has in it more of authority and 
 harshness. Chide more f f volubility 
 
 and sharpness. Olyurgation may be 
 conveyed in a single sentence. 
 
 ♦* The objurgdtary question of the Phari- 
 sees. "—P ALKY. 
 
 Vituperate (Lat. vitiiperdre) con- 
 veys the idea of telling censure, or 
 eloquent scolding, conduct being for- 
 cibly denounced, and tenus effectively 
 administered. 
 " Vituperative appellation."— Ben Jonson. 
 
 " A common scold (communis rixatrix — 
 for our Law Latin confines it to the femi- 
 nine gender) is a public nuisance to her 
 neighbourhood." — Blackstone. 
 
 Animadvert (Lat. dnXmadverth-e) 
 is to notice unfavourably and in the 
 way of adverse criticism ; and so of 
 necessity applies not to grave offences 
 of morals, but to matters of taste, 
 manners, and measures in regard to 
 their accuracy or propriety. It in- 
 volves, together with the censure, an 
 unfolding of the objection in detail. 
 
 " If the two Houses of Parliament, or 
 either of them had assuredly a right to 
 animadvert on either of the Houses, that 
 branch of the Legislature so subject to 
 animadversion would instantly cease to be 
 part of the supreme power." — Black- 
 stone. 
 
 Denounce (Lat. dinunciare) ex- 
 presses the strongest form of disap- 
 proval. While disapproval may be 
 confined to one's own mind, denun 
 ciaticL is open and audible. It ex- 
 presses not only the calm decision of 
 the judgment, like condemn, but also 
 the further manifestation of outraged 
 feeling. Yet denunciation is not 
 wanting in fonnality and solemnity. 
 It is the declaration of impending 
 wrath, vengeance, or punishment, or 
 of an adverse judgment, in terms of 
 vehement, yet measured reprobation. 
 It is a case in which indignation 
 makes the judge. It commonly refers 
 acts to a standai-d, and individuals to 
 a character, so affixing to them cer- 
 tain representative designations. I 
 denounce a man as a villain, or his 
 conduct as influenced by evil mo- 
 tives. 
 
 " Denounced for a heretic." — More. 
 
 BLANCH. Whiten. Bleach. 
 Of these. Whiten, to make white 
 (A.S. hwit), is the generic term. It 
 
174 
 
 is to induce a whiteness upon a mate- 
 rial, either by internal alteration, or 
 by the addition of an external colour- 
 ing- 
 
 To Blanch (Fr. bUiiic, white) is to 
 make white or whiten by an alteration 
 of the inherent and natural coloi^ring 
 matter of the substance, as in the 
 effect of etiolation produced in plants 
 by exclusion of the sun's rays. 
 
 To Bleach (A. S. bldcian, to grow 
 pale) indicates that the pi-ocess has 
 been eft'ected by the destruction of 
 the colouring-matter of the body, 
 either by the action of the light and 
 air, or the application of some acid. 
 
 BLEMISH. Defect. Fault. 
 Flaw. 
 
 Blemish (O. Fr. blesmir, blemir, to 
 icoundj soil : Skeat's Etym. Diet.) is a 
 pai'tial or local defect, injury, or con- 
 trariety which affects the complete- 
 ness of the external aspect of a thing, 
 as a spot of white on a horse other- 
 wise entirely black. So metaphori- 
 cally, a blemish in character refers to 
 reputation, or the view taken of it by 
 othera. As the tei-m blemish directly 
 expresses a fault or defect in appear- 
 ance, so it indirectly implies the con- 
 trary in the subject of it. The blemish 
 is small and slight in itself, and is 
 unsightly by reason of so much which 
 is otherwise. Blemishes may be pro- 
 duced by a variety of causes, as na- 
 ture, faulty operation, accident, vio- 
 lence, time. 
 
 " They have possessed other beauties 
 which were conformable to just criticism ; 
 and the force of these beauties has been 
 able to overpower censure, and give the 
 mind a satisfaction superior to the disgust 
 arising from the blemishes." — Hume. 
 
 Defect (Lat. difectus, a ivant) is 
 the absence of what is required to con- 
 stitute completeness of any kind, as of 
 form, substance, or quality, or power — 
 as e.g., a defect in the organization of 
 an animal, a defect of vision, a defect 
 in a work of art, a defect in a mental 
 estimate, as in the material construc- 
 tion of a thing. Tn regard to products 
 and operations, Defect expresses a 
 marked degree of imperfection : as a 
 blemish mars the individual, so a defect 
 wsoses to fall short of the type or re- 
 
 gYNONYMS [blemish] 
 
 cjuirements of the species. A blemish 
 in a painting belongs to that canvas 
 or picture, a defect is a non-fulfilment 
 of the rules of the art. 
 
 "And after all, the rules of religion and 
 virtue which were drawn up by these phi- 
 losophers have been very imperfect and 
 defective in many instances." — Watts. 
 
 Fault (Fr./aute) is a defect as re- 
 ferred to human agency, as a fault of 
 perspective in a painting ; while the 
 fading of a colour under natural in- 
 fluences is a blemish, and anythmg 
 which deteriorated it or detracted from 
 its completeness, whether as a work of 
 art or as an article of furniture, would 
 be a defect. We speak, however, of 
 faults of commission as well as omis- 
 sion. What is wanting is defective, 
 what is ill done is faulty. In this 
 case the one is negative, the other 
 positive. As fault includes in its 
 idea a relation to the doer or maker, so 
 defect expresses somethmg imperfect 
 in the thing. Human imperfection 
 occasions defects in character and con- 
 duct. Human weaknesses, tempta- 
 tions, ignorance, error, occasion 
 faults. That is faulty which has what 
 it ought not to have, that is defective 
 which has not what it ought to have. 
 The former requires coirection, the 
 latter supply. ^ 
 
 " He who is gratified with that which is 
 faulty in works of art is a man of bad taste, 
 and he who is pleased or displeased accord- 
 ing to the degree of excellence or faultiness 
 is a man of good taste."— Beattie. 
 
 The term Flaw (A. S. Jloh ; of. 
 Swedish fiaga, a crack) is primarily 
 applied to such a defect as affects the 
 body or substance of a thing. A 
 flaw in a picture deteriorates its com- 
 mercial value, a blemish disfigures i; 
 as a work of art. A flaw more sti-ictlj 
 belongs to those things which owe 
 their value to the quality of their sub- 
 stance, as sound, durable, and of uni- 
 form colour or brightness. A flaw in 
 ice is a warning to the skater. A flaw 
 in an emerald depreciates its value. A 
 flaw in a document is metaphorical, 
 and denotes what is analogous to the 
 disruption of substantial continuity or 
 completeness. So we sj^eak of a 
 "flaw in an indictment," and in the 
 following • — 
 
^LOOD Y 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 17^ 
 
 "No; the decree was jnst and without ] 
 
 And He that made had right to make the 
 law." ' CoWPER. 
 
 BLINK. Wink. 
 
 No harder distinction perhaps exists 
 in our language than that which has 
 to be ascertained between these two 
 terms. Both have their secondary as 
 well as primary or physical significa- 
 tions. Even with thebest authorities 
 BlixkIs explained byWiNK,and\y INK 
 by Blink ; while in regard to their se- 
 condary use in the sense of connivance, 
 we find "to blink at," and " to wink 
 at " employed in this sense by English 
 classical autliors. The confusion ex- 
 isting between the terms seems to flow 
 from the likeness of the things. To 
 Blink (A. S. 6/ican, tog/iffer) may be 
 etymologically either to move twink- 
 liiigly, like a twinkling star, or to 
 close partially or entirely under the 
 effect of very strong or sudden light. 
 
 As to the original meaning of VV ink, 
 the A. S. wincian meant to nod as 
 well as to wink ; and a connexion be- 
 tween wink and wing has been sug- 
 gested (cf. Dutch wichen, to vibrate). 
 Now when Shakespeare wrote — 
 " I have not slept one wink," 
 
 it is plain that, first, this was no con- 
 tinued but a fugitive closing of the 
 eyes ; and, secondly, that it was a clo- 
 sing, not of one eye but of both. We 
 may therefore eliminate the possible 
 supposition that to wink means to 
 shut and close one eye merely because 
 this is the common form of conscious 
 winking. To wink is quickly to close 
 and open one eye or both. When 
 Chaucer wrote — 
 
 " Than upon him she keb up both her 
 
 eyne. 
 And with a blinke it came in till his thought 
 That he sometime her face before had 
 
 seen," 
 
 he no doubt used the word in the 
 sense of a quick view, or glance. Ac- 
 cording to the glare and external pres- 
 sure upon the eye would be the close- 
 ness and continuity of the blink. So 
 Sir Thomas More : — 
 
 " The eyes yblent 
 Do blink ev«m blind with objects vehe- 
 mer<t.* 
 
 The metaphorical force of Blivkino^ 
 then, seems to be to shun, to avoid 
 seeing from a desire to evade ; and so 
 only indirectly and negatively to con- 
 nive at. On the other hand, Wink, 
 when used in this way, has the force of 
 active connivance, the winking being 
 not only a blinding of the eye, but 
 much more significantly a purposed 
 twinkling of it, as a sign of recogni- 
 tion, as well as of a mind at once awake 
 to what is going on, and, as it were, 
 purposely asleep. So Gower : — 
 " Better is to rvynk than toloke." 
 So Udal on Romaines : — 
 
 '' But to thentente that peace and 
 concord maye amonge you bee maintained, 
 and steadfastly abyde, certain thinges must 
 beo wi/nked at, some things muste bee suf- 
 fered, and some thinges must gently be 
 taken." 
 
 On the other hand, winke was used, 
 like blink, of involuntary closing of 
 the eyes wholly or partially. 
 
 BLOCK. JMass. Lump. 
 
 The Block (Welsh ploc) is a solid 
 mass of uniform material, as wood, 
 stone, metal, having one or more plane 
 or approximately plane surfaces. 
 
 A Mass (Fr. masse) is a body of 
 matter concreted or collected, whether 
 of uniform substance or not ; as a mass 
 of gold, or a mass of rubbish. 
 
 A Lump (allied to the English 
 clump : Wedgwood) is a piece of mat- 
 ter uniform in substance, shapeless, 
 and of no considerable bulk. 
 
 BLOODY. Sanguinary. Blood- 
 thirsty. 
 
 Bloody is primarily purely physical 
 (A.S. hlod, blood) and means having 
 blood, consisting of blood, or more 
 commonly covered or stained with 
 blood. A bloody coat is a coat stained 
 with blood; bloody deeds involve 
 shedding of blood. It is also a vivio 
 metaphorical term. A bloody tyrant 
 is one who has destroyed many lives, 
 and delighted to do so. A bloody 
 period of history is pregnant with 
 wars and deaths. 
 
 "When this great revolution was at- 
 tempted in a more regular mode by govern- 
 ment, it was opposed by plots and seditions 
 of the people ; when by popular efforts, it 
 was repressed as rebellion by the hand of 
 
il6 
 
 power; and fcZoody executions often bloodily 
 returnetl, marked the whole of its progress 
 through all its stages."— BuRKE. 
 
 Sanguinary is purely, or almost 
 purely, moral ; and is an instance of 
 the tendency of Latin words to ap- 
 propriate secondary meanings, leav- 
 ing the primary to the Saxon. The 
 epithet Sanguinary belongs to such 
 characters or acts as tend to pro- 
 duce the shedding of Blood (Lat. 
 sanguinem), as a sanguinary disposi- 
 tion, tyrant, war. 
 
 " Well, one at least is safe ; one sheltered 
 
 here 
 Has never heard the sanguinriry yell 
 Of gruel man exulting in her woes." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 Bloodthi Rs r Y is,specifically , the de- 
 siring and compassing the effusion of 
 blood as an animal passion; whether 
 from natural appetite, as in the tiger, 
 or, from ci-uelty or vindictiveness, as 
 in the tyrannical and unforgiving. 
 The tyrant mightbe called sanguinary, 
 or, by a stronger and coarser term, 
 bloodthirsty; but the tiger is blood- 
 thirsty, not sanguinary. 
 
 "The Peruvians fought not, like the 
 Mexicans, to glut bloodthirsty divinities 
 with human sacrifices."— ROBERTSON. 
 
 BLOOM. Blossom. Flower. 
 
 There is a conventional difference 
 of usage between these terms. Bloom 
 ( Icel. Bl6m, a blossom) being emplo_y ed 
 generally of flowers, and flowering 
 shrubs. Blossom (A. S. blostma) of 
 the flowers of fruit-trees. This dis- 
 tinction is not absolute. We speak 
 of the bloom or blossom of fruit-trees, 
 but hardly of the blossom of the flowers 
 of the parterre. Flower (Fr.^eJu-,Lat. 
 fiorem) is at once the most generic and 
 common, and also the more scientific 
 term. The little child delights to 
 gather wild flowers. The florist seeks 
 to develop their bloom. The botanist 
 regards the flower as that part of a 
 plant which subserves its reproduc- 
 tion. In their secondary senses 
 the bloom symbolizes the freshest 
 period of existence ; the blossom, the 
 opening of promise and hope ; the 
 flower, the choice and select portion, 
 that which shows the brightest and 
 the fairest. 
 
 SYNONYMS [ BLOOM j 
 
 BLOW. Stroke. Knock. 
 
 Blow (cf. O. Du. hlauuen, to strike) 
 expresses the violent application of 
 one substance to another. It may be 
 with or without design. If we heard 
 of a blow from a swcid, we should 
 take it to mean the back, the pommel, 
 or the flat side, otherwise it would be 
 a stroke or cut. A Stroke (cf. Ger. 
 streich) is a finer and lighter kind ot 
 blow, almost requiring an instrument 
 on purpose. Hence it follows that 
 we very commonly speak of accidental 
 blows, hardly ever of accidental 
 strokes ; for stroke involves a con- 
 tinuous relative line of movement, or 
 force exercised, even though it be 
 not, as it commonly is, one regulated 
 by design. 
 
 " Nor can it be meant that if a man 
 should actually strike us on one cheek we 
 should immediately turn to him the other, 
 and desire the blow to be repeated." — 
 Bishop Porteus. 
 
 BOARD. Plank. 
 
 A Board (A.S. bard) is wood sawed 
 thin, and of an equilateral shape, or 
 nearly so. A Plank (Fr. planche) is 
 thicker, and on an average of at least 
 two inches in thickness. It is also 
 narrow, or of considerable length in 
 proportion to its width. A Board 
 may be of small dimensions and thin. 
 The difference is reflected in the se- 
 condary uses of the words. The thick- 
 ness of the ship's planks suggests the 
 slight interval wliicli may separate 
 life from death. Shipwrecked men 
 are sometimes saved upon planks. A 
 mere plank may serve for a bridge 
 across a chasm. The ideas whicJi 
 belong to the term Board are of a dif- 
 ferent character. It is that round 
 which persons assemble in convivial 
 or deliberative meetings. 
 
 BOAST. Vaunt. Glory. Brag. 
 
 To Boast {\\e\. bostio) is to speak 
 in ostentatious language, with a view 
 to self-praise or self-exaltation. A 
 man vam and mendacious will boast 
 of his valorous deeds ; a man of vul- 
 garity besides, will boast of his 
 wealth. Nevertheless, mendacity is 
 not essentially implied in boasting ; 
 only the habit of drawing things one 
 way, that is, in the direction of self, 
 is injurious to strict truth-speaking. 
 
[boisterous] discriminated. 
 
 177 
 
 To boaat indicates more of vanitj, and 
 to vaunt more of pride. To Vaunt a 
 thing is simply to bring it (perhaps 
 frequently) before others, as a matter 
 of admiration in oneself. To boast 
 implies mere talking about it, with 
 that tendency to a manifestation of 
 personal pomposity and exaggeration 
 which does not belong, or not in so 
 marked a manner, to Vaunt. It may 
 be observed that there is less of false- 
 hood compatible with vaunting than 
 with boasting. It is possible to boast 
 of having done what one never did. 
 We Vaunt (Fr. vanter, Lat. vanttare) 
 that which is true in itself, but on 
 which we place an exaggerated value. 
 To vaunt a thing is to put forth that 
 as solid and substantial which is 
 really emptiness (Lat. variitas). 
 
 Brag (prob. from the same root as 
 break, as to crack is to boast) is to 
 boast especially of personal achieve- 
 ments, or at least otwhat is personal. 
 A man may boast of his ancestors, he 
 brags of his performances. 
 
 " Made not here his brag 
 Of ' came ' and ' saw ' and overcame." 
 Shakespeark. 
 "The right hononrable gentleman has 
 chosen to come forward with an nncalied- 
 for declaration ; he boastingly tells you that 
 he has seen, read, digested, compared 
 everything ; and that if he has sinned, he 
 has sinned with his eyes broad open." — 
 Burke. 
 
 " All others may vaunt merely that they 
 have vanquished men, but Sergins may 
 boast that he hath conquered and overcome 
 even Fortune herself."— Hoi-land, Hiny. 
 
 To Glory (O. Yr.glorie, Lat. g/oriaj 
 glory) in a thing commonly denotes 
 an antagonistic view of the admirable 
 in oneself, as if one were determined 
 to vaunt it, whatever estimate others 
 might set upon it, by reason of the 
 high value we set upon it ourselves. 
 It is used of anythmg which bears 
 characteristically a relation to our- 
 selves, as possessions, reputation, acts. 
 
 '♦ Whose glory is their shame." — English 
 Bible. 
 
 BOATMAN. Waterman. 
 
 A Boatman is a general term for 
 one whose trade is connected with the 
 navigation of boats. A Waterman 
 
 Elies his boat for hire, and is paid for 
 is labour in so doing. 
 
 " As late the boatman hies him home." 
 Pkecival. 
 
 "They ord€a-ed the watermen to let fali 
 their oars more gently." — Dryden. 
 
 BODY. Corpse. Carcase. 
 
 Body (A.S. bodig), as taken in the 
 sense of dead body, and Corpse (Lat. 
 corpus, a body) are applied to human 
 beings; Carcase (Fr. carca^se) only 
 to brutes, except in disparagement. 
 Body is used of the organization 
 before as well as after death, and is 
 applicable to brutes as well as men, 
 Corpse only to men. Wedgewood 
 identifies the Saxon bodi^ with the 
 German bottkh, a cask, of which the 
 root is bot, a lump, protuberance, the 
 thick part of anything; so that the 
 primary sense of body is the thick 
 part of the living frame, as distin- 
 guished from the limbs or lesser divi- 
 sions ; then the whole material frame, 
 as distinguished from the sentient 
 
 Erinciple by which it is animated, 
 ►ther forms of the word carcase 
 appear in different languages, with 
 the common meaning of a husk, shell, 
 or case. 
 
 " The resurrection of the body." — 
 Apostles' Creed. 
 
 Corpse was further written corps and 
 corse. So Dryden has in the plural— 
 
 " The hall was heaped with corps." 
 
 " For where the carcase is, there will tlie 
 eagles be gathered together." — Bible. 
 
 BOISTEROUS. Turbulent. Tu- 
 multuous. 
 
 These terms are applied to human 
 behaviour, with certain differences. 
 The behaviour of an individual may 
 be Boisterous (0.1!.. boistous; Welsh, 
 bwyst, uildness), or the term may be 
 employed of a number of persons. 
 As such, it denotes violence and rude- 
 ness of noise in words and move- 
 ments. It refers to the external man- 
 ner, and not to the mind, and may pro- 
 ceed from mental condition8ofoppos"*f 
 kinds, as one may be boisterous frc* 
 indignation, or boisterous in mer 
 ment. The boisterous is the result ot 
 conflicting, contrariant, and irregulai 
 forces, exerted without uniformitjr or 
 self-control. In boisterous weather 
 
178 
 
 srNONrMS 
 
 [bold] 
 
 the elements show signs of variable 
 commotion. 
 
 " On the contrary, he took the fact for 
 eranted, and so joined in with the cry, and 
 halloo'd it as boisterously as the rest." — 
 Stkrne. 
 
 Tviiaui^EST {ha,t.turbaleiitus,turha, 
 tumult, crowd) denotes a disposition 
 not only to disorder, but to insub- 
 ordination. 
 
 " As tliis innocent way of passing a leisure 
 hour is not only consistent with a great 
 character, but very graceful in it, so there 
 are two sorts of people to whom I would 
 most earnestly recommend it. The first are 
 those who are uneasyoutof ^Yant of thought, 
 the second are those who are so out of a tur- 
 inilence of spirit."— Tatler. 
 
 Tumultuous (Lat. tYimultuosus) 
 means inclined to make a noise in tur- 
 bulence or in merriment; buttne eftect 
 is direct, while that of boisterous is un- 
 intended. A boisterous meeting is led 
 into being noisy ; a tumultuous meet- 
 ing is noisy on purpose, and, when 
 difficult to regulate, is turbulent. It 
 is the combination of voices with other 
 sounds in confusion and disorder 
 that constitutes tumult. Tuubulent 
 denotes the resistance of the will or 
 passions; Tumultuous that they are 
 confused and conflicting. A solitary 
 person may be turbulent ; a crowd is 
 tumultuous. 
 
 " The workmen accordingly very seldom 
 derive any advantage from the violence of 
 those tumultuous combinations, which gene- 
 rally end in nothing but the punishment 
 and ruin of the ringleaders." — Adam 
 Smith. 
 
 BOLD. Fearless. Buave. 
 Courageous. Intrepid. Undaunted. 
 Valiant. Gallant. Heroic. 
 DAniNO. 
 
 Bold (A. S. bald, beald) refers 
 rather to the readiness to meet dan- 
 ger, than to the conduct under its 
 immediate circumstances. So a man's 
 conduct in the lists may be not in 
 unison with the boldness with which 
 he entered them. Fearless de- 
 notes a negative state of mind — the 
 absence of fear. This may be either 
 from courage in the presence of dan- 
 ger, or from boldness in being ready 
 to encounter it, or from a belief that 
 ao ground exists for apprehension. 
 Boldness eipressas a yi/a/ifi/, fearless- 
 
 ness a mode of conduct under specific 
 circumstances. 
 
 •' Ask an Englishman, however, whether 
 he is afraid of death ; and he boldly answers 
 in the negative ; but observe his behaviour 
 in circumstances of approaching sickness, 
 and you will find his actions give his as- 
 sertions the Ue,"— Goldsmith. 
 
 "This fearlessness of temper depends 
 upon natural constitution as much as any 
 quality we can possess; for where the 
 animal system is strong and robust it i» 
 easily acquired, but when the nerves ar« 
 weak and extremely sensible, they fall pre- 
 sently into tremors that throw the mind off 
 the hinges, and cast a confusion over her." 
 — Search, Light of Nature. 
 
 Brave (Fr. brave) applies to such 
 dangers as come from living or active 
 opponents, whose power is to be 
 dreaded, implying a sustained energy 
 of soul. The man who plunges into 
 the sea off a high rock is bold, but 
 not brave. Yet when he finds himself 
 swimming in a rough sea he may 
 strike out bravely for the shore. The 
 man who takes a noxious animal in 
 his hand is fearless. The true knight, 
 the good soldier, the spirited lion- 
 hunter, are brave — Pope would add, 
 he who meets death as he ought — 
 
 "Who combats bravely is not therefore 
 
 brave. 
 He dreads a death-bed like the meanest 
 
 slave." 
 
 To the Courageous man (Fr. cour 
 rage) belongs that active fortitude 
 which is shown against every sort of 
 danger. Courage expresses a calmer 
 and more persistent quality than 
 bravery. Bravery shows itself in 
 action, courage also in the passive 
 endurance of the nearness of danger 
 without fear. Bravery too is against 
 physical peril, but we recognize a 
 moral courage which encounters such 
 trials as threaten no physical hurt. 
 Courage is more in principle, bravery 
 in temperament. When courage is 
 sustained, and has borne the test of 
 repeated trials, or when it stands the 
 test of extreme danger, in its most 
 appalling forms, as in the case of the 
 Roman w ho stooti unmoved when ha 
 was suddenly shown the form of an 
 elephant for the first time, it may be 
 termed Intrepidii v (Lat. intrtptduSy 
 undaunted). As the courage which 
 
[boldness] 
 
 ifi constant is intrepidity, so that 
 which is spirited and adventurous is 
 Gallantry (Fr. galant, worthy, gal- 
 lant), 
 
 " Courage" says Hobbes, " in a large 
 signification, is the absence of fear in the 
 presence of any evil whatsoever ; but in a 
 strict and more common meaning, it is 
 contempt of wounds and death, when they 
 oppose a man on his way to his end." 
 
 " That quaUty (valour), which signifies 
 ao more than an intrepid courage, may be 
 separated from many others which are 
 good, and accompanied with many which 
 are ill."— Dryden. 
 
 " As a friend to the House of Brunswick, 
 I cannot but rejoice in the personal safety, 
 and in the personal gallantry too, of so 
 distinguished a branch of it (the Duke of 
 Vork)." — Anecdotes of BiSHOP Watson. 
 
 Valiant (Fr. vaillant) is mostly re- 
 stricted to the courage of a soldier in 
 war or combat, and is not so well ap- 
 plicable to persons collectively, now 
 that soldiers act commonly under 
 strict orders, except on extraordinary 
 occasions, when they may act singly. 
 The terms Brave and Gallant have 
 almost supplanted the term Valiant, 
 which rather reminds us of the knio^hts 
 of old. Yet we should still speaK of 
 him as valiant who performea some 
 striking deed of bravery, or met any 
 kind of danger in a spirited way. 
 Valour is active courage. It strikes 
 and strives against repeated perils, 
 and bears great shocks without yield- 
 ing, and struggles on against heavy 
 odds. Courage is impatient to attack. 
 Valour refuses to yield or fly. Bravery 
 exposes life and courts danger, and 
 prefers death to dishonour. As valour 
 refuses to retreat, so intrepidity refuses 
 to be alarmed. 
 
 " Who would not fight valiantly when 
 he fights in the eye of his prince?"— Bishop 
 Hali,. 
 
 Undaunted (un-, not, and the Fr. 
 dompter; Lat. domitare, to tame, or 
 tubdue) is both applicable to persons 
 directly, as expressive of a quality, 
 and is u?«d of acts, or as an epithet 
 of courage and bravery. Undaunted 
 courage is that which sustains itself 
 in spite of many successive terrors 
 and perils, and so is equivalent to 
 intrepidity. 
 
 " He proceeded on in the performance of 
 Ul hiB duty, and prosecution of his great 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 17P 
 
 designs, with undaunted courage, witn on- 
 wearied industry, with undisturbed tran- 
 quillity and satisfaction of mind."— Bar- 
 row. 
 
 The Daring court that which the 
 bold are ready to meet. 
 
 "Courage may be virtue where ths 
 daring is extreme, if the cause be good." — 
 HoBBES. 
 
 Heroic (Lekt.hcrd^c lis) in conformity 
 with its derivation, leads the mind to 
 the days of tlie heroes, or the heroic 
 age, and so is tinged with the notion 
 of personal power or prowess, as well 
 as courage. Magnanimity, too, finds 
 its way in, and the heroic character is 
 one who does deeds of valour, not 
 only for himself, or as a soldier in 
 service, but as a representative man, 
 the champion of another or of a race. 
 It is not only in reference to his bold- 
 ness or bravery as an individual that 
 we speak of Codes or of Wallace as a 
 hero. 
 
 " No time for lamentation now ; 
 Nor much more cause. Samson hath quit 
 
 himself 
 Like Samson, and heroicly hath finished 
 A life heroic, on his enemies 
 Fully revenged." MiLTOlf. 
 
 BOLDNESS. Assurance. Au- 
 dacity. Hardihood. Effrontery, 
 Impudence. Shamelessness. 
 
 In addition to the force of Bold as 
 a synonym of courageous, Bold and 
 Boldness have a less pronounced 
 meaning, as referring to manner and 
 character under ordinary circum- 
 stances. In this way. Boldness is 
 used to denote the absence of shyness 
 and the absence of timidity. Accord- 
 ing as the term expresses one or the 
 other of these in a becoming or un- 
 becoming degree, boldness is, or is 
 not, a commendable quality. Such 
 boldness as seems to disregard what 
 others regard is not good. Hence, 
 a bold manner in women and young 
 persons is unbecoming. On the other 
 hand, it is a good tlnu^y lo upeak the 
 truth with boldness, as ii not to be 
 frightened out of it ; or to show bold- 
 ness in the presence of superiors, if it 
 be with modesty ; or in the presence 
 of the proud, as not to be daunted 
 out of one's self-respect. 
 
180 
 
 SIfNONYMS 
 
 [booihI 
 
 " In every state of life we may, with an 
 humble boldness, address ourselves to Him 
 as to our Father which is in heaven." — 
 Bkveridge. 
 
 Assurance (Fr. sur, Lat. stcurus, 
 sure) is that kind of boldness which 
 betokens confidence in one's self, one's 
 powers, or one's cause. W hen rightly 
 exercised, and in right degree, it is 
 self-possession. 
 
 " On informing him of our difficulties, and 
 asking whether we might venture across the 
 plain, he bid us, like Csesar, with an air of 
 assurance, follow him and fear nothing." — 
 Gilpin's Tour. 
 
 When otherwise, it is Impudence, 
 or Shamelessness. These last are, 
 in fact, correspondent words in dif- 
 ferent forms (Lat. impadentia, in-, not, 
 and pudens, modest), being the same 
 as the Saxon word shamelessness. 
 But Impudence is commonly used 
 to denote a jaunty disrespect, which, 
 however far removed from a virtue, 
 is yet compatible with innocence. 
 Shamelessness, on the other hand, 
 commonly denotes an absence of 
 shame where a feeling of shame is 
 due. A high-spirited boy may be 
 occasionally impudent; a profligate 
 woman is often shameless. Audacity 
 (Lat. auddcem, bold) and Hardiuood 
 which means much the same (hardy 
 being Fr. hardi, bold, a word of Germ, 
 origin), denote, the one the excessive 
 tendency to venture, the other the un- 
 due capacity to endure. It is a proof 
 of audacity to venture to an entertain- 
 ment uninvited, and of hardihood to 
 endure with apparent unconsciousness 
 the astonished looks of the host and 
 hostess. EnRONTEuy(0.Fr.e///-0Hterie, 
 ex,forth,frontem, the forehead) is very 
 like impudence, but it is a step beyond 
 it. It is the exhibition of self under 
 circumstances peculiarly calling for 
 the contiary, as, for instance, the 
 asking a favour of a person whom 
 you have maligned or injured, or 
 behaving to a superior with the man- 
 ner of an equal. In effrontery there 
 is implied some degree of insult, 
 which, however, arises not merely 
 from the demeanour, but from the 
 circumstances of the case and the 
 relation of the parties. Audacity is 
 defiant, hardihood is dogged, effrontery 
 is cool. 
 
 "Audacity and confidence doth in civil bo- 
 siness so gi'eat effects, as a man may rea- 
 sonably doubt that besides the very daring 
 and earnestness, and persisting and impor- 
 tunity, there should be some secret binding 
 and stooping of other men's spirits to such 
 persons," — Bacon. 
 
 ♦* Nor should it be forgotten that he was 
 the first who, in this dialogue, had the 
 hardihood to displace J(.ason from the 
 eminence to which, by the unanimous voice 
 of Dryden's contemporaries, he had most 
 unjustly been elevated, and to set Shake- 
 
 jeare far above him."— Malone, Life of 
 
 " Can any one reflect for a moment on all 
 those claims of debt, which the minister ex- 
 hausts himself in contrivances to augment 
 with new usuries, without lifting up his 
 hands and eyes with astonishment at the 
 impudence both of the claim and of the ad- 
 judication ? "— BUKKK. 
 
 "And, how much that love might move 
 us, to much and more that faultiness of 
 her mind removed us ; her beauty being 
 balanced by her shamelessness." — Sidney's 
 Arcadia. 
 
 " Vice is never so shameless as when It 
 pretends to public spirit. Yet this effrontery 
 is so common that it scandalizes nobody." — 
 Bishop Hurd. 
 
 BOOTH. Tent. Marquee. 
 
 Booth (Icelandic bud, a booth, shop) 
 is now employed to represent almost 
 any kind of shed of light materials 
 for temporary occupation. The booths 
 of fairs are open in front and closed 
 at the back and sides either with can- 
 vas or with canvas and boarding com- 
 bined. The Tent (Fr. tente, Lat. 
 tenta, stretched i.e. cloth, part, of ten- 
 dere, to stretch) is formed of canvas or 
 other material, as skin or woven hair, 
 and stretched over poles fastened in 
 the ground so as to afford an entire 
 enclosure and covering, with an en- 
 trance arranged by the disposition of 
 the material. The Marquee (Fr. 
 marquise) is now used of the larger, 
 more ornamental tent of pleasure 
 grounds, not used as a place of dwell- 
 ing, but of exhibition or refreshment. 
 
 BORDER. Boundary. Bound. 
 Frontier. Confine. Precinct. 
 Limit. Purlieu. 
 
 Border (Fr. bordure) is the outer 
 edge of land which runs alon^ that 
 part of a territory which lies adjacent 
 to another. It is applied to tracts of 
 size and importance, as the '^ Border 
 
[B( rder] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 lOl 
 
 wars " of England and Scotland. 
 Rhetorically, " Borders," in the 
 plural, is used for the land itself. 
 
 " It is most advisable, vrhen we are on 
 the borders of death, to provide for that 
 state which lieth just beyond it. "—Barrow. 
 
 Boundary (O. Fr. bonne, boundary) 
 is the object on any one side which 
 indicates the Bound or extreme ex- 
 tent in circuit. We speak of the 
 bounds of smaller distiicts, as of 
 parishes or estates; but we use the 
 verb bound instead of border in 
 speaking of large tracts of country 
 and their geographical position, as we 
 say, France is bounded, not bordered, 
 on the east. Bound has a more re- 
 strictive force than boundary, which 
 is more purely topographical, while 
 bound is frequently emploj'ed to ex- 
 press the moral limits of things, as we 
 say, " to exceed the bounds of modera- 
 tion." 
 
 "As in geometry, of all lines or surfaces 
 contained within the same bounds the 
 straight lines and the plane surface are the 
 shortest, so it is also in morality, by the 
 right line of justice, from the plain ground 
 of virtue, a man soonest will arrive to any 
 well-chosen end." — Barrow. 
 *' The world was ne'er designed for thee ; 
 You're like a passenger below. 
 That stays perhaps a night or so ; 
 But still his native country lies 
 Beyond the boundaries of the skies." 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 The Frontier (Tr.frontitre) is a 
 bound or boundary line of one side 
 only, which is regarded as a front 
 opposed to another front. It must 
 be observed, however, that, while 
 a boundary may be an imaginary or 
 geographical line, a frontier is a slip 
 of actual country, as in the phrase 
 " towns on the frontier." It is 
 a term of military significance. It 
 may be remarked that, in speaking 
 of entering a country at a given 
 point, the term is often incorrectly 
 used in the plural : " we crossed the 
 frontiers," instead of the fi'ontier. 
 
 " Frontier experience."— W, Irving. 
 
 Confines (Ls,t. con finium, a confine, 
 a common boundary) is a word most 
 lommonly used of a point upon a line 
 separating two territories, as, " the 
 two kings met upon the confines of 
 the two kingrtoms." Confines are 
 confining or comprising lines. 
 
 " The miraculous birth, life, death, resur- 
 rection, and ascension of our Lord Jeaos 
 Christ were all events which came to pass 
 within the confines of Judaea." — Locke. 
 
 Precinct (priecingtre, part. pr<r- 
 cinctus, to encircle) is used even more 
 loosely than Confines; for, as Con- 
 fixes is sometimes used to denote any 
 enclosed space, so Precincts has well- 
 nigh lost the force of exact circum- 
 scription, and denotes little more than 
 vicinity, the mind not resting upon 
 any precise boundary, nor perhaps 
 knowing it. " He lived within the 
 precincts of the cathedral," that is, 
 near it, on ground belonging to it, 
 and in some way known as such, 
 
 " The common vice of these castle- 
 builders is to draw everything within its 
 precincts which they fancy may contribute 
 to Its defence or embellishment." — War- 
 burton. 
 
 The vagueness of precincts becomes 
 yetmore vague in PuRLiEus,originally 
 the outer pai'ts of forest land, which, 
 being separated from it by perambu- 
 lation {pour allte, O. Fr. pur alee : 
 VVedgewood) were made free from 
 forest laws ; hence, the outer parts and 
 undefined environs of any place of im- 
 portance, but more especially of cities 
 or towns. 
 
 " If deer come out of the forest mto the 
 purlieu, the purlieu man may hunt and kill 
 him, provided he does it fairly and without 
 forestalling." — Blackstonk. 
 
 Limit (Lat./imYtem) has a restrictive 
 force. The limits are those which 
 part off, so that you may not pass 
 them without transcursion or trans- 
 gression. 
 
 " Nature now, as fertile as of old, hath in 
 her effects determinate limits of quantity." 
 —Drayton. 
 
 Bounds, confines, and limits are 
 words which lend themselves readily 
 to moral or rhetorical uses, while 
 boundary, frontier, precinct, and pur- 
 lieu are purely territorial. Bounds 
 belong to moral limitation, confines to 
 rhetorical contiguity, limits to moral 
 or ideal restriction. Limits mark but 
 do not in themselves enforce enclosure 
 or restriction. A conventional line as 
 a parallel of longitude may be a 
 limit. A boundary expresses a line, 
 a bound an obstacle. 
 
182 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [bough] 
 
 BOUGH. Branch. 
 
 The Branch (Fr. hranche) is a 
 hmb of a tree regarded simply in its 
 ramifications. The Bough (A. S. 
 bog, an arm) is the branch invested 
 with leaves, blossoms, or fruit. The 
 branches spread and sometimes vie in 
 size with the parent tree ; they grow 
 in gradation from the lowest to the 
 topmost, and furnish resting-places 
 for birds which "sing among the 
 branches." Tlie bough is leafy, 
 luxuriant, bending with the weight 
 of the ripe fruit, broken off from the 
 parent stem, and used for festive 
 decoration or carried about in popular 
 rejoicing. The bough comprises the 
 leaves, the branch may be even con- 
 trasted with them. The fruitful bough, 
 rich witli the foliage of summer and 
 the fruit of autumn, becomes in winter 
 a leafless branch. 
 
 BOUNDLESS. Unbounded. Un- 
 limited. Infinite. 
 
 The second and third stand in 
 analogy to the first and last. The 
 Unbounded and the Unlimited are 
 tl50se things which have no bounds 
 or limits in fact ; the Boundless 
 and the Infinite (Lat. infinihis, in-, 
 not, and finis, an end) are those which 
 have none in nature, or possibility, or 
 our conception, or vision. Neverthe- 
 less, that which is boundless in nature 
 may be regarded as unbounded in 
 fact, and the infinite in nature as 
 unlimited in fact. 
 
 " Is there a temple of the Deity 
 
 Except earth, sea, and air, yon eznre 
 
 pole; 
 And chief his holiest shnne the virtuous 
 
 soul? 
 Where'er the eye can pierce, the feet can 
 
 move. 
 Tills wide, this boundless univeree is Jove." 
 Lyttelton, Cato's Speech. 
 
 " To thee, immortal maid, from this blessed 
 
 hour. 
 O'er time and fame I give unbounded 
 
 power. 
 Thou from oblivion shalt the hero save, 
 Shalt raise, revere, immortalize the brave." 
 CONGREVK. 
 
 " Some of them told us that the power of 
 the king is unlimited, and that the life and 
 property of the subject is at his disposal," — 
 Cook's Voyages. 
 
 "Infinite knowledge is the foundation <rf 
 all, 
 
 "Infinite goodness is the author and movw 
 of all, 
 
 " /n/fm<e wisdom is the contriver and di- 
 rector of all, 
 
 " And infinite power executes all." 
 
 Sharp. 
 
 BRACE. Couple. 
 
 To Brace (O, Fr. b^-ace, the distance 
 betueen extended arms; Lat. brdchia; 
 Fr. bras, an arm,) is to bind for the 
 purpose of giving additional strength. 
 To Couple (Lat. cdpulare) is to bino 
 or tie in any way for the purpose oi 
 union. 
 
 " And ever at hand a drum is ready 
 braced." Shakespeare. 
 
 " Some independent ideas, of no alliance 
 to one another, are by education, custom, 
 and the constant din of their party, so 
 cojipled in their minds that they always ap- 
 pear there together." — LoCEE. 
 
 BRACE. Couple. Pair. 
 
 A Pair (Lat. pUres, pi. equal) must 
 have some similarity of nature, which 
 is the cause of its being so naturally, 
 or the occasion of its being made so. 
 A Couple requires the same, but is 
 more promiscuous ; any two of such 
 things constituting a couple, if they 
 are brought into union ; while pair 
 often denotes two which are such 
 that the one is the complement of the 
 other : a couple of eggs, but a pair of 
 gloves. Brace (see verb) is used of 
 those things in which it is requisite to 
 their completeness that they should be 
 two in number. It is never applied 
 seriously to persons. It is a technical 
 term among sportsmen. 
 
 '• The king, who was then at Newmarket, 
 heard of it, and was pleased merrily and 
 graciously to say he could not be there 
 himself, but would send them a brace of 
 bucks." — Spectator. 
 
 " Scarce any couple come together but 
 their nuptials are declared in the newspaper 
 with encomiums on each party." — John- 
 son. 
 
 The term pair was in Old English 
 not restricted to two things, but was 
 applicable to many of equal or like 
 sort ; the term pair being of the same 
 meaning as the word peer; but ap- 
 plicable to things as well as persons 
 So a '* paire of cards " for ft pack^ 
 
DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 [break] 
 
 "There Baucis and Philemon liv'd, and 
 
 there 
 Had liv'd long married, and a happy pair." 
 Dryden, Ovid. 
 
 BRANDISH. Flourish. Wiei.d. 
 
 Brandish (connected with O. Fr. 
 brand, a sivord) retains its etymological 
 character. It is to flourish like a 
 weapon. When Locke speaks of 
 •' brandishing syllogisms, the idea of 
 argumentative weapons is still re- 
 tained. It is an action of hostility, 
 defiance, or ra^e. 
 
 Flourish {I r.Jleurirjto flourish) is 
 to make bold, sweeping, and fantasti- 
 cal movements with the hand or some- 
 thing contained in it. It is an action 
 of parade, triumph, bravado, skill. 
 Calligraphers delight in flourishes of 
 the pen, and some orators and rheto- 
 ricians in flourishes of metaphor. 
 
 Wield (A. S. wealdan, to sway) is 
 indicative of greater weight in the 
 object, and greater power in the per- 
 son. Tlie knight brandishes his sword, 
 the magician waves or flourishes his 
 wand, the giant wields his club. 
 
 BREACH. Break. Gap. Chasm. 
 
 Breach and Break are connected. 
 Break is used for any cessation of 
 continuity, Breach only when it is a 
 disruption caused by violence. In 
 deciphering imperfect manuscripts we 
 fretjuently come upon breaks. The 
 artillery may make a breach in the 
 fortifications ; or, figuratively, an un- 
 toward circumstance producing mis- 
 understanding may make abroach in an 
 old friendship. A break may be slight 
 both in appearance and consequences, 
 a breach is always considerable and 
 serious. A brea'k may be in a thin 
 line, a breach is in a solid mass. A 
 thing may be broken without perfect 
 discontinuity of parts, a breach in- 
 volves a gaping separation of them. 
 
 •♦ For he that openeth the waters but a 
 little, knoweth not how great a ireacA they 
 will make at length."— SpELMAN. 
 
 " Considering probably how ranch Homer 
 had been disfigured by the arbitrary com- 
 pilers of his works, Virgil by his will ob- 
 liged Tuvca and Varrus to add nothing, nor 
 so much as fill up the breaks he had left in 
 his poem." — Walsh. 
 
 Gap (connected with gape) is the 
 effect of discontinuity regarded simply 
 in itself, and without reference to 
 
 /83 
 
 its nature or its cause, which may hare 
 been violence or not. I see a gap in 
 a hedge. The gardener neglected to 
 plant young slips in that part. I see 
 another. It has been caused by the 
 inroads of cattle. 
 
 " Then follows an immense gap, in which 
 undoubtedly some changes were made by 
 time ; and we hear little more of them 
 (the Germans) until we find them Chri»- 
 tians, and makers of written laws." — 
 BURKB. 
 
 A Chasm (Gr. x^a-fjia.) is a yawn- 
 ing void not easily filled, and leaving 
 a sense of this. A chasm in our en- 
 joyments is a large deduction which 
 leaves a sense of hopeless privation. 
 
 " The whole chasm in nature from a plant 
 to a man is filled up with diverse kinds of 
 creatures." — Addison. 
 
 BREAK. Rend. Tear. Burst. 
 Crack. Split. Lacerate. 
 
 These words all express a greater 
 or less disruption of continuity ; the 
 diflference depends upon the force 
 employed, and the substance it is em- 
 ployed upon. 
 
 To BitEAK (A. S. brecan) implies 
 the entire separation of parts formerly 
 continuous ; the degree of force may 
 be great or very slight, as in the 
 cases of a thick stick or a piece of 
 
 " He break my darts or hurt my power 1 " 
 Pbior. 
 
 The particle& need to be hard and 
 brittle. When they are soft, tough, 
 and lentous, they can only be Rent 
 (A. S. hrendan, to rend), as the beast 
 of prey rends the flesh of his victim. 
 From the nature of the case, that 
 force which in breaking is momentary , 
 in rending is continuous. 
 
 " Lest they turn again and rend yon." — 
 Bible. 
 
 When the particles are lentous and 
 pliant without being tough, no such 
 force is needed, and the substance ia 
 Torn (A.S. t^ran, to tear, rend), a» s 
 piece of paper is torn. Tear has a 
 peculiar sense of its own, in which i* 
 signifies merely violently to sepfcnte, 
 
 " They are always careful to join to 
 small pieces lengthwise, which makes it im- 
 
 Eossible to tear the cloth in any directiol 
 ut one."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
 To Burst (A. S. berstan) is t». 
 break suddenly, violently, and with 
 
184 
 
 SYKONYMS [breed] 
 
 more or- less of explosion, as tlie result 
 of a Icrce operating outwards ; as when 
 the steam bursts the cauldion, or the 
 giant bursts his bonds. Bursting is 
 the final point of excessive tension, 
 the force proceeding from an internal 
 point. 
 
 " Atoms and systems into ruin hurl'd. 
 And now a bubble bursts and now a world." 
 Pope. 
 
 To Crack (onomat. word, of which 
 there are many forms), and to Split 
 (cf. Du. iplitteii) denote longitudinal 
 or transverse forms of partial bieakage, 
 where a discontinuity is produced, not 
 extending through the whole sub- 
 stance, or not so complete as to pro- 
 duce separation of parts. Anytliing 
 more than this is breaking open ; the 
 difference between cracking and split- 
 ting being that the operation of split- 
 ting follows some natural or pre-exis- 
 tent cleavage of the material, and 
 cracking does not. To crack a nut is 
 not to break it sufficiently to take out 
 the kernel ; if the nut is broken into 
 two or more pieces in the act, this is 
 over and above the cracking. 
 " Well, let all pass and trust Him who nor 
 
 cracks 
 The bruised reed nor quencheth smoking 
 
 flax." Donne. 
 
 " With sounding axes to the grove theygo. 
 Fell, split, and lay the fuel in a row." 
 
 Drtden. 
 
 Lacerate (Lat. laccrare) is to tear 
 irregularlj'-, so as to leave a jogged 
 outline. It is now seldom used but 
 of fleshy substances, though of old it 
 had a wider application, and even such 
 substances as air and water were said 
 to be lacerated. 
 
 " If there be no fear oi laceration, pull it 
 out the same way it went in." — WiSEMAN, 
 burgery. 
 
 BREED. Engender. Procreate. 
 Propagate. 
 
 Breed (A. S. brcdan, to nourish or 
 cherish) is employed in a general way 
 of anything which tends to bring 
 animals into life, and so is employed 
 not only directly of procreation by 
 parents, but of any influence which 
 tends to develop animal life, and 
 even of the keeping of animals for 
 ihe purpose of their progeny. To 
 Engender (Fr. engendrer, Lat. i7igc- 
 nUrdre) is to beg«t; to Procreate 
 
 (ha.t.procredre') is to produce offspring 
 after the manner of either parent. The 
 term is not a familiar one. To Pro 
 PAG ate (Lat. pr'6pagare, pr'dpago, c 
 layer) is used of plants as well as of 
 animals, and means to treat for the 
 purpose of extending or multiplying 
 the kind. Breed and Engender are 
 often applied metaphorically, the 
 latter almost exclusively so, in the 
 sense of producing ; as, to breed ill- 
 feeling, to engender strife, and the 
 like ; where the result is seldom or 
 never favourable or desirable. Pro- 
 pagate is, in like manner, employed 
 in the sense of giving currency, as to 
 propagate doctrines, a belief, a ru- 
 mour, and the like. In their secon- 
 dary applications we use the term 
 Br eed to express the gradual develop- 
 ment of effects by causes, and Engen- 
 der to express the simple relation oi 
 the one to the other, witliout reference 
 to immediate or deferred production. 
 In this sense the terms are purely 
 moral, not physical or mechanical. 
 
 " In brief, must it not follow necessai'ily, 
 that the earth, which is the mother and 
 breeder of men, of living creatures and of 
 all plants, shall perish and be wholly ex- 
 tinct ? " — Holland, Plutarch. 
 " True it is that we have seen better days. 
 And have with holy bell been knoll'd to 
 
 church. 
 And sat at good men's feasts, and wip'd our 
 
 eyes 
 Of drops that sacred pity had engendered." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 "Poor and low-pitched desires, if they do 
 but mix with those other heavenly inten- 
 tions that draw a man to this study, it is 
 justly expected that they should bring forth 
 a base-born issue of divinity ; like that of 
 those imperfect and putrid creatures that 
 receive a crawling life from two most unnke 
 procreants, the sun and mud." — Milton. 
 
 "He (Pythagoras) was the chief propaga- 
 tor of that doctrine amongst the Greeks 
 concerning three hypostases in the Deity," 
 — Cud WORTH. 
 
 BRIGHT. Clear. Lucid. Lu- 
 minous. Vivid. Splendid. Bril- 
 LiANT. Lustrous. 
 
 Of these. Bright (A. S. heorht) 
 is used in the greatest variety of mean- 
 ings, signifying shedding light, trans- 
 mitting light, reflecting light; and so, 
 metaphorically, expresses many ideas 
 analogous to the several properties or 
 effects of light, as vivid, lucid, clever, 
 
happy, and so on. f3ut, as is usual, the 
 most widely generic synonym is the 
 least forcible. So brightness may exist 
 in a low degree. Almost any object 
 which is not dull is more or less bright. 
 " However, this was only a transient 
 eload ; they were hid but a moment, and 
 their constellation blazed out with greater 
 brightness and a far more vigorous influence, 
 some time after it was blown over," — 
 ' BURKK. 
 
 |f Clear (Lat. cldrus) denotes unob- 
 
 structed bnghiness, as when the stars 
 shine clearly, that is, without clouds 
 or haze. A clear style of speaking is 
 one in which the meaning is not ob- 
 scured by anything which may have 
 r that tendency. Clear water is that 
 
 t; through which the rays of light pass 
 t fi-eely and unobstructedly. This ap- 
 
 pears in the use of the term in tne 
 sense of without obstruction, as to 
 stand clear of anything, that is, to keep 
 away fi-om it. 
 
 " Then shalt thou see clearly to take out 
 the mote that is in thy brother's eye." — 
 Bible. 
 
 Lucid {\.Kt.iucMHSylucem, light) is 
 not used in a physical sense, except in 
 poetry or poetical expressions ; but of 
 speech and exposition, which are said 
 to be lucid, that is, clear, distinct, in- 
 telligible ; and in the phrase, lucid 
 interval, that is, serene and undis- 
 turbed by insanity. 
 
 "Full to the margin flowed the lucid 
 wave." — Fawkes' Theocritus. 
 
 Luminous (Lat. luminosus) is em- 
 ployed of those bodies which emit 
 li^ht, as distinguished from those 
 which merely transmit or reflect it. 
 As used of style, luminous is an ad- 
 vance upon lucid. A lucid speech is 
 one of clearness in diction ; a lumi- 
 nous speech is one which is, as it 
 were, lighted up by graces and illus- 
 trations calculated to give it especial 
 clearness and effect besides. 
 
 " Notwthstanding the numerous objec- 
 tions which have been made to the validity 
 of his reasonings, none of his critics has re- 
 fused him the praise of the most luminous 
 perspicuity."— Stewart. 
 
 Vivid (Lat. vwidus, living, anima- 
 ted) is shining with a special, and, as 
 it were, living brightness, and indi- 
 cates the profound harmony which 
 3ubsist8 between life and light, no less 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 185 
 
 than between darkness and death. 
 Metaphorically, a vivid imagination is 
 one which invests readily with reality 
 and life. As illustrating the force of 
 vivid, we may observe that unpolished 
 metals, as not reflecting light, are said 
 to be " dead." Vivid is a term of 
 relation or degree. It denotes ener- 
 getic conspicuousness in objects which, 
 under other circumstances, are less 
 distinctly visible or bright. A vivid 
 light is contrasted with an obscure 
 glimmer. 
 
 " A variety of ideas aflford us no notion of 
 succession, unless we perceive one come be- 
 fore the other ; nor can it be imagined that 
 their degrees of vividness or faintness will 
 do the job."— Search, Light of Nature. 
 
 Splendid (Lat. splendXdus) denotes 
 the combination of grandeur with 
 brightness, as a splendid sun or sun- 
 set, a splendid ceremony, a splendid 
 orator. 
 
 " We see through all this splendid obscu- 
 rity that something grand is approaching. 
 The several shades of darkness by degrees 
 give way. Day comes on more and more, 
 till at length the sun rises in all its glory, 
 and opening into its fullest splendour, sur- 
 rounds the earth from one end of it to the 
 other."— Gilpin. 
 
 Brilliant (Fr. briller, to shine) is 
 shining with a sparkling brightness. 
 In brilliancy there is not only great 
 inherent or reflected light, but the 
 light shines with a changeful and 
 varied play. So, metaphorically, bril- 
 liant wit. 
 
 " There is an appearance of brilliancy in 
 the pleasures of high life which natni-ally 
 dazzles the young." — Craig. 
 
 LusTR0us(Lat. lustrdre, tolightup)ia 
 a forcible word conveying the notion 
 of mingled light and brightness. The 
 term is not the less forcible for being 
 somewhat antiquated, and might well 
 be revived. 
 
 " For the more lustrous the imagination 
 is, it filleth and fixeth the better."— Bacon. 
 
 BRIM. Border. Edge. Margin. 
 Brink. Verge. Rim. 
 
 Brim ( A . S. krim) is the uppermost 
 edge of any vessel or hollow space, 
 containing, or fitted to contain, fluid, 
 as the brim of a cup, or a river, and 
 so differs from Brink (Dan. brink, 
 edge), which may, or may nov imply a 
 space filled with fluid, as we speak of 
 the brink of the goblet and the brink of 
 
18G 
 
 the grave or a precipice. A brink is, 
 for this reason, not necessarily of a 
 circular form, or approaching to it, 
 which is ordinarily the case with 
 brim ; for where we speak of the brim 
 of a river, it is rather of its fcrin/c, re- 
 garded analogously to the brim of a 
 vessel, and so relatively to its capacity 
 of holding water. It would seem that 
 we use the word Brink of hollow ves- 
 sels in relation to their structure, brim 
 to their use. The brink of the tankard 
 is decorated with flowers. The goblet 
 is filled to the brim. 
 
 "How often has public calamity been 
 arrested on the very brink of ruin by the 
 energy of a single man ! " — BuRKE. 
 So characteristic is the use of BniM, as 
 associated with the idea of fulness, that 
 Dryden employs the verb to brim, 
 meaning to fill : — 
 "This said, a double wreath Evander 
 
 twin'd. 
 And poplai-s black and white his temples 
 
 bind. 
 Then brims his ample bowl." 
 
 Border (Fr. bordure), where the 
 word is used to mean more than 
 simply edge, is a finished and ex- 
 tended edge, so constituting a strip or 
 stripe. It is, however, extended in- 
 wards, and may be occupied, so differ- 
 ing from Margin (Lat. margtnem) 
 which is an edge extended outwards 
 and unoccupied. The work com- 
 monly finishes with the border and 
 before the margin. The Edge (A. S. 
 ecg) is the sharp tennination of any 
 substance superficially, as the edge of 
 a sword. The Rim (A. S. rima, edge) is 
 an unextended biim, as the brim is 
 an extended rim. So we speak of the 
 rim of a cup, or the brim, when we 
 regard it as extended by the thickness 
 of the material of which it is com- 
 posed ; of the brim of a hat, as being 
 more than an edge or rim ; and of the 
 brim, not rim, of a river, as being ex- 
 tended into the fields adjacent. But 
 RiJM is a term more variously appli- 
 cable than Brim. It belongs not only 
 to the edge or lip of hollow vessels, 
 but to avy edging which is of a sub- 
 stantial character. The uppermost 
 moulding in a piece of architecture 
 might be so coloured or gilt as to con- 
 stitute an ornamental rim. The brim 
 of a tankard, the rim of a dish 
 
 SYNONYMS [bring] 
 
 Verge (Lat. ter^*r«) is the extreme 
 border of anything, regarded in the 
 light of a termination to an extended 
 surface, and a line of arrival to one 
 who has traversed it. The idea of 
 Border in English varies, as it repre- 
 sents the sense of the French bord or 
 bordure ; in the former it is an edge 
 or confine, in the latter it is an edging^ 
 an expanded or artificial edge, as the 
 borders of an ornamental garden, or a 
 piece of tapestry. 
 
 " They make broad their phylacteries, 
 and enlarge the borders of their gar- 
 ments." — Bible. 
 
 " I should have thought it superflnons, 
 had it been easier to me than it wa«, t« 
 have interrupted my text, or crowded my 
 mnrgin with reference to every authoi 
 whose sentiments I have made use of." — 
 Paley. 
 
 " Who escaped the edge of the sword."— 
 Bible. ^ 
 
 " Struck through the belly's nm, the 
 
 warrior lies 
 Supine, and shades eternal veil his eyes." 
 POPK. 
 
 " The verge of the king in this respect 
 extends for twelve miles round the king's 
 palace of residence." — Blackstone. 
 Verge and Margin are, in some sense, 
 opposed. The verge is the boundary 
 which limits movements ; the margin 
 is the space whither movement, 
 action, or work does not extend. 
 This appears especially in the secon- 
 dary uses of the words. We speak 
 of the verge of possibility, and oi 
 leaving a margin of discretion. 
 
 BRING. Fetch. Carry. Bear. 
 Convey. Transport. 
 
 Bring is A. S. bringan, Fetch, the 
 A. S.fetian, and Carry is the O. Fr. 
 cairier, and connected wijth a large 
 tribe of words, as car, chariot, cargo, 
 charge, etc. 
 
 The idea common to these three 
 words is transportation from one 
 place to another. They differ in 
 some points of mode and direction of 
 such transportation. First, as to the 
 mode ; Bring is used in more than a 
 physical sense. I bring a basket, and 
 I bring good or bad news. Again, 
 Fetch does not necessitate literal 
 transportation. I fetch a loaf from the 
 baker's, but I also fetch a boy who 
 will run an errand for my friend. 
 Nor, again, would Carry, which, lik« 
 
[broad] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 187 
 
 bring, is applicable to what is not 
 material, as to carry tidings, he em- 
 ployed physically of any small and 
 very light object. I carry a heavy 
 bag, and even an umbrella, but I 
 should not carry a pin to some one 
 who wanted it upstairs, but simply 
 take it. Secondly, as to direction. 
 Bring denotes motion towards,CARRY 
 motion from, and Fetch motion, first 
 from and then towards, while Con- 
 vey (O. Fr. conveier) and Transport 
 (Lat. transportare), refer to any two 
 points. To Bear (A. S. btran) is 
 simply to have tlie weight of some- 
 thing upon oneself, whether volunta- 
 rily or involuntarily placed. It does 
 not necessarily imply motion, which 
 is always implied in carry. So, 
 A.tlas bore, hut did not carry, the 
 world on his shoulders. Convey and 
 Transport both imply, more or less 
 distinctly, some route or destination 
 for the carriage, and differ, in that 
 Convey applies to lighter objects,even 
 to things not substantial, as to convey 
 a message ; while Transport denotes 
 matters of some substantial weight, as 
 artillery, merchandise, and the like. 
 The notion of an intermediate space 
 between two points is expressed in 
 the word Transport, the notion of a 
 point of destination in Convey. 
 
 "What appeared to me wonderful was 
 that none of the ants came home without 
 bringing something." — Addison. 
 
 " Those early wise men -who/etched their 
 philosophy from Egj-pt." — Warburtox. 
 
 " No one neglective was 
 Of Hector's safety ; all their shields they 
 
 couched about him close, 
 Rais'd him from earth, and giving him in 
 
 their kind arms repose 
 From ofiF the labour, carried him to his 
 
 rich chariot, 
 And bore him mourning towards Troy." 
 Chapman's Homer. 
 
 " His lines are a description of the sun 
 in eclipse, which I know nothing more like 
 than a brave man in soitow; who bears it 
 as he should do. without imploring the pity 
 of his friends, or being dejected with the 
 contempt of his enemies." — Tatlkr. 
 
 " Had it been so, we should naturally 
 have betaken ourselves to prayer, and 
 breathed out our desires in that form 
 wherein they are most properly conveyed." 
 —Bishop Atterbury. 
 
 "Their canoe, which was a small double 
 «i«, jnst large enough to transport the 
 
 whole family from piace to place, lay in a 
 small creek near the huts." — Cook's Foy- 
 ages. 
 
 BRinXE. Fragile. Frail. 
 
 Brittle (A, S. breotan, to break) ia 
 easily broken from the nntnre of the 
 texture, as glass. Fragile, though 
 etymologically correspondent (Lat. 
 frdgilis, easily broken, {Torafrangcre, to 
 break) is more widely employed of 
 things which are susceptible of injury 
 or destruction, though this be brought 
 about in other ways than literal break- 
 age. Anything which is little calcu- 
 lated to bear the lapse of time, or tlie 
 rough touch, is fragile. So the body 
 of man may well be called fragile, 
 though not brittle. Frail, which 
 is only another form of fragile^ is 
 nevertheless differently applied. It 
 is employed of the susceptibility to 
 deterioration of beauty or moral pu- 
 rity. The flower, fresh and beautiful, is 
 yet frail ; and man's virtue at the best 
 is beset with frailties. Frail is espe- 
 cially employed of that which lacks 
 the power of resistance and is weak as 
 a support. The fragile thing easily 
 breaks,the frail thing easily gives way. 
 
 " For no man tabes or keeps a vow 
 
 But just as he sees others do. 
 
 Nor are they obliged to be so brittle 
 
 As not to yield and bow a little." 
 
 HUDIBRAS. 
 
 " Of bodies some are fragile, and some 
 are tough and not fragile, and in the break- 
 ing some fragile bodies break out where the 
 force is, some shatter and fly in many 
 pieces. Oi fragility the cause is an impo- 
 tency to be extended, and therefore stone 
 is more fragile than metal." — Bacon. 
 
 " How much more is it necessary that 
 God, who has the tenderest concern for all 
 His creatures, and who is infinitely far 
 from being subject to such passions and 
 variableness us frail men are, should desire 
 to be imitated by His creatures in those 
 perfections which are the foundation of EDa 
 own unchangeable happiness ! " — Clabkb. 
 
 BROAD. Wide. Large. Thick. 
 
 Broad (A.S.brdd), though used 
 often of extension laterally, in which 
 case it is identical with Wide, is also 
 used of that which is extensive every 
 way, as the " broad daylight," " broad 
 acres," or, metaphorically, a broad 
 and liberal view, a broad conversation, 
 meaning such as assumes too much 
 license. 
 " Whenever she (the mole) comes apioto 
 
188 
 
 troad day, she might be iii danger of being 
 taken, unless she were thus affected by a 
 light striking upon her eye, and immedi- 
 ately warning lier to bury herself in Her 
 proper element."— 5pectotor. 
 
 Wide (A. S. wid) denotes either 
 lateral space, or extension generally ; 
 a wide road is an illustration of the 
 latter, a wide doorway of the former. 
 But a wide doorway is not only one 
 in which the doorposts or sides stand 
 far apart, but one of which the void 
 is considerable. That which is exten- 
 ded in surface or substance is best ex- 
 pressed by BuOADjthat which exhibits 
 extensive vacuity by Wide. A cave 
 may have a narrow or wide (not 
 broad) mouth or entrance. Meta- 
 phorically, it means beside the right 
 line or aim, as " wide of the mark." 
 " We passed Selinus and the palmy land. 
 And widely shun the Libyan strand. 
 Unsafe for secret rocks and moving sand." 
 Dryden's Virgil. 
 
 Large (Fr. large) is broad with a 
 stricter reference to limits, capacity, 
 and proportion, and is therefore less 
 vague a word than broad. Broad and 
 Wide describe merely superficial ex- 
 tent or capacity, Large includes also 
 that of solidity and capacity; as. a 
 large man, a large room. That which 
 is of considerable bulk or capacity, 
 either absolutely or relatively, may be 
 called large. 
 
 " Under the shelter of a cavern'd rock, 
 The largest and the best, the pirate band 
 Seized and prepared a banquet on the 
 strand." WiLKlE. 
 
 Thickness (A. S. thic) expresses 
 solidity irrespective of the ideas of 
 length and breadth. A short man or 
 a tall, a small cheese, or a large, a nar- 
 row plank, or a broad, may be all of 
 them thick. The atmosphere in foggy 
 weather is thick, that is, dense, with- 
 out any regard to measurement. 
 Nevertheless, thickness often moans 
 that character in a solid body which 
 involves a line comparatively long to 
 unite opposite planes or surfaces. 
 
 " Nor can a thought be conceived to be 
 of sucha length, breadth, and thic/cness,a,s to 
 be hewed and sliced out into many pieces, all 
 which laid together, as so many small chips 
 thereof, would make up again the entire- 
 tess of that whole thought." — CuDWORTH. 
 
 BROOK. Stream. 
 
 The term Bkook ( A.S. broe), as ap- 
 
 SYNONTMS [brook] 
 
 plied to an inconsiderable body ol 
 running water, expresses its shallow, 
 irregular, and bubbling character. 
 Stream (A.S. stredm) the continuity 
 and steadiness of its flow, which is 
 compatible, as Brook is not, with con- 
 siderable depth. Accordingly dif- 
 ferent associations connect themselves 
 with the two terms. The brook is 
 lively, fresh, babbling, running 
 through deep foliage, or over shin- 
 ing pebbles. It murmurs cool through 
 the summer day, and children toy 
 with its water, or play upon its 
 banks. The stream is steady, plenti- 
 ful, supplying water for irrigation and 
 mechanical application. It is of local 
 importance, and, unlike the brook, can 
 boast a name. It is known to the 
 angler, and forms a natural boun- 
 dary. 
 
 BRUISE. Squeeze. Pound. 
 
 Crush. 
 
 To Bruise (0. Fr. bruiser^ to bieak) 
 is to injure by collision, so as to de- 
 sti-oy the superficial continuity or in- 
 tegrity of paits. 
 
 ♦• This place was therefore called tbt 
 Level's' Leap; and whether or no thfc 
 fright they had been in, or the resolution 
 that could push them to so dreadful a 
 remedy, or the bruises which they often re- 
 ceived in their fall, banished all the tender 
 sentiments of love, and gave their spirits 
 another turn, those who had taken this 
 leap were observed never to relapse into 
 that passion," — Spectator. 
 
 To Pound (A. S. punian) is to 
 bruise repeatedly till separation of the 
 parts takes place ; which, when carried 
 to the extreme, is pulverization or 
 trituration. 
 
 " Thou art a sweet drug, and the mora 
 thou art pounded the more predous."— 
 MlDDI^TON. 
 
 To Squeeze (A.S. cwysait, tosqueezef 
 crush) is to compress a body so that 
 it is acted upon by two or more forces 
 from without. 
 
 "Which similitude of them notwithstand 
 ing, they would not have to be squeezed ot 
 pressed hard," — CuDWORTH. 
 
 To Crush (0, Fr. cruisiry to crash 
 into pieces) is to squeeze in a violent 
 and abrupt manner, so that the in- 
 tegrity of the parts is destroyed. In- 
 jurious violence is not necessarily im- 
 Elied in squeeze ; as in squeezing th« 
 and of a frieud. 
 
[build] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 180 
 
 "Scaliger (Exercit. 186) relates that in 
 9ascony, his country, there axe spiders of 
 hat virnleucy that if a man treads upon 
 .hem to crush them, the poison will pass 
 .hrough the very soles of his shoes." — 
 Boyle. 
 
 BUD. Sprout. Shoot. Ger- 
 minate. 
 
 To Bud (one of a large family c£ 
 words, cf. butt, button, Fr. bouter, to 
 vuth ; see Bracket, s.v. bouter) im- 
 plies the previous existence of a de- 
 veloped plant or tree. It is to put 
 forth the first young protuberance, 
 which is composed of an aggregate 
 of leaves or petals, with the rudiments 
 of flowers. 
 
 " Let him (the teacher) with a discreet 
 and gentle hand nip or prune the iiTeguiar 
 shoots, let him guard and encourage the 
 ender buddings of the understanding till 
 ley be raised to a blossom, and let him 
 iindly cherish the younger fruits." — 
 Watts. 
 
 To Sprout (A. S. sprout, part of 
 sprytan) is to come forth in growth 
 generally, and does not presuppose a 
 developed plant, inasmuch as the term 
 is applicable to the first bursting and 
 growth of the seed. As Bud repre- 
 sents the ordinary pushing forth of 
 the nascent leaves or flowers, so 
 Sprout is commonly used of their un- 
 expected gi-owth, as in parts where 
 they were not looked for, or after 
 certain apparently unfavourable cir- 
 cumstances, as when the plant having 
 become sickly or apparently dead, 
 sprouts forth afresh, or after the ope- 
 ration of piiining. 
 
 " Thns the heartiest gi-atitnde, as I have 
 shown in the proper place concerning the 
 purest love, though bearing the fragrantest 
 flowers, sprouts originally from the earthy 
 principle of self-interest."— Searcu, Light 
 of Nature. 
 
 To Shoot (A. S. sQeotan, to throw 
 forth) is to make marked and rapid 
 progress in growth, and is applicable 
 to the whole plant, or to any part of 
 it which is above ground. 
 
 " In a third sort, the seed of the word 
 takes deeper hold, and makes very strong 
 and promising shoots; but thorns and bad 
 weeds, the earlier possessors of the field, 
 rise up and choke it." — Skcker. 
 
 To Germinate (Lat. germindre) is 
 applied to the commencement of the 
 growth, the first sprouting of the 
 young plant from the seed. The noun 
 
 germ is used with greater latitude for 
 that from which anything flows, the 
 rudimental st te of anything which 
 may be conceived to have an organic 
 or complex existence, as the germ oi 
 prosperity or civil liberty, the genn 
 of a thought which is expanded into 
 a literary production. 
 
 " And for the security of such species as 
 are produced only by seed, it hath endu.ed 
 all seed with a lasting vitality, that so if by 
 reason of excessive cold or drought, or any 
 other accident, it happen not to germinate 
 the first year, it will continue its fecundity, 
 I do not say two or three, nor six or seven, 
 but even twenty or thirty years." — Ray. 
 
 BUFFOON. Wit. 
 
 The Wit (A. S. witan, to know), as 
 the name is at present employed, de- 
 notes not a pereon of talent and leai-n- 
 ing, as the *' Wits of Queen Anne's 
 time," but one who, in social conver- 
 sation, shows a combination of inge- 
 nuity and humour. In the Buffoon 
 (Fr. bouffon, It. buffare, to puff the 
 cheeks m maJcvig grimaces, I^itt re )there 
 is little ingenuity, and may be no 
 humour. He amuses by means which 
 are external, antics, grimaces (as puflf- 
 ing out of his cheeks, according to his 
 etymology ),postures,and mimicry. He 
 is an artificial fool ; and while the wit 
 is essentially a master of common 
 sense, the buftbon produces his effects 
 by violating it. Men laugh tvith the 
 wit and at the buflToon. 
 
 " The first are those buffoons that have a 
 talent of mimicking the speech and behavi 
 our of other persons, and turning all their 
 patrons, friends, and acquaintance into ridi- 
 cule." — TATI.ER. 
 
 The wit, in the full sense of the term, 
 is the possessor of wit; for remarks on 
 which, see Burlesque. 
 
 BUILD. Construct. Erect. 
 Fabricate. 
 
 Of these to Build (cf. A. S. hold, a 
 dwelling) is the most comprehensive. 
 It implies both Construction ^Lat. 
 construe tionem), and Erection (Lat. 
 trectionem, crigere, to raise vertically). 
 That which is built is necessarily both 
 constructed and erected, but neither 
 that which is constructed nor that 
 which is erected is of necessity built. 
 To build is to put together after the 
 manner of a house ; hence it impliei 
 careful collocation of parts, a raising 
 
[90 
 
 of the work upwards, and some degree 
 at least of size. The violin is construc- 
 ted, the organ is built. Construction 
 may be no more than a careful putting 
 together with skill and care, with a 
 view to a permanent shape, and may 
 He a horizontal work. To Erect is 
 no more than to set up on end, as the 
 most elaborate cathedral and the 
 simplest flagstaff. To FABPacAXE (Lat. 
 fdhncare) more nearly resembles 
 construct, but differs from it as fol- 
 lows. Construct implies an organiza- 
 tion or intercollocationof parts, while 
 Fabricate allows of their being un- 
 collocated ; as, to fabricate woollen 
 stuffs. It also admits more largely 
 the idea of invention or design. A 
 man constructs a bridge if he only 
 
 ?uts it together as a stonemason, 
 lence, the inventive element in the 
 word having gained prominence, to 
 fabricate is very often used for to forge, 
 that is, to put together fictitiously, 
 yet with a pretence of authenticity. 
 The term Fabricate involves the idea 
 of skill, art, manufacture, and labour ; 
 Construct that of order, assemblage, 
 collocation, and disposition. Hence it 
 is employed analogously of language 
 and thought ; as, to construct a phrase, 
 4n argument, or a system. 
 
 " Hence it is that the building of our 
 Zion rises no faster because our tongues are 
 livided. Happy were the Church of God if 
 we all spake but one language. Whiles we 
 iiifer we can build nothing but Babel. Dif- 
 ference of tongues caused their Bubel to 
 cease, it builds ours." — Bishop Hall. 
 
 '* The necessity of doing something, and 
 the fear of doing something, and the fear of 
 undertaking much, sinks the histoi-ian to 
 a genealogist, the philosopher to a journalist 
 of the weather, and the mathematician to 
 a consti-uctor of dials." — Rambler. 
 
 " Now there is no building of pillars, no 
 erecting of arches, no blazing of arms that 
 doth more set forth a man's name than doth 
 the increase of children."— Wilson's ^ri of 
 Rhetoric. 
 
 " The very idea of the fabrication of a 
 new government is enough to fill us with 
 disgust and horror." — Bukke. 
 
 BUILDER. Architect. Mason. 
 
 A Builder {see Build), as these 
 terms are now employed, is a person 
 who in some way causes the building of 
 houses, whether by manual labour, 
 or the investment or expenditure of 
 capital. It is therefore possible that 
 
 SYNONYMS [builder] 
 
 he may not be such by nrofessiju. 
 Commonly the builder holds an inter- 
 mediate rank between the Architect 
 (Gr. ap-)(i-TSiiTa)v, master-builder) y who 
 has to do only with the designs, and 
 the Mason (Fr. magon), who has to 
 do (inly witli the labour. 
 
 *' The French builders, clearing away aa 
 mere rubbish whatever they found, and, like 
 their ornamental gardeners, forming every- 
 thing into an exact level, propose to rest the 
 whole local and general legislature on three 
 bases of three different kinds."— Burke. 
 
 " We are by an architect to understand a 
 person skilful in the art of building."— 
 Evelyn. 
 
 It is possible that the builder and ar- 
 chitect may deal with many kinds of 
 building materials, but the mason 
 works only in stone. 
 
 " About him left he no mason 
 That stone could lay." Chaucer. 
 
 BULK. Size. Magnitude. 
 Greatness. 
 
 Bulk (Iceland, bulk, a heap, one oi 
 a very large family of words, having a 
 root idea of swelling), denotes mate- 
 rial magnitude, or the substance of a 
 mass, irrespective of proportion, sym- 
 metry, or anything else. 
 
 "That which is devoid ofbxdk and magni- 
 tude is likewise devoid of local motion." — 
 C UD WOKTH. 
 
 Size is abbreviated from assize 
 (Fr. assise, a setting down, an arrange- 
 ment of a plan). In addition to ita 
 abstract sense of magnitude, as the 
 Size of a tree, it has a relative and 
 conventional force, by which it denotes 
 classification of magnitudes, as an 
 anchor of the first, second, or third 
 size. I want a pair of gloves a size 
 larger. 
 
 •♦ He found here some cockles of so enor- 
 mous a size that one of them was more 
 than two men could eat ; and a great variety 
 of other shell-fish." — Cook's Voyages. 
 
 Magnitude is the Latin equivalent 
 of the English Greatness. Magni- 
 tude, however, differs fn^m size in pre- 
 supposing some amount of greatness. 
 So we might speak of the size hut not 
 of the magnitude of a minute insect. 
 Magnitude and Greatness are appli- 
 cable to superficial extent, as Bulk ia 
 not, and to number, as Size is not. 
 So we might say, " Ten is a greater 
 number, or a number of greater maff- 
 
[burdensome] discriminated. 
 
 191 
 
 nitude than two," " a star of the first j 
 or second magnitude." Magnitude 
 is to number what size is to quantity, 
 and is capable of relative or conven- 
 tional application ; as a number of 
 small or less magnitude, but we could 
 not say of small greatness. 
 
 " We commonly find in the ambitious man 
 a superiority of parts in some measure pro- 
 portioned to the magnitude of his designs." 
 —Bishop Hoesley. 
 
 For greatness is a positive term, de- 
 noting the presence of size, number, 
 power, nobility, and the like in a con- 
 sider able degree. 
 
 " Our greatness will appear 
 Then most conspicuous, when great things 
 
 of small. 
 Useful of hurtful, prosperous of adverse. 
 We can create." MiLTON. 
 
 BULKY. Massive. 
 
 The Bulky {see Bulk) exhibits 
 size without proportion. The INIas- 
 8IVE (Fr. ma&sify-ve) exhibits size com- 
 bined with compactness of material, 
 not excluding proportion. A big port- 
 manteau is simply bulky ; the columns 
 of a Noi-maii cathedral are nuissive. 
 Some inherent value of the material, 
 either natural or artistic, is implied 
 in MASsivE,none in Bulky. The latter 
 is depreciative. The former a term of 
 praise. 
 
 "Money is the best measure of the 
 altered value of things in a few years, be- 
 cause its vent is the same, and its quantity 
 alters slowly. But wheat or any other gi-aiu 
 cannot serve instead of money, because of 
 its bulkiness and too quick change of its 
 quality." — LoCKE. 
 
 " The common military sword is a heavy 
 massive weapon." — Bishop Hokslky. 
 
 BURDEN. Load. Weight. 
 
 BuROEN (A. S. hyrdeii) is something 
 to be borne, and always in a certain 
 manner, and for a certain purpose. 
 It is to be transported to some desti- 
 nation, and is imposed upon living 
 creatures. The Load (A. S. /t/arf) is 
 a certain quantity of material imposed 
 uj'on man, beast, or carriage. We 
 sj)eak of the load, not the burden, of 
 a waggon, the load or burden of a 
 beast, but more commonly the burden 
 of a man; yet the same thing in the 
 oase of a man may be called a load or 
 a burden ; the former when regarded 
 as something which he ia charged with 
 
 the responsibility of transporting, the 
 latter 3S something laid heavily upon 
 his shoulders. Weight (A. S. uegan, 
 to bear, cany), refers simply to the 
 pressure of gravitation. It is used in 
 the concrete, as we speak of a certain 
 weight, and in the abstract, the weight 
 of a thing, or a thing of great weight. 
 In this way it is used relatively to a 
 standard or deo;ree of weight ; and we 
 might speak of the weight of a burden 
 or a load as being great or even slight. 
 
 " He had built at his own expense, to 
 prosecute them, a strong handsome ship 
 which was named the Bark Ralegh, of two 
 hundred tons burden." — Oldy's Life of 
 Ealegk. 
 
 " Our life's a Zofzif ."— Drydex. 
 
 " Our light affliction, which is but for a 
 moment, worketh for us afar more excee<ling 
 and eternal weight of glory." — KnglishBible. 
 
 BURDENSOME. Heavy. 
 Weighty. Ponderous. 
 
 BunDENSo.ME {see Burden) denotes 
 that which is difficult, and also that 
 which is irksome to carry. A thing 
 of slight specific gravity may be bur- 
 densome if ue wish to be rid of it. 
 The term burdensome is as often, if not 
 oftener, em])loyed in a secondary or 
 metaphorical, as in the primary and 
 literal sense. 
 
 " As exercise becomes tedious and pain- 
 ful when we make use of it only as the 
 means of health ; so reading is apt to grow 
 uneasy and burdimsume when we apply our- 
 selves' to it only for our improvement in 
 virtue.' — Tatler. 
 
 Heavy (^ connected with heave, K.^. 
 hebban), is that which is relatively or 
 personally weighty {see Weight under 
 Burden ) ; aa Weighty is that which 
 is in itself hard to lift. So a thing 
 may be heavy for a child to carry 
 which may not be weighty in itself. 
 The term heavy is used in the absti-act 
 sense of possessing weight, irrespec- 
 tively of the amount of it, which 
 appears in expressions involving com- 
 parison or degi-ee, as we speak of one 
 thing being not so heavy as another ; 
 where none of the other terms could 
 be used. 
 
 "Though philosophy teaches that no ele- 
 ment is heavy in its own place, yet expe- 
 rience shows that out of its own place it 
 pi-oves exceedingly burdensome."— SoVTU. 
 Povt>F.nnu9 (Lat. pondtrosus) de- 
 
192 
 
 SYNONYMS [bURIALj 
 
 notes rather what manifests or gives 
 the appearance of being heavy to 
 carry, whether we have anything to 
 do with carrying it or not. The pon- 
 derous volume almost deters us by 
 its very appearance from taking it up. 
 When we watch the movements of the 
 elephant we remark upon his pon- 
 derous bulk. Like Burdensome, 
 Weighty is more commonly used in 
 the secondary than in the literal 
 sense. As the Burdensome is annoy- 
 ing to bear, so Weighty is a term ex- 
 pressive of combined importance and 
 difficulty, as " weighty cares of office," 
 "weighty considerations." Ponde- 
 rous, on the other hand, is not used 
 but in a material, and generally in a 
 somewhat unfavourable, sense. 
 
 " The cares of empire are great, and the 
 harden which lies upon the shoulders of 
 irinces very weighty,''^ — Bishop Atter- 
 3URY. 
 
 *'Vanbrngh with his ponderous and un- 
 meaning masses, overwhelmed architecture 
 in mere masonry." — Walpouj. 
 
 BURIAL. Interment. Sepul- 
 ture. Intombment. 
 
 Burial (A. S. bip-s;an, to bury) is 
 simply the covering of one thing over 
 with others, so as to conceal it from 
 view ; as, to bury one's face in one's 
 aands. As used in the above con- 
 nexion, the burial of a body is the 
 laying it sufficiently deep in the earth 
 to conceal it from view. We even 
 speak of burial at sea. The two appli- 
 cations occur in the following : — 
 
 "I obsen'ed, indeed, that the present 
 war had filled the church with many of 
 these uninhabited monuments, which had 
 been erected to the memory of persons 
 whose bodies were perhaps buried in the 
 plains of Blenheim, or in the bosom of 
 the ocean." — Spectator. 
 So characteristic is the idea of con- 
 cealment in the term burii, that in a 
 secondary sense it is employed in re- 
 ference to many things of which cir- 
 cumstances combine to prevent the 
 exhibition. A man fitted to adorn 
 society or to be eminently useful to it, 
 is often bm-ied in some remote and 
 obscure locality, beyond which his 
 name is not heard. 
 
 Interment (Fr. interrement, Lat. 
 In, and teira, the earth) is a somewhat 
 Doliter word than buriaL bu* bv its 
 
 etymology more restricted in meaning, 
 and denoting any formal ceremonial 
 or decent placing of the body under- 
 ground. We might say, " buried like 
 a dog," but we should be more likely 
 to say, " reverently and even sumo- 
 tuously iuten-ed." 
 
 " Cromwell's hearse was magnificent, the 
 idol crowned, and (not to mention all other 
 ceremonies which are practised at royal in- 
 termetitif, and therefore by no means could 
 be omitted here) the vast multitude of spec- 
 tators made up, as it uses to do, no small 
 part of the spectacle itself." — CoWLEY. 
 
 Interment involves the idea of earth 
 or soil, not so burial. It is remark- 
 able how the word inter has in Eng- 
 lish literature been confined to the 
 burial of the dead. 
 
 Sepulture (Lat. stpultura) points 
 ratter to the mode of burial, and to 
 the rites connected with it ; as, to have 
 the " privilege of sepulture," a place 
 of " royal sepulture," and the like. 
 " The common rites of sepulture bestow. 
 To soothe a father's and a mother's woe. 
 Let these large gifts procure an urn at 
 
 least. 
 And Hector's ashes in his country rest." 
 POPH. 
 
 Intombment, as its name expresses, 
 is the burying or interring in a tomb 
 (Fr. tombe, L. Lat. tumba). Inits se- 
 condary sense it is a metaphor for 
 placing or lying in oblivion. 
 " When Time, like him of Qaza, in hi« 
 
 wrath 
 Plucking the pillars that support the world, 
 In Nature's ample ruins lies intombed." 
 VOUKG. 
 
 BURLESQUE. Parody. Satire. 
 Travesty. Caricature. Sarcasm. 
 Comedy. Irony. Humour. Wit. 
 Lampoon. 
 
 These are only remotely synony- 
 mous. Nevertheless they are here 
 given as such, inasmuch as there is no 
 one which has not the qualities of 
 some one or more of the rest. 
 
 Burlesque (Fr. burlesque, It. bur- 
 lare, to ridicule) is a sort of humour. 
 It draws its amusements fiom incon- 
 gruous representation of character, 
 and the placing of persons in situations 
 not proper to their actual positions and 
 circumstances in society. Addison 
 has said that *' Burlesque is of two 
 kinds. The first rej)r('seiits ii)':fij 
 
[burlesque] discriminated. 
 
 193 
 
 persons in the accoutrements of he- 
 roes, the Dther describes ^eat persons 
 acting aud speaking like the basest 
 among the people." Parody (Gr. 
 Wrtp»Sia),uulikeliuRLESQUE,is a matter 
 of words only, and does not extend to 
 acts or representations dramatical. It 
 is the humorous adaptation, by al- 
 terations here and there of an author's 
 words, to a subject very different fi'om 
 the original. 
 
 " From some fragments of the Silh, writ- 
 ten by Timon, we may find that they were 
 satiric poems, full of parodies, that is, of 
 verses patched up from great poets, and 
 turned into another sense than their author 
 intended them." — Drydex's Juvenal. 
 
 Travesty (from Ital. travestire, to 
 disguise, mask) is analogous to such 
 disguise by dress as shall render ab- 
 surd. Travesty differs from parody 
 in that parody speaks the meaning^ put 
 upon the words by the parodist. 1 ra- 
 vesty makes a thing distort and mis- 
 represent itself. It puts upon it a 
 strange garb, which is therefore a dis- 
 guise. 
 
 " Old naturalism, thus travestied in the 
 garb of new religion, his lordship bestows 
 as his last and most precious legacy on his 
 own dear country." — Warburton. 
 
 It is the caricature of literature ; for 
 Caricature (It. caricntura) is an 
 overcharged representation, in which, 
 while the general likeness is preserved 
 sufficiently to bespeak the original, 
 certain peculiarities are developed and 
 drawn in an exaggerated manner. 
 
 " From all these hands we nave such 
 drafts of mankind as are represented in 
 those burlesque pictures which the Italians 
 call caricaturas, where the art consists in 
 preserving, amidst distorted proportions, 
 and aggravated features, some distinguish- 
 ing likeness of the person, but iu such a 
 manner as to transform the most agreeable 
 beauty into the most odious monster." — 
 Spectator. 
 
 Comedy (Gr. x»juiwS.'a) is a kind of 
 dramatic composition and representa- 
 tion of the light and amusmg inci- 
 dents or accidents of common life. 
 
 " Whenever Aristotle speaks of comedy, 
 we must remember that he speaks of the 
 old or middle comedy ; which was no other 
 than what we should call farce; and to which 
 his definition of comedy was adapted, (<uM-i<n«- 
 <j)«uXoT«po;v, that is, as he explains himself, 
 an imitation of ridiculous characters." — 
 Twinixg's Aristotle, Foetics. 
 
 Irony (Gr. ufoonia,) is a mode of 
 censuring by contraries. It ridicules 
 by pretendm^ to admire, and con- 
 demns by feigned approval. The 
 modern term irony has widely de- 
 parted from the original Greek 'upansia, 
 which was a term of the Socratic phi- 
 losophy, and meant an understatement 
 of truth. The original force, how- 
 ever, is still perceptible in the follow- 
 ing:— 
 
 " There are mixed in his talk so many 
 pleasant ironies, that things which deserve 
 the severest language are made ridiculous 
 instead of odious; and you see everything 
 in the most good-natured aspect it can 
 bear."— Guardian. 
 
 Satire (Lat. sKt^ra), on the other 
 hand, sets to work in no indirect 
 fashion, but is a clever, lively, and 
 sustained description of the character 
 and acts of persons. It falsifies its 
 character and transgresses its proper 
 limits, when it is anything more than 
 subservient to the exposure of what is 
 defective, blameworthy, or vicious in 
 public administration and conduct, or 
 in personal morals. 
 
 "Libel and satire are promiscuously joined 
 together in the notions of the vulgar; 
 though the satirist and libeller differ as 
 much as the libeller and murderer. In the 
 consideration of human life, the satirist 
 never falls upon persons who are not glar- 
 ingly faulty, and the libeller upon none but 
 who are conspicuously commendable," — 
 latler. 
 
 Sarcasm (Gr. a-apxaa-fxig, lit. abiiing 
 ofthejiesh, i.e. the lips, in rage; a sneer) 
 is that kind of personal allusion which 
 is vented by indignation or spite. It 
 represents the more virulent aspect of 
 satire, and is justifiable only when 
 grounded on moral indignation ; not 
 at all when it issues from personal 
 bitterness or ill-will. 
 
 " And when they heard of tne resurrec- 
 tion of the dead, some mocked, &c., i.e., 
 disputed sarcastically and contumelionsly 
 against it, that certainly there was no such 
 matter."— Hammond. 
 Sarcasm is the contemptuous and de- 
 risive expression of uncongeniality 
 with the character, conduct, belief, 
 principles, or statements of another. 
 
 Humour is that species of wit— if 
 
 it be allowed to be wit at all, which 
 
 is a vexed question — which proceeds 
 
 from the humour of a person (Lbt. 
 
 o 
 
194 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [burning] 
 
 humorem, moisture ; according to the 
 idea of the old physicians, that certain 
 humours of the body called certain 
 temperaments), and may < some ex- 
 tent, as wit does not, display itself in 
 actions as well as words. Wit (A. S. 
 witan, to know) may consist in a single 
 brilliant thought ; but humour is con- 
 tinuous and runs in a vein. It is an 
 equable and pleasing flow of wit, en- 
 livening and amusing without being 
 of necessity brilliant. The essence 
 of wit, in the modern acceptation of 
 the term, consists in the ready and 
 telling appreciation and expression of 
 the agreement and disagreement of 
 things. It comes by nature, as wis- 
 dom comes by reflexion and expe- 
 rience, and learning by study and 
 labour. Swift drew attention to the 
 distinction between wit and humour, 
 when he said that humour was "a 
 talent not confined to men of wit or 
 learning, for we observe it sometimes 
 among common servants, and the 
 meanest of the people." It may be 
 that wit excites a lively feeling of 
 surprise and gratification, but not a 
 smile or a laugh ; this is always implied 
 in humour. 
 
 " Wit," says Locke, " lies most in the as- 
 semblage of ideas, and in putting those to- 
 gether with quickness and variety wherein 
 can be found any resemblance or congi'uity, 
 thereby to make ap pleasant pictures and 
 agreeable visions in the fancy." 
 In short, HuMOun seems to lie rather 
 in the presentation to the mind of 
 amusing incongruity or contrast. Wit 
 in that of brilliant association and 
 comparison, which, however, will 
 often include contrast. Goldsmith 
 has expressed himself very sti-ongly 
 on the difference. He says — 
 
 " Wit raises human nature above its 
 level, humotcr acts a conti-ary part, and 
 equally depresses it. To expect exalted 
 humour is a contradiction in terms." 
 
 Lampoon (Yr. lampon, a taunt, jeer, 
 from lampons, let us drink largely: 
 LiTTK^) is low personal satire, of 
 which the sole purpose is to ridicule, 
 pain, and annoy individuals. 
 
 " Mr. Betterworth," answei-ed he, " I 
 was in my youth acquainted with great 
 lawyers, who knowing my disposition to 
 satire, advised me that if any scoundrel or 
 blockhead whom I had lampooned should 
 ask, ' Are you the author of this paper?' I 
 
 should tell him that I was not the author, 
 and therefore I tell you, Mr. Betterworth, 
 that I am not the author of these lines." — 
 Johnson's Life of Swift. 
 
 BURNING. Ardent. Fikrv. 
 Hot. ScoHciiiNG. 
 
 Hot (A. S. hat) denotes simply 
 having heat in the physical or any 
 analogous sense of the term heat. 
 
 " Moderation may become a f&olt. To 
 be but warm when God command* us to be 
 hot is sinful."— Feltham. 
 
 Burning (A. S. bternan, tokiiuUe) is 
 exhibiting heatjOr in any way or degree 
 affecting by heat. When used morally. 
 Hot is applied to the passions. Burn- 
 ing to the more active desires ; the 
 idea of burning being the continuous 
 feeling or transmission of heat in a 
 lively manner. Fire is hot, but the 
 flame burns. So, "a burning sense 
 of shame," "a burning indignation," 
 but, " hot anger." 
 
 " Cowley, obsei'ving the cold regard of 
 his mistress's eyes, and at the same time 
 their power of producing love in him, con- 
 siders them as ftunun^-glassesmadeofice." 
 — Spectator. 
 
 Ardent (Lat. ardire, ueut. to burn) 
 is the Latin equivalent to the English 
 Burning, but is not so sti-ong a term, 
 and is applied to inclinations as well 
 as desires, as an ardent hope or am- 
 bition, ardent zeal. Ardent is, unlike 
 the others, not used except poetically 
 in any primary or physical sense. iSee 
 Fervour. 
 
 " There was one Felton, of a good family, 
 but of an ardent melancholy temper, who 
 had served under the Duke of Buckingham 
 in the station of lieutenant." — Hume. 
 
 FiERV is showing itself like />•«, 
 that is, tending to project itself upon 
 others. Fiery wTath is that which 
 would consume or injure others if it 
 could. "Fiery indignation" is that 
 whicli would " devour the adver- 
 saries." It is not steady and con- 
 suming so much as fitful and flash- 
 ing. 
 
 " Legions of loves with little wings did tly, 
 Darting their deadly arrovrsjierr/ bright." 
 Spenser. 
 
 Scorching (O. Fr. escorcher, Lat. 
 excorticare, to flay) denotes a heat 
 which aflfects the surface injuriously 
 or painfully. Scorching passions 
 would denote not so much their mere 
 
[butt] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 195 
 
 'eat, as the way in which they re- 
 dounded to the remorse of those sub- 
 •ict to them. 
 
 "Some of the pieces which were then 
 hronght from its repositories appeared to 
 ^ave been scorched with the fire which hap- 
 pened in the town house soon after the bank 
 was established." — Adam Smith. 
 
 BURNISH. roLisii. 
 
 Polish (Fr. polir) is the wider term 
 of the two. It is to make smooth and 
 glossy, usually by friction, as glass, 
 marbles, metals, and the like. liuR- 
 Nisii (0. Fr. burnir) is specifically to 
 polish inotal by rubbing with some- 
 thing hard and smooth. Burnish is 
 not used of anything but materif.l sub- 
 stances ; Polish lends itself readily to 
 secondary applicntion; as, polished 
 manners, a polished style, polished 
 yiciety. Burnishing is more closely 
 associated with the original manufac- 
 ture, so that in some cases the pro- 
 cess would bar ily be complete with- 
 out it. Polishing is more often done 
 for a purely ornamental purpose. 
 Wood, for instance, and brass are both 
 polished, but wood is not burnished. 
 
 BUSH. SniiuB. 
 
 Bush (one of many similar words ; 
 cf. Ger. buschj Fr. bois) meant origi- 
 nally a wood or wild place grown up 
 in trees. It is commonly employed 
 at present in this sense to express 
 the wild, uncultivated country occu- 
 pied by the aborigines in the neigh- 
 bourhood of colonial settlements, 'fhe 
 characteristic of the bush and the 
 Shrub is that instead of growing to 
 a considerable height ana throwing 
 out ramifications, it is of short stature, 
 and throws out several stems from the 
 same root. The bush is thick, close, 
 and impervious to the sight ; qualities 
 which do not belong so essentially to 
 the shrub. The bush is as frequently 
 wild as cultivated ; the shrub is culti- 
 vated, choice, ornamental, graceful, 
 and often flowering. Epithets ex- 
 pressive of these characteristics would 
 not harmonize with the term bush. 
 
 BUSY. Active. Officious. Prag" 
 
 MATICAL. 
 
 Busy (A. S. bystg) means no more 
 than closely employed, except in the 
 unfavourable sense of fond of unduly 
 
 employing one's self with the concerns 
 of others from curiosity or inquisitive- 
 ness. A person of inactive habits 
 may occasionally be sufficiently inte- 
 rested in anything to be busy. To be 
 busy, whether habitually or not, is to 
 be carefully, sedulously, and absorb- 
 ingly engaged in a work. 
 
 " Despair 
 Tended the siclr, busiest from couch to 
 couch." Milton. 
 
 Active (Fr. act'if) is having a ten- 
 dency to employment and a dislike of 
 remaining idle. Such a disposition, 
 if not well employed, is pretty sure 
 to fall into mischief. To be active 
 implies more energy, to be busy moje 
 attention. The actiVe man distributes 
 his thoughts, the busy man concen- 
 trates them. The former is ready for 
 any employment, the latter dedicates 
 himself to one in particular. A man 
 may be active in disposition, he is 
 busy in fact. 
 
 " The seal, being an active nature, is al- 
 ways propeadiug to the exercise of one 
 faculty or another." — Glanvill. 
 
 Officious (Lat. officium, office^ 
 duty) is that aspect of the quality of 
 the busy man in the affairs of otheis 
 which leads him to the superfluous 
 taking upon himself to advise or to 
 assist them. 
 
 " The miserable Rachel now too late dis- 
 covered thefatal consequences of interfering 
 between husband and wife, and heartily 
 reproached herself for her n/Jiciousness in 
 aggravating his jealousy." — Observer. 
 
 Pragmatical (Gr. Tr^ay/xxriKog, 
 ■n^oiyfjuif a biishiess) had at one time 
 the meaning of busily engaged. It 
 now means fussily or ofliciously busy. 
 The pragmatical man exaggerate* \^ 
 the importance to others of what lie 
 is himself engaged in, and erects little 
 matters into aftaii'S of great moment ; 
 his very recreations have a serious air, 
 and it is only by some amount oi 
 sacrifice that he can find time for any. 
 The labours and responsibilities of 
 others are light in comparison with 
 his own. 
 
 " The fellow grew so pragmatical that 
 he took upon him the government of my 
 whole family."— Arbuthnot. 
 
 BUTT. Mark. 
 
 The man who is a Butt ( Fr. but, 
 bu% aim) is a Mark (Fr. marque). 
 
196 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [buy] 
 
 but the man who is a mark is not 
 necessarily a butt. The word butt is 
 a metaphor, indicating a mark for tlie 
 shafts of satire or ridicule of the most 
 contemptuous nature. A man may 
 be a mark of envy, but he is only a 
 butt for ridicule. 
 
 " I mean those honest gentlemen that 
 are pelted by men, women, and children, 
 by friends and foes, and in a word, stand 
 as butts in conversation." — Addison. 
 Both terms are taken from archery, 
 the butt being the barrel, whose 
 bung served for the central mark in 
 taking aim. 
 " Ben. I aimed so near when I supposed 
 
 you loved, 
 Eom. A right good mark-m&n I and she's 
 fair I love." Borneo and Juliet. 
 
 BUY. Purchase. 
 
 To Buy (A. S. hycgan) and to Pun- 
 CHASE (Fr. pourchasser, to desire and 
 seek to obtain; I., captiare, to chase) 
 are much the same, except that Buy, 
 being the simple Saxon terai, is ap- 
 plied to all kinds of objects ; Purch ase 
 has a somewhat more polite air, and, 
 with iiuY, is applicable to articles of 
 taste and value. We buy vegetables 
 and purchase jewellery. Again, to 
 buy is specifically to give money ; to 
 Purchase, being used more often than 
 Buy in a metaphorical sense, extends 
 to the giving or parting with anything 
 to procure something else, as to '' pur- 
 chase at the cost of reputation." Pur- 
 chase in tlie New Testament is always 
 to procure, never to buy. The term 
 Buy wears an unfavourable air, when 
 it is employed of the procuring by 
 money what might better be tlie re- 
 ward of merit. 
 
 " The law presumes that he who bur/.t an 
 office will by bribery, extortion, or other 
 unlawful means, make his purchase good, 
 U» the manifest detriment of the public." — 
 Blacksxokk. 
 
 0. 
 
 CABAL. Conspiracy. Combi- 
 nation. Plot. Faction. Machi- 
 nation. 
 
 Cabal is from the Hebrew kabala, 
 ft mystic tradition which it was pre- 
 
 tended had come down from Aioses 
 along with the Jewish law; hence 
 the term was applied to any asso- 
 ciation which had a pretended secret. 
 The idea of a cabal ik that of a party 
 or faction confined to a few, and plot- 
 ting in secret for their own interests 
 by giving a certain turn to the course 
 of affairs, and getting political power 
 and patronage. The object of a cabal 
 is to aflfect public opinion on behalf 
 of tlie intriguing party, and so, al- 
 though the plan is secret, the means 
 employed may be sometimes secret, 
 sometimes open, as clamour. It car- 
 ries a political or quasi-political air, 
 true to its original application in the 
 sense of a cabinet or committee. It 
 was a nickname of the ministry of 
 Charles II., Clifford, Ashley, Buck- 
 ingham, Arlington, and Lauderdale, 
 the initials of whose names spell the 
 word. 
 
 " Base rivals, who true wit and merit hate. 
 Caballing still against it with the great. 
 Maliciously aspire to gain renown 
 By standing up and pulling othei-s down." 
 Dryden. 
 
 A Conspiracy (h^t. conspiralionem, 
 whicli, unlike conspiracy, denoted 
 good as well as evil accord) is a 
 secret combination against some per- 
 son, ])ower, authority, or legitimate 
 interest. In its common occurrence 
 Conspiracy denotes a treasonable at- 
 tempt for the purpose of subverting a 
 dynasty, or re-establishing one, or 
 generally for altering tlie political 
 face of affairs. It tends to multiply 
 its numbers, thus differing from ca- 
 bal, whicli is restricted. The term 
 belongs also to private life. Any 
 agreement to do what is prejudicial 
 to another is recognized by the law 
 as a conspiracy. 
 
 *' Catihne's conspiraa/" — Rose's Sallust. 
 
 Combination (Lat. comb'inalionem,a 
 Joining two by two) need not be for a 
 bad purpose, though it is commonly so 
 used. It is an association of personp 
 united for the purpose of acting or 
 resisting in a matter of their own in- 
 terests. It differs from Cabal in beiu| 
 more active than deliberative, and 
 from Conspiracy in heiuf^ open and 
 not secret. Social or professional in- 
 
[cajole] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 197 
 
 terests are commonly the basis of 
 union and action in combinations, 
 and its work lies in pushing its own 
 demands and resisting those of others. 
 It is evident that the term admits of 
 Buch a generic sense as would include 
 the others. 
 
 " A combination of the most powerful men 
 in Rome who had conspired my ruin." — 
 Mklmoth's Cicero. 
 
 A Px.OT (the same word as -pUitj 
 i.e. of ground) is a complicated plan 
 for the accomplishment of a purpose 
 always evil or mischievous. As it ex- 
 presses the plan as well as the planner, 
 a plot may lie with a single person, 
 though it commonly involves more 
 than one. 
 
 " The tempter may cease urging, and yet 
 continue plotting."— Sovrn. 
 
 Faction {Lat.factionem) meant an- 
 ciently one of the troops in the games 
 of the circus, and when the circus 
 assumed a political character, the tei-m 
 came to mean a political party. It is 
 now used more commonly of a minority 
 than of a majority, but in either case 
 denotes a party acting unscrupulously 
 for the promotion of their own in- 
 terests in the community. 
 
 " The members of the court faction are 
 fully indemnified for not holding places on 
 the slippery heights ofthe kingdom, not only 
 by the lead in all affairs, but also by the 
 perfect security in which they enjoy less 
 conspicnons, but very advantageous situa- 
 tions."— liuRKE. 
 
 Unquiet, turbulent, jealous, ambi- 
 tious, vain spirits form cabals. Mis- 
 chievous, malignant, wicked, and de- 
 signing spirits form plots. Discon- 
 tented spirits, indocile subjects, and 
 bad citizens form conspiracies. Social 
 and professional grievances, undue 
 preponderance of power or wealth 
 bring about combinations. Restless- 
 ness, combined with views of self-inte- 
 rest, raises up factions. A seditious 
 party in a community or a state while 
 It is as yet weak and undeveloped is 
 a faction. It is a party when it has 
 established its claim to be recognized 
 as one of the powers of that commu- 
 nity or state. A cabal works in- 
 directly, a plot darkly, a conspiracy 
 deeply and unscrupulously. 
 
 A Machination (Lat. mdchtnarif 
 
 Gr. ^r}X»v^> a machine) combines with 
 the idea of contrivance and circum- 
 vention that of a purpose which is not 
 only selfish but evil— a wicked plot- 
 ting against the interests or life of 
 another. It admits even of treachery 
 as an instrument in its dealings. In 
 short, its direct aim is deadly mischief, 
 and it adopts any arts of deception 
 which may compass this end. 
 
 "This is the state and known machination 
 of him whose true title is the accuser of the 
 brethren."— Bishop Hall. 
 
 CABIN. Hut. Cottage. 
 
 The Cabin (Welsh, caban, bootn, 
 cabin) belongs to the very poor ; the 
 Hut (Fr. hutte) to the savage, the 
 Cottage ( A. S. cote, a cottage, den) to 
 the labourer. A cabin is a miserable 
 hut or cottage. It may be found in a 
 town. Cottages are only in the 
 country. The hut presents the simple 
 idea of shelter from the elements; 
 the cabin of extreme povertv anc/ 
 wretchedness ; the cottage of rurjrf 
 simplicity ajid luxuriance. The hut 
 may be the abode of royalty, for savage 
 tribes have their chiefs. I'he cot- 
 tage is, with some ornament and 
 cultivation, often an abode of the 
 wealthy. 
 
 CAJOLE. Coax. Wheedle. 
 
 The idea common to these words is 
 that of usin^ petty arts of demeanour 
 to persuade into something connected 
 with a selfish purpose. To Cajole 
 (Fr. cajoler, for cageoler, to allurt into 
 a cage like a bird) denotes the use oi 
 such winning arts, whether of words, 
 as flattery, or more than words, as 
 leads the person under such influence 
 to accede to the wishes of another, 
 even to some little loss or detriment 
 to himself. To Coax (etym. uncer- 
 tain) expresses the same thing, but 
 with more of persuasiveness and less 
 of art. It is a more simple-minded 
 process. The father may coax his 
 child into doing some unpleasant 
 thing for its own good, and the child' 
 may coax the father into making him 
 some little present. 
 
 Wheedle (cf. Ger. wedeln, to wag 
 the tail) denotes the reiterated use of 
 clever importunities and little cheats, 
 and, like Cajole, often baa the sense 
 
198 
 
 of luring against tlie interest of the 
 person lured. The designing per- 
 son cajoles, the impudent one coaxes, 
 the artful and dishonest one wheedles. 
 
 " After a cajoling dream to wake in the ag- 
 gravation of disappointment." — Smollkt. 
 
 The following gives the word coax 
 m its old form : — 
 
 " Princes may give a good poet such con- 
 venient countenance and also benefit as are 
 due to an excellent artificer, though they 
 neither kiss nor cokes them."— PuLTKN- 
 HAM. 
 
 " I have already a deed of settlement of 
 the best part of her estate, which I have 
 icheedled out of her."— CoNGRKVK. 
 
 CALAMITY. Disaster. Visi- 
 tation. MisFouTUNE. Mischance. 
 Mishap. Misadventure. Catas- 
 trophe. 
 
 Calamity (Lat. dtlUmitdtem, proh. 
 from calamus, a stalk, as i£ destruction of 
 crops) is commonly applied to events 
 which produce extensive evil, whether 
 public or private, as a bad harvest, a 
 civil war, the death or ruin of the head 
 of a family. The calamity generally 
 befalls from without, and is not a mis- 
 carriage of plans, but an independent 
 visitation. Hence a person may be 
 closely connected with a calamity 
 without directly suffering from it. A 
 plague upon a city is a calamity, and 
 xs called so even by those who may 
 escape from it. 
 
 " Even when they are in prosperity they 
 ever and anon feel many inward stings and 
 lashes ; but when any great affliction or 
 talamity overtakes them, they are the most 
 poor-spirited creatures in the whole world." 
 — TiLLOTSON. 
 
 A Disaster (Fr. (/t'.sas<re,Lat. astrum, 
 a star, a word of astrological character) 
 18 an untoward event of great impor- 
 tance coming in to mar or ruin a par- 
 ticular plan, course, or condition of 
 things as incidental to it. Thus, 
 losses in ti-ade, the overturning of a 
 cai-riage on the road, are disasters. 
 
 " This was a real disnutcr to ns, as by re- 
 tarding us half a day it broke the chain of 
 onr stages, and laid us under the disagree- 
 able necessity of stopping each ensuing 
 night at a vRry bad inn."— Swinburnk's 
 ISpain. 
 
 MiSFORTUNh is the widestj though 
 BOt specifically the strongest in mean- 
 ing. Anything which is an untoward 
 
 SYNONYMS [calamity] 
 
 event is a misfortune. Calamities and 
 disasters are misfortunes, only they 
 are more than ordinary misfortunes. 
 That is a misfortune which in any 
 way deprives of an actual or contin- 
 gent good against one's will. But 
 the term is by no means so serious as 
 Calamity or Disasi i r. 
 
 •' She daily exercises her benevolence by 
 pitying every misfortune that happens to 
 every family within her circle of notice."^ 
 Johnson. 
 
 VisiTAi ION (Lat. msttatibnevti) is a 
 term used to denote providential in- 
 fliction or retribution, and is implied 
 to public and private afflictions, as 
 the sudden death of an individual, or 
 the plague in a country. 
 
 " There shall not be left in thee one stone 
 upon another, because thou knewest not the 
 time of thy visitation." — Bible. 
 
 Mischance and Mishap diflfer 
 from Misfortune in being lighter. 
 Misfortunes to individuals are failures 
 in business, the loss of health, the 
 being born of cruel or over-indulgent 
 parents. Mischances and mishaps 
 are such as interrupt employments oi 
 undertakings untowardly. A slight 
 diflerence, too, exists between Mis- 
 cii ANCE and Mishap ; the mischance is 
 external to the actual employment, 
 and befalls a person while engaged in 
 it ; a mishap occurs in the midst of 
 the employment itselfl So mischance 
 is less personal than mishap, which 
 often wears a ludicrous air. A sudden 
 frost on a hunting day is a mischance ; 
 a fall while hunting is a mishap. 
 
 " ' For charity,' replied the matron, ' tell 
 What sad niischatice those pretty birds 
 
 befell.' — 
 ' Nay, no mischance,' the savage dame 
 
 replied, 
 ' But want of wit in their unerring guide. 
 And eager haste, and gaudy hopes, and 
 
 giddy pride.'" Dkvdicn. 
 
 '* Ah me 1 what perils do environ 
 The man that meddles with cold iron I 
 What plaguy mischiefs and mishaps 
 Do dog him still with after-claps!" 
 
 Hudibras 
 
 INIisADVENTURE Is the morc serious 
 form of Mishap. It is a calamity 
 occurring in the course of some deed 
 or transaction ; as if in fencing one 
 accidentally wounded one's adversary. 
 
(calculate] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 I9y 
 
 It combines more strongly than ]\Iis- 
 HAP the idea of the unfortunate with 
 the doings and proceedings of men. 
 
 "We seldom or never find that any nation 
 hath endured so many misadventures and 
 miseries as the Spaniards ha^e done in 
 their Indian discoreries."— Ralegh's His- 
 tory of t/ie World. 
 
 Mischance and mishap befall us. 
 But -we meet with or suffer misadven- 
 tures, placing ourselves, as it were, 
 within their reach, and unwittingly 
 running into them. 
 
 Catastrophe (Gr. xa.raiTToo<pfi, an 
 overturning) is an event final, disas- 
 trous, subversive. The calamity is 
 one event of wide-spread ill. The 
 catastrophe is one event with manifold 
 effects of ill. It is, aa it were, a com- 
 pendium of disasters, and a sum of 
 evils, potent in itself and diversified 
 in its effects. It is in the same cha- 
 racter, though with no necessary sense 
 of calamity, that the term is used 
 simply of the winding up or dtnoue- 
 ment of a dramatic plot. It is then 
 a final illustration and complete 
 solution of all difficulties, a practical 
 termination of the plan when all in- 
 terest is gone and beyond which it 
 were impossible to continue the ac- 
 tion. 
 
 "At Abingdon he (the Prince of Orange) 
 was surprised with the news of the strange 
 catastrophe of affaii-s now at London— the 
 King's desei'tion, and the disorders which 
 the city and neighl)ourhood of London were 
 fallen into."— Blkxet. 
 
 CALCULATi:. Reckon. Com- 
 pute. Count. Estimate. Enu- 
 merate. Rate. 
 
 To Calculate (Lat. calculaie, cal- 
 culus, a pebble, used in count'nii^) is to 
 arrive at a result by an arithmetical 
 operation of any kind ; hence of 
 various kinds ; hence also, remoiely, a 
 calculation may be formed by using 
 one or more arithmetical processes 
 in succession for the purpose of a 
 common result or product. Calcula- 
 tion goes beyond the actual and pre- 
 sent, and may deal with the future 
 and probable. Hence the result of 
 calculation may be approximate only, 
 uot exact. 
 
 " I fear this learned man may have been 
 somewhat misinformed by the navigators 
 he relies in, or else that the wav of allow- 
 
 ing for refractions is not yet reduced to a 
 sufficient certainty; for I do not Und by 
 those who have purposely gone to the top 
 of it (Teneriffe) that the mountain is so 
 high as his calculation makes it." — BoTLB. 
 
 To Reckon (A. S. reccan) is to tell 
 one by one, and deals only with mat- 
 ters of addition and subtraction. It 
 is a process of units only. It is to 
 count into a number, rank, or series ; 
 hence, analogously, to place as an item 
 in a moral or social account, as, " I 
 reckon him among the aristocracy." 
 Hence the process of reckoning is 
 more straightforward, and the result 
 of reckoning more exact and certain 
 than calculation, while it is less com- 
 prehensive and varied. Reckon has 
 the further character of bein^ relative, 
 economical, or financial. We count 
 for ourselves, we reckon with others. 
 In this way to reckon is to calculate 
 in matters of common interest. The 
 proprietor calculates his expenses of 
 the past year,he computes the probable 
 outlay of the coming year, and per- 
 haps in each case he reckons with his 
 steward. 
 
 "Retrospects with bad reckoners are 
 troublesome things." — Warburton. 
 
 But Repkon involves in some cases 
 the use of tlie logical as well as the 
 arithmetical faculty to determine 
 what is to be reckoned, as in the in- 
 stance given under Count. 
 
 To Compute (Lat. compiitdre) bears 
 reference to a sum or value already 
 given. The rising and setting of the 
 heavenly bodies are calculated; but 
 the number of comets that have been 
 visible during the last thousand years 
 could only be computed, all that is 
 likely to" increase or diminish the 
 number being taken- into account; 
 hence Compute is more than an arith- 
 metical term, and involves the factors 
 as well as the amount of numbers 
 and sums. To compute is to form a 
 numerical estimate, though it is ap- 
 plicable to magnitude. In calculation 
 we proceed from fixed items to a cer- 
 tain result. In computation we pro- 
 ceed from variable items to a probable 
 result. In calculation the goodm ss 
 of the result depends on the exactnew 
 of the method, and the rightness oi 
 the anplication. In computation it 
 
200 
 
 SYNONIMS [calendar] 
 
 depends, besides these, on the cer- 
 tainty of tlie data. 
 
 " Of time on all occasions, he (Swift) 
 was an excellent computer, and knew the 
 minutes required to every common opera- 
 tion."— JoHNSON. 
 
 Experience and analogy are great 
 aids in computation. 
 
 Count is etymologically another 
 form of compute, but its signification 
 IS nearer to that of reckon. It is to 
 reckon one by one ; but as to reckon 
 is to enlist in a number, so to count 
 is simply to register as units. So we 
 might say, " I have counted the 
 bottles; there are ninety without 
 reckoning ten which are broken." 
 
 •• I would not be that guilty man. 
 With all his golden store ; 
 
 Nor change my lot with any wretch 
 That counts his thousands o'er." 
 Logan. 
 In the secondaiy use of the terms, 
 Count stands to reckon as a proposi- 
 tion to a conclusion. I count him 
 faithful that endures, that is, I brin^ 
 the two ideas or terms into unity. ** I 
 reckon that the present sufferings 
 are not to be compared to the glory 
 that shall be revealed hereafter ; " that 
 is, I draw this deduction (Gr. \oyi- 
 
 Estimate (Lat. (PStimare) is to 
 compute more generally, as to esti- 
 mate the average or probable market 
 value of goods, distance, and the like, 
 in a rough manner. It is not so nu- 
 merical as Compute. Estimate has to 
 do not with facts, figures, or dimen- 
 sions in themselves, but in so far as 
 they relate to ourselves and our in- 
 terest in them. We may compute 
 the number of acres in a tract of 
 countiy; we estimate their saleable 
 price, and, so doing, set what is valu- 
 able over against what is compara- 
 tively or completely worthless. 
 
 •' Live dogs before dead lions estimates." 
 Daniel. 
 
 Enumerate (Lat. inUmerdre) is to 
 tell the number by expressing the 
 1 ^ems, and is a process of speech 
 rather than arithmetic. It is to men- 
 tion as an item in a sum. 
 
 " If the Priest pardons no sins but those 
 which are enumerated, the penitent will be 
 in an evil condition in most cases, but if he 
 em and does pardon those which are for- 
 
 gotten, then the special enumeration is not 
 indispensably necessary."— Bishop Tav 
 LOR. 
 
 To Rate (0. Fr. rate, Lat. rtiiuSf 
 reckoned) is to compute or estimate 
 according to a standard of proportion, 
 whether scientific or conventional. 
 
 " But I collect out of the Abbey Book of 
 Burton that twenty-one were ratable to 
 two marks of silver."— Camden. 
 
 CALENDAR. Almanack. 
 
 The Calendar (Lat. cUlendce, the 
 calends, or beginning of the month) gives 
 the days of the months in numeral 
 order, and the days of the week with 
 the Sunday letter, and marks those 
 days which are held in ecclesiastical 
 or civil importance. 
 
 The Almanack ('L. h^H.almanachus: 
 Bracket ; probably, but by no means 
 certainly, of Arabic derivation) ex- 
 tends to astronomical and meteoro- 
 logical information, and may even ven- 
 ture upon astrological predictions. 
 
 CALL. Invoke. Evoke. 
 
 These terms express in common the 
 action of the voice exercised by one 
 sentient being upon another. Call 
 (see Bid) is the most general. Call 
 mny be inarticulate. The bird calls 
 its mate. Men call other men or 
 animals more or less tamed or domesti- 
 cated by whom they are surrounded ; 
 that is, who inhabit the same earth as 
 themselves. 
 
 We Evoke (Lat. tvocare, to call 
 forth ) infernal spirits, or spirits of the 
 departed, whose abode is supposed to 
 be in the bosom of the earth. 
 
 We Invoke (Lat. invocare, to call 
 on) the Deity, or saints, or celestial in- 
 telligences, as living in heaven, or be- 
 lieved to have power or influence over 
 the earth and men. One calls by 
 some short method, as a sound, a name, 
 and by analogy, a sign or gesture. 
 One evokes by charms, incantations, 
 mystic acts and words. One invokes 
 by vows and prayers. Poets still in- 
 voke Apollo and the Muses to aid 
 them m the efforts and flights of their 
 imagination after the manner of the 
 poets of classic antiquity. He who 
 invokes does it for help or succour 
 as an inferior. He who evokes does 
 it as possessing some power and 
 authority, though it may be for sue* 
 
[calm] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 201 
 
 cour, also in giving sujiernalural in- 
 formation. In invocation the subject 
 is definite and certain. In evocation 
 it is uncertain ; but in invocation the 
 power is weak, in evocation strong. 
 Invocation has a weaker force than 
 Invoke, and sometimes means little 
 more than a formal calling of atten- 
 tion, or an address. 
 
 CALM. Sth.l. Quiet. Serene. 
 Tranquil. Peaceful. Placid. 
 Settled. Composed. Collected. 
 
 These terms are all applicable to 
 the elements of nature. Calm is ap- 
 plied to the air and the sea. It is a 
 relative term, denoting the absence of 
 perturbation ; a calm air is one which 
 is not stormy, a calm sea one which is 
 not rough. In its secondary sense, 
 calm, as applied to the feelings, mind, 
 or conduct, denotes the absence of 
 excitement under circumstances calcu- 
 lated to produce it, and is commonly 
 a praiseworthy feature of character. 
 Yet not invariably so, for it is not good 
 to endure or witness calmly what is 
 cruel or painful or miserable to others. 
 
 " The Seventh Book (of Paradise Lost) 
 affects the imagination like the ocean in a 
 calm, and fills the mind of the reader with- 
 out producing in it anything like tumult or 
 agitation." — Spectator. 
 
 Still (A. S. stille) denotes the ab- 
 sence of movement and of the sound 
 which accompanies it. The night is 
 still when no sounds are heard. It 
 expresses not merely the absence of 
 sound and motion, but a state which 
 is, as it were, poised between past 
 and future activity. That which is 
 still may be regarded as having 
 settled into quiet, and as having 
 the capability to be exercised at any 
 moment, of being again aroused. It 
 ■£, as it were, a fixed and established 
 «tate of the silent or the motionless. 
 
 •• The subtle spoiler of the beaver kind. 
 Far off, perhaps, where ancient alders 
 
 shade 
 The deep still pool, within some hollow 
 
 trunk 
 Contrives his wicker couch." 
 
 SoMKRViLK Chase. 
 
 Quiet (Lat. quietus) denotes rather 
 ftn habitual than a passing state; 
 yet, according to present usage, it 
 IS more applicable generally to the 
 
 external circumstances of life than 
 to temper or manners ; when em- 
 ployed of these it would rather im- 
 ply a silent and retiring disposition. 
 " I long to lead a quiet life," would 
 mean a life of retirement from the 
 busy occupations and cares of life. A 
 quiet mind is an unharassed mind ; 
 yet quiet does not of necessity involve 
 happiness, for there is a quiet of com 
 pulsion, of a swoon, of death. A 
 
 ?[uiet mind is rather a qualification 
 or a virtuous life, than a virtue in 
 itself. 
 
 " Thus leave 
 Thee, native soil, these happy walks and 
 
 shades. 
 Fit haunt of gods ? where I had hope to 
 
 spend 
 Quiet, though sad, the respite of that day 
 That must be mortal to us both." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 Serene (Lat. serhius) is used of 
 the atmosphere, and denotes the union 
 of calmness and clearness. A dark 
 night, however still, would not be 
 called serene. 
 
 " The place is sickly to them because 
 they come out of a countiy which never 
 hath any rain or fogs, but enjoys a constant 
 serenity" — Dampier's Voyages. 
 
 When employed in a moral sense, it 
 denotes that quiet which comes from 
 within, as the result of such causes 
 as a bright religious hope, the ab- 
 sence of disturbing passions, and the' 
 peace of conscience. It expresses 
 the highest and holiest calm of the 
 soul. 
 
 *' Wherefore the preferableness of virtue 
 does not arise so much from the transport* 
 she occasions, as from the calm serenity and 
 steady complacence of mind she ensures." — 
 Search, Light of Nature. 
 
 Tranquil (Lat. fra/j^uiZ/us) denotes 
 freedom from commotion or agitation 
 of any kind. It means more than 
 Still and Quiet, for these denote the 
 external condition only, while Tran- 
 quil implies also the effect produced 
 on the senses and mind of the observer, 
 which are correspondently affected 
 with a sense of quiet. 
 
 *• The celebrated tranquillitp of the Paci- 
 fic Ocean."— Anson. 
 
 Yet Tranquil essentially denotes 
 little more than the absence of any 
 source of discomposure or distur- 
 
202 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [calm] 
 
 bance. In this way it is applied to 
 the condition of communities and 
 collections of persons with more 
 force and propriety than any other 
 of these epithets, which belong- more 
 naturally to individuals. A tran- 
 quil state of society. The tranquil- 
 lity of the country. It was a very 
 tranquil meeting. To be tranquil is 
 to be without inquietude ; one is tran- 
 quil by virtue of the situation in which 
 one finds one's self. Tranquillity im- 
 plies a sort of indiffei'ence to events 
 which renders the mind unassailable 
 by them. The hero, calm in the 
 midst of danger, is not called tran- 
 quil. The woods are tranquil when 
 no breeze stirs the leaves. The air 
 is calm when no storm agitates it. 
 
 *' Oh now for ever 
 Farewell the tranquil mind, farewell con- 
 tent ' " Shakespeare, 
 
 Peaceful, as the word denotes, is 
 full of peace, that is, not entirely free 
 from sounds, but free from loud and 
 
 i'arring sounds. Nature is not the 
 ess but the more peaceful when 
 certain soothing sights and sounds, 
 such as the smoke of the cottage 
 hearth, or the tinkling of sheep-bells, 
 meet the eye and ear. The epithet 
 is better applied to the scenes than to 
 the elements of Nature. 
 
 " Still as the peaceful walks of ancient 
 
 night. 
 Silent as are the lamps that burn in tombs." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 As applied to the person and dis- 
 position, it denotes not only a state 
 but an habitual tendency. A peaceful 
 disposition is one which loves peace 
 m relation to others, and dislikes and 
 avoi ds occasions of quarrel. A peace- 
 ful atmosphere in the natural and 
 ihe moral world is one in which 
 there is no strife nf warring elements. 
 Tranquillity is in one's self, peace is in 
 relation to others or the world. One 
 has tranquil possession of one's lot 
 when one is perfectly content with it; 
 ne has peaceful possession of it when 
 no stranger deprives us of it. 
 
 " Our loved earth, where peacefully we 
 
 slept, 
 4nd far from heaven quiet possession kept." 
 DnvDEN. 
 
 Pt.acid (Lat. plttcuius') denotes an 
 unruffled calmness which has a -pleas- 
 ing and cheering effect. The night 
 may be still and tranquil, but not 
 placid, if it is dark. Tranquil and 
 gloomy are compatible epithets, not 
 gloomy and placid. The surface of 
 the lake in the still summer night is 
 placid. Placid denotes more than 
 peaceful. One may be peaceful on prin- 
 ciple, but persons are placid by nature. 
 Accordingly it often comes of compa- 
 rative insensibility, and of a nature 
 constitutionally wanting in fervour. 
 It is very often employed of the face ; 
 as, a placid countenance, a placid 
 smile. It is the serene of common- 
 place. 
 
 " Placid and soothing is the remem- 
 brance of a life passed with quiet, inno- 
 cence, and elegance." — Steele. 
 
 Settled (A. S. settan, to set) is a 
 term which bears reference to past 
 commotion, and denotes the return to 
 a state of calm which is likelj- to con- 
 tinue. When used of persons, it re- 
 fers to the judgment, determination, 
 and plans of life. 
 
 " It is true that a weighty settled sorrow 
 is of that force, that besides the contraction 
 of the spirits, it will work upon the radical 
 moisture, and dry it up so that the hair can 
 have no moisture at the root."— HoWELL 
 
 Composed (Lat. componere, part. 
 compusYius) and Cor.r.KCTED (Lat. colti- 
 gtre, part, collectus) are not used of 
 the life or character, and seldom of 
 the countenance, but almost always 
 of the air or manner. Composure 
 bears reference to the thoughts and 
 feelings, collectedness to action. Tho 
 person who is composed retains or has 
 recovered his self-possession after 
 some period of, or in spite of, some 
 inducement to over-excitement ; he 
 who is collected has, as the term de- 
 notes, gathered up his feelings and 
 thoughts, and recovered them from a 
 state of distraction, and is prepared to 
 act with delibei-ation. 
 
 " Collected in his strength, and like a rock 
 Poised on his base, Mezentius stood tho 
 shock." Drypkn. 
 
 " In this hnrry, one running one way, 
 another running another way, a man was 
 seen walking before the door »ery com- 
 
[calumny] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 203 
 
 poscdly withoot a hat ; whereupon, one 
 crying ont, ' Here is the fellow that killed 
 the Duke !' npon which others ran thither, 
 everybody asking which is he ? to which 
 the man without the hat very composedly 
 answered, ' I am he.' " — Clarkxdon. 
 
 CALUMNY. Aspersion. Detrac- 
 tion. Defamation. Slander. Libel. 
 Reviling. Vilification. Traduce- 
 ment. 
 
 Calumny (Lat. ctlhimnia) is that 
 evil-speaking whicli is based in any 
 degree on what the speaker knows to 
 be false, whether it be a crime or an 
 offence. The calumniator is both a 
 former and a propagator of evil report 
 against another, and aims at doing 
 him an injury. 
 
 •* For calumvy will sear 
 Virtue itself." Shakespeark. 
 
 Aspersion (Lat. aspersioiiem , a 
 sprinkling) is like the bespattering a 
 pei-son with foul water. It brings no 
 definite charge, but seeks by any 
 means to convey an unfavourable im- 
 pression morallv of the character and 
 conduct of another. The etymological 
 force is preserved by Dryden : — 
 " 1 will not leave thee liable to scorn, 
 But vindicate thy honour from that wretch 
 Who would by base aspersions blot thy 
 virtue." 
 
 Detraction (Lat. detractidnem, a 
 drawing away) is that mode of cheap- 
 ening another in public or private 
 estimation which consists in granting 
 facts as to his character, but inter])ret- 
 ing them so as to diminish or contra- 
 dict favourable inferences, as when we 
 attribute his acts of giving to motives 
 of ostentation. It comes of cynical 
 views and estimates of human life 
 and motives, or from specific jealousy 
 and envy. It is of wider application 
 tlian moral or personal character. It 
 consists in lowering the moral and 
 sometimes even the mate /ial value or 
 pretensions of anything ; as, when we 
 deti'act from personal merit, from the 
 excellence of an act, or the value or 
 merit of a work of art. Unlike the rest, 
 detraction commonly furnishes a pre- 
 sumption it! a person's favour. Ex- 
 cellence or merit must exist or be 
 credited before there could be room 
 for attempts to lower it in the esti- 
 mation of others. 
 
 "If any shall detract from a lady's cha- 
 racter, unless she be absent, the said detrac- 
 fress shall be forthwith ordered to the lowest 
 place of the room." — Addison. 
 
 Defamation (Lat. dtfdmatus, dif 
 honoured) is essentially public; it it 
 the spreading far and wide what is 
 injurious to the reputation of persons. 
 It is positive as deti'action is nega- 
 tive. 
 
 "Their aim is only men's defamation, 
 not their reformation, since they proclaim 
 men's vices unto others, not lay them open 
 to themselves," — Prynne, 
 
 Slander (O. Fr. esclandrcy con- 
 nected with seanddlum) difiers from 
 Defamation in being not only public 
 but also secret and underhanded. 
 The slanderer is not so inventive as 
 the calumniator. 
 
 " Whether we speak evil of a man to hit 
 face or behind his back ; the former way 
 indeed seems to be the most generous, but 
 yet is a great fault, and that which we call 
 reviling. The latter is more mean and base, 
 and that which we call slander or back 
 biting."— TiLLOTSON. 
 
 Reviling (Lat. v'dis, cheap, loorth- 
 less) is eloquent defamation or slan- 
 der, the copious use of opprobrious 
 or contemptuous language. Vilifi- 
 cation is irom the same root, but re- 
 viling is direct, vilification indirect. 
 We revile a person to his face ; we 
 vilify him or his character gene- 
 rally in the eyes of the world. To 
 vilify is simply to cheapen down to 
 vileness, and therefore is applicable 
 to anything, and not restricted to 
 persons who have a character of 
 goodness or a reputation for excel- 
 lence. 
 
 " Believe it that can, while he is labour 
 ing to destroy the best, the only complete 
 system of morality that ever yet appeared, 
 and to vilify that Book which so truly 
 places the whole of religon in doing good." 
 — Waterland, 
 
 Libel is written slander or defama- 
 tion (Lat,/i'6e//M5, a little book). Origi- 
 nally a libel was a document. So the 
 phrase of the present version of the 
 Scriptures, "a writing of divorce- 
 ment," stood in Wycliffe's version, 
 " a libel of forsaking." It is now any 
 kind of published defamation, whether 
 in print, by pictures, or any other 
 such representations. 
 
i;04 
 
 SYNONYMS [cant] 
 
 * We have in a tibel : 1, the writing; 
 2, tlie communication, called by lawyers 
 the pablication ; 3, the application to per- 
 sons and facts ; 4, the intent and tendency; 
 5, the matter — diminution of fame." — 
 
 BURKK. 
 
 Traducement is literally the lead- 
 ing along as a public spectacle (Lat. 
 tradncere) and so the holding up to 
 public disparagement. It involves 
 some degree, as of publicity in the 
 pi'ocess, 80 of importance or promi- 
 nence in the thing or person ti-a- 
 duced. It is not confined to personal 
 character. Forms, ceremonies, insti- 
 tutions, customs, may be traduced. 
 " Who libel senates and traduce the great. 
 Measure the public good by private hate." 
 Yaldkn. 
 
 CANT. StANG. Jargon. 
 
 Caut {ha,t. cantdre, to sing). It is 
 tlie language of thieves and beggars, 
 not intelligible to others than their 
 associates; then the peculiar termi- 
 nology of any profession, and finally, 
 with a more restricted application, the 
 reiteration of religious phraseology. 
 
 Jargon {Fr. jargon, gibberish) is 
 op plied sometimes to the chattering 
 ol birds. So Gower : — 
 
 " But she withal no word may sowne 
 
 But chitre and as a hird jargow7ie." 
 Hence, figuratively, unintelligible re- 
 iteration of phrases. So the leading 
 idea in Cant is the exclusive and pro- 
 fessional stamp of the phraseology, 
 in Jaroon sometimes the same, but 
 also the characterless nature of the 
 words used ; the sjime tei-ms or idioms 
 striking the ear with monotonous per- 
 sistency, and possessing a value with 
 those who employ them which is not 
 appreciated by others, as, " the jar- 
 gon of the schools." 
 
 Slang is from the Norse slenja, to 
 Aingj or slings totiing insulting words. 
 From this sense ^ it has departed till 
 It has taken to itself so many acces- 
 sary ideas as to render the thing 
 called slang a very complex matter. 
 It so far resembles Cant and Jargon 
 as to be characterized by reiteration, 
 and an exclusive or class phraseology. 
 But it involves also an element of 
 humour, and of playful rebellion 
 against the ordinary rules and so- 
 brieties of the language in its normal 
 ase. 
 
 CAPRICE. Humour. Whim. 
 Freak. Fancy. Fickleness. Va- 
 riableness. Chanoeableness. Va- 
 gary. 
 
 Caprice (Fr. caprice, thought by 
 ftome to be from Lat. caprum, a goat, 
 as it were, a fantastical goat-leap) is 
 employed both of the quality and of 
 what manifests the quality, that is, an 
 act of caprice. Caprice is the acting 
 on the slightest preference of the mo- 
 ment, ancl from one moment to an- 
 other without such choice as is founded 
 on deliberation. It manifests itself 
 in abrupt changes of feeling, opinion, 
 or action. 
 
 Humour (Lat. humorem, moisture ; 
 for explanation of the word Humour, 
 see Burlesque) is the indulgence of 
 one's temper or mood at any time, and 
 making that the principle of action. 
 Humour may differ at diflferent times, 
 but caprice is ever variable. Caprice 
 may be a matter of imagination and 
 fancy, but humour is an actual sen- 
 sation. Humour allows feeling to 
 usurp the place of will, while caprice 
 substitutes fancy. The three tei-ms, 
 humour, fancy, and caprice, denote 
 generally a passing lively feeling; 
 but caprice and humour belong more 
 to the character, fancy to passing cir- 
 cumstances. Humour is quite as com- 
 patible with sadness as with its con- 
 trary. The coquette has her caprices ; 
 the hypochondriac, the tyrant, the 
 imperious man, his humours; the 
 child, or the childish, his fancies. 
 
 " Upon his right hand was Industry, 
 with a lamp burning before her, and on his 
 left Caprice, with a monkey sitting on her 
 shoulder." — Spectator. 
 " You'll ask me why I rather choose to have 
 A weight of carrion flesh than to receive 
 Three thousand ducats. I'll not answer 
 
 that. 
 But say, it is my humour." 
 
 Shakespearb. 
 
 Whim (compare Welsh chwim, a 
 brisk motion : Wedgwood) differafrom 
 Caprice and Humour, as not express- 
 ing any quality or temper of mind, 
 but something external. We call that 
 a whim which seems to have no better 
 account than peraonal eccentricity. 
 
 " Let every man enjoy his whim. 
 
 What's he to me, or I to him ?" 
 
 Churchill 
 
[CAPTI0U8] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 205 
 
 A Freak (A. S. free, bold, rash: 
 Skeat's Etym. Diet.; cf. Ger. frech, 
 taucy) is a humorous, or, at least, 
 lively display of personal eccentricity, 
 a meiTy whim. 
 
 " For many of their actions and (ipinions 
 were rery wUd freaks of fancy and humour, 
 and wonld cain men in these days (as fool- 
 ish and bad as they are) no better name 
 than of lanaticks and bedlams." — Qlax- 
 VILL. 
 
 A Fantasy (Fr. fanlasie, Gr. 
 pavTlia-ia) Of Fancy is the product of 
 an eccentric or unregulated imagina- 
 tion. It has to do, in this sense, with 
 matters of possession and enjoyment 
 or pleasure or with their opposites, 
 and not with the treatment of other 
 persons, like Humour, and Caprice, 
 though others may be affected by our 
 fancies. It invests objects, without 
 exact attention or inquiry, with sup- 
 posed chai'ms or otherwise. 
 " I dare not force afFection, or presume 
 To censure her discretion, that looks on me 
 As a weak man, and not her f ana/' s idol." 
 
 ilASSINGER. 
 
 Fickleness, variableness, and 
 changeableness apply to human dis- 
 position, with these differences : 
 Fickleness (A. S. Jicol, vacillating) 
 belongs rather to the disposition, tlie 
 others to the temper and mood. As 
 Variableness and Ciiangeableness 
 ai"e used of weather, so they are used 
 analogously of that which belongs to 
 manner and behaviour ; variableness 
 of mood, and changeableness of hu- 
 mour. But fickleness is more deeply 
 seated. It is that inconstancy of mind 
 and taste which shows itself in incon- 
 stant preferences and attachments. 
 
 " When he (Lucas) came to the English, 
 he painted a naked man with cloth of dif- 
 ferent sorts lying by him, and a pair of 
 shears, as a satire on our fickleness in 
 fashions." — WalpoLE. 
 
 " An eternal and unchangeable cause 
 producing a changeable and temporary 
 effect. "—Ralegh. 
 
 "But alas! though the just grounds of 
 my joy be steady, yet my weak disposition 
 is subject to variableness." — Bishop Haxl. 
 
 A Vagary (Lat. vdgari, to wander) 
 is a wandering thought, a whimsical 
 purpose, a fantastic, unsubstantial, in- 
 consecutive imagination. It is a men- 
 •al, not a moral inconstancy, a caprice 
 
 of the mind, a pleasurable stroll of 
 the fancy, which, however, may show 
 itself in outward act ; a leaving of the 
 beaten path of ordinary conduct foi 
 an indulgence in the unfamiliar. 
 " A most extravagant vagary" 
 Beaumoxt and Fletcher, 
 
 CAPTIOUS. Cavilling. Cen- 
 sorious. Carping. 
 
 Captious (Lat. captiosiis, captions, 
 sophistical) denotes an aptness to catch 
 at faults. Another meaning has flowed 
 out of this — difficult to suit, and so 
 peevish. It is an epithet of the dis- 
 position. It comes of a mind trained 
 in exact habits of thought combined 
 with an impatience of error. It is 
 applied to matters of taste and exact 
 learning. It is therefore sometimes 
 a fault of the disposition purely, some- 
 times of the mind and disposition 
 combined. In the latter sense it is 
 thus employed by Stillingfleet : — 
 
 " What design can the wit of man pitch 
 upon in a capttuus and suspicious age, that 
 will not meet with objections from those 
 that have a mind to cavil ?" 
 
 Captiousness, as defined by Locke, is 
 of the former kind, although the ex- 
 cessive tendency to find fault is com- 
 mon to both — in the latter, fault in 
 itself, in the former, fault by which 
 we are personally affected. 
 
 " Captiousness," says he, " is another 
 fault opposite to civility, not only because 
 it often protluces misbecoming and provok- 
 ing expressions and carriage, hut because 
 it is a tacit accusation and reproach of some 
 incivility taken notice of in those we are 
 angry with." 
 
 Censorious (Lat. censorius, belong- 
 ing to a censor, a controller of morals) 
 has a gi-aver meaning, and expresses 
 a disposition which tends to find se- 
 rious fault, and to administer reproof; 
 whether on such matters as the Cap- 
 tious, or on the subject of morals and 
 conduct, more especially the latter. 
 It comes of an austere and dogmatical 
 spirit. 
 
 " They are both very requisite in a vir- 
 tuous mind, to keep out melancholy for the 
 many serious thoughts it is engaged in. and 
 to hinder its natural hatred of vice from 
 souring into severity and cerwortotwnei*." — 
 Spectator. 
 
 "But Colotes, like a sycophant, cavilling 
 at him and catching at his words, withour 
 
206 
 
 STNONiTMS [captivate I 
 
 regard of the matter, not arguing against 
 his reasons, indeed, but in words only, af- 
 firmeth flatly that Parmenides overthrow- 
 eth all things in one word by supposing that 
 all is one."— HoLLAifi), Pluturcfi. 
 
 " Lay aside, therefore, a carpmg spirit, 
 and. read even an adversary with attention 
 and diligence, with an honest design to find 
 out his true meaning. Do not snatch at 
 little la,pses and appearances of mistake in 
 opposition to his declared and avowed 
 meaning." — Watts. 
 
 Cavilling is the carping of argument, 
 carping the cavilling of ill-temper. 
 
 Cavilling (Lat. cuvillari, lo cen- 
 sure, to quibble) implies a tendency to 
 captious argument, to start frivolous 
 objections, and find fault without good 
 reason. Carping (Lat. c^^-^ere, to 
 pick or pluck) springs from ill-nature, 
 and so vents itself upon the most wel- 
 come objects to such a nature, namely, 
 the words and actions of other per- 
 sons, as well as their statements. 
 
 CAPTIVATE. Enchant. Charm. 
 Fascinate. Enrapture. Enslave. 
 
 To Captivate (Lat. captrvare, lo 
 take captive) and to Fascinate (Lat. 
 fascmare, Gr. ^airxaivetv) express 
 something more strong than '* to at- 
 tract." They denote such a power of 
 attraction as exerts itself over the 
 will of the person affected, and draws 
 it away from other objects. A capti- 
 vating person, or a captivating pur- 
 suit, is that which draws one from 
 other persons and other pursuits by a 
 strong influence, leading the person, 
 as it were, captive. A captivating 
 landscape is one which aiTests our 
 progress to stop and admire it, so 
 charming us as to induce a feeling of 
 regi'et at turning our backs upon it. 
 Captivation may or may not, there- 
 fore, be the result of design; or it 
 may be, as exercised by a woman of 
 the world, the combined result of 
 nature and art. There is always a 
 more or less unfavourable air about 
 the teiTK captivate, inasmuch as it de- 
 notes some degree of influence exer- 
 cised to the diminution of perfect 
 liberty of thought or action. The 
 undemranding as well as the taste 
 may be captivated. 
 
 •• No small part of oar servitude lies in 
 
 the captivation of our understanding, sueh 
 as that we cannot see ourselves captive." — 
 Bishop Hall. 
 
 Fascination is the exti-eme of captiva- 
 tion, when the person lies, as it were, 
 spell-bound under some influence of 
 attraction. This may be external or 
 personal beauty or manners, or an 
 exti-eme feeling of interest ; as, a fasci- 
 nating employment, which so absorbs 
 the attention as to leave no room for 
 interest in anything else. The fasci- 
 nating acts through the faculty of 
 sight, and exerts a power upon indi- 
 viduals, owing to their peculiar sus- 
 ceptibilities, which is out of propor- 
 tion to the intrinsic claims of the 
 object to admiration and regard. It 
 
 3uickens the vision morbidly in some 
 irections, and bandages the eyes 
 also. 
 
 " Some, to the ftiscinat ion of a name 
 Surrender judgment hood-winked." 
 
 Cow PER. 
 
 Another aspect of captivate is de- 
 veloped by the word Enslave, lite- 
 rally to make a slave of. As to cap- 
 tivate, in one sense, is to bring into 
 captivity, so to enslave is to brin^ 
 into slavery. Thiere is the same dit- 
 ference, therefore, as between those 
 two. The captive is simply in his 
 captor's power. The slave does his 
 owner's bidding, and has surrendered 
 or been deprived of the independent 
 exercise of his own will to do another's 
 bidding. 
 
 "Sensual pleasure is a great abuse to 
 the spirit of a man, being a kind of fasci- 
 nation or witchcraft, blinding the under- 
 standing and enslaving the will." — Bishop 
 Taylor. 
 
 Enchant (Fr. enchanter, Lat. in- 
 cantare) and Charm (Fr. clianner, 
 from char me, Lat. carmen, an incan- 
 tation) have a close resemblance both 
 in derivation and application. To 
 Enchant is a livelier word than to 
 Charm. We are charmed with what ea - 
 gages the senses and gratifies the tas (e, 
 as beautiful scenery, sweet music, 
 engaging conversation and manners. 
 The term is even used as synoiiymoui 
 with delight, as, ''I was charmed 
 to hear such news." We are enchanted 
 by what so charms the senses as to 
 afi'ect the imagination, to carry us out 
 
[CAPTIVITY] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 207 
 
 of common thoughts and common life, 
 and perhaps place us as in a fairy land 
 of thought. ENRAPTURii (Lat. raphe, 
 to seize; part, raptus) denotes a dclio^ht 
 beyond measure, when we are beside 
 ourselves, and transported by enjoy- 
 ment. 'VVhen we are enchanted we 
 are taken out of ourselves; when 
 charmed it is by some object which, 
 insinuating itself into the mind, acts 
 like those magical charms, those love 
 philtres, and the like, which are sup- 
 posed to produce in us effects which 
 we imagine to be natural, and which 
 make us feel their power without 
 being aware of their presence. Cus- 
 tom, which L/amiliarizes all things, 
 destroys enchantment. Reflexion may 
 even dissipate it at once. But both 
 fiimiliarity and reflexion may seem to 
 prolong charms which will bear the 
 t"st of the judgment and of criticism. 
 There is always a little of surprise 
 mixed with enchantment. Affection 
 comes in and takes part with senti- 
 ment in the case of the object which 
 charms us. In rapture, on the other 
 hand, there is unrest; and, so far 
 from bearing the test of reflexion, the 
 very use of reflexion shows that it is 
 passing away. 
 
 " We all promise ourselves great pleasure 
 in our journey homewards, and we have 
 great reason to believe it will be enchaut- 
 ingly pleasant."— Sir W. Jones. 
 
 " Such a lovely image and representation 
 of the true virtue, as Plato said, could not 
 but charm men with the strongest degree 
 of love and admiration possible."— Clarke. 
 
 " Explore thy heart, that, roused by glory's 
 
 name. 
 Pants all enraptured, with the mighty 
 
 charm." Beattie. 
 
 CAPTIVITY. Confinement. Im- 
 prisonment. Incarceration. Bond- 
 age. Slavery. Immuring. Ser- 
 vitude. 
 
 Captivity (Lat. capiinitdtem) is the 
 state of a captive, that is, of one who 
 has been deprived of his liberty by 
 another, however honourable, liberal, 
 or wide the restrictions of such cap- 
 tivity may be. The captive monarch 
 is not the less a captive because he is 
 placed by his courteous captor at his 
 nght hand on horseback or at table. 
 The bird is not the less a captive for 
 
 the size of the cage. The term is re- 
 stricted to such command over the 
 persons of others as results from suc- 
 cessful war. So every captive is » 
 prisoner, but every prisoner (those, 
 for instance, in the gaols) isnotcallecf 
 a captive. A distinction is made in 
 the English Litany, which prays for 
 " all prisoners and captives. 
 
 *' Myself my sepulchre, a moving grave. 
 
 Buried, yet not exempt 
 
 By privilege of death and burial 
 
 From woi-st of other evils, pains, an-l 
 
 wrongs. 
 But made hereby obnoxious more 
 To all the miseries of life. 
 Life in captivity 
 Among inhuman foes." MiLTON. 
 
 Confinement (ljB,t. conf vie, or con- 
 f'mium, a boundary) is a wider term 
 than Captivity, as it denotes other 
 kinds of restriction than that of the 
 captive. A person may be confined 
 to the house by sickness. It is the 
 abridgment of personal liberty for any 
 cause or by any sort of force. As ap- 
 plied to persons, it may be partial, as 
 it may be said, " his hands were con- 
 fined, the rest of his body was free." 
 
 " I thank the Almighty I am now all col- 
 lected in myself; and thongh my person is 
 in covfinement, my mind can expatiate on 
 ample and useful subjects with all the free- 
 dom imaginable." — Johnson, Life of 
 Savage. 
 
 Imprisonment (Fr. prison, prendre; 
 - part. prt5,fofa/c^) is confinement within 
 walls, which is the literal meaning of 
 Immure (Lat. in, and murus, a wall) ; 
 but Immure is a narrower imprison- 
 ment, in which the stony captivity 
 presses closely on all sides. Imprison 
 most commonly denotes the involun- 
 tary confinement of one by another, Im- 
 mure the mere fact of close confine- 
 ment, irrespective of any coercion 
 which has produced it ; so, to live im- 
 mured in the walls of a convent may 
 be a voluntary act. Imprisonment is 
 a narrowing of the state of captivity. 
 The bird which is taken captive in the 
 hand is afterwards imprisoned in the 
 cage. Captivity and imprisonment 
 both deprive of some degree of per- 
 sonal liberty, but not of civil rights, 
 which takes place in bondage and 
 slavery. The fair one does not takp 
 
208 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 CAPTUKEj 
 
 her lover prisoner, but captive, and 
 vet sometimes succeeds in making him 
 her slave. The term " prisoner of 
 war " does not necessarily imply con- 
 finement in a prison. He" is generally 
 a captive rather than a prisoner. 
 
 " It is but six or seven years since a 
 clergyman of the name of Malony, a man 
 of morals, neither gnilty, nor accused of 
 anything noxious to the State, was con- 
 demned to perpetual imprisonme7it for exer- 
 cising the functions of his religion." — 
 BuRKK. 
 " For six long years immured, the captive 
 
 knight 
 Had dragged his chains and scarcely seen the 
 light." Drydkn. 
 
 Incarceration (Lat. career, a pri- 
 son) is an ecjuivalent of Latin form for 
 the more directly French form Im- 
 prison, but denotes an ignominious 
 imprisonment, such as that'ofprisoners 
 in a gaol, with as little as possible of 
 personal liberty. So Imprison admits 
 more possible freedom than Incarce- 
 rate, and Incarcerate than Immure. 
 
 " It (the doctrine of pre-existence) sup- 
 poseth the descent into these bodies to be a 
 culpable lapse from a higher and better 
 state of life, and this to be a state of incar- 
 ceration for former delinquencies." — Glan- 
 VILL. 
 
 Bondage (a state of being hound), 
 Slavery (Fr. escbve), and Servi- 
 tude (Lat. servithdo, from servire, to 
 terve as a slave), all denote the sub- 
 jection of the person to superior 
 restrictive power. The terms increase 
 in force in the following order : ser- 
 vitude, slavery, bondage. Servitude 
 is simply compulsory service to a 
 master. So the term is even some- 
 times employed of free and honour- 
 able service, in reference to any com- 
 pulsory terms connected with it. 
 British naval officers will speak of 
 their period of servitude, by which 
 they mean their service as regards a 
 certain term which they are bound to 
 complete ; and domestic service is 
 often so termed. 
 
 "A hundred were Spaniards, everyone 
 well mounted upon his horse, the rest were 
 Indians running as dogs at their heels, and 
 in the most miserable bondage." — Sir 
 Francis Drake. 
 
 " Beauty of every kind is formed to al- 
 lure, and there is this peculiar advantage 
 in eontemy)lating the beauties of vegetable 
 
 nature, that we may permit our hearts tc 
 be captivated by thera without apprehen 
 siou of any dangerous or dishonourable ser- 
 vitude."— K^OX. 
 
 Slavery begins where servitude ends. 
 It is that sort of compulsory life ot 
 labour which depends upon the will 
 of another — the master owning the 
 servant as a chattel. But even slavery 
 has its degrees ; and the ancient 
 Romans had learned slaves who were 
 honourably treated as literary com- 
 panions of their masters. Bondage 
 is the extreme aspect of slavery, when 
 the slave has become, as it were, a 
 beast of burden, and works, it may be 
 under the lash, as the captive Israelites 
 did in the land of Egypt. Fr. esclave 
 is from the L. Lat. sclavus, s[avus,a Sla- 
 vonian ; originally applied only to 
 Charlemagne's Slavonian prisoners, 
 who were reduced to slavery ; and 
 after the tenth century used in a 
 general sense, without distinction of 
 nationality. Brachet. 
 
 CAPTURE. Seizure. Prize. 
 
 Captur E ( Lat. captura, fi-om cUpert^ 
 to take) and Seizure (Fr. saisir) are 
 used both of the process and the object. 
 The process of capture involves art as 
 well as force, while seizure is effected 
 by force alone. A strong town may 
 be captured after a prolonged siege by 
 a powerful army, or a little bird may 
 be captured in a bird-trap. The high- 
 wayman seizes the person or the pro- 
 perty of the traveller. Prize (Fr. 
 prise, a taking, a prize) relates only to 
 the object taken and its value to the 
 taker. It is the result of competitive 
 effort, as in the galleon laden with 
 gold, the slave-ship, or the award oi 
 the schoolboy, or student. The term 
 prize, is, however, sometimes used to 
 express merely a thing of value, how- 
 ever obtained — as a prize in a lottery, 
 or " I was walking along the road, 
 and I picked up an unexpected prize.'- 
 The idea is something taken which is 
 of value, and the word is by some 
 thought to be another form of price 
 (Lat. prctium). 
 
 " This was very happy for him ; for in a 
 very few years, being concerned in several 
 captures, he brought home with him hn 
 estate of about twelve thousand pe-nnda." — 
 Guardinn 
 
[cauriaoe] 
 
 -iSCRIMlNATED. 
 
 209 
 
 " The Indians, having perceived by our 
 tidzure < f the bark the night before that we 
 were er.emies, immediately fled into the 
 "-oudy parts of the island." — Anson. 
 
 "Our inheritances are become a prize 
 /or disputation." — BuKKK. 
 
 The capture is commonly either an 
 object having life, or something taken 
 in spite of voluntary efforts of resis- 
 tance. The seizure is commonly of 
 lifeless objects, as contraband goods. 
 The prize is commonly, also, an in- 
 animate object, except where the per- 
 son vrho constitutes the prize is so re- 
 garded simply for the ransom or other 
 mdirect advantage, and value. 
 
 CARESS. Fondle. 
 
 Caress (Fr. caresse, haX. cams, dear) 
 is the expression of tender feeling by 
 words and actions. Fondle (from 
 fond, i.e. vifatuated) is the expres- 
 sion of weak or childish tenderness, 
 and is confined to actions. 
 
 " The King of France used him (the Dcke 
 of Buckingham) in so particular a manner, 
 knowing his vanity, and caressed him to 
 snch a degree, that he went without reserve 
 into the interests of France." — BuRNKT. 
 
 " Each time enjoined her penance mild. 
 And fondled on her like a child." Gay. 
 
 CARGO. Freight. Lading. 
 Burden. 
 
 Cargo (cf. Span, cargo and carga, 
 and L. Lat. carricare, to load, charge) 
 IS a ship-load, and in English law 
 means all that is carried by a vessel, 
 except live persons and animals. 
 
 " To different lands, for different sins we 
 
 roam, 
 And, richly freighted, bring our cargo 
 
 hjme." Churchill. 
 
 Freight is a later form of fraught 
 (Swed. frakta, to fraught, freight, 
 Skeat, Etyin. Diet.), that with which 
 a vessel is fraught for transportation. 
 As regards floating vessels, the cargo 
 and the freight are the same thing, 
 viewed differently, the freight being 
 the cargo as viewed for transportation. 
 But freight is also used of material of 
 land carriage. Again, the E a ding 
 (connected with bad) is the freight 
 regarded in its weight and quantity, 
 of which consideration is taken by 
 formal record and registration. 
 
 ♦• Some were made prize, while othetc, 
 
 burnt and rent. 
 With their rich lading to the bottom went." 
 Waxler. 
 Burden {see Burden), in nautical 
 matters is the capacity of a ship, which 
 is ascertained by measurement, ana 
 determined by the builder, as ? vessel 
 of so many tons burden. In this way 
 burden denotes not an actual load, but 
 an abstract capacity. 
 
 "He had built at his own expense to 
 prosecute them, a strong, handsome ship, 
 which was named the bark Ralegh, of two 
 hundred ton burden." — Oldy'S Life oj 
 lialegh. 
 
 CARRIAGE. Gait. Walk. De- 
 
 rORTMENT. 
 
 Carriage is seldom used now ir 
 any other than the physical sense, 
 the metaphorical one of conduct being 
 almost obsolete. It denotes the ha- 
 bitual mode of carrying the body, 
 mainly, but not exclusively, while in 
 motion. A graceful or ungraceful 
 carriage may be shown while sitting 
 at table. It would sound antiquated 
 to use the word as Clarendon did : — 
 
 " He advised the new govern our to have 
 80 much discretion in hiscarriage, that there 
 might be no notice taken of the exe: "ise of 
 his religion." 
 
 The word is one of formality, and is 
 best employed of tlie bearing of per- 
 sons on public occasions, where some 
 degree of personal dignity is de- 
 manded. 
 
 " His gallant carrifige." — Stirling. 
 
 Perhaps modern use would be best 
 satisfied by the term bearing. 
 
 Gait (another form of 0. E. gate, a 
 tvaif) is the manner of the walk as to 
 the movements of the lep and feet 
 alone ; as, a shambling gait. 
 
 " He had very narrow snouiders, and no 
 calf; B.nd his gait might be more properly 
 called hopping than walking." — Fielding. 
 
 The term is one wanting in dignitj'. 
 We should say an awkward, not a 
 majestic gait. 
 
 Walk (perhaps A. S. wealcan^ to 
 roll) is the manner of progress, taking 
 the movements of the whole body into 
 account. This use is conversational 
 and modern. 
 
210 
 
 aTNONYMS 
 
 [CASEj 
 
 " In length of train descends her sweeping 
 
 gown, 
 And by her graceful walk the Queen of 
 
 Love is known." Drydkn. 
 
 D EPORTM ent( Fr.deportemenf )refers 
 to the whole use and moA^ement of the 
 body,as gi'aceful or ungTaceful,suitable 
 or unsuitable. It is the carriage of the 
 body as regards social requirements 
 &nd regulations. Yet we should 
 Bpeak of a person's carriage in public, 
 of his deportment in private life. 
 
 "The coldness of his temper and the 
 gi-avity of his deportment carried him safe 
 through many difficulties." — SwiFT. 
 
 CASE. Cause. 
 
 The Case (Fr. cas, Lat. casus, cli- 
 dh-e^ to fall) is a matter of fact, and the 
 Cause (Lat. causa) is matter of ques- 
 tion. This distinction is not the less 
 Bound because the case may be diffe- 
 rently stated. Ihe case is learnt, the 
 cause is decided. We state the case, 
 and defend the cause. In the process 
 of a cause, cases are often cited as 
 precedents. 
 
 " Yet on his way (no signs of grace, 
 For folks in fear are apt to pray) 
 To Phoebus he preferred his case. 
 And begged his aid that dreadful day." 
 Gray. 
 •♦ Plead Thou my cause." — Book of Psalms. 
 CASH. Money. Specie. Coin. 
 Money {Juno M^nita, at whose 
 temple money was coined at Rome ; 
 whence mint) is employed for any- 
 thing which is used as a circulating 
 medium. In some parts of Africa, for 
 instance, shells are used as money. 
 
 " To prevent such abuses, to facilitate ex- 
 changes, and thereby to encourage all sorts 
 of industry and commerce, it has been found 
 necessary in all countries that have made 
 any considerable advances towards im- 
 provement, to affix a certain stamp upon 
 certain quantities of such particular metals 
 as were in those countries commonly made 
 use of to purchase goods. Hence the origin 
 of coined money, and of those public offices 
 called mints."— Adam Smith. 
 
 Cash (O.Fr. casse, Lat. capsa,achest) 
 is ready money, that is, coin, in dis- 
 tinction to anything the value of which 
 depends on credit. The following 
 quotation will show that there was a 
 time when the English cash, like the 
 French caisse, was employed of the 
 bank or place where the ca»h waa 
 stored : — 
 
 " So, as this bank is properly a genera 
 cash, wheie every man lodges his money 
 because he esteems it safer and easiei- paid 
 in and out than if it were in his coifers a» 
 home." — Sir W. Temple. 
 
 The word, however, is used in ou 
 own sense by Shakespeare and Mil 
 ton. 
 
 *' Or as a thief, bent to unhoard the cash 
 Of some rich burgher, whose substantial 
 
 doors. 
 Cross-barred and bol ted fast, fear no assault. 
 In at the window climbs, or o'er the tiles." 
 Paradise Lost. 
 
 Specie (abl. of Lat. species, shape, 
 form) is money of stamped coin, but 
 is not necessarily ready money, as it 
 may exist in the coinage of a foreign 
 country. 
 
 " There was in the splendour of the 
 Roman Empire a less quantity of current 
 species in Europe than there is now." — 
 
 GiBBOX. 
 
 Coin (O. Fr. coin; Lat. ciineus, a 
 stamp upon a coin, a coin) is a specific 
 fabrication of a certain metal, weight, 
 value, and authenticity regarded in its 
 current capacity and representative 
 value, and also in its historical con- 
 nexion. In the latter only is it re- 
 garded by the numismatist, the con- 
 noisseur or collector of coins. 
 
 " Your coming, friends, revives me, for 1 
 
 learn 
 Now of my own experience, not by talk. 
 How counterfeit a coin they are who friends 
 Bear in their superscription." Milton. 
 
 CASUAL. Accidental. Inci- 
 dental. Contingent. Occasional. 
 Fortuitous. 
 
 Casual (Lat. cdsudlis, cUdtre, to be- 
 fall) is applied to such occurrences 
 as, coming by chance, have no imme- 
 diate consequences beyond themselves. 
 The casual is the accidental combined 
 with the unimportant. A casual ob- 
 server is simply a man who happens 
 to look on ; a casual remark is one 
 which happens to be made. The 
 casual is, as it were, a solitary link, 
 and not a concatenation of cause and 
 effect. In short, the trivial is an 
 element in the casual, although it 
 often happens that seeming trifles 
 are followed by important conse- 
 quences. 
 
 " Casual breaks in the generftl system." 
 — W. iRvrsa. 
 
[catalogue] discriminated. 
 
 211 
 
 It is hardly stronger than Occa- 
 sional, "which it much resembk^s in 
 meaning, as occasional is derived from 
 tlie same root (Lat. occdsionem, ccidere, 
 to full out) ; but Occasional excludes 
 to a greater extent tlie idea of chance. 
 Moreover, the casual may occur once, 
 the occasional more than once. How- 
 ever trivial may be the casual circum- 
 stance, it was unexpected ; whereas 
 the occasional is often expected, and 
 is generally known; thus differing 
 fi-om the recurrent or periodic, which 
 are specijicafty known, as " he paid us 
 occasional visits during his stay in the 
 neighbourhood." That which is re- 
 current without being regular is oc- 
 casional. 
 
 " This time I conld not spend in idleness. 
 I therefore very willingly set myself to 
 translate my ocra^tonoT meditations into 
 Latin." — BiSHOP Hall. 
 
 Accidental (another form of Lat. 
 cddire, acctdere, to happen) is a more 
 serious word, and denotes an effect 
 sufficiently important to lead the mind 
 to speculate on the cause which pi-o- 
 duced it. A thing may be regarded as 
 accidental which in any way happens 
 by chance, as distinguished from de- 
 sign. (<S«e Chance.) 
 
 " Civil society was instituted either with 
 the purpose of obtaining all the good of 
 every kind it was even accidentally capable 
 of producing, or only of some cei'tain good 
 which the institutoi-s, unconcerned with 
 and unattentive to any other, had in A-iew." 
 — Warburton. 
 
 Incidental (another form of Lat. 
 cltdere, incidere, to fall upon, to happen) 
 combines the idea of the casual with 
 that of relation, appropriateness, or 
 conformit}'. An incidental circum- 
 stance in a voyage is one which so 
 befalls as to run up into the general 
 count and story of it. Incidental ex- 
 penses in an account are those which 
 could not be exactly calculated be- 
 forehand, but, nevertheless, legiti- 
 mately or necessarily connect them- 
 selves with it. Hence the term is 
 sometimes used in the sense of natu- 
 rally concomitant, as the anxieties 
 incidental to high office. 
 
 " But there is a wide difference between 
 supposing the violence offered to them to be 
 the direct and proper purpose of the act and 
 the incidental effect of it." — Bishop Huri>. 
 
 Contingent (Lat. contingaCf t« 
 touch on, or to come to pass) denotes a 
 union of certainty and uncertainty, or 
 the 'certain effect of an uncertain or 
 unknown cause ; such as are logically 
 expressed in a hypothetical proposi- 
 tion, as " if the skies fall, we shall 
 catch larks." Our catching larks is, 
 so far, contingent upou the skies 
 falling. 
 
 " Perhaps the beauty of the world re 
 quireth (though we know it not) that some 
 agents should work without deliberation 
 (which his lordship calls necessary agents), 
 and some agents with deliberation (and 
 these both he and I call free agents), and 
 that some agents should work and we not 
 know how (and their effect we call contin 
 gents)."— BoB^TSS. 
 
 Fortuitous (Lat. fortuitus; fors, 
 chance) is commonly employed, when 
 the subject is one of union, aggrega- 
 tion, or combination; as, the "fortui- 
 tous concourse of atoms ; " a fortui- 
 tous union of causes produced such 
 and such an effect, that is, two or more 
 independent causes happened to 
 produce an effect in common. The 
 difference between the terms. Acci- 
 dentally and Fortuitously, seems 
 to be as follows : — 
 
 That happens accidentally which is 
 brought on by causes foreign to the 
 nature of the thing itself, and so 
 sometimes by hazard. That which 
 happens fortuitously has to be simply 
 accounted for by chance. Snow is 
 accidentally but not fortuitously white. 
 That which is accidental is often 
 alterable at will. That which has 
 happened fortuitously is an extraordi- 
 nary event which could not have been 
 anticipated, because it springs from 
 causes absolutely unknown. 
 
 " The old stale pretence of the atheists, 
 that things were first made fortuitously, 
 and afterwards their usefulness was ob- 
 served and discovered."— Ray. 
 
 CATALOGUE. List. Roll. 
 Register. Inventory. 
 
 Catalogue (Lat. cdtdl'dgus, an 
 enumeration, from the Greek KetraXoyoi) 
 is more than List ( Fr. liste, an edging 
 or selvage ; a list or roll ; so A. S. list), 
 which IS a narrow and long enumera- 
 tion of only just such words or names 
 as are necessary to specify the indi- 
 
212 
 
 viduals or items. Catalogue gives 
 some particulars connected with each. 
 So a list of books would be no more 
 than a bare enumeration of them or 
 the names of their authors. A cata- 
 logue of books would give also sue. 
 points as the number of volumes in 
 each work, the binding, place of pub- 
 lication, and the like. 
 
 " Every man is ready to give in a loiig 
 catalogue of those virtues and good qualities 
 he exj)ects to find in the person of a friend, 
 but very few of us are careful to cultivate 
 them in ourselves." — Spectator. 
 
 *' Yes, 'tis the list 
 
 Of those that claim their oflSces this day 
 
 By the custom of the coronation," 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 A Roll {Yr.rCle; Lat. rof ft/as) is 
 the same as List ; but, as List is ap- 
 plicable to an enumeration of articles, 
 lloLL is a list of names of persons only. 
 
 " These signs have marked me exti-aordi- 
 
 nary, 
 And all the courses of my life do show 
 I am not iv the roll of common men.'' 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 A Register (Fr. regislre ; orig. 
 from Lat. rcgesta, things recorded) is 
 a record of persons and transactions 
 connected with tliem, given with some 
 fulness of detail, and according to a 
 prescribed form; as, a parish register of 
 births, deaths, or marriages. Milton 
 uses the term regest : — 
 
 " Others of later time have sought to 
 ?rt him (Arth 
 cathedral regests. 
 
 " They seem to have registered his say- 
 ings with wonderful fidelity, but not always 
 m the order in which they come from him." 
 —Bishop Hoksley. 
 
 igh 
 assert him (Arthur) by old legends and 
 
 The Inventory (\^^t. inventarium) 
 was originally a list of the goods, 
 chattels, and sometimes real estate of 
 a deceased person ; afterwards, any 
 catalogue of movables. 
 
 " There, take an inveJitory of all I have 
 To the last penny." Shakespeark. 
 
 CATCH. Seize. Snatch. Grasp. 
 Gripe. Clutch. Grapple. 
 
 To Catch (0. Fr. cachier ; Lat. 
 cap.iare, to mtch, chase) is to use such 
 effort as shall arrest tht movement of 
 an object and gain- p Dssession of it. 
 The effort may be indirectly made, 
 as when a bird is co Jght in a snare. 
 
 SYN ^NYMS [catch' 
 
 It is an act of some force, but more skill 
 and quickness. 
 
 To Seize (Fr. saisir) is to lay hold by 
 force and retain possession. The thing 
 seized may be stationary or in motion. 
 
 To Snatch (perhaps onomatop. 
 cf. snack) is to seize by a rapid and 
 sudden effort for thepurpose of appro- 
 priation, as seize is for detention. 
 
 To Ghasp (A. S. grdpian, to seize) 
 is to continue to hold with a strong 
 hold or embrace, for the purpose of 
 detaining, or from fear of losing. It 
 is also employed of comprehension by 
 the intellect. 
 
 To Gripe (connected with grasp, 
 grope, &;c.) is to gi-asp with a squeeze 
 or pinch ; and, in its secondary sense, 
 to keep tight, out of avarice. 
 
 " So saying, he caught him up, and withont 
 
 wing 
 Of Hippogrif, bore through the air sublime 
 Over the wilderness and o'er the plain." 
 Milton. 
 
 Catch and Seize have both a recog- 
 nized secondary meaning ; the formei 
 applying to mental deception or en- 
 snarement, the latter to the influence 
 of emotion, as — 
 
 "Admiration seized 
 All heaven, what this might mean or 
 whither tend." Milton. 
 
 " These are the agonies but of one single 
 person whom death snatches away in the 
 midst of his years, his pleasures, and his 
 hopes."— Stilling fleet. 
 
 " Let the readmgbe pleasant and striking, 
 and the memory will grasp and retain all 
 that is sufficient for the purposes of valuable 
 improvement." — Knox. 
 
 " The sacrilegiousgir/TJe of those execrable 
 wretches."— Burke. 
 
 To Clutch (cf. Scotch cleik,clek, to 
 hook, to snatch ; and ? A. S. gelecccan, t» 
 catch) indicates a convulsive grasp 
 i from a desire to acquire, possess, re- 
 i tain, or make use of. We snatch what 
 is to some extent, separate from us ; 
 I we may clutch what is already be- 
 neath our grasp, as the hand clutches 
 tlie dagger. 
 
 To Grapple (Fr. grappillcr, grappe , 
 orig. a hook) is to seize with a hooked 
 grasp, as with the bent finger, or a 
 curved instrument. 
 
 " Clutching at the phantoms of the stocV 
 market " BANCROri'. 
 
DISCRIMINATED 
 
 [cautious] 
 
 "The arms of York 
 To grapple with the Honse of Lancaster " 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 To grapple involves some counter- 
 active power with which the grappling 
 contends. 
 
 CAUSTIC. SATinicAL. Biting. 
 
 The Caustic temper (Gr. xau<rT<5t6f 
 from y.ctitiyf to burn : Lat. caust^cus) is 
 that which infuses into its expressions 
 a certain sharp and penetrating spite ; 
 the Biting temper is that which at- 
 tacks and tears; the Satirical (Lat. 
 sUtMcus) is that which takes pleasure 
 in exercising' itself on matters which 
 merit blame or ridicule. The satirical 
 spirit has a keen eye for what is bad 
 or wrong, and exhibits it in the most 
 striking light. The caustic spirit 
 finds out the weak part, and infuses 
 into it its poison. The biting spirit 
 lacerates wherever it has an oppor- 
 tunity. Vice and absurdity alone 
 have anything to fear from satire. 
 Weakness, imbecility, and simplicity 
 are the prey of the caustic. Virtue 
 itself is not safe from the biter. The 
 satirical Jpirit is compounded of 
 humour and bitterness. The caustic 
 tone is wit or humour affected with 
 malignity. The biting spirit is indis- 
 criminately censorious and unfeeling. 
 The weapons of satire are sometimes 
 vehemence, sometimes a lively and 
 bitter pleasantry ; of the caustic style, 
 irony, and a pleasantry which is calm, 
 fine, and telling ; of the biting tone, 
 force and bluntness rather than 
 sharpness. Satire falls upon persons 
 and their manners ; the others are 
 exclusively personal. The biting 
 style often serves the cause of hatred 
 and uncharitableness, attacking 
 the character and reputation. The 
 caustic is more innocent, dealing 
 with oddities and absurdities; the 
 satirical may even take the side of 
 offended virtue, reason, and sobriety, 
 'n public morals. Satire is directed 
 to what is apparent, conspicuous, or 
 publicly known ; causticity to what 
 IB half revealed or exhibited, and 
 biting to what is hidden, of which it 
 seeks to raise suspicion, and sometimes 
 irill assume what does not exist. 
 
 213 
 
 CAUTIOUS. Careful. Wary. 
 Circumspect. Prudent. Discreet, 
 
 Cautious (Lat. cautus, part, of 
 cclvtre, to take heed) expresses the cha- 
 racter which realizes the constant 
 possibility of danger whether in phy- 
 sical or moral things. It is Pru- 
 dence in regard to danger in particu- 
 lar. It is apt to become excessive, 
 and is then over-timidity, and caution 
 may be either wise or weak. 
 
 " And yet these same cautious and nuick 
 sighted gentlemen ean wink and swallow 
 down this sottish opinion about percipient 
 atoms which exceeds in incredibility all the 
 fictions of /Ksop's fables." — Bentley. 
 
 Prudence, on the other hand (Lat. 
 prhdenlia, for provldentia), is active 
 and positive, while Caution is nega- 
 tive, with a frequent tendency to in- 
 action. While Caution only deters 
 from the dangerous. Prudence 
 prompts to the desirable, if it be safe. 
 
 " Prudence is goodly wisdom in knowing 
 of things."— Chaucer. 
 
 Discreet (Lat. discriliiSj from dis- 
 cenierey to distinguish) involves the 
 natural aptitude to discern between 
 good and evil, truth and falsehood, 
 and, on a lower scale, the desirable 
 and the undesirable. As prudence is 
 the quality which enables us to pierce 
 probabilities, and to act accordingly, 
 so discretion has to do with facts and 
 circumstances present and before us. 
 The prudent man prepares for what 
 is coming; the discreet man judges 
 of present affairs. It is prudfent to 
 provide against bad weather; it is 
 discreet not to allude to an offensive 
 subject. 
 
 " He will guide his words with discretion." 
 —Bible. 
 
 Careful (having care) expresses 
 what is expressed by cautious, and 
 more besides. The careful persor 
 has before him a sense of danger, 
 error, or failure, and, so far, he is 
 cautious ; but care proceeds also from 
 interest, zeal, personal attachment 
 toward others. The parent is cau- 
 tious who tries to keep his child out 
 of harm which is likely to beset him ; 
 but he is careful even when he is not 
 thinking of danger, as in his training 
 and education generally. Caution 
 
214 
 
 avoids doing me wrong thing ; care- 
 fulness seeks also rig-htly to do the 
 right. Caution is principally con- 
 cerned with possible error, danger, 
 loss, or failure ; careful with present 
 needs, actions and duties. 
 
 " Jehoiada then occupied the priesthood, 
 an honourable, wise, and religious man. 
 To his carefulness it may be ascribed that 
 the state of the church was in some slender 
 sort upheld in those unhappy times." — 
 Ralegh, History of the World. 
 " Then judge yourself, and prove your man 
 As circumspectly as you can ; 
 
 And having made election. 
 Beware no negligence of yours, 
 finch as a friend but ill endures, 
 
 Enfeeble his affection." CowPKR. 
 
 Wary and CincuMt^PECT are closely 
 allied ; but wary (A. S. waer, aware) 
 is applicable to the vigilant cunning 
 of mere animal self-preservation, while 
 circumspect belongs to the higher 
 matters of prudential conduct and 
 morality (Lat. circumspictre, to look 
 around). An animal might be said to 
 be wary, that is, to hav^e an instinctive 
 sense of danger; but only a moral 
 and reasoning being could be circum- 
 spect. Wariness is rendered neces- 
 sary by the special probability of loss 
 or danger, wliile caution and cir- 
 cumspection are needed generally. 
 One ought to be circumspect in all 
 one's dealings. One needs be wary 
 in dealing with dishonest and design- 
 ing persons. Yet circumspection im- 
 plies possibility of those lesser dangers 
 which come from the thoughtless deal- 
 ing with persons. Circumspection 
 saves us from social blunders which 
 may redound more or less to our in- 
 convenience or detriment. It belongs 
 principally to discourse. One is 
 specially bound, for instance, to be 
 circumspect in talking in the presence 
 of strangers, or upon certain subjects, 
 as religion and politics,as being matters 
 on which people think and feel diffe- 
 rently, so that offence might be easily 
 given. 
 
 " The bear hunts them by scent till he 
 comes in sight, when he advances warily, 
 keeping above them, and concealing himself 
 among the rocks as he makes his approaches, 
 till he gets immediately over them and nigh 
 enough for the purpose."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
 CAV^E. Cavehn. Grotto. 
 The idea of a C a v e ( Fr. cave ; Lat, 
 
 SYNONYMS [cave] 
 
 cftvus, hollow) is a deep lateral hollow 
 in the rock or earth, involving those 
 of darkness and depth to the pro- 
 foundest degree. 
 
 The Cavern (Lat. Cfifverna) conveys 
 these ideas in a less degree. It ex- 
 presses that of vast concavity, and of 
 cover, enclosure, and shelter. 
 
 The Grotto (which is from the L. 
 iuat.grnpta ; Lat. crijpta, and so allied 
 to crypt; Gr. xsuittoV, hidden) is not 
 BO dark and deep as the cave, nor so 
 vast as the cavern. Instead of the 
 repulsive aspect of the cave or cavern, 
 it lias its use and attractions as a place 
 of rustic retreat. There are natural 
 as well as artificial grottos. The cave 
 is for the wild beast, the cavern for 
 robbers, the grotto for those who seek 
 a cool retreat and resting-place. 
 
 CAVITY. Hoi.Low. Hole. 
 Concavity. Perfoiiation. Bore. 
 Excavation. Orifice. 
 
 Every Hole (A. S. hoi, a cave) is a 
 Hollow and a Cavity (Lat. cdvitd- 
 tem)y but every hollow or every cavity 
 is not a hole. Hole is generic, a deep 
 hollow, in which the cavity communi- 
 cates externally by a comparatively 
 narrow or small aperture, or a per- 
 foration through a solid body. Hollow 
 is the interior part of a hollow body 
 excavated by nature or by art, as the 
 hollow of a nut. Where the cavity 
 communicates externally by two aper- 
 tures, it is a Perforation (J ^Sit. perj)i- 
 rare, to bore through). A Concavity 
 (Lat. concUv'itdtem) is a slight super- 
 ficial cavity, as in the eye-glasses 
 called concave. An Excavation 
 (Lat. excttvdtionem) is a hollow, more 
 or less deep, which has been formed 
 out of a solid mass by some living or 
 mechanical agency. The term perfo- 
 ration is sometimes used for that which 
 penetrates but does not pierce through 
 a substance. This is better expressed 
 by Bore, as the bore o^ a gun (A. S. 
 borian, to bore). Bore is, however, 
 used in the same way also, as to bore 
 a tunnel through a mount;iin. A 
 perfoiation is, in this caPO, a lighter 
 thing than a bore, which denotes the 
 laborious piercing on a large scale of 
 solid masses or materials. A thin 
 sheet of paper might be p: rfor, ted, 
 
[cede] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 215 
 
 not bored. We should not speak of 
 the tunnel above mentioned, as a per- 
 foration, though here and there the 
 sea, we might say, has perforated the 
 rocks. An Orifice {Lat.dnJIcinm. an 
 opening) is an opening which re- 
 sembles the mouth in form and use, 
 as the orifice of a tube or a flower, 
 open outwardly and closed within. 
 
 " Jehoiada the priest took a cliest, and 
 bored a hole in the lid of it." — Bible. 
 
 " Upon weighing the heart in my hand I 
 found it to be extremely light, and tonse- 
 qnently very hollow, which I did not wonder 
 at, when npon looking inside of it I saw 
 multitudes of cells and cariYiCS running one 
 within another." — Spectator. 
 
 Cavity is more a term of descriptive 
 science than Hole, and is, of course, 
 also essentially distinct from Hole in 
 the sense of perforation. 
 
 " Look upon the outside of a dome, your 
 eye half surrounds it; look up into the in- 
 side, and at one glance you have ail the pro- 
 spect of it. The entire concavity falls into 
 your eye at once." — Spectator. 
 
 " Herein may be perceived slendei* per- 
 
 {'orations, at which may be expressed a 
 lack foeculent matter." — Brown's Vulgar 
 Errors. 
 
 " The appearance, therefore, of the dry 
 land was by the excavation of certain sinus 
 and tracts of the earth, and exaggerating 
 and lifting up other parts of the terrestrial 
 matters, and by this means the water sub- 
 sided into those cavernsand valleys prepared 
 for its reception." — Hale. 
 
 CEASE. Discontinue. Termi- 
 nate. 
 
 To Cease (I,at. cessare), when used 
 as a transitive verb, is to put a stop 
 to, or bring to an end simply ; when 
 as an intransitive verb, it means in the 
 same way simply to come to an end. 
 The sound ceased. It is more com- 
 monly used in the intransitive way. 
 As a transitive verb, it implies a former 
 course of operative action, which is 
 voluntarily terminated by the agent. 
 This notion belongs also to Discon- 
 tinue (0. Fr. discontimier). The 
 wind ceases to blow, the man cease* 
 talking, and discontinues his work. 
 Between the transitive Cease and Dis- 
 continue there exist some shades of 
 difference. One ceases by abandon- 
 ing; one discontinues by interrupt- 
 ing* one ceases an operation of any 
 kind, aa to cease chattering ; one dis- 
 
 continues a set practice or process. 
 To cease involves a more direct act 
 than discontinue. I cease working 
 when I feel wearied by it. In the 
 other, a casual interruption may have 
 compelled me to discontinue it. 
 
 " Cease to do evil, learn to do well."- - 
 BibU. 
 
 ToTermis Art. {Lat. terminal e, to set 
 bounds) is to discontinue at the ulti- 
 mate point, and so often means to 
 bring to an appointed end, when the 
 thing ought not to be allowed to go 
 farther. Hence the word is charac- 
 teristically employed of discussion and 
 dispute. It involves the interposition 
 of power and authority, and stands 
 opposed to prolongation. The verb 
 tei-minate is used also intransitively, 
 in which case it means to come to n 
 stop, to meet with a boundary, oi 
 something which causes cessation. 
 Both in its transitive and inti-ansitive 
 applications, terminate presupposes 
 some considerable antecedent prolon- 
 gation, a protraction in the subject. 
 One may cease doing that which has 
 employed one for a very short while, 
 one terminates what has been long, 
 often unduly, continued. 
 
 "The thought that our existence termi- 
 nates with this life doth naturally check the 
 soul in anygenerouspnrsnit." — Berkeley. 
 
 " I wish that milder love or death. 
 That ends our miseries with onr breath, 
 
 Would my affections terminate ; 
 For to my soul, deprived of peace, 
 It is a torment worse than these 
 
 Thus wretchedly to love and hate." 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 CEDE. Concede. Yield. Grant. 
 
 To Cede (Lat. cedtre) is to ^iveup 
 in a formal manner, and with reference 
 to recognized rights and claims on 
 either side, as a nation cedes a terri- 
 tory under treaty to another nation. 
 It is a tribute to the claims of justice, 
 an act of dignity and right combined. 
 Political rights, as well as territory, 
 are said to be ceded. 
 
 To Concede, which is a compound 
 form of the above, is to give up with 
 an implication of a power to withhold. 
 It is more commonly used in matters 
 of debate or claim. It is, therefore, 
 an act of discretion or courtesy, or 
 anything short of absolute compulsion. 
 
216 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [celeb KATE] 
 
 Yield (A. S. yldan, to delay) is to 
 give up under some degree of pressure 
 at least, if not absolute compulsion. 
 
 To Grant (0. Ft. graunter) is to 
 give voluntarily, or upon petition, 
 but not upon coercion or compulsion. 
 It denotes freedom and liberality in 
 giving or giving up. 
 
 The whole island (St. Christopher) was 
 ceded in sovereignty to the crown of Great 
 Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht."— 
 Grainger. 
 
 " The first is petitio principii, which 
 fallacy is committed where that is assumed 
 as a principle to prove another thing which 
 is not conceded as true in itself."— Brown's 
 Vulgar Errors, 
 
 "The fourth disposition for peace— an 
 yieldableness upon sight of clearer truths." 
 —Bishop Hall. 
 
 " Both sides being desirers, and neither 
 granters, they broke off the conference." — 
 Sidney's Arcciaui. 
 
 CELEBRATi:. CoMMEMonATE. 
 
 To Celebrate (Lat. celebrdre) is to 
 extol or honour in a solemn manner. 
 It is used of persons, deeds, events, 
 and days or seasons. 
 
 To Commemorate (Lat. coinman'6- 
 rdre) is to recall in a solemn manner. 
 Hence it follows that we celebrate what 
 is marked, striking, illustrious. We 
 commemorate what is dear and inte- 
 resting to us. The same things, from 
 different points of view, may often be 
 said to be both celebrated and com- 
 memorated. We commemorate the 
 battle of Waterloo when we mark the 
 day on which it comes round in some 
 special manner. We celebrate it when 
 we treat it as an illustrious day with 
 festivities, public demonstrations, 
 panegyric speeches, and the like. 
 The birthday of the member of a family 
 is annually commemorated by some 
 little observance of the day ; but the 
 event is not illustrious enough to be 
 celebrated. Hence, too, events of 
 importance and interest, but of a 
 melancholy character, such as the 
 death of a great or beloved person, 
 would be commemorated, not cele- 
 brated. It will be observed from this 
 that Celebrate refers to what is past 
 and to what is present. Commemorate 
 only to what is past. 
 
 " It may happen in the various combina- 
 tions of life, that a good man may receive 
 
 favours from one who nolwithstaading his 
 accidental beneficence cannot be justly pro- 
 posed to the imitation of others, and whom 
 therefore he must find some other way of 
 rewarding than by public celebrations." — 
 Bambler. 
 
 " You will pardon me, I hope, for speak- 
 ing in this advantaget;us manner of my own 
 conduct; but as you advise me to alleviate 
 my present uneasiness by a retrospect of 
 my past actions, I will confess that in thus 
 commemorating them I find great consola 
 tion." — Melmoth, Cicero. 
 
 Form. 
 
 Rite. 
 
 CEREMONY. 
 Observance. 
 
 All these terms relate to the solemn, 
 prescribed, and public acts of society. 
 Form (Lat. /bnna) is the most gene- 
 ric. Form means generally a definite 
 and prescribed mode of doing a thing 
 in any transaction of life, and applies 
 to many matters which are not con- 
 nected with social intercourse and 
 manners, or have a character of puD- 
 licity ; as, a form of returns for regis- 
 tration. 
 
 " Many that vehemently oppose forms 
 are the greatest formalists." — Glanvill. 
 
 A Ceremony (Lat. C(£,rimdnia) is 
 such a form as regulates public trans- 
 actions, or the demeanour of indivi- 
 duals in cases where any degree of 
 respect has to be shown, whether in 
 mutual civility and propriety, or re- 
 ligious devotion. 
 
 " Not to use ceremonies at all is to teach 
 others not to use them again, and so di- 
 minish respect to himself: especially they 
 are not to be omitted to strangers and 
 formal natures. But the dwelling upon 
 them and exalting them above the moon 
 is not only tedious, but doth diminish the 
 faith and credit of him that speaks." — 
 Bacon. 
 
 Rite (Lat. r'ltus) is a ceremony of 
 a peculiarly solemn or sacredly im- 
 portant character, which is of a reli- 
 gious or gravely political nature. 
 
 " It IS very plain that baptism, which is 
 by all acknowledged to be the rite of ini- 
 tiating us into Christianity, is in Sci-ipture 
 declared to be the rite whereby we are en- 
 tered and admitted into the Church." — 
 Sharp. 
 
 Observance (Lat. ob&ervantia) is, 
 like Rite, of a religious character ; but 
 as a rite is performed by public and re- 
 sponsible officers, observances may be 
 kept by individuals, and even in pn 
 
[CHALLENGE] DISCRIMINATED 
 
 vate, as "some persons are strict in 
 the observance of Lent." Hence the 
 term relates more commonly to the 
 customs and times of observance, as 
 the observance of a sabbath, than to 
 the objects of it. We should say, not 
 the observance, but the commemoration 
 of Christ's resurrection ; on the other 
 hand, Easter Day is observed. An 
 observance is rather a way of acting 
 than a formal, ceremonial, or definite 
 act. Hence we speak of observing 
 a strict silence. 
 
 2i: 
 
 " Since the obligation npon Christians to 
 ormply \rith the religious observance vf 
 Snnday arises from the public uses of the 
 institution and the authority of the apos- 
 tolic practice, the manner of obsennng it 
 ought to be that which best fulfils these 
 uses and conforms the nearest to this prac- 
 tice."— Pale Y. 
 
 CHAFE. Fret. Gall. Rub. 
 
 CHAFE(Fr.c/!flu/fer, L. L&t. cKllfdre, 
 contr. from cdlejactre), like Fret and 
 Gall, is used metaphorically. It is to 
 excite heat in the mind, as physical 
 heat or irritation is excited by friction. 
 It is commonly employed of the ex- 
 citement of feelings of irritation, vexa- 
 tion, annoyance, or petty anger. 
 
 To Fret (A. S. /refan, i.e. for -ex an, 
 to eat away) is used of small irritations, 
 which produce their effect by their 
 continuance and repetition, and sad- 
 den the spirits. 
 
 Gall (O. Fr. galler, to rub, scratch) 
 is used of such vexations as have a 
 humiliating effect, or, as it were, 
 wound the pride. Rub is no more 
 than friction, which may be whole- 
 some and needful, or galling and 
 vexatious, according tocircumstances. 
 It is seldom used, except in the literal 
 sense, though the noun rub is some- 
 times employed of the rough contacts 
 of society. It is employed, unlike 
 the others, of the person suffering, as 
 well as the annoyance suffered ; that 
 is, the annoyance is said to chafe, or 
 the person to chafe against the \nnoy- 
 ance. 
 
 "The inward chafinas and agitations of 
 his struggling soul. — South. 
 
 " Fret not thyself because of the un- 
 godly."— i?ooA of Psalms. 
 
 "The necks of mortal men having been 
 pever before galled with the yoke of foreign 
 
 dominion, nor havmg had experience of f.h»» 
 most miserable and detested condition of 
 living in slavery." — Ralegh. 
 
 " And these are wonderfu.ly busy and 
 active to throw rubs and stumbling-block* 
 in our way."— Sharp. 
 
 CHALLENGE. Brave. Defy. 
 Dare. Canvass. 
 
 Challenge (0. Fr. chalonge, Lat. 
 cHlumnia) is to provoke or summon to 
 answer for something, and therefore 
 can only be properlii used of personal 
 adversaries. It is a call to combat, 
 which must be appreciated by two 
 persons. It is a rhetorical analogy 
 to speak of ClHillengvtg danger. To 
 challenge is always in words, unless 
 some significant act be performed 
 which has the expressiveness of words; 
 as, to throw down a gauntlet. 
 
 Brave <^Fr. brave) is to meet with 
 courage an opposing danger or force, 
 whether living or not, and whether 
 initiated by words or not. It belongs 
 to physical and moral courage. To 
 ('efy and to dare, when used as active 
 verbs, have this difference. To Defy 
 a person to do a thing ( Fr. defer) im- 
 plies the expression of your own cheap 
 estimate of his efforts.' To Dare him 
 to do it (A. S. dyrran) is lo put him 
 on his own courage or resources, with 
 an implied notion that he will think 
 better than make the attempt. The 
 original idea of reproach, as lying at 
 the bottom of Challenge, sui-vives in 
 the phrase, *' to challenge the truth of 
 a statement," that is, to call it out as 
 untrue, with a view to combat it. 
 
 " Vet I am far from thinking this tender- 
 ness universally necessary ; for he that 
 writes maybe considered as a general chal- 
 lenger whom every one has a right to at- 
 tack." — Rambler. 
 
 " Face not me, thou hast braved many 
 men : brave not me. I will neither be 
 faced nor ftrr/red"— SHAKESPEARE. 
 The radical meaning of defy (L. Lat. 
 difidare) is to reject affiance, i.e., 
 faith given; hence to proclaim hos- 
 tility, or to renounce. So Sir T. 
 ^V'}att's oration — 
 
 " What word gave I unto thee. Mason ? 
 What message ? I defy all familiarity and 
 friendship betwixt us. Say thy worst." 
 
 " What ! is Brutus sick. 
 And will he steal out of his wholesome bed 
 To dare the vile confJigion of the night?" 
 ShakespeaRS. 
 
218 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [championJ 
 
 To Canvass, bears a close similarity 
 in application to Challenge, when 
 used of statements. It is a curious 
 word in itself. Canvas (Fr. canebas) 
 IS the Lat. cannabis, hemp, then 
 woven hemp; then again, as such 
 a material was employed as a strainer, 
 to canvas a matter bore the mean- 
 ing of the analogous verb to sift ; 
 that is to separate carefully the com- 
 ponent parts for the purpose of 
 seeing of what the matter was com- 
 posed, or what it amounted to, ex- 
 amining it to the very grounds. 
 
 " An opinion that we are likely soon to 
 canvas."— Sm W. Hamtltoi^. 
 
 It is a stop in advance of Challengk. 
 For to challenge is simply to call in 
 question, to canvass is to proceed with 
 tne question and discuss it. 
 
 CHAMPION. Heuo. Comba- 
 
 TANT. 
 
 A Champion (0. Fr. champion, L. 
 Lat. campibnem, a man of thejield) is 
 one who is ready singly to contend on 
 behalf of another or a cause, primarily 
 in physical combat, secondarily in any 
 kind of effort or contest ; as, a cham- 
 pion in the cause of liberty, religious 
 freedom, political equality, and the 
 like. 
 
 " In a battle every man should fight as 
 if he were the single champion ; in jirepa- 
 rations for war every man should think as 
 if the UiSt event depended on his own 
 counsel."— /rf^er. 
 
 Hero (Lat. hiros) expresses a man 
 of distinguished valour or daring, 
 whether as a champion, combatant, 
 soldier, or man of adventure. The 
 champion is ready to fight; the hero 
 has fought, and has perhaps retired 
 to live a life of peace, and enjoy the 
 reputation of his deeds. 
 
 " The most magnanimous hero of the 
 Qeld will earnestly solicit the aid of a phy- 
 sician on a bed of sit-kness," — CoQAN. 
 
 A Combatant (Fr. combatant, part, 
 of 0. Fr. combatre, to fight) is a hand- 
 to-hand fighter in a personal engage- 
 ment. The term is hai-dly applicable 
 to regular and disciplined fighting of 
 aimies on the modern field of battle, 
 •.ndividual soldiers in action are not 
 called combatants. 
 
 " To have the correal ended by parting 
 the combatants."— Sovru. 
 
 CHANCE. Accident. Fortune. 
 Hazard. Probability. 
 
 Chance (Fr. chance, L. Lac. cdden- 
 tia) is a befalling. It is used, as was 
 observed under Accident, in two dis- 
 tinct though closely associated mean- 
 ings ; either, 1, to express the absence 
 of assignable cause, or, 2, the absence 
 of design. An instance of the former 
 is, " By chance the tyrant that morn- 
 ing was in a good humour;" an iiv- 
 stance of the latter would be, '^ I 
 aimed at the red ball, and bv chance 
 I struck the white one also.' In the 
 former case no cause can be specified, 
 though of course some cause existed; 
 in the latter the cause might be dis- 
 tinctly seen and observ&d, but the 
 effect was not tlie result designed. 
 
 " It is not, I say, merely in a pious man- 
 ner of expression that the Scripture thus 
 ascribes every event to the providence of 
 God, but it is strictly and philosophically 
 true in-nature and reason that there is no 
 such thing as chance or accident ; it being 
 evident that these words do not signify 
 anything really existing, anything that is 
 truly an agent or the cause of any event, 
 but they signify merely men's ignorance of 
 the real and immediate cause." — CLARKE. 
 
 Accident (Lat. acctdere, to befall) 
 is relative, as Chance is absolute. Ac- 
 cident is chance in some effect pro- 
 duced. In chance the abstract may 
 not have become the concrete, as when 
 we say, " Yes, but what if it should 
 chance to turn out differently I " or, 
 " There is a chance of its turning out 
 differently ; " but an accident is his- 
 torical and actual. Hence it follows 
 that accident is very often partial 
 chance, in which chance and design 
 are blended; yet the effect was not 
 designed. Such would be the cha- 
 racter of the remark, " He wounded 
 him by accident in fencing." There 
 is a complexion of the untoward in 
 the word accident ; if the contrary i«i 
 meant, we add a word, as a lucky 
 accident. 
 
 " Place, riches, favour — 
 Prizes of accident as oft as merit." 
 Shakkspkarb 
 
 Fortune (^Lat. fort una) is chance 
 or accident am they regard human life 
 
[change] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 219 
 
 and its hopes, employments, and un- 
 dertakings, for good or evil, success 
 or failure. Chance has nothing in it 
 either of order or design. One does 
 not impersonate it, nor attribute to it 
 knowledge or will. Fortune forms 
 plans, but without choice. One at- 
 tributes to it a will without discern- 
 ment, and says that she has fi-eaks, 
 or acts blindfold. 
 " Fortune a goddess is to fools alone ; 
 The wise are always masters of their own." 
 Drydex. 
 
 Hazard (Fr. hasard, which origi- 
 nally meantao'ameaf dice. See Littre, 
 Diet., and also Supp.) is the operation 
 of chance so far as man voluntarily 
 laces himself within the range of it, 
 and leans to an unfavourable issue. 
 We speak of the chance of success, as 
 well as failure or defeat ; of the hazard 
 of defeat, but not of victory. JNIen 
 will often hazard the loss of a lesser 
 good, for the chance of a greater, or 
 what they may esteem to be such. 
 
 " I am always willing to run some luizard 
 of being tedious, in order to be sure that I 
 am pei-spicuous." — Adam Smith. 
 
 Probability (Lat. pr'bhabWitatem) 
 partakes of the mixed nature of cer- 
 tainty and chance. It is founded 
 upon the doctrine that " like causes 
 produce like effects." The chance or 
 uncertainty is represented by the 
 question, " Are the causes in the pre- 
 sent case sufficiently like to past ex- 
 perience?" \i 80, the thing is pro- 
 
 " As demonsti-ation is the showmg the 
 agreement or disagreement of two ideas by 
 the intervention of one or moi'e proofs 
 which have a constant, immutable, and 
 visible eonucxion one with another ; so 
 prolxibility is nothing but the appearance 
 of such an agreement or disagreement, by 
 the intervention of proofs whose connexion 
 is not constant or immutable, or at least is 
 not perceived to be so, but is or appears for 
 the most part to be so, and is enough to 
 induce the mind to judge the propos-tion to 
 be true or false rather than the contrary." 
 —Locke. 
 
 CHANGE. Alter. Vary. Con- 
 vert. 
 
 Change (^Fv.chanser), which is ge- 
 neric, as also the other two of these 
 synonyms, is employed both as a 
 transitive and an intransitive verb. 
 '«ed transitively, to change a thing is 
 
 to put anothei in its p.ace. lliia loss 
 of identity is not expressed by the 
 intransitive form; as, he changes eveiy 
 day. To Alter (L. Lat. altcrdre) is 
 to preserve the identity while we 
 change some portion of it, or some 
 property of it, as its shape or colour. 
 To Vary (Lat. vdriare) is to cause a 
 thing to differ at different times, or 
 one portion of it to differ from another. 
 A lady varies her appearance when 
 she frequently changes her dress. 
 Even where the same things are re- 
 ferred to, Change is a stronger term 
 than A lter ; the most trivial removal 
 or substitution of detail alters a thing, 
 yet the change may be almost imper- 
 ceptible. In this case changes are 
 alterations of a considerable character. 
 In some particular connexions these 
 distinctive forces are very perceptible. 
 We alter our opinions when they be- 
 come in some respects not what we 
 used to hold ; we change them when 
 we abandon them altogether, and 
 adopt others in their stead. We should 
 be said to vary a statement if we mad« 
 it in different fonns at different times, 
 to alter it if we made the change but 
 once. To Convert (Lat. converiire) 
 is to transmute or change from one 
 thm^ to another. Such a change may 
 be either internal and substantive, or 
 external and relative, as wine may be 
 converted into vinegar, or a walking- 
 stick into a weapon of defence. 
 
 " That still lessens. 
 The sorrow, and converts it nigh to joy." 
 
 MiLTOX. 
 
 " I would not exclude altcrntion neither, 
 but even when 1 cknnged it should be to 
 preserve." — Burke. 
 "Whether shall we profess some trade or 
 
 skUl, 
 Or shall we vary our device at will ?" 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 CHANGE. Variation. Variety. 
 Alteration. 
 
 Change marks the passage from 
 one state to another. Variation the 
 rapid passage through many succes- 
 sive states; Variety the existence 
 of many individuals of the same 
 species, under conditions partly like, 
 and partly different. Alieration is 
 the changed state of an individual. 
 The two former are in action or move- 
 
220 
 
 taent, tho latter is in essence or nature. 
 A certain rose may change in colour 
 as it grows. Such a change may be 
 regarded as an alteration of colour, 
 as regards the individual rose, or a 
 variation from the standard or com- 
 mon colour of the kind. Variety 
 would be found in different roses, or 
 in different parts of the same rose. 
 
 CHARACTER. Letter. 
 
 Character is to LfirrEn (Lat, fi- 
 itra) as genus to species. Every let- 
 ter is a character, but every character 
 is not a letter. Character embraces 
 other distinctive signs stamped or en- 
 graved. We might speak of hiero- 
 glyphic characters, or the characters 
 of snort-hand, which nevertheless are 
 :aot letters. A letter is a component 
 jart of the common alphabet of any 
 anguage. 
 
 "Almost all the men had their names 
 '.raced upon their arms in indelible cha- 
 ractersofa black colour." — Cook's Voyages. 
 
 " The essence of letters doth consist in 
 their power or proper sound, which may 
 be naturally fixed and stated from the 
 manner of forming them by the instru- 
 ments of speech, and either is or should be 
 the same in all languages." — Wilkins. 
 
 CHARACTER. Reputation. 
 Credit. 
 
 In this connexion Character is 
 used of the whole complex constitu- 
 tion of a man's personal qualities. It 
 therefore exists anterior to and inde- 
 pendent of his reputation. A common 
 character has no reputation at all. 
 When used of the personal stamp as 
 regarded by others, it still differs some- 
 what fi'om reputation. It is moral, 
 while reputation extends to other 
 qualities. A man has a character for 
 honesty or dishonesty ; he has hardly 
 a character for talent ; in this case we 
 should use Reputation (Lat. rtpiita- 
 tidnem), because the mental qualities 
 of a person are not that aspect of his 
 nature which passes comironly before 
 the world for judgment. His moral 
 qualities affect his friends and con- 
 nexions, his intellectual qualities affect 
 'timself. Credit is that trustworthi- 
 cess which is based upon what is 
 .nown of character (Lat. cridtre, to 
 
 ust), and relates both to right eon- 
 
 srNONYMs [character] 
 
 duct and the truth of propositions. 
 Credit may be given on specific occa- 
 sions only ; character and reputation 
 are permanent. Character is borne, 
 reputation acquired, credit given. Re- 
 putation is more than ordinary ; cha- 
 racter and credit belong to ordinaiy 
 deeds, conduct, and persons, unless 
 some specific epithet is added. 
 
 *' He will represent to him as often, with 
 as much zeal as you or I should, the vir- 
 tues of his ancestors, and what a gloriona 
 weight of illustrious characters he has to 
 support."— Melmoth, Cicero. 
 
 " lieputation is the greatest engine bj 
 which those who are possessed of power must 
 make that power serviceable to the ends 
 and uses of government." — Atterbuky. 
 
 " If the Gospel and the Apostles may be 
 credited, no man can be a Chi-istian with- 
 out charity, and without that faith which 
 works not by force, but by lore." — LoCKE. 
 
 CHARACTER. Stamp. Nature. 
 Kind. Sort. Assortment. Species. 
 Genus. Form. Cast. Order. Air 
 Mould. Shape. 
 
 Character in this sense is pur- 
 posely va^ue. It is that view of the 
 nature which is external and strikes 
 the natural eye or the eye of the mind 
 as being of a certain order. A land- 
 scape of a banen character is one in 
 which certain broad features of bar- 
 renness predominate, so as to affect 
 the whole. This is character, in the 
 sense of outline or general configura- 
 tion, as it strikes the eye at a single 
 glance. 
 
 '* Let a man think what multitudes of 
 those among whom he dwells are totally 
 ignorant of his name and character." — 
 Blair. 
 
 That is, generally, what manner of 
 man he is. On the other hand, the 
 verb characterize has rather the sensa 
 of affixing by words an appropriate 
 mark upon a thing or person, as : — 
 
 " You roust know, sir, that I am one of 
 that spef-ies of women whom you have cha- 
 racterized under the name of jilts." — Spec- 
 tator. 
 
 Stamp (Ger. stampfen) is that gene- 
 ral impression which a thing gives us 
 of itself : it is in English what cha- 
 racter (vapaxTw/), impress, stamp) is in 
 Greek. Tt is used also in detail, as we 
 speak of a stamp of nobility in per- 
 sonal appearance. The verb to stamp 
 is in its secondary sense moral — to 
 
[citaracter] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 221 
 
 «fl&x a moral character, or at least a 
 distinctive one ; to characterize is 
 rather logical and definitive. Circum- 
 stances may stamp a man, words cha- 
 racterize him. 
 
 " A young maid truly of the finest stamp 
 of beauty."— Sidney, Arcadia. 
 
 Nature (Lat. nuiura) is a word of 
 wider meaning, embracing all tliat 
 makes a thing to be what it is, its 
 essence or definition, its properties, 
 forais, tendencies, faculties, qualities, 
 and the like. 
 
 " Nature, then, according to the opinion 
 of Aristotle, is the beginning of motion and 
 rest, in that thing wherein it is properly 
 and principally, not by accident ; for all 
 things to be seen (which are done neither 
 by fortune nor by necessity, and are not 
 divine, nor have any such efficient cause) are 
 called material, sis having a proper and pe- 
 culiar nature of their own." — Holland, 
 Plutarch. 
 
 Kind (A. S. cynd') is the nature 
 according to its place in creation, 
 while Sort ( Fr. sorte) denotes mere 
 assemblage on vague principles of 
 similarity without any natural affinity ; 
 as, a certain kind of animal, a certain 
 sort of coat. When things of a sort 
 are collected for the purpose of being 
 more conveniently dealt with as such, 
 it is called an Assortment. It is, 
 however, possible that any parcel of 
 things may have a natural affinity, 
 but it is not simply as having it that 
 they are sorted. 
 
 " Some of you, on pure instinct of nature, 
 Are led by kind to admire your fellow- 
 creature." Dryden. 
 " Shell-fish have been by some of the an- 
 sients compared and sorted with insects." — 
 Bacon. 
 
 " An adjective is by nature a general, and 
 in some measure an abstract word, and ne- 
 cessarily presupposes the idea of a certain 
 species or assortment of things to all of which 
 it is equally applicable." — Smith, Forma- 
 tion oj Languages. 
 
 Species and Genus are Latin scien- 
 tific, and may perhaps be considered 
 correlative, terms. In Aristote- 
 lian logic, the genus is the higher 
 species, that is, the species which ap- 
 proaches nearer to the abstract or su- 
 {)reme genus; while species is the 
 ower genus, or that which approaches 
 >nparer to the individual. So the same 
 
 may be genus or species according to 
 its relative position in the scale. 
 
 " In the defining of words, which is no- 
 thing but declaring their .signification, we 
 make use of the<7eMJW, or next general word 
 which comprehends it," — LoCKE. 
 
 Not that this is the whole process ot 
 logical definition, for to the genus has 
 to be added the differentia or distinc- 
 tive property. 
 
 FoR.M (Leit. foiTna) is a particular 
 mode of manifestation in anything 
 which is wont to manifest itself under 
 several like or cognate manifestations, 
 as the same or different form of hat, 
 the same or diflferent form of address, 
 the same or different form of speech. 
 " Of bodies changed to various forms I 
 sing." Dryden's Ovid. 
 
 Cast (Dan. kaste, to throw) is used 
 almost in the same way as Mould 
 (Fr. monle, Lat. mMYdtis^ ', but we 
 commonly apply Cast to what is per- 
 sonal in countenance, character, ap- 
 })earance, and Mould when we enter- 
 tain the idea not only of shape or im- 
 pression on ourselves, but of formative 
 origin. The two are often associated 
 in the same phrase ; as, to be cast in % 
 different mould. 
 
 " The business men are chiefly conversan 
 in does not only give a certain cast or turt 
 io their minds, but is very often apparent ir 
 their outward behaviour and some of thf 
 most indifiei-ent actions of their lives."— 
 Spectator. 
 
 " My Sonne, if thon of such a molde 
 Art made, now tell me pleine thy shrift." 
 GoWER. 
 
 Order (Fr. ordre) denotes com- 
 monly not only the characteristic 
 nature and kind, but a reference to a 
 scale ; as we speak of a high or low 
 order. The notion conveyed by such an 
 expression as a thing of the same or a 
 different order, is partly scientific and 
 partly not. The word order in scientific 
 classification commonly means a group 
 of allied individuals more comprehen- 
 sive than the genus. The temi is em- 
 ployed to represent a class or com- 
 munity, which is bound together by 
 common rights, privileges, similarity 
 of occupation, and object, being so re- 
 cognized by society or the State ; as, 
 the order of Priests or Jesuits, the 
 monastic order, or Benedictine order. 
 As employed conventionally, the term 
 
222 
 
 SYNONYMS [characteristic] 
 
 implies relative dignity, value, or 
 
 worth. 
 " Men shnlde it in the prestes find, 
 Their order is of so high a kynde." 
 
 GOWER. 
 
 Air (Fr. air, Lat. atr ; bo splrttus 
 means dupositicn) signifies sucli a 
 manifestation of character as is made 
 involuntarily. It is applied both to 
 persons and analogously to things ; as 
 we say, such and such a theory wears 
 an intelligible air, by which we mean 
 to grant that there may be something 
 in it accordant with truth and common 
 sense, if it wei'e worth while to exa- 
 mine it. 
 
 " It is certain that married persons who 
 are possessed with a mutual esteem, not 
 only cratch the air and way of talk from one 
 another, but fall into the same traces of 
 thinking and liking," — Spectator. 
 
 Shape (A. S. yerh sceapian) is sim- 
 ply such external form or configura- 
 tion as belongs or may be conceived 
 to belong to anything. It differs from 
 form in this character of externality. 
 The fonn of a thmg results from the 
 relative aggregation of its parts, both 
 internal and external, that is, its so- 
 lidity as well as its surface. Shape 
 refers to the superficies, but not the 
 substance. The form includes length, 
 breadth, and thickness; the shape is 
 only what meets the eye. This aiffe- 
 rence appears more strongly in the 
 verbs than the nouns : to form a thing 
 is as it were to create it. God formed, 
 not merely shaped, man out of the 
 dust of the ground. Nature forms the 
 marble, man shapes the block. He 
 may also be said to form the statue, 
 because he actually makes it ; as such, 
 it did not exist before. To form in- 
 volves the use and preparation of 
 materials ; to shape may be no more 
 than to give them a contour super- 
 ficially. 
 
 •• And eke his garment to be thereto meet. 
 He wilfully did cut, and shape anew." 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 CHARACTERISTIC. Distino 
 
 TIVE. 
 
 Characteristic (Gr. p^SpaxT^p, an 
 engraved mark) is employed of that 
 which illustrates or represents the 
 character in a telling way ; Distinc- 
 tive (Lat. divtingucre, part, disiinctui) 
 ei that wbich so marks a thing as tc 
 
 separate it from others. That is cha- 
 racteristic, which leads the mind to 
 associate the person or object at once 
 with the class to which he belongs, or 
 the nature which he bears. That is 
 distinctive, which prevents the mind 
 from confounding such person or ob- 
 ject with other classes, or investing 
 them with other natures than tlieir 
 own. The distinctive puts back what 
 is strange, alien, unlike ; the charac- 
 teristic brings forward what is native, 
 natural, proper. Characteristic has a 
 positive. Distinctive anegative force. 
 Distinctive is a graver word than 
 characteristic. Distinctive belongs to 
 the inherent nature and properties of 
 things. Char ACT eristic to our impres- 
 sions about them and the general way 
 in which they strike us. That which 
 is distinctive marks the properties of 
 the class, that which is characteristic 
 expresses the peculiarities of the in- 
 dividual. 
 
 CHARGE. Accuse. Impeach. 
 Arraign. Criminate. Indict. 
 
 Of these Charge (Fr. charger, to 
 bad) is the most generic. It is to lay 
 upon a person a burden, hence speci- 
 fically of imputed guilt ; and this either 
 formally or legally, or generally and 
 morally. Hence it refers to many 
 things which are not of the specific 
 nature of crimes ; thus, a dereliction 
 of duty, or dishonesty, or a Avant of 
 fidelity to one's self, may be the object 
 of a charge. " I charge him with 
 having indolently let slip many occa- 
 sions of improving his condition.'* 
 There is another use of the term in 
 which the burden laid is one of re- 
 sponsibility, without any connexion 
 with the imputation of fault or crime. 
 It is a word of solemn adjuration, and 
 of ordinary commission. I charge 
 another with a message, or I charge 
 him to speak the truth. 
 
 " Men do not pick quarrels with their 
 friends, and therefore when we find any 
 charging the Scripture with obscurity and 
 imperfection.we have reason to believe they 
 have no comfort from it." — SiiLLlNa- 
 FLEET. 
 
 Accuse (Lat. accusdre) refers to 
 failings, faults, or crimes by whicb 
 others are injured. It also impIie^ 
 more than a mere mouth-to-moutb 
 
[charge] 
 
 imputation ; it is formal and public. 
 I may charade a man with a crime be- 
 tween myself and him, but if I accuse 
 him of it, I make the charge more or 
 less a matter of publicity. It is also 
 more strict and technical th an Cii a rg e . 
 I charge a person with anything that 
 he has wrongly committed or omitted. 
 The subject of accusation is commonly 
 a distinct offence, bearing a distinct 
 name ; as, theft, slander, murder. Cri- 
 minate (Lat. cfimindre, and -ri ) is yet 
 stronger. It is to bring against an- 
 other a charge in such a way that he 
 finds himself compelled to deal with 
 the matter as personal and imminent. 
 Circumstances may criminate, while 
 only persons charge or accuse. Cni- 
 MiNATE has a stronger relation to tne 
 state of the person. A man criminated 
 feels himself placed in the position of 
 a g^-ave offender. 
 
 " Their thoughts the meanwhile accusing 
 or else excusing one another." — Bible. 
 
 " To criminate with the heavy and un- 
 grounded charge of disloyalty and disaffec- 
 tion an uucorrupt, independent, and reform- 
 ing parliament." — BuRKK. 
 
 Impeach and Arraign rather im- 
 ply than express an accusation or 
 charge. Impeach (O. Fr. empescher, 
 prob. Lat. imptdicare, to fetter : but see 
 Littre) is officially to charge with 
 misbehaviour in office, and may relate 
 to anything which is of the nature of 
 an offence considering the office held. 
 Arraign (O, Fr. aranier, L. Lat. 
 arrUlibndre) is to call to account, and 
 is characteristically employed of the 
 exercise of personal power of judg- 
 ment. It is to call personally to ac- 
 count in a specific and summary 
 manner, and may be directed against 
 a course of conduct in an individual as 
 well as specific matters of misdemea- 
 nour; but Arraign more commonly 
 relates to an act. Impeach to a series 
 of acts. Impeach is formal and official, 
 A RRAiGN is informal and personal. A r- 
 raign involves a decisive act of power 
 in a superior, of boldness in an equal 
 or inferior ; for inasmuch as the 
 essence of the word is only to cite in 
 a summary manner to give an account, 
 this may be either by an equal or in- 
 ferior before a superior, or by a supe- 
 rior before himself. He who aiTaigns, 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 223 
 
 judges also and decides. This is not 
 the case with Impeach. In England 
 the House of Commons impeach, and 
 the House of Lords determine the 
 impeachment. 
 
 ''Censure, which arraigns the public 
 actions and the private motives of princes, 
 has ascribed t» envy a conduct which might 
 be attributed to the prudence and modera- 
 tion of Hadrian." — Gibbon. 
 
 " Of these the representatives of th« 
 people, or House of Commons, cannot pro- 
 perly judge, because their constituents are 
 the parties injured, andean therefore only 
 impeach. But before what court shall this 
 impeachment be tried ? Not before the or- 
 dinary tribunals, which would naturally be 
 swayed by the authority of so powerful an 
 accuser. Reason, therefore, will suggest 
 that this branch of the legislature, which- 
 represents the people, must bring its charge 
 against the other branch, which consists of 
 the nobility, who hiive neither the same in- 
 terests nor the same passions as popular 
 assemblies."— Bl,a.ckstoxk. 
 
 " An indictment is a, written accusation of 
 one or more persons of a crime or misde- 
 meanour preferred to and presented upon 
 oath by a grand jury." — Ibid. 
 
 Indict (Lat. indiccre, part, indicins) 
 is a term regulated bv the form of 
 process and nature of the offence. In 
 law, it is the peculiar province of a 
 grand jury to 'ndict, as it is of a houg 
 of representatives to impeach. 
 
 CHARGE. Care. Management. 
 Administration. Control. Go- 
 vernment. 
 
 Charge in this sense denotes dele- 
 gated care under circumstances of 
 responsibility. Care denotes no 
 more than time bestowed upon an ob- 
 ject with personallabouror attention. 
 To take care of a child is to keep him 
 out of harm's way. It is the work of 
 solicitude and affection, as Charge is 
 of responsibility and duty. To take 
 charge of him is to do everything in 
 connexion with him which another 
 would require. For we take care of 
 what is our own ; we take charge of 
 "what is another's. 
 
 " I can never believe that the repugnance 
 with which Tiberius took the charge of the 
 government upon him was wholly feigned." 
 — C UM B ERLAJf D . 
 
 Management (Fr. minagey house- 
 keepings L. Lat. mansionattcum) is the 
 concurrent control which regulatea 
 what has progression in itself, so that 
 it may operate in the way in which il 
 
224 
 
 HYtiUNYMS 
 
 [charlatan] 
 
 18 designed; as, we speak of the man- 
 agement of a house, a garden, a 
 steam-engine, a horse, a matter. It 
 implies subjection where persons are 
 concerned, as in the management of a 
 school. ADMiNisrRATiON(Lat. admiiiis- 
 trationem) relates to offices of power 
 and responsibility. Administration 
 takes effect on men, management may 
 belong only to machines ; administra- 
 tion is executive, management may 
 De manipulative. Administration, 
 however, is always ministerial, that is, 
 consists in putting the will or ])Ower 
 of another in force; while GoviiiiN- 
 MENT (Lat. ghbeiiidre, to steer) in- 
 volves every exercise of authority, 
 political, civil, or domestic. The go- 
 vernment of a country, when the term 
 is not used of persons, is an abiding 
 and perpetual power ; the adminis- 
 tration belongs to the persons who 
 may be in office from time to time. 
 The character of the term is seen 
 in its etymology. Government is 
 literally the office of him who holds 
 the helm. Its common acceptation is 
 the machine of political rule, but in 
 its wider sense it exists wherever there 
 IS authority on one side and depen- 
 dence on the other. Administration in 
 things political deals with matters of 
 the highest importance ; as, Justice,Fi- 
 nance, and general order. Conthol is 
 literally, to verify a roll by a. duplicate 
 roll (O.Fr. contre-r6le), hence to go- 
 vern in movement and action where 
 an independent will and power exist. 
 Machines are managed; men, their 
 acts, wills, desires, are controlled. 
 
 " I thiuk myself iiideVjted to you beyond 
 all expression of gratitude for your care of 
 my dear mother." — Johnson. 
 
 " Scripture gives something more than 
 obscure intimations that the holy angels 
 u'fe employed upon extraordinary occasions 
 in the affairs of men and the management of 
 this sublunary world." — HoKSLEY. 
 
 " He (the Earl of Clarendon) was a good 
 chancellor, only a little too rough, but very 
 impartial in the administration of justice." 
 Burnet. 
 
 •* That which begins and actually consti- 
 tutes any political society is nothing but the 
 eonsent of any number of freemen capable 
 of a majority to unite and incorporate into 
 ■uch a society. And that is that, and that 
 only, wnich did or could give any beginning 
 to any lavvfol government in the world."— 
 Locke. 
 
 " If the seeds of piety and virtue be but 
 carefully sown at first, very much may bt 
 done by this means, even m the most de- 
 praved natures, towards the altering and 
 changing of them, however to the checking 
 and controlling of our vicious inclinations." 
 — TiLLOTSON. 
 
 CHARLATAN. Quack. Moun- 
 tebank. Empiric. 
 
 Etymologically the Charlatan 
 (Fr. charlatan) from the Italian ciar- 
 lore, to prate, is a prater. The Quack, 
 a shorter form of the older Quack- 
 salver, is a noisy advertiser of hi>s 
 medicine. The Mountebank is one 
 who does the same thing upon a bench 
 in ])ublic,from theltalian montimhdnco^ 
 niontare in banco, to mount on a bench. 
 The Empiric, as here used, means 
 one whose skill or knowledge de- 
 pends on f^xpERiENCE (Gr. hifx'TEipiKh, 
 practice) without scientific principle. 
 They express only different aspects 
 of the character of the pretender 
 to skill and knowledge. 'Ihe char- 
 latan is full of self-assurance; the 
 quack is likely to be an impostor; 
 the mountebank is the most demon- 
 strative, and the empiric the most 
 venturesome. The charlatan deserves 
 humiliation ; the quack exposure ; the 
 mountebank ridicule, which yet he 
 does not dread; the empiric to be 
 taught that exact knowledge is, in his 
 case, not to be disregarded without 
 injury and injustice. {Empiricism, 
 liowever, is also used sometimes in a 
 sense not unfavourable, to mean 
 knowledge which, although know- 
 ledge — as e.g. the efiect of some medi- 
 cines — has not yet been shown to rest 
 uj)on a scientific basis ; and it is the 
 only one word which expresses this. ) 
 
 CHASE. Hunt. Pursue. 
 
 To Hunt (A. S. huntian) is to seek 
 by close pursuit, by a search for ob- 
 jects not within sight. Chase (Fr. 
 chasser, Lat. captiare) is a jiursuit of 
 objects which are icithin sight. The 
 fox is hunted in the cover, and chased 
 when he leaves it. This distinction 
 is often lost sight of ; and we speak of 
 a boy hunting a butterfly, instead of 
 chasing it. To Pursue (Fr. pour- 
 stiivre), like Hunt, includes the idea 
 of following after what is not withio 
 sight. A wild animal is pursued b.y 
 
[chastity] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 225 
 
 the track which he leaves ; when he 
 catches sight of his pursuers, he pro- 
 babl}' flies, and is then chased, 'llius 
 Chase involves more simply than 
 Pi'usuE the notion of driving an ob- 
 ject before one. Piirsl'e, as it denotes 
 primarily the following of a continuous 
 course, is directly applicable to t})e 
 coui-se itself, as to pursue a line of 
 conduct. One pursues when one fol- 
 lows after an obj ect, in spite of danger, 
 difficulties, and obstacles, with sus- 
 tained effort and energy. 
 
 " Now therefore let not my blood full to 
 the earth before the face of the Lord ; for 
 the King of Israel is come ont to seek a flea ; 
 as when one doth himt a partridge in the 
 mountains. " — Sible. 
 
 " The glare did not continue long before 
 it rained again, and kept us from sight of 
 each other ; but if they had seen and chiiscd 
 ns, we were resolved to run our baik and 
 canoes ashore, and take ourselves to the 
 mountains." — Dampikk'S Voyages. 
 " Impell'd with steps unceasing to pttrsue 
 Some fleeting good that mocks me with the 
 
 view. 
 That, like the circle bounding earth and 
 
 skies. 
 Allures from far, yet, as I follow, flies/' 
 GOLUSMITn. 
 
 CHASTEN. Chastise. Purify. 
 Punish. Correct. Discipline. 
 
 Of these the two first are formed 
 from the Latin castas, chaste, pure, 
 and the last from pkry^care, to make 
 pure. The term Purify is applicable 
 to the removal of Avhat is noxious or 
 impure in a moral, physical, or even 
 ceremonial sense, fo Chasten is to 
 purify morally and spiritually by the 
 providential visitation of distress and 
 affliction ; or, generally, to purify fiom 
 errors or faults, as the effect of disci- 
 pline. It implies imperfection, but 
 not guilt. 
 
 "Oh, gently on thy suppliant's head. 
 Dread goddess, lay thy chastening hand ; 
 Not in thy Grorgon terrors clad. 
 Nor circled with the vengeful band. 
 As by the impious thou art seen." 
 
 Gray, Hymn to Adversity. 
 
 "He chastises and corrects as to Him 
 seems best in His deep, unsearchable, and 
 secret judgment, and all for our good." — 
 Burton, Anatomy of Melancholy. 
 
 "It was a received opinion in the ancient 
 world that human nature had contracted a 
 •tain or pollution, and that not only parti- 
 cular purifyings, but also some general 
 (Huctitlcation was uecessu.ry to put man in 
 
 a capacity of being restored to the favoui 
 of the Deity." — Warbubtox. 
 "Yet these, receiving grafts of other kind. 
 Or thence transplanted, change their savage 
 
 mind. 
 Their wildness lose, and quitting Nature's 
 
 part. 
 Obey the rules and discipline of art." 
 
 Dryden, Virgil. 
 
 "OTjOtA, correct me. but with judgment; 
 not in Thine anger, lest Thon bring me to 
 nothing." — Book of Cbmmon Prayer. 
 
 C'hastise, on the other hand, im- 
 plies specific guilt or some offence. To 
 Punish (Lat. pmiire) differs fi-om 
 Chastise in the object aimed at. In 
 the former, it is to visit the offence 
 upon the individual offender for his 
 own good in correction and refonna- 
 tion ; in the latter, it is to satisfy 
 public justice upon a member of a 
 community. It is to be observed that 
 punishment is often used of the con- 
 sequences of wrong, irrespectively of 
 any personal authority exercised. 
 
 " I proceed in the next place ro consider 
 the general nature of punishments which 
 are evils or inconveniences consequent upon 
 crimes and misdemeanours, being devised, 
 denounced, and inflicted by human laws in 
 consequence of disobedience or misbe- 
 haviour in those to regulate whose conduct 
 such laws were respectively made."— 
 BlJlCKSTONE. 
 
 To Correct (Lat. corrighe, sup. 
 correctnm) is, literally, to set right. 
 As used of punishment, correction 
 looks no further tlian to the indi- 
 vidual fault. 
 
 Discipline (Lat. disciprvia) has for 
 its object the amelioration of the 
 whole character, and the prevention of 
 offences, nor does it imply necessarily 
 that any have been committed. The 
 purest and best natures recognize the 
 need of discipline in themselves. Dis- 
 cipline aims at the removal of bad 
 habits, and the substuution of good 
 ones, especially those of order, regu- 
 larity, and obedience. 
 
 CHAS'lITY. Continence, or 
 Continency. 
 
 Chastity (Lat. castttdtem) is the 
 regulation of the sexual desires, as 
 by marriage, and all practical rules or 
 modes of life which tend to it. 
 
 Continence (Lat. eonthientia) is 
 
226 
 
 SYNONYMS [cheat] 
 
 the absolute refraining from all such 
 indulgences under interdiction. Chas- 
 tity is enjoined upon all Christians. 
 Continence is enjoined, for instance, 
 on the Romish clerg:y. Chastity ex- 
 tends to thoughts, conveisation, read- 
 ing, attitude, movements, society. 
 It is accordingly possible to be chaste 
 and not continent, continent and not 
 chaste. Chastity is a virtue suitable 
 to all ages and states, continence is a 
 rule of celibacy. 
 
 "It was then that some gallant spirits, 
 struck with a generous indignation at the 
 tjTannf of these miscreants, blessed so- 
 lemnly by the bishop, and followed by the 
 praises and vows of the people, sallied forth 
 to vindicate the chastity of women, and to 
 redress the wrongs of travellers and peace- 
 able men."— Burke, Abridyment of English 
 History. 
 
 "Such persons as hare not the gift of 
 continency."—Book of Common Prayer. 
 
 CHEAT. Defraud. Trick. 
 
 Cheat (a corruption of escheat, as 
 reflecting upon the character of the 
 escheator) respects primarily the oain 
 lo yourself resulting from fraudulent 
 practice upon another. 
 
 Defraud (Lat. defraudare) respects 
 the loss to him. Cheat is only applied 
 to appropriations of minor value ; De- 
 fraud to those of the largest amount. 
 Defraud hence regards matters of 
 value generally, as rights and pri- 
 vileges. Cheat usually regards pos- 
 sessions. Cheating implied knavery ; 
 defrauding a settled plan or plot 
 against another's interests. 
 
 " But since it is not so much worth our 
 labour to know how deep the pit is into 
 which we are fallen as how to come out of 
 it, hear rather, I beseech you, for a con- 
 clusion, how we may avoid the deceit of 
 heart ; even just so as we would prevent 
 the nimble feats of some cheating juggler 
 — search him, watch him, trust him not." — 
 Bishop Hall. 
 
 A man may be cheated out of that 
 which he is aiming at obtaining ; he 
 is only defrauded of what he can 
 claim as actually his. In games of 
 chance or competition men often 
 cheat ; they do not defraud. 
 
 " The statute mentions only fraudulent 
 gifts to third persons, and procuring them 
 to be seized by sham process, in order to 
 defraud creditors." — Blackstonk. 
 
 To Trick (Fr. trichei-) is adroitly 
 to deceive another, and implies more 
 ingenuity than cheating. It does not 
 of necessity involve any appropriation 
 to one's self, or any loss to another, but 
 may be dictated by mischievous at 
 well as dishonest motives. 
 
 CHEER. Animate. Encourage. 
 Enliven. Exhu.arate. Comfort. 
 Console. Solace. 
 
 To Cheer (Fr. chere, counlenaiice, 
 mie7i) is to put into good or better 
 spirits. It resjjects a previous state 
 of mental depression or despon- 
 dency, and a change to a sober and 
 quiet satisfaction at an improved state 
 of circumstances. 
 
 "The Christian is justly cheered by the 
 assurance he has that there will come a 
 time when ojipressed and disfigured inno- 
 cency shall shine forth and triumph, and 
 his good name, as well as his body, shall 
 have a glorious resurrection even in the 
 sight of nis accusei's and enemies, and all 
 those whom their slanders did either pre- 
 vail with or startle." — BoYLE. 
 
 To Animate (Lat. Unimdre) is to 
 put life, vitality, or vivacity into ; and 
 respects a previous state of dulness, 
 sloAvness, indifference, or inertness. 
 It has an influence on the looks, 
 words, and movements, as when an 
 orator in the course of his oration 
 becomes more animated. Reflexion 
 cheers, passion animates. 
 
 " Wherever we are foi-med by Nature to 
 any active purpose, the passion which ani- 
 mates us to it is attended with delight or a 
 pleasure of some kind."— Burke. 
 
 Encourage (Fr. eiicourager) is to 
 give heart ; and so respects a previous 
 state of comparative diffidence or 
 irresolution. It implies something 
 proposed as an aim of action, either 
 by the words of another, or by the 
 mind reflecting on some external 
 event. 
 
 " Plato would have women follow the 
 camp, to be spectators and encottragers of 
 aoble actions." — Burton. 
 
 Enliven is the English equivalent 
 of animate ; but it is not so grave a 
 word, and relates to the minor matters 
 of feeling and manner. It has also 
 the meaning of to quicken what waf 
 previously less lively, and may be 
 
[cheerful] 
 
 employed ot purely physical enero^ies; 
 as, to on live a a fire, that is, to make it 
 burn more brightly. It is also directly 
 applicable to works ot" art and de- 
 scriptions or narratives. 
 
 " By tin's means I was enabled to enliven 
 the poems hy various touches of partial 
 description." — Maso.v. 
 
 Exhilarate (Lat. exlnlArhre) de- 
 notes such cheering as has a com- 
 bined effect on the spirits and the 
 bodily frame. It may come of a pri- 
 mary influence on either, as to be 
 exhilarated by good wine or good 
 nev.s. It denotes an effect upon the 
 nervous system, and is thus exclu- 
 sively applicable to persons. 
 
 " The truth is that this remedy, like 
 strong drink to a nervous body, enlivens 
 for a while by an unnatural exhilaration." — 
 Knox. 
 
 Comfort (Lat. conforlnre, to make 
 trong) and Console (Lat. consoldri) 
 both relate to relief brought from pre- 
 vious trouble of mind through the aid 
 of admonition or reflexion ; but Com- 
 fort denotes the actual substitution of 
 happy thoughts ; while Console de- 
 notes only the removal or diminution 
 of the unhappy. Comfort and con- 
 solation address themselves to the in- 
 tellectual nature. 
 
 " Consolation or comfort are words which 
 m their proper acceptation signify some 
 alleviation to that pain to which it is not 
 in our power to afford the proper and ade- 
 quate remedy. They imply rather an aug- 
 mentation of the power of bearing than a 
 diminution of the burden. To that grief 
 which arises from a great loss he only brings 
 the true remedy who makes his friend's 
 condition the same as before ; but he may 
 be properly termed a comforter who, by 
 persnasiou, extenuates the pain of poverty, 
 and shows, in the style of Hesiod, that half 
 is more than the whole." — llambler. 
 
 Solace (Lat. solatium) differs from 
 Comfort and Console in being never 
 applied absolutely to human agents. 
 A solace is a continuous consolation 
 acci-uing from something impersonal, 
 as certain modes or means of occupa- 
 tion, such as reflexions, employments, 
 books, or a person regarded as a bless- 
 ing or possesion. 
 
 " The ingenious biographer of the poet 
 Gray has informed us that the most ap- 
 proved prodactions of his friend were 
 bronght forth soon after the death of one 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 227 
 
 wnom the poet loved, Son-ow led him to 
 seek for solace of the muse."— Knox, 
 Essays. 
 
 CHEERFUL. Merry. Sprightly. 
 Gay. Mirthful. Jovial. Lively. 
 VivACiour. Sportive. Blithe. 
 Buxom. 
 
 Cheerful (see Cheer) is u8e.';>. 
 both of that which possesses, and that 
 which promotes good spirits ; as, a 
 cheerful disposition, cheerful tidings. 
 1 As applied to persons. Cheerful de- 
 notes an liabitual state of mind, the 
 natural happiness of an even and 
 contented disposition. 
 
 jMerry points to an occasional and 
 transient elevation of spirits. Mirth, 
 which is the cognate noun to Merry, 
 is less tranquil than cheerfulness ; 
 it requires the companionship ot 
 others to feed upon — social excite- 
 ment and the noise of jests and 
 laughter are needful for mirth. 
 
 '* Whoever has passed an evening with 
 serious, melancholy people, and has ob- 
 served how suddenly the conversation was 
 animated, and what sprightliness diffused 
 itself over the countenance, discourse, and 
 behaviour of every one on the accession of 
 a good-humoured, lively companion, such 
 a one will easily allow that cheerfulvess 
 carries great weight with it, and naturally 
 conciliates the good will of mankind." — 
 Hume. 
 
 Sprightly (=spirited, {rova spright, 
 a form of the word spirit) is purely a 
 personal epithet. Sprightliness is a 
 constitutional buoyancy and briskness 
 of mind which shows itself in the 
 bodily movements. It is in this ex- 
 tended sense only becoming in youth, 
 and as associated with beauty. A 
 sprightly damsel, or a sprightly dame. 
 
 " Parents and schoolmasters may not be 
 displeased at unlucky tricks played by their 
 lads, as showing a sagacity and sprightliness 
 they delight to behold. Yet they will not 
 suffer them to pass vrith impunity, lest it 
 should generate idleness and other mis- 
 chiefs.'— Search. 
 
 Gay (Fr. gai) is a term which 
 denotes less of animal spirits, and 
 expresses the brightness which ap- 
 pears outside, in the appearance or 
 the aspect of things external ; as, a 
 gay countenance, a gay dress, gay 
 plumage, a gay scene. It combines 
 the ideas of cheerfulness and showi- 
 nes8. As cheerfulness is unruffled, 
 
mirth tumultuous, sprightliness buoy- 
 ant, so gaiety is characteristically 
 self-indulgent. The lover of gaiety 
 despises, dislikes, and avoids the 
 responsibilities, duties, and sobrieties 
 of existence, and would, if possible, 
 ignore its troubles altogether. 
 
 " Profane men stick not, in the gaiety or 
 their hearts, to say that a strict piety is 
 good for nothing but to make the owners of 
 it troublesome to themselves and useless to 
 the rest of the world."— Atterbuey. 
 
 Mirthful is, as we have seen, only 
 another form of merry ; but it points 
 more specifically to the laughter and 
 the jest and the fun which ai-e 
 always ready to appear in the merry. 
 Mirthful is more demonstrative than 
 Merry, and involves objects or sub- 
 jects of it; while Merry denotes no 
 more than a condition of the spirits. 
 The merry are gay, the mirthful are 
 iocose also. 
 
 "If great crimes and great miseries be 
 made the matter of our mirth, what can be 
 the argument of our sorrow ? " — South. 
 
 Jovial is a term expressive of a 
 constitutional habit of mind and 
 body. It meant, literally, born under 
 the genial influence of the planet 
 Jupiter, and was opposed to Sat2irni7ie. 
 It denotes a tendency to sensual 
 merriment, and a contempt for the 
 cares anl anxieties of life. 
 
 " In pure good will I took this_70t"i7Z spark 
 Of Oxford, he — a most egregious clerk." 
 Pope. 
 
 TivELY is exhibiting life as con- 
 trary to dull or lifeless. It denotes 
 an energetic action of the vital prin- 
 ciple, whether of the sense or under- 
 standing, without of necessity imply- 
 ing merriment or gaiety. A lively 
 child is the opposite to a dull child, 
 brisk, bright, intelligent, observant. 
 Lively conversation, lively move- 
 ments, lively descriptions. 
 
 " Every person Knows how faint the con- 
 ception is which we form of anything with 
 our eyes open in comparison of what we can 
 form with our eyes shut, and that in propor- 
 tion as we can suspend the exercise of onr 
 other senses, the liveliness of oar conception 
 increafies."— Stkwakt. 
 
 V^iVACious (Lat. vwdcem) denotes 
 matured liveliness, when those facul- 
 ties which nre developed by afteryears 
 
 SYNONYMS [cheerful] 
 
 are seen to partake of the same 
 liveliness of youth. It indicates a 
 power as well as an activity of life, a 
 capacity of keen appreciation of ex- 
 ternal things, which by no means 
 implies perpetual merriment, but is 
 as ready to express dissatisfaction as 
 pleasure from the objects and experi- 
 ences of life. The vivacious person 
 lives, as it were, faster and more fully 
 than his opposite, and experiences 
 more, and more varied, sensations. 
 Indeed, in Old English the word 
 meant long-lived^ or having a tenacity 
 to life. 
 
 " He had great vivacity in his fancy, as 
 may appear by his inclination to poetry and 
 the li\ely illustrations and many tender 
 strains in his contemplations." — BuRNET, 
 Life of Hale. 
 
 SroRTivE is tending to sporty 
 which is practical merriment in this 
 case ; so that the word contains an 
 element of something bordering on 
 mockery or amusement at the ex- 
 pense of others, or of heedlessness, 
 it carries with it an air of unregu- 
 lated play of mind and speech, though 
 not amounting to wantonness ; but is 
 more innocent when applied, as it 
 often is, to the natural playfulness of 
 dumb and especially young animals. 
 
 " If a history so circumstantiated as that 
 is shall be resolved into fable or parable, no 
 history whatever can stand secure, but a 
 wide door will be opened to the ravmgs of 
 sportive wit or wanton fancy." — Watek- 
 LAND. 
 
 Blithe (A. S. blithe, happy) is a 
 beautiful and expressive word com- 
 bining goodness and joyousness of 
 nature. 
 
 Buxom (R. Eng. buh-sum, pliable, 
 i->hi>dient) is !■ moi'e complicated word, 
 T^r it has wandered far from its 
 primary intention. It meant at first 
 compliant, obedient,whether in regard 
 to men or women. 
 
 " Buxum. to the law." — Piers Plough 
 man. 
 
 When it came to be applied to 
 women, it expressed first their gentle- 
 ness ; and thence seems to have in- 
 cluded by association other qualities 
 little connected with it, but attractive 
 in other ways — as liveliness, healthful' 
 ness, and bloom. 
 
DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 [cherish] 
 
 "A parcel of buxom bonny dames, that 
 were laughing, singing, dancing, and as 
 merry as the day was long."— Tatler. 
 
 CHERISH. Nourish. Nurtiue. 
 Foster. Feed. Foment. 
 
 To Cherish (Fr. chtvir, from clier^ 
 dear) is to ti-eat as dear, or to hold 
 dear; hence, to keep faithfully or 
 constantly. It is to treat with all the 
 care and affection of which the na- 
 ture of the thing cherished is capable. 
 The cherished child receives from its 
 parent all that it can need— food, 
 warmth, shelter, clothing, education, 
 advice, help. The cherished hope 
 is kept, as it were, closely and faith- 
 fully, and guarded against all in- 
 fluences and considerations that 
 might tend to weaken or destroy it. 
 Alas, in this sense we cherish also 
 prejudices, errors, and illusions. To 
 clierish is to love with tenderness 
 and predilection. The cherished 
 object is precious to us. We feel it 
 to be necessary to our happiness, 
 perhaps our existence. We cherish 
 with affection and tenderness. The 
 man in his ardour loves, the woman 
 in her tenderness cherishes. 
 
 " He that comforts my wife is the che- 
 risher of my flesh and blood."— Shake- 
 speare. 
 
 To Nourish (Fr. nourrir, Lat. 
 nutr'ire) is to supply what is needful 
 to the i)hysical necessities of any 
 growing body, as a child or a plant, 
 thus differing from Feed (A. S. 
 ftdaii), which is strictly used only of 
 animals (though, analogously also, we 
 speak of feeding a fire), and means no 
 more than to give food, whether i.i 
 sufficient or insufficient quantities. In 
 feeding there is no idea beyond that 
 of supplying with what is necessary 
 to support life, being assimilated into 
 the substance of a growing body. In 
 nourishing, the idea is that of fur- 
 nishing an organized and growing 
 body with what is congenial to it, 
 and with what it requii-es, not merely 
 for subsistence and growth, but for 
 luxuriance and well-being. 
 
 " The chyle being mixed herewith (the 
 lymphia), partly for its better conversion 
 
 into bloud by a liquor of a middle nature 
 
 between them both, and partly for its more 
 
 ready adhesion to all the nourishable parts." 
 
 — (iRKW 
 
 229 
 
 "WTien, with the flocks, the'w feeder* 
 sought the shade."— Philips. 
 
 To Nurture (from the same root 
 as nourish) is to train up with fos- 
 tering care, and so implies more 
 than the giving what is needed for 
 the mere development of the organi- 
 zation. To nurture, however, is, 
 after all, only a physical act, while 
 to cherish is moral, and involves the 
 action of the affections. We nurture 
 plants, but we do not cherish them, 
 unless as associated with persons or 
 ' scenes, which give them an ana- 
 1 logous place to that of children in 
 our affections. We nourish children 
 by bodily food ; we nurture them by 
 mental food also. 
 
 " Understande, therefore, m thyn hert 
 that as a man nourtereth his sonne, even so 
 the Lord thy God nourtei'eth the." — Bible, 
 1551. 
 
 Foster (A. ^./ostrian) is to supply 
 with everything necessary for the life 
 and growth. As in the case of the 
 _/bsfer-parent, we foster things which 
 are in some measure alien to ourselves, 
 though we are interested in them ; for 
 instance, how marked the difference 
 between fostering a hope and cherish- 
 ing a hope ! When we cherish it, we 
 hold it as closely dear to us. We 
 would not for the world, perhaps, part 
 with it. We allow all weight to what 
 strengthens, we turn a deaf ear to 
 what would deprive us of it. To lose 
 it would be to part v\ ith some portion 
 of ourselves. But when we foster a 
 hope, it is because we regard the good 
 of the thing hoped for. We fostei 
 objects of pride and ambition, because 
 we want to gt them. VVe foster a 
 feeling of anger when it suits our hu- 
 mour ; we cherish it when ve lie in 
 wait for the time of revenge. We 
 cherish, not only from self-love, but 
 out of aftection or interest. We foster 
 for our own sake alone. W^e cherish 
 in order to preserve. We foster in 
 order to promote, increase, or 
 strengthen. So foster is oflen used in 
 an unfavourable way ; as we say that 
 flattery fostens pride. 
 
 "Stage plays serve for nothing else hot 
 either to draw men on by degrees to idle- 
 ness, or to foster, to foment them in it.' — 
 Pkynnb. 
 
230 
 
 SYNONYMS [CHIEFj 
 
 FoMF.NT (^J^At. fitmeiitare) is to cne- 
 rish by excitement, and so to keep 
 alive an existing force or vitality. It 
 is seldom used but m a bad sense, or 
 of evil influences. Men foment by 
 contributing little by little what tends 
 to keep up an energy of ill. 
 
 "Exciting s-nAfotnentbig a religions re- 
 oellion."— SoUTHEY. 
 
 CHIEF. Main. Principal. 
 Leading. Cardinai,. Capital. 
 
 Chief (Fr. chef, Lat.cupiit,a head) 
 retains its etymological force, and de- 
 notes priority in rank, order, or con- 
 sideration. The chief men of a city 
 are the highest in rank and influence. 
 'Ilie chief topics of a discourse are op- 
 posed to those which are of minor 
 moment. 
 
 " What is man 
 If his chief good and market of his time 
 Be but to sleep and feed ? a beast — no 
 more." Shakespeare. 
 
 Main (A. S. mirgen, power, force) 
 refers to that which is the more potent 
 or extensive, and is thus applicable, 
 as chiefisnot,to superiority in quantity 
 or size ; as, the mam bulk of the army, 
 the main pipes of an organ. Practi- 
 cally, the terms Chief and Main are 
 often interchangeable ; so we might 
 speak of the chief inducements, or the 
 main inducements to a certain line of 
 conduct; only the chief would be those 
 to which are assig-ned a foremost place 
 in our consideration ; the main would 
 be those which exercised the greatest 
 influence on us, or impressed us most 
 with their power. Main is a less exact 
 term than Chief, not indicating so 
 close a process of comparison or tlie 
 result of an appreciation so strict and 
 technical. So we speak of the main 
 points in a speech, in a general sense. 
 The main denotes what belongs to 
 the centre or mass, as distinguished 
 from parts which are exterior or in 
 detail. 
 
 *• There is scarce any instance of the his- 
 tory of the same person being written by 
 four different contemporary historians, all 
 perfectly agreeing in the main articles, and 
 differing only in a few minute particulars 
 of no moment."— PoRTEUS. 
 
 Principal (Lat. principalis) de- 
 notes the most prominent in any way, 
 and that which would naturally strike 
 »he attention first on any account 
 
 whatever. The princip.'d cities of a 
 country are the most jjrominent ; such 
 are ]-.ondon, Rfanchester, Oxford, 
 Cambridge, Bristol, Brighton, and 
 others, for very different reasons. 
 Hence it does not follow that the 
 chief cities of a country are the prin- 
 cipal, for they may have a rank as 
 signed them from various causes by 
 no means proportioned to their pre- 
 sent and actual influence or impor- 
 tance. 
 
 " Thanketh the maister of grace which 
 of that good and al other is autliour and 
 principal doer." — Chaucer. 
 
 Leading is simply taking the lead. 
 The term, therefore, is only employed 
 when the things to which it applies 
 can by the mind be regarded as motive, 
 operative, and influential ; as, the lead- 
 ing points of a case. We say, the 
 leading men in a community, but not 
 the leading cities of a country, as the 
 mere notion of priority in series does 
 not express the force of leading. 
 
 " He left his mother a countess by patent, 
 which was a new leading example." — 
 WOTTON. 
 
 Cardinal (Lat. cardtndlis, from 
 cardmem, a hinge), literally denoting 
 that on which a thing hinges, ex- 
 presses the combined ideas of promi- 
 nence and importance ; but is a term 
 technically restricted to certain sub- 
 jects, as cardinal virtues, numbers, 
 points of the compass, and signs of 
 astronomy, or signs of the Zodiac. 
 The term denotes })rimary importance 
 in a class of similar things. 
 
 " Conscience and alle cristene and cardi' 
 nale vertues." — Piers Plotighman. 
 
 Capital (Lat. ciipttdlis, fromcitpnt) 
 is etymologically equivalent to chief 
 but, like cardinal, is technically re- 
 stricted. It denotes what belongs tc 
 the head and life, and so is essential. 
 The term is not now of frequent use in 
 this sense, but is common in the sense 
 of excellent of its kind. An indica- 
 tion of the old sense of the term sur- 
 vives in the phrase " capital letter." 
 
 " Cappitall enemies unto his grace botfc 
 in heart and in deed," — BARNES. 
 
 CHIEFLY. Principally. Espe- 
 cially. Particularly. Primarily. 
 Of these. Cm efly and Principa llt 
 
^choice] 
 
 are terms of relation in regard to a 
 number or gradation, and therefore 
 have a comparative force. Especi- 
 ally, Particitlauly, and Primarily 
 are terms of relation in regard to indi- 
 piaals, and therefore have a super- 
 lative force. If 1 say, " Robberies 
 happen chiefly by night," 1 mean that 
 of the number which take place, the 
 majority are by night. If I say, 
 " Such a word is used principally in 
 such a sense," 1 mean that of the 
 number of cases in which it is used, 
 the majority have this signification. 
 If 1 say, " Men are but too ready to 
 listen to adverse rumours, especially 
 where they concern their enemies," I 
 single out the foremost case. So is it 
 in the following instances : — " Water 
 is everywhere a blessing, particularly 
 in hot climates ; " " The building 
 was intended primarily for a maga- 
 zine." 
 
 '* Search through this garden, ;eave un- 
 
 search'd no nook. 
 But chiefly where these two fair creatures 
 lodge." Milton. 
 
 *' They mistake the nature of criticism 
 who think its business is principally to find 
 fault."— Dryden. 
 
 " More especially at this time, since it is 
 the proper work of the day." — Suarp. 
 
 " This exact propriety of Virgil I parti- 
 cularly regarded as a great part of his 
 character." — Drydex. 
 
 "Surely from all these places it is very 
 evidetit that it was primarily the counsel 
 aa 1 the will of God, that even they who 
 would not turn, would not repent and ac- 
 cept of salvation, should have repented and 
 have been made partakers of it."— 
 Whitby. 
 
 CHILDISH. Puerile. 
 
 Both these terms are employed in 
 an unfavourable sense ; that is, in re- 
 ference to cases where the weakness 
 of tlie child or the character of the boy 
 (Lat. piier) are out of place. No 
 such disparagement belongs to the 
 words childLike and bouish. Child- 
 ish is used of ideas, character, and 
 conduct; as, childish timcies, childish 
 behaviour : Puerile of modes of 
 thought and judgment ; as, puerile ob- 
 jections in argument. The one indi- 
 cates the trifling of the child, the 
 other the immature weakness of the 
 boy, as contrasted with the weight 
 and wisdom of the man. As Cuiliush 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 231 
 
 expresses the intellectual poverty, so 
 childlike expresses the moral simpli- 
 city of a child. 
 
 " We cannot be so childish as to imagin* 
 that ambition is loc^l^ and that no other can 
 be infected with it but those who rale with- 
 in certain parallels o) .'atitude and longi- 
 tude."— BuRKK. 
 
 Piers Ploughman used the term in the 
 sense of childlike: — 
 
 " Charitie is a childish thing, as holi 
 churche witnesseth." 
 
 As at present employed, that which 
 is simplv and absolutely weak or silly 
 is callecl childish ; that which, though 
 such, aims at the character of the con- 
 trary, or is employed with gravity of 
 purpose, is called puerile. 
 
 *' The French have been notorious for 
 generations for their puerile affectation of 
 Roman forms, models, and historic pre- 
 cedents." — De Quincey. 
 
 CHIMERICAL. Imaginary. 
 
 The Chimerical (Gr. x^H-^^P'^' « 
 she-goat, a name given to afire-breath- 
 ing monster killed by Bellerophon) is 
 inconsistent with truth ; the Imagi- 
 nary (Lat. Ymdgindrins) supersedes 
 it. The imaginary, though it be iiot 
 according to truth of fact, is often 
 studiously framed according to princi- 
 ples of probability ; the chimerical is 
 a heterogeneous aggregate of things 
 impossible or improbable. An active 
 imagination creates the imaginary, a 
 morbid imagination the chimerical. 
 Men of learning and imaginative 
 power have framed imaginary conver- 
 sations between the great men of past 
 times. The search after the philoso- 
 pher's stone was a chimerical project. 
 
 CHOICE. Option. Preference. 
 Selection. Election. Alterna- 
 tive. 
 
 Choice (Fr. choix) denotes the act 
 and the power of choosing out of a 
 number, with the sense, sometimes, of 
 judgment in choice, as when we say 
 to show choice. Every act of elioice 
 is determined by some motive or final 
 purpose. 
 
 " This might have been avoided by an- 
 choanug more to the west, but I made choice 
 of my situation for two reasons ; first to be 
 near the island we intended to land upon, 
 and secondly, to be able to get to sea wit* 
 any wind."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
232 
 
 Option (Lat. optionem^ optdre, to 
 choose) is the right or power of choice, 
 or freedom from constraint in the act 
 of choosing. It does not necessarily 
 imply numhers ; so we say it is at my 
 option to act or not. The optional is 
 opposed to the compulsory. 
 
 " The difference between the employment 
 of language in such cases (in our specula- 
 tions concerning individuals) and in onr 
 ■peculations concerning classes or genera, 
 is, that in the former case the use of words 
 is in a great measure optional, whereas ia 
 the latter it is essentiallj necessary." — 
 D UG ALD Stewart. 
 
 Pkeference (Fr. prifirence, Lat. 
 prteferre, to prefer) is the specific 
 exercise of choice in reference to one 
 or more objects of choice. 
 
 " I trust it will be allowed by all that 
 in every act of will there is an act of choice ; 
 that in everj' volition there is a prefer- 
 ence, or a prevailing inclination of the soul, 
 whereby the soul at that instant is out of 
 a state of perfect indifference with respect 
 to the direct object of the volition."— Ed- 
 wards, On the Will. 
 
 Selection (Lat. sclectib>iem,scligere, 
 to choose out) means much the same as 
 Preference ; but preference may ex- 
 press only a feeling, and always im- 
 plies personal feeling. Selection is 
 an act of talcing one or more out of a 
 number upon some principle of choice 
 connected or not with personal feel- 
 ing. 
 
 "And sure no little merit I may boast. 
 When such a man selects from such a 
 host." Dkyden. 
 
 Eleciion (Lat. llectionem^ cKghe, 
 to select) is selection with a view to 
 privilege or office, and is, therefore?, 
 applicable only to persons, while both 
 things and persons may be selected. 
 The object in election is practically so 
 much more important than the source, 
 that the terra elect is employed where 
 only one person is concerned, and 
 where, therefore, no choice was possi- 
 ble, as " only one candidate j)re- 
 sented himself, and was unanimously 
 elected." 
 
 " Experience overturns these airy fab- 
 rics, and teaches ns that in a large society 
 the election of a monarch can never devolve 
 to the wisest or to the most numerons part 
 of the people."— Gibbon. 
 
 An Alternative (Lat. altenidre, 
 tn do by tum$) w a contingent object 
 
 SYKOXYMS [choke] 
 
 of choice, that is, a thing which may 
 be chosen in the event of another being 
 rejected or not chosen. In the sim- 
 plest sense of the term, the term alter- 
 native is applied to two things only ; 
 yet it is possible to regard that as an 
 alternative which, as being possible or 
 eligible, is set over against many othei 
 things regarded collectively. The al- 
 ternative is commensurate with the 
 choice, which may be one of appropria- 
 tion, action, or opinion. When two or 
 more things offer the choice of one 
 only, the term alternative is applic- 
 able to the things in general, and also 
 to the one chosen — to the former in 
 the sense of a thing possible to choose, 
 and to the latter in the sense of a thing 
 desirable to choose. 
 
 " There is something else than the mere 
 alternative of absolute destruction or nnre- 
 formed existence." — BuRKK. 
 
 CHOKE. Suffocate. Smother. 
 Stifle. Strangle. 
 
 Choke (probably an imitative word) 
 is a general term, expressive of the 
 stopping up of anything through 
 which a free passage or current ought 
 to exist ; so, a garden or a river may be 
 choked with weeds, or the pipe of a 
 drain may be choked. As used of the 
 human body, it means to stop the 
 l)assages of respiration by the intro- 
 duction of foreign substances. 
 " Whose banks received the blood of many 
 
 a thousand men. 
 On sad Palm Sunday slain ; that Towton 
 
 field we call. 
 Whose channel quite was choked with those 
 that there did fall." Drayton. 
 
 Suffocate is from the Lat. suj^'o- 
 care (from sub, under, and pi. fauces^ 
 the gullet). It is, therefore, only 
 applicable, properly, to liviLg beings. 
 A lire may be metaphoricaUy said to 
 be suffocated, that is, deprived of free 
 air, which it requires, after the like- 
 ness of living beings ; but, at least, 
 the river, though choked, is not said 
 to be suffocated with weeds. 
 
 "Think of that, I that am as subject to 
 heat as butter, a man of continual dissolu- 
 tion and thaw, it was a miracle to su-apt' 
 sj{^oca^«on."— Shakespeark. 
 
 To Stifle (connected wicxi Gr. 
 o-Tu^xw, Lat, sl'ipo, to compreoi , Fr. 
 ttouff'er, &CC.) is commonly employee* 
 of the less gross subEtances, as smoke, 
 
[circumscribe] discriminated. 
 
 233 
 
 dust, malaria, introduced into the 
 respiratory organs, and interfering 
 witn their action in other ways than 
 by mechanical obstruction. This is 
 not, however, its exclusive use. In 
 the following passage it is used in the 
 sense of smother : — 
 
 " So he wrapped them, and entangled 
 them, keeping down the feather-bed and 
 pillows hard unto their mouths, that within 
 a while, smored and stifled, their breath 
 failing, they gave up to God their innocent 
 souls, into the joys of heaven." — Sir T. 
 MoiiE. 
 
 To Strangle (Lat. stran^iibre, to 
 choke) is to stop the circulation of air 
 in tlie respiratory organs by purely 
 external and mechanical com])ression. 
 
 " First he (Tyndall) was with a halter 
 strangled by the hangman, and afterwards 
 consumed with fire."— Fox, Life of 2yn- 
 dall. 
 
 Smother (allied to obs. smoor, A. S. 
 smorian, to sn^'ocate) is used of such 
 stoppage of air as is produced by an 
 overwhelming mass from without, 
 being so far like Strangle, and un- 
 like Choke and Suffocate ; but, from 
 the nature of the case, there is no local 
 application of force ; as when a person 
 is covered by an avalanche, and so 
 smothered to death. 
 
 "She, smothered with so monstrous a 
 weight, did sink down under it to the 
 earth." — Sidney's Arcadia. 
 
 CHOOSE. Prefer. 
 
 To Choose (Fr. choisir) is to take 
 one thing rather than another; to 
 Prefer (Lat. prceferre) is to put one 
 thing above another. One chooses a 
 thing for the purpose of making use of 
 it ; as, a book to read, a lodging to 
 occupy, a profession to exercise, a 
 master to instruct us. One prefers 
 the book wliich is the most instructive 
 or entertaining, or best meets our 
 wants at the time, the most convenient 
 lodging, the most suitable profeission, 
 the most competent master, to other 
 persons or tilings of their kind wliich 
 are less good in their ways. One 
 cliooses with a practical object, one 
 prefers as an exercise of speculative 
 judgment. Accordingly, choice is 
 good or bad, preference just or unjust. 
 A good choice is to one's own benefit, 
 a right preference is just to the things 
 or person preferred. Choice is a more 
 
 external ait than preference. Hence 
 we sometimes choose what in our 
 hearts we do not prefer, or, which is 
 the same thing, prefer what we do not 
 choose ; that is, inclination is over- 
 borne by circumstances and practical 
 necessity. Choice implies deliberation 
 and a finding in the object of that 
 quality of which we are in search. 
 Preference implies formal comparison 
 and a recognition or supposition of 
 superior excellence. We make a 
 choice, and give the preference. In 
 preference a kind of favour is bestowed 
 upon the object, in choice we seek to 
 be ourselves benefited. 
 
 CHURLISH. Boorish. 
 
 Hoth these terms express such de- 
 fects of disposition and manners as 
 are dependent upon or analogous to 
 the chai'acter and behaviour of the 
 low-born and rude. The Churl (A. S. 
 ceorl) was a freeman of the lowest 
 rank. The Boor (A. S. Gebur) is 
 literally a countryman or farmer. The 
 churlish disposition is the more ob- 
 jectionable morally, the boorish the 
 more offensive socially. The churlish 
 j)orson is niggardly, selfish, hard, 
 sour, and as a consequence of this is 
 wanting in kindness and courtesy. 
 The boorish person is unacquainted 
 with other ways than those of the 
 farm, the cattle-yard, or the plough. 
 He is awkward, illiterate, and rude, 
 but rather from want of a trained 
 sensibility than from any unkindliness 
 of feeling. 
 
 circumscribe. Inclose. 
 Limit. Bound. Restrict. Include. 
 Environ. Surround. Ri^strain. 
 Encircle. Encompass. Confine. 
 
 To Circumscribe (Lat. circum- 
 scr'ibtre) is to inclose within a certain 
 limit ; but the terra could only be very 
 pedantically used of mere superfici*! 
 extent. It denotes rather limitation 
 of range, movement, action, play ; as 
 "his ambition was circumscribed bv 
 his poverty." 
 
 " Nor circumscribed alone 
 Their growing virtues, but their crimes 
 
 confined, 
 Forbade to wade through slaughter to a 
 
 throne. 
 And shut the gates of mercy on ai^ankind.*' 
 Grit. 
 
234 
 
 SYNONYMS [circumscribe] 
 
 To Inclose (Lnt. ivdhdire^ part. 
 inclusus) is, on the other hand, purely 
 ohysical, as a town within walls, a 
 letter in a cover, lands within a fence. 
 The thing inclosed is hidden or de- 
 fended by its inclosure. 
 "Shall one, and he inclosed within your 
 
 wall, 
 One rash imprison'd warrior, vanquish 
 
 all?" Pitt's Virgil, 
 
 To Limit (Lat. tivvttare, I'unttem, a 
 limit) bears specific reference to move- 
 ments or tendencies which are likely 
 to pass beyond a certain number or 
 extent. 
 
 " Nothing can be more evident than the 
 necessity of limiting the field of our exertion 
 if we are to benefit society bj our laboure." 
 —Stewart. 
 
 To Bound denotes not restriction 
 of action or by external influence, so 
 much as the cessation of extension ; 
 80, England is bounded on all sides by 
 the ocean. The sphere of action is 
 bounded ; actions themselves are 
 limited. 
 
 "Ye good distrest! 
 Ye noble few ! who here unbending stand 
 Beneath life's pressure, yet bear up awhile, 
 And what your bounded view, which only 
 
 saw 
 A little part, dcem'd evil, is no more." 
 Thomson. 
 
 On the other hand Restrict (Lat. 
 restringere, part, restricttis) implies the 
 confinement within certain limits or 
 to a certain number or extent of that 
 which has a tendency to exceed them. 
 But Restrict differs both from Limit 
 and Restrain (another form of Re- 
 strict). 'I'o restrict is relative, and 
 restrain is absolute. We restrain a 
 person from running when we compel 
 him to walk, or, generally, we restrain 
 him when we hold him from doing 
 anytliing he may be inclined to do; but 
 we restrict him to a certain pace, or to 
 certain limits which he must not pass, 
 or to the use of certain things specified. 
 
 " The common law of England indeed is 
 said to abhor perpetuities, and they are 
 accordingly more restricted there than in 
 any other European monarchy; though 
 even England is not altogether without 
 them." — Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 " Nor is the hand of the painter more 
 restrainabU than the pen of the poet."— 
 Brown, Vulgar Errors. 
 
 For Confine, ne Captivity. To i 
 
 Encompass (L. Lat. coinpassuSy a 
 circle) is to circumscribe a given space 
 or locality, so as closely to surround 
 it; while Surround itself (Fr. sar- 
 ronder) does not necessarily imjjly 
 this closeness. A city may be encom- 
 passed with an army, so that all ingress 
 and egress is prevented ; this is not 
 implied in saying that it is siirroundedf 
 as, for instance, by hills. A question 
 may be encompassed with difficulty. 
 
 " ISntirely encompassed the enemy's body 
 of foot."— Ludlow's Memoirs. 
 
 *' But clond instead, and ever-durmg dark, 
 Surrounds me, from the cheerful ways «f 
 
 men 
 Cut off." MlI.TON. 
 
 Include (Lat. incliidtre) is as in- 
 variably metaphysical as Inclose is 
 physical. " We will include you in 
 our party," means, we will regard you 
 as forming one of ourselves. A 
 number, a designation, a definition, 
 and the like, are the terms of inclu- 
 sion. 
 
 " Our mayster Christ showeth that in 
 fulfilling two of these commaundements 
 bee all workes included."— Bxb.nks. 
 
 To Environ (O. Fr, envinmner) is 
 a French word, which is as nearly aa 
 possible the equivalent of the English 
 snrroundy but it presupposes some 
 degree of magnitude, dignity, or im- 
 portance in the surrounding things. 
 \Ve say the plain is environed by 
 mountains, but we should not say, 
 the table is environed by chairs. Of 
 Surround and Environ, we may ob- 
 serve, that they do not denote of 
 necessity any restrictive inclosure ; for 
 instance, a mere circular pattern or 
 design might be said to surround, as 
 the centre is surrounded by a flowing 
 border. Nor does Environ imply a 
 close, but rather a distant surround- 
 ing. 
 
 " Into that forest far they thence him led. 
 Where was their dwelling iu a pleasant 
 
 glade, 
 With mountains round a])ont environed, 
 And mighty woods, which did the valley 
 
 shade." Spenser. 
 
 To Encircle, as its name desig- 
 nates, implies a surrounding with 
 something which is exactly or np- 
 proximates to a mathematical circle , 
 as " a diadem encircled Iter htow ' 
 
circumstance] T>ISCR1M1NATED. 
 
 235 
 
 It involves limitation ov circumscrip- 
 tion, but not coercion or restriction. 
 "Yoang Hermes next, a close-contriving 
 
 god. 
 Her brows encircled with his serpent rod, 
 Theu plots and fair excuses filled her brain." 
 Parnell, Hesiod. 
 CIRCUMSTANCE. Situation. In- 
 cident. Fact. Event. Occurrence. 
 
 Circumstance (Fr. circonstance) is 
 literally the condition of things sur- 
 rounding an event ; from -which it 
 passed to mean one of the things 
 themselves, and so generally a fact, 
 particular, or incident. A circum- 
 stance is a distinctive accessary to 
 the principal fact or event. The cir- 
 cumstance occasionally reacts with 
 great force on the main fact or event, 
 or, on the other hand, ig so trivial as 
 to be practically of no moment. An 
 unforeseen circumstance in a cam- 
 paign may lead to the loss of a battle. 
 Circumstances alter cases and opinions. 
 
 •♦ We are now at the close of our review 
 of the three simple forms of artificial so- 
 ciety, and we have shown them, however 
 they may differ in name or in some slight 
 circumstaiices , to be all alike in effect — in 
 effect to he all tyrannies."— BuRKE. 
 
 It is in the plural. Circumstances, 
 that it has the character of a syno- 
 nym with Situation (Lat. situs); 
 many relative circumstances inaking 
 a situation. (Circumstances, in mo- 
 dern English, has the peculiar mean- 
 ing of situation us to worldly ^oods.) 
 " He found himself in such circum- 
 stances," and " He found himself in 
 such a situation," woul-d be nearly 
 equivalent expressions, for the situa- 
 tion or the case is the sum of the 
 circumstances. But Situation points 
 to a fixed state. Circumstances may 
 accompany the varying condition of 
 the thing or person. " He was in a 
 situation of great danger," would be 
 equivalent to " He was in circum- 
 stances of great danger ; " but we 
 could hardly say, " lie pursued his 
 journey in a situation of great danger: " 
 in this case we should be compelled 
 to say, " under circumstances oi great 
 danger." 
 
 •* Nor did the shores and woods appear 
 less destitute of wild fowl: so that we 
 hoped to enjoy with ease what in our situa- 
 tion might be called the luxuries of life "— 
 Cook's Voyages, 
 
 Circumstance, Incident, and Fact 
 are also related in meaning. So we 
 might say, the circumstances, the 
 incidents, or the facts of the case ; 
 but Circumstance relates to what is 
 accessary to fact, and forms <% part or 
 detail of it. A murder is a fact, the 
 circumstances of it are the parts of the 
 fact — the incidents of the deed, the 
 details of its commission, or anything 
 remotely connected with the fact as 
 such. An Incident (Fr. incident, 
 Lat. incultre, to happen) is no more 
 than a befalment, something which 
 happens upon another thing, and is 
 not necessarily connected with die 
 fact as snchy but has merely occurred 
 alon^ with it. A circumstance of the 
 murder is essentially connected with 
 it ; an incident of it may be such as 
 to have no practical value in regard 
 to it — no close relationship — as, foi 
 instance, that a bright rainbow 
 seemed suddenly to break forth at 
 the moment — a thing which migh^ 
 affect the imagination, but not the 
 evidence. 
 
 " Thy incidents perh&ps too thick are sown. 
 Bat too much plenty is thy fault alone." 
 Dryden. 
 
 A Fact (\jat. factum, a thing done) 
 is a thing which has truly taken ])lace, 
 and may be of a complicated nature, 
 as bein^ conceived in the aggregate. 
 So the fact of a murder is not a simple, 
 but a very complicated thing, involv- 
 ing all the numerous particulars of 
 the so-called fact, and the necessity of 
 exact truth in all the particulars so 
 as to form an exact conception of the 
 fact. 
 
 "It would have been absurd to allege in 
 preaching to unbelievers &fact which itself 
 presupposed the trnth of Christ's mission, 
 and which could not have been proved with- 
 out first taking for granted the truth of 
 that very doctrine in proof of which this 
 jfact was to have been alleged."— Clarke. 
 The term fact has the different senses 
 of— 1, that which has been done or 
 has taken place ; 2, truth in the ab- 
 stract, as in the phrase, "in fact;" 
 and 3, the representation of a fact in 
 the first sense, irrespectively of the 
 actual truth of it, as when a pleader 
 is eloquent on his case, but wrong in 
 his facts. 
 
 An Event (Lat. eventutf evhiirtf tc 
 
236 
 
 SYNONYMS [circumstantial] 
 
 come forth) is a fact or occurrence re- 
 garded as a result or product of other 
 things ; hence we speak of watching 
 tl event, or waiting for the progress 
 of events. The term denotes some 
 degree of importance. 
 
 " Sui-h kind of things or events, whether 
 good or evil, as will certainly come to pass 
 may fall under computation, and be esti- 
 mated as to their several degrees, as well as 
 things ])resent."— WlLKINS. 
 
 An Occurrence, on the other hand 
 (Lat. occurrere, to meet), has no refe- 
 rence to any antecedents, but simply 
 denotes what meets us in the course 
 of our lives by chance or Providence. 
 It ought, however, to be added that 
 these terms may be often used inter- 
 changeably, according to the point of 
 view from which things are regarded. 
 For instance, a shower of rain is an 
 event, regarded simply as a meteoro- 
 logical result. It is a fact, as regards 
 any question as to whether it actually 
 fell or not. It would be an incident 
 in the acaDunt of a day's sport. It is 
 a circumstance, of perhaps vital impor- 
 tance, to a crop, and an untoward 
 occurrence to any one who, having 
 taken no precautions ; gainst it, was 
 wetted through by it. We speak of 
 the facts and events of history, and of 
 the occuiTences of eve v day. 
 
 " When fear does not in sudden or hazar- 
 dous occurrences discompose his mind, set 
 his body a trembling, and make him unfit 
 for action, or run away from it, he has then 
 the courage of a rational creature." — 
 Locke. 
 
 CIRCUMSTANTIAL. Parti- 
 cular. Minute. 
 
 These terms diminish in force in 
 the above order. A Circumstantial 
 account would be one which gave the 
 leading circumstances. Particular, 
 all the circumstances, and Minute 
 (Lat. minutus, from minuere, to lessen) 
 the most trivial as well as the most 
 important. 
 
 " I conceived myself obliged to set down 
 somewhat circumstantially not only the 
 events but the manner of my trials." — 
 BOYLE. 
 
 " Now will we speak jmrticularly of all, 
 and first of the first, which he calleth by 
 the first month's name, January." — 
 Spenser. 
 
 " Vandyck had a peculiar genius for por- 
 traits; his draperies are finished with a 
 
 minuteness of truth not to be demanded in 
 historic compositions." — Walpole. 
 
 CIVIL. Civic, Municipal. 
 
 Civil (Lat. c'wilis) is a term which 
 relates to the citizen in his personal 
 capacity ; Civic (Lat. cMcus) as he is 
 a member of a municipal body, or 
 stands related to its jurisdiction. 
 Civil rights are those which he pos- 
 sesses and exercises as a member of 
 the community at large. Such are the 
 rights of mairiage, of will and bequest, 
 of inheritance. Civil war is waged by 
 one class or section of the community 
 against another. Civic honours and 
 dignities are frequently the reward of 
 commercial industry. 
 
 Municipal (Lat. muntctpalis), a 
 designation of Italian towns possess- 
 ing the right of Roman citizenship, 
 but governed by their own laws, is a 
 term associated, not like Civic with 
 the city generally, but rather with its 
 privileges and administration. Hence, 
 such an idea as that of civic architec- 
 ture, i.e. the public buildings of a city, 
 could not be rendered by such a phrase 
 as municipal architecture. The term 
 civic expresses the character and re- 
 lation of all that is connected with the 
 body of free citizens; municipal, that 
 which is connected with the civic 
 authorities and the corporation or 
 governing body of the town. Civic 
 hospitality, honours, and dignities. 
 Municipal rights, authorities, govern- 
 ment, privileges, jurisdiction. 
 
 CIVIL. Polite. Obliging. Ac- 
 commodating. Courteous. /•Com- 
 plaisant. Considerate. 
 
 The Civil man was originally the 
 c'w'ilis, or one who fulfilled the duties of 
 a c'ivis or citizen. It means now him 
 who is observant of the slight ex- 
 ternal courtesies of intercourse be- 
 tween man and man. True civility is 
 seen in the demeanour of those Avho 
 respect others because they respect 
 themselves, and is as far removed 
 from condescension on the one side, as 
 from servility on the other. 
 
 " The people behaved very civilly, show- 
 ing us everything that we expressed a de- 
 sire to see."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
 The Polite man (Lat. pb/ifus, from 
 pbfii'e, to polish) is polished in such 
 
g 
 
 claim] 
 
 courtesies, aud is of higher training. 
 The courtier is polite, but even the 
 rustic may be civil. Civility is con- 
 fined to no class or grade of society. 
 It is tliat every-day kind of deference 
 which befits all, whether equals or 
 unequals. Politeness is between 
 equals, »nd that in the society of the 
 better-born and educated. The civil 
 man is not necessarily polite. The 
 
 olite is civil, and something more. 
 
 Civility consists in the saying and 
 doing certain things and the avoid- 
 ance of tlip saying and doing of other 
 things according to conventional rules, 
 which differ according to time, place, 
 circumstance, and the relation of per- 
 sons to each other. Politeness con- 
 sists in saying and doing nothing that 
 can displease others, in saying and 
 doing all that may please them, and 
 that with a certain nobility, ease, and 
 delicacy of manner and of speech. 
 Civility i)romotes mutual respect and 
 good-will. Both civility and polite- 
 ness are the expression or the affecta- 
 tion of social virtues, according as they 
 are true or false. Yet politeness may 
 flatter the vices of otliers, which civility 
 is too simple to do. 
 
 "What but custom conld make those 
 salutations polite in Musc-ovy which are 
 riciiculous in France or England ? " — 
 
 Watts. 
 
 The Ohligino man (Lat. ohtigare^ 
 to bind or oblige) is he Avho is ready 
 with more than the mere courtesies 
 of demeanour, and takes pleasure in 
 doing some actual service. 
 
 " Gay, modest, artless, beautiful, aud 
 
 young. 
 Slow to resolve, in resolution strong. 
 To all obliging, yet reserved to all." 
 
 Walsh. 
 
 The Accommodating person (see 
 Acccmmodate) is ready to be oblig- 
 ing, not in the way of granting 
 favours generally, like the Obliging, 
 but in meeting the particulai or spe- 
 cific requirements or the time and oc- 
 casion in favour of others, even at the 
 cost of a little personal inconveni- 
 ence. Though the epithet is modern 
 and conversational, the radical force 
 of it may be seen in the following : — 
 
 " It is an old observation which has been 
 wale of politicians who would i-ather iu- 
 
 DISORIMINATED. 
 
 237 
 
 gratiate themselves with their sovereign 
 than promote his real service, that they 
 accommodate their counsels to his inclina- 
 tions." — Annisox. 
 
 (For Courteous see Affable.) 
 Complaisant (Fr. complaisant) occu- 
 pies a position midway between Polite 
 and Courteous — which are merely 
 external — and Obliging — which im- 
 plies actual kindness of nature. Com- 
 plaisance is a deportment indicative of 
 a desire to please, and therefore best 
 befits those who have superiority or 
 power on their side. 
 
 " As for our Saviour, He was a person so 
 far from being morose or reserved in His 
 caiTiage or a lover of singularity, so far 
 from setting up a way of conversation of 
 His own making, distinct from the way He 
 found in the world, that He was the must 
 free, obliging, and civil, and, if I durst use 
 the word, I would say complaisant person 
 that ever perhaps appeared in the world." 
 —Sharp. 
 
 A more praisewortliy character is 
 that of the CoNsinEHATE (Lat. con- 
 sidcrdre, to ohsei-ve closely), who meets 
 the wants of others, or relieves them 
 of trouble by placing himself thought- 
 fully in their place and circum- 
 stances. Formerly, Considerate 
 meant thoughtful or deliberate. 
 
 " The wisest and most considerate men 
 in the world."— Sharp's Sermons. 
 
 It bears now the usual meaning of 
 having thoughtfor otliers — what would 
 please them or what is due to them. 
 This general character is expressed in 
 the following use of the noun con- 
 sideration : — 
 
 " Moses, having his mind fixed upon Him 
 who is invisible, acted more from the con' 
 sideration of Him whom he could not see 
 than of him whom he saw to be highly dis- 
 pleased with him, not fearing the wrath of 
 the king, for he saw Him who is invisible." 
 — Stillingfleet. 
 
 " .^Eneas is patient, considerate, and care- 
 ful of his people."— Drydkx. 
 
 CLAIM. Demand. Right. Pre 
 TENSION. Privilege, Preroga 
 tive. Requisition. 
 
 Claim (O. Yr.clamer, claimer ; Lat. 
 cldmare, to call out) is an advance 
 upon Demand (Fr. demandery Lat. 
 d'cmanddre), being the assertion of a 
 right to demand. The highwayman 
 demands the surrender of the tra- 
 veller's purse, on which he has no 
 
238 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [clamour] 
 
 claim. The poor man claims equal 
 rights of liberty with the rich in a free 
 State. Claim supposes an unacknow- 
 ledged right, Demand either a dis- 
 puted right or the absence of all right, 
 and a simple determination to have. 
 
 " They were told, in answer to their 
 claim to the bread earned with their blood, 
 that their services had not been rendered 
 to the country which now exists," — BuRKE. 
 
 " If we seriously do weigh the case, we 
 shall find that to reiiuire faith without rea- 
 son IS to aemavd an impossibility, for faith 
 is an effect of jiersuasion, and pei'suasion is 
 nothing else but the application of some 
 i-eason to the mind apt to draw forth its 
 assent." — Rakkow. 
 
 Right (A. S. rihty Lat. rectus) is not, 
 like Claim and Demand, developed, 
 but lies, as it were, dormant. It is 
 the latent power to claim or demand 
 upon occasion, 
 
 "Although thei-e be, according to the 
 opinion of some very great and judicious 
 men, a kind of natural right in the noble, 
 wise, and virtuous to govern them which 
 are of servile disposition, nevertheless for 
 manifestation of this their right and men's 
 more peaceable contentment on both sides, 
 the assent of them who are to be governp'/ 
 seemeth necessary." — Hooker 
 
 Pretension (Lat. prceienncre, to 
 allege) is the holding out the appear- 
 ance of right or possession, without 
 directly urging it. This indirectness 
 is so much an attribute of pretension, 
 that pretension sometimes sneaks alto- 
 gf'ther lor itself, as if we should sny, 
 " lie has some pretensions to be con- 
 jpidered one of the best writers of the 
 day," the pretensions being, in this 
 case, the actual merits. Neverthe- 
 Jess, a man's pretensions always rest 
 ' ujjon his estimate of himself, or in the 
 broadest sense, the estimate generally 
 entertained of him : his claims are not 
 thus matters of opinion, but questions 
 of right and of fact. 
 
 " You see that an opinion of merit is dis- 
 couraged even in those who had the best 
 pret&isions, if any pi'e tensions were good." 
 — Palev. 
 
 Privilege (Lat, pr'ivUcgium) is a 
 right, immunity, or advantage pos- 
 sessed by some, but not enjoyed by 
 others. 
 
 " I*rivilege in Roman Jurisprudence 
 means the exen.ption of one individual from 
 the operation of a law." — Mackintosh. 
 
 "As this liberty is not indulged in any 
 other government, either republican or 
 monarchical, in Holland and Venice more 
 than in France or Spain, it may very 
 naturally give occasion to the question how 
 it happens that Great Britain enjoys thit 
 peculiar privilege." — Hume, 
 
 Prerogative (Lat. tribus praro- 
 giitiva, the tribe which voted first in 
 the Comitia) denotes a right of prece- 
 dence, or of doing certain acts, or en- 
 joying certain privileges, to the exclu- 
 sion of others. In short, prerogative 
 is political peculiarity of privilege, 
 and analogously such privilege as is 
 confined to one or a few. Preroga- 
 tive belongs to personal honours and 
 [)referments. Privilege regards some 
 advantage of interest or function, and 
 comes from the accordance of pei'sons 
 in power, or from the arrangements of 
 society. 
 
 " The kings of these realms enjoy several 
 powers wherein the laws have not inter- 
 posed. So they can make war and peace 
 without the consent of Parliament, and this 
 is a great prerogative." — SwiJFT. 
 
 A Rfquisition (Lat. rcqmrcre, part. 
 raifdaitus) is a formal demand ; com- 
 monly, therefore, in writing. 1 1 is not so 
 much a demand of justice as one based 
 u[)on the authority, influence, respect- 
 ability, or number of those who make 
 it ; so, a number of inhabitants in a 
 district may forward a requisition to a 
 cei'tain person in office to call a public 
 meeting, or one State may make a 
 recjuisition to another to surrendei 
 a fugitive from justice. 
 
 " Provided the same requisition be sea- 
 sonably made, not u])on rash or precipitate 
 advice." — Reliquiae, WoTTON, 
 
 CLAMOUR. Cry. Outcry. Up- 
 ROAR. Exclamation. Acclama- 
 tion. Vociferation. Shouting. 
 Bawling. Tumult. 
 
 Clamol'u (Lat. cldmorem) is a 
 noisy use of the voice in continuous 
 or reiterated pronunciation. In this 
 sense, we might speak of the clamour 
 of the streets; but it is commonly 
 employed of the simultaneous use ot 
 the tongue by a collection of persons 
 calling out each for himself, and try- 
 ing to be heard on his own account, 
 above the voices of others ; as when 
 the crew, on the eve of mutiny, 
 clamorously state their grievances. 
 
[CLASF] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 239 
 
 "We may inucb more easily think to 
 clamour the sun and stars ont of their 
 courses than to word the great Creator of 
 them out of the steady purposes of His own 
 will by all the vehemence and loudness of 
 our petitions."— South. 
 
 Cry (Fr. crier) is the sotind of 
 voices in articulate or inarticulate 
 sounds ; as, the cry of a bird, the cry^ 
 of the salesman, the cry of joy or of 
 ^ain. It is to the inarticulate, espe- 
 cially, that the word Cry belongs; 
 «:hile clamour consists necessarily of 
 words. 
 
 " The voice of one crying in the wilder- 
 ness."— ^i6^e. 
 
 Oi'TCUY is an expressive and unani- 
 mous aggregate of cries in opposition 
 or protest, as hoots and yells. It is 
 confined to human beings, and is 
 allowed to include words. Clamour 
 often asserts, but outcry always pro- 
 tests. 
 
 "When they cannot out-reason the con 
 science they will out-cry it." — South. 
 
 Uproar (A. S. riiriany to roar) de- 
 notes the mass of confused sound 
 which proceeds fi-om a number of 
 persons giving; vent to feelings of 
 itrong opposition. 
 
 " We are in danger to be called in ques- 
 tion for this day's uproar, there being no 
 cause whereby we may give an account of 
 this concourse." — Bible. 
 
 Exclamation (Lat. eicldmal'wnem) 
 is no more than the sudden expression 
 of sound or words, and is indicative 
 of joy, grief, surprise, or any such 
 emotion, in one or more. 
 
 " These holy gi'oves 
 Permit no exclamation 'gainst Heaven's 
 
 will 
 To violate their echoes." Mason. 
 
 AcCLA.MAi ION (Lat. acclamationem) 
 is loud and unanimous exclamation in 
 favour, and is opposed to Outcry in 
 being expressive of approval, as Out- 
 cry of protest. 
 
 " An amiable, accomplished prince as- 
 cends the throne under the happiest of all 
 auspices, the acclamations and united af- 
 fections of his subjects."— Junius. 
 
 Vociferation (Lat. vocifcrdtionem) 
 is any vehement and strained use of 
 the voice, and relates to continuous 
 and articulate sounds; while Bawl 
 (iCfcl. baiila, to belbw) relates to in- 
 tiiiculate. When we say, " He 
 
 bawled out his speech,'* we mean 
 that it had the effect of an inarticulate 
 bellowing. 
 
 •* The j udges of the Areopagus considerec 
 action and vociferation as a foolish appea) 
 to the external senses, and unworthy to be 
 practised before those who had no desi e of 
 idle amusement, and whose only pleasure 
 was to discover right." — Jdler. 
 " But this is got by casting pearls to hogs 
 That haicl for freedom in their senseless 
 moovl," Milton. 
 
 SnouTixo (shout, " a parallel form 
 with hoot : " Wedgwood) is to voci- 
 ferate for the sake of the effect pro- 
 duced by the sound, as to shout for 
 joy, or to shout in derision. It com- 
 monly refers to articulate sounds, 
 which are not necessarily words, but 
 are formed as sonorous media for the 
 shouting, as "hip, hurrah ! " 
 
 " The rest of the Grecians advanced with 
 
 eager haste and fury, and in the beginning 
 
 of their onset gave a general shout, to en- 
 
 ; courage and animate themselves and strike 
 
 ' terror into their enemies." — Potter's 
 
 I Antiquities. 
 
 Tujju IT ( Lat. tiiwiiltiis) is primarily 
 commotion, then the noise and dis- 
 turbance resulting from it. It in- 
 j volves numerous forces working to- 
 1 gether to produce it ; as, the tumult of 
 the elements, of a multitude, of the 
 passions. Tumult is not identical 
 with clamour, neither does it exclude 
 clamour. It is the confused aggi-egate 
 of sounds produced by a multitudinous 
 expression of discontent. 
 " Till in load tumult all the Greeks arose." 
 POPK. 
 
 CLASH. Collision. 
 
 Clash is probably onomatopoetic ; 
 compare the Ger. klatschen. The word 
 is formed to express a discordant, 
 noisy, or contradictory Collision 
 (Lat. coUidere, to dash together). In- 
 terests, views, purposes, clash or come 
 into collision. Clash is a purely 
 rhetorical and conversational term. 
 The language of science would admit 
 such a phrase as the collision of two 
 moving bodies ; their clashing would 
 be colloquial and descriptive. 
 
 CLASP. Embrace. Huo. 
 
 Clasp (O. Eng. clapsen, connected 
 with A. S. elyppan, to embrace) is a 
 union formed by a partial closing of 
 one object upon another, Kmrrac^ 
 
240 
 
 (fr. embrasser, en-, in, and bras, an 
 arm, of -which the earlier form was 
 brace) is to surround, and so hold. 
 Embrace is only used of objects of a 
 certain size: the hands clasp, the arms 
 embrace. Clasp is never used but in 
 a physical sense ; Embuace is used 
 in a secondary or moral. Natural 
 philosophy embraces many sciences. 
 "I embrace," that is gladly avail my- 
 self of and accept " these conditions : " 
 Shakespeaue. The idea of close pres- 
 sure is more expressed in Clasp ; 
 that of large inclusion, in Embrace : 
 that of sudden and somewhat violent 
 pressure in Hug (probably the same 
 as to hedge, which is the A. S. hegian); 
 the mother hugs the lost child, when 
 found. Yet, in the metaphorical use 
 of Hug there is less of violent, and 
 more of close and continuous pressure. 
 One hugs some cherished belief: and 
 in self-gratulation we are said to hug 
 ourselves. 
 
 " Age makes us most fondly kuff and re- 
 tain the good things of life."— Atterbuky. 
 
 CLASS. Order. Rank. De- 
 gree. ClASSU'ICATIOX. Git.ADE. 
 
 Class (Lat. ctasm) is a group of 
 individuals (both things and persons) 
 associated as having common charac- 
 teristics. No priority or posteriority 
 of rank is denoted by the term Class, 
 though such difference of rank may 
 coexist with it, as in the classes of a 
 school. Such are " the labouring 
 class," " the agricultural class," " the 
 mercantile class," 
 
 '• Now God Almighty, by the inexhaus- 
 tible fecundity of His creative power, may 
 have made innumerable orders and classes 
 of rational minds, some in their natural 
 perfection higher than human souls, others 
 inferior."— BexNTLEY. 
 
 An Order (Fr. ordre, Lat. ordtnem) 
 differs from a class in having peculiar 
 inter-related connexions or interests. 
 The term is applied both to persons, 
 as the order of Knights Templars ; to 
 natural productions ; and to architec- 
 ture, as, the Corinthian order. In 
 botany, the Order is a group of allied 
 individuals, more comprehensive than 
 a genus. In zoology, the order is a 
 weJl-marked division of a class, in- 
 cluding in itself families and genera. 
 Rank (Fr. rang, a row, rank), when 
 
 SYNONYMS [class] 
 
 taken for more than a line of things 
 or persons arranged, is the relative 
 position of individuals or classes in 
 regard to superiority and inferiority 
 in social or any other distinction ; as, 
 an officer of high rank, an author of 
 high or low rank, a man of rank. De- 
 gree (Fr. degre) is one of a series of 
 steps in a graduated scale, and is of 
 as various application as the scale it- 
 self; as when we speak of social oi 
 literary rank, or of size, number, quan- 
 tity,excellence,goodness, badness, and 
 80 on. It is an assignable point or line 
 in any subject-matter which admits 
 of higher or lower, or of more or less 
 within itself. Class and order pri- 
 marily express persons ; rank and 
 degree primarily express distinctions. 
 
 "These are all virtues of a meaner ra7i/t.'' 
 —Addison. 
 " Take but degree away, untwine that 
 
 string. 
 And hark what cUscord follows ; each thing 
 
 meets 
 In mere nppugnancy." Shakespeare. 
 
 Classification (Lat. classis, a class, 
 and fitcere, to make) is the art or result 
 of distribution into groups, according 
 to some common relations or affinities. 
 It may be artificial, that is, based on 
 principles adopted without reference 
 to natural relations, and possibl_y with- 
 out the knowledge of them ; or it majr 
 be natural, that is, coincidently with 
 a system of nature. 
 
 " It is for this reason that Montesqurei 
 observed very justly that in their classifiai 
 tion of the citizens, the great legislators of 
 antiquity made the greatest display of their 
 powers, and even soared above themselves." 
 —Burke, 
 
 Grade (Lat. grMas) is the root of 
 the worddegree, and has become almost 
 identical with it in meaning, but not 
 so Avidely applicable. It hnplies inter- 
 graduation, wliich degree does not. 
 DtGREEisanindex ofamount; (iitADii 
 a place or point of relative position. 
 The degree of crime would be the a- 
 mount of its inherent criminalit)'-, the 
 grade of crime would be the order and 
 character of it. 
 
 CLEAN. Cleanly. Pure. 
 
 Clean ( A. S. clkne) is free from 
 what is foul. It sometimes means 
 free from what is obstructive. di»^ 
 being always obstruction, as " to make 
 
[cloak 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 241 
 
 a clean way for himself through a 
 mob." It is used in a moral sense, 
 as " to make a clean breast," and in 
 old Scriptural Enorlish, ns "clean 
 hands " and " a pur heart." 
 
 " Every sin, every ooral irregularity, 
 does as really impriir an indelible stain 
 upon the soul as a bit falling upon the 
 cleanest paper."— South. 
 
 Clea -ily exp -esses a disposition to 
 the ph\\' cally ci *an. 
 " And thu hath so . jtoxieate-; some 
 That (to aj^'pear incorrigibly mad) 
 They cleanliness and company renounce 
 For lunacy beyond the cure of art. 
 With a long beard and ten long dirty naiiS 
 Pass current for Apollo's livery." 
 
 KoscoMMON, Horace. 
 Pure (Lat. purns) is used of the 
 more refined substances in nature, 
 and of things moral. As Clean means 
 unsoiled, so Pure means uncontami- 
 nated, that is, fi-ee from heterogeneous 
 matter, especially from what pollutes 
 or vitiates ; as, pure metal, water, air; 
 hence it has sometimes the meaning 
 simply of uncompounded, as pure 
 sand, that is, sand and nothing else ; 
 pure good-nature, pure mathematics, 
 as distinguished from applied. 
 
 "To the pure all things are pure."— 
 Bible. 
 CLEAR. Explain. Develop. 
 We Clear (Lat. cldnis) what was 
 obscure, owing to the bad way in 
 which ideas were presented. We Ex- 
 plain (Lat. exjAdnare ; planus, plain, 
 level) what was difficult to understand, 
 inasmuch as the ideas were not de- 
 duced the one from the other with suf- 
 ficient directness. We Develop (see 
 Develop) what contains many ideas 
 which are expressed, but so wrapped 
 UD as not to be seen at a glance. The 
 need of the first commonly comes from 
 an unskilled exhibition of language 
 or subject-matter. Hie second is 
 supplied by connecting the thing not 
 understood with principles already 
 received. The third is best performed 
 by elucidating all that is comprised in 
 a complete definition. The first throws 
 light, the second facilitates compre- 
 hension, the third extends knowledge. 
 CLEAVE. Stick. Aduere. 
 Cleave (A. S. ciifan) is to adhere 
 at all parts of an extended surface. 
 It was of more frequent use formerly 
 
 than at present ; being now more com- 
 monly employed in a moral sense of 
 personal attachments, or to the per- 
 sistent entertainment of hopes and 
 opinions. 
 
 " As creeping ivy clings to wood or stone. 
 And hides the ruin that it feeds upon. 
 So Sophistry cleaves close to and protects 
 Sin's rotten trunk, concealing its defects." 
 COWPER. 
 
 Adhere (Lat. adhaercre) is used of 
 n close and persistent maintenance of 
 the same matters. In its physical 
 sense, it implies such superficial con- 
 tact as tends naturally, or by the in- 
 herent properties of the substances 
 themselves, to unite them, as wax 
 adheres to the fingers. 
 
 " It would be difficult to prove that God 
 may not in certain circumstances have 
 greater reasons for varying from His stated 
 rules of acting than for adhering to them." 
 —Farmer. 
 
 Stick (A. S. stican) is the moat 
 familiar and comprehensive of the 
 three, and is u^ed as the others are, 
 that is, of both material and morai 
 subjects. In their secondary mean- 
 ings, as Cleave expresses persis- 
 tency of affection, and Adhere persis- 
 tency of principle, so Stick belongs 
 to mental application and resolve 
 
 " I have stuck unto Thy testimonies." — 
 Book of Psalms. 
 
 CLOAK. Mask. Blind. Veil. 
 These are all figurative expressions 
 for means employed to conceal some- 
 thing from the knowledge of others. 
 A Cloak (L. Lat. cbca, a bell, and 
 from the resemblance, a cape), being 
 a garment, indicates something con- 
 tinually worn, as it were, so as to con- 
 ceal what is of the nature of a habit 
 or practice. So religion may be em- 
 ployed as a cloak for dishonesty. 
 
 " When the severity of manners is hypo- 
 critical, and assumed us a cloak to secret 
 indulgence, it is one of the woret prostitu- 
 tions of religion." — BlaIR. 
 
 Mask (Fr. masque, L. Lat. mascluif 
 a witch ) is that which hides the feel- 
 ings and motives, as the cloak con- 
 ceals the conduct ; but a mask does 
 more than conceal. It has an expres- 
 sion of its own. It is in this way that 
 i malignant feelings are sometimes 
 masked under a courteous demeanour, 
 1 treacherous words, and smiles. 
 
 R 
 
242 
 
 "Thou avt no rnffian, wbo beneath the 
 
 mask 
 Of social comineire coin'st to rob their 
 wealth." Thomson. 
 
 Blind (A. S. adj. Mind, connected 
 with hlend, i.e. confuse) denotes that 
 which shall so mislead others as to 
 permit certain practices to be carried 
 on unobserved, bj presenting to their 
 attention what is calculated to pre- 
 clude the idea or suspicion of them. 
 
 " Those who are bountiful to crimes will 
 be rigid to merit, and penurious to service. 
 Their penury is even held out as a blind and 
 cover to their prodigality."— Burke. 
 
 Veil (Lat. vl'lum, a veil) is oftener 
 used of wliat deceives one's self, or ob- 
 scures one's own vision; as we speak of 
 the veil wliich hides futurity from view, 
 the mists and veils which rise and are 
 spread before the vision of the pre- 
 judiced. But Veil and Cloak differ 
 from Mask in that they are in them- 
 selves real, though employed to con- 
 ceal something else. 
 
 " As soon as that mysterious veil which 
 covers futurity should be lifted up, all the 
 gaiety of life would disappear." — Blair. 
 
 CLOG. Encumber. Impede, Ob- 
 struct. Embarrass. Fetter. Re- 
 tard. Prevent. Shackle. Hinder. 
 To Clog, an Old English word, 
 is literally to fasten a clog on to the 
 feet of animals, to prevent them from 
 straying ; hence to impede move- 
 ments generally , whether of the limbs 
 or the mind. It denotes the presence 
 of something heterogeneous, obstruc- 
 tive, or against freedom of action. 
 
 " It was said that the king was alienated 
 from the Church of England, and weary of 
 supporting Episcopacy in Scotland, and so 
 was resolved not to dog his government any 
 longer with it." — BuRKET. 
 
 Encumber (Fr. encombrer, Lat. cii- 
 miiliis, a heap) denotes that which 
 retards by being superfluous, and is 
 more or less extraneous to the indi- 
 vidual. An estate is encumbered by 
 its own debts ; and as a man's move- 
 ments may be encumbered by any 
 kind of useless weight, even that of 
 nis own garments, so a mind may be 
 encumbered by useless learning. 
 " Knowledge, a rude unprofitable mass, 
 The mere materials with which wisdom 
 
 builds. 
 Till smoothed and squared and fitted to its 
 
 place. 
 Does but encumber whom it seems t' en- 
 rich." COWPER, 
 
 SYNONYMS [clog] 
 
 Impede (Lat. tmpMire^ lit. lo en- 
 tangle the feet, pedes) refers net so 
 much to mere movemen* as to con- 
 tinuous and systematic movement or 
 progress ; as to impede the advance 
 of an army, the growth of a plant, the 
 progress of education, k implies 
 some end or goal which is thereby 
 set farther off. 
 
 " Some error has been committed in not 
 rightly computing and subducting the con 
 trary or impeding force which arises from 
 the resistance of fluids to bodies movmg 
 any way, and from the continual contrary 
 action of gravitation upon bodies thrown 
 upwards." — Clabke. 
 
 Obstruct (Lat. obstruere, part, oh- 
 itructus) is purely external. It is 
 not, therefore, employed directly of 
 persons, but of their progress, or of 
 roads, passages, and the like, 'i'he 
 progress of a vessel is impeded by 
 contrary winds ; it is yet worse if the 
 entrance into the harbour at the end 
 of tlie voyage is obstructed by rocks. 
 " 'Tis he th' obstructed paths of sound shall 
 
 clear. 
 And bid new music charm th' unfolding 
 ear." Pope. 
 
 Emb A R RASS ( Fr. embarrasser) is pro- 
 perly used only of mental impediments 
 or obstructions ; tliat is, of such doubts, 
 perplexities, or difficulties in general 
 as impede the exercise of thought, 
 speech, or action. 
 
 " You will have the goodness to excuse 
 me if my real unaffected embarrassment 
 prevents me from expressing my gratitude 
 to you as I ought." — BuRKE. 
 
 Fetter (literally, a chain for the 
 feet) has commonly the meaning of 
 restrictive influence or power, which 
 admits a certain freedom of movement, 
 but limits it at certain points ; as, to 
 be fettered by system. " He received 
 permission fettered by certain con- 
 ditions." 
 
 " And truly when they are balanced to- 
 gether, this order seemeth more an infran- 
 chising than 9, fettering of our nature, which 
 without it seemeth rather bound than free 
 in revenge ; such is the dominion of oar 
 irritated passions."— Montague, Essays. 
 Shackle (A. S. sceacul, a clog) de- 
 notes such fettering as redounds to the 
 discomfort of the person, to ungainli- 
 ness of movement, and deprivation of 
 grace in the thin^ itself. If we said, 
 "The tenure of that fine estate is 
 shackled bv some antiquated condi* 
 
[close] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 243 
 
 tious,' we should mean that it was much 
 deteriorated in value, and as it wore 
 deformed by them. Commonly speak- 
 ing, persons are fettered by restric- 
 tions, and things are shackled by con- 
 ditions. 
 
 " And it is great 
 To do that thing that ends all other deeds. 
 That shackles accidents, and bolts up 
 change." Shakespeare. 
 
 Hinder is to cause to be behind. 
 
 " I shall distinguish such as I esteem to 
 be hivderers of reformation into three sorts : 
 I, antiquitariaiis (foi* so I had rather call 
 them than antiquaries, whose labours are 
 useful and laudable) ; 2, libertines ; 3, poli- 
 ticians ."—Mi LTON. 
 
 Retard (Lat. rctarddre) is to cause 
 to be slow or slower. 
 
 "Metaphysics not only succeeded physics 
 and mythology in the manner here observed, 
 and became as great a fund of superstition, 
 but they were carried still farther, and cor- 
 ••ugted aU real knowledge, as well as re- 
 taraea tne progress ol it.'— BoLINGBROKE. 
 
 Prevent (Lat. praveiiire) is to go 
 before, as if for the purpose of stop- 
 pmg. The difference between these 
 three is, that to hinder is to stop en- 
 tirely, but only temporaiily ; to re- 
 tard is to stop, but not entirely ; and 
 to prevent is to stop entirely. Retard 
 necessarily refers to a thing begun; 
 thatwhich is Hindered orPuEVENTED 
 may not have been yet begun. It 
 will sometimes require the interpreta- 
 tion of after-events to know whether 
 a thing be a hindrance or a prevention. 
 For instance, " I was hindered from 
 going out of the house yesterday till 
 the evening by torrents of rain." Had 
 the rain lasted all day he would have 
 had to say, " 1 was prevented yester- 
 day by the rain from leaving the 
 house. All three are applicable both 
 to personal and impersonal influences, 
 and all three both directly to persons 
 and their acts, as also to the progress 
 of either. 
 
 " It is much easier to keep ourselves void 
 ■>f resentineut than to restrain it from ex- 
 iess when it has gained admission. To use 
 the illustration of an excellent author, we 
 can prevent the beginnings of some things, 
 whose progress afterwards we cannot Am- 
 rfer."— Holland. 
 
 CLOSE. Conclusion. Termina- 
 tion. Cessation. End. Ending. 
 Extremity. Extreme. 
 
 Of all theie synonyms, the simplest 
 
 and most generic is En d ( A. S. etule), 
 of which the rest may be regarded as 
 modifications. End is applicable to 
 the extreme point of a line, or any- 
 thing which is regarded a; linear, 
 progressive, or continuous, as the 
 end of a cord, of a book, of a story, 
 of a life. No remoteness is implied 
 in this beyond the intrinsic remote- 
 ness from the centre ; as, to tie two 
 ends of a string together. It is also 
 used to express the idea of result or 
 of a final point, as produced by ante- 
 cedent causes, as " the end o^ these 
 things is death," or that which is the 
 thing aimed at, or the purpose for 
 which something else is done, in which 
 sense it is equivalent to object or 
 final cause, as " he did it for private 
 ends." In short. End expresses both 
 objective and subjective finality. 
 
 " The harvest is the end of the world."— 
 Bible. 
 
 Close (Fr. adj. c/os, closed; Lat. 
 claudcre, part. cUiusus, to shut) is the 
 kind of end to which a thing is re- 
 garded as naturally tending or bring- 
 ing itself. The close of a book or a 
 story seems brought about by the 
 story or the book itself, hence such 
 phrases as " coming to a close," 
 " drawing to a close.^' 
 
 " We have it, it seems, in our power, by 
 the exercise of one particular virtue, to 
 secure a pardon to ourselves for neglecting 
 all the rest, and can blot out the remem- 
 brance of an ill-spent life by a few acts of 
 charity at the cZo.se of it."— Atterbukv. 
 
 A Conclusion (Lat. conclusid7iem) 
 is etymologically of the same origin. 
 A conclusion is a superimposed close, 
 anticipated or drawn as the result of 
 a previous course of action or argu- 
 ment. The conclusion of a contest 
 is in those efforts which bring it to an 
 end ; the conclusion of an argument 
 is that which is necessarily drawn 
 from its premises. 
 
 " I will conclude this i)art with the speech 
 of a counsellor of state." — Bacon. 
 
 Termination (Lat. lermtndtionem, 
 a bounding) is that kind of end which 
 presupposes a previous course, 
 whether of view, of thought, ofwords, 
 of action or movement, which pro- 
 ceeds till it is stopped by such a limit 
 or boundary. It belongs both to 
 
244 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [coalesce] 
 
 Bpace and time, and refers to any kind 
 of intervention ; as, human agency or 
 natural an-angements. 
 
 " I had a mind to know how each of these 
 roads terminated." — Addison. 
 
 Cessation (Lat. cessationem) refers 
 to action as limited or stopped by some 
 inherent will, power, or influence, and 
 thus differs from Termination, which 
 depends on external causes ; as, " I 
 listened till the sound ceased." 
 
 " A cessation of all hostilities was to bepfin 
 within two months, and to continue till all 
 was concluded by a complete treaty and 
 ratified, provided the Spanish monarchy 
 was then entirely restored. "--Burnet. 
 
 Ending is an imposed end, or the 
 end of something artificial or variable. 
 For instance, we speak of the ending 
 of a sentence or a word ; not of the 
 ending, but the end of human life. A 
 termination is a fixed ending, as an 
 ending is a variable termination. 
 
 " A perfect kingdom and glorious that 
 ihall never ha.\eending."— Bishop Taylob. 
 
 Extremity (Lat. extrimitatem) is 
 tlie remotest part of anything which 
 has configuration, or is regarded men- 
 tally as having a definite area or ex- 
 tent. It differs from End in involving 
 this remoteness. So we speak of the 
 end of the street, but the extremity 
 of the town, or the extremities of the 
 human body. The extremity of dis- 
 tress is a supposed boundary line to 
 the extent of such endurance. The 
 end stands related to another end or 
 to the beginning ; the extremity to 
 the centre. End presupposes length 
 and continuity; extremity, internal 
 arrangement and relative situation of 
 parts. 
 
 " No less man than St. Augustine was 
 doubtful whether the extremity of bodily 
 pain were not the gi-eatest evil that human 
 nature was capable of suffering." — Ray. 
 
 Extreme denotes a strained, exag- 
 gerated, undue, oi unnecessary dis- 
 tance or departure from the mean or 
 centre. It is remarkable that the 
 word tends to this unfavourable force, 
 though etymologically it is equally 
 applicable to favourable applications. 
 We speak often enough of " extreme 
 folly, but not of " extreme wisdom." 
 It conveys a sort of censure to say 
 of any one that he holds " extreme 
 opinions." Extreme, bowever, may 
 
 qualify staLet without this tendency 
 which it has in t'he case of habits. 
 Thus we say extreme happiness, but 
 not extreme virtue. 
 
 " For though innovations which appear 
 very plausible maybe found, when examined, 
 very dangerous, and therefore love of change 
 is by no means to be encouraged, yet aver- 
 sion to it may be carried to an extreme also " 
 — Secker. 
 
 COALESCE. Amalgamate. 
 Unite. Cohere. .Join. 
 
 Coalesce (Lat. coalesctve, to groit 
 together) is hardly used except as a 
 scientific term in its purely physical 
 sense, which is to grow together, so 
 that the particles of two organizations 
 shall become compact and one. Coa- 
 lition has now a political meaning, 
 and denotes the combination of dif- 
 ferent persons, parties, or states, 
 having diflferent views or interests, 
 for a temporary purpose. 
 
 " No coalition, which under the specious 
 name of independency carries in its bosom 
 the unreconciled principles of the original 
 discord of parties, ever was or will be an 
 healing coaiitioti." — BuRKE. 
 
 Amalgamate (Eng. amalgam^ a 
 compound of mercury with some other 
 metal) denotes the interpenetration 
 of inorganic particles, as Coalesce of 
 organic. Amalgamation is the mixing 
 of things in themselves foreign, but 
 which are found to have in them 
 sufficient pioperties in common to 
 allow of their union into one mass. 
 
 " Ingratitude is indeed their four cardinal 
 virtues compacted and amalgamated into 
 one." — Burke. 
 
 Unite (Lat. hnire) is said of two or 
 more things which are so joined as to 
 present the appearance of a sensible: 
 or visible whole ; if the union is abso- 
 lute, then the individuality of the 
 parts or separate unities is lost ; as, the 
 union of two regiments in the field 
 Things of the same nature, or which 
 can be brought under the same class, 
 are united though they may have 
 strong individual differences. Men 
 and women (as human beings) are 
 united in marriage, "lie was promj)ted 
 to the undertaking by united duty and 
 interest" (as motives). 
 
 " We were ignorant that the time drew 
 near when the squadron would be separated 
 never to unite again, and that this d»y ot 
 our passage was the last cheerful day t)v«t 
 
[coarse] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 245 
 
 the greatest part of as wonld ever lire tc 
 enjoy." — ^Anson. 
 
 Cohere (L&t. cohatrere) denotes the 
 internal adherence of parts recipro- 
 cally, as adherence is an external 
 sticking together of whole bodies or 
 substances. In its metaphysical sense, 
 Cohere means consistently to hang 
 together in subordination to one prin- 
 ciple or purpose ; as the several parts 
 of a speech, or a theory, are said to 
 cohere. 
 
 " Of all things there is the greatest diffi- 
 culty in retaining numbers. They are like 
 grains of sand which will not cohere in the 
 order in which we place them." — Priest- 
 ley. 
 
 Join (Yr.joindre, Ltit.jungcre) de- 
 notes a union formed by external as- 
 sociation or attachment, which in no 
 way detracts from the separate indi- 
 viduality of the things joined. Such 
 joining may be permanent or tempo- 
 rnry. Thus many are joined in 
 marriage who are not united in heart. 
 Sometimeb the process ofjoining pre- 
 cedes that of unitin^^. Clouds join 
 when thev touch ; they are united 
 when their masses are confounded. 
 Persons join for the sake of com- 
 panionship, or community of interests. 
 The simplest sense of Join is to ap- 
 proaoli near enough to touch, as two 
 houses may be said to join. 
 
 " There were reports that the Emperor 
 and the French King were in a treaty, and 
 that in conclusion they would join to make 
 war upon the King." — BuRNET. 
 
 COARSE is only another form of 
 ** course," as it was originally written, 
 so meaning in course, or such as is 
 commonly to be met with. According 
 as it is used in the literal or the 
 metaphysical sense, it associates itself 
 with two distinct sets of synonyms, as 
 follows : — 
 
 COARSE. RoiGH. Rude. Gross. 
 
 That is CoARsii which is composed 
 of relatively large particles, whether 
 naturally, as a coarse kind of stone, 
 or artificially, as a coarse kind of linen. 
 In this sense it is opposed to fine, that 
 in which nature or art has produced a 
 subtler texture. 
 
 " For habit it was anciently sackcloth and 
 Mhes : by the courseness of the sackcloth 
 they ranked themselves as it were amongst 
 the meanest and lowest of men ; by ashes I 
 kud sometimes earth upon their heads they ' 
 
 made themselves lower than the lowest of 
 the creatures of God." — Mede. 
 
 Rofon (A.S. /iru/t)is that of which 
 the particles have sufficient inequa- 
 lity to be conspicuous to the eye or 
 palpable to the touch : a rough sea, a 
 rough plank. In this sense it is op- 
 posed to smooth. 
 
 " While yet the roughness of the stone re 
 
 mains. 
 Without the rising muscles and the veins." 
 Drtden, Ovid. 
 
 Rude (Lat. rildis) denotes such a 
 sort of roughness aa belongs to un- 
 skilled implements or productions. 
 
 *• Is it in destroying and pulling down that 
 skill is displayed ? The shallowest under- 
 standing, the rudest hand is more than equal 
 to that task."— Burke. 
 
 Gross (Fr. s:ros, L. Lat. grossus, 
 thick) differs from Coarse in notrelat- 
 ing to the particles of a substance, but 
 to the effect produced by the whole 
 of it. It has the meaning of coarsely 
 bulky, combining thicliness of tex- 
 ture with unwieldiness. 
 
 " The element immediately next the 
 earth in grossTiess is water." — Digbt, On 
 Bodies. 
 
 COARSE. Rough. Rude. Gross. 
 Uncouth. Blunt. 
 
 As applied to the mind and the 
 manners. Coarse denotes that natural 
 savagery which comes of movements 
 and expressions unchecked and unre- 
 moved by the training and restrictions 
 of refined society. It comes of such 
 selfishness of demeanour as civiliza- 
 tion tends to suppress. In this sense 
 it is opposed to refined. 
 
 " Already there appears a poverty of con- 
 ception, a coarseness and vulgarity in all the 
 proceedings of the assembly and of all their 
 instructoi's," — BuBKE. 
 
 Rouen is applied only to the man 
 ners and the speech. As coarseness 
 comes of the absence of mental refine- 
 ment, so roughness comes of the want 
 of polite ti-aining, except in the case 
 of rough speech or words, which 
 may come from the most polite on oc- 
 casions of excitement. Hence rough- 
 ness is compatible, as coarseness is 
 not, with much mental refinement and 
 purity of heart. Where, however, 
 this latter is palpably the case, a 
 oetter epithet is Blunt. 
 
246 
 
 SYNONYMS [coast] 
 
 "A plain, blunt man.'' 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 *• Roughness in the grain 
 Of British natures." Cowper. 
 
 Rude has the meaning of being 
 personally offensive to others from 
 roughness of manner. This may be 
 unintentional, in which case it amounts 
 to no more than omission of what 
 polite intercourse requires ; or inten- 
 tional, in which case it is the disre- 
 gard or violation of it in contempt or 
 active insult. 
 
 "My censures of some reputed virtuosi 
 that live in it are written with as harmless 
 and friendly designs as was the seeming 
 rudmess of the angel to St. Peter when he 
 struck him on the side, and hat'tily roused 
 him.''— Boyle. 
 
 Gross refers not to social but moral 
 and mental subjects. The gross per- 
 son is he in whom the sensual in any 
 way predominates ; as, a gross eater. 
 It is opposed to delicate, and denotes 
 an unrestrained exhibition or expres- 
 sion of the animal part of human 
 nature. 
 
 "Bleached and purified from the gross- 
 7tess and pollution of their ideas." — War- 
 BURTON. 
 
 Uncouth (A. 8. uncuth ; uncouth, 
 unknown). See Awkward. 
 
 COAST. Bank. Shore. 
 
 The Coast (0. Fr. coste, Lat. costa, 
 a rib, side) had of old the meaning of 
 a natural line limiting a territory, not 
 being of necessity a sea-line. After 
 the miracle of the healing of the de- 
 moniac, the people of Gadara besought 
 Jesus that he would depart out of 
 their coasts, that is, borders. As now 
 employed of the sea-line of a countiy, 
 it is a geographical term, while Shore 
 is a physical term. It is from the A. S. 
 sct'^an, scirayi, to divide, and is con- 
 nected with shear, shire, shard, shred, 
 ice. &c. The shore is the strip of land 
 washed by the sea; the coast is the 
 line of rocky indentations laid down 
 on the navigator's chart. The shore 
 is that on which seafarers land ; it is 
 barren, flat, or rocky, covered with 
 sand or sea-weed ; the coast is cha- 
 racteristic of the country, it is iron- 
 bound or affording natural harbours, 
 and is the field of the marine explorer. 
 Bank (perhaps an A. S. banc,cL bench, 
 but this, tboi'.gh a probable form, is 
 
 not supported: Skeat, Etym. Diet.) 
 is a mound or ridge of earth, raised 
 above the surrounding level ; whether 
 contiguous to water, as a river, lake, 
 sea, or not. It is seldom applied to 
 the land adjacent to the ocean, be- 
 cause it seldom presents this appear- 
 ance; but in a nautical sense is received 
 to denote the flat, shoal, or shallow, 
 partially or entirely covered by the 
 sea ; as, the banks of Newfoundland. 
 
 COEVAL. Contemporary. Syn- 
 chronous. Commensurate. 
 
 The difference of force between 
 these tenns is sufficiently indicated 
 by their derivations; Coeval being 
 compounded of Lat. tevum., an age, 
 and Contemporary of tempus, time. 
 As the age is of long duration, the 
 term coeval is employed when the 
 sense is existing in the same age, es- 
 pecially if it be remote as well as long, 
 as, " Silence coeval with eternity," 
 " The building of such a pyramid was 
 coeval with such a dynasty of Egyp- 
 tian kings." But, tempus meaning 
 strictly a portion o\ time, a period, we 
 employ the term contemporary for 
 synchronous periods that are shorter. 
 Such are the lives of men. " He was 
 contemporary (it would be absurd to 
 say coeval) with meat college." 
 
 " The history of redemption is coeval with 
 that of the globe itself, has run through 
 every stage of its existence, and will outlast 
 its utmost duration." — Bishop Hurd. 
 
 "This king (Henry VIII.) was contem- 
 porary with the greatest monarchs of 
 Europe, namely the Emperor, the kings of 
 Spain and France." — Stry'pe. 
 
 Although Synchhonous {avyx^ovoq, 
 contemporaneous) is only the Greek 
 equivalent of the Latin contemporary^ 
 it is a convenient term to use when 
 nothing more is intended than the 
 simultaneity of two occun-ences as a 
 matter of history. 
 
 "Sensations are impressed either at the 
 same instant of time, or in contiguous suc- 
 cessive instants. Hence it follows that the 
 corresponding associations are either syn- 
 chronous or successive." — Belsham. 
 
 The term Commensurate (Lat. 
 co)nmensurdtus,mensiira, a measure) may 
 be analogously employed when the 
 meaning is that two durations synchro 
 nize. (See Adequate.) 
 
 "We can, I think, have no positi\e idem 
 of any space or duration which is uot macU 
 
[collateJ 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 247 
 
 np and commensurate to repeated numbers 
 of feet or yards, or days and years which 
 are the common measures, whereof we have 
 the ideas in our minds, and whereby we 
 judge of the greatness of these sorts of quan- 
 tities." — Locke. 
 
 cognatp:. a mi ED. 
 
 As Allied ( Fr. allier, Lat. ulUgare, 
 »; hind together) means bound bj al- 
 most any union or connexion of inte- 
 rests, as by marriage, compact, 
 treaty, league, descent ; so Cognate 
 means allied by virtue ofa common de- 
 scent. Both terms are extended be- 
 yond the primary application to human 
 relationships. In the group of Indo- 
 European languages, the Welsh, for 
 instance, and the Latin are allied. 
 Single words are said to be cognate 
 which may be derived from the same 
 root. That is cognate which is allied 
 in origin. 
 
 COHERENT. Consistent. 
 
 That is Coherent (Lat. clhoertre, 
 to stick together) which is connected by 
 some relation or agreement of form, 
 order, sequence, and the like. That is 
 Consistent (Lat. consistcre, to stand 
 together) which is in harmony with 
 something external to itself, with 
 which it is compared. An incoherent 
 account is one which does not hang to- 
 gether, one in which some statements 
 seem out of character with others, so 
 that such statements do not seem to 
 harmonize among themselves, but to be 
 possessed offerees which do not coin- 
 cide with the main driftof what is said. 
 An inconsistent account is one which 
 contradicts itself. Words are said to 
 be incoherent, actions inconsistent. 
 The coherent presupposes what is 
 analogous to organic unity ; the con- 
 sistent pi-esupposes a unity of charac- 
 ter, sentiment, or principle. A man's 
 reasoning is incoherent fi'om want of 
 logical power ; it is inconsistent when 
 he allows himself to give expression 
 to different opinions or sentiments in 
 succession. That which is inconsis- 
 tent is mcon^ruous and incompatible. 
 That which is incoherent is dislocated, 
 rambling, loose, and ready to fall to 
 pieces. Coherence is especially ne- 
 cessary in naiTation and discourse ; 
 consistency in giving evidence, in 
 didactic exhortation, and in the con- 
 duct of daily life. 
 
 COLD. Frigid. Gelid. Cool. 
 
 Of these, CoM)(A.S. ceald) simply 
 expresses the absence of heat in any 
 degree, whether pliysically or in • 
 metaphorical sense of the mental feel- 
 ings or passions. Frigid (Lat. /H- 
 g^dtisj'r'igus, cold) denotes that which 
 IS by nature relatively cold, as the 
 Frigid Zone. Cool (A. S. col) de- 
 notes the lesser degrees of cold, and 
 Gelid (Lat. giiidusy grin, frost) is 
 applicable only to conditions of 
 natural substances, the eai'h and the 
 atmosphere. A cold nature is wanting 
 in zeal and w;irm-heartedness, re- 
 served, unswayed by passion or ardour 
 of sentiment. A frigid nature com- 
 municates its coldness by a distant, 
 unsympathizing manner. A frigid 
 style of speaking or writing is one 
 which neither conveys nor excites 
 warmth of feeling or brightness of 
 thought. Cool is employed not so 
 much of tempei ament (like Cold and 
 Frigid) as of the state of mind under 
 certain circumstances, and is asso- 
 ciated with the praiseworthy, as cold 
 with the contrary. So we say, '* cold 
 calculation," ''cold indifference," but 
 *' cool determination or courage." 
 When coolness has an unfavourable 
 sense, it refers to specific demeanour 
 towards others, as "cool impudence." 
 " It is in vain that we would coldly gaze 
 On such as smile upon us ; the heart must 
 Leap kindly back to kindness." Byron. 
 " Then, crushed by rules, and weakened as 
 
 refined. 
 For years the power of Tragedy declined. 
 From bard to bard the frigid caution crept, 
 Till Declamation roared while Passioq 
 slept." Johnson. 
 
 *' To what cool cave shall I descend. 
 
 Or to what gelid fountain bend?" 
 
 Marvel. 
 
 " To say the truth, when the matter cornea 
 to be considered impartially and coolly, 
 their faults of whatever kind will admit of 
 much alleviation." — Bishop Hurd. 
 
 COLLATE. Compare. 
 
 To Compare (Lat. compdrare) is the 
 generic term. To Collate (Lat, 
 confei re, part, crlldtus) is specific. Col- 
 lation is a particular kind of compari- 
 son not entirely confined to matters of 
 literary criticism, though mostly relat- 
 ing to these, but to all close compai-i- 
 sons of which the object is to note, 
 rot general resemblance or dissiiui 
 
248 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [collect] 
 
 laritj, but specific points of agreement 
 and disagreement. 
 
 COLLECT. Assemble. Mcster. 
 Gather. 
 
 To <'-OLLECT (J.at. CoWigtrfif J)f!rt. 
 
 cnUeclus) is to gather from ditl'erent 
 places into one body or place. 
 
 " Some ritualists say the collects are 
 prayers made among the people collected or 
 gathered togather." — Comber. 
 
 To Assemble (0. Fr, assemhler, 
 L. Lat. assimYilare, to bring together) 
 differs from Collect in being applic- 
 able only to persons, and not to 
 things. 
 
 " Thither he assembled all his train." 
 Milton. 
 The transitive use of the verb has 
 become uncommon. It tlien means to 
 cause to meet in the same place. 
 
 To Muster (lit. to hold an inspec- 
 tion of troops ; Fr, momtre, monstree ; 
 Lat. munstrdre, to show) is to bring by 
 effort or by authority to a certain 
 place or occasion. It differs from Col- 
 lect and Assemble in being a})plic- 
 able to one as well as many, hence, 
 metaphorically, *^ to muster courage," 
 and from Assemble also, in being ap- 
 plicable both to persons and things. 
 " Prone on the lonely grave of the dear 
 
 man 
 She drops, whilst busy meddling memory 
 In barbarotis successions musters up 
 The past endearments of their softer 
 hours." liLAlK. 
 
 Gather {A. S. gaderiaii) has the 
 senses of collect and assemble, and 
 others of its own. As Muster implies 
 the point to, so Gather the source 
 from, which the taking is ; hence 
 simply to gather a flower, which ex- 
 presses no collection at all. 
 
 " Not th'at fair field 
 Of Enna, wheie Proserpin, gathering 
 
 flowers, 
 Herself a fairer flower, by gloomy Dis 
 Was gathered, which cost Ceres all that 
 
 pain 
 To seek her through the world." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 The term, like Collect, is used in the 
 sense of deduction or inference. " I 
 gather," that is, f infer, " so and so 
 from what you say." The expression 
 of the English Liturgy, " When twc 
 or three are gathered together," uus 
 been censured as tautology ; it is 
 
 plainly not so. All gatheiing is not 
 collective, as we have seen. 
 
 COLOUR. Dve. Tinge. Stain. 
 Paint. 
 
 To Colour (Lat. colbrure) is simply 
 to impart a hue, whether superficially 
 or substantially, or both, as to colour 
 the outside of a house ; Nature colours 
 the grass with green. It may denote 
 an artificial process, or a process of 
 nature. 
 
 "Vain is the hope by colouring to display 
 The bright effulgence of the noon-tide ray, 
 Or paint the full-orbed ruler of the skies 
 With pencils dipt in dull terrestrial dyes." 
 Mason. 
 
 Dye (A. S. dedgian) denotes a 
 purely artificial process, by which 
 either the surface or the entire texture 
 may be coloured; as, an ivory ball, 
 which may be dyed red, or a silken 
 fabric. 
 
 "Weaving was the invention of the 
 Egyptians, and dyeing wool of the Lydians " 
 —Holland, Pliny. 
 
 To Tinge (Lat. tingere) is applied 
 i to both natural and artificial processes, 
 but implies a subordinate degree of 
 colouring; as, a red colour may be 
 tinged with blue, the maiden's cheek 
 is tinged with red. 
 
 " There is constantly a cheerful grey sky 
 just sufficient to screen the sun, and to miti- 
 gate the violence of its perpendicular rays, 
 without obscuring the air or fingeing the 
 daylight with an unpleasant or melancholy 
 line." — Anson's Voyages. 
 
 To Stain, which is abbreviated from 
 (listain (Fr. desieindrey Lat. dis -tin- 
 guhXy to decorate)^ is, properly, to 
 colour with :i heterogeneous colour, 
 or to discolour, as *' stain the pure 
 white with accidental spots." Prom 
 the application or involuntary contact 
 of foreign colouring inatter,or the idea 
 of adornment in distingictre, the term 
 stain has come to mean a certain kind 
 of dyeing. In this way, as Paint (Vr. 
 pehidre, Lat. pingcie) denotes the 
 covering of the surface with a pig- 
 ment, so Stain and Dye indicate the 
 colouring of the substance itself; and 
 Si AiN is said chiefly of solids, as ivory, 
 wood, glass; and Dye of fibrous sub- 
 stances and textile fabrics. Si ain Li 
 often used for the accidental marring 
 of one colour by another. 
 
[command] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED 
 
 249 
 
 " See what reward the grateful senate yield 
 For the lost blood which stains yon northern 
 
 field." Rowe's Lucan. 
 
 " True poetry the painters jower displays ; 
 Trxxe painting emulates the poet's lays." 
 Mason. 
 
 COME. Arrivk. 
 
 To Come ( A. S. c?j»?a?i) expresses no 
 move than to reach up to some point, 
 state, or condition. 
 
 " If the good man of the house had known 
 a-t what hour the thief would came, he would 
 have watched." — Bible. 
 
 To Arrive (Fr. arnver, L. Lat. ann- 
 pare, to come to shore, ad ripain) is to 
 come to a o^iven destination. Periods 
 of time, tidings, and events, as well as 
 moving persons or bodies, are said to 
 arrive. 
 
 " In the Epistles of St. Paul, St. Peter, 
 and St. James, we find frequent mention of 
 the coming of our Lord in terms which, like 
 those of the text, may at first seem to im- 
 ply an expectation in those writers of His 
 speedy arrival." — Horsley. 
 
 COMELY. Graceful. Elegant. 
 
 Comely (A. S. cymlic) expresses 
 more than becoming. A very cheap 
 thing may, on account of colour, shape, 
 »nd the like, be becoming ; but Com ely 
 denotes some degree of intrinsic value. 
 Comely is either applied directly to 
 the personal appearance, as a comely 
 face or figure ; or to something clo.sely 
 connected with it by way of dress, of 
 personal decoration, or attendant cir- 
 cumstance. But this latter is now 
 well-nigh obsolete. 
 
 " A happier and more comely tune." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Rather the difference between Com e r .y 
 and Becoming at present seems to be 
 that comely qualifies only the person ; 
 becoming qualifies something which 
 bears relation to the person. 
 " A comely creature." 
 
 Piers Plaughnuni. 
 
 Graceful, on the other hand, is 
 independent both of personal relation- 
 .ship and of intrinsic value. It de- 
 notes simply an elegance and charm 
 (Lat. gratia) of outline or movement. 
 The pendent flower, the statue of the 
 Apollo Belvedere, the action of the 
 accomplished orator, are graceful. 
 
 " Gracefulness is an idea not very diffe- 
 rent from beauty. It consists in much the 
 sume things. Gracefulness is an idea be- 
 Ituging to posture and motion." — BUBKS. 
 
 E LEG A. NT (Lat. Utgans) denote* 
 acquired grace, or such grace as indi- 
 cates the toucli of artificial refinement. 
 The peasant girl may be comely and 
 graceful by nature, but not elegant, 
 save so far as nature gives to some 
 v.'hat it requires art to develop in 
 others. It is only reflexively that we 
 speak of " elegant furniture," or au 
 "elegant classic." 
 
 "The natural progress of the works 0/ 
 men is from rudeness to convenience, from 
 convenience to elegance, and from elegance 
 to nicety." — Johnson. 
 
 COMMAND. Order. Injunc- 
 tion. Precept. 
 
 Command (Fr. commander') is the 
 most general of these terms. It gene- 
 rally indicates a person of higher 
 station. We speak of the Divine 
 commands, and commandments of 
 the Divine law. The noun command- 
 ment has now this restricted applica- 
 tion. The command flows from one 
 who is in permanent authority, juris- 
 diction, station, oflftce. 
 
 " How commandatory the apostolical 
 authority was, is best discernible by the 
 Apostle's mandates unto the churches upon 
 several occasions, as to the Thessalonians, 
 •We comnuind the brethren.' "—Bishop 
 Morton. 
 
 Order (Fr. ordre, Lat. ordinem.) 
 comes from a i)erson less removed in 
 rank. The general gives commands, 
 the inferior officers order. The 
 master orders, not commands, his ser- 
 vant. In Command there is more of 
 power and dignity ; in Order, more of 
 specific energy or peremptoriness. A 
 command may be held permanently, 
 an order is given to be executed for 
 the occasion. The command or com- 
 mandment is more general than the 
 order. He who governs, commands : 
 he who causes another to carry intc 
 execution, orders. The general om- 
 mandsthe army and orders an assault. 
 Orders are given in some cases where 
 no i)ower or authority of command 
 exists, as when a physician orders a 
 certain medicine to be taken by his 
 jiatient. Force may order, supenority 
 commands. To command may be 
 latent, to order is active. A citadel 
 commands a town, that is, could re- 
 duce or demolish it if ncce.ssary. A 
 
250 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [commercial] 
 
 point of vieAv is called commanding 
 which has elevation and extent, and 
 so seems to ^ive the spectator a supe- 
 riority over It. 
 
 " A ste|)-dame, too, I have, a cursed she. 
 Who rules my henpecked sire, and orders 
 Die." Dryden. 
 
 As command and order relate to 
 specific acts, so Injunction' (Lat. 
 injunction em) relates rather to general 
 conduct; as, an injunction of secrecy, 
 an injunction to be careful. It has 
 more of ti)e moral and less of the 
 official about it. So that, as Com- 
 mand and Ohder are for one's own 
 sake, so Injunction may be entirely 
 for the sake of the other, as the father 
 enjoins his son to be diligent. 
 
 " Though all duties expressly enjoined are 
 by virtue of such injunction equally neces- 
 sary, yet it follows not that they are in 
 themselves equally excellent." — South. 
 
 Pkecept (Lat. prceceptum) is com- 
 monly not addressed to individuals, 
 but has a moral or didactic force, 
 which flows not simply, or, perhaps, 
 not at all, from the authority of the 
 person, but from the inherent wisdom 
 of the thing itself. A command, an 
 order, or an injunction may be old or 
 new upon the occasion ; a precept re- 
 fers always to that whicli is old and 
 established, or at least meant to be- 
 come so as a thing of lasting obligation. 
 
 " Precepts are short — necessarily must 
 be so— take up but little room, and for that 
 reason do not always strike with the force 
 or leave the impression which they ought to 
 do." — Paley. 
 
 COMMERCIAL. Mercantile. 
 
 Commercial (see Commerce) is 
 the widest term, being sometimes 
 made to embrace Mercantile (Lat. 
 mercdri, to traffic; mercem, merchan- 
 dize). In that sense it extends to the 
 whole theory and practice of com- 
 merce ; as, a commercial speculation, a 
 commercial education, a commercial 
 people. Mercantile respects the 
 actual transaction of business; and, 
 as Commercial relates strictly to the 
 exchange of commodities, so Mer- 
 cantile relates to their sale when 
 brought to market. 
 
 " Every man thus lives by exchanging, 
 or becomes in some measure a merchant, 
 and the society itself grows to be what is 
 properly a commercial society." — Adam 
 •jiith. 
 
 " Such ia the happmess, the hope of which 
 seduced me from the duties and pleasures of 
 a mercantile life." — Johnson, 
 
 COMMIT. Intrust. Consign. 
 Confide. 
 
 These words have in common the 
 idea of transfen-ing from one's self to 
 the care and custody of another. 
 Co.mmit is the widest term, and ex- 
 presses no moi-e than generally the 
 delivery into another's charge ; as, to 
 commit a case to an attorney, or a 
 felon to prison. It is used in the 
 general sense of placing a thing in 
 permanent juxtaposition, connexion, 
 or relation "to another ; as, to commit 
 words to memory or th oughts to paper. 
 
 " The Lord Chancellor, upon petition or 
 information, grants a commission to inquire 
 into the party's state of mind, and if he be 
 (bund non compos, he usually commits the 
 care of his person, with a suitable allowance 
 for his maintenance, to some friend, who is 
 then called his committee." — BlacKSTONE. 
 
 To Intrust is to put in trust, and 
 denotes a higher degree of confidence ; 
 as, to intrust a child to the care of a 
 friend, or the friend himself with the 
 care of the child. Unlike Commit, it 
 is applicable only to personal charge. 
 
 " The joy of our Lord and Master, whick 
 they only are admitted to who are carefui 
 to improve the talents they are intrusted 
 withal." — WiLKiNS. 
 
 'J'o Consign (Lat. consigndre, to 
 sign or seal) is a more formal act, im- 
 plying abandonment at least of pre- 
 sent responsibility, and a more com- 
 plete merging in the kee})ing of 
 another, or a more complete change of 
 state ; as, to consign goods into the 
 hands of an ao;ent ; and, yet more 
 strongly, though metaphorically, to 
 consign a body to the grave. It is 
 only objects, not duties or responsi- 
 bilities as in the case of Commit, which 
 are consigned. So we commit either 
 individuals, or the care and manage- 
 ment of them, to others, but we con- 
 sign the individuals only. 
 " Atrides, parting for the Trojan war. 
 Consigned the youthful consort to his care." 
 Pope. 
 
 'i'o Confide (Lat. confldtre) com- 
 bines the transfer of responsibility 
 implied in Consign with the assurance 
 implied in Trust. In the phrase," to 
 confide a secret," the responsibility u 
 
[companion] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 251 
 
 rather shared than transferred. In- 
 trust regards matters of action, Con- 
 fide of knowledge also. It is because 
 I confide in him that I intrust him 
 with this business. To confide is to 
 feel as well as to act ; to intrust is only 
 to act. 
 
 " Congress may unier the constitution 
 confide to the Circuit Court jurisdiction of 
 all offences against the United States." — 
 Story. 
 
 COMMIT. Perpetrate. 
 
 As it relates to the doing of deeds, 
 Commit is used only in an unfavour- 
 able and bad sense ; as, to commit an 
 eiTor, a fault, or a crime. Good 
 deeds are never committed. 
 
 Perpetrate (Lat. perpctvure, to 
 achieve, in a good sense or in a bad 
 sense )is in the same way restricted,but 
 has only reference to grosser errors 
 or crimes. So we might say, " I 
 committed a slight mistake;" but the 
 terms slight and mistake would he in- 
 compatible with Perpetrate. The 
 tenn is, however, used of lighter mat- 
 ters ; as, to perpetrate a blunder, or a 
 gross fault in manners, as we say when 
 we wish sarcastically to exaggerate. 
 " Lands and tenements commH no treason." 
 
 Dbvuen. 
 •' What great advancement hast thou here- 
 by won. 
 By being the instrument to perpetrate 
 So foul a deed ? " Daniel. 
 
 COMMON. Ordinary. Vulgar. 
 
 Common (Lat. communis), from its 
 primary sense of general, frequent, 
 nas naturally come to signify that 
 which is cheap from its frequent oc- 
 currence, and of no high or refined 
 kind. The terra expresses rather a 
 negative idea than any positive defect 
 or objectionableness. A common- 
 looking person is one who has nothing 
 to distinguish him from the mass of 
 people about him. The word often 
 means no more tlian generality or 
 frequency, as in the following : — 
 
 " The commonness and general long re- 
 ception of a doctrine is not a sufficient argu- 
 ment of the truth of it."— South. 
 
 As that is common in which many 
 persons partake, so that is Ordinary 
 (Fr. ordinaire) which is apt to meet 
 us in the common order or succession 
 of things, its " an ordinarjr face." 
 Hence it <ake8 its character tor praiee 
 
 or blame, according to the subject with 
 which it is associated. No such cha- 
 racter belongs to the phrase, " the 
 ordinary forms of law. " Men of 
 ordinary judgment," would mean 
 whose judgment would make them 
 fit judges, as being of an average 
 goodness. On the other hand, to say 
 of a book that it was an ordinary 
 performance, Avould express dispa- 
 ragement. In this disparaging sense, 
 it indicates what is not likely to at- 
 tract or interest. 
 
 " Nature bestowed upon Pythagoras a 
 form and person more than ordinarily 
 comely." — Obsei-ver. 
 
 Vulgar (Lat. vulgaris; valgus, the 
 common people), though it had not 
 originally this decidedly unfavourable 
 sense, as in the old phrase " vulgar," 
 that is, common, " tongue," js always 
 now employed with some tinge of 
 depreciation, if not of actual dispraise. 
 Vulgar reports are such as are circu- 
 lated amon^ people, and such as may 
 be su})po3ed to interest them in parti- 
 cular. In a stronger sense, vulgar 
 indicates depravation of taste and 
 manners. In its unfavourable sense, 
 Vulgar is far stronger than Common 
 or Ordina[iy, because it means what is 
 distinctively seen in common people. 
 It belongs exclusively to the minds 
 and manners of men ; while Common 
 and Ordinary are applicable also to 
 the course or nature of events. We 
 may say, generallj^, that which is 
 ordinary has in it nothing dis- 
 tinguished ; that which is common, 
 nothing refined ; that which is vulgar, 
 nothing noble. 
 
 "Verses which a few years past were 
 thought worthy the attention of children 
 only, or of the lowest and rudest orders, 
 are now admired for that artless simplicity 
 which once obtained the name of coarseness 
 and vulgarity." — Knox. 
 
 COMPANION. Associate. Com- 
 rade. Colleague. Mate. Partner. 
 
 Companion (L. Lat. com-pdnionem, 
 from pdnis, bread, originally meaning 
 a messmate: see Bracket, s. v. com- 
 pagne) is a term which may be applied 
 to any person who keeps company with 
 another for a longer or shorter time 
 without such connexion being habi- 
 tual, or even of necessity an equality 
 between Ihe two. " All through my 
 
252 
 
 SYISONYMS [comparatively] 
 
 travels my dog was mj faithful com- 
 panion. " There must be some degree 
 of sympathy in pleasure or pain. 
 
 " Alas I my soul, thou pleasing companion 
 of this body, thou fleeting thing that art 
 DOW deserting it, whither art thou flying?" 
 —Tatler, 
 
 Associate (Lat. associarey to make a 
 companion of) denotes habitual and vo- 
 luntary companionship on the ground 
 of personal community of feeling. 
 
 "The Apostles, and their associates." — 
 Bishop Porteus. 
 
 CoMUADE (Fv. camarade, Lat. 
 cHmtra, a chamber) is used of com- 
 panionsliip in certain of the lighter 
 relations of society, dependent upon 
 and subordinate to a common rule of 
 life. So a comrade is an associate 
 who is not so purely by personal 
 choice. Playfellows at school, or 
 soldiers of the same regiment are com- 
 rades. The comrade lives with us, 
 the companion goes with us. The 
 comrade is more intimate than the 
 companion, who may be lightly joined 
 and lightly left. 
 
 " In the meantime the other two squad- 
 rons were calm spectators of the rout of 
 their comrades" — Anson's Voyages. 
 
 Mate (etym. doubtful; see Wedg- 
 wood) is to the graver relations of life 
 what Comrade is to the lighter, and 
 denotes a common employment in 
 which each takes a part. It is ap- 
 plicable to the relation between two 
 persons, while comiade always implies 
 a number. 
 
 "I 
 Will way me to some wither'd bough, and 
 
 there 
 My mate, that's never to be found again. 
 Lament till I am lost." Shakespeare. 
 
 Colleague (Fr. collogue, Lat. col- 
 liga) is one who is united with 
 another in the tenure of an office, or 
 the discharge of an official duty. 
 
 " Being yet very young, says Plutarch, I 
 was joined in commission with another iu 
 an embassy to the proconsul, and my col- 
 league, falling sick, was forced to stay be- 
 hind, so that the whole business was trans- 
 acted by me alone." — Drtden. 
 
 Partner is commonly one who 
 takes part in a social community of 
 interest, whether grave or gay ; as, 
 a partner in business, a partner in 
 the dance, a partner for life. 
 
 " No faith, no trust, no friendship, shall he 
 
 known 
 Among the jealous partners of a throne ; 
 But he who reigns shall strive to reign 
 
 alone." RowES Lucan. 
 
 COMPARATIVELY. Rela- 
 tively. 
 
 Comparatively means according 
 to estimate made by comparison ; 
 Relatively, according to a relation 
 to something else. The former is 
 opposed to positively, the latter to 
 absolutely. Comparatively regards 
 an average, relatively a standard or 
 requirement. There were relatively 
 few persons present, that is, in regard 
 to the matter that liad brought them 
 together. There were comparatively 
 few, that is, considering the generality 
 of such occasions. 
 
 COMPARTMENT. Depart- 
 
 ME>'T. 
 
 These words, derivatives of the 
 Lat. purtlrij to part of, express, the for- 
 mer only material divisions, the latter 
 divisions of an abstract kind, as mental, 
 intellectual, literary, conventional. 
 
 COMPENSATION. Remune- 
 ration. Recompense. Amends. 
 Satisfaction. Requitat,. Reward. 
 Meed. Guerdon. 
 
 To Compensate is to furnish an 
 equivalent for any tiling lost or parted 
 with by another ( Lat. competisdre, to 
 counterbalance J to compensate). It 
 commonly supposes that the loss has 
 been in favour, or, in some way, in 
 the cause of the person making the 
 compensation ; but this is not essen- 
 tial. So one might, as an act of 
 charity, give to a poor person as a 
 compensation for a loss which he had 
 unfortunately sustained. 
 
 " Not having any certain knowledge of a 
 future state of reward (though the wisest of 
 them did indeed hope for it, and think it 
 highly probable), they were forced, that 
 they might be consistent with their own 
 l)rinciples, to suppose the practice of virtue 
 a sufficient reward to itself in all cases, and 
 a full coinpe?isation for all the sufferings o. 
 the world."— Clarke. 
 
 Remuneration (Lat. rhnun^rdtin- 
 iiem) is commonly taken in the specific 
 sense of compensation for personal 
 services done to the remunerator. 
 
[compensation] discriminated. 
 
 253 
 
 " Hainan legislators have for the most 
 psLTt chosen to make the sanction of their 
 laws rather vindicatory than remuneratory, 
 or to consist rather in punishments than in 
 actual particular rewards." — BlackSTONK. 
 
 Recompense and Reward stand 
 to each other in this relation, that 
 recompense (Fr. recompense) is a re- 
 ward equivalent to the thing- done. 
 Reward is, literally, that which re- 
 gards or is related to the thin^ (Fr. 
 -e^arder, to keep in view). An indus- 
 trious boy at school is rewarded, not 
 recompensed, by a prize. On the 
 other hand, if the boy were to set his 
 reward against the efforts and self- 
 denial he had made and exercised in 
 order to gain his prize, he might say, 
 " I am well recompensed for all I 
 have done." Reward follows upon 
 action or conduct, and may be for 
 good or bad conduct. In the former 
 case it is opposed to punishment, in 
 the latter it is identical with it. Re- 
 compense is wide, and more varied on 
 the grounds of its bestowal. It has 
 less regard to the simple merits and 
 demerits of the action, and more to 
 the whole sum of what it cost, in 
 time, effort, and the like. Yet recom- 
 pense is, generally speaking, the re- 
 turn due to merit, of which the nature 
 and amount are to be determined by 
 equitable considerations and custom. 
 Remuneration is for service, recom- 
 pense for long, assiduous, meritorious 
 service. 
 
 " Thou who hast taught me to forgive the 
 
 ill. 
 And recompense as friends the good misled. 
 If mercy be a precept of Thy will. 
 Return that mercy on Thy servant's head." 
 Drydex. 
 
 " Which good and evil, pleasure or pain, 
 attending an observance or breach of the 
 law, by the decree of the law-maker, is 
 what we call reward and punishment." — 
 Locke. 
 
 Meed (A. S. med^ merit, reward) 
 is not a term of familiar use. It is a 
 reward which we fairly earn by our 
 own exertions; something bestowed 
 or rendered in consideration of merit, 
 and which does not, like Reward, 
 imply any substantial value, as the 
 '* meed of praise," but rather some- 
 thing which derives its value from its 
 honourable character. 
 
 "As he pronounces .astly on each deed. 
 Of so much fame in heaven expect thy 
 
 meed." Milton. 
 
 Guerdon is a French word, and 
 combines the two notions of a volun- 
 tary gift and a reward, being a hybrid 
 L. Lat. v:ider-do7iiim ; made up of 0. 
 H. G. wider, back again ; and tiie Lat. 
 donum, a gift: see Littue. It is that 
 which is received and recognized as a 
 recompense from one who was not 
 absolutely bound to recognize the 
 thing done, and it may or may not be 
 of intrinsic value. 
 
 " Vei-se, like the laurel, its immortal meed. 
 Should be the guerdon of a noble deed." 
 CoWPKK. 
 Amends and Satisfaction both be- 
 long to cases in which the person 
 complains of loss. Amends ( Fr. amende) 
 relates rather to the i\nn^, satisfaction 
 (Lat. sdtisfactibnem) to the person. 
 Am ends restores the balance of depri- 
 vation. Satisfaction the balance of 
 discontent. So we may make amends 
 not only to persons, but abstractedly; 
 as we speak of making amends for idle- 
 ness by increased efforts afterwards ; 
 but satisfaction is purely personal. 
 
 " Then let us seek 
 Some safer resolution, which, methinks, 
 I have in view, calling to mind with heed 
 Part of our sentence — that thy seed shall 
 
 bruise 
 The Serpent's head— piteous amends." 
 
 MiLTOX. 
 
 " For the transgressions of man, man 
 ought to make satisfaction, but he could 
 not."— SHERiDAJf, Sermons. 
 
 Requital, which, like quit and ac- 
 quit, is originally from Lat. quies, tit 
 (something given to set the mind of 
 the debtor at rest), is simply the 
 giving of something in return for 
 something done towards ourselves. 
 This may be anything but a reward 
 or a recompense. It is dictated sim- 
 by gratitude, and is not conferred, 
 requital is of the fullest possible 
 value in the case of the truly grateful. 
 It is mean or even injurious in the 
 absolutely ungrateful. It is a matter 
 of evil for evil in the vindictive. It 
 is simple punishment in cases where 
 it consists of deserved suffering coming 
 from those who have a right to infl ict it 
 
 " Every receiver is debtor to his bene- 
 factor; he owes him all the good he re- 
 ceives from him, and is always obUged to a 
 
 & 
 
254 
 
 thankful ackiiowledgment.and.wheneverhe 
 hath opportunity, toauequivalentrejUifaZ." 
 — Scott, Christian Life. 
 
 COMPETITION. Emulation. 
 fiiVALRv. Ambition. 
 
 Competition (Lat. comptttrey to 
 meet together ; competitor, a rival) is not 
 a matter of feeling, but of action. It is 
 the attempt to gain something desir- 
 able with or against others who are 
 aiming at the same thing, especially 
 in matters of interest and honour. 
 
 " But they ought to consider that when 
 these two parts of religion come in competi- 
 tion, devotion is to give way to charity, 
 mercy being better than sacrifice." — 
 Tillotson. 
 
 Emulation (Lat. eemaldtioiiem) is a 
 matter of feeling, which often prompts 
 to competition. It is a desire of ex- 
 cell ing^ and a natural tendency to 
 make efforts in that direction. It is 
 always relative to others, whom the 
 emulous person desires to equal, imi- 
 tate, or excel. And in this way it 
 differs from Ambition, which is not 
 relative directly to others ( Lat. anibt- 
 tionem, from amb'ire, to go about canvass- 
 ing for ojjice). The emulous person is 
 thinking of others who are ninning 
 the same course ; the ambitious person 
 thinks only of the goal and the prize, 
 and not, except indirectly, of othei's 
 who have to be passed in the course. 
 
 A noble emulation prevailed among the 
 companions to obtain the first place in the 
 esteem of their chiefs, among the chiefs to* 
 acquire the greatest number of valiant 
 companions." — Gibbon. 
 " Cromwell, I charge thee flmg away am- 
 bition : 
 By that sin fell the angels.' 
 
 Sha.kespea.re, 
 
 Rivalry (Lat. rivdlis, one who uses 
 a brook, rivus, in common with another) 
 has always a selfish object. It con- 
 sists in trying to get something for 
 one's self which is of the nature of a 
 possession, against one or more others 
 who are trying for the same thing. 
 It does not aim at excellence except 
 as a means to acquisition. Emulation 
 denotes concurrence, Rivalry denotes 
 conflict. Men love those whom they 
 emulate, but entertain diffeient feel- 
 ings towards those whom they rival. 
 There is generosity in emulation, and 
 selfishness in rivalry Emulation 
 sppks to merit success, rivalry to ob- 
 
 SYNONYMS [competition] 
 
 tain it. The emulous desires to sur- 
 j)ass, the rival would gladly supplant. 
 Yet rivalry may be generous, that is, 
 when two or more persons generously 
 and honourably strive after the same 
 gain. 
 
 "Keen contentions and eager m-rtZms." — 
 Jeffrey. 
 
 COMPLAIN. Murmur. Repine, 
 Regret. 
 
 Complain (0. Fr. complaindre, Lat. 
 ■plangire, to heat, strike the breast) is to 
 find fault sadly. More generally, to 
 complain is to express dissatisfaction. 
 It is plain that this may be either with 
 the course of things themselves, or 
 with the conduct of other persons. A 
 complaint in either case is expressed 
 openly, and implies that what has 
 befallen one has been undeserved 
 or unjust, from whatever quarter it 
 may have come. When it relates to 
 the conduct of another, it comes from 
 a superior, or from one who is suf- 
 ficiently on an equality to have a right 
 to com])lain to some superior. 
 "Save where fi-om yonder ivy-mantled 
 
 tower 
 The moping owl doth to the moon com- 
 plain 
 Of such as, wandering near her secret 
 
 bower. 
 Molest her ancient solitary reign." 
 
 Gray. 
 Murmur (Lat. murmurare) is the 
 suppressed expression of discontent 
 against a superior power or the irre- 
 sistible force of circumstances. 
 
 " What if God, willing to show the nches 
 of His mercy, calls and accepts of some at the 
 very last hour of the day, and rewards them 
 equally with those that came in at first; 
 have we anything to reply against such a 
 proceeding, or to carp at His justice or mur- 
 mur at our brother's felicity?" — South. 
 
 Repine. Unlike Complain and 
 Murmur, Repine (prob. the Fr. 7-e- 
 yoindre, to prick again: Wedgwood 
 and Latham) implies no outward ex- 
 pression, but an inward discontent 
 which preys on the spirits, and relates 
 to the general lot or condition. 
 
 '*Eepining is sorrow united with a de- 
 gree of resentment against some superior 
 agent, where the mind dares not to break 
 forth into strong expressions of anger." — 
 Cog AN. 
 
 Regret (Fr. regretter) regards 
 matters of fact, and denotes sorrow 
 that something should hare haDDenmi 
 
[complexity] discriminated. 
 
 as it has, and a wish that it should 
 have been otlierwise. It is used, 
 like Lamknt, to express a modified 
 complaint of another, but it is equally 
 applicable to one's self. One may re- 
 gret one's own conduct, as well as 
 that of another. The essential idea 
 of regret is that of looking back with 
 dissatisfaction. If it be on what has 
 occurred without ourselv^es, then 
 regret is sorrow; if it be connected 
 with our own acts, then regret is 
 repentance. 
 
 " Alike regretted in the dust he lies. 
 Who yields ignobly or who bravely dies." 
 Pope's Homer 
 
 Remonstrate (L. Lat. rcnionsfra7e, 
 to show again) and Expostulate (Lat. 
 expostulare, to require urgently). 
 
 These two much resemble each 
 other, inasmuch as they denote the 
 complaint of another's conduct, which 
 is expanded into reasonino; with him; 
 butKEMONSTRATE is the milder term of 
 the two. The person who remonstrates 
 with another is more on an equality 
 with him than the expostulator, who 
 is in a superior position, reasons less, 
 and dictates more. Remonstrances 
 and expostulations may be made 
 either before the act by way of dis- 
 suasion, or after it. In the latter case 
 the object is to produce an impres- 
 sion of dissatisfaction or repentance. 
 There seems to be a further difference 
 in nature of the force employed in 
 each case. Expostulation is a more 
 direct appeal to the person himself, 
 and therefore includes the employ- 
 ment of any means which may in- 
 fluence him. Remonstrance is rather 
 an appeal to the case, and indu'ectly 
 to the person's sense of its injustice, 
 impropriety, or the like. They re- 
 fer exclusively to matters of right 
 and wrong, not to matters of ti-uth 
 and falsehood, except so far as they 
 are associated with or flow out of 
 moral causes. We do not expostu- 
 late or remonstrate against ignorance 
 or false opinions, though we might 
 do so agamst persons for neglecting 
 opportunities of fuller or exacter 
 knowledge, and against the results of 
 this neglect. 
 ** We mast use expostulation kindly." 
 8hAKESP£A.RBs 
 
 ^00 
 
 " It is the proper business of a divine to 
 state cases of coMoience, and to remonstrate 
 against any growing corruptions in practice 
 and especially in principles."— Water- 
 land. 
 
 COMPLEXITY. Complication 
 Intbicacy. Compounding. Com- 
 
 posiieness. 
 
 Complexity and Complication 
 are both derived from the Lat. compli- 
 care, to fold together. Intricacy is 
 from tricce, trifles, hindrances. Com- 
 plexity is the effect produced by com- 
 plication, whether on the bodily eye 
 or on the eye of the understanding. 
 t Complication is a confused involution 
 \Df things. Intricacy represents the 
 difficulty of finding a definite line ot 
 thought or movement on account of the 
 complexity or complication of things. 
 In a wood, in consequence of the com- 
 plication of the foliage, the task is 
 one of complexity, and it is an intri- 
 cate matter, to find the right path. 
 Complication is oftener used of words 
 and circumstances, as "complicated 
 sentences," " his affairs are in a com- 
 plicated state;" Comi-lk xrrv, of ideas, 
 as a complex proposition; Intricate, 
 of matters which have to be investi- 
 gated, mastered, or understood, as 
 "an intricate point of law." Com- 
 plexity is a more abstract tenn than 
 complication, which is more specific. 
 So Complexity ia employed of the in- 
 herent tendency of things to become 
 "complicated, as by Burke: — 
 
 " Men are every now and then put by 
 complexity of human affairs into strange 
 situations." 
 
 " A complication of diseases." — Macau 
 
 L4.Y. 
 
 "Many who toil througfh the intricacy 
 of complicated systems are insuperably em- 
 barrassed with the least perplexity in •om- 
 mon affairs." — liambler. 
 
 Compounding (Lat. componhrey U 
 put together) denotes the physical 
 amalgamation of homogeneous sub- 
 stances, and is not a moral term ; ex- 
 cept so fai' as Compound has also the 
 sense of the Latin comp'ontre, to allax, 
 (strife), to compound a difference 
 (compdncre [item), 
 
 " There was likeness enough in the fea 
 tnres of each manner to If-vour Lucian's aX 
 tempt in compounding his new dialogue." 
 
256 
 
 SYNONYMS [composition] 
 
 Composite (Lat. componh'e, compo- 
 situs, to put together) is a more artistic 
 term than compound. That is Com- 
 pound whichcoHsiitsof more than one 
 substance, ingredient, or element; 
 that is Com POSIT K into which they 
 have been imported so as to constitute 
 it as the result of design. In the 
 compound more than one thing meets. 
 In the composite more than one prin- 
 ciple of combination is exemplified. 
 The Composite order of architecture 
 combines the Ionic and the Corin- 
 thian. A compound building might 
 be made partly of brick and partly of 
 marble. 
 
 " In this we shall follow the order that 
 we have above laid down, first dividing 
 speech as a whole into its constituent parts, 
 tiien resolving it as a composite into its 
 matter and form.'' — Harris, Hermes. 
 
 COMPOSITION. MixTUHE. 
 Conglomeration. Amalgamation. 
 
 Of these the simplest and most com- 
 prehensive is Mixture (Lat. m'n- 
 tura). It expresses the interfusion of 
 particles of a different nature into 
 one mass, solid or liquid, or of soluble 
 with liquid ; and may be the result of 
 chance or design, and in proportioned 
 quantities or not. It is used physically 
 and analogously. Composition (Lat. 
 compMtionem) is the forming a whole 
 (or the whole so formed) by a collo- 
 cation or association of parts, elements. 
 or ingredients, designedly and accord 
 ing to proportion. Where the ingre- 
 dients are material, the term commonly 
 used is Compound, although we speak 
 in the abstract of the composition of a 
 l)hysical wiiole, as for instance an or- 
 ganized body. A Conglomeration 
 (Lat. congl6mirationem, a rolling toge- 
 tlier; glomus, glomcris, a ball, as of uool) 
 is iterally a collection into a round 
 mass; while Amalgamation, from a- 
 malgam (Lat. mUlagma ; Gr. [j.a.'ka.yfxa., 
 a soft substance, from fxaXaacrw to 
 make soft, a compound of mercury 
 with some other metal) points to the 
 compounding of various solid particles 
 into one lump. Thus in Mixture the 
 leading idea is that of the variety or 
 unlikeness of the components. In 
 Composition the skill and judgment 
 of the composer. In Conglomeration 
 the forced unity of the mass. In 
 
 Amalgamation the homogeneous na- 
 ture of the unions. 
 
 Compound. Complex. (See Com- 
 
 PLEXn Y.) 
 
 As compared with each other, these 
 two adjectives differ in that, while 
 Complex denotes involution. Com- 
 pound only denotes a more external 
 kind of amalgamation or combination. 
 A grammatical form may be com- 
 pound (the word "compound " is an 
 instance of it), but it is not complex. 
 This is reserved for metaj)horical use, 
 as in the subjoined employment of it 
 by Locke. 
 
 " But the opinion of Buchanan is more 
 probable, that the toM-n now called Dundy 
 is a compound word of Down and Tay." — 
 SPOTSWOOD. 
 
 " As these simple ideas are observed to 
 exist in several combinations united to- 
 gether, so the mind has a power to consider 
 several of them united together as one idea, 
 and that not only as they are united in ex- 
 ternal objects, but as itself has joined them 
 Ideas thus made up of several simple ones 
 put together I call complex, such as are 
 beauty, gratitude, a man, an army, the 
 universe." — LoCKE. 
 
 COMPOUND. Compose. 
 
 These two words, formed from the 
 same root (Lat. componcre), serve to 
 represent, the first the physical, the 
 second the metaphysical process. 
 The words are often used inter- 
 changeably, yet this distinction holds 
 good. " Of what is this pudding com- 
 posed ? " is a ouestion which would 
 carry the mind to the receipt for it, 
 and the intention of the person who 
 made it ; " Of what is it compounded ? ' ' 
 to the actual ingredients only. So an 
 artist composes his subject, and com- 
 pounds his colours, 
 
 " In like manner, if by knowing that 
 colours are nothing else but various mix- 
 tures of light and of darkness in bodies, our 
 discourse assures us that by several com- 
 poundings of these extremes, reds, blues, 
 yellows, greens, and all other intermediate 
 colours may be generated."— DlGBY. 
 
 " Let me compose 
 Something in verse as well as prose." 
 
 POPB 
 
 COIvIPRISE. Contain. Cok 
 prehend. Include. Embrace. It* 
 voLVE. Imply. 
 
 Comprise (Fr. compris, from Lat. 
 com-prensus. part, comprehendcre) V 
 
[coMruiSEj 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 25: 
 
 tlways used metaphysically, that is, 
 expresses comprenensiveness or in- 
 clusiveness as appreciated by the 
 mind. It is a term commonly applic- 
 able to the individual objects in- 
 cluded under an abstract or collective 
 noun, that is to say, to Comprise is to 
 include by the metaphysical force of a 
 term. For instance, we could not 
 say, " Six trees are comprised in that 
 field," but we might say, ** Those six 
 trees comprise all the timber on my 
 estate." If we meant to say that 
 Walter Scott's works were part of the 
 library of an acquaintance, we might 
 say, "The library contains or com- 
 prises Scott's works ; " but we should 
 not mean quite the same thing. In 
 the former case, we simply state that 
 in this particular whole is contained 
 something as a part. In the latter, 
 we predicate of the library an exten- 
 siveness, which in this case has 
 proved adequate to include those par- 
 ticular works. The term Comprise 
 adds to the idea of inclusion that 
 of adequate or commensurate in- 
 ';Iuding. 
 
 " Whatever was hy them decreed either 
 m the declaration of Christian belief or re- 
 futation of heresy, may all h^ comprised, as 
 jadicious Hooker well noteth. in four words, 
 ' truly, peifectly, iiidivisibly, distinctly,' 
 ti-uly God, perfectly man, indivisibly one 
 person, distinctly two natures." — Bishop 
 HORNE. 
 
 If we meant to enumerate all that 
 was involved in the term library, we 
 might say a library comprises book- 
 shelves as well as books ; or, that book 
 in particular is coiiqrjsed in the list. 
 Contain (Lat. cDntinire) denotes 
 what is within another thing as a 
 simple matter of fict, and not of in- 
 ference or implication ; as, the vessel 
 •contains oil, that man's writings con- 
 fiin many original ideas. There is, I 
 jowever, commonly a specific rela- 
 tionship or community between the 
 tiling contained and that which con- 
 tains it. This appears iu the terai 
 fonteuts, which is not the case with 
 Comprise or Include ; for these latter 
 may relate to things which in use and 
 nature ai-e entirely foreign among 
 themselves. Yet Contain is generic, 
 and may be taken as the universal term, 
 nf which the rest are modificatioua. 
 
 " And when he (Cranmer) came to th« 
 last part of his task, he boldly owned his 
 books, avowing the truths in them con- 
 tained, and disclaimed the Roman doc- 
 trine."— Strype. 
 
 Comprehend (La,t. comprthendcre), 
 like Comprise, and unlike Contain, 
 can onl_y be used metaphysically ; but 
 it denotes the extent of an imposed 
 term, not an inherent or spontaneous 
 force. Comprehension is the result 
 of purpose; while comprisal flows 
 from the nature of the thing compris- 
 ing. Rules comprehend particular 
 instances, laws comprehend certain 
 cases, a word comprehends several 
 meanings. The character of Contain 
 is physical, of Comprise metaphysical, 
 of Comprehend geometrical and ana- 
 logous. 
 
 " The virtues required in the heroic 
 poem, and, indeed, in all writings pab 
 lished, are comprehended all in this one 
 word, discretion." — HoBBKS. 
 
 Include (Lat. incliidtre) is meta- 
 physical, while the physical meaning 
 is expressed b^ another form of the 
 same word, inclose. It is to Contain 
 in the relation of the logical whole to 
 the parts, that is, of the universal to 
 the particulai'. 
 
 " Our Master Christ showeth that in ful- 
 filling two of these commandments be all 
 works included." — Barnes. 
 
 Emhrace (Fr. embrasser ; bras, the 
 arm) is a metaphorical term, meaning 
 to inclose as if in the arms. It is a 
 livelier term than Include, and com- 
 monly denotes a distant, indirect, or 
 unexpected including. 
 
 " Not that my song, in such a scanty space. 
 So large a subject fully can embrace." 
 
 Dryden. 
 
 Involve and Imply are commonly 
 used of one particular only. In- 
 volve (Lat. involvere, to enwrap) de- 
 notes that which exercises such a 
 force upon another thing as to draw 
 it after itself of necessity. " Such a 
 scheme involves the necessity of a 
 large expenditure of money." Imply 
 (Lat. implicare, to enfold) relates only 
 to the force of words or the virtue of 
 ideas, as Involve to the necessities of 
 things. Imply is opposed to erp^-ess. 
 An implied promise is one fairly to 
 be understood or inferred from tha 
 
2by 
 
 S Y NONYMS [conciliate] 
 
 words used, though not reducible to a 
 distinct statement. In a definition 
 which includes a certain number of 
 ideas, the term defined implies any- 
 one because all of the included ideas. 
 Thus murder implies killing, because 
 killing, together with other ideas, 
 enters into the definition of murder. 
 Travelling involves fatigue as well 
 as pleasure. An involved promise is 
 one which is necessitated by what has 
 been said or done. Generally speaking, 
 words imply, and circumstances in- 
 volve. If one thing involves another, 
 it so contains it that the two must go 
 together by an indissoluble connexion. 
 War involves the expenditure of blood 
 and treasure. The premises of a syllo- 
 gism involve the conclusion, which, 
 on the other hand, is evolved from 
 them. 
 
 " We cannot demonstrate these things so 
 as to show that the contrary necessarily in- 
 volves a contradiction." — Tillotson. 
 
 "Where a maHcious act i« proved, a mali- 
 cious intention is implied.'' — ShkrloCK. 
 
 CONCILIATE. Reconcile. Pho- 
 
 PITIATE. 
 
 To CoNCJLiATii (Lat. concilidre) is 
 to gain the aflfections or goodwill of 
 another for one's self. To Reconcile 
 (from the same root) is to restore 
 others to goodwill. Reconcile has 
 also the peculiar sense of brino'ing a 
 person into acquiescence with that 
 which is distasteful. Reconcile is 
 used of persons, while Conciliate 
 may be applied to qualities ; as, to con- 
 ciliate regard and esteem. To con- 
 ciliate amounts, in some cases, to re- 
 conciling to one'p self, for to conciliate 
 is to gain over, and this may be one 
 who was previously either indifferent 
 or an enemy. There is an analogous 
 use of Hkoncile in which it is em- 
 ployed in the sense of proving con- 
 gruous or compatible ; as, to reconcile 
 conduct with principles, to reconcile 
 statements or differences. Propi- 
 tiate (l^at. propitiare) is nearly iden- 
 tical with Conciliate. But Conciliate 
 is to bring to a harmony of sentiment, 
 Proi'itiai li to render actively favour- 
 able, especially by appeasing wrath or 
 ill-will. We conciliate equals and 
 propitiate superiors, especially these 
 
 of great influence and power. We 
 conciliate the judgment and opinions, 
 we propitiate the feelings and inclina- 
 tions, of another. When we have con- 
 ciliated him he thinks better of us, 
 when we have propitiated him he 
 feels less harshly towards us. 
 
 *' The rapacity of his father's administra 
 tion had excited such "uiversal discontent, 
 that it was found expecient to conciliate the 
 nation. "— H alLAM . 
 
 " First be reconciled to thy brother, and 
 then come and offer thy gift." — Bible. 
 
 " With snch a sacrifice God is madt 
 favourable, or God is propitiate, if we shali 
 make new Englishe." — Bishop Gardiner. 
 
 CONCISE. Succinct. Con- 
 densed. Sententious. 
 
 Concise (Lat. conctdh-e, to cut oH 
 short, part, concmis) is used of style 
 in speaking or writing, and means tlj 
 expression of much in a few words. 
 
 " To tell you the truth, I was once in 
 clined to be somewhat angry at the short 
 ness of your letters ; but I am now so well 
 reconciled to your concise manner, that I 
 condemn my own as downright loquacity, 
 and shall make your epistles the models ot 
 mine." — Melmoth, Cicero. 
 
 Succinct (Lat. succin^ere, part. 
 succinctiis, to gird or tuck up) has 
 the same signification, but is applied 
 more frequently to the subject- 
 matter, while Concise belongs to the 
 phraseology ; so we should say, a con- 
 cise expression, and a succinct nar- 
 rative or style. 
 
 " A strict and succinct style is that where 
 you can take away nothing without losse, 
 and that losse to be manifest." — B. JoNSON. 
 
 Condensed ( Lat. condensare, from 
 densus, close) relates rather to the 
 mode of treatment by which a matter 
 is brought, and, as it were, compressed 
 into a smaller sj)ace than it might 
 have occupied. 
 
 " The secret course pursued at Brussels 
 and at Madrid may be condensed in^o the 
 usual formula — dissimulation, procrastina- 
 tion, and again dissimulation." — Motley. 
 
 The term bENTENTious (Lat. seii- 
 teniia) marks the style which aims 
 at being short, pithy, and weighty at 
 the same time, as it every sentence 
 were a maxim. The term formerly 
 was indicative of more praise than 
 now belongs to it, when it would 
 probably be used in the ironical sense 
 
[conduce] 
 
 of oracular — thai is, pompously terse, 
 or magisterially didactic. Perhaps 
 tliis element would naturally underlie 
 the term from the beginning, for who 
 is competent to speak thus without 
 turgidity or self-conceit? So Addi- 
 son writes, " ambitiously sententious." 
 On the other hand, the tei-m is one of 
 pure praise in the following : — 
 
 " The style is clear and strong, short and 
 sententious, abounding with antitheses, 
 elegant turns, and manly strokes of wit." — 
 Waterland. 
 
 CONCLUSIVE. FiVAL. Deci- 
 sive. Ultimate. 
 
 These tei-ras agree in expressing 
 that character of what is said or done 
 which leaves no room for subsequent 
 modification or procedure. Conclu- 
 sive (Lat. concladtrey lo shut up) is 
 commonly used of that which termi- 
 nates argument or debate by its over- 
 ♦vhelming or irresistible force ; as, a 
 conclusive proof, conclusive evidence. 
 
 "But this objection, when thoroughly 
 examined, will not be found by any means 
 8o pressing or conclusive as at first sight it 
 •eems." — HoBBES. 
 
 Final (Lat. fmalis, Jims, an end) 
 is that which brings with it an in- 
 tentional end. The term Final is most 
 commonly found associated with the 
 end or purpose of intelligent beings, 
 or as recognized by them ; the final 
 bein^ generally that on which the 
 mind dwells as the end. Hence, 
 especially, words, decisions, resolves, 
 and the like, are final, as shutting up 
 further thought, speech, or action. 
 A conclusive answer leaves no room 
 for question. A final answer is fol- 
 lowed by a determined silence. 
 
 *' Neither with us in England hath there 
 oeen till very lately ^nyfinal determination 
 upon the right of authors at the common 
 law."— Blackstonk. 
 
 Decisive (Lat. dic'idire, to deter- 
 mine) is that which has the power of 
 prompt and summary determination ; 
 as, a decisive proof, a decisive victory. 
 The decisive terminates action, as the 
 conclusive terminates argument. 
 
 " A decisive, irrevocable doom." — Batk's 
 Sermons. 
 
 Ultimate (Lat. ultHmaref to come to 
 an end, iUt^mus, last) denotes that 
 beyond which nothing is contem- 
 plated or attempted; as the ultimate 
 
 DISCEIMINATED. 
 
 259 
 
 triumph of truth ; so, an ultimate con- 
 cession is one which there is no 
 probability of seeing extended ; ulti- 
 mate truths are tru';hs which must 
 be taken as axioms, being incapable 
 of further analysis. 
 
 "Whence comes it (the mind) by that 
 vast store which the busy and boundless 
 fancy of man has painted on it with an 
 almost endless variety ? whence has it all 
 the materials of reason and knowledge? 
 To this I answer in one word, from experi- 
 ence ; on that all our knowledge is founded, 
 and from that it ultinuitely derives itself." 
 —Locke. 
 
 CONCORD. Harmony. Unison. 
 Concert. 
 
 Concord (Lat. concordia) denotes 
 the union of wills and affections. 
 " Love quarrels oft in pleasing concord 
 end." Milton. 
 
 Harmony (Gr. ap{j.o\ta, a fitting 
 iojuether, musical harmony) is a con- 
 tinuous concord or state of such 
 agreement manifesting itself exter- 
 nally. A united family, by the con- 
 cord which subsists among its mem- 
 bers, lives a life of domestic hannony. 
 
 " In us both one soul. 
 Harmony to behold in wedded pair. 
 More grateful than harmonious sounds to 
 the ear." Milton. 
 
 Unison (Lat. hnis)!)nus; from iiniLs, 
 one, and sinus, sound) relates to such 
 congeniality as may exist in the less 
 grave matters of feeling and taste. 
 
 " A work which warms our passions, and 
 hurries us on with the rapid vehemence of 
 its style, may be read once or twice with 
 pleasure ; but it is the more tranquil style 
 which is most frequently in unison with our 
 minds." — Knox, Essays. 
 
 Concert (Lat. conilrh-e, to join to- 
 gether, part, consertus) applies also to 
 designs and actions, which are the 
 caiTying out of such designs : — 
 
 *' It was concerted to begin the siege in 
 March," — Burnet. 
 
 It should be mentioned that Concert 
 came afterwards to be confounded 
 with consort. So Spenser — 
 
 " For all that pleasing is to living ear 
 Was there consorted in one harmony." 
 
 CONDUCE. Contribute. Tend. 
 
 Tend (Lat. tendtre) is used of any- 
 thing likely to bring about a result 
 different from, yet cognate to, itself; 
 
260 
 
 as, idleness tends to poverty. It 
 denotes a relation between cause and 
 effect, not invariable, but variable and 
 probable, or such as partially, if not 
 completely, effects a certain end. 
 
 " The laws of our religion tend to the nui- 
 versal happiness of mankind."— TiLLOTSON. 
 
 Conduce (Lat. conduca-e, to profit^ 
 to serve) expresses more distinctly 
 than Tend the separate existence of 
 cause and effect. We sny a thing is 
 apt to tend to something else, but we 
 do not say, apt to conduce. It either 
 does conduce or not. 
 
 "All agree that Moses' main end was 
 the abolition of idolatry and preservation 
 of the unity. The institution of the Sab- 
 bath is shown by Spenser and others to be, 
 of all the ceremonials, the very rite most 
 conducive to this end." — Warburton. 
 
 The term Conduce is employed of that 
 which leads to a favourable or de- 
 sirable end, not to the contrary. 
 We speak of things as conducive to 
 happiness, not to misery. 
 
 Contribute (Lat. contnbucre) de- 
 notes partial causation, which is 
 shared with other things of like ten- 
 dency, while one thing alone may 
 conduce to bring about a result. But 
 Conduce andCoNTRiBUTEdiffer,in that 
 Conduce takes effect upon a possible. 
 Contribute also upon an actual and 
 present end. That which conduces 
 to happiness makes happiness so far 
 
 {»robable. That which contributes to 
 lappiness adds to the actual sum or 
 amount of it. 
 
 ♦' Quoth she, I grant it is in vain 
 For one that's basted to feel pain ; 
 Because the pangs his bones endure 
 Contribute nothing to the cure." 
 
 Hudibrat. 
 
 CONFEDERATE. Ally. 
 
 Confederate (Lat. confozdh-are, to 
 tain by a league) is used of individuals 
 in a bad sense. 
 
 " He is the freeman whom the truth makes 
 
 free. 
 And all are slaves besides. There's not a 
 
 chain 
 Th»t hellish foes confederate for his harm 
 Can wind around him, but he casts it off 
 With as much ease as Samson his green 
 
 withes." COWPER, 
 
 A confederate State or Power differs 
 *ro«o an Ally (Fr. allier, Lat. altl- 
 
 SYNONYMS [CONFEDKUATEJ 
 
 gare, to bind), in that confederation 
 may be permanent, while alliance is 
 temporary. We speak of the " German 
 Confederation," and of the alliance 
 between the English and French in 
 the Crimean war. A n ally is not used 
 of individuals except in a jocose way, 
 or on a great scale ; as, one monarch 
 n)ay be an ally of another. 
 
 "By this extraordinary and unexpected 
 success of his alii/ (Gustavus), Charles 
 failed of the purpose for which he framed 
 the alliance."— UuMK. 
 
 CONFIRM. CORROBOUATB. 
 
 The idea of giving additional 
 strength is common to both these 
 terms, and that in other than the 
 physical sense, but they differ in 
 their mode of application. 
 
 Confirm (Lat. confirmare) is used 
 both of the minds of personc and oi 
 thesubjects; CoriROBORATE,only of the 
 subjects themselves. My statement 
 has been confirmed, or I am confirmed 
 in my belief. Facts, opinions, state- 
 ments are Corroborated ( Lat. cor^ 
 rohtrdre, to make very strong). Gene- 
 rally speaking, to confirm is to make 
 more sure, to coiToborate is to make 
 more strong. When a statement is 
 doubtful, it may be confirmed ; when 
 testimony is weak, it may be cor- 
 roborated. I am confirmed in what is 
 internal or relative to myself; in an 
 opinion, a conviction, a resolution, 
 or even a suspicion. That is cor- 
 roborated which I put forth before 
 others, and advance as liable to doubt 
 or gainsaying. 
 
 "That treaty so prejudicial ought to have 
 been remitted rather than confirmed."— 
 Swift. 
 
 " The concurrence of all corroborates thp 
 same truth."— Taylor. 
 
 CONFLICT. Contest. 
 
 Conflict (Lat. confiictus, a striking 
 together) is used of any two opposing 
 forces in sustained collision, as the 
 "conflict of the elements," "con- 
 flicting hosts." 
 
 Contest (Fr. contebter, and Lat. 
 contestdri, to call to wit7iess) is an open 
 and premeditated sti-uggle on the part 
 of man for some proposed prize or 
 victory. It may be intellectual, while 
 a conflict is physical, except when it 
 is used in a metaphorical sense ; as. a 
 
[confront] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 261 
 
 conflict of opposite emotions or 
 cpinioas. A contest is a strife for 
 a common object. A conflict is a 
 violent meeting of two forces or in- 
 dividuals. A contest may be, and 
 «ften has been, decided by a conflict. 
 in the Wars of the Roses the houses 
 of York and Lancaster were the con- 
 tending parties, and the battles in 
 which they en^a^ed were conflicts. 
 A man may be defeated in a contest, 
 but he may perish in a conflict. 
 
 " And whenever the patrons of liberty 
 shall give this advantage to the enemies of 
 't, as much of that popularity which the 
 first lose the others will gain, and so, the 
 contest becoming more equal, force alone 
 «inst decide." — ^Warburton. 
 
 " The starry cope 
 Of heaven, perhaps, or all the elements 
 AH least had gone to rack, distni-b'd and 
 
 torn 
 i^ith violence of this conflid." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 CONFOUND. Confuse. Mix. 
 Blend. Mingle. 
 
 These two, Confound and Con- 
 rusE, may be regarded as modes of 
 the third, to Mix. To Mix (Lat. mis- 
 cire) is to produce or exhibit an entire 
 interpenetration of many parts or 
 particles, whether homogeneous or 
 not. In the mixture the parts may 
 absolutely lose their individuality, as 
 in liquid substances, or not abso- 
 lutely, as in mixing different kinds of 
 seeds. The term Mix is hardly em- 
 [tloyed in any other than a purely, or 
 almost purely physical sense. 
 
 Mingle is a variation of mix, and 
 denotes that kind of mixture in which 
 the individuals or parts retain their 
 individuality, or are still recognizable, 
 as when persons mingle in the dance 
 or the crowd. 
 
 Blend (A. S. btendini, to mix, con- 
 fuse; to blind) is to mix imperfectly 
 yet harmoniously, so that the indi- 
 viduality, as in colours, is discerni- 
 ble, but under a modified form. But, 
 except in the case of'colours and sounds 
 and flavours. Blend is used of abstract 
 qualities and ideas. Confound (Lat. 
 eoiifundere, part. conjTisus) and Con- 
 fuse are derived from different parts 
 of the same Latin verb, but used, the 
 former of more things than one, the 
 latter of one thing. They apply to 
 
 the mind and ideas as well as to ob- 
 jects of vision. A person confuses an 
 account when he gives inverted,vague, 
 or contradictory relations, so making 
 it obscure. He confounds one ac- 
 count or circumstance with another 
 when he mixes into one details be- 
 longing to both. When we confuse 
 we throw into indistinctness ; when 
 we confound we falsely identify. In 
 the former we wrongly put one or 
 more things among others; in the 
 latter we substitute them wrongly 
 J\>r others. Things may mix or "be 
 mixed in almost any proportion ; but 
 things mingled with others are com- 
 paratively few, or of smaller quantity. 
 
 "Our critic confounds the nature and 
 order of things." — Warburton. 
 
 "But as he wvote at second-hand and 
 from hearsay only of things which he him- 
 self had not seen, he is observed to have 
 jumbled his facts together more coyifusedly, 
 and to describe them more inaccurately, 
 than the rest, who related them from their 
 own knowledge." — Middleton. 
 
 The following from Bishop Horsley 
 may show that the term Mix is not 
 happily employed but of material 
 compounds : — 
 
 " Who is he that shall determine in what 
 proportions the attributes of justice and 
 mercy, forbearance and severity, ought to 
 be mixed up in the character of the Supreme 
 Governor of the universe?" 
 
 " Curiosity blends itself more or less with 
 all our passions." — Burke. 
 
 " Fire mingled with the hail." — Bible. 
 
 CONFRONT. Face. 
 
 To Confront (Fr. confwnter ; prob. 
 from con, together , front-em, the fore- 
 head) is usually personal, implying 
 two persons at least ; as, to confront 
 one witness with another ; or, he 
 was confi-onted by several witnesses ; 
 or the witnesses were confronted with 
 one another. To Face {LKi.fdcies, a 
 face) is said of one person or one party 
 which is ready to encounter some 
 specific difficulty, danger, or object 
 of fear, not necessarily personal; as 
 to face the enemy or the storm. 
 Confront is also a more energetic 
 and positive term than Face. He who 
 faces danger is ready to meet its con- 
 sequences. He who confronts it has 
 shoAvn signs of ojiimsition, and, in 
 some sense, begun the attack. 
 
262 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [confusion] 
 
 •' We fonr, indeed, confronted here with 
 
 four 
 In Russian habit." Shakespeare. 
 
 It may be observed tliat Confront has 
 a force which does not belong to Face, 
 namely, to hring face to face. 
 
 " A \\& faces God and shrinks from men." 
 -Bacon. 
 
 CONFUSION. Disorder. Dis- 
 turbance. Commotion. Pertur- 
 bation. 
 
 Confusion (Lat. conj'uswnem) de- 
 notes that abnormal state in whicli 
 things which ought to be separate or 
 distinct are tumultuously, irregularly, 
 or obscurely mixed together. It can 
 only apply, therefore, to matters in 
 which the individuals, parts, or par- 
 ticles ought to be distinctly separate ; 
 as, to the confusion of voices in a mob, 
 or of a man's affairs, confusion of 
 .ihought, confusion of papers. 
 
 Disorder (Fr. desordre) is the 
 violation of order or aiTangement, 
 and so takes place in matters where 
 position, location, or adjustment are 
 needed ; as in the tumultuous march of 
 armies, in a disorderly crowd, a dis- 
 ordered dress. Confusion necessarily 
 involves disorder; but there may be 
 disorder without confusion. Con- 
 fusion is of the whole. Disorder may 
 be of the whole or only some of the 
 parts. Confusion stands to distinct- 
 ness as disorder to arrangement. So 
 a thing may be disordered in the 
 sense of disarranged, without any 
 such wrong intermixture of separate 
 parts as belongs to confusion. The 
 hair of the head may be in disorder, 
 aot in confusion. Confusion is the 
 3xtreme of disorder. It is that point 
 where disorder takes effect upon the 
 mental faculties. Things may be 
 disordered yet distinctly recognizable 
 as being out of place ; but when things 
 are in confusion, thej are such that the 
 mind cannot take distinct cognizance 
 of them. An army in disorder has 
 lost its ranks. When confusion reigns 
 in it the soldiers cannot hear the 
 voice of their commanders, which, 
 if heard and obeyed, might put an 
 end to the disorder. Disorder is 
 more external than confusion, so 
 that oftentimes the former is the 
 result and manifestation of the latter. 
 
 In the councils of a govei-nment con- 
 fusion may reign for some time be- 
 fore public disorder (which must 
 sooner or later be the case) mani- 
 fests itself as the consequence. The 
 term Confusion is utterly opposed 
 to every principle, moral, mental, 
 or artistic. We never could bring 
 the term into contact with anything 
 otherwise than faulty. 
 
 " If we unbroke 
 Sustain their onset, little skill'd in war, 
 To wheel, to rally, and renew the charge. 
 Confusion, havoc, and dismay will seize 
 The astonish'd rout." Smollett. 
 
 *'When you behold a man's affairs 
 through negligence and miscondnct in- 
 volved in disorder, you naturally conclude 
 that his ruin approaches." — Blair. 
 
 "We have seen that inordinate passiona 
 are the great disturbers of life."— Jbid. 
 
 Disturbance (Lat. disturbdre, to 
 throw vita disorder) is the violation of 
 peace or quiet, physical or otherwise ; 
 so, the sea is often disturbed violently, 
 but can never be thrown into con- 
 fusion or disorder, having no distinct- 
 ness or sequence of parts. Disturbance 
 is of those things which, presuma- 
 bly or desirably, are in tranquil- 
 lity. Commotion (Lat. commotmiemy 
 differs from Disturbance in denoting 
 the action of a multitude of indivi- 
 duals or parts ; wliile disturbance 
 may be of one, as, "My occupation 
 was disturbed," " By a violent com- 
 motion of the elements the stillness of 
 the nio-ht was disturbed." Commo- 
 tion adds the influence of excitement 
 to the force of disturbance. 
 
 Perturbation fLat. pe*turhdtio- 
 nem) not employed directly of physical 
 commotion, is a state of grievous men- 
 tal commotion or disquiet. He whose 
 bodily rest is broken is disturbed, 
 he whose tranquillity is destroyed is 
 perturbed. Communities, like indi- 
 viduals, may be thrown into pertur- 
 bation. It is a confused excitement 
 of mind where composure is right or 
 usual. 
 
 " If the main fault be ia the affections 
 through some sudden passion and pertur- 
 bance of mind, either Ijlinding, or corrupt- 
 ing, or outrunning the judgment, us, for in 
 stance, fear, anger, desire, or the like, the 
 sin arising from hence, though perhaps 
 joined with soma igaoranee and -liJfnlneM 
 
[conjurk] 
 
 DISCKIMINATED. 
 
 263 
 
 ^thal, yet is properly a sin of infirmity." — 
 Sharp. 
 
 CONFUTE. Refuth. Oppugn, 
 Impugn. Disprove. 
 
 To Confute (Lat. conjutare) ap- 
 plies both to the arguer and the argu- 
 ment. It is to overwhelm by decisive 
 argument. Refute (Lat. rt-futme, 
 to repel, rebut; not connected with 
 conjutare) is to rei>el by the same 
 kind of argument, and so applies to 
 what is personally alleged against one, 
 as charges, calumnies, and the like, to 
 which Confute is not applied in the 
 same sense. When a thing is confuted, 
 it is reduced to an absurdity, neu- 
 tralized, and, as it were, annihilated. 
 When it is refuted, it remains where 
 it was, but its application is invali- 
 dated. Confutation deprives of force 
 and of truth. Refutation does not 
 weaken or destroy, but repels effec- 
 tually. Opinions, statements, argu- 
 ments, paradoxes, fallacies are con- 
 futed by being, as it were, melted 
 down to nothing. Charges, accusa- 
 tions, insinuations, slander, are refuted 
 by proving their relative untruth. Dis- 
 prove is now never used of persons, 
 but only of statements, suppositions, 
 and the like. An argument is confuted 
 by showing its fallacy. Calumny is 
 refuted by proving the innocence of 
 the calumniated person. A fact or the 
 • assertion of it is disproved by showing 
 it to be untrue. Oppugn and Impugn, 
 from Lat. oppugnare and inipngndre, 
 both denote a hostile attitude in argu- 
 ment. They both fall short of the rest, 
 in that they denote only reasoning, 
 not conclusive reasoning. To oppugn 
 is to exercise hostile reasoning against 
 a person or his statements ; while to 
 impugn is rather to call in question the 
 truth of what he states. So we might 
 perhaps better say, " He was publicly 
 oppugned in the senate," and, " The 
 truth of hisstatementswasimpugned." 
 To Oppugn is a term of stronger force 
 than Impugn, and denotes a deter- 
 mined and total opposition, while Im- 
 pugn is applicable to questions of de- 
 tail and lesser moment. " I have no 
 desire to oppugn the statements you 
 have just made, but pardon me if I 
 impugn the accuracy of one observa- 
 •ion in particular." 
 
 " They only read the gazettes of their 
 own writers, so that everything which is 
 called an answer is with them a con/uia- 
 tion," — DBYDEjf. 
 
 "Some of his blunders seem rather to 
 deserve a flogging than a refutation"— 
 Macaulay. 
 
 " They said the manner of their impeach- 
 ment they could not but conceive did oppw^n 
 tlie rights of Parliament."— Clarendon. 
 
 " Unless you gi-ant some fundamental and 
 eternal truths, I see not how it is possible 
 for OS to confute divers theological errors 
 of Pagans and other infidels, whose rejec- 
 tion of the authority of the Scriptures does 
 not allow us without indiscretion to im 
 pugn them with arguments from them."- 
 B0YI.E. 
 
 "That false supposition I advanced in 
 order to disprove it."— Attkrbury. 
 
 CONGRATULATE. Felicitate. 
 
 Felicitate (Lat./efictfafem, happi- 
 ness) had, of old, the sense of to make 
 happy, as well as to consider or call 
 happy. The former force it has since 
 lost. It differs from Congratulate 
 (cougrdttildri) mainly in the degree of 
 force and sincerity. Congratulate is, 
 therefore, rapidly taking the place of 
 Felicitat£, inasmuch as we naturally 
 tend to give ourselves credit for 
 genuineness of motive. FELicrrAXE ■ 
 a word of formal politeness. Con- 
 gratulate implies a s/iarin"' of the joy 
 produced by another's good fortune. 
 Good manners felicitate, a good heart 
 or true friendship congratulates. We 
 do not demand the same warmth in 
 felicitations. On the other hand, a 
 cold congratulation must be a forced 
 one. 
 
 " That fa^vning villain's forced congrat*' 
 Uitions." — Johnson. 
 
 As felicitations are manifestations of 
 politeness, they may be offered where 
 congratulations might seem to pre- 
 sume an equality of condition. 
 
 " I sincerely rejoiced to hear of your ad 
 vancement to the purple ; yet on these occa- 
 sions I did not think myself warranted to 
 break in upon you either with my acknow- 
 ledgments or felicitations." — Anecdotes of 
 Bishop Watson. 
 
 CONJURE. Adjure. 
 
 These are compounds of the Latin 
 verhjurdre, to suear. To Conjure is 
 to entreat with solemn earnestness, to 
 Adjure is to appeal in the same way. 
 One conjures for one's own sake. One 
 adjures for the sake of God. When 
 
264 
 
 SYNONYMS [connect] 
 
 Christ was brouglit before the Higri 
 Priest, the hitter adjured him by the 
 
 High 
 e 
 living God, that is, threw sucli solem- 
 nity into his appeal as to give to the 
 answer the cliaracter of being made 
 U|ion oath. When remonstrance and 
 bnger have proved fruitless, the fatlier 
 conjures his rebellious son to have re- 
 gard to himself for his parents' sake. 
 In ordinary conversation we more 
 commonly adjure persons to do some- 
 thing, and conjure them not to do it. 
 One conjures God or man. One ad- 
 jures man in the name of God or of 
 justice, honour, pity, home, country, 
 and the like. He who conjures may 
 be a superior, but he places himself in 
 a position of inferiority by his very 
 prayer. He who adjures may be in- 
 ferior, but he fortifies himself by the 
 external support of that to which he 
 appeals. 
 
 " Earnest entreaties and serious conjure- 
 ments" MiLTON. 
 
 " Caiaphas was not more malicious than 
 crafty. What was in vain attempted by 
 witnesses shiill be drawn out of Christ's 
 own mouth. What an accusation could not 
 effect, an adjuration shall. " I adjure thee 
 by the living God that thou tell us whether 
 thou be the Christ the Son of God."— 
 Bishop Hall. 
 
 CONNECT. Combine. Attach. 
 Unite. 
 
 Connect (Lat. conneclire, to fasten 
 together) commonly implies a third 
 thing as a medium whereby two 
 others are joined ; as two houses are 
 connected by a covered way, leading 
 from one to the other, so we speak of 
 things as closely or distantly, airectly 
 or indirectly connected. In this re- 
 spect it differs from Unitk (Lat. 
 (imre, part, nriitus), where, if the in- 
 dividuality of the united objects is not, 
 as it sometimes is, lost, there is at least 
 a disregard of the connecting medium. 
 Attach ( Fr. attacker), except when 
 used of affection, commonly implies 
 the fastening of the smaller, lighter, 
 more movable, or less important, to 
 the fixed and immovable, or at least 
 the heavier, less movable, and more 
 important. So the seal is iiltached to 
 the watch, not the watch to the seal. 
 Combine (Lat. combinare; con-, to- 
 gelher^ b'mi, two each) is not used in a 
 phjsical sease. ltd motes the union 
 
 or comprehension of two or more 
 things in some common principle, or 
 under some common object or pur- 
 pose ; as, to combine exercise with re- 
 creation in a country walk. 
 
 " A right opinion is that which connects 
 distant truths by the shortest train of in- 
 termediate propositions." — Johnson. 
 
 " Few painters have obliged us with finer 
 S(renes, or have possessed the art of com- 
 bining wools, lakes, and j'ocks into moi'e 
 agreeable pictures than G. Poussin." — 
 HuRD, On Horace. 
 
 "As our nature is at present constituted, 
 attached by so many strong connexions to 
 the world of sense, and enjoying a com- 
 munication so feeble and distant with the 
 world of spirits, we need fear no danger 
 from cultivating intercourse with the latter 
 as much as possible." — Blair. 
 
 "This was the cause of men's uniting 
 themselves at the first in politic societies, 
 which societies could not be without govern- 
 ment, nor government without a distinct 
 kind of law from that which hath been 
 already declared." — HooKER. 
 
 CONQUER. Slisdue. Vanquish. 
 OvEUCOME. Surmount. Subjugaie. 
 
 Conquer (Fr. conqutrir, to acquire) 
 is applied to persons, to countries, and 
 to things expressive of difficulty or 
 opposition, or to subjects in which 
 such difficulty or opposition is im- 
 plied ; as David conquered Goliath ; 
 vVilliam 1. conquered England; to 
 conquer resistance, to conquer evil 
 passions. It denotes the placing under - 
 one's own power or control after a 
 series of efforts or systematic resis- 
 tance. Subdue (Lat.su6(/r/cere)is much 
 the same, but points not so much to 
 the struggles of the victor as to the 
 state of the conquered in a final and 
 surer reduction. It applies also to the 
 inner spirit. To Conquer is sometimes 
 employed in the simple sense of getting 
 the better of; as, to conquer one's own 
 prejudices or passions, aversion, and 
 the like. Julius Cajsar conquered the 
 armies of Britain, but the country was 
 not in his time finally pubdued by the 
 Romans. I subdue a strong desire or 
 an inveterate habit; 1 may conquer a 
 rising inclination, such as the inclina- 
 tion to give vent to a sarcastic or angry 
 expression. 
 
 " It has been observed of Greece, that 
 when it was subdued by the Romans, itself 
 subdued its conquerors, Boftened their savage 
 
[conscientious] discriminated. 
 
 265 
 
 temper, and refined their manners ; and 
 afterwards, of the Romans themselves, ttiat 
 wherever they conqnere:! they in some de- 
 gree civilized the world." — Law, Theory 
 of Religion . 
 
 Vanquish (Fr. va//ic?*e, Lat.r/«cn-e, 
 10 conquer) is used commonly of com- 
 bats with a personal enemy. 
 
 "Shall a stripling David gloriously tri- 
 nmpb over giants, while I basely am t'a?i- 
 quishcd by dwarf? ? " — Barkow. 
 
 Subjugate (Lat. siibjiigdre) is to 
 bring under the yoke, that is, to conquer 
 and retain under continued pressure. 
 Poland is subjugated by Russia, while 
 its spirit remains unsubdued. Over- 
 come and Surmount (Fr. surtnonter) 
 are emploj'ed of continued resistance 
 from impersonal adversaries, though 
 Overcome is used of personal resis- 
 tance as well. Overcome is applied, 
 not only directly to difficulties and 
 obstacles, but to things which have 
 the nature of difficulties and ohstacle.?, 
 as scruples, prejudices; Surmount, 
 directly to the difficulties and obstacles 
 themselves. It is possible to overcome 
 by stratagem as by force, but we sur- 
 mount by persevering effort. 
 
 " To work in close design by fraud or guile 
 What force effected not ; that he no less 
 At length from us may find, who overcomes 
 By force hath overcome but half his foe." 
 Milton. 
 
 " Finding difficulties which his reason 
 emnnot surynount, he becomes contemptuous 
 and •cepticai.'' — Gilpin's Sei-mons. 
 
 " Could we view our own species from a 
 distance, or regard mankind with the same 
 •ort of observation with which we read the 
 natural history or remark the manners of 
 any other animal, there is nothing in the 
 human character which would more sur- 
 prise us than the almost universal subjuga- 
 tion of strength to v.eakness." — Paley. 
 
 CONQUEROR. Victor. 
 
 Every Conqueror is a Vicion ( Lnt. 
 lictor), but every victor is not a con- 
 queror, inasmuch as the term Victor is 
 employed of other struggles tlian those 
 of war or personal antagonism, as, for 
 instance, of competition. The victors 
 m the Olympic games were not con- 
 querors, for tiiey did not make tlieni- 
 selves masters of the persons or terri- 
 tories of men. An old form of the 
 word was conqueveur, wliich meant 
 much the same as the present tei-ra 
 
 annexer, as appears from the following 
 from Blackstone : — 
 
 " What we call purchase, perguistYto, the 
 feudists called conquests, conquestus or con- 
 quisitio; both denoting any means of ac- 
 quiring an estate out of the common course 
 of inheritance ; and this is still the proper 
 phrase in the law of Scotland, as it was 
 among the Norman jurists, who styled the 
 first purchaser (that is, he who brought the 
 estate into the family who at present owns 
 it) the conqueror or conquereur, which 
 seems to be all that was meant by the appel- 
 lation which was given to William the Nor- 
 man." — Blackstone. 
 
 (It may be well to warn the reader, in 
 case Blackstone should have meant 
 to derive purchase from perquisitio — 
 wliich seems only too probable — tliat 
 there is no etymological connexion 
 between these Avords, purchase being 
 the French pourchasser, to chase or 
 seek after, afterwards, specifically to 
 procure by money. ) In addition to the 
 difference observed above, it may be 
 remarked, that a victor vanquishes in 
 a single strife or contest, a conqueror 
 gains a complete success and subdues 
 his opponent. Alexander was victor 
 at Arbela, and the conqueror of Asia 
 and Darius. 
 " In love the victors from the vanquished 
 
 fly: 
 They fly that wonnd, and they pursue thai 
 
 die." Waller. 
 
 CONSCIENTIOUS. Scrupulous. 
 
 Scrupulous (Lat. scriiptito^sus ; scrh' 
 piiliiSy a grit, or little stone, which 
 gives pain in walking, or makes the 
 path sharp; and so anxiety, scruple) is 
 in one way more comprehensive than 
 Conscientious (Lat. conscientia, con- 
 science), and in another less so. If a 
 person were found scrupulous in all 
 things, it might then be said, that 
 conscientiousness is one form or aspect 
 of scrupulousness ; but the fact is, that 
 scrupulousness is often of a different 
 chaiacter from conscientiousness. It 
 leads men sometimes to be exact in 
 one dii-ection, and to attend to minute 
 matters, omitting weightier; as the 
 Pharisees, according to the represen- 
 tations of the Gospel, must have been 
 exceedingly scrupulous, and yet un- 
 conscientious also. The scrupulous 
 man may be nice from other motives 
 than conscience, as, for instance, from 
 politeness. Where scrupulousnesf 
 
266 
 
 springs from conscience, it denotes 
 excessive sensibility of conscience 
 exercised on unimportant matters. 
 It is a morbid respect for the details 
 and minutiae of conduct. The con- 
 scientious man ti-usts his conscience, 
 the scrupulous man distrusts it. At 
 least such is the extreme of scrupulous- 
 ness. 
 
 " Let us consider the world therefore as 
 God's great family, and ourselves as ser- 
 vants in that family, as acting immediately, 
 whatever our situations are, under our 
 great Master, and of dischargring the seve- 
 ral offices which He hath assigned with a 
 conscientious regard to our duty."— Gilpin. 
 •'The scrupulousness of the parents or 
 frienda of the deceased persons deprives us 
 oftentimes of the opportunities of anato- 
 mizing the bodies of men." — BoYLK. 
 
 CONSECRATE. Dedicate. De- 
 VOTE. Hallow. Vow. Addict. 
 
 Of these, the three former relate to 
 a specific object or purpose ; the last 
 is general or abstract. To Hallow is 
 to regard as holy, or to keep as holy ; 
 as the name of God is hallowed, and 
 sertain days are hallowed. An object 
 of sacred recollection in the mind is 
 aallowed, as " hallowed memories " 
 3f the dead. Of old, the tenn Hallow 
 was used in the sense of the modern 
 Consecrate by formal rite. 
 
 "To dedicate and halowe the monastery 
 >f Seynt Denys."— Fabyan. 
 It denotes now the consecration by 
 the mind of the individual. 
 
 " Hallowed be Thy name." — Lord's 
 Prayer. 
 
 To Consecrate (Lat. cons'tcrare) is 
 o hallow in a formal manner and with 
 a purpose, being soaietimes followed 
 by the preposition to. It commonly 
 denotes a religious act and ceiemony ; 
 but, by analogy, is extended to the 
 force of associations, as, "The spot 
 is consecrated to me by the memory of 
 aj deceased friend," or to reverential 
 appropriation, as the following : — 
 
 " Think with yourselves whether it is not 
 really a great mercy and kindness to all of 
 us, that one day in the week is by a public 
 law consecrated to a holy rest."— Sharp. 
 
 In the primary sense of the term 
 things are consecrated only to God. 
 
 Dedicate (Lat. d'cdicare) is to offer 
 for specific acceptance, or, in a specific 
 manner, for a certain use or to a cer- 
 tain person. It is a less sacred term 
 
 SYNONYMS [CONSECKATE^ 
 
 than Consecrate ; as, to dedicate n 
 book to an illustrious person, to dedi- 
 cate one's life to literature. 
 
 " The feast of the dedication of cbnrchM 
 was to be held every year on the first Son' 
 day in October ; but the feast of the patroa 
 of the Church was to be no more observed." 
 —Burnet. 
 
 To Devote (Lat. divovh-e, part. 
 d'cvotiLs) is earnestly or exclusively to 
 give for a certain use or purpose, and 
 so implies a continuous dedication. It 
 implies also a final surrender away 
 from one's self. This sense'sometimes 
 rises prominently to the surface, so 
 that we say, to devote to destruction, 
 or the flames. 
 
 " Gilbert West settled himself in a very 
 pleasant house at Wickham, in Kent, where 
 he devoted himself to piety."— Johnson. 
 In dedicating, the uppermost idea is 
 that of the person to whose honour or 
 use the thing is dedicated ; in devoting, 
 the surrender of the thing or person 
 devoted. To devote canies the idea 
 of giving without reserve, with zeal 
 
 the use and service of another. 
 
 To Vow (Fr. vouer) is to promise, 
 declare, or engage in a permanent and 
 irrevocable manner, with strong de- 
 sire and fixed purpose of the will. One 
 vows eternal love or gratitude. Unlike 
 the rest, the action of vowing regards 
 the future, and not only the present 
 time. Addict was fonnerly used, like 
 Lat. addictus, in a good or indifferent 
 sense. It now expresses in its parti- 
 ciple addicted (the only part of the 
 verb in common use) the process of 
 an evil habituation. 
 
 " But vowing to do what there is no use 
 of doing is trifling with our Creator ; making 
 unlawful vows is directly telling him we 
 shall disobey him."— Seckeb. 
 
 " Since his addiction was to courses vain." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 CONSEQUENTLY. Accord- 
 ingly. Therefore. Wherefore. 
 Then. Hence. Thence. Sinck. 
 Because. As. So. 
 
 These words all mark the drawing 
 of a conclusion from somethino- which 
 has been said as premises. They are 
 called in grammar illative particles, as 
 marking an inference, winch they do 
 iu different ways. Therkfore and 
 Wherefore, equivalent to ''^r ihuif 
 
[considerations] discriminated. 
 
 26/ 
 
 wid/-r whichj cause, are nearly alike ; 
 their difference flows simply from 
 their grammatical formation. There- 
 fore points farther back than Where- 
 fore, which, being relative, refers 
 rather to what has just been said, 
 than to anything more remote. We 
 might say, " I find the proposal at- 
 tended by this difficulty, and that, 
 and the other. I cannot therefore 
 accede to it." Again, "I feared his 
 intentions, wherefore I refused to 
 accompany him." Then is a less 
 emphatic wora '"'^r therefore ; nnd 
 As or So less ei. hatic words for 
 Because, expressing^ the relation 
 of cause and effect in a less marked 
 manner. Therefore and Because are 
 more emphatically expressions of rea- 
 soning, and would, of necessity, occur 
 in syllogisms and mathematical pro- 
 positions ; As and Then are more col 
 loquial. Hence and Thence indicate 
 antecedent reasons ; in the former 
 case less remotely, in the latter more 
 remotely, expressed. (Grammatically 
 Hence in oratio recta becomes Thence 
 in oratio obliqua : as. He said "the sun 
 shines : hence I infer a fine day ; " He 
 said that the sun shone; and that thence 
 he inferred a fine day.) Therefore and 
 Accordingly differ, in that the former 
 is applicable both to inference and 
 proof, or, in other words, both to 
 physical causation and to the conclu- 
 sions of argument. So we might say, 
 "It rained last night, therefore the 
 ground is wet;" or, "The ground is 
 wet, therefore it rained last night." 
 Accordingly could not well be used 
 in this latter way. Accordingly is 
 often used to express a congruity of 
 action or proceeding, while Hence and 
 Thence belong to the rigorous necessi- 
 ties of nature and logic ; as, " I found 
 a letter at home urging me to write at 
 once to Paris. I wrote accordiiiglu." 
 Consequently expresses a definite 
 conclusion, but is seldom used of 
 logical inferences. It ratlier relates 
 to practical proceedings or decisions ; 
 as, " My pocket has been picked, 
 consequently 1 have no money." Be- 
 cause (by cause) had originally a 
 stricter reference to physical causa- 
 tion. It now represents the correla- 
 tire of the question why ; and denotes 
 
 physical sequence, logical sequence, 
 and final causation or purpose. For 
 instance, " Why are the shadows of 
 the afternoon longer than those of 
 mid-day 1 " " Why is tJiis line equal 
 to that]" " Why did you leave the 
 house?" Since is less formal than 
 Because, and in its grammatical posi- 
 tion at the beginning of the sentence, 
 anticipates the statement of the pre- 
 mise or premises of the argument. 
 
 CONSIDERATION. Rloard. 
 Account. 
 
 There is a common force belonj'ing to 
 these words, according to which they 
 express a thoughtful way of dealing, 
 for the satisfaction of others rather 
 than one's own. We show Regard 
 (Fr. regarder, to look) from a sense of 
 propriety or a feeling of esteem. We 
 show Consideration (see Conside- 
 rate) to external qualities in others; 
 as, some condition or distinction, 
 to which it is a duty to exhibit respect, 
 and the absence of which respect 
 would indicate in us a want of right 
 feeling or politeness, or a rude igno- 
 rance of the usages of good society. 
 There are cases in which we are bound 
 to show consideration though we can- 
 not feel regard. Consideration is due 
 not only to the great, dignified, and 
 powerful, but also to the weak and 
 feeble. Account is a word of less 
 clearly defined force, and needs the 
 addition of an epithet to qualify it. A 
 matter is of little account, or of great 
 account; but not of account, simply; 
 whereas we are said to show con- 
 sideration, or regard, absolutely. 
 Moreover, Consideration and Re- 
 gard have to do generally with per- 
 sons, exceptionally with things : Ac- 
 count has to do generally with things, 
 exceptionally with persons. 
 
 CONSIDERATIONS. Observa- 
 tions. Reflexions. Thoughts. 
 
 Considerations (Lat. cons'idirare) 
 is a term of wide meaning. It de 
 notes that action of the mind which 
 takes account of an object under one, 
 or under more, or under all the aspects 
 which it presents. Obsekvations ( Lat. 
 observdre) are the remarks which one 
 makes in society upon circumstances, 
 pioceedings, sayings, or works. Rn 
 
268 
 
 SYNONYMS [consistent] 
 
 FLEXION (Lat. reflectcref part, re- 
 fieius) turns commonly on what con- 
 cerns morals and the conduct of life. 
 Thoughts are more general and vague, 
 and include in the hroadest way im- 
 pressions, judgment, and collateral 
 suggestions. If they are worth any- 
 thing, observations are penetrating 
 and profound. Observations are saga- 
 cious and sh ewd. Reflexions are prac- 
 tical and apt. Thoughts are true, 
 lively, sound, pertinent. Considera- 
 tions owe their excellence to the mind 
 which originates them. Observations 
 are good in proportion as they bring 
 to light what otherwise might have 
 escaped us, reject what is unworthy, 
 and select what is worthy of remark ; 
 reflexions, in proportion as they pro- 
 ceed upon sure and sound principles, 
 and are at the same time fine and just. 
 Thoughts may partake of the merits 
 of all the others, as they may be them- 
 selves the matter out of which conside- 
 rations, observations, and reflexions 
 are drawn or on which they are based. 
 
 CONSISTENT. Compatiblk. 
 Consonant. Accordant. 
 
 Consistent (I>at. consisttre, to stand 
 firmly) denotes one or more of the 
 following points : — 1, harmony, inter- 
 nal, of the several parts of a thing, 
 which accordingly cohere well ; as, a 
 consistent course of conduct : 2, har- 
 mony of a thing with another thing ; 
 as, tranquillity is consistent with hap- 
 piness : and, 3, harmony with itself 
 at diflferent times ; as, a consistent 
 adherence to principles. 
 •* Show me one that has it in his power 
 To Rot consistent with himself one hooi'." 
 Pope. 
 
 Compatible (Lat. compatior, to 
 suffer ivith) denotes an extraneous 
 relation of one thing to another, or of 
 two to each other. That thing is 
 compatible with another which may 
 exist under similar conditions, and, 
 therefore, may sliare with it proba- 
 bility as a matter of supposition. In 
 cases where consistency or compati- 
 bility might be denied of a thing, it is 
 more to say that a matter is not com- 
 patible, than that it is not consistent. 
 " Such a supposition is not consistent 
 witli a belief in the man's innocence," 
 would mean that the belief militated 
 
 ao^ainst tJie supposition ; not compa^ 
 tible with, would mean that of the 
 two one must give way. 
 
 "Our poets have joined together such 
 qualities as are by nature the most, compa- 
 tible."— BnooyiE. 
 
 Consonant (Lat. consonans, having 
 the same sound, suitabk) denotes a har- 
 mony of general character, indepen- 
 dent of any minute analysis or exact 
 comparison. It is ac'cordingly used 
 not of things sharply defined, but oi 
 the drift of statements, sentiments, 
 expressions, general representations, 
 states of feeling, views, and the like ; 
 as, ** Such an expression is consonant 
 with all that 1 have heard of his 
 character and behaviour." 
 
 " They all plead Scripture for what they 
 say, and each one pretends that his opinion 
 .... is consonant to the words there used." 
 — Beveridge. 
 
 Accordant (L. Lat. accorddre, as ii 
 to bring to one heart, ad unum cor) is 
 commonly used of consistency in 
 specific matters of statement, evidence, 
 or testimony ; as, " His evidence en- 
 tirely accords with that of the other 
 witness." But beyond this,AccoRDANT 
 follows the various aspects of the verb 
 to accord, which expresses agreement 
 in representation, statement, taste, 
 opinion, feeling, sentiment, desire, 
 principle, aim, belief, and moral con- 
 duct ; but is not applicable to purely 
 physical form, action, or force. 
 
 " The difference of good and evil in 
 actions is not founded on arbitrary opinions 
 or institutions, but in the nature of things 
 and the nature of man. It accords with 
 the universal sense of the human mind." — 
 BlAIR. 
 
 constancy. Steadiness. Firm- 
 ness. Fidelity. Stability. Per- 
 manence. Steadfastness. Regu- 
 larity. 
 
 Constancy (Lat. constantia) is tha 
 character which is opposed to change 
 ableness. It is a steady adherence ir 
 matters of taste and liking. The con- 
 stant man is not drawn off by new 
 objects of attraction, but follows ac 
 inclination which acts upon him 
 uniformly. Weakness and pusillani- 
 mity are not inconsistent with con- 
 stancy. There is in constancy a kind 
 of obstinacy of attachment, as in the 
 constancy of martyrs. The constant 
 
[constancy] discriminated. 
 
 2t)9 
 
 mac is capable of sustained preference. 
 It is not employed of mere immobility, 
 but of moving or acting bodies, or 
 natures whicb are controlled by some 
 fixed principle amid sucb movements. 
 It implies a centre to A%hicli movements, 
 physical or moral, ai-e uniformly 
 referred. Mechanical regularity and 
 uniformity of will both come under 
 the idea of constancy. We do not 
 speak of the constancy of the rock or 
 the mountain, but of the movements of 
 the iieavenly bodies, and the affections 
 of men. It is opposed to variableness in 
 the one case, and to fickleness in the 
 other. It is fixedness, not of tendency, 
 purpose, location, but of principle or 
 law. 
 
 "Wliilst thoa livest, dear Kate, take a 
 ifellow of plain, ancoined constancy ; for he 
 perforce must do thee right." — SHAKE- 
 SPEARE. 
 
 SxiiAOiNKSs (A. S. srede, a place or 
 station), unlike Consta ncv, admits the 
 idea of fixedness of station as well as 
 fixedness of motion. In the one case 
 it is opposed to tottering, in the other 
 to deviating ; as, " to stand steady," 
 *'the ship kept a steady course," " to 
 keep steadily to work or business," 
 " a man of steady character." Steapi- 
 NEss, unlike Constancy, is not related 
 to recun-ence, but to continuity. The 
 constant may suffer occasional eclipse ; 
 the steady is continuously seen or 
 felt. The lamp which is kept con- 
 stantly burning may yet burn with a 
 steady or unsteady light. 
 
 " Steadiness is a point of prndence as 
 well as of courage."— L'ESTRANGE. 
 
 FiP.MNESs (Lfit. firmiis, firm) is a 
 more active form of Steadiness. The 
 steady man resists temptations to 
 wander from the line ot his duties 
 and avocations, for his character is 
 oppo»ed to that of levity, as con- 
 stancy is opposed to fickleness ; but 
 the firm man can be steady under op- 
 position, and in cases where strength 
 of will IS specifically needed. Firm- 
 ness is the resolute abiding by prin- 
 ciples of action. Firmness is a resolute 
 courage to adhere to one's cwn reason 
 and purposes. He has chosen a part 
 from which he is not to be seduced or 
 deten-ed by hope or fear, by pleasure 
 or pain. Reason is to tlie firm ni.^n 
 
 what affection is to the constant man. 
 It implies, as constancy does not o. 
 necessity imply, force of character 
 Levity and a facile disposition are 
 opposed to constancy; a frail- and 
 feeble character to firmness. Firmues.s 
 is honourably distinguished from ob- 
 stinacy. The firm man adheres to, 
 maintains, and carries out with energy 
 and resolution that which on exami- 
 nation he believes to be true, reason- 
 able, right, or his particular duty. 
 The obstinate man does not examine 
 at all. His opinion is his law. Firm- 
 ness is a result of wisdom ; obstinacy 
 a form of vanity. Without firmnesf 
 a man has no character. " Without 
 couslancu," says Addison, "there is 
 neither love, friendship, nor virtue in 
 the world." 
 
 Fidelity {Lat. J'lditttatem) is the 
 steadfastness to persons, causes, or 
 principles, which flows either from a 
 sense of honour or personal attach- 
 ment, or both. Constancy does not 
 imply actual engagement ; fidelity 
 does. We are constant in our tastes 
 and affections ; we are faithful, or have 
 fidelity, to our word, promise, allegi- 
 ance, and the like. Constancy belongs 
 more to sentiments, faithfulness to 
 states and acts. The fidelity of martyif 
 to the religion which they professec 
 led to their constancy under suflfering 
 " The be!.-i seccr^ty for tYie fidelity of mer 
 is to make interest coinci'le with duty "— 
 Hamilton. 
 
 SiAiui.iTY ( Lat. stdbitttatem) is 
 that local or moral fixedness whicb 
 resists eflforts to shake or move or 
 overturn the object. Stability pre- 
 vents variableness, and resists temp- 
 tations to levity or curiosity conse- 
 (juent upon the variety of objects or 
 influences. 
 
 " The king-becoming graces. 
 As justice, verity, temperance, stableness. 
 Bounty, perseverance, mercy, lowlinesa, 
 
 1 Devotion, courage, patience, fortitude, 
 
 I I have no relish for them." 
 
 I Shakespeare. 
 
 ! Permanence (Lat. permdnh-e, to 
 endure) is not a moral quality at all. 
 It denotes no more than the quality of 
 exemption from removal or alteration, 
 in spite of external influences of every 
 kind. Operations, as well as states, 
 which endure, may he called perm*' 
 
270 
 
 nent, as " the permanent laws of 
 nature." Tt is opposed to alterable 
 and transient. Steadfastness, an- 
 other form of steadiness, is applied 
 particularly to the human will, and 
 IS opposed to the abandonment of, or 
 deviation from, the objects and pur- 
 poses of life ; as, " to adhere stead- 
 fastly to a resolution." 
 " But when strong passion or weak fleshli- 
 
 ness 
 Would frora the right way seek to draw 
 
 him wide. 
 He would, through temperance and stead- 
 fastness. 
 Teach him the weak to strengthen, and 
 the strong suppress." SpENSER. 
 Regulakh Y ( Lat. rcgtila, a rule) is 
 conformity to rule, law, or principle, 
 to a prescribed mode or a customary 
 form ; as distinguished from that 
 which is liable to unknown, unex- 
 plained, or capricious variation. Re- 
 gularity may be either in movement 
 or in position and reciprocal arrange- 
 ment ; according as the rule is one of 
 recun-ence, order, or progression. 
 
 " They would have us believe that 
 amongst these infinite worlds, all of them 
 fortuitously made, there is not one of a 
 thousand, or perhaps of ten thousand, that 
 hath such regularity, continuity, and har- 
 mony in it as this world that we chanced to 
 emerge in." — CUDWORTH. 
 
 CONSTITUENT. Component. 
 Ingredient. 
 
 The same kind of difference exists 
 between a Constituent (Lat. con- 
 stHtuere, to consiitute) and Component 
 (Lat. compontre, to put together) as 
 between an element or ingredient and 
 a part or portion. There is in Con- 
 stituent an active or operative force 
 which does not belong to component. 
 The noun constituent means a person 
 or thing which establishes, determines, 
 or constructs. The constituent parts 
 go to make up the thing, the compo- 
 nent parts are those of which it is 
 made up. In this active sense the 
 term constituent is used politically, as 
 signifying one who assists to elect a 
 representative to an office. 
 
 Ingredient ( Lat. ingredior, 1 enter) 
 is very nearly the same as Consti- 
 tuent ; the difference between them, 
 Buch as it is, being evident from their 
 etymology. An ingredient is simply 
 one of the dirfe'ei.'t materials which 
 
 SrNONYMS [CONSTITUENTj 
 
 enter into the compounded body, as a 
 fact, as we speak of the ingredients of 
 a pudding : a constituent is one of 
 similar materials, by the composition 
 of which and not otherwise, the result 
 is constituted ; as, the constituent 
 elements of government. 
 
 CONSTITUTE. Appoint. 
 
 The exercise of authority in rela- 
 tion to the tenure of office, or the 
 bestowal of a certain formal character, 
 is the idea common to these terms ; but 
 Appoint (O.Yr.apointer, to arrange) is 
 a less forcible term. Appointment is 
 commonly the act of an individual. 
 CoNSTiTUTE(Lat. constituere, part, con- 
 stithtus) involves the convergence of 
 several authorities and powers. Ap- 
 point has an external. Constitute a 
 virtual or inherent force. Almost all 
 bishops in Roman Catholic countries 
 are appointed by the Pope, who is con- 
 stituted the supreme earthly head of 
 that Church. 
 
 " That which constitutes the nature of 
 man, and doth formally difiPerence and dis- 
 tinguish him from all other animals, is not 
 so much the power of reason as the capacity 
 of being religious." — Sharp. 
 
 " God desires that in His Church, know- 
 ledge and piety, peace and charity and good 
 order, should grow and flourish ; to which 
 pui-poses He hath appointed teachers to in- 
 struct, and governors to watch over His 
 people." — Barrow. 
 
 CONSULT. Deliberate. 
 
 These terms denote the same pro- 
 cess differently carried on. We 
 Consult (Lat. consfUtre, part, con- 
 sultus) with others; we Deliberate 
 (Lat. diCibcrare, libra, a icale) within 
 our own minds. 
 
 " That the law hath been fined (defined) 
 by gi'ave and learned men, meaning pro- 
 fessors of the law, is manifestly untrue; 
 for all the laws of England have been made 
 by the kings of England, consulting with 
 the nobility and commons in Parliament, 
 of which not one in twenty was a learned 
 lawyer." — Hobbes. 
 
 " I would not indeed refer a prince for 
 maxims of equity and government to 
 Puffendorf and Grotius, the dull and un- 
 feeling deliberators of questions on which a 
 good heart and understanding ?aa intui- 
 tively decide."— Knox, Essays. 
 
 CONSUME. Destroy. 
 
 To Consume (Lat. consumere) is to 
 destroy by absorption, and as & 
 natural process, whether such ab- 
 
[contain] 
 
 DiSCRI3IINATED. 
 
 271 
 
 sorption be regular or violent. To 
 consume is by no means always to 
 waste ; as, for instance, an army of 
 such a number will consume, on an 
 average, so much food. The same 
 idea is kept up when we say the 
 fire consumed the stubble. To Dk- 
 STROV (Lat. dtstrilere, to pull down) is 
 H process alwa3'S of violence, and 
 contradiction of the purpose of the 
 thing destroyed, and, generally 
 speaking, a reversion of natural or 
 artificial processes, or an abnormal 
 exhibition of them. The philosophical 
 idea of destruction never amounts to 
 annihilation, but is that of a violent 
 discei-ption of the forms and propor- 
 tions under which bodies exist. 
 
 " It is as if the dead could feel 
 The icy worm around them steal, 
 And shudder as the reptiles creep 
 To revel on their rotting sleep. 
 Without the power to scare away 
 The cold consumers of their clay." 
 Byron. 
 " Whatsoever is in the world is but CXn 
 ww( ix»J(ra, matter so and so modified or 
 qualilled, all which modifications and quali- 
 fications of matter are in their own nature 
 destroyable, and the matter itself (as the 
 basis of them is not necessarily determined 
 to this or that accident) is the only ayiyvnTtm 
 *ou avwKaf^ov, the only necessary existent."— 
 Cud WORTH. 
 
 CONSUMMATION. Comple- 
 
 TIOV. 
 
 CoMPLKTiON (Lat, complere, to Jill) 
 is the Jilliiig up of a design or purpose. 
 A work is completed when the plan 
 of it is realized. Consummation 
 (Lat. consummationem, a S)immitig up) 
 is applied to matters which must 
 reach a certain degree or extent to 
 make them complete. In completion 
 an outline is filled up ; in consumma- 
 tion a point is reached. Hence con- 
 summation may be the point at which 
 many antecedent things, converging, 
 meet, and is therefore a plural result ; 
 while completion is a single result ; 
 as, the consummation of all our hopes, 
 dfsires, and eflbrts. Completion is 
 more external, consummation more 
 internal, being the fulfilment of the 
 idea or definition. It is also used in 
 the sense of a gathering up in one of 
 many tilings ; as the event of to-day 
 is the consummation of the hoju's of 
 diany years. 
 
 " It is not to be doubted but it was a 
 constant practice of all that is praisewortliy 
 which made her capable of beholding death, 
 not as the dissolution, but as the consum- 
 mation of life." — Steele. 
 
 " He makes it the completion of an il. 
 character, to bear a malevolence to the best 
 of men." — Pope. 
 
 In this last example Consummation 
 might have been employed instead oi 
 Completion, but the idea would have 
 been different. The completion or 
 an ill character would have been that 
 which gave, as it were, the finishing 
 touch to it . The consummation of an 
 ill character would have been that 
 which would be regarded as neces- 
 sarily involving all particulars, and sc 
 summing it up. 
 
 CONTAGION. Infection. 
 
 Contagion (Lat. contdgionem) 
 operates by mutual contact, Infeci ion 
 (Lat. iyifectionem, tnflcere, to dije) by 
 an influence common to its subjects, 
 or by other media than contact. This 
 distinction is adhered to in the moral 
 use of the terms ; as, " the contagion 
 of bad example," and " the infection 
 of error." In the term infection the 
 uppermost idea is the evil nature oi 
 the influence ; in contagion, its com- 
 municative and spreading character. 
 We dread infection, and we shua 
 contagion. 
 
 " Their propensity to recount the won- 
 derful exceeds all imagination. Neither 
 their learning, judgment, nor integrity 
 could secure them against the general 
 contagion."— WxB.BU-RToy. 
 
 " It is necessary for the polishing of 
 mannei-s to have breathed that air (of the 
 court) ; but it is infectious even to the best 
 morals to live always in it." — DRYDK^^ 
 
 CONTAIN. Hold. 
 
 Although these words are respec- 
 tively Latin and A. S. equivalents 
 (Lat. continere and A. S. healdan, to 
 hold), they are differently employed. 
 Setting aside other meanings of Hold 
 (as, to retain in the gi*asp, to possess, 
 and the like), in speaking of mere 
 capacity there are differences. To 
 Hold is in this sense purely physical, 
 as a vessel holds water, or a certain 
 quantity of it ; but Contain is used of 
 abstract quantity ; as, that field con- 
 tains (i. e., consists of) so many acres. 
 Again, Contain does not imply, as is 
 implied by Hold, the extreme limit of 
 physical contents. When we t>ay a 
 
272 
 
 SYNONYMS [CONTAMlNATEj 
 
 coacli holds six persons, we mean 
 that it is capable of holding so many, 
 and not more. If we said it contains 
 six, we should mean that there hap- 
 pen to be six inside it. It might 
 liave contained three. That cask holds 
 water, might mean that it is water- 
 tight, or, at least retains it. 'J'hatcask 
 contains water, could only mean 
 water is inside it, and nothing else. 
 
 "Among artificial substances the ship 
 (^naus navis) is feminine, as being so emi- 
 nently a receiver and container of various 
 things, of men, arms, provisions, goods, 
 &c."— Harris. 
 
 " Death only this mysterious truth unfolds. 
 The mighty soul how small a body holds." 
 Drydek. 
 
 CONTAMINATE. Defile. Pol- 
 lute. Taint. Corrupt. Debauch. 
 Vitiate. 
 
 To Contaminate (Lat. contdmi- 
 nare, probably connected with tango) 
 IS a stronger term than Taint (which 
 comes fi-om tingh'Cj Fr. teinclre, to 
 dye'), but not so strong as Defile (of 
 which " the force is due to the Eng. 
 ' foul ' ; but the funn was suggested 
 by O. F. defhuler, to trample under 
 foot:" Skeat, Etym. Diet.), or Pol- 
 lute (Lat. poUiitve, part, pollfdus). 
 They all indicate a partial, while 
 Corrupt (Lat. corr^impere, part, cor- 
 ruptiis) marks a deeper and more 
 permanent spoiling. Some of these 
 synonyms tend more sti-ongly than 
 others to a purely moral application. 
 To contaminate is to soil by defiling 
 contact. Contamination, therefore, 
 may be best employed in cases where 
 such external communication with 
 what is bad may be supposed ; as im- 
 proper conversation, impure litera- 
 ture, vicious society, or bad example. 
 Defile denotes such contamination as 
 passes permanently into the inner 
 mature, so as to render unclean. 
 Foi-LUTE,like DEFiLE,has a ceremonial 
 and moral bearing. It denotes the 
 defilement of the springs of thought 
 and action, the befoulment of the 
 character and very soul, as the 
 sources of a stream are poisoned, and 
 the waters wJiich flow therefrom are 
 infected thereby. Yet some affection 
 )f the senses is the means by which 
 *Jiis is done. Taint denotes a par- 
 tial colouring of evil, which has not 
 
 yet spoilt the character or the jud»- 
 ment. It applies to what i- false as well 
 as to what is foul ; as we say, h'is m ind is 
 tainted with prejudice, he is tainted 
 with the opinions of such and such a 
 school. It is a milder form of Con fa- 
 minate. Corrupt is an analogous 
 term, conveying the idea of an eflect 
 upon the mind similar to that of the 
 breaking up of organized bodies. It 
 is of very general application, and 
 denotes the extreme of unsoundness ; 
 as, a corrupt taste, a corrupt life, 
 a corrupt judge. In all the other 
 synonyms the character or principles 
 are regarded as spoilt by external 
 communication. Corrupt regards the 
 case at the point when the evil has 
 taken root in the system. Persons 
 themselves are said to be contami- 
 nated, defiled, and polluted ; their 
 purity tainted, their morals, princi- 
 ples, honesty, and integrity to be cor- 
 rupted. The hands or the mind may be 
 defiled, but the mind only is polluted. 
 Corrupt principles and practices are 
 to the pure and upright what the 
 exhalations of a corpse are to those 
 whose senses are healthy. Corruption 
 comes not so much from the allure- 
 mencs of sense as from the perversion 
 of reason. The great instrument of 
 corruption is sophistry. Debauch 
 ( Fr. hauche, a line of bricks ; hence, 
 to debauch is, probably, to lead away 
 from the right line, to corrupt, seduce ; 
 or, perhaps, to take aica\j the support 
 of a btiilding) is to practice what Cor- 
 rupt is to principle and taste. To 
 debauch is to lead into habits of in- 
 temperance and unchastity, and the 
 grosser forms of self-indulgence. The 
 mind is coiTupted, the morals and 
 manners debauched. Vitiate (Lat. 
 vttiare) has a wider meaning. It is 
 to spoil by introducing a marring 
 defect, either moral or logical. Tha^ 
 which may be vitiated is principle, 
 character, conduct, taste, and practi- 
 cal validity. 
 
 " Learning not debauched by ambition." 
 —Burke, 
 
 " A will vitiated, and grown out of kve 
 with the truth disposes the understanding 
 to error and delusion." — SoUTH. 
 
 ♦'Even when the nobility, which repre- 
 sented the more permanent landed intere»t, 
 united th.'jiselves by marriage, which Tia* 
 
[continual] discriminated. 
 
 27^ 
 
 •ometimes the case, with the other descrip- 
 tion, the wealth which sared the family 
 from ruin was supposed to contaminate and 
 degrade it."— Burke. 
 
 "Poltroons that fling dirt 
 Do bat defile, and cannot hurt." 
 
 Iludibras. 
 
 " And can any, then, behold or act theM 
 gross abominations with delight, the very 
 relation of which is sufficient to pollute the 
 ;ars that hear them, the common air that 
 receives them, yea, the breath that utters 
 them, and yet be innocent, be untainted 
 by them ? "— PitYyiTK. 
 
 "That epidemical fatnf wherewith King 
 James infected the minds of men continued 
 upon us."— BOLIXGBROKK. 
 
 " He (Cato the Elder) procmed in the 
 senate that Carneades, the Academic, and 
 Diogenes, the Stoic, ambassadoi"s from 
 Athens, should immediately be dismissed, 
 that they might not corrupt the youth." — 
 Bhwtlkv. 
 
 CONTENTMENT. Satisfac- 
 
 llON. 
 
 Contentment {¥t. content) is letw 
 arrong than Satisfaction (Lat. :^tii- 
 faciibnevi). Satisfaction is a full 
 meaaure coming from without. Con- 
 tentment is from within, implying 
 such a measure as we are willing to 
 regard as full. But contentment, 
 from this internal character, tend* to 
 become a habit, which satisfaction, 
 relating to things external, does not 
 become. Where one man is not satis- 
 fied, another under the same circum- 
 stances is contented. It deserves to 
 be remarked that in matters which 
 are independent of our own efforts 
 and actions, contentment is higher 
 than satisfaction, as implying a better 
 moral state. In matters which depend 
 upon our own efforts and actions, it is 
 better to endeavour to satisfy our- 
 selves, and not be contented with a 
 little. Both contentment and satis- 
 faction denote tranquillity of mind 
 in regard to the object of one's de- 
 sires. Contentment is more in the 
 heart, satisfaction in the passions. 
 The first is s .eeling which always 
 renders the mind quiet ; the latter is 
 an issue which sometimes throws it 
 into trouble, although it is no longer 
 disquieted as to the object of its de- 
 sire. A restless or tinaid man is never 
 content ; an avaricious or ambitious 
 man is never satisfied. One is con- 
 sent when one wishes for notlting 
 
 more, though one is not always satis 
 fied when one has procured what one 
 wished. Satisfaction has in it an 
 element of uncertainty. It is no 
 surety for its own continuance. The 
 fullest satisfaction is not necessarily 
 
 I accompanied by a proportionate con- 
 tentment. One is satisfied when one 
 has obtained what one wished, one is 
 content when one wishes for nothing 
 more. 
 
 " Contentment expresses the acquiescence 
 of the mind in the portion of good which 
 we possess." — Cooan 
 *' The word satisfaction is frequently em- 
 
 i ployed to express the full accomplishment 
 
 I of some particular desire, which always 
 communicates a temporary pleasure, what- 
 
 ! ever niuy be the nature of that desire." — 
 Ibid. 
 
 \ CONTIGUOUS. Adjacent. Ad- 
 
 : JOINING. 
 
 \ What is Contiguous (Lat. conti- 
 j guns) touches on one side, at least 
 to some extent, if not entirely. What 
 j is Adjoining (O. Fr. adjoindre, Lat. 
 adjuHj^evey to join to) needs touch only 
 at a single point. What is A lu agent 
 (Lat. adjdcirey to tie near) may be 
 near without touching at all. It is 
 remarkable that these words adhere 
 to the phvsical or primary, and have 
 not lent themselves to a secondary or 
 moral meaning, though they may 
 be used analogously, as in the fol- 
 lowing : — 
 
 " To me there appear to be only three 
 principles of connexion among ideas, 
 namely, resemblance, continuity iu time or 
 place, and cause or effect." — Hume. 
 
 " Now, touching that proportion of 
 ground that the Christians have on the 
 habitable earth, I find that all Europe, 
 with her adjacent isles, is peopled with 
 Christians, except that ruthful country of 
 Lapland, where idolaters yet inhabit." — 
 Howell, Litters. 
 
 " Every man's land is, in the eye of the 
 law, enclosed and set apart from his neigh- 
 bour's ; and that, either by a visible anf 
 material fence, as one field is divided from 
 another by a hedge, or by an ideal invisible 
 boundary, existing only in the contempla^ 
 tion of law, as when one man's land adjoins 
 to another's in the same field." — BlacK- 
 8T0NB. 
 
 CONTINUAL. Continuous. Per- 
 petual. Incessant. 
 
 Continual (Lat. conttnuui, «wm« 
 terrupted) admit* the idea of intemi}, - 
 
 T 
 
£74 
 
 SYNONYMS [CONTINUATIONj 
 
 tton, inteiTiiiMion, or occasional cessa- 
 tion ; Continuous excludes this. " It 
 has been raining continually for the 
 last four months, admits of fine days, 
 though comparatively few and far 
 between ; continuous rain for such a 
 period would produce a deluge. 
 
 What is CoNTiN'uAL (Lat. contXnu- 
 are, to make continuouSj Lat. coii- 
 ttnuus) admits ol" no interruption in 
 time, though it admits of intervals, as 
 continual showers through the month. 
 What is Continuous admits of no in- 
 terruption in space, or what is ana- 
 logously conceived as having extent, 
 as continuous emplojonent. What is 
 Perpetual (Lat. perpttuus) admits 
 of no termination, being in its very 
 nature lasting. Incessant (Lat. in- 
 eessans) denotes wliat does not cease 
 as a matter of fact. The nouns con- 
 tinuance and contimiity follow the 
 same distinction. The proper mean- 
 ings of the adverbs continually, per- 
 petually, and incessantly, are much 
 obscured by a way of using these 
 terms hj-perbolically, as a talkative 
 person is said to be continually, per- 
 petually, or incessantly talking. 
 
 " After this He sends prophets in a co7i- 
 tinual succession for several ages, who do 
 more clearly discover God's will to them." 
 -^Shxrp. 
 
 " Contmuatives, on the contrary, by a 
 more intimate connexion, consolidate sen- 
 tences into one contimious whole." — 
 Harris. 
 
 " Amusements and diversions succeed in 
 ft perpetual round." — Blair. 
 " The frosty north wind blows a thick cold 
 
 sleet. 
 That dazzles eyes, flakes after flakes inces- 
 santly descending." 
 
 Chapman, Homer. 
 
 CONTINUATION. Continu- 
 ance. Duration. Continuity. 
 
 Continuation is an artificial or 
 contrived continuance, as the con- 
 tinuation of a history to a particular 
 period. Continuance and Dura- 
 tion (Lat. durare, to last) are both 
 employed of time ; but continuance is 
 active, duration is passive, and is not 
 inherent in the thing itself, but refers 
 simply to the accident of time. Con- 
 tinuance is inherent extension, of 
 which duration is the external mea- 
 ■ure. 
 
 " The great wisdom of the Divine Crea- 
 tor appears in that there is pleasure an- 
 nexed to those actions that are necessarj 
 for the support and preservation of the in- 
 dividuum, and the continuation and propa- 
 gation of the species ; and not only so, but 
 pain to the neglect or forbearance of them.'' 
 —Ray. 
 
 "But, alas, the honeymoon of a new 
 ministry is always of short continuance if 
 England."— HoADLY. 
 
 " That we have our notion of successior 
 and duration from this original, namely, 
 from the reflexion on the train of ideas, 
 which we find to appear one after another 
 in our own minds, seems plain to me, in 
 that we have no perception of duration but 
 by considering the train of ideas thai 
 take their turns in our understandings." — 
 Locke, 
 
 Continuity is unbroken extension 
 of sy)ace, or of anything which is con- 
 ceived as analogous to such extension. 
 The continuity of a bone is destroyed 
 by a fracture. The continuation of 
 my thought is the prolongation of the 
 subject of which 1 was thinking; the 
 continuance of my thought is the fact 
 that I did not cease thinking ; the con- 
 tinuity of my thought is the unbroken 
 following out of the line of medita- 
 tion. 
 
 " The sight would be tired if it were at- 
 ti-acted by a continuity of glittering objects." 
 — Dryden. 
 
 CONTRADICT. Deny. 
 
 Contradict (Lat, contrddtcbre, part. 
 contradictus, to speak against) denotes 
 an opposing force of statement, but 
 not necessarily an intention of the 
 speaker. The force may lie either in 
 the purpose of the speaker, or in the 
 inherent nature of the terms era- 
 ployed, as in propositions called 
 '* conti-adictory " by the logicians. 
 To Deny (Fr. denier, Lat. dintgare) 
 is purely a personal act. Moreover, 
 contradiction is positive, denial onlr 
 negative. I contradict a statement b'^ 
 stating something else in its stead ; \ 
 deny it simply by refusing to admit 
 the ti-uth of it. Hence, to deny ia 
 employed of charges, imputations, 
 and the like, in which we are con- 
 cerned, not with making any state- 
 ments of our own, but simplv inva- 
 lidating those of others ; and of re- 
 quests, in which sense it is synony- 
 mous with refuse. Deny is Bi>t u.sed 
 
[controvert] discriminated. 
 
 276 
 
 in this sense directly of persons, like 
 contradict, but only of their state- 
 ments, or the truth and force of 
 them. 
 
 " The pulpit is a sacred place. 
 Where none dare contradict you to your 
 
 face." DoDSLEY. 
 
 As Contradict is opposite to counte- 
 nance or corroborate, so Deny is op- 
 posed to allow or admit. 
 
 " That the variation may be found with 
 a share of accuracy more than sufficient to 
 determine the ship's course is allowed ; but 
 that it can be found so exactly as to fix the 
 longitude within a degree of sixty miles, I 
 absolutely rf^jy."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
 CONTRIVE. Devise. Invent. 
 Concert. Manage. 
 
 To Contrive (orig'. and properly 
 '^controve ;" 0. Fr. controver ; trover, 
 low trouver, to find) denotes an eftbrt, 
 )r a series of efforts, of inventiveness, 
 ft is to form, find, or adapt means to 
 an end by the exercise of practical 
 ingenuity. 
 
 " The machine which we are inspecting 
 demonstrates by its construction contrivance 
 and design. Contrivance must hare had a 
 contriver.''— F^iSY. 
 
 Devise (Fr. deviser) expresses the 
 more theoretical aspect of Contrive, 
 and implies not so much the finding 
 ways of using means, as finding the 
 means themselves. We contrive ways 
 of doing things when to some extent 
 the materials are at hand. ^Ve de- 
 vise schemes and plans, and bring 
 them into existence by the device. 
 
 " He (God) hath not prevented all excep- 
 tions or cavils devisable by curious and cap- 
 tious wits against it." — BarROW. 
 
 Invent (Lat. invtnire, part, vi- 
 venttts, to find) represents the practi- 
 cal aspect of Contrive ; the invention 
 being the more perfect in proportion 
 to the lasting character of the con- 
 trivance, and its enabling us to con- 
 trive at will, as in the case of the in- 
 vention of gunpowder, or the steam- 
 engine. Invention, in its fullest sense, 
 is the discovery of a mode in which 
 the laws of nature may be made ser- 
 viceable, or supposititious facts treated 
 as natural, as in tlie invention of a 
 romance. In its lowest sense it is 
 the finding out of a sufiicient mode 
 of doing a thing. Imagination and 
 fecundity of genius give rise to in- 
 ventors. 
 
 ** The mind of man discover* every day 
 some craving want in a body which really 
 wants but very little. It evei^ day inventa 
 some artificial rule to guide that natorw 
 which, if left to itself, were the best and 
 surest guide." — Bl'Rke. 
 
 Concert (Lat. consh-ere, to join 
 together, part, consertus), unlike the 
 former, commonly implies the joint 
 assistance of others. It implies con- 
 ference or consultation, and is almost 
 exclusively employed of matters of 
 action^ not of pure invention in the 
 scientific sense; as, to concert a plan 
 or scheme. Yet Burke uses it of a 
 single person in the following: — 
 
 " Furious in their adversity, tyrannical 
 in their successes, a commander had more 
 trouble to concert his defence before the 
 people than to plan the operations of the 
 campaign." 
 
 Manage (Fr. m^nao;er, Lat. mitnus, 
 the hand) denotes ratner a judicious 
 or ready employment of means extem- 
 porized on the occasion ; such con- 
 trivance as gives to the course of 
 things the kind of turn which we de- 
 sire for compassing our end. 
 
 " Ofttimes nothing profits more 
 Than self-esteem grounded on just right 
 Well managed " Milton. 
 
 CONTROVERT. Dispute. Gain 
 
 SAY. 
 
 Of these, Gainsay (A. S. gegn, 
 against, and say) denotes no more than 
 contradict, or call in question, whether 
 by simple denial and opposition, ax 
 by more or less of reasoning accom- 
 panying it. 
 
 " To convince any forward gainsayer," 
 —Barrow. 
 
 Controvert (Lat. contra, against^ 
 and vertere, to turn) is to make matter 
 of controversy; that is, lengthened 
 argument in opposition, entering 
 point by point into the dispute. 
 
 " This was the great proposition that 
 was then controverted concerning Jesus oJ 
 Nazareth, whether He was the Jlessiah Of 
 no, and the assent to that was that which 
 distinguished believers from unbelievers." 
 — Locks. 
 
 Dispute (Lat. dispiitHre) is against 
 a personal competitor, as Controvert 
 refers directly to the matter, and 
 only indirectly to the person ; hence 
 Dispute may apply to more than ar- 
 
276 
 
 SYNONYMS [convene] 
 
 cument as such, and to anything 
 brought forward by another against 
 oneself; that is, to such things as 
 claims, possessions, titles, rights, and 
 the like. 
 
 ♦♦ Therefore disputed He in the synagogue 
 with the Jews."— Bible. 
 In controversy there is more of oppo- 
 sition, in dispute more of doubt. In 
 order to conti-overt, exact knowledge 
 is wanted; but we often dispute 
 where we have a general and unde- 
 fined persuasion that wJiat Ave dispute 
 is not sound or true. 
 
 CONVENE. Convoke. 
 Tlie idea of collecting persons to 
 one place is common to these two 
 terms; but Convene (Lat. coiivtntre, 
 to come together) is commonly applied 
 to such assemblies as are got together 
 for some public purpose in a special 
 manner ; as, to convene a meeting of 
 Khareholders in consequence of special 
 news. To Convoke (Lat. conv'6cdre, 
 to call together) is an act of authority 
 on the part of one whose official rela- 
 tion to the body enables or requires 
 him to call it together. Hence, where 
 the power is lodged equally in the 
 hands of many, Convene seems the 
 more suitable term ; and Convoke 
 when peculiar power of summoning 
 is lodged in the hands of a single per- 
 son. Convoke and convocatmi have 
 acquired an ecclesiastical, as Con v en e 
 a political and generally deliberative 
 force. 
 
 '* The Parliament of Scotland now con- 
 vened." — ^Bakkr. 
 
 " At this time the Cardinal, by his power 
 lepative, dissolved his convoadion at Paul's, 
 convoked by the Archbishop of Canterbury, 
 calling him and all the clergy to the convo- 
 cation at Canterbury,"— Bakkr. 
 
 CONVENIENT. Commodious. 
 Handy. 
 
 Convenient (Lat. convhiiens, suit- 
 able) has lost its old meaning of decent 
 or becoming, and has come to mean 
 little more than handy. We use the 
 term Handy (when not employed of 
 the person in the sense of dexterous, 
 but of the thing) in the senses of 
 manageable and close at hand. The 
 former is the old meaning, the latter 
 is modern. A weapon is handy wliich 
 m-^v be used easily and effectively ; a 
 
 house IS handy which is close by and 
 easily reached. Convenient denotes 
 what suits tne requirements of per- 
 sons. Commodious (Lat. comm'6duSy 
 advantageous) joins the two, and de- 
 notes what is convenient, inasmuch as 
 it is suitable. It is peculiarly appli- 
 cable to localities intended for the 
 can-ying on of common business or 
 private matters. A house, a chair, a 
 room, are commodious. It thus natu- 
 rally conveys the notion of sufficiency 
 of space, which, however, is a mean- 
 ing which has flowed out of the other. 
 Handy has a more external character 
 than convenient, which is also applied 
 to more general ideas. A specific thing 
 or object is handy ; arrangements, 
 times, and seasons are convenient. 
 
 " For he that strains too far a vow. 
 Will break it like an o'er-bent bow ; 
 Aid he that made and forced it broke it, 
 Ni»t he that for convenience took it." 
 
 HUDIBRAS. 
 
 Camden uses the word Commodious 
 in its i)rimary meaning, when he says 
 that " Britain is walled and guarded 
 with the ocean most commodious foi 
 traffick to all parts of the world." 
 " Each is handy in her way." — Dbydkn. 
 
 CONVENT. Abbey. Cloister. 
 Nunnery. Monastery. Phiorv. 
 
 Of these, Abbey and Priory are no 
 more than religious houses or monas- 
 teries, so called as being governed bj 
 an abbot or a prior. They would difler, 
 not in their religious character, but in 
 their state and privileges. The Nun- 
 nery is a Convent (Lat. conventas, 
 an assembly) of females, and in modern 
 parlance is identical with Convent, 
 which is a religious house of nuns, a« 
 a Monastery (Gr. luovaj-Tripiovy Lat. 
 monastirium, of which the root is the 
 Greek fA,ovog, alone) is a religious house 
 of monks. The Cloister (Lat. cluus- 
 trum,clauda-e, to shut) is, strictly, that 
 part of the religious house which was 
 enclosed as a place of exercise and 
 conversation. It is in their general use 
 that the difterence between the terms 
 cloister, convent, and monastery de- 
 serves notice. The distinctive idea of 
 C loister is seel usion , or inviolable re- 
 tirement ; thatofC'oNVEM coiamunit •, 
 of living ; that of a Monastbhv soli 
 
[conversation] discriminated. 
 
 277 
 
 lude. One is shut up in the cloister ; 
 one goes into a convent ; one retires to 
 a monaster3^ In tlie cloister liberty 
 is sacrificed ; in tne convent ancient 
 uaoits are renounced, and those of a 
 certain society adopted ; in the monas- 
 tery one has vowed a kind of exile, 
 and men live only for their souls' 
 sake. In the ancient and true monas- 
 teries the religious divided their time 
 between contemplation and work. 
 Tliey were pioneers in the work of 
 settlement, and in the civilization of 
 new and wild countries. The term 
 convent is less imposing than that of 
 monastery. The continental towns 
 abound in convents within the walls ; 
 while here and there are seen the ruins 
 of ancient monasteries standing alone 
 in the fields, yet manifesting even in 
 tlieir decay their former grandeur, in- 
 fluence, and importance. 
 
 CONVERSE. Obverse. Reverse. 
 Inversion. 
 
 The Converse (Lat. convevtcrtf 
 part, conversiis, to turn) is an altered 
 sequence. The term belongs to logic, 
 and amounts to the inverted state of a 
 proposition,when the relative positions 
 of its subject and predicate have been 
 exchanged. All men are animals: 
 the converse of this is that all animals 
 are men, and the proposition is not 
 true. No vice is virtue has for its con- 
 verse no vi; tue is vice, and the pro- 
 position is true. The latter is a con- 
 vertible proposition, the other not so, 
 except by modification,as some animals 
 are men. The subject-matter may be 
 mathematical, but the logical idea of 
 conversion is still retained, as in the 
 mathematical proposition. *' If two 
 sides of a triangle are equal, the 
 angles opposite the sides are equal." 
 This is true, and its converse is 
 equally true. The Obveiise (Lat. ob- 
 vertere, part, obversiis) is, literally, that 
 which 13 turned over agavist some- 
 thing ; the obverse side of a coin is 
 that which is primarily held before 
 the eyes as distinguished from the re- 
 verse. In a more general sense it 
 means a necessary correlative truth. 
 In this sense the truth and its obverse 
 stand to each other as positive and 
 negative, — the fact that all men are 
 mortal beina; the obverse of the other. 
 
 that there is no such thing on earth tui 
 immortality. The Reverse (Lat. rg- 
 vertire, part, reversus, to turn back) 
 is tliat aspect of a thing which appears 
 after the former aspect has been turned 
 back — the side opposite to that which 
 was before visible or is commonly 
 visible ; and morally, a contrary re- 
 presentation or statement of opinion 
 or fact, or that which is contrary in 
 nature and character,or circumstances. 
 Inversion (Lat. inversionem) is not 
 an object, a subject, or a state, but a 
 process ; such a turning as gives the 
 opposite position or order ; as, to invert 
 a common, natuial, or received order, 
 or to invert tlie common or natural 
 position of a thing by turning it up- 
 side down, or upsetting it. Hence 
 that which is inverted is not in most 
 cases in its right or normal condition, 
 and the term involves the idea of 
 wTong or disorderly position, arrange- 
 ment, or sequence. 
 
 CONVERSANT. Familiar. 
 
 Conversant (Lat. conversari, con-, 
 and versari, to live with) relates only to 
 persons; Familiar (]ydt. J'cimiliaris, 
 belonging to the fdmilia or household) 
 both to persons and to objects. As re- 
 gards persons, to be familiar with any- 
 thing is simply to have seen a thing so 
 often as to know it well. In its sim- 
 plest sense, therefore, it applies to no 
 more than ocular recognition. Con- 
 versant denotes, in addition, the 
 knowledge of skill necessarily. This 
 may sometimes also be expressed by 
 Familiar. In such cases, to be con- 
 versant implies more markedly the 
 knowledge of principles ; and to be fa- 
 miliar the knowledge of facts and pro- 
 cesses. So we may better say, " It is one 
 thing to be conversant with the prin- 
 ciples of the British constitution ; it 
 is another to be /ami/tar with the facts 
 of Lndish history." 
 
 " He ases the difiPei-ent dialects as one 
 who had been conversant with them all." 
 —Pope. 
 
 " That war or peace may be 
 As things acquainted and familiar to ns." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 CONVERSATION. Colloquy. 
 Conference. Dialogue. Discourse. 
 Confabulation. 
 
 Conversation (see Conversant) 
 
278 
 
 is verbal intercourse of an unpremedi- 
 tated kind, in which any number ef 
 persons may take a part. It is inde- 
 finite as to the subject, which may be 
 one or many. It may be more or less 
 desultory, and spring altogether from 
 accident. It naturally supposes some 
 equality of social position in those 
 engaged in it. 
 
 " The influence exercised by his (John- 
 ion) conversation directly upon those ^^^th 
 whom he lived, and indirectly upon the 
 whole literary world, was altogether with- 
 out a parallel." — Macaulay. 
 
 Colloquy (Lat. colliquiiim) is a 
 species of dialogue indefinite as to 
 number, but restricted as to subject, 
 in which each person present contri- 
 butes remarks pertinent to the matter 
 in hand, without the rigidity of a 
 public meeting. It commonly sup- 
 poses authorized deputation for the 
 purpose of discussion and coming to 
 agreement. 
 
 " In 1540 he (Simon Gryne) was joined 
 as an assistant to Ph. Melancthon, Martin 
 Bucer, John Calvin, &c., when they went 
 to Wormes to the colloquy there about i-e- 
 ligion."— Wood, Athence Oxon. 
 
 Conference (Fr. conference, Lat. 
 conferre, to bring together) has more 
 of form, being a colloquy on ur- 
 gent or public and national affairs, * 
 where some line of action has to be 
 taken, or some expression of opinion 
 published authoritatively. 
 
 *'The Hampton Court Conference." — 
 English Histoi-y. 
 
 Dialogue (Gr. JiaXoyo?) is com- 
 monly, though not necessarily, re- 
 stricted to two speakers. It is a sort 
 of literary conversation, in which the 
 things said are made subservient by 
 art to certain main topics. It is there- 
 fore commonly recorded, and so framed 
 as to be worth reading. 
 
 " Aurungzebe is written in rhyme, and 
 has the appearance of being the most elabo- 
 rate of all Dryden's plays. The pei-sonages 
 are imperial, but the dialogue is often do- 
 mestic, and therefore susceptible of senti- 
 ments accommodated to familiar incidents." 
 
 Johnson, 
 
 DiscounsE (Fr. disco urs, Lat. dis- 
 cursus) is consecutive speech, whether 
 of one or more persons, upon a given 
 line of thought. It differs from the 
 others in the particular that it may 
 
 SYNONYMS [convert J 
 
 have been primarily written, while 
 they imply speaking without writing ; 
 and in being applicable to the con- 
 tinuous exposition of a single person. 
 
 " The word discourse is derived from a 
 Latin verb, which signifies to run about, and 
 by the motion of our leigs and the agitation 
 of our whole body to traverse many different 
 grounds, or the same ground many different 
 ways. Now the application of this corporeal 
 image to what passes in the mind, or to the 
 action of the mind when we meditate on 
 various subjects, or on many distinct parts 
 of the same subject, and when we com- 
 municate these thoughts to one another, 
 sometimes with greater, and sometimes 
 with less agitation and rapidity, is ob- 
 vious."— BoLlNGBROKE. 
 
 Confabulation (Lat. confdbhldrt, 
 to talk together, to chat) is easy con- 
 versation ; chat familiar, unfonnal, and 
 unrestrained. 
 
 "Friends' confabulations are comfortable 
 at all times, as fire in winter, shade in 
 summer, 'quale sopor fessis in gramine,' 
 meat and drink to him that is hungry or 
 athirst."—BvRT0H,Anatom9/ of Melancholy 
 
 CONVERT. Proselyte. Neo 
 PHYTE. Pervert. 
 
 Convert (Lat. converth-e, it 
 change) is one who turns from one 
 set or opinions to another ; not neces- 
 sarily, though commonly supposed to 
 be, of a religious character. 
 
 "A believer may be excused by the most 
 hardened atheist for endeavouring to make 
 him a convert, because he does it with an 
 eye to both their interests." — AmiSON. 
 
 Proselyte (Gr. •TrpoafiKvroi;, irpo^, to, 
 and Ify^ofxai, 1 come) is one who has 
 come or been brought over from one 
 religion to another. The term has 
 been metaphorically extended to em- 
 brace other creeds than those of re- 
 ligion. The difference between the 
 terms seems to be that Con VERT regards 
 the internal aspect of the change, Pro- 
 SKLYTE the external; or, in other 
 words, the proselyte is simply one who 
 has been brought over by external 
 persuasion to another set of opinions; 
 the convert is one who has essentially 
 changed his views, perhaps as much 
 through the exercise of his own re- 
 fiexion and reason as from any power 
 or influence from without. 
 
 " False teachers commonly make use of 
 base, and low, and temporal considei-ationa, 
 of little tricks and devices, to make di» 
 ciples and gain proselytes.'" — TiLLOTSON. 
 
[copious] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 279 
 
 Neophyte (Gr. m'<^o<) expresses 
 no more tban one who Ims recently 
 entered upon a prolessioii, whether 
 this feas involved any change of pre- 
 vious views or not. 
 
 Pervert is a term of recent inven- 
 tion to express a mistaken conversion. 
 
 " Nay, in effects of gi-ace which exceed 
 far the effects of nature, we see St. Paul 
 makes a difference between those he calls 
 neophytes, that is, newly grafte() into Chris- 
 tianity, and those that are brought np in 
 the faith."— Bacon. 
 
 CONVICT. Detect. Convince. 
 Persuade. 
 
 These terms all denote the bringing 
 home of something to another. 'Jo 
 Convict (Lat. convinctre, part, con- 
 victus, to convict, to prove conclusively) 
 is to bring his guilt or error home to 
 another by evidence. Tt is never used 
 in any but an unfavourable sense. 
 Such conviction may be more or loss 
 formal and public. Detect (Lat. 
 dettgere, part, delectus, to uncover) re- 
 lates to acts only, not, as Convict, 
 both to acts and their motives. It re- 
 sembles Convict in applying only to 
 falsehood and wrong, lo Convince 
 is another form of the word convict ; 
 but relates to the inner belief of the 
 individual, and not to the external re- 
 sult of acquainting others. So 1 may 
 be convinced in my own mind of the 
 innocence of a convicted person. To 
 PsRSUADF. (Lat. persuadere) has much 
 in common with Convince ; but con- 
 viction is tlie result of the understand- 
 ing, persuasion of the will. Convic- 
 tion IS a necessity of the mind ; per- 
 suasion an acquiescence of the inclina- 
 tion. Logic convinces ; rhetoric per- 
 suades. In action or matter of prac- 
 tice they are often combined. The 
 man who is persuaded feels convinced 
 that he is rightly so ; the man who is 
 convinced has not set himself against 
 the process of persuasion. Convic- 
 tion, being mental, is the less active; 
 pei-fiuasion, being moral, is the more 
 active outwardly. We are convinced 
 of truths and facts. We are persuaded 
 to act and to behave. So strong is this 
 difference, that the two may be in 
 opposition, and we may (from by- 
 motives and considerations of self- 
 interest and the like) be persuaded to 
 
 actfl^ajHS? our conviction. A persua- 
 sive manner, convincing proofs. 
 
 " Wise men desire to see the several parti 
 of it so far cleared up and made consistent 
 with each other, and upon the whole to dis- 
 cover such evident marks of a superior wis- 
 dom, power, and goodness in the frame and 
 texture of it, as may convince them that it 
 is truly divine and worthy of the Supreme 
 Mind to whom we ascribe it," — BiSHOP 
 HUHD. 
 
 " Bat if the jury find him, the prisoner, 
 gnilty, he is then said to be covvicted of the 
 crime whereof he is indicted ; which cotwic- 
 tion may accrue two ways, either by his con- 
 fessing the offence and pleading guilty, or 
 by his being found so by the verdict of his 
 country."— Blackstone. 
 
 " For were not such miracles and oracles 
 at last generally believed ? or if several im- 
 postures were detected, does the author ima- 
 gine that such detection would utterly sink 
 the credit of all fnture miracles ?"— Bishop 
 
 HURD. 
 
 " He that persuades a man to rob a honse 
 is guilty of the sin he persiuides him to, but 
 not in the same manner that he is who com- 
 mitted the robbery, for it was in hisjpower, 
 after all other persuasions, to have forborne 
 the fact, and to have maintained his inno- 
 cence." — South. 
 
 COPIOUS. Abundant. Ampl«. 
 Plentiful. Plenteous. 
 
 Copious (Lat. copios»5; cdpia,plenty) 
 denotes the abundant giving forth, as 
 from a fund, store, or resources ; as a 
 copious supply, a copious stream, a 
 copious language. It relates to the 
 richness of tne source. 
 
 " The sense of the Ta.vs, I am sure, is on 
 my side ; which aie by no means sparing of 
 the orator's time. It is not brevity, out 
 copious7iess, a full representation of every 
 circumstance, that they recommend." — 
 Melmoth, Plinj/. 
 
 AsuNDANr (Lat. Hhunddre, to jftow 
 abundantly ; undo, a wave) relates, not 
 to the source, but the supply, which 
 is large of its kind ; as an abundance 
 of grain, of words, of wit. 
 
 " He goes lightly that wants a load. It 
 there be more pleasure in abundance, there 
 is more security in a mean estate." — BiSHOP 
 Hall. 
 
 Ample (Lat. amplus, spacioiis,fuU) 
 refers especially to what is variable in 
 limit or quantity, and, in the instance 
 under consideration, extends beyond 
 the limits of what is sufficient or re 
 quisite. 
 
280 
 
 8YNOi!fYMS 
 
 [corner' 
 
 * Now let ns leave this earth and lift onr 
 
 eye 
 To the large convex of yon azure sky, 
 Behold it like an ample curtain spread." 
 Prior. 
 
 Plentiful and Plenteous (Lat. 
 plaiitatem, fulness) differ but little, 
 but Plenteous is more closely con- 
 nected with the character of the giver, 
 Plentiful with the abundance of the 
 p-ift. Plenteous belongs also to a 
 higher and more rhetorical style. But 
 Plentiful belongs more strictly than 
 abundant to purely physical things. 
 We might say a plenteous, plentiful, or 
 abundant harvest, but we could only 
 say abundant, not plentiful or plen- 
 teous, cause of gi-atitude for it. 
 
 " The very word satura signifies a dish 
 plenUftdly stored with all variety of fruit 
 and grains." — Dryden, Juvenal. 
 
 CORNER. Angle. 
 
 Corner (Fr. cornier, adj. that which 
 is at an ang(e) is formed by the meet- 
 ing of solid bodies, Angle (Lat. 
 angtdtis) by the meeting of mathema- 
 tical lines. Corner refei-s only to the 
 point of meethig. Angle to the whole 
 space included between the lines. 
 Hence, Corner has a metaphorical 
 force, of which Angle does not par- 
 take ; as, a quiet or remote corner of 
 the world. 
 
 "A master cook 1 why he's the man of men 
 For a professor. He designs, he draws. 
 Makes citadels of curious fowl and fish. 
 Mounts marrow-bones ; cuts Miy-aiigled 
 custards." B. JoNSOK. 
 
 " We learn from hence what is the true 
 use and end of miracles. They are not pri- 
 vate but public proofs, not things to be done 
 in a corner for the sake of single persons, 
 but before multitudes and in the face of the 
 sun." — Bishop Attkrbury. 
 
 CORPORAL. Bodily. Corpo- 
 real. Material. 
 
 Corporal and Corporeal (Lat. 
 corp^rHliSf corp'6reiis) both mean re- 
 lating to the body, but under different 
 aspects of it; Corporal relating to 
 the substance, Corporeal to the nature 
 of the body; while Bodily denotes, 
 more generally, connected with the 
 body or with a body ; hence corporal 
 punisl lent, corporeal existence, bo- 
 dily vigour, pams, or shape. Ma- 
 terial (Lat. mdtcrialis) respects all 
 bodies, inanimate as well as animate, 
 
 as the material system, material su'^ 
 stances. 
 
 "For truth, the greatest of intellectual 
 goods, is the produce of undisturbed reiison ; 
 and health, the greatest of the corporeal, is 
 the blooming fruit of temperance; and yet 
 we can be content to be deprived of both for 
 the sordid pleasure of a riotous, unmeaning 
 jollity."— Warburton. 
 
 " All corporal damages that chance to 
 mortal men are by medicines healed, or by 
 reason remedied, or by length of time cured, 
 or else by death ended." — Golden Book. 
 
 " But in reality it arose from very difife- 
 reut causes, sometimes from bodily pain, 
 which he often felt when he did not o^vnit." 
 — Porteus, Life of Seeker. 
 
 CORRECTION. Amendment. 
 Reform. 
 
 The word Correction (Lat. cor 
 i^gcre, part, correctus) denotes the 
 action of redressing some defect for 
 the purpose of bringing back to order 
 that which bad departed from it. 
 
 Amendment (Fr. amende^ Lat. 
 hnendare) is a change brought aboui 
 for the better in a vicious order oi 
 things. 
 
 Reform (Lat. rl^formdre, to form 
 anew) is the state of » thing re-esta- 
 blished in the order in which it ought 
 to be. The coirection of faults may 
 result in an amendment of character, 
 which, if extensive, may be tanta- 
 mount to a reform. 
 
 Con-ection may be complete or in- 
 sufficient or even useless, according 
 as the act has produced more or less 
 effect, or none at all. Amendment 
 may be complete or incomplete, ac- 
 cording as the change may be more 
 or less considerable. But reform is 
 necessarily absolute. In their appli 
 cation to persons, con-ection belongs 
 to faults and defects, amendment to 
 any portion or the whole of the cha- 
 racter, reform to the entire conduct 
 and character. 
 
 COST. Expense. Price. Value. 
 Worth. 
 
 The Cost of a thing (O. Fr. coster, 
 Lat. constare, to cost) in its extended 
 sense, is all that has been laid out, or 
 is to be laid out upon producing it. 
 The Expense (Lat. expendere, to pay 
 out, part, erpenms) relates rather to 
 the person tbar the article ; henc4^ 
 
[counterfeit] discriminated. 
 
 expense often means continued cost, 
 as whatever a carriage may cost there 
 will be expense in keeping it up. The 
 Price of a thing is that which repre- 
 sents its value to the owner ( Fr. prix ; 
 Lat. prttinm), and must be paid to 
 procure it. The Worth (A.S. weotiS) 
 is what it will fetch, and the Value 
 ;^Fr. valeiir ; Lat. vUlere, to be worth) 
 is what it onirht to fetch. 
 
 "The reiil price of everything, what 
 everything really costs to the man who 
 wants to acijuire it, is the toil and trouble 
 dI" acquiring it." — Adam Smith. 
 ' Already I am worn with cares and age. 
 And jnst abandoning the nngratefnl stage. 
 Unprofltably kept at Heaven's expense, 
 { live, a rent charge on her Providence." 
 Drydkn. 
 " Besides the ornaments that are thrust 
 through the holes of the ears, many others 
 are suspended to them by strings ; such as 
 chisels or bodkins made of green talc, upon 
 which theyset a high value. The nails and 
 teeth of their deceased relations, the teeth 
 of dogs, and everything else that they can 
 get which they think either curious or 
 valuable."— Cook'b Voyages. 
 
 " But he, his wonted pride 
 Soon recollecting, with high words that 
 
 bore 
 Semblance oi worth, not substance, gently 
 
 raised 
 Their fainting courage, and dispell'd their 
 
 fears." Milton. 
 
 28 1 
 
 The intrinsic merit of a thing con- 
 stitutes its value; the estimation in 
 which it is held determines its price. 
 The value of things is founded upon 
 the use which we may make of them. 
 That which has no use has no value. 
 And as use is founded upon want, that 
 has no value for whicli no demand 
 exists. The value regulates the price, 
 but only within certain limits. He 
 is no connoisseur who can only judge 
 of the value of an article by the price 
 which is asked for it. Price bears 
 reference to exchange, and only exist* 
 in that relation, but from the moment 
 that we want a thing it has a value 
 for us, and, if we possess it, it retains 
 that value irrespectively of any such 
 exchange. 
 
 COUNTERFEIT. Spurious. Sup- 
 pojititious. Fictitious. Adul- 
 terated. Sophisticated. Bastard. 
 Falsified. Garbled. 
 
 Counterfeit (Fr. contrefait, from 
 fontre-faire ) relates to such deception 
 
 as consists in matters of exterior, the 
 making a false thing wear the look of 
 the true. 
 
 " Think freely on all the various pre 
 tence.o to revelation ; compare the counter^ 
 feit Scriptures with the true." — Bentlet. 
 
 Spurious (Lat. spariiis, illegitimate) 
 denotes something not issuing from 
 the true source, or the source pre- 
 tended. 
 
 " I never could be imposed on to receive 
 for yours what is written by any othei"S, or 
 to mistake your genuine poetry for their 
 spurious productions." — Dkyden. 
 
 Supposititious (Lat. supp'dsiticins, 
 subitituted, not genuine) denotes that 
 which is founded upon supposition 
 instead of fact. This admits of vaiy- 
 ing degi-ees of falsehood or deception. 
 The worst form is when that which is 
 known to be not the true is substi- 
 tuted in its place. On the other 
 hand, no intention to deceive is im- 
 plied in a supposititious history, if 
 the materials are the most authentic 
 that could be procured. In such a 
 case their necessarily supposititious 
 character ought to be declared. 
 
 "We shall premise this obsenation, or 
 rather suspicion of our o^vn, that there 
 seem to be some Orphick verses suppositi- 
 tious as well as there were Sibylline, they 
 being counterfeited either by Christians or 
 Jews."— CUDWORTU. 
 
 Fictitious ( Lat. ficttcins ;Jingerej to 
 form or feign) applies to anything 
 which is put forth as having indepen- 
 dent trutn and reality, while it is the 
 product of imagination or invention, 
 whether there be an intention to de- 
 ceive or not. 
 
 •' Thus, some make comedy a representa- 
 tion of mean, and others of bad men. Some 
 think that its essence consists in the unim- 
 portsince, others, in the fictitiousness, of 
 the transaction." — Rambler. 
 
 The two last epithets are applied to 
 such substances as are not of pure 
 composition and manufacture. That is 
 Adulterated (Lat. ^rf;///crare, which 
 had the same secondary meaning) i'.i 
 which the article is made to contain 
 less of the genuine by the substitu- 
 tion of other cheaper substances, with 
 a view to obtaining the full price of it 
 at less cost. ThatisSoPHisTiCATED(Gr. 
 atxpiartxoSf Lat. s'6phist'icus, gopnstical) 
 of which the genuine simplicity is de- 
 
282 
 
 Sy:NONYMS [COURSEj 
 
 stroyed. It is a less mercantile term 
 than adulterate, and applies to mat* 
 ters of the mind, belief, argument, 
 judgment ; as, to sophisticate the un- 
 derstanding — subj ects to which A du i,- 
 TEHATi! is also applied analogously; 
 but we speak of persons as sophisti- 
 cated, and systems or compounds as 
 adulterated. Adulteration expresses 
 rather the impurity or dishonesty, 
 sophistication the corrupt ingenuity 
 of the process. 
 
 " We haA-e well proved that Leucippus 
 and Democritus were not the first inven- 
 tors, but only the depravers and adultera- 
 tors of the atomic philosophy." — Cud- 
 worth. 
 
 " He is rattling over the streets of 
 London, and pursuing all the sophisticated 
 joys which succeed to supply the place 
 where nature is relinquished." — Knox, 
 Essays. 
 
 The origin of the word Bastard is 
 obscure. There is an old French 
 phrase, Jils de bast, which was tran- 
 scribed into old English "born in bast. " 
 The word has been connected with 
 the modern hut, a pack-saddle, as if 
 bastard were one born among the 
 pack-saddles of muleteers. It is em- 
 ployed in a secondary sense to denote 
 that which looks genuine, but is 
 inferior and corrupt in foim, affecting 
 the nature of the pure and authentic, 
 but of corrupt origin and degenerate 
 growth. It is specially applicable 
 to vegetable productions of a coarse 
 and wild character which resemble 
 more wholesome and valuable plants, 
 and to vicious developments in art 
 and language. Bastard Latin, bas- 
 tard architecture. 
 
 " Bastard self-love." — Barrow. 
 
 To Falsify {h^Lt.falsiJtcus, working 
 deceit) is to throw upon what is in 
 itself authentic such a character as 
 shall make it exhibit falsehood. It is 
 to vitiate up to a certain point, that is, 
 so far as may serve a specific purpose. 
 That which has an ex])ressive charac- 
 ter or force is falsified when it is made 
 to denote wrongly or inconsistently 
 with its natural or proper significance. 
 To Garble is a particular kind of 
 falsification, probably from L. Lat. 
 SarbeUare, to sift. It is to cleanse from 
 dross and dust, and was used specially 
 of spices ; hence to garble is to sepa- 
 
 rate and discard extraneous matter, 
 and to pick and choose what is valu- 
 able and answers one's purpose — so 
 to extract such quotations from a 
 book or document as may foster a 
 particular view by artful selection and 
 collocation. 
 
 "We cannot, I {eav, falsify the pedigree 
 of this fierce people, and persuade them 
 that they are not sprung from a nation in 
 whose being the blood of fi'eedom circu- 
 lates."— Burke. 
 
 " Among all the excesses into which the 
 Tories ran in favour of the Crown, and in 
 hopes of fixing dominion on their own party, 
 their zeal to support the methods of garbling 
 corporations was, in my opinion, that 
 which threatened public liberty the most." 
 — BOLINGBROKE. 
 
 COURSE. Current. 
 
 Tlie Course (Lat. cursiis) of a 
 river is the direction in which the 
 water runs; the Current (Lat. part. 
 cnrrentem, running) is the force of the 
 water which follows that course. The 
 course is straight or winding, the 
 current is strong or slack. 
 
 COWARD. Poltroon. Dastard 
 Craven. 
 
 The term Coward (Ital. codardo) 
 is derived from the Latin cauda, a taily 
 being like an animal that hangs down 
 its tail, or shows tail in ready flight. 
 It is the ordinary term for a person 
 who lacks courage to meet danger. A 
 Poltroon is a coward of peculiar 
 meanness of spirit, of an arrant 
 poverty of character, that is incapable 
 of a generous idea or effort. Dastard 
 (dast, answering to ling. dazed, and the 
 common Fr. suffix -ard ; Skeat's Etym, 
 Diet.) is one who, like the poltroon, 
 meanly shrinks from danger, but from 
 pure fear, while the poltroon is lazy 
 and cowardly also. The Craven, 
 J. e. one begged off, was one who 
 craved his life of the victor. The 
 term belongs, therefore, to more 
 honourable warfare. The mean man 
 is a poltroon, the recreant knight is a 
 craven. It is the diffei-ence between 
 hiding out of the way of dangei-, and 
 showing the white feather in the face 
 of danger. As to the etymology of 
 poltroon, I^ittre decides in favour oi 
 O. H. Ger. polstar, bolstar(Ger.polster ; 
 Eng. bolster), meaning « bed} the 
 
[create] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED 
 
 28:^ 
 
 Ital. foltrone, of vvhicli the suffix 
 -one is intensive, would then be =: a 
 thoroughly lazy, spiritless man. 
 
 CREATE. Cause. Occasion. 
 Make. Form. Produce. Con- 
 stitute. 
 
 It is hardly necessary to obsei-ve 
 that Create (Lat. creare) is used in 
 the metaphysical sense of producing 
 out of nothing, as " the creation of 
 the world." With this, which repre- 
 sents only an effort of the human 
 mind to express the inconceivable, 
 we have nothing to do in a work of 
 this kind, which deals only with the 
 ordinary use of language. The term 
 create is often 'jsed in a kindred 
 sense with Cause (Lat. causa, a 
 caiLse), but it involves personal 
 agency. It is to efFect by the agency 
 and under the laws of causation. 
 This human agency, if not directly 
 expressed, is indirectly implied ; as 
 busybodies are said to create mischief, 
 or jealousies are created by unneces- 
 sary reserve. On the other hand, when 
 the natural force and sequence of 
 things is contemplated, we use Cause ; 
 as, tlie circumstance caused great sur- 
 prise. 
 
 " The bad treatment of those who are 
 suffered still to live in a society is the 
 creating of so many malcontents, who at 
 some time or other may make those who 
 treat them ill feel their revenge." — 
 Burnet. 
 
 *'And the Lord God caused a deep sleep 
 to fall upon AA&xn."— Bible. 
 
 To Occasion (Lat. occasionem ; oc- 
 cidtre, to befall) denotes the more in- 
 direct and less active kinds of causa- 
 tion; the occasion is the circumstance or 
 set of circumstances which allow the 
 cause to operate. Accordingly the 
 verb Occasion is often employed of 
 something- connected with the cause, 
 or the cause viewed generally and 
 indirectly. In travelling, we might 
 say, the delay was occasioned by an 
 accident, but it was caused by the 
 breaking of an axle-tree. Generally 
 speaking, the cause is more remote 
 than the occasion, the occasion 
 more specifically active than the 
 cause. Thus, in the case of some 
 crime committed, the temptation, the 
 convenient cu-cumstances, the solici- 
 
 tation, or the hope of ^ain, and the 
 like, might be spoken ot as the cause ; 
 but to a moralist these would rather 
 constitute the occasion, while the 
 cause would be deeper, namely, in 
 the depravity of the man's nature. 
 The following passage of Spenser 
 shows how easily the two may be 
 interchanged : — 
 
 " Madman, said then the palmer, that 
 
 does seek 
 Occasion to wrath and cmiise of strife." 
 
 Make (A. S. maciaii) is the most 
 generic of all. It has the sense of to 
 bring about by any means or by any 
 process, and is applicable both to 
 physical and metaphysical results, 
 in which latter sense it is synony- 
 mous Avith form and constitute; as, 
 two and two make four, implying 
 logical causation, but not agency. 
 
 " When the cause is extrinsical, and the 
 effect produced by a sensible separation, or 
 juxtaposition, of discernible parts, we call 
 It viaking ; and such are all artificial 
 things."— Locke. 
 
 To Form ( Lat. ybrmare) is used in 
 three main senses : 1, to give physical 
 form or shape, as to foiin an image 
 outof clay ; 2, to produce in substan- 
 tial shape, as the action of cold, on 
 water forms ice; 3, to give meta- 
 physical shape, as to form an idea or 
 notion. This does not imply distinct 
 a^gency; as, we say six will fonn a ma- 
 jority, that is, will complete the notion 
 as well as the fact of a majont}- ; 
 to which may be added 4, to give 
 moral shape, that is, to mould; as, to 
 form {), habit of reflexion ; circum- 
 stances form the character. This last 
 is only on analogous application of 
 the first. 
 
 " We are so wonderfully formed, that 
 whilst we are creatures vehemently desi- 
 rous of novelty, we are as strongly attached 
 to habit and custom." — Burke. 
 
 Produce (Lat. producere, to bring 
 foruard, produce) is to bring about as 
 the result of a lengthened effort or 
 process, analogous to the bringing 
 forth of plants from seeds, and the 
 young of animals from the parent. It 
 may or may not imply distinct pur- 
 pose ; as, to produce a work of litera- 
 ture or art on the one hand, or kind- 
 
284 
 
 nes8 prociucea love, on the other. 
 That which produces does so by an 
 operative power inherent in its nature, 
 by virtue of which it imparts some- 
 what of its own nature or substance 
 to the thing produced. 
 
 " Trade, then, is necessary to the pro- 
 ducing of riches, and money necessary to 
 the carrying on of trade." — Locke, 
 
 CoxsiiTUTE (Lat. constttutre) is 
 purely mental, though the conception 
 may be based upon a physical pro- 
 cess. To constitute means to con- 
 tribute all that is needed to make 
 up a whole, whether physical or 
 metaphysical. H many things are 
 needed^ the term applies to all ; if one 
 thing is sufficient, that alone con- 
 stitutes ; as, " That field constitutes, or 
 those fields, trees, and hedges con- 
 stitute, all my landed property." 
 
 " It is not more necessary to the consti- 
 tuting of a man that a human soul inhabit 
 in a human body, than it is to the being a 
 true Christian that the Holy Spirit of God 
 inhabit in the soul and body of the man." — 
 Sharp. 
 
 CRIME. Vice. Sin. Guilt. 
 Misdemeanour. Offence. Tres- 
 pass. Transgression, Misdeed. 
 Wrong. Iniquity. Wickedness. 
 Injustice. Injury. 
 
 Crime (Fr. crime ; Lat. crimen, an 
 aeeiLsatioii) is always a deed, never a 
 'ate. It is, strictly speaking, a deed 
 violating a law, human or divine. 
 Hence, we may speak of crimes 
 against God, and crimes against 
 society ; but, according to present 
 usage, a crime is generally understood 
 to be against the State. Crime can 
 only be used of moral and spiritual 
 oflfences, when religion wears a politi- 
 cal aspect, and God is recognized as 
 a Supreme Ruler and Judge, whose 
 laws have been infringed. In this 
 way Spenser speaks of the " crime of 
 our first father s fall." So Blackstone 
 says — 
 
 " A crime or misdemeanour is an act 
 committed or omitted, in violation of a 
 public law either forbidding or commanding 
 It." 
 
 And, again, that the discussion and 
 admeasurement of the nature of 
 cimes and punishments, "forms in 
 
 SYNONYMS [CRIMlL^ 
 
 every country the code of cnmtna. 
 law." 
 
 Vice (Lat. vXtixim) is a state, not % 
 deed — a moral fault or failing, a de- 
 parture from moral purity or in- 
 tegrity, implying more or less of 
 defect, corruption, or wrong in the 
 character itself. Vice is commonly 
 an abuse or excess of what is in itsell 
 lawful if it be within bounds and 
 according to rule, as the vice oi 
 drunkenness, wliich consists in excess, 
 or unchastity, which is against rule. 
 On the other hand, murder and for- 
 gery are crimes which no modera- 
 tion could rectify, and spring from 
 selfish passions. In its more gene- 
 ral sense, vice is radical and inherent 
 badness. 
 
 " That this is the common measure of 
 virtue and vice, will appear to any one who 
 considers that though that passes for vice 
 in one country which is counted a virtue, or 
 at least not a vice, in another, yet every 
 where virtue and praise, vice and blame, 
 go together."— LoCKK. 
 
 Sin (A. S. syn^ is a departure from 
 a Divine law, or any law regarded as of 
 a Divine or sacred character. Sin com- 
 prehends both Crime and Vice, by 
 reason of the perfection of the Divine 
 law ; but there are many specific sins 
 or acts of sin which are not vices, 
 inasmuch as they consist only of acts, 
 and are not habits or propensities ; 
 and there are many sins which, not 
 being acts, are not crimes ; such as 
 sins of thought ; or not violations of 
 the law of the land, as lying. The 
 following is the view of llobbes: — 
 
 " All crimes are indeed sins, but not all 
 sins crimes. A sin may be in the thought 
 or secret purpose of a man, of which 
 neither a judge, nor a witness, nor any 
 man, can take notice ; but a crime is such a 
 sin as consists in an action against the law, 
 of which action he can be accused and tried 
 by a judge, and be convinced or cleared by 
 witnesses. Farther, that which is no sinxu 
 itself, but indifierent, may be made sin by 
 a positive law."— HoBUES, On the Common 
 Law of Ehigland, 
 
 Guilt (A. S. gylt, meaning origi- 
 nally o ^ne or payment) is a state, 
 the state of one who has infringed oi 
 violated any moral or political law, 
 or, in the mildest sense, one to whom 
 anything wrong, even as a matter of 
 
[crime] 
 
 taste or judgment, may be attributed; 
 »s, to be guilty of error, to be guilty 
 of a piece of bad tastp. Guilt is the 
 impress of evil upon the individual, 
 and is opposed to merit, as the im- 
 press of good ill action. 
 
 " An involuntary act," says Blackstone, 
 " as it has no claim to merit, so neither 
 can it induce any giiilt." 
 
 Misdemeanour (mis-, and 0. Fr. 
 iemener, to lead, manage) is a minor 
 crime, under the purely social aspect 
 of crime. Any crime less than a 
 felony, or any for which the law h:is 
 not furnished a name, would be a mis- 
 demeanour. In common parlance it 
 is used in the sense of misconduct. 
 
 " The consideration of this, that God 
 takes a particular notice of our viisdetnea- 
 nours, should engage us to set about a parti- 
 cular amendment." — South. 
 
 Offence (Lat. ojfendere, part, ojjcn- 
 sus, to stunihle against, to of end) is in- 
 definite. Jt implies a contradiction 
 of will or a violation of law, without 
 saying anj^thing of the nature of the 
 will or the law, which may be politi- 
 cal or personal. Offence may be even 
 against customs, where customs have 
 the force of social laws or regulations ; 
 as, to offend against good taste and 
 good manners. 
 
 " To o^enc? originally signifies to impinge, 
 that is, to stumble or hit dangerously upon 
 something lying across our way, so as there- 
 by to be cast down, or at least to be dis- 
 ordered in our jiosture and stopped in our 
 progress, whence it is well transferred to 
 denote our being, through an incident 
 temptation, brought into sin, whereby a 
 man is thrown down, or is bowed from his 
 upright state, and interrupted from prose- 
 cuting a steady course of piety and virtue." 
 — Barkow. 
 
 Trespass (O. Fr. trespasser, L. Lat. 
 transpassare, to pass across) is an offence 
 of which the essence consists in going 
 beyond certain allowable or right 
 limits. I trespass upon my neigh- 
 bour's land, or, metaphorically, upon 
 his patience. 
 
 Transgression (Lat. transgressio- 
 nem, transgredior, I step across) differs 
 from trespass in referring solely to 
 law, moral or civil, while trespass is 
 in reference to the rights or character 
 of another. A trespass is a personal 
 transgression against anothpr. Tf in 
 
 DISOKIMINATED. 
 
 285 
 
 evident tliat a trespass ma v be of the 
 nature of a transgi-ession. 
 
 " This action of trespass or transgression 
 on the case is our universal remedy given 
 for all personal wrongs and injuries withont 
 fine."— Blackstoxk. 
 
 Misdeed is a deed of wrong, and 
 therefore of a private character. It 
 stands to misconduct as a part to the 
 whole. A misdeed is very often of 
 tiie nature of a minor crime and mis- 
 demeanour, or an offence against the 
 law ; but this is accidental, not essen- 
 tial to the term. 
 
 " Like caitiff vile, that for misdeed 
 Rides with his face to rump of steed." 
 Hxutibras. 
 
 Iniquity (Lat. tnujnitatem, uvfair- 
 ness), like Vice, is used both of the 
 habit and the act. It commonly de- 
 notes a gross violation of the rights 
 of others by fraud and circumvention. 
 It is used also, however, of cases of 
 open violence, cs "iniquitous war." 
 In its broadest sense iniquity is the 
 violation of all that is ri^ht and just. 
 It is in the language of Scripture, the 
 contradiction and opposite of righ- 
 teousness. 
 
 "All governments must frequently in- 
 fringe the rules of justice to supf)ort them 
 selves. Truth must give way to dissimula- 
 tion, honesty to convenience, and humanity 
 itself to the raging interest. The whole o. 
 this mystery of iniquity is called the reason 
 of state."— BURKB. 
 
 Injustice (Lat. mjust'itia) and In- 
 jury (Lat. injiiria, wrong) differ, in 
 that the former relates to the actor, 
 the latter to the object. Every in- 
 justice, therefore, is not an injury. 
 For instance, if we speak ill or dispa- 
 ragingly of another without his de- 
 serving it, we do him an injustice 
 but unless what we say has sufficient 
 influence to affect his interests it will 
 be no injury. It deserves to be re- 
 marked, that Injury is used in twc 
 very different ways, though the notion 
 of wrong lies at the bottom of both. 
 We may act with violence or wrong 
 upon insensible as well as sensible 
 objects. Sti-ictly speaking, it is only 
 in reference to the latter that the term 
 injury can be directly employed; but 
 it is often used in respect to the 
 former, in whirJi case it is simpl; 
 
286 
 
 fcrNONYMS [criminal] 
 
 tantamount to damage, as, for in- 
 stance, injuries done to trees by a 
 storm. 
 
 " The great, it seems, are privileged alone 
 To poniah all injustice but their own." 
 
 Dbydkn. 
 
 " The former (private wi'ongs) are an in- 
 fringement or privation of the private or 
 civil rights belonging to individualg, consi- 
 dered as individuals, and are thereupon fre- 
 quently termed civil injuries." — Black- 
 STOfTE. 
 
 Wrong (connected with wrnng, 
 A. S. wriiigariy to wring or mrest ; 
 compare Fr. tort, from Lat. tortus, 
 twisted) is a distortion of right, either 
 in reference to ourselves or to others. 
 In the former case, it is a crime or a 
 misdeed, according to its character 
 and extent; in the latter, it partakes 
 both of injustice and injury, being 
 such a violation of justice on the part 
 of the agent as redounds to the detri- 
 tient of the person acted upon. The 
 vrong regards more particularly the 
 goods and the reputation ; the injustice 
 regards the personal qualities, by im- 
 puting defects of character • <^he first 
 Lwits, the ftecona onends. ITie im- 
 prudent zeal of a friend sometimes 
 does more wrong than the anger of an 
 enemy. The greatest injustice one 
 can do to an honest man is to call his 
 probity in question. 
 
 •* The distinction of public wrongs from 
 private, of crimes and misdemeanours from 
 civil injuries, seems principally to consist in 
 this, that private wrongs or civil injuries are 
 an infiingement or privation of the civil 
 rights which belong to indiNdduals, con- 
 sidered merely as individuals; public 
 urongs, or crimes and misdemeanours, are 
 a breach and violation of the public rights 
 and duties due to the whole community, 
 considered as a community in its social 
 aggregate capacity." — Blackstoxk. 
 
 Wickedness (etymology doubtful) 
 is the disposition towards and practice 
 of e vil generally. It is a generic term , ^ 
 referring more directly to ti'ansgres- 
 iions of the Divine law, and morality 
 fts included under it. In a milder 
 sense it means ludicrous mischief. 
 
 "Our manifold sins and toickedjiess." — 
 Ehiglish Book of Common Prayer. 
 
 CRIMINAL. Guilty. 
 
 Criminal respects the character of 
 *be deedr Guilt v the simple fact of 
 
 its commission. The criminality o[ 
 an offence is a question of degree, to 
 be determined by circumstances. 
 Guilt is a question of fact, to be deter- 
 mined by evidence. It must be ob- 
 served that criminal is an epithet only 
 of things, guilty both of things and 
 persons. 
 
 " The ends of drink are digestion of our 
 meat, cheerfulness and refreshment of our 
 spirits, or any end of health ; besides which, 
 if we go at any time beyond it, it is inordi- 
 nate and criminal ; it is the vice of drunken- 
 ness."— Bishop Taylok. 
 
 " One cannot but be astonished at the 
 folly and impiety of pronouncing a man 
 guilty unless he was cleared by a miracle, 
 and of expecting that all the powers of 
 Nature should be suspended by an imme- 
 diate interposition of Providence to save the 
 innocent whenever it was presumptuously 
 required." — Blackstone. 
 
 CRIMINAL. Culprit. Felon, 
 Malefactor. Convict. 
 
 These are terms denoting persons 
 who have offended against the laws 
 of the country. A Criminal is one 
 who stands indicted for a crime, or 
 against whom a crime has been 
 proved. 
 
 " Suppose a civil magistrate should have 
 a criminal brought before him, accused, for 
 instance, of murder, burglary, or the like, 
 and the fact is proved, would you not have 
 him in that case to pronounce the sentence 
 that the law has awarded to all such male- 
 factors ] "—-Sharp. 
 
 Culprit (probably Lat. culpdtns, 
 accused) is used in the same twofold 
 force, but is a milder term, admitting 
 of less grave applications — as when 
 applied to boys in a school who have 
 offended against morals or regulations. 
 
 " Like other culprit youths, he wanted 
 
 grace. 
 But could have no self-interest in the case." 
 Whitehead. 
 
 Malefactor (Lat. malefactor) ex- 
 presses a criminal, who, though seized 
 or condemned by tie State, is regarded 
 in reference to the moral instead ol 
 the political character of his offence. 
 
 " Prom every species of punishment that 
 has hitherto been devised, from imprison- 
 ment and exile, from pain and infamy 
 malefactors return more hardened in theii 
 crimes and more instructed." — Palky. 
 
 Felon (L. Lat. felonem, a traitor) 
 denotes a criminal in regard to the 
 
[cbooked] 
 
 DISCRIMINArED. 
 
 287 
 
 grade of his oflFence ; that is, as having 
 committed a crime which amounts to 
 a felony. Originally, a felony was such 
 a crime as included the forfeiture of 
 goods for its penalty, but subsequent 
 Acts of Parliament have declared seve- 
 ral specific crimes to be felonies. 
 
 " yes, Leila sleeps beneath the wave, 
 Bnt his shall be a redder grave ; 
 Her spirit pointed well the steel 
 Which tanght the feUm heart to feel." 
 BVRON. 
 
 The Convict (Lat. convince?'e, part. 
 convictus, to refute) is the criminal or 
 felon regarded as sentenced,and under- 
 going the punishment to which he has 
 been sentenced, more especially that 
 of forced labour. 
 
 *' Its garrison being in great measure un- 
 armed, it was impossible that it could have 
 opposed car force, or that its half-starved 
 inhabitants, most of whom are convicts, 
 banished thither from other parts, could 
 have had any other thoughts than that of 
 •nbmitting."— Ajs'SOn's Voyages. 
 
 CRISIS. Conjuncture. Emer- 
 gency. Exigency. 
 
 Crisis (Gr. xprajf? « separating^ a 
 decision) denotes literally what decides 
 »r turns the scale. It is commonly 
 nsed of a turning-point in affairs, be- 
 fore it is known whether the issue will 
 be for better or worse ; and generally 
 of a precarious or high-wrought state 
 of affairs. The difference seems to be 
 that Conjuncture (Lat. conjungere, 
 part, conjunctus, to join together) de- 
 notes a compound crisis, or a state 
 which results from the meeting of 
 several external circumstances to form 
 it ; while Crisis is applicable to the 
 internal state alone ; as, the crisis of a 
 disease. A crisis is watched with 
 anxiety ; great results have accrued 
 from taking advantage of a favourable 
 conjuncture of circumstances. A crisis 
 IS anticipated, a conjuncture is unex- 
 pected. 
 
 Emergency (Lat. emerghre, to 
 emerge) is an unforeseen occuirence 
 or combination, which calls for im- 
 mediate action. 
 
 Exigency (Lat. eri^tre, to exact) is 
 a minor emergency, having the cha- 
 racter of an imperious requirement. 
 
 " It is observed in all those actions or 
 passages which cause any great or notabU 
 
 change either iu the mind or life of man, 
 that they do not constantly operate at the 
 same rate of efficacy, bnt that there is a 
 certain crisis or particular season which 
 strangely provokes and draws forth the 
 activity and force of every agent, raising it 
 to effects much gi-eater and higher than the 
 common measure of its actings is observed 
 to carry it to." — South. 
 
 " But I will i-ather ostentatiously display 
 my own endeavours to assist you in this 
 conjuncture, nor dwell upon the unworthy 
 treatment you have received from others." 
 — Melmoth, Cicero. 
 
 " On whom she might her doubts repose. 
 In all emergencies that rose." SwiTT. 
 
 " The total collective exigencies of the 
 State."— Burke. 
 
 CRITICISM. Stricture. 
 
 Criticism (Gr. %fniKoq, able to dis- 
 cern) is a minute examination of any 
 compound subject, as human conduct, 
 dress, personal appearance, a literary 
 production or work of art (but not a 
 purely natural object, as, for instance, 
 a landscape), with a view to ascer- 
 taining and manifesting merits and 
 %ults. 
 
 Stricture (Lat. strictura, a draw- 
 in^ tightly together) is only employed 
 of adverse criticism, and consists in 
 the effort to expose defects, faults, or 
 wrong in series. It is commonly em- 
 
 f)loyed in reference to works of art and 
 iterature and the conduct of public 
 men. 
 
 " Criticism, though dignified from the 
 earliest ages by the labours of men eminent 
 for knowledge and sagacity, and, since the 
 revival of polite literature, the favofarite 
 study of Luropean scholars, has not yet 
 attained the certainty and stability of 
 science." — Rambler. 
 
 "■ To the end of most of the plays I have 
 added short strictures, containing a general 
 censure of faults or praise of excellence." — 
 Johnsox. 
 
 CROOKED. Bent. Curved. 
 Awry. 
 
 Crooked (connected with crossy 
 Lat. crux, and many similar words in 
 different languages) denotes that 
 which might have been conceived aa 
 straight but is not; one deviation 
 from the straight line, or more than 
 one, may belong to a crooked object. 
 It is a term of abruptness, and tends, 
 in its secondary sense, to express that 
 which is mornlly wrong or porvrrtod, 
 
288 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [crowd] 
 
 as contrasted with wliat is stiAight or 
 right, as we speak of crooked ways or 
 thougois. 
 
 "And in one of the Snowdon lakes is 
 found a variety of trout, which is naturally 
 deformed, having a strange crookedness near 
 the tail, resembling that of the j)erch before 
 described."— Pennant. 
 
 Bent (A. S. bendan, to bend) de- 
 notes the exercise of some {.ower 
 which has caused the deviation from 
 straightness, whether exercised on 
 purpose, or purely mechanical or in- 
 voluntary ; as, bent by art, or bent by 
 the storm. It expresses such devia- 
 tion as occurs only once in the subject. 
 If it occurred oftener, we should use 
 some term expressive of frequent 
 bending, as "bent about." The word 
 belongs to substantial matter, and not 
 to mere lines. We say " crooked 
 paths," not " bent paths." 
 
 " And yet these bows, being somewhat 
 like the long bows in use amongst us, were 
 bent only by a man's immediate strength." 
 — WiLKiNS, Meclumicul Foicers. 
 
 Curved (Lat; curvus, crooked) de- 
 notes equable and proportionate flex- 
 ure, which is almost always the result 
 of design, and may have grace for its 
 object. 
 
 " They have no furniture except a few 
 little blocks of wood, the upper side of which 
 is hollowed into a curve, and which serve 
 them for pillows." — GooK's Voyages. 
 
 Awry (properly an adverb, on- 
 wry, M. E. wryen, to twist) denotes 
 wrong or defective deviation or flex- 
 ure. As the crooked is that which 
 might be straigh*^, and is not, so that 
 which is awry ought to be straight, 
 and is not. 
 
 " He may in some points be in error, he 
 may" in many points pursue the way which 
 we may not think best ; yet if he be a pious 
 and good man, his path cannot possibly be 
 much awry." — Gilpin's Sermons. 
 
 CROWD. Multitude. Throng. 
 Swarm. Mob. Populace. 
 
 Crowd (A. S. croda) denotes such 
 a collection of persons as gives the 
 impression of multitude without order ; 
 rarely used of things. 
 
 " Like his own Christian in the cage. 
 Banyan found protectors even among the 
 crow^ of Vanity Fair."— Macau I.AY. 
 
 Multitude CLat. mult^tiido). is that 
 
 which gives the impression of nume- 
 rousuess, and nothing else, and is not, 
 like CRowD,restricted to human beings. 
 The mind is sometimes occupied by a 
 multitude of thoughts, and sometimes 
 by a crowd of associations, or confus- 
 ing sentiments. Crowd is sometimes 
 used exaggeratively ; e.g., Italy con- 
 tains a crowd of ancient monuments; 
 as if the mind were embarrassed by 
 the thought of seeing them all. 
 
 " It is a fault in a multitude of preachers 
 that they utterly neglect method in their 
 harangues." — Watts. 
 
 Throng (A. S. throng) applies to 
 human beings exclusively. It ex- 
 presses a voluntary pressure of the 
 individuals composing the collection ; 
 while Crowd rather expresses such 
 as is inconvenient and involuntary. 
 Crowd merely denotes a fact. Throng 
 supposes some common object of cu- 
 riosity or interest. 
 
 "Nottoknow me argues yourself unknown, 
 The lowest of your throng." Milton. 
 
 Swarm (A. S. swearm) is employed 
 only of animate objects, whether hu- 
 man or otherwise, but of human beings 
 only disparagingly. The specific idea 
 of bwARM is that of multitudinous life 
 trd action, whether with or without 
 a common purpose uniting them, as a 
 swarm of busy bees, or a swarm of idle 
 children. 
 
 •' Every place swarms with soldiers."— 
 
 SPKNSKR. 
 
 Mob (formerly m'obilt ; i.e. Lat. mo- 
 bile valgus, the Jickle crowd) and Po- 
 pulace (Lat. popiilus) stand closely re- 
 lated. As Populace is a word formed 
 to include the masses of a country 
 which have no distinction of rank, 
 education, office, or profession ; so 
 ]\I()u indicates a specific reunion of 
 such persons exhibiting a characteris- 
 tic coarseness or violence, more espe- 
 cially on such occasions of social or 
 political interest as may have brought 
 them together. A mob may be gathered 
 and dispersed in an hour. The popu- 
 lace is a permanent portion of society. 
 The concourse of many persons to tiie 
 same place will result in a multitude 
 which will probably partake of the 
 nature of a crowd, the multitude I) "ing 
 
[cultivation] discriminated. 
 
 289 
 
 the 
 the 
 
 quantity of persons produced by 
 concourse. The flocking oi'human 
 beings to the same spot is sometimes 
 called ajitieiice. W hen some incon- 
 venience results, or we mean to speak 
 disparagingly of the character of it, 
 the multitude becomes a crowd. A 
 multitude of persons may spread itself 
 over ample space. On certain occa- 
 sions there may be an afliuence of 
 strangers to a city. A crowd collects 
 in the street where an accident has 
 occun-ed. In continental towns the 
 streets are sometimes thronged to see 
 a religious procession. 
 
 " Kings are ambitious, the nobility 
 haughty, and the populace tumultuous and 
 ungovenuibic."— Bukke'. 
 
 " He shrunk from the dangers which 
 threatened him, and sacrificed his con- 
 science and his duty to the menaces of a 
 ;/io6."— Bishop Porteus. 
 
 CULPABLE. Faulty. 
 
 Although these terms are very 
 nearly related, Culpable being de- 
 rived from tlie Latin culpa, a fault 
 {Ft. J'uute, Liit. fa ll'cre, to fail), yet 
 ("uLPAnLH is always specific, while 
 Faulty is general. 
 
 Faulty means generally defective, 
 whether morally or otherwise, as a 
 faulty cliaracter, a faulty composition. 
 CuLi'ABLE means guilty of a specific 
 act or course of conduct which de- 
 serves blame. The term is also used 
 of negative acts, as a culpable igno- 
 rance, a culpable negligence. Faulty 
 is an epithet of things intellectual and 
 artistic. Culpable is only of things 
 moral. 
 
 " Every man in doubtful cases is left to 
 his own discretion, and if he acts according 
 to the best reason he hath, he is not culpa- 
 ble, though he be mistaken in his mea- 
 sures."— Sharp. 
 
 "Created once 
 So goodly and erect, though faulty since." 
 MiLTOK. 
 
 CULTIVATION. Culture. 
 Tillage. Husbandry. Civiliza- 
 riON. Refinement. 
 
 Cultivation (L. Lat. cultivare, to 
 till, L. coltre, pf^rt. cultus) is used in 
 a physical and in a metaphorical sense. 
 It denotes the use of art and labour 
 and all things needful to the produc- 
 tion of 8U(li thingsas grow out of the 
 
 soil. The term, it may be observed, 
 is employed both of the soil and of 
 that which grows out of it. We cul- 
 tivate fields, and we cultivate flax. 
 The same force belongs to the meta- 
 phorical or moral use of the term, as 
 in the cultivation of the mind, or of 
 special habits, or of literature, or the 
 arts. 
 
 " The mind of man hath need to be pre- 
 pared for piety and virtue. It must be cul- 
 tivated to that end, and ordered with great 
 care and pains. But the vices are weeds 
 that grow wild and spring up of them- 
 selves."— Tillotson. 
 
 Culture (Lat. cultura) is com- 
 monly employed to denote the spe- 
 cific cultivation of some particular 
 kind of production for the sake of 
 its amelioration. In this sense the 
 term is used of the culture of the 
 human race or human mind (but not 
 of moral habits), to indicate such civi • 
 lization and training as results in 
 the raising of the condition of the 
 race. 
 
 "The mind that lies fallow but a single 
 day sprouts np in follies that are only to be 
 killed by a constant and assiduous culture." 
 — Spectator. 
 
 Civilization (Lat. cji)2/ii-,belongiug 
 to'cjuis, a c/tjse/j), unlike Cultivation, 
 is employed only of races of mankind, 
 or, by a licence, of the countries 
 which they inhabit. Civilization and 
 Refinement are respectively the first 
 and the final stages of cultivation as re- 
 gards the condition of men in their 
 social capacity; the first meaning 
 the mere redeeming froih a state of 
 barbai-ism ; the second a high con- 
 dition of intellectual culture in the 
 liberal arts and social manners. A 
 civilized people is one among whom 
 industry, commerce, science, art, 
 government have reached a high 
 state, and are still in a condition of 
 advancement. Persons or nations may 
 be civilized without being refined in 
 manners ; which may be unpolished. 
 
 Tillage and Husbandry, except 
 by special design, convey no meta- 
 phorical meaning. Tillage (A. S. 
 tilian, to make an efort; to toil) ap- 
 plies directly and solely to the soil in 
 reference to its preparation for seed, 
 and its preservation for the sake of 
 tJ 
 
290 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [cure] 
 
 the crops which ii is to produce, ! 
 and not to the crops themselves. 
 Husbandry is of mucli wider mean- 
 ing, comprising all the branches of 
 agriculture, and even the theoretical 
 science of it, while tillage is purely 
 manual. 
 
 " Nothing is more certain than that our 
 manners, our civilizcAion, and all the good 
 things which are connected with manners 
 and with civilization, have in this Euro- 
 pean world of ours depended for ages upon 
 two principles, and were indeed the result 
 of both combined. I mean the spirit of a 
 gentleman and the spirit of i-eligiou." — 
 Burke. 
 
 " This refined taste is the consequence of 
 education and habit. We are born only 
 with a capacity of entertaining this refine- 
 ment, as we are born with a disposition tc 
 receive and obey all the rules and regula- 
 tions of society ; and so far it may be said 
 to be natural to us, and no farther." — 
 Reynolds. 
 
 "The very ground yon cultivate affords 
 much instruction. Without proper tillage 
 you know it will bear nothing ; and the 
 more it is cultivated the more it will pro- 
 duce." — Gilpin's Sermons. 
 
 " Husbandry supplieth all things neces- 
 sary for food." — SpEKSEK. 
 
 ('URE. Heal. Remedy. 
 
 Cure ( Lat.crirare,to care for, to heal) 
 is employed of such deep-seated or in- 
 ternal ailments as need the indirect 
 treatment of science; Heal (A. S, 
 haian, to make whole or hale) of such 
 external and tangible wounds, dis- 
 eases, or injuries, as need the direct 
 application of manual skill. Wounds 
 and ulcers are healed. Diseases gene- 
 rally are cured. In their moral bear- 
 ings. Cuke is used of what is bad 
 or unsound in the mental or moral 
 nature ; as, to cure prejudices, to cure 
 vices, or vicious habits, or evil pro- 
 pensities ; Heal of external breaches 
 and separations* as, to heal animosi- 
 ties, hati'eds, nvalries, or anything 
 which, like the lips of a social wound, 
 needs bringing together. 
 
 Remedy (Lat. rantdium) is more 
 comprehensive, and denotes the si)e- 
 cific counteractive setting right of 
 anything that has gone wi'ong ; as 
 diseases, nuisances, evils, social in- 
 juries and wrongs, or even deficien- 
 cica and omisfions. Remedy, how- 
 
 ever, has commonly more to do witi 
 the result or fact, while Cure relatef 
 to the principles and origin of thing? 
 requiring remedy. To remedy a dis- 
 ease is simply to remove it, to cure 
 it is to remove the cause. The nouns 
 cure and remedy follow the same dis- 
 tinction. 
 
 •' The child was cured from that very 
 hour." — Bible. 
 
 *' But Vane opposed this with much zeal. 
 He said. Would they heal the wound tha*. 
 they had given themselves which weakenec 
 them so much ? The setting them at quie*. 
 could have no other effect but to heal anc 
 unite them in their opposition to authority.'- 
 — BUKNET. 
 
 " Now smce all wrong may be considered 
 as merely a privation of right, the plain 
 natural remedy for every species of wrong 
 is the being put in ])ossession of that right 
 whereof the party injured is deprived."— 
 Blackstone. 
 
 It may be observed that the verbt 
 Cure and Heal are employed both ot 
 the malady or evil, and of the sub- 
 ject in which it resides, while Rem edv 
 is used only directly of the evil it- 
 self. 
 
 CURSE. Malediction. Impre 
 CATION. Execration. Anathema. 
 
 Curse (A. S. cursio/t, possibly con- 
 nected with making the sign of the 
 cross, Sw. kor&) is a solemn or violent 
 pronunciation or invocation of evil upor 
 another. It is used in the independen 
 sense of a uniform cause of harm. 
 Curse commonly implies the personal 
 desire of evil accompanying its decla- 
 ration. It is the generic term, and 
 even applies to certain inanimate 
 things, as the man in despair curses 
 the day of his buth. 
 
 " When men in common conversation use 
 curses and imprecations against their breth- 
 ren, as passionate and profane men are fre- 
 quently apt to do. it is either with an inten- 
 tion and desire that mischief might befall 
 them, which is both malicious towards 
 man, and also irreligiously thinking light 
 of the curse of God ; or else it is without 
 any such desire or intention, and then it is 
 j)rofanely supposing God to have no regard 
 to their behaviour." — Clarke. 
 
 Malediction (Lat. mdlMictibiiem, 
 evil-speaking; a curse) is a more for- 
 mal term, and expresses generally the 
 declaration of a curse. This may be 
 
[custom] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 291 
 
 personal, or it may be purely official, 
 as the maledictions of the Jewish law, 
 that is, the solemn declaration of 
 a curse as attached to certain acts, 
 whoever they may be that commit 
 them. 
 
 "Imprecations and maledictions were 
 made, according to the cnstom of the Jews, 
 against those who should presume to add 
 or alter anything therein." — Grew. 
 
 IjipnECATioN (Lat. imprtcdtidnem) 
 is a weaker form of cursing, which 
 prays for evil upon another, and has 
 in it more the wish than the feeling or 
 belief of power. 
 
 Execration (Lat. exsccrationem) Ls 
 a curse dictated by violent personal 
 feeling of hatred. So distinctive is 
 this element, that the word sometimes 
 means simply such hatred, without 
 any idea of cursing, as we speak of 
 holding certain deeds in execration. 
 
 " I mean the Epicureans, who though in 
 other respects they were persons of many 
 excellent and sublime speculations, yet, 
 because of their gross error in this kind, 
 they have been in all ages looked upon with 
 a kind of execration."— Wilkins. 
 
 Anathema (Gr. avdOifxa, anylhvig 
 devoted or accursed) was a tenn taken 
 from the New Testament, and meant 
 a ban or curse pronounced on religious 
 grounds by ecclesiastical authority, 
 and was accompanied by excommuni- 
 cation, so that the person was held up 
 as an object of oflfence. 
 
 "Anathema signifies persons or things 
 devoted to destruction and extermination. 
 The Jewish nation were an anathema — des- 
 tined to destruction. St. Paul, to express 
 his affectiuu to them, says he could wish, 
 to save them from it, to become an aTia- 
 thema, and be destroyed himself." — LoCKE. 
 
 The imprecation is the expression 
 of anger in the weak and oppressed. 
 The malediction is an expression of 
 outraged power and justice. The 
 execration is an expression of reli- 
 gious horror, or in its milder form, of 
 the strongest aversion. 
 
 CURSORY. Desultory. Sum- 
 mary. 
 
 Cursory (Lak c»r.soji«s, relating 
 to one who runs) denotes such haste 
 as implies of necessity the impossi- 
 bility of more than momentary and 
 superficial observation or comprehen- 
 
 sion of particulars. Desultory (Lat. 
 dcsultoriiis, relating too horse-vaulter, 
 disultor) is that which wants con- 
 tinuity and method, and indicates an 
 impatience of applied thought. Sum- 
 mary (Lat. sum.mdrium) denotes that 
 whicli is rapidly gathered up into 
 completion, and so saves time at the 
 expense of attention to detail. We 
 speak commonly of cursory glances, 
 views, and observation ; desultory 
 studies, argument, remarks ; and sum- 
 mary proceedings. 
 
 " It is an advantage to all narrow wis- 
 dom and narrow morals that their maxims 
 have a plausible air, and on a cursory 
 view apjiewr equal to false principles."— 
 Burke. 
 
 " This makes my reading wild and desuU 
 tory, and I seek x'efuge from the uneasj.'ness 
 of thought from any book, let it be what it 
 will, that can engage my attention." — 
 Waruurton. 
 
 " Nor sj)end their time to show their read- 
 
 i"g. 
 She'd have a summary pi-oceeding." 
 
 Swift. 
 
 CUSTOM. Fashion. Manner. 
 Method. Practice. Habit. Usage. 
 Preschiption. Habitude. Vogue. 
 
 Custom (Fr. coutume, Lat. consuc- 
 tudinem) is an habitual practice, 
 whether of individuals, or communi- 
 ties. It differs from Habit (Lat. 
 Mbitus, a condition, an acquired state) 
 in that Habit is exclusively applicable 
 to individuals, and denotes that the 
 stage is reached when the custom is 
 no longer purely involuntary, by a 
 repetition of acts. In law, Custom 
 has the meaning of long-e-stablished 
 practice or usage, baring the force of 
 unwritten law. Ordinarily speaking, 
 custom respects things that are done 
 by the majority, habit those which are 
 done by individuals. We speak of na- 
 tional customs, and a man of active or 
 indolent habits. In this way, it is a 
 custom in England to repair to the 
 seaside in the autumn months. To 
 smoke tobacco or take snuff are habits. 
 There will often be a close connexion 
 between a habit and a custom ; either 
 may lead to the other, 'i'he custom 
 of going to church may lead to a habit 
 of devotion ; or the peraonal habit ot 
 devotion may lead a person to thw 
 
292 
 
 DlTNONYMS 
 
 [custom] 
 
 custom of attending public worship. 
 Those natural customs are the best 
 which lead to good habits among the 
 people. 
 
 " A custom 
 More honoor'd in the breach than the 
 observance." Shakespkake. 
 
 Habit is the effect of custom, as cus- 
 tom is the effect of inclination. It is 
 a good custom to rise early, as this 
 will produce a habit of doing so. 
 
 *' How use doth breed a Imhit in a man." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Custom makes objects familiar, habit 
 makes doing easy. Uniformity is the 
 life of the one, fi-equeucy of the other. 
 We commonly speak of habits as good 
 or bad, of customs as lately or long 
 fstablished. 
 
 Fashion {Yr.fa^on, Lat. J'actionem), 
 besides its primary meaning of shape 
 or manner, has the secondary mean- 
 ing of ■prevailing manner. A fixshion 
 is a custom temporarily established, 
 and refers commonly to matters of 
 social usage, as style of dress. 
 
 " The innocent diversions in fashion.'" — 
 Locke. 
 
 Manner and Method are closely 
 allied, the former, however (Fr. ma- 
 viere, from tnUnus, the hand, "through 
 Schol. Lat. maneria, Brachet), de- 
 notes no more than tiie way of doing 
 a thing ; while in its more extended 
 meaning, as expressed by the plural 
 manners, it means the peculiar and 
 characteristic mode of living and be- 
 having. Method (Gr. fxido^og) is 
 scientific manner, as manner is natu- 
 ral method. When manner is scien- 
 tifically regarded as a process capable 
 of rules for its right and effective con- 
 ducting, it becomes method. Fashion 
 gives form to an action or a work, 
 manner gives a particular turn to that 
 action or work. Manner stands to 
 fashion as manipulation to operation. 
 One thing is made after the fiishionof 
 another, that is, in the same form, or 
 with a sitnilai-ity of character. We 
 trace in a work the manner of the 
 Walkman or artist, that is, his distinc- 
 tive mode of operation. Fashion is 
 more general, and determined by rule 
 ind custom ; mauutir is mure personal 
 
 and distinctive, being determined by 
 individual peculiarities. Fashion be- 
 longs more to the work, manner to 
 the workman. Fashion is less capable 
 of application to abstract perform- 
 ances. He discharged the commis- 
 sion in a satisfactory manner (not 
 fashion). 
 
 "AH method is a rational progress; a 
 progress toward an end." — Sir W. HamiIt 
 TON. 
 
 *' The temptations of prosperity insinnate 
 themselves after a gentle but very power- 
 ful manner." — Atterbury. 
 
 Practice (Fr. pratique, L. Lat. 
 practicns) has the two senses of a 
 regular doing, and the thing regularly 
 done. It is closely allied to both 
 habit and custom. Practice is custo- 
 mary action ; if it be the result of re- 
 peated acts, it is so far a habit ; but, 
 unlike Custom, it refers necessarily to 
 the acts of individuals, either sepa- 
 rately or in the aggregate, and not to 
 communities as such. It often occurs 
 that the same thing may be regarded 
 as either a custom or a practice, that 
 is, as a regular thing or a regular act 
 in a person. Custom and practice 
 must be based upon reason, but habit 
 may be the result of instinct or train- 
 ing in iiTational animals. Practice 
 embodies more of the moral than is 
 necessarily implied in custom, or even 
 in habit. It denotes a distinct deter- 
 mination of purpose. A practice must 
 be good or bad, wholesome or un- 
 wholesome, and can hardly be purely 
 indifferent or formal. Indeed, prac- 
 tice is such conduct as manifests the 
 disposition of the person. So gaming 
 is a custom in those countries which 
 a'-e particularly addicted to it. It is 
 a habit in those individuals who can- 
 not resist it. It is a practice in those 
 who deliberately indulge in it. 
 
 "He thought to have that by practice 
 which he could not by prayer."— Sid- 
 ney. 
 
 Usage (Fr. usage) and Puescimp- 
 TioN (Lat. prtzscnpiio, a preamble, a 
 rule, with limitation, e.g. as to time) 
 are terms of a legal character. Cus- 
 tom is prolonged by usage till it con- 
 fers rights of jirescription. In its or- 
 dinary seuse, as, for uistance, ''usage 
 
[damp] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 293 
 
 determines the senses of words," 
 usftge is of many, while custom may 
 be of one. I'sage implies longer esta- 
 blishment than custom ; hence we 
 may ^peak of a new custom, but not 
 a nftw usage. In the case of wishing 
 to express a common mode lately 
 adopted, we ought to say a new use — 
 a new use of the word in that sense, 
 or a nev/ employment. Technically, 
 custom differs from prescription in 
 being local, while prescription is per- 
 sonal. Generally it is length of time 
 that gives force to custom, and extent 
 of practice to usage. There is more 
 sense, reflexion, and reason in usage ; 
 more of mei'e repetition and habit in 
 custom. Hence usage furnishes a 
 stronger plea of justification than cus- 
 tom, which may have been adopted 
 '^rithout inquiry, and continued with- 
 out reason, or even against it. 
 
 Habitude (Fr. habitude, Lat. hiibt- 
 tiido) expresses the passive or quies- 
 cent side of habit. As habit involves 
 a mode of acting, so habitude is a 
 mode of being. 
 
 Vogue (Yr. vogue) is the popular 
 way or fashion at a particular time. 
 The word is now obsolete except in 
 the phrase "in vogue." To be in 
 vogue is to be in popular acceptance, 
 and combines the ideas of approval 
 and general use. 
 
 " But considering these Sermons bore so 
 great a vogue among the Papists, I will 
 here give a taste of them." — Strype. 
 
 " Old Courtiei-s devoted by an habitude of 
 slavery to the will of a m ister."— HuRD. 
 
 " Of things once received and confirmed 
 by nse, long usage is a law sufficient." — 
 Hooker. 
 
 " The speeches on both sides indicated 
 that profoiiiul reverence for law and pre- 
 scription which has long been characteristic 
 of Englishmen." — Macaulay. 
 
 D 
 
 DAILY. Diurnal. 
 
 Tliese adjectives, which are both 
 formed from the Lat. dies, a da^ 
 (diumus, belonging to the day)^ are 
 
 the same in meaning, and only differ 
 as a colloquial term differs fi-om a 
 more scientific one. So we speak of 
 Daily occurrences or daily newa 
 papers, and of the Diuunai. motion 
 of the earth upon its axis. 
 
 " Give us this day our daily bread." — 
 Lord's l\ayer. 
 
 " Half yet remains unsung bat narrow 
 
 bound, 
 Within the visible diurnal sphere." 
 
 Milton. 
 DAINTY. Delicacy. 
 
 As applied to matters of the palate; 
 Dainty (O. Fr. dainlie, agreeable' 
 uess ; Lat. dignttatem) may be con- 
 sidered to be a species of Delicacy 
 (Lat. dliticdtuSj alluring, luxurious). 
 For Delicacy applies to anything 
 which is exquisite, whether naturally 
 so, as a fruit, or artificially, as a choica 
 dish. A dainty is that which is un- 
 common and choice at the same time. 
 Delicacy points to the niceness of the 
 quality, Dainty to the rarity of the 
 supply. 
 
 " The delicacies, 
 I mean of taste, sight, smell, herbs, fraits, 
 
 and flowers. 
 Walks, and the melody of birds." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 " A table furnished plenteonsly with bread 
 Aad dainties, remnants of the last regale." 
 COWPKR. 
 
 DAMP. Moist. Hujiid. 
 
 All these terms are employed to 
 express the smallest degree of infusion 
 or suffusion of liquid. Anything 
 which is not dry must be in some de- 
 gree damp, moist, or humid. But we 
 use the term Damp of that which has 
 contracted a state of wet foreign to 
 itself, as a damp house, damp clothes. 
 When we say of a thing that it is 
 damp, we almost always imply that 
 it might better have been otherwise, 
 unless we have damped it expressly 
 (cf. Ger. dampj) fog, steam, vapour). 
 Moist (O. Fr. moiste, Lat. niusteus) 
 means normally and naturally damp, 
 and therefore hns not the unfavourable 
 sense attached to damp. If we said 
 the ground was moist, we should pro- 
 bably mean in a favourable condition 
 for vegptation ; if we said it waM 
 damp, we should probably mean thftt 
 
294 
 
 we ought to be careful about walking 
 upon it. Humid (\.&t. humidua) 
 means both damp and moist, and is 
 of move scientific application, as " tlie 
 atmospliere of islands is more or less 
 humid." The peculiar character of 
 the adjective Dami' is developed in 
 the verb lo dampf which means to 
 stifle or repress. As : 
 
 " Usury dulls and damps all industries, 
 improvements, and new inventions." — 
 Bacox. 
 
 «' Set snch plants as require much mois- 
 ture on sandy, i\vy grounds,"— /6td. 
 " Evening cloud or humid bow." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 DAMSEL. Girl. Maid. Lass. 
 
 Damsel is the O. Fr. damoisel, Lat. 
 
 d)iminiceUus. Both damsel and Girl 
 
 (O. Low Ger. §or, a child) were 
 at one time ambisexual, or used to 
 designate children without distinc- 
 tion. 
 
 Maid (cf. A. S. iiKegden), is a word 
 of which the root-meaning is not very 
 clear, and Lass is the feminine form 
 of U(d, and a conti-action of Laddess. 
 The Damsel is of some pretension 
 to birth and distinction. The GtUL is 
 no more than the correlative of boy, 
 the Maid is the chaste or unmarried 
 girl, and the Lass, like lad, has no 
 pretension of rank. 
 
 DANGER. Peril. Hazard. 
 Risk. Jeopardy. Venture. 
 
 Danger (Fr. danger) is the liabi- 
 lity or exposure to evil of any kind. 
 Danger is general and contingent, 
 and may be remote. It is the generic 
 term. 
 
 " Such men as he be never at heart's ease 
 Whilst they behold a greater than them- 
 selves. 
 And therefore are they very dangerous. ' 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Peril (Fr. pt^ril, Lnt. pcrlciilum) is 
 always immediate and personal. A 
 man is in danger of his property and 
 in peril of his life. 
 
 O scored source of ever-living light, 
 :!onduet the weary wand'rer in her flight. 
 Direct her onward to that peaceful shore 
 Adhere peril, pain, and death prevail no 
 more." Falcoxbr. 
 
 Danokr denotes a things Peril a coa- 
 
 SYNONYMS [damsel] 
 
 dition. That whicli is in peril is on 
 the way to be destroyed, that which 
 is in danger is on the way to be lost, 
 forfeited, or taken away. 
 
 Hazard (Fr. hasard, risk, orig. 
 game of dice) is the condition of any 
 good possessed and exposed to danger 
 of destruction or loss. It is the risk 
 of entire deprivation of the thing 
 hazarded, and applies only to things, 
 not persons. Hence people haznrd 
 their lives, their property, their repu- 
 tation ; but they do not hazard, but 
 endanger or imperil, themselves. 
 
 " Hence passionate and unreasonable 
 men call it courage to hazard their lives in 
 their own private quarrels, where con- 
 tempt of danger is, on the contrary, neither 
 reasonable nor just ; because neither is the 
 danger at all needful to be run into, nor is 
 the benefit proposed to be obtained by it in 
 any manner equal to the evil hazarded."— 
 Clarke, Sermons. 
 
 The essence of Hazard is in its fortui- 
 tous character, so th;it sometimes tliis 
 predominates to the exclusion of all 
 others, and we speak of the " hazard 
 of the die " as implying the chance of 
 gain as well as loss. This is not the 
 case with either Peril or Danoeu. 
 
 Risk ( Vr. risque, a risk ; Sp. ri.sco— 1, 
 a reef; '2, risk: Braciiet) is hazard of 
 loss only. We run the risk of losing, 
 but we never speak of the risk, but of 
 the chance of winning. 
 
 " How often, whether wrong or right. 
 Must he in jest or earnest fight. 
 Risking for those both life and limb, 
 Who would not risk one groat for him." 
 Churchiix. 
 
 Jeopardy (Fr./eu pa r<i, a divided 
 game, one in which the chances were 
 equal on both sides) may exclude all 
 voluntary agency, which is implied in 
 Hazard and Risk, and, unlike Peril, 
 is applicable to things of value as well 
 as to persons. A man's property, or 
 life, or liimself, may be in jeopardy. 
 
 " But by the way there is a great quick- 
 
 sand 
 And a whirlpool of hidden ^eoparrf/ce ; 
 Therefore, Sir Palmer, keep an even hand. 
 For twixt them both the narrow way doth 
 
 lie." SPENSKR. 
 
 Venture (for adventure, orig. aven- 
 lure; Fr. aventtire) is purely voluntary, 
 and denotes a meeting of hazard, 
 
[date] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 295 
 
 peril, Jeopardy, or risk, with the hope 
 that chance may be in one's favour. 
 
 " Wise venturing is the mast commend- 
 able part of human providence." — Hali- 
 fax. 
 
 PuniLOUs. 
 ^y, see Dangeu. 
 
 DANGEROUS. 
 
 For the etyraolog 
 Both terms denote exposure to evil, 
 with this difference: — Dangerous 
 expresses what evidently exposes to 
 ill without modification, or any al- 
 ternative but that of escape; Peri- 
 lous what exposes to peril, that is, to 
 danger which is great of its kind, 
 but not certain, and which may even 
 lead to the gaining of some gi-eat 
 success or good. So a malady is 
 simply dangerous, not perilous. A 
 dangerous undertaking had better be 
 avoided at once. A perilous under- 
 taking falls to the lot of the brave or 
 the audaciou.5, and they may possibly 
 reap from it honour, reward, or sub- 
 stantial gain. Dangerous relates 
 principally to the pernicious nature 
 of the result, perilous to the compli- 
 cated nature of the state or the under- 
 taking. In proportion to the danger- 
 ous the evil augments, in proportir^ 
 to the perilous the chances multipl 
 
 DARE. Venture. 
 
 We Dare (A. S. ic clear, I dare) as 
 against danger; we Venture (for ad- 
 venture) as against risk. The bold 
 man dares, the hopeful man ventures, 
 the rash man may do either. 
 
 DARK. Or.scuRE. Dui. Gloo.mv. 
 Opaque. 
 
 Of these, the most comprehensive 
 Is Dark (A. S. deorc), which denotes 
 any degree of absence of light or 
 colouring, with metaphorical mean- 
 ings in addition; as, unintelligible, 
 mysterious, difficult, unhopeful, de- 
 gi-aded or ignorant, iniquitous, and 
 the like. 
 
 " For as that which sees does not cease 
 to exist when in the dark all objects are 
 removed, so that which perceives does not 
 necessarily cease to exist when by death 
 all objects of perception are removed," — 
 Clarke. 
 
 Obscure (Lat. obscnnis) denotes 
 any degree or kind of darkness which 
 interferes with the distinct perception 
 of objects. U IS opposed to what is 
 
 clear, as dark is opposed to what is 
 light. In its secondary sense, as 
 darkness stands for ignorance, so ob- 
 scurity for uncertain knowledge. 
 
 " When all the instruments of knowledge 
 are forbid to do their offic^, ignorance and 
 obscurity must needs be upon the whole 
 soul." — South. 
 
 Dim (A. S. dim) denotes hick ot 
 brightness in something capable or 
 supposed capable of it, and is opposed 
 to bright. J)iM, unlike Dark, is not 
 applicable to locality, but, on the 
 other hand, is applicable as an epithet 
 to light itself. Dimnoss stands tc 
 obscurity as the cause to the effect. 
 
 ♦' Shedding a dim religions light." 
 AflLTOX 
 
 Gloomy (A. S. glom, twiliglit) is 
 a purely subjective term, denoting 
 what has no existeH t but .n our- 
 selves. Any oppressive Kind or degree 
 of darkness is gloom. 
 
 *' His Holy Spirit doth in our religior.s 
 intercourse with Him insinuate a lightsome 
 serenity of mind, doth kindle sweet and 
 kindly affections, and doth scatter the 
 gloomy clouds of sadness." — Barrow. 
 
 Opaque {Yv.opaqne,\j^{.opacus) is 
 a scientific term, denoting that kind of 
 substance which resists tlie transmis- 
 sion of rays of light, and is opposed 
 to translucent and transparent. 
 
 " Through this opaque of Nature and of 
 
 soul, 
 This double night, transmit dne pitying 
 
 ray. 
 To lighten and to cheer." VOUXG. 
 
 DATE. Period. Era. Epoch. 
 TisiE. Age. Generahon. 
 
 Of these, the most general is Time 
 (A. S. tima), which means unmea- 
 sured duration, or any specific mea- 
 sure or point of it. 
 
 " This consideration of duration, sis set 
 out by certain periods, and marked jy cer- 
 tain measures or epochs, is that I think 
 which most properly we call time"— 
 Locke. 
 
 Date (Fr. dale, L. Lat. diild ; Lat. 
 ddittm, a thing given, sent forth writ- 
 ten ; as ddiiim Rbmit, uritten at 
 Rome ; from ditre, to give) is a point, 
 and not a duration of time, bearing 
 reference to the whole historic courA 
 of time within which it occum. 
 
296 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [daub 
 
 •*Any writer, therefore, who mentions 
 the Tisnifr or setting of any star, at any 
 particnlar time of the year with respect to 
 the snii, furnishes us with data sufficient 
 to determine the time in which he wrote." 
 —Priestley. 
 
 " For predous friends hid in death's date- 
 less night." Phakespeare. 
 
 Pkriod (Gy. mpto^Qc) is, properly, a 
 recurrent portion of time, or such a 
 portion as is measured by some recur- 
 rent phenomenon, as a revolution of 
 one of the heavenly bodies. Hence, 
 more generally, an interval, definite 
 or indefinite, and sometimes the end 
 or limit of such an interval. A period 
 IS, as it were, an expanded point of 
 time, or a stage in history, which 
 may itself be included among other 
 stages. 
 
 " The particular -periods into which the 
 whole period should be divided, in my 
 rpinion, are these: 1. From the flfteenth 
 to the end of the sixteenth century. 2. 
 From thence to the Pyrenean treaty. 3. 
 From thence down to the present time." 
 —BoLiNG broke. 
 
 ErtA (Lat. (Era, sing. ; and this from 
 plur. cera, items in an account) is used 
 both for a fixed point of time, and 
 for a succession of years dating from 
 that point. It is conventional, and 
 indicates a mode of computing time 
 peculiar to some community or body 
 of persons. 
 
 " I incline to this opinion, that from the 
 evening ushering in the first day of the 
 world to that midnight which began the 
 first day of the Christian era there was 
 4003 years seventy days and six temporary 
 hours, and that the true nativity of our 
 Saviour was full five years before the be- 
 ginning of the vnlgar Christian eera, as is 
 demonstrable by the time of Herod's 
 death."— Usher. 
 
 Epoch (Gr. sTioxfi, n -pause; and, 
 from an astronomical use of the word, 
 an epoch) is an era constituted by the 
 inherent importance of an event, 
 ,vhile an era may be arbitrary. Hence 
 epoch is less formal than era. The 
 r.a])ture of Constantinople is an epoch 
 m thehistcyy of IMahometanism; but 
 the Flight of Mahomet is its era. It 
 is obvious that an epoch might be 
 constituted, an era. Age (Fr. age) 
 and Geneaation (Lat. gcnh-ationem, 
 a begetting) have nearly the same 
 meaning ; but Age is taken broadly for 
 such periods as coincide with ilifi joint 
 
 lives of human beings, and so is ex. 
 tended to mean a century, while Gkne- 
 RATioN rather refers to the average 
 duration of individual life, and fre- 
 quently means thirty years. 
 
 "In divers ages and nations divers cpocfci 
 of time were used." — Usher. 
 
 *' Ancient learning may be distinguished 
 into three periods. Its commencement, or 
 the age of poets ; its maturity, or the age 
 of philosophers ; and its decline, or the age 
 of critics."— Goldsmith. • 
 
 " For J)eliold from henceforth all genera- 
 tions shall call me blessed." — Bible. 
 
 DAUB. Smear. 
 
 Daub ( Fr. dauber, in the sense of 
 " to plaster;" and this fi'om hat. deal- 
 bare — Skeat, FAi^m. Dici. But see 
 also LiTTRK and Brachet) denotes 
 the process of applying moist matter, 
 or, in an unfovourable sense, un- 
 seemly colouring matter, to several 
 points of the surface in succession. 
 iSiMEAR (A. S. smerian) is to cover 
 continuously and over a considerable 
 space with unctuous or other like 
 matter. A badly-painted landscape 
 or portrait is said to be daubed ; a 
 badiy-pninted door might be said to 
 be smeared. 
 
 "Another daubed it with untemperea 
 mortar." — Bible. 
 
 " But if that honest license now you take. 
 If into rogues omnipotent you rake. 
 Death is your doom : impaled upon a stake, 
 Smeared o'er with wax, and set on blaze, to 
 
 light 
 The streets, and make a dreadful fire by 
 night." Dryden's Juvenal. 
 
 DEAD. Lifeless. Inanimate. 
 Defunct. 
 
 Taking these words in reference 
 solely to their physical application, 
 their characteristic diflferences are as 
 follows: Dead (A. S. dead) denotes 
 the absence of life from bodies, both 
 capable and incapable of it, as a dead 
 man, dead matter. 
 
 " Seek liim witli candle, bring him deaa 
 or living."— Shakespeare. 
 
 Lifeless (or wanting life) from 
 ])odies capable of it, as a *' lifeless 
 corpse." 
 
 " Nor can his [ifeless nostril please 
 With the once ravishing smell." 
 
 Cowley. 
 
 Inanimate (Lat. XnitnXmatus — j.j-, 
 «<»/, and dntma, life) from bodies in- 
 
Tdeath] 
 
 UISCHIMINATED. 
 
 297 
 
 capable of it ; as, " Trees and rocks, ' 
 and other portions of the inanimnte 
 creation." 
 
 " We may in some sort be said to have a 
 society even with the inmiimate world." — 
 BURKB. 
 
 Defunct (Lat. difungi, part, de- 
 functus, to discharge) is by its inherent 
 signification, namely, one who has dis- 
 charged the offices of life, applicable 
 to those only in whom the endowment 
 of life exists in its higher forms. 
 
 " Seeing the soul of man is permanent, 
 and snbsists after the death of the body, 
 and yet the body also belongs essentially to 
 the constitution of man, \\-hen the body is 
 defunct, either the soul most remain per- 
 petually in a state of separation and, as it 
 were, of widowhood, or the body must be 
 recalled to life, and again united to it." — 
 Bishop Bull. 
 
 DEADLY. Mortal. Fatal. 
 
 Using these terms, not in any meta- 
 phorical, but in their literal and phy- 
 sical meanings, the distinctions are as 
 follow: — Deadly means capable of 
 producing death. 
 
 •' Gods ! I behold a prodigy. My spear 
 Lies at my foot ; and he at whom I cast 
 The weapon with such deadly foive is 
 gone." Cowper's Iliad. 
 
 Mortal (Lat. mortalis, mortem, 
 death) denotes that which is liable to 
 produce or suffer death. Hence it is 
 used as a strong epithet of feelings. 
 A mortal hatredls literally one which 
 would kill its object. 
 
 " Louis XIII. mortally hated the Cardi- 
 nal de Richelieu ; but his support of that 
 minister against his rivals was the source of 
 all the glory of his reign, and solid founda- 
 tion of his throne itself."— BuRKE. 
 
 Fatal (Lat. fdtdlis, fdtnm, fate) 
 means actually productive of death. 
 A poisoned arrow is a deadly weapon, 
 evenwhile it remains in its quiver. Men 
 are mortal, or receive mortal wounds, 
 as being or having what tends to 
 death. A blow is fatal on which death 
 follows inevitably. 
 " Where's the large comet now whose 
 
 raging flame 
 Bo fatal to our monarchy became, 
 VVhich o'er our heads in such proud horror 
 
 stood. 
 Insatiate with our rum and our blood ? " 
 Cowley. 
 
 DEAiri. Dp.PAnTURE. Decease. 
 Demise. 
 
 Death signifies the act of dying or 
 the state of the dead. Departure 
 is the Fr. dtpart, the quitting life. De- 
 cease (Lat. d'ecexsus, dicidcre, to d*- 
 jiart) is etymologically the same. 
 Dejiise (Lat. dimitttre, part, dtmis- 
 sus, to discharge, release) is the laying 
 down or resigning of life and posses- 
 sions. Death is the simplest and 
 broadest, being applicable to the ex- 
 tinction of life both in animals and 
 plants, to which the others are inap- 
 plicable. It may be calm or violent, 
 natural, or self-inflicted. Departure 
 is a term under which lies the idea oi 
 social life, and, in spirits of the highest 
 faith, indicates the hope of re-union, 
 as well as a point of airival, or future 
 state beyond the grave. The suicide 
 and the aged, or the sick calmly await- 
 ing their end, depart; not those who die 
 on the scaffold or in battle. Decease 
 is the term we use when we think of 
 the death of another as an epoch of his 
 existence, or of our own, and in con- 
 nexion with personal events preced- 
 ing, accompanying, or following it; 
 yet a violent death is not called a 
 decease. Demise is employed of the 
 death of illustrious persons, as pecu- 
 liarly of royalty, in reference to the 
 bequeathing of titles or estates to suc- 
 cessors and heirs. 
 
 " Happy to whom this glorious death ar- 
 rives. 
 More to be valued than a thousand lives. 
 On such a theatre as this to die. 
 For such a cause, and such a witness by." 
 Waller. 
 
 "Although when the Divine Providence 
 does itself offer us a just occasion of leaving 
 this world (as when a man chooses to suffer 
 death rather than commit wickedness), a 
 wise man will then indeed depart joyfully, 
 as out of a place of sorrow and darkness 
 into light ; yet he will not be in such haste 
 as to break his prison contrary to law, but 
 will go when God calls him, as a prisoner 
 when dismissed by the magistrate or law- 
 ful power." — Clarke. 
 
 " The Romans had the custom to deify 
 and adore their emperois, most of them 
 after their decease, and some of them during 
 their lives, even though they were the vilest 
 of mankind." — JoRTIX. 
 
 " So tender is the law of supposing even 
 a possibility of his (the king's) death, that 
 his natural dissolution is generally called 
 his demise, demissio regis vel coronae, an 
 expression which signifies merely a transfer 
 of property."— Blackstonk. 
 
298 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [debar 
 
 DEBAR. Deprive. Hinder. 
 Prohibit. Disqualify. Exclude. 
 Preclude. Foriiid. Disallow. In- 
 hibit. Interdict. 
 
 Debar (a Ijybvid word ; Lat. rfe-, 
 from, and Eng. bar) is to shut out. 
 It applies only to persons in reference 
 to things rightful, desirable, or de- 
 sired ; as, to be debarred from privi- 
 leges, possessions, rightSj or an at- 
 tempt to procure them. To debar 
 indicates merely an act of preventive 
 power in reference to those things 
 which may be exercised upon us by 
 ourselves, by otliers, or by circum- 
 stances. 
 
 " Hereby the apustle not only debarred 
 women from prophesying, but from any 
 public fuiu-tioaiii the ecclesiastical jurisdic- 
 tion."— Stkvpk. 
 
 Deprive (L. Lat. dcpr'ivdre, to de- 
 grade) denotes the coercive taking 
 away of what one possesses either in 
 fact or in prospect,while Dkbar relates 
 to what one does not as a fact possess 
 or attain to. 
 
 " Thus a punishment of this kind was 
 inflicted on the rebellious Israelites. They 
 were deprived of the extraoi-dinary Provi- 
 dence, and were yet held subject to the 
 Theocracy." — Warburton. 
 
 To Hinder (A. S. hindrian, to keep 
 behind) is to debar either tem])orarily 
 or entirely from some act or occupa- 
 tion to wliich one was seeking to de- 
 vote one's self. 
 
 "Sore let and hindzred in running the 
 race that is set before us." — Book of Com- 
 mon Prayer. 
 
 Prohibit (Lat. proftifccre, part, pro- 
 hWitiim) and Forbid (A. S./orheodan, 
 to hid a thing away ; see Wedgwood, 
 under For-) have the force of inter- 
 diction by autliority, or debarring by 
 the use of words of command. Fohbid 
 is less formal tlian Prohibit, is used 
 in the commoner matters of life, and 
 is more direct. A father forbids his 
 child to go out of the houss. We are 
 prohibited from promiscuous revenge 
 not only by the Divine law, but by 
 many considerations besides. Pro- 
 hibit and Forbid almost universally 
 relate to some kind of action which is 
 kept in check. Forbid seems to relate 
 primarily to tlie wrong nature of the 
 
 thing ; Prohibit to the coercive autho- 
 rity of the person. 
 
 " To this day in France the exportation 
 of corn is almost always prohibited; in 
 order, as they say, to prevent famines 
 though it is evident that nothing ccntri 
 butes more to the frequent famines which 
 so much distress that fertile cnrntry."— 
 Hume. 
 
 " Heaven is high. 
 High and remote to see from thence dis- 
 tinct 
 Each thing on earth ; and other care per- 
 haps 
 May have diverted from continual watch 
 Our great forbiddcr." Milton. 
 
 Disqualify (Lat. dis-, apart; and 
 qualijii, (fudis, such as, and fuccre, to 
 make) is to debar by attaching per- 
 sonal and inherent prohibition from 
 some privilege, office, or dignity. 
 
 " IMen are not disqualified by their en- 
 gagements in trade from being received m 
 high society." — Southey. 
 
 Exclude (Lat. excludere) is for- 
 mally to shut out, and may be an act 
 of law and regulation by arbitrary 
 power or inherent conditions. It re- 
 lates to the participation of things de- 
 sired or desirable, and is the generic 
 term under which disqualification is 
 contained as a species of exclusion. 
 " None but such from mercy I exclude." 
 Milton. 
 
 Preclude (Lat. priecludcre,to dose 
 to any one) is to exclude by indirect 
 means. It is to shut out by anticipa- 
 tion, or to prevent by necessary con- 
 sequence. It is applicable not only 
 to persons, but to such things also as 
 are merely conceivable or possible. 
 
 " The valves preclude the blood frona en- 
 tering the veins." — Darwin. 
 
 Interdict (Lat. interdiclum, the 
 prcetor's interdict; 2, a judge's decree, 
 3, an eccles. interdict ; inter and dictre, 
 to speak) is opposed to positive, being 
 a kind of negative, command, and is 
 commonly employed of formal or pub- 
 lic kinds of prohibition. Interdict 
 closely resembles Prohibii , but points 
 to the stopping or debarring of what 
 was already in course of being done or 
 enjoyed. 1 proliibit where I see, per- 
 haps, no more than a probable cause 
 for the prohibition ; interdict what if 
 I were silent would certainly be done 
 or assumed, or what is actually in pei- 
 
[debate] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED 
 
 299 
 
 formance or enjoyment. Interdict is 
 peculiarly associated with the last. 
 \\e prohibit from actions generally, 
 we interdict fi-om those which are ac- 
 companied with pleasure, or involve 
 the enjoyment ot privilege. So an 
 interdict in the ecclesiastical sense in- 
 volved a stopping of the grace and 
 benefits of the ordinances of the 
 'Jhurch. 
 
 " The interdicted tree." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 To IxniBiT (Lat. ^iMhire, part, ^n- 
 htb^itus) is coercively to ])rohibit. 
 While prohibition lies in words only, 
 inhibition is backed up by a power to 
 enforce restraint. 'J'o hinder may be 
 the effect of circumstances, and is only 
 partial; to inhibit is the act of autho- 
 rity, and is total. In Disai.t.ow (see 
 Allow) is involved a formal expres- 
 sion of judgment which, although the 
 form be negative, may have a positive 
 and prohibitive effect. It is to refuse 
 to allow, permit, sanction, authorize. 
 This, in cases where allowance is 
 essential, is tantamount to the extinc- 
 tion of the thing proposed. Generally 
 speaking, proceedings are inhibited 
 and results disallowed. 
 
 "All men were inhibited by proclamation 
 at the dissolution so much as to mention a 
 Purliaraent."— Claki:M)OX. 
 We also inhibit things from being 
 done, and disallow them when they 
 ire done. 
 
 " A living stone dixalloiced indeed of 
 •nen, but chosen o\(iiA."~-Eng. Btble. 
 
 DEBATE. Akoi'e. Dispute. 
 l)i I.IBI.UATK. Discrss. Contend. 
 
 Debaie ( Fr. lU'httltie) is fonnally 
 \o sift by argument for and against. 
 It sup{)cs.'S a number of opinions in 
 (very m ay related to the (|uestion in 
 hanii, including every shade, from the 
 strongest aftiimation to absolute de- 
 nial, bf^iiig brought into comparison 
 and collision. The legitimate object 
 of debate is to bring together the ex- 
 pivssion of various opinions for the 
 purpose of accepting, rejecting, or 
 modifying the matter in hand. The 
 subject of debate may be purely theo- 
 retical, as the abstract truth of a pro- 
 position, or purely practical, as how 
 best to compass an object, or both. 
 Ihere is, or ought to be, no pergonal 
 
 antagonism in debate, trutli and right 
 being things of common interest; nor 
 is there any reason why debate should 
 not be among friends, and carried on 
 in harmony and unanimity of pur- 
 pose. And the process of debate is, 
 according to its etymology, to strive 
 to conquer or refute (liWally, beat 
 down) the wrong and false, for the 
 purpose of setting up the truth and 
 right. 
 
 "As I am only giving an opinion on this 
 point, and not at all debating it in an ad- 
 verse line, I hope I may be excused in 
 another observation." — BuRKE. 
 
 To Argue (Lat. argucre, to make 
 clear, to accuse) is to say all that can 
 be said for or against a proposition or 
 a case. It may be the process of one 
 or of more persons. 
 
 " When yye peruse those authors who 
 defend our own settled sentiments, we 
 should not take all their a?-^M/7?^s for just 
 and solid." — Watts. 
 
 To Dispute (Lat. dhpiitdrey to dis- 
 cuss) is always antagonistic. It is to 
 argue against sometliing as held or 
 maintained by another, and extends, 
 not only to his statements, but to 
 what may be claimed or upheld by 
 him in any way, as his claims, rights, 
 or pretensions. Contend (Lat. co/j- 
 tetidire, to strive) is the opposite to 
 Dispute ; for, as Dispute is to attack 
 and endeavour to shake what is held 
 or advanced by another, so Contend 
 is to argue urgently in favour and sup- 
 port of something held by one's selt. 
 
 " It is very strange that those who con 
 tend so much for the Scriptures being a 
 perfect rule of all things pertaining to wor- 
 ship and discipline, should he able to pro- 
 duce nothing in so necessary a point."— 
 Stillixgfleet. 
 
 Deliberate (Lat. del'ibcrare, to 
 ueigh uell ; Cibra, a balance) has refe- 
 rence never to questions of abstract 
 truth, but always to a course of action 
 to be adopted or pursued. 
 
 "If there be a real surprise, that is, that 
 the person is not aware, or hath not time 
 to consider what he is to do, he that hath 
 a mind well resolved may be betrayed into 
 what he would never have done, if he had 
 time to deliberate about it."— Stillino 
 FLEET. 
 
 Discuss (Lat. disculerej in a post- 
 class, sense, to discuss) very closelv 
 
300 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [decay] 
 
 resembles Debate, but diflFers in the 
 two following points: — 1, Discuss is 
 more commonly applied to matters of 
 opinion, while Debate belongs rather 
 to action or proceedings; but, 2, Dis- 
 cuss is used of cases in which the 
 process of consideration is argumen- 
 tative, but the object or subject is not 
 a matter of argument at all, but only 
 amounts to a varied expression of 
 feeling or opinion. To discuss a point 
 of theology, for instance, does not of 
 necessity imply either contending or 
 Jisputing. It may be no more than a 
 collation of what is said and argued 
 upon that point, without giving in an 
 adhesion to any conclusion or view 
 whatever. Debate supposes more 
 warmth, discussion more reflexion. 
 One debates a point which one wishes 
 to carry ; one discusses a point which 
 one wishes to clear up. Debate be- 
 longs to matters of personal interest ; 
 discussion to things of scientific or 
 general interest. Men debate warmly ; 
 it is well when they discuss accurately. 
 
 " Pride and humility are two opposite 
 habits or dispositions of the mind ; and 
 therefore the discussion and examination of 
 the latter will of itself give us a discovery 
 of the former." — Halk. 
 
 DECAY. Decline. Die. Perish. 
 Ebb. 
 
 To Decay (O. Fr. decaei\, dechaoir ; 
 Skeat, Etym. Diet.; Lat. de, down, cit- 
 dtre, tofaU,dlcidh'e, to/all down,todie) 
 is to depart from a state of soundness, 
 and denotes a tendency to the state of 
 disorganization and dissolution; as 
 the decay of the body in old age, the 
 decay of the mind by the same cause, 
 the decay of states and constitutions 
 political. 
 
 *' Throughout the whole vegetable, sen- 
 sible, and rational world, whatever makes 
 progress towards maturity, as soon as it has 
 passed that point, begins to verge ^i)wards 
 decay."— Blair. 
 
 Decline (Lat. dicCinare, to bend 
 away from) is downward tendency or 
 movement, without any such disrup- 
 tion or disorganization, as " the de- 
 clining years of life," "the declining 
 sun." 
 
 "The strength of the frontiers, which 
 btii\ always consisted in arms rather than 
 fortifications, was insensibly undermined, 
 
 and the fairest provinces were left exposed 
 to the rapacioustiess or ambition of the bar- 
 barians, who soon discovered the decline of 
 the Roman empire."— GinBON. 
 
 Decline is often piejiaratory to de- 
 cay. The prop declines when it bends, 
 and decays when it rots. The pro- 
 gressive debility of the Roman empire 
 was its decline. The actual dissolu- 
 tion of the fabric commenced with it* 
 decay. One speaks of the decay of 
 an edifice, of fortune, of letters, of 
 empire; in short, of all things exposed 
 to vicissitudes of gi-owth and dissolu- 
 tion; of the decline of those things 
 which may be supposed to run a 
 cour.se, ancl weaken towards their end, 
 as of the day, of human life, of power 
 and empire. Decay betokens the eve 
 of ruin, decline of expiration and ex- 
 tinction. In decay, beauty and vigour 
 are lost — in decline, power and in- 
 fluence are on the wane. 
 
 Die (Iceland, deyja, to die) is simply 
 to cease to live. 
 
 " Wise men die, as well as the ignorant 
 and foolish." — Bible. 
 
 Peiusii (Lat. pcnre) is used when 
 something connected with the ex- 
 tinction of life is meant to be empha- 
 tically dwelt upon, as its complete- 
 ness, or the unhappy or violent cir- 
 cumstances of it. So men often die 
 happily, butthey never perish happily. 
 We say " perish miserably," "perish 
 utterly," and the like. 
 
 " Yet one doubt 
 Pursues me still, least all I cannot die. 
 Least that pure breath of life, the spirit of 
 
 man, 
 Which God insjiired, cannot together perish 
 V/ith this corporeal clod." " Milton. 
 
 DECEIVE. Delude. Mislead. 
 Beguile. Betray. Dupe. 
 
 Deceive (Fr. dtcevoir, Lat. rftct- 
 pcre) is generally to lead into error by 
 causing to believe what is false, or to 
 disbelieve what is true. The plausible, 
 the specious, the apparently right, 
 true, or desirable, i.s that which exer- 
 cises over us the power of deception, 
 which being one thing, looks, or is 
 made to look, like another by mis 
 representation in objects or in words. 
 
 " But what account shall a man give ol 
 himself for living jjerpetnnlly in disguise; 
 for deceivinff all about him, and using the 
 
[deception] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 301 
 
 Bpeech which God gave him for better par- 
 poses, to impose on the weakness and folly 
 t{ mankind ? "—Sherlock. 
 
 To Dfc:LrDE(Lat. (fi'/r/f/tre, to mock) 
 is to deceive in the particular matters 
 of the desirahle or good. Delusion 
 combines disappointment witlj deceit. 
 1 deceive my neighbour if I simply 
 tell him a falsehood, which he be- 
 lieves. I delude him by any kind 
 of misrepresentation in matters con- 
 nected with his feelings, hopes, or 
 interests, as by holding out to him 
 a hope of his gaining what I know to 
 be impossible for him ever to attain. 
 
 " This pure metal 
 So innocent is, and faithful to the mistress 
 Or master that possesses it, that rather 
 Than hold one drop that's venomous, of 
 
 itself 
 It flies in pieces and deludes the traitor." 
 Massi.xger. 
 
 I IMisLEAD him when 1 draw him 
 off from tlie line of right judgment or 
 action. To DEr.L'OE, when used of 
 persons, implies an intention to de- 
 ceive ; but jNIisi.EAD may be iiuinten- 
 lionat, as when 1 give my neighbour 
 what I believed at the time to be 
 true information, but which 1 have 
 since discovered to be erroneous. We 
 are deceived in our judgment, deluded 
 in our desires, misled in our actions. 
 
 " My thoughtless youth was wing'd with 
 
 vain desires, 
 Jly mankind, long misled by wand'ring 
 
 fires. 
 Followed false lights." Drvden. 
 
 13EGuii,E(Eng. 6«-,and 0. Fr. guile, 
 guile; the same word as uile) is to 
 place another in a false position, to i 
 induce him to believe sometliing to 
 be true, and to leave him to the con- 
 sequences of his error, especially by 
 seductive arts. It is intentionally an^ 
 maliciously to mislead another to his 
 privation or detriment. 'J'he term Be- 
 guile frequently weai-s this privatice 
 sense, meaning to cheat a person out 
 of something, whether this be the 
 simple possession of truth as such, or 
 of some other moral or mental benefit. 
 It is not employed directly of mate- 
 rial possessions or property. 
 
 Bk.tr AY (Eng. be-, and I'r. trahir ; 
 J^at. tiddere, to give up) is more than to 
 deceive. It is to deceive another, or 
 treaciierously to lead him to Jiarm, in 
 
 return for some confidence reposed in 
 us; to make use of the i elation in 
 which we stand to another as the 
 means of his injury and the promotion 
 of our own ends. 
 
 To Dupe (Fr. dupe, a hoopoe, silly 
 bird ; like goose and gull, Littr^) is 
 to deceive another by imposing upon 
 his credulity, being so far a kind oi 
 minor ti-eachery, but having neither 
 its malignant aims nor its disastrous 
 consequences. 
 
 " Lo he is at hand that doth betray me." 
 —English Bible. 
 
 " That man must smart at last whose puz- 
 zled sight 
 Mistakes in life false colours for the right ; 
 As the poor dupe is sure his loss to rue. 
 Who takes a pinchbeck guinea for a true." 
 Pitt, Horace. 
 
 *'And the woman said. The serpent be- 
 guiled me, and I did eat." — Bible. 
 
 DECEPTION. Deceit. Illu- 
 sion. Delusion. 
 
 Deception (Lat. diciptrej to de- 
 ceive) is used of individual instances 
 or acts of one who deceives ; Deceit, 
 rather of the acts as appertaining to 
 habit or quality of mind; as " a course 
 of deceit," *' an act of deception. ** 
 Hence Deception is more external, 
 and is applicable to cases in which 
 the guilt of deceit has no pai't ; as, an 
 optical deception. 
 
 Illusion (Lat. illi'isiouem, a mock- 
 ing) and Delusion express, the for- 
 mer, something which is presented 
 before our mental or bodily view, but 
 which has no substantial and inde- 
 pendent existence,the latter something 
 which really exists, but not under the 
 conditions which we attribute to it. 
 The same distinction prevails in re- 
 gard to matters purely intellectual. 
 In history, for example, to believe 
 that some great personage, such as 
 Thomas a Becket or Henry VIII., 
 acted uniformly from pure and dis- 
 interested motives, would be a de- 
 lusion. To believe in the historical 
 existence of Don Quixote would be 
 an illusion. 
 
 " A fanatic, either religious or political, 
 is the object of strong delusions ; while the 
 term illusion is applied solely to the visions 
 of an uncontrolled imagination, the chime- 
 rical ideas of one blinded by hope, passion, 
 or credulity, oi*, lastly, to spectral and other 
 
302 
 
 SYNONYMS [DECIDEJ 
 
 optical deceptions, to which the word delu- 
 sion is never ap,)lied,"— Whatelv. 
 
 DECIDE. Determine. Piesolve. 
 
 To Decide (Lat. decuiere) ex- 
 presses an intellectual result. 
 
 Deteumine (Lat. dctermtnare, to 
 fix limits, settle) and Resolve (Lat. 
 resolvtre, to imbind, set free), express 
 moral results. I decide according to my 
 judgment. I determine according to 
 mj purpose. I resolve as combining 
 the two, and implying a sort of pledge 
 ^iven to myself to cany out with de- 
 ermination what I have decided upon. 
 Resolution betokens a choice made 
 between action and inaction, and is 
 opposed to doubt, reluctance, or in- 
 action. Determination betokens a 
 choice made between motives, and is 
 opposed to vacillation, uncertainty. 
 Decision is a final and iirevocable act 
 of the will or judgment, and is op- 
 posed to indecision or hesitation. 
 
 " And it is, indeed, but fit there .*ould 
 be some dernier ressort, the absolute decider 
 of all controversies." — Spectator. 
 
 "By determining the will, if the phrase 
 be used with any meaning, must be in- 
 tended causing that the act of the will or 
 choice should be thus, and not otherwise ; 
 and the will is said to be determined when 
 in consequence of some action or influence 
 its choice is directed to, or fixed upon a 
 particular object."— Edwards, Freedom 
 of the Will. 
 
 " I am resolved what to do, that when 1 
 am put out of the stewardship, they may re- 
 ceive me into their houses." — Bible. 
 
 DECIDE. Judge. Determine. 
 
 One DECiDts (Lat. dlcidtre, to cut 
 of, decide) a contest or a question; 
 one Judges ( Lat. j»rf/care) a person, 
 an act, a performance, a work. Judge 
 is more authoritative than Decide, 
 Private persons, and umpires or 
 critics, decide; magistrates and rulers 
 iudge. It is only the mind of man 
 that judges. Circumstances some- 
 times decide i)ersons to adopt one 
 course rather than another, or action 
 rather than inaction. To judge is 
 speculative, to decide practical. We 
 often judge for another; we decide 
 for ourselves. 
 
 To Determine (^Lat. dttermXnare) 
 is to decide by limitation or conclu- 
 sion. A matter is decided when it is 
 practically settled; it is detennined 
 
 when it has been shown what it theo- 
 retically amounts to. Decision stops 
 further argument ; determination ren- 
 ders it superfluous. Judgment em- 
 bodies and enforces it. Judgment 
 often precedes decision, in which cRse 
 decision is judgment put into action. 
 We judge which of two courses is 
 better to be adopted before deciding 
 on adopting it. 
 
 DECLAIM. Inveigh. 
 
 Of these. Declaim (Lat. dccldmHre^ 
 does not of necessity imply antago- 
 nism of speech. We may declaim 
 upon as well as against. It is in the 
 latter use in which the term is synony- 
 mous with Inveigh (Lat. invt^ihe, to 
 carry against, to inveigh). To declaim 
 is to speak. Declamation is speech 
 in which the rhetorical is more con- 
 sidered than the logical. It sacrifices 
 accuracy, refinement, and consecutive - 
 ness to eftect. To inveigh is specific 
 declamation against character, con- 
 duct, manners, customs, and morals 
 Invective may be written, declama- 
 tion is always spoken. I n declamation 
 against a thing or person, the upper- 
 most idea is fluency in adverse ex- 
 pression of opinion ; in invective, the 
 personal dislike and opposition of the 
 speaker. Hence we are more com- 
 monly said to declaim against wrongs 
 and injuries, and to inveigh against 
 vices and abuses. Eloquent declama- 
 tion, bitter invectives. 
 
 "Grenville seized the opportunity to dt- 
 claim on the repeal of the Stamp Act," — 
 Bancroft. 
 
 "All men inveighed against him. all 
 men except court vassals opposed him. — 
 Milton. 
 
 DECORUM. Decencv. Pro 
 
 I'RIETY. 
 
 These, though both derived froir 
 the same word (Lat. deccre, to he be- 
 coming) ar« employed, the former in 
 reference to social behaviour, the 
 latter to moral conduct also. Inde- 
 corous behaviour offends against order, 
 good manners, and good taste. In- 
 decent behaviour indicates a corruj)t 
 state of morals. •Decency regulates 
 externals according to pure mora(.<. 
 Decomm is that character of grace- 
 fulness in speech and act, which krisw 
 
[decree] 
 
 out of suitableness of place, time, cha- 
 racter, and circumstances. 
 
 Puoi'RiKTY (Lat. pr^iprietdtem, a 
 peculiiir quaidy) is the expression of 
 moral fitness. It reg iilates our actions 
 according to the conventional stan- 
 dard of decency. It varies according 
 to the state of the individual. Elders 
 may, in some cases, do with decorum 
 what youngers could not do without 
 impropriety. Propriety Jias necessary 
 rules. Decency has rigid laws. De- 
 corum has inherent recommendations. 
 Decency is due to society, as dignity 
 is due to one's station, and gravity to 
 one's self. 
 
 " Negligent of the duties and decorums 
 of his station."— Hallam. 
 " Those thousand decencies that daily flow 
 From all our words and actions." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 DECREE. Edict. Proclama- 
 tion. Law. Statute. Regulation. 
 Rule. 
 
 Decree (Fr. decret, Lat. d'ccrc- 
 tuin) may come from one or more, 
 fi'om a sovereign, or a senate, or a 
 council. It is commonly an autliori- 
 tative order addressed to persons 
 under jurisdiction, being in its nature 
 specific and occasional, not permanent 
 01- of continuous operation. 
 
 An Edict (Lat. cdictum) does not 
 issue from a body of men. It is the 
 public expression of a will of an in- 
 rfiuirfHa/ in political power. IuDeckee, 
 tiie leading idea is absolute obliga- 
 tion ; in Edict, absolute authority. 
 I lence Decre e is used largely of bind- 
 ing power; as, the decrees of faith. 
 Where the decree is constitutional it 
 is subject to. and dependent upon, law 
 for its verification. It is also most 
 commonly the result of law, that is, 
 the particular enforcement of some 
 
 {)rinciple already recognized by the 
 aw. And being the application of that 
 pi"inciple to a specific occasion, it in- 
 volves the formation of opinion, and 
 the exercise of discretionary power. 
 
 " Therefore •! make a decree that every 
 people, nation, and language which speak 
 anything amiss against the God of Shad- 
 rach, Meshach, and Abednego shall be cut 
 in pieces, and their houses shall be made a 
 iunghiil, because there is no other God 
 Hint ran deliver after this sort." — Bible. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 3o:s 
 
 " The silence or ambiguity ol the lawi 
 was supplied by the occasional edicts ol 
 those magistrates who were invested with 
 the honours of the State."— GiBUOX. 
 
 Proclamation (Lat. procldmdtio' 
 lem, a callinv out) is a published ordei 
 emanating from the sovereign or su- 
 preme magistrate, and bears reference 
 to specific occasions, as determined 
 upon in council, and not provided far 
 by the law of the land. An edict 
 savours of despotic government; a 
 proclamation of more constitutional 
 power. 
 
 " These proclamations have then a bind . 
 ing force when (as Sir Edward Coke ob- 
 serves) they are grounded npou and enforc* 
 the laws of the realm."— Blackstone. 
 
 Law (A. S. Utga), in its wide*; 
 sense, is the authoritative expression 
 of will on the part of any rightful 
 governing power, and, in its political 
 sense, permanently conti'ols every de- 
 partment of the State. 
 
 " That which doth assign unto each thing 
 the kind, that which doth moderate the 
 force and power, that which doth appoint 
 the form and measure of working, the same 
 we term a law."— Hooker. 
 
 Statute (Lat. stfttutuia) is com- 
 monly applied to the acts of a legisla- 
 tive body composed of representatives 
 of the people, and stands with our- 
 selves distinguished from civil laW; 
 canon law, and common law. 
 
 " The oldest of these now extant and 
 printed in our statute books is the famonj 
 Magna Charta, as confirmed in Parliament 
 9 Henry III."— Blackstone. 
 
 Regulation (Lat. rtgiildre, to di- 
 rect) is a governing direction of a 
 State, department, institution, or am 
 association for a specific purpose, and 
 may be only of a temporary character. 
 Such, for instance, are the arrange- 
 ments for preserving order on great 
 occasions of public interest, and the 
 rules by which voluntary societies 
 are managed. We often find " rules 
 and regulations " combined. In such 
 cases the difference is slight. 
 
 Rule (Fr. regie), however, points 
 rather to authoritative enactments as 
 such; Regulation to theplaceofsuch 
 rules in the working of the system or 
 institution. In a school, a refractory 
 boy might be reprimar led for break- 
 
504 
 
 SYNONYMS [decry] 
 
 mg the rules. It would be a regula- 
 tion that the school should open and 
 close every day at certain hours. One 
 submits to a rule ; one conforms to a 
 regulation. Rule seems a higher and 
 more abstract thing than regulation. 
 Regulation is, in one sense, the prac- 
 tical embodiment and application of 
 the principle of rule. The regulation 
 of one's conduct is the determination 
 of it according to rule. A rule is a 
 test, a regulation is a guide. In an 
 institution it may be a rule that none 
 shall be idle. Certain regulations are 
 made for the purpose of ensuring 
 this. 
 
 " 'Tis against the rule of nature." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 "It never was the work of philosophy to 
 assemble multitudes, but to regulate only 
 and govern them when they wei-e assem- 
 bled."— Cowley. 
 
 DECRY. Depreciate. Dispa- 
 rage. 
 
 The idea common to all these 
 terms is that of lowering the cuirent 
 value of something by the manner in 
 which we speak of it. Decry (Fr. 
 decvier) relates primarily to the in- 
 herent value of the thing itself, De- 
 PRECiATii ('Lat. dcpr'ctiare, to under- 
 value, disregard) to the estimate of it 
 as formed or expressed by one's self, 
 DispAR.AGK ( O. Fr. desparager, L. Lat. 
 paragium, equality of condition or birth) 
 to tlie estimate of it as formed by 
 others. 
 
 "What an insuflerable impudence then 
 are they guilty of who nowadays decri/ all 
 reading, study, and learning, and rely only 
 on enthusiasm and immediate inspira- 
 tion 1 "—Bishop Bull. 
 
 " Others are so unhappily attentive to 
 party considerations or personal prejudices, 
 that if a design ever so valuable comes from 
 a wrong quarter, instead of being ambi- 
 tious to share the merit and the honour of 
 it, they sot themselves immediately to de- 
 preciate it, and suggest mischievous inten- 
 tions in it."— Secker. 
 
 " Nothing hath wrought more prejudice 
 to religion, or has brought more disparage- 
 ment upon truth, than boisterous and un- 
 Beasonable zeul." — BarroW. 
 
 I decry a thing or person when I 
 wish to bring it down in the actual or 
 possible regard of others. TKis may 
 be from the purest motives ; as, to de- 
 cry the architecture of a public build- 
 
 ing, when believing it la be radically 
 defective,inconsistent with its purpose, 
 or in itself bad. I depreciate it when 
 I have some personal motive con- 
 nected with myself (as lowering its 
 abstract estimation). I disparage it 
 to or before others, in order that cer- 
 tain persons whom I desire to think 
 less highly of it may be led to do so. 
 To decry expresses a more sustained 
 process than the others, and a fuller 
 entering on the demerits of the ob- 
 ject. All the terms apply to morhi 
 and intellectual subject-matter •, and 
 to material things, only as they de- 
 pend upon human effort or estima- 
 tion, or in any way challenge regard 
 on account oi their excellence. 
 
 DEDUCTION. Subtraction. 
 Abatement. 
 
 These terms all express diminution 
 of some quantity, and differ as fol- 
 lows: Subtraction (Lat. subtractio- 
 nem, subtrdhere, to draw away from 
 under) applies to number and quan- 
 tity, and IS general and abstract. It 
 simply denotes the removal of a part 
 from the whole. 
 
 Deduction (Lat. diductidnem, a 
 diminution) is such subtraction as is 
 performed with the purpose, or result, 
 of lowering the aggregate or capital 
 sum or quantity. A tradesman sub- 
 tracts a certain sum from the total oi 
 his account, in consequence of my re- 
 presentations to him that he ought, in 
 fairness, to make certain deductions. 
 So subtraction may be theoretical ; de- 
 duction has always a practical purpose. 
 
 Abatement (Fr. abattre, to beat 
 down) refers not, like Deduction and 
 SuBSTRACTioN, to the parts, but to the 
 whole, of which the amount is in any 
 way diminished, as to make an abate- 
 ment of a claim. See Abate. 
 
 " The late king had also agi'eed that two 
 and a half per cent, should be deducted out 
 of the pay of the foreign troops, which 
 amounted to fifteen thousand pounds." — 
 Burnet. 
 
 *' That universals are nothing else but 
 names or words by which singular bodies 
 are called, and consequently that in all 
 axioms and propositions, sententious affir- 
 mations and negations (in which the predi- 
 cate, at least, is universal), we do but add 
 or subtract, affirm or deny, names jf singti- 
 Ur bodies."- -Cud WOKTH. 
 
[defective] 
 
 DISCRIMIXATED. 
 
 305 
 
 Old writers, ns Sliakespeare, used 
 tlie form snbstract. 
 
 " Tliey are scoundrels and substractors 
 that say so of him." Shakespeare. 
 " A great abntemcnt of kindness." 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 DF:FACE. Disfigure. Deform. 
 
 The formations of these words ex- 
 plain themselvf^s — to injure the /«ce, 
 i\\e Jignre, X\\e form. Deface is al- 
 ;\-a3's a purposed act, denoting a 
 superficial injury to the extent of 
 spoiling or destroying. It may be 
 done by the injury of the substance, 
 or by the application of some other 
 substance externally, so as to smear, 
 erase, or obliterate. Disfigure and 
 DtFORM do not necessarily imply the 
 desire to injure or deteriorate. Dis- 
 figure denotes the marring of the 
 general aj)pearance by some defect or 
 injury which is sufficient to interfere 
 with the effect produced by the whole. 
 Deform implies something which is 
 detrimental to the character, shape, or 
 organization of the entire thing. For 
 instance, a building may be defaced 
 by scrawling upon its walls, disfigured 
 by a roof, of which the colour is out 
 of harmony witli the walls, deformed 
 by an unsightly cupola surmounting 
 it. Deface is never used of living 
 animals, which can only be disfigured 
 or deformed. Of human beings, de- 
 formity is predicated as to the body 
 and limbs, disfigurement of the face. 
 The face of the veteran soldier might 
 be disfigured, not defaced, by wounds. 
 The face might be said to be deformed 
 in the sense of being monstrously out 
 of shape as to its features, or dis- 
 figured by some one blemish. 
 
 " Witli these honoui-able qualifications, 
 and the decisive advantage of situation, low 
 craft and falsehood are all the abilities 'hat 
 are wanting to destroy the wisdom of ages, 
 and to deface the noblest monument that 
 human policy has erected. I know such a 
 man." — Junius. 
 " Nor vrould his slaughter'd army now 
 
 have lain 
 On Afric's sands disfigured with their 
 wounds." Addisox. 
 
 " Monsters, on the contrary, or what is 
 
 [lerfectly deformed, are always most singu- 
 ar and odd, and have the least resera- 
 olance to the generality of that species to 
 which they belong.' — Smith, Moral Scati- 
 menis. 
 
 DEFALCATION. Emuez/.i.e- 
 
 ment. Peculation'. jMalversa 
 
 TIOX. 
 
 These are all terms of official diy 
 honesty. Defalcation (O. Fr. ilej- 
 fulqner ; L. Lat. diffalcare, to abate, 
 to cut as it tcere with a sickle, Lat. 
 fatcem) is a diminution or deduction 
 in regard to a sura of money. This is 
 not of necessity and in all cases fur- 
 tive or surreptitious. So Burke : 
 " One would have thought the natu- 
 ral methoil in a plan of reformation 
 would be to take the present existing 
 estimates as they stand, and then to 
 show what may be practically and 
 safely defalcated from them." Defal- 
 cation is, as it were, a pruning of t 
 sum, account, cr expencfiture. 
 
 Embezzlement (etym. not known) 
 is primarily to squander, now to filch 
 from a sum or an account. It is in 
 its present use essentially fraudulent. 
 It has gone through the stages suc- 
 cessively of lavish expenditure, then, 
 which is a common concomitant, ap- 
 jjropriation of what belongs toothers, 
 and finally settles into the meaning 
 of this last, done in an underhanded 
 way. 
 
 Peculation (Lat. pcculan, to pecu- 
 late) is primarily the appropriation to 
 private use of public money. As em- 
 bezzlement is fraudulent, so pecula- 
 tion may l)e rapacious also, and may 
 be the result of false claims and pre- 
 tences, without the secrecy of embez- 
 zlement. 
 
 Malversation (Fr. malverser) is 
 literally iil conversation or behaviour 
 in office, of which fraudulent dealing 
 may or may not be the distinctive 
 feature, and which may also consist in 
 violence and corruption, or iniquitom 
 practices of any kind. 
 
 DEFECTIVE. Deficient. Im 
 
 I'ERFECT. 
 
 These words both imply failing 
 (Lat. dlfictre, to fail); but defective 
 relates to incompleteness of quantity 
 or quality, deficient to incompleteness 
 of action or jx)wer in reference to 
 some purpose. Defective is specific. 
 It presupjioses some standard of suf- 
 ficiency, or some definite aggregate 
 of parts constituting a whole, which 
 
306 
 
 in (he present case is not reached or 
 forthcoming. Deficient is general 
 and indefinite, supposing an unde- 
 5ned standard of sufficiency in force 
 Jr operation. A book is defective as 
 'O its substance, when out of its com- 
 fdemont of pages, one or more, or 
 jven a portion of a page, is wanting. 
 »t is defective as to its matter when it 
 8 inadequately planned, or omits 
 ;v-hat is needful or imjiortant. It is 
 leficient when it fails of its character 
 *nd use, either by the defectiveness 
 of its parts, or any weakness of style, 
 or want of knowledge in the writer. 
 So Dkfkctive belongs rather to the 
 nature of things, Deficient to the re- 
 
 auirements of persons. A speaker is 
 eficient who is defective in his 
 speech. A difference is to be noted 
 between Defective and I .v per feci. 
 Defective marks a specific case and 
 Dositive degree of imperfection. That 
 
 s defective which tails short of the 
 '^•diiiary or average standard. That 
 
 s Imperfect which does not come up 
 lo perfection. So man and his every 
 faculty is imperiect in regard to an 
 ideal standard of perfection, by reason 
 of the infirmity of his nature; but he 
 is only defective in any such faculty 
 when he does not possess it as the 
 bulk of mankind do. 
 
 "All of them (philosophers), as has been 
 before shown, were very imperfect and de- 
 ficient.''— ChAHKK. 
 
 "And after all, the rules of religion and 
 n'rtne which were drawn uj) by these phi- 
 losophers have been \ery imperfect and de 
 fective. "—Watts. 
 
 DEFEND. Protect. Guard. 
 
 To Defend (Lat. d'tfendtre) im- 
 plies an active repelling of some ad- 
 verse influence or power, Protect 
 (Lat. prott-gcre, part, proiectum, to 
 cove^ in front) a passive placing of 
 something between the object and the • 
 power. A ibrtress is defended by its 
 guns, and protected by its walls. A 
 defence is successful or unsuccessful, 
 A i)rotection is adequate or inade- 
 quate. In some cases of a some- 
 what metaphorical character we use 
 the words inteichangeably. So we 
 say, to defend or protect plants from 
 frost ; but in the one case we look 
 upon the power we have to resist ; ir 
 
 SVNONYMS [dEFENDj 
 
 the other, upon the objects which we 
 have to guard. One defends what is 
 attacked, one protects what is weak. 
 Defence therefore supposes an actual 
 and pressing danger, protection only 
 that feebleness wliich exposes to it. 
 It is well if we can find defenders in 
 time of assault, it is well to assure 
 protectors at all times. Both defend 
 and protect may be applied to our- 
 j selves. We defend ourselves by meet- 
 I ing force with counter-force. Wepro- 
 iect ourselves by measures of precau- 
 : tion, and by the interposition of what 
 I may counteract adverse influences. 
 Guard (Fr. garder) partakes of the 
 nature of both. It is the exercise uf 
 vigilant care of the object protected, 
 with a readiness to defend it if neces- 
 sary. 
 
 "God defend the right." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 " The stately-sailing swan 
 Gives out his snowy plumage to the gale, 
 And arching proud his neck, with oary feet 
 Bears forward fierce, and guards his osief 
 
 isle. 
 Protective of his young." THOMSON. 
 
 " For heaven still guards the right." 
 Shakespeakk. 
 
 DEFER, Delay. Postpone. Pro- 
 crastinate. PuoEONG. Protract. 
 
 To Dee«v (Fr. dttai, delay) is sim- 
 ply to place an indefinite tenn betweer 
 the present and the commencement o! 
 the thing delayed. This may be eitkei 
 a voluntary act or the result of cir- 
 cumstances. In this point Defer (Lat 
 (/i//en-e)difFersfromDELAv,expressing 
 always aveluntary act. Defer is more 
 specific; Delay more indefinite. 1 
 may delay to do that which I have no 
 will to do, and would fain see left un 
 done. 1 defer that which 1 desire to 
 be done, but not at the present mo- 
 ment. Hence Defer is often followed 
 by some term specifying a point ol 
 "to." It 
 
 time, such as " till 
 
 should be noted that Defer, in the 
 
 sense of to give aivay, submit, is really 
 
 a diflPerent word, being the Lat. dc 
 
 ferre. 
 
 " Defer the spoil of the city till night." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " My lord delayeth his coming," — Bible. 
 
 Postpone (Lat. postpoutrCy to place 
 a/'te'-) imiDlies more sti'ongly what de- 
 
[defeuence] disckiminated. 
 
 307 
 
 fer implies less strongly, and Dklay 
 hardly implies at all, namely, a de- 
 finite intention to resume what for the 
 present is put off. Hence it is more 
 foi-mal, and applies better to official 
 meetings for business. "The meet- 
 ing," we m'ght say, '^vfaspostpoiied for 
 a month, and, when it met, the con- 
 sideration of that question was de- 
 ferred. Some regarded this as an un- 
 seemly and unnecessary delaii." 
 
 " These postponers never enter npon re- 
 ligion at all in earnest or efTectually." — 
 
 PAUiY. 
 
 The idea of Postpone includes that 
 of something to which the thing post- 
 poned is rendered subordinate,whether 
 an event, a cii'cumstance, or a period. 
 Hence nhe word sometimes means, 
 to regard as of inferior moment, 
 as in tiie following : — 
 
 " Nor can that rationally be said to be 
 despised by any, or postponed to any other 
 thing, which never was proposed to them 
 as their option, and which it never was in 
 their power to choose or to embrace." - 
 Whituv. 
 
 Procrastinate (Lat. procraMiiare, 
 eras, to-non-oio) is, literally, to put off 
 till to-morrow what might better have 
 been done to-day. It is to delay, 
 defer, or postpone through indolence 
 or general unwillingness to commence 
 action. 
 
 " Procrastination is the thief of time. 
 Year after year it steals till all are fled. 
 And to the mercies of a moment leaves 
 The vast concerns of an eternal scene." 
 VOUXG. 
 
 Prolong (I^at. proUmgdre) and 
 Protract (Lat. prbtrahere^ part, pro- 
 tractus) differ from the former in 
 implying something actually com- 
 menced, as a period or a transaction. 
 There is very little difference between 
 them ; but we commonly use Protr act 
 in the sense o{ contriving to lengthen. 
 So to prolong a speech is simply to 
 extend it ; to protract it would be to talk 
 against time. Prolong applies better 
 to what is begun, but not concluded ; 
 Pro'i ract better to what is not yet be- 
 gun, as I prolong my stay, 1 protract 
 my departure. To prolong is to put 
 off the end, to procrastinate is to put 
 off the beginning, to protract may be 
 taken in either sense. 
 
 •' To what purpose should I take pains 
 
 fr-r a livelihood, or so much as be at the 
 trouble of putting meat to my mouth for 
 the prolongation of my life ? " — 8HARP. 
 
 "The other manager very complaisantly 
 received it again, aad had recourse to the 
 olil mystery of protraction, which he exer- 
 cised with such success that the season was 
 almost consumed before he could afford it 
 a reading."— SsiOLLiiTT. 
 
 DEFERENCE. R;:'euk.nce. Re- 
 sPECT. Regard. 
 
 Deference to another (Fr. dtfi- 
 rence) marks a readiness to yield to 
 him in matters of choice or judgment, 
 rather than to enforce one's own 
 wishes or opinions. It is grounded 
 upon age, rank, dignity, or personal 
 nierit. 
 
 " Deference to the authority of thought- 
 ful ancT sagacious men." — Whewell. 
 
 Respect (Lat. subst. respect ns) is 
 to hold in high estimation for moral 
 or intellectual qualities, or both. It 
 is due peculia' ly t ) the wise and good. 
 It is not so strong a term as the others, 
 and in its mildest force is not neces- 
 sarily based even upon merit. There 
 is a respect due to all men as such, 
 and on the ground of those claims to 
 consideration which in some degree 
 all possess. Hence it is applicable to 
 whatisdue to one'sself. The truly civil 
 man, for instance, is he who respects 
 others because he respects himself. 
 As regards others there is in respect 
 some degi'ee of submission. There is 
 
 Siety in veneration, and self-denial in 
 eference. 
 
 " We pass by common objects or persons 
 without noticing them, whereas we turn 
 back to look again at those which deserve 
 our admiration, our regard, our respect. 
 This was the original meaning of respect 
 and respectable."— ^l. MuLLEK. 
 
 Reverence (Lat. revtrentia) is a 
 profounder respect, not unmingled 
 with fear. 
 
 " Great revcrenccrs of crowned heads."— 
 Swift. 
 
 Regard (Fr. regard) differs from 
 the former in being the feeling of an 
 equal or a superior, not an inferior. 
 It is the feeling of all right-minded 
 persons toward those whose qualities 
 are estimable. 
 
 •• He should advanced be to high regard. 
 
 And have our lady's love for his reward. 
 
 SpETUCO. 
 
308 
 
 SYNONYMS [defile" 
 
 DEFILE. Gorge. Pa»8. 
 
 Defile (Fv.dtjiler,fil^ a ihread) is 
 literally what can be passed by a 
 number of men only in file, that is, 
 marchini^ in line, long but narrow. 
 It is a militar}'^ term.. In wooded, 
 marshy, or mountainous countries, 
 there are defiles where troops cannot 
 deploy, it is a place important from 
 a strategic point of view — a place to 
 be guarded. It is guarded easily. It 
 is serious to engage in it, and perilous 
 10 be caught in it. The general is 
 glad to surprise the enemy tliere. 
 
 GcKGE (Fr. gorge, the throat) is a 
 natural feature, it is the narrow 
 passage between hills, cliffs, or moun- 
 tains. 
 
 Pa!*» (Fr. pas, Lat. p(issns,a step) is 
 literally a place through or along 
 which one pauses ; but difficulty is 
 connected with the pass. It is dan- 
 gerous, or narrow, or precipitous, or 
 easily guarded. But it is not long, 
 like the defile. It is, as it were, but 
 a step, though a critical one. 
 
 DEFINITE. DEKJNnivE. De- 
 
 Ti:a.MINATE. 
 
 These terms express, the one the 
 passive, the other the active sense of 
 tiie Latin dcf'tnire, to define or limit, 
 from jinis, an end. Definite denotes 
 a state or character ; Definitive a 
 force or tendency. That is definite of 
 which the limits are determinate or 
 the outlines distinct. A definite ex- 
 tent may be exactly measured, a de- 
 finite period is a portion of time dis- 
 tinctly determined. A definite idea 
 is so clear that it cannot be confused 
 by others, or confounded with vague 
 impressions. That is definitive which 
 tends to brino; about these things as 
 results. A definitive scheme of re- 
 conciliation is one which distinctly 
 and unmistakably lays down its con- 
 ditions. If I say I cannot speak de- 
 finitely, 1 mean that my knowledge is 
 not exact upon the matter. If 1 say 
 1 cannot speak definitively, I mean I 
 cannot say what will be conclusive 
 and final upon it. I may conceive a 
 definite design, yet I may be unable 
 to say definitively whether or not I 
 shall undertake it all. or. if so, at 
 
 what time. Hence it follows tlr.at De- 
 finite is usually found in connexion 
 with matters of conception, D EFiMTivs 
 with matters of determination. De- 
 finitive is not applicable, as Definite 
 is, to physical objects. A material form 
 or phenomenon may be definite, that 
 is, present itself to the eye in sharp 
 outlines of separation from other ob- 
 jects. When such is the case the 
 reason can pronounce positively, thai 
 is, definitively upon its nature. If I 
 see on a distant hill something which 
 for any characteristics that I can per- 
 ceive, might be either a living animal 
 or a tree, I cannot say definitively 
 what the object is, inasmuch as it is 
 not definite enough. 
 
 Determinate (Fr. determiner, Lat. 
 deternrinare, f.. limit, settle) has a moral 
 aspect, having reference to the will, 
 as Definite has to the apprehension. 
 The resolve has become a determined 
 one, which was set going by some 
 motive power within, and is now to 
 be certainly taken in hand : it may 
 long before this have been definite 
 enough in character, scope, details; 
 but some removal of difl^culty, or 
 stirring up of the will, or increased 
 desire to attain one thing or to avoid 
 another, was needed to make a definite 
 plan the subject of determinate action. 
 
 DEFINITE. Positive. 
 
 In the cases in which these terms 
 have the character of synonyms, De- 
 finite (Lat. d'cfviire, part.'dijlnitusy 
 to limit, to define) relates to the thing:, 
 Positive (pMt'wus, settled bij agree- 
 ment, from pontve, to place or lay 
 down) to the mind of the person. A 
 definite account of a thing would be 
 one that was clear and sufficient; a 
 positive account one which was given 
 with plainness of speech, and with 
 an air of conviction and assurance by 
 the speaker. 
 
 " To be definitely in a place is to be in it 
 so as to be there and nowhere else." — 
 Bishop Taylor. 
 
 " Positively to foretell is to profess U 
 foreknow, or to declare positive foreknow- 
 ledge."— Edwards On the Will. 
 
 DEFINITION. Explanation 
 D efinition in its strict sense is thai 
 which gives the logical essence of a 
 
[delicate] 
 
 DISCKIMINATED. 
 
 309 
 
 tiling, as its genus and specific diffe- 
 rence, or, less scientifically, enume- 
 rates its accidents and properties. 
 
 KxiM.ANATiON (Lat. expldiialionein ; 
 e.ipldndrc, to make simH)tlt,ti) explain ) is 
 a more popular process, consisting in 
 bringing homo sometliing to the un- 
 derstanding of a natuie difficult to 
 comprehend, bj the media of otJier 
 things with which the mind of the 
 person is more familiar. Definition 
 rather belongs to words and ideas, 
 ::xplanation to facts and statements. 
 
 " Definition being nothing but making 
 another understand by words what idea 
 the term defined stands for, a definition is 
 best made by enumerating those simj)Ie 
 jtlcas that are combined in the signification 
 of the term defined," — LuCKE. 
 
 " Explanations of the doctrine of the 
 Trinity." — buRXET. 
 
 DEFRAY. DisciiAitcE. Liqui- 
 date. Pay. 
 
 To Pay (Fr. payer) is the generic 
 leiTO here. The rest are modes of 
 payment. 
 
 To Defray is from the Fr. defrayer. 
 Anything which provides for and 
 covers the expenses of a tiansaction 
 defrays it. It is the meeting by a 
 general sum of many and divers details 
 of expense. 
 
 DiscuARUE (O. Fr. descha. ger) is 
 to lelieve a pecuniary obligation, 
 whether a debt of long standing ^)r 
 not. It is to do away with the burden 
 and pressure of a claim. 
 
 Liquidate (L. Lat. tiqiudare, to 
 make clear) is used only of debts. It 
 is 'literally to clear off, and so to 
 diminish or lessen. The debt which 
 in common parlance is cleared off, in 
 finer language is liquidated. 
 
 DEJECTION. Depression. De- 
 
 BPONDENCY. MeLAXCIIOLY. 
 
 Dejeciion (La.t. dljectwnem , a cast- 
 ing down) and Depression (Lat. dc- 
 })res!iib)ieni, a pressing down) both refer 
 to the spirits. Dejection is such a state 
 of sadness or sorrow as affects the 
 countenance and demeanour, giving a 
 downcast look. Depression is sim- 
 ply a lowness of sj>irits, and is more 
 
 purely constitutionaL Dejection im- 
 plies some source of sorrow, privation, 
 or disappointment; but depression 
 may be produced by atmospheric 
 Ci.uses. 
 
 Despondency (Lat. itnimum de- 
 spoudire, to lose courage), points to a 
 state of mind, the result of sail or 
 disheartening reflexions ; as, upon a 
 loss which cannot be recovered, or a 
 failure which cannot be retrieved, or 
 a hope which is likely to be ti-ustrated, 
 or an unfavourable aspect of personal 
 affaire. 
 
 Melancholy (Gr. /ut-iKayxoXM, lite- 
 rally black bile) denotes such dejec- 
 tion or depression as is either consti- 
 tutional or chronic in the individual, 
 and often results from a number ol 
 impressions which cannot be resolved 
 into any one dii'ect cause of grief or 
 sadness. It is commonly accompanied, 
 where it is a settled disposition, with 
 tenderness, and is an ingredient in the 
 romantic spirit. In this way it often 
 exists in youth, and is cured by ad- 
 vancing years. 
 
 "I have had no dignities; thou hast 
 withheld them, and I have not thought 
 them even worthy of a wish. Didst thou 
 see me sad and dejected on these accounts?" 
 — J(JRTIN. 
 
 " Lambert, in great depression of sjiirit, 
 twice prayed to let him escape." — Bakei{, 
 Cliarles II. 
 
 " This (sincerity and integrity of heart) 
 enables a man to look back without horror, 
 to look about him without shame, to look 
 within without confusion, and to look for- 
 wnrd without despondency." — Stilling- 
 
 FLKET. 
 
 " When the mind is very deeply im- 
 pressed with a sense of calamity for a con- 
 tinuance, and the attention cannot by any 
 means be diverted from it. the subject is in 
 a stiite of mcl'iucliuly. This affection mani- 
 fests itself by dejection of spirits, debility Oi 
 mind and body, obstinate and insuperable 
 love of solitude, universal apathy, and a 
 confirmed listlessness, which emaciate the 
 corporeal system, and not uu!rec[iiently 
 trouble the brain." — CoGAN. 
 
 DELICATE. Fine. Nice. 
 
 These terms are all employed both 
 of the character of objects and of the 
 faculties which ])erceive and treat 
 them. As to the quality of objects, 
 that if) Delicate (Fr. dclicai) which 
 
SIO 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [delightful] 
 
 is refinedly agreeable, or likely to 
 please a highly - cultivated taste, 
 though it might have no gratification 
 for minds or tastes not trained to per- 
 ceive the beauty of what is not con- 
 Bpicuous, or the agreeableness of what 
 does not force itself strongly upon 
 the senses. When used of persons 
 in a moral sense, the terra expresses 
 nn appreciation of what is extrmsically 
 delicate, a shrinking from harshness 
 and coarseness, a considerateness for 
 others, and an appreciation of the 
 less prominent beauties and graces 
 of thmgs. As in delicacy there is a 
 natural' susceptibility of injury, the 
 term is sometimes used purely in this 
 sense, as a delicate constitution, deli- 
 cate health. 
 
 "An air of robustness and strength is 
 very prejudicial to beauty. An appearance 
 of delicacy, and even of fragility, ii almost 
 essential to it." — Burke. 
 
 Fine (Fr. Jin) has, singularly 
 enough, taken to itself a meaning 
 quite opposed to the weakness of de- 
 licacy, though it is nearly identical 
 with it in its other sense of requiring 
 minuteness of discrimination, or ex- 
 hibiting discriminative power, as a 
 " fine distinction." There Avould ap- 
 pear at first sight to be almost a con- 
 tradiction between such uses of the 
 term as "fine cambric " and a "fine 
 child ;" the former pointing to deli- 
 cacy of textuie, the latter to robust- 
 ness of constitution ; but fine, as 
 opposed to coarse (which is the same 
 as "course," i.e. ordinary), and so 
 meaning choice of ils kind, will admit 
 of such seemingly contrariant appli- 
 cations. A fine child is a child of 
 710 common form and growth ; fine 
 cambric is of no common texture ; 
 a fine taste is a taste of no com- 
 mon power of discrimination. Ihe 
 Fine is that which combines delicacy 
 and ])Ower or grandeur, as a fine 
 speech, a fine landscape. That which 
 is fine, as an expression, a thought, or 
 a work of art, may raise more admira- 
 tion by repetition or study. That 
 which is delicate, if it be not appre- 
 ciated at once will hardly be so at all. 
 A fine eulogy strikes by its boldness, 
 elevation of sentiment, and warmth 
 of expression. Delicate praise is senei- 
 u ve also, and is less easilj appreciated, 
 
 for it owes its excellence to negative 
 qualities, and tact in refraining, and in 
 a measure not only to what is uttered, 
 but to what is elegantly suppressed. 
 It may be observed that all tiiese uses 
 of the word Fin f. grow out of its root- 
 meaning, i.e. finished, perfected; the 
 Fr. Jin being the La,t. f hut us, which 
 first becoming /«;n"<«s, dropped, after- 
 wards, the two unaccented syllables ; 
 
 see BllACHET, s.v. 
 
 •' The character of his Majesty's blufi 
 haughtiness (Henry VIII. by Holbein) i.= 
 well represented, and all the heads an 
 fi)ielt/ executed." — Walpole. 
 
 Nice (said to be from Fr. nice, 
 I foolish, simple ; Lat. ncscius, ignorant, 
 but possibly a distinct word : see 
 Wedgkwoou), when applied to ob- 
 jects, is not a word of high meaning. 
 It indicates such a degree of excel- 
 lence or agreeableness as peo])le in 
 general would approve or enjoy. 
 When used of persons and theii 
 powers of discrimination, it seems to 
 combine exactness of knowledge wit) 
 a certain fastidiousness of reijuire 
 ment. A distinction is said to be 
 nice which tends to over-refinement. 
 A person with a nice taste in music is 
 not easily pleased with what he hears. 
 The old meaning of nice — silly, igno- 
 rant — appears in the following: — 
 
 " For he was nj/ce and knowthe no wis 
 dora."— II, Ql-OUCESTER. 
 
 " liy his own nicety of observation he had 
 already formed such a system of metrics 
 harmony as he never afterwai'ds much 
 needed or much endeavoured to improve. 
 — Johnson, Life of Waller. 
 
 DELIGHTFUL. Delicious. 
 
 CUAUMING. 
 
 Of these, Dki.igiitful relates to 
 the state of mind, DELicicrs to the 
 sj^ecific gratification of the senses, and 
 CiiAUMiNG to the gratification of thf 
 mind through the senses. Anything 
 is delightful which produces gladnea" 
 of mind. Hence delight is not causea 
 simply by external objects of sense. 
 Good news, foi instance, may be de- 
 lightful. A delightful country, de- 
 lightful music, and so on, are such as 
 to produce ])leasurable excitement of 
 the mind. The term ill accords with 
 purely physical enjoyment, as a de- 
 lightful dish. Delicious is almost con- 
 fined to matters of taste, touch, and 
 
DISCUliMINATED. 
 
 [deli VE It] 
 
 iinell. It expresses that which very 
 sensibly excites pleasure in these 
 matters. CiiAniiiNo is used in a wider 
 sense of that which delights and en- 
 gages tlie whole nature, and commonly 
 denotes that state of mental enjoyment 
 which is produced through the senses. 
 A charming landscape is one which we 
 linger to enjoy. A charming person 
 is one in whose society and conversa- 
 tion we feel continual delight. It gene- 
 rally implies an aggregate of attrac- 
 tions, while delightful and delicious 
 refer to some one point of atti-active- 
 ness or enjoyment. 
 
 *♦ The situation was delightful. In front 
 was the sea and the ships at anchoi", behind 
 and on each side were plantations, in which 
 were some of the richest productions of 
 nature."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
 •* They are like Dives, whose portion was 
 ifr this life, who went in fine linen, and 
 tared dcliciousli/ every day." — BiSHOP 
 Taylor. 
 
 "This is a most majestic vision and 
 
 Harmonious charmingly," 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 DELIVER. Rescue. Liberate. 
 Release. Free. 
 
 Deliver (Fr. delivrer, L. Lat. d'c- 
 ribtrare, to set free) has various senses, 
 according to the various applications 
 o( the main idea ; as to set free, and so 
 release ; to set free from one's self, and 
 80 surrender ; to cause to go forth 
 free ; and so to disburden. In the sense 
 of setting free, Deliver means to 
 rid of any kind of coercive power, 
 which in any sense or any way inter- 
 feres with the freedom of the penson, 
 as to deliver one person from another, 
 or from the power of another. It is 
 even extended to what is oppressive, 
 painful, or irksome; as, to deliver from 
 the fear of death, or fi-om a painful 
 necessity. 
 " Deliver us from e\il."— Lord's Prayer. 
 Rescue (O. Fr. vescourre, It. ris- 
 custere, to fetch out of pawn, Lat. re- 
 0xcutere: Weuoewood) denotes that 
 kind of removal both of nersons and 
 things from the power and possession 
 of another, which is the result of ener- 
 getic interference and personal effort. 
 It is possible to deliver and to rescue 
 from danger, that is, from impending, 
 not actual evil. Liberate, on the other 
 
 311 
 
 hand, involves an uclual restraint, 
 confinement, or coercion. 
 
 " Nineveh was rescued from the brink of 
 destruction," — Stillingfleet. 
 
 Liberate and Release (the for- 
 mer of the same root as Deliver, the 
 latter from O. Fr. relaisser, to rest on 
 one's journey) are very closely related 
 in meaning ; so that in many cases 
 they might be used indiffermtly, as 
 to release or to liberate a prisoner 
 from confinement; but Liberate re- 
 fers only to restraint in the most direct 
 sense of the term, though the meta- 
 phorical use of it is common ; as, to 
 liberate the mind from prejudices, 
 where prejudices are regarded as 
 restraining influences interfering 
 ■with the mind's free action. Re- 
 lease is more widely applied to any 
 kind of force, as, for instance, that 
 which oppresses, pains, or compels. 
 So we speak not only of releasing 
 from prison, but from an obligation, 
 debt, or bond, from torture or sickness, 
 and, in death, from sorrow, pain, and 
 evil 
 
 *' That the public revenue of Great Britaia 
 can ever be completely liberated, or even 
 that any considerable progress can ever be 
 made towards that liberation, while the 
 surplus of that revenue, or what is over and 
 above defraying the annual expense of the 
 peace establishment, is so very small, it 
 seems altogether in vain to expect." — 
 Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 " So I may say I am but a prisoner Btill, 
 notwithstanding the releasement of so 
 many."— Howell. 
 
 Free (A. S. freo) is the simplest, 
 and the generic term. One may be 
 freed from subjection, thraldom, pain, 
 confinement, duty, obligation, servi- 
 tude, cares, anxieties, or troubles, 
 prejudices and errors, or misconcep- 
 tions, promises or engagements ; and 
 in short, from anything that interferes 
 with liberty of action and enjoyment. 
 To Free commonly indicates some 
 amount of authoritative interference 
 andefFort,asDELiv eu involves address. 
 One frees a slave by one's own au- 
 thority and power. One delivers 
 another from the hand of the enemy 
 in the best way one can. 
 
 "He that is dead if /r<« 'rota sin."— 
 Er,^. Bible. 
 
312 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 Tdeliver] 
 
 DELIVER. SunitENDEii. Tuans- 
 
 FER. 
 
 I Dkliveh (see above) a thing to 
 another when I place it in his hands, 
 60 as to part with my own personal 
 res])onsibilitj and control. It is a 
 formal act, performed either on mj 
 own or some one else's account, as 
 wlien 1 sign, seal, and deliver a bond, 
 or when 1 deliver to i^s intended 
 owner or keeper a i)arcei witli which 
 1 have been entrusted. The act is at 
 least voluntary, if not willing. The 
 difference in meaning between this 
 force of tlie verb Deliver and that 
 last noticed corresponds with the 
 difference between the nouns delive- 
 rance and delivery. 
 
 " The investitures of bishops and abbots, 
 which had been originally given by the 
 delivei-y of the pastoral ring and staff." — 
 
 BuKJfET. 
 
 SuRiiEXDER (0. Fr. surrender) is 
 applied to matters of right or pos- 
 session, with which we part in favour 
 of another under coercion or com- 
 l)ulsion ; as, to surrender n fortress, or 
 an expressed opinion in argument, or 
 a claim, or to surrender one's self to 
 any influence or power, as to vice, 
 grief, despair, idleness, sleep. 
 
 " If we do not surrender our wills to the 
 overtures of His goodness, we must submit 
 our backs to the strokes of His anger."— 
 Barrow. 
 
 Transfer (Lat. transferre) is sim- 
 ply to convey from one person or 
 place to another, with or without 
 l)ersonal interest, property, or control 
 on our own part, and is a])plicable to 
 moral things, as well as to material 
 substances, as to transfer one's affec- 
 tion. 
 
 '* Trayisf erring the honour which was doe 
 to God alone unto saints and to feigned 
 miracles."— Udal. 
 
 DELIVER. Pronounce. Utter. 
 
 Of these Utter (to jmt forth or 
 nut) is the shnplest. To utter a 
 speech is simply to sound it with the 
 voice, as so many words. So the word 
 utterance is applied to mere inarticu- 
 late sound, as to utter a sigh or a 
 moan. 
 
 Pronounce (Lat. promnicidre, to 
 Proclaim, to pronounce) is syllabicallj, 
 
 distinctly, and in some cases with 
 formality and solemnity, to utter, as 
 to pronounce judgment. 
 
 To Deliver (see above) denotes a 
 careful and sustained pronouncing 
 of what requires to be conveyed in 
 many words. To deliver a s})eecL 
 would imply not only tlie words, but 
 the manner of it. So we might say 
 " The substance Avas eloquent, bu» 
 the words were indistinctly pro- 
 nounced ; " or, " The speecli was good 
 in itself, but badly delivered." 
 
 " He (Vertue) was simple, modest, and 
 scrupulous, so scrupulous thai it gave a 
 peculiar slowness to his delivery. He never 
 uttercdKxs opinion hastily, nor hastily as- 
 sented to others." — Walpole. 
 
 " In order to be fully and easily under- 
 stood, the four chief requisites are, a due 
 degree of loudness of voice, distinctness, 
 slowness, and propriety of prominciation " 
 — Blair, Lectures. 
 
 DELIVERY. Deliverance. 
 
 These two forms of the same word 
 (.see above) differ in mainly regarding, 
 the former, the point whithei-, the 
 latter, the point whence the action pro- 
 ceeds. Delivery means a delivering 
 t(', DtxivERANCE a delivering from. 
 So " The holiday was concluded by 
 the delivery of j)rizes to the success- 
 ful competitors ; " "A Te Deum was 
 celebrated for the nation's delive- 
 rance." 
 
 " The investitures of bishops and abbots, 
 which had been originally gi^en by the 
 delivery of the pastoral ring and staff by 
 the king of England, were, after some oppo- 
 sition, wrung out of their hands." — Burnet. 
 
 "As for the Presbyterians, they were so 
 apprehensi> e of the fuiy of the Common- 
 wealth party that they thought it a delive- 
 rance to be res(med out of their hands " — 
 Burnet. 
 
 DELUGE. Inundate. Overflow. 
 Submerge. 
 
 To Deluge (Fr. deluge, Lat. dt- 
 liiviutn) implies the pouring of a vast 
 body of water coming from above ; as, 
 a deluge of rain. 
 
 " And as, when stormy winds encountering 
 
 loud. 
 Burst with rude violence the bellowing 
 
 cloud. 
 Precipitate to earth the tempest pours, 
 Ihe vexing hailstones thick in sounding 
 
 showers. 
 
f demur] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED 
 
 313 
 
 The deluged plains then every ploiiglunaii 
 
 flies. 
 And every hind and traveller sheltered 
 lies!" Hamilton's Virgil. 
 
 Inundate (Lat. i//»airt are ; nmUi, a 
 U(/rg) implies an horizontal move- 
 ment of the same body spreading 
 itself laterally. An inundation may 
 result from a delu<?e. As deluge 
 primarily regards the water which 
 pours or covers, so inundation pri- 
 marily regards the land which is 
 covered or submerged. 
 
 " Nonnus reports in the history of his 
 embassy, that during the period when the 
 Nile inundates Kevpt there are very violent 
 storms in the different parts of Kthiopia." 
 — Uei-oe, Herodotus. 
 
 OvEKKLOW is an inundation caused 
 by excess of fluid in some specific 
 place or channel. So, " a deluge of 
 rain fell, the river overflowed its 
 banks, and the country far and wide 
 was inundated, so that it remained 
 (or some weeks submerged." 
 
 " Puets that lasting marble seek 
 
 Must curve in Latin or in Greek. 
 
 We write in sand, our language grows. 
 
 And like the tide our work o'er/loivs." 
 Waller. 
 
 SuBMEncE (Lat. submergcre) de- 
 notes that the inundation has entirely 
 drowned the land. It deserves, how- 
 ever, to be remarked that, while the 
 others indicate the specific action of 
 water, Slbmehge is also applied to 
 cases in which the primary action is 
 not on the part of the water, as, 
 wlien in a quantity of water a large 
 body is purposely placed so as (o be 
 entireh' covered, it is said to be 
 submerged. The element overflows 
 and inundates. jNIan may deluge and 
 submerge. 
 
 "Some of our own countrymen have 
 given credit to the submersion of swallows." 
 -Pen-\a>t. 
 
 DEMOLISH. Destroy. 
 
 To Destroy (Lat. destrucre) is 
 violently to put an end to anything 
 that existed in life or shape, or even 
 to the life itself. Hence destroy is 
 the generic word. It is to put an end 
 to wiiat we desire no longer to exist. 
 
 Demolish (Fr. demolir, Lat. de- 
 mbl'tri) is the specific desti*uction of an 
 organized body or a structural mass. 
 To this latter it is most commonly 
 
 applied; as, to deiuua!*b the walls of a 
 castle. Demolition is opposed to 
 construction. Destroy may or may 
 not involve violence, as a noxious va- 
 pour or a violent blow might destroy 
 life; Demolish involves violence. De- 
 struction may be sudden or gradual ; 
 demolition is commonly rapid and 
 decisive. Destroy is equally appli- 
 cable to things moral and physical, as 
 to destroy hope, beauty, effect. De- 
 molish could not be so employed, ex- 
 cept in the Avay of fonnal metaphor. 
 Demolish does not convey so strongly 
 as destroy the idea of hostile opera- 
 tion. The walls of a fortification are 
 destroyed by the enemy's artillery. 
 They may be demolished for the 
 simple purpose of rebuilding and 
 making them stronger. 
 
 " O come hither, and behold the works 
 of the Lord, what destructions He hath 
 brought upon the earth." — Bible, 1551. 
 
 "On their coming into administration, 
 they found the demolition of Dunkirk en- 
 tirely at a stand. Instead of demolition 
 they found construction ; for the French 
 were then at work on the repairs of the 
 jetties."— Burke. 
 
 DEMUR. Hesitate. Scruple. 
 Waver. Fllchate. Object. 
 
 To Hesitate (Lat. hcesitare, to stick 
 fast) is literally to stick at doing some- 
 thing, whether mentally or practically. 
 It may proceed from a vai'iety or 
 causes ; as, prudence, fear, doubt, 
 generosity, cowardice. 
 
 " lu an age of darkness he (Gregory 
 VII.) had not all the knowledge that was 
 refjuisite to regulate his zeal ; and taking 
 false uppeai-auces for solid truths, he with- 
 out hesitation deduced from them the most 
 dangerous consequences." — JoRTIN. 
 
 To Demur (Old Fr. denwurerj Lat 
 dcih^rdri, to retard) is a specific kind 
 of hesitation. It is to suspend action 
 or judgment in view of a doubt or 
 difficulty. ^Vhen we say, " I demur 
 to that statement of yours," we mean 
 to arrest the argument of the speaker 
 on a point to Avhich we az-e prepared 
 to make objection. 
 
 "A demurrer denies that by the law 
 arising upon these facts, any injury is done 
 to the plaintiff, or that the defendant has 
 made out a legitimate excuse, according to 
 the party which first demurs (demoratnr), 
 rests or abides upon the point in qaestioa." 
 — Blackstoak. 
 
314 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [i)I<:niai>J 
 
 S RiM'i I, (Lat. scriipYilus, a frrit or 
 sharp stone in the path^ nneasi7tess) is a 
 kind of internal domur, that is, when 
 tlie jirocess of thought or action ar- 
 rested is not that of another but our 
 own, and this in consequence of a 
 doubt or difficiilty suggested either by 
 somt! oilier, cr by our own minds or 
 feelings. A scruple is dictated by 
 a sense of impropriety, intellectual or 
 moral. 
 
 '♦ I scruple not to rest it on reason i-ather 
 than on passion." — Gilpix'S Sermons. 
 
 Wave a (A. S, iLofian, connected 
 with wave ; as it were, to Jiticluule) 
 refers to an antecedent opinion or 
 resolution of our own, which we have 
 actually formed and distrust. As 
 Dkmuh and Scruple are applicable to 
 that which is proposed to be said or 
 done, so Wavek applies to what has 
 been said or done. 
 
 Fluctuate {La.t. Jiuctiulre, to be in 
 waves; tojiuctuate in mind) resembles 
 Waver in expressing motion and 
 change of mind, but difters from it in 
 implying more than one point. We 
 waver upon one consideration. We 
 fluctuate between two or more, M'hich 
 we are inclined to adopt successively. 
 Waver is only applied to matters of 
 intellectual decision, but Fluctuate to 
 5tntes of feeling. We fluctuate not 
 only between one opinion and another, 
 but between joy and sorrow, gladness 
 and depression, hope and despair, 
 and the like. 
 
 ♦' Liberty of will is like the motion of a 
 magnetic needle toward the north : full of 
 trembline and uncertainty till it were fixed 
 in the beloved point. It leavers as long as 
 it is free, and is at rest when it can choose 
 no more."— Bishop Taylor. 
 
 " Teach me how I came by such an 
 opinion of worth and virtue ; what it is 
 which at one time raises it so high, and at 
 another time reduces it to nothing ; how 
 these disturbances and fluctuations hap- 
 pen."— SHAFTKSUURr. 
 
 OiiJ ect ( l.at. objiccre, part, ohjectus, 
 to cast against) is to offer in opposition. 
 We object to what we believe erro- 
 neous, unjust, undesirable, and in 
 some cases to what is personally dis- 
 pleasing to ourselves. The verb is 
 often used intransitively and followed 
 by to: but in such cases something is 
 
 always implied as put forward against 
 the "thing objected to, such as a 
 countervailing fact, or a consideration 
 of truth, fairness, convenience, or 
 personal preference. 
 
 "There was this single fault that ErHs- 
 mns, though an enemy, could o6;ccf tohiin.' 
 — AXTEKBURY. 
 
 DENIAL. Abnegation. 
 
 Denial (Fr. dSnier, Lat. dmtgdre) 
 is logical and practical. Abnega- 
 tion is not logical, but only prac- 
 tical. Uemal may stand opposed 
 either to affirmation or to indulgence. 
 Abnegation only to the latter, in 
 the sense of renunciation of self, or 
 of anything else. 
 
 " You ought to converse with so much 
 sincerity that your bare affirmation or denial 
 may be sufficient."— Stillingfleet. 
 
 " Denying ungodliness and worldly lusts " 
 —Bible. 
 
 " Abyiegation of God, of His honour, of 
 His religion."— Kxox. 
 
 DEPENDENCE. Reliance. 
 
 Affiance. 
 
 Dependence (Eat. d'cpendcre, to 
 hangj'roni, to depend upon) expresses 
 a fact, Re mange (prob. Fr. se relifr, 
 to be attached to, Lat. religare) ex- 
 presses our consciousness or feeling 
 of that fact. Dependence is con- 
 ditioned existence, a result contingent 
 upon a cause. Reliance is trust upon 
 a living will. The child depends upon 
 his parent for all that he requires; 
 but It is not till he has grown to be 
 conscious of his own dependence in 
 this way that he can rely upon his 
 parent's willingness to grant him 
 what he needs. 
 
 Affiance (O. Fr. q/uixcc, L. Lat. 
 Jidantia, a pledge) is characteristic of 
 religious feeling. 
 
 " The absolute stoical depcnder upon fate 
 may starve for want of industry, die for 
 want of physic, and he damned for want of 
 repentance." — Hammond. 
 
 " The Saviour effecting everything by 
 His power is reprt-sented under the image 
 of a great champion iu the field, who is 
 prompted by his own courage, and a re- 
 liance on his own strength and skill, to 
 uttemjit what might seem impracticable."— 
 Bishop Hurslky. 
 
 "That she (the Queen) may evermor 
 have affiance in Thee 4nd ever seek Th, 
 hoMOur and glory." — Eng. Liturgy. 
 
[derange] 
 
 1)1 SCRIM I NATE I). 
 
 Mb 
 
 DEPRAVITY. Depravation. 
 Corruption. 
 
 Depravity and DLPUAVATioN(Lat. 
 dipravdiey to prevent, vitiate) stand to 
 each other as the process and the re- 
 sult; Depravity is the state of being 
 depraved, Depravation the action ot" 
 making depraved, or tlie state of 
 having been made so. There is in 
 human nature, we believe, an inborn 
 depravity. This is made far worse 
 vrhere defective education and evil 
 company have tended to the -worse 
 depravation of the individual. The 
 same twofold meaning belongs to 
 Corruption (Lat. cnrniplibnem) 
 which expresses both the state of 
 being, and the process of making 
 coiTupt. Differences must be noted 
 between DEiMiAvrrvand Corrupiton. 
 These may be illustrated by the dif- 
 ference between a depraved person 
 and a con'upt peison. The dej)raved 
 man has been brought to a certain 
 condition of evil practice; the cor- 
 rupt man to a certain condition of 
 evil principle. Corruption relates to 
 the source of action, Depravity to the 
 actions themselves. A corrupt judge 
 is not a person of dejiravity of cha- 
 racter necessarily in any other way 
 than that of the principle of integrity, 
 which is wanting or has been de- 
 stroyed in him. Or, again, a person 
 may have a corrupt taste in art or 
 literature without being a person of 
 corrujit life. 'J'his shows corruption 
 to be a specific badness or depravity of 
 principle, while depravity is general, 
 and affects the entire character. When 
 we speak of a person of depraved 
 taste, we, cf course, confine the as- 
 sertion to the matter of taste, without 
 saying anything of the moral cha- 
 racter. A corrupt taste and a de- 
 praved taste would be practically the 
 tame ; but in the former case we 
 take account of the want of true prin- 
 ciple to decide, in the latter of the 
 influence of bad training to pervert. 
 Corrupt taste would latlier belong to 
 the ai-tist, depraved taste to the spec- 
 tator. 
 
 " If refinement does not lead directly to 
 puritj-of manners, it obviates at least theii- 
 <)Createst depravation." — ReY'NOLDS. 
 
 "A mad and desperate depravity." — 
 Shaftesbury 
 
 •• As though all the false religion that 
 ever was among the heathen was not a cor- 
 rupting and depravation of the true religion 
 of God."— Calvin. 
 
 DEPTH. Profundity. 
 
 These words supply a good illus- 
 tration of a large class of synonyms, 
 and of the general difference of cha- 
 racter between words of Saxon and 
 words of classic formation to express 
 the same thing. Deptu (A. S. deop, 
 deep) expresses no more than the 
 physical property of perpendicular 
 measurement downward from a sur- 
 face ; or, metaphorically, what is like 
 this, as depth of mind, or thought, or 
 meaning, which is such as has the 
 pro})erties of natural depth ; not lying 
 rn the surface ; more or less diffi- 
 cult to reach ; more or less dark 
 when reached ; not meeting the eye 
 of those who regard only the surface 
 of things, and the like; but Pro- 
 fundity (Lat. profund^tdtem) ex- 
 presses the abstract idea of depth, or 
 the scientific measurement of it. It 
 is the same thing under a more re- 
 fined, abstract, and scientific view. 
 Words of the former class are physi- 
 cal and metaphorical, of the latter 
 scientific and metaphysical. 
 " A dreadful depth, how deep no man can 
 tell." SPKNSER. 
 
 " In one (Ben Jonson) we may respect 
 the profundity of learning, iu the other 
 (Shakespeare) we must admire the sub- 
 limity of genius." — Observer. 
 DERANGE. Disorder. 
 Derange (Fr. deranger, rang, rank 
 or order) and Disorder (Fr. deMJrc/re, 
 Eat. ordinem, rank, order) are so 
 much alike that they may often be 
 used interchangeably, as a mass of 
 papers may be disordered or de- 
 ranged. But from other illustrations 
 it would be seen that Derange is com- 
 monly applied to matters of mental 
 or internal. Disorder to matters ot 
 physical or external, arrangement. 
 It is only an extension of this to say 
 that disorder bears reference to the 
 fact, derangement to the intention, of 
 order. A defeat of a general will, at 
 the same time that it throws his ai-my 
 into disorder, derange more or less his 
 own plans. This distinction ia not 
 destroyed by the fact that things o- 
 tne mind are often viewed metaphor*- 
 
516 
 
 SYNONYMS [dEKIVI^j 
 
 cally, that is, alter the analogy of 
 things of sense. 'I'hus, "a disordered 
 imag-i nation" is one in which the fa- 
 culties, as in a machine, have lost their 
 just disposition, after the analogy of 
 such disturhance of the bodily func- 
 tions as accompanies or creates disease. 
 
 " Whether this folly (expensiveness of 
 di'ess) may not produce many other follies, 
 an entire derangement of domestic life, 
 absurd manners, neglect of duties, hiui 
 mothers, a general corruption of both 
 sexes,"— Berkeley. 
 
 '• In wildest numbers and disordered verse." 
 Lytteltoa. 
 
 DERI VE. Trace. Deduce. 
 Of these. Trace (Fr. tracer) is 
 generic, meaning to draw a tine (L. 
 Lat. tractidre), or to prosecute a given 
 line, whether materially or mentally, 
 a» to trace a river from its source to 
 its mouth, or from its mouth to its 
 source, to trace a line of march. 
 
 Derive (Lat. dirlvare, to lead auay 
 water, rwus) and Deduce (Lat. didu- 
 ccre, to lead down or away) indicate a 
 tracing in one direction, that is, from 
 the source or origin downAvards. To 
 derive is to trace, and so to refer to the 
 physical cause ; to deduce is to trace, 
 and so refer to the logical cause or 
 reason. A river derives its waters 
 from a certain source; a word is 
 derived from a certain grammatical 
 root ; a nation derives its origin from 
 one or more historic causes, as a vic- 
 tory, a migration, and the like. We 
 deduce inferences from statements, 
 and conclusions from premises. 
 
 " But this kind of writing, which seems to 
 be reformed, which is, that writing should 
 be consonant to speaking, is a branch of 
 pnprofltable subtleties; for pronunciation 
 itself evei-y day increases and alters the 
 fashion ; and the derivation of words, espe- 
 cially from foreign languages, are uttejly 
 defaced and extinguished." — Baco^, Ad- 
 vancement of Learning. 
 
 " From the words of Moses cited l)y our 
 Saviour, the doctrine of a future state may 
 as clearly be deduced as from any single 
 text which can be produced out of any one 
 of the prophets." — JoKXlx. 
 
 " In this chart I have laid down no land 
 Dor traced out any shore h^t what I saw 
 myself."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
 DEROGATE. Detuact. 
 These words are in meaning very 
 closely allied, and may in many cases 
 
 be used indifterently ; but Deroga- 
 tion refers to intrinsic goodness, De- 
 TRACiiON (Lat. dctructibnem, a taking 
 away) to the estimation in which a 
 thing is held. Etymologically con- 
 sidered, Derogate (Lat. derhgare, to 
 repeal part of a law) is a term of legis- 
 lation. Derogation is partial and in- 
 direct abrogation. V\ hen a subse- 
 (juent law lessens the force and 
 application of an older law, the cha- 
 lacter of the former is technically said 
 to be derogatory. Derogation takes 
 place when a thing that is estimable 
 suffers deterioration ; detraction when 
 a thing that is esteemed, or is capable 
 of being esteemed, is lessened or 
 cheapened in the estimation of others. 
 Hence Derogate belongs to the in- 
 fluence of circumstances, while De- 
 traction is exclusively the act of 
 persons. For instance, we might say, 
 '' His warmth of temper derogates 
 much from a character otherwise 
 M'orthy of high respect ; " or, again, 
 '* The speaker, in speaking of such an 
 one, detracted much from his reputa- 
 tion by ascribing to him illrtemper, 
 and other such derogatory qualities." 
 
 " I hope it is no derogation to the Chris 
 tian religion to say that the fundamentals 
 of it, that is, all that is necessary to be 
 believed in it by all men, is easy to be 
 understood by all men." — LoCKE. 
 
 " I know it has been the fashion to de- 
 tract both from the moral and literary 
 character of Cicero ; and indeed neither his 
 life nor his writings are wi-hout the cha- 
 racteristics of humanity." — K^'OX. 
 
 DESCRIBE. Depict. Charac- 
 terize. 
 
 Describe (Lat. dcscrihere) is to 
 icrite down an account, hence to give 
 an account, whether in writing or 
 spoken words. lYue description is 
 the giving in words of an account 
 analogous to that of ocular ret>i:esen- 
 tation ; only Describe goes further, 
 and gives a representation of complex 
 objects or moral events, as well as 
 visible forms or ti-ansactions ; as, to 
 describe the circumstances under 
 which such an event took place. 
 Descrij)tion belongs to the external 
 manifestations of things, and ought 
 to be full and clear, that is, it should 
 enumerate all particulars, and repre- 
 sent them accurately and vivid'.y. 
 
[design] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 31 
 
 " How shall fi-ail peu describe her heavenly 
 
 fiice. 
 For feiir, through want of skill, her beauty 
 
 to disgrace 1 " Spexseh. 
 
 Depict (Lat. dl-pivgne, part, de- 
 pict us, to portray, desicribe) refers to 
 the vivid description of anytliing 
 which may be brought with more or 
 h-ss distinctness before the mind's 
 eye. Both Dksciube and Depict in- 
 volve the representation of every 
 detail connected with the subject 
 described or depicted. 
 
 " An ideanf figure depicted on the eho- 
 roi'les or retina of the eye."— Anecdotes of 
 liishop Watson. 
 
 CfiARACTEniZE (Gr. ^?tpax.Tr,p, an 
 impression) is employed in moral de- 
 scription of what represents the sub- 
 ject by its leading feature or features. 
 Hence a whole course of conduct, or 
 a wliole class of character in men, 
 may be said to be characterized by 
 some one strong and distinctive epithet, 
 for instance, which, without delineat- 
 ing in detail, sets a peculiar mark 
 and stamp upon it. 
 
 "Richard Martin was worthily charac- 
 terized by the virtuous and learned men of 
 U18 time to be princeps amorum." — WoOD, 
 Athcnce Oxon. 
 
 DESCRY. Espv. Discover. De- 
 tect. 'UiSCERN. Distinguish. 
 
 To Descry (0. Fr. decrire, Lat. di- 
 scr'ibcre, to describe) is to discover by 
 the eye objects difficult of discern- 
 ment by reason of distance or dim- 
 ness. When the difficulty arises fronS 
 other causes, as confusion among a 
 number of similar objects, partial 
 concealment, or the like, we employ 
 JCspv (O. Vr.espier). As Descry de- 
 notes discriminative penetration of the 
 Dodily vision, so Espy implies acute- 
 ness of vision or observation. 
 
 Discover (0. Yr.descouvrir) points 
 to the bringing to light of what was 
 concealed or unknown. This may be 
 either accidental or the result of spe- 
 cific research. 
 
 To Detect (Lat. dctigere, part. 
 ditectns,to uncover) is to remove what 
 concealed from one's view, and had 
 been in most cases purposely so pla«:eii; 
 =is to detect a criminal or a ci ime. Such 
 
 a purpose of conctalment, however, is 
 not essential to the term, as we speak 
 of detecting an error in a calculation, 
 or a fallacy in an argument; only what 
 is detected is never a matter ef merit, 
 but always an error, fault, or crime. 
 
 Discern' ^( Lat. discenicre, to sepa- 
 rate, to settle) is to perceive with th« 
 inherent power of the faculty of bodilj 
 or mental identification, while DrscRy 
 is always physical. P'rom this power 
 of exact vision comes the faculty of 
 seeing differences in objects; and this 
 identification of an object by setting 
 aside its diflferences, or other objects 
 which differ from it, is discernment, 
 whether in the physical or intellectual 
 sense. 
 
 Distinguish (Lat. distiyigntre, to 
 prick off' ) physically implies not only 
 an acquaintance with the object, but 
 a sufficient distinctness to enable the 
 observer to recognize its specific fea- 
 tures and characteristics, and so to 
 avoid confusion with other objects. 
 The moral apj)lication is analogous to 
 this. ^Vhen the next step is taken, 
 and, on the ground of this accurate 
 perception, the object is parted off 
 from other objects — this is discern- 
 ment. The one sees clearly, the other 
 sees separatively. 
 
 " The first descrieing of the enemy's ap- 
 proach." — HOLIXSHED. 
 
 " Secure, unnoted Conrad's prow passed 
 
 by. 
 And anchored where his ambush meant to 
 
 He, 
 Screened from espialhy the juttinp; cape 
 That rears on high its rude fantastic 
 
 shape." BvBOS. 
 
 "The distinction of a first discoverer 
 made us cheerfullyencounter every danger, 
 and submit to every inconvenience." — 
 Cook's Voyages. 
 
 " The Romans were plagued with a set 
 of public officers belonging to the emperor's 
 court called Curiosi and Imperatoris oculi, 
 part of whose employment was to go aboat 
 as detectors of frauds and misdemeanours." 
 — JoRTlN. 
 
 " A discemer of the thoughts and intent* 
 of the hea.rt."— Bible. 
 
 " No more can yon distinguish of a man 
 Than of his outward show." 
 
 Shakespearb. 
 
 DESIGN, 
 Mean. 
 
 Purpose. Intenu 
 
318 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [desolate] 
 
 These terms all refer to the condi- 
 tion of the mind antecedent to action, 
 and relative to it. 
 
 Mean (A. S. miriuni ; of. mind, 
 'jientem, and many similar words), 
 being- of Saxon origin, is the most 
 comprehensive and colloquial, and is 
 employed of matters of any degree of 
 importance, signifying simply to have 
 a /;(/;/(/ to do a thing or to say it, as, 
 '' What do you mean by sa3'ing that ? " 
 or, " What do you mean to do this 
 morning I " It is used also of the sig- 
 nificance of circumstances, events, or 
 actions in the sense of denote, as, 
 *' What does that shouting in the 
 streets mean?" Meaning relates to 
 purpose in speech and in action. 
 
 " Thei woudj'eii what she wolde mene." — 
 Sower. 
 
 To Design (Lat. disignare, to mark 
 out) denotes an object of attainment 
 placed before the mind, with a calcu- 
 .ation of the steps necessary for it. It 
 is a complicated intention carried into 
 action, or proposed for it. I had no 
 design to hurt you, means it was not 
 a part of my aim or plan to do so. 
 
 "Ask of politicians the end fur which 
 ."avs were originally designed, and they will 
 answer that the laws were designed as a 
 protection for the poor and weak against 
 the oppression of the rich and powerful.' — 
 BUKKE. 
 
 ; To Intk.n d ( Lat. iiitendire, to stretch 
 touards, to be intent upon) points to no 
 more than the general setting of the 
 mind upon doing a thing. 1 did not 
 intend to hurt you, means that it was 
 accidental; and intention is commonly 
 opposed to accident. It denotes no 
 more than the presence or action 
 jf the will as distinguished from its 
 absence. The intention is a move- 
 ment or inclination of the mind in re- 
 g;ard to a distant .bject, which causes 
 rt to stretch forward toward that ob- 
 ject. The design is an idea chosen 
 and adopted, which implies method 
 and meditation. An intention is pure 
 or otherwise; a design is suddenly 
 or deliberately foimed, and may be 
 pood or bad, but is seldom entirely 
 good. One may be mistaken in one'8 
 intentions, and tjiwarted in one's de- 
 
 " They that do me good, and know not 
 of it, are causes of my benefit, thongh I do 
 not owe them my thanks, and I will rather 
 tiless them as instruments, than coudemu 
 them us not i7itcnders/'—FKi:iHASi. 
 
 To Pt'iirosF. (with some the Fr. 
 ponr peiiser; with others Lat. prop^si- 
 tum) is stronger than to intend, indi- 
 cating a permanent resolution, to be 
 carried out in such a way that circum- 
 stances must be made subsenient to it. 
 1 purposed to hurt you, would imply 
 that I had been watching my oppor- 
 tunity, and managed matters accord- 
 ingly. The difference between in- 
 tention and nurpose is that between 
 incipient ana decisive volition. In- 
 tentions may be remote, purposes are 
 immediate. The intention is weaker 
 than the purpose. 
 
 "Steadfastly purposing to lead a nev 
 life." — Church Cutechism. 
 
 DESOLATE. Deseht. Sou- 
 tar v. 
 
 These terms express under modifi- 
 cations the idea of local solitude. A 
 place is Desolate (Lat. d'csblatus, lef 
 soiiury, part, oi dcs'oLdre) in reference 
 to human occupation and use# A de- 
 solate country is one whicii gives the 
 impression of no inhabitants to till or 
 inhabit it. A desolate nouse or room 
 one which shows no signs of occupa- 
 tion, or seems, as it were,half occupied. 
 It will be observed that, like the word 
 gloomy, OKsoLAPEisa subjective rather 
 than an objective term, that is, it ex- 
 presses not so much facts or appear- 
 ances of nature as their impressions 
 upon our own minds. Hence it is 
 sometimes employed exclusively of 
 the state of the person. 
 
 " Have mercy on me, for I am desolate." 
 —Psdlms. 
 
 " How is Babylon become a desolation 
 among the nations ! " — Bible. 
 
 D Es I RT ( Lat. dtshire,YM\r\..diiertu$j 
 to uliaiidon) denotes natuiai unfitness 
 for occupation, and applies nly to 
 natural localities. A desert islalid is 
 without inhabitants, because it is 
 without the natural means of su port- 
 ing them. A desolate place may 
 or majr not hive been at one time 
 
[destiny] 
 
 DISCRIMINATE1>. 
 
 319 
 
 occupied, and may be partly occupied 
 at present. 
 
 " Full many a flower is born to blnsh an- 
 
 seen, 
 And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 
 Gray. 
 
 SouTAnv (Lat. sdtitdnus) denotes 
 no moretlian removed from the haunts 
 and occupation of human beings. 
 The deptli of a South American 
 brest, though peopled with animals 
 Df many kinds, would be terribly soli- 
 tary to a man. Solitary is applicable 
 to persons as well as localities, in the 
 sense of removed from others of the 
 kind. 
 
 " It hath been disputed which is a state 
 of greater perfection, the social or the soli- 
 uzry."— Atterbury. 
 
 D 
 
 KSPONDENCY. 
 
 Des- 
 
 DESPAIR. 
 
 PERATION. 
 
 Despoxdency (Lat. dnimnm di- 
 spondire, to lose courage) is the least 
 violent, but often the more lasting of 
 the three. It is a low state of the 
 feelings which leads to an unhopeful 
 view of things. 
 
 " He found his Indian friend leaning his 
 head against a post, in an attitude of the 
 utmost languor and despondency." — Cook's 
 Vr/yages. 
 
 Between Dkspair and Despera- 
 riON (O. Fr. desperer, Lat. dcspirare) 
 there is a practical difference, in that 
 one is a passive, the other an energetic 
 hopelessness. This is expressed in 
 common language. Men fall into de- 
 spair, and are worked up to despera- 
 tion. Desperation seizes the weapon. 
 Despair sits with folded hands. 
 
 " Despair is the thought of the unattain- 
 ableness of any good, which works diffe- 
 rently in men's minds, sometimes producing 
 uneasiness or pain, sometimes rest and in- 
 dolency."— LoCKE. 
 
 Despair is, however, more compre- 
 hensive than this. " It is," says 
 Cogan, *'a permanent fear of losing 
 some valuable good, of suffering some 
 dreadful evil, or remaining in a state 
 of actual misery, without an}' mixture 
 f hope." 
 
 " Daughters of Eve, whom desperation, 
 the effect of their first false step, hath 
 driren to the lowest walks of vulgar prosti- 
 tution."'— BiSHOP HORSLKY'. 
 
 DESTINATION. Destiny. 
 
 These two words (formed from the 
 Lat. distinare, to destine) differ as the 
 human and controllable from the 
 superhuman and uncontrollable or 
 providential. Destivv is used of in- 
 dividuals and the final point of their 
 personal histoiy. Destination of 
 things as well as persons, and denotes 
 no more than the end at which a per- 
 son or thing is intended to arrive, ot 
 the purpose to which a thing is put. 
 
 " Which of us in setting out upon a visit, 
 a diversion, or an affair of business, ajipre- 
 hends a possibility of not arri- ing at his 
 pliice of destination, yet at the same time 
 does not apprehend himself at liberty t« 
 alter his course in any part of his pro 
 gress ? "—Search, Light of Nature. 
 
 " Thus the Pagans had the same notion 
 with that which is mentioned in Scripture 
 of a double destiny depending upon humau 
 choice." — Jortin. 
 
 DESTINY. Fate. Lot. Doom. 
 
 Destiny {see above) is used both 
 of the end to which a person or thing 
 is fore appointed, and of the course of 
 things which brings them to it. The 
 idea of destiny involves elements of 
 greatness and immutability. It is not 
 applicable to common things or per- 
 sons or the details of life, but to its 
 apparent purpose and consummation. 
 One may struggle against one's lot, or 
 recover from what it may be one's fate 
 to suffer; but destiny is final and ir- 
 resistible. Any one might speak of his 
 fate or his lot ; only those who run 
 important careers could speak of their 
 destiny. 
 
 " But who can turn the stream of destiny. 
 Or break the chain of strong necessity. 
 Which fast is tied to Jwve's eternal seat ?" 
 Spenser. 
 
 Fate stands to Destiny as an iteit 
 to a sum ( Lat. /dtum,Jate), and is em- 
 ployed, as destiny never is, of the d«- 
 tails of life. It is seldom used in a 
 favourable sense, as, " In travelling 
 it is almost always my fate to meet 
 with delays." So far as a man's con- 
 dition has resulted from unconscious 
 causes, as the laws of the materia 
 world, we speak ofhis fate. So far at 
 we attribute it to the ordainment of 
 more powerful beings, we speak of 
 his destiny. Fate is Hind ; destiny 
 
320 
 
 SYNONYMS [destitute] 
 
 has foresight. The theist speaks of 
 destiny, the atheist of fate. 
 
 " I would not have that fate light upon 
 you which useth to befall some, who from 
 golden students become silver bachelors and 
 leaden masters." — Howell. 
 
 Lot (Fr. /c/, share) commonly re- 
 fers to somethinp^ connected with the 
 w^hole course of life, which gives it a 
 distinctive diameter for good or for 
 ill, as, " Trouble is the common lot of 
 men." 
 
 "To labour is the lot of man below ; 
 And when Jove gave us life he gave us 
 woe." Pope. 
 
 Doom (deem, to judge) is the final 
 close of life, regarded as a matter 
 foreordained, and is never used in a 
 happy sense. It is sometimes used, 
 like lot, of the details of life itself, 
 when it is at once unhappy and con- 
 tinuous, as, " I was doomed to spend 
 ninny years of my early life in exile 
 from my home." 
 
 " Ere Hector meets his doom." — Pope. 
 
 DESTITUTE. Dtvoin. Void. 
 
 Of these. Void (Lat. vulaiis) has a 
 physical application, although the 
 word em])tii is at jM'esent a more com- 
 mon substitute for it, as — 
 " The void helmet."— Cowper's Iliad. 
 
 Devoid is reserved for the rnorally 
 empty. There is very little difference 
 of meaning between it and Destitute 
 ^Lat. disiituere, part, dcsttthtus, to 
 /!)rsa/ce),but DEVoiopartakes rather of 
 the natureof a purely negative. Desti- 
 tute of a privative epithet ; or, in 
 other words, to be destitute is to be 
 devoid of what might naturally be ex- 
 
 Eected to belong, or where it might 
 e requisite ; as beasts are devoid of 
 speech, which nature has simply 
 denied them. A man is destitute of 
 learning when we think of his capa- 
 bility of acquiring it, devoid ot it 
 when we think of the simple fact that 
 he does not possess it. Destitute is, 
 therefore, conunonly employed of the 
 absence of the common requirements 
 or necessaries of life ; as, destitute of 
 daily food or of clothing, where we 
 should not employ devoid. Devoid 
 thus seems to have a more abstract 
 UBage, as we might still say, devoid 
 cf all means of subsistence. We are 
 
 devoid of faculties, and destitute oi 
 means or possessions. But a yet 
 stronger diflference lies in the fact that 
 Dfstitute involves tlie non-posses- 
 sion of what is in some way necessary 
 or desirable to possess; while Devoid 
 is more neutral, and may be used of 
 the absence of faulty or culpable quali- 
 ties. 
 
 " Devoid of pride certaine she was." 
 
 ClIAl'CKR. 
 
 "This faire lady on this wise destitiite 
 Of all comfort and consolation." 
 
 Jbid. 
 
 DESTRUCTIVE. Ruinous. Per- 
 
 NICIOUS. 
 
 We use the term Destructive (Lat. 
 destrnere, to pulldown something built) 
 when we simply think of the ten- 
 dency to effect permanent termina- 
 tion to what had form, life, beauty, 
 power, and the like. 
 
 " Loaded with gold, he sent his darling far 
 From noise and tumults and destructive 
 war." Dryde.v. 
 
 We use the tenn Ruinous (J at, 
 rti'mosus, going to ruin) when we 
 think of the value of that which is 
 so destroyed, for ruin is destruction 
 visible. Ruined reputation, bliglited 
 hopes, and the like, are terms recall- 
 ing the fairness of what is lost, and 
 not the mere loss or destruction. A 
 destructive agency simply takes awaj-, 
 and may be so far good if the thing 
 that is destroyed be noxious; but 
 ruinous implies the taking away in a 
 sad and fatal way of what we should 
 desire to live and last. 
 
 •* Of all these expensive and uncertain 
 projects, however, which bring bankruptcy 
 upon the greater part of the people whc 
 engage in them, there is none perhaps more 
 perfectly ruinous than the search after new 
 silver and gold mines." — Smith, WealthoJ 
 Nations. 
 
 Pernicious (Lat. peniicibsus, de- 
 structive) is employed of what harms 
 man's inner powers ; as, of life, health, 
 morals, interfering, as the word ety- 
 mologically implies, with the vital 
 force of things {pernccare, to kill out- 
 right), and obsti'uctive of wholesome 
 energies, physical or moral. But it 
 is not so strong a tenn as Destructive 
 or Ruinous. That which is destruc- 
 tive removes what exists, that whicli 
 
[deteriorate] discriminatep. 
 
 321 
 
 is ruinous spoils what exists, that 
 which is pernicious mara it. Destruc- 
 tive and ruinous influences are abso- 
 lute and final, pernicious influence 
 may be counteracted or remored. 
 
 " He who has vented a pernicious doctrine 
 or pabUshed an ill book most know that his 
 guilt and his life determine not together." 
 —South. 
 
 DESUETUDE. Disuse. 
 
 DisusE is simply the cessation of 
 customary or common use. Desue- 
 tude (Lat. disuetudo') is the cessation 
 of custom, fashion, or practice. In 
 regard to the present fashion of dress 
 in our own country as compared with 
 that of the last century, the rapier has 
 fallen into disuse, the wearing of it 
 into desuetude. 
 
 DETAIL. Details. 
 
 Derived from the French detaillerj 
 to cut up, hence to deal with severally 
 or in particular. These words are re- 
 spectively subjective and objective in 
 their character. The verb to detail 
 has the force of the fonner. It is to 
 enumerate several things, or to de- 
 scribe a complex thing according to 
 the several particulars which compose 
 it. In this case, as in some others, 
 the singular and the plural have dif- 
 ferent meanings, as in the case of 
 Ruin and Ruins. We make the de- 
 tail and find the details ; the one is the 
 manner in which the thing is repre- 
 sented, the other the items of which it 
 is composed. Every complex trans- 
 action in life has its manifold details 
 of which an account may from time to 
 time be given in detail. 
 
 DETER. Discourage. Dis- 
 hearten. 
 
 Deter (Lat. deterrhCf to frighten 
 from) is to prevent from action by fear 
 of consequences, or of the difiiculty, 
 imprudence, or risk of the attempt. 
 
 ToDiscouRAGE(O.Fr.(/esco»ra^ej-) 
 is to prevent from action, or to lessen 
 energy in action by such representa- 
 tions as affect the spirit of the person 
 contemplating or making the attempt. 
 Discourage admits of degrees,but De- 
 ter is absolute. Circumstances, as well 
 as the representations of individuals, 
 may deter, discourage, or dishearten. 
 Persons ai-e discouraged in their under- 
 takings, and deteired y'ro/H them. 
 
 "So that, npon consideration of the whole 
 matter, there is no reason why any man 
 should be deterred from a holy and virtuous 
 life for fear of the labour and pains of it. 
 Because every one that is wicked takes 
 more pains in another way and is more in- 
 dustrious, only to a worse purpose."- Til- 
 LOTSON. 
 
 " A slight perusal of the innumerable 
 letters by which the wits of France have 
 signalized their names, will prove that 
 other nations need not be discouraged from 
 the like attempts by the consciousness of 
 inability." — Rambler. 
 
 Dish earten is in English what Dis- 
 couRAGE is as a word of French and 
 Latin fomiation {cxur, Lat. cor, the 
 heart) ; but Discourage may apply to 
 the case in which the action is in- 
 tended only. Disheartened implies 
 that it is actually undertaken. One 
 is deterred from beginning ; dis- 
 couraged in beginning or in proceed- 
 ing ; disheartened in proceeding. 
 Disheartened applies only to per- 
 sons, Discourage both to persons and 
 their eftbrts. 
 
 '* His astonished and disheartened col- 
 leagues."— Bancroft. 
 Deter and Discourage denote gene- 
 rally the action of the judgment. Dis- 
 hearten an influence upon the spirits. 
 One is deteired by formidable diffi- 
 culty or opposition, discouraged by 
 the representations of advisers, or a 
 calm estimate of the nature of the 
 case; disheartened by anything that 
 robs us of spirit, energy, or hope. 
 
 DETERIORATE. Degenerate. 
 
 The idea of growing worse is com- 
 mon to these terms. That is said to 
 Deteriorate (Lat. ditiridrarCf to 
 make worse) of which the intrinsic 
 goodness is impaired. The term is 
 applicable to that which is good and 
 excellent in a moral as well as a phy- 
 sical sense. That is said to Degene- 
 rate (Lat. degcnh-are, to make, or to 
 grow worse) which deteriorates so as to 
 receive new properties, and these, ge- 
 nerally, inferior or worse ; or to depart 
 from so as to fall short of a collective 
 standard. Courage deteriorates when 
 it simply diminishes, it degenerates 
 into cruelty or rashness. In deteriora- 
 tion the leading idea is the impaired 
 state arrived at, in degeneration the 
 noble state departed from. Individuals 
 
322 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [develop] 
 
 uTAceS) and moral qualities or character 
 may deteriorate or degenerate. Phy- 
 sical qualities or character may de- 
 teriorate, not degenerate, except when 
 they belong to persons. 
 
 " When wit transgresseth decency it de- 
 generates into insolence and impiety." — 
 TlLLOTSON. 
 
 " The art of war was greatly deterio- 
 rated."— SoVTKKY. 
 
 DEVELOP. Unfold. Unravel. 
 
 To Develop is to open out what 
 was contained in another thing, or 
 in the thing itself ( Fr. d^velopper). I n 
 Dev elop these two ideas are inherent ; 
 viz., the gradual opening of the whole 
 containing, and the gradual exhibi- 
 tion of the particular contained. So 
 we might say, " Time developed his 
 character," or " Circumstances de- 
 veloped the cruelty which was latent 
 in his character.' Unlike Unfold, 
 Develop is not used of purely phy- 
 sical processes. We speak of the de- 
 velopment of plans, plots, ideas, the 
 mind ; and also of the development of 
 one species from another, of the de- 
 velopment of the body in growth ; 
 but these ai-e scientific terms involving 
 other ideas, as, e.g., of the vital func- 
 tions in growth. We should never 
 speak of the development of a flag or 
 a table-cloth. In other words, it is 
 not used of manual or mechanical 
 unfolding. On the other hand, in 
 the sense of the mechanical process of 
 gradually opening, Unfold is used as 
 well as in the other ; but in this latter 
 Develop expresses far more than Un- 
 folDj and relates to the laws of ex- 
 
 Sansion by wliich a thing unfolds in 
 efinite sequence of expansion, and 
 in conformity with principles which 
 conserve the type developed. Hence 
 we speak of a true and a vicious de- 
 velopment. But Unfold when used 
 of immaterial tilings means little more 
 than to exhibit or declare in order ; as 
 to unfold a tale. Principles, plots, or 
 plans are developed, circumstances un- 
 folded, difficulties and mysteries un- 
 ravelled. When Develop is used of 
 intellectual subject-matter, it denotes 
 the opening out of what contained 
 many ideas really expressed, but in a 
 manner so close and latent as not to 
 rtrike the observation or come home 
 
 to the understanding. A good defini- 
 tion sums up a matter so completely, 
 that no more is necessary than to de- 
 velop that definition to give all that 
 has to be known concerning it. 
 
 To Unravel (0. Germ, reffen, to 
 pluck) is purely a mechanical effort 
 of separating what is complicated, 
 whether naturally or accidentally, and 
 expresses simple disentanglement, not 
 growth or expansion. As the former 
 indicate ordinary processes of nature 
 or art, so the latter indicates extraor- 
 dinary and counteractive processes, 
 and often implies the abnormal state 
 of that which needs to be unravelled. 
 " Then take him to develop if you can. 
 And hew the block oftandget out the man," 
 Pope. 
 
 " Several pieces of cloth, the largest we 
 had seen being fifty yards long, which they 
 unfolded and displayed so as to make the 
 greatest show possible." — Cook's Foi/ages. 
 
 " What riddle's this ? Unfold youraelf^ 
 dear Robin." — Ben JoxNSun. 
 
 ♦' That great chain of causes which, link- 
 ing one to another, even to the throne of 
 God Himself, can never be unravelled by 
 any industry of ours." — BuRKK. 
 
 DEVOUT. Pious. Religious. 
 Holy. 
 
 Of these the two former are appli- 
 cable only to persons, the last in the 
 general sense of connected with or re- 
 lating to religion, to things, as re- 
 ligious edifices, meetings, books, &c., 
 holy places, and the like. The De- 
 vout man (Fr. devot) is he whose 
 mind is given to religious feeling, 
 and is apt in the exercise of prayer, 
 divine praise, and spiritual medita- 
 tion. The Pious man (Lat. phis) 
 has reverence and love toward the 
 Supreme Being. As Devout points 
 to the external observances of re- 
 ligion, so Pious points to its moral 
 sentiments. 
 
 Religious (Lat. retigio, reverence 
 for God) is a wider term, and de- 
 notes one who, in a general sense, 
 is under the influence of religion, ancr 
 is opposed to irreligious or worldly 
 as the pious man is o})posed to th 
 impious or profane, and the devout tfc 
 the indifferent or irreverent. 
 
 Holy (A. S. hdlig), when used of 
 persons, is employed to denote men of 
 
[dictate] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 323 
 
 especial saintliness or purity and in- ] 
 tegrity of life, the result of the con- I 
 tinued influence of religion upon their 
 nature. 
 
 " Thus we see the devoutness of His mind 
 in His frequent retirement to soli tary prayer, 
 in His habitual giving of thanks, in His re- 
 ference of the beauties and operations of 
 nature to the bounty of Providence, in His 
 earnest addresses to His Father, more par- 
 ticularly that short but solemn one before 
 raising Lazarus from the dead, and in the 
 deep piety of His behaviour in the garden 
 on the last evening of His life." — Palet. 
 
 " Our whole duty is made up but of three 
 things, that a man live soberly with respect 
 to himself, righteously with respect to his 
 neighbours, and piously with respect to 
 God."— Sharp. 
 
 " The first requisite in religion is serious- 
 ness ; no impi'ession can be made without 
 it. An orderly life so far as others are able 
 to observe us is now and then produced by 
 prudential motives or by dint of habit; but 
 without seriousness there can beno religious 
 principle at the bottom, no course of con- 
 duct from religious motives ; in a word, 
 there can be no religion." — Paley. 
 " Ye distant spires, ye antique towers 
 That crown the watery glade 
 Where grateful science still adores 
 Her Henry's holy shade." Gray. 
 
 DEXTERITY. Address. Adroit- 
 ness. 
 
 These terms are employed in a 
 physical and moral sense, that is, are 
 applied analogously to moral things. 
 
 Address (Fr. adresse) is moremental 
 than physical in any case. It denotes 
 skill practically applied, so as entirely 
 to meet a certain end, especially one 
 proposed on short notice. It is more 
 comprehensive than Dexterity (Lat. 
 dextintatem, dexttra, the right hand), 
 or Adroitness (Fr. adroit, dexterous, 
 shrewd). Dexterity is that kind of 
 cleverness which comes of heing a 
 perfect master hy practice or expe- 
 rience of the means or instrument 
 employed. Address may be shown 
 in improving advantages; dexterity 
 and aaroitness, which is a sharp and 
 sudden exhibition of dexterity, rather 
 denote the skilful avoidance of danger, 
 or escape from difficulty. Address is 
 a species of manners, that is, manners 
 as specifically exhibited towards cer- 
 tain persons. Lounging, inattention, 
 whistling in company indicate bad 
 manners. Hesitation, shyness, stam- 
 
 mering, a want of self-possecssion, oi 
 too much of it, show a bad address. 
 Dexterity relates primarily to the 
 manner of executing things, address 
 also to the means. Dexterity is more 
 fully dependent on practice and use, 
 address on natural qualities. Dex- 
 terity gives an air of ease and conse- 
 quent grace in action ; address add? 
 an air of fineness and ai-t. Dexterit_\ 
 is manual address, as address is mental 
 dexterity. Small matters may be con- 
 ducted with dexterity. Address is 
 shown not in trivial but in important 
 things. 
 
 " Whatever good from clear understand- 
 ing, delibei-ate advice, sagacious foresight, 
 stable resolution, dexterous address, right 
 intention, and orderly proceeding doth natu- 
 rally result, wisdom confers," — Barrow. 
 
 ♦' The dextei-ity of hand, indeed, even in 
 common trades, cannot be acquired without 
 much practice and experience." — SillTH, 
 Wealth, of Nations. 
 
 " The stoic and the libertine, the sinner 
 and the saint, are equally adroit in the ap- 
 plication of the telescope and thequadrant." 
 — HoRSLEY. 
 
 DIADEM. Crown. Coronet. 
 
 The Crown (Lat. cdrona) is the 
 simplest and most comprehensive of 
 these terms. It is applicable to almost 
 any thing that encircles the head, being 
 of a solid and ornamental character. 
 
 The Diadem (Gr. SiaJn^a, a band, 
 orjillet) was, as its name expresses, 
 an ornamental head-band or fillet 
 worn as an emblem of royalty. The 
 Coronet is a slighter kind of crown. 
 The crown is the symbol of royal 
 authority and dignity, the diadem of 
 imperial splendour, the coronet of 
 titled nobility. 
 
 DICTATE. Presckike. Suggest. 
 
 To Dictate (Lat. dictdre, part. 
 dictatus) is to issue a command in 
 such a way as that it shall appear to 
 be based upon the will of the com- 
 mander ; which deems nothing too 
 minute to be the subject of such com- 
 mand, as when a powerful party, 
 being oftended, dictates the terms on 
 which the apology shall be made. Tc 
 dictate is more authoritative, arbitrary, 
 and minute than Prescribe (Lat. 
 ■prccscnbere), and has to do with the 
 wordB and terms and minutiae of 
 
324 
 
 things; while Prescuibe has to do 
 
 rather with rules and general modes 
 of dealing-, as partaking less of the 
 nature of command and more of direct- 
 ion or counsel. Prescribing is com- 
 monly the expression of superior wis- 
 dom, dictation of superior power only, 
 or the assumption of it. 
 
 Suggest (Lat. sug^crtre) is less 
 authoritative than either, being a 
 holding out of partial truth or the 
 indirect exhibition of counsel or com- 
 mand, in faitli that the object of it 
 will himself supply what is practi- 
 cally needed to complete it. All three 
 are used of internal as well as external 
 promptings, as we speak of the dictates 
 of nature, of what is prescribed by rea- 
 son and common sense, and of the 
 suggestions of prudence. Of the three, 
 it may be said, that for their force, dic- 
 tation depends on the power of the 
 person dictating, prescription on the 
 wisdom of the thing prescribed, and 
 suggestion on the sense of the person 
 to whom the suggestion is made. 
 
 " I hope God hath given to me to be 
 master of my own passion, and endowed 
 me with that reason that will dictate nnto 
 me what is for my own good and benefit." 
 —State Trials. 
 
 " Prescribe not us our duties." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " Arthur, they say, is killed to-night. 
 
 On your suggestion," Ibid. 
 
 " Nothing certainly being so tyrannical 
 as ignorance, where time and possession 
 enable it to prescribe."— SovTK. 
 
 DICTIONARY. VocABui.AiiY. 
 Glossary. Lexicon. Encyclopedia. 
 
 Dictionary (Fr. dictionnaire) is a 
 list of words commonly an'anged in 
 alphabetical order, or whi-ch belong 
 to a system, whether of language or 
 any other, as a dictionary of botany, 
 medicine, biography. It admits of 
 every degree of copiousness in ex- 
 planation of the terms from a line to 
 an article. 
 
 Lexico:-! (X6|ixoy) is only the same 
 word in Greek asdictionary in English, 
 and is especiallyapplied to dictionaries 
 of the learned languages of Latin, 
 Greek, and Hebrew. 
 
 A Vocabulary (Lat. v)icdbulum, a 
 vocable, or word) is a list of terms, 
 like dictionaiy, connected with some 
 
 SYNONYMS lDICTIONAEyJ 
 
 system, but not professing to be ex- 
 haustive ;aB,e.g. a French vocabulary 
 of words most commonly used in con- 
 versation. It gives the meaning but 
 not the explanation of words. It 
 sometimes means any person's stock 
 of words. 
 
 A Glossary (Lat. glossdrium, Gr. 
 yXxff-c-a, a tongue) is an explanatory 
 vocabulary, in which certain words 
 are selected and arranged for con- 
 sideration in detail. It commonly 
 consists of peculiar words, unfamiliar 
 or unknown. 
 
 An ENCYCLOP^tDiA (Gr. EynvaXo- 
 Trai^iia, a somewhat barbarous substi- 
 tute for \yv.v)LMoti itai^tia ; literally, 
 circular instruction, i.e., instruction in 
 the circle of arts and sciences, the pro 
 fessional education of Greek youths), 
 unlike the preceding, is not restricted 
 to any system or province, but em- 
 braces the whole sphere of human 
 knowledge, and explains not merely 
 the meaningofwords,but the branches 
 of knowledge which they I'epresent. 
 
 " The laws of God and of Nature are safe, 
 but Salmasius' Dictionary is undone." — 
 Milton. 
 
 " His vocabulary/ seems to have been no 
 larger than was necessary for the transac- 
 tion of business." — Macaulay'. 
 
 " In the glossarial index of former edi 
 tions (of Shakespeare), the reader has 
 merely been presented with a long list of 
 words and references to the passages where 
 they occur, often with very different mean- 
 ings, and is thus called upon to roam over 
 many volumes in order to form a glossary 
 for himself."— Boswell. 
 
 *' The lexicons of ancient tongues." — 
 Johnson. 
 
 " This encyclopcedia and round of know- 
 ledge."— Sir T. Brown. 
 
 DIET. Food. Regimen. 
 
 As Food expresses generally any- 
 thing on which a living animal /m/s, 
 so Diet (Gr. iiaiTa, manner of living) 
 and Regimen (Lat. rtgimen, guidancef 
 government) are employed only of hu- 
 man beings. Diet is ordinary and sys- 
 tematic food, whether prescribed foi 
 health's sake or in any other way. 
 Black broth was part of the diet of 
 the ancient Spartans. Regimen differs 
 from diet, first in relating to quantity 
 as well as Quality of food prescribed, 
 and, secondly, in relating to other 
 
j diffbbence] discriminated. 
 
 325 
 
 matters appertaining to the way of 
 living, even to fasting, or the absti- 
 nence from food. 
 
 " Their failure as remedies may be rea- 
 •onablj attributed to the alterations which 
 the human frame is found to undergo in the 
 revolntion of ages by a general change of 
 ii^etie regimen"— Knox, Essays. 
 
 DIFFERENCE. Variety. Va- 
 riation. Contrast. Diversity. 
 Distinction. Contrariety. Dis- 
 agreement. 
 
 Difference (Lat. differentia) de- 
 notes no more than the state of being 
 mlike ; and inasmuch as Nature never 
 exactly repeats herself, the term is 
 employed to denote the mere absence 
 of identity, as, " It is a different per- 
 son," which is equivalent to, " It is 
 not the same person." The tenn 
 Different has to be distinguished 
 from various on the one hand, and un- 
 like on the other. Different shows 
 the uulikeness as existing in general ; 
 Various marks the dissimilarity of the 
 species. We might say that things 
 are infinitely various, but not in- 
 finitely different, for this latter word 
 relates not to abstract but to specific 
 unlikeness. The flowers of a rose- 
 bush will be of various sizes and 
 shades of colour, and, if the kind be 
 red, will be different from the white 
 kinds. Different people think dif- 
 ferently. Various is thus seen to be 
 of less intensity than Different. On 
 the other hand. Different stands to 
 Unlike as the positive to the negative. 
 Two things, in so far as they are 
 merely two, may be different without 
 being unlike. Between two things 
 that are different we may still draw a 
 comparison ; but unlikeness tends to 
 exclude comparison. Different be- 
 longs to the inherent nature of things, 
 unlike to the effect which they pro- 
 duce upon us. Blue is different from 
 green ; a circle is unlike a square. 
 
 Difference implies a comparison in- 
 stituted by the mind, with a view to 
 obviate confusion by precision of ideas. 
 Difference goes no farther than to ex- 
 clude identity. The difference is that 
 peculiarity of quality or form which 
 belongs to one thing exclusively o^ 
 another. 
 
 "latellccta&l differences shall shortly 
 
 cease, and tnen moral differences shall 
 take place. One moment shall equal the 
 learned and the unlearned. The knowing 
 and ignorant person shall at last stand 
 upon equal ground ; but the good and bad 
 men shall be differenced forever." — Bates. 
 
 Distinction (Lat. distinctibnem) is 
 sharply-defined or palpably- apparent 
 difference. Such distinction may be 
 natural, scientific, practical, or scien- 
 tific and natural at the same time. 
 " A binary constellation, which, under 
 a telescope of low power, looks like a 
 single star,under one of greater power, 
 resolves itself in'ji t^o distinct stars.*' 
 This is a purely physical distinction. 
 The distinction between contrary and 
 contradictory propositions in logic is 
 technical or scientific. The distinc- 
 tion between the animal and vegetable 
 departments of nature is both scien- 
 tific and natural. In the common 
 {)hrase, " A distinction without a dif- 
 erence,"the term is used in the sense 
 of a mental or scientific distinction, 
 which tlie phrase denotes as being 
 sought to be made, while no corre- 
 sponding difference exists in fact or 
 nature. To murder all without dis- 
 tinction of sex or age, means to do so 
 without recognizing these natural diffe- 
 rences ; the phrase without distitiction 
 being here equivalent to without 
 making or observing a distinction. 
 Distinction is applied to delicate varia- 
 tions, diversity to glaring differences, 
 difference to hostile unlikeness. 
 
 " Men, women, maids without distinction 
 fall." Shakespeare. 
 
 As Differ ence andDisTiNcriON are 
 absolute, so Variety, Variation, and 
 Diversity are relative. They imply 
 at least some common idea to which 
 the objects are refened, if not some 
 common nature to which they belong. 
 
 Variety (Lat. vdrietiitem) denotes 
 difference of such a nature as sti-ikes 
 the observation in any aggregate of 
 things, or in one thing as regards the 
 aggregate or class to which it is re- 
 ferred, as a variety of objects in a 
 landscape, a variety of the species. 
 \'ariety is an ordinance of nature for 
 relieving the effect of too great unifor- 
 mity. The mind takes cognizance of 
 variety, as the taste of diversity and 
 the perception of difference. 
 
 Variation (Lat. vUriatibnem^ •!- 
 
J26 
 
 presses a process, as variety expresses 
 a result; and therefore may mean a pur- 
 posed inducing of variety as well as 
 that which is without design. Variety 
 can only be between two or more 
 things or parts of the same thing; but 
 variation may be of one entire thing. 
 So we might say, " There is gi-eat 
 variety of colour in this single flower," 
 but we should mean in different parts 
 of it. Or, again, the flower, that is, the 
 whole of it, has undergone great varia- 
 tion from change of soil. 
 
 Diversity (Lat. diversttdtem) is in- 
 ternal, essential, or natural difference. 
 This may be between two only or 
 many,while Variety is of many. Yet 
 diversity falls short of Contrariety 
 ( L. Lat. contrdrietatenQf which is re- 
 pugnant diversity. Diversity is that 
 difference among things of which the 
 taste takes cognizance, and by the 
 novelty of which it is surprised and 
 pleased. A diversity is a striking 
 difference either in the properties or 
 appearance of the same object, or 
 among more than one object contem- 
 plated simultaneously. As difference 
 supposes resemblance, so diversity 
 supposes opposition and contrast, 
 which the taste seeks in things, and 
 which gratifies it when found. 
 
 "And all variety or difference of exis- 
 tence must needs arise from some external 
 cause, and be dependent upon it, and pro- 
 portionable to the efficiency of that cause, 
 whatsoever it be," — Clarke. 
 
 "The essences of things are conceived 
 not capable of such variation."— hoCKK. 
 
 "They cannot be divided, but they will 
 prove opposite, and not resting in a bare 
 diversity, rise into a. contrariety." — South. 
 
 Contrast ( Fr.contrasie) isstrongly- 
 marked opposition. This implies not 
 necessarily similarity of nature in the 
 things contrasted, but a capability at 
 least of being viewed together, other- 
 wise there would be no room for con- 
 trast. Any two or more things which 
 in juxtaposition exhibit different pro- 
 perties or excite different feelings or 
 impressions in the mind, may form a 
 contrast. 
 
 Disagreement (see Agree) is such 
 contrariety as exists between things 
 which ought to be at one, or between 
 which an I'-Uy is sought to beesta- 
 
 SYNONYMS LDIFFICULTT] 
 
 blished. It is used not only of matters 
 of the human will, but in the general 
 sense of being unsuited or at variance, 
 as two naiTatives may disagree. 
 
 " Contrasts and resemblances of the 
 seasons."— Whewell. 
 
 Contrast can only be employed of 
 objects or subjects which have some- 
 thing in common in their nature cr 
 relations. There is no contrast be- 
 tween a man and a dog or a tree, but 
 between a tall ti*ee and a stunted 
 shrub. 
 
 •' The second act of the mind is putting 
 together such single objects in order to 
 our comparing of the agreement or dis- 
 agreement between them, by which we 
 make propositions, which we call judging." 
 — WiLKINS, 
 
 DIFFICULTY. Obstacle. Im- 
 pediment. Obstruction. 
 
 Difficulties (Lat. difftcultdtem) 
 are generally complicated, Obstacles 
 (Lat. obstdcilliim, a hindrance) f 
 and Impediments (Lat. impedlmen' 
 turn) usually simple. Difliculties are 
 not usually sunnounted by vigour, 
 energy, resolution, hardihood, and 
 the like, but by patience, skill, and 
 perseverance. The cutting of the 
 Gordian knot was an escape from, no« 
 a solution of the difficulty. In march- 
 ing through a foreign country, the 
 difficulties of the general lie in many 
 incidental things — the badness of the 
 roads, the nature of the climate, the 
 disposition of the natives, the scarcity 
 or remoteness of provisions. A pre- 
 cipitous valley suddenly yawnino 
 under the feet of the soldiers would 
 be an obstacle, that is, a barrier, to 
 their progress, to be surmounted as 
 best it miglit. As an obstacle is al- 
 ways external, so impediment it 
 commonly internal, and operates con- 
 tinually , having the effect of retarding 
 progress, while an obstacle checks if 
 altogether till it is removed. A rivei 
 might be an obstacle, a heavy cloak 
 an impediment to the traveller. In 
 common parlance, difficulties are met 
 and solved, obstacles surmounted, im- 
 pediments removed. It is obvious 
 that the same ching may be sometimes 
 all three, accorUing; to the point of 
 view from which u is rega»"lo^. Tb« 
 
[difpidenceJ discriminated. 
 
 327 
 
 eloquence of Demosthenes was to 
 Philip of Macedon a difficulty to be 
 met with his best resources, an ob- 
 Btacle to his own ambition, and an 
 impediment in his political career. 
 Difficulties perplex, impediments em- 
 barrass, obstacles deter or retard. 
 Difficulties commonly arise out of the 
 Inherent nature and character of the 
 matter in hand. Obstacles come from 
 foreign causes. Impediments come 
 from some established law or superior 
 force. In deliberative meetings, great 
 difficulties are sometimes raised by 
 factious spirits. The objection of tlie 
 parents is commonly a serious obstacle 
 in the way of a proposed marriage. 
 That it shor.ld fall within the pro- 
 hibited degrees of affinity would pre- 
 sent such an impediment as it might 
 be impossible to remove. The diffi- 
 culty embarrasses, and no more. The 
 obstacle hinders, but it may be sur- 
 mounted. The impediment is fatal ; 
 the only hope lies in removing it. 
 
 The Obstruction (Lat. obstriic- 
 tionem) is not so sti-ong as Obstacle, 
 which latter has also a more abstract 
 sense. We surmount obstacles, and re- 
 move obstructions. An obstacle may be 
 moral and internal, as indolence is an 
 obstacle to success. Obstruction is 
 external, and lies in the path. An 
 obstacle for the time checks, an ob- 
 struction retards. 
 
 " 'Tis he th' ohstfucted paths of sound shall 
 
 dear. 
 And bid new music charm th' unfolding 
 
 ear." Pope. 
 
 " Was ever anything difficult or glorious 
 achieved by a sudden cast of a thought, 
 a flying stricture of the imagination ? "— 
 South. 
 
 " The want of this (a life conformable to 
 the religion which we profess) hath been an 
 impediment to the progress of Christianity, 
 and a stumbling-block in the way of un- 
 believers." — JORTIX. 
 
 " Because an obstacle by nature earthly 
 and foul doth not receive the pure clearness 
 of light." — Ralegh. 
 
 DIFFIDENCE. Distrust. Mis 
 trust. Misgiving. Suspicion. 
 
 Of these, the first. Diffidence 
 (Lat. diffT.dentia), if the word stands 
 alone, is only used of ourselves. It is 
 a d''>tjust QT our own powers, or a 
 
 slowness to give ourselves credit for 
 having any. It may be with or with- 
 out sufficient grounds. Distrust is 
 want of trust both as regards our- 
 selves and others. It relates not only 
 to the power but to the will, and to 
 schemes, effijrts, and the like. Mis- 
 trust relates not to the power but oniy 
 to the will, and hence can only be pro- 
 perly used of animate beings. To dis- 
 trust is to doubt the s^ifficiency, mis- 
 trust, to doubt the integrity. Iff send 
 a messenger on a confidential errand, 
 and then say I distrust him, I mean, 
 or ought to mean, I distrust his 
 powers, and fear that he will not 
 carry out successfully what I have 
 confided to him. If I say I mistrust 
 him, I mean, I fear that he will inten- 
 tionally play me false. To distrust is 
 to feel absence of trust. To mistrust is 
 to have a feeling of wrono; trust. Dis- 
 trust is more nearly related to diffi- 
 dence, mistrust to suspicion. Mis- 
 giving is entirely inte'-nal or reflexive. 
 It is the spontaneous suggestion 
 of distrust, when the shadow of doubt 
 is, as it were, cast back upon a former 
 conviction, resolution, or act. 
 
 Suspicion (Lat. susyicibneTn) relate! 
 to something external to ourselves, or, 
 at least, sometliing of which we have 
 no direct cognizance. It is the ten- 
 dency to believe without adequate 
 proof in the existence of something 
 which is, by usage, unfavourable, 
 hurtful, or wrong. We do not com- 
 monly suspect good. Yet this sense 
 is not to be absolutely excluded, for 
 both the verb "suspect and the noun 
 " suspicion " are sometimes taken in 
 the general way of imagining to exist 
 under circumstances of concealment, 
 AS, " Judging from the roughness of 
 his manner, one would little suspect 
 the real tenderness of his disposi- 
 tion." 
 
 " There were some essays made faintly, 
 diffidently, and occasionally at first like those 
 of men who, emerging out of darkness, were 
 dazzled as well as enlightened."— BoLINO- 
 
 "It appears evidently that God's moving 
 David, or Satan's provoking him, or his own 
 distrustful heart tempting him, to number 
 the people, are all phrases that haA-e one 
 and the same meaning."— Clakkk. 
 
328 
 
 SYMONYMS 
 
 [diffuse] 
 
 «' Next stood Mistrust, with freqnent sigh, 
 Disordered look, and squinting eye. 
 While meagre Envy claimed a place, 
 And Jealousy, with jaundiced face," 
 
 Cotton. 
 
 " No man should reckon every doubting 
 or misgiving of his heart about the safety of 
 bis spiritual estate inconsistent with that 
 3onfidence toward God which is here spoken 
 of."— South. 
 
 " Suspicion may be excited by some kind 
 of accusation not supported by evidence 
 sufficient for conviction, but sufficient to 
 trouble the repose of confidence."— CoGAN. 
 
 DIFFUSE. DiscunsivE. Prolix. 
 Copious. 
 
 Of these, as epithets applied to 
 styles of speaking or writing, Dif- 
 fuse ( Lat. dij'uiidere, part, diffmus, 
 to pour in different directions) rather 
 relates to the language, Discursive 
 (Lat. discurrire, to run about, part, dis- 
 cursus) to the treatment of the subject, 
 and Prolix (Lat. prolixus, stretched 
 far out) to the effect of both in com- 
 bination. A diffuse writer or speaker 
 is not sparing of time or space. He 
 employs sentences which might have 
 been condensed into fewer words, and 
 expands into imagery, illustration, 
 and amplification of all sorts. Diffuse- 
 ness is the extreme of which Copious- 
 NESS (Lat. cdpiosris, well supplied, 
 eloquent) is the mean, and may be the 
 result either of wealth of thought or 
 language, or simply of the contrary, 
 and an inability to compress. Dis- 
 cursive denotes the absence of unity, 
 system, method, and sequence. It 
 belongs to a mind, which does not 
 estimate the relative bearings of dif- 
 ferent portions of the subject-matter 
 upon the central point, and treats 
 them in undigested series. Prolix 
 denotes any sort of protraction of dis- 
 course which imparts tlie sense of 
 weariness, and of superfluous minute- 
 ness or tedious length in the treatment 
 cf the subject. 
 
 " A sentiment which, expressed diffusely, 
 will barely be admitted to be just, expressed 
 roncisely, will be admired as spirited."— 
 Blair. 
 
 It is remarkable that the unfavour- 
 able sense of the term Discursive is of 
 recent growth. In the older English 
 writers the word is employed as the 
 adjective corresponding to discourse 
 
 — the Latin discursus, reasoning — as in 
 the following : — 
 
 " Rational and discursive methods are fit 
 only to be made use of in philosophers, men 
 of deep reason, and improved minds. Th« 
 generality of mankind would be utterly in 
 sensible of their force."— Atterbury, 
 
 "Bat flie we now prolixitie best is."- 
 Chaucer. 
 
 " The sense of the laws, I am sure, is on 
 my side, which are by no means sparing of 
 the orator's time. It is not brevity, but 
 copiousness, a full representation of every 
 circumstance, which they recommend." — 
 MklmoTH, Pliny. 
 
 DIGNITY. Loftiness. Haugh- 
 tiness. 
 
 Dignity (Lat. dignitatem) is used 
 in the different senses of excellence 
 or importance, high station, and lofti- 
 ness of demeanour. In this latter 
 sense it is the honourable mean of 
 which the others are vicious ex- 
 tremes. Dignity, in its best sense, 
 is that elevation of soul without pride 
 which shows itself in the manners and 
 in demeanour toward others. It flows 
 from a proper consciousness of what 
 is due to oneself, combined with a re- 
 cognition of the claims of others. 
 
 Loftiness (loft, an upper room ; 
 prop, meaning, air; A. S. Ijift, Ger 
 Inft) is such an air as seems to indi- 
 cate a vague sense of personal supe- 
 riority, which, in ordinary persons, 
 is pitiable and ridiculous, and grace- 
 ful not even in the highest of rank. 
 
 Haughtiness (a corr. of 0. Eng. 
 hautein-ness, O. Fr. hautain, from 
 haut, high) is more offensive than 
 loftiness, because it is the result of 
 comparison of self with others, result- 
 ing m the persuasion that they ought 
 to be treated as inferiors. Dignity 
 unlike the others, conveys the idea 
 grace of manner. 
 
 " Taller, indeed, 
 I may perceive than he, but with these 
 
 eyes 
 Saw never yet such dignity and grace." 
 
 CowPER, Jliad. 
 It may be observed that Loftiness is 
 often used as a terra of praise, when 
 not applied to persons and demeanour, 
 as in the following : — 
 
 "The loftiness of his fancy, the richnesi 
 of his vein, and the elegancy of his styl«.*^ 
 —Barrow. 
 
[^DILIGENT] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 829 
 
 " As many more can iliT-eove that a man 
 is richer than that he is wiser than them- 
 selves, superiority of understanding is nut 
 to readily acknowledged as that of fortune ; 
 nor is that haughtiness which the conscious- 
 ness of great abilities incites borne with the 
 same submission as the tyranny of afflu- 
 ence. "—Johnson. 
 
 DILAfE. Expand. Extend. 
 Enlarge. Distend. 
 
 To Dilate, (o Distend, and to 
 P^xpAND differ from to Extend and 
 to Enlarge, in denoting an increase 
 of bulk or space wrought on all sides, 
 or, at least, on more tiian one ; while 
 the latter may be by increase only in 
 one direction. Again, Dilate (Lat. 
 dltatdre, act. and neut., to spread out) 
 and Distend (Lat.disfe/tdere, to stretch 
 asunder) only apply to hollow bodies 
 or space enclosed within confines. 
 Expand (Lat. expandh-e), Extend 
 (Lat. estendh-e), and Enlarge (Fr. 
 large^ Lat. largus, large, extensive) are 
 api)licable to superficial measure, and 
 Exi END and En la no e also to number. 
 A thing is dilated when the hollow of 
 its centre is made wider. It is ex- 
 panded when it is made to occupy 
 more space. It is extended when its 
 bulk or length is prolono;ed or in- 
 creased in any one direction. It is 
 enlarged when it is in any way, but 
 especially by external addition, made 
 larger. It is distended when it is 
 dilated by the elasticity of its parts. 
 In dilating, expanding, and distend- 
 ing there is no addition of substance, 
 which is the case in extending and 
 enlarging. 
 
 " Here, by the by, we take notice of the 
 wonderful dilatability or extensiveness of the 
 throats and gullets of serpents. I myself 
 have taken two entire adult mice out of the 
 stomach of an adder whose neck was not 
 bigger than my little finger." — Ray. 
 
 •' Then with expanded wings he steers his 
 
 flight. 
 Aloft incumbent on the dusky air 
 That felt unusual weight, till on dry Jand 
 He lights, if it were land that ever burned 
 With solid, as the lake with liquid fire." 
 Milton. 
 "The extenders of empire are admired 
 anl commended, howsoever they do it, al- 
 though with cruel wars, or by any unjust 
 means. "—Barrow. 
 
 "He that is in such a condition as doth 
 {>lsee him above contempt and below envy 
 oannot by iny enlargement of his fortune be [ 
 
 made really more rich or more happy than 
 he is."— WiLKlNS. 
 
 "It is not nature's abhorrency of a 
 vacuum, but the distension of the water, 
 that breaks glasses when the contained 
 liquors come to be congealed."— Bo vle. 
 
 DILATORY. Procrastinating. 
 
 These words very closely resemble 
 each other, and seem to express the 
 same thing from different points of 
 view. The Procrastinating man 
 (Lat. procrasttnare, to put off till to- 
 morrow, eras) is regarded in his habits 
 as a man tending to postpone acting 
 when he might or ought to have 
 begun. 
 
 The Dilatory man (Lat. dildto- 
 rius) is regarded in his acts, which he 
 does tardily and after time, the result 
 of previous procrastination. It may 
 be observed, also, that procrastination 
 refers to the whole of any act, while 
 dilatorinegs belongs to the details of 
 it as well. In the execution of his 
 work, the procrastinating man, when 
 he has once begun, has ceased to pro- 
 crastinate, but the dilatory man may 
 be dilatory while he works. There 
 are persons who are given to pro- 
 crastination, but who are singularly 
 undilatory when once they have be- 
 gun to work. 
 
 " The king of Spain, mdeed, delayed to 
 comply with our proposals, and our arma- 
 ment was made necessary by unsatisfac- 
 tory answers and dilatory debates." — John- 
 son. 
 
 " The enemy of mankind hath furnished 
 thee with an evasion. For that he may 
 make smooth the way to perdition, he will 
 tell the procrastinator that the thief upon 
 the cross was heard by our Saviour at the 
 last hour." — Junius. 
 
 Men only are procrastinating; both 
 men and measures may be dilatory. 
 
 DILIGENT. Active. Assiduous. 
 Industrious. Laborious. Sedu- 
 lous. Expeditious. Prompt. 
 
 The Diligent man (Fr. diligent) 
 is he who gives sustained attention 
 to any matter which admits of per- 
 severance and interest. This may be 
 a matter of habit with things in gene- 
 ral, or with some one occupation in 
 particular, or it may be occasional 
 without being habitual. It denotes a 
 specific pursuit. In this respect it 
 differs from Industrious (Lat. indus- 
 
330 
 
 triosus) which denotes a nature which 
 loves work for its own sake. Dili- 
 gence signifies the attention we pay 
 to any particular object out of prefe- 
 rence to others. Industry is the 
 habit of laying up for ourselves a 
 Btore, whether of knowledge or worldly 
 goods. Diligence often produces in- 
 dustry, w^hich may be employed on 
 many various objects. The man who 
 gleans information from many diffe- 
 rent sources is industrious ; he who 
 studies a pai'ticular subject with atten- 
 tion is diligent. Hence the quality of 
 diligence is not attributed to the infe- 
 rior animals, while the bee and the ant 
 are termed industrious. Diligence is a 
 combination of activity and order. 
 The diligent man does not lose a 
 moment, but employs and fills up all 
 his time. It is a high and valuable 
 quality, yet belonging rather to se- 
 condary than to the highest minds. 
 It is the indispensable requisite of all 
 ordinary success, especially because, 
 to the diligent man, work is not irk- 
 some. 
 
 The Active man (Fr. acttf) loves 
 employment, and is uneasy when he 
 has nothing to do. He has not neces- 
 sarily the specific aim of the diligent, 
 or the love of grave study or hard 
 work which belongs to the industrious, 
 but his constitution recoils from in- 
 dolence or long repose. 
 
 Labotiious (Lat. IKhoriosus) is em- 
 ployed both of the agent and the work, 
 and is a stronger form of Industrious, 
 as applied to jjersons. The laborious 
 man does not gfudge hard effort where 
 needed, especially in compensating 
 for liis own deficiencies. 
 
 Assiduous (Lat. assidinis, assHdh'e, 
 to sit near, to sit down) and Sedulous 
 (Lat. sidiilus) both express steady 
 and persevering attention to an occu- 
 pation or pursuit; but Skdulous de- 
 notes that it is natural or habitual. 
 Assiduous only denotes the fact, which 
 may be casual without implying a 
 habit. The assiduous person is con- 
 stantly attentive, the sedulous con- 
 stantly busy. Sedulous belongs rather 
 to the quiet matters of common occu- 
 oation, and is a term of a quieter 
 
 SYNONYMS [DIRECTJ 
 
 character than Assiduous. Moreover 
 Sedulous expresses continuity of ^w- 
 ployment, assiduity continuity of pur^ 
 pose. One may be assiduous in making 
 efforts periodically, or when occasion 
 offers ; but he who is sedulous sticks 
 to his task without intermission. 
 
 "Diligence and accnracy are the only 
 merits which an historical writer may 
 ascribe to himself, if any merit indeed can 
 be assumed from the performance of an in- 
 dispensable duty." — Gibbon. 
 
 " The soul, being an active nature, is al- 
 ways propending to the exercising of one 
 faculty or other."— Glanvill. 
 
 " A scholar is industrious who doth as- 
 siduoicsly bend his mind to study for getting 
 knowledge."— Barrow. 
 
 "Whence labour or pain is commonly 
 reckoned an ingredient of industry, and 
 laboriousness is a name signifyine it." — 
 Ibid. 
 
 " Be sedulous to discharge thy trust. Be 
 zealous for souls, and careless of money." 
 Bishop Taylor. 
 
 He who is diligent loses no time at 
 his work, which he performs assi- 
 duously. He who is Expeditious (Lat, 
 expMire, to expedite, part, expeditus) 
 performs it with rapidity, which may 
 be the result of diligence or ability or 
 both. 
 
 He who is Prompt (Lat. promptus, 
 ready) is quick to undertake, as well 
 as to execute and discharge, his task 
 with that expedition which comes 
 from a willing mind. One should be 
 diligent in the task which one has to 
 do, expeditious in that which requires 
 to be brought to a speedy termination, 
 prompt in executing the orders one 
 has received. Diligence is never 
 wrong in itself, though it may, of 
 course, be in a bad cause. Expedi- 
 tion, on the other hand, may be ex 
 cess^ve, and promptitude misplaced. 
 
 DIRECT. Conduct. Regulate. 
 
 To Direct (Lat. d'v^gere, pail. 
 directus), as applied to the adminis- 
 tration of affairs, is more authoritative 
 than Conduct (Lat. condticei'ej part, 
 conductus, to lead together), while Con- 
 duct is more active or operative. We 
 direct by ordering others in the way 
 to a certain end, as to direct the 
 movements of an army. We conduct 
 by actually taking a practical part, aa 
 
[directly] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 331 
 
 we speak of conducting an important 
 or lucrative business. 
 
 Regulate (Lat. rigiildre) stands 
 midway between, with less of the 
 command of Direct, and less of the 
 activity of Conduct ; as, to regulate 
 the proceedings of a public meeting. 
 
 "And, to prevent all dangers and all dis- 
 order, there should always be two of the 
 scholars with them, as witnesses and direc- 
 tors of their actions." — CoWLKY. 
 
 " If the Jews under his conduct should 
 endeavour to recover their liberties, and 
 fail in it, they knew that the nation would 
 be severely punished by the Romans." — 
 JORTIN. 
 
 " Knowledge without its regulator, tem- 
 [erance."— Warburton. 
 
 DIRECT. Right. Straight. 
 
 Right (Lat. rectus) and Straight 
 (0. Fr. estroity Lat. strictus), as em- 
 ])loyed of lines or lines of move- 
 ment, differ as the technical from the 
 natural. A right line is a line ma- 
 thematically straight. Direct has 
 more than a physical meaning, and 
 denotes that which goes to the point 
 intended with as much straight- 
 forwardness as possible. In this 
 sense we speak of a direct answer to 
 a question. A direct road to a town 
 :s one which conducts to it at once 
 without leading elsewhere ; this it may 
 do without bem^ sti'aight, or repre- 
 sented by a right line upon paper. 
 Straight has the purely physical 
 meaning of not crooked, and may 
 be employed of physical objects, as 
 a straight stick; a mode in which 
 neither right nor direct can be em- 
 ployed. 
 
 '* Sounds do not re(^uire to be conveyed to 
 the sense in a right line as visibles do, but 
 may be arched, though it be true they move 
 strongest in a right line, which nevertheless 
 is not caused by the rightness of the line, 
 but by the shortness of the distance." — 
 Bacon. 
 
 "Truth is the shortest and nearest way 
 to onr end, carrying us thither in a straight 
 line."— Tillotson. 
 
 "There be that are in nature faithful 
 and sincere, and plain and direct, not crafty 
 and involved." — Bacon. 
 
 DIRECTION. Address. Order. 
 
 Of these the former more strictly 
 
 lelates to things and places, the latter 
 
 to persons ; the Direction of a letter 
 is the place to which it is to be sent. 
 The Address includes the person to 
 whom it is to be sent. 
 
 "There could not be a ^eater chance 
 than that which bronghtto light the powder 
 treason.when Providence as it wt?re snatched 
 a king and kingdom out of the very jaws ol 
 death only by the mistake of a word in the 
 direction of a letter."— South. 
 
 " The Kinges highnes addressed his 
 gracious letters to the maior and comonaltie 
 of the citie."— Hall, Henry VIII. 
 
 As distinguished from Order, 
 Direction conveys more promi- 
 nently the idea of instruction, while 
 Order conveys that of authority. A 
 master may give Directions to his ser- 
 vant, or a friend may give dii-ections 
 to another how he is to proceed in cer- 
 tain cases, as, for instance, how he is 
 to find a certain locality in a large 
 town; but Order is always authori- 
 tative. 
 
 " Wisdom is profitable to direct."— Eng- 
 lish Bible. 
 
 " To execute laws is a royal office, to 
 execute orders is not to be a King."— 
 BURKK. 
 
 DIRECTLY. Immediately. In- 
 stantly. Instantaneously. Forth- 
 with. Incontinently. 
 
 Directly refers more especially t« 
 the actions of men, Immediately 
 (Lat. immtdlatusy not having anything 
 in the middle, a logical tenn) to the 
 course of time. 
 
 Instantly (Lat. instans, present) 
 is formed to express an interval so 
 small as to be inappreciable. In- 
 stantaneously has the same mean- 
 ing, but with the specific reference 
 to (he interval between the cause and 
 its effect. " I desired him to go, 
 and he went directly." Immediately 
 has a negative. Instantly a positive 
 force. "■ I went immediately, would 
 mean that I allowed nothing to in- 
 tervene between the present moment 
 and my going. It commonly follows 
 something to which it refers, as to a 
 sort of date or starting-point. In- 
 stantly commonly relates to the ac- 
 tions of intelligent agents, Instan 
 taneously to physical causation as 
 appreciated by the senses, as " The 
 explosion was instantaneous ;" "lu 
 
332 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 the accident I 
 
 [disability] 
 
 fitantly upon seein 
 ran to the spot." 
 
 Forthwith is a word formed to ex- 
 press imraed lateness of procedure, or 
 unbroken continuity of effect. In- 
 continently (Fr. mcoiitinent) ex- 
 presses the same idea negatively, tliat 
 of the absence of any restraint or 
 detention. The word is somewhat 
 antiquated. 
 
 "Immediately he sent word to Athens 
 that he would incontinently come hither 
 with a host of men," — GoLDYNG. 
 
 " Immediately there fell from his eyes as 
 it had been scales, and he received sight 
 forthwith. "—English Bible. 
 
 "Directly he stopped, the coffin was 
 removed by four men." — Dickens. 
 
 Straight in poetry, and straightway 
 in older English are used in the same 
 sense. 
 
 " I know thy generous temper well : 
 Fling but the appearance of dishonour on it. 
 It straight takes fire and mounts into a 
 blaze." Addison. 
 
 " Sleep instantly fell on me." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 "Sometimes the bull drops down dead 
 instantaneously." — Swinbukne, Spain. 
 
 DISABILITY. Inability. Dis- 
 qualification. 
 
 Disability (Lat. prejix dis; and 
 O.Fr.habile, Eng. able, Lat. huMUs) is 
 privative; Inability is ??eo-a(it;e. Dis- 
 ability expresses the absence of power 
 or fitness, physical, moral, intellectual, 
 or social, in a subject capable of it. 
 Inability expresses its absence in a 
 subject incapable of it. In this way 
 inability is iri-emediable, disability 
 may be sometimes removed by giving, 
 or giving back, the qualifications. 
 
 Disqualification (Lat. dis-, and 
 qualify) differs from Disability in 
 being more general, while Disability 
 is commonly used of specific social 
 privileges. 
 
 *' For they will be freed from that terrene 
 concretion and remains of the carnal part 
 bringing on the inconveniences, disabilities, 
 pains, and mental disorders spoken of in 
 the last section." — Search. 
 
 " It is not from inability to discover what 
 they ought to do that men err in practice." 
 — Blaik. 
 
 " We often pretend, and sometimes really 
 wish, to sympathize with the joys of others 
 when by that disagreeable sentiment (enTy) 
 we are disqualified hova. doing so."— Smith, 
 Moral Sentiments. 
 
 DISADVANTAGE. Detriment. 
 
 The former relates to the possible, 
 the latter to the actual. A Disad- 
 vantage {see Advantage) is that 
 which hinders from tlie amount of 
 good which otherwise might have 
 been attained. A Detriment (Lat. 
 detrimentum, loss, damage, detertre, to 
 rub away) diminishes the amount of 
 good actually existing. Disadvantage 
 commonly refers to the actions and 
 well-being of intellig;ent agents, detri- 
 ment to anything of the nature of a 
 valuable possession, or which ought 
 to be preserved in integrity. • 
 
 *' Besides, it plainly proveth the proper 
 ness of their parts and tallness of theii 
 industry who thereby, and by God s bless- 
 ing thereon, reached so high preferment, 
 though disadvantaged by standing on so 
 low ground of their extraction." — Fuller. 
 
 " Though every man hath a property in 
 his goods, yet he must not use them in detri- 
 ment of the commonwealth." — StateTrials, 
 Hampden. 
 
 DISAFFECTION. Disloyalty. 
 
 The former is a wider term than 
 the latter. It denotes, generally, 
 alienation or want ef goodwill. Dis- 
 loyalty (O. ¥r. disloyal, disloyal ; loi, 
 law) does not necessarily imply dis- 
 affection, as in England, to a monar- 
 chical head, or form of government, 
 but may be to any superior, and 
 especially to the form of government 
 under which one lives. All disloyalty 
 is, of course, disaffection ; but all 
 disaffection is not disloyalty. If the 
 disaffection be against an usurped 
 government, it may spring from loyal 
 attachment to that which is the right- 
 ful form. 
 
 "Cordelia at length arrives; an opiate 
 is administered to the king to calm the 
 agonies and agitations of his mind, and a 
 most interesting interview ensues between 
 this daughter that was so unjustly suspected 
 of disaffection and the rash and mistaken 
 father. ' — Adventurer. 
 
 "The dev;\ and his ministers, wicked 
 seedsmen, so^\dd in you darnel and cockle, 
 treason and disloyalty. They h&ye mada 
 you forget your duty to your natural p(ia;:« 
 and caantry."— State Trials. 
 
[DISAVOWJ 
 
 DI80KIM1NATED. 
 Balk. (See 
 
 333 
 
 DISAPPOINT. 
 
 Baffle.) 
 
 These teims both imply the depriv- 
 ing another of something which he 
 had anticipated ; but Disappoint ( Fr. 
 dtsapointcr, see Appoint) refers com- 
 monly to what is hoped, desired, or 
 expected. Balk (O. E. fra/fc, meaning 
 a beam, or an unploughed ridge or 
 strip between two furrows) to what 
 is planned or devised. Hence Balk 
 is hardly used but of such things as are 
 done on purpose, while Disappoint 
 is employed of any untoward in- 
 fluence. The farmer is disappointed 
 by heavy rains in harvest time. The 
 term Balk is commonly used of the 
 stopping of discreditable rather than 
 of honourable designs. 
 
 " By the inward overpowering influences 
 of His Spirit a man's desires shall become 
 cold and dead to those things which before 
 were so extremely apt to captivate and 
 command them, than which there can not he 
 a greater balk to the tempter, nor a more 
 effectual defeat to all his temptations."— 
 South. 
 
 " Cut off even in the blossom of my sin, 
 Unhouzled, disappointed, unaneled." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 DISAPPROBATION. Dis- 
 approval. 
 
 Although these words have the 
 same root (Lat. appr^bare, to approve) 
 they are employed in a different 
 way. Disapprobation is the feeling, 
 Disapproval is the expression of 
 it. Hence disapproval is the more 
 public and formal. To disapprove is 
 therefore sometimes used in the sense 
 of formally refusing a sanction, or 
 annulling, in consequence of the feel- 
 ing of disapprobation. As, " The 
 acts of the provincial governor were 
 disapproved by the government at 
 home ; " or, " His acts met with the 
 disapprobation of the senate." 
 
 «' Now the chief gentlemen of all countries 
 travelled to him to tender their service, 
 which implied a disapprobation at least, if 
 not a contempt of the two houses' carriage 
 towards him."— CLARENDoy. 
 " I disapprove alike 
 The host whose assiduity extreme 
 Distresses, aud whose negligence offends." 
 CowpER'S Homer. 
 
 DISAVOW. Deny. Disown. 
 k*/uL»;ATE, Disclaim. 
 
 To Disavow (O. Fr. disavoxier) is to 
 refuse to acknowledge in a strong 
 manner, with some solemnity, and in 
 general terms. 
 
 " A solemn promise made and diS' 
 avowed."— Dryden's Virgil. 
 
 To Deny (O. Fr. denier, Lat. dhie- 
 gdre) is to contradict specifically. A 
 disavowal is commonly volunteered ; 
 a denial -fbllows upon a specific impu- 
 tation. We disavow facts or charges 
 in which we are said to be personally 
 implicated. We deny assertions and 
 requests of others as well. Denial 
 has the broadest possible application, 
 being employed of anything which in 
 any sense might be affirmed. 
 
 "And thus to rack the sacred writings, 
 to force them, whether they will or no, to 
 bring evidence to our opinions, is an affront 
 to our authority which is next to the deny 
 ing on't."— Glajnvill. 
 
 To Disown is, as the term implies, 
 to disavow or deny, as connected with 
 one's self personally, to refuse to ac- 
 knowledge personal interest, author- 
 ship, or relationship generally. 
 
 •'But when yon say it is impossible for 
 y( u upon the sudden and without the advice 
 of counsel to own or disown books, yon seem 
 very dark to me. I cannot dive into your 
 meaning." — Utate Trials. 
 
 Repudiate (Lat. rtpMiare, to di- 
 vorce, to repudiate) is to force away 
 from one's self what some other per- 
 son or some external power would 
 connect with us, as a gift, claim, 
 or responsibility. The term was 
 of old employed iu the technical 
 sense of divorce, but with a difference, 
 as follows : — 
 
 " There is this difference between a di- 
 vorce and a repudiation, that a divorce is 
 made by a mutual consent occasioned by a 
 mutual antipathy, while a repudiation is 
 made by the will and for the advantage of 
 one of the two parties, independently of 
 the will and advantage of the other." — 
 Montesquieu. 
 
 To Disclaim ( Lat. pref. dis-, and 
 claim) is the opposite of claim, to 
 waive, as a claim, to deny ownership 
 or responsibility /right, merit, or pre- 
 tension. 
 
 "To tell you the truth, my dear sir, 1 
 think the honour oKom nation to be somo- 
 wii&t concerned iu the duclaimer of th« 
 
334 
 
 proceedings of this society of the Old Jewry 
 Hnd the London Tavern." — Burke. 
 
 DISBELIEF. Unbelief. Incre- 
 DBLiTY. Infidelity. 
 
 Disbelief and Unbelief (A. S. 
 gelvf'ariy to believe) are thus differenced: 
 unbelief is negative, disbelief is posi- 
 tive. One may have unbelief from 
 want of knowledge, but disbelief 
 rejects as false. Unbelief is- the ab- 
 sence, disbelief the refusal of credit. 
 
 " There have been doubtless in all ages 
 such as have disbelieved the existence of 
 anything but what was sensible." — CuD- 
 
 WORTH. 
 
 " For the mind doth by cA-ery degree of 
 affected unbelief contract more and more of 
 II general indisposition towards believing." 
 — Atterbuky. 
 
 Incredulity (Fr. incredulitc, Lat. 
 incredMtatem) and Infidelity (Fr. 
 infidelity, Lat. injldiUtatem) are used, 
 the fonner to signify absence of belief 
 where it is possible, the latter absence 
 of belief where belief is right. In- 
 credulity may be, therefore, right 
 where it denotes a rightful reluctance 
 of assent to what ought not to be 
 easily believed, or not believed at all. 
 Infidelity is by the force of the term 
 wrong. It has the further sense of a 
 breach of faith in matters not of belief, 
 but practice — where those matters de- 
 pend upon conti'act or promise. 
 
 " There is nothing so wild and extrava- 
 gant to which men may not expose them- 
 selves by such a kind of nice and scrupulous 
 incredulity."— VfiijKiisS. 
 
 " The uncertainty of princes, the caprices 
 of fortune, the corruption of ministers, the 
 violence of factions, the unsteadiness of 
 counsels, and the infidelity of friends." — 
 Sir W. Temple. 
 
 DISCARD. Dismiss. Discharge. 
 
 Of these. Discharge (0. Fr. des- 
 charger, charger, to load, charge) has 
 applications in which it is not synony- 
 mous with the other two ; as, to a 
 load or cargo, a missile, an office, 
 duty, or obligation, in the sense not 
 of disregarding, but performing it. 
 It is here equivalent to a removal from 
 
 Eersonal connexion with one's self. To 
 )iscARD (Lat. dis-, and L. hat. carta, 
 a card) is, literally, to throw out of 
 the hand as an useless card. It has, 
 therefwe, the force of rejection of the 
 
 STNONYMS [disbelief] 
 
 person or thing so disposed of as use- 
 less or of comparatively little value ; 
 while Discharge is capable both of an 
 honourable and dishonourable sense. 
 Dismiss (Lat. dis-, apart, missus, sent) 
 is simply to send away or get rid of, 
 and takes its colouring from the cha- 
 racter of the dismissal. A servant 
 may be dismissed for bad conduct, 
 an untenable charge dismissed by a 
 magistrate ; an officer, arraigned be- 
 fore a court-martial, may be dismissed 
 without any stain upon his charac- 
 ter, or, on the other hand, dismissed 
 the service. It has, when applied 
 to things of the mind, a meaning 
 closely resembling Discard, that is, to 
 abandon as worthless or insignificant ; 
 as, you may dismiss that idea as ficti- 
 tious, that fear as groundless, that 
 hope as vain. In this sense, however. 
 Discard is used of habits, as to discard 
 the follies and vices of youth, where 
 we should not use Dismiss. As ap- 
 plied to persons, Dismiss has less than 
 Discharge the idea of inferiority in 
 the person sent away ; and, on the 
 other hand, it has more of the force 
 oi peremptory sending away. A king 
 might dismiss his refractory minis- 
 ters ; but he would not be said (o dis- 
 charge any but his menial servants 
 
 " A man discards the follies of boyhood. 
 —I. Taylor. 
 
 " Before he came in sight the crafty god 
 His wings dismissed, but still retained his 
 rod." Dryde>''s Ovid. 
 
 *' Death is the discharger of all gi'iefs and 
 miseries."— Sir T. Elyot. 
 
 The last quotation illustrates the 
 wide meaning of Discharge. It is, in 
 short, to relieve of a charge or burden, 
 which may be of many kinds, as of 
 a trust, an obligation, servitude, a 
 criminal accusation, a responsibility, 
 and the like. 
 
 DISCERNMENT. Penetration. 
 Discrimination. Judgment. Dis- 
 cretion. 
 
 All these terms relate to the prac- 
 tical intellect. Discernment (Lat. 
 discemere, part, discretum, to separate, 
 distinguish) is combined keenness and 
 accuracy of mental vision. It sees 
 character, deeds, actions, in their 
 
[discernment] discriminated. 
 
 differences, their peculiar motives, 
 their true nature. It is first pene- 
 trative, then discriminative. The 
 discerning man is not easily misled, 
 because he is not imposed upon by 
 appearances, nor takes one thing for 
 another. 
 
 335 
 
 " Syrena is for ever in extremes. 
 
 And with a vengeance she commends or 
 blames. 
 
 Conscious of her discernment, which is 
 good, 
 
 She strains too much to make it under- 
 stood." Young. 
 
 Penetration (Lat. phietrare, to 
 venctrate) is the power of seeing 
 deeply into things, and is that faculty, 
 which, when habitually exercised 
 upon different objects, constitutes 
 great discernment; for discernment 
 IS general, penetration is in detail ; 
 and, while discernment is commonly 
 spoken of character, penetration is 
 used of specific acts, thoughts, inten- 
 tions, or motives. As the man of dis- 
 cernment does not confound, so the 
 man of penetration does not overlook, 
 nor is easily deceived. The faculty 
 of penetration is more energetic than 
 discernment. Discernment is exercised 
 upon the common differences and re- 
 lations of human character, pene- 
 tration upon those which challenge 
 peculiar powers of insight. Discern- 
 ment sees and judges. Penetration 
 sees and detects. Discernment reads 
 the countenance. Penetration pierces 
 the mask. 
 
 "The drawing of Sir Thomas More at 
 Kensington has a freedom, a boldness of 
 thought, and acuteness of penetration that 
 attest the sincerity of the resemblance." — 
 WiiLPOLK. 
 
 DiscniMiNATiON (Lat. discrimtnare, 
 to separate, distinguish) is a more 
 directly practical term. It is discern- 
 ment m minute particulars, and of 
 such a kind as leads to the acting 
 upon the differences observed. Dis- 
 cernment shows a man the nature of 
 the end to he aimed at ; discrimination 
 will guide him in his selection of the 
 means to attain it. 
 
 " The sculptors of the last age, f5rora not 
 attending sufficiently to this discrimination 
 of the different styles of painting, have 
 been led into many errors.'* — Sir J. Rky 
 
 Judgment {Lai. j udicemy a judge) 
 is the faculty of deciding in practical 
 matters with wisdom, truly, skilfully, 
 or accurately, it has to do not so 
 much with actualities, like discern- 
 ment and penetration, but with possi- 
 bilities. It is the faculty of weighing 
 the issues of things, and of deciding 
 aright in reference to them ; and is that 
 virtue in general of which prudence 
 is the special application. The two 
 fold idea of judginent, as expressing 
 first a faculty of the mind, and, 
 secondly, the good use of that faculty 
 to practical pu7poses,may be realized 
 by collating the two following pas- 
 sages from Stewart and Locke re- 
 spectively : — 
 
 " For wit lies most in the assemblage of 
 ideas and puttingthose together with quick- 
 ness and variety, wherever can be found 
 any resemblance or congruity, thereby to 
 make up pleasant pictures and agreeable 
 visions in the fancy ; judgment, on the con- 
 trary, lies quite on the other side, in sepa- 
 rating ideas one from another wherein 
 can be found the least difference, thereby 
 to avoid being misled by similitude and by 
 affinity to take one thing for another." — 
 Locke. 
 
 " When we give our assent to a mathe- 
 matical axiom, or when after perusing the 
 demonstration of a theorem, we assent to 
 the conclusion ; or in general when we pro- 
 nounce concerning the truth or falsity of 
 any proposition, or the probability or im- 
 probability of any event, the power by which 
 we are enabled to perceive what is true or 
 false, probable or improbable, is called 
 by logicians the faculty of judgment." - 
 Stewart. 
 
 As Discernment regards not things 
 themselves so much as their diflfe- 
 rences, so Judgment is concerned 
 with things themselves. The former 
 distinguishes, the latter pronounces. 
 The first distinguishes between the 
 true and the false, excellence and de- 
 fect, the genuine and the counterfeit, 
 the motive and the pretext. The 
 second relates to matters of conduct 
 and their practical consequences. It 
 is the character of discernment to be 
 clear, it is the character of Judgment 
 to be wise. If we wish advice on the 
 beauty or goodness of a thing we go 
 to persons of discernment, if we wish 
 for advice on the prudence or propriety 
 of a step to be taken we go to person* 
 of judgment. Discernment may be 
 
336 
 
 quickened by experience, but is to a 
 great extent a natural gift. Judg- 
 ment for its accuracy is more largely 
 indebted to experience, but is nearly 
 related also to tact and taste. 
 
 Discretion (Lat. dkcritionem, sepa- 
 ration^ distinction) is, etymologically, 
 another form of discernment. It is 
 cautious discernment, and has for its 
 result the avoidance of such errors as 
 come from want of self-coutrol or 
 want of judgment in matters of speech 
 and action . It is discernment referred 
 back to the standard of propriety in 
 matters of self-control. It is a kind 
 of prudence and moderation, and in- 
 volves discernment. It is like reserve, 
 but more difficult of attainment, inas- 
 much as it is not so difficult to be silent 
 as to say only what one ought. One may 
 be too reserved, but not too discreet. 
 Indeed, reserve itself needs discre- 
 tion or it will become rudeness. Dis- 
 cretion is only a virtue when it re- 
 gards the interests of others. When 
 confined to ourselves it is a social in- 
 stinct of self-preservation. Reserve 
 may be said to represent the neptive 
 and passive side of discretion, for re- 
 serve knoAVS only what not to do and 
 say, discretion knows also how to act 
 and speak. 
 
 *' The second thing that naturally shows 
 itself in paucity of words is discretion, and 
 particularly that prime and eminent part of 
 it that consists in a care of offending." — 
 South. 
 
 DISCHARGE, Acqitittal. 
 
 The DiscuARGE is a judgment upon 
 «ia accused person found guilty, be- 
 <;ause the law has not exactly pro- 
 vided for the offence (O. YT.descharger, 
 charge f a charge^ or burden). The 
 Acquittal (Fr. acquitter, Lat. ad- 
 quiitdre) recognizes his innocence. 
 There is then between these terms all 
 the difference that there is between 
 a guilty person and an innocent one. 
 In the former case the law is power- 
 less to punish, in the latter powerful 
 to absolve. 
 
 DISCLOSE. Divulge. Rlveal. 
 Discover. Tell. 
 
 D18CLO8B (O.Fr. desclosy disclosed),is 
 io cxpotte to view or knowledge any- 
 
 STNONYMS [dISCHAROBJ 
 
 thing which before was secret, hidden, 
 or concealed. 
 
 Divulge (Lat. dwulgdre, to publish 
 abroad ; vutgus, the common people) is 
 to communicate what had been before 
 kept or confided as a secret, or known 
 to but one or a few. 
 
 Reveal (Lat. reveldre, re-, back, and 
 velum, a veil) is to make known that 
 which has been unknown or concealed. 
 This may be purposely or designedly ; 
 with or without breach of faith. It 
 differs from DiscL0SE,as applying only 
 to matters of knowledge, while Dis- 
 close is applicable to physical objects 
 of sight. The matter revealed is sup- 
 posed to be of value or interest to 
 him to whom it is revealed. It may 
 be to one or a few, while Divulge is 
 to many. 
 
 DiscovEn (O. Fr. descouvrir) is 
 simply to remove what hid from view, 
 and so to bring an object to light. 
 This may be spontaneous. In this 
 way the tenn is employed of such 
 manifestations as are not the re- 
 sult of specific design, the know- 
 ledge of which, therefore, was not 
 antecedently in the possession of the 
 discoverer. It is a sudden, unex- 
 pected, bringing before the eyes, not 
 of others, but one's own. 
 
 Tell (A. S. tellan) denotes an in- 
 tention to give information in suc- 
 cessive detail, and expresses such only 
 as is communicated by words, except 
 when used metaphorically. To tell 
 is to declare things purposely, with a 
 design to inform the listener. Dis- 
 closure may be accidental. To re- 
 veal is to make known what is con- 
 cealed by withdrawing what covered 
 it. To divulge often follows upon 
 revealing, being a spreading abroad 
 of the knowledge of what is revealed. 
 The term Reveal conveys a favour- 
 able, as Divulge an unfavourable, 
 impression. We reveal under a sense 
 of duty or for the benefit of another, 
 we divulge to his injury in betrayal 
 of a trust. 
 
 '• When stormy winds disclose the dark 
 profound." Poi'K's Homer 
 
disdainful] discriminated. 
 
 337 
 
 "Secrets which perhaps the confidence of 
 'rieiid has mtide known to the treache- 
 ns divulger of them."— Knox, Essays. 
 
 " The doctrines thus delivered we call 
 the revealed or Divine law, and they are 
 to be found only in the Holy Scriptures."— 
 BlACKSTONB. 
 
 " It is idle to say that a future state had 
 been discovered already. It had been dis- 
 covered as the Copernican system vas ; 
 it was one guess among many. He alone 
 discovers who proves." — Paley. 
 
 " Who can tell how oft he ofFendeth ?"— 
 English Psabns. 
 
 DISCOVERY. Invention. 
 
 Both Discovery (in O. Fr. descouv- 
 rh-jto discover, des-,&ndcouvrir,tocover) 
 and Invention (Lat. inveiitioiiem, 
 a devising) denote generally something 
 new that is found out in the arts and 
 sciences. But the term Discovery in- 
 volves in the thing discovered not 
 merely novelty, but curiosity, utility, 
 difficulty, and consequently some de- 
 gree of importance. All this is less 
 strongly involved in Invention. But 
 there are yet wider differences. One 
 can only discover what has in its 
 integrity existed before the discovery, 
 while invention brings a thing into 
 existence. America was discovered. 
 Printing was invented. Fresh dis- 
 coveries in science often lead to new 
 inventions in the industrial arts. In- 
 deed,disco very belongs more to science, 
 invention to art. Invention increases 
 the store of our practical resources, 
 and is the fruit of search. Discovery 
 extends the sphere of our knowledge, 
 and has often been made by accident. 
 
 DISCREDIT. Dishonour. Dis- 
 grace. Disfavour. 
 
 These words, which are the nega- 
 tions of certain opposites, are best 
 understood by the opposites which 
 they negative. Discredit interferes 
 with a man's credit or respectability. 
 Disgrace marks him as a conspi- 
 cuous object of another's disapproval. 
 Dishonour is the treatment with 
 positive disrespect. Disfavour is the 
 becoming a cause of offence. A man 
 may, therefore, discredit or disgrace 
 himself, but he can only be dishon- 
 oured by others. This maybe deserved 
 or not. as a foolish young king may 
 
 dishonour a venerable minister. He 
 who falls in social estimation incurs 
 discredit ; he who loses the respect of 
 society or a personal superior is dis- 
 graced. He who is treated as un- 
 worthy in the sight of others is dis- 
 honoured. He who has forfeited or 
 lost the good opinion or kindly feel- 
 ing of another is in disfavour. This 
 may be unmerited, and of itself carries 
 no idea of blameworthiness. Disfavour 
 is often the result of caprice. It may 
 be momentary. If not it is the pre- 
 lude of disgrace. 
 
 " I think good to deliver it (learning) 
 from the discredits and disgraces which it 
 hath received, all from ignorance, but 
 ignorance severally disguised, ap|)earing 
 sometimes in the zeal and jealousy of 
 di^^nes, sometimes in the severity and 
 arrogancy of politicians, and sometimes in 
 the en-ors and imperfections of learned 
 men themselves." — Bacon. 
 
 " No vow the god, no hecatomb unpaid. 
 But the dishonour of his priest resents. 
 Whom Agamemnon menaced, and refused 
 His daughter's freedom at the richest price," 
 Cowper's Homer. 
 
 " Till the proud king and the Achaian race 
 Shall heap with honours him they now 
 disgrace." Pope's Homer. 
 
 Disfavour is the mildest in mean- 
 ing. It is simply the state of not 
 being in favour. See Favour. 
 
 " Many a good acquaintance has beea 
 lost from a general prepossession in his 
 disfavour, and a severe aspect has oft«n had 
 under it a very agreeable companion," — 
 Tatler. 
 
 DISDAINFUL, Scornful. Con- 
 temptuous. Supercilious. 
 
 Disdainful (exhibiting disdain, 
 O. Fr. desdein) denotes that kind of 
 look or manner — for it is commonly 
 confined to demeanour, and not to 
 pure thought or judgment — which 
 is the result of a depreciation or dis- 
 regard of what is due to others, and a 
 vague habitof regarding others as be- 
 neath one's self. It has in it more of 
 affectation than of reason, and is often 
 accompanied by weakness and_ silli- 
 ness of character. It is the indis- 
 criminate exhibition of a notion of 
 personal superiority without ground 
 or occasion. 
 
 " Let not ambition mock their useful toil. 
 Their homely joys and destiny obscm-e ; 
 
338 
 
 SYjS'ONYMS 
 
 [disease] 
 
 Nor grandeur hear with a disdainful smile I 
 The short and simple annals of the poor." 
 Gkav. 
 
 Scornful (see Scorn) is an ener- 
 getic form of this, and a positive 
 expression of the ill-desert or utter 
 meanness of others; while disdainful 
 expresses little more than the habi- 
 tual sense of one's own superiority. 
 Scorn may be unmerited and mis- 
 
 S laced, but unlike Disdain it has its 
 istinct ?^-5Sons. 
 
 " All but themselves they looked on with 
 a very scornful piety, and thonght that 
 God hated them because they did." — 
 Stillingflket. 
 
 Contemptuous (Lat. contemntre, 
 part, contemptiis, to despise) is more 
 elaborately disdainful, and refers to 
 words or actions; while Disdainful 
 hardly goes beyond the look, and is 
 far less direct. A disdainful expres- 
 sion, air, smile ; a scornful look ; a 
 contemptuous epithet or remark or 
 behaviour towards another. 
 
 ** This posture signifying a proud, con- 
 temptuous behaviour, whilst the Publican 
 stood crouching humbly, tremblingly be- 
 hind." — Hammond. 
 
 Supercilious (Lat. siiperctliosus, sfi- 
 percilhim, the eyebroiv) is an epithet 
 of the expression of the face and 
 manner. Superciliousness is a lazy 
 contemptuousness. It is that haughti- 
 ness which disdains the pains of in- 
 Bpection and inquiry. 
 
 " Superciliousness and laziness too fi-e- 
 quent in schools." — BoYLK. 
 
 DISEASE. Sickness. Malady. 
 Complaint. Ailment. Disorder. 
 Distemper. 
 
 Disease (O. Ft. desaise, the oppo- 
 site of aise, ease, cf. disorder ; and ma- 
 lady) is the most strictly technical of 
 these terms, being applied in medical 
 science to such morbid conditions of 
 the body, or of parts of it, as admit of 
 diagnosis, and is commonly of pro- 
 longed duration. It is specific, local, 
 and organic, as a disease of the heart 
 or the skin. 
 
 " Though all afflictions are evils in them- 
 selves, yet they are good for us because 
 they discover to us our disease and tend to 
 oar cure."— Tillotson. 
 
 Sickness (A. S. sak, sick) is an 
 unscientific term, to denote the de- 
 ranged condition of the constitution 
 generally, without specifying its 
 character. 
 
 <' Sorrow, need, sickness, or any other 
 adversity." — English Liturgy. 
 
 A Malady (Fr. milade, Lat. mali- 
 aptuSj as we say, indisposed) is a lin- 
 gering and deep-seated disorder ,which 
 debilitates without immediately jeo- 
 pardizing the vital functions. Both 
 Sickness and Malady are general; 
 while Disease is specific. 
 
 " O, wist a man how many maladies 
 Folwen of excess and of glotonies. 
 He wolde ben the more mesurable 
 Of his diete, sitting at his table." 
 
 Chaucer. 
 
 Complaint (Fr. complainte, from 
 O. Fr. complaindre, to complain) is com- 
 monly applied to the less violent 
 though continuous kinds of disorder. 
 Complaint is not in this sense a term 
 of Old English literature, but bears 
 the sense of an expression of pain or 
 trouble. 
 
 Disorder (Fr. ddsordre) is a dis- 
 turbance of the functions of the ani- 
 mal economy, and differs thus from 
 disease, which is organic. 
 
 "The following lines upon delirious 
 dreams may appear very extravagant to a 
 reader who never exjierienced the disorders 
 which sickness causes in the brain." — 
 Thompson on Sickness. 
 
 Ailment (ail, to suffer; A. S. 
 eglan, to pain, grieve) is the lightest 
 form of complaint, yet may be of a 
 chronic as well as of a passing cha- 
 racter. 
 
 " For little ailments oft attend the fair." 
 Lansdowne, Cure for the Vapours. 
 
 Distemper (0. F. destemprer, te 
 derange) is a morbid state of the ani- 
 mal system. It is used of the human 
 race commonly in the sense of mental 
 ailment, and in its physical meaning 
 purely is spoken of the lower ani- 
 mals. In a secondary sense, we 
 speak of a diseased mind, a disordered 
 intellect or imagination, mental mala- 
 dies. Though the human subject is 
 not said to labour under such and 
 such a particular distemper, therti 
 
[disguise] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 339 
 
 is an abstract and general sense in 
 which the word is so applicable, as in 
 the following: — 
 
 " Peradventui-e it will be replied, that 
 there are many sinners who escape all 
 these calamities, and neither labour under 
 any shame or disrepute, any unquietness of 
 condition, or more than ordinary distemper 
 of body, hut pass their days with as great 
 a portion of honour, ease, and health as any 
 other man whatsoever." — South. 
 
 DISENGAGE. Disentangle. 
 Extricate. Detach. 
 
 Disengage (O. Fr. desengager) is 
 the simple opposite to engage, and, 
 therefore, relates to one detaining or 
 engrossing force or influence at a 
 time. 
 
 Disentangle (etym. doubtful, said 
 to be allied to the Gothic iagl, hair) 
 is to release from a condition of being 
 intricately involved. Disentangle 
 diflfers li'om Disengage in applying 
 both to subject and object. We may 
 disentangle the difficulty as well as 
 the person involved in it. 
 
 Extricate (Lat. extrxcare, to get 
 rid of trlctBy trifles, impediments) is 
 to liberate from complicated deten- 
 tion or conditions of difficulty, and 
 relates to persons, and not things, 
 except in a few scientific terms, as 
 the extrication of heat or moisture. 
 
 Detach (Fr. detacher, to unfasten) 
 relates to such simple connexions as 
 unite one thing to another, or to 
 several others. To detach is literally 
 to make not to touch. Its force is 
 intermediate between separate and dis- 
 join. Things are detached which 
 meet at one point only. We may be 
 disengaged from an oath or an occu- 
 pation ; disentangled from pecuniary 
 difficulties, or embarrassing clamis 
 and connexions ; extricated from im- 
 minent peril, where it comes from 
 multiplied difficulties of escape : and 
 detached from a party to which we 
 have hitherto adhered. It is in the 
 purely physical sense that Detach is 
 commonly employed, as to detach a 
 seal from the chain to which it was 
 suspended. We are disengaged from 
 what binds us; disentangled from 
 what implicates us ; extricated from 
 
 what embarrasses us, and detaclied 
 from what embraces us. 
 
 " We should also beforehand disengage 
 our mind fiom other things, that we may 
 the more efiectually attend to the new 
 object which we wish to remember." — 
 Beattib. 
 
 " In the disentanglement of this distress- 
 ful tale ( the ' Nut-brown Mayde ') we are 
 happy to find that all his cruelty was ten- 
 derness, and his inconstancy the most in- 
 variable truth ; his levity an ingenious 
 artifice, and his perversity the friendly dis- 
 guise of the firmest aliection." — Wakton. 
 
 *' His treasures were now exhausted, his 
 subjects were highly irritated, the ministry 
 were all frighted, being exposed to the 
 anger and justice of the Parliament, so that 
 he had brought himself into great distress, 
 but had not the dexterity to extricate him- 
 self from it."— Burnet. 
 
 " They are, in short, instruments in the 
 hands of our Maker to improve our minds, 
 to rectify our failings, to detach us from the 
 present scene, to fix our afiections on things 
 above." — Porteus. 
 
 DISGUISE. Dissemble. 
 
 Disguise (O. Fr. desgniser, guise^ 
 manner, fashion) is to hide by a coun- 
 terfeit appearance, or in any mannei 
 to cloak by what is fitted to mislead. 
 
 Dissemble (Lat. pref. dis-, and Fr. 
 sembler, to seem; Lat. simiilnre, to simu- 
 late) has much the same meaning; 
 but the terms are a little differently em- 
 ployed. Disguise relates rather to the 
 false or altered condition of the subject 
 of tlie disguise; Dissemble to the false 
 impression produced upon other per- 
 sons. Dis^iseis general, dissimulation 
 specific. VVe may disguise negatively 
 by preventing another from knowing 
 what is in us ; but we dissemble when 
 we lead him to believe that we have 
 something which we have not. An 
 enemy may disguise his hatred of 
 another by an air of indifierence. He 
 dissembles when he assumes an air of 
 friendship. Disguise is a matter of 
 appearance, dissimulation a matter of 
 action. A prince might disguise him- 
 self as a beggar ; but unless he held 
 such communications with others as 
 to practically deceive them, he would 
 not be dissembling. 
 
 " When we arc touched with some impor- 
 tant ill. 
 How vainly sSence wonld onr grief con- 
 
340 
 
 SYNONYMS [disgust] 
 
 Sorrow noi- joy can he disguisea ay arts, 
 Oar foreheads blab the secrets of our 
 
 hearts," Drydkn, Juvenal. 
 
 " With him, Dissemblance went, his para- 
 
 monr. 
 Whose painted face might hardly be de- 
 tected ; 
 Arms of offence he seld' or never wore. 
 Lest thence his close designs might be 
 
 suspected ; 
 Bnt clasping close his foe, so loth to part. 
 He steals his dagger with false-smiling art. 
 And sheathes the traitorous steel in his 
 own master's heart." 
 
 Fletcher, Purple Island. 
 
 DISGUST. Dislike. Aversion. 
 Distaste. Disinclination. 
 
 These terms not only differ in point 
 of force, but are differently applied. 
 Dislike (Lat. dis-, apart, and like) is to 
 have a feeling of positive and usually 
 permanent avoidance, though not 
 necessarily strong in degree. We 
 have a dislike to what is simply un- 
 pleasant to us fi-om an inherent un- 
 congeniality with our taste, feelings, 
 or sentiments. 
 
 " To show any dislike to those who were 
 the favourites of that infamous emperor 
 (Domitian), was construed by him into an 
 act of treason against himself." — Mei> 
 MOTH, Pliny. 
 
 Disgust (O. Fr. desgouster, to dis- 
 like ; Lat. gustus, taste) is said pri- 
 marily of what is offensive to the 
 organs of taste ; then analogously 
 of anything repugnant to the moral 
 taste or higher sensibilities of our 
 nature. 
 
 Distaste, though verbally equiva- 
 lent to Disgust, is far less strong. It 
 expresses natural uncongeniality, 
 which is often gradually superinduced 
 by the alienating force of habit. Dis- 
 gust is the strongest but most tran- 
 sient, being excited by something 
 suddenly presented to the experience 
 or observation. 
 
 " The king (Ilenry VIII.) loved to raise 
 mean persons, and upon the least distaste 
 to throw them down." — Burnet. 
 
 " For day by day themsehes. 
 My parents,' urge my nuptials, and my son 
 (Of age to mte it) with disgust observes 
 His wealth consumed." ColvPKR, Homer. 
 
 Aversion (Lat. dversioyiem, a turn- 
 ing away) denotes a fixed internal dis- 
 like or 'distaste, and is stronger than 
 either, almost amounting to hatred. 
 
 Aversion is founded less on feeling, 
 and more on sentiment and judgment. 
 The just and humane man has an aver- 
 sion to committing, no less than wit- 
 nessing, an act of cruelty. It is a 
 stronger and more definable form of 
 disinclination . 
 
 " Strictly speaking, aversion is no other 
 than a modification of desire — a desire of 
 being liberated from whatever appears to 
 be injurious to well-being." — CoQAJf. 
 
 We are disgusted with occasional ex- 
 hibitions, as with acts of cruelty. If 
 disgust is not physical, it results from 
 the actions of men. Dislike is felt of 
 persons and things, which is also the 
 case with aversion ; while distaste is 
 not often applied to persons, but most 
 commonly to what is habitually asso- 
 ciated with ourselves, as employments, 
 pursuits, modes of life. 
 
 Disinclination (Lat. dis-, and in- 
 cline) is an indisposition or dislike to 
 the adoption of an act, a course of 
 conduct, a policy, or mode of life, and 
 may either be constitutional or there- 
 suit of circumstances and considera- 
 tions. It refers, unlike the rest, as 
 much to our own will as to circum- 
 stances externa] to us. 
 
 "Whenever they found any person of 
 quahty inclined to the king, or but disin- 
 clined to them, they immediately seized 
 upon his person, and sent him in great 
 triumph to the Parliament, who committed 
 him to prison with all circumstances of 
 cruelty and inhumanity." — Clareitdon. 
 
 DISMAL. Dull. Dreaey. 
 
 Dismal (O. Fr. dismal, etym. not 
 known). A dismal object not only 
 produces an unenlivening, but a kind 
 of foreboding effect. It carries on the 
 mind to think of other matters over 
 which that which is dismal casts a 
 shade, being depressing to the feel- 
 ings, and inducing gloom in the mind. 
 The dismal is that which produces a 
 constant sense of meagreness and in- 
 sufficiency of light and life. A dismal 
 day is one in which the li^ht struggles 
 with the darkness, and is well-nigh 
 overpowered. A dismal tale is not 
 acutely sorrowful, but one in which 
 joy and hope seem in vain contending 
 with their contraries, and the result is 
 the gloom of continued depression. 
 
[disparity] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 341 
 
 Archbishop Trench (Select Glossary) 
 thinks that the usage of the word 
 has been affected by the fanciftil deri- 
 Tation of the word from dies mdliis. 
 
 " I trow it was in the dismall." 
 
 Chaucer. 
 
 " An ugly fiend more foul than dismal day." 
 Spenser. 
 "A dismal description of our English 
 November."— SouTHEY. 
 
 Dull (A. S. dol, stupid) is simply 
 not sharp, bright, or quick ; hence 
 furnishing little delight, or, subjec- 
 tively, not feeling it, and is not so 
 strong as Dismal. In its secondary 
 application Dismal is commonly posi- 
 tive ; Dull may be little mare than 
 negative. A dismal description is one 
 that impresses the mind with the sad- 
 ness of actual occurrences ; a dull de- 
 scription is no more than heavy and 
 uninteresting. Dull, as an epitnet of 
 character, expresses such torpor of 
 soul as is inconsistent with mental 
 activity, and implies an innate de- 
 ficiency of moral sensibility or mental 
 power. 
 
 *' In eldest times ere mortals writ or read. 
 Ere Pallas issued from the Thunderer's 
 
 head, 
 Dulness o'er all possessed her ancient right. 
 Daughter of Chaos and Eternal Night. 
 Fate in their dotage this fair idiot gave, 
 Gross as her sire, and as her mother grave. 
 Laborious, heavy, busy, bold, and blind. 
 She ruled, in native anarchy, the mind." 
 Pope. 
 
 Dreary (A. S. dreorigy soirowful, 
 literally bloody, dredr, blood ) conveys 
 the ideaof tedfious, monotonous, long- 
 drawn-out dulness. It belongs to an 
 extent of time or space unrelieved by 
 gladsome interval and change, as a 
 dreary time, a dreary journey, a dreary 
 waste of country. 
 
 " His heart was drear, his hope was crossed, 
 'Twaa late, 'twas far— the path was lost 
 That reached the neighbour town." 
 
 ParnELL. 
 
 DISMAY. Daunt. Appal. 
 
 Dismay (Lat. dis-, and O. Fr. es- 
 mayer, to strike with dismay ; and this 
 from Lat. ex-, out of, and O. H. G. 
 magan, to have power. For fuller ac- 
 count, see Skeat, Etym. Diet.), true 
 to its derivation, denotes the inspiring 
 of a fear which interfere* with action, 
 
 destroying the spirit of energy and 
 enterprize; as the traveller mav be 
 dismayed by what he hears of the 
 
 ferils incident to a particular route, 
 t involves a state of gloomy appre- 
 hension. 
 
 Daunt (O.Fr. donter, Lat. d'6m'itare,. 
 to tame) is stronger than Dismay, com- 
 monly implying not only the feeling of 
 terror, but the abandonment of the un- 
 dertakinginconsenuence^ofthesudden 
 manifestation of the difficult or dan- 
 gerous. 
 
 Appal (Lat. ad-, and Welsh pally 
 weaknesSy loss of power) expresses a 
 temporary check produced by the ac- 
 tion of sudden fear strong enough to 
 overwhelm the faculties. He who is 
 dismayed suffers great mental pertur- 
 bation. He who IS daunted abandons 
 his enterprize. He who is appalled 
 is unable to act. 
 
 *' So flies a herd of beeves, that hears, dis- 
 
 maycd. 
 The lions roaring through the midnight 
 
 shade." Pope. 
 
 " No fear could daunt, nor earth nor helJ 
 
 control." Ibid. 
 
 '' Smiling ferocious, with impatient haste 
 Striding, and brandishing his massy spear. 
 Him (Ajax) viewed the Greeks exulting, 
 
 with appal 
 The Trojans, and with palpitating heart 
 Even Hector." CowPER, Iliad. 
 
 DISPARITY. Inequality. 
 
 Of these. Disparity (Fr. disparite) 
 is a species of Inequality (Lat. ina- 
 qualitatem). Inequality is general or ab- 
 solute ; disparity is relative and speci- 
 fic. Disparity is inequality in reference 
 to a common standard, while inequality 
 does not of necessity imply this. There 
 is an inequality of age between an old 
 man and a youth, but no disparity. 
 But let some common measure be in- 
 troduced, as, for instance, the running 
 a race, and there would be, in refe- 
 rence to their common statfe or under- 
 taking, a disparity. Thus inequality 
 involves, as it were, two terms, dis- 
 parity three. It must be added, how- 
 ever, that Disparity is sometimes used 
 in the sense of a difference of quality, 
 as Inequality means difference of 
 degree. 
 
342 
 
 Sl'NONYMS [DISl»ASSIONAf£] 
 
 " Notwithstanding which inequality of 
 number, it was unanimously resolved, in a 
 council of war, to fight the Dutch fleet." — 
 Ludlow. 
 
 " But the disparity of years and strength 
 Between you and your son duly considered. 
 We would not so expose you." 
 
 Massinger. 
 
 DISPASSIONATE. Unimpas- 
 
 8IONED. 
 
 The term Dispassionate relates to 
 the mind and the judgment, as not 
 being warped, prejudiced, or in any 
 way swerved or carried away by pas- 
 sion or feeling (Lat. passionem, a 
 translation of the Gr. 'naQo;, passion, 
 aWection). Unimpassioned relates to 
 the manner, gesture, voice, or speech, 
 as not affected by or exhibiting strong 
 feeling. A calm and dispassionate 
 view of a personal question is needful 
 to a ri^ht judgment upon it. An un- 
 impassioned style of speaking in an 
 orator can only be compensated for by 
 great felicity of diction and closeness 
 of reasoning. 
 
 "Whereas reason requires a calm and 
 dispassionate situation of the mind to form 
 her judgments aright, she wants the whole 
 attention to look round upon every circum- 
 stance, and places her objects in all the 
 lights wherein they are capable of stand- 
 ing."— Search. 
 
 •' The day that by their consent the seat 
 of regicide has its place among the thrones 
 of Europe, there is no longer a motive for 
 zeal in their favour. It will at best be cold, 
 unimpassioned, dejected, melancholy duty." 
 —Burke. 
 
 DISPEL. Disperse. (See 
 Scatter.) 
 
 Dispel (Lat. dispellire, to scatter) 
 is to separate in such a way as to 
 cause to vanish, or to drive away, at 
 the same time. It denotes some point 
 from which the objects dispelled are 
 thrust away. Accordingly, things dis- 
 pelled commonly cease to be visible, 
 or to exist. 
 
 Disperse ( Lat. dispergere, part, dis- 
 persus, to scatter in different directions), 
 on the other hand, means no more 
 than to scatter abroad. By the pro- 
 vidence of God the Jews, dispelled 
 h-om their own land, are now dis- 
 persed among the nations. Dispel 
 commonly relates to the involuntary, 
 as to dispel illusions from the mind; 
 Disperse may be purely voluntary, in 
 
 the sense of to scatter systematically, 
 as in a garden flowers of a certain 
 colour may be dispersed or inter 
 spersed, or religious tracts are dis 
 persed among the poor. Dispel is, 
 therefore, more intensive than Dis- 
 perse, or may be said Lo express what 
 is expressed by Disperse and some- 
 thing more. Dispel and Disperse 
 both imply many objects, for the cloud 
 can only be dispelled by separation 
 into fragments. 
 
 " And when the king of lightnings, Jove, 
 dispels 
 
 From some huge eminence a gloomy cloud. 
 
 The groves, the mountain-tops, the head- 
 land heights. 
 
 Shine all illumined from the boundless 
 heaven." CoWPKR, Iliad. 
 
 " As when two lions Jn the still dark night 
 A herd of beeves disperse, or numerooi 
 
 flock. 
 Suddenly in the absence of their guard. 
 So fled the heartless Greeks." Ibid. 
 
 DISPENSE. Distribute. 
 
 Of these, the former ( Lat. dispen- 
 save, to weigh out) bears no reference 
 to any rule of number or quantity, 
 which is the case with the latter (Lat. 
 distrXbuere), implying that in a certain 
 number of shares the whole of a cer- 
 tain thing was given away. A num- 
 ber of different things would not be 
 Distributed, or at least some com- 
 mon nature would belong to them all, 
 for we distribute what is divided or 
 capable of division. So we might 
 read, " Every morning at the castle 
 gate to all the poor of the neighbour* 
 hood who might present themselves 
 for the purpose, bread, with othei 
 provisions and money, were dis- 
 pensed ;" but if a certain quantity ot 
 one article were given to a certain 
 number of persons, we might read, 
 "Bread to tlie amount of a hundred 
 loaves was distributed among the per- 
 sons present." The uppermost idea 
 in Dispense is varied and liberal 
 giving ; in Distribute numerous 
 and apportioned giving. Nature is 
 said to dispense, but not to distribute 
 her bounties. A dispensary issues its 
 medicines, but in no equalized portions 
 among any set number. 
 
 *' In every benefaction between man and 
 man, man is only the dispenser, but God 
 the benefactor."— South. 
 
[dissent] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 343 
 
 " He will pass sentence on the evil angels; 
 He will raise up the dead, and will distri- 
 bute rewards and punishments to all pro- 
 portionably to their behaviour in the days 
 of their mortality." — JoRTIN. 
 
 DISPLEASURE. Dissatisfac- 
 tion {see Disapprobation). Annoy- 
 ance. 
 
 Displeasure (O. Fr. desplaisir, to 
 displease) is a modified anger pro- 
 duced invariably by the actions or 
 conduct of men, and not by any other 
 cause, as opposing desire or command. 
 It is commonly applied to superiors 
 in position, as a father is displeased 
 with his son, a master with his ser- 
 vant. 
 
 Dissatisfaction (Lat. dis-^ and 
 satisfaction, s&tisftlch-e, to satisfy) may 
 spring from any source of disappointed 
 wishes or expectations. We may be 
 even dissatisfied with ourselves. Dis- 
 pleasure commonly implies too much 
 done, dissatisfaction too little. 
 
 To Annoy (O. Fr. anoyery from 
 Lat. in odio esse, to cause dislike) is to 
 inflict sustained personal vexation 
 and irritation by influences reiterated, 
 which tease, incommode, or molest us, 
 " My youth's first hope, my manhood's trea- 
 sure, 
 
 My prattling innocent, attend. 
 Nor fear rebtJce, nor sour displeasure ; 
 
 A father's loveliest name is friend." 
 
 Cooper. 
 
 " To be deprived of some good which by 
 a proper conduct might have been secured 
 and obtained, if it be attended with dissatis 
 faction or regret, is cei-tainly a punishment, 
 and if it always lasts, an eternal punish- 
 ment." — Jortin. 
 
 "Common nuisances are such incon- 
 venient and troublesome offences as annoy 
 the whole community in general, and not 
 merely some particular person." — Black- 
 STONE. 
 
 DISPOSITION. Character. 
 Temper. 
 
 The Disposition (Fr. disposition) is 
 the prevailing spirit of mind, resulting 
 from constitution. It is the aptitude 
 or tendency of character. 
 
 Character (Gr. ^cipxinrip, a stamp, 
 an impress) is used in a variety of 
 sensee (see Character). As a syno- 
 nym with Disposition, it is the whole 
 moral nature, of which the disposition 
 is & manifestalion. Character is often 
 
 used in the sense of the social esti- 
 mate formed of a man, his reputation 
 for good or ill. 
 
 Temper (Lat. temperies, a due mix' 
 tnre, temper ; temptrdre, to combint 
 duly) commonly denotes the disposi- 
 tion or constitution of the mind in re- 
 gard to the passions and aflfections, or 
 the more purely emotional part of our 
 nature. Both disposition and character 
 are permanent. Temper is variable, 
 unless we use the term in tiie sense of 
 temperament or composition— accord- 
 ing to the old supposition that the 
 human individual was; composed of an 
 admixture of humours, and that his 
 peculiar conformation lay in the pre- 
 dominance of one or more of these 
 humours. 
 
 " There is not, there cannot be a stronger 
 proof that pride was not designed for man 
 than that the most excellent of the human 
 race thought it not a proper temper and dis- 
 position of mind for Him to appear in." — 
 Pearce, Sermons. 
 " Remember with what mild 
 And graciot3s temper he both heard and 
 judged." Milton. 
 
 "A man of dull intellect and thoroughly 
 snbsei^ient character." — Motley. 
 
 DISSENT. Disagreement. Va- 
 riance. Difference. 
 
 As relating to the conflict of 
 opinions these words have their dis- 
 tinctions. 
 
 Difference (Lat. differentia) is 
 the simplest, and admits of degrees 
 from the smallest to the widest varia- 
 tion. 
 
 Dissent (Lat. dissentire, to feel 
 differently), unlike the rest, is em- 
 ployed only of persons, and not of 
 their opinions. It commonly denotes 
 the expression of non-agreement,with- 
 out of necessity implying any opinion 
 of one's own. I express dissent when 
 I simply refuse to adopt something 
 propounded by another; but a diflfe- 
 rence of opinion would imply that I 
 held a distinct opinion of my own. 
 
 DisAGREEMENT(Lat. djs-jandagree) 
 and Variance (Lat. vnriare, to alier) 
 also imply the same thing, and com- 
 monly denote a difference on some 
 practical, and not merely an abstract 
 matter of opinion. Persons are said 
 
344 
 
 to disagree who might be expected to 
 act together, and to be at variance 
 where they might be expected to ex- 
 hibit harmonj'- ; they are said to differ 
 simply as a matter of fact. Disagree- 
 ment, VARiANCE,and Differ ENCEmay 
 be used generally of interrelated num- 
 bers of persons or opinions ; Dissent 
 expresses the specific disagreement be- 
 tween a person or set of persons on 
 the one hand, and an opinion or body 
 of opinions on the other. 
 
 *' He (St, Cyprian) disavoweth the prac- 
 tice of one bishop excluding another from 
 communion for dissent in opinion about dis- 
 putable points." — Barrow. 
 
 •' United thus, we will hereafter use 
 Mutual concession, and the gods, induced 
 By our accord, shall disagree no more." 
 CowPER, Iliad. 
 " Because that King Lucius was dead, 
 and had left no issue to succeed him, the 
 Britons, as before ye have heard, were at 
 variance amongst themselves." — HoLIN- 
 8HED. 
 
 "What was the difference f 
 It was a contention in public." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 DISSOLUTE. Licentious. {See 
 Abandoned.) 
 
 There is much in common between 
 these two terms. Yet the Licen- 
 tious man (Lat. licentiosus) is not 
 necessarily Dissolute (Lat. dissMii- 
 tus, part, oi dissolvcre, to let loose), as 
 one may take much licence of self- 
 indulgence in one way without that 
 universal laxity and reckless indif- 
 ference to all self-restraint which is 
 implied in the term Dissolute. Li- 
 centious points rather to the indul- 
 gence of self-will or vicious pleasures, 
 dissolute to the wanton disregard of 
 everything that stands in the way of, 
 or might restrain sensual enjoyment. 
 
 "Abstain from wanton and dissolute 
 laughter."— Bishop Taylor. 
 
 As Dissolute relates invariably to sen- 
 sual indulgence, so Licentious has the 
 further meaning of exhibiting an abuse 
 of freedom, or an excessive liberty, as 
 in the following: — 
 
 " Courtiers, my lord, are too polite to 
 reprove one another ; the only place where 
 they can meet with any just reproof is a 
 free though not a licentious stage."— Ches- 
 
 srNONYMS [dissolute] 
 
 DISSONANT. Discordant. 
 
 A sound is Dissonant (Lat. dissil- 
 ndre) when it is harsh in itself; it 
 is Discordant (Lat. discorddre, to 
 be at vainance) when it is out of 
 harmony with other sounds, though 
 Discordant is often loosely used in the 
 sense of harsh or unmelodious. In 
 their secondary uses Dissonant relates 
 more to the reason and judgment; 
 Discordant to the feelings and actions. 
 A dissonance in principle, a discor- 
 dance in practice. A dissonance is a 
 more refined and abstract, a discor- 
 dance a more palpable and practical 
 diversity. 
 
 DISTANT. Far. Remote. 
 
 Of these the Saxon monosyllable 
 Far (A. S. feor) is the simplest, de- 
 noting separation by a wide space or 
 interval in any direction. Far is em- 
 ployed physically and metaphorically. 
 
 " If, therefore, there be any who, under 
 colour of the blessed name of Christ, sub- 
 vert His doctrine, annihilate His authority 
 and our salvation, it is so far from being 
 our duty to unite oui'selves to them, that, 
 on the contrary, we are obliged to pait with 
 them." — Daillk, Apology for the Be- 
 formed Churches. 
 
 Distant (Lat. distdre, to be apart) 
 is a more refined term, and is em- 
 ployed in scientific phraseology, as 
 " The sun is about ninety-one millions 
 of miles distant from the earth." It 
 is also used of difference in matters of 
 conception, as a distant relation, a 
 distant period of history. It may be 
 observed that, grammatically, the part 
 of a complete adjective can only be 
 peribrmed by Distant, not by Far, 
 which only occurs as the predicate of 
 a subject.* The star is far, or far off; 
 a distant star — but not a far star. 
 This adjectival force is attempted in 
 a few cases only, as the far side of the 
 river. As an adverb far is often em- 
 ployed in connexion with distant — 
 far distant. Thus far implies some 
 amount of distance ; while distance 
 might be great or small, according to 
 the following definition : — 
 
 " This space, considered barely in length 
 between any two beings, without consider- 
 ing anything else between them, is called 
 distance."— Locke. 
 
 Remote (Lat. rhn^vere, part, r*- 
 
[distraction] discriminated. 
 
 mbtus, to move back) is distant in refe- 
 rence to a specific starting-point, stan- 
 dard, presence, or purpose. As Dis- 
 tant is opposed to near, so Remote is 
 opposed to immediate ; as, "The acci- 
 dent was the remote, not the imme- 
 diate cause of his death." Things are 
 remote not only physically, but as re- 
 gards our need or use of them, or the 
 relation they bear to us, or the im- 
 pression they produce on us; as a 
 remote notion, connexion, cause, re- 
 Bemblance,efFect. Thus Remote super- 
 adds to distant another idea, that of 
 the effect caused by such distance on 
 the condition of the distant subject. 
 A distant spot is simply one that is 
 far off; a remote spot is solitary, in- 
 convenient, difficult to reach, not 
 likely to be well known, and the like. 
 " Whenever the mind places itself by any 
 thought either amongst or remote from all 
 bodies." — Locke. 
 
 34d 
 
 DISTINGUISH. Discriminate. 
 Abstract. 
 
 In the sense in which Distinguish 
 18 a synonym with Discriminate, it 
 is used additionally in regard to phy- 
 sical objects, while Discriminate is 
 only used of moral things. We Dis- 
 tinguish (Lat. distinguere) by the eye 
 or the mental perception; we Dis- 
 criminate (discrltninarey to separate, 
 dvitin;^uish) by the judgment alone. 
 We distinguish broadfly ; we discrimi- 
 nate nicely. We distinguish best 
 when we show great differences ; we 
 discriminate best when we show slight 
 differences, or dissimilarities in detail 
 under a general resemblance. The 
 object of distinguishing is commonly 
 practical, that of discriminating spe- 
 culative. We distinguish in order to 
 separate or keep things apart which 
 might otherwise be confounded. We 
 discriminate with the further view of 
 showing wherein their differences 
 consist. Hence discrimination must 
 always be nice, particular, and exact, 
 dissecting, as it were, the things dis- 
 criminated. Distinction may be exact 
 or not, minute or rough, broad or nice. 
 " He was in logic a great critic. 
 Profoundly skilled in analytic ; 
 He conld distinguish and divide 
 A hair twixt south and south-west side. " 
 Hudibras. 
 
 "On the other sile, there be a sort of 
 men that place the gi-eatest stress, and 
 discriminating point of Christian religion, in 
 opposing and decrying all instituted cere- 
 monies, though innocent, decent, and with- 
 out any the least touch of superstition in 
 them,"— Halk. 
 
 W^e Abstract (Lat. ahstrdhtre, part. 
 abstractus, to draw off) in this sense 
 when we contemplate some property 
 of a thing exclusively of the rest, 
 or of the thing itself in which it 
 resides. The logical theory of ab- 
 straction is, that it is the process by 
 which the mind in this way prepares 
 itself for generalization, which is the 
 result of abstraction, and is expressed 
 by a common noun. 1 abstract from 
 a number of different objects the 
 common quality, for instance,of white- 
 ness. 
 
 "Abstraction, whereby ideas taken from 
 particular beings become general represen- 
 tatives of ail of the same kind." — Locke. 
 
 DISTRACT. Divert. 
 
 These terms are both employed of 
 that which draws or turns aside the 
 mind from the object of its contempla- 
 tion. 
 
 Distract (Lat. distrdhtre, part, dis- 
 tractiis, to draw aside) is never used of 
 physical things; Divert (Lat. dtver- 
 tcre, to turn aside) is so employed. 
 The mind only is distracted. A stream 
 may be diverted from its course. 
 Divert indicates a weaker force em- 
 ployed than Distract, but the effect 
 is more decided. We are distracted 
 by what diaws aside our attention 
 and dissipates our thoughts in spite 
 of ourselves. One is diverted entii-ely 
 fiom one's purpose. A light cause 
 diverts, a strong cause distracts. Yet 
 the mind which is naturally light and 
 inconstant may be easily distracted. 
 A remarkable object or a loud sound 
 distracts, or a curious, interesting, 
 and attractive object diverts. Tersons 
 are distracted from close thoughts, 
 diverted from serious or melancholy 
 thoughts or earnest intentions. 
 
 DISTRACTION. Abstraction. 
 
 Both these words (Lat. distrac 
 tidnem, a druiving asunder; ubstrat 
 tidnem, a drawing away) convey tl» 
 idea of a want of attention, but wit 
 
346 
 
 this difference, that it is our own 
 ideas that make us Abstracted by 
 occupying us so strongly as to make 
 us incapable of attending to any- 
 thing but what they present to our 
 minds ; while it is one or more external 
 objects which make us Distracted 
 fio as to draw off our thoughts from 
 that to which they have been given 
 or ought to be given. One is ab- 
 stracted who regardfj some other obj ect 
 than the one proposed, or is so occu- 
 pied with his own thoughts as not to 
 hear what is said by others. Persons 
 accustomed to deep study, or to be 
 engaged in important business, or 
 who are strong in their passions and 
 their aims, are likely to fall into ab- 
 straction; young persons and frivo- 
 lous persons whose minds are un- 
 trained to patient and consecutive 
 thought are most likely to be dis- 
 tracted. The mei-est trifles will di- 
 vert or draw them away. 
 
 DISTRICT. Tract. Region. 
 Quarter. Province. 
 
 District (L. Lat. districtiis) was 
 originally a portion of country over 
 which the lord of the manor had the 
 right to distrain (Lat. distringcre) 
 goods. It is so far true to its ety- 
 mology that it now means a portion 
 of land as included in some kind of 
 administration, as a civil, municipal, 
 ecclesiastical district. 
 
 " Even the decrees of general conncils 
 bind not but as they are accepted by the 
 several churches in their respective dis- 
 tricts and dioceses."— Bishop Taylor. 
 
 A Tract (Lat. tmctus, a drawing 
 out, a district) is literally something 
 drawn out and extended. It com- 
 monly denotes such a space of country 
 as can be taken in by the eye, or such 
 as is distinguished by some natural 
 characteristic, as a tract of marsh 
 land, or forest. It is used with per- 
 fect accuracy in the following : — 
 
 " A high mountain joined to the main- 
 land by a narrow tract of earth."— Addi- 
 son. 
 
 Reoion (Lat. rt^iojiem) is a term of 
 wider extent, and denotes a large 
 tract lying about some specific centre 
 or vicinity. In a sense yet broader 
 Heoion i» **8etl of extensive tracts 
 
 SYNONYMS [district] 
 
 lying under some great influence, as 
 the arctic or ethereal regions, t)»e 
 regions of the tropics, &c. 
 
 " If thence he scape into whatever land, 
 Or unknown region." Milton. 
 
 Quarter (Fr. quai-tier), though 
 not meaning necessarily a fourth part, 
 or a part coincident with the quarter 
 of the compass, carries with it, never- 
 theless, something of both these ele- 
 ments, and means a district in a pai-- 
 ticular direction as regards the whole 
 of which it forms a part, but vag-ue 
 as to the exact direction or the exact 
 extent. It is a term often manifest- 
 ing either looseness of information, 
 01' an avowed generality and purposed 
 disregard of precision in specifying 
 locality. 
 
 "Swift to their several quarters hasted 
 
 then 
 The cumbrous elements." MiLTON. 
 
 Province is the Lat. provincia, an 
 outlying conquered territory of the 
 Roman empire, hence a region de- 
 pendent on a distant authority, or a 
 district remote from the capital ; out 
 of this flowed the idea of a territory 
 over which a person had special juris- 
 diction, as the province of a pro- 
 consul, and in after-times of an arch- 
 bishop; whence finally a man's pe- 
 culiar business, the specific limits of 
 a function in some wider economy and 
 administration, a department within 
 which action is at once a right and a 
 duty. 
 
 " The woman's province is to be careful 
 in her economy, and chaste in her affec- 
 tion." — Tatler. 
 
 DIVfi. Plunge. 
 
 To Dive (A. S. dujian) is puiyosely 
 to penetrate beneath the surface of 
 water, and therefore may be done 
 after the diver has entered it. 
 
 Plunge (Fr. pionger) is to throw 
 one's self into a body of water ; henoe 
 we may plunge without diving, and 
 dive (as ducks) without plunging. 
 In the metaphorical application of 
 these terms, this distinction is pre- 
 served. We dive into mysteries, 
 curiosities, and the like ; we plunge 
 into debt, difliculties, ombarrassments, 
 dangler. It is the effort of penetration 
 
[divers] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 S4l 
 
 which is expressed by diving, the 
 hardihood or recklessness of action by 
 olunging. 
 
 " Divers in the deep of Providence," 
 Montague. 
 
 •* As he (Callius) had no great stock of 
 •irgnment, and but small forecast, anything 
 at a plunge would be received which came 
 to his relief."— Warbubtox. 
 
 DIVERS. Different. Severai,. 
 Sundry. Various. Manifold. 
 Multifarious. 
 
 Of all these terms Different is 
 the most indefinite. It is equally 
 applicable to few and to many ; and, 
 inasmuch as its primary force is to 
 designate quality, it is applicable to 
 any number, even to as few as two ; 
 as " they are not the same, but two 
 different persons or things." Several 
 (O. Fr. several, sevrer, to sever ; from 
 Lat. sipiirare, to separaie) indicates 
 more than two, but not very many, 
 the exact number being unknown or 
 not taken account of. Sundry (A. S. 
 mndrig, sundru, sujidrian, to separate) 
 is very like it, but indicates discon- 
 nectedness as well as plurality. If I 
 say there were several persoLS present, 
 I refer only to number ; if I say, 
 sundry persons were present, or per- 
 sons of sundry professions, I draw 
 attention to an absence of internal 
 relation, or to diversity of character. 
 Divers and VAnious are more strong 
 still, indicating a diversity and 
 variety of kind over and above plu- 
 rality. Sundry implies, primarily, 
 separation, which tnay be without of 
 necessity implying an internal differ- 
 :»nce of nature, as, " at sundry times ; " 
 OivERS does imply this, as, " in divers 
 manners." Various applies to time 
 and to character, as " various dresses," 
 ''various periods," "various colours." 
 There seems a very slight difference 
 between Divers (Fr.dirers) and Vari- 
 ous ; but Divers rather refers to a 
 marked diversity of character or 
 nature. Various to such differences 
 as the eye takes cognizance of, or 
 as strike the observation, without so 
 strong a distinction between them. 
 So we might say, " divers colours," 
 and, '* various shades of the same 
 col/mr." 
 
 '* To Sisera a prey of divers colours, a 
 prey of divers colours of needlework, oi 
 divers colours of needlework on both sides, 
 meet for the necks of them that take the 
 spoil," — Bible. 
 
 " Black and white and every other 
 colour, is caused by different motions made 
 upon the eye by objects differently modi- 
 fied."— CuDWORTH. 
 
 " Like kings, we lose the conquests gained 
 before. 
 
 By vain ambition still to make them more ; 
 
 Each might his severai province well com- 
 mand. 
 
 Would all but stoop to what they under- 
 stand." Pope. 
 
 " Here I had ended ; bat experience finds 
 That sundry women are oi sxindry minds; 
 Vt'^ith various crotchets filled, and hard to 
 
 please. 
 They therefore must be caught by vanoiu 
 
 ways." Dryden, Ovid. 
 
 It deserves to be noted that there is 
 asense of Various, namely, exhibiting 
 variety of state or appearance, in 
 which the term is applicable to a 
 single object, as in the following : — 
 
 " The principle (of religion) lies in a nar- 
 row compass, but the activity and energy 
 of it is dififtisive and various," — BiSHOP 
 Hall. 
 
 Manifold (Eng. many and fold) is 
 the English equivalent of the Latin 
 multiplex. It is applicable both to 
 single objects and to a plurality ; but 
 in tlie latter case the diversity is in re- 
 lation to some one object or subject 
 which exists, appears, or acts in 
 numerous and divers ways. It thus 
 differs from Multifarious (Lat. mul- 
 tifdrius), in which the different things 
 have less the appearance of a com- 
 mon nature and inter-relation. Multi- 
 fariousness stands to the manifold as 
 diversity to difference. As manifold 
 is a term of harmonious variety, mul- 
 tifarious falls only a little short of 
 incongruity and discordance. Unity 
 in plurality belongs to the manifold, 
 to which the multifarious adds di- 
 versity in plurality. 
 
 '* O Lord how manifold are Thy works, 
 in wisdom hast Thou made them all." — 
 Ehiglish Psalms. 
 
 " The generic words which abound in 
 language, assort, and, if I may use the 
 expression, pack up under a compai-atively 
 small number of comprehensive terms th« 
 multifarious objects oi' human knowledge." 
 —Stewart. 
 
S48 
 
 DIVINER. Prophet. 
 
 The DiviNEU (Lat. dlvindref to 
 fudge of' things by divine or heavenlij 
 prognostication) discovers what is 
 hidden ; the Prophet (Gr. <7rpo<prtrn<;), 
 as restricted to its modern conversa- 
 tional sense, predicts that which shall 
 come to pass. In times when super- 
 natural powers and processes have 
 ceased, a practised acquaintance with 
 the relation which externals bear to 
 mind, character, and sentiment is the 
 only instrument of divination. A 
 knowledge of the way in which cer- 
 tain principles involve certain conse- 
 quences, and an observation of the 
 way in which like causes produce 
 like eflfects are the only aflBatus con- 
 stituting a prophet. 
 
 DO. Act. 
 
 One DoEs'(A. S. don, to do) a thing ; 
 one Acts (Lat. tigtre, part, actus) tor 
 the sake of doing it. Do supposes an 
 object which tenninates the action and 
 is its effect. Action terminates in 
 itself and may be the object of doing. 
 Wisdom dictates that in all we do we 
 should act with reflexion. 
 
 DOCILE. Tractable. Amen- 
 able. Facile. 
 
 Docix.v.(La.t.d)ictlis,easilytaught)im- 
 plies more than Tractable (Lat. trac- 
 tdhilis, that may be handled, yielding). 
 Tractable denotes no more than the 
 absence of refractoriness. Docile the 
 actual quality of meekness. A tract- 
 able animal may go in the right path 
 when led; a docile animal is easily 
 led ; or, again, he may be made tract- 
 able by severe training, but if na- 
 turally docile he will not require this. 
 
 Amenable (Fr. amener, to lead to) 
 is commonly used of human beings 
 who are willing to be guided by per- 
 suasion, entreaty, and reason, with- 
 out requiring coercion. It must be 
 admitted that this is a modern and 
 conversational use of the term. The 
 older application appears in the ex- 
 ample. As Docile means easy to 
 teach, it is only by analogy that it 
 can be ajjplied to irrational animals. 
 But the analogy is the more easy by 
 reason of the fact that intellectual 
 
 SYNONYMS [diviner] 
 
 aptitude, as in the Old English word 
 docible, so far as it ever belonged to 
 the term, has entirely departed from 
 it. The elephant is at once docible 
 and docile. Docility is a quality at 
 once passive, and, to a certain extent, 
 by implication, active. The docile 
 person first receives the impulse of 
 another and then follows it voluntarily. 
 
 " The Persians are not wholly void of 
 martial spirit, and if they are not naturally 
 brave, they are at least extremely docile, 
 and might, with proper discipline, be mads 
 excellent soldiers." — Sir W. Jones. 
 
 " Indeed, the common men, I presume, 
 were not less tractable for want of spiri- 
 tuons liquors." — ^AjfSON's Voyages. 
 
 " The sovereign of this country is not 
 amenable to any form of trial known to the 
 laws." — Junius. 
 
 The docile is easily taught or led, the 
 tractable easily managed, the amen- 
 able easily governed and persuaded. 
 
 Facile (LaX.fdcilis, easy) expresses 
 the weak and excessive aspect oi 
 amenable. The facile is ductile to a 
 fault, yielding to those who though 
 strong enough to ask are too weak 
 to guide or advise, or whose craft 
 would make others their dupes and 
 tools. The word meant at the first 
 easy to be performed, thence easy to 
 be surmounted or mastered, next easy 
 to be approached or treated with, and 
 finally easy to persuade. 
 
 " Since Adam and hia facile consort Eve 
 Lost Paradise deceived by me." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 DOCTRINE. Dogma. Tenet. 
 Principle. 
 
 Doctrine (Lat. doctrina, instruc- 
 lion, learning) means any speculative 
 truth recommended by a teacher or a 
 school of thinkers, whether in re- 
 ligion, science, or philosophy. 
 
 " It is by an evident abuse and perver- 
 sion of Mr. Locke's doctrine that Dr. Reid 
 pretends that it is favourable to Bishop Ber- 
 keley's notion of there being no material 
 world, when in reality our author's own 
 principles are much more favourable to that 
 notion than Mr. Locke's." — Priestlet. 
 
 Dogma (Gr. ioy/xa. in opinion, a 
 philosophic dogma) is at present em- 
 ployed of such doctrine as is put 
 
[doleful] 
 
 forth authoritativeljr under a rigid 
 definition, and especially in theology. 
 
 " Diodoras Siculus affirms the Chal- 
 dseans likewise to have assei-ted this dogma 
 of the world's eternity. The Chaldteans 
 affii'm the nature of the world to be that it 
 was neither generated from the beginning, 
 uor will ever admit corruption.' — CuD- 
 WORTH. 
 
 Tenet (Lat. thiere, to hold, mean- 
 ing he holds; formerly tenent, they 
 hold) is a matter of philosophy or re- 
 ligion, which, as resting on its own 
 intrinsic merits, is firmly held as true. 
 The term expresses doctrine in its 
 peculiarity ana distinctiveness. There 
 18 a milder force in Tenet than in Doc- 
 trine, which latter is graver and more 
 important, or in Dogma, which is 
 more energetic and authoritative. 
 
 " In recommending the doctrine which 
 this book particnlarly enforces, I know that 
 I am justified by the Holy Scriptures, by 
 the Church,by the tenets of the most learned 
 and >-irtuous of the dissenters, and the 
 
 freatest divines of this country, who have 
 isplayed their abilities either by the press 
 or the pulpit."— Knox, Christian Philo- 
 
 DISCKTMINATED. 
 
 340 
 
 A Principle is a central or re- 
 presentative truth in philosophy, sci- 
 ence, ai't, religion, or morals, which 
 is fundamental and general, and out 
 of which otlier matters of a specula- 
 tive or practical character flow, and 
 become its practical illustrations (Fr. 
 principe, Lat. principium), 
 
 " He who fixes upon false principles iTe&ds 
 upon infirm ground, and so sinks ; and he 
 wno fails in his deductions from right pri7h- 
 ciples stumbles upon firm ground, and so 
 fails."— South. 
 
 DOCUMENT. Muniment. 
 
 In the sense in which these words 
 are synonymous they represent the 
 same thing under diflerent views. 
 The Document (Lat. d'6ctimentumf a 
 proof ) serves the purpose of evidence, 
 the Muniment (Lat. munlmentum, a 
 defence) the purpose of proving pos- 
 session in particular. The first is for 
 proof, the other for protection. Docu- 
 ments which prove a man's title to 
 his estates, or those which are kept by 
 public bodies, as charters, grants, and 
 the like, proving their property or 
 privileges are tailed muniments. 
 
 DOLE. Pittance. 
 
 Dole, connected with deal, ig 
 portion distributed. Pittance (Er. 
 pitance, pittance, of niuch disputed 
 origin ; there is a L. Lat. pietantia, 
 see Littue). The pietantia of the 
 middle ages was the zest or relish 
 given to make the bulk of the fare 
 more palatable, till the word came to 
 mean, as with us, the whole allow- 
 ance of a donation in any form, but 
 small in amount. In the Dole the 
 leading idea is the contracted liberality 
 of the giver, in Pittance the scant 
 measure of the receiver. 
 
 DOLEFUL. Rueful. Piteous. 
 Woeful. 
 
 Doleful (O. Fr. dol, ^rief, with 
 termination -ful) is exciting or ex- 
 pressing sadness, and is ajiplicable 
 to anything which has that efiect, 
 as a doleful sight or sound. Rueful 
 (A. S. hreow, grief, repentance) is at 
 present more commonly used in the 
 sense of expressing misery in the 
 countenance. Piteous is expressing 
 sorrow or misery in such a way as 
 to excite pity. Woeful means not 
 so much exciting or expressing woe 
 or misery as accompanied by it. In 
 the phrase, a woeful visage, it bears 
 the loi-mer meaning, but in the phrase, 
 a woeful day or woeful time, it signi- 
 fies tlie latter. A doleful counte- 
 nance, sound, sight, story. A rueful 
 visage. A piteous tale, sight, cry. 
 A woeful narrative or event. 
 
 " How dolefully this dole thou dost re- 
 hearse." SPENSKB. 
 
 Ruefully dismayed 
 
 Drydkn. 
 
 Formerly Piteous had almost uni- 
 versally the sense only of feeling, nol 
 exciting, pity, in which it is still 
 sometimes employed, as in Thom- 
 son: — 
 
 " Him, piteous of his youth, and thi 
 short space 
 He has enjoyed the vital light of heaven. 
 Soft disengage, and back into the streaar 
 The speckled captive throw." 
 
 Though Spenser has — 
 
 " That piteotu strained voice." 
 
3.50 
 
 srNONTMs [domestic] 
 
 " It is a woful inheritance that makes 
 men heirs of the vengeance of God."— Bp. 
 Hall. 
 
 DOMESTIC. Servant. Menial. 
 
 The first is one species of the 
 second. Menial (O. Fr. rnaisnier, 
 one of the household, mesnte) is one 
 who performs inferior offices of ser- 
 vice, which the term, however, does 
 not define. A Domestic (Lat. dimes- 
 ticus, one oj a family) is a servant 
 actually employed in the house. A 
 Servant ( Fr. servant) is a paid atten- 
 dant of any kind. A farm servant or 
 a gardener is not, strictly speaking, a 
 domestic. 
 
 " A servant dwells remote from all know- 
 ledge of his lord's purposes ; he lives as a 
 kind of foreigner under the same roof, a 
 domestic, and yet a stranger too." — South. 
 
 " The women servants perform only the 
 most menial offices." — Swift. 
 
 DORMANCY. Abeyance. Ex- 
 
 PrCTANCY. 
 
 These are used of powers, privi- 
 leges, possessions, and claims not in 
 action, enjoyment, or exercise. That 
 is Dormant (Fr. dormir, part, dor- 
 mant, to sleep) which possesses an in- 
 herent activity, vitality, and power, 
 but is 3S yet quiescent ; as, dormant 
 claims, titles, powers, passions. 
 
 That is in Abeyance (Fr. abeiance, 
 buyer, to gape, connected with the 
 English bay, as when a savage beast 
 stands at bay, that is, open-mouthed ; 
 hence abeyance, open-mouthed expec- 
 tation) which the law contemplates as 
 of the nature of an unvested inheri- 
 tance, which thus wants, as it were, 
 to \^ vested. Abeyance is thus, in its 
 geitj^l application, dormancy, with 
 expectation of revival. 
 
 Expectancy (Lat. expectdre, to 
 wait) regards the same things from 
 the other side, that is, the side not of 
 tlie possession or privilege but of the 
 person anticipating them. As dor- 
 mancy is temporary extinction of 
 power, so abeyance is temporary ex- 
 tinction of possession, while expec- 
 tancy is active, and has reference to 
 the future, the past, or the present. 
 
 DOUBT. HesiTATioN. 
 
 Doubt (O. Fr. douter, Lat. diibttdre, 
 to doubt) relates both to matters of 
 belief and to matters of conduct, 
 
 Hesitation ('Lat. hcesitare, to stick 
 fast, to be at a loss) only to matters ol 
 conduct. We doubt about entertain- 
 ing opinions ; we sometimes hesitate 
 to express them. We doubt for want 
 of scientific evidence. We hesitate 
 for want of practical knowledge. We 
 doubt through ignorance. We hesi- 
 tate through fear, caution, misgiving. 
 Doubt is uncertain about principles, 
 hesitation about consequences. 
 " Modest doubt is called 
 The beacon of the wise." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 . "But in an age of darkness he (Gregory 
 VII.) had not all the knowledge that was 
 requisite to regulate his zeal ; and taking 
 false appearances for solid truths, he, with- 
 out hesitation, deduced from them the most 
 dangerous consequences." — Jortin. 
 
 DOUBTFUL. Dubious. Uncer- 
 tain. 
 
 Doubtful (see Doubt) is used in 
 all the senses of entertaining doubt, 
 exhibiting doubt, adjnitting of doubt, 
 characterized by doubt ; but Dubious 
 is never used in tlie abstract, but only 
 in the concrete. So we might say, 
 " It is doubtful whether such is really 
 the case." We could not say, ** It is 
 dubious." We speak of doubtful facts 
 of history, not of dubious facts, ex- 
 cept in the sense of facts about which 
 persons are dubious ; but we might 
 say, " The most eminent historians 
 are dubious as to the fact." 
 
 Uncertain (Lat. incertus) diflfers 
 from Doubtful and Dubious, as not 
 necessarily implying any tendency to 
 discredit, but simply expressing lack 
 of knowledge sufficient to decide ; 
 hence it may be used of matters of 
 which the motive cause lies in our- 
 selves, while doubt refers to matters 
 beyond our control. " 1 doubt that it 
 is so," would mean, " I am inclined 
 to think it is or may not be so." " I 
 am uncertain," would mean only, " I 
 am not sure whether it is so or not." 
 " Do you purpose to leave town to- 
 morrow?" " I am uncertain." Not, 
 " I doubt." " Doubt," says Taylor, 
 *' has not studied, uncertainty has not 
 judged. Doubt is the hesitation of 
 i»-norance, uncertainty of irresolu- 
 tion. Doubt is open to inquiry, 
 uncertainty to conviction." And so 
 it may be said that doubtful ex- 
 
[draw] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED, 
 
 35 
 
 presses a positive, uncertain a nega- 
 tive state of mind. Regarding the 
 term Uncertain objectively and not 
 subjectively, tliat is, as belonging to 
 the thing and not the person, the un- 
 certain is that which might be com- 
 batted, not having in it incontrover- 
 tible truth. When a thing is uncer- 
 tain, it is because as yet sufficient 
 reasons have not been produced for 
 believing it. As uncertainty is opposed 
 to conviction, so doubt is opposed to 
 belief. We are in doubt how to act ; 
 we are uncertain whether v.-e will act 
 or not. Of the two, Douutfui, and Du- 
 Hioi's, doubtful is the more objective, 
 dubious the more subjective. The 
 former denotes what in its nature is 
 inadequately evidenced, the latter 
 what tends to make us doubt. When 
 Milton speaks of " dubious light," he 
 means such as makes those halt who 
 walk in it; and so Swift, "Persons 
 of great fame bu^t dubious existence." 
 The direct use would seem to be that 
 of Pope in the example below. 
 
 " The wisdom of a law-maker consisteth 
 uot only in a platform of justice, but in the 
 application thereof, taking into considera- 
 tion by what means laws maybe made cer- 
 tain, and what are the causes and remedies 
 of the doubtfulness and uncertainty of law." 
 —Bacon. 
 
 " She (Minerva) speaks with the dubious- 
 ness of a man, not the certainty of a god- 
 dess."— Pope. 
 
 DOWER. Jointure. 
 
 These terms express the property 
 of the wife under different aspects. 
 The Jointure (Fr. jointure, joindre ; 
 Lat. jungcrBf to join) is the estate 
 settled on the wife to be enjoyed by 
 her after her husband's decease. 
 
 The DowK Y or Dower ( Fr. doVMire, 
 Lat. dbtdrium) is the money, goods, 
 or estate which a woman brings to her 
 husband on her marriage, as well as 
 that portion of a man's real estate 
 which his widow enjojs during her 
 life, or to which the wife is entitled 
 ftt the death of her husband. The 
 'cinture regards the woman as a Avife, 
 the dower as a widow also. 
 
 DRAIN. Exhaust. 
 
 To Drain (A. S. drehnigean) is to 
 draw off so as to leave empty or dry. 
 
 Exhaust (Lat. exhaurlre, part, ex- 
 hanstus) is much the same; but there 
 
 is a slight difference in their applica- 
 tion. D R A I N is used in a physical and 
 analogous sense, as to drain a field, 
 or a country of its resources ; but Ex- 
 haust is used also in a more purely 
 metaphysical way of abstract things ; 
 as, to exhaust efforts, speculation, con- 
 jecture, strength, patience. To ex- 
 iiaust also points more strongly to an 
 original limitation of the su])ply, and 
 its subsequent coming to an end. 
 Hence Drain commonly refers to some 
 involuntariness of expenditure, while 
 Exhaust may refer to what has all 
 along been spent ■purposely. As, " The 
 country was drained of its resources 
 by a protracted and expensive war." 
 " 1 brought with me twentj-- pounds 
 from home, but 1 have exhausted 
 my supply." The terms are used to- 
 gether in the following: 
 
 " He himself, through terror, permitted 
 those of Rome to exhciust and drain the 
 wealth of England." — Camdex. 
 
 DRAMA. Play. 
 
 Play (A. S. plega) is always par- 
 ticular or specific. 
 
 Drama (Gr. ipa/xa.) is general, 
 though capable of individual appli- 
 cation. The play is a dramatic com- 
 position, tragic or comic, in which 
 characters are represented with dia- 
 logue and action under a common 
 plan, or with a view to the develop- 
 ment of a result. The drama com- 
 prises the whole theatrical system and 
 literature, of which the play is a sam- 
 ple or particular exhibition. • 
 
 DRAW. Pull. Drag. Hawl. 
 Tug. Pluck. 
 
 To Draw, a later form of dr*^ 
 (A. S. dragan) is to cause to mot;; 
 by force employed in the direction of 
 one's self or in the line of one's own 
 movements. It varies in degree from 
 drawing a heavy load or a tight cork 
 to a hair trigger. But, light or heavy, 
 it is commonly implied that some kind 
 of aptitude or provision exists for 
 drawing. In this respect, draw differs 
 from Drag, which implies a natural 
 inaptitude for drawing, or positive re- 
 sistance, as a heavy box without 
 wheels, or a captive struggling with 
 his captor. 
 
 To Pull (A. S. pullian) is applied 
 
352 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [dreadful] 
 
 to Buch cases of drawing as do not 
 admit of continuous draught, or inde- 
 finite change of place, but where tlie 
 draught is checked and limited ; as, to 
 pull a bell, a door, or the oar of a 
 boat. 
 
 Hawl, Haul, or Hale (A.S. holiim, 
 to get) is to pull or draw with force 
 and sustained effort, so as to trans- 
 port from one place to another. 
 
 Tug (A. S. teogan, to pull) is to 
 pull with gi-eat effort, as in a boat to 
 pull with the stream, and to tug 
 against it. 
 
 Pluck (A. S. pluccian) is to pull 
 with sudden force or effort, commonly 
 resulting, but not necessarily, in the 
 detaching of the thing plucked from 
 that to which it was united, as feathers, 
 fruits, flowers. 
 "He cast him down to gronad, and all 
 
 along 
 Dretv him through dirt and mire withont 
 
 remorse. 
 And foully battered his comely corse." 
 
 SPKNSER. 
 
 " He would make the rigours of the Sab- 
 bath give way to the pulling of an ox or a 
 6heep oat of the ditch."— South, 
 
 •' For six long years immured the captive 
 
 knight 
 Had dragg'd his chains, and scarcely seen 
 the light." Drydkn. 
 
 " While romp-loving miss 
 Is fiUuVd about in gallantry robust." 
 Thomson. 
 " Must either pay his fine for his presump- 
 
 tioa. 
 Which is six hundred ducats, or for six years 
 Tvg at an oar i' the gallies." 
 
 Beaumont and Flktchhb. 
 
 *' Indnstiious Moll with many a pluck 
 Un wings the plumage of each duck." 
 
 Smakt. 
 
 DREADFUL. Fearful. Fright- 
 ful. Terrible. Tremendous. Ter- 
 rific. Horrible. Horrid. For- 
 midable. Awful. Dire. 
 
 Dreadful (A. S. drczd, dreedauy to 
 fear), like awful, has lojt its original 
 sense of feeling dread, or awe (see 
 Awe), and means now only inspiring 
 dread; but dread is not exactly the 
 same as fear, and so dreadful may 
 mean inspiring a mixed feeling of fear 
 *nd reverence, or of the dangerous 
 and the sublime, as a dreadful thun- 
 derstorm 
 
 Fearful would denote no more 
 than a sense of personal danger. 
 Dreadful seems to convey more than 
 Fearful ; for Fearful is rather that 
 xfhich irispires fear by its impression 
 upon the senses. Dreadful by what 
 we know or suspect as belonging to its 
 nature or powers. So we may speak 
 of " dreadful accounts of a foreign 
 war," but not "fearful accounts." 
 On the other hand, the news of a 
 large army attacking our own coun- 
 try would be a fearful report. 
 
 " For this reason (that man may repent' 
 it is that He hath annexed so many dread- 
 ful threatenings against the breakers of 
 His law, and so many gi-acious promises to 
 them that keep it." — Bkveridge. 
 
 Fr[ghtful (A. S. fyrhtu, fear) is 
 said of anything which causes vivid 
 alarm by sudden impression upon the 
 senses in sight or' sound, but espe- 
 cially the former. There is a sudden- 
 ness in Frightful which does not be- 
 long to either Fearful or Dreadful. 
 
 " One cannot conceive bo frightful a state 
 of a nation. A maritime country without 
 a marine and without commerce, a con- 
 tinental country without a frontier, and for 
 a thousand miles surrounded by powerful, 
 warlike, and ambitious neighbours." — 
 Burke. 
 
 Terrible (Lat. terribiUs, terrere, 
 to frighten) denotes what is to be 
 dreaded for its effects upon us, though 
 there may be in it nothing frightful. 
 Death by accident is a frig-htful thing 
 to witness; but there are many to 
 whom death, in its calmest aspects 
 and happiest circumstances, is still 
 terrible. The temble excites appre- 
 hension. That which is terrible affects 
 us by pressing upon us a realization 
 of some danger without actually in- 
 volving us in it. The lion's roar is 
 still terrible, though we know that he 
 is caged. 
 
 " How shall they be able to abide His 
 presence at that day when the gloriousness 
 and majesty and terribleness of His appear- 
 ance will infinitely exceed all that the 
 tongue of man can express or the heart of 
 mail conceive P " — SoUTH. 
 
 Terrible is a far graver word ..iian 
 Frightful. The forn-.er never lends 
 itself to a light meaning. Whereas 
 Frightful is fometimes employed in 
 
[dregs] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED 
 
 353 
 
 the sense of exciting a fantastic fear 
 by ugliness of aspect. 
 
 Tremendous (Lat. trtmendus, that 
 is to be trembled at, trhnere, to tremble) 
 denotes rather what is fitted by its 
 nature or appearance to inspire a 
 kind of fear, without implying that 
 we ourselves have any cause to fear 
 it, as "a tremendous cataract," ^'a 
 tremendous wind," "& tremendous 
 noise," " a tremendous size." The 
 tremendous occupies a position mid- 
 way between the awful and the terri- 
 ble, with more of power than the first 
 and less of dread than the second. 
 
 "If anything could raise his passion, it 
 was the nonsensical discourses of deists and 
 Christian infidels ; and he thought he might 
 be justly angry with such wretches thiit, 
 like the giants of old, durst make war upon 
 tremendous Omnipotence." — Glanvill. 
 
 Terrific (Lat. terryiciis, causing 
 terror) is only a more learned or rhe- 
 torical form of Terrible, used as a 
 term of greater dignity. 
 •' The serpent, subtlest beast of all the field, 
 Of huge extent sometimes, with brazen eyes. 
 Terrific." Milton. 
 
 Horrible and Horrid (Lat. hor- 
 ribilis, hori^dus, horrire, to shudder 
 at) diflfer as the possible from the 
 actual : " a horrible supposition," 
 " a horrible alternative, " horrid 
 scenes," " homd deeds ;" but Horri- 
 ble is often used in the latter sense. 
 The idea of horror is a recoilihg of 
 the whole nature, such as makes the 
 countenance rigid, or expresses itself 
 in the look or posture. The Horrible 
 is more in the imagination, the Hor- 
 rid in experience and observation. 
 " Swift in her walk, more swift her winged 
 
 haste, 
 A monstrous phantom, horrible and vast. 
 As many plumes as raise her lofty flight. 
 So many piercing eyes enlarge her sight." 
 
 Drydkn, Virgii. 
 " Thus, when black clouds draw down the 
 
 neighbouring skies. 
 Ere yet abroad the winged thunder flies. 
 An horrid stillness first invades the ear, 
 And in that silence we the tempest fear." 
 DRYDEJf. 
 
 Formidable (L&t. formidabtliSjfor- 
 rnidare, to dread) relates to contingent 
 and not necessary fear. Things are 
 formidable only when we are com- 
 pelled or perhaps go out of our way 
 to encounter them ; as, " a formidable 
 
 undertaking," " a formidable foe," or 
 when we think of what inight be if we 
 did encounter them. 
 
 " Before the gates they sate 
 
 On either side, a. formidable shape." 
 Milton. 
 
 Awful commonly excludes or 
 hardly admits the idea of a sense of 
 personal peril, though it implies a 
 vague dread. It is closely linked 
 with the exercise of the imagination 
 and the belief in unseen presences 
 and powers. An awful solitude is one 
 in which the mind is left to its own 
 fancie's, when it feels itself alone, and 
 is inclined to people the blank with 
 vague creations of its own. The 
 awful is to tbe imagination what the 
 frightful is to the eye or the ear, and 
 the fearful to the understanding. 
 
 " A subject bears a reverential fear to his 
 prince fi-om the sense of his majesty and 
 grandeur, and thus much more the majesty 
 and greatness of Almighty God excites re- 
 verence and awfulness, though there were 
 no other ingredient in that fear." — Halk. 
 
 It should be observed that of these 
 synonyms some are capable of a good 
 sense, others not; to the latter kind be- 
 long Frightful, Horrible, and Hor- 
 rid. On the other bandit might be said 
 that the majesty of God is dreadful, 
 His justice fearful. His presence ter- 
 rible. His might ti-emendous. His ma- 
 terial manifestations of Himself have 
 been terrific, and His holiness is awful, 
 while His power being irresistible and 
 perfect could never receive so weak 
 an epithet as formidable. 
 
 Dire (Lat. dims) expresses the 
 evil or the terrible as actually exist- 
 ing or endured, and not only as an 
 object of dread. The dire is more im- 
 mediate, active, and operative than 
 the dreadful or the terrible. Lat. 
 dtrce (res understood) meant, 1, por- 
 tents, 2, imprecations. 
 
 DREGS. Dross. Sediment. Scum. 
 Refuse. 
 
 The distinctive differences between 
 such synonyms as these are only im- 
 portant as regulating their moral or 
 metaphorical application. 
 
 Dregs (Icel. dregg) was used for- 
 merly in the singular by Shakespeare 
 and Spenser. , It is corrupt matter pre- 
 
354 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [drench] 
 
 cipitated or gepai-ated from a liquid, 
 especially in process of manufacture, 
 Kid, for the immediate purpose, use- 
 less and valueless. With the excep- 
 tion of Sediment, which is never em- 
 ployed in any secondary sense, we 
 find all the rest so employed. Tlie 
 more usual applications of the term 
 dregs are two: 1, "To drain to the 
 dregs," that is, to exhaust in the en- 
 durance of labour, pain, punishment, 
 and the like — an ancient Hebrew 
 image ; and, 2, "The dregs of society 
 or the people," signifyino^ the very 
 lowest and vilest orders. The follow- 
 ing is a little peculiar and original : — 
 
 " This manner, however, of drawing off 
 a subject or a peculiar mode of writing to 
 the dregs, effectually precludes a revival of 
 that subject or manner for some time for 
 the future. The sated reader turns from 
 it with a kind of literary nausea."— Gold- 
 smith. 
 
 Dross is the refuse matter which, 
 as it were, falls (A. S. dros, dreosan, 
 to fall) from metals in smelting the 
 ore ; sometimes used of their oxida- 
 tion or rust. It is a symbol of wortli- 
 lessness. 
 
 •• ' I know, Lord, that Thy judgments 
 are right,' says the Psalmist, ' and that 
 Thou in faithfulness hast afflicted me ;' the 
 furnace of affliction being meant but to re- 
 fine us from our earthly dressiness, and 
 soften us for the impression of God's own 
 stamp and image." — Boyle. 
 
 ^v.V)i-MTi'ii'r{l^diX.std'imentnm,asettUng 
 down, from sedirej to settle) is the mat- 
 ter in a liquid compound which sub- 
 sides to the bottom, and which there- 
 fore, unless it be heterogeneous, is un- 
 like the former in not being refuse, 
 except as to the insoluble or undis- 
 solved portions of it. 
 
 " There is also a sort of water of which 
 there is only one small pond upon the is- 
 land, t^ far distant as the lake, and to ap- 
 pearance very good, with a yellow sediment 
 at the bottom." — Cook's Voyages, 
 
 Scum (O. Fr. escume, O. H. G. 
 scum, foam) is the extraneous im- 
 purities which rise to the surface of 
 liquids in boiling or fermentation. It 
 is a symbol of contemptible worthless- 
 ness and impurity. 
 
 " The great and the innocent are in- 
 sulted by the scum and refuse of the 
 peopi e . '—Addison. 
 
 Refuse (Fr. refva, refuseTf to refuse) 
 
 meauis no more than waste or rejected 
 matter, which, whether valuable or 
 not, or available for other purposes or 
 not, is not required for the purpose 
 in hand. Refuse is often used also 
 in an analogous sense of anything 
 which has simply done its part, and 
 has become superfluous, without in- 
 volving any strong idea of worthlesa- 
 ness or impurity. 
 
 DRENCH. Soak. Steep. Im- 
 brue. Saturate. Imbue. 
 
 To Drench (A. S. drencan, to give 
 to dnnk, to drench) is to saturate with 
 moisture or liquid by pouring it upon 
 the object. 
 
 To Soak (A. S. socian) is to cause 
 to lie in a fluid till the substance has 
 imbibed what it is capable of contain- 
 ing. 
 
 To Steep (compare Germ, stippen, to 
 dip) is to immerse something commonly 
 for the purpose of causing some altera- 
 tion in it, or applying it to a specific 
 purpose after it has been so immersed, 
 but not necessarily soaking it, of which 
 the texture may possibly render it in- 
 capable. It is often used to express 
 the abeyance of the faculties of the 
 mind in sleep or forgetfulness. 
 
 " Mars driven from the dreadful field 
 
 That he had drenched wilh blood." 
 
 CowPER, Jliad. 
 
 " When they appear it is not unlikely but 
 that they soak their vehicles in some vapor- 
 ous or glutinous moisture or other, that they 
 may become visible to us at a more easy 
 rate."— More, Immortality of the Soul. 
 " The prudent sibyl had before prepared 
 A sop in tionej steeped, to charm the guard." 
 Drydkn, Virgil. 
 
 Saturate (Lat. sUtilrdre, to fill) 
 bears reference to the structure or tex- 
 ture of a substance, and means to sup- 
 ply with as much moisture as it will 
 naturally absorb. 
 
 " Innumerable flocks and herds covered 
 that vast expanse of emerald meadow satu- 
 rated with the moisture of the Atlantic.'' — 
 MaCA-ULA?. 
 
 Imbrue is from an old Eng. hruBy 
 from the Italian bevere, and the Lat. 
 btbcre, to drink. It differs from Imbue 
 (Lat. imbuere), as to Imbrue is to wet, 
 to Imbue is to wet or moisten with 
 some particular liquid, and for some 
 particular purpose, as that of staining. 
 
[dress] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 355 
 
 Imbrue is almost confined to the 
 moistening with tears and with blood. 
 This is a matter of usaee. Imbue has 
 the secondary sense of tinging with a 
 certain character, or affecting with 
 certain principles, views, doctrines, 
 and the like. 
 " The stream with blood of Scots imbrued." 
 
 MlLTOJT. 
 
 " Thy words with grace divine imbued. 
 Bring to their sweetness no satiety.'' 
 
 Milton. 
 
 DRESS. Attire. Apparel. Ar- 
 ray. Costume. Habit. Clothes. 
 Clothing. Garment. Vesture. 
 Vestment. Raiment. Habiliment. 
 
 Dress (O. Fr. dresser, to set tip, 
 originally from Lat. direct-us, upright, 
 to arrange) is used generically of 
 what is employed to cover the body, 
 regarded as a whole, though it be of 
 more articles than one, and of a 
 more or less careful arrangement and 
 elftborate character. The dress is 
 well or ill fashioned and carelessly 
 worn or carefully arranged, costly or 
 inexpensive, simple or complicated, 
 with or without ornaments, and in 
 its extended idea includes far more 
 than what is merely necessary to 
 clothe the body. Hence the terra 
 Dress readily lends itself to a secon- 
 dary meaning, that of aspect or cha- 
 racter, as it impresses the sight or 
 judgment, as in the following : 
 
 " Christianity is that very religion itself 
 (natural religion) in a better dress." — 
 Pkarce, Sei-mons. 
 
 Clothes (A. S. cldth, a cloth) are 
 articles of dress. And yet they are 
 restricted to those which are directly 
 so, that is, to what is worn simply to 
 cover the body or protect it from the 
 weather. 
 
 ** And Jacob rent his clothes." — Bible. 
 
 Clothing is dress divested of the 
 idea of ornament, and regarded simply 
 in its material, as a savage might be 
 clothed in the skins of beasts, or a 
 rich man in purple and fine linen. It 
 is a broader term than Clothes, ai,d 
 would include what were not in them- 
 selves clothes. A magazine of ar- 
 ticles of clothing would contain laces, 
 buttons, &c. It has a very generic 
 tud abstract meaning. 
 
 " With him the clothing ia neither woollen, 
 nor linen, nor silk, satin, or velvet. It ii 
 drapery. It is nothing more." — Sir J 
 Reynolds. 
 
 Nearly allied is Raiment (O. Fr. 
 rai, order, from which O.Fr. arrai, pre- 
 paration, &c.), which is the represen- 
 tative name for dress when regarded 
 as one of the necessaries of life, as 
 to be provided with shelter, food, 
 and raiment. 
 
 " Having food and raiment, let as be 
 therewith Kontent."~Bible. 
 
 Attire (O. Fr. atirer, to adorn) 
 denotes highly ornamental or official 
 dress, as, " gorgeously attired," 
 " meanly clad." 
 
 " Earth in her rich attire." Milton. 
 
 Apparel (Fr. appareitler, to match 
 things, pareilheing I -at. pcinculus, from 
 par, equal) is clothing regarded as a 
 luxury of life, as Raiment is a neces- 
 sary. So we mightsay, "Wealth in the 
 East often consists in the possession 
 of costly apparel and stuffs." 
 " Costly thy habit as thy purse can bny. 
 But not expressed in fancy, rich, not 
 
 gandy. 
 For the apparel oft i)roclaiin8 the man." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Array (see Ralment) ^ives the 
 idea of vai-ious articles of dress and 
 ornament, not called so till ranged in 
 order upon the person, and would 
 include such ornaments as are not 
 articles of apparel or clothing, as, for 
 instance, rings on the fingers, or 
 decorations for the head. 
 " Dry up your tears, and stick your rose- 
 mary 
 On this fair corse, and as the custom is. 
 And in her best array, bear her to church." 
 Shakkspkare. 
 
 Costume (Fr. coutume, Lat. con- 
 suettidmem) is a doublet of the 
 word custom, and is to national dress 
 what Habit (Fr. habit, a fashion, 
 dress, Lat. hUUitum) is to the dress of 
 sections or orders of men, as we 
 speak of the costume ol" a period, the 
 habit of an ecclesiastic. 
 
 " Sergius Panlus wears a crown of laurel. 
 This is hardly reconcilable to strict pro- 
 priety and the costume, of which Raffaele 
 was in general a good observer." — Sir J, 
 Reynolds. 
 
 Habit is commonly of a plain noW 
 
356 
 
 SYIkONYMS 
 
 [drift] 
 
 more or less flowing character. We 
 do not speak of the habit of a soldier, 
 but of a monk, or a lady's riding- 
 habit. 
 
 " Habited like a juryman." 
 
 Churchill. 
 
 Vesture (Lat. vestire, to clothe) 
 conveys the idea of a costly garment 
 of a flowing character; while Vest- 
 ment is an official vesture, especially 
 of ministers of religion. 
 
 ♦' Upon My vesture shall they cast lots." 
 —Bible. 
 
 '* Bring forth vestments for all the wor- 
 shippers of Baal ; and they brought them 
 forth vestments." — Ibid. 
 
 Garment, which is an abbreviated 
 form of gameimnt (O. Fr. garnement, 
 garnir, (o/tM7m/j) is any article of cloth- 
 ing of a main character, and connected 
 with the trunk of the body. Hats, 
 laces, boots, and the like, though 
 articles of clothing, would hardly be 
 called garments. 
 
 " All thy garments smell of myrrh, aloes, 
 and cassia." — English Psalms. 
 
 Habiliment (Fr. habillement, habil- 
 ler, to dresn), more commonly used in 
 the plural, is much the same as Gar- 
 M ENT, having a more formal force ; 
 but not so much so as Vestment. 
 Official robes might suitably be termed 
 habiliments. Speed speaks of" kingly 
 habiliments," and Knox (Essays) of 
 the " habiliments of a soldier." 
 
 DRIFT. Tendency. Gravita- 
 tion. 
 
 Drift {i.e. driven) is commonly 
 emjUoyed of the argumentative mean- 
 ing- or purpose of connected words, 
 as in a speech or written composition, 
 though not confined to this. 
 
 Tendency (f.at. tendcre, to stretch, 
 to tend in any direction) is applied to 
 subjects ; as, the tendency of certain 
 principles; and means not the mental 
 aim, but the moral and practical issue 
 or consequence. " I could hardly 
 make out the drift of his speech, but 
 It seemed to me to have a revolu- 
 tionary tendency." 
 
 " But so strangely perverse is his com- 
 mentator, that he will suppose him to 
 mean anything rather than what the ob- 
 vious drift of his argument requires."— 
 WAaBUBTOK. 
 
 " This truth. Philosophy, though eagle- 
 eyed 
 In Nature's tendencies, oft overlooks." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 Gravitate (Ijdil. grdvitatem, heavi- 
 ness) is employed of the general tenor 
 both of speech and action which tends 
 to a certain point or direction with or 
 without any conscious or intended 
 bias. 
 
 " To act with any people with any degree 
 of comfort, I believe we must contrive a 
 little to assimilate to their character ; we 
 must gravitate towards them if we would 
 keep in the same system or expect that they 
 should approach to us." — BuEKE. 
 
 DRINK. Draught. Beverage. 
 
 POTIOV. 
 
 A Drink (A. S. drencun, to drink^ 
 is commonly a compound for refresh- 
 ment or health. 
 
 A Draught is a long-drawn drink 
 either of water or artificially com- 
 pounded liquid, medicinal or other- 
 wise. 
 
 Beverage (O. Fr. bovraige, dnnk, 
 and boivre, to drink, Lat. bihere) is a 
 compoundnot otherwise than pleasant. 
 
 Potion (Lat. ■potionem) is usually 
 a liquid medicine; but the word is 
 more literary than conversational. 
 It is the origin of the word poison. 
 
 DROLL. Ludicrous. Ridicu- 
 lous. Comical. Laughable. 
 
 Of these, Laughable, exciting or 
 worthy of laughter, may be regarded 
 as the generic term, the others ex- 
 pressing different modifications of 
 the laughable. 
 
 " Nature hath framed strange fellows in 
 her time, 
 
 Some that will evermore peep through 
 their eyes, 
 
 And laugh like parrots at a bagpiper ; 
 
 And other of such vinegar aspect 
 
 That they'll not show their teeth in the 
 way of smile, 
 
 Though Nestor swear the jest be laugh- 
 able." SHAKtSPEARE. 
 
 Droll (Fr. drSle, Icel. troll, hob- 
 goblin) denotes the combination of 
 the laughable witli the unfamiliar or 
 odd. A droll person is an oddity; 
 a droll story is not simply funny, but 
 amusing from a disconnectedness and 
 unexpected combination of incidents. 
 
 •• This never transported him to anything 
 which looked like malignancy ; yet in th» 
 
[drop] 
 
 little rubs and vexations 3f life 'twas apt U, 
 show itself in a drollish and witty kind of 
 peevishness." — Sterne 
 
 Ludicrous (Lat. ludicer, or litdicrtis, 
 done in sport) denotes that which is 
 personally lauohable, but without 
 any necessary admixture of contempt 
 or pity, in this differing from Ridicu- 
 lous ( Lat. ridtcalus, causing laughter), 
 '.vhich conveys tlie idea of the con- 
 temptible in things and the humilia- 
 ting in persons, or the petty and 
 trifling, where some degree of gravity 
 is claimed. 
 
 "According to that hypothesis it would 
 follow that every, the smallest and most 
 contemptible animal that could see the son 
 had a higher degree of entity and per- 
 fection in it than the sun itself. A thing 
 ric^tcuZow^Zy absurd."— CuDWORTH. 
 
 " He has therefore in his whole volume 
 nothing burlesque, and seldom anything 
 ludicrous or familiar." — Johnson, Life of 
 WaUer. 
 
 Comical (Gr. xfWjuVxoV, comic yKoofxoi, 
 a revel) denotes what is demonstra- 
 tively and, as it were, dramatically 
 laughable, admitting of surrounding 
 incidents or circumstances, as "to be 
 in a comical position," " a book with 
 comical illustrations." 
 
 " He (Daniel Whitby) was suspended, 
 and at length made a pretended recanta- 
 tion, which cost him nothing but the plea- 
 sure of out-witting his governors by a part 
 acted in a comicalt way."— Wood, AthencB 
 Oxon. 
 
 DROOP. Languish. Flag. 
 Pine. 
 Droop is allied to dro-p, and is ap- 
 
 fdied to anything which occupies a 
 ess erect position than ordinary. The 
 snowdrop, as its name implies, droops, 
 that is, hangs down its head more 
 than the generality of flowers. The 
 flag droops when there is not suflicient 
 force of wind to unfold it horizon- 
 tally. The human head or form 
 droops under soitow or sickness. 
 Languish (Lat. langucre, to be weak, 
 faint) is only applicable to things 
 possessing some kind of vital energy, 
 which has become dull or weak under 
 a softening, depressing, or sickly in- 
 fluence. To Flag (of. Icoi.fiaka, to 
 droop) commonly bears reference to 
 growth,movement,progress, or efforts; 
 while Pine (A.. S. pinan) is only 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 357 
 
 used of sentient beings, and means to 
 languish under certain causes, as dis- 
 tress, anxiety, disappointment, capti- 
 vity, desire, longing, desertion, or so- 
 litude. The plant does not pine, 
 though it may droop and languish. 
 
 " Upon her face there was the tint of grief. 
 The settled shadow of an inward strife. 
 And an unquiet drooping of the eye. 
 As if its lid were charged with unshed 
 tears." Byron. 
 
 ** If this harmonical temperature of the 
 whole body be distributed and put out oi 
 tune, weakness and languishing will imme- 
 diately seize upon it."— Cudworth. 
 " The wounded bird, ere yet she breathed 
 
 her last, 
 With gagging wings alighted on the mast, 
 A moment hung, and spread her pinions 
 
 there, 
 Then sudden dropt, and left her life in air." 
 
 Pope, Iliad. 
 " Loathing from i*acks of husky straw he 
 
 turns, 
 AndpiniTig for the verdant pasture mourns.* 
 RowE, Lucan. 
 
 DROP. Fall. Sink. Tumble. 
 
 Drop (A. S. dropian) has more 
 than one sense ; as, to distil or fall in 
 globules; or, again, to descend sud- 
 denly, abiiiptly, and, in some cases, 
 on purpose. To Fall (A. S. feallan, 
 cf. Lat. /« //ere, todeceive)is involuntary 
 or mecnanical, except in the plirase 
 to fall down in worship, or at the feet 
 of any one. It may be more or less 
 rapid or sudden, as the apple falls 
 from the tree, the river falls into the 
 sea, the tide falls, or the mercury in 
 the barometer. To Sink (A. S. sin- 
 can) is to fall gradually and compara- 
 tively slowly. It is metaphorically 
 used in the sense of being overwhelmed 
 or depressed, declining, decaying, and 
 decreasing in bulk. To Tumble (Fr. 
 tomber) is to fall awkwardly or without 
 design, so losing tlie centre of gravity. 
 There are many analogous applica- 
 tions in which these distinctions are 
 preserved, as, for instance : Words 
 drop fi'om the lips, or an observation 
 is di'opped accidentally ; a subject is 
 dropped. To fall from a high estate. 
 Words sink into the heart, or great 
 men sink in public estimation. To 
 tumble from tne seat of power ; the 
 cataract tumbles over the rocks. 
 " When the sound of dropping nuts ifl 
 heard," biiYAJfl. 
 
358 
 
 •' He rushed into the field and foremost 
 fighting/e//." Byeon. 
 
 " The stone sunk into his forehead." - 
 English Bible. 
 
 *' He who tu7Jibles from a tower surely 
 has a greater blow than he who slides from 
 a mole-hill."— South. 
 
 DROWSY. Sleepy. Lethargic. 
 
 Drowsy (A. S. drusiauy to be slug- 
 gish) and Sleepy, or inclined to sleep 
 ( A.S. sl&Pf sleep), are almost identical ; 
 but drowsiness is a heavy, and often 
 abnormal sleepiness. Persons com- 
 plain of drowsiness when they wisb 
 to keep awake, and say they feel 
 sleepy when it is time to go to rest 
 for the night. An artificial heaviness, 
 produced, for instance, by drugs or 
 an intoxicating draught, would be 
 called drowsiness rather than sleepi- 
 ness. 
 
 Lethargic, from lethargy (Gr. 
 XnQapyitt) is always abnormal, sup- 
 posing some foreign influence,whether 
 used physically of an involuntary and 
 strong tendency to sleej) morbidly ; or 
 morally, in the sense of insensateness 
 and invincible sluggishness, oblivion, 
 indolence, or indifference. 
 
 " Above is perpetual gloom. The sun is 
 not seen, nor the breeze felt. The air 
 stagnates, and pestilential vapours diffuse 
 drowsiness, lassitude, and anxiety." — Ad- 
 venturer. 
 
 *' I rather choose to endure the wounds of 
 those darts which envy casteth at novelty, 
 than to go on safely and sleepily in the easy 
 ways of ancient undertakings." — Raleigh. 
 
 "Does Lear walk thus? speak thus? 
 Either his notion weakens, or his discern- 
 ings are letharqied." — Shakespeark. 
 
 DRUNKENNESS. Intoxica- 
 tion. Inebriation. Inebriety. 
 
 Drunkenness is specifically the 
 becoming intoxicated by strong drink, 
 and is used to express both the 
 casual state and the habit. 
 
 Intoxication (Lat. toxictim, poison, 
 Gr. To^ixo'v, a poison in which arrows, 
 To^cL, were dipped) includes cases in 
 which the same effect is produced by 
 other causes than drinking, as, for 
 instance, the fumes of tobacco. 
 
 Ineuriation (Lat. tnebriare, to make 
 drunk) diffei's from intoxication in 
 being confined to the results of drink- 
 ing, and from drunkeuueas, in de- 
 
 SYNONYMS [drowsy] 
 
 noting the pi'ocess or the state, but 
 not the habit. Inebriety expresseg 
 tlie state and the habit, but not the 
 process. Intoxicate lends itself most 
 easily of all to a secondary applica- 
 tion ; so that a man is said to be intoxi- 
 cated with success, pleasure, and the 
 like. 
 
 "The dissolution and dru7ikenness of that 
 night was so great and scandalous, in a 
 nation which had not been acquainted with 
 such disorders for many years past, that 
 the King, who still stood in need of the 
 Presbyterian party, which had betrayed all 
 into his hands, for their satisfaction caused 
 a proclamation to be published forbidding 
 the drinking of healths."— Ludlow, Me- 
 moirs. 
 " King was a name too proud for man to 
 
 bear 
 With modesty and meekness ; and the 
 
 crown. 
 So dazzling in their eyes who set it on. 
 Was sure to intoxicate the brows it botmd." 
 COWPER. 
 
 " That 'tis good to be drunk once a 
 month, is a common flattery of sensuality, 
 supporting itself upon physick and the 
 healthful effects of inebriation."— BROvnx, 
 Vulgar Errors. 
 
 " Paroxysms of inebriety." — Darwin. 
 
 DUMB. Mute. Speechless. 
 Silent. Voiceless. Noiseless. 
 
 Dumb (A . S. dumb, mute) commonly 
 signifies unable to speak, whethei 
 from temporary or permanent and 
 natural causes, as " dumb brutes,'' 
 " struck dumb with amazement." 
 
 " In the first case the demoniac or mad- 
 man was dumb ; and his dumbness probably 
 arose from the natural turn of his disorder, 
 which was that species of madness called 
 melancholy, of which taciturnity or dumb- 
 ness is a very common effect."— Farmer. 
 
 Mute (Lat. mutus, dumb) is com- 
 monly employed of the human race, 
 I and refers to articulate speech, which 
 for some peculiar reason is temporarily 
 suspended, as, " Mute in astonish- 
 ment," " In spite of all interrogations 
 he remained mute." Many are mute 
 by nature who are not, strictly speak- 
 ing, dumb; that is, they have no 
 imperfection of the vocal organs; but, 
 being without the sense ot hearing, 
 they have no notion of the sounds 
 which they ought to utter. Poeti- 
 cally, Mute is used in the sense o/ 
 dumb, as " mute fishes." 
 
[durable] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 359 
 
 "Hail native Langnage, that by sinews 
 
 weak 
 Didst move my first endeavouring tongue 
 
 to speak. 
 And midst imperfect words with childish 
 
 trips 
 Half unpronounced, slide through my 
 
 infant lips. 
 Driving dumb silence from the portal door 
 Where he had mutely sat two years before." 
 Milton. 
 Speechless (A. S. spSc, speech) re- 
 lates only to articulate sounds, and 
 means destitute or deprived, whether 
 permanently or for a time, of the 
 faculty of speech. 
 " From his slack hand the garland wreath'd 
 
 for Eve 
 Down drop'd, and all the faded roses shed. 
 Speechless he stood and pale, till thus at 
 
 length. 
 First to himself, he inward silence broke." 
 MiLTOy. 
 Silent (Lat. sWere, lo be silent) is 
 very general, and relates to anything 
 characterized by the absence, tempo- 
 rary or permanent, of speech or 
 sound. It is applicable not only to 
 living beings, but to anything pro- 
 ducing sound, as " a musical instru- 
 ment,^' or even to localities, as ''the 
 silent woods." 
 
 " But man is frail, and can but ill sustain 
 A long immimity from grief and pain. 
 And after all the joys that plenty leads 
 With tiptoe step vice silently succeeds." 
 COWPKB. 
 
 "The Voiceless woods" (Fr. voix, 
 Lat. vocem, a voice) would mean the 
 absence of animal sounds, " The 
 Noiseless woods" (0. Fr. noise, a 
 quarrel, Lat. nausea, disgust, annoy- 
 ance, Braciiet) the absence of all 
 sounds, whether vocal or otherwise. 
 
 *' The Niobe of nations, there she stands. 
 Childless and crownless in her voiceless 
 
 woe. 
 An empty urn within her withered hands. 
 Whose holy dust was scattered long ago." 
 Byron. 
 " For her, O sleep, thy balmy sweets pre- 
 pare ; 
 The peace I lose for her to her transfer ; 
 Hrish'd as the falling dews whose noiseless 
 
 showers 
 Impearl the folded leaves of evening flowers. 
 Steal on her brow." CoNGEEVK. 
 
 DUPLICITY. Double-dealing. 
 (See Deception.) 
 
 The former relates to character ( Lat. 
 duplex, dupticis, double), the latter to 
 
 action. Duplicity (Lat. dupUcitatem, 
 a being double Aoubtfulness) of character 
 may lead to Double-dealing in par- 
 ticular cases. Duplicity is that sus- 
 tained form of deception which con- 
 sists in entertaining one set of feelings, 
 and acting as if influenced by another. 
 Double-dealing is acting in such a 
 way as to have a double line of con- 
 duct, and commonly to give the im- 
 pression of consulting the wishes or 
 interests of others, while one is really 
 following one's own. 
 
 "I find in you no false duplicity."— 
 Chauckr. 
 
 "Maskwell in the ' Double -dealer,' dis- 
 closes by soliloquy that his motive for 
 double-dealing was his passion for Cynthia." 
 — Cumberland. 
 
 DURABLE. Lasting. Perma- 
 nent. Enduring. Persistent. 
 
 Of these. Lasting (A. S. l<zstany 
 "to observe, perform, last, remain": 
 Skeat, Etym. Diet.) is the most 
 general — remaining longer in exis- 
 tence, and, by an extension of mean- 
 ing, remaining long unimpaired. 
 Lasting and Durable seem to share 
 between them the moral and phy- 
 sical import of endurance. Durable 
 stone. A lasting friendship. The 
 former too resists wear, the latter 
 survives the lapse of time. 
 
 " The ancients depicted friendship in the 
 bearings and strength of a young man, 
 bareheaded, rudely clothed, to signify its 
 activity and lastingness, readiness of action 
 and aptness to do service." — Bishop Tay- 
 lor. 
 
 Durable (Lat. durdbilis, durdre, 
 act. and neut., to harden) is lasting, 
 with specific reference to physical 
 influences ; as a " durable material " 
 is one which will bear wear and tear, 
 weather, and the like. That which is 
 not durable perishes quickly. 
 
 "A Gothic cathedral raises ideas of 
 grandeur in our minds by its size, its 
 height, its awful obscurity, its strength, 
 its antiquity, and its durability."— Bl^^ib,. 
 
 Permanent (Lat. permUnere, to stay 
 to the end) combines the two ideas 
 of absence of internal and of external 
 change. A permanent monument is 
 not only durable, but it is established 
 so as to remain unmoved. It lasts 
 both in time and place. The opposite 
 to Permanent is temporary. 
 
360 
 
 "The earth, great mother of us all, 
 That only seems unmoved and permanent." 
 Spenser. 
 
 Enduring (^see Dcrablf.) is em- 
 ployed of what resists moral influences 
 of deterioration or destruction, as 
 " enduring happiness," " an enduring 
 friendship." It involves such ideas 
 as remaining firm under trial, suffer- 
 ing, perhaps, witliout resistance, but 
 at least without yielding. 
 
 " Ye have in heaven a better and an en- 
 during substance." — Bible. 
 
 Persistent( Lat. persistere, to remain 
 steadfastlif) means lasting through na- 
 tive tenacity, and so contmuing or last- 
 ing in spite of influences which might 
 have been sufficient to destroy natures 
 changeable or less tough. It has a phy- 
 sical character, as a botanical tei-m, in 
 the sense of not falling off until the 
 part which bears it is wholly matured ; 
 e.g. the leaves of evergreen plants. 
 In the following it indicates a sustain- 
 ing will or purpose, as reflected in the 
 expression of the eye itself : — 
 
 " Modred's narrow foxy face. 
 Heart-hiding smile, and grey, persistent 
 eye." Teitoyson. 
 
 DUTY. Obligation. 
 
 The distinction commonly made be- 
 tween these is that Duty (literally, 
 what is due) rises out of permanent 
 relationships between persons, while 
 Obligation (Lat. ohligationem, obli- 
 gdre, to bi7id) flows from the applica- 
 tion of moral principles to particular 
 cases. Obligations in this way would 
 often be duties, while duties would 
 often be based upon obligations. An 
 obligation in its broadest sense is any- 
 thing which constrains us to act; as, a 
 vow, promise, oath, contract ; but is 
 hardly applicable to the coercive power 
 of law, or to such matters as flow 
 from natural piety, as the duty of 
 parents and of children. Duty is a 
 graver term than Obligation. A duty 
 hardly exists to perform trivial things; 
 but there may be an obligation to do 
 them. It is the dutv of peers to 
 attend the queen at the oj)ening of 
 parliament. We should hardly say 
 that to attend in t'veir robes was a 
 duty, though they a-e obliged to do 
 this. Law and conscience dictate to 
 ft man what is his duty, and the 
 
 SYNONYMS [duty] 
 
 neglect of it is a violation of right or 
 virtue. Oblig ation is more practical, 
 and is dictated rather by usage and 
 propriety. Obligation has also very 
 often the sense of the power that binds, 
 while Duty is the thing enforced. 
 A duty never can be against reason ; 
 an obligation may be even absurd, as 
 depending upon custom. Obligation 
 is defined by the extent of the power 
 which obliges; duty by the ability of 
 the subject who performs. 
 
 " As the will of God is our rule, to inquire 
 what is our duty, or what we are obliged to 
 do, in any instance, is in effect to inquire 
 what is the will of God in that instance, 
 which constantly becomes the whole busi- 
 ness of morality." — Paley. 
 
 "The various duties which have now been 
 considered all agree with each other in one 
 common quality, that of being obligatory 
 upon rational and voluntary agents; and 
 they are all enjoined by the same authority, 
 the authority of conscience." — StewarT, 
 Outlines of Moral Philosophy. 
 
 E. 
 
 EAGER. Earnest. 
 Eag er (0. Fr. ai^7*c,Lat. dcrem, s/uu^), 
 active) denotes an excited desii'e or 
 longing, and an intentness upon pur- 
 suit of some object ; as, hounds eager 
 in the chase, "lie who is eager seeks 
 to gain or enjoy with the least pos- 
 sible delay, and is proportionately 
 stimulated to action. The term may 
 relate to what is praisewortliy or the 
 contrary. 
 
 " The insect youth are on the wing. 
 Eager to taste the honied spring. 
 And float amid the liquid noon." 
 
 Gray, 
 Earnest, orig. a substantive (A. S. 
 eornost, earnestness), is always used in 
 a good sense ; and though earnestness 
 may grow into specific eagerness, it 
 by no means implies this. Eagerness 
 relates to the object, earnestness to the 
 occupation, the state or habit. Ear- 
 nestness is a combination of sincerity 
 and energy. We should say equally 
 of the hypocrite and of the sluggard 
 that he was not in earnest in religion. 
 "And we may learn hence that the 
 greatest gilt of prayer, and earnestness and 
 frequency in it, is do good mark of god\» 
 
[earnest] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 361 
 
 ness, except it be attended •with sincere, 
 coiistant, and virtuous endeavours."— 
 GLAIfVILL. 
 
 EAGERNESS. Avidity. Gueedi- 
 NESs. Acquisitiveness. 
 
 Eagerness (see above) difters from 
 Avidity (Lat. dviditdtem, UvMus, \ 
 greedy), in that the latter implies more 
 of appetite and desire of possession, 
 and is not employed of any thingbesides 
 matters of enjoyment and such posses- 
 sion ; whereas Eageiiness is applic- 
 able to an excited desire to gain ends of 
 other kinds ; as, for instance, the young 
 soldier may be eager for opportunities 
 of distinguishing himself, or accept 
 the post of danger with eagerness, 
 where the term Avidity would be 
 wholly out of i)lace. 
 
 Greediness (A. S. grkd'w) is a 
 low, animal, or selfish form of desire. 
 Eagerness, as we have seen, may in 
 certain cases be praiseworthy ; but 
 Avidity and Greediness are always 
 used in an unfavourable sense, though 
 this in some cases is slight, as to seize 
 an opportunity with avidity. 1 1 never 
 reaches the coarseness of greediness. 
 " For him, ye gods, for Crastinus, whose 
 
 spear 
 With impious eagerness began the war. 
 Some more than common punishment pre- 
 pare." RoWE, Lucan. 
 
 " In all which we may see an infinite 
 avidity, and such as cannot be satisfled with 
 any finite object." — FoTHKRBY, Atheo- 
 viastix. 
 
 " To work all uncleauness with greedi- 
 ness." — Bible. 
 
 Acquisitiveness (Lat. acgziirtre, 
 part, acqahitus, to acquire) is an active 
 but milder form of greediness. It is 
 a propensity of which the nature is a 
 love of gain. It does not despise even 
 small gaii's. It is an animal instinct 
 and may be seen in some animals, as 
 the magpie and the monkey. It is 
 commonly unscrupulous and leads to 
 theft, peculation, and fraud. It is 
 a kind of spurious and unprincipled 
 industry. The older force oi the word 
 was passive, not active. 
 
 "He died not in his acquisitive, but in 
 his native soil." — WoTTON. 
 
 EARLY. Soon. Betimes. 
 Early (A. S. terliche) is used as 
 au adjective as well as an adverb. 1 1 
 
 is essentially relative, and implies 
 some ordinary or fixed point of time, 
 in advance of which something else 
 takes place, as "to rise early, '^ " an 
 eai'ly spring." 
 
 Soon (A. S. sona) indicates always 
 a short interval posterior to any given 
 moment or the present moment, as 
 " soon after sunrise," "I will go soon." 
 
 Betimes (be or bi, and time, the s 
 having been added afterwards, i.e., 
 by time) denotes some space in the 
 early part of which something else is 
 done. It has a practical force, and 
 commonly means in good time for all 
 needful purposes, or for some specific 
 object. 
 
 "Samuel began his acquaintance with 
 Qt)d early, and continued it long. He began 
 it in his loug coats, and continued it to hia 
 grey hairs." — Bishop Hall. 
 
 " 'Tis sooner past, 'tis sooner done. 
 Than summer's rain or winter's sun ; 
 Most fleeting when it is most dear, 
 'Tis gone while we but say 'tis here." 
 Carkw. 
 " When the fii-st rays their cheering crim- 
 son shed. 
 We'll rise betimes to see the A-ineyard 
 spread." Parnell. 
 
 EARNEST. Pledge. 
 
 Earnest (Welsh eriies) is a woid 
 of very uncertain history ; so is also 
 Pledge (Fr. pleige). As used figura- 
 tively, there is some distinction be- 
 tween them. Earnest is less strong 
 than Pledge. After a pledge we 
 expect by personal right ; after 
 an earnest we expect by natural 
 sequence. A pledge is some kind of 
 security actually given for the future. 
 An earnest often involves no more 
 security than that of a high proba- 
 bility. If I say, " I pledge my word 
 that itohall be so," I leave, as it were, 
 a deposit in honour that I will do what 
 I say. If I say, " His early school 
 successes were an earnest of his bril- 
 liant career in after life," I mean no 
 more than that they raised expectations 
 which were afterwai'ds fulfilled. 
 
 " They (afllictious) may be testimonies 
 o/ earnests of Gods favour ; for whom He 
 loves He rebukes and chastens, even as a 
 father a sou Lu whom he delighteth." — 
 
 Wn,KINS. 
 
 •* If a pawnbroker recei\ es plate or jewels 
 A3 a pledge or security for the repayment of 
 
362 
 
 money lent thereon at a day certain, he 
 has them upon the express contract or con- : 
 dition to restore them if the pledger per- [ 
 forms his part by redeeming them in due 
 time."— Blackstone. 
 
 EASE. Quiet. Rest. Repose, j 
 
 Ease (Fr. aise) means tlie absence : 
 of any cause of trouble. This may be 
 either internally as regards oneself, or j 
 externally as regards what one has to 
 do. Hence the twofold meaning into ; 
 which the word runs out, of quiet and 
 facility. In the former application 
 E AS E 18 freedom from trouble, pain, or ; 
 restraint from without or from within. ' 
 We speak of ease of body or ease of | 
 mind ; in the latter freedom from diflfi- ! 
 culty or opposition. 
 
 Quiet (Lat. qniitem) denotes the 
 absence of a disturbing cause, as, e.^. 
 harassing thoughts or noises, and is 
 inapplicable to the bodies of men. 
 
 Rest (A. S. restan, to stay^ remain; 
 cf. Ger. rasten) denotes primarily the 
 cessation of motion, and, as a particu- 
 lar application of this, the cessation 
 from active or laborious movement. 
 
 As a synonym with Repose (Fr. 
 repos, from reposer, to rest), it may 
 mean any cessation which is a relief 
 from exertion. We may rest, for in- 
 stance, in a standing posture ; but 
 repose implies the placing of aU parts 
 of the body in a posture of rest. 
 
 •* What joy within these sunless groA'es, 
 
 Where lonely Contemplation roves. 
 To rest in fearless ease! " Langhorne. 
 
 " Secure the sacred quiet of thy mind." 
 Dryden, Ovid. 
 *' So forth she rode, without repose or rest." 
 Spenser. 
 
 EASE. Easiness. Facility. 
 
 In the sense in which it is a syno- 
 nym with these. Ease commonly re- 
 fers to specific action. Easiness to 
 inherent quality. " He lifted the 
 heavy weight with ease, being appa- 
 rently assured beforehand of the easi- 
 nets of the task." 
 
 Facility (Ltit. fdcMtdtem) is less 
 objective, and more subjective. We 
 speak of ease in reference to the task, 
 of facility in reference to a person's 
 power of performing it ; so that by 
 practice and natural strength a man 
 may perform with comparative facility 
 
 SYNONYMS [ease] 
 
 a task in itself by no means easy. 
 Ease is also more applicable to purely 
 physical undertakings. Facility to 
 mental. Ease is opposed to effort, 
 facility to difficulty. The intelligent 
 man solves a problem with facility; 
 the strong man lifts a weight with 
 ease. 
 
 " It must be likewise shown that these 
 parts stand in such a relation to each other 
 that the compai-ison between them may be 
 easily made, and that the affection of the 
 mind may result from it." — BuRKE. 
 " Refrain to-night. 
 
 And that shall lend a kind of easiness 
 
 To the next abstinence." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " Some gentlemen are not terrified by 
 the facility with which government has 
 been overturned in France." — Burke. 
 
 EBULLITION. Effervescence. 
 Fermentation. Ferment. 
 
 Ebullition (Lat. cbullire, to boil 
 up) is the process of boiling, or the 
 agitation of a liquid owing to the 
 escape of bubbles caused by the con- 
 version of a part of the liquid into 
 vapour. 
 
 Effervescence (Lat. effe^'vesccre, 
 to boil up or over) is caused hy the 
 escape from a fluid of gas, as m the 
 mixture of carbonated alkali and acid. 
 
 Ferment (hat. fermentum) is the 
 state, Fermentation the process of fer- 
 menting. When used metaphorically, 
 Ebullition is employed of sudden 
 bursts of anger or ill-temper. Effer- 
 vescence is used less commonly, but 
 employed of the natural exhibition of 
 liveliness and good spirits. Fermen- 
 tation and Ferment, of a state of ill- 
 suppressed discontent or impatience, 
 and especially among a number of 
 persons. But Ferment is commonly 
 appropriated to the emotional, and 
 Fermentation to the material. A hive 
 of working bees is in a state of fermen- 
 tation. It is dangerous to approach 
 if some exciting cause has thrown 
 tliem into a ferment. 
 
 " There are many young members in the 
 House (such of late has been the rapid suo- 
 cession of public men) who never saw that 
 prodigy Charles Townshend, nor of course 
 know what a ferment he was able to excite 
 in everything by the violent ebullition of 
 his mixed virtues and failings."— Burke. 
 
 " The wild gas, the fixed air is plainly 
 
[eccentric] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 363 
 
 broke loose, but we ought to suspend our 
 
 t'ndgnient until the first effervescence is a 
 ittle subsided, till the liquor is cleared, and 
 until vre see something deeper than the 
 agitation of a troubled and frothy surface." 
 —Burke. 
 
 " The naticsn is in too high ^ferment for 
 me to expect either fair war or even fair 
 quarter from a reader of the opposite party." 
 — Dryden. 
 
 " It 18 not ^fermentative process, for the 
 solution begins at the surface and proceeds 
 towards the centre, contrary to the order in 
 which fermentation acts and spreads." — 
 Paley. 
 
 ECCENTRIC. Singular. 
 Strange. Ood. Grotesque. 
 
 Eccentric (L. Lat. eccentrtcusj out 
 of the centrej Gr. ixxErrpof ) is only em- 
 ployed of persons, and, again, only of 
 what meets the observation in refer- 
 ence t() conduct, as the appearance, 
 dress, and the behaviour. No pecu- 
 liarity of countenance or form, how- 
 ever striking, would be called eccen- 
 tric; for eccentricity implies a will, 
 nature, or habits, which, as it were, 
 move in a different orbit from those of 
 other people. 
 
 Singular (Lat. singYdaris, one at a 
 time, alone of its kind), on the other 
 hand, is applied to the whole person 
 or to any aspect of his character, to 
 his ideas, to his whole life, or to any 
 particular act, as standing by itself 
 Dut of the common course, and even 
 to phenomena, circumstances, or occur- 
 rences. Singularity is less demonstra- 
 tive than eccentricity, and, unlike 
 eccentricity, may be restricted in some 
 persons to matters which do not meet 
 the eye. So one may be singular, that 
 is, unlike his neighbours or the gene- 
 rality of people in the opinions which 
 be holds ; or the singularity may ap- 
 pear in some one feature of his cha- 
 racter only, or in some one solitary 
 act, as in some determination which 
 he makes. 
 
 Strange (O. Fr. estru7ige, Lat. 
 eitruneus) is of equally comprehensive 
 application, but bears reference to the 
 experience of the witness, to which it 
 is foreign and alien; so that what 
 Bfems strange to one person may not 
 be so to another, who can better in- 
 terpret it, or has by a larger experience 
 been made familiar with it. It is a 
 
 OTaver word than Singular. It is the 
 difficultyofcomprehensionor interpre- 
 tation which constitutes the Strange, 
 whence the word Strange is often 
 coupled with mysterious, and is usu- 
 ally associated with the undesirable. 
 
 Odd (N. odde, from oddr, a point ; 
 i.e. not even, level, but having a unit on 
 one side higher than on the other; see 
 Wedgwood) implies disharmony, in- 
 congruity, or unevenness. An odd 
 thing or person is an exception to 
 general rules of calculation and proce- 
 aure, or expectation and common expe- 
 rience. Like Singular and Strange, 
 it has a very wide application, and is 
 not restricted to what is purely of a 
 
 g^sonal nature. It is less grave than 
 tkange, and denotes an impression 
 not so much of surprise or bewilder- 
 ment as of incongruity, as strangeness 
 does of unfamiliarity, singulai-ity of 
 isolation, and eccenti'icity of iiTegu 
 larity. 
 
 " Genius, a bustling lad of parts. 
 Who all things did by fits and start* ; 
 Nothing above him or below him. 
 Who'd make a riot or a poem, 
 From eccentricity of thought 
 Not always do the thing he ought." 
 
 Lloyd. 
 
 " Though, according to the common course 
 and practice of the world, it be somewhat 
 singular for men thoroughly to live up to 
 the principles of religion, yet singularity in 
 this matter is so far from being a reflection 
 upon any man's prudence, that it is a singu- 
 lar commendation of it." — TiLLOXSON. 
 
 " Though the common experience, says 
 he, and the ordinary course of things hav« 
 justly a mighty influence on the minds of 
 men to make them give or refuse credit to 
 anything proposed to their belief, yet there 
 is one case wherein the strangeness of the 
 facts lessens not the assent to a fair testi 
 mony given to it." — Warburton. 
 
 " But oh, how oddly will it sound, that I 
 Must ask my child forgiveness." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 The Grotesque (literally the cha- 
 racter of the strange figures which 
 serve to ornament grottoes) belongs 
 only to matters of representation, ex- 
 pression or action. The grotesque 
 is a combination of force with sti-ange- 
 ness. It is ti-uth in grimace, a natural 
 thing put forth in an unnatural way, 
 or an incident with a curious jumble 
 of surroundings. The grotesque con* 
 
364 
 
 tains the elements of the wild, the 
 incongruous, the whimsical, the un- 
 couth. 
 
 " Grotesque painting is the just resem- 
 blance of this ; and Horace begins his Art 
 of Poetry by describing such a figure with a 
 man's head, a horse's neck, the wings of a 
 bird, and a fish's tail, parts of different 
 species jumbled together according to the 
 mad imagination of the dauber." — Dkyden. 
 
 ECONOMICAL. Saving. Fru- 
 gal. Thrifty. Parsimonious. 
 Sparing. Penurious. 
 
 Of these, Saving {safe, Fr. sauf, 
 Lat. salvus) means avoiding unneces- 
 sary expenses, whether it be with or 
 againstthe natural inclination, whether 
 as a habit or for a particular purpose, 
 whether with or without sufficient 
 leason ; but it has accumulation for Its 
 object. 
 
 Economical (Gr. oixovo^ijto;, good 
 at managing a household) implies a 
 good deal more, as not only saving of 
 waste and unnecessary expense, but 
 careful and fi-ugal management and 
 prudence in expenditure. The econo- 
 mical person not only abstains from 
 extravagance and waste, but spends 
 Judiciously and well. Economy is a 
 term susceptible of the highest appli- 
 cations. It is the prudent, just, and 
 advantageous employment of the parts 
 of a whole or system, hence we speak 
 of the economy of nature, providence, 
 religion, of time and talents. It is 
 suitable to the largest fortunes, and 
 runs up into the highest forms of 
 administration. It deals with large 
 expenditures, and constitutes the 
 wealtli of a state. Economy is the 
 whole and extended form of that of 
 which management is a part and 
 lower form. 
 
 Frugal {LB,t. fruordlis, thnfty) re- 
 lates more specifically to matters of 
 consumption. So that one may be 
 frugal even of time. It is opposed to 
 lavish, and belongs especially to mat- 
 ters of food and dress. It conveys 
 the idea of not using or spending 
 superfluously, and when used of mat- 
 ters of consumption points to a sim- 
 plicity of manners. 
 
 Thrifty (connected with thrive, 
 Dan. thrif, good luck) connects the 
 ideas of fi-ugality and industry, or 
 •uch careful expenditure as comes of 
 
 SYNONYMS [economical] 
 
 a knowledge of the value of moLey, 
 and results in the competent posses- 
 sion of it, and in prosperity in general. 
 Pa rsimonious (Lat. parsHmdnia,par- 
 ch-e, to spare) is commonly employed 
 in a bad sense of excessive economy, 
 and a closeness bordering upon nig- 
 gardliness, or, at least, of continuous 
 effort at saving. Parsimony is exer- 
 cised in small matters, and is the re- 
 trenchments of trivial expenses. It 
 is minute and rigorous. It levies 
 taxes on small outgoings, and is the 
 way by which the poor grow rich. 
 
 Sparing (A. S. spdrian, to spare) 
 has, like Parsimonious, a somewhat 
 unfavourable sense, indicating a re- 
 i luctance to spend where spending is 
 necessary, or would be at least more 
 graceful. It is more specific, as Par- 
 simonious is more general and habi- 
 tual. It commonly implies ampler 
 means than the possessor is inclined to 
 make use of. One speaks of being 
 economical of time and sparing of time 
 and trouble. Aseconomy gains byju- 
 dicious spending, parsimony gains by 
 scrupulous spending, and sparing by 
 not spending, or not till a cheap op- 
 portunity has been found. Economy 
 suits lai'ge fortunes, parsimony small 
 fortunes, sparing uncertain fortunes. 
 
 The PENURious(Lat. phiuria, want, 
 need) is one who suffers want in the 
 extremity of his sparing. 
 " The charitable few are chiefly they 
 Whom Fortune places in the middle way. 
 Just rich enough, with economic care. 
 To save a pittance, and a pittance spare. 
 Just poor enough to feel the poor man's 
 
 moan. 
 Or share those sufferings which may prove 
 their own." Harte. 
 
 " He was not hitherto a saver."— Syriyr. 
 
 "The father was more given to fru- 
 galitye, and the sonne to ryotousnesse." — 
 GoLDYNG. 
 
 '* Domestic industry and economy, or the 
 qualities distinguished by the homely titles 
 of thriftiness and good housewifely, were 
 always till the present century deemed 
 honourable." — Knox, Essays. 
 
 "Parsimony, and not industry, is the im- 
 mediate cause of the increase of capital. 
 Industry indeed provides the subject which 
 /?arstnio?iy accumulates; but whatever in- 
 dusti*y might acquire, \i parsimony did not 
 save and store up, the capital would never 
 be the greater."— Smith, Wealth of Na 
 tions. 
 
[edifice] 
 
 "And tanght at schools mnch mythologie 
 
 stuC 
 But sonnd religion sparingly enough." 
 
 COWPER. 
 " I ever held a scanty and penurious jus- 
 tice to partake of the nature of a wrong." — 
 BURKK. 
 
 ECSTASY. Rapture. Trans- 
 port. Frexxy. 
 
 Ecstasy (Gr. Ixc-Taa-if) is, literally, 
 o standm^ or being apart, as if tlie 
 soul left tlie body for a time, accord- 
 ing to the ancient notion ; a state in 
 which the mind is carried away be- 
 yond the reach of ordinary impres- 
 sions. It is now commonly used only 
 of excessive and overpowering Joy. An 
 ecstasy of delight, and sometimes an 
 ecstasy of grief. It is a passive state. 
 
 Rapture (Lat. rUptre, part, rapt us, 
 to seize), on the other hand, is ener- 
 getic and active, when the thoughts 
 and feelings are keenly alive and in- 
 tensified, and is never associated with 
 the painful. 
 
 Transport (Lat. transportdre, to 
 carry across) is not so strong a term, 
 and is more variously applied. Ec- 
 stasy and Rapture are states of de- 
 light. Transport relates to vehement 
 emotion of any kind, as grief, joy, 
 rage, astonishment. 
 
 Vnv.NZY (Yr.fr^nesie, originally from 
 <ppiw(rtg, inflammation of the brain, 
 phreintis) is stronger than Transport, 
 and is applied to all that transport re- 
 lates to, and to the higher spiritual 
 emotions besides ; as the frenzy of 
 poetry, or of inspiration ; the frenzy 
 of genius, when a more than common 
 or human influence enraptures the 
 mind ; and the frenzy of wrath. In 
 all the rest the individual is master of 
 his own acts. In frenzy he is sup- 
 posed to be himself acted upon by 
 some power, which makes him an in- 
 strument, and carries him into sub- 
 jection. 
 " What! are you dreaming, son? with eyes 
 
 esist upwards 
 Like a mad prophet in an ecsiasie." 
 
 Dryden. 
 " The latent Damon drew 
 Such maddening draughts of beauty to his 
 
 soul. 
 As for a while o'erwhelmed his raptured 
 
 thought 
 "Vith luxury too daring." Thomsom. 
 
 1>ISCRIMINATED. 
 
 366 
 
 "With transport views the airy xcU ni* 
 own. 
 
 And swells on an imaginary throne." 
 
 POPK. 
 
 " What/re?!^, shepherd, has thy soul pos- 
 sessed ? 
 
 The vineyard lies half pruned and half un- 
 dressed." Dryden, Virgil. 
 
 EDIFICE. Building. Struc- 
 ture. Fabric. Construction. 
 
 An Edifice (Lat. (tdtficitim, a 
 building of any kind) is commonly 
 applied to inhabited buildings of some 
 size and pretension, or to such as are 
 at least from time to time occupied, 
 as a palace or a cathedral ; not an 
 obelisk. 
 
 " Should I go to church. 
 And see the holy edifies of stone, 
 And not bethink me straight of dangeroni 
 
 rocks. 
 Which touching but my gentle vessel't 
 
 side. 
 Would scatter all her spices on the stream, 
 Eui'obe the roai-ing waters with mysilks?" 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Building (O. Sw. bylja, to build; 
 the A. S. byldan bein^ to em-bold-en) 
 is used in an indetenninate way, when 
 no characteristic idea is attached ; as 
 a mass of building, public and private 
 buildings. 
 
 "And Jesus answered and sayde unto 
 hym, Seyst thou these great byldinoesf"— 
 Bible, 1551. 
 
 Structure (Lat. struct iira,ajitting 
 together, a structure) is used of almost 
 anything which is regarded as made 
 of parts or particles put together, 
 whether natural or artificial, and has 
 the sense of composition, or mode of 
 putting together, or formation; as 
 the structure of the globe, the struc- 
 ture of a natural rock, the structure 
 of a poem or a discourse. When 
 used in a sense more closely synony- 
 mous with Building, it draws the at- 
 tention to the internal putting together 
 of the parts* rather than to any pur- 
 
 {)Ose of it. A curious structure, a 
 ofty structure, an insecure structure. 
 It would be incongruous to say, 
 "The citizens needed some public 
 structure in which to hold municipal 
 meetings." Here Edifice otBuilding 
 would be used; but it might be added, 
 ** The plans of an eminent architect 
 
366 
 
 were adopted, and the result is a com- 
 modious and handsome structura." 
 
 "But this is yet a weak piece of struc- 
 ture, because the supporters are subject to 
 much impulsion, especially if the line be 
 long."— Beliquia T^ottoniana. 
 
 Fabric CFt. fabriqiie, La.t.fabr'icay 
 any artistic production) is used not 
 only of structures in the sense just 
 given, but also of textile substances. 
 In the architectural sense. Fabric de- 
 notes more art and design, Structure 
 more care and orderly arrangement. 
 " The baseless /oAnc of a vision. 
 
 Construction (Lat. constrtictio- 
 nerri) does not imply that unity of 
 form or plan which is expressed by 
 both Fabric and Structure. York 
 Minster is a marvellous fabric or 
 structure. A Roman mosaic pave- 
 ment, or London Bridge, is an elabo- 
 rate fabric. The Dutch dykes are 
 other constructions on which the lives 
 of thousands depend. The term Con- 
 struction is the abstract of which 
 Structure is the concrete. It is also 
 the process of which structure is the 
 result. 
 
 "From the raft or canoe -which first 
 served to carry a sarage over the river, to 
 the construction of a vessel capable of con- 
 veying a numerous crew in safety to a dis- 
 tant coast, the progress in improvement is 
 immense."— Robertson. 
 
 EDUCATION. Instruction. 
 Breeding. Training. Edifica- 
 tion. 
 
 Instruction (Lat. instruct lonem^ a 
 constructing) and education are as 
 parts to the whole. Instruction is 
 mental, education is moral as well as 
 mental. 
 
 Education (Lat. educationemy edii- 
 care, to rear, educate) is more appli- 
 cable to the younger portion of life, 
 when the mind and the moral nature 
 areunstockedand undeveloped; while 
 instruction may be given* or received 
 on specific points or departments of 
 knowledge at all periods. Instruc- 
 tion makes men wiser; education 
 ou^ht to make them wiser and better ; 
 and Breeding (A. S br^dan, to 
 nourish) will make them more polished 
 and agrf-eable. 
 
 Training (Fr. trainer, Ut drag, 
 
 SYNONYMS [EDUCATIONJ 
 
 draw) is development by instruction, 
 exercise, and discipline, and is appli- 
 cable to the whole nature of a man, 
 or, specifically, to the faculties which 
 he possesses. It denotes no more than 
 a process of purposed habituation, 
 and is equally applicable to the physi- 
 cal and mental powers, so that it 
 may include both at the same time. 
 
 Edification (Lat. (tdtficationeniy a 
 constructingj an edifice) is an improve- 
 ment in a moral or religious sense. 
 It is, unlike the rest, applicable to tlie 
 effect of a single cause, without con- 
 tinuous or sustained influence : one 
 may be edified by a casual remark of 
 another. He who is edified is con- 
 scious of an accession to his stock of 
 practical knowledge, and an increase 
 of his moral strength. 
 
 " Out of these magazines I shall supply 
 the town with what may tend to their 
 edification.'" — Addison, 
 The following is Hooker's account: — 
 
 " Now men are edified when either their 
 understanding is taught somewhat whereof 
 in such actions it behoveth all men to con 
 sider, or when their hearts are moved with 
 any affection suitable thereto, when their 
 minds are in any sort stirred up into that 
 reverence, devotion, attention, and due re- 
 gard which in these cases seemeth requi- 
 site." 
 
 " If what I have said in the beginning of 
 this discoui'se be true, as I do not doubt but 
 it is, namely, that the difference to be found 
 in the manner and abilities of men is owing 
 more to their educatioii than anything else, 
 we have reason to conclude that great care 
 is to be had of the forming children's minds, 
 and giving them that seasoning early, which 
 shall influence their minds always after." — 
 Locke. 
 
 " The coldness of passion seems to be the 
 natural ground of ability and honesty among 
 men, as the government or moderation of 
 them the great end of philosophical and 
 moral instructions."— Sm W, Temple. 
 
 " I shall also be bold enough to afiirra 
 that among the ancients there was not 
 much delicacy of breeding, or that polite 
 deference and respect which civility obliges 
 us either to express or counterfeit towards 
 the persons with whom we converse," — 
 Burke. 
 
 " So to his steed he gott, and gan to ride 
 As one nnfitt therefore, that all might see 
 He bad not trayned been in chevalree." 
 Spenser, 
 
 EDUCE. Extract. Elicit. 
 
 Eliminate. Enucleate. Evolve. 
 
 All these terms stand for processes 
 
[efface] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 367 
 
 of exhibition of one thing out of 
 another. But they have their distinct 
 churacteristics. 
 
 We Educe (Lat. idiic^re, to draw 
 out) not material but moral results; 
 and this as against some counter- 
 agency or influence of a contrary ten- 
 dency, or a result unlike in character 
 to the quarter or source from which it 
 is drawn. As Pope — 
 •' The eternal art educes good from ill." 
 We Extract (Lat. extrahere, part. 
 extractus, to draw out) simply as 
 against the natural tendency of things 
 or substances to retain. 1 he term is 
 applicable both morally and physically. 
 We Elicit (Lat. Ulcere, part, eticri- 
 tus, to entice) only moral things, and 
 by moral means. It is to bring truth 
 to light by indirect means, and, as it 
 were, coax it out. Argument and 
 inquiry are the common means of 
 eliciting ; but the force of circum- 
 stances also is said to have the same 
 effect. In the case of the thing 
 elicited there is presumed to be an 
 inherent tendency to keep the fact or 
 truth in reserve which will not yield 
 to direct force, but only to influence 
 operating indirectly. 
 
 Eliminate and Enucleate stand 
 closely related ; but their purpose is 
 in the main different. We eliminate 
 a thing (Lat. eCiminare, to turn out of 
 doors) by turning it, as it were, out oj 
 doors, separating and excluding it 
 from the matter in hand, as in algebra 
 we eliminate an unknown quantity ,that 
 is, cause it to disappear from an equa- 
 tion ; hence, sometimes, elimination 
 is the act of obtaining by separation. 
 We Enucleate (Lat. inucleare, to 
 take out the kernel) for the opposite 
 purpose, that is, not to exclude, but 
 to obtain and expose, though we may 
 . afterwards dispose in any way of the 
 thing 80 obtained or disposed. 
 
 To Evolve (Lat. evolv^re, to unrol) 
 expresses nearly the same thing as 
 Enucleate, but implies a more con- 
 tinuous and elaborate process. It is, 
 moreover, used both of the thin^ un- 
 folded, and of the thing brought to 
 lieht out of that which is so unfolded. 
 We educe by tact and contrivance. 
 
 We extract by method. We elicit b^ 
 management and ingenuity. We elimi- 
 nate with a practical view of clearing 
 what is superfluous to consideration. 
 We enucleate the little germ of what 
 is valuable from the husk of what is 
 worthless. ^Ve evolve by pains that 
 which we desirt to take to ourselves 
 as wrapt up in much for which we 
 have no use or regard. 
 
 EFFACE. Obliterate. Ex 
 punge. Erase. Cancel. 
 
 All these terms apply to characters 
 impressed or inscrioed. 
 
 Efface (Fr. effacer) is to render 
 illegible or indiscernible, as the letters 
 from a monument, or the efiigy and 
 letters from a coin, or any representa- 
 tion upon a surface. It is also used 
 metaphorically in the sense of re- 
 moving traces, as " to efface recollec- 
 tions from the mind." But the term 
 implies nothing of mode or purpose ; 
 so that thing^s may be purposely 
 effaced, or effaced by the lapse of 
 time, corroding influences, and the 
 like. Such effacing may come short 
 of the entire removal of the thing. 
 
 Obliterate (Lat. obUterare, to hlot 
 out; lithuj a letter) only applies to 
 what conveys a symbolical meaning ; 
 e.». letters. A fresco painting, for in- 
 stance, would be a direct representa- 
 tion, and so might be effaced, but not 
 obliterated ; but the term is used 
 analogously to the effacing of letters. 
 So we might say, not indeed, " The 
 painting itself," but " every trace ol 
 it was obliterated." 
 
 Expunge (Lat. ex-pungh-e, to prick 
 out, to erase from a list by points, set 
 above or below) is to strike out with 
 the point of the pen, and is always 
 designedly done ; while obliteration, 
 like effacement, may be the result of 
 undesigned influences. 
 
 Erase is to scratch out (Lat 
 erddtre); while Cancel (Lat. can- 
 celli, lattice work) is to draw lines 
 diagonally across writing, so as prac- 
 tically to remove it, without actually 
 erasing, expunging, or obliterating it. 
 Cancelled writing loses its force, but 
 not its legibility. It is in their meta- 
 phorical applications that the distinc- 
 
568 
 
 SYNC NYMS 
 
 [efficient] 
 
 tions of these words are more clearly 
 prominent. Memories and impres- 
 sions are effaced ; traces, vestiges are 
 obliterated ; offences and injuries are 
 expunged ; gratitude, good and kindly 
 thoughts, are erased ; obligations, ne- 
 cessity, favours, debts, are cancelled. 
 
 " Thus the ideas, as well as children, of 
 our youth often die before us, and our 
 minds represent to us those tombs to which 
 we are api)roaching, where, though brass 
 and marble remain, yet the inscriptions are 
 effaced by time, and the imagery moulders 
 away." — LoCKE. 
 
 " The sin (rf Judah is said to be writ upon 
 the table of their hearts, as if their memory 
 of and affection to it could scare-e be oblife- 
 ra^erf."— Whitby. 
 
 " Is every word in the declaration from 
 Downing Street, concerning their conduct, 
 and concerning ours and that of our allies, 
 so obviously false, that it is necessary to 
 give some new-invented proofs of our good 
 faith, in order to expunge the memory of 
 this perfidy ? "— BuKKK. 
 
 " A king is ever surrounded by a crowd 
 of infamous flatterers, who find their ac- 
 count by keeping him from the least light 
 of reason, till all ideas of rectitude and jixs- 
 tice are erased from his mind." — Jbid. 
 
 " The handwriting against him may be 
 cancelled in the court of heaven, and yet 
 the enditement run on in the court of con- 
 science."— South. 
 
 EFFICIENT. Effective. Effec- 
 tual. Efficacious. 
 
 Efficient (Lat. effjictre, to effect) 
 means actively operative, and is used 
 of persons, of things, and of causes in 
 a philosophical sense, as an efficient 
 cause, an efficient officer. An efficient 
 cause is the motive principle, as dis- 
 tinguished from the final cause or 
 design, the material, and the formal 
 cause. Efficient is peculiarly appli- 
 cable to persons. 
 
 Effective means producing a deci- 
 ded effect, as an effective remedy , an ef- 
 fective picture, an effective speech. It 
 is not a quality of persons. Effectual 
 is Jinally effective, or producing, not 
 effect generally, but the desired effect 
 in such a way as to leave nothing to 
 be done. An effectual remedy is one 
 which needs not to be repeated. 
 
 Efficacious (Lat. efficacem) means 
 possessing the quality of being effec- 
 tive, which is latent in the thing until 
 it 18 put into operation. It is not em- 
 
 ployed of persons. An efficacious 
 remedy is had recourse to, and proves 
 effective if it does decided good, effec- 
 tual if it does all the good desired. 
 
 " The Church was not impaired. Her 
 estates, her majesty, her splendour, her 
 orders and gradations continued the same. 
 She was preserved in her full efficiency, 
 and cleared only of a certain intolerance 
 which was her weakness and disgrace.'' — 
 Burke. 
 
 "The House of Commons will lose that 
 independent character which, inseparably 
 connecting the honour and reputation with 
 the acts of this House, enables us to afford 
 a real, substantial, and effective support to 
 his Government." — Ibid. 
 
 " The extreme dishonour and even peril 
 of this situation roused her old age at length 
 to the resolution of taking some effectual 
 measures." — Bishop Hurd. 
 
 " Rules themselves are indeed nothing 
 else but an appeal to experience; conclu- 
 sions drawn from wide and general obser- 
 vation of the aptness and efficacy of certain 
 means to produce those impressions." — 
 Ibid. 
 
 EFFIGY. Image. Figure. Por- 
 trait. 
 
 The Effigy (Lat. effigies; e, out ofy 
 and Jingtre, to form) is intended not 
 only to represent, but to take the 
 actual place of the thing. 
 
 The Image (Lat.Vmog-inem) is sim- 
 ply to represent it. 
 
 The Figure (Lat. /%?tra) shows its 
 attitude and design or occupation. 
 The effigy is commonly popular ; the 
 image architectural or commemora- 
 tive ; the figure symbolical or expres- 
 sive. Effigies of obnoxious rulers. 
 Images of saints. Heraldic, eques- 
 trian, weeping figures. 
 
 We speak of Portraits ( Fr.portrait, 
 Lat. protnthere, in mediaeval Lat. to 
 draw) of illustrious persons. Portrait 
 conveys the idea oi an exact resem- 
 blance, the verb portray being used in 
 the sense of drawing a likeness or de- 
 scription, and employed not only of 
 persons but of scenes, transactions, 
 characters, and the like. Image and 
 Figure are used of mental and rhe- 
 torical similitudes. 
 
 EFFORT. Attempt. Endeavour. 
 Essay. Trial. Exertion. Experi- 
 M FNT. Experience. 
 
 Effort (Ft. t'efforcer, to make an 
 
effort] 
 
 effort, force, strength) is a specific 
 putting forth of strength, whether 
 physical or mental, in performing an 
 act, or aiming at an ohject. It im- 
 plies external hardness or difficulty. 
 Its opposite is ease. 
 
 An Attempt (O. Fr. atempter, Lat. 
 attentdre, to attempt) is a trying to do 
 something in particular. It may be a 
 trial of skill or strength; as, to at- 
 tempt to scale a wall, or to untie a 
 knot, or comprehend an expression. 
 Efforts are strong or weak ; attempts 
 are successful or unsuccessful, and 
 often need fortune as well as strength. 
 Where the woi-d Attempt isemployed, 
 without anything to qualify it, it im- 
 plies that tlie thing attempted was not 
 achieved. 
 
 ENDEAVOun (Fr. en devoir, iri duty, 
 te mettre en devoir, to make it one's 
 duty) is of wider meaning than both 
 Effort and Attempt, and, indeed, 
 comprehends both. It is to use all 
 available means and resources in one's 
 power to bring about an object. It is 
 labour directed to some specific end. 
 Effort is energetic or laborious endea- 
 vour. Endeavour is continuous and 
 sustained attempt. 
 
 Essay (Fr. essayer, to try; Lat. 
 ezf{ginm, a standard weight) is com- 
 monly connected with one's own 
 natural powers, of which some trial is 
 niade, as to essay to write, to speak, 
 to sing. When spoken of matters 
 wholly extraneous to one's self, it 
 has the meaning of to test or try the 
 strength, value, or purity; and in 
 matters of effort implies some degree 
 of the ineffectual. 
 
 Trial is the trvi'iff (Fr. trier, to sort; 
 Lat. tj-\idre, to break (grain) small) or 
 testing in any manner, as by experi- 
 ment, by experience, by examination, 
 and is applicable to one's own strength 
 or powers and qualities, or the quali- 
 ties of things external to ourselves. 
 
 Exertion (Lat. exs(irire, to thrust 
 forth) is the active exercise of any 
 power or faculty of which we may be 
 possessed ; as, to exert the mind, the 
 Umbs, or one's powers geneially, as 
 e.g. one's interest on behalf ofanother. 
 It admits all degrees of effort, and 
 even natural action without effort. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 369 
 
 Experiment (Lat. experimentum) 
 is a process instituted for the sake of 
 arriving at the knowledge of a general 
 principle or truth. Experiment is to 
 the general law what test is to the 
 particular case. Less strictly it is a 
 trial made to test one's own powers or 
 something else, and conducted by 
 reason and the light of nature. 
 
 " From whence it seems probable to me 
 that the simple ideas we receire from sen- 
 sation and reflection are the boundaries of 
 oar thoughts, beyond which the mind, what- 
 ever efforts it would make, is not able to 
 advance one jot ; nor can it make any dis- 
 coveries when it would pry into the nature 
 and hidden causes of those ideas." — Locke. 
 
 " I am afraid they have awaked. 
 And 'tis not done. The attempt and not the 
 
 deed 
 Confounds us." Shakespeare. 
 
 " It ought to be the first endeavour of a 
 writer to distinguish nature from custom, 
 or that which is established because it is 
 right from that which is right because it is 
 established." — Rambler. 
 " Yet such a tongue alike in vain essays 
 To blot with censure or exalt with praise." 
 
 HooLE. 
 " To bring it to the trial will you dare ? 
 Our pipes, our skill, our voices to compare?" 
 Drtdex. 
 
 " Exertings of the senses of seeing and 
 hearing." — Hale. 
 
 " These records of wars, intrigues, fac- 
 tions, and revolutions are so many collec- 
 tions of experiments, by which the politician 
 or moral philosopher fixes the principles of 
 his science, in the same manner as the phy- 
 sician or natural philosopher becomes ac- 
 quainted with the nature of plants, minerals, 
 and other external objects by the experi- 
 ments which he forms vonceming them." — 
 Hume. 
 
 Experience (Lat. erpHrientia, ex- 
 ph-tri, to try)is practical acquaintance, 
 by personal observation, trial, or feel- 
 ing of effects. In a fuller sense it is 
 repeated trial, varied observation, and 
 prolonged acquaintance. It includes 
 also the condition of the peraon as tlie 
 possessor of the sum and substance of 
 the facts, feelings, or truths so ac- 
 quu-ed. 
 
 "And so for the evidence of experience, 
 I am by that to u great degree assured of 
 the succession of night and day, winter and 
 summer, and have no such reason to doubt 
 ■K-hethe^ the house wherein now I am shall 
 the nex'c minute fall upon me, or the earth 
 open and swallow it up, as to be in continual 
 fp»r of such accidents."— WiLKiNS, Natural 
 Hecigion. 
 
370 
 
 SfNONYMS 
 
 [egotistical] 
 
 EGOTISTICAL. Opinionated. 
 Selfish. Conceited. 
 
 The Ec.OTisTiCALman (Fr. egdisme, 
 Lat. tgo, I) is full of himself in talk, 
 as the Selfish man is full of self in 
 plans, wishes, and desires. The egotis- 
 tical man acts out of self-conceit. He 
 is a centre of interest and importance 
 in his own estimation. 
 
 The Opinioxateo (Lat. op'mionem, 
 opinion) man is self-conceited on the 
 particular point of his own judgment, 
 a»d obstinately tenacious of his own 
 opinions. Both the egotistical and 
 opinionated man are innocent in com- 
 parison with the selfish, who is read;/ 
 not only to thinkof himself first on all 
 occasions, but even to gratify his de- 
 sires at the expense of others. 
 
 The Conceited (Eng. conceit, an 
 idea, a conception ; Fr. concevoir, to con- 
 ceive) man, full of conceit or estima- 
 tion of himself, overrates his own capa- 
 city or recommendations. This may 
 be in some things, and not in others, 
 in which he may foi-m a just or even 
 too loAv an estimate. 
 
 "The gentlemen of Port Royal, who 
 were more eminent for their learning and 
 their humility than any other in France, 
 banished the way of speaking in the first 
 person out of all their works, as rising from 
 vain-glory and self-conceit. To show their 
 particular aversion to it, they branded this 
 form of writing with the name of an egotism, 
 a figure not to be found among the ancient 
 rhetoricians." — Spectator. 
 
 " People of clear heads are what the 
 world calls opinionated." — Shenstone. 
 
 " But men aj-e led into this mistake by 
 laying too much stress upon etymology. 
 For, selfishness being derived from self, 
 they learnedly infer that whatever is done 
 to please one's own inclination must fall 
 under that appellation, not considering that 
 derivatives do not always retain the full 
 latitude of their roots." — Seaech. 
 The old foi-ce of the term conceit, that 
 is, a conception or thought, and thence 
 a forced thought, as a verbal conceit, 
 or play on words, and afterwards a 
 false or undue conception of one's own 
 attractions or powers, appears in the 
 following : — 
 
 " That groom that conceited himself an 
 emperor thought all as irrational as dis- 
 oyal that did not acknowledge him." — 
 Olanvill. 
 
 ELDER. SiiMou. Older. 
 
 Ei,DER (A. S.yldrn, compar. ofeuldf 
 
 old) and Senior (Lat. senior, older ^ 
 are used both as adjectives and sub 
 stantives, Older only as a comparative 
 adjective, in the sense of older persons. 
 As adjectives, Elder andSENioRrelate 
 only to persons, Elder signify ing more 
 advanced age,andSENiOR implying also 
 that priority or precedence which such 
 advancement confers or has brought 
 with it. Older is applicable to any 
 person or thing which has existed 
 comparatively long ; as this man, this 
 house, this infant is older than the 
 other. 
 
 "Hei-eof it came that the word (^elder) 
 was always used both for the magistrate 
 and for those of age and gravity, the same 
 beai'ing one signification almost in all Ian 
 guages."— Raleigh. 
 
 "The names of lord, signior, seigneur, 
 sennor, in the Italian, French, and Spanish 
 languages, seem to have at first imported 
 only elder men, who thereby were grown 
 into authority among the several govern- 
 ments and nations which seated themselves 
 into those countries upon the fall of the 
 Roman Empire." — Sir W. Temple. 
 
 ELEVATION. Height. Alti- 
 tude. 
 
 Elevation (Lat. ctivdtionem, levis, 
 light) is the situation of an object 
 raised above others. Height is the 
 comparative measure of the elevation. 
 Such and such a degree of elevation 
 indicates the specific height of an ob- 
 ject. But height is the more general 
 term ; elevation is always considerable 
 height. The least degree of elevation 
 is height. A plant may have a steir 
 three inches in height (not elevation). 
 Elevation, unlike Height, is used to 
 denote a moral quality. Elevation of 
 mind is above low or vulgai* senti- 
 ments and aims. 
 
 Altitude lends itself (Lat. uMtu- 
 (Unem, height; altus, high) to physical 
 as elevation to moral associations. Al- 
 titude is height in elevation accurately 
 measured. It is the degree of space 
 extended upwai'ds from a given level. 
 Physical geography gives the altitude 
 of mountains above the level of the 
 sea. In astronomy altitude is mea- 
 sured by the degrees on the aic of a 
 vortical circle. 
 
[emancipation] discriminated. 
 
 371 
 
 ELIGIBLE. Desirable Pre- 
 ferable. 
 
 Eligible (Lat. idgere, to seUct) 
 means primarily worthy of being 
 chosen, or qualified to be chosen. It 
 denotes, therefore, an alternatiye — 
 that of choosing something else, or 
 not choosing this. 
 
 Desirable (Fr. dtsir, Lat. disid^- 
 rium) is of wider application, and con- 
 veys no idea of comparison or selec- 
 tion. It relates to any kind of choice, 
 not only, for instance, of possession, 
 like Eligible, but of conduct, as e.g. 
 action, or the abstaining from action ; 
 and, in short, of anything that is to be 
 wished, as a desii'able resideiice^ a de- 
 sirable measure, a desirable abstinence 
 from food. 
 
 Preferable ('Lat. preeferre, to pre- 
 fer) is that which is comparatively de- 
 sirable or specifically eligible, as eligi- 
 ble is sivgularly desirable. 
 
 "A life of virtne and religion will, not- 
 withstanding, to a considering man be far 
 more easy and far more eligible than the 
 contrary way of living." — Sharp. 
 *' O, wherefore did God grant me my re- 
 quest. 
 And as a blessing with such pomp adorned? 
 Why are His gifts desirable, to tempt 
 Our earnest prayers, then, given with 
 
 solemn hand 
 As graces, draw a scorpion's tail behind ? " 
 
 Milton. 
 The older form is prefer rible. 
 
 " Which hypothesis, if it appear but pro- 
 bable to an impartial inquiry, will even on 
 that account be j^referrible to both the for- 
 mer, which we have seen to be desperata." 
 — Glanvill. 
 
 ELOCUTION. Eloquence. Ora- 
 tory. Rhetoric. 
 
 Elocution (Lat. iKcntionem, il^qui, 
 lo speak forth) turns more upon the 
 accessory graces of speaking in public, 
 as intonation, gesture, and delivery in 
 general; Eloquenck, on the matter 
 and the natural gifts or attainments of 
 the speaker. The actor must practise 
 elocution ; but, as his words are found 
 him, he cannot be eloquent. The ora- 
 tor needs eloquence as a natural gift, 
 which may be enhanced and rendered 
 more effective by a studied elocution. 
 
 Oratory (Lat. orator, an orator) 
 compreliends both the art and the 
 practice of the orator, and, in an 
 
 extended sense, the combined pro- 
 ductions of orators ; as, the oratory of 
 Greece and Rome. 
 
 Rhetoric (Gr. fi pmofiKn Tiyjri) is 
 strictly the theory or science of which 
 oratory is the practice. It is only by a 
 kind of poetic licence that Eloquence 
 is used in the sense of expressiveness* 
 as, the silent eloquence of a look, for 
 instance. Rhetoric is commonly em- 
 ployed, like the adjective rhetorical, 
 in the sense of a particular figure of 
 rhetoric, or of a phrase which illustrates 
 it, and is intended to be rather efiec- 
 tive than literally and exactly true. 
 " Soft elocution does thy style renown, 
 And the soft accents of the peaceful go^vn." 
 Drydex. 
 
 " If I mistake not, our modern doqutmce 
 is of the same style or species with that 
 which ancient critics denominated Attic 
 eloquence ; that is, culin, elegant, and sub- 
 tle, which instructed the reason more than 
 affected the passions, and never raised its 
 tone above argument or common discourse." 
 —Hume. 
 
 " Their orators thou then extoll'st as those 
 The top of eloquence, statists indeed. 
 And lovers of their country, as may seem ; 
 But herein to our prophets much beneath. 
 As men divinely taught, and better teach- 
 ing 
 The solid rules of civil government 
 In their majestic unaffected style 
 Than all the oratory of Greece and Rome." 
 Milton. 
 
 " The power of eloquence having after 
 the days of Pericles become an object of 
 greater consequence than ever, this gave 
 birth to a set of men till then unknown 
 called Rhetoricians,and sometimes Sophists, 
 who arose in multitudes during the Pelo- 
 ponnesian ^var, such as Protagoras, Pro- 
 dicus, Thrasymus, and one who was more 
 eminent than all the rest, Gorgias of Leon- 
 tium. The Sophists joined to their art of 
 rhetoric a subtle logic, and were generally a 
 sort of metaphysical sceptics." — Blair. 
 
 EMANCIPATION. Manumis- 
 
 SIGN. 
 
 Both these terms are framed in con- 
 sonance with certain usages of the an- 
 cient Roman law in regard to slaves 
 set at liberty. The former (Lat. eman- 
 cipalioneni) is from the preposition 
 e, out, and numcipium, a foi-nuil pur- 
 chase, in which the buyer laid his hand 
 on the thing bought — mttnus, thehand^ 
 and cHphe, to take. Hence emancipa- 
 tion was the voluntary setting free 
 from the condition of such servitude 
 
372 
 
 SYNONYMS [emblem] 
 
 as had made the slave the property of 
 his master. It is used metaphorically 
 of a moral liberation from what may 
 be conceived to exercise a personal 
 power over a man and to bring him 
 into a subjection. Such, for instance, 
 is the power of ignorance, prejudice, 
 or error. 
 
 Manumission (Lat. miinumissionem, 
 mtLnu mitth'e, to send away by hand) has 
 no such moral association, and denotes 
 simply the formal giving of a slave his 
 liberty, unless it be employed rhetori- 
 cally. 
 
 EMBLEM. Sign. Symbol. Sig- 
 nal. Devick. 
 
 Of these, Sign (Lat. signum) is the 
 most generic, the others being species 
 of signs. Sign has the manifold mean- 
 ings of a mark inscribed, as the sign 
 of the cross ; a token, as a sign of 
 peace ; an indication, as a sign of a 
 man's intentions ; or a proof, as a sign 
 that it rained last night. The sign is 
 natural or artificial, the signal is al- 
 ways conventional. 
 
 Unlike sign,EMBLEM (Lat. emblema, 
 Gr. efA.^Xt>fxct, a raised, strictly speak- 
 ing, a mooable, ornament) is always 
 •visible to the eye — an object repre- 
 senting or symbolizing another object 
 or an idea by natural aptness, or by 
 association : as a circle, the emblem 
 of eternity ; a sceptre, the emblem of 
 power. 
 
 "A Symbol," says Coleridge (Lat. 
 synib'dlum, Gr. erv/xBoXov) "is a sign 
 included in the idea which it repre- 
 sents — an actual part taken to repre- 
 sent the whole, or a lower form or 
 species used as the representative of a 
 higher in the same kind ;" as the lion 
 is the symbol of courage, the lamb of 
 meekness. 
 
 Signal is a specific sign either con- 
 ventionally agreed upon, or illustrat- 
 inguomething else by a pre-established 
 connexion in the mind. TeaTs are 
 generally a sign of grief. The firing 
 of a gun is in some places the signal 
 of sunset. 
 
 Device (Fr. devise) is an emblema- 
 tic mark, figure, or ornament, like 
 Kmiu,f.m in bf'ing illustrative, but un- 
 like It in relating not to natural con- 
 
 nexions, but to arbitrary associations ; 
 as an heraldic device. Unlike Emblem 
 also is Device, in including words and 
 characters as well as figures or objects 
 of representation ; as, for instance, in 
 the form of a motto. A Device is often 
 an emblematic metaphor; and it is 
 commonly personal, while an emblem 
 is more general. 
 
 "Why may he not be emblem'd by the 
 cozening fig-tree that our Saviour cursed ?" 
 — Feltham, 
 
 " We come now to the. signatures of 
 plants. I demand whether it be not a very 
 easy and genuine inference from the observ- 
 ing that several herbs are marked with some 
 mark or sign that intimates their virtue, 
 what they are good for, and there being 
 such a creature as man in the world that 
 can read and understand these signs and 
 characters, hence to collect that the Author 
 both of man and them knew the nature of 
 them both ? "—Sir T. More. 
 
 An emblem is always of something 
 simple. A symbol may be of some- 
 thing complex, as of a transactioc . 
 which another and inferior transac- 
 tion may be made to symbolize. 
 
 " His laying his hand upon the head of 
 his sacrifice was a si/jnbolical action, by 
 which he solemnly acknowledged to God 
 that he had justly deserved to suffer that 
 death himself which his sacrifice was suffer- 
 ing for him." — Scott, Christian Life. 
 
 It will be observed that in consequence 
 we do not speak of actions as emble- 
 matic. 
 " Gk)d and thou know'st with what a heavy 
 
 heart 
 I took my farewell when I should depai-t. 
 And being shipp'd, gave signal with my 
 
 hand 
 Up to the cliff where I did see thee stand." 
 
 Drayton. 
 A signal, unlike the rest, is always a 
 thing specifically given or made. 
 , " A banner with this strange device. 
 Excelsior." LoNGFBIXOW. 
 
 EMBRYO. FffiTus. 
 
 Embryo (Gr. ifxt^viv, foetus) is tlie 
 rudimental state of the young, whether 
 of plants or animals. 
 
 FcETus ( Lat.ybfMs) is not used, like 
 Embryo, of plants, but of animals only, 
 and is the development of the embryo. 
 It is used both of viviparous and ovi- 
 parous animals. The embryo beoomes 
 the fnetus when it has acquired form 
 and lineaments. 
 
[empire] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED 
 
 373 
 
 " Many of these trees produce the em- 
 bryos of the leaves and flowers in one year, 
 and bring them to perfection the following. 
 These tender embryos are \\Tapped up witli 
 a compactness which no art can imitate, in 
 which state they compose what we call the 
 bud."— Palky. 
 
 " Flies, caterpillars, and worms being 
 ripened to fcetat ion by the heat of the sun, 
 they live upon leaves and grass, and take 
 their food without the care or assistance 
 of those parents that produced them." — 
 Hale. 
 
 I-IMINENT. Illustrious. Dis- 
 tinguished. Prominent. 
 
 Eminent (Lat. iniinire, to standout) 
 is only employed of persons: when 
 things stand out conspicuously, they 
 are called Probhnent. So the eminent 
 characters of history, and the pro- 
 minent events. Persons are eminent 
 who stand above their fellows. This 
 may be by the accident of birth, by 
 merit, by high station, by talent, by 
 virtue, and even by vices, if they be 
 conspicuous enough. Therefore as a 
 social term it is plain, as a moral one 
 it is dubious. 
 
 " While others fondly feed ambition's fire. 
 And to the top of human state aspire. 
 That from their airy eminence they may 
 With pride and scorn the inferior world 
 survey." HuGHES. 
 
 Illustrious (Lat. illustris) is used 
 strictly only of persons, inasmuch as 
 human acts or character can alone 
 make things illustrious, as being the 
 agents or the recipients of what is 
 illustrious. Thus, we speak of illus- 
 trious heroes, illustrious nobles, illus- 
 trious titles. If we speak of illustrious 
 deeds or events, it is as being done or 
 brought about by human agency. The 
 State or the historian render deeds or 
 men illustrious. A striking object of 
 Nature, for instance, might be famous, 
 but never illustrious. The illustrious 
 adds to the idea of celebrated that of 
 a striking character for greatness, wis- 
 dom, or goodness. It involves some 
 degree of esteem. 
 
 " Comparisons should be taken from il- 
 lustrious noted objects, which most of the 
 readers have either seen or can strongly 
 conceive." — Blair, 
 
 Distinguished (Lat. distingutve, to 
 distinguish), in like manner, directly 
 relates to persons and to deeds, and 
 to persons lor the sake of their deeds. 
 
 Distinguished conveys the idea of 
 social eminence or prominence as the 
 result of public services rendered, or 
 merit publicly exhibited. 
 
 " Few are formed with abilities to dis- 
 cover new possibilities of excellence, and to 
 distinguish themselves by means never 
 tried before."— J?am6Zer. 
 
 A thing or person is prominent by 
 position, eminent by station, distin- 
 guished by peculiarities of good or ill, 
 and illustrious by the testimony and 
 consent of others. 
 
 " Lady Macbeth's walking in her sleep is 
 an incident so full of tragic horror that it 
 stands out as a prominent feature in the 
 most sublime drama in the world." — Cum- 
 berland. 
 
 EMIT. Exhale. 
 Emit (Lat. imitth-e, to send forth) 
 is the wider term, as it includes the 
 more and the less substantial. To 
 P^mit is, however, not commonly used 
 of heavy and dense substances; in 
 that case we use discharge. The 
 cannon emits smoke, but does not 
 emit shot. We speak of water, flame, 
 gas, smoke, light, steam, smell, and 
 the like, as emitted. 
 
 Exhale (Lat. exhaldre, to breathe 
 out) is used only of the lightest even 
 of these ; as to exhale odours, vapours, 
 effluvia. Strictly, both Emit and Ex- 
 hale relate to the propulsion of natti- 
 ral, not.artiiicial things. It is only in 
 poetry, for instance, that the bow 
 emits the arrow. 
 
 " Lest, wrathful, the far-shootmg god 
 Emit his fatal arrows." Prior. 
 
 " Is there not as much reason that the 
 vapours which are exhaled out of the earth 
 should be carried down to the sea, as that 
 those raised out of the sea be brought up 
 upon the diy land ?"— Ray. 
 
 EMPIRE. Kingdom. Dominion. 
 {•See Realm.) 
 
 Empire (Fr. empire, Lat. impcrium) 
 cairies with it the idea of a vast and 
 complicated o^overnment, varying in 
 its relationship and degiee of power 
 in regard to the many subordinate and 
 independent sovereignties or commu- 
 nities included under it. 
 
 Kingdom (king, A. S. cyning ; cyriy 
 tribe, -ing, son of, or belonging to) is 
 more definitely the territory subject 
 to a king or queen ; while Dominion 
 
374 
 
 SYNONYMS [eMPIKE] 
 
 (Lat. d^mVnnSy a lord) has the vague 
 meaning of j)olitical subjection or sub- 
 ordination of any kind, whether at home 
 or abroad, and is even applicable to the 
 lordship which man exercises over the 
 brute creation. In their figurative 
 uses the parallel distinctions are ob- 
 served : as the empire of mind or rea- 
 son ; the kingdoms of animal, mineral, 
 and vegetable nature ; the dominion 
 of the passions. 
 
 "If vice had once an ill name in the 
 world, was once generally stigmatized \^^th 
 reproach and ignominy, it would qnickly 
 lose its empire, and thousands that are now 
 slaves of it would become proselytes to 
 virtue."— Sharp. 
 
 " The great and rich kingdom of Gra- 
 nada. "—B acon. 
 
 " The safety, honour, and welfare of our 
 sovereign and her dominions." — Book of 
 Common Prayer. 
 
 EMPIRE. Reign. Kingdom. 
 
 Empire (Lat. imptriiim) stands to 
 States as Reign (L^t. regnum) toper- 
 sons and dynasties. The most glorious 
 epoch of the Babylonian Empire was 
 the reign of Nebuchadnezzar; of the 
 Persian Empire, the reign of Cyrus ; 
 of that of the Greeks, the reign of 
 Alexander ; of theRoman Empire, the 
 reign of Augustus. A reign is short 
 or long, glorious or inglorious. An 
 empire is lasting or ephemeral, and 
 more or less extensive. Empire and 
 Kingdom (Eng. kingy and termination 
 -rfom, signifying condition) are diffe- 
 renced most obviously by being subject 
 in the former case to an emperor, in the 
 latter to a king. But this is not the sole 
 difference. An empire denotes a State, 
 extensive, and composed of many dif- 
 ferent peoples ; a kingdom, one more 
 limited, and more strongly marked 
 by the unity of its people. In kingdoms 
 there is a ii.aiked uniformity of funda- 
 mental laws, while varieties of customs 
 do not affect the unity of political ad- 
 ministration. The unity of an empire 
 depends on the submission of certain 
 chiefs, or the recognition of a univer- 
 sal head. The earliest portions of the 
 Roman history belong to the history of 
 a kingdom — that is, of one people, one 
 by origin or incorporation. Its latest 
 portions constitute a history of an em- 
 pire — that is, of several nations which 
 
 were one in &t bmission to the central 
 power, but not in absolute uniformity 
 of laws. The royal government is 
 narrower, and it is more exact and 
 minute. The imperial government is 
 wider and slighter, contenting itself 
 in some senses with receiving the 
 homage of princes on behalf of their 
 subjects. Political advantages for the 
 people and for the ruler go to consti- 
 tute and preserve kingdoms. Empires 
 are founded by ambition, and are 
 seldom supported but by force of 
 arms. 
 
 EMPLOY. Use. 
 
 Employ (Fr. employer, Lat. impCi- 
 care, in mediaeval documents used 
 to mean " to employ for some one's 
 profit:" Braciiet;) and Use (Fr. 
 user, Lat. iiti, part, mus) are some- 
 what differenced in usage. We al- 
 ways employ when we use; but we 
 do not always use when we employ. 
 Yet the difference is very slight. Use 
 implies more entire assumption into 
 our service than Employ. As regards 
 things, the terms are well-nigh inter 
 changeable. We use or employ means ; 
 we use or employ violence ; but as re- 
 gards persons, we employ a^'ents, and 
 we use instruments. We do not use 
 persons, except in some low sense, as 
 machines or tools. Such respect is 
 due to others when performing our 
 behests. So a monarch negotiating 
 with a foreign court would employ, 
 not use, an ambassador. The more 
 moral and dignified uses are expressed 
 by Employ. Use expresses the action 
 of making use of a thing according to 
 the right or the liberty which one has 
 of disposing of it at will, or for one's 
 advantage. To employ expresses the 
 application which one makes of a thing 
 according to its own properties, and 
 the power one has of turning it to par- 
 ticular ends. One employs things, 
 persons, means, resources, as one 
 thinks fit, in regard to the object 
 which one has to accomplish; and one 
 employs well or ill according as the 
 things employed are or are not suited 
 to their office, and to the effect which 
 one desires, and to the result one 
 wishes to obtain. Use is applicable 
 to things moral, as to use threats, per- 
 
[empty] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 375 
 
 suasion, artifice, exaggeration. Em- 
 ploy is used also in the sense of putting 
 into activity as regards persons, that 
 is, giving them employment. 
 
 " Had Jesns, on the coJitrarj', made 
 choice of the great and learned for this 
 employment, they had discredited their ovrn 
 success. It might have been then objected 
 that the Gospel had made its way by the 
 aid of human poA-er or sophistry." — War- 
 BURTO'. 
 " I would, my son, tKat thon would'st use 
 
 the power 
 Which thy discretion giA'es thee, to control 
 And manage all." COWPER. 
 
 It may be added that Use has a 
 general and abstract force, which is 
 never apparent in Employ. We may 
 use simply ; we never employ but for 
 a specific purpose, A man uses, or 
 has the use of, his hands when he 
 simply exercises a natural power. 
 He employs them for purposes which 
 by the inferior animals are effected 
 in other ways. 
 
 EMPLOYMENT. Business. Avo- 
 cation. Occupation. Engagement. 
 Vocation. 
 
 Employment {see Employ) is used 
 in the twofold sense of employing and 
 being employed. The same remark 
 holds good of occupation and engage- 
 ment. In the passive sense. Employ- 
 ment is any fixed way of passing the 
 time, whether in duty or pleasure, or 
 ways more indiflferent. It may be 
 active or meditative, specific, or habi- 
 tual. 
 " Poets we prize, when in their verse we 
 
 find 
 Some great employment of a worthy mind." 
 Waller. 
 
 Business (A. S. hysig, busy) is more 
 active employment, which at the time 
 engrosses the time and attention as of 
 primary importance ; as in the com- 
 mon phrase, "I will make it my busi- 
 ness to attend to it." Business is re- 
 sponsible employment. We choose our 
 employments ; our business claims us. 
 "It seldom happens that men of a 
 studious turn acquire any degree of reputa- 
 tion for their knowledge of business."— 
 PORTEUS. 
 
 Avocation (Lat. a:v6cationem,a call- 
 ing off, iyiterruption, diversion). The 
 term is commonly used of the minor 
 afiairs of life, less prominent and en- 
 
 grossing than Business, and of such 
 calls as are beside the man's duty or 
 business of life. It very commonly, 
 therefore, occurs in the plural number, 
 as " multifarious avocations," *' em- 
 ployments of every degi'ee of urgency 
 and responsibility." 
 
 " In the time of health visits, businesses, 
 cards, aud I know not how many other avo- 
 cations, which they justly style diversions, 
 do succeed one another so thick, that in the 
 day there is no time left for the distracted 
 person to converse with his own thoughts." 
 — Boyle. 
 
 Occupation (Lat. occUpittionem) is 
 used of such employment ag has be- 
 come, or tends to become, habitual 
 as a favourite occupation, which may 
 be one of seriousness or sport; an 
 occupation in life, meaning a trade or 
 calling. 
 
 " These were their learned speculations. 
 
 And all their constant occupations. 
 
 To measure wind and weigh the air, 
 
 And turn a circle to a square." 
 
 Butler. 
 
 Engagement (Fr. engager, to bind, 
 lit. by a pledge, Fr. gage) is an engross- 
 ing occupation, not compulsory nor 
 systematic, but casual, yet at the time 
 lea^'ing little or no room for other 
 employments. 
 
 " Portia, go in a while, 
 
 And by and by thy bosom shall partake 
 
 The secrets of my heart. 
 
 All my engagements I will construe to 
 thee." Shakespeare. 
 
 Vocation (Fr. vocation) is literally 
 a calling. It conveys the idea of syste- 
 matic employment in an occupation 
 appropriate to the person employed. 
 It implies specific aptitude in the per- 
 son, the result of training. 
 
 " If wit or wisdom be the head, if honesty 
 be. the heart, industry is the right hand of 
 everyvocatiori, without which the shrewdest 
 insight and the best intention can execute 
 nothing." — Barrow. 
 
 EMPOWER. See Authorize. 
 
 EMPTY. Vacant. Hollow. 
 VoiD. Blank. 
 
 Empty (A. S, cemtig) has reference 
 to foreign or dissimilar substances ; 
 while Hollow (A. S. holh, an empty 
 space) has reference to internal discon- 
 tinuity of substance ; as an empty 
 purse, a hollow beech. 
 
 Vacant (Lat. vUcdre, to be empty) 
 
376 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [enactment] 
 
 belongs to what might be filled, or is 
 intended to be filled or occupied, but 
 at present is not 60 ; as a yacant chair, 
 a vacant office. 
 
 Void (Lat. vidtius, bereaved) de- 
 notes some place so suiTounded as to 
 be unoccupied. A plot of ground, 
 for instance, in the middle of a city 
 unbuilt upon might be called void ; it 
 is the absence of filling up in other 
 than a purely geometi-ical sense. An 
 empty place would be in an excep- 
 tional or casual state. A void place 
 might be intended to be always void, 
 in the sense of provisionally unoccu- 
 pied. That which is void conveys an 
 impression of want or emptiness which 
 may be felt. 
 
 When Void is followed by of, it is a 
 predication which amounts to a strong- 
 privative expression, signifying the 
 utter lack of something in an object 
 capable of containing it, or which 
 might naturally be expected to contain 
 it, as void of understanding. 
 
 " All empty is the tonne " (barrel). 
 Chaucer. 
 
 " The pope had accursed the English 
 people because they suffered the bishops' 
 sees to be vacant so long a time."— HoLlN- 
 
 Vacant is used in an abstract and a 
 metaphorical, not a purely physical 
 application. A vacant space, or a 
 vacant office ; but not a vacant vessel. 
 
 "Yet it has been noted that many old 
 trees, quite decayed with an inward hollow- 
 ness, have borne as full burdens and con- 
 stantly as the veiy soundest." — Evelyn. 
 "And the void helmet followed as he 
 . pulled." COWPKR, Iliad. 
 
 Blank (Fr. blanc, white) relates 
 only to superficial nakedness in a uni- 
 form substance. The unprepared sur- 
 face is blank. The blank paper is 
 unwritten upon ; the blank wall is 
 uncoloured or undecorated. Blank- 
 ness affects the vision, and presents 
 to the eye an impression of monoto- 
 nous incompleteness, without a touch 
 of relief. It is vacancy made visible. - 
 Poets and rhetoricians speak of blank 
 astonishment, dismay, disappoint- 
 ment, despair. Udal, on St. Mark, 
 speaks of the Sadducees as " put to a 
 foyle and blanked." But Blank, as it 
 has the idea of vacancy unfilled, sug- 
 gests aoraetimes that of vacancy that 
 
 may be filled. A blank papei and a 
 blank lottery ticket represent these 
 two aspects. 
 " These touched by Reynolds, a dull bM.nk 
 
 becomes 
 A lucid mirror in which nature sees 
 All her reflected features." CowPER. 
 
 ENACTMENT. Mandate. Ordi- 
 nance. 
 
 Enactment (Fr. en-, and act, to put 
 into act) is the making a thing into a 
 law, the giving to it legal validity and 
 authority. This may be the act of 
 one or many, according as the source 
 of authority is personal or collective. 
 The latter is in modern times so far the 
 most common principle of legislation 
 that the term usually expresses that 
 last step in the process of legislation, 
 by which a Bill passes into law. 
 
 A Mandate (Lat. mandnre, part. 
 mandatus, to command) is tm official or 
 authoritative command,but not applied 
 to the acts of collective legislation. 
 The source of a mandate is always 
 personal. 
 
 An Ordinance (Lat. ordinare,ordt' 
 nem, order) is a nile of action perma- 
 nently established by authority. Any 
 statute, law, edict, decree, or rescript 
 may be called an ordinance when it 
 is regarded in this light. The ordi- 
 nance is always a thing of wide esta- 
 blishment, and is not applicable to 
 matters of domestic management, or 
 connected with the administration of 
 minor associations. An ordinance is 
 an operative act of sovereign power. 
 
 ENCROACH. Intrench. In- 
 trude. Invade. Infringe. 
 
 Encroach (Fr. en, m, croc, a hook) 
 is to come gradually, insensibly, 
 or imperceptibly upon another's land, 
 or, metaphorically, upon his rights. 
 It is this silence and indirectness 
 which characterize Encroachment, so 
 that the trespass is made, and the foot- 
 ing established before the process 
 was heeded. 
 
 " Disobedience, if complied with, is in 
 flaltely encroacfwig ; and having gained 
 one degree of liberty upon indulgence wiS 
 demand another upon claim." — South. 
 
 Intrench (i.e. entrench, Fr. en, tn. 
 aud Eng. trench ; Fr. trancher, to cut 
 
[endowment] discriminated. 
 
 377 
 
 is an old term of feudal history, lit^ 
 rally meaning to push forward the 
 trench of fortified line, and so to tres- 
 pass on another's temtory, as when 
 the king intrenched upon the nobles, 
 or the nobles upon the king. The 
 term,unlike ENCROACH,denotes a direct 
 and decisive act, though it may be an 
 indirect result rather than a direct pur- 
 pose, as if by performing a certain 
 act, or claiming a certain privilege, a 
 noble entrenched on a prerogative of 
 the crown. Men encroach gradually ; 
 they intrench presumptuously. 
 
 "It is not easily apprehended to be the 
 portion of her care to give it spiritual milk ; 
 and therefore it intrenches rery much upon 
 impiety and pa~tive relinquishing the edu- 
 cation of their children." — iJiSHOP Tavlok. 
 
 To Intrude (\.ViiAntrudcre, to thrust 
 into) is to thrust one's self in an abrupt 
 or unwelcome manner upon the pre- 
 sence or society of another ; while to 
 Invade (Lat. invddcre, to enter upon^ 
 to attack) denotes a direct, positive, 
 and open violation of another s rights. 
 Men often encroach when they would 
 hesitate to invade. Invasion carries 
 with it the idea of an overt act of 
 hostility ; often done suddenly and 
 without warning, but always as the 
 commencement of such hostilities. 
 
 Infringe (Lat. infringtre, to break 
 into, to break against) is positively to 
 violate, or negatively to disregard a 
 direct law, treaty, obligation, or 
 right. 
 
 " Others have ceased their curiosity, and 
 consider every man who fills the mouth of 
 report with a new name as an intruder 
 upon their retreat, and disturber of their 
 repose." — Rambler. 
 
 " The Philistines have invaded the land." 
 — E7ig. Bible. 
 
 " We scarce ever had a Prince who, by 
 fraud or violence, had not made some in- 
 fringement on the Constitution." — Buekk. 
 
 ENDLESS. Eternal. Evfk- 
 
 LA8TING. 
 
 Endless (A. S. ende, and privative 
 termination -less) is applicable to the 
 idea of infinity of space, and of time, 
 Everlasting only to infinite duration 
 of time. Eternal to chronic period 
 without either beginning or end (O. Fr. 
 tternel, Lat. xUrnus, for ^vtfernus, 
 
 <evum, age). Endless admfts the idea 
 of intermediate though not of final 
 cessation. That might be called end- 
 less which is perpetually recurrent, as 
 endless disputes. Everlasting, on the 
 other hand, implies no intermission 
 j as well as no end. 
 
 I ENDOW. Endue. Invest. 
 
 ! Endow (Fr. endoner, to endow; Lat. 
 
 j dotdre) retains its etymological force, 
 and in its metaphorical use signifies 
 to furnish with something which is of 
 the nature of a gift. " Man is en- 
 dowed with reason," implies that 
 reason is regarded as a faculty in the 
 nature of a gift bestowed characteris- 
 tically upon him by his Maker. 
 
 Endue, another fonn of Endow, 
 has a similar, yet less forcible, mean- 
 ing ; possibly a confusion between 
 Fondue (O. Fr. endoer, endouer) and 
 the Lat. indnere, to clothe with, to deck 
 — a weaker metaphor than that of 
 dowry— may have contributed to this 
 result. 
 
 Invest (Lat. investire, to clothe) is 
 more external than Endue. We may 
 say a lover's imagination endues or 
 invests his mistress with every grace ; 
 but when the idea is that of clothing 
 with office or authority, we use the 
 tenn Invest. 
 
 We are commonly said to endow 
 with privileges or substantial benefits, 
 to endue with moral qualities, and to 
 invest with dignity, authority, and 
 power. 
 
 " And yet I do not take humility in man 
 to consist in disowning or denying any gift 
 or ability that is in him, but in a just valua- 
 tion of such gifts and endoivments, yet rather 
 thinking too meanly than too highly of 
 them." — Hay. 
 
 " Now an unintelligent being,'tis evident, 
 cannot be endued with all the perfections of 
 all things in the world, because intelligence 
 is one of those perfections." — Clarke. 
 
 "And what were all his most rightful 
 honours but the people's gift, aud the invest- 
 ment of that lustre, majesty, and honour 
 which for the public good, and no otherwise, 
 redounds from a whole nation into one 
 persoji ? "— Milton. 
 
 ENDOWMENT. Gift. Present. 
 Benefaction. 
 
 In their simplest signification the 
 distinction between these is obvious. 
 
378 
 
 An Endowment is a gift in perpetuity, 
 of Avhich the usufruct is continually 
 accruing; as to give a sum of money, 
 of which the interest may serve to 
 endow a public institution. 
 
 A Gift is usually from one who is 
 in some sense a superior, and intended 
 to benefit the person to whom it is 
 given. 
 
 A Present (Lat.pr<Ese«fare, to place 
 before, to present) is commonly from 
 an equal or an inferior, as a mark of 
 affection or respect, or from a desire 
 to please or to gain favour. Of these, 
 Gift is the most generic, endowments 
 and presents being forms of gifts. 
 One selects tiseful things for gifts, 
 agreeable things for presents. As they 
 relate to moral and intellectual things, 
 gifts and endowments differ in that a 
 gift commonly ends as it were with 
 itself, while an endowment gives the 
 power of other things ; and so Gift is 
 the more specific, Endowment more 
 general. 1 he gift of speech, the gift 
 of eloquence ; the endowments of the 
 understanding. Accordingly, endow- 
 ment contains the idea of something 
 to be improved by exertion, which 
 gift does not. The powers of the early 
 church, such as the performance of 
 miracles, the power of tongues, and 
 the like, were both gifts and endow- 
 ments—gifts of the Spirit when re- 
 garded as supernaturally given, en- 
 dowments when regarded as faculties 
 which might be exercised as occasions 
 presented themselves. Anything is a 
 gift which is parted with to another 
 gratuitously and without recompense. 
 An endowment has great and perma- 
 nent value, a gift has some consider- 
 able value, a present may have a costly 
 character or not. It is sometimes of 
 trifling value, the motive being regard 
 or politeness. 
 
 A Benefaction (Lat. bhi^factionem) 
 is a gift sufiiciently important to be of 
 lastingvalue,but not like Endowment, 
 amounting to a maintenance of the iu- 
 stitmion or the individual on which it 
 is conferred. (See Endow.) 
 
 "Such a stock of industry as will do 
 them more real service than any other kind 
 oT benefaction, if they will bat make use of 
 it and improve it." — Attkrburv 
 
 SYNONYMS [endurance] 
 
 ENDURANCE. Patience. Re- 
 
 SIGNATION. EorTITUDE. 
 
 Endurance (0. Fr. endurer, to en- 
 dare) is, as the term expresses, the 
 power or act of enduring, that is, ol 
 suffering without sinking, and may be 
 a physical or mental quality. It im- 
 plies a continual pressure of a harass- 
 ing nature on the one hand, and a 
 competent constitutional power of 
 passive resistance on the other. 
 
 " When she with hard endurance had 
 Heard to the end." Spenser. 
 
 Patience (Lat. pUtientia, pUti, to 
 suffer) is endurance which is morally 
 acquiescent. The opposite to endu- 
 rance is simply exhaustion, the oppo- 
 site to patience is repining, or in-ita- 
 bility and impatience. T may endure 
 impatiently. The qualities of patience 
 are gentleness and serenity in bearing 
 that which, without being agonizing, 
 is wearing or vexatious, whether in- 
 ternally or from the conduct of others. 
 There is a sense in which patience is 
 active, or, at least, more than purely 
 passive, as in the patient teacher of 
 dull or inattentive pupils. Fortitude, 
 on the otlier hand, is purely passive. 
 He is truly enduring who suffers with 
 constancy any hardships, injustice, 
 contradictions, persecutions, on the 
 part of men. He is patient who suffers 
 with moderation, with sweetness, with- 
 out murmuring, without resistance. 
 Men are sometimes patient under 
 some forms of evil and not others ; as 
 for instance, they will bear resignedly 
 what comes in the course of circum- 
 stances, not the ill-treatment of men. 
 Job in his sufferings was patient, 
 David under the curses of Shimei was 
 enduring. The martyr endures with 
 an admirable patience. The enduring 
 man may suffer and be in exasperation, 
 the patient man suffers and is calm. 
 
 " In the New Testament it is sometimes 
 expressed by the word uttojuovJ), which signi- 
 fies God's forbearance and patient waiting 
 for our repentance ; sometimes by the word 
 «voX'i» which signifies holding in His wrath, 
 and restraining Himself from punishing, 
 and sometimes by/uiaxfoSj^'a. which signifies 
 the extent of His patience, His long-sufiFer- 
 ing and forbearing for a long time the 
 punishment due to sinners." — Tillotsox. 
 Still Patience applies only to evils 
 actually hanging over us ; while Re • 
 
[energy] 
 
 8IGNATI0N (Lat. rtsignare, to give back, 
 resign) extends to the possible as well 
 as the actual, and is unresisting, un- 
 murmuring acquiescence in the issue 
 of circumstances or the exercise of the 
 will of another. Resignation is more 
 like to patience than to fortitude, in- 
 asmuch as it implies non-resistance ; 
 but, on the other hand, it is always 
 passive. It applies not to passing 
 pains orevils, but afflictions of a severe, 
 prolonged, and seemingly hopeless 
 character. It is a religious submis- 
 sion extending to the giving up of 
 earthly hope. Fortitude and patience 
 may be stoical or constitutional; re- 
 signation is always on principle. 
 
 " Resignation superadds to patience a 
 snbmissive disposition respecting the intel- 
 ligent cause of our uneasiness. It acknow- 
 ledges both the power and the right of a 
 superior to afflict." — CoQAN. 
 
 Fortitude (hat. fortttiKTinetn) is a 
 more energetic quality, and might be 
 defined as passive courage or resolute 
 endurance. It not only bears up 
 against the present, and is resigned to 
 what may be in the future, but it looks 
 as it were the future in the face, and 
 is prepared for yet worse things. 
 
 y Fortitude expressss that firmness of 
 mind whicB resists dangers and snfiFerings." 
 — COGAN. 
 
 ENEMY. Adversary. Anta- 
 gonist. Opponent. Foe. 
 
 Enemy (O. Fr. enemi, Lat. ^iiimlcus) 
 is one who is actuated by unfriendly 
 feelings, and in consequence attempt- 
 ing or desiring the injury of another. 
 An enemy may be o])en or secret, 
 collective or personal. The term is 
 employed of man's relationship to 
 things as well as persons, as an enemy 
 to truth, an enemy to falsehood. 
 
 A Foe (A. S. fdh) is a personal 
 enemy, one who bears a more ener- 
 getic and specific hatred than Enemy. 
 
 " He who does a man an injury generally 
 becomes the rancorons enemy of the injured 
 man." — Mickle. 
 
 " Curst be the verse, how well soe'er it 
 flow. 
 That tends to make olc worthy man my 
 foe" Pope. 
 
 Adversary, Antagonist, and Op- 
 ponent denote primarily personal op- 
 position, and only secondarily personal 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 379 
 
 ill-uill, which in some cases may not 
 exist at all ; as in the case of an adver- 
 sary at fence, an antagonist at chess, 
 and a political opponent. Adversary, 
 Antagonist, and Oppsnf.nt arenever, 
 like Enemy and FoE,used collectively, 
 as of a hostile army. A n adversary 
 (Lat. adversdrius) is one who takes an 
 opposite part, which he sustains, or a 
 side on which he enlists himself, 
 whether singly or witli others, and 
 on behalf of which he strives for 
 victory. An antagonist (Gr, avrS- 
 ymvia-rng, an opponent, rival) is purely 
 personal ; in the case of antagonists, 
 It is person against person, not 
 party against party, or cause against 
 cause. An opponent (Lat. opponens, 
 part. o£ oppontre, to oppose) is simjily 
 one who thwarts another, or seeks to 
 stop his proceedings, without of neces- 
 sity coming into conflict with him, but 
 seeking to neuti-alize his acts or mea- 
 sures. The term, however, has an 
 almost technical sense — that of an 
 adversary in argument ; where words 
 are the weapons, we employ the term 
 Oppon ENT. The enemy makes war an d 
 desires to destroy, and would wound 
 the very person. The adversary con- 
 tends for the possession of something 
 of which he would deprive his com^- 
 petitor ; the antagonist tries to stop, 
 to disarm, to defeat. Some nations 
 seem instinctively to be natural ene- 
 mies to each other. A man who has 
 the power and the will to bribe, is 
 often the most formidable of adver- 
 saries. The Duke of Wellington and 
 Napoleon were illustrious antagonists. 
 " Truth seems to be considered by all 
 mankind as something fixed, unchangeable, 
 and eternal. It may therefore be thought 
 that to vindicate the permanency of truth 
 is to dispute without an adversary." — 
 Beattie. 
 
 " The race 
 Of Satan, for I glory in the name. 
 Antagonist of heaven's Almighty King." 
 Milton. 
 " The leading views of the earliest and 
 most enlightened patrons of the economical 
 system have, in my opinion, been not more 
 misrepresented by its opponents than mis- 
 apprehended by some who have adopted its 
 ' oiiclusions.'" — Stewart. 
 
 ENERGY. Activity. Poxy •-. 
 Force. Vicovr. STRENC'.-n. 
 
 Energy (Gr. Ivipyna., action, o; ^* 
 
380 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [enervate] 
 
 twn). An energy may lie donnant, 
 as " the dormant energies of nature." 
 From this the word passes to signify 
 power forcibly exerted, as energy of 
 manner or of utterance. It is the 
 manifestation of living power. In 
 this sense it is only used of beings 
 possessing will ; so vital energy, not 
 mechanical energy. 
 
 " The great energies of nature are known 
 to us only by their eifects ; the substances 
 which produce them are as much concealed 
 from our senses as the Divine essence it- 
 self."— Paley. 
 
 Activity (Lat. actlvus, active} 
 means no more than vigorous opera- 
 tion, or the faculty of it. This is not 
 necessarily attended by gi-eat power, 
 Lor is it restricted to the vital ener- 
 gies, or an exhibition of the will, or a 
 working in any one given direction. 
 It may be intellectual, physical, in- 
 stinctive, chemical, mechanical. Ac- 
 tivity is not so much power or energy 
 as a mode in which a certain degree 
 of power or energy is manifested. 
 
 " Orl. He is simply the most active 
 gentleman in France. 
 
 " Co7ist. Doing is activity, and he will 
 still be doing."— Shakespeare, Hen. V. 
 
 PowEU (Fr. pouvoir, to be able), in 
 its primary meaning, is ability to act, 
 regarded as latent, and thence ability, 
 regarded as manifest or exerted. It 
 is also capable of a passive significa- 
 tion. Power may be predicated of the 
 mind of man, of intelligent beings, of 
 natural forces, or mechanical agents, 
 or conventional qualifications ; legal 
 power is authority in superiors, and 
 freedom in equals, and right in all. 
 The following extract relates to power 
 in its metaphysical or psychological 
 sense. 
 
 " Power then is active and passive. 
 Faculty is active poicer or capacity ; ca- 
 pacity is passive power." — Sir \V. Hamil- 
 rojf. 
 
 Mechanically, Powi.r commonly re- 
 lates to the work to be effected, as 
 FoRC E to that which is directly exerted 
 by the machine. The force of an 
 engine relates to the pressure exer- 
 cised upon the rails, the power to the 
 quantity or weight of the load drawn. 
 
 FoRC E ( Fr. forcey Lat./o'-fis, strong) 
 is active power specifically exerted. | 
 In mecha ncs it is the name given to j 
 
 whatever produces or may produce 
 motion. In its other applications, it 
 still relates to some external effect 
 produced. So we might say of an 
 orator, that he combined force of rea- 
 soning with energy of expression. 
 
 " Thy tears are of no force 
 To mollify this flinty man." 
 
 Hayward. 
 Strength (A. S. streng, strong) is 
 the quality of being strong, which 
 may be active or passive, while Force 
 is always active. Strength is often 
 used in the sense of power to resist 
 force, as the strength of a rope or a 
 castle. It has also the meaning of 
 measurement of force, as the strength 
 of an army or an alcohol. It may be 
 said generally that force is strength 
 exerted. An argument, for instance, 
 is strong when the consideration 
 which it involves is of weight ; but it 
 has no force till it is applied. A man 
 collects his strength in order to strike 
 with force. Strength is powerful in 
 resistance, force in attack. 
 " More huge in strength than wise in works 
 he was." Spenser. 
 
 Vigour (Lat. vXgbrem) is that men- 
 tal or physical strength which results 
 from a sound natural condition, as 
 the vigour of intellect, the vigour 
 of an arm, the vigour of a plant, the 
 vigour of an administration. Vigour, 
 like activity, is rather a mode of 
 power than power itself. It is the 
 passive, as activity is the energetic 
 condition of vital power. It is ap- 
 plicable to the exhibition of physical 
 strength, as " the vigour of his arm," 
 or intellectual, as of his mind, or even 
 to a sound and healthy state of ani- 
 mal or vegetative" life. Vigour, and 
 its derivatives, however, when directly 
 associated with power, commonly im 
 })ly active strength, or the power of 
 action and exertion, in distinction to 
 passive strength, or power of en- 
 durance. Men act or move, but do 
 not suffer with vigour. 
 " The vigour of this arm was never vain." 
 Drydkn. 
 
 ENERVATE. Enfeeble. De- 
 bilitate. Weaken. 
 
 Of these. Weaken (A. S. urfc, 
 weak^ pliant) is the generic term, 
 
[ensure] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 381 
 
 predicable of any case of lessened 
 power, force, or strength. Ener- 
 vate, Enfeeble, and Debilitate are 
 only employed of human powers. 
 Enervate (Lat. e-7iervdre, to take out 
 the sinews, to weaken) is to impair the 
 moral powers, as Debilitate may be 
 more specifically applied to thephysi- 
 ca], and Enfeeble to the intellectual 
 and physical. Debility (Lat. d'cbiCita- 
 tcm,a disabled condition) is that weak- 
 ness which comes from a chronically 
 morbid state of the functions ; while 
 persons may be enfeebled by the effect 
 of age alone, or as the temporary 
 effect of sickness. 
 
 " In a word, we onght to act in party 
 with all the moderation which does not 
 absolutely enervate that vigour, and quench 
 that fervency of spirit without which the 
 best wishes for the public good must evapo- 
 rate in empty speculation." — Burke. 
 Enfeeble does not express sostrongly 
 ns Debilitate an organic cause of cor- 
 poreal weakness. Disease debilitates, 
 fear enfeebles. 
 
 " Abject fear, which views some tremen- 
 dous evil impending from which it cannot 
 possibly escape, as it depresses the spirits, 
 so it enfeebles the corporeal fi"ame, and it 
 renders the victim an easy prey to the evil 
 Jie dreads." — CoGAN. 
 
 " Sometimes the body in full strength we 
 
 find. 
 While various ails debilitate the mind." 
 JfiNYNS, 
 
 " That the power, and consequently the 
 security, of the monarchy may not be weak- 
 ened by diversion, it must descend entire to 
 one of the children." — Smith, Wealth, of 
 
 Nations. 
 
 ENFORCE. Urge. 
 
 Urge (Lat. urgere) is only by poets 
 employed directly of physical sub- 
 stances, as Gray: — 
 
 " To chase the rolling circles' speed 
 Or urge the flying" ball." 
 It is commonly used of moral pressure 
 upon individuals, and of the subject 
 itself which is so pressed ; as, to urge 
 an argument, or petition, or the sub- 
 ject-matter of it, as the expediency or 
 necessity of a particular line of con- 
 duct. 
 
 To Enforce (O. Fr. enforcer, Mod. 
 Fr. enforcir, hat.fortis, strong) is to en- 
 due with force, or to bring into opera- 
 tion that which has a Ibrce of its own; 
 
 as, to enforce a command of one's own, 
 or to enforce the law or obedience to 
 it. It is never, except by poets, used 
 of physical propulsion, as by Shake- 
 speare — 
 
 *' Stones enforced from the old Assyrian 
 slings." 
 
 Urge has a more purely moral cha- 
 racter than Enforce. It has more of 
 argument, persuasion, entreaty, ex- 
 postulation; Enforce more of autho- 
 rity and power. We urge persons 
 by endeavouring to bring them to see 
 objects in tlie same light as ourselves. 
 We do not enforce persons, but that 
 which has a binding or compelling 
 power against them. 
 
 ENLIGHTEN. Illumine. Il- 
 luminate. 
 
 To Enlighten is to throw light 
 upon and, more commonly, metapho- 
 rically, the light of truth' and know- 
 ledge. 
 
 Illumine (Lat. iUum'indre)is so to 
 enlighten as to penetrate the sub- 
 stance. 
 
 Illuminaie is to throw light upon 
 in the sense of enlighten, and also in 
 the sense of to light up, whether by 
 light itself, as in the festive illumina- 
 tions of a city, or by rich colouring, as 
 an illuminated manuscript. It is to 
 be remarked that while enlightened 
 is used as an epithet — an enlightened 
 person or enlightened society — we do 
 not employ illumined or illuminated 
 in this way, but borrow the Italian 
 word illuminati, the enlightened. » 
 
 " The light itself became darkness ; and 
 then was a proper season for the great Eit- 
 lighte?icr of the world to appear." — Seckjer. 
 " Illumine with perpetual light 
 The dulness of our blinded sight." 
 Church Hymn. 
 "That need no sun t' illuminate their 
 spheres." Spewskr. 
 
 In old English writers, however, 
 the verbs illume, illumine, and illu- 
 minate were used interchangeably. 
 
 ENSURE. Secure. 
 
 Sure is from the French sur, and 
 this fi*om the Lat. sechrus, without 
 care, and, reflexively, beyond the need 
 of care, that is, safe. These words 
 therefore have the same etymological 
 
382 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [entangle] 
 
 basis. That which is secure is safe 
 from danger, intact, not liable to be 
 altered or removed. That which is 
 ensured is free from uncertainty, 
 fixed, not liable to prevention, frustra- 
 tion, defeat. Things actual and pre- 
 sent are secured, things future or con- 
 tingent are ensured. That which is 
 secured to us is ours, and will remain 
 so ; that which is ensured will become 
 so. We seeure by exercising a power 
 to retain ; we ensure by controlling 
 means which will confer. He who 
 secures knows how to preserve; he 
 who ensures knows how to acquire. 
 
 ENTANGLE. Implicate. Iv- 
 
 VOLVE. 
 
 Entangle (etym. doubtful) is so to 
 involve as to render extrication a 
 matter of bewildering difficulty. It 
 is used both physically and metapho- 
 rically. 
 
 Implicate (Lat. impPicdre, to enfold) 
 and Involve (Lat. involvere, to en- 
 wrap) are used only in the metapho- 
 rical sense. The difference lies rather 
 in the customary applications of these 
 terms than in any essential unlike- 
 ness of meaning. We are entangled 
 in difficulties or difficult relationships, 
 as untoward alliances and acquam- 
 tanceships ; we are implicated in 
 blame, faults, crime, transactions, the 
 term being always employed in au 
 unfavourable sense. We are involved 
 in things external which take strong- 
 effect upon us, as in debt, in ruin, in 
 the untoward consequences of con- 
 duct or actions. The term is used 
 also of things, while implicate is con- 
 fined to persons, as we say the subject 
 is involved in doubt, difficulty, mys- 
 tery, obscurity ; or, this involves, that 
 is, implies, or draws after it, the ne- 
 cessity of something else. 
 
 *• It (integrity) is much plainer and 
 easier, much the safer and more secui'e way 
 of dealing in the world ; it has less of 
 trouble and difficulty, of entanglement and 
 perplexity, of danger and hazard in it." — 
 i^pectator. 
 
 " He is much t^o deeply implicated to 
 make the presence or absence of these 
 notes of the least consequence to him." — 
 
 State Trials. 
 
 " The kings of Syria and of Egypt, the 
 Kings of Pergamus and Macedon, M'ithout 
 
 intermission worried each other for above 
 two hundred years, until at last a strong 
 power arising in the west rushed upon 
 them and silenced their tumults by involv- 
 ing all the contending parties in the same 
 destruction "- BuRKE. 
 
 ENTEKfAIN. IIakbour. 
 
 These terms are sometimes used 
 metaphorically of the thoughts, and 
 of some sentiments, as hopes, friend- 
 ship, enmity, and the like. 
 
 In such cases. Entertain 'Fr. en- 
 tretenir) is less voluntary than Har- 
 bour (O. H. G. hereherga, camp, lodg- 
 ing, Fr. auberge). To entertain an 
 unfavourable opinion of another may 
 be the result of calm judgment and 
 unhappy experience ; to harbour such 
 thoughts rather implies that their 
 soundness has not been proved, but 
 that we readily lend ourselves to the 
 supposition with some hope that it 
 may be true, finding, as it were, a 
 place for it in our minds. We enter- 
 tain charitable, we harbour unchari- 
 table thoughts. 
 
 " The not entertaining a sincere love and 
 affection for the duties of religion does both 
 naturally, and by the just judgment of God 
 besides, dispose men to errors and decep- 
 tions about the great truths of religion." — 
 South. 
 
 The unfavourable sense of Harbour 
 in regard to thoughts has no doubt 
 sprung from its older use in regard to 
 obnoxious persons, as seen in the 
 following : — 
 
 "They judged that all men who sus- 
 pected any to have been in the rebellion 
 were bound to discover such their suspicions 
 and to give no harbour to such persons ; 
 that the bare suspicion made it treason to 
 harbour the person suspected, whether he 
 was guilty or not."— Burnet. 
 
 ENTHUSIAST. Fanatic. Vi- 
 sionary. Zealot. Bigot. 
 
 Enthusiast (lv9ovtria.^ot>, 1 am in- 
 spired, hBiOQ, hBov<;,) is one who is 
 influenced by a peculiar fervour or" 
 mind. Enthusiasm is at present em- 
 ployed in the sense of an overweening 
 attachment, not necessarily irrational 
 — in certain limits even admirable — 
 for some cause or subject; as, au 
 enthusiastic lover of music. Enthu- 
 siasm then begins to be blameworthy 
 and i)erilous when the feelings have 
 overmastered the judgment. In re- 
 
[entice] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 383 
 
 ligion, enthusiasm is often taken to 
 mean the influence of spirit as supei-- 
 «eding the ordinary processes of reve- 
 lation by instruction. In that sense 
 it is spoken of in the following : — 
 
 " Enthusiasm is that temper of mind in 
 which the imagination has got the better 
 of the judgment. In this disordered state 
 of things, enthusiasm, when it happens to 
 be turned upon religious mattez's, becomes 
 fanaticism."— Wars urtox. 
 
 " From the consequences of the genius 
 of Heniy, Duke of Visco, did the British 
 American empire arise ; an empire which, 
 unless retarded by the illiberal and in- 
 human spirit of vqM^iovls fanaticism, will 
 in a few centuries perhaps be the glory of 
 the world." — MiCKLE. 
 
 Fakatic (Lat. fcinadcxis, J'dnum, a 
 temple) is employed to designate one 
 whose overheated imagination has 
 wild and extravagant notions, espe- 
 cially upon the subject of religion, 
 which render him incapable of using 
 his judgment and dangerous to others. 
 For enthusiasm is a solitary, fanati- 
 cism a social passion. 
 
 A Visionary, as the term expresses, 
 IS one who is moved by visions, and 
 influences of the imagination, mistaken 
 for realities. He forms, therefore, im- 
 practicable schemes, and creates for 
 himself a present or future state of 
 things, which persons of calm judg- 
 ment know to be incapable of realiza- 
 tion. 
 
 " I know not whether the French did 
 not derive their ideas of teaching things in- 
 stead of words from some celebrated writers 
 of our own country, who, with all their 
 good sense and genius, were visionaries on 
 the subject of education." — Knox. 
 
 Zealot (Gr. ^^nXwrn;, a rival, a zea- 
 lot) and Bigot (a word of unknown 
 origin, of which more than one pos- 
 sible account has been given ; but the 
 meaning of which has probably been 
 aftected by confusion with the word 
 beguin, or more commonly, fern, be- 
 guine, begging devotees of Flanders, 
 early in the 13th cent.) represent, the 
 one actively, the superstitious parti- 
 zan, the other, more passively, the 
 superstitious believer and adherent. 
 
 "A furious zealot may think that he 
 does God service by persecuting one of a 
 different sect. St, Paul thought so, but he 
 confesses he acted sinfully notwithstanding 
 he acted ignorantly."— Gilpin. 
 
 A zealot is in action what a bigot is 
 in opinion. 
 
 •'They are terribly afraid of being called 
 bigots and enthusiasts, but- think there is 
 no danger of falling into the opposite ex- 
 treme of lukewarmness and impiety." — 
 PORTKUS. 
 
 ENTICE. Allure. Decoy. Se- 
 duce. Tempt. 
 
 Entice (O. Fr. enticer) is to draw 
 on or instigate by means of a feeling 
 internal to one's self, as hope or desire. 
 
 Allure (Fr. a leurre, to the bait, 
 for animals) is to do the same thing 
 by means of something external to 
 one's self, as prospect of gain. 
 
 Decoy (Lat. de, and the O. Fr. 
 coif or coy, Lat. quietus, quiet) is to 
 lead on quietly into the snare, as op- 
 posed to violent and noisy modes ot 
 capture. As the decoy was a term 
 employed for the bird, or likeness ot 
 one, used to lead the others into the 
 snare, the verb to decoy has the force 
 of leading on gradually into a snare 
 from which there is eventually no 
 escape, as "to decoy troops into an 
 ambush." 
 
 To Seduce (Lat. shlnccre, to lead 
 aside) is to draw aside from the path 
 of duty, integrity, or chastity by false 
 or alluring representations. 
 
 To Tempt (Lat. tentdre, to try, to 
 put to the test) is to bring an influence, 
 commonly no creditable one, to bear 
 upon another to induce him to do some- 
 tiling. Tempt is stronger than either 
 Entice or Allure, and needs moral 
 eflfort at resistance. It will be observed 
 that Entice, Tempt, and Allure do 
 not absolutely imply the success of the 
 means used, which, however, is the 
 case witli Seduce and Decoy. 
 
 " My son, if sinners e7itice thee, consent 
 thou not." — Book of Proverbs. 
 
 " Among the Athenians, the Areopagites 
 expressly forbade all allurements of elo- 
 quence." — Hume. 
 
 " Man is to man all kind of beasts, a 
 fawning dog, a roaring lion, a thieving fox, 
 a robbing wolf, a dissembling crocodile, a 
 treacherous decoy, a rapacious vulture/' — 
 Cowley. 
 
 "An ingenuous young man takes up the 
 book from the laudable motive of improving 
 his mind with historical knowledge, but as 
 he reads he finds himieM seduced and cheated 
 
384 
 
 ArNONYMS [entire^ 
 
 into irreligion and libertinism.''— Knox, 
 Essays. 
 
 " Adam also was tempted and overcomed ; 
 Chryste beeyng tempted, overcame the 
 temptovr." — Udal, St. Luke. 
 
 ENTIRE. Whole. Complete. 
 Total. Integral. Perfect. 
 
 Entire (O. Vr. entier, Lat. integer) 
 and Whole (A. S. hdl, healthy, whole) 
 are very nicely distinguished. In 
 most cases the words are simply inter- 
 changeable. The entire house and the 
 whole house are the same thing. But 
 Whole relates to what is made up of 
 parts, and a whole thing is a thing in 
 which no part is wanting. Entire does 
 not relate to any idea of parts, but 
 simply to perfect and undiminished 
 unity. So that in cases in which the 
 idea is not resolvable into parts Entire 
 is used where Whole could not be. So 
 we say, a whole orange, a whole num- 
 ber, the whole quantity. But, '' His 
 character or disposition was marked 
 by an entire absence of 'selfishness, " 
 "entire ignorance," "entire confi- 
 dence," "entire control," and the like. 
 In a word, Whole means geometrical 
 unity unbroken ; Enti u e also points to 
 moral indeficiency. 
 
 " Christ, the bridegroom, praises the 
 bride. His Church, for her beauty, for her 
 entire)iess."—Biss.OP Hall. 
 
 *' Upon this question, what* supported or 
 kept up *his chain, would it be a sufficient 
 answer to say that the first or lowest link 
 hung upon a second, or that next febove it, 
 the second, or rather the first and second 
 together, upon the third, and so on ad in- 
 finitum, for what holds up the wlmleV — 
 Woolaston. 
 
 Complete (Lat. complhe, part, com- 
 pletus, to Jill up) denotes the possession 
 of all that is needful to constitute a 
 thing, or to fulfil a purpose or a defini- 
 tion. A thing is entire which is not 
 broken, or mutilated, nor divided ; it 
 is complete when it wants nothing. 
 Entire relates rather to what implies 
 a thing in its integrity. Complete to 
 what implies a thing in its perfection. 
 
 " These discourses which I have written 
 concerning perception, judgment, reason- 
 ing, and disposition, are the fonr integral 
 parts of logic. This sort of parts goes to 
 make up the completeness of any subject." 
 —Watts. 
 
 Total (Lat. t'olus, whole) means 
 complete in amount, so that in mattt* 
 
 which do not relate to mere quantity 
 we cannot use the term. We say, a 
 complete house, meaning one fur- 
 nished with eveiy requirement of a 
 house ; an entire house, meaning the 
 whole and not a part of it ; but we 
 could not say a total house ; but the 
 total sum, amount, total darkness, be- 
 cause the mere perfection of quantity 
 is all that is regarded. 
 
 Integral (Lat. inttger, whole, en- 
 lire), MVe Entire, does not convey any 
 idea of parts, but the simple absence 
 of detraction or diminution, and is 
 applicable both to abstract ideas and 
 to the physical conformation of things. 
 That IS integral which is essential, 
 complete, and whole, and yet itself 
 bears relation to a larger whole, of 
 which it is a part so truly that it could 
 not be wanting without deficiency in 
 that larger whole. 
 
 Perfect (Lat. perfeclus, part of 
 perftccre, to make thoroughly) is a 
 more comprehensive word, relating 
 not only to quantity but also to quality. 
 A perfect thing is not only complete 
 in all its parts, but they are in the 
 best condition and of the best kind. 
 The term embraces the ideas of the 
 utmost possible excellency, physical 
 and moral also. 
 
 " God made thee perfect, not immaculate." 
 Milton. 
 
 ENTRANCE. Ingress. 
 
 The Entrance (Fr. entrer, to enter) 
 has the manifold application of the act, 
 the way, the place, and sometimes the 
 right of entering. 
 
 Ingress (Lat. ijigressiojiem) shares 
 only the first of these and the laat. 
 Nor is it, like Entrance, ever used of 
 mental but only of physical subjects. 
 We cannot, for instance, speak of the 
 ingress as of the entrance of a thought 
 into the mind. Ingress is a material 
 enti-ance of a formal or systematic 
 character. 
 
 ENTRAP. Lvveigle. Ensnare. 
 
 To Entrap (originally from O. H* 
 G. trapo, a trap, snare, whence O. Fr. 
 entraper) and Ensnare (Icel. snam, 
 a cord, snare) seem to be thus diffe- 
 renced in their moral application : men 
 are entrapped when they fall sudden U 
 
DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 [envious] 
 
 and unawares yictims to the designs 
 of others ; they are ensnared when- 
 ever, under false impressions of their 
 own, they have found their way into 
 difficulties, as, for instance, by their 
 own passions, prejudices, or igno- 
 rance. 
 
 To Inveigle (possibly a con-up- 
 tion of O. Fr. aveugler, to blind) im- 
 plies the process of gradual deception, 
 or luring on by little and little by any 
 arts calculated to win over to the pur- 
 pose of another. As Entrap and En- 
 snare point more directly to the re- 
 sult, so Inveigle expresses more im- 
 mediately the process, which may be 
 by any sort of enticement, as, for ex- 
 ample, false views of what is to the in- 
 terest of the party, coloured represen- 
 tations, coaxing, flattery, and the 
 like. 
 
 " The Pharisees and Herodians, as we 
 find in the fifteenth verse of this chapter, 
 had taken connsel together how they might 
 entrap our Saviour in His talk, and for that 
 end they put several ensnaring questions to 
 Him."— Sharp. 
 
 "A sergeant made use of me to inveigle 
 country fellows and list them in the service 
 of the Parliament." — Taller. 
 " I have an entrapping question or two 
 
 more 
 To put unto him, a cross interrogatory. 
 And I shall catch him." Bek Jonson. 
 
 ENUNCIATION. Expression. 
 
 To Enunciate (Eat. enuntiare) is 
 to make known, to bring forward, or 
 bring out. 
 
 To Express (Lat. exprimcre, part. 
 erpressHS, to press forth) is to represent 
 a thing in its natural form or fea- 
 tures. One enunciates that it may 
 be thoroughly intelligible, one ex- 
 presses that it may be clearly per- 
 ceived. The features and gestures 
 combine to express tlie movements of 
 the mind. Silence is sometimes more 
 expressive than speech. Enunciation 
 should be distinct, expression lively. 
 The merit of enunciation lies in clear 
 and choice language and in appro- 
 priate diction. Expression is given in 
 many ways, but demands, especially, 
 the suitableness of the terms to the 
 ideas, and a warmth and energy of 
 words. 
 
 385 
 
 ENVIOUS. Invidious. Jealous. 
 
 Suspicious. 
 
 Envious (Fr. envie, Lat. invidiaj 
 envy) denotes the feeling of unhappi- 
 ness or uneasiness produced by the 
 contemplation of any g-ood belonging 
 to another. 
 
 " Envy is a certain grief of mind con- 
 ceived upon the sight of another's felicity, 
 whether real or supposed, so that we see 
 that it consists partly of hatred, and parti; 
 
 of grief." — South. 
 
 iNvioxijLS, though coming from the 
 same root, has a different meaning, 
 and shows that the closest synonyms 
 are not always those which are etymo- 
 logically cognate. It is used now, 
 not of persons but things, and not in 
 the sense of possessing hut o{ provoking 
 envy, or, by an extension of meaning, 
 ill-will. An invidious task or office is 
 one which cannot be exercised with- 
 out causing discontent, or which re- 
 quires tact to avoid sucli a result. 
 
 " Pythagoras was the first who abated of 
 the invidiousness of the name, and from 
 o>^ brought it down to <pi\ir(ypoi from a 
 master to a lover of wisdom, from a pro- 
 fessor to a candidate." — South. 
 
 Jealous (L. Lat. zilosus, from Gr. 
 l^riXog ; meaning emulation and some- 
 timeB;>jto*sv)isafeelingofenvymixed 
 with rivalry. I am jealous of another 
 when he stands in some relation to a 
 third person which I should desire to 
 occupy myself. It is this kind of per- 
 sonality which mainly causes envy to 
 differ from jealousy. As Envious re- 
 lates to states or possessions merely, 
 and Jealous to the same things in 
 further relation to persons, it follows 
 that the subject-matter of jealousy is 
 less definable. We are jealous, not 
 only of the actual but the possible, 
 whence the alliance between jealousy 
 and suspicion. 
 
 Suspicion (Lat suspicionem) is more 
 general. It denotes an inclination to 
 believe in the existence of something 
 which, nevdrtheless,does not rest upon 
 anything worthy to be called evidence. 
 This may relate simply to matters 
 of fact as such, as a physician migbt 
 say, " I suspect the existence of or- 
 ganic disease ;" but it relates more 
 commonly to thoughts of the charac- 
 c c 
 
386 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [epicure] 
 
 ter, conduct, and designs of other 
 persons, and wears an inauspicious or 
 unfavourable air. Jealousy is a pain- 
 ful apprehension of rivalry ; suspicion 
 of wrong or harm. 
 
 " Jelousie, 
 Of whiche, if I the propertie, 
 Shall telle after the nicetee. 
 So as it woi-cheth on a man, 
 A fever it is cotidian." GowKR. 
 
 " Suspicion may be excited hy some kind 
 of accusation, not supported by evidence 
 sufficient for conviction, but sufficient to 
 trouble the repose of confidence." — Cogan. 
 
 It may be added that jealousy is 
 therefore in some sense just and rea- 
 sonable, inasmuch as it tends to pre- 
 serve a good which belongs to us or 
 which we claim, while envy is a mad- 
 ness which cannot permit the good of 
 others. Nations, like individuals, may 
 be jealous of each other. It belongs 
 to the rivalry of their position as re- 
 gards commerce and the arts, or power 
 and prosperity generally. 
 
 When the terms apply to what is 
 possessed by others. Envy is a stronger 
 term than Jealousy. The first belongs 
 to the character, the second may be a 
 passing feeling. One may be occa- 
 sionally jealous without being natu- 
 rally envious. 
 
 EPICURE. Gourmand. Volup- 
 tuary. Sensualist. 
 
 An Epicure (Eptcunts, the Greek 
 philosopher who assumed pleasure, 
 not merely sensual, but the most re- 
 fined, to be the highest good) is one 
 who is devoted to sensual enjoyments, 
 but most especially the luxuries of the 
 table. With him the quality and not 
 the quantity of things is their recom- 
 mendation. 
 
 The Gourmand (Fr.g-ou7'/nand), on 
 the other band, is a greedy and raven- 
 ous eater. As the epicure is to the 
 gourmand, so is the Voluptuary (Lat. 
 v(iliipta:i'uiy and -tuarius, v'bluptas, 
 pleasure) CO the Sensualist (Lat. 
 .^ensunlis, sensitive, sensual). As the 
 voluptuaiy lives for pleasure, but is 
 nice in bin tastes, so the sensualist 
 gratifies his animal propensities with 
 little discrimination. He is a coarse 
 voluptuary. 
 
 " The truth is, their very fasts and humi- 
 liations have been observed to be nothing 
 else but a religious epicurism, and a neat 
 contrivance of luxury." — South. 
 
 " That great gourmond, fat Apicing." 
 Ben Jonson. 
 
 " In vain doth the scornful voluptuary 
 ask for an account of it (the peace which 
 passeth all understanding), which can neA'er 
 be given him, for it hath no alliance with 
 any of the pleasures of sense in which he 
 delights ; nor hath he any ideas by which 
 the perception of it may be conveyed to 
 him."— liiSHOP Atterbury. 
 
 "The beggar who behind the hedge 
 di>'ides his offals with his dog, has often 
 more of the real sensualist than he who 
 dines at an elegant table." — MiCKLE. 
 
 EPIDEMIC. Sporadic. Ende- 
 mic. Epizootic. 
 
 These terms are distinguished in 
 their medical application. 
 
 An Epidemic disease (Gr. imW^jof, 
 among the people) is one of which the 
 cause acts upon a large number at the 
 same time by reason of its wide diflfu- 
 sion. 
 
 A Sporadic disease (Gr. a-rropahw^j 
 scattered) is a disease which occui-s in 
 isolated cases without any concate- 
 nating influence. 
 
 An Endemic disease (svhfxo?, dwell' 
 ing at home) is a disease peculiar to a 
 nation or a number of people, and is 
 an epidemic having its origin in or 
 connected with the local or personal 
 peculiarities of those among whom it 
 prevails. An Epizootic disease is au 
 epidemic among cattle (jm, upon, (^aJov, 
 c?i animal). 
 
 " A sporadical disease is what, in a par- 
 ticular season, affects but few people." — 
 Abbuthnot. 
 
 " A traveller on his way to Italy, found 
 himself in a country where the inhabitants 
 had each a large excrescence depending 
 from the chin, a deformity which as it was 
 endemic, and the people little used to 
 strangers, it had been the custom time 
 immemorial to look upon it as the greatest 
 b eauty. "—Goldsmith . 
 
 " We have seen no traces of those dread- 
 ful exterminating epidemics which, in con- 
 sequence of scanty and unwholesome food 
 in former times, not unfrequently wasted 
 w^ole nations."— Burke. 
 
 EPISODE. Digression. 
 
 The first is a species of the second. 
 A Digression (Lat. <i^rfssiouem) is 
 
r^QfjALJ 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 387 
 
 in this connexion a deviation fi-om 
 the straight line of narrative or argu- 
 ment. 
 
 An Episode (Gr. ItteiVoSo?) is such a 
 digression as constitutes in itself a 
 separate though subordinate incident, 
 action, or story. A digression may be 
 voluntary or involuntary. It may be 
 made for the purpose of giving variety, 
 or it may be the result of inexactness 
 and inconsecutiveness of treatment. 
 An episode is always designed. It is 
 like a place of halting and refresh- 
 ment on the main road of travel, to 
 which the mind turns aside for new 
 pleasures. It is commonly also of in- 
 terior dignity to the main argument, 
 and delights by touches of simplicity 
 or humbler manners. 
 
 EPISTLE. Letter. 
 
 The Letter (Lat. pi. liter cb) is an 
 ordinary written communication on 
 ordinary topics. 
 
 The Epistle ( Gr. iTria-ToKri , a message, 
 spoken or written) is a more formal, 
 and oft*'U public, communication of 
 the kind : as the letters of Madame de 
 Sevigny, the epistles of Horace or St. 
 Paul. When letters, fi-om the interest 
 of their style and subjects, have passed 
 into the public literature, there is a 
 tendency to give them the name of 
 epistles. Epistles are sometimes in 
 verse. Whatever may form the sub- 
 ject of conversation may form the sub- 
 ject of a letter. 
 
 " I answer, that the Epistles were written 
 upon several occasions, and he that will 
 read them as he ought must observe what 
 'tis in them is principally aimed at, find 
 what is the argument in hand, and how 
 managed, if he will understand them aright 
 and profit by them."— Locke. 
 
 "You have frequently pressed me to 
 make a collection of my letters (if in truth 
 there be any that deserve a preference) and 
 give them to the public." — Melmoth, 
 Hiny. 
 
 EPITHET. Adjective. 
 
 An Epithet (Gr. ETridiTov, lit, a 
 thins added, from BTtiriOivai, to add) is 
 neany equivalent, etymologically, to 
 Adjective (Lat. adjectlvus, from ad- 
 jicire, to add). It used to be employed 
 of any qualifying term, whether sub- 
 
 stantive or adject, ve, as, ' He applied 
 to me the epithet of liar." But, of 
 late, there has been a tendency among 
 rhetoricians to limit the term to adjec- 
 tives, and yet further, to such adjec- 
 tives as express inherent and not ad- 
 vent itiotis qualities; so green is an 
 epithet of grass, because grass is, pre- 
 sumably, always green ; but short 
 would not be an epithet of grass, be- 
 cause it is sometimes long. The mean- 
 ing of adjective is well known. Epi- 
 th et belongs to rhetoric. Ad j ectiv e to 
 grammar. The use of an adjective is 
 to complete the just idea or represen- 
 tation of a thing. That of an epithet 
 is to give life and force. Take away 
 the adjective and the sense is incom- 
 plete or dijQFerent, take away the epi- 
 thet and it is comparatively feeble. 
 A good man is merciful to his beast: 
 strike out the adjective good and the 
 sense is destroyed. Pale death visits 
 all. Strike out the epithet pale and 
 the sense is as good, but the image 
 less lively. 
 
 " The character of Bajazet, the son and 
 successor of Amui-ath, is strongly expressed 
 in his surname of Iklerim, or the lightning, 
 and he might gloiy in an epithet which 
 was drawn from the fiery energy of his soul, 
 and the rapidity of his destructive march." 
 — Gibbon. 
 
 "The true genuine sense of a nonn 
 adjective will be found to consist in this, 
 that it imparts the general sense of pertain- 
 ing to, or being affected with." — Wilkins. 
 
 EQUAL. Even. Equable. Like. 
 Alike, Uniform. Level. 
 
 Equal (Lat. cequdlis) is applied to 
 number, degree, and measurement, 
 and any subject that admits of them, 
 as, " Things of equal size," " Equal 
 in degree," " This is equal to that," 
 " I am not equal to the task." It is 
 applicable, not only to two or more 
 things, but to one and the same, in 
 the sense of fair, equable, but an ex- 
 ternal standard of comparison is always 
 supposed. 
 
 " In sober silence, we can but admire 
 Beauty with temper, taste and sense com- 
 
 bined. 
 The body only equaird by the mind." 
 
 WA-BTON. 
 
 Even (A. S. efen) is superficial 
 equality or sameness of level. An 
 even balance is when one scale is not 
 
388 
 
 SYNONYMS [equity] 
 
 higher or lower than another ; an even 
 road is one which has no superficial 
 elevations and depressions ; an even 
 temper is not unduly excited or de- 
 pressed ; an even number, as opposed 
 to odd, is one that being divisible by 
 two does not rise higher in one division 
 than the other. It will be seen that, 
 as Equal is almost always applied to 
 more than one thing, so Even is com- 
 monly said of one. 
 
 "And shall lay thee even with the 
 ground." — Bible, 
 
 Equable (Lat. ceqiidMlis, equal and 
 similar) denotes the equality of con- 
 tinuous proportion ; a vessel sails at 
 an equable rate when it makes as 
 much in one hour as in the preceding. 
 As Equal and Even denote modes of 
 the fixed, so Equable belongs to ac- 
 tion, operation, or movement. 
 
 " If bodies move equably in concentric 
 circles, and the squares of their periodical 
 times be as the cubes of their distances from 
 the common centre, their centripetal forces 
 will be reciprocally as the squares of the 
 distances, "— Chkyne. 
 
 Like (A. S. lie) always denotes two 
 or rrjore things. It expresses all that 
 is expressed by Equal, with the addi- 
 tional signification of resemblance. 
 
 Alike (pref. o-, i.e. A. S. on-, and 
 like) expresses reciprocal resemblance 
 between two or more. In the term 
 Like, the resemblance is with an exter- 
 nal object. John is like James, or John 
 and James are alike, or these six are 
 like those six, or the twelve are alike. 
 
 •♦The darkness and light to Thee are 
 both alike."— Bible. 
 
 " Can any distinction be assigned between 
 the two cases, between the producing watch 
 and the producing planet, both passive un- 
 conscious substances ; both by the organiza- 
 tion which was given them producing their 
 like without understanding or design — both, 
 that is, instrnments?"— Paley. 
 
 Uniform (Lat. un^formis, unus, one, 
 and forma, form) is, in many cases, an 
 interchangeable word with Equable, 
 Equable motion is uniform motion; 
 but uniformity is more widely applic- 
 able than equability, as it is predic- 
 able, not only of continuous equality, 
 but of what, on successive trials of 
 observation or experience, strikes us 
 as continuous identity of object, as, 
 *' The uniformity of a man's opinions." 
 
 "Analogies, harmonies, ana agreements 
 are discovered in the works of nature and 
 its several parts explained that is, reduced 
 to general rules, which rules, grounded on 
 the analogy and uniformness observed in 
 the production of natural effects, are most 
 agreeable, and sought after by the mind.' 
 —Berkeley. 
 
 Level (0. Fr. livel, Lat. libella, dim. 
 of libra, a level- line) is, in its strict 
 geometrical sense, coincident with the 
 plane of the horizon. As Even relates 
 to the quality of the surface per se, so 
 Level relates to it as a plane and to its 
 horizontal line. A level plank on a 
 level floor is itself level, but it is even 
 if it have a well-polished surface, 
 though it be set up on end. 
 " And when along the level seas they flew. 
 Scarce on the surface curled the briny 
 dew." Pope. 
 
 EQUITY. Justice. 
 
 Justice (Lat. jmtttia, Justus, just) 
 and Equity (epquitatem, justice, cour- 
 tesy) are intrinsically the same ; 
 but, in the technical sense, equity is 
 the moral redressing of what is legal, 
 where, owing to the imperfection oi 
 human laws, what is legal is not 
 exactly just. A court of equity is 
 also sometimes styled a court ot 
 justice. 
 
 The following remarks may serve to 
 illustrate the difference generally be- 
 tween the two. Justice is chiefly con- 
 cerned with personal rights, and rights 
 of property between man and man. 
 Equity is concerned chiefly with man 
 himself. Our life, faculties, work, the 
 fruits of our work, our fortune, reputa- 
 tion, honour, are exclusively our own. 
 Justice forbids violence to be done 
 against these, and compensates for it 
 if done. Our wants, miseries, errors, 
 faults, wrongs, are not ours exclu- 
 sively ; they come of the weakness of 
 humanity. Equity compassionates 
 these things, and binds one to do good 
 to another, if it be in his power. 
 Justice in a manner isolates us one 
 from another, and guards against the 
 occasion which may make us enemies. 
 Equity unites us, regarding us as 
 members of the same body. Wrong 
 not another, and recompense whom 
 you have wronged, is the language of 
 
 {■ ustice. Do to that other as you would 
 >e done by. is the language of equity. 
 
[EEADICATEj 
 
 Justice ensures to indiviJuals all that 
 law accords to them, and so implies 
 communities living under positive rule. 
 Equity is based upon natural law, and 
 IS an expression of human sentiment, 
 rather than political enactment. Jus- 
 tice is the inflexible guardian of the 
 public safety, and being inflexible re- 
 gards nothing but the fact, whereas 
 equity will consider motives and in- 
 tentions, and modify its decisions ac- 
 cordingly. I have received injury, 
 justice grants me redress, but if the 
 oftence have been in any degree by 
 en-or, or if the penalty which 1 have 
 the right to enforce should involve 
 tJie ruin of the other, equity suggests 
 the question, "ought I to pursue tlie 
 case .' " All that the law declares is 
 just. It belongs to equity to temper 
 the rigour of its decrees. 
 
 " From this method of interpreting laws 
 by the reason of them, arises what we call 
 equity, which is thus defined by Grotius : — 
 '.The correction of that, wherein the law, by 
 reason of its universality, is deficient.'" — 
 Blackstojte. 
 
 It should be obsei-ved that this defi- 
 nition, which goes to the root of the 
 matter, is Aristotle's definition of 
 equity — iTdiiKilct, Bk. V. N. Ethics. 
 
 " Justice is twofold, namely, general or 
 strict justice, which consists' in observing 
 the laws, and the aim of which is public 
 good; and particular justice, or equity, 
 which aims at the goorl of individuals, and 
 is then observed when one obtains no more 
 good, and suffers no more evil than is agree- 
 »ble to humanity and common sense." — 
 Beattik. 
 
 EQUIVALENT. Equal. Tan- 
 tamount. 
 
 The most generic of these is Equal 
 (Lat. (Equdlis) of which the others 
 naay be regarded as specific modifica- 
 tions. Equal expresses the fact that 
 two things a^ree in anything which is 
 capable of ofegi-ee, e.g. in quantity, 
 quality' value, bulk, number, propor- 
 tion, rate, rank, and the like. 
 
 Equivalent {epqiavUlens, part.) is 
 equal in such properties as a^ect our- 
 selves or the ui-e xuhich we make of things, 
 such as value, force, poAver, efifect, 
 impact, and the like. 
 
 Tantamount (Fr. lant, so much, 
 and O. Fr. amonter, to amount to) ex- 
 01 esses such equivalence as is re- 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 389 
 
 stricted to questions of our own estima- 
 tion. Equal is absolute, Equivalent 
 relative, Tantamount more relative 
 still, or more exclusivel}'' so. 
 
 EQUIVOCATE. Prevaricate. 
 
 To Equivocate (Lat. <Equiv6cus, 
 ambiguous) is, strictly, to make use of 
 expressions whicli do not necessarily 
 violate truth, because they may be 
 taken in more senses than one ; the 
 equivocating person giving himself 
 the benefit of this ambiguity, in the 
 hope that the other party may take 
 his expressions in the sense favourable 
 to the speaker. 
 
 To PRtVAiiiCATE (Lat. ■prcEvai^cart, 
 to straddle, to walk crookedly) is applied 
 often to an advocate guilty of collu- 
 sion with the opposite party. In its 
 modern and familiar use, as Equivo- 
 cate relates to the management of 
 words, so PnEVAUicATE relates to the 
 management of the matter. To pre- 
 varicate is to deal with the subject in 
 a loose, evasive way, shuffling or 
 quibbling so as to avoid disclosing the 
 truth. 
 
 " Tresham, a little before his death in 
 the Tower, subscribed his own hand that 
 he had not seen Qarnett in sixteen years 
 before, when it was evidently proved, and 
 Garnett confessed, they had been together 
 the summer before ; and all that Garnett 
 had to say for him was, that he supposed he 
 meant to equivocate." — Stillingfleet. 
 
 The following quotation explains 
 the legal origin of the term Prevari- 
 cate : — 
 
 " There lay an action of prevarication 
 when the accuser, instead of urging the 
 crime home, seemed rather to hide or ex- 
 tenuate the guilt. Hence the civilians de- 
 fine a prevaricator to be one that betrays 
 his cause to the adversary, and turns on the 
 crimmals side, whom he ought to prose- 
 cute." — Kennet, Rmn. Antiq. 
 
 ERADICATE. Extirpate. Ex- 
 terminate. 
 
 Eradicate (Lat. eradicdre) lite' 
 rally, to pluck up by the root, and 
 Extirpate (Lat. exstirpare, to pull up 
 by the stem, svii-pem) are in their ideas 
 very similar, nor is Exterminate very 
 different (Lat. extermtTiare, ex, out, and 
 tenmniis, a border, to remove utterly out 
 of botinds). Their difference lies in 
 their application. W^ eradicate for 
 the sake of destroying the thing eradi- 
 
390 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [errand] 
 
 cated ; we extirpate for the sake of 
 the bettering of what is left behind. 
 *Ve eradicate what has taken strong 
 hold, and as it were deep root. So 
 we speak of eradicating vices, extir- 
 pating heresies or sects, and extermi- 
 nating bodies of living individu-als, as 
 a colony, a race, a tribe. 
 
 " Hence an attempt to eradicate religions 
 fears may be destructive to a principle of 
 action which is not only natural in itself, 
 but has proved highly beneficial. What is 
 the proper inference ? That it is the pro- 
 vince of true philosophy to give these prin- 
 ciples a right direction and a due influence, 
 and it will then rejoice that a total eradica- 
 tion has not been accomplished." — CoGAK. 
 
 " The vicious ar^, the disorderly members 
 of a moral state ; and were not the Supreme 
 Governor more mild than His representa- 
 tives, they would be immediately extirpated 
 from the society they offend and insult." — 
 Ibid. 
 
 " The Spaniards, in order to preserve the 
 possession of America, resolved to extermi- 
 nate the inhabitants." — Robertson. 
 
 ERRAND. Message. 
 
 Eruand (A. S. krende, a message) 
 is an object for which one goes some- 
 where, or is sent by another. If the 
 object be to communicate with another 
 in words, then the errand is so far a 
 message. But the errand may be not 
 of this kind, as an errand to buy some- 
 tbing at the market. 
 
 A Message (Fr. message, L. Lat. 
 missattcum) is a verbal communication 
 sent from one person to another, 
 whether orally or in writing. An 
 errand is an act ; a message is a thing 
 of words. 
 
 " He would understand men's tme errand 
 as soon as they had opened their mouths 
 and began their story in appearance to 
 another purpose." — LoCKE, Memoirs of the 
 Earl of Shaftesbury. 
 
 " His winged messengers. 
 On errands of supernal grace." 
 
 Milton. 
 *' To verify that solemn message, late 
 On which I sent thee to the Virgin pure. 
 In Galilee., that she should bear a Son, 
 Great in renown, aad called the Son of 
 God." Ibid. 
 
 ERROR. Mistake. Blundeu. 
 Hallucination. 
 
 An Error (Lat. $rrorem, errare, to 
 wander) is any deviation fi'om the 
 standard or course of right, truth, 
 
 justice, or accuracy, which is not in- 
 tentional. 
 
 A JMistake (prefix, mis-, and taxe, 
 to take wrongly) is an error committed 
 under a misapprehension or miscon- 
 ception of the nature of a case. An 
 error may be from the absence of 
 knowledge ; a mistake is from insuffi- 
 cient or false observation. 
 
 Blunder (Icel. blunda, to doze, 
 s/»»i6er, with freq. su&x,-eren: Skeat, 
 Etym. Diet.) is a practical error of 
 a peculiarly gross or awkward kind, 
 committed through glaring ignorance, 
 heedlessness, or awkwardness. A 
 blunder is, perhaps, ciBteris paribus, 
 the most irretrievable ; for an error 
 may be overlooked or atoned for, a 
 mistake may be rectified; but the 
 shame or ridicule which is occasioned 
 by a blunder, who can counteract ? In 
 the broadest sense of the term Error, 
 it may be regarded as the generic 
 term, under which mistake is in- 
 cluded ; so that a mistake might be 
 defined an eiTor of perception. To 
 miss intellectual truth is error; to 
 confound physical facts is mistake. 
 To say that the Trojan war ended in 
 the victory of the Trojans would be 
 an error ; to speak to a person in the 
 street, thinking he was somebody else, 
 would be a mistake. There is a meta- 
 phorical sense in which all error has 
 been resolved into mistake, that is, 
 upon the supposition that all know- 
 ledge is based upon the observation of 
 external facts or objects. In that way, 
 as all truth comes of right perception, 
 so all error would be wrong percep- 
 tion or mistake. This is Locke's 
 meaning when he says — 
 
 " Knowledge being to be had only of 
 visible certain truth, error is not a fault of 
 our knowledge, but a mistake of our judg- 
 ment, giving assent to that which is not 
 true." 
 
 " For my part, as I was never distln 
 guished for address, and have often even 
 blundered in making my bow, such bodings 
 as these had like totally to have repressed 
 my ambition."— Goldsmith. 
 
 Strictly speaking the Hallucina- 
 tion (Lat. alucindri, to uunderin mind) 
 is an illusion of the perception, a 
 phantasm of the imagination. The 
 one comes of disordered vision, the 
 
[ESCAPE] 
 
 other of discrdered imagination. It 
 is extended in medical science to mat- 
 teis of sensation, where there is no 
 corresponding cause to produce it. 
 In its ordinary use it denotes an un- 
 accountable error in judgment or fact ; 
 especially in one remai-kable other- 
 wise for accurate information and right 
 decisions. It is an exceptional error 
 or mistake in those otnerwise not 
 likely to be deceived. 
 
 " A few hallucinatiojis about a subject to 
 which the greatest clerks have been gene- 
 rally such strangers, may warrant us to 
 dissent fi-om his opinion without obliging 
 ns to be enemies to bis reputation." — 
 Boyle. 
 
 Levity, inadvertence, and ignorance 
 are the causes of errors, mistakes, and 
 blunders. Persons of plain character, 
 oj)en manners, without reserve, but 
 without reflexion, commit blunders. 
 Error belongs to false principle, 
 blunder to its false application. It is 
 possible to blunder by mistake, and 
 then there are two faults in one. 
 Blunders are over when they are 
 committed, and so are mistakes, 
 though their consequences may be 
 serious, but error may be perpe- 
 tuated. When this is so, it is because 
 they are diflaised or supported by 
 authority. A blunder is confusion ot 
 thought, leading to confusion of action; 
 a mistake is a false choice ; error is the 
 practical contradiction of truth. 
 
 ERUPTION. Explosion. 
 
 Eruption (Lat. iruptionem, a break- 
 ing out) is the breaking or bursting 
 forth from inclosure or confinement. 
 This is so often attended by sudden 
 and loud noise that sound is com- 
 monly associated with it. On the 
 other hand, many eruptions take place 
 without much noise, indeed without 
 any, as an eruption of armed men, an 
 eruption of the skin. 
 
 Explosion (Lat. explosionem, lit., a 
 driving ojf' by clapping) is essentially 
 the breaking out of a sudden and loud 
 noise. This may be the eflfect of 
 eruption or not. The eruptions of 
 Vesuvius often occasion explosions ; 
 on the other hand, the explosion of 
 gunpowder would never be called 
 an eruption, however true it may be 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 391 
 
 that there is an eruption of minute 
 
 f)articles. Explosion seems to have 
 ent itself more readily to the moral in 
 its metaphorical uses, and Eruption to 
 the social, as we frequently speak of 
 an explosion of anger, or even folly, 
 and an eruption of political discon- 
 tent. 
 
 " The confusion of things, the eruptions 
 of barbarians, the straits of emperors, the 
 contentions of princes, did all turn to ac- 
 count for him.^'— Barrow, Pope's Supre- 
 macy. 
 " When, to the startled eye, the snddea 
 
 glance 
 Appears far south eruptive through the 
 
 cloud. 
 And following slower, in explosion vast. 
 The thunder raises his tremendous voico." 
 Thomsok. 
 
 ESCAPE. Elude. Evade. Shun. 
 Avoid. Eschew. 
 
 Escape (O. Fr. escaper) is to obtain 
 security from peril, danger, confine- 
 ment, or evil of any form, whether 
 threatened or inflicted, by persons or 
 otherwise. Sometimes the term is used 
 metaphorically in the sense of having 
 been overlooked, as, we say the circum 
 stance escaped my notice. In its com 
 mon application, Escape involves the 
 idea of successful effort to avoid dan- 
 ger, or the power, coercion, or even 
 observation of another. 
 
 " Sailors that escaped the wreck. 
 
 Shakkspearb. 
 
 To Elude (Lat. HFulere, to deceive, 
 frustrate) is to escape by artifice, 
 vigilance, or dexterity, and implies 
 some person or force at work, from 
 which we escape ; as to elude an 
 officer, detection, an argument, a blow, 
 inq^uiry, search, comprehension, ana- 
 lysis. In the last four examples, 
 Elude, like Escape, assumes, meta- 
 phorically, an active force in matters 
 without action. 
 
 " The gentle Delia beckons from the plain. 
 Then hid in shades eludes her eager swain." 
 PoPK. 
 
 To Evade (Lat. cvadire, togoforthy 
 escape) is to go out of the way or 
 reach of a thing or person. It is 
 commonly done by dexterity, inge- 
 nuity, or subterfuge, but, in its literal 
 sense, and as said of one person in 
 regard to another, it is sometimes 
 used of voluntary avoidance or with- 
 
392 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [essay] 
 
 drawal ; as, '* I wished to accost him, 
 but he evaded me," that is, literally 
 walked away. 
 
 " The heathen had a method more truly 
 their own of evading the Christian mira- 
 cles."— Trknch. 
 
 Shun (A. S. scij.7iia7i, to shun, avoid) 
 carries with it the notion of wary and 
 often systematic avoidance, as of one 
 knowing too well the nature of the 
 object of avoidance, or holding it in 
 personal dislike. 
 
 "It is not supposed that we should have 
 power always lo resist, unless vre before- 
 hand do what is in our power to shu7i 
 temptation." — Atterbury. 
 
 Avoid (which originally meant to 
 empty, Fr. voider; with prefix a, 
 which is Fr. es-, Lat. ex, out) is a 
 weaker tenn, meaning no more, lite- 
 rally, than to leave a void space be- 
 tween one's self and the object, to keep 
 clear of it. Avoid admits of many 
 degrees of force in the feeling which 
 prompts the avoidance ; we may avoid 
 a thing as involving certain destruc- 
 tion, or we may avoid as a simple 
 nmtter uf prudence or taste, as to avoid 
 giving offence. Caution and pru- 
 dence, followed by ordinary steps or 
 exertions, may enable us to avoid 
 without the art implied in eluding or 
 the repugnance implied in shunning. 
 
 " Nor can a man pray from Lis heart 
 that God would not lead him into tempta- 
 tion, if he take no care of himself to avoid 
 it."— Mason. 
 
 Eschew (connected with the Ger- 
 man scheuen, to avoid, scheu, Eng. 
 shy, as in the plirase, " to fight shy ") is 
 to avoid on the score of wrong, or a 
 feeling of distaste or uncongeniality. 
 
 " Not only to eschew evil, but do good in 
 the world."— Bkveridge. 
 
 ESSAY. Treatise. Disserta- 
 tion. Tract. Monograph. 
 
 Essay (O. Fr. essai, a trial; Lat. 
 exUgiiim, trial by rveight) is a modest 
 term to express an author's attempt 
 to illustrate some point of knowledge 
 or learning by general thoughts upon 
 it. It is tentative rather than ex- 
 haustive or scientific. The complete- 
 ness of the work often surpasses the 
 tentative character of the title given 
 to it, as in the case of Locke's *' Es- 
 say on the Human Understanding." 
 
 A distinction between the treatise and 
 the essay is drawn in the following :— 
 
 " To \f rite inst treatises requirsti leisors 
 in the writer and leisure in the reader, and 
 therefore are not so fit neither in regard of 
 your highnesses princely aftairs nor in re- 
 gard of my continual service ; which is the 
 cause that hath made me choose to ^^Tite 
 certain brief notes, set down rather signi- 
 ficantly than curiously, which I have called 
 essays. The word is late, but the thing is 
 ancient. For Seneca's epistles to Lucilius, 
 if you mark them well, are but essays, that 
 is, dispersed meditations, though conveyed 
 in the form of epistles."— Bacon. 
 
 A Treatise (Lat. tractdtum, treat- 
 ment, a treatise) is more formal and 
 scientific than an essay. As an essay 
 gives rather the thoughts and im- 
 pressions of the writer, so a treatise 
 gives rather what has been said in 
 connexion with the subject, and is an 
 accurate or learned exposition of it. 
 
 A Diss ehtation( Lat. dissertdtionem, 
 dissertdre, to discuss) is of an argumen- 
 tative character, giving what may be 
 said for and against, and involving 
 views of the writer upon subject- 
 matter capable of being regarded in 
 different lights, as, "Newton's Dis- 
 sertations on the Prophecies." 
 
 "Beside the repetition of the Augustan 
 confession, before mentioned, concerning 
 the Lord's Supper, the divines of Wittem- 
 burgh laboured other articles with the 
 ambassadors, in single dissertations, drawn 
 up by Melancthon, as it appeared." — 
 Strype. 
 
 A Tract (Lat. tractdtum, treat- 
 ment, a treatise) is of a simpler and 
 shorter character, not argumentative, 
 simply didactic, and commonly, as 
 now used, of a religious nature. The 
 old word was tractate. 
 
 " Most remarkable was his skill in mathe- 
 matics, being accounted the Archimedes of 
 that age, having \vritten many tractates 
 in that faculty, which carry with them a 
 very good regard at this day." — Fuller, 
 Worthies. 
 
 Monograph (Gr. /oo'vo?, or,£ only, 
 and ypa.<p(iv, to write) is a ti'eatise 
 specially dedicated to the elucidation 
 of one point or subject, upon which 
 the object is to concentrate as much 
 light as possible. The word is re- 
 cent. 
 
 ESSENCE. Substance. 
 
 Both are tenus of the scholaftk 
 
[establish] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 393 
 
 philosophy. The Essence (Lat. es- 
 sentia) is the aggregate of notions 
 which constitute a complex notion, 
 the enumeratioa of which is its defini- 
 tion. This is called by logicians the 
 Formal cause. It is the logical ac- 
 count of a thing. And 2nd, the term 
 Essence is employed to denote tlie 
 constituent qualities which go to 
 make up an object or class of objects 
 without which they would not be what 
 they are. Hence it denotes the charac- 
 ter which belongs to the class or com- 
 mon nature as distinguished from the 
 accidents or individual varieties in the 
 members of thst class; as e.g. the pos- 
 session of reason is essential to man, 
 but not the having white or black 
 hair. From this primary force the 
 term has wandered into other mean- 
 ings, as with Milton, " Heavenly 
 Essences," that is, beings ; the ex- 
 tracted and refined qualities of a sub- 
 stance; as a plant, a drug, a per- 
 fume. 
 
 Substance (Lat. substantia) de- 
 noted that which was the substratum 
 of existence in a thing, whether 
 material or spiritual, — that in which 
 its properties and accidents were in- 
 herent, so that these might undergo 
 modification or change, and yet 
 the thing itself would remain un- 
 altered. From this highly refined 
 notion the term, like Essence, has be- 
 come materialized till, as has been re- 
 marked by Mr. J. S. Mill, essence 
 has become ''concrete enough to be 
 put into a glass bottle," and Sub- 
 stance has come to mean first the most 
 important part of any matter of an 
 intellectual kind, then material pos- 
 session, and matter itself. 
 
 ^ ESTABLISH. Settle. Confirm. 
 Fix. Institute. Found. Euect. 
 
 To Establish (O. Fr. establir, Lat. 
 stiibi[ire) is to place Jirmly, or to make 
 Hrm, and is applicable both to what 
 has been originally planted and to 
 what is now planted for the first 
 time. It is also applicable both to 
 things and persons. It is used of po- 
 sition, opinions or belief, laws, cus- 
 toms, regulations,aud institutions. But 
 Establish is never used in a purely 
 material sense. To establish is to ac- 
 
 cord a position and place of residence. 
 It has reference to authority and civil 
 government. It is to give "a local 
 habitation and a name." An esta- 
 blished fact, principle, or usage is one 
 which has proof, duration, and public 
 recognition in its favour. 
 
 " God, being the author and establisher 
 of nature, and the continual sustainer of 
 it by His free Providence, it is not likely 
 that He will sufl'er the laws and cause 
 thereof to be much violated, except upon 
 occasions very considerable, and for very 
 good purposes." — Barrow. 
 
 To Settle (A. S. settan, to place, 
 setlan, to lake seat) is to establish in 
 reference to antecedent or anticipated 
 uncertainty, movement, or agitation; 
 as, to settle a person in life ; to settle 
 his affairs, that is, place them in a 
 fixed and satisfactory state ; to settle 
 a colony ; to settle the mind, or any 
 question which agitates it ; to settle 
 an allowance, that is, to make it per- 
 manent and not variable ; to settle an 
 account or a dispute, as involving 
 previous fluctuation and agitation ; or 
 to settle commotion, as a disturbance. 
 
 " On her (the Princess Sophia) there- 
 fore, and the heirs of her body, being 
 Protestants, the remainder of the crown 
 on the death of King William and Queen 
 Ann without issue was settled by statute 
 12 and 13 of William III."— Blackstoxk. 
 
 To Confirm (Lat. conjirmdre, to 
 makejirm, establish) is to make strong 
 what has been already set up or esta- 
 blished ; but it is not employed of 
 physical, but of mental, moral, or 
 civil strengthening — tlie health, not 
 the body, is confirmed. So of other 
 things, as order, truth, j ustice, deter- 
 mination, conviction, authority, ofl5ce, 
 suspicion, belief, treaty, law. The 
 opposite to Confirm is to unsettle. 
 
 "According to the politician's creed, 
 religion, being useful to the state, yet only 
 a well-invented fiction, all experiments, 
 that is, all inquiries into its truth, naturally 
 tend not to confirm but to unsettle this 
 necessary support of civil government." — 
 Warbubtox. 
 
 Fix (Lat'. Ji^tre, part jixus) is to 
 establish in re^rence to antecedent or 
 future variation or local alterable- 
 ness. It is to external what Settle is 
 to internal change. And it is, like 
 Settle, used both as an intransitive 
 and a transitive verb. It is to settlp 
 
394 
 
 SYNONYMS [eSTRANGEMENTJ 
 
 definitely at one degree, or in one 
 place, or in one form or condition. 
 
 " From this account of the causes or re- 
 quisites of fixity may be deduced the fol- 
 lowing means of giving or adding /?x«fion 
 to a body that was before either volatile or 
 less /lerf."— Boyle. 
 
 Institute (Lat. insUiiCtre, part, in- 
 itttuUis, to set, place, institute) is used 
 only transitively. It does not apply 
 to tlie purely physical setting up of 
 material objects, but to such matters 
 as laws, rules, orders, inquiries, pro- 
 cesses or suits, and what are charac- 
 teristically termed i7istihitions, that 
 is, things which are established so as 
 to have pei-manent operation; as, a 
 permanent mode or custom, or ob- 
 servance, or a building devoted to the 
 permanent provision for some object, 
 as an educational or charitable institu- 
 tion. As Establish stands to place, so 
 does Institute to time. Any force or 
 influence may establish, but authority 
 only institutes. Time, for instance, 
 which institutes nothing, establishes 
 much. An institution is the canying 
 out of some one's ideas in particular, 
 and giving them practical operation 
 and permanence. So Christ instituted 
 the sacrament of the Lord's Supper. 
 
 " And did institute, and in His holy Gos- 
 pel command us to continue a perpetual 
 memory of that His precious death until 
 His coming again."— jBooA of Common 
 Prayer. 
 
 Found (O. Yr.Jojider, Lat. fundare, 
 to lay a foundation), unlike Institute, 
 is employed of the processes of mate- 
 rial construction. Analogously, it is 
 used of commencing by furnishing 
 with some amount of permanent sup- 
 port capable of being afterwards ex- 
 tended ; as, to found a fellowship in a 
 university. To found is to take the 
 first step or measures for building, 
 erecting, or establishing. Found is 
 the generic term. So we speak of 
 founding an establishment, and in 
 some senses an institution. 
 
 '■ Ii fell nut, lor it was founded on a 
 rock."— Bible. 
 
 To Erect (Lat. irigtre, part, irectu^, 
 to .^et up, erect) is used both of phy- 
 nical and analogous setting up of what 
 iii meant to remain standing; as, to 
 
 erect a sign-post, a marble column, 
 or a new commonwealth or diocese. 
 It differs from Found, inasmuch as it 
 means to set up, while Found means 
 to lay down. So a house may be at 
 ^he same time founded upon a rock 
 and erected, but a throne or a flag- 
 staff is not founded, but only erected. 
 It always indicates a change of cha- 
 racter, and, when a])plied to insti- 
 tutions or ofliices, implies an elevation 
 of dignity, as when a province is 
 erected into a kingdom. 
 
 *' To erect a new commonwealth." — 
 Hooker. 
 
 ESTRANGEMENT. Aliena- 
 tion. Abstraction. 
 
 These terms are synonymous in so 
 far as they express in common the 
 state of being drawn away from ob- 
 jects in mind or person. 
 
 Abstraction (Lat. abstractionem, 
 a drawing away) expresses no moit! 
 than the being taken away from 
 certain persons, influences, or occu- 
 pations, whatever may be the 
 feeling that withdraws us, or that 
 which we entertain to what we leave 
 behind ; as, absti-action from the world, 
 its cares, pleasures, and pursuits : 
 only a sufficient force is implied, 
 which is for the most part one of taste 
 and feeling. 
 
 Estrangement (O. Fr. estranger, 
 to estrange) and Alienation (Lat. 
 Uticndtionetn, a transferring of a thing, 
 a separation) denote a stronger and 
 more personal feeling, which posi- 
 tively keeps us away through an 
 altered state of affection. If there be 
 any difference between them, it is 
 such as flows from the words them- 
 selves. Alienation expressing an in- 
 ternal disharmony of feeling caused 
 by some act, as, "His repeated of- 
 fences have alienated my regard for 
 him ; " Estrangement expressing the 
 gradual operation of any circumstancea 
 that have caused separation of person 
 or feeling, as, "1 have been long 
 estranged from him." A revulsion 
 of feeling alienates ; absence and dis- 
 tance may esti-ange. The distinctive 
 force of Estrangement and Aliena- 
 tion is shown by the following of 
 Jeremy Taylor:— 
 
[exact] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 395 
 
 •' If excommunication be incurred ipso 
 facto, he that is guilty of the fact deserving 
 it, and is fallen into the sentence, is bound 
 to submit to those estrangements and sepa- 
 rations, those alienations of society and 
 avoidings which he finds from the duty of 
 others." 
 
 "A youthful passion for abstracted de- 
 votion should not be encouraged." — John- 
 son. 
 
 EVER. Always. 
 
 Always means at all times. 
 
 EvEH has the additional meaning of 
 at any time,\i\ which it belongs pecu- 
 liarly to negative and interrogative 
 sentences, as " Who ever (at any time) 
 heard the like of it ? " *' No man ever 
 yet hated his own flesh." Ever ex- 
 presses uniformity of continuance ; Al- 
 ways expresses uniformity of repe- 
 tition. So we might say, "He is 
 ever at home," or, " He is always at 
 home ; " but we could not say, " I 
 have called several times, and have 
 ever found him at home," but always. 
 On the other hand, we might say, " I 
 have ever found him a true friend," 
 that is, at any time when occasion has 
 arisen, or continually. 
 
 '* The evei- never dying souls of wicked 
 men." Bp. Taylor. 
 
 '• The always wind-obeying deep." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 EVERY. Each. 
 
 Every (i.e. ever-each, A. S, cefre, 
 eeic'), with which Each is also con- 
 nected, is collective. Each is distribu- 
 tive. Every includes the whole class 
 one by one, as all includes it in a 
 mass. But Every supposes uniformity ! 
 in detail, and excludes exceptions and 
 diflerences; Each, on the other hand, 
 implies these. Every man has fail- 
 ings, this follows from the constitu- 
 tion of nature. Each man has his I 
 peculiar weakness, this follows from 
 the diversity of human temperament. 
 This distinction, however, is not so 
 much in the force of the words as in 
 the nature of the things. 
 
 EVIL. III. 
 
 An Evil (A.. ^. yf'el) is anything 
 that causes harm or suffering. 
 
 Ill (Icel. illr, the same word, 
 radically, as A. S. yjel) is commonly 
 
 applied to minor evils, and to sucli as 
 are incidental to particular states j 
 while evil is often the result of our 
 own actions. We should hardly speak 
 of a trivial evil, but of a trivial ill, 
 the ills of humanity. Sin is of the 
 nature of an evil ; misfortune is an 
 ill. 
 
 *' Thus, after having clambered with 
 great labour fi-om one step of argumenta- 
 tion to another, instead of rising into the 
 light of knowledge, we are devolved back 
 into dark ignorance, and all our effort ends 
 in belief that for the evils of life there is 
 some good, and in confession that the reason 
 cannot be found." — JoHKSOX. 
 
 " The ills that flesh is heir to." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 EXACT. Accurate. Correct; 
 Precise. Nice. Particular. Punc- 
 tual. 
 
 Exact (Lat. exigcre, part, exactus 
 to enforce) is applicable both to per- 
 sons, their habits or style, and to pro- 
 ductions of men. Exactness is that 
 kind of truth which consists in the 
 conformity to an external standard or 
 measure, or has an internal corre- 
 spondence with external requirement. 
 As an exact amount is that which is 
 required, the exact time that which 
 agrees with the sun or the clock, an 
 exact man is he who conforms to the 
 external requirements of time and 
 rule. An exact statement accords 
 with the facts to be expressed. Cor- 
 rectness applies to the style, exact- 
 ness to the matter. He is an exact 
 writer who attends to truth of fact 
 and precision of ideas; he is a cor- 
 rect writer who conforms to the rules 
 of grammar and the requii-ements of 
 usage. 
 
 " The Parliament for divers reasons 
 thought it not convenient to comply with 
 the king's propositions, and in answer to 
 the Scots, demanded of them an exact ac- 
 count of what was due to them, retjuiring 
 them to withdraw their garrisons from 
 such places as they possessed in England." 
 — Ludlow, Memoirs. 
 
 As Exact refers to an extraneous 
 standard, so Accurate ( Lat. accurdref 
 to prepare with care, part, accurdtus) 
 to the attention which has been ex- 
 pended upon a thing, and the exact- 
 ness which may be expected from it. 
 Exactness may be fortuitous ; ac- 
 
596 
 
 curacy is alwajra designed. Exact- 
 ness is of one point, or one at a time ; 
 accuracy is of many. 
 
 " The knowledge of one action or one 
 simple idea is oftentimes sufficient to give 
 me the notion of a relation ; but to the 
 knowing of any substantial being an ac- 
 curate collection of sundry ideas is neces- 
 sary."— Locke. 
 
 Correct (Lat. corrigere, part, cor- 
 rectus, to amend, lo correct) applies to 
 what is conformable to a moral stan- 
 dard, as well as to truth generally, as 
 " correct deportment." Otherwise it 
 closely resembles Exact, but is more 
 subjective, Exact more objective. An 
 exact account means a true account ; 
 a correct account means an account 
 truly given, that is, without error or 
 omission on the part of the nan-ator. 
 An exact drawing is one which repre- 
 sents with perfect fidelity, a correct 
 drawing one which fulfils all the rules 
 and requirements of the art without 
 faults, an accurate drawing one which 
 observation and pains have made 
 exact. 
 
 " But in such lays as neither ebb nor flow. 
 
 Correctly c^old and regnlarly low. 
 
 That, shunning faults, one quiet temper 
 
 keep, 
 We cannot blame indeed, but we may 
 
 sleep." Pope. 
 
 Precise (Fr. pr6cUy Lat. prcscisiis, 
 cut off, shortened) denotes the quality 
 of exact limitation, as distinguished 
 from the va^ue, loose, doubtful, inac- 
 curate ; and, in its application to per- 
 sons, means scrupulous. It has a pecu- 
 liar application to words and expres- 
 sions, as " The law is precise upon this 
 point," where we could not have used 
 any of the preceding terms. The idea 
 of precision is that of casting aside the 
 useless and the superfluous. Precise 
 has a closer connexion than Exact, 
 Accurate, or Correct, with the way 
 or nianner of expressing wliat is true 
 or right. Hence a person may be too 
 precise ; he could never be too exact, 
 accurate, or correct. It is most de- 
 sirable that men should be exact in 
 duties and obligations, accurate in 
 statements and representations, cor- 
 rect in conduct, and precise in the 
 ase of woi'ds. 
 
 ** Many cases happen in which a man 
 rannot precisely determine where it is that 
 
 SYNONYMS [exact] 
 
 his lawful liberty ends, and where it is that 
 it begins to be extravagant and excessive." 
 — Sharp. 
 
 Nice (said to be from Fr. nice^ 
 foolish, simple; Lat. nescius, ignora7it; 
 but possibly a distinct word : see 
 Wedgewood) means delicate in opera- 
 tion or production, exact, fastidiously 
 discriminating. Nice denotes an union 
 of delicacy and exactness, as " a nice 
 distinction," "a nice point." 
 
 " By his own nicety of observation he had 
 already formed such a system of metrical 
 harmony as he never afterwards much 
 needed or much endeavoured to improve." 
 — JonNSON, Life of Waller. 
 
 Particular (L&t. particiddns, of or 
 concerning a part ; gen. as opposed to 
 universal), as applied to persons, 
 means attentive to things singly or in 
 detail, and so combines the exact in 
 observation with the nice in feeling. 
 It relates to the matters of ordinary 
 life and every-day choice and prefe- 
 rence. In this sense the term is of 
 modern application. Having passed 
 fi'om the thing to the person, it is 
 said of one who pays attention to de- 
 tails, whether in observation, duty, or 
 I taste, as distinguished from one who 
 I treats them generally, carelessly, indis- 
 criminately, or, as it were, in the rough. 
 Punctual (Lat. punctum, a point) 
 stands to the mode of doing things as 
 Particular to the things themselves. 
 The punctual man is prompt and 
 exact, especially as to the time ap- 
 pointed. It had originally the sense 
 of Exact or Accurate, as Burnet, 
 " punctual to tediousness in all he 
 relates." 
 
 " The andeviatmg and punctual san." 
 COWPER. 
 
 EXACT. Extort. 
 
 To Exact (Lat. extgh-e, part, exac- 
 tus, to enforce) and to Extort (eitor- 
 ^uere, part, extorttis, to twist out) agree 
 in expressing a forcible mode of re- 
 quiring ; but Exact has commonly the 
 sense of rigidly insisting upon what is 
 due, while Extout relates to the unjust 
 exaction of what is not due. Men 
 exact tribute, obedience, demonstra- 
 tions of respect; they extort money 
 under exorbitant charges or false pre- 
 tences. The term is also applied to 
 the compulsory procuiing or eliciting 
 
[examination] discriminated. 
 
 397 
 
 of what others are unwilling to give, 
 as to " extort a confession." 
 
 " 'Tis no dishonour to confer yonr grace 
 On one descended from a royal race ; 
 And were he less, yet years of service past 
 From gratefal souls exact reward at last." 
 Drydkx. 
 
 •' Extortion is an abuse of the public jus- 
 tice, which consists in any ofHcer's unlaw- 
 fully taking by colour of his office from any 
 man any money or thing of value that is 
 not due to him, or more than is due, or 
 oefore it is dne." — Blackstoxe. 
 
 EXAGGERATION. Hyberbole. 
 
 Exaggeration (literally a heainng 
 up ; Lat. exagg^rationem) is any re- 
 presentation beyond the limits of 
 truth, whether bj"- language or in any 
 other way, as, for instance, in pictorial 
 exhibition. 
 
 Hyperbole (Gr. vTripSoXn) is rheto- 
 rical exaggeration, a figure of speech 
 in which the strict proportion of truth 
 is exceeded under the influence of 
 strong feeling, or to produce some 
 impression. The hyperbole may be 
 exaggerative in statements of the less 
 and the more, as well as of the greater 
 and better. 
 
 EXAMINATION. Search. In- 
 quiry. Research. Investigation. 
 Scrutiny. Exploration. Exploi- 
 tation. Inspection. Inquisition. 
 
 All these terms agree in denoting 
 some kind and degree of effort at the 
 finding out of what is not known. 
 
 To Examine (Lat. exdmtnare, to 
 weigh ; examea, the tongue of a balance) 
 is literally to test bij a balance, and by 
 an extension of meaning, in any ap- 
 propriate or received method. The 
 subject of examination is always pre- 
 sent and known, and the object of it is 
 to procure a fuller and deeper insight 
 into it, or a closer observation of it ; 
 whether it be a raatei-ial substance or 
 composition, a fact, a reason, cause, mo- 
 tive, or claim, the truth of a statement, 
 or the simple force and meaning of 
 it, a theor}', or anything which chal- 
 lenges inquiry, an offender in refe- 
 rence to his guilt, or a scholar for his 
 attainments. Examination is a thing 
 of detail, consisting of a complex in- 
 quiry or inspection of particulars, for 
 the purpose of coming to a general 
 
 conclusion or result as to the character 
 or state of the object examined. 
 
 " The nroper office of examination, in- 
 quiry, ana ratiocination is, strictly speak- 
 ing, confined to the production of a just 
 discernment and an accurate discrimina- 
 tion."— Coqan. 
 
 On the other hand, in Search (O. 
 Fr. sercher, L. Lat. circdre, to turn 
 round, in looking for something : see 
 Littre, 8. v. Chercher) implies the 
 looking for something remote from 
 present observation. In this way 
 search may precede examination. 
 The botanist or the entomologist, for 
 instance, first searches for specimens, 
 and then examines them. Search is 
 more laborious, examination more 
 close. One examines for the sake 
 of information or knowledge ; one 
 searches for the sake of acquiring and 
 possessing. Examination ought to be 
 careful and accurate; search, active 
 and industrious. 
 " She was well pleased, and forth her dam 
 
 zells sent 
 Throngh all the woods, to search from place 
 
 to place. 
 If any track of him or tidings they might 
 
 trace." Spenser. 
 
 Inquiry (Lat. inquircre, to seek 
 after) is the aiming at or discovery 
 of truth by question, either formal, 
 verbal interrogation, or a recourse to 
 the proper means and sources of 
 knowledge, when the object has been 
 shaped into a question or problem for 
 solution. 
 
 " And all that is wanting to the perfection 
 of this art (medicine) will undoubtedly be 
 found, if able men, and such as are instructed 
 in the ancient rules, will make a further m- 
 quiry into it, and endeavour to arrive at that 
 which is hitherto unknown by that which ia 
 already known," — Drydex. 
 
 Research is laborious and sus- 
 tained search after objects, not of 
 physical, but mental observation and 
 knowledge. It is used in the sense of 
 accumulated results as well as the 
 process of t=uch inquiry, as a "man of 
 great research." 
 
 " Nature, the handmaid of God Almighty, 
 doth nothing but with good advice, if we 
 make researches into the true reason of 
 things."— Howell. 
 
 Investigation (Lat. investlgatio- 
 nem ; lestigium, a footstep) is not need 
 of any physical tracking, but of the 
 
398 
 
 SYNONYMS [example] 
 
 patient inquiry into matters of science 
 or knowledge along a strict path, and, 
 as it were, step by step. The subject 
 of investigation, like that of examina- 
 tion, and unlike that of search, is never 
 absolutely unknown, but it is always 
 partially so. Investigation commonly 
 implies the inquiry into the more 
 hiddenconnexions of something which 
 is itself familiar ; as e.g. into the 
 causes of natural plienomena. In- 
 vestigation is literally a mental track- 
 ing where facts or appearances, being 
 successively observed and examined, 
 lead the mind on to some complex 
 truth or fact, which is the goal of the 
 inquiry. 
 
 "Now all this that I have said is to 
 show the force of diligence in the investiga- 
 tion of trith, and particularly of the noblest 
 of all truths, which is that of religion."— 
 South. 
 
 Scrutiny (Lat. sd'htinium, a search, 
 inquiry ; scrutdri, to search) involves 
 nothing unknown in itself, and is con- 
 fined to minute examination of what is 
 known and present. It relates to 
 other matters than mere physical sub- 
 stances. A microscopic examination 
 of an insect, for instance, would not 
 be called a scrutiny. '' A scrutiny of 
 voters, and their votes." When the 
 object is purely material or physical, 
 we call the process Inspection (Lat. 
 inspectionem, inspwtre, to look into), as 
 '^ an inspection of a regiment," "an 
 inspection of accounts." But inspec- 
 tion may be a single act ; scrutiny is 
 always a complex process. 
 "Thenceforth I thought thee worth my 
 
 nearer view 
 And narrower scrutiny." Miltok. 
 
 " With narrow search, and with inspection 
 
 deep. 
 Considered every creature." Jbid. 
 
 Exploration (hat. eipldrationem) is 
 an inquiry ranging, or a search direc- 
 ted, over an extensive area, whether 
 geographically or in a metaphorical 
 sense, for the purpose of exacter 
 knowledge of the whole area, or of 
 finding some specific object of search 
 comprised or supposed to be comprised 
 in if. 
 
 " On the report of the cowardly explorers 
 of the land they relapse again into their old 
 delirium. ' Wherefore hath the Lord 
 brought us into this land, to fall by the 
 
 sword, that our wives and children should 
 be a prey ? ' "— Warburtok. 
 
 Exploitation (Fr. exploiter, to cul- 
 tivate, to make the most of; Lat. exptici- 
 tare) is a French term used in reference 
 to mining, and denotes such explora- 
 tion as has for its object the making 
 available of mines of metals and mine- 
 rals ; hence, secondarily, of investiga- 
 tion for the development of what is 
 useful or valuable. 
 
 Inquisition has the same origin and 
 meaning as Inquiry, but adds to it 
 a peculiar exactness and searching 
 closeness often the accompaniment of 
 judicial rigour, or official minuteness. 
 Its subject is the dealings of men. 
 
 " Let not search and inquisition fail 
 
 To bring again these foolish runaways." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 EXAMPLE. Sample. Prece- 
 dent. Instance. Exemplification. 
 Copy. Pattern. Model. Illus- 
 tration. Case. 
 
 Example (Lat. exemplum, eximh-e, 
 to take out as a sample) is literally a 
 portion taken out of a larger quantity, 
 to show the nature of the whole — the 
 sense in which we now use the word 
 Sample. By an extension of mean- 
 ing, it is used to signify something to 
 be imitated or followed, as a model, 
 copy, pattern, or precedent ; or, 
 negatively, to be avoided as a caution, 
 as, " to make an example of a per- 
 son ; " and, finally, an instance serving 
 for illustration of a rule, precept, or 
 principle of science. 
 
 The discrimination to be drawn be- 
 tween example and Instance (Lat. 
 instantia) is as follows : an example 
 is a permanent instance ; an instance 
 is a specific example. An example, 
 in the full sense of the term, is neces- 
 sarily a complete setting forth of that 
 to which it belongs. An example of 
 injustice must contain nothing which 
 is not referable to injustice. An in- 
 stance of injustice may result from 
 injustice and other things in combi- 
 nation besides. An example proves 
 a rule ; an instance does not, nor 
 does it imply the existence of any- 
 thing BO methodical. Example has 
 an active. Instance a passive, signifi- 
 cation. An example may be a per- 
 
[example] 
 
 son or a thing. An instance is always 
 an occurrence or a thing done. An 
 example instructs, an instance illus- 
 trates or represents. JNIen may be 
 personally examples of virtue or vice, 
 while their actions may be instances 
 of virtue or vice . Yet Inst a xc e enters 
 more into the reason of things, while 
 Example belongs more to the nature 
 of facts. We act upon or follow ex- 
 amples ; we reflect upon instances. 
 An example might do no more than 
 show us what we should do, imitate, 
 or avoid. An instance would involve 
 the reason why. 
 
 " He copies from his master, Sylla, well. 
 And would the dire example far excel." 
 
 RowE, Lucan. 
 " Whole troops of heroes Greece has yet to 
 
 boast. 
 And sends thee one, a sample of her host. 
 Such as I am, I come to prove thy might." 
 Pope, Iliad. 
 " Most remarkable instances of »u£Fer- 
 ing."— Attkrbury. 
 
 An instance of suffering sets forth to 
 our comprehension the nature of that 
 suffering. An example of suffering 
 would teach us how to suffer, or to be 
 ready to incur suffering. We mi^ht 
 say of a certain person, " He often 
 does very mean things, and this is an 
 instance of it ; " where we could not 
 correctly use the term Example. We 
 might use the terra Exemplification ; 
 but this rather implies that we wanted 
 to prove or establish to the under- 
 standing or conviction of another the 
 meanness of which we speak. An 
 exemplification is the evolution of 
 an example, or the appending of it to 
 certain principles already enunciated. 
 This may be an exercise of creative 
 ingenuity or adaptative reflexion. 
 
 When we do this in a vivid man- 
 ner, it may be called an Illustra- 
 tion (Lat. illustrdtionem, in rhet. a 
 vivid representation, illustrdre, to make 
 bright or clear), which term is also 
 generally applicable to the coming 
 home to the common under-sj^ndin^ 
 of some general truth in a distinct and 
 instructive way. The peculiarity of 
 an illustration is that it may be not at 
 all of the nature of a sample or in- 
 stance, but a similar or analogous 
 case put side by side of another for 
 the purpose of explanation bjr cor- 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 399 
 
 respondence ; or it may be an em- 
 bodiment in a mora concrete ana 
 practical form of what has been ex- 
 pressed in more abstract terms. It 
 deals with the fact as such, not in its 
 cause or reason. 
 
 " A moral precept conveyed in words a 
 only an account of truth in its effects ; a 
 moral picture is truth exemplified; and 
 which is most likely to gain upon the affec- 
 tions it may not be difficult to determine." 
 — Lanqhornk. 
 
 •'While the storm was in its fury any 
 allusion had been improper, for the poet 
 could hare compared it to nothing more 
 impetuous than itself; consequently he 
 could have made no illustration." — 
 Dbtdkn. 
 
 Copy, Pattern, and Model stand 
 in close relationship. A copy (Fr. 
 copie, copia, plenty, a multiplication oj 
 the oHginal) has the double meaning 
 of a pattern and an imitation of it, or 
 of the thing to be imitated and the 
 thing imitating. A pattern (Fr. 
 patron, patron, master of a shop, (^;e. ; 
 and so model by which the workman is 
 guided, pattern) is anything proposed 
 for imitation. It has sometimes the 
 sense of Sample, as a " pattern of 
 cloth," and sometimes of design, as 
 "an elegant pattern." Model (Fr. 
 modele), in addition to the meanings 
 of pattern, has that of a perfect pat- 
 tern, or the best of the kind. When 
 employed in matters connected with 
 imitative art, Copy is usually for de- 
 lineation. Pattern for embroidery or 
 textile manufacture. Model for plastic 
 or constructive purposes. In moral 
 and secondary applications, to copy 
 the conduct of another is no more 
 than to imitate his doings. The term 
 has no high moral signification, like 
 Pattern andMoDEL;indeed,itisoften 
 used to depreciate an imitation as ser- 
 vile, or as one that ought not to have 
 been made at all. In this application 
 Pattern is the more specific, Model 
 the more general. Pattern belongs to 
 some department of conduct. Model 
 to conduct and character generally or 
 as a whole. Pattern regards the 
 guidance of othei-s, Model the integ- 
 rity and completeness of the thing or 
 person in itself. A man may be a 
 pattern of honesty, for instance, with- 
 out being a model citizen. 
 
400 
 
 "The Sorbonjsts were the original, and 
 our schismatics in England were the copiers 
 of rebellion. That Paris began and London 
 f ol 1 owed. " — D R VDE Jf . 
 " A housewife in bed, at table a slattern, 
 For all an example, for no one a pattern.''' 
 Swift. 
 
 " Socrates recommends to Alcibiades as 
 the model of his devotions a short prayer 
 which a Greek poet composed for the use of 
 his friends." — Addison. 
 
 Prfcedent (Lat. prcecidenx, goinor 
 before, part, oi' priEcidtire) is somet'.nng 
 whicli comes down to us with the 
 sanction of usage and common con- 
 sent, as a guide to conduct or judg- 
 ment, and, in the legal sense of the 
 term, has force in other cases ; while 
 an example has no force beyond it- 
 
 Case (Lat. casus, cMtre, a falling 
 out) is used in a loose way of an oc- 
 currence of a certain general character, 
 which, and not the law or principle of 
 it, is all that occupies the mind, as a 
 sad case, a case of tever (in medicine), 
 a case of felony (in law). It is evi- 
 dent that a particular case may become 
 a precedent. 
 
 " For much he knows, and just conclusions 
 
 draws 
 From various precedents and various laws." 
 PoPK. 
 " Yet on his way (no sign of grace. 
 For folks in fear are apt to pray) 
 To Phoebus he preferred his case. 
 And beg'd his aid that dreadful day." 
 Gray. 
 
 EXASPERATE. Aggravate. 
 
 IituiTATK. Provoke. Aggrieve. 
 
 Both persons and feelings are said 
 to be Exasperated, but more com- 
 monly the former (Lat. exasptrdrey 
 to make rough or fierce ^ asper, rough). 
 It is to provo're bitter feeling, or to 
 intensify it. 
 
 To Aggravate (Lat. aggrtvarey to 
 make heavier, to annoy) is to make less 
 tolerable or excusable, and is only 
 properly applicable to evils or offences, 
 though it has come to be used in the 
 Bense of Irritate and Exasperate. 
 In this latter sense it is to be presumed 
 that the idea is to make to feel a 
 burden or a grievance. 
 
 Irritate (Lat. irrilare), unlike the 
 others, is employable in a physical 
 
 SYNONYMS [exasperate] 
 
 sense, as " to iiritate the skin ; " but 
 there is always a relation to persons 
 and their feelings, to both of^ which 
 the tenn is directly applicable. To 
 Irritate is less strong than the others, 
 and denotes the excitement of slight 
 resentment against the cause or 
 object. 
 
 To Provoke (Lat. provocare, to 
 challenge, to stir up) is stronger, and 
 expresses the rousing of a feeling of 
 decided anger and strong resentment 
 by injury or insult, such as naturally 
 tends to active retaliation. To Exas- 
 perate is stronger still, and denotes a 
 provocation to unrestrained anger or 
 resentment, based upon a determined 
 resentment or ill-will. Provoke ex- 
 presses a. design on the part of the 
 provoker to rouse the person provoked 
 to defend himself. A troublesome 
 person aggravates us by his importu- 
 nities, a careless servant by his re- 
 peated acts of negligence or disobe- 
 dience, a clever debater irritates his 
 political opponent by his sarcasms, 
 and would be glad if he could cany it 
 on to exasperation. An enemy pro- 
 vokes by his insults. A repetition 
 of disagreeable words, action, or 
 events, in'itates. Aggrieve (see 
 Gri ef), is capable of a milder force, 
 and bears the meaning of such hurl 
 as accrues to the sense of dignity or 
 of right. He is aggrieved who feels 
 himself to have been treated diffe- 
 rently from what he had a right to 
 r^xpect. It is by an unusual analogy 
 that South employs the tern, of bodily 
 pain . — 
 
 "Those pains that afflict the body are 
 afflictive just so long as they actually pos- 
 sess the part that they aggrieve." 
 
 Susceptible persons and persons of ner- 
 vous temperament are easily irritated. 
 Proud persons, as over-estimating 
 what is due to their ease, dignity, 
 consideration, or comfort, are pro- 
 voked. As irritation may come from 
 circumstances, so provocation is the 
 result of treatment, or supposed 
 treatment, by other persons. Persons 
 of ardent temperament, strong in 
 their loves and hates, are most capable 
 of being exasperated. Provoke cliffers 
 frwn the rest in being applicable ^o 
 
[excellence] discriminated. 
 
 401 
 
 other feelings than those of personal 
 annoyance. Persons are proroked. to 
 emulation and even to laughter. 
 
 " To exasperate you, to awaken your dor- 
 mouse valour." — Shakespeare. 
 
 " Cornelius Kufus is dead, and dead toe 
 by his own act! a circumstance of great 
 aggravation to my affliction." — Melmoth, 
 Pliny. 
 
 " Dismiss the man, nor irritate the God, 
 Prevent the rage of Him who reigns above." 
 Pope. 
 
 " The reflection calculated above all 
 others to allay'the haughtiness of temper 
 which is ever finding out provocations, and 
 which renders anger so impetuous, is that 
 which the Gospel proposes, namely, that 
 we oui"selves are, or shortly shall be, sup- 
 pliants for mercy and pardon at the mercy- 
 seat of God."— Paley. 
 
 EXCEED. Excel. Surpass. 
 Transcknd. Outdo. 
 
 To Exceed (Lat. eictdire, to go 
 out or beyond) is a relative term, im- 
 plying some limit, measure, or quan- 
 tity already existing, whether of bulk, 
 stature, weight, distance, number, or 
 power, moral, mental, or mechanical. 
 It is also used intransitively and ab- 
 stractedly, as " The temperate man 
 will be careful not to exceed ; " but 
 even here the measure of sufficiency 
 and sobriety is understood. 
 
 To Excel (Lat. excellhe) is never 
 employed but in an honourable sense. 
 It is to go far in good qualities or 
 laudable actions or acquirements, or, 
 Bpecifically, as a transitive verb, to go 
 beyond others in such things. 
 
 To Surpass (Fr. siivpasser) is to go 
 beyond another, or others, not being 
 restricted, like Excel, to what is laud- 
 able, but being said of anything which 
 admits of degree of power and move- 
 ment in the human mind, character, 
 and actions, especially in competition. 
 It is used directly both of persons 
 and the particulars above mentioned, 
 and is used both subjectively and ob- 
 jectively ; of things and our estimation 
 of them. 
 
 Transcend (Lat. transcendere, to 
 climb over, to surpass) is to excel in a 
 signal manner, soaring, as it were, 
 aloft, and surmounting all barriers. 
 It belongs less to persons than to 
 qualities and subjects of thought. 
 
 To Outdo is equivalent to the Latin 
 or French surpass. It is accordingly 
 a familiar tei-m, with an application 
 also familiar. Hence it has sometimes 
 the undignified force of get the better 
 of another in no very honourable* way, 
 as a synonym with outwit. To outdo 
 is simply to do something better than 
 another, and to reap some personal 
 advantage by the fact. As excellence 
 is always good, so excess is always 
 evil, no matter what the nature of 
 the case ; but this force belongs to 
 the noun only, the verb being 
 applicable to both good and evil. 
 To exceed the limits of truth, justice, 
 propriety, or to exceed another in 
 virtue or attainments. In short, ex- 
 ceed is a term of praise or dispraise, 
 of favourable or unfavourable force, 
 according to the nature of the case, 
 by which the tei-m has to be inter- 
 preted. 
 
 " Excessive lenity and iudolgence are 
 ultimately excessive rigour." — Knox, 
 Ensays. 
 
 " Who all that time was thought exceeding 
 
 wise. 
 Only for taking pains and telling lies." 
 Dkyden. 
 
 " Though the comprehension of oiu* un- 
 derstanding comes exceeding short of the 
 vast extent of things, yet we shall have 
 cause enough to magnify the bountiful 
 Author of our being." — LoCKE. 
 
 •* To mark the matchless workings of the 
 
 Power 
 That shuts within its seed the future 
 
 flower. 
 Bids these in elegance of form excel, 
 111 colour these, and those delight the 
 
 smell." CoWPER. 
 
 " He soai-sat employment surpassing his 
 ability to manage." — Barrow. 
 " Then let the firmament thy wonder 
 
 raise, 
 'Twill raise thy wonder but transcend thy 
 
 praise." Vouxo. 
 
 " I grieve to be outdone by Ghiy."— 
 Swift. 
 
 excellence. Si;perioritv, 
 Excellence is an absolute term, 
 SvPERiORiTv (Fr. supirioHtif L. Lat. 
 supeHoritatem) is a relative term, de- 
 noting the being more excellent than 
 others or another. But Superiority is 
 also applicable to differences of social 
 or official grade, while Excellence ia 
 
 D D 
 
402 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [except] 
 
 applicable only to physical, mental, 
 and moral qualities. It may be ob- 
 served that where no qualifying terms 
 are added, superiority means intellec- 
 tual excellence, and excellence means 
 moral superiority. An excellent man 
 is a very good man. A superior per- 
 son is one of marked intelligence and 
 attainments. 
 
 " Him whom Thou, profusely kiud, 
 Adorn'st with every excellence refined." 
 Beattik. 
 
 " The sense of all which is to oblige us to 
 treat all men as becomes us in the rank 
 ^nd station we are placed in, to honour 
 those which are our superiors whether in 
 place or virtue ; to give that modest defe- 
 rence to their judgments, that reverence 
 to their persons, that respect to their 
 virtues, and homage to their desires and 
 commands, which the degree or kind of 
 theh* superiority requires."— ScoTT, Chris- 
 tian Life. 
 
 EXCEPT. Besides. Unless. 
 
 Except (O. Fr. excepter, to except) 
 is exclusive, Besides (literally, by 
 the side) is additive. ^' There was no 
 one present except him," means, take 
 him away, and nobody was there. 
 " There was no one present besides 
 him," means, he was there, and along- 
 side of him was nobody. 
 
 Except and Unless (A.S.on-lescin, 
 to unloose, dismiss) were formerly used 
 interchangeably, but the distinction 
 is now drawn as follows : Except re- 
 lates to some general rule, fact, or 
 case, to which it introduces au excep- 
 tion. Unless denotes a diminution, 
 which being given something else 
 takes place ; tor instance, " Unless 
 we make haste, we shall be de- 
 stroyed," is tantamount to, — our pre- 
 sent case, minus making haste, equals 
 destruction. 
 
 " God and His Son except, 
 Nought valued he nor feertod," 
 
 MiLTOK. 
 
 " I am the first and I am the last, and 
 beside Me there is no God."— Eng. Bible. 
 
 "Seeing then no man can plead elo- 
 quently unless he be able first to speak, it 
 foUoweth that ability of speech is in this 
 case a thing most necessary."— HooKER. 
 
 EXCESS. Superfluity. Redun- 
 dancy. 
 Excess (Lat. eicesms, a standing out 
 
 or beyond) denotes what is beyond a^ 
 average, or a fixed or a just amount. 
 
 " Since both the ill and good you do alike 
 
 my peace destroy, 
 That kills me with excess of grief, this with 
 
 excess of j oy. " Walsh . 
 
 Superfluity (Lat. superjiuitatem) 
 has reference to purposes and require- 
 ments. That is superfluous which is 
 more than is wanted, or is rendered 
 useless by its abundance. An excess 
 of rain would be a fall of rain exceed- 
 ing the average ; a superfluity would 
 be such a quantity as could not be put 
 to account. 
 
 " How farre are they of from good scho- 
 lers that can not finde in their hartes to 
 depart with a title of the aboundaunce and 
 superjluitie of their temporall goodes tc 
 helpe their neighbours neede." — TyndalL. 
 
 Redundancy (Lat. rcdundantia, an 
 overflowing) is superfluous abundance. 
 It is, however, applied especially tc 
 certain matters of supply, as of natura" 
 supply ; as we speak of a redundancy 
 of bile ; of one's copiousness of words 
 or expressions ; as, a redundancy o^ 
 language. An exuberance of supplj, 
 is redundancy. 
 
 " Wars seem to be in a manner a nattu'a 
 consequence of the over-plenitude and re- 
 dundanq/ of the number of men in the 
 world," — Hale. 
 
 EXCESSIVE. Immoderate. In- 
 temperate. 
 
 For the idea of Excess see Exceed 
 and Excess. It relates to mere 
 amount, and is not necessarily con- 
 nected with moral agents. 
 
 This is the case with Immoderate 
 (Lat. im-mMcrdtuSf not measured,) 
 and Intemperate (Lat. intempe- 
 ratus, untempered), which differ in 
 that the former is applicable both 
 to agents and quantities, the latter to 
 agente alone. That is Immoderate 
 which exceeds just, reasonable, or 
 ordinary bounds generally ; Intem- 
 perate applies to the unrestrained 
 indulgence of the desires, or undue 
 licence given to the will, or the acting 
 or speaking without self-control. Im- 
 moderate is statical, belonging to 
 Juantity, as immoderate ambition ; 
 Ni EMPFP 'te is dynamical, belonging 
 
[excite] 
 
 to force and action ; as, intemperate 
 speech, enjoyment, licence of feeling 
 or language. 
 
 " Excessive lenity and indulgence are 
 nltimately excessive rigour." — Knox, 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 403 
 
 In old-fashioned English Immoderate 
 was used in the simple sense of exces- 
 sive. " The immoderateness of cold or 
 heat." 
 " Whence multitudes of reverend men and 
 
 critics 
 Have got a kind of intellectnal rickets. 
 And by th' immoderate excess of study 
 Have found the sickly head t' outgrow the 
 
 body." Butler. 
 
 ♦' The people at large, who behaved very 
 unwisely and intemperately on that occa- 
 •ion."— BuRKB. 
 
 EXCITE. Animate. Encourage. 
 
 To Excite (Lat. extKtare) is to in- 
 spire desire or awaken passion. 
 
 To Animate (Lat. iin1.ma.re) is to 
 push forward or instigate in an action 
 already commenced tor the purpose 
 or with the effect of preventing a re- 
 laxation or remissness. 
 
 To F couRAG E(Fr.enco!tr«o-cr,c<EJ/r, 
 the he^ () is to dissipate fear or mis- 
 giving by tke hope of success, so that 
 the active of glory or interest shall 
 jirerail over the appearances of diffi- 
 culty or dange.\ 
 
 iiXCITE. Aw/.tEM. Rouse or 
 Arouse. Incite. ^Stimulate. 
 
 To Excite (Lat. eicitare, to sum- 
 moHy stimulate) is to call out into 
 greater activity what before existed 
 in a calm or calmer state, or to rouse 
 to an active state faculties or powers 
 which before were dormant. The 
 *erm is also used of purely physical 
 action. We excite heat by friction. 
 
 Awaken (A.S.dwacnan) is to rouse 
 fi^ai a state of sleep, or, analogously, 
 to rouse anything that has lain quiet, 
 and, as it were, dormant, as to awaken 
 suspicion or love, and is applicable 
 only to intelligent subjects. It de- 
 notes a gentler and more continuous 
 or less abrupt influence than Excite, 
 though the effect produced may be 
 equally great. The passions generally 
 are excited, as the stronger passions 
 are provoked or roused, except when 
 
 " provoked " has the sense of calling 
 forth externally, as contempt, laugh- 
 ter, a smile. 
 
 Rouse (A.S. hrisciati, to shake^ vi- 
 brate) is to av/aken in a sudden or 
 startling manner, so as to bring into 
 an energetic state by a strong im- 
 pulse. 
 
 To Incite (Lat. incitdre, to urge 
 forward) is to excite to a specific act 
 or end which the inciter has in 
 view. 
 
 To Stimulate is to quicken into 
 activity (Lat. stimYdare, iiimulus, a 
 goad), and to a certain end. INIen are 
 excited when their passions, desires, 
 or interest are roused ; they arc sti- 
 mulated when they are induced to 
 make greater exertions, as by a hope 
 of reward or any other external im- 
 pulse. They are awakened out of in- 
 difference, roused out of lethargy and 
 torpor, incited by the designing in- 
 fluence of others, stimulated by new 
 motives of action. 
 
 "Hope is the grand exciter of industry." 
 — Barkow. 
 
 " When their consciences are thorouglily 
 awakened by some great affliction, or the 
 near approach of death and a lively sense 
 of another world." — Tillotsox. 
 
 " His present fears rather than any true 
 penitence rotisedhlm up."— Watkrland. 
 
 " The absence of Duke Robert, and the 
 concurrence of many circumstances, alto- 
 gether )-esembling those which had been so 
 favourable to the late monarch, incited'hiva. 
 to a similar attempt." — Burke. 
 
 Men are incited to what otherwise 
 they would not have given their 
 efforts. They are commonly stimulated 
 to something which they are pursuing, 
 or intending to pursue, but with want 
 of energy. There are some persons 
 so hard-hearted that the greatest suf- 
 ferings in others excite in them no 
 feeling of generosity or even pity. 
 Others again are so excitable by all 
 that goes on around them, that they 
 are always changing theii- moods ac- 
 cording to the impressions made upon 
 them by change of circumstances. 
 One seeks to excite the man who is 
 wanting in specific interest, or reso- 
 lution, or who is acting lazily or lan- 
 guidly, or who halts or draws back. 
 
404 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [excuse] 
 
 One seeks to incite the man who 
 seems to take an ohject too little to 
 heart, and in whom no motive seems 
 to exist strong enough to quicken his 
 thoughts and movements. 
 
 " The nature of imperfect animals is such 
 that they are apt to have but a dnll and 
 sluggish sense, a flat and insipid taste of 
 good, unless it be quickened and stimulated, 
 heightened and invigorated by being com- 
 pared to the contrary evil." — CuDWORTH. 
 
 EXCUSE. Pardon. FonoivE. 
 Condone. 
 
 We Excuse (Lat.exciisave,to release 
 from a charge, to excuse) whenever we 
 exempt from the imputation of hlame, 
 or, hy an extension of meaning, re- 
 gard as not absolutely calling for 
 blame, and so admitting of being 
 viewed leniently. When used re- 
 flex! vely it sometimes means no more 
 than to decline, or to take such ex- 
 emption to one's self. Instances of these 
 uses are as follows : " I excuse his 
 conduct, considering the extraordinary 
 provocation under which he acted." 
 " I have received his invitation, but 
 intend to excuse myself" (or to send 
 an excuse), the force of the phrase 
 being to relieve one's self from the 
 blame of neglect by an apology. 
 
 We excuse a small fault, we Par- 
 don (Fr. pardon7ier, L. Lat. perdbndre) 
 a great fault or a crime. We excuse 
 commonly what relates to ourselves. 
 We pardon offences against rule, law, 
 morals. We excuse, ordinarily speak- 
 ing, when the circumstances of the 
 case are such that a kindly nature is 
 justified in viewing them leniently. 
 VVe pardon as a summary act of power, 
 generosity, or mercy. Kings pardon 
 criminals, and friends may excuse each 
 other. Pardon is always from a su- 
 perior. Excusing may come fiom a 
 superior or an equal. We also excuse 
 from obligations which are not moral, 
 but only social, official, or conven- 
 tional, as if the Queen should excuse 
 the attendance on some particular oc- 
 casion of an officer of state. We ex- 
 cuse an apparent fault, we pardon a 
 real one. Tolerance excuses, indul- 
 gence pardons. 
 
 *' Homicide in self-defence upon a sudden 
 affray is also excusable rather than justifi- 
 able by the English law."— Blackstowb. 
 
 " His (the king's) power oipardanivg waa 
 said by our Saxon ancestors to be derived a 
 lege jure dignitatis ; and it is declared in 
 Parliament by Statute 27 Hen. VIII. that 
 no other pereon hath power to pardon or 
 remit any treason or felonies." — Ibid. 
 
 Forgive (A.S. for-gefan, to give 
 away, and so, like Gr. cL^iivai, to remit) 
 differs from both in relating only to 
 offences against one's self. It mean? 
 etymologically the same as Pardon^ 
 meaning to give in such a way as to 
 forego,!. e., the memory and the punish- 
 ment of the offence. Omissions and 
 neglects or slight commissions may be 
 excused, graver offences and crimes 
 pardoned, personal insults and injuries 
 forgiven. 
 
 " Forgive ns onr trespasses, as vreforgwe 
 them that trespass against us." — Lord's 
 Prayer. 
 
 Kindness prompts to forgiveness, 
 mercy to pardon. We are never 
 hindered from forgiving; but the 
 nature of an offence may be, in the 
 eye of the law, such that we may have 
 no power or authority to pardon it. 
 
 Condone (Lat. condonare) has a 
 legal air, and denotes generally a con- 
 structive pardon, that is, such be- 
 haviour towards another as, withoi^t 
 the formal expression of forgiveness, 
 implies that the offence has been over- 
 looked. In the ecclesiastical law it 
 had the special meaning of a pardon 
 express or implied on the part of the 
 husband or the wife for a breach of the 
 marriage vow. 
 
 " The same (sin) remaining in the soul of 
 man in like manner as it did before, con- 
 donation is only taken away by a not impu- 
 tation of the guilt." — MouNTAGU. 
 
 EXECRABLE. Abominable. De- 
 testable. 
 
 That is Execrable which raises a 
 lively feeling of horror or indignation, 
 as being worthy of reprobation (Lat. 
 exsecrari, to curse greatly). 
 
 That is Abominable {see Abomi- 
 nate) which excites a distinct feeling 
 of personal desire of avoidance from 
 any motive but fear, as an " abomi- 
 nable nuisance." Hatred and contempt 
 combined make the abominable m 
 persons. It is employed of things in 
 the sense of intensely disagreeable. 
 
[exhort] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 405 
 
 Detestable (Lat. detestainlis, d'c- 
 testari, to cursCj lit. invoking the deity 
 as a witness) is properly used of such 
 abstract properties, or persons in re- 
 ference to them, as deserve inoml re- 
 probation on principle; as, detestable 
 vices, cruelty, cowardice, tyranny, or 
 tyrants. They rise in force in this 
 order, abominable, detestable, exe- 
 crable. The employment of these 
 terms as hyperbolical expressions at 
 random has tended much to confound 
 their relative character. The terms 
 are often employed of productions, 
 performances,and works of art,but De- 
 TESTABLE and Execrable might refer 
 to the performance, Abominable to the 
 subject represented, as in a painting. 
 
 " The object of a battle was no longer 
 empty glory, but sordid lucre, or something 
 still more execrably flagitious." — Knox. 
 " Where all life dies, death lives, and nature 
 
 breeds 
 Per»-erse, all monstrous, all proiligious 
 
 things. 
 Abominable, inntterable, and worse 
 Than fables yet have feigned or fear con- 
 ceived, 
 Gorgons and hydras and chimeras dire." 
 Milton. 
 
 "Under the strong image of the unfitness 
 and abominah'eness and detestablaiess and 
 profaueness of any uncleanness or impurity 
 appearing in the Temple of God, the odious- 
 ness of all moral impurity, of all debauched 
 practices whatsoever in any person who pro- 
 fesses himself to be a worshipper of God, is 
 set forth after a more lively and affecting 
 manner." — Clarke. 
 
 EXERCISE. Practise. Exeut. 
 
 Exercise (Lat. eierccre) is actively 
 to employ a povcer or property inhe- 
 rent in or belonging to ourselves, 
 whether physical, mental, moral, or 
 social ; as to exercise one's self, one's 
 anns or legs, patience or cruelty, au- 
 thority or office, power or influence. 
 
 It is less sustained than Practise 
 (Fr. pratiquer) and more sustained 
 than Exert (Lat. exstrere, to thrust 
 forth, part, exsertum). To exercise 
 forbearance would imply a particu- 
 lar case, to practise forbearance 
 would imply that it was natural, 
 or exhibited habitually by way of 
 self-discipline. We may be said to 
 practise not only mental or moral 
 qualities^ but occupations, trades, 
 arts. We exert force, strength, vio- 
 
 lence, ability, in the abstract, or any- 
 thing within us which is of the nature 
 of an active faculty, as the mind, the 
 powers of invention or imagination, 
 the faculty of reasoning, understand- 
 ing, and the like : and this commonly 
 with reference to some specific end or 
 design. In order to exercise we must 
 exert repeatedly. We exert the voice 
 in order to be audible to those who 
 are deaf or distant ; we exercise 
 it in order to attain power, flexibility, 
 clearness of enunciation, and the like. 
 
 " But we learn from Scripture further 
 that His providence extends even in the 
 minutest instances to each of us in parti- 
 cular, and thatnot the smallest thing comes 
 to pass but by His appointment or wise per- 
 mission ; that His continual superinten- 
 dency may be ever exercised towards us for 
 our good." — Secker. 
 
 ♦'Discourse on subjects of little orno im- 
 portance is as necessary at times for the re- 
 laxation of our minds as exercise without 
 business for the refreshment of our bodies. 
 It is a proper exertion of that cheerfulness 
 which God hath plainly designed us to 
 show on small occasions as well as great." 
 —Secker. 
 
 The idea contained in Practise is the 
 active conformity to some established 
 rule, law, method, or custom. It is 
 therefore in its nature imitative, and a 
 thing of discipline whether in morals, 
 manners, calling, art, or science. 
 " As this advice ye practise or reject. 
 So hope success or dread the dire effect." 
 Pope, Homer. 
 
 EXHORT. Persuade. 
 
 Exhortation (Lat. exhort dtionem) 
 has for its end something practical 
 either to be done or to be abstained 
 from. It is ordinarily the act of a 
 superior in wisdom or position. 
 
 PERStrASioN (Lat. persudsionem) in 
 the act of an equal, or of one who for 
 the occasion puts himself upon an 
 equality. The power of persuasion, 
 tlierefore, is more purely moral, 
 having in it more of one's own assent 
 and less of another's entreaty or im^ 
 pelling. Exhortation is commonly on 
 sterner matters, as matters of neces- 
 sity or duty ; persuasion, on matters 
 of self-interest: but persuasion is not 
 of facts or of the abstract truth of 
 propositions. This is expressed by the 
 word convinct. Yet where the subj ect- 
 
406 
 
 SYNONYMS [exist] 
 
 matter is of a mixed nature, in which 
 the evidence is partly moral and not 
 simply logical or scientific, tlie term 
 Persuade might be employed. If one 
 thought that the moon was larger 
 than the sun, astronomy would con- 
 vince him to the contrary. If he 
 thought that vice would lead to his 
 happiness, morals would persuade him 
 to the contrary. Formerly, persuade 
 was used in the sense of inculcate by 
 argument or expostulation, " Persuad- 
 ing the things concerning the king- 
 dom of God." It is now only em- 
 ]iloyed of such inculcation as is suc- 
 cessful to move another. 
 
 «* Every mau that will make himself emi- 
 nent in any virtne will be a light to the 
 world ; his life will be a constant sermon, 
 anu he will often prove as effectual a bene- 
 factor to those about him by his example 
 as others are by their counsels and exhorta- 
 eiowj."— Sharp. 
 
 " We will persuade him, be it possible." 
 - Shakespeaee. 
 
 EXIST. Be. Subsist. Live. 
 
 Be is called the substantive verb, 
 as expressing substance or bein^. It 
 is the A.S. bean, to be. Parts of what 
 grammarians call the conjugation of 
 the verb to be, are, in fact, radically 
 diflerent derivatives ; e.g., «s, is, teas. 
 Analogous instances occur in other 
 languages, as in Latin, essCy fid. 
 This verb, except seldom, as in 
 Shakespeare's, "To be, ornottobe," 
 is employed to express relative, modi- 
 fied, or concrete, and not abstract 
 and independent, being, as, "To be 
 happy," " I am miserable," " Her- 
 cules was a hero," " Three and two 
 are five." Being thus subjective, the 
 verb is applicable to what has no ob- 
 jective existence at all. Thus a thing 
 very often is which does not exist, as 
 ''The philosopher's stone is a chi- 
 mera," in other words, has no exis- 
 tence. The common use of the verb 
 to be is that of a copula, or the logical 
 link between subject and predicate. 
 
 In the way of a mere copula, the 
 verb Exist (Lat. exsisttre, to come 
 forth, to exist) is not used, but always 
 has a force beyond it, ever where it 
 may seem that to Be might have been 
 substituted for it, and denotes being 
 
 in its totality, as a truth or fact, and 
 not a mode or relationship. To exist 
 is emphatically opposed to the imagi- 
 nary, unreal, or pretended. 
 
 To Subsist (Lat. subsisttre, to stana 
 still) is a philosophical term, express- 
 ing existence as based upon its " for- 
 mal cause ; " this being the basis of 
 its existence, as the " material cause " 
 was the basis of our conception of that 
 existence. So characteristic w as this 
 idea of a substratum,thatthe term is ap- 
 plied to the mere vegetative life of ani- 
 mals as supported by what tends to nou- 
 rish them, as " Tigers subsist on flesh," 
 &c. Hence Subsist is commonly used 
 of relative or dependent existence. 
 That which is not changed or de- 
 sti-oyed still subsists. Man's life is 
 uncertain. The phoenix does not 
 exist. All that is of human appoint- 
 ment subsists but for a time. 
 
 To Live (A.S. lybban) is to exist 
 with the functions of vitality, com- 
 prehending every grade from the 
 lowest degree of mere sentience with- 
 out reflexion, consciousness, or will, 
 as in the plants, up to the creatures 
 themselves endowed with these. 
 
 " Thus shalt thou say unto the children 
 of Israel, I am hath sent me unto you." — 
 Bible. 
 
 " Whatever exists has a cause, a reason, 
 a ground of its existence, a foundation on 
 which its existence relies, a ground of rea 
 son why it doth exist rather than not exist, 
 either in the necessity of its ovrn nature, 
 and then it must have been of itself eternal, 
 or in the will of some other being, s nd then 
 that other being must at least in the ordei 
 of nature and causality have existed before 
 it."— CXAEKE. 
 
 "Every person hath his own subsistence, 
 which no other besides hath, although there 
 be others beside that are of the same sub 
 stance."— HoOKEB. 
 
 " In Him we live and move and have oar 
 being." — Bible. 
 
 EXPECT. Await. 
 
 To Expect (Lat. exspectdre, to look 
 out for) is a mental act, to Await 
 ( O. Fr. awaiter, orig. from Ger. wahtOy 
 a watch, from which mod. Ger. wacht, 
 guard, watch) is a moral act. We ex- 
 pect when we have arrived at the 
 conclusion that something future will 
 really happen in all probability. We 
 await it when we look upon it as 
 
[expedient] 
 
 certain, and have prepared ourselves 
 to meet it. We may expect what may 
 or may not interest us personally ; but 
 we await that which, when it comes, 
 will affect ourselves. The old man 
 expects to die happy if he awaits 
 death with serenity and hope. 
 
 " Though virtne is unquestionably wor- 
 thy to be chosen for its own sake, even 
 without any expectation of reward, yet it 
 does not follow that it is therefore entirely 
 self-sufficient, and able to support a man 
 under all kind of sufferings, and even death 
 itself, for its sake, without any prospect of 
 future recompense." — Clarkic. 
 " ^neas heard, and for a space resigned 
 To tender pity all his manly mind. 
 Then rising in his rage, he bums to fight; 
 The Greek awaits him with collected 
 might." Pope, Homer. 
 
 EXPEDIENT. Resource. Shift. 
 
 Co."* nil VANCE. 
 
 Expedient (Lat. expMit, il is expe- 
 dient), SniFT (A.S. sciiftan, to divide, 
 appoint ; or Ger. schieben, to shove^ 
 shtj't), and Contuj^'Ance (O. Fr. cou- 
 trover, to find) are iiQternal and artifi- 
 cial ; Resource (Fr. Ttfsource, source ; 
 being from 50»r(/re,Lat. mrgereyto rise) 
 is, or may be, external and natural. A 
 conti'ivance indicates mechanical in- 
 genuity, or at least ojierative skill, 
 which may or may not have been 
 called for under special circumstances. 
 It is used both oi the act of contriving 
 and the thing contrived. An expe- 
 dient is a contrivance more or less 
 adequate but irregular, and sought for 
 by tact and adaptation to the peculiar 
 circumstances ot the case. It is a kind 
 of unauthorized substitute for more 
 recognized modes of doing things. A 
 shift is an expedient which does not 
 profess to be more than temporary 
 and very imperfect, a mere evasion of 
 difficulty. A resource is often that on 
 which the others are based. So it may 
 be a test of skill in contrivance to find 
 an adequate expedient in limited re- 
 sources. Shift is in the commonest 
 matters, and usually relates to objects 
 trivial and external. Contrivance to 
 matters of more impoi-tance, and Ex- 
 pedient to those even of the highest. 
 Differences are especially to bo noted 
 between an expedient and a resource. 
 In the first place, Resource is much 
 the graver term of the two. The ex- 
 
 DI8CRIMINATED. 
 
 407 
 
 pedient is a means for extricating 
 one's self from an embarrassment, or for 
 getting over a difficulty of any kind. 
 The resource is a way of recovery from 
 some serious fall, or a way out of 
 great distress. The resource supposes 
 an evil to be repaired, the expedient 
 only an obstacle to be overcome. We 
 have to make use of expedients every 
 day of our lives ; we have to seek re- 
 sources when calamities befall us. 
 Experience, industry, promptitude, 
 cleverness, will furnish us with expe- 
 dients ; a sti-ong brain, and a resolute 
 will, genius, fortune, power, wealth, 
 create resources. A man who is in debt 
 sells off a portion of his property as an 
 expedient to meet the aemands of his 
 creditors ; when he has mortgaged or 
 sold it all he has got to the end of his 
 resources. 
 
 "Like tricks of state to stop a raging Sood^ 
 Or mollify a mad-brained senate's mood. 
 Of all expedients never one was good." 
 
 Dbydkn. 
 
 " Threatenings mixed with prayers, his 
 last resource." Ibid. 
 
 " I'll find a thousand shifts toget away." 
 —Shakespeare. 
 
 " Government is a contrivance of human 
 wisdom to provide for haman wants." — 
 Burke. 
 
 EXPEDIENT. Fit. 
 
 Expediency {see Exfewent) is a 
 kind of Fitness (O. Fr. faict, fait, 
 lorou^htyfor (\ purpose: Wedgewood; 
 but Skeat, httjm. Diet., better : Icel. 
 fitja, to knit together), nhioaely, that 
 kind which in personally advantageous. 
 That which s expedient is necessarily 
 fit, for that eanuot conduce to an ad- 
 vantageous end which is unsuitable or 
 improper; but unless that which is 
 fitting be required, and be conducive 
 to the welfare or benefit of tlie person, 
 then, however fitting it may be, it will 
 answer no profitable end, and so will 
 not be expedient. Fitness regards 
 every kind of appropriateness, as 
 moral fitness ; expediency regards 
 only adaptation to self-interest, or ten- 
 dency to promote a proposed object. 
 
 " It is expedieyit for you that I go away." 
 —Bible. 
 
 " He, and He only, is the competent, 
 
408 
 
 proper, and unerring jndge upon what per- 
 sons and on what conditions it \afit for Him 
 to bestow His lavours." — CiARKE. 
 
 EXPERIMENT. Trial. Proof. 
 
 Experiment (Lat. expenmenium, 
 experiri, to try) relates properly to 
 the truth of things. It determines, 
 cleai'S, removes doubt and ignorance. 
 
 Trial (Fr. trier, to pick or choose) 
 concerns particularly the j<se of things, 
 and judges of what is suitable or un- 
 suitable. 
 
 Proof (Lat. pr'6bdre) relates more 
 lo the quality of things, and deter- 
 mines whether a thing is good or bad, 
 determines the better, and reassures 
 under suspicion. The object of ex- 
 periment is to know, of trial to choose, 
 and of proof to be certain. By ex- 
 periment we persuade ourselves that 
 something exists or not, by ti-ial we 
 learn its qualities, and by proof whe- 
 ther it has the qualities we attributed 
 to it. Experiment confirms our opi- 
 nions. It is the handmaid, and in 
 some cases, the mother of science. 
 Trial corrects and guides our taste, 
 proof establishes our confidence. It 
 IS our security against error and de- 
 ception. 
 
 EXPERIMENTAL. Tf.ntativk. 
 
 Experimental (Lat. exptrhnentum, 
 a proof, trial) is in its general sense 
 pertaining to experiment, and in its 
 specific use to some characteristic of ex- 
 periment. So far as experiment means 
 trial distinct from expei-ience. Expe- 
 rimental means hazardous ; so far as 
 Experiment brings to light, experi- 
 mental means ascertained. It is in the 
 former sense that it appears as a syno- 
 nym with Tentative (Lat. tentativus, 
 I e mare, to try). In this connexion the 
 Experimental hazards results, the 
 Tentativ f. hazards success. An expe- 
 rimental proceeding is entered upon to 
 see what comes of it, a tentative pro- 
 ceeding with the hope of some good 
 coming, even if the trials be frequent 
 and the success only occasional. The 
 miracles of the Christian apostles, ac- 
 cording to Paley, were not tentative, 
 that is, they did not succeed now and 
 then out of a number f trials. 
 
 SYNONYMS [eXPERIMENTJ 
 
 EXPIATION. Atonement. 
 Expiation (Lat. expidre, to make 
 atonement for) is the extinction of 
 guilt by suffering or penalty. Atone- 
 ment adds to this the idea of satisfac- 
 tion or reparation to an injured party 
 (atonement being the setting at one). 
 The malefactor, for instance, expiates 
 h is crim es on tl 1 e gallows . I f th is were 
 spoken of as an atonement, it would 
 be under the view of repai-ation being 
 thus made, either to the parties he 
 had injured, or to humanity, or to the 
 State. 
 
 " It was a common and received doctrine 
 among the Jews that for some sins a man 
 was pardoned presently upon his repen- 
 tance ; that other sins were not pardoned 
 till the solemn day of expiation, which came 
 once a year ; that other sins which were yet 
 greater were not to be expiatedhnt by some 
 
 I grievous temporal affliction." — Sharp. 
 
 j " To atone or make him at one again with 
 
 ! .he offender."— Beveridge. 
 
 I EXPIRE. Die. 
 
 1 To Expire (Lat. exsplrdre, to breathe 
 out) is appropriately used of animals 
 which "breathe the breath of life. Of 
 these it may be said that they live and 
 that they die or expire. All living 
 things either die or expire. All things 
 that die or expire are not necessarily 
 living things, for to die is used analo- 
 gously, as "to let a secret die within 
 the breast," and oftener with the addi- 
 tion of the word out or away. Trees live 
 and die, but do not expire. The flame 
 of a candle, and the periods of time, 
 neither live nor die, yet are said to 
 expire. 
 
 " Oh why do wretched men so much desire 
 To draw their days unto the utmost date. 
 
 And do not rather wish them soon expire. 
 
 Knowing the misery of their estate ? " 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 " In the day that ye eat there of ye shall 
 surely die." — Bible. 
 
 EXPLAIN. Elucidate. Illus. 
 TRATE. Exemplify. 
 
 To Explain (^Lat. explanare, to 
 make plain or clear) is simply to make 
 intelligible by removing obscurity or 
 misunderstanding. 
 
 To Elucidate, (e/«rtt/«re, to make 
 clear; liicem, light) and Ir.i.usTRATE 
 (illustrare, lo light up) are to make 
 
[explicit] 
 
 more fully intelligible. Tke field of 
 explanation may be broad or narrow ; 
 as, to explain a word, or a chapter of 
 the Bible, while explanation in itself 
 is extended and minute. The field of 
 elucidation is commonly broad. We 
 do not speak of elucidating words, 
 but subjects. Illustration is vivid eluci- 
 dation by certain specific and effective 
 means, as similitudes, comparisons, 
 appropriate incidents or anecdotes, 
 and the like, graphic representations 
 and even artistic drawings. Explana- 
 tion, however, depends as much on 
 the mind and views of the explainer 
 as upon the thing explained. A sub- 
 ject could only be elucidated or illus- 
 trated in one way, but it might be ex- 
 plained in different and even contra- 
 riant ways, according to the explainers. 
 Explanation is a process by which the 
 hard or uncomj>rehended becomes un- 
 derstood by assimilating it to the easy 
 and familiar, or the more difl5cult 
 is interpreted by the less difficult, 
 through the means of principles al- 
 ready accepted and known. A propo- 
 sition seems paradoxical so long as 
 one does not see the link which con- 
 nects it with such known and received 
 principles; when this is shown we 
 feel sometimes almost ashamed that 
 we did not see the explanation. In 
 works of systematic science it is a de- 
 fect if explanation is needed, because 
 each succeeding position ought so 
 clearly to follow upon the preceding 
 that no room for explanation shall 
 exist. 
 
 We Exemplify ( Lat. exemplum, an 
 example, Sindflfcive, to make) when we 
 explain or illustrate by producing an 
 example of the law or rule. (See 
 Example.) 
 
 " The observation that old people re- 
 member best those things which entered 
 into their thoughts when their memories 
 were in their full strength and vigour is 
 rery remarkably exemplified in this good 
 lady and myself when we are in conversa- 
 tion." — Guardian. 
 
 " I demanded of him who was to explain 
 them. The Papists, I told him, would ex- 
 plain some of them one way, and the Re- 
 formed another. The Remonstrants and 
 Anti-remonstrants gave their different 
 Bensts, and probably the Trinitarians and 
 Ihe Unitarians will profess that they under- 
 
 DISCKIMINATED. 
 
 409 
 
 •t«ad not each other's explications." — 
 Locke. 
 
 "Proof and further elucidation of the 
 matters complained of." — BuRKK. 
 
 " To prove him and illustrate his high 
 worth." -Shakespeare. 
 
 EXPLICIT. Express. Explana- 
 tory. Categorical. 
 
 Explicit (Lat. eipMcrttus, disen- 
 tangled, part, of eipltcdre, to unfold) 
 denotes the entire unfolding of a thing 
 in detail of expression, and so as to 
 meet every point and obviate the ne- 
 cessity of supplement. 
 
 Explanatory i«, on the other hand, 
 essentially supplemental, and the ne- 
 cessity of explanation often arises from 
 matters not having been made suffi- 
 ciently explicit. 
 
 Express (Lat. expressus, describedy 
 especially in words, part.of expj-^m&j-e) 
 combines force with clearness and no- 
 tice of detail. Explicit calls attention 
 to the comprehensiveness and pointed- 
 ness of the particulars, Exprkss to the 
 force, directness, and plainness of the 
 whole. An express declaration goes 
 forcibly and directly to the point. An 
 explicit declaration leaves nothing am- 
 biguous. Philosophically, it is opposed 
 to implicit. 
 
 "The baptismal creed, I say, must ol 
 necessity contain explicitly in it at least all 
 the fundamentals of faith."— Clarke. 
 
 "As to any other method more agreeable 
 to them than a congress — an alternative ex- 
 pressly proposed to them — they did not con- 
 descend to.signify their pleasure." — BuRKE. 
 
 " Yet to such as are grounded in the true 
 belief, these explaTintory creeds, the Nicene 
 and this of Athanasius, might perhaps be 
 spai-ed ; for what is supernatural will always 
 be a mystery in spite of exposition." — Dry- 
 DEX. 
 
 Categorical (Gr. KATnyopiiv, to 
 predicate) is a term which w^ears a 
 logical air. A categorical proposition 
 is distinguished from a hypothetical 
 one; hence, that is categorical which is 
 a straightforward expression or state- 
 ment distinctly affirmative or negative, 
 without doubt, hesitation, qualifica- 
 tion, conditions, or contingencies, 
 plain and to the point. 
 
 " They apjiointed that of the synod two 
 should be chosen delegates who should im- 
 mediately go to them, and in the name of 
 *^ synod warn them to lay by all other 
 
410 
 
 answers, and at the next session categori- 
 cally answer whether they wonld exhibit 
 their minds concerning the points in con- 
 troversy or no." — Hale. 
 
 EXPLOIT. Feat. Achieve- 
 
 MF.N'T. 
 
 Exploit (Fr. exploiter, to ivork, 
 make the most of, Lat. eipttc'itare) is a 
 term of chivalrous character, indicat- 
 ing a deed of which adventurousness 
 and strength are the cliaracteristics. 
 
 A Feat (Fr. fait, Lat. factum, a 
 thing done, a deed) is the same thing 
 on a smaller scale, and admitting a 
 larger admixture of the elements of 
 skill or cleverness ; as we might speak 
 of the exploits of Alexander the Great, 
 and of a feat of horsemanship. 
 
 Achievement (Fr. achever, to bring 
 tj a head, chef, chput, a head) points 
 not only to the greatness of the deed 
 bttt to the qualities which have led to 
 t, which may have been less showy 
 aian force and skill, and have com- 
 prised perseverance, patience, and in- 
 dustry. 
 
 ** The spirit-stirring form 
 Of Caesar, raptui'ed with the charm of rule 
 And boundless fame, impatient for exploits." 
 Ul-IiK. 
 
 "The warlike feats I have done." — 
 Shakespkare. 
 
 •* But loving virtue, all achievements past. 
 Meets envy still to grapple with at last." 
 Waller. 
 
 EXPOUND. Interpret. 
 
 Expound (Lat. exp'onere, to set forth) 
 denotes sustained explanation ; while 
 i mere word or phrase may be ex- 
 plained, a whole work or parts of it 
 may be expotinded. Exposition is 
 continuous critical explanation. 
 
 Interpret (Lat. interpr'&tdri), be- 
 yond the mere sense of verbal transla- 
 tion from one language to another, 
 conveys the idea of pi'ivate or per- 
 sonal explanation of what is capable 
 of more than one view. Hence inter- 
 pretation is more arbitrary than ex- 
 position and more theoretical than 
 explanation. Expound relates only 
 to words in series, Interpret is 
 applicable also to anything of a sym- 
 bolical character, as to mterpret a 
 dream or a prophecy. It has also, in 
 coirrron with $xplairi^ an application 
 
 STNONYMS [exploit] 
 
 to anything which may be viewed in 
 different lights, as the actions of men. 
 In this way, to explain conduct would 
 rather be to account for it ; to inter- 
 pret it would be to assign motives or 
 significance to it. Explanation deals 
 with facts, interpretation with causes 
 also. I explain when I give the mean- 
 ing of a thing, I interpret when I give 
 mi) view of that meaning. 
 
 *' The Pundits are the expounders of the 
 Hindu law."— Sir W, Jones. 
 " Are there not many points, some needful 
 
 sure 
 To saving faith, that Scripture leaves ob- 
 scure ? 
 Which every sect will wrest a several way. 
 For what one sect interprets all sects may." 
 Dryden. 
 
 EXPRESS. 
 Intimate. 
 
 Signify. Testify. 
 
 All these terms are employed in the 
 sense of communicating to otliers what 
 is in one's own mind. Not only words, 
 but gestures, movements, and the like 
 may serve to ExpRESS,which is simply 
 to manifest in a plain manner. Even 
 silence is sometimes expressive. Ex- 
 pression is good when the idea is put 
 forth in a just and life-like way with 
 logical or descriptive force and accu- 
 racyofrepresentation,or by any natural 
 or artistic media of such manifestations. 
 As Express is generally said of feelings 
 and opinions, so Signify (Fr. signifier, 
 Lat. signXficdre) is said of wishes, in- 
 tentions, or desires ; this also may be 
 done in various ways, by looks, words, 
 writing, or other acts ; as, to signify 
 assent by a nod. Signify implies 
 more strongly than Express the exis- 
 tence of some person affected, while 
 Express is more ab.stract, as, " His 
 countenance expressed disappoint- 
 ment," that is, would have done so to 
 any who might have witnessed it. 
 Signified would have implied infor- 
 mation personally conveyed. 
 
 Testify (l^^t. tesltf^icari, to bear wit- 
 ness, to demonstrate) is commonly em- 
 ployed of inner feeling as made evi- 
 dent to others ; as, to testify joy, sor- 
 row, approbation, one's sense of an- 
 other's merit, and the like ; " His 
 countenance testified satisfaction," 
 that is, generally, where Signified 
 would have implied some person or 
 
[EXTENSIVE] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 411 
 
 persons on whom the expression took 
 effect. To signify is in short a matter 
 of communication, to testify of demon- 
 stration, to express of declaration. 
 
 To Intimate ( Lat. iniimare, to bring 
 within, to pnbtish) is to express ^vith- 
 out fulness, but with sufficient apti- 
 tude and clearness, avoiding; all super- 
 fluity of declaration. Hence the term 
 is well employed of such manifesta- 
 tions of feeling a.^ are indirect, as, 
 " His courtly reception of the dele- 
 gates seemed to intimate that he was 
 not unfavourably inclined to the ob- 
 ject of their mission." When one per- 
 son intimates a thing to another, it is 
 commonly something in which that 
 other is personally interested. 
 
 " When St. John Baptist came preaching 
 repentance unto Israel, the people asked 
 him, sajring, ' What shall we do ? ' mean- 
 ing in what manner they should express 
 their repentance."— Sharp. 
 
 " No one ever saw one animal by its ges- 
 tures and natural cries signify to another. 
 This is mine. That is yours, I am willing to 
 give this for that." — Smith, Wealth of 
 Nations. 
 
 " In vain Thy creatures testify of Thee, 
 
 Till Thou proclaim Thyself." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 A demonstrative expression is com- 
 monly set over against some opposite 
 feeling in another. Testify, like Pro- 
 test, wears an air of demonstration 
 against ; but this is accidental, not 
 essential. 
 
 " Mr. Plott, who, as he since informed 
 me, had prevailed with them to propose 
 this treaty, earnestly pressed me to lay 
 iold on the opportunity, intimating by his 
 words and gestures that if I refused it I 
 should not have another." — LuDLOW, 3Je- 
 moirs. 
 
 EXPRESSION. Term. Word. 
 
 Word is the more general, but 
 could not be called the generic ex- 
 pression here, because an expression 
 may consist of more than one word. 
 Word (A. S. uord) is the spoken ex- 
 j)ression (which may be reduced to 
 writing) of a conception or an idea. 
 
 A Term (Lat. terniinns), in its 
 logical sense, is anything which may 
 form the subject or predicate of a pro- 
 position, and called the term from the 
 fact that it occupies a position at one 
 or other 9^}d of il ; as, *' Every man 
 
 is mortal;" here every man is the one 
 term, and mortal the other. In re- 
 ference to the practical distinction be- 
 tween these. Word represents gene- 
 rally an utterance of our thouglits or 
 feelings; Term is the same thingviewed 
 in connexion with a certain class of ex- 
 pressions or subjects, as " a scientific 
 term," " a geographical term," and so 
 on, implying tliat it has a specific stamp;, 
 so we say in reasoning, " It is above 
 all things necessary to define the terms 
 employed." On the other hand, it 
 would be utterly superfluous to define 
 all the words. In .nis way. Term is re- 
 stricted to the main parts of speech, 
 nouns, verbs, and adjectives. In a 
 looser way, it is simply synonymous 
 
 witll W^ORD. 
 
 ExvnESSios{L^t.expressus,describedj 
 especially in words; part, of expnmtre) 
 in this connexion means not so much 
 a word or term, though it may mean 
 this, as a Jiwde of speech. Hence ex- 
 pressions are very often phrases or 
 collocations of words. Any number 
 of words which serve to convey an 
 idea or statement, wliether one or 
 more, may be called an expression. 
 Even an interjection, as giving utter- 
 ance to a sentiment, emotion, or feel- 
 ing, miglit be called an expression of 
 it. In the choice of words is shown 
 the jmrity of language, in the choice 
 of teims the precision of speech ; on 
 the choice of expressions depend the 
 brilliancy and effectiveness of style. 
 Word is a matter of simple speech, or 
 the science of it — that is, grammar. 
 Usage determines its meaning. Term 
 is a matter of subject ; its force is de- 
 termined by agreement. Expression 
 is a matter of thought ; its merit de- 
 pends on the turn given to it. 
 
 " He (Charles II.) never read the Scrip 
 tures nor laid things together further than 
 to turn them to a jest, or for some lively 
 expression." — BuRN'ET. 
 
 " The ideas the terms stand for."— 
 Locke. 
 
 " Man had by nature his own organs so 
 fashioned as to be fit to frame articulate 
 sounds which we call icords."—lbid. 
 
 EXTENSIVE. Large. 
 
 Extensive (Lat. extensiviis, exte^- 
 dtrey to stretch out) only applies t** 
 euperficiai spreading. 
 
412 
 
 Large (Fr. large j Lat. largus^ is 
 much mere comprehensive and vari- 
 ously applicable : 1, to superficial ex- 
 tent, in which it is synonymous with 
 extensive, as a large field or an exten- 
 sive field; 2, of size or bulk, as a large 
 stone ; 3, of quantity, as a large supply; 
 4, number, as a large number, or as- 
 sembly ; 5, of cubic contents, as a large 
 bag. Both Large and Extensive are 
 employedin secondary senses ; Large 
 in that case denoting abundance of 
 .source or supply, Extensive denoting 
 wideness of operation. A large heart, 
 large bounty, extensive benevolence. 
 Extensive learning or acquaintance 
 with a subject in particular. 
 
 ♦' One great cause of our insensibility to 
 the goodness of the Creator is the veiy ex- 
 tensiveness of His bounty." — Paley. 
 
 " Circles are praised not that abound 
 
 In largeness, but the exactly round. 
 
 So life we praise that does excel 
 
 Not in much time, but acting well." 
 
 Waller. 
 
 EXTENT. Limit. 
 
 Extent is superficial spreading in 
 one direction, or several, or all. 
 
 Limit (Lat. lirmtem) is the bound- 
 ing or restraining of such extent. The 
 former term, therefore, is expansive 
 in its force, the latter restrictive ; the 
 one partakes of the nature of a positive, 
 the other of a negative idea. 
 "What antic notions form the human mind. 
 Perversely mad, and obstinately blind. 
 Life in its large extent is scarce a span. 
 Vet, wondrous frenzy, great designs we 
 
 plan, 
 And shoot our thoughts beyond the date of 
 
 man." Cotton. 
 
 " Ye friends to truth, ye statesmen who 
 
 survey 
 The rich man's joys increase, the poor's de- 
 cay, 
 'Tis yours to judge how wide the limits 
 
 stand 
 Between a splendid and a happy land." 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 EXTENUATE. Palliate. 
 
 These terms are all applicable to 
 moi al conduct and the lessening of its 
 guilt. 
 
 To Extenuate (Lat. exthiudre, to 
 draw out tojineness, ex and tennis, thm) 
 is todirainiph the conception of crime 
 or guilt by the allegation of pleas or 
 the consideration of attendant circum- 
 stancee 
 
 SYNONYMS [extent] 
 
 To Palliate (Lat. pallium, a cover- 
 let, an upper garment) is to seek to 
 lower the intrinsic guilt oy evil of the 
 thing itself. It is an instance of the 
 departure of a term from its etymo- 
 logical meaning ; to palliate not sig- 
 nifying any longer to hide a crime by 
 throwing a cloak over it, but to soften 
 down the enormity of it. Wrong is ex- 
 tenuated by attendant circumstances ; 
 it is palliated by sophistry. Palliation 
 is never the same thing with justice, 
 but extenuation may be. Palliation 
 is restricted to crime ; extenuation is 
 extended to guilt and punishment, 
 and even to ills generally. When we 
 speak of a palliation of evils, it is as 
 opposed to lasting remedies. 
 
 " As to the other matters objected against 
 me, which in their turn I shall mention to 
 you, remember once more I do not mean to 
 extenuate or excuse." — Burke. 
 The original sense of Palliate occurs 
 curiously in the following : — 
 
 "Horace had his Maecenas, and Virgil his 
 Augustus, and it is the accustomed manner 
 of our modern ^vriters always to palliate 
 themselves under the protection of some 
 worthy patron."— BoULTON, Medicine. 
 
 EXTERIOR. External. Oui- 
 WARD. Extraneous. Extrinsic. 
 Foreign. 
 
 Outward is strictly toward the out- 
 side, as "outward bound," and, by an 
 extension of meaning, of or belonging 
 to the outside. It is thus the generic 
 terra, and may mean on the surface or 
 contiguous to it. 
 
 "He is not a Jew which is one out- 
 wardly."— Ent/lish Bible. 
 
 Exterior and External (Lat. 
 extra, extermis, without) both imply 
 connexion, while Extraneous (Lat. 
 ex trdneus, from the same root) implies 
 no connexion with, but detachment or 
 remoteness from, the surface. Ex- 
 terior is opposed to interior, external 
 to internal. The skin is ao. exterior, 
 the dress an external, covering. That 
 which is external is connected closely 
 with the outward partrj that which 
 is exterior goes to constitute them. 
 That is extraneous which aflfects us 
 from a distance, as " extraneous aid." 
 Extraneous is an epithet of quali- 
 ties, not substances. 
 
 Extrinsic (Lat. exlrinsrcus, adverb, 
 
[extravagant] discriminated. 
 
 from «nt/iout)lia8thesense of External 
 in such a way as to form no essential 
 or inseparable part, as, ''The intrin- 
 sic faculties of the mind may be im- 
 proved in power by the extrinsic aids 
 of mental training ; " "The external 
 need of dress is one thing, the extrin- 
 sic superfluity of ornament another." 
 
 413 
 
 Foreign (0. Fr.forain, L. Lat./(^r- 
 cmeus) means wholly beside the mark, 
 and has no connexion or relevancy at 
 all. That is foreign which is inhar- 
 monious in character, spirit, or pur- 
 pose. 
 
 " In speech of man the whispering whicli 
 they call susunus in Latin, whether it be 
 loader or softer, is an interior sound, but 
 the speaking out is an exterior sound." — 
 Bacon. 
 
 " The next circumstance to be remarked 
 is that whilst the cavities of the body are 
 80 configurated as externally to exhibit the 
 most exact correspondency of the opposite 
 sides, the contents of these cavities have no 
 such correspondency."— Pale Y. 
 
 " ' If the eye,' says He, ' be single, thy 
 whole body shall be full of light.' That is, 
 nothing extrmieous must cleave to or join 
 with the eye in the act of seeing, but it must 
 be solely and entirely to itself and its bare 
 object, as naked as trnth, as pure, simple, 
 and unmixed as sincerity."— South. 
 
 "More observe the characters of men 
 than the order of things ; to the one we are 
 formed by nature and by that sympathy 
 from which we are so strongly led to take 
 part in the passions and manners of our 
 fellow-men. The other is as it were foreign 
 and extrinsical." — Burke. 
 
 EXTRAORDINARY. Remark- 
 able. 
 
 The Extraordinary (Lat. extra- 
 ordtnariiis) is that which is out of the 
 ordinary course, or exceeds ordinary 
 limits. In those cases in which it is 
 matter of specific observation, it is 
 synonymous with Remarkable (Yy. 
 remarquer, to remark) ; but where it 
 does not excite such observation or 
 remark, it is, of course, not remark- 
 able. An extraordinary dress is re- 
 markable ; but this could not be said 
 of an " extraordinary loan." The re- 
 markable combines the extraordinary 
 with the noticeable. It may be ob- 
 served that there is a twofold sense of 
 ihe extraordinary — that which is un- 
 like the common course, law, or 
 nature of the object, and that which is 
 
 unlike the common course of cur owi/ 
 observation. The one is extraordinary 
 i/i itself, the other to us. The re- 
 markable is the exti'aordinary to us. 
 The dress of an Asiatic, while not 
 extraordinary in itself, may be extra- 
 ordinary, and therefore remarkable, to 
 a European. In common parlance, that 
 is extraordinary which excites sur- 
 prise ; that is remarkable Avliich ex- 
 cites some degree of admiration also. 
 
 '* They think to atone for their sins and 
 neglects of this kind by showing some extra- 
 ordinary bounty to the poor." — Sharp. 
 
 "Above all things this was remarkable 
 and admii-able in him, the arts he had to 
 acquire the good opinion and kindnesses of 
 all sorts of men." — CoWLEY. 
 
 EXTRA.VAGANT. Prodigal. 
 Lavish. Profuse. 
 
 Extravagant (Lat. extra, beyond, 
 and vitgari, to wander) is by no means 
 confined to modes of expenditure of 
 money. Any person or thing ivhich 
 exceeds due bounds in thought, 
 speech, or action, may be termed 
 extravagant; as "extravagant in 
 praise," " extravagant abuse," " ex- 
 travagant compliment." As applied 
 to manner of living, extravairance 
 comes of allowing the habituaJ ab- 
 sence of self-restraint and refle.cion, 
 a vague wandering of the thoughts 
 and desii-es unrestrained by ideas of 
 measurement and proportion. A man 
 of small means may thus be very ex- 
 travagant. 
 
 Prodigal (L&t. prodlgere, to criv4 
 auay, to squander) denotes a lovi; of 
 large and excessive expenditure, 
 which comes of want of recognizing 
 the necessary limitation of all human 
 resources, and is by its nature a vice 
 of the rich. The poor man who may 
 be extravagant is hindered by cir- 
 cumstances from being prodigal, 
 though he may have the natural in- 
 clination to be so. ExTRAVAGAM and 
 Prodigal are both terms expressive of 
 character or habits, while Lavish 
 (O. Eng. lave, in throw or pour out) 
 and Profuse (Lat. prcj/Tisu.s, part, of 
 pr'6fnndh-e, to pour forth) relate to 
 specific actions. To lavish is to spend 
 with superfluous and therefore foolish 
 liberality, as the return or good is not 
 in proportion to the expenditure or 
 
414 
 
 effort. Men may be lavish of much be- 
 sides money and treasure, ase.o-. praise, 
 censure, as we may be also prodigal 
 of time, strength, and the like. Pro- 
 fuse is less strong than Lavish, and 
 denotes the giving forth in great 
 abundance. This is so likely to be 
 superfluous,that Profuse is often used 
 in an unfavourable sense, as Lavish 
 always is. Yet this is not always so. 
 as, "ornaments are profusely em- 
 ployed in the building," is not the 
 same as if we said, " too profusely," 
 and " profuse beneficence is not dis- 
 praise. ^Ve are extravagant when we 
 spend more than we can afford. We 
 are profuse when we give away in 
 great or excessive quantities. Pro- 
 Fuseness, therefore, is a mode of ex- 
 travagance, namely, an extravagant 
 expenditure on other objects than our- 
 selves. A man is extravagant, for in- 
 stance, in household expenses, house, 
 dress, plate, diet, luxuries of any kind. 
 A man is extravagant in his praise 
 or compliments when he exaggerates 
 them, profuse when he deals too 
 largely in them, lavish when he thinks 
 nothing of reserving or moderating 
 them. 
 
 "Upon which accounts it hath been that 
 maoikind hath been more extravagantly 
 mad in many tenets about religion than in 
 anything else whatsoevei*. For in other 
 things the use of reason is permitted, but 
 in religion it hath been almost universally 
 denied. "— GlanVILL. 
 
 " Prodigality is the devil's steward and 
 purse-bearer, ministering to all sorts of 
 vice ; and it is hard, if not impossible, for a 
 ■prodigal person to be guilty of no other vice 
 but prodigality.''— SoVTK. 
 
 " Tertullian very truly observeth, God is 
 not a lavisher, but a dispenser of His bles- 
 sings."— Fothkrby. 
 
 *' He who with a promiscuous, undistin- 
 guishing profuseness does not so much dis- 
 pense as throw away what he has, proclaims 
 himself a fool to all the intelligent world 
 about him."— South. 
 
 EXULT. Rejoice. 
 
 Exult, true to its etymology (Lat. 
 exsultdre, to spring up), is more de- 
 monstrative and external than Re- 
 joice (O. Fr. rejoir, N. Fr. rejouir; 
 Lat. gaudere, to rejoice), which is lively 
 and pleasurable, but may be compara- 
 tively calm. It is possible to rejoice 
 inwardly. We exult openly. We 
 
 SYNONYMS [exult] 
 
 rejoice in the ijossessioii or at the 
 accession of a good. We exult when 
 it is of such a kind as to give us an 
 advantage. The brave soldier rejoices 
 in the victory. The savage warrior 
 exults over his fallen foe. 
 
 FABLE. Fiction. Fabrication. 
 Parable. Allegory. Novel. Ro- 
 mance. 
 
 Fable (Lat. fahida, from Jdri, to 
 speak) is a feigned tale intended to 
 convey some lesson of instruction, its 
 proper sphere being that of prudential 
 morality. Such being its object, it 
 does not scruple to violate natural 
 truth, and to introduce talking 
 trees, or talking animals, or un- 
 historic and unreal personages. The 
 fable is a sort of dramatic allegory in 
 v/hich the actions are probable and 
 natural, while the agents may be un- 
 natural. 
 
 " Fables were first begun and raised to 
 the highest perfection in the eastern coun- 
 tries, where they wrote in signs and spoke 
 in parables, and delivered the most useful 
 precepts in delightful stories, which for their 
 aptness were entertaining to the most judi- 
 cious, and led the vulgar into understand- 
 ing, by surprising them with their novelty." 
 —Prior and Montague. 
 
 Fiction (Lat, Jictionem, a fobhioii- 
 ing, a feigning) denotes any produc- 
 tion of the imagination, whether dieal- 
 ing in the natural or unnatural. As 
 a literary tei-m it implies an end of 
 amusement or instruction, or both. 
 Fiction may be regarded as the gene- 
 ric term, of which the rest are s])ecies. 
 It means, in its broadest sense, any- 
 ihing feigned. Fiction is opposed to 
 what is real, as fabrication is opposed 
 to what is true ; the common end of 
 the first is to entertain, of the second 
 to mislead and deceive, either as to 
 the contents of the work or the 
 genuineness of its authorship. 
 
 " The/ictio7i of these golden apples kept 
 by a dragon." — Raleuh. 
 
 " Our books were not fabricated with an 
 accommodation to prevailing usages." — 
 Paley. 
 
 A Fabrication .(Lat. f'tihr'icdtidnem^ 
 a framing, ctfnnructing) differs from a 
 
[fabric] 
 
 fiction in that the author, knowing it 
 to be false, puts it forth as true. 
 
 A Parable (Gr. Trapa^oXfi, 'jta.pa, 
 abiigside, and BaXKhv, to cast or place) 
 is an illustration of moral or spiritual 
 truth through the vehicle of natural 
 or secular processes or occuirences. 
 Such at least are the parables of the 
 New Testament, which assume laws 
 in harmony between the natural and 
 the s])hitual world, so that tlie facts 
 of the one may tend to explain the 
 Other. Unlike the fable, the parable 
 teaches truth for itself, and not as 
 being the interest of man only ; and 
 having this high and sacred end in 
 view, it cannot stoop to such unnatural 
 violations as the fable employs, being 
 animated by a spuut of profounder 
 reverence. There was a time, how- 
 ever, when the word parable was 
 taken to mean almost anything alle- 
 gorical in speech, especially if more or 
 less hard to understand ; as that which 
 the English version of the BiiAe calls 
 the parable of Jotham is strictly a 
 fable, as that which it calls the Parable 
 of the V^ine is strictly an allegory. So 
 in Ezekiel, "Ah, Lord God, doth he 
 not speak parables? " the word here is 
 ecjuivalent to riddles. 
 
 "The Holy Scripture hath her figure 
 and history, her mystery and verity, her 
 parable and plain doctrine." — Bale. 
 
 AnALLEOORV(aXX>i>'0fia, aXXof,ot/jer, 
 and ayopsvo), I speak) differs both from 
 Fable and Parable, in that the pro- 
 perties of persons are fictitiously repre- 
 sented as attached to things, to which 
 tliey are as it were transferi'ed. The 
 allegory may be in any kind of artis- 
 tic or verbal representation. A figure 
 of Peace and Victory crowning some 
 liistorical personage is an allegory. 
 " I am the Vine, ye are the branches," 
 is a spoken allegory. In the parable 
 there is no transference of properties. 
 The parable of the sower represents 
 all things as according to their proper 
 nature. In the allegoiy quoted above 
 the properties of the vine and the re- 
 lation of the branches are transfen-ed 
 to the person of Christ and His apos- 
 tles and disciples. A parable worked 
 out at great length, as the "Pilgrim's 
 ProgTess," is called an allegory. 
 
 " Make no more allegories in 6criptar<* 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 415 
 
 than needs must ; the fathers were too fre- 
 quent in them; they, indeed, before they 
 understood the literal sense, looked cut foi 
 an allegory." — Selden. 
 
 A Novel (Fr. nouvelle, news,a tale) 
 is a fiction (as at present employed) 
 with something of dramatic plot, de- 
 signed to show the workings of human 
 passion, and is such that in themselves 
 there is no impossibility in the inci- 
 dents of it. Novels in old English 
 bore the sense of 7iews. 
 
 " Some came of curiosity to hear some 
 novels" — Latimer. 
 
 It then came to mean a tale especially 
 of love and jrassion, which might be 
 of the nature of a subordinate incident 
 in a larger work, before it came to 
 mean, as at present, a work complete 
 in itself. 
 
 '• The trifling novels which Ariosto in- 
 serted in his poems." — Dkydex. 
 
 The Romance {see quotation) is a 
 novel Avhich deals in surprising and 
 adventurous incidents, in order to 
 sti'ike by means of the marvellous, 
 without the historic probability of the 
 novel of the present day. They were 
 commonly metrical, and turned on 
 chivalry, gallantry, and religion. 
 
 " The Latin tongue, as is observed by an 
 ingenious writer, ceased to be spoken in 
 France about the ninth century, and was 
 succeeded by what was called the romance 
 tongue, a mixture of the language of the 
 Franks and bad Latin. As the songs of chi- 
 valry became the most popular compositions 
 in that language, they were emphatically 
 called romans or roi7iants, thongh this name 
 was at first given to any pi£ce of poetry." — 
 Percy, Iteliques. 
 
 FABRIC. Manufacture. 
 
 The diflference between the above 
 is smiply determined by usage, except 
 that iNlANUFACTURE (Lat. mAnu/ac<us, 
 made by the hand) denotes a process as 
 well as a result. Fabric the result 
 alone. 
 
 Fabric (Lat. j'dbricu^ a workshop^ 
 an artistic production) applies to things 
 constructed, and to things woven, 
 Manufacture to things produced by 
 art from raw materials for personal 
 use, but not, like Fabric, to building. 
 As Manufacture expresses the pro- 
 cess, it is possible to speak of the ma* 
 nufacture of certain fabrics. 
 
416 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [FACE_, 
 
 FACE. Front. 
 
 Some confusion arises in the figu- 
 rative use of these terms, from the 
 literal meaning of them. 
 
 The Face (Lat. fKcies) is the coun- 
 tenance or features. 
 
 llie Front (L&t. frontem) is the 
 whole anterior side of the figure, and 
 so the words might be supposed 
 simply applicable according to this 
 analogy. But .the analogy is not easy, 
 because the Latin frons means fore- 
 head, and so face. For instance, the 
 face, of a clock is analogous to the face 
 of a man, but we should hardly say, 
 the front of a picture, but the face, 
 though it be more analogous to the 
 whole front of a man. The face of a 
 house is the surface of the anterior 
 wall of it, as the posterior wall is the 
 back. On the other hand, the front 
 of a stage is strictly according to 
 analogy. Again, other conceptions 
 enter. The face of a thing is often 
 taken for that part of it which is dis- 
 tinctively marked and, as it were, 
 featured. It is probably in this way 
 that we speak of the face of a watch. 
 
 " The whole face of the gi-onnd." — Eng- 
 lish. Bible. 
 
 " A band of strong and sinewy bows, 
 Out of the army pick'd the front of all the 
 field." Drayton. 
 
 FACE. Countenance. Visage, 
 
 The Face is that which is anatomi- 
 cally composed of its features; and so 
 the term is applicable to brutes and 
 men. 
 
 The Countenance (Lat. contt- 
 neutia, in a later sense, of holding, 
 bearing, behaving one's self^ is the face 
 as expressive of the soul, with its 
 thoughts, reflexions, passions, or 
 emotions, and so belongs only to 
 Imman beings. 
 
 The Visage (Fr. visage) is the face 
 regarded in a fixed aspect, and not in 
 its emotional variations. So a laugh- 
 ing face, a laughing countenance, but 
 we should hardly say a laughing 
 visage. Visage is a term indicative 
 of something marked and impressive 
 in the face, as dignity, sternness, 
 grimness. It is not employed of the 
 lighter or more cheerful looks. 
 
 "While the men wore shoes so long and 
 picked that they were forced to support the 
 points by chains from their middle, the 
 ladies erected such pyramids on their heads 
 that the face became the centre of the 
 body." — Walpole, Anecdotes of Painting. 
 " Even kept her countenance when the lid 
 
 removed 
 Disclosed the heart unfortunately loved." 
 Dryden. 
 " Get you gone ! 
 Out on a most importunate aspect, 
 A visage of demand." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 FACETIOUS. Jocose. Jocular. 
 Pleasant. 
 
 Facetjousness (Lat./rfctf/(E, witti- 
 cisms) is a kind of affected humour, to 
 which it bears the same relation that 
 a smirk does to a smile. 
 
 •Tocos E and Jocular ( Lat. J^cosus, 
 jocfdavis) are derived from the Latin 
 jocus, a joke, nnd jocalus, a little joke. 
 The jocose pokes fun, the jocular in- 
 sinuates it. 
 
 Pleasantry (Fr. plaisanteiie, phi- 
 sunt, pleasant) carries the notion, not 
 of abstract joke, like facetious, but of a 
 tendency to personal raillery, though 
 of a kind tlie opposite to obtrusive. 
 The facetious had formerly a higher 
 meaning than at present, when it is 
 hardly used but in modified disparage- 
 ment, answering at one time to the Lat. 
 fdc'etus, elegantly humorous. It denotes 
 at present something like manufactured 
 wit which has no heartiness of joke. 
 
 "B. answers xery facetiously, I must own, 
 that a command to lend hoping for nothing 
 agaui, and a command to borrow without 
 returning anything again, seem very difi'e- 
 rent commands."— WaterlanI). 
 Jocose seems to be more general, and 
 Jocular more specific. A man's dis- 
 position might be jocose, his demea- 
 nour on a particular occasion jocular. 
 The jocose love jokes, the jocular 
 make jokes. The jocular, too, is more 
 demonstrative than the jocose. 
 
 •' I had indeed the corporal punishment 
 of what the gentlemen of the long robe are 
 j>leased jocosely to call mounting the ros- 
 trum for one hour." — Pope. 
 
 " At diflereut times he appears as serious 
 as a judge, and as jocular as a men-y- 
 andrew." — Spectator. 
 
 " People are not aware of the very great 
 force which pleasantry in company has upon 
 all those with whom a man of that talent 
 converses." — Ibid. 
 
[failing] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 417 
 
 FACTIOUS. Seditious. 
 
 Factious (Lat. factiosus, factio, a 
 partyy side, sect) means appertaining 
 to, or, as employed of persons ad- 
 dicted to, the raising of dissension and 
 opposition, more especially for ends 
 of private interest. 
 
 SEDnious(ha.t.scditidsus,sediliojdis- 
 sension, strife) means tending to excite 
 disturbance in tlie State or community, 
 short of insurrection. The terms seem 
 at present diflerenced mainly by the 
 scale on which they are used. Sedi- 
 tious relates to the manifestation of 
 political principle orfeelino; ; factious 
 is used in connexion with minor 
 affairs of administration. In a meet- 
 ing of equals for the purpose of coming 
 to resolutions in common, the conduct 
 of individuals might betray factious 
 opposition, that is to say, of a needless 
 kind, and actuated by personal mo- 
 tives, where Seditious would be too 
 grave and political a term. The 
 factious man is troublesome, the se- 
 ditious man dangerous. The factious 
 man uses his power, influence, or 
 money in furtherance of his own views ; 
 the seditious man, unless he be a de- 
 magogue, has probably none of these 
 means to employ. 
 
 " Chriatianity is an humble, qniet, peace- 
 able, and orderly religion, not noisy or os- 
 tentatious, not assuming or censorious, not 
 factious or tumultuous,"— Waterlaxd. 
 
 " If anything pass in a religious meeting 
 seditiously, and contrary to the public peace. 
 It is to be punished in the same manner and 
 no otherwise than as if it had happened in a 
 'air or market." — Locke. 
 
 FACTOR. Agent. Broker. 
 
 There is little difference in these 
 words themselves. A Factor ( Lat. 
 factorem, a doer) and Agent (Lat. 
 igere, to act) being persons who act 
 on behalf of others ; but an agent has 
 more discretionary power, and repre- 
 sents his employer's interests more 
 generally ; a factor transacts business 
 on commission. The factor differs 
 from the Broker (etym. uncertain), 
 in that he is the consignee of goods, 
 and buys and sells in his own name, 
 while the broker is only a middleman 
 and takes no possession. 
 
 " The house in Leadenhall Street is no- 
 tning more than a change for their agents. 
 
 /actors. And deputies to meet in, to take 
 care of their affairs and to support their in- 
 terests." — BuRKK. 
 
 " My employment, which is that of a 
 broker, leading me often into Taverns abort 
 the Exchange." — Spectator. 
 
 FACULTY. Power. 
 
 Faculty (Lat. JUcultatem, capabi- 
 lity ^ {rom I'dche, to do) is active power, 
 but it differs also from Power (Fr. 
 pouioir, to be able), as applied to sen- 
 tient bein^. Power, as such, belongs 
 to the individual, and is specifically 
 exerted; the faculty is shared with 
 the race. Thus, if we said of any one, 
 " He has not the faculty of speech," 
 we should mean, that he was born 
 without that which with mankind is 
 a natural endowment ; if we said, 
 " He has not the power of speech," 
 we should mean that, from some phy- 
 sical cause, permanent or not, he was 
 at the time iiicapable of articulate 
 utterance. 
 
 " For man's natural powers B.nd faculties, 
 even as they were before the fall entire, 
 were not sufficient or able of themselves to 
 reach such a supernatural end, but needed 
 the j)Ower of the Divine Spii'it to strengthen, 
 elevate, and raise them thereto." — Bp. 
 Bull. 
 
 FAILING. Failure. Impbr- 
 FECTiON. Weakness. Frailty. 
 Foible. Infirmity. Fault. 
 
 Failing (¥r. faitlir, to fail; Lat. 
 falOire, to deceive) is always moral and 
 personal. It is the systematic moral 
 falling short of moral agents in one par- 
 ticular; as, ** Irascibility is his failing." 
 
 *' I have failings, in common with every 
 human being, besides my own peculiar 
 faults ; but of avarice I have generally held 
 myself guiltless."— Fox. 
 
 " Our business is to show that objects of 
 great dimensions are incompatible with 
 beauty, the more incompatible because hey 
 are greater, whereas the small, if ever they 
 fail of beauty, this/at7wre is not to be attri- 
 buted to their size."— BuBKE. 
 
 Failure is the deficiency of supply 
 or performance in any way. The 
 former may or may not be connected 
 with personal conduct, the latter ne- 
 cessarily is so ; but in no case does 
 failure express moral habit, but only 
 the character of specific cases ; as the 
 failure of the crops, the failure of a 
 promise, or of an individual to per- 
 form it. 
 
418 
 
 Impeufection (late Lat. impe>-fec- 
 tibnem, imperfectus, incomplete) is a 
 more general term still, and is applic- 
 able to any defect of nature in natural 
 productions or artificial. When em- 
 ployed of individuals it is not applied 
 physically (in that case we use hle- 
 mish or defeci), but to any point in 
 which human nature falls short of its 
 ideal completeness or normal state, as 
 imperfect sight or hearing. An imper- 
 fection is a slight defect. 
 
 Weakness (A.S. w&c, weak) may be 
 used of physical and moral power. A 
 weakness, morally, is that kind of 
 failing which comes from insufficient 
 energy or judgment to resist it, a pro- 
 pensity uni'estrained, though acknow- 
 ledged to be unwise. 
 
 " Go wiser thoa, and in thy scale of sense 
 Weigh thy opinion against Providence ; 
 Call imperfection what thou fancy'st such. 
 Say, Here He gives too little, there too 
 inufh." Pope. 
 
 "Through the weakness of our mortal 
 nature, we cannot always stand upright." 
 —English Prayer Book. 
 
 Fraii.ty (Fr./re/e, formerly /m?7e, 
 L^t. frttgiih, brittle, frail) is the liabi- 
 lity to weakness, as well as the fault 
 proceeding from it, and also the lia- 
 bility to fall or oftend from the in- 
 fluence of motives external to one's 
 self overpowering the resolution, 
 blinding the judgment, or exhausting 
 patience and endurance. 
 
 " Or further seek his merits to disc-lose. 
 Or draw his frailties from their dread 
 abode 
 (There they alike in trembling hope re- 
 pose). 
 The bosom of his father and his God." 
 Gray. 
 
 Foible (0. Fr. foible, weak) is com- 
 monly used in the sense of a slight or 
 j)ardonable weakness, implying more 
 of folly than wrong, and havmg its 
 origin in constitutional defect of mind 
 or character. Hence it often belongs 
 to matters connected with a false es- 
 timate of self, a habit of imperfect ac- 
 tion being a failing, a habit of imper- 
 fect self-kwowledge a foible, such as 
 self-conceit. 
 
 Infiumiiy (^in-, not, and JirmiHf 
 ttrong), like Imi'frfection, is a gene- 
 
 SYNOKYMS [*FAINT] 
 
 ral term, denoting innate and conge- 
 nital weakness, a constitutional defi- 
 ciency of physical or moral power. 
 
 "I confess my foible with regard to flat- 
 tery. I am as foad of it as Vo)'^^aire can 
 jHJSsibly he, but with this difference, that I 
 love it only from a masterly hand."— Ches- 
 TKRFIELD. 
 
 " Drink no longer water, but use a little 
 wine for thy stomach's sake, and thine 
 often infirmities." — Ejig. Bible. 
 
 Fault, thouoh connected etymo- 
 logically with Bailing, is not, like it, 
 negative, but positive and definite, 
 being that which impairs excellence 
 in a grave and conspicuous manner, 
 an offence only less serious than e 
 crime. Such, at least, is the force 
 which it has come to assume. Fault 
 in the common acceptation of the 
 word as it regards human beings, be- 
 longs to the weakness of human nature. 
 It is a deviation from the rule of right 
 and duty. Traces of its stricter ety- 
 mological meaning appear in such 
 phrases as, " I will take this in fault of 
 a better," i.e. failing a better ; or in the 
 geological application of the term 
 fault to the displacement of a stratum; 
 or "The hounds are at fault," i.e. the 
 track of the scent has failed them. 
 
 " For who is there among the sons of 
 men that can pretend on every occasion 
 thi-oughout his own life to have preserved a 
 faultless conduct ? "— Blair. 
 
 FAINT. Languid. 
 
 Faint (O. YY.feint, part, offeindre, 
 toj'eign) has several meanings analo- 
 gous to this primary one, as lacking 
 physical poAver, lacking spirit, lack- 
 ing distinctness of ibrm, delineation, 
 or colouring, or of any other quality 
 which is cognizable by the senses, as 
 a faint smell, a faint sound. As ap- 
 jdied to the condition of the human 
 frame, Faint denotes the absence oi 
 physical strength ; Languor (Lat. 
 langubrem) the want of vital energy. 
 Faintness in itself, though it may be 
 great at the time, is less chronic than 
 languor, and generally implies some 
 casual cause, as to be faint from loss 
 of blood, fatigue, hunger. Languor 
 is a relaxed or listless state of body, 
 caused by a continuously operating 
 cause, as constitutioaal temuerameat. 
 
[fair] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 419 
 
 want of rest, heat, or oppressiveness 
 of weather. 
 
 " Methonght I saw my late esponsed saiut 
 Brought to me like Alcestis from the grave. 
 Whom Jove's gi-eat son to her glad hasband 
 
 gave. 
 Rescued from death by force, though pale 
 
 and faint." MiLTON. 
 
 " Methinks the hiehest expressions that 
 language, assisted with all its helps of meta- 
 phor and resemblance, can afford, are very 
 limguid and faint in comparison of what 
 f hey strain to represent when the goodness 
 of God towards them who love Him comes 
 to be expressed." — BarrOW. 
 
 FAIR. Goodly. 
 
 Fair (A. S./tf-^cr) is primarily free 
 from all that taints, befouls, obstructs, 
 •or blemishes ; hence pleasing to the 
 eye, lig^ht-coloured, cloudless, unob- 
 structed, candid, or impartial, favour- 
 able, distinct, common, .or ordinary. 
 Fair weather is the opposite to foul 
 or stormy. 
 
 As applied to persons and their ap- 
 pearance. Fair denotes tliat which, 
 being clear and unsullied, is pleasing 
 to the eye. It expresses an attri- 
 bute of the appearance only. 
 
 Goodly is an epithet of the entire 
 nature, and hence fair to look upon. 
 That which is goodly is pleasant, 
 agreeable, desirable; hence in most 
 instances fair to look upon also. A 
 fair woman is bright, beautiful ; a 
 goodly woman is a fine- grown one — 
 a specimen of goodness in the ex- 
 ternal qualities of womanhood. 
 
 Clear (Fr. clair, Lat. cldrus) is 
 bright, undimmed, and so by analogy 
 distinct, perspicuous, audible, pure, 
 unclouded, untarnished, unobstructed. 
 In speaking of the weather, that is 
 fair which is not foul or stormy ; so 
 tliat the term admits of degrees, as, 
 " Tolerably fair," " Very fair." Clear 
 denotes the absence of cloud, haze, or 
 fog, and the brightness of the heavenly 
 bodies. We might, without impro- 
 priety, say, " We had fair weather for 
 the voyage, but not many clear days, 
 for we had a good deal of fog." 
 
 "When it is evening ye say. It will be 
 fair weather, for the sky is reA."— English 
 Bible. 
 
 So foul a fiky clears not without a storm." 
 8HAKE8PEA.RB. 
 
 FAIR. Just. Equitable. Rea- 
 sonable. Moderate, Right. 
 
 All these terms are applicable to 
 persons, their conduct, and their de- 
 mands. 
 
 Fair {see above) denotes an esti- 
 mate in detail of what is reciprocally 
 just; a fair price for an article is that 
 which seems right considering the cir- 
 cumstances of buyer and seller and 
 sale. Hence the common use of such 
 expressions as, " Upon the whole that 
 seems fair." So a fair man is he who 
 is ready to look at others' interests as 
 well as his own, and to view matters 
 without partiality, prejudice, or self- 
 seeking. As justice depends upon the 
 due proportion of the thing, so fairness 
 comes of due proportion of feeling in 
 the person. That fitness enters into 
 the essence of fairness may be seen in 
 the fact mentioned by S'keat, E<i/w. 
 D/cf., that the Goth. "fas;rs" trans- 
 lates tCQsTov in Luke xiv. 35. 
 " I would call itfair play." 
 
 Shakkspkare. 
 
 " Would it become a Just governor to 
 permit his rebalHous sul)jects, those who 
 contemn his laws, to persecute such as were 
 obedient to him ? "— WiLKiKS. 
 
 Just ( Lat. Justus) is more conjpre- 
 hensive, and implies the application 
 of principles of retributive justice, 
 where it is due, in antagonism to all 
 else,ase.«;. any temptation to partiality, 
 or negligence in award. There is a dig- 
 nity and sternness about the term just 
 which does not belong to Fair, as if it 
 connected itself more directly with 
 personal and responsible action. So 
 prizes are said to be fairly won and 
 justly awarded. 
 
 Equitable (se,e Equity) is accord- 
 ing to Equity, and so has the force of 
 the noun itself, which is not mere fair- 
 ness, but such justice as may serve to 
 supplement the imperfections of law 
 or rule. If justice belongs to the 
 judge, equity should guide the de- 
 cision of the umpire. 
 
 " Justice shalt. toon have ; 
 Nor shall an equitable claim depend 
 On such precarious issue." 
 
 Smollkt. 
 
 Reasonable (Fr. raisonnab{ey rai- 
 soii, Lat. rdtionerriy reason) denotes 
 what is fair under another aspect. 
 
420 
 
 As the fair is the right between man 
 and man, the reasonable is the right 
 in itself, as it would commend itself 
 not only to the just but to the wise 
 man. The reasonable, however, ex- 
 tends beyond tlie matters of inter- 
 course between man and man, to the 
 essential nature of things, which are 
 in accordance with common sense or 
 common experience. A reasonable 
 prospect of'^success, for instance, is a 
 prospect which circumstances render 
 probable. 
 
 "Argnment alone, though it might in- 
 deed evince the consistency and reasonable- 
 ness of the doctrine, could never amount to 
 a proof of its heavenly origin." — HoRSLEy, 
 
 Moderate (Lat. part. inMtratus, 
 restrained, reguUiled), as commonly 
 employed, denotes a marked absence 
 0^ excess in demand ; this may or may 
 .lot flow from justice or fairness — the 
 term states nothing but the fact. " I 
 purchased the article at a moderate 
 price," indicates nothing as to the in- 
 tentions of the seller. Moderate mea- 
 sures may be, and very often are, the 
 expressions of justice, but they may 
 also originate in prudence, or be dic- 
 tated by necessity. 
 
 " Moderate rain and showers." — Book of 
 Common Prayer. 
 
 FAITHFUL. Trusty. Coxnfi- 
 
 DENTIAL. 
 
 These terms start, as it were, from 
 opposite sides. The Faithful (0. Fr. 
 f'ei, Lsit. J'tdem, faith) servant, for in- 
 stance, is he who is full of faith, in the 
 sense of fidelity to his master; the 
 Trusty servant is he who is worthy 
 of his master's trust. Hence Trusty 
 is a more comprehensive term than 
 Faithful, which it includes, together 
 with all other oualities which justify 
 the reposing or confidence. The in- 
 discreet servant, however he might 
 love his master, would not be trusty, 
 though we might not speak of him 
 as unfaithful. 
 
 " Faithful found 
 Among the faithless." 
 
 Milton. 
 ' The shepherd last appears. 
 And with him all his patrimony bears ; 
 His house and household gods, his trade of 
 
 war. 
 His bow and quiver, and his trusty cur." 
 Drtdbw, Virgil. 
 
 SYNONYMS [faithful] 
 
 Confidential (La^. eofOTid^^ tc 
 trust confidently) expresses the simple 
 relationship of tinist, not the deserving 
 of it. It has happened that masters 
 have been robbed, betrayed, and mur- 
 dered by their confidential servants. 
 
 "Against all rules, after we had met 
 nothing but rebuffs in return to all . ar 
 pi'oposals, we made two confidential co - 
 nmnications to those in whom we had nc 
 confidence, and who reposed no confldente 
 in us." — Burkk 
 
 F.AITHLESS. Treacherous. 
 Perfidjous. 
 
 Faithless means no more than not 
 keeping faith. The character of faith- 
 lessness may therefore vary in degree. 
 and may or may not be accompaniea 
 by a desire to deceive or inj ure others. 
 The sentinel who sleeps at his post is 
 faithless to his duty. 
 
 Treachery (Fr. tricherie, cheating, 
 trickery) and Perfidy (Lat. per/ it/ ja) 
 are peculiar kinds of faithlessness. 
 Perfidy denotes the violation of some 
 trust reposed and recognized or ac- 
 cepted by the other party. Treachery 
 is the leading one to trust for tlie 
 purpose of bringing to harm, or the 
 readiness to break oflT a trust reposed 
 to one's own benefit, and the injury 
 of another. Treachery lures by de- 
 ceitful appearances to ruin. Perfidy 
 violates engagements fiom self-in- 
 terest or inclination. Perfidy is a false- 
 hood dark and deep. It is an abuse 
 of trust founded on inviolable guaran- 
 tees of humanity, good faith, laws, 
 gratitude, friendship, natural relation- 
 ship. The more sacred such rights 
 and the more calm the trust reposed 
 upon them, the more secret the per- 
 fidy ; and the more established the re- 
 lationship, the baser the perfidy which 
 violates it. 
 
 •* When the heart is sorely wounded by 
 the ingratitude or faithlessness of those on 
 whom it had leaned with the whole weight 
 of afi'ection, where shall it turn for relief?" 
 —Blair. 
 
 " Thou 'st broke perfidiously thy oath. 
 And not performed thy plighted troth." 
 Hudibras, 
 
 "The promontory or peninsula which 
 disjoins these two bays I call Traitor'i 
 Head, from the treacherous behaviour of 
 it« iahabitants."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
[falsehood] discriminated. 
 
 421 
 
 FALLACIOUS. Sophistical. 
 
 Fallacious reasoning (Lat. /«//a- 
 :em, adj. fallire, to deceive) is that 
 which seems to be fairly conducted 
 and conclusive, but is not so by rea- 
 son of some vitiating cause, called the 
 fallacy, which lurks beneath it. 
 
 " This fallacious idea of liberty, whilst it 
 presents a vain shadow of happiness to the 
 subject, binds faster the chains of his sub- 
 jection."— BuEKE. 
 
 Sophistical reasoning (Gr. ct^a-- 
 TJKoc, iro<})«rT>;?, a sophist) is that of 
 which the nature is so subtle, that its 
 faults cannot easily be detected and 
 exposed, and it may be unanswerable 
 without being convincing. Sophisti- 
 cal reasoning may silence and be- 
 wilder, but seldom persuades. By 
 fallacious reasoning we may deceive 
 others, and are continually deceiving 
 ourselves, in those cases in which our 
 own hearts give credence to the fal- 
 lacy ; but sophistical reasoning is felt 
 at the time to be inconclusive. 
 
 " A set of men smitten not with the love 
 of wisdom, but of fame and glory, men of 
 great natural abilities, notable industry, 
 and boldness, appeared in Greece, and as- 
 sumed the name of 5b»Ats^s."— Sydenham, 
 Plato. 
 
 " Inconclusive and sophistical." — Bo- 
 LINGBROKE. 
 
 FALSE. Fabulous. 
 
 False (Lat. falsus) is opposed to 
 true. 
 
 Fabulous (Lat. fabtlldsus) ex- 
 presses a mode of the false — the false 
 m representation, description, or nar- 
 rative. The fabulous is inventive 
 falsehood. He who without inven- 
 tion, or believing it to be true, re- 
 counting what he has heard, states that 
 which is not the fact, gives an account 
 false as regards himself ; fabulous 
 also, if it be the concoction of an- 
 other. On the other hand, the fabu- 
 lous is often possible, though false in 
 the particular case. A man gives a 
 fabulous account who reports wonder- 
 ful things as seen in his travels, which, 
 in fact, he has not seen, though the 
 things may really exist, and are so far 
 not false. But though the things are 
 not false in the sense of unreal, his 
 Statement is, in the sense of untrue. 
 The idea of the false is much simpler 
 
 than that of the fabulous. One may 
 say what is false in a monosyllable. 
 I'hat which is fabulous implies order, 
 aiTangement, effort at probability, and 
 the like. And yet, so far as mere ap- 
 
 f)earance is concerned, the positively 
 alse may approach much nearer to 
 probability than the fabulous. Where 
 the false is probable the probability is 
 inherent and essential. Where the 
 fabulous is probable the probability 
 is contrived. I say that I have been 
 out for a walk, although I have not, 
 this is false. I invent a reason, and 
 Bay that a friend called to take me out, 
 this is fabulous. 
 
 FALSEHOOD. Falsity. Un- 
 TRUTH. Lie. 
 
 Of these terms Lie is the strongest 
 (A. S. leogan). It is criminal false- 
 hood, an untruth spoken for the pur- 
 pose of deceiving, and, indeed, for the 
 worst of all purposes. 
 
 An Untruth is simply a statement 
 which is not true, and may have been 
 uttered without intention to deceive 
 and through ignorance. " I must 
 con-ect myself; 1 accidentally spoke 
 an untruth." It is, however, often 
 employed in cases where the term Lie 
 seems harsh. So we should censure 
 a little child for telling an untruth, as 
 preferring to use a softer expression 
 than lie, which comprises offences of 
 much gi-eater magnitude. 
 
 The term Fai,sehood is somewhat 
 hard to determine. Its ordinary use 
 IS that of the statement in cases in 
 which Falsity is the quality. 1 am 
 convinced of the falsity of what is 
 said, and so call the saying a false- 
 hood ; though the use of Falsehood, 
 in the sense of Falsity, is not to be 
 simply reprobated, as some have done ; 
 for as likelihood means the quality 
 of being likely, so is falsehood the 
 quality of being false. The difficulty, 
 however, lies in determining whether 
 Falsehood denotes necessarily the vio- 
 lation of truth for purposes of deceit 
 There can be little doubt that, ordi- 
 narily speaking, this is so. Yet, philo- 
 sophical untruth may be called false- 
 hood, that is, philosophical falsehood. 
 The distinction in this case seems to 
 flow from the nature of the subiect- 
 
422 
 
 matter; an erroneous statement m 
 any subject-matter which is variable 
 or contingent could not be tei-med a 
 falsehood; on the other hand, a viola- 
 tion of scientific truth, even uninten- 
 tional, would be a falsehood. For 
 instance, I say, " He is not in the 
 house ; he has started for a walk." It 
 toi-ns out that he has returned ; but I 
 was in error without any intention to 
 deceive, therefore what I said was 
 not a falsehood. But suppose that a 
 philosopher in ancient times, judging 
 only by natural observation, liad said, 
 "The diameter of the moon is greater 
 than that of the sun ; " this would have 
 been a falsehood, though uttered with 
 no intention to deceive, that is, a 
 falsehood in science. Still a distinc- 
 tion may be well established between 
 cases in which Fai^ ehood and Fa lsity 
 might appear capable of being em- 
 ployed indifferently. " 1 perceive the 
 falsehood of your declaration," might 
 be misconstrued into giving the lie 
 where no such intention existed. This 
 might have beea avoided by using the 
 term falsity. 
 
 " He put forth a satire against the wicked 
 ness of these men, revealing the falsehood 
 and knavery that he was made privy to." — 
 Stkype, Memorials. 
 
 " The childish futility of some of these 
 maxims, the gross and stupid absurdity, and 
 the palpable /flteYy of others." — BuKKE. 
 
 "A lie is a breach of pj-onnse, for whoever 
 seriously addresses his aiscourse to another 
 tacitly promises to speak the truth, be- 
 cause he knows that trsitii is expected." — 
 Palky. 
 
 " That which they have been reproved for 
 is not because they did therein utter an un- 
 tmth, but such a truth as was not sufficient 
 to bear up the cause which they did thereby 
 seek to maintain."— Hookkk. 
 
 FALTER. Hesitate. 
 
 I'hese terms are employed of that 
 which interferes with the freedom of 
 speech, action, and thought. 
 
 Falteh (connected with fiadt) al- 
 ways comes from weakness, or igno- 
 rance. 
 
 Hesitate (Lat. hces^tare,. to stick 
 fast) may be the result of prudence, 
 and voluntary. Where it is used of 
 involuntary hesitation of speech, the 
 tongue falters through emotion, and 
 
 SYNONYMS [falter] 
 
 hesitates through inaptitude of speech. 
 He who falters proceeds but in a weak, 
 unstable, uncertain manner; he -t^ho 
 hesitates for the time suspends pro- 
 gress. Under that which distracts or 
 oppresses us we falter; before that 
 which discourages us, or places ob- 
 stacles in our way, or disturbs our 
 judgment, we hesitate. 
 
 " Twice she began, and stopp'd :. a^ain she 
 
 tried ; 
 The faltering tongue its office still lenied." 
 Deyden, Ovid. 
 " Without doubt or liesitancy." — Atter- 
 
 BURY. 
 
 FAME. Reputation. Renown. 
 Repute. 
 
 Fame ( Lat. yama) may be applied 
 to any object, good, bad, or indifte- 
 rent, and may even be used of passing 
 rumours. 
 
 Reputation (Lat. ripYitationem, a 
 reckoning, a pondering) belongs essen- 
 tially to persons, and not to the sub- 
 ject-matter of rumour. It implies some 
 amount of publicity of character. 
 
 Repute differs from Reputation in 
 applying to things as well as persons. 
 lie is a man of high reputation ; or his 
 character is in good or bad repute. 
 Some articles were at one time valued 
 in trade ; but they are of little repute 
 at present. 
 
 Renown ( Fr. renom, from renommer. 
 to name again, to celebrate) is employed 
 of deeds and characters or persons. 
 Renown is illustrious reputation, but 
 is confined, as Reputation is not, to 
 signal deeds. A man may have a 
 high reputation for integi-ity, but he 
 is renowned for striking deeds and 
 high achievements, not for moral ex- 
 cellences, unless they are conspi- 
 cuously exhibited. A good rnputation 
 is vv'ithin the reach of all. It is tlie 
 fruit of social virtues, and the consis- 
 tent discharge of duty. Intellect, 
 talent, genius, procure celebrity, 
 which, if it reach a certain point, be- 
 comes Renown, which, though more 
 extensive and brilliant than Reputa- 
 tion, may be less conducive to the 
 good of others and one's own happi- 
 ness. Renown comes from personal 
 greatness; but this may have been 
 acquii'ed or inherited. A general may 
 
[FAMOUS J 
 
 be renowned for liis valour and liis 
 victories; a monarcli for the extent ot 
 liis dominions. Renown is a far more 
 stable thing than reputation, resting 
 as it does upon great and acknow- 
 ledged facts ; reputation is more con- 
 ventional, equivocal, and vai'iable. It 
 is quite possible to sacrifice reputation 
 for renown. Reputation aims at tlie 
 quality of recognition ; fame and re- 
 nown at the quantity. Yet reputation 
 is sometimes very ill-founded, and a 
 man has a reputation which it puzzles 
 us to conjecture how he accpiired. 
 Such being the case, it is not astonish- 
 ing that different kinds of reputation 
 meet in the same person. 
 
 " Fame is a blessing only in relation to 
 the qualities and the persons that give it ; 
 since otherwise the tormented Prince of 
 Devils himself were as happy as he is mise- 
 rable; and famousness unattended with en- 
 dearing causes is a quality so undesirable, 
 that even infamy and folly can confess it." — 
 BOYLE. 
 
 " father, first for prudence in repute. 
 Tell, with that eloquence so much thy 
 
 own. 
 What thou hast heard." 
 
 Dryden, Ovid. 
 
 " Jteputation is the greatest engine by 
 which those who are possessed of power 
 must make that power serviceable to the 
 ends and uses of government," — Atter- 
 BURY. 
 
 " A foreign son-in-law shall come from far 
 (Such is our fJoom), a chief renovmcd in 
 
 war. 
 Whose race shall bear aloft the Latian 
 
 name. 
 And through the conquered world diffuse 
 
 our fame." Dryden, Virgil. 
 
 FAME. Report. Rumour. 
 
 In this connexion. Fame is a Re- 
 port or Rumour which invests the 
 subject of it with some degi-ee of im- 
 portance. It is the Uearsa} evidence 
 of remarkable persons and events, as, 
 "The fame of our Saviour's miracles 
 went abroad." 
 
 Rf.port (Fr. rapport, rapporter, to 
 bring back again) is a bringing back of 
 news, and may be authentic or un- 
 founded, or partly true and partly 
 false. The subject of a report, what- 
 ever may be the evidence for it, is 
 definite. 
 
 The subject of a Rumour (Lat. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 423 
 
 rnmorem) is indefinite and vague, in- 
 asmuch as it flies about from mouth 
 to mouth in such a way that no repor- 
 ters of it can be identified, or authority 
 substantiated. 
 
 " And the fame thereof was noised 
 abroad."— J5/i/e. 
 
 " Or speak ye of report, or did ye see 
 Jnst cause of dread, that makes ye doubt so 
 sore I " SpEXSER. 
 
 " What then befel him little I relate. 
 For various tales are rumoured of his fate." 
 HooLE, Orlando Furioso. 
 
 FAMILIAR. Free. 
 
 Free conduct (A. S. /red) is that 
 which exceeds the due bounds of re- 
 serve or respect toward another. 
 " Satire has always shone among the rest. 
 And is the boldest way if not the best 
 To tell men freely of their foulest faults. 
 To laugh at their vain deeds and vainer 
 thoughts," DRYDElf. 
 
 Familiar (fiimilidris, of or belonging 
 to n household, familia) conduct is the 
 same thing in the presence or toward 
 the person of the other. Free is a term 
 of treatment generally ; Familiar, 
 of personal demeanour. All familia- 
 rity is freedom ; but all freedom is not 
 familiarity. I use familiarity toward 
 a superior if I demean myself to wards 
 him as an equal, or if 1 behave to a 
 new acquaintance as if I had known 
 him long and well. The same thin^ 
 might also be called freedom ; but it 
 would be no less freedom if I were to 
 ask a person high in office for a per- 
 sonal favour when I had no acquain- 
 tance with or claim upon him. 
 " The lawn-robed Prelate and plain Pres- 
 byter, 
 Erewhile that stood aloof as shy to meet. 
 Familiar may be here like sister streams 
 That some rude interposing rock had split." 
 Blair. 
 
 FAMOUS. Celebrated. 
 
 Famous (Lat. fdma, fame or report) 
 denotes what is extensively known 
 and extensively talked about as some- 
 thing more than ordinary of its kind. 
 It is used both in a favourable and 
 unfavourable sense, though more com- 
 monly in the former. It is applicable 
 both to persons and things. 
 
 Celebrated (Lat. c^/i?o rare, to cele- 
 brate) is that of which men have 
 
424 
 
 SYNONYMS [fancy] 
 
 spoken or written much, as worthy of 
 iflterest or praise. It is not so forcible 
 a word as renowned or ilhtstrious, and 
 indicate* some merit or talent which, 
 without conferring grandeur, confers 
 nevertheless high honour on the sub- 
 ject of it. It is most frequently em- 
 {)loyed of intellectual character, of 
 iterary or scientific men. 
 
 " Men famous for their skill in polite 
 liierature."— Mason. 
 
 *' Dr. Warbnrton had a name sufficient to 
 conrer celebrity on those who could exalt 
 themselves into antagonists." — Johnson. 
 
 FANCY. IvAOINATION. CONCIP- 
 TION. 
 
 Fancy (con. oi fantasy, Fr. fan- 
 taisie, Gr. <pavrairM) is that faculty 
 which reproduces the impressions 
 caused by external objects, combines 
 and modifies them anew, and recalls 
 them for purposes of mental delecta- 
 tion. 
 
 Imagination (Lat. imaginationem, 
 an image, imaginari, to fancy) is almost 
 the same ; but there is a difference, 
 which, after all, depends more upon 
 the subject-matter than on any dis- 
 tinctness of faculty. The same power 
 which we should call Fancy, if em- 
 ployed on a production of a light 
 nature, would be dignified with the 
 title of Imagination if shown on a 
 larger scale. Imagination is a grander, 
 graver exercise of mind than fancy. 
 Its laws are more immediate, and its 
 connexion with truth more marked. 
 Imagination is more in earnest than 
 fancy, which is governed by remoter 
 associations, and may be arbitrary and 
 capricious ; which imagination, in the 
 higher sense of the term, never is. 
 The historical novels of Scott exhibit 
 both fancy and imagination ; fancy, 
 where scenes are introduced which 
 are not, or in all their details are not, 
 historically true, but sucli as might 
 have occurred ; imagination, where, 
 upon limited historical information, 
 he completes the outline of a character 
 or an event by the play of energetic 
 but accarate creations. 
 
 Conception (Lat. conceptidnenif con- 
 ctph'e, to conceive, imagine) differs from 
 both in being more creative, and 
 having for its object the production 
 
 of some reality, as the conceptions of 
 the poet, the painter, and the sculptor. 
 Fancy may be wholly unreal. Imagi- 
 nation must be in part real. Concep- 
 tion is altogether real. 
 " Play with your fancies, and in them be- 
 hold 
 Upon the hempen tackle ship-boys climb- 
 ing. 
 Hear the shrill whistle which doth order 
 
 give 
 To sounds confused. Behold the threadeo 
 
 sails, 
 Borne with th' invisible and creeping 
 
 wind. 
 Draw the huge bottoms through the fur- 
 rowed sea. 
 Breasting the lofty surge." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 " Poetry, however, in its ancient original 
 condition, was perhaps more vigorous than 
 it is in its modern state. It included then 
 the whole burst of the human mind, the 
 whole exertion of its imaginative faculties." 
 —Blair. 
 
 " By sight we have a conception or image 
 composed of colour and figure, which is all 
 the notice and knowledge the object im- 
 parteth to us of its nayg|a])y the eye." — 
 
 HOBBES. fl^^ 
 
 FANTASTICAL.^Bnciful. 
 It will be seen ab^i that these 
 words are of the same origin. The 
 Fanciful, however, denotes an arbi- 
 trary and capricious exercise of imagi- 
 nation or invention. The Fantasti- 
 cal violates order and propiiety. It 
 is fancifulness carried to a grotesque 
 pitch. Both are applicable to persons 
 and their thoughts, and even to ob- 
 jects, as in the quotation from Byron. 
 " And just as children are surprised with 
 
 dread. 
 And tremble in the dark, so riper years. 
 Even in broad daylight, are possessed mth 
 
 fears. 
 And shake at shadows /ana/wZ and vain 
 As those which in the breasts of children 
 reign." Dryden, Lucretius. 
 
 " 'Twas sweet of yore to see it play, 
 And chase the sultriness of day. 
 As sf)ringing high the silver dew 
 In \yh\v\s fantastically flew. 
 And flung luxurious coolness round 
 Ttie air, and verdure o'er the ground." 
 Byron. 
 
 /ARE. Food. Provisions, Vic- 
 tuals. 
 
 Food (A. S. foda) is the simplest, 
 and expresses whatever properly sup- 
 ports animal life, whether in men or 
 
[fast] 
 
 discriminatp:d. 
 
 425 
 
 other animals. 'J"ho term is sometimes 
 used of plants analogously, and, in a 
 eecondarj sense, of anything which 
 keeps up a required supply, as food 
 for study. 
 " Who e'er on wing with open throats 
 Fly at debates, expresses, votss, 
 Just in the manner swallows use, 
 Catching the airy /ood c'news." 
 
 Greek, The Spleen. 
 
 Fare (y.fare, to travel, A. S.faraii) 
 is food regularly accruing, and com- 
 monly has associated with it some 
 terra expressive of its specific cha- 
 racter, as good, substantial, poor, 
 meagre. It is specific daily food. 
 " Yet labouring well his little spot of 
 
 ground. 
 Some scattering pot-herbs here and there 
 
 he found. 
 Which cultivated with his daily care. 
 And bruised with vervain, were his frugal 
 fare." Drypen, Virgil. 
 
 Provision or Provisions (Lnt. pro- 
 vhionem, providere, to foresee , provide) 
 is suitable food for the procuring of 
 which arrangements have been made. 
 
 " With that 
 Both table and provision vanished quite." 
 Milton. 
 ViCTUAi^ (Lat. victus, mode of life, 
 victualx,{rom vtvire,to live)i8 employed 
 only of human food. Food and pro- 
 visions may exist in a crude state, or 
 unprepared for eating. Fare and 
 victuals denote prepared food. Vic- 
 tuals would not now be applied to 
 uncooked meat, flour, corn, and the 
 like ; nor is fare used of any but human 
 beings. 
 
 •• You had musty victunlx, 
 And he hath holp to eat it." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 FARMER. Husbandman. Agri- 
 culturist. 
 
 Farmf.h (Fr. lerme, an agreement to 
 let Ltnd,ihe land let, L. Lat.^rma) is one 
 who cultivates land, whether as the 
 freehold proprietor or tenant, for any 
 purpose connected with agriculture. 
 
 Husbandman originally meant the 
 master of a family, one who dwells in 
 the house ; I eel. hiii>h6ndi, biia, to dwell : 
 Richardson. It afterwards dropped 
 into the meaning of what in our day 
 is commonly called farm-labourer — 
 one who performed manual labour in 
 
 tillage, whetJier on his own account or 
 as a hired servant. 
 
 AoRicui.TURfST (Lat. agnciiltftra, 
 agriculture) admits the idea of scien- 
 tific ortheoretical farming, and farther 
 still, the science of ftxrming without 
 the practice of it. 
 
 " A farmer, firmarius, was one who held 
 his lands upon payment of a rent or feorme, 
 though at present, by a gi-adual departure 
 from the original sense, the word farm is 
 brought to signify the very estate or lands 
 so held upon farm or rent." — Blackstonk. 
 
 " The bulk of every State may be divided 
 into husbandmen and manufacturers."— 
 Hume. 
 
 *' The farmer is always a practitioner ; the 
 agriculturist may be a mere theorist." — 
 Crabb. 
 
 FAST. Firm. 
 
 Fast (A. S.ftest) and Firm (Lat. 
 frmus) may often be used interchange- 
 ably, as, " Hold firm," " Hold fast;" 
 but there are other instances which 
 show that Firm is a subjective, Fast 
 an objective term. A thing is firm in 
 itself, fast by external fixture. Drive 
 a nail fast into the wall, and it will be 
 firm enough to hang a weight upon 
 it. Hence Firm is used of the internal 
 qualities or substances of things, witli- 
 out reference to anything external, as 
 firm flesh, finn ice, and the like. In 
 their analogous applications the same 
 corresponding ideas appear. A fast 
 friend is one who remains steadfastly 
 united and attached. A firm friend 
 is one whose aflection is not easily 
 shaken. 
 
 " I know there is an order that keeps 
 things fast in their place, it is made to us, 
 and we to it." — BuRKE. 
 
 " It is Jehovah that is merciful, and as 
 Jehovah signi&es Jirmititde of being, and is 
 therefore compared to a rock, &c., so these his 
 mercies are likened to things of longest 
 duration, to those things which to us men 
 are such in our account." — GooDWIN. 
 
 FAST. Hard. 
 
 There is a use of these as adverbs of 
 motion. *' It rains fast," or, '' Itrains 
 hard." " To run fast," or, *' To i-un 
 hard." The momentum of a moving 
 body is compounded of the velocity 
 and the weight. So Fast (to rain fast) 
 denotes the velocity; Hard (A. S. 
 heard), to rain hard, denotes the 
 
426 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [fasten] 
 
 weight of the falling fluid. These 
 are not two different things, but the 
 same thing looked at from different 
 points of view. 
 
 FASTEN. Fix. 
 
 These differ in the degree of prox- 
 imity implied in that which is fastened 
 or fixed to something else. 
 
 To Fix (Lat. ftgire, part, ^uts) is 
 to fasten w4th contact, in such a way 
 that the thing fixed has no indepen- 
 dent movement. 
 
 " This act 
 Shall bruise the head of Satan, crush his 
 
 strength. 
 Defeating Sin and Death, his two main 
 
 arms, 
 And^x far deeper in his head their stings. 
 Than temporal death shall bruise the vic- 
 tor's heel. 
 Or theirs whom it redeems." Milton. 
 
 lo Fastkn admits of some interval, 
 and is not incompatible with limited 
 independent movement. A horse is 
 fastened to a gate ; but the gate-post 
 is fixed in the ground. 
 " Dut whei'e the fancy wants the skill 
 Of fluent easy dress at will. 
 The thoughts are oft like colts which stray 
 From fertile meads, and lose their way, 
 Clapl up a.nd fastened in the pound 
 Of measured rhyme and Ijarren sound." 
 Lloyd. 
 
 FASTIDIOUS. Squeamish. 
 
 Fastidious (h&t. fastidiosus, full of 
 bathing, fastidium) denotes scrupu- 
 lousness of taste; Squeamishness 
 (which is another form of qualmish- 
 less) belongs to matters of propriety 
 in conduct. The fastidious person is 
 apt to think things defective, the 
 squeamish to think them impermis- 
 siole. The fastidious is hard to please, 
 the squeamish hard to assure. One 
 idea of the Lat, fastidium is scorn, 
 pride ; hence fastidiousness is, literally, 
 the pride which rejects as not good 
 enough. It was also formerly used to 
 denote the character of what was re- 
 'ected from distaste or dislike ; as, 
 
 "That thing for the which children be 
 oftentimes beaten is to them after fasti- 
 dious." ~SiR T. Elyot. 
 A nearer approach to the modern use, 
 yet preserving the radical idea of 
 pride, is the following : — 
 
 " What was blameabie '.n the Phaj'i.spes 
 
 was not their bars using of some lawfn), 
 indifferent, or else good and commendable 
 things not commanded by Goti, but their 
 teaching such for doctrines, and laying 
 them as burthens on others ; and, what 
 was consequent to this, their discriminat- 
 ing themselves proudly and fastidiously 
 fi'om other men upon this account," — Ham- 
 mond. 
 
 " The thorough-paced politician must pre 
 sently laugh at the squeamishness of his con- 
 science." — South. 
 
 Where the term Squeamish is applied 
 to matters of taste, it expresses over- 
 scrupulousness on minor points, an 
 excessive and misplaced fastidious- 
 ness. As Squeamish is a weakening 
 of the force of qualmish, so qualmish 
 also, denoting sickly languor, h?slost 
 much of the force of A. S. civealm, 
 pestiletice, destruction, 
 
 FATIGUE. Weariness. Lassi- 
 tude. 
 
 Fatigue {Fr.fatiguer, hht.ftliigare, 
 to weary) is the result of sustained 
 labour or exertion. It involves no- 
 thing abnormal. The soldier is fatigued 
 by a long march ; by food and rest he 
 is refreshed. But if the march be such 
 as to cause his spirits to flag in any 
 way, as well as to weaken his phy- 
 sical powers, he then suffers Weari- 
 ness (A. S. werig, weary). Fatigue 
 is applicable to the mental and phy- 
 sical, Weariness to the moral powers. 
 Weariness of a war may demoralize 
 an army. 
 
 Lassitude (Lat. lussitud}inem, lassusy 
 weary) is chronic fatigue, owing to 
 some continuously operating cause. 
 It is very like languor; but languor 
 is constitutional, and often might be 
 thrown off by exertion; lassitude ii 
 actual weakness, by relaxation of the 
 physical powers. 
 
 " The coaqneroT fatigued in war 
 With hot pursuit of enemies afar," 
 
 PAJtNELL. 
 
 " Weariness and labour, and to eat in the 
 sweatof his brows,and to turn to dust again." 
 —Bishop Tay'Lor, 
 
 "Lassitude is remedied by bathing, or 
 anointing with oil and warm water." — 
 Bacon. 
 
 FAVOUR. Grace. 
 Favour (Lsit. fttvorem, goodwill) is 
 used for the ouality of an act, or an 
 
[feasible] 
 
 act of good will, as distinguished from 
 oneofobligative justice or compensa- 
 tion. 
 
 Grace (Lat. gratia) is used in the 
 same sense ; but grace, unlike favour, 
 stands over against something in the 
 way of demerit. It is a favour in a 
 sovereign to confer a title on a dis- 
 tinguished subject ; it is an act of 
 grace to pardon a criminal. 
 " He lived with all the pomp he conld de- 
 vise. 
 At tilts and tournaments obtained the 
 
 prize, 
 Bnt found no favour in his lady's eyes." 
 Drvdex. 
 " But say I could repent, and could obtain 
 By act of grace my former state, how soon 
 Would height recall high thoughts ? " 
 
 Milton. 
 
 FEAR. Apprehension. Dread. 
 
 The idea common to these words is 
 the expectation of future evil. They 
 rise in force in tho following order. 
 A faint emotion is expressed by 
 Apprehend, a stronger by Fear, a 
 stronger still by Dread. 1 call on 
 my friend ; from the look of the house 
 1 apprehend he has gone out. 1 fear 
 he is unwell ; and after his severe ill- 
 ness I dread to hear of his death. 
 Apprehend denotes generally an an- 
 ticipation, and sometimes an anticipa- 
 tion of evil. Fear is a generic word. 
 It is an inward feeling which may 
 urge to action or inaction, as against 
 a coming evil. Fear is sometimes an 
 emotion, sometimes an intellectual 
 consciousness of danger. It is also 
 employed of possible as well as actual 
 evil. It is of so many kinds as to re- 
 quire the addition of qualifying words 
 to define it. Dread is more definite 
 than fear, and more intense. Fear of 
 God, or of the judgment of society, 
 may be a wholesome principle of 
 action within certain bounds. This 
 ecu d not be said of the dread of them. 
 Jf we felt dread of these it would be 
 from a consciousness that we had 
 done something to deserve punish- 
 ment. F ear and Dr e a d are applicable 
 not only to events, but directly to per- 
 gons, which Apprehend is not ; the 
 latter is of probable acts or coming 
 events. To dread is commonly usei 
 of some impending evil from which 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 427 
 
 we would gladly escape. Both fear 
 and dread involve apprehension. 
 Fear regarded as a passion or emotion 
 is not, like apprehension, mental, and 
 excited by an act of judgment, but a 
 principle implanted in the animal na- 
 ture as a means to self-preservation. 
 It may be groundless like apprehen- 
 sion, so that we sometimes oppose the 
 fear of evil to its reality. 
 
 *' Fear is a painful sensation produced by 
 the immediate apprehension of some im- 
 pending evil." — CoGAN. 
 
 " Dread is a degree of permanent fear, 
 an habitual and painful apprehension of 
 some tremendous event." — Jbid. 
 
 FEASIBLE. Possible, Prac- 
 ticable. 
 
 Feasible (O.Fr./ais«6/c, /ai>-e,tod<), 
 pres. part. /aisoKf )'denotes that which 
 naay be effected by human agency. 
 
 Possible (Fr. possible, Lat. posstbiltt) 
 is of wider meaning, and means capa- 
 ble of existing or occurring. Thus 
 many things may be possible which 
 are not feasible ; for feasible belongs 
 to the province of action only, possible 
 to that of thought and action also ; as 
 when we say, " It is possible, but not 
 probable." 
 
 Practicable (Yr.pratiqneVftoprac- 
 tise) is very like Feasible ; but Prac- 
 ticable refers to matters of moral 
 practice, while Feasible belongs to 
 matters of physical action, or human 
 plans and designs. For instance, we 
 might say, " A feasible," or " A prac- 
 ticable scheme;" but we could only 
 say, " A practicable," not a " feasible 
 virtue." Practicable has the further 
 sense of capable of being made use of; 
 as, " The mountain roads at this sea- 
 son are practicable ;" where Feasible 
 could not have been employed. 
 
 "So Charles VIII., King of France, 
 finding the war of Britain, which after- 
 wards was compounded by marriagie, not 
 so feasible, pursued his entei'prise upon 
 Naples, which he accomplished with 
 wonderful facility and felicity,"— Bacux. 
 
 "Possibilities are as infinite as God'« 
 power."— South. 
 
 " The failure of the attempts hitherto 
 made on this subject are not deci«T« 
 against the practicability of such a pro- 
 ject."— Stewart. 
 
428 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [feature 
 
 FEATURE. Lineament. 
 
 The Feature (O. Fr.faitnre, Lat. 
 facthra, a making)^ which is now a 
 component part of tlie face, was at 
 first the whole of it ; the form and 
 fashion of the visage, nay, even the 
 entire figure of the man. Its plural 
 use is now necessitated to make it 
 equivalent to face. 
 
 Lineament (Lat. Rnedmentum, a 
 Ivie) is Btill used in the sense of the 
 lines of the whole body. The linea- 
 ments are the outlines which are filled 
 up by the features. 
 
 FEEBLE. Weak. Infirm. De- 
 CBEPiT. Impotent. 
 
 As employed of men's states, Weak 
 (A. S. wac) is used of deficiency of 
 physical, moral, and mental strength ; 
 Feeble (Fr.faible, Lat. Jlibllis, dole- 
 ful) of the physical and the intel- 
 lectual; Infirm (Lat. injirmns) of 
 the physical and the moral. Of these 
 Weak is the generic term ; and feeble- 
 ness and infirmity are manifestations 
 of weakness. Feebleness is relative 
 weakness ; infirmity is chronic weak- 
 ness. A man is in a feeble state when 
 some cause has occun'ed to deprive 
 him of his full sti-ength. A feeble 
 attempt is one which might conceiv- 
 ably have been much more effective. 
 Infirmity is said of persons labouring 
 under some form of weakness which 
 has become habitual to them, and 
 which there seems little likelihood of 
 removing. A support, a means, an 
 expedient, a beam, a wall, an argu- 
 ment, may oe weak. We call any- 
 thing weak which is deficient in 
 reLitive force. Weak eyesight will 
 not bear the broad daylight ; a weak 
 digestion is continually failing in its 
 office, a weak apology breaks down 
 under the weight of the charge. A 
 weak mind is without play of imagi- 
 nation, power of comprehension, or 
 resolt tion,or resistance to the influence 
 of others. 
 
 *' With continual pains, teaching the 
 grammar school there and preaching, he 
 changed this life for a better, in great 
 feeblencxs of body more than of fouI or 
 mind. "— Strype, Memorials. 
 
 *' Through the uealaiess of our mortal 
 
 nature we can do no good thing without 
 Thee." — Book of Common Prayer. 
 
 " Vehement passion does not aJways in- 
 dicate an infirm judgment. It often ac- 
 companies and actuates, and is even an 
 auxiliary to, a powerful understanding." — 
 BUKKK. 
 
 Decrepit is a significant word ; it 
 is the Lat. decrtpitus, noiseless, creep- 
 ing noiselessly about, like old people. 
 It marks the period when the back is 
 bowed, the limbs feeble, the gait tot- 
 tering, and the body past its work. 
 
 " All ages from wailing infancy to queru- 
 lous decrepitness, and all conditions from 
 the careful sceptre to the painful spade, are 
 fraught with many gi-eat inconveniences 
 peculiar to each of them." — Barrow. 
 
 Impotent (Lat. imp'Htentem) is de- 
 ficient in natural power — animal, in- 
 tellectual, or moral. The weakness 
 may be congenital or acquired. The 
 term is applicable to persons, and 
 their eflforts. 
 " impotence of mind in body strong t " 
 Milton. 
 
 FEELING. Sensation. Per- 
 ception. Sensibility. Suscepti- 
 bility. Emotion. Passion. Sense, 
 Consciousness. Reflexion. 
 
 Feeling (A. S.f^lan, to feel) is a 
 term of very comprehensive appli- 
 cation. It denotes the faculty of per- 
 ceiving external objects or certain 
 states of the body itself, the specific 
 sense of touch, the faculty of self- 
 consciousaess, emotional capacity or 
 states, or the manifestation of such 
 emotion, and, lastl}'-, even intellectual 
 conviction. In one view it is one of 
 what ai-e called the five senses, the 
 rest being the si^ht, the smell, the 
 taste, and the hearing. 
 
 Sensation (Lat. sensus, sensation^ 
 sentiment) is the impression (or 
 capacity of receiving it) produced 
 upon the organization through the 
 organs of sense, or derived from in- 
 corporeal objects, such as thoughts, 
 announcements, and the like. It an- 
 swers to one of the meanings of feel- 
 ing — a feeling or sensation of cold, 
 but is less colloquial. 
 
 Perception (Lat. perceptionem) is 
 the conscious reference of sensation 
 to the cause which produced it. Per- 
 ception combines the internal with 
 
[feign] 
 
 the external. Sensation is internal 
 only. See Idea. 
 
 Sensibility is the capacity of feel- 
 ing or perception. 
 
 Susceptibility (Lat. msci-phe, in 
 the sense of to undergo, suffer) is com- 
 monly used in the sense of quick sen- 
 Bibility, or the capacity of it. 
 
 Consciousness (Lat. couscius, con- 
 scious of) is the faculty of regai-ding 
 one's own mind and thoughts as ob- 
 !ect-matter of knowledge ; while Re- 
 flexion (Lat. rejiexionem, a bending 
 back) is the exercise of that faculty. 
 
 Emotion and Passion deserve to 
 be dilierenced between themselves. 
 
 Emotion (Fr. emotion, Lat. imovire, 
 tostiruji, part, hnotum) is a strong ex- 
 citement of feeling, tending to mani- 
 fest itself by its eflect upon the body. 
 
 Passion (Lat. passionem, as a trans, 
 of Gr. TraSoi) denotes the state when 
 any feeling or emotion masters the 
 mind, which becomes, though ener- 
 getically influenced, yet passive as 
 regards the strong power which con- 
 tiols it. See the quotation. 
 
 Sense (Lat. sensus, sensation, senti- 
 ment) is employed in the widest way 
 to comprise the whole range of mental 
 and physical sensation; as, "The 
 things of time and sense." But there 
 IS a specific use of the word Sense in 
 which it belongs to what is mentally 
 (as sensation to what is physically) 
 perceived. A sensation of pain or 
 pleasure, a sense of injury or kind- 
 ness. 
 
 "Perception is only a special kind of know- 
 ledge, and sensation a special kind of feel- 
 ing."— Sir W. Hamilton. 
 
 "The true lawgiver ought to have a 
 Heart full ol sensibility."— BunKK. 
 
 " He sheds on sonls susceptible of light 
 
 The glorious dawn of an eternal day." 
 YuUNQ. 
 
 *' Hew different the emotions between 
 teparf ere and return I " — Washington 
 Irving. 
 
 '* The primary idea annexed to the word 
 passion is that of passiveiiess, or being im- 
 T'ulsively acted upon." — CoGAN. 
 
 " Consciousness is the perception of what 
 passes in a man's own mind." — LoCKE. 
 
 "By reflection, then, in the following 
 pait of this discourse, I would be under- 
 stood to mean that notice which the mind 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 429 
 
 takes of its own operations, and the manner 
 of them, by reason whereof there come to be 
 id*as of these operations in the under- 
 standing."— 7iid. 
 
 FEIGN. Pretend. Simulate. 
 Dissejiule. 
 
 Feign (Fr.feindre, Lat. fngere) is 
 to give fictitious existence, or to give 
 an impression of something as actual 
 or true which is not so. It is either 
 positive or negative, and might be 
 either in assumption or concealment. 
 
 To Pretend (Lat. prcttendere, to 
 stretch forth, to allege) is to put for- 
 ward what is unreal or untrue in such 
 a way as that it may be accepted a? 
 true. Feigning commonly misleads 
 the observation, pretence the under* 
 standing. Feigning puts out falst 
 appeai-ances, pretence false facts also. 
 1 feign frienclship for another in my 
 outward demeanour and conduct. *. 
 pretend that I am his friend as a mat- 
 ter of fact by what I say to mislead 
 the judgment. It will be observed, 
 that what in Feign is the primary, ii. 
 Pretend is the secondary meaning. 
 Delusion is the very essence of feign- 
 ing ; but to pretend is etymologically 
 and in its oldest sense simply to put 
 forward; then, derivatively, to put 
 forward as an excuse, or with false 
 purpose. We can only feign what is 
 directly associated with ourselves; 
 but we may pretend in matters of fact 
 o;enerally or as connected with othera. 
 I may pretend, for instance, that I 
 enjoy the intimate acquaintance of 
 many great personages; but I can 
 only do this oy misrepresentation of 
 facts. It would be impossible for me 
 to feign this witliout ejhibitiiig some- 
 thing to lead to this belief. 
 
 To Simulate (Lat. simiildre, sinii 
 lis, nice) can, like Feign, be onlv em 
 ployed of what is personal in one s self. 
 To simulate is to put on and syste- 
 matically exhibit what are the natural 
 signs and indications of feelings, a 
 character, or a part which do not 
 really belong to one ; to act a feigned 
 part, to counterfeit in action or de- 
 meanour. 
 
 Dissimulation (Lat. dksimtilatio- 
 nem) is the feigned concealment of 
 what really «xw(s in one's character or 
 
430 
 
 SYNONYMS [fellowship] 
 
 feeling; as simulation is the feigned 
 exhibition of what does not exist. 
 Simulation and Dissimulation may be 
 joined in one act. So we may simu- 
 late lauo-hter in order to dissemble 
 disappointment. 
 "And much she marvelled that a youth so 
 
 raw, 
 Nor felt, nor feigned at least, the oft-told 
 
 flames. 
 Which, though sometimes they frown, yet 
 
 rarely anger dames." 
 
 By RON. 
 " Some, indeed, have pretended by art 
 and physical applications to recover the 
 dead ; but the success has sufficiently up- 
 braided the attempt." — South. 
 
 " Simulation and dissimulation, for in- 
 stance, are the chief arts of cunning." — 
 BOLINGBROKE. 
 
 FELLOWSHIP. Society. 
 Fellowship (fellow was formerly 
 0. E. felawe, Icel. felag, association, 
 ^^feelaw," a laying together of property : 
 Richardson and Skeat) is expressive 
 of close or continuous intercourse as 
 It relates to men individually; So- 
 ciety (Lat. s'dcietas, socins, a fellow) 
 as it relates to them collectively. I 
 find myself in good or bad society 
 generally. (The term FELLowsiiir 
 could not have been employed here.) 
 And I am on terms of good fellow- 
 ship with this or that person in par- 
 ticular. IMoreover, Fellowship im- 
 ports some degree of equality, which 
 Society does not. 
 
 " Oi fellowship I speak. 
 Such as I seek, fit to participate 
 All rational delight, wherein the brute 
 Cannot be human consort." MiLTON. 
 
 As Society expresses community of 
 presence, so Fellowship community 
 of privileges, state, enjoyments, pos- 
 sessions, and the like. 
 
 •' Gofl having designed man for a sociable 
 creature, made him not only with an in- 
 clination and under a necessity to have 
 fellowship with those of his own kind, but 
 fm-nished him also with language, which 
 WAS to be the greater instrument and com- 
 mon tie of sooeiv/."— Locke. 
 
 FEMALE. Feminine. Effemi- 
 nate. 
 
 Female (hat. fimella, diminutive of 
 femina, a woman) is applied to the sex 
 as opposed to male. 
 
 Feminine (Lat. ftmininut, of th$ 
 
 fern, gender) is applied to the proper- 
 ties and characteristics of the sex as 
 opposed to masculine. To matters 
 distinctively related to women we ap- 
 ply the adjective Female, as female 
 dress. To matters which are appro- 
 priate to women, but not exclusively 
 restricted to them, we apply the ad- 
 jective Feminine ; as, feminine ac- 
 complishments. Feminine branches of 
 learning are taught in female schools. 
 To what belongs as a fact to men, but 
 would belong more fitly to women, 
 we apply the adjective Effeminate. 
 
 "A wondrous monument of female 
 wiles." — Pope. 
 
 " Nothing will be found of such exten 
 sive use for supplying the deficiencies of 
 Chaucer's metre as the pronunciation of 
 the e feminine." — Tyrwhitt on Chaucer. 
 
 "An effeminate and unmanly foppery." — 
 Bishop Hurd. 
 
 FEROCIOUS. Fierce. Savage. 
 Barearovs. 
 
 The two former are equally appli- 
 cable to men and the lower animals, 
 the third more properly to men, the 
 last exclusively to men. 
 
 Ferocious (Lat. ftrocem) denotes 
 the quality of fierceness. The hyzena is 
 a ferocious animal even when asleep. 
 
 Fierce (Lat. ferns) expresses the 
 exhibition of ferocity in an energetic 
 and wild way, which gives to the 
 looks and the movements an expres- 
 sion of passionate eagerness to hurt 
 or destroy. Yet ferocity is always 
 inherent, fierceness may express in 
 some cases a temporary excitement. 
 Many an animal not habitually fero- 
 cious might become fierce if provoked 
 to anger. 
 
 Savage (Yr. scinvage, Lat. •'Ivdticus, 
 silva, a tcood, as if grown up wild in 
 the woods) denotes the absence of all 
 that might tend to domesticate or 
 soften, and the consequent presence 
 of a native unrestrained licentiousness 
 of nature. 
 
 Barbarous (Lat. barbdi-us, Gt. 
 ^kf^afoq, foreign) is employed of the 
 way in which such dispositions mani- 
 fest themselves. So we commonly 
 speak of "a savage spirit " showing 
 itself in "barbarous usage," or " treat- 
 
fFESTiT AL] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 431 
 
 meni.'' Tlie barbait us is tlie savage 
 in manner, as the savage is the bar- 
 barous in disposition. 
 
 " The lion, ^fierce and fei-ocious animal, 
 hath young ones but seldom, and one at a 
 time " — Bhown, Vulgar Errors. 
 
 " One of them fired a pistol at him (Arch- 
 bishop Sharpe), which burnt his coat and 
 gown, but did not go into his body. Upon 
 this they fancied he had a magical secret to 
 secure him against a shot ; and they drew 
 him out of his coach and murdered him 
 barbarously, repeating their strokes till they 
 were sure he was rjuite dead." — BuKNET. 
 
 '* There can be no true liberty where such 
 licentiousness is suffered with impunity. 
 This is part of the savageness of coi-rupt 
 n-ature."— Waterland. 
 
 FERTILE. FuuiTFUL. Pkoufic. 
 
 PUODUCTIVE. 
 
 Fertile ( Lat. Jerfi/is, fromjero, 1 
 bear) expresses that which has an in- 
 herent capacity of producing. It is 
 applied properly to soil, and metapho- 
 I'ically or analogously to the mind or 
 capacity of man ; as, a fertile field, a 
 fertile imagination, fertile in resources. 
 
 Fruitful (Lat, J ructus, fruit) de- 
 notes that which produces of its own 
 kind, and is opposed to barren, as 
 fertile is opposed to waste. A tree is 
 fruitful or unfruitful, as it bears, or 
 not, of its own fruit. A field might 
 be called either fertile or fruitful ; 
 feitile as regards the quality of the 
 soil, fruitful as regards the abundance 
 of the produce. But, generally speak- 
 ing, the soil is fertile, the tree is fruit- 
 ful. 
 
 Prolific (Lat. protificus, proles, off- 
 springy and fUcerey to make) denotes 
 tlie production of young in abundance, 
 and is employed both of animals and 
 fruit-bearing trees or vegetables. It 
 also is used metaphorically, as "a 
 measure prolific of evil consequences." 
 The very abundantly and variously 
 fruitful is the prolific. 
 
 Productive (Eat. prodrictre, part. 
 prodnctus, to lead forth, to produce) 
 denotes no more than the fact of pro- 
 ducing in tolerable quantity. This is 
 not, therefore, a term, like Fertile and 
 Prolific, expressive of a natural pro- 
 perty of necessity. The naturally pro- 
 iuctive is identical with the fertile ; 
 but productiveness may be the result 
 
 of art in tillage. So it might be said, 
 " That field would grow nothing till 
 I mixed a certain manure with the 
 soil. It is now as productive as any 
 on the estate." 
 
 " The quickness of the imagination is seen 
 in the invention, the fertility in the fancy, 
 and the accuracy in the exj;ression." — 
 Dkyden. 
 " We curse not wine — the vile excess we 
 
 blame. 
 More fi-uitful than the accumulated hoard 
 Of pain and miseiy." Armstrong. 
 
 " Indeed it is usual in Scripture that 
 covetousness, being so universal, so original 
 a crime, such a prolific sin, he called by all 
 vhe names of those sins by which it is either 
 punished, or to which it tempts, or whereby 
 it is nourished." — Bishop Taylor. 
 
 " There is one sort of labour which adds 
 to the value of the subject upon which it is 
 bestowed ; there is another which has no 
 such effect. The former, as it produces a 
 value, may be called productive, the lattei 
 unproductive, labour," — Smith, Wealth of 
 Nations. 
 
 FERVOUR. Ardour. 
 
 Fervour (Lat. fervortm, violen: 
 heat, vehemence, fervire, very often, lo 
 boil) and Ardour (Lat. ardorem, a 
 burning, an ardour, ardire, to he on fire) 
 seem, in their metaphorical, to keep 
 up the distinction of their physical, 
 meanings. The fervent boils over 
 demonstratively, the ardent burns 
 fiercely. The force of anger is fer- 
 vent; the force of zeal, love, desii*e 
 ardent. In their secondary applica- 
 tions. Fervour is associated with tlie 
 motive cause. Ardour witli the final 
 cause ; in other words, we feel with 
 fervour, we pursue with ardour. 
 There is more of principle in fervour, 
 more of passion in ardour. In those 
 cases, therefore, in which energy of 
 desire or pursuit is directed to no high 
 moral ends, we use the term Ardour ; 
 where this is so, Fervour. The fer- 
 vour of the pati-iot. The ardour of a 
 lover of the chase. 
 
 " A. fervent faith and glowing zeal." - 
 Search. 
 
 " Moved on 
 In silence their bright legions to the soand 
 Of instrumental harmony that breathed 
 Heroic ardour to adventurous deeds." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 FESTIVAL. Festivity. Holiday. 
 Feast. 
 
 In ecclesiastical language a Feast 
 
432 
 
 SYNC>.>fYMS 
 
 [figurative] 
 
 (Lsit. J'estitm, a festival holiday) is any- 
 day which (not being a fast) is ob- 
 served with peculiar solemnity. The 
 greater of these feasts fire termed F ks- 
 TivALs (O. Fr. festival) as the Fes- 
 tival of the Nativity. The term Fes- 
 tival is employed of days of heathen 
 celebration also more commonly than 
 Feast, which in this connexion would 
 be more likely to mean a solemn 
 banquet inhonour of a god. Holiday 
 has well-nigh lost its original mean- 
 ing of holy dai4, and is employed to 
 express a time of vacation from study 
 or labour. 
 
 Festiviiy (Lat. f'estlvttatem, festive 
 gaiety, a festivity) has no sacred or 
 solemn force at all, and expresses only 
 the gaiety and enjoyment of social 
 antertainments. 
 
 ' The morn'ing trumpets festival proclaimed 
 Through each high street." Milton. 
 
 " Much the same maybe observed of the 
 Roman drama, which, we are told, had its 
 rise in the unrestrained festivity of the 
 rustic youth." — HuRD. 
 
 " The same bell that called the great man 
 to his table invited the neighbourhood all 
 round, and proclaimed a holyday." — Ibid, 
 
 " Upon the feastfull day of Easter." 
 Fabyan. 
 
 FIGURATIVF:. Metaphorical. 
 Analogous. 
 
 These agree in expressing a certain 
 use of words which is not tlieir proper 
 or primary sense. 
 
 That is Figurative (Lat. figurd' 
 tlvusj a figure) which is expressed by 
 a rhetorical figure. Such a figure is 
 \ representation of abstract things by 
 objects taken from the sensible world, 
 as when the exercise of the imagina- 
 tion, for instance, is called soaring on 
 the wing of fancy. As expressions are 
 figurative, terms are Metaphorical. 
 This is when a comparison is con- 
 densed into a similitude — that is, all 
 signs of comparison being absent, the 
 thing is spoken of under the very 
 name of the other object to which it is 
 compared. The disposition of Domi- 
 tian resembled that of a tiger — this is 
 
 similitude or comparison. Domitian 
 was a tiger, this is a Metaphor (Gr. 
 (i*«Ttt<|)Oftf, a tratisferriuor, a metaphor). 
 ihr Analogous use of a term or ex- 
 
 pression (Gr. avccXoyU, proportion) is 
 when it represents ideal subject-matter 
 under modes suggested by material 
 resemblances, e.g., swift thought, deep 
 reasoning. So the verb to draw in 
 the sense of tn attract is used not so 
 much metaphorically as analogously ; 
 tliat is, to denote a moral force acting 
 like a physicnl one. 
 
 FIND. Discover. 
 
 Find (A.S.findan) is to light upon, 
 whether unexpectedly or as the result 
 of specific search. 
 
 *'Seek, and ye shsaWfrid." — Bible, 
 So unessential is purpose to finding, 
 that the word is sometimes used as a 
 synonym of feel or experience. 
 
 " I ^nd yon passing gentle." — Shakk- 
 speare. 
 
 To Discover (O. Fr. descoiivnr, 
 des-y apart, couvrir, to cover) is to find 
 something which is of anew or strange 
 character when found. I may find a 
 piece of money as I walk along. On 
 the other hand, " find out " is always 
 the result of etfort and search in re- 
 ference to a distinct object to be aimed 
 at, as a thief, a riddle, a mode o^ 
 solving any difficulty. Discover com- 
 bines a general purpose with a speci- 
 fic chance. Discovery is the result of 
 search, either direct or indirect. The 
 existence of the thing discovered may 
 have been previously either known or 
 unknown, or known to others than the 
 discoverer, who in that case becomes 
 a discoverer to himself, and not to the 
 world. That which is found may be 
 trivial. That which is discovered is 
 important, and hence the word is used 
 of new countries, new truths, or facts 
 in science. One often finds what one 
 did not look for. Finding sometimes 
 plays a part subordinate to discovery, 
 as when new countries ar^ discovered 
 they are sometimes found to be unin- 
 habited. One discovers what is hidden 
 or secret, whether in the moral or the 
 physical sense. One finds what has 
 fallen, not through one's own act, 
 under one's observation or knowledge. 
 That which is discovered was not visi- 
 ble or apparent, that which is found 
 was visible or apparent, but beyond 
 reach, or out of one's own sii^lit. One 
 
finishI 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 433 
 
 discovers a gold mine, and finds a new- 
 botanical specimen. Secrets, plots, 
 conspiracies are discovered. One finds 
 one's friend at home, or what one re- 
 quires in the market. 
 
 " The distinction of a first discoverer 
 made as cheerfully encounter every dan- 
 ger, and submit to every inconvenience." — 
 Cook's Voyages. 
 
 FINE. Delicate. 
 
 In the sense in which these terms 
 are synonymous, and as belonging to 
 things mental, both denote that -which 
 is commonly removed from vulvar ap- 
 prehensions. Nevertheless it is suffi- 
 cient to have an intellect to appreciate 
 the fine; there must also be a tnste to 
 appreciate the delicate. If compara- 
 tively fe-w can reach the fine, fewer 
 still can be reached by the delicate. A 
 fine discourse or passage is sometimes 
 repeated with advantage, and its beau- 
 ties and merits appreciated when 
 pointed out ; but that which is deli- 
 cate, if not perceived at fii-st sight, is 
 not understood at all. The fine may 
 be searched for, the delicate must be 
 felt. Fine is capable of a favourable 
 and unfavourable use, delicate is al- 
 ways favourable. Fine praise, fine 
 satire. A delicate compliment, a de- 
 licate attention. Fine ( Fr.^n) is the 
 hdA. finitiis, finished ; Delicate, the 
 Lat. diticdtuSj alluring, dainty. 
 
 FINE. Mulct. Penalty. For- 
 feit. Ameiicement. 
 
 Fine (L. Lat./tnw, asum of money, 
 the payment of which made an end of 
 a transaction or a claim, a dispute, a 
 trial), in the sense of a penalty, is 
 always pecuniary. 
 
 JNIulct (Lat. mulcta, midta) is also 
 pecuniai-y. It is, however, a technical 
 term, bearing the sense of a commu- 
 tation for legal forfeiture, and was not 
 only a punishment, but a compensa- 
 tion; as to be "mulcted (or multed) 
 in half the amount." 
 
 Penalty (Fr. penality, Lat. pxna, 
 Mmpensation, punishment) in its tech- 
 Bical and legal sense, is mostly applied 
 to pecuniary punishment or forfeiture, 
 but in 'ts common use denotes any 
 kind of punishment ; as ''to suflfer the 
 extreme penalty of the law." 
 
 Forfeit (O. Yr.forfait, Lat./iJrw 
 factum, which meant first the trans- 
 gression, and then that which was 
 paid for it) may be pecuniary or 
 otherwise. A fine is imposed, a 
 penalty inflicted, a forfeit incurred. 
 A forfeit springs, as it were, out of 
 the nature of the case, and is due ipso 
 facto by pre-arrangement. 
 
 Amercement (O. Fr. amercier, to 
 fine, L. Lat. mercimnentum, penally) 
 differed from Fine in being not fixed 
 in amount, but assessed according to 
 the nature of the offence, by a process 
 which was called "affeeriug.' 
 
 " So, tvro years after, Tracy's heirs sued 
 him for it, and lie was turned out of his 
 office of Chancellor, and fined in four hun- 
 dred pound."— BuRNJCT. 
 " A jnulct thy poverty could never pay. 
 Had not Eternal Wisdom found the way." 
 Drydex. 
 " But of the tree 
 Which, tasted, works knowledge of good 
 
 and evil. 
 Thou may'st not; in the day thou eat'st 
 
 thou diest : 
 Death is the penalty imposed." 
 
 Milton. 
 " For so the holy sages once did sing. 
 That He our deadly /or feit should release. 
 And with His Father work us a perpetual 
 peace." Jbid. 
 
 " The great charter also dii-ects that the 
 amercement which is always inflicted in 
 general terms — sit in misericordia — shall 
 be set or reduced to a certainty by the oath 
 of good and lawful men of the neighbour- 
 hood."— Blackstone. 
 The connexion suggested by some, 
 and probably by Blackstone here, be- 
 tween Lat. misericordia and Fr. merct 
 
 FINISH. Close. Concluue. 
 Complete. Terminate, End. 
 
 Of these, the following three. End 
 (A. S. ende). Finish (Lat. /in/? e), 
 and Complete (Lat. complittis, filled 
 up, part, (if complere, to Jill up), rejire- 
 sent a rise in force or fulness of mean- 
 ing in that order. To end is to dis- 
 continue by leaving off, without ex- 
 pressing anything of the state in which 
 the thing ended is left, as, " He ended 
 his speech by saying so and so." " The 
 fortieth verse ends the chapter;" the 
 verb being used both transitively and 
 intransitively. Whatever begins must 
 end ; and whatever is begun must be 
 r r 
 
434 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [FINISnEl>] 
 
 ended. The torm is quite indefinite. 
 Things may be ended with or without 
 completeness or finish; and things 
 may end prematurely or satisfactorily. 
 To Finish is to end working at a thing, 
 to put the last required labour or touch 
 to it, and is employed of action, forces, 
 or influences. " He is finishing his 
 painting," that is, he is employed in 
 putting the final strokes or touclies. 
 " The last blow finished him," that is, 
 rendered more blows superfluous. "He 
 finished working, or he ended ;" the 
 one expresses final effort, the latter 
 cessation. To complete is to bring 
 finally that which fills up the plan, 
 design, or proposed task. A diction- 
 ary IS ended with the word "finis." 
 It is finished with the letter Z. It is 
 completed by revisions and interpo- 
 lations. The world was finished on 
 the last day of its creation ; but it is 
 not yet ended. 
 
 To Terminate (Lat. termindre, to 
 set bounds to) is to bring to an end 
 what has been protracted or continu- 
 ous, and relates to some degree of 
 space or time traversed in the pre- 
 ceding work or operation. A vista 
 terminates in or with a certain object. 
 A happy remark will sometimes ter- 
 minate a tedious dispute. A short 
 life ends, a long life terminates. 
 
 To Close (O. Fr. ctos, shut in, Lat. 
 claiisus) is physically to stop by bring- 
 ing together the parts ; as, " to close 
 the mouth by bringing together the 
 lips;" " to close a book by bringing 
 together the leaves ;" " to close the 
 eyes ;" " to close the ranks of an 
 army." Analogously, to close is to 
 shut up into a compact form what is 
 regarded as having totality, as "to 
 close a bargain ;" " to close one's 
 studies." 
 
 Conclude (Lat. concUidh-e, to shut 
 up, to conclude) is a stronger term 
 than Close, more definite and positive, 
 and means to close in such a way as 
 to give the thing closed a formal, 
 necessary, or appropriate termination. 
 To Close refers only to the act, Con- 
 clude to the intention. 1 close my 
 letter, in one sense, when I seal it ; 
 in another, when I write the last sen- 
 tence. I conclude it when I subjoin 
 
 something without which I should feel 
 the communication to be incomplete. 
 
 " An eternal and happy life, a kingdom, 
 a perfect kingdom and glorious, that shall 
 never have ending."— BiSKOV TAYLOR. 
 
 " God is our ' light,' as He showeth ns the 
 state we are in, and the enemies we have 
 to encounter; He is our 'strength,' as He 
 enableth by His grace to cope with and 
 overcome them ; and He is our ' salvation,' 
 as the author and finisher of our deliverance 
 from sin, death, and Satan."— HORNE. 
 
 It will be seen by the following ex- 
 ample that, while Finish and End are 
 intrinsic. Complete takes in accesso- 
 ries also, which may be requisite to the 
 completion of certain things. So a 
 prophecy is not completed before it 
 has been verified in all its historic 
 facts and allusions. 
 
 *• It was attested by miracles of all sorts, 
 done in great variety and number, by the 
 visible centering of the old prophecies in the 
 person of Christ, and by the completion of 
 those prophecies since which He Himself 
 uttered. " — Atterbury. 
 
 " A good commencement has ever been 
 found by experience auspicious to a good 
 progress and a happy termination."— Kmox, 
 Essays. 
 
 " We have it, it seems, in our power, by 
 the exercise of one particular virtue, to 
 secure a pardon to ourselves for neglecting 
 all the rest, and can blot oat the remem- 
 brance of an ill-spent life by a few acts of 
 charity at the dose of it." — Atterbury. 
 
 " Nor, indeed, do I know a text in the 
 Bible that I would more willingly pitch 
 upon to leave with you as the last advice I 
 would give you, and as the sum and conclu- 
 sion of my preaching among you, than these 
 words of St. Paul I have now read to yon 
 (Philippians iv, 8)."— Sharp. 
 
 FINISHED. Perfect. Elabo- 
 rate. 
 
 That which is not Perfect (Lat. 
 peificere, part, perfectus, to complete) 
 has some defect which disfigures it. 
 That which is not Finished (Lat. 
 f wire, finis, an end) may yet be made 
 perfect, though at present incomplete. 
 A sketch may be perfect, yet requires 
 further work to make it into a finished 
 picture. Perfect is employed of the 
 productions both of art and nature, 
 Finished only of those of art. An un- 
 finished circle is not drawn out, a 
 perfect circle fulfils its mathematical 
 definition. A perfect character is 
 morallv faultless, a finished character 
 
[fit] 
 
 is perfectly trained. A flower, as a 
 production of nature, may be perfect, 
 not finished. A finished draAving is 
 one in which all artistic processes 
 have been executed to the full, a per- 
 fect drawing is one in which the spec- 
 tator can find no fault. We express 
 commendation of that which is finished, 
 and admiration of that which is per- 
 fect. 
 
 "A faultless sonnet /inished thus would be 
 Worth tedious volumes of loose poetry." 
 Drydex, 
 " The Fx'eneh Revolution has this of 
 wonderful in it, that it resembles what 
 Lord Verulam says of the operations of 
 Nature. It was perfect, not only in its 
 elements and principles, but in its mem- 
 bers and its organs from the very begin- 
 ning." — Burke. 
 
 The Elabouate (Lat. elUbordre, to 
 take pains) represents that which is 
 finished with great and minute atten- 
 tion to parts and details. The elabo- 
 rate is improved and refined by suc- 
 cessive touches, alterations, improve- 
 ments. That thing is the most elabo- 
 rate in which the greatest amount of 
 labour has been brought to bear upon 
 the smallest space, and being com- 
 paratively small has signs of vast and 
 varied eflbrt. Perfect simplicity is 
 compatible with high finish, but that 
 which is elaborate is never simple. 
 
 "But 1 cannot think or persuade myself 
 that God gave us eyes only that we may 
 pluck them out, and brought us into the 
 world with reason that being born men we 
 might afterwards grow up and improve 
 into brutes, and become elaborately irra- 
 tional." — South. 
 
 FINITE. Limited. 
 
 It is a natural property, of things to 
 be Finite, an artificial property to be 
 Limited. Or, again, things are finite 
 in reference to their own nature, 
 limited in reference to power or capa- 
 city. Man's powers are limited, for 
 he is himself a finite being. 
 
 " And all the difference or distinction 
 there is betwixt them, is only in our dif- 
 ferent apprehensions of this one being, 
 which acting severally upon several ob- 
 jects, we apprehend it as acting from several 
 properties by reason of the _finiteness of our 
 understandings, which cannot conceive of 
 an infinite being wholly, as it is in itself, 
 but as it were by piecemeal, as it represents 
 itself to na "— Bevkridge. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 435 
 
 "Absolutely according to pleasure, or 
 limitedly according to certain rules pre- 
 SL-ribed."''— Barrow. 
 
 FIRE. Flame. Blaze. Con- 
 flagration. Ignition. Combustion. 
 
 Fire (A. S. Jyr) is that kind of 
 combustion which evolves light and 
 heat. 
 
 Flame (Lat. Jiammd) is the form 
 under which such combustion is ex- 
 hibited when the matter is gaseous. 
 
 A Blaze (A. S. blczse) is a rapid 
 evolution of light, whether accom- 
 panied or not witli sensible heat, as 
 the blaze of the sun, of lamps, of a 
 meteor. 
 
 Conflagration (Lat. confiagra- 
 tidnem) is the visible consumption by 
 fire of masses of combustible materials. 
 
 Ignition (Lat. igriire^ to set on fire, 
 part. Ignitus) is in modern phraseo- 
 logy opposed to Combustion (Lat. 
 combustionem, comburere, to burn up) 
 the former being commonly taken to 
 mean the consumption by great heat, 
 with manifestations of fire or flame, 
 the latter without. The action, for 
 instance, of the atmosphere upon the 
 human skin produces an insensible 
 combustion ot its particles. 
 
 " Cloven tongues like as of Jtre."—Eng. 
 Bible. 
 
 "As for living creatures it is certain 
 their vital spirits are a substance com- 
 pounded of an airy and flamy matter." — 
 Bann. 
 
 " If of Dryden's fire the blaxe is brighter, 
 of Pope's the heat is more regular and 
 constant."— Johnson. 
 
 " Then raise 
 From the conflagrant mass, purged and 
 
 refined 
 New heavens, new earth." Milton. 
 
 " The heat, with a long set of fair wea- 
 ther, had even ignited the air."— EvELYN. 
 
 " When such flames break out, what 
 combustion may we conceive within." — Stii> 
 
 LIKGJ-LEET. 
 
 FIT. Adapt. Suit. 
 
 To Fit (Icel.J?(;a, to knit together 
 Skeat, Etijm. Diet.) is to make phy- 
 sically to tally, or to make propor- 
 tionate or commensurate. Hence, 
 analogously, to adapt, qualify, or suit. 
 It is, then, the generic term, of which 
 the others may be regarded as modifi- 
 cations. 
 
436 
 
 ToAdap* ^^u,l. Maptare, to adjust) 
 is to make fit for a purpose, and always 
 supposes the requirement of an ulte- 
 rior design. 
 
 To Suit ( Fr. suite, a following, a 
 set) is literally to cause to follow or 
 fall in. It is more exclusively em- 
 ployed of the becoming and appro- 
 priate ; as to " suit the action to the 
 word;" Adapt, of the efficient. The 
 suitable harmonizes ; the adapted co- 
 operates. We fit one object to an- 
 other. We adapt means to an end. 
 We suit an object to a quality; as, 
 language to the taste or understanding 
 of the hearers. 
 
 "Sowing the sandy gravelly land in De- 
 vonshire and Cornwall with French furze 
 seed they reckon a great improver of their 
 land, and a, fitter of it for corn." — MoETI- 
 MER on Husbandry. 
 
 There is more of judgment in fitting, 
 more of taste in suiting, and more of 
 contrivance in adaptation. 
 
 "Who could ever say or imagine such a 
 body (as the atmosphere), so different from 
 the globe it serves, could be made by 
 chance, or be adapted so exactly to all 
 these grand ends by any other efficient 
 than by the power and wisdom of the in- 
 finite God ? " — Derham. 
 
 " If, therefore, in the nature of things 
 we can discover a world of mutual suita- 
 bilities of this to that, and of one thing to 
 another, it will be a sufficient argument 
 that they all proceed from some wise Cause 
 that hiid an universal idea of their natures 
 in His mind, and saw how such a thing 
 would suit such a thing before ever He 
 actually adapted them one to another." — 
 Scott, Christian Life. 
 
 FLARE. Flash. Glare. Flicker. 
 Coruscation. 
 
 A Flash is a sudden brilliancy in- 
 stantaneously withdrawn or disap- 
 pearing. 
 
 A F^.ARE (of which the etym. is 
 uncertain) is a dazzling, unsteady 
 light, and may be illustrated by the 
 burning of a torch, which alternately 
 blazes brightly and is obscured by the 
 smoke. Flash is probably closely 
 allied to flare, and resembles it in 
 meaning ; but Flare is more continu- 
 ous than Flash. 
 
 Glare (allied to the Latin clarus, 
 one of many cognate words referred 
 to a root "ghar, ' to shine) is abroad, 
 
 SYNONYMS [FLAREj 
 
 steady, untempered, and, therefore, 
 oppressive light. 
 
 FYicker (A. S. ficerian) is con- 
 nected withj^v. It expresses a light 
 which is rapidly unsteady, a sort of 
 fluttering flame which conveys the 
 idea of waning or weakness, as the 
 others do of energy, in the burning. 
 
 A Coruscation (Lat. coruscationemf 
 coruscdre, to vibrate, coruscate) is a 
 sudden flash accompanied by an after- 
 play of light. 
 
 "But, if I did press hard upon it with 
 my finger, at the very instant that I drew 
 it briskly oft" it would disclose a very vivid 
 but exceeding short-lived splendour, not to 
 call it a little coruscation."— BoYI,E. 
 " Like faring tapers, brightening as they 
 waste." Goldsmith. 
 
 " Those sallies of jollity in the house of 
 feasting are often forced from a troubled 
 mind, like flashes from th? black cloud, 
 which, after a momentary effulgence, are 
 succeeded by thicker darkness."— Blair. 
 " Strong perfumes and glaring light 
 Oft destroy both smell and sight," 
 
 Carew. 
 " Even as a flame unfed, which runs to 
 
 waste 
 Wi**^ its own flickering," Byrox. 
 
 FLAT. Level. 
 
 Flat (Icel.^afr, perhaps allied to 
 Gr. TrXttTi;'?, fiat, wide) is having a 
 level surface, as opposed, for instance, 
 to round. 
 
 Level (Lat. lihella, a level line, 
 dim. of iihra) is having uniform fat- 
 ness. Flat belongs to objects intrin- 
 sically level, as compared with the 
 horizon or other objects. Hence an 
 object of which a part is flat may be 
 called fiat, in the sense of characterized 
 by flatness, as a flat head, or nose. 
 If the latter were perfectly flat, it 
 would be level with the face. The 
 plane which is raised perpendicularly 
 does not cease to be level. A line 
 may be level ; but it is only a plane or 
 surface that can be flat. 
 
 "The ordinary shape of the fish's eyi 
 being in a much larger degree convex than 
 that of land animals, a corresponding dif 
 ference attends its muscQlar conformation 
 namely, that it is throughout calculated 
 for flattening the eye." — Paley. 
 " The setting sun now beams more mildly 
 
 bright. 
 The shadows lengthening with the levei 
 lieht." Bkattik. 
 
[flatterer] DISCRIMIJSTATED. 
 
 437 
 
 FLATTERY. Compliment. Adu- 
 lation. Blandishment. 
 
 Of these, the least strong is Com- 
 pliment. In itself, and etymologi- 
 call^, it does not necessarily express 
 praise at all. A compliment (Fr. 
 compliment, from Italian complemento : 
 Bracket) is an expression Jz/Zmo- 7ip 
 one's regard or auty to another. 
 When this is done with a certain 
 stretch of politeness, and the words 
 express not only respect but admira- 
 tion, the compliment develops into 
 Flattery (Fr. flatter, to Jiatter, 
 orig. unknown : Brachet). Anything 
 is flattery which expresses praise or 
 admiration, not as being simply due 
 and felt, but for the sake of gratifying 
 vanity or gaining favour. Untimely 
 as well as excessive praise is flattery. 
 Flattery is the voluntary tribute of 
 more praise than is due or called for. 
 
 Adulation (Lat. Hdhldtionemy Mn- 
 larij to fawn, as a dog upon his master) 
 is excessive and exaggerative flattery, 
 accompanied by a feigned subser- 
 viency, and is ready to express itself 
 in hypocrisy and falsehood. Flat- 
 tery improves upon existing excel- 
 lences or merits ; adulation invests its 
 objects with such as are created on 
 purpose. Compliments may be hol- 
 low but harmless, as being under- 
 stood and accepted as conventional. 
 They turn upon such matters as ap- 
 pearance or dress, or minor actions 
 and performances, and are the better 
 when they exhibit skill or taste. 
 They suppose an equality. In flattery 
 men place themselves on a lower 
 level, and feign, as it were, to look up 
 with admiration. In adulation they 
 adopt a servile relationship. Com- 
 pliments may turn upon almost any 
 point connected with another. Flat- 
 tery is more carefully selected, being 
 adapted to the humour or weakness of 
 the person, and implying something 
 which he would desire to possess or 
 fancies that he possesses, as a point 
 of superiority. Flattery nourishes 
 Jie passions. Adulation gratifies the 
 
 *ixty. From one point of view 
 adula'tion is flattery, low, servile, 
 shameless, fulsome. 
 
 " Flattery, if its operation be nearly ex- 
 •miHiftd. will be faund to owe its accept- 
 
 ance not to onr ignorance, bot knowledge 
 of our failures, and to delight ns rather as 
 it consoles our wants than displays our pos- 
 sessions."— i?a»i6Zer. 
 
 " And he that called Arsinoe llfiaf 7e», 
 Juno's violet, kept all the letters of the 
 name right, and compLmsnted the lady 
 ingeniously."— Bishop Taylor. 
 
 " Flattery corrupts both the giver and 
 the receiver ; and adulation is not of more 
 service to the people than to kings." — 
 Burke. 
 
 Blandishment (Lat. blandiri, to 
 caress) is the use of art for the sake of 
 winning, whether by flattery, kind 
 words, or affectionate actions or 
 caresses. 
 
 " Cowering low in blandishment.''* 
 
 Tennyson. 
 
 FLATTERER. Sycophant. Pa- 
 rasite. 
 
 The character of the Flatterer 
 has been given above. 
 
 The Sycophant (Gr. c-Uxtx^avTJif, a 
 common informery backbiter) bears at 
 present the meaning of a person of 
 obsequious aitd servile character. 
 With the sycophant, flattery is only 
 exhibited as a manifestation of ser- 
 vility, without being itself distinc- 
 tively characteristic of him. 
 
 The Parasite (Trn^aa-lTo;, one who 
 eats beside, a JLitterer, a woi-d which 
 had orig. no bad sense in Greek), 
 in modern English bears the mean- 
 ing of one who earns invitations to the 
 tables of the wealthy by flattery and 
 such arts of conversation as tend to 
 recommend him as a guest. The cha- 
 racter of the sycophant and the 
 parasite differ according to the diffe- 
 rent objects which they have in view. 
 The object of the sycophant is to in- 
 gratiate himself, and he will stoop to 
 mean artifices for the purpose ; the 
 object of the parasite is to provide for 
 himself, and he submits to social de- 
 gradation to gain it. Parasites are 
 often needy men, but courtiers are 
 often sycophants. 
 
 "This it is that giveth unto ay&zf ««rer that 
 large field under pretence of friendship, 
 whence he hath a fort, as it were, commo- 
 diously seated and with the vantage to 
 assail and endamage us, and that is self- 
 love." — Holland, Plutarch. 
 "A sycophant- vnll everything admire ; — 
 Each verse, each sentence, sets his soul on 
 fire." Drydkn. 
 
438 
 
 " He knew them flatterers of the festal 
 
 hoar. 
 The heartless parasites of present cheer." 
 Byeon. 
 
 FLOURISH. Thrive. Prosper. 
 
 The two former are employed both 
 of vegetative life and gi-owth and of 
 the doings of men, the latter only of 
 men's state and doings. To Flourish 
 is to be in the possession and display 
 of all powers belonging to the indi- 
 vidual according to his nature. It 
 implies a certain degi-ee of anterior 
 development, thus preserving the in- 
 ceptive character of Lat. Jlorescere, or 
 'iscere, which appears in -part. Jleuris- 
 sant of Fr. fienrir. The result of 
 flourishing is the admiration of others, 
 or of beholders. Great men flourish 
 at the particular period of their re- 
 putation. Thrive (Da. thrij\ good 
 luck) is to prosper by industry and 
 care. Hence, as in Flourish the phy- 
 sical sense is the proper, and the moral 
 the improper or metaphorical, so in 
 Thrive the idea of social or industrial 
 success is the primary sense, and the 
 physical is the derived. Acquisition in 
 substance by growth is the idea ex- 
 
 {)res8ed by Thrive. Hence it implies 
 ess of anterior development than 
 Flourish. The full-orown plant flou- 
 rishes, the seedling thrives. 
 
 Pros J' EH (Lat. prosptrare, to make 
 fm-tnnate) is so to thrive as to be in 
 advantageous circumstances. Pros- 
 perity belongs to him who hoped for 
 success, while tlie merely fortunate 
 man owes it to chance. JMen prosper 
 when they successfully carry out cer- 
 tain aims and undertakings. Although 
 prosperity belongs exclusively to the 
 designs of men, the term is employed 
 of things in which they are not di- 
 rectly, yet indirectly, recognized ; as 
 the prosperity of the arts, of com- 
 merce, of agriculture, and the like. 
 
 " By contimial meditations in sacred 
 writings, a man as naturally improves und 
 advances in holiness as a tree thrives and 
 flourishes in a kindly and well-watered 
 soil."— Bishop Horne. 
 
 " With this advantage then 
 To union, ar;J firm faith, and firm accord. 
 More than can be in heaven, we now return 
 To claim our just inheritance of old, 
 Snrer to prosper th&n prosperity 
 Oonld have assured ns." MILTON. 
 
 SYNONYMS [flourish] 
 
 FLOW. Arise. Proceed. Issue. 
 Spring. Emanate. 
 
 To express one or more objects 
 coming out of one or more others is 
 the purport of all these words. That 
 which comes out in continuous sup- 
 ply Flows (A. S. fiowan). That 
 which comes up bodily out of some- 
 thing else gradually is said to rise or 
 Arise (A. S. drisun). What comes 
 forth from another as a starting-point, 
 source or origin Proceeds (Lat. pro- 
 c'edire, to come forth). That which 
 goes out from something else which 
 contained or enclosed it Issues (Fr. 
 issu, p.p. of 0. Fr. issir, Lat. catrc, to go 
 out, to end). That which comes forth 
 bodily, but not gradually, but sud- 
 denly or rapidly. Springs (A. S. 
 sprin^aUy to spring, to leap). That 
 whicli oozes or drips out of something 
 else, imparting of its own particles, na- 
 ture, substance, or composition, Ema- 
 nates (Lat. emdndre, to distil). The 
 moral application or analogous use of 
 these terms ought to adhere as closely 
 as possible to these physical distinc- 
 tions. See further remarks under 
 Proceed. 
 
 " Those thousand decencies that daily /7oic 
 From all her words and actions." 
 
 MitTON. 
 " Yet many will presume ; 
 Whence heavy persecution shall arise 
 On all who in the worship persevere 
 Of spirit and truth." Jbta. 
 
 " Teach me the various labours of th« 
 
 moon. 
 And whence proceed the eclipses of tht 
 
 sun." Dryden. 
 
 " Life's warm vapour issuing through the 
 wound," Pope. 
 
 "'Twas ebbing darkness past the noon d 
 
 night. 
 And Phosphor, on the confines of the light 
 Promised the sun ere day began to spring.^ 
 
 Dryden. 
 It should be observed, that two ap 
 parentlv contradictory ideas are as 
 sociated with the term Spring — the 
 one that of visible, sudden, and pre 
 sent rising, the other that of remote 
 causation. This no doubt comes from 
 the twofold association of a spring, as 
 the breaking forth of water from the 
 ground, and as constituting also a re- 
 mote source to which the river is to 
 be tracod. 
 
[foppish^ 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 439 
 
 " Aristotle doth not deny Gocl to be the 
 efficient cause of the world, but only asserts 
 that He created it from eternity, making 
 Him a necessary cause thereof, it proceed- 
 mg from Him by way of enicruition, as light 
 from the sun."— Ray. 
 
 Arise is more naturally used where 
 the relation betweea cause and eftect, 
 whether it be physical or moral, is 
 simple and direct ; PnocEED where it 
 18 metaphysical or remote. A rise de- 
 notes a cause, Proceed a principle. 
 Blunders arise from inadvertence ; no 
 imperfection can proceed from God. 
 Emanate seems to point to what flows 
 steadily from a source by virtue of 
 some necessary activity. Hence the 
 term is used of that which has tlie force 
 of official sanction or moral persuasion : 
 so laws may emanate from a certain 
 form of government, a sage counsel 
 from persons of authority and experi- 
 ence. 
 
 FLUID. LiQiiD. 
 
 Fluid {L^t. fluidiis, fiow'mg) \s the 
 generic tenn, of which Liquid is one 
 kind (Kqmdus, flowing, liquid). The 
 word "gaseous denotes another kind 
 of consistency. The characteristic of 
 a fluid is that it retains no definite 
 shape or form, owing to the ease with 
 which its parts change their relative 
 position. Air and the gases are fluids, 
 but not liquids. Water is a fluid, 
 regai-ded in itself, liquid as opposed 
 to solid. 
 
 " The second supposition is, that the 
 earth being a mixed mass, somewhat ^uid, 
 took, as it might do, its present form by 
 the joint action of the mutual gravitation of 
 Its parts and its rotatory motion."— Pale Y. 
 
 " In oil of aniseed, which I drew both 
 with and without fermentation, I observed 
 the whole body of the oil in a cool place to 
 thicken into the consistence and appeal - 
 ance of white butter, which with the least 
 heat resumed its former Uquidness." — 
 BOYLK. 
 
 FOLLOW. Succeed. Ensue. 
 
 Persons and things Follow and 
 Succeed. Only things Ensue. To 
 Follow (A. S.fylcgan) is to move 
 behind and in the same direction, 
 whether with a view to overtake or 
 not: hence, in analogous senses,. to 
 adhere, as to a leader, to copy us an 
 original, to succeed, to result. To 
 Succeed (Lat. succidere, lo ccme into 
 
 the place of) is to follow in such a way 
 that the subsequent thing takes the 
 place of the preceding. One such 
 case is sufiicient to constitute a suc- 
 cession, as, " The son succeeds to his 
 father's estate;" but what has been 
 once may be repeated in more cases, 
 and Succeed may be predicated of 
 several things following in order oi 
 series. In such repeated succession 
 the idea still holds good of each suc- 
 ceeding item in the series taking for a 
 time the place of the preceding. In 
 matters of which the eye takes cogni- 
 zance, this would he objective and 
 local. In matters of the other senses 
 it would be subjective and mental. 
 One wave follows another when it 
 rolls behind it. One wave succeeds 
 another when it rolls over the s&:«ie 
 rock or breaks upon the same coatt. 
 One clap of thunder succeeds another 
 when the mind receives and identifieg 
 the impressions of botli or all. Ensue 
 (O. fr. ensiiir, to follow after) is to 
 follow in virtue of a principle of s«- 
 quence, either in the relation of cause 
 and effect, inference, or chronological 
 succession. 
 
 " Learning and Rome alike in empire gi'ew, 
 And orts still followed where her eagles 
 flew." PoPK. 
 
 " For how art thou a king, 
 But by fair sequence and succession f " 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 '• Discourse ensues, not trivial, yet not dull. 
 Nor such as with a frown forbids the play 
 Of fancy, or proscribes the sound of mirth." 
 COWPKB. 
 
 FOPPISH. Finical. Dandyish. 
 Spruce. Coxcombical. 
 
 Foppish (Dut. foppen, to deride, to 
 mock). The character of a fop is that 
 of a man whose ambition it is to win 
 admiration by personal appearance 
 and dress. Here the essence of his 
 character ceases, and the rest is a 
 necessary outcome of it. He is silly, 
 pert, and affected, not so much on 
 purpose as because he has no concep- 
 tion of any higher ideal than that 
 which he seeks to realize. The follow- 
 ing opposes the fop to the sloven : — 
 
 " Give me leave to say that I should have 
 liked your introduction better if, instead 
 of pointing your satire entirely aga'.nst otic 
 extreme, you had stated the due and pro. 
 
440 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [forcible] 
 
 Eer medium between foppery on one 
 and and slovenliness on the other." — 
 Waterland. 
 
 Finical (coined {roro. fine) is affec- 
 tedly fine. The finical person is con- 
 ceitedly careful of minutiae about him- 
 self—the syllables which he clips, 
 the details of dress and ornaments to 
 which he pays attention, the thou- 
 eand littlenesses of taste with which 
 his mind is embarrassed, by the minute 
 and incessant interest which he be- 
 stows upon them, 
 
 •' Be not Xxm finical, hat yet be clean. 
 And wear well-fashioned clothes like other 
 men," Dryden. 
 
 The Dandy (etym. quite uncertain) 
 is a man wlio has a weakness for dress 
 or personal finery ; which, however, 
 is often very innocent. Men of great 
 worth and intellectual attainments 
 have been touched by it. On the 
 other hand, the fop is essentially 
 asinine and selfish. Dandy is a word 
 belonging to conversation rather than 
 to literature. Spruce, of which the 
 origin is very uncertain, denotes such 
 neatness of attire as fails to produce 
 any elfect of elegance or dignity — a 
 prim tidiness, and nothing more. 
 Hall, writing of certain courtiers in 
 the time of Henry VIII., says, <^They 
 were appereyled after the fashion of 
 Prussia or Spruce ; " which may pos- 
 sibly be the origin of the word. 
 
 •' Beware of men who are too sprucely 
 dressed ; 
 
 And look you fly with speed a fop pro- 
 fessed." CONGREVK. 
 
 CoxcOMH {i.e. cock's comb) denotes 
 a vain, showy man, not necessarily 
 vain or showy in dress, though there 
 will be a likelihood of it ; whose con- 
 ceit lies in magnifying his own super- 
 ficial acquirements. The coxcomb is 
 ft sort of intellectual fop. 
 
 *' The shallow speculations of the petu- 
 lant, assuming, short-sighted coxcombs of 
 philosophy."— Burke. 
 
 FORCIBLE. Cogent. 
 
 As applied to the reasoning and 
 persuasions of men, Forcible is com- 
 monly employed of the style or mode 
 of reasoning; Cogent (Lat cohere, to 
 compel), of the specific inducement or 
 
 argument. Cogent reasons, put in a 
 
 forcible way. 
 
 " He is at once elegant and sublime. /or- 
 cible and ornamented. He unites energy 
 with copiousness, and dignity with variety." 
 — LoUTH. 
 
 " No better or more cogent reason can 
 be given of anything than that it implies a 
 contradiction to be otherwise."— MoRE, 
 Immortality of the Soul. 
 
 FOREFATHERS. Ancestors. 
 Progenitors. Predecessors. 
 
 We descend fi'om Forefathers, 
 Ancestors, and Progenitors; but 
 Forefathers includes parents ; An- 
 cestors (O. Fr. ancessour, Lat. anti- 
 cessorein, from ante, before, &nd ccdere, 
 to go) excludes them. 
 
 Predecessors (Lat. pm-dicessdre$, 
 jirer, before, and dccidere, to de- 
 part) expresses our civil, not our 
 genealogical, ancestry. We are chil- 
 dren of our forefathers, the posterity 
 of our ancestors and progenitors, 
 the successors of our predecessors. 
 Forefathers and Progeniiors are 
 more ordinary terms. Ancestors im- 
 plies some dignity of birth. 
 
 " The covetousness of the gentry ap- 
 peared, as in raising their rents, so in op- 
 pressing the poorer sort by enclosures, 
 thereby taking away the lands where they 
 had used, and their forefathers, to feed 
 their cattle for the subsistence of their 
 families. "— Strype. 
 " The blood weeps from my heart when 1 
 
 do shape 
 In forms imaginary th' unguided days 
 And rotten times that you shall look upon, 
 When I am sleeping with my ancestors." 
 Shakespeare. 
 "Ah I whither shall we go? 
 Down to the grave, down to those happy 
 
 shades below. 
 Where all our brave progenitors are blest 
 With endless triumph and eternal rest?" 
 POMFRET. 
 
 " When the cause of God and the com- 
 mon interest of our Christian brethren do 
 require it, we should then as freely part 
 with all we have as our predecessors in 
 Christianity did." — Sharp. 
 
 FOREGO. Resign. 
 
 We Forego the actual or the i)03- 
 slble ; we Resign the actual. We 
 forego claims which we might make, 
 ])leasures which we might enjoy. 
 We resign actual pretensions, posses- 
 sions, and the like. 
 
[foresight] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 441 
 
 In the following of Pope Foreoo 
 relates to the actual : — 
 " The dnmb shall sing, the lame his crutch 
 
 forego." 
 
 In this to the possible : — 
 *' Unhappy as you appear, God has fore- 
 gone to punish you." — Landor. 
 
 FOREIGNER. Stranger. Alien. 
 
 Stranger (0. Fr. estrange, Lat. 
 extrdneus) denotes one who is strange 
 or unknown, whether a fellow- 
 country-man or not. A Foreigner 
 (see Foreign) is a native of another 
 country. As the stranger needs not 
 be a foreigner, so the foreigner needs 
 not be a stranger. An Alien (Lat. 
 itliinus) is a foreign resident in a 
 country, or one who is not natural- 
 ized, or has not the privileges of a 
 subject or a citizen in the country in 
 which he resides. 
 
 " The Catholic was rendered !x foreigner 
 in his native land only because he retained 
 the religion along with the property handed 
 down to him from those who had been the 
 old inhabitants of that land before him." — 
 Burke. 
 
 •' 'Tis good the fainting soul to cheer, 
 To see the famished stranger fed. 
 
 To milk for him the mother-deer, 
 To smooth for him the furry bed." 
 Crabbe. 
 "It is enacted in the laws of Venice, 
 If it be proved against an alien 
 That by direct or indirect attempts 
 He seek the life of any citizen. 
 The party 'gainst the which he doth con- 
 trive 
 Shall seize one half his goods." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 FORERUNNER. Precursor. 
 Harbinger. Messenger. 
 
 Forerunner and Precursor be- 
 long to the class of perfect synonyms, 
 Precurser (Lat. prx-cursorem, prce, 
 before, and cuiTcre, to riui) being ex- 
 actly in Latin what Forerunner is in 
 Englisli. Yet even such synonyms 
 tend in the course of time to assimilate 
 themselves to slight alterations of 
 meaning or application. Forerunner 
 is used both in a literal and a me- 
 taphorical sense, Precursor only in 
 tlie metaphorical, in the sense of prog- 
 nostic wv indication. 
 
 Harbinger (0. Fr. herberge, a 
 tods;ing, harbour, now auberge) is pro- 
 perly an officer who precedes many 
 
 others to ensure lodgings for their re 
 ception. As metaphorically used, it ii 
 a more lively image than Precursor, 
 and is employed of visible forerunners. 
 For instance, we should hardly speak 
 of discontent as the harbinger, but as 
 the precursor, of a revolution. The 
 term has also a favourable, not a 
 mournful, meaning. We speak of the 
 birds as harbingers of spring, more 
 naturally than of certain symptoms as 
 harbingers of the plague. H arbing ers 
 of death seems a forcible and proper 
 image, because we are so accustomed 
 to personify death, that the term lends 
 itself to mean an announcement of the 
 near approach of the King of I'er- 
 rors. 
 
 A Messenger (Fr. messager, L. Lat, 
 missdttcum, mitttre, to send) is one 
 who brings a message or news. He 
 therefore differs from the others in 
 having the present or the past for his 
 subject, while the others have the 
 future. The forerunner announces, 
 the precursor indicates, the harbinger 
 ushers, the messenger declares. 
 
 " These s\gns forerun the death or fall of 
 kings." Shakespeare. 
 
 " An event which appears like the pre- 
 cursor of the ]Millenninm." — Burke. 
 
 " Think not, however, that success on ona 
 side is the harbinger of peace." — Gold- 
 smith. 
 
 " For God will deign 
 To visit oft the dwellings of just men. 
 Delighted, and with frequent intercourse 
 Thither will send His winged messengers 
 On eri'ands of supernal grace." 
 
 MlLTOX. 
 
 FORESIGHT. Forethought. 
 Forecast. Premeditation. 
 
 Foresight is the faculty of antici- 
 pating actual experience. Fore- 
 ihought is provident care. Forecast 
 is provident management. The word 
 is of somewhat wider meaning than 
 Forethought, and furnishes a verb ; to 
 forecast consequences being to exercise 
 forethought upon them, and meet 
 them practically. 
 
 Premeditation (Lat. preemiditatio- 
 nem, prce, before, and mcditdri, to medi- 
 tate) has reference only to such word* 
 or actions as are uttered or performed 
 by one's self; the others referring to 
 what is independent of us 
 
442 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [foretell] 
 
 The want of foresight is an intellec- 
 tual deficiency ; tlie want of forethought 
 is a moral deficiency. The not fore- 
 casting may spring from inability, or 
 from not appreciating the gravity of 
 the case. The absence of premedita- 
 tion indicates strong self-reliance. 
 
 " Give U3 for esightful minds ; give us minds 
 
 to obey 
 What foresicfkt tells." 
 
 Sydney, Arcadia. 
 "A sphere that will demand from him 
 forethought, courage, and wisdom." — I. 
 Taylor. 
 
 " Their lords the Philistines, with gathered 
 
 powers, 
 Enter'd Judaea seeking me, who then 
 Safe to thy rock of Etham was retired. 
 Not flying, hut forecasting in what place 
 To set upon them, what advantaged "best." 
 MlLTOX. 
 " The orations which he made upon the 
 sudden without premeditation I)efore, do 
 show more boldness and courage than those 
 which he had written and studied long be- 
 fore."— North, Plutarch. 
 
 FORETELL. Puedict. Pro- 
 
 PUESY. 
 
 Foretell is the simplest and most 
 comprehensive. It means generally 
 to declare beforehand what is to hap- 
 pen. This may be in an ordinary or 
 extraordinary way — by sagacity and 
 experience, or by supernatural know- 
 ledge, real or pretended. 
 
 Predict (Lat. prcedictre, protdictus, 
 to tell beforehand) is much the same as 
 Foretell, but is only employed of per- 
 so.is, while Foretell is used also of 
 unconscious indicators, as " the clouds 
 foretell" (not predict) "rain." 
 
 Prophesy (Gk. ■n^o<prtTtvM, to speak 
 for, or instead of, i.e. the gods ; to inter- 
 pret their will; of which interpretation 
 foretelling is one /c/?icionly),as a syno- 
 nym of Predict, is properly used only 
 of supernatural knowledge anddeclara- 
 tion concerning the future, except 
 when it ia used simply in the sense of 
 outspeaking or preaching without re- 
 ference to the future. 
 
 " His birth, if we believe Plutarch, was 
 attended by prodigies /ore^e//in</ the future 
 eminence and lustre of his character." — 
 MiDDLETON, Life of Cicero. 
 
 " I thank my better stars I am alive to 
 confront this andacious predictor, and to 
 make him rue the hour he ever afi'routed a 
 man of science and resentment." — SwiFT. 
 
 " Prophesy unto us, Thou Chriat, who if 
 he that smote Thee ? "— jKii^e. 
 
 FORGE. Fabricate. 
 These words are both from the same 
 root (Lat. fitbrtcare, to frame, construct, 
 
 fabrica, a workshop ; the Vr.f'orge; Prov. 
 
 fanrga; with many other intermediate 
 forms, see LittrJS). As at present 
 used. Forge is employed both of 
 manual and mental things, and so com- 
 bines the meanings of counterfeit and 
 invent, as to forge a signature or a tale. 
 To Fabricate is only employed of 
 mental fictions, as to fabricate an ex- 
 cuse, except when it means simply 
 to manufacture, as to fabricate woof- 
 lens. Fabricate involves a more 
 sustained exercise of the inventive 
 faculty than Forge. We fabricate 
 tales, we forge statements, or even 
 words and names. 
 
 " Forgery may with us be defined at com- 
 mon law to be the fraudulent making or 
 altei'ation of a writing to the prejudice of 
 another man's right."— Blackstonb. 
 
 "Our books ai-e not fabricated with an 
 accommodation to prevailing usages." — 
 Paley. 
 
 FORGETFULNE^S. Oblivio.v. 
 Obliviousness. 
 
 FoRG etfu LN ess isa word ex pressing 
 a quality or habit; while oblivion ex- 
 presses a condition. A man is in a 
 state of forgetfulness. Things fall into 
 Oblivion. Forgetfulness, however, 
 may be predicated of things when they 
 are regarded as in a state into which 
 men's minds have thrown them. The 
 terms oblivious (Lat. oblivionem, for- 
 getf nines?, oblivion) and Obliviousness 
 are employed to designate more dis- 
 tinctly in persons a way of being for- 
 getful. 
 
 " Hail gentle sleep ! 
 Nature's soft nurse, iiow have I frighted 
 
 thee. 
 That thou no more wilt weigh mine eyelids 
 
 down. 
 And steep my senses in forgetfulness." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " But such as neither of themselves can 
 sing. 
 Nor yet are sung of others for reward. 
 Die in obscure oblivion." Spenser. 
 
 " I wonder what obliviousness is come 
 upon him, that he so cleaveth unto the 
 doctors whom he affirmed before either to 
 
[fokm] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 443 
 
 make no mention of it or else very seldom." 
 — Fkyth. 
 
 FORLORN. Destitute. 
 
 Forlorn (A.S./or/oren, lost utterly) 
 applies only to persons, and expresses 
 the fact andthe feeling of being deserted 
 by, or at a distance n-om friends. 
 
 DESTnvTE^L&t. dist'itutuSjdistituere, 
 to forsake) means generally wanting in 
 or deprived of resources of any kind, 
 as friends, food, money. Forlorn de- 
 notes a matter of feeling, Destitute a 
 matter of fact. 
 
 "As a distracted mother weeps /oj'/oni. 
 When to the grave her fondling babe is 
 borne." Fexton. 
 
 " With granted leave officioas I return. 
 But much more wonder that the Son of 
 
 God 
 In this wild solitude so long should bide. 
 Of all things destitute, and well I know 
 Not without hunger." MiLTOlf. 
 
 FORM. Figure. Shape. Con- 
 formation. Mould. Fashion. 
 
 FoRAi (Lat.ybrma) is the impression 
 upon the senses produced by the com- 
 position of the parts of a body into a 
 whole, -whether organic or inorganic, 
 natural or artificial, fair or unsightly; 
 as distinguished from the matter of 
 which it IS composed. Fonn may be 
 taken as a term lying intermediately 
 between Shape (A.S. scapaiif to fanny 
 to shape), on one side, denoting more of 
 the materialistic, and Figure (Lat. 
 tigura) on the other, denoting, more of 
 the conceptional. The shape of a stone; 
 the form of a statue ; the figure of a 
 man. 
 
 Conformation (Lat. conformatio- 
 nem) differs from Form in being 
 more than merely delineative, and de- 
 notes the delineation taken in con- 
 nexion with and consequent upon the 
 structure. Except when conforma- 
 tion is used in the abstract sense of 
 bringing to a harmonious agi-eement, 
 or the condition so produced, the term 
 is not applied but to the human figure, 
 the disposition of the parts of the ani- 
 mal frame as determined by their na- 
 tural functions. 
 
 Mould (Fr. mouky Lat. mMiilus, a 
 measure or standard) expresses the 
 
 idea ot shape or form as the result 
 of some plastic operation or will. 
 
 Fashion (Yr.fa^ouy Lat.factionem^ 
 a making) has much in common with 
 Mould, inasmuch as it is the reswlt of 
 specific forming. It admits, however, 
 in addition to the idea of Shape, that 
 of arrangement, and is commonly the 
 result of labour and workmanship, and 
 is applicable to matters giving less the 
 idea of solidity. Fashion involves pre- 
 existent principles or modes ; the thing 
 fashioned being brought into confor- 
 mity with them. The idol is often 
 fashioned like a man, that is, made to 
 wear the general character or" sem- 
 blance of the human fonn. Form has 
 a mental and a material meaning— • 
 the form of a man, forms of words, 
 forms of belief. Form is of simpler. 
 Figure of more complex, outlines. 
 The figure of a man or woman is the 
 form in its details. Between Form and 
 Shape there is this strong difference, 
 that Form includes not only the ex- 
 terior surface, but also the solidity of 
 a thing — its length, breadth, and thick- 
 ness ; while the shape is merely what 
 we can see of the outside. The words, 
 therefore, though they may often be 
 used interchangeably, have a different 
 meaning. A cannon-ball has the form 
 of a sphere, as being round and solid ; 
 the shape of a sphere, as presenting 
 to the eye a spherical surface and cut- 
 line. 
 
 " The earth was without /orvn and void.* 
 —Bible. 
 
 " A figure is the superficies, circumscrip- 
 tion , and accompl ished li n eamen t of a body. * 
 —Holland, Plutarch. 
 
 " Rude fragments now 
 Lie scattered where the shapely column 
 stood," CoWPKB, 
 
 " In the Hebrew poetry, as I before re- 
 marked, there may be observed a certain 
 conformation of the sentences, the nature 
 of which is, that a complete sense is almost 
 equally infused into every component part, 
 and that every member constitutes an entire 
 verse."— Louth. 
 
 " Did I request Thee, Maker, from my clay 
 To mould me man ? " Milton. 
 
 " Unskilful he to fawn or seek for power. 
 By doctrines ^as/uoned to the varying hour; 
 For other aims his heart had learned to 
 
 prize. 
 More skilled to raise the wretched than tc 
 
 rise." QoiaJSAllTH. 
 
444 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 Ceremonial. Cere 
 
 FORMAL 
 
 MO>fIOU8. 
 
 FoRMiL (see Form) bears the two- 
 fold meaning of according to form, 
 and characterized by an excess of 
 form, as, " to make a formal call," 
 " to receive a formal appointment or 
 dismissal.'' As applied to persons or 
 their manners, the term has always an 
 unfavourable sense — a person being 
 called formal who does anything too 
 much or too demonstratively upon 
 pattern and rule ; over-precise in look, 
 speech, manner, or arrangements. 
 
 Ceremonious and Ceremonial 
 (Fr. cir6monief Lat. ctErimonia) had, 
 not long ago, the same meaning, 
 till Ceremonial came to mean con- 
 nected with public • ceremony, and 
 Ceremonious branched off into the 
 sense of dealing overmuch in conven- 
 tional forms of demeanour. Men are 
 formal in themselves, ceremonious to- 
 wards others. 
 
 ♦• So have I seen grave fools design 
 
 M^ith formal looks to pass for wise ; 
 Bot Nature as a light will shine. 
 And break through all disguise." 
 
 Lansdownk. 
 "The two sac-raments of the Circum- 
 cision and the Passovei- had assuredly be- 
 sides the ceremonialness annexed to them 
 the institution of typifying Christ to come." 
 —Goodwin. 
 
 " Too ceremonious in testifying their alle- 
 giance. " — R AXEGH. 
 
 FORWARDS. Onwards. 
 
 Forwards expj-esses movement in 
 the direction which one fronts or 
 which is before one ; Onwards, move- 
 ment along a given line towards a pro- 
 posed point. Forwards is opposed to 
 backwards or sideways. Onwards 
 would be opposed, if such a word had 
 existed, to ojiwards, that is, in any 
 direction but" the line of destination. 
 The migratory crab moves onwards 
 but not forwards. 
 
 FRACTION. Fragment. Frac- 
 ture. Rupture. 
 
 Fraction, Fragment, and Frac- 
 ture are derivatives of the Lat. fraii- 
 gh-e, part, fructus, to break. Frag- 
 ment is properly expressive of there- 
 suit of physical disintegration, or what 
 ie closely analogous to it; as, frag- 
 
 [formal] 
 
 ment of a mountain, a dress, a loaf, a 
 fragment of an ancient poet. Frac- 
 tion is a term bearing more distinct 
 reference to a unit or a magnitude to 
 which it stands proportionably re- 
 lated. Fracture is the violent dis- 
 continuity of parts, and applies to 
 hard and more or less brittle sub- 
 stances, as Rupture (Lat. nipturay 
 from rumpere, to break asiL7ider) to 
 those which are softer and more elas- 
 tic. The fracture of the skull ; the 
 rupture of a blood-vessel. The force 
 of fiacture too is external ; that of 
 rupture from within. 
 
 "ScA-eral parcels of nature retain still 
 the evident marks of fraction and ruin."— 
 Burnet. 
 
 " It has been said that if the prodigies of 
 the Jewish history had been found only in 
 the fragments of Manetho or Berosus, we 
 should have paid no regard to them, and I 
 am willing to admit this." — Palkv. 
 
 " High-piled hills of fractured earth." 
 Thomson. 
 •* Meanwhile the tepid caves, and fens, and 
 
 shores. 
 Their brood as numerous hatch from the 
 
 egg that soon 
 Bursting with kindly rupture, forth dis 
 
 closed 
 Their callow young, 
 
 Milton. 
 
 FRAGRANCE. 
 
 Perfume. Smell. 
 
 Scent. Odour. 
 Aroma. 
 
 Scent (Fr. sentir, Lat. sentlre, to 
 perceive) and Smell (perhaps L. Ger. 
 smellen, to smoke. Richardson sug- 
 gests a possible A. S. sm(Ec-lian, or 
 smcpg-lian, as diminutive of A. S. 
 smcBCcan, to smack, taste) express both 
 the sense or its exercise, and that 
 which acts upon it. In this latter 
 application, Smell is generic, and ex- 
 presses any kind of emanation which 
 affects the olfactory nerves, whether 
 pleasant or otherwise. Scent is the 
 smell which issues naturally from a 
 body, and is peculiar to it, as the scent 
 of a rose or a fox. 
 
 Odour (Lat. Morem) is a newer 
 word in English than Smell, for 
 which it serves as little more than a 
 polite substitute. 
 
 Aroma (Gr. a^Mfxa, spice, sweet herb) 
 though now employed almost identi- 
 cally with Fragrance, yet had origi- 
 nally the sense of the peculiar fragrance 
 of apices. So Chaucer — 
 
[frame] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 445 
 
 " My chamber is stvowed with min-e and 
 
 inseiice. 
 With Bote savoring alos, and with siiiamone 
 Breathing an nromatUce redolence." 
 
 Perfume (Fr. par/am, Lat. per, 
 through, fumus, smoke) is better ap- 
 plied to inanimate and strong, as 
 Fragrance (Lat. yj-ao-rantfa) is better 
 employed of animate, fresh, and de- 
 licate odours. The perfume of incense 
 or of musk ; the fragrance of fresh 
 flowers. In a close and over-scented 
 atmosphere we might complain of the 
 ■ickening effect of perfume, but hardly 
 of fragrance. Odour is the emanation 
 which affects the organs of sense ; a 
 smell is the action of that emanation 
 ou the sense. Odour belongs to the 
 body imparting, smell to the body re- 
 ceiving, the impression. Odour is to 
 the sense of smelling what light is to 
 the sense of seeing. An odour may 
 be very slight, a scent is of some con- 
 siderable strength. If we were speak- 
 ing of a substance not specific, as 
 water, we should say that it had no 
 smell or odour; if of a specific object, 
 as a certain kind of rose, we should 
 say that it had either no smell or no 
 scent. 
 
 •• While, whispering pleasure as they fly. 
 Cool zephyrs through the clear blue sky 
 Their gathered /rw^rance fling." 
 
 Gray. 
 
 " The scentless and the scented rose." 
 COWPER. 
 
 '* The whole house was filled with the 
 odour of the ointment." — Bible. 
 
 " The Emperor Commodus retired to 
 Lanrentum, as the sea-air, perfumed by 
 the odour of the numerous laurels that 
 flourished along the coast, was considered 
 as a powerful antidote against the pestilen- 
 tial vapours."— Eustace, Italij. 
 
 "All the smell of plants and of other 
 bodies is caused by these volatile parts, and 
 is smelled wherever they are scattered in 
 the air ; and the acuteness oi smell in some 
 animals shows us that these effluvia spread 
 far, and must be inconceivably subtle." — 
 Beib. 
 
 FRAME. Constitution. Tem- 
 perament. Composition. 
 
 The Frame (A. ^.fremman, to fur- 
 ther, to effect) is the structure, th.e 
 Constitution (Lat. constttutionem, 
 disposition) is the temper or aggregate 
 of powers in such structures as bave 
 Hfe and organization. A man's frame 
 
 is his limbs, muscles, bor es, nerves, 
 &c. ; his constitution is that same 
 fi-ame taken in connexion with its 
 vital powers and condition. It is only 
 a metaphorical mode of speech when 
 we speak of anyone as being in a parti- 
 cular frame of mind, which means no 
 more than state. Emotion may agitate 
 the frame. Intemperance will shake 
 the constitution. Tne frame of govern- 
 ment in England is its political form 
 or structure, and might be given in a 
 few words. Its constitution is matter 
 of long study and exposition, embrac- 
 ing the growth and development of 
 its forces and their reciprocal action 
 and adjustment. 
 
 Temperament (Lat. temptramen- 
 tum, proportionate mixture) is the 
 state in respect to the predominance 
 of any quality, or the proportion of 
 different qualities or parts. 
 
 The Composition (Lat. compost- 
 tionem, a putting together) is the sum 
 of the parts which make up a thing. 
 It involves all needful elements, with 
 their disposition, in due proportion 
 and orderly arrangement, whether in 
 natural or artificial productions, in 
 organic or inorganic forms. 
 
 " The elementary composition of bodies." 
 Whewell. 
 ••Some bloody passion shakes your vei7 
 frame." Shakespeare. 
 
 '• Our constitutions have never been en- 
 feebled by the vices or luxuries of the old 
 world."— Story. 
 
 " Galen was v ^ - Better physician than 
 an ill divine, while he determines the soul 
 to be the complexion and temperament of 
 the prime qualities." — Bishop Hall. 
 
 FRAME. Form. 
 
 To Frame is to give unity by 
 mutual adaptation of parts. To Form 
 is to give unity in any way. In 
 framing, the parts have as direct a 
 relation to the whole as to one another. 
 In forming, the parts may have a direct 
 relation to the whole, but no organic 
 relation among themselves. The es- 
 sence of framing is construction ; the 
 essence of forming is collocation. A 
 carpenter /rawies a bos by shaping and 
 fitting top, bottom, sides, &c. A cer- 
 tain disposition of ground, water, 
 ti-ees and buildings might form 8 
 
U6 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [fraud] 
 
 pleasing landscape. Both terms aie 
 used in a secondary as well as material 
 sense. In that case Frame preserves 
 the analogy of material construction, 
 and applies to the more complex and 
 elaborate, Form to the more simple, 
 processes of the mind. We form ideas, 
 conceptions, and the like ; we frame 
 arguments, answers, excuses, devices, 
 theories. Frame always denotes the 
 action of man ; Form is applicable also 
 to the constitutions of nature. The 
 founder of a society fi-ames it; its 
 members form it, that is, constitute 
 it. 
 
 " How many excelleut reasonings are 
 framed in the mind of a man of wisdom and 
 Btudy in the length of year* 1 "—Watts. 
 
 " God formed man of the dust of the 
 ground." — Bible. 
 
 FRAUD. Guile. Circumven- 
 tion. 
 
 Fraud (Lat. fraudem, deceit) and 
 Guile (O. Fr. euiLe) have in com- 
 mon the idea of duplicity, or deceit 
 in action ; but they differ in the mo- 
 tives in which they directly originate. 
 Fraud aims at the disadvantage of 
 another, or is at least such a deceiv- 
 ing of one's neighbour as shall in 
 some way redound to one's own 
 benefit and his loss, inconvenience, 
 or humiliation. Guile is a wily re- 
 gard for one's own interests, without 
 directly referring to the interests of 
 one's neighbour. In the views of 
 high morality, guile is fraud, as truth 
 IS that of which no man ought to be 
 robbed through the instrumentality 
 of deceit. Guile is more an abstract 
 quality than fi*aud. Guile is in the 
 nature ; fraud is embodied in act. 
 Guile in the character is a foul blot 
 and an intense evil. Many good 
 qualities must be absent to admit of 
 
 fuile, many high qualities contemned, 
 'here must be a disregard of truth, 
 justice, candour, and generosity in 
 the man of guile, while selfishness 
 predominates, and deceit is ever ready 
 to carry out its aims. 
 
 " An Israelite indeed, in whom is no 
 ffuile."—Biile. 
 •' Take heed, my Lord ' the welfare of us 
 
 all 
 Hangs on the cutting short that fraudfiU 
 man." Shakespkark. 
 
 CiRCUJ. V^ENTiON (Lat. circumven- 
 tionem, circvmvtniref to encircle, leset) 
 is the gaining of one^ ends in treat- 
 ing with another. This may be by 
 fraud, but may also be by address. It 
 trades either on the weaknesses, the 
 ignorance of others, or their compara- 
 tively inferior knowledge or expe- 
 rience. It is the process of stratagem. 
 
 " Canning is only the want of understand- 
 ing, which, because it cannot compass ita 
 endis by direct ways, would do it by a trick 
 and circumvention." — LoCKK. 
 
 FREE. Independent. 
 
 He is Free (see Freedom) who is 
 not subject to any constraint; he is 
 Indkpexdent who is not subject to 
 any influence or consideration. Liberty 
 involves freedom of action ; indepen- 
 dence freedom of desires. A freeman 
 does only what he pleases, an inde- 
 
 Eendent man desires only what pleases 
 im, without being under any motive 
 which acts upon his will one way or 
 another. Man is a free agent, inas- 
 much as he has the choice of las 
 actions, but he is not independent, in- 
 asmuch as he is always subject to in- 
 fluences which determine his wishes. 
 He is never, for instance, independent 
 of his duty, though he may be free to 
 perform or neglect it. A free spirit is 
 unfetteied by cares and such thoughts 
 as intrude themselves to the embarrass- 
 ment of the movements of the mind. 
 An independent spirit is one which 
 will not suffer itself to be guided bj 
 prejudice or dictated to by authority, 
 Man possesses moral liberty, but mo- 
 ral independence is for none. 
 
 FREE. Exempt. 
 
 Exemption (Lat. exemptionem, a re- 
 moving) is a species of freedom, or 
 freedom from certain things, and 
 under certain circumstances. 
 
 Freedom may come in various 
 ways, and may be said of anything 
 from which it is desirable to be free ; 
 as to be free from pain, inconvenience, 
 oppression, interruption. Exemption 
 carries our minds to a dispensing 
 power. Hence we may be exempted 
 from any natural ill if we deem our- 
 j selves leniently or mercifully dealt 
 I with bv Divine Providence ; or we 
 
[frequently] discriminated. 
 
 447 
 
 are exempt by virtue of some human 
 authority which binds others, as an 
 obligation, a serrice, or a tax. Ex- 
 emption is that sort of freedom which 
 consists in not sharing the liabilities 
 to which others are subject. We may 
 be free casually, or by natural causes 
 or circumstances, we are exempt by 
 exceptional arrangement. 
 
 " In this, then, consists freedom, namely, 
 in our being able to act, or not to act, ac- 
 cording as we shall choose or will." — 
 Locke. 
 " Can anthors their exemption draw 
 From Nature's or the common law ? 
 They err alike with all mankind, 
 Vet not the same indulgence find." 
 
 Lloyd. 
 
 FREEDOM. Liberty. 
 
 Freedom is both a quality and a 
 condition. 
 
 Liberty (Lat. tibertdtem^ riher,free) 
 is only a condition. Freedom is there- 
 fore more independent and abstract. 
 Liberty relates to such restriction or 
 confinement as is opposed to it. The 
 slave when set at liberty shares that 
 freedom which his master has all 
 along enjoyed. So we may use the 
 term Freedom in the sense of a free 
 manner, or unrestrainedly; as, "Thev 
 ate, drank, talked, and laughed with 
 freedom." We could not say with 
 liberty. Freedom rather represents a 
 positive, liberty a negative, idea. We 
 may be at liberty to speak in society 
 on any subject we choose ; but there 
 will be many on which we shall be 
 prevented from speaking with free- 
 dom. This distinction between Free- 
 dom and Liberty is not affected by the 
 fact that in very many cases the terms 
 might be employed indifferently. The 
 bird escaped from its cage enjoys free- 
 dom and liberty, the first in the full 
 use of its wings, the latter as being no 
 longer a ca])tive. Liberty is the power 
 of putting one's will into action. Free- 
 dom is theabsence of eveiything inter- 
 fering with the exercise of that will. 
 
 " Freedom, or not freedom, can belong 
 to nothing but what has or has not a power 
 to act"— LoCKK. 
 
 *' The natural liberty o{ man is to be free 
 from any superior power on earth, and not 
 to be under the will or legislative authority 
 of man, but to have only the law of nature 
 for his rale."— /6/d. 
 
 FREQUENT. Haunt. Infest. 
 
 Tlie difference between these tcrmf 
 is a practical one. When we mea". 
 habitual resort of no harmful charac- 
 ter, we say Frequent (Lat. frtquen- 
 tare, frtquens, frequent) ; when we 
 mean to imply the impropriety or 
 unpropitiousness of the resoft, we use 
 Haunt (Fr. hanter ; possibly Lat. 
 hdUitare, Littre). This distinction 
 is of comparatively recent introduc- 
 tion into the language. The unfavour- 
 able sense has passed over to the 
 haunters. Ordinary men frequent. 
 Thieves, ghosts, and wild beasts are 
 said to haunt. So in the case of the 
 noun — the resorts of pleasure ; the 
 haunts of vice. But this distinction 
 again is of modern growth. Frequent 
 carries with it more the ideas of ac- 
 tivity and voluntariness, Haunt those 
 of passiveness and extraneous in- 
 fluence. Interest and desire of en- 
 joyment induce us to frequent. In- 
 terest and melanclioly associations 
 induce us to haunt. We seek eagerly 
 when we frequent, when we haunt it 
 is often in spite of ourselves. We are, 
 as it were, spell-bound. 
 
 Infest (Fr. inf ester, Lat. vifestare) 
 denotes such haunting or frequent- 
 ing as commonly involves a plurality 
 of beings, and always annoyance or 
 injury as the result of their visitations. 
 It is only by a kind of rhetorical im- 
 personation that the term is applied 
 to other than living agents, as when 
 Addison speaks of the cares and pas- 
 sions that infest human life. 
 
 " The Lord of Flies, so called (whether 
 from the concourse of flies to the abundance 
 of the sacrifices, or for his aid implored 
 against the infestation of these swarms), 
 was held the chief,"— Bishop Haxl. 
 
 " Re frequented the court of Augustus." 
 Drydkn. 
 
 " I've charged thee not to haunt about my 
 doors." Shakespeare. 
 
 FREQUENTLY. Often. Com- 
 MONLY. Ordinarily. Generally. 
 Usually. 
 
 Often (A.S. oft) commonly refers 
 to a series known to be established ; or, 
 given the fact of the series, denotes that 
 the repetition of its items is numerous; 
 or, in other words, Often relate* to a 
 
448 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [fresh' 
 
 standard of frequency implied or ex- 
 pressed, and hag a sort of fixed 
 value. 
 
 FREQUENTLY(see FREQUBNT)denotes 
 the simple numerous repetition of any- 
 thing, without any natural ov scientific 
 but only a moral standard to which 
 such repetition can be referred. Un- 
 calculated recurrences occur fre- 
 cjuently ; calculated recurrences (if so 
 it be) occur often. For instance, '' How 
 often does the wheel of that machine 
 revolve in the hour?" It would be 
 absurd to ask, " How frequently ?" In 
 truth Frequent expresses better that 
 which occurs with rapid repetition, as 
 the result of a variable cause, Often as 
 the result of an uniform cause. Often 
 belongs more to naked facts or events, 
 Frequently to such as are the results 
 of action and habit. I have often hap- 
 pened to meet him. I have frequently 
 been to see him. 
 
 Commonly denotes that kind of fre- 
 quency, the non-occun-ence of which 
 would create surprise; Ordinarily, 
 that which follows, or seems to follow, 
 a fixed order or nde (Lat. ordinem). 
 
 Generally, that which occurs in 
 the majority of similar cases, so that 
 the contrary would be an exception or 
 a specific deviation. 
 
 Usually (Lat iisus, custom), that 
 which occurs in such a way that the 
 idea of custom is connected either with 
 the occuirence itself or with the obser- 
 vation of him who experiences or takes 
 cognizance of it. 
 
 Habitually (Fr. habituel, habitual), 
 that which exhibits both the force and 
 the frequency of habit, and usually its 
 frequency alone. 
 
 FRESH. New. 
 
 As New (Fr. neuf, Lat. novus) de- 
 notes that which either absolutely and 
 in itself, or relatively to us, has existed 
 only recently, so Fresh (A.S. fresc) 
 denotes that which brings with it some 
 force or characteristic of novelty beyond 
 the fact of it. A new instance of kind- 
 ness is simply one more. A fresh in- 
 stance is one that comes as freely as if 
 none others had preceded it, the term 
 ex p ressing freedom of supply ; or again, 
 
 a new house is one recently built, a 
 fresh house is an additional erection of 
 the builder. 
 
 " Afresh pleasure in every fresh posture 
 of the limbs."— Landor. 
 
 " Thou profoundest hell. 
 Receive thy new possessor." Milton. 
 
 FRETFUL. Cross. Peevish. Pe- 
 tulant. Querulous. 
 
 Fretful (A.S. frettan, i.e.for-etant 
 to eat away) denotes a disposition which 
 exaggerates and feels unduly causes 
 of annoyance or irritation, and so exhi- 
 bits itself in a complaining impatience. 
 Fretfulness is constitutional, showing 
 itself in persons of weak and nervous 
 temperament, invalids, and sickly 
 children. 
 
 "Are you positive and fretful, 
 Heedless, ignorant, forgetful ? " 
 
 Swift. 
 
 Crossness (i.e. as its fonnation indi. 
 cates, thwartedness or thwartin^ness) is 
 such fretfulness as shows itself in un 
 kindness of speech or manner to others 
 Crossness is a thing of humour anc 
 often passes off rapidly. It is peevish 
 ness mixed with vexation or anger. 
 
 " The lighter sort of malignity turneth 
 hut to a crossness or aptness to oppose ; but 
 the deeper sort to en\y or mere mischief." 
 —Bacon. 
 
 Peevish(Wedgewood comparesDa. 
 prove, to whimper, cry like a child) de- 
 notes a Quenilous dissatisfaction which 
 it would be impossible to justify. It 
 is often constitutional, the result oi 
 temperament, old age, and physical 
 infirmity. 
 
 " Valentine. Cannot your gi-ace win her 
 to fancy him ? 
 
 Duke. No, trust me ; she is peevi ,h, sullen, 
 forward. 
 Proud, disobedient, stubborn, larking duty." 
 Shakespeare. 
 Petulance (Lat. ptttlbntia, saiici' 
 ■ ness, from obs. p^tHlare, to assail in Jest) 
 is less sour and more energetic than 
 Peevishness. It is capricious pas- 
 sion unrestrained, which isimpatient of 
 authority and control, and is character- 
 istically exhibited by the young against 
 their elders or superiors. 
 
 " The pride and petulance of youth."— 
 Watts. 
 
 Querulous (Lat. quh-tilus) denotes 
 the disposition which is continually ex- 
 
[fulfil] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 449 
 
 pressing itself in little complaints of 
 trivial grievances or ill-ti-eatment. 
 
 " Enmity can hardly be more annoying 
 than querulous, jealous, exacting fondness." 
 — Macaulay. 
 
 It is the expression of peevish dis- 
 content. 
 
 FRIGHTEN. Terrify. Intimi- 
 date. Alarm. Scare. Startle. 
 
 To Frighten (A.S.firrhtUy fright) 
 is to put in a condition of fear suddenly, 
 and so violently as to paralyze and take 
 complete possession of the mind. A 
 brave man may feel fear ; but it is a 
 manifestation of cowardice to be fright- 
 ened. Fright proceeds fi-om the ap- 
 prehension of physical evil. 
 
 To Terrify (Lat. terrtjicdre) is to 
 inflict teiTor, which is a stronger form 
 of fright, and leading to an instinctive 
 effort at escape from the object dreaded. 
 
 Intimidate (Fr.i;ifjmirfer)is usually 
 a purposed act, and commonly done 
 with the design oi compelling to action, 
 or deterring from it ; as, to intimidate by 
 threats. Even where the cause is an 
 influence, and not a conscious agent, 
 the result is the same. " He did not 
 put to sea, being intimidated by the 
 weather." 
 
 To Alarm (see Alarm) is to induce 
 the feeling that cause exists for feai", 
 whether the fear be actually felt or 
 not, or turn out to have been ground- 
 less. 
 
 To ScAiiE ( Nor. s/yerm, to frighten) 
 is to cause to desist, or to fly, fi-om 
 fright. It is to produce suddenly the 
 combined effect of fright and repug- 
 nance. 
 
 To Startle is to cause to start with 
 fright or fear, hence it involves, when 
 literally taken, an involuntary move- 
 ment of the body. Yet it is not ex- 
 pressive of great or lasting fear, and 
 may be almost entirely produced by 
 great surprise into which little fear 
 enters. 
 
 " The supposition that angels assume 
 bodies need not startle us." — LocKK. 
 
 "Antony, on the other hand, was desi- 
 rous to have him there, fancying that he 
 would either he frightened into a compliance 
 which would lessen him with his own party, 
 or by opposing what was intended, make 
 himself odious to the soldiery." — Middle- 
 »0N, Life of Cicero. 
 
 " Infeetious cowardice 
 In thee hath terrified our host." 
 
 Chapman, Homer. 
 
 "Before the accession of James I., or at 
 least during the reigns of his three imme- 
 diate predecessors, the government of Eng- 
 land was a government by foi-ce, that is, the 
 king carried his measures in Parliament by 
 intimiddtion." — Paley. 
 
 " By proof we feel 
 Our power sufficient to disturb this heaven. 
 And with perpetual inroads to alarm. 
 Though inaccessible, his fatal throne; 
 Which, if not victory, is yet revenge." 
 
 Miltok. 
 
 "And as a child, when scaring sounds mo- 
 lest. 
 
 Clings close and closer to the mother's 
 breast." CowPER. 
 
 FULFIL. Discharge. Realize. 
 Substantiate. 
 
 To Fulfil is to Jill up according to 
 a measure or standard, which may be 
 internal or external, personal or other- 
 wise ; as to fulfil one's own intention, 
 promise, the desire of another, a law, 
 an obligation or duty, expectations or 
 hopes entertained. 
 
 DrscHARGE(0. Fr. descharger, to un- 
 burden ) is to relieve one's self of what is 
 of the nature of a weight laid upon us 
 in the form of an obligation, duty, 
 debt, or office. Generally speaking, we 
 discharge in order to relieve ourselves, 
 we fulfil in order to satisfy others. 
 
 To Substantiate is to give sub- 
 stance, in the sense of reality, to things 
 of statement, claim, orassertion,by the 
 means of proof or evidence. It is 
 sometimes, however, employed in the 
 sense of giving solidity to what is 
 capable of being enjoyed or possessed 
 iu a more or less developed form. 
 
 " He would not embitter their enjoyments, 
 but he would sweeten and substantiate 
 them."— Knox. 
 
 Realize is to bring from abstract or 
 
 f)ossible into real existence. We res- 
 ize a scheme when we carry it eflfec- 
 tually into execution. We realize a de- 
 scription when we can bring it vividly 
 before the mind's eye. We realize an 
 estate when we convert it into money. 
 "The Spirit dictates all such petitions, 
 and God Himself is first the author and 
 then the fulfiller of them." — South. 
 
 " Had I a hundred tongues, a wit so large 
 As could these hundred offices discharge." 
 Drydeit. 
 o o 
 
450 
 
 " It will be as hard to apprehend as that 
 an em])ty wish should remove monntains ; a 
 iupposition which, if realized, would relieve 
 Sisyphus. "—GLANATIliL. 
 
 FULNESS. Plenitude. 
 Although these words are etymolo- 
 gically equivalent, the liat. plemis and 
 the English full being closely allied, 
 Plenitude (Lat.jD/t??i'(tf<(Zi«em) is used 
 in a higher style, and vrith a more ab- 
 Btract leaning. Indeed, Plenitude is 
 never physical fulness, but moral, de- 
 noting the possession of some power or 
 Qualification in a noble and pre-eminent 
 egree. The fulness of a stream, the 
 fulness of enjoyment. The plenitude of 
 
 Eower, wisdom, authority. Fulness, 
 owever, is equally applicable to phy- 
 sical and moral abundance. 
 
 " A short sentence may be oftentimes a 
 large and a mighty prayer. Devotion so 
 managed being like water in a well, where 
 you have fuUness in a little compass." — 
 South. 
 
 "The painting preserves the same cha- 
 racter, not only when He is supposed de- 
 scending to take vengeance upon the 
 wicked, but even when He exerts the like 
 plenitude of power in acts of beneficence to 
 mankind."— BuBKE. 
 
 FURIOUS. Violent. Vehe- 
 ment. Impetuous. 
 
 Furious (Lat. fiinoms, 7-aging) 
 means having fury, which is excessive 
 and violent rage. The term Furious as 
 applied to natural forces is not proper. 
 A furious wind is a metaphor, mean- 
 ing animated as if with the spirit of a 
 furious man. A furious force is one 
 which displays itself in such a way 
 that we cannot foretell the extent to 
 which it may reach, or the mischief it 
 may do. 
 
 Violent (Lat. vi6lentus, violent, 
 boisterous) means exercising great or 
 undue force contraiy to law, reason, 
 or moderation. 
 
 Vehement (Lat. vthemens, impetu- 
 ous) conveys the idea of pursuing 
 one's own ends with keenness and 
 energy, though it is not exclusively 
 used of human character or de- 
 meanour. A vehement wind or stream 
 is one which seems eagerly bent on 
 running its own course. In their 
 moral applications, men are furious in 
 their passions; violent in speech, 
 
 SYNONYMS [fulness] 
 
 manner, and conduct; vehement in 
 their expressions, desires, and pur- 
 suits. It may be observed that vehe- 
 mence is in its effects confined to the 
 subject, while fury and violence tend 
 to effect others. *^ Violence is never 
 laudable ; vehemence may be. 
 
 Impetuous (Lat. impttus, assault, 
 violent impulse) is used both mechani- 
 cally and morally. Mechanically, im- 
 petus is nearly equivalent to momen- 
 tum, being measured by the multipli- 
 cation of mass into velocity, but it is 
 used less strictly and more popularly. 
 INIorall}'^, impetuosity conveys the 
 idea of being carried away by the 
 feeling of the moment with eagerness, 
 and with little reflexion. 
 
 " A power steps in that limits the arro- 
 gance of raging passions and furious ele- 
 ments, and says, * So far shalt thou go, and 
 no farther.' " — BuRKE. 
 In matters of human conduct violence 
 is often coupled, or contrasted, with 
 fraud; violence and fraud being the 
 two main modes of wrong-dealing 
 among men. 
 
 " Since he who begins to violate the 
 happiness of another does what is wrong, 
 he who endeavours to obviate or put a stop 
 to that violence does in that respect what is 
 right by the terms."— WooLASTON. 
 
 "Thy present wants, or fears, or desires 
 carry thy spirit in thy own prayers eagerly 
 and vehemently in pursuit of those thy 
 wants, fears, or desires, because they are 
 things presently incumbent upon thee and 
 in thy view." — Halb. 
 
 Vehemence is the manifestation in act 
 or demeanour of eagerness. The im- 
 petuous man is he who is actuated by 
 a variety of motives of unequal and 
 uncertam power. 
 
 " There being no kind of vice which men 
 would not abandon themselves unto, con- 
 sidering the impetuousness of their own 
 natural appetites, and the power of exter- 
 nal temptations, were this restraint from 
 religion once removed and abolished." — 
 WiLKINS. 
 
 Vigour of scope and rapidity of 
 action in regard to an aim or subject 
 characterize impetuosity ; energy and 
 sustained rapidity of movement, vehe- 
 mence ; excess or abuse of force, vio- 
 lence ; while violence with distraction 
 becomes fury. The impetuous man, 
 though not wise, is capable of an act 
 of dashing bravery. The vehement 
 
[game] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 451 
 
 man will do what he has set himself 
 to do with vigour and vivacity. The 
 violent man ought to be shunned; 
 the furious man put under restraint. 
 
 a. 
 
 GAIN. Emolument. Lucre. 
 Profit. 
 
 Gain (Icel. gagn^ advantage; not 
 the Fr. gagner) is here a generic term. 
 It denotes that which comes to a man 
 as the fruit of his exertions, or accrues 
 to him as a desirable possession. The 
 gain accrues directly to the man. The 
 PnoFii (Lat. -profictre, to be of advan- 
 l tags) arises from his trade or dealing, 
 
 and the matters Avhich are the subject 
 of it. Hence gains are commonly upon 
 a considerable scale, profits are com- 
 monly made in little instalments ; but 
 the gain is more uncertain or casual 
 than the profit, which ought to accrue 
 in a regular manner as the fruit of 
 
 ofessional industry, while we often 
 
 hear of ill-gotten gain. Yet exorbi- 
 tant profit, though it retain the name, 
 is sometimes a kmd of theft. 
 
 Emolument (Lat. cmoliiinenlumj 
 effort, gain) is any profit arising from 
 office, employment, or labour. It 
 supposes, however, some dignity of 
 occupation, and would not be em- 
 ployed of menial work, manual labour, 
 or even a petty trade; and is most 
 commonly employed of official income 
 and revenue, including indirect and 
 fluctuating sources of payment, as 
 fees, dues, and the like. 
 
 Lucre (Lat. lucrum, gain, profit) 
 is a term very seldom used, and, 
 when used, denotes sordid or ill- 
 gotten gain. The verb to gain is dis- 
 tinguished from the verb to win as 
 endeavour is distinguished from luck 
 or address ; but the noun Gain is used 
 in the broadest sense as the opposite 
 of loss. But some amount of action is 
 presupiiosed, of which gain is the re- 
 sult. That which accrues to a man by 
 fixed order, as for instance, an here- 
 ditary estate, is not strictly a gain, 
 though it may be a boon. 
 
 " A gentleman who farms a part of his 
 own estate, after paying the expenses of 
 cultivation, shonld gain both the rent of 
 the landlord and the profit of the farmer. 
 He is apt to denominate, however, his 
 whole gain profit, and thus confounds rent 
 with profit ; at least in common language." 
 Smith, Wealth of JVations. 
 
 " His preedia, in like manner, were tri- 
 butes, tolls, portage, bankage, stockage, 
 coinage, profits by salt pits, mills, water- 
 courses, and whatsoever emoluments grew 
 by them, and the like." — HOLIXSHED. 
 
 " Albeit for profit and lucre all things 
 are set to sale."— 76/rf. 
 
 GAMBOL. Prank. Frolic. 
 Gambol (once spelt gambauld, gam- 
 baud ; Fr. gambade. It. gambata, a 
 Jumping about) is a skipping, playing, 
 or leaping in merriment. 
 
 Prank (Wedgwood compares Ger. 
 praugen, to glitter, Du. pronk,Jinerij ; 
 and connects pr««/c with prance) is an 
 act which is merry and ludicrous, and 
 tends to mischief towards others, or a 
 personal joke or trick. 
 
 A Frolic (Ger. frohlich, glad, 
 merry) is an exuberant manifestation 
 of a mind which requires sportive re- 
 laxation. Dumb animals gambol. 
 \oung people have their pranks and 
 frolics. 
 
 " I3e»rs, tigers, ounces, pards 
 Gambol'd before them." 
 
 Milton. 
 " In came the harpies, and played the.r 
 accustomed pranks." — Ralegh. 
 •' While many a pastime circled in the 
 
 shade. 
 The young contending as the old sur- 
 veyed ; 
 And many a gambol frolicked o'er the 
 
 ground. 
 And sleights of art and feats of strength 
 went round." GOLDSMITH. 
 
 GAME. Play. 
 
 Play (A. S. plegan, to play) is a 
 common term for any active form of 
 amusement. Play becomes Game (A. 
 S. gamian, to play) when it is syste- 
 matic and is exercised according to 
 rule. The verb to play, however, is 
 employed in reference to games. Boys 
 are at play when they amuse them- 
 selves in a random manner. When 
 they go to cricket they begin a game. 
 But in regard to the verbs, to play a 
 game is the phrase used, because to 
 
152 
 
 SYNONYMS [gaudy] 
 
 game is rfistricted to playing at games 
 of chance or gambling. 
 
 " It is very remarkable that the people 
 Af these islands are great gamblers. They 
 have a game very much like our draughts." 
 —Cook's Voyages. 
 
 " The lamb thy riot dooms to bleed to-day. 
 Had he thy reason, would he skip and 
 
 play ? 
 Pleased to the last he crops the flow'ry 
 
 mead, 
 And licks the hand just raised to shed his 
 
 blood." POPK. 
 
 GAUDY. Showy. Gay. 
 
 Gaudy is displaying gauds (Lat. 
 gaudinm,joii, an object producing joy) 
 or trinkets; hence ostentatiously 
 showy tn colour or decoration. 
 
 Gay (Fr. gai, merry) denotes such 
 colouring as expresses or inspires 
 gladness. Nor is it restricted to 
 colouring ; but life, activity, form, 
 festive arrangement, and light, equally 
 contribute to a gay scene. 
 
 Showy (A. S. sceaice, a shoiv) is 
 strikingly conspicuous, on the score 
 of colouring more especially, or orna- 
 mentation. The three terras are ap- 
 plicable to inanimate substances as 
 well as to persons ; as gaudy furniture, 
 showy dress, a gay parterre. Gay 
 lies at one extreme, and is a term of 
 praise. Gaudy at the opposite ex- 
 treme, as a term of dispraise. Showy 
 lies between the two. 
 
 " The modern invention of multipljdng 
 the works of the artists by devices which 
 require no ingenuity, has prostituted the 
 ornaments of a temple to the gaudmess of 
 a suburban villa, and the decorations of a 
 pulace to the embellishment of a trades- 
 man's door-post."— Knox, Essays. 
 " Belinda smiled, and all the world was 
 gay." Pope. 
 
 " "When they had taken any spoils from 
 the enemy, the men would make a present 
 of everything that was rich and showy to 
 the women whom they most admired." — 
 Spectator. 
 
 GAZE. Gape. Stahe. 
 
 These terms express a fixedness of 
 look, and vary according to the emo- 
 tion of mind which produces them. 
 
 We Gazk (Sw. gasa, to stare uith 
 fright, cf. aghast: Skeat, Etym. 
 Diet.) when the attention is roused 
 and fixed by the curious, the interest- 
 ing, the beautiful, or the affecting. 
 
 We Gape (A. S. gedpan, to gape) 
 from idle curiosity, ignorant wonder, 
 or listless, open-mouthed amusement 
 of mind. 
 
 We Stare (A. S. stdrian, to stare, 
 gaze) whenever, from any motive, we 
 fasten unconscious looks, as from 
 wonder, surprise, stupidity, fright or 
 horror, impudence or curiosity. 
 "So, checking his desire, with trembling 
 
 heart. 
 Gazing he stood, nor would nor could 
 
 depart : 
 Fixed as a pilgrim 'wildered in his way. 
 Who dares not stir by night, for fear to 
 
 stray. 
 But stands with awful eyes to watch the 
 
 dawn of day." Deyden. 
 
 " The Dutch, who are more famous for 
 their industry and application than for wit 
 and humour, hang up in several of their 
 streets what they call the sign o{ the gaper; 
 that is, the head of an idiot dressed in cap 
 and bells, and gaping in a most immoderate 
 manner. This is a standing jest at Am- 
 sterdam." — Spectator. 
 
 " They stand staring and looking upon 
 Me."— jBifi/e. 
 
 GEM. Jewel. 
 
 The Latin gemma had other senses 
 than that of o precious stone; as, a 
 had. When applied to precious stones 
 it meant not only those which were 
 precious from their rarity and m- 
 trinsic substance, but those also on 
 which the skill of the engraver had 
 bestowed an artistic value. Not only 
 the diamond or the emerald, but the 
 cornelian and the agate incised by 
 the sculptor, are classically speaking 
 Gems. 
 
 Jewel, on the other hand (0. Fr. 
 joyel) is not employed to designate 
 any stones but those which are of in- 
 trinsic value. In old English, how- 
 ever, a precious ornament of gold, or 
 of more than one inlaid gem or pre- 
 cious stone, was called a Jewel. 
 
 GENDER. Sex. 
 
 Sex (Fr. sexe, Lat. sexus) is a na- 
 tural division of animals. 
 
 G ENDER (Fr. genre, Lat. genus, -ens) 
 is the technical or artificial recognition 
 of sex, its exclusion, and its analogies. 
 There are two sexes and three gen- 
 ders. 
 
 " Gender being founded on the distinction 
 of the two sexes, it is plain that in a proper 
 
[gentle] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 453 
 
 sense it can only find place in the names of 
 living creatures which admit the distinction 
 of male and female, and therefore can be 
 ranged under the masculine or feminine 
 genders." — Blaik. 
 
 GENIUS. Taste. Science. 
 
 Genius {see Ability) is a pure 
 gift of nature. That which it pro- 
 tluces is the work of a moment. 
 
 Taste (Fr. tdter, O. Fr. taster) is 
 seen in works of study and time. It 
 belongs to the exhibition of a multi- 
 tude of rules established or assumed. 
 Jt produces only conventional beauty. 
 That a work should be good on prin- 
 ciples of taste, it must be elegant, 
 finished, worked up without an ap- 
 pearance of elaborateness, A work 
 of genius will wear an air of neglect, 
 an irregular, unstudied, bold, and 
 even perhaps wild character. A keen 
 
 f)erception of beauties and faults be- 
 ongs to taste. Life, gi-andeur, power, 
 force of imagination, activity of con- 
 ception, belong to genius. Taste sees 
 what is calculated to produce agree- 
 able sonsatioiis. Genius produces 
 striking and forcible impressions. 
 Taste is trained. Genius seizes as by 
 intuition, forms a conception without 
 imitation, and realizes it without rule, 
 yet acting upon the principles of rule 
 without being conscious of it. Custom, 
 philosophy, intercourse with men of 
 taste strengthen taste. Taste in the 
 arts, as in everything, is the recogni- 
 tion of the beautiful or the graceful, 
 the love of that which is intrinsically 
 excellent, and the preference of and 
 acquiescence in it. 
 
 Science (Lat. scientia, knowledge) 
 IS, in those matters in which it may 
 play a part with genius and taste, the 
 exact knowledge of the rules of art, 
 the practical conformitj of art to the 
 truth of nature. Genius is the most 
 powerful and the least imitable of all. 
 It often needs to be connected by 
 science and tempered by taste. 
 Science is the most exact, rigid, and 
 judicial; but truth may be barren, and 
 science without impulse, feeling, and 
 imagination may elicit no more than 
 the cold sympathy of reason. Taste 
 is the most elegant, graceful, and 
 aj-reeable 
 
 GENTLE. Mild. Meek. Soft. 
 Bland. Tame. 
 
 Gentle (0. Fr. gentil, Lat. gen- 
 t'llis, gentem, a family) denoted pri- 
 marily well-born. Hence, refined in 
 mannere, and, by a further extension 
 of meaning, of quiet nature and placid 
 disposition. The term, therefore, is 
 applicable to the natures of animals, 
 and only by analogy to external forces 
 and influences; indeed, to anything 
 capable of producing soft and soothing 
 impressions on the one hand, or vio- 
 lent and harsh on the other. A gentle 
 person, look, force, voice, and the 
 like. 
 " Oh, gently on thy suppliant's head. 
 
 Dread Goddess, lay thy chastening hand ; 
 Not in thy Gorgon terrors clad. 
 
 Nor circled with the vengeful band." 
 Gray. 
 
 Gentle is thus an essentially relative 
 term, implying the absence of its 
 contrary, and, therefore, most expres- 
 sive in those subjects where the con- 
 trary is usual or conceivable. 
 
 Tame (A. S. tdm) denotes that 
 gentleness which is the result of train- 
 ing or domestication. The sheep is a 
 gentle animal; the wolf may be 
 tamed. By a metaphor. Tame is used 
 to signify spiritless; as, " a tame re- 
 sistance," "a tame poem." Tarae- 
 ness is a condition in which ferocity 
 or energy is absent or has been sub- 
 dued. As gentleness implies inherent 
 energy and power, which is exercised 
 in moderation at the dictates of the 
 will or disposition, so tameness im- 
 plies the absence of these qualities, 
 as being the manifestation of mere 
 temperament, natural or acquired. 
 Tameness is inanimate tractableness 
 or quiet, and so is often employed of 
 animals whose nature makes them 
 easy of association with man. 
 
 " That it may not be suspected that there 
 is anything of tameness or mean-spirited- 
 ness in this conduct, the advantage in point 
 of dignity and esteem really lies on the side 
 of the good-natured and peaceable man." — 
 Waterland. 
 
 Mild (A. S. milde) conveys the 
 idea of subdued but not deteriorated 
 energy. The air is mild, which might 
 be harsh; the fruit is mild, which 
 might have been acrid or strong ; the 
 
454 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [ghastly] 
 
 expression is mild, which might have | 
 been stern ; the disposition is mild, 
 which might have been given to 
 severity, but seems alien to it. 
 
 " Mildness would better suit with majesty. 
 Than rash revenge and rough severity." 
 Drayton. 
 
 Mildness and gentleness are compa- 
 tible with power and penetration, 
 which Softness (A. S. soft, soft) is 
 not. A soft voice, a soft light, soft 
 music, all please and soothe, but do 
 not eni-apture. The characteristic 
 idea of softness is pleasant impress. 
 It is opposed to harshness and hard- 
 ness. 1 1 is equally opposed to energy 
 and resistinguess. Hence the ten- 
 dency of the term to assume morally 
 an unfavourable character ; as denot- 
 ing effeminacy, too great suscepti- 
 bility, and too great simplicity. 
 
 "There being only some few Ditheists 
 to be excepted (such as Plutarch and Atti- 
 cus), who out of a certain sofUiess and 
 tenderness of nature, that they might free 
 the one good God from the imputation of 
 evils, would needs set up besides Him an 
 evil soul or Daemon above the world, self- 
 existent, to bear all the blame of them." 
 —Cud WORTH. 
 
 Meekness (Dan. myg, pliant) dif- 
 fers from mildness, gentleness, and 
 softness, in being never applied, like 
 them, to tlie dejjortment, but only to 
 the temper or character. It is a theo- 
 logical virtue ; but witli the world at 
 large it is not in favour; whence has 
 been imposed upon it the idea of ex- 
 cessive submissiveness, and an ab- 
 sence of that "spirit" which more 
 readily finds admiration. It may be 
 olsserved that meekness at least ex- 
 cludes obstinacy as well as pride ; 
 while persons who have softness in 
 manner are often found by no means 
 w^anting in self-will. Meekness re- 
 sults from the absence of arrogant 
 self-will or self-assertion. It is the 
 quality which meets not violence with 
 violence, or force with farce, or cla- 
 mour with clamour, but endures pro- 
 vocation and submits to wrong. 
 
 •' By inheriting the earth. He meant in- 
 heriting those things which are without 
 question the greatest blessings upon earth, 
 calmness or composure of spirit, tranquil- 
 lity, cheerfulness, peace, and comfort of 
 mind. Now these. 1 apprehend, are the 
 
 peculiar portion and recompense of the 
 meeA-."— Bishop Porteus. 
 
 Bland (Lat. hlandus, fluttering^ al- 
 luring) is that which produces pleas- 
 ing impressions by soothing qualities 
 of character, and is employed ex- 
 clusively of the outer manifestations 
 of expression and manners. It is 
 ordinarily associated with calmness 
 and dignity, with affableness and 
 courtliness in superiors. A bland 
 manner in a friend or equal would be 
 unacceptable, as approaching too 
 nearly to condescension. JMilton uses 
 the term of natural influences — "Ex- 
 hilarating vapours bland." 
 " Arrayed in arms, and bland in voice and 
 look." Lewis, Statiics. 
 
 GHASTLY. Grim. Grisly. 
 
 Ghastly (A. S. gcestlic, frightfiu 
 is the same word as ghostlii ; hence 
 the predominant idea is that of a 
 supernatural or deathlike pallor, from 
 which the signification has been ex- 
 tended to denote simply deadly, hor- 
 rible ; as, " ghastly wounds." 
 
 " Her face was so ghastly that it could 
 scarcely be recognised." — Macaulay. 
 
 Grim (A. S. grim, savage) is, on the 
 other hand, essentially connected with 
 ife and the expression of the counte- 
 nance of man or beast. Surliness, 
 ferocity, and gravity, combined into 
 a fixed and rigid expression, would 
 constitute grimness. 
 
 " The ffrim face of law." — Denham. 
 
 Grisly (A. S. gryslic, terrible) ap- 
 plies to the whole form or appearance, 
 and conveys the idea of fear as pro- 
 duced through what is ugly and for- 
 bidding. 
 
 " My grisly countenance made others fly." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 GHOST. Apparition. Spectre. 
 Phantom. Vision. Phantasm. 
 
 Ghost (A. S. gdst^ a spirit) is pri- 
 marily, though this sense is no longer 
 colloquial, the spirit or soul of a man. 
 Hence, as a synonym with those given 
 above, it denotes an apparition of a 
 specific kind, that is, of the spirit of 
 some departed person in visible though 
 disembodied form. 
 
[giveJ 
 
 DISCKIMINATED. 
 
 455 
 
 " I thought thiit 1 had died in sleep. 
 
 And was a blessed ff host." 
 
 CoLERlDGK. 
 Apparition (Lat. apparitionem, an 
 attendance, from appdrire, to appear) 
 is the generic term, of which Ghost is 
 a species. A sudden appearance which 
 produces a startling eftect from its un- 
 expectedness is an apparition in the 
 broadest sense of the word. An ap- 
 parition is always of a person or a 
 collective object, not of many objects 
 or a complex view. 
 
 "I think it is the weakness of mine eyes 
 That shapes this monstrons apparition." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Spectre (Lat. spectrum) is a pre- 
 ternatural personal appearance with- 
 out individuality, and therefore not 
 assumed to be in })articular the spirit 
 of any, either departed or livin<^-. 
 Both Ghost and Spectre are in their 
 common acceptation taken for some- 
 thing human. 
 
 An apparition or a Vision (Lat. 
 vtsionem, a seeing, an apparition) might 
 be of a celestial nature, as of angels, 
 or an angel ; Vision including more 
 than a solitary apparition, and ad- 
 mitting the idea or a scene in which 
 many figures appear. Nor is the 
 term Spectre employed but in the 
 sense of an uncongenial or hon'ible 
 apparition. A lovely vision ; a hideous 
 spectre. Vision diifers from Appari- 
 tion as the subjective from the objec- 
 tive. One has a vision, one sees an 
 apparition. A vision may come from 
 a frenzied or even disordered imagina- 
 tion, an apparition is supposed to have 
 an external reality. 
 
 " Thus passed the night so foul, till morning 
 
 fair 
 Came forth with pilgrim steps in amice 
 
 gray ; 
 Who with her radiant fingers stilled the 
 
 roar 
 Of thunder, chased the clouds, and laid the 
 
 winds 
 And grisly spectres, which the fiend had 
 
 raised 
 To tempt the Son of God with terrors 
 
 dire." Milton. 
 
 " Upon the foot of this construction it is 
 supposed that Isaiah, in prophetic dream or 
 vision, heard God speaking to him, like as 
 St. Peter heard a voice and saw a vision 
 while he lay in a trance, and that in idea 
 he transacted all that God so ordered him 
 to do."— Watekland 
 
 Phantom (Fr. fantomey Lat. phan' 
 tasma, an image, an appearance) denotes 
 what has an apparent but no real ex- 
 istence. No spirit is therefore supposed 
 for it. 
 
 Phantasm (Lat.; from Gr.<pavraa-fA,ctf 
 an appearance, phantom) equally ex- 
 presses the unreal, but is purely sub- 
 jective, and refers what is seen or 
 imagined to the mind acting upon 
 itself. A phantom is n single object, 
 as a spectre or a wilI-o"-the-wisp. A 
 phantasm may be a complex object or 
 a scene. We even speak of phantasms 
 in the sense of creations of a diseased 
 or disordered imagination ; but a phan- 
 tom expresses more the delusion, 
 phantasm the play of the misguided 
 mind. 
 
 " Like the French Republic, the Italian 
 Republic is in their eyes a phantom which 
 appeared yesterday, and may vanish to- 
 morrow." — Eustace, Italy. 
 
 " According to them, the Devil, that is 
 so often spoken of in the Scriptures, is no- 
 thing else but either a disease of the body 
 or a phantasm in the brain, or the wicked 
 
 I principles and inclinations of a man's heart." 
 
 i —Sharp. 
 
 I 
 
 I GIGANTIC. Colossal. 
 
 I A Giant is, or is supposed to be, 8 
 I living being, as the Titans and Giants 
 (Lat. gtgantes) of antiquity. 
 
 A Colossus (Gr. xoXo<Tff Of) is a gigan- 
 tic statue like that of Apollo, seventy 
 cubits high, which stood at the mouth 
 of the harbour of ancient Rhodes, 
 and was absurdly supposed to have 
 bestridden it. This difference lies at 
 the root of their application. Both are 
 equally symbolical of what exceeds 
 the ordinary human limits of magni- 
 tude in bulk, but the former only ex- 
 ])resses what is vast in mind or pur- 
 I pose. We speak equally of gigantic 
 1 and colossal magnitude, or a gigantic 
 i or colossal stride ; but a scheme of 
 I vast magnitude, though it might be 
 I termed gigantic, that is, such as a giant 
 j miglit conceive, could not be termed 
 i colossal. 
 
 Bi 
 
 Con- 
 
 GIVE. Grant. 
 FER. Render. 
 
 The idea common to these terms is 
 that of communicating to others what 
 
456 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [glad] 
 
 is our own, or in our power. And, 
 indeed, Give (A. S. gifan) denotes 
 this generally, and no more. 
 
 To Grant, Confeh, and to Bestow 
 are characteristic modes of giving. 
 To grant (O. Fr. graaiiter, L. Lat. 
 creantare, to guarantee) is always from 
 one person to one or more others, in ac- 
 cordance with an expectation, prayer, 
 or request. 
 
 To Bestow (be- and stowe, a place) 
 meant originally to lay up in store. 
 It is still used in parts of England in 
 the sense of to bury. Hence its latter 
 meaning is to give something of 
 substantial value, with the intention 
 of benefiting the object of the be- 
 stowal. 
 
 Confer (Lat. conferre, to bestow) 
 implies not so much the value of the 
 thmg given as the condescension of 
 the giver, while Grant implies his 
 liberality and good will. Honours, 
 distinctions, favours, privileges are 
 conferred. Goods, gifts, endowments 
 are bestowed. Requests, prayers, 
 privileges, favours, gifts, allowances, 
 opportunities are granted. 
 
 •' Give, and it shall be given unto you." 
 —Bible. 
 
 A peculiar sense attaches to the word 
 Grant as a legal term, as a piece of 
 land granted to a noble or religious 
 house. So Blackstone speaks of" the 
 transfer of property by sale, grant, or 
 conveyance." 
 
 To Render (Fr. rendre, Lat. red- 
 dcre) is to bring in relation to a per- 
 son or a state, and so to restore, pay, 
 inflict, assign, contribute, furnish ; or 
 to bring into a state, as to render safe 
 or unsafe, to render from one lan- 
 guage into another. 
 
 " Render therefore unto Caesar the 
 things that ax'e Caesar's, and unto Glod the 
 things that are God's." — En^. Bible. 
 
 " Grant me the place of this threshing- 
 floor." — Bible. 
 
 " Almighty God, though He really doth 
 and cannot otherwise do, yet will not seem 
 to bestow His favours altogether gratis, but 
 to expect some competent return, some 
 small use and income tor them." — Barrow. 
 
 " I esteem the eujcmiums yon conferred 
 upon me in the senate, together with your 
 congratulatory letter, as a distinction of the 
 highest and most illustrious kind." — Mel- 
 MuTU, CSctra, 
 
 GLAD. Joyful. Pleased. De- 
 lighted. Gratified. 
 
 Glad (A. S. glxd, shining, cheer- 
 ful) denotes the lowest degree of 
 pleasure. It is the opposite term to 
 sorry, and commonly no more denotes 
 joyousness than Sorry denotes deep 
 sorrow or grief. Hence it is used to 
 express complimentary feeling-, as, 
 '' I shall be glad to see you," and is 
 commonly preceded by some aug- 
 mentative word. 
 
 Joyful {¥r.joie,joxi; Lat. pi. gau- 
 dia) is, on the other hand, used for the 
 highest degree of pleasure excited by 
 an external event. Gladness admits, 
 however, of degrees, and may be more 
 tempered, thoughtful, and lasting than 
 joy, which may even be exuberant and 
 excessive. 
 
 Pleased (Fr. plaish\ pleasure) may 
 denote either the pleasure of joy or 
 the pleasure of satisfaction or appro- 
 bation. 
 
 Gratified (Lat. gratiJ'Hcari, to 
 gratify) implies a sense of pleasure 
 due to the behaviour of another. 
 
 Deligiii ED (0. Fr. deliter, from the 
 Lat. dilectare, to delight) is a much 
 stronger term than glad or pleased 
 for expressing the same kind of feel- 
 ing. 
 
 " Then are they glad, because they are 
 at rest." — Bible. 
 
 " Joy is the vivid pleasure or delight in- 
 spired by immediate reception of something 
 peculiai-ly grateful, of something obviously 
 pi'oductive of an essential advantage, or of 
 something which promises to contribute 
 to our present or future well-being." — 
 COGAN. 
 
 " It is supposed that the very deter- 
 mination which is the ground and spring 
 of the will's act is an act of choice and 
 pleasure, wherein one act is more agree- 
 able and the mind better pleased in it thaK 
 another ; and this preference and superior 
 pleasedness is the gi-ound of all it does in 
 the case." — Edwards. 
 ThetermGRATiFYextendstoapeculiar 
 meaning beyond thatof ])ersoiial con- 
 duct of one towards another, in which 
 it is nearly synonymous with indulge ; 
 as the gratification of the senses, de- 
 sires, and the like. When expressive 
 of lively satisfaction at the act or con- 
 duct of another, it commonly indicates 
 6onie superiority in the person satis- 
 
[globy] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 457 
 
 fied ; as, the father is gratified by his 
 son's conduct. 
 
 •' For who would die to gratify a foe V 
 Dhyden. 
 * So on they fared, delighted still to join 
 In mutual converse." MiLTON. 
 
 GLANCE. Glimpse. 
 
 A Glance (Sw. glans, brightness) 
 expresses both the sudden shooting 
 of a bright object or ray of light be- 
 fore the eyes, and the rapid casting 
 of the vision itself upon an object. 
 
 Glimpse (connected with gleam, 
 glow, glitter, &c., and with Du. and 
 Ger. glimmen, to shine faintlii) differs 
 in implying the seeing moraentarily 
 and imperfectly,while Glance implies 
 tliat the object is seen momentarily 
 and distinctly. Glance is more com- 
 monly voluntary, Glimpse involun- 
 tar}"^. We take glances ; we catch 
 glimpses. 
 
 " The poet's eye, in a fine frenzy rolling. 
 Doth glance from heaven to earth, from 
 earth to heaven." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " Who this is we must learn, for man He 
 
 In all His lineaments, though in His face 
 The glimpses of His Father's glory shine." 
 Milton. 
 
 GLIDE. Slide. Slip. 
 
 To Slip is commonly, though not 
 necessarily, an involuntary movement 
 (A. S. sUpan, to slip, glide away). 
 
 To Slide (A. S. slidan) is voluntary 
 or involuntary. 
 
 Glide (A. S. glidan) is voluntary, 
 or analogous to it. Slip conveys the 
 idea of sliding in an accidental or de- 
 viating manner, as when the foot 
 slips, or a bone slips out of its place. 
 A slip is not only sudden and rapid, 
 but it is short, while Slide and Glide 
 are continuous and protracted. To 
 slide is to move glibly over a surface, 
 and without hindrance. But Slide 
 and Glide differ, in that Slide always 
 supposes a surface or basement upon 
 and over which the movement takes 
 place,while Glide expresses the move- 
 ment alone. Noiseless, uninterrupted, 
 equable, and apparently effortless pro- 
 gress may be called gliding. So a 
 bird may be said to glide in the air, 
 and ghosts glide from one chamber to 
 
 another. A vessel glide* through the 
 water, not upon it. 
 " She (Medea) glode forth, as an adder 
 doth." GowER. 
 
 " They have not only slid imperceptibly, 
 but have plunged openly into artifice." — 
 Lord Bolingbroke. 
 
 " These worldly advantages, these ho- 
 nours, profits, pleasures, whatever they be, 
 are of uncertain continuance, and may in a 
 little time slip away from us ; to be sure, 
 we shall in a little time slip away from 
 them."— Atterbury. 
 
 GLORY. Honour. Fame. 
 
 Glory (Lat. gloria) is the result of 
 success in such things as excite the 
 admiration of men at large — extra- 
 ordinary eff"orts, brilliant achieve- 
 ments. 
 
 Honour (Lat. h^norem) is the re- 
 sult of excellence, as acknowledged 
 by the narrower circle in which we 
 personally move, and according to 
 their particular standard of it. Ho- 
 nour IS never entirely separated from 
 virtue ; but glory may have no con- 
 nexion with it. Honour must ever 
 regard the rights of others; glory 
 may be earned at their expense. Glory 
 attends great deeds, honour attends 
 the discharge of duty. Therefore we 
 may if we please despise glory, but it 
 is ill to despise honour. 
 
 Fame (LtlL Jama) is the result of 
 meritorious success in the more select 
 but less showy walks of life. We 
 speak of the glory of the conqueror, 
 the lionour of the gentleman, the fame 
 of the scholar and the philanthropist. 
 Honour and fame are always external 
 to one's self; but Glory is sometimes 
 used in the sense of self-glorification, 
 or, as Hobbes has called it, " Internal 
 gioriation or triumph of the mind." 
 But fame has not the moral worth of 
 honour. The man who is honoured 
 has his reward in the feeling which is 
 entertained towards him, the famous 
 man in that his name is often in people's 
 mouths. 
 " Brave though we fall, and honoured if we 
 
 live, 
 Or let us glory gain, or glory give." 
 
 Pope, Homer. 
 
 " Honour makes a great part of the re 
 ward of all honourable pi"ofe8»ions."— 
 Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
458 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [glow] 
 
 *' Fame is the spur that the clear spirit 
 
 doth raise 
 (That last infirmity of noble minds). 
 To scorn delights and live laborious days.'" 
 Lycidas. 
 
 GLOW. Warmth. Heat. 
 
 Glow (A. S. glowan, to glow) is a 
 shining with vivid light or intense 
 heat. It combines the ideas of bright- 
 ness and warmth. The incandescent 
 metal glows with intense heat, the 
 glow-worm with vivid and steady 
 light. In the glowing substance 
 the glow emanates from the sub- 
 stance itself. A healthy glow of 
 the body is the exact opposite of an 
 external chill. 
 
 Warmth (A. S. weanriy warm) is 
 moderate heat, less addressing itself, 
 or not at all, to the eye. 
 
 Heat (A. S. JkbUi), in its common 
 acceptation, signifies not merely that 
 principle which is present in all bodies, 
 and on the degree of which depends 
 their fluid or solid state, but tlie evo- 
 lution of caloric in a strong or exces- 
 sive quantity. The analogous use of 
 the terms is regulated by these natural 
 distinctions. We speak of the fire of 
 genius, the heat of passion, the glow 
 of generous feeling, the warmth of 
 friendship, and the like. 
 
 " Persons who pretend to feel 
 The gloioings of uncommon zeal ; 
 Who others scorn, and seem to be 
 Righteous in very great degree." 
 
 Lloyd. 
 " The heat and hurry of his rage." 
 
 South. 
 
 " Many persons, from vicious and dead 
 and cold, have passed into life and an ex- 
 cellent grace and a spiritual warmth and 
 holy fire."— Bishop Taylor. 
 
 GOLD. Golden. (A. S. goW.) 
 
 These terms are both used as adjec- 
 tives, with this difference, that the 
 former signifies made of gold, the lat- 
 ter also as having the charaeteristics 
 of gold; as wealth, brightness, yellow- 
 ness. A gold cup ; golden corn, sun- 
 sets, days, thoughts, or memories. 
 
 GOODNESS. Virtue. 
 
 Goodness (good, from a Teutonic 
 base, " Oady' to suit, to Jit : Skeat, 
 
 Etym. Diet.) is natural and without 
 effort. 
 
 It is instinctive Virtue (Lat. vir- 
 thtem\ as virtue is trained or prac- 
 tised goodness. Hence, in some sort, 
 goodness may be without virtue, and 
 virtue without goodness. The tender- 
 ness of feeling shown by many chil- 
 dren is goodness, not virtue. To 
 abstain from theft in a thief would be 
 virtue, not goodness. Yet goodness, 
 in the highest degree, is superior to 
 any virtue ; for He who alone is per- 
 fect goodness could not be called 
 virtuous, which is human. Virtue is 
 actual goodness, as set against possible 
 evil in man's thoughts and deeds. 
 Goodness is often used in a specific 
 sense, as equivalent to kindness or 
 benevolence. Goodness is in those — 
 
 " Glad hearts, without reproach or blot. 
 Who do Thy will, and know it not." 
 
 But virtue lies in resisting and control- 
 ling evil temptations and tendeiv 
 cies. 
 
 " Goodness is strictly and eminently moral, 
 It is in its nature of a boundless extent. If 
 it be not universally operative, it cannot 
 exist as a perfection." — CoGAX. 
 
 *'The exemplary desire of regulating our 
 thoughts and pursuits by right principles 
 constitutes virtue ; and all the duties which 
 are performed with warmth and feeling are 
 deemed the result of virtuous afi"ections." — 
 COGAN. 
 
 GOODS. Chattels. Commodity. 
 Merchandise. Wares. Effects. 
 Property. Possession. Articles. 
 
 Goods is employed in the sense of 
 transferable articles of property, sucn 
 as are intended for sale, or might 
 realize a money value if sold. 
 
 Effects (Lat. effecta, things wrought 
 out) represent the personal estate, even 
 down to the smallest matters in use, 
 and such as would practically be ot 
 no value but to the proprietor. 
 
 Chattels (O. Fr. chatel, L. Lat. 
 ctLpittLle, property) is a wider term than 
 Goods or Effects, and comprises 
 every kind of property except the free- 
 hold and what is parcel of it. Chattels 
 are divided into real and personal ; real 
 chattels, in the words of the old law- 
 writers, savour of the reality — relat* 
 to, or are interest in land • personai 
 
[govern] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 %59 
 
 chattels are movable goods, as horses, 
 plate, money, &c. 
 
 A Commodity (Fr. commodity) in 
 any movable article valuable by 
 money, but is restricted to articles of 
 necessity. Works of art, for instance, 
 as such, are not commodities ; but a 
 painting', if regarded as an article of 
 furniture, might be called a com- 
 modity. 
 
 Merchandise (Fr. marchandise) is 
 the generic term for all articles of 
 trade, considered as such in theaggre- 
 
 Site ; while Wares (A. S>. wdni) is 
 e sum of articles of a particular 
 kind. 
 
 Possession (htit possessionem, from 
 possidcre, to possess) is that of which a 
 man is, as a fact, possessed, whether 
 rightfully or not, or irrespectively of 
 the mode in which he may have ac- 
 quired it. 
 
 PnopEuxy (Fr. ■proprt6te, Lat, jno- 
 pnttatem, ownership) is that which is 
 properly one's own, and, in the ab- 
 sence of any qualifying expressions, 
 would be taken to imply a legal title 
 to possession. 
 
 Article (Lat. articiilus, dim. of 
 artus,ajoint) is a specific and relative 
 term. It is such a commodity as may 
 be brought under a particular head ; 
 as ai'ticles of food, furniture, clothing, 
 decoration, and the like. 
 
 " They would fight not for articles of faith 
 but for articles of food." — Landok. 
 
 GOOD -HUMOUR. Good -na- 
 ture. 
 
 GooD-MUMouu is a cheerful state of 
 the spirits, producing gaiety in others, 
 as it is itself gay. Yet it may be 
 transient, and followed by a reactive 
 peevishness. 
 
 Goou-NATURE is that plastic dispo- 
 sition which naturally shares the joys 
 of others, yet Sui'ers ofttimes from 
 weak complaisance to their wishes. 
 
 GORGEOUS. Sumptuous. 
 
 Both terms express a character of 
 the imposing, but the Gorgeous 
 (O. Fr. gorgias, fiunnting, vain, and 
 that in some way from gorge, the 
 throat) represents that whicu is so 
 
 through amplitude and colour ; while 
 Sumptuous (Lat. sumptudsus) is that 
 which gives the same impression from 
 its costliness. Gorgeous, for instance, 
 or sumptuous furniture. A sumptuous 
 repast would be one consisting among 
 other things of costly dishes, a gor- 
 geous repast would imply the precious 
 metals, and high decoration in any 
 way. 
 
 GOVERN. Rule. Regulate. 
 
 Govern (0. Fr. governer, Lat 
 giibenidre, to steer, direct ) is to exercise 
 power or authority with judgment 
 and knowledge ; hence govern is 
 never taken by itself in a bad sense. 
 
 Rule (Norm. Fr. mile, Fr. regie; 
 Lat. rigiila, see Littre) denotes no 
 more than control and diiection by 
 superior authority or power, however 
 exercised. Rule is exercised over the 
 wills and actions of men only. Govern 
 is more extensively applied, as to 
 govern the horses or the helm. Rule 
 belongs more to the simple power of 
 the individual, Govern to that power 
 as it is modified by principles and 
 limitations of government. The des- 
 pot rules, the constitutional monarch 
 governs. Govern implies a subject of 
 some importance, Rule is applicable 
 to trivial things as well. 
 
 Regulate (Lat. rigiildre, to direct) 
 denotes the exercise of a controlling 
 power over force already in action or 
 progress ; as, to regulate the movement 
 of a machine, to regulate finances. It 
 denotes less dignity and authority than 
 Rule or Govern, but closer care and 
 management, and the exercise of judg- 
 ment and address. The wise man 
 will govern his passions, while he rules 
 his conduct and carefully regulates 
 his expenditure and his affairs. 
 
 " The Bishop's governance should be so 
 gentle and easy, that men hardly can be 
 unwilling to comply with it." — Barrow. 
 " Ne shall the Saxon's selves all peaceably 
 Enjoy the crown which they from Britons 
 
 won. 
 First ill, and after ruled wickedly." 
 
 " Some say that undei force 
 Of that controlling ordinance they move. 
 And need not His immediate hand, who 
 
 first 
 Prescribed their course, to regulate it now." 
 COWPKR. 
 
460 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [grace 1 
 
 GRACE. Favour. 
 
 Grace (Lat. gratia) denotes a 
 benefit gratuitously confeired, or a 
 service gratuitously rendered. 
 
 Fa vouR(Lat./(i!vo>-em)has in itmore 
 of personal aftection and interest, the 
 sign of desire for the well-being of 
 the person favoured. Grace excludes 
 right and strict merit. Favour is pre- 
 ference of persons for any cause. 
 Grace is removed from justice, and 
 favour from impartiality. Grace ex- 
 cludes equivalent, but does not ex- 
 clude partial deserving. Favour sup- 
 poses no merit beyond pleasing. 
 Graces has no sense analogous to the 
 plural Favours. It is goodness, bene- 
 volence, clemency, generosity, which 
 grants grace. Particular good will and 
 personal inclination accords favours. 
 One mav grant grace to an enemy, one 
 shows favour, or confers favours only 
 on those one loves. Grace interests 
 the receiver; Favour also, and perhaps 
 equally or more than equally the giver. 
 One is happy at receiving grace. One 
 mayset a slight value on favour. Grace 
 conveys primarily the idea of power 
 and superiority in him who grants it ; 
 Favour familiarity in him who receives 
 it. 
 
 GRACIOUS. Merciful. Kind. 
 
 Gracious (see Grace), when com- 
 pared with Kind (literally, entertain- 
 ing feelings naturally due to creatures 
 of the same kind or nature, A. S. cynde, 
 natural) differs from it not so much in 
 essence as in exhibition; the gracious 
 being the kind as shown to inferiors, 
 while kindness may be toAvards any. 
 It has in it an element of condescen- 
 sion. Graciousness can only be shown 
 to beings of some moral dignity and 
 capacity, who may be able to appre- 
 ciate the nature and value of actions. 
 Kindness may be shown towards dumb 
 animals. Kindness is a duty in all. 
 Graciousness rather implies such 
 kindness as is in excess of the mere 
 demands of duty, and is exhibited 
 where it could not be claimed even of 
 moral right. 
 
 " I therefore beg you will be graciously 
 pleased to accept this most faithful zeal of 
 your poor subject, who has uo other design 
 
 in it than your good, and the discharge of 
 his own conscience." — BiSHOP Burnet. 
 
 " Be kindly affectioned one to another 
 with brotherly love." — Bible. 
 
 Merciful (Fr. merely Lat. merci- 
 dem, recompense, reward)\^ the quality 
 of withholding pain, evil, or suffering, 
 when it is in one's power to inflict it ; 
 or, in a milder sense, the granting of 
 benefits in spite of demerit. 
 
 " Blessed are the vierciful, for they shall 
 obtain mercy. " — Bible. 
 
 GRAND. Great. Sublime. 
 Noble. Majestic. Imposing. Mag- 
 nificent. Stately. Splendid. Su- 
 perb. August. 
 
 Grand (Lat. grand is, large, grand) 
 is applied to the union of excellence 
 with something which conveys the 
 impression of vastness or greatness in 
 the sense of expansiveness ; as a grand 
 mountain or cataract, a grand sight, 
 grand musio, a grand monarch, a 
 grand conception, a grand character. 
 The grand expands the mind with a 
 sense of vastness and majesty. 
 
 '* I have ever observed that colonnades 
 and avenues of trees of a moderate length 
 were, without comparison, i&v grander than 
 when they were suffered to run to immense 
 distances." — BuRKE. 
 
 Great (A. ^. great), as a synonym 
 of Grand, denotes less vividly what 
 is impressive, yet is associated with 
 power and gifts capable of accom- 
 plishing ends of their own. The 
 truly great man may be sometimes 
 the very opposite of grand. Cincin- 
 natus was great indeed, when, having 
 saved his country, he laid aside his 
 grandeur. Greatness, in its moral 
 sense, appeals more directly to the 
 reason than the senses. The great 
 man has extraordinary powers of 
 which he makes use to accomplish 
 high and important ends. A great 
 undertaking is extensive or arduous 
 in itself, while it needs high qualities 
 to bring it to a successful issue. 
 
 " Greatness of soul is to be acquired by 
 converse with the heroes of antiquity." — 
 Knox. 
 
 Sublime (Lat. sublhnis, lofty, sub- 
 lime) is the highest of all these terms. 
 It is so high in character that the sub- 
 lime inspires awe rather tlian delight 
 
[grand] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 461 
 
 in the scenes of art or nature, and in 
 the character and deeds of men. The 
 truly sublime is not only awful but 
 elevating. It is seldom applied 
 directly to persons. 
 
 " The age was fruitful in great men ; but, 
 if we except the su0li7ne3uUa,n Leader, none, 
 as regards splendour of endowments, stood 
 upon the same level as Cicero," — Dk 
 QuiNCEY. 
 
 Noble (Lat. ndbtits, well-knoioti, 
 npble) is a term of opposition, and 
 derives its force ii-om that against 
 which it is set. It is that which is 
 above the puny, petty, low, mean, 
 or dishonourable, with any, the 
 smallest degree, of which it is incom- 
 patible. It is properly a social and 
 moral term ; and it is only by a sort 
 of picturesque analogy that we speak 
 of a noble tree or palace. A noble 
 nature or action is innately su])erior 
 to that which is base. 
 ♦• Know this, my lord, nobility of blood 
 Is but a glittering and fallacious pood : 
 The nobleman is he whose noble mind 
 Is filled with inborn worth unborrowed 
 from his kind." Dryden. 
 
 Majestic (Lat. majestas, excellence, 
 majesty) refers exclusively to external 
 effect of form or movement, and has 
 no connexion with moral greatness. 
 The basest tyrant mio;ht have a ma- 
 jestic person or air. The movements 
 of an epic poem should be majestic. 
 Concentrated sti-ength, self-posses- 
 sion, and grace make up the majes- 
 tic. 
 
 " But in the midst was seen 
 A lady of a more majestic mien ; 
 By stature and by beauty marked their 
 Sovereign Queen." Drydex. 
 
 Imposing, like IMajestic, is purely 
 external ; but that which is majestic 
 has always an individuality, while 
 many things in detail may combine 
 to produce an imposing effect. The 
 term is not of old usage. Nor is im- 
 posing a term of unqualified praise ; 
 ibr that may have an imposing exterior 
 which has little intrinsic substance or 
 solidity. 
 
 Magnificent (Lat. magtiificiis) is 
 applied to objects of rich and varied 
 beauty on a large scale, and especially, 
 in the case of works of art, to those 
 which combine size, excellence, elabo- 
 rateness of conception and execution, 
 
 with great effectiveness ; though the 
 term Magnificence by no means ex- 
 presses the character of a work of 
 ai-t simply as such, howeverexcellent. 
 That costliness and elaborateness are 
 requisite to entitle a work of art to 
 the epithet m^agnificent, may be seen 
 in the case of architecture. The 
 Gothic cathedral may be'magnificent ; 
 the Great Pyramid is stupendous, but 
 not magnificent. On the other hand, 
 a purely natural production might be 
 called magnificent for its uniform 
 beauty and size ; as a magnificent 
 pearL 
 
 " Man He made, and for him built 
 Magnificent this world." Milton. 
 
 Stately is exhibiting state or 
 dignity, or what is analogous to them, 
 and can only be applied to what has, 
 or may be conceived to wear, an air of 
 imposing dignity; as a stately figure, 
 walk, palace, avenue, or forest ti-ee. 
 Stateliness involves the combination 
 of height and grace. 
 
 "Ye that in waters glide, and ye that 
 
 walk 
 The earth, and stately tread or lowly 
 
 creep. " Milton. 
 
 Splendid (Lat.spte/u/ic/iis, splendirCf 
 to shine brightly) is like Magnificent, 
 but less strong, and differs from it in 
 being applied to abstract qualities, 
 which magnificent never is. Splendid, 
 not magnificent, talents. The splen- 
 did implies always something bril- 
 liant, gorgeous, or striking. 
 
 " Liveries whose gorgeousness evinces 
 not the footman's deserts, but his lord's 
 splendidness." — Boyle. 
 
 Superb {Yr. superbe, Lat. superbus, 
 haitghty, splendid) has no application 
 in our language to human disposition, 
 but is used of objects of nature or of 
 art which are of the best, that is, the 
 largest or best developed, the best 
 manufactured, the most imposing or 
 elaborate ; as a superb diamond, tree, 
 house, carpet, bracelet, equipage. 
 The original force of the Latin su- 
 perbus still runs through the modern 
 use of the term. It indicates that 
 striking superiority to other objects 
 of the same class which, in conscious 
 creatures, would naturally be accom- 
 panied by pride. 
 
462 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [gratify] 
 
 •* With laboured visible design 
 Art strove to be superbly fine." 
 
 Churchill. 
 
 August (Lat. aiigustuSy consecrated, 
 majestic) is only employed of persons 
 and of what emanates from them as 
 creating extraordinary respect, or re- 
 spect mingled with awe. There 
 seems, however, to be no reason why 
 the term should not be employed 
 analogously of visible objects, as the 
 august mountain solitudes ; but there 
 is a kind of personality attributed to 
 such features of nature. 
 
 " Not with such majesty, such bold relief, 
 The forms august, the king, or conquering 
 
 chief. 
 E'er swelled on marble as in verse have 
 
 shined — 
 In polished \erse — the manners and the 
 
 mind." PoPK. 
 
 GRATIFY. Indulge. Humour. 
 Satisfy. Please. Satiate. Glut. 
 Cloy. 
 
 To Gratify (Lat. graiificari, to 
 oblige) is first to please, then to in- 
 dulge, and, in the latter sense, to 
 indulge not only persons, but the 
 mind and its tastes or desires, the 
 senses and the appetites. 
 
 Indulge (Lat. indnlgcre) is to con- 
 cede something to a weakness or a 
 wish. The subject-matter of grfiti- 
 fication is more positive than that 
 of indulgence. We gratify passions, 
 desires, and the like ; we indulge 
 humours or other less powerful in- 
 fluences. In indulging we escape 
 the trouble or effort of resisting; in 
 gratifying we look for keen enjoy- 
 ment. The former is a sign of weak- 
 ness, the latter often of vicious deter- 
 mination. 
 
 " His (Virgil's) sense always somewhat to 
 gratify our imagination on which it may 
 enlarge at pleasure." — Drydex. 
 
 " Restraint she will not brook ; 
 And, left to herself, if evil then ensue. 
 She first his weak indulgence will accuse.' 
 Milton. 
 
 To Humour (Lat. humorem, mois- 
 turey the idea of Galen and many 
 later physicians being that the general 
 temperament was caused by the pre- 
 valence of the particular humour; 
 whethercholeric, or phieg'matic or san- 
 
 guine, or melancholy) is to adapt 
 oneself to the variable mood of an- 
 other. 
 
 " By humouring the mind in trifles, we 
 teach it to presume on its own importunity 
 in greater matters ; and it will be found a 
 convenient rule in the management of our 
 passions, as of our children, to refuse 
 a compliance with them, not only when 
 they ask impro[>er things, but when they 
 ask anything with impatience." — Bishop 
 HURD. 
 
 To gratify is capable of much 
 difference in the character of the 
 gratification. The lowest and most 
 sensual passions may be gi-atified, 
 and the purest wishes on behalf of 
 another, as when a father is gratified 
 with the successes of his son. 
 
 To Satisfy (Lat. siitisfcfccre, to 
 give satisfaction) is to fill up the mea- 
 sure of a want, whether the want 
 be ordinate and lawful, or unlawful 
 and inordinate, and, like Gratify, ad- 
 mits of many degrees and kinds ; but 
 Satisfy does not imply pleasure, as it 
 is implied in Gratify ; but the feeling, 
 though less vivid, is more substantial. 
 Hence it follows that there may be 
 satisfaction without gratification, and 
 gratification without satisfaction. The 
 cravings of a hungry man are satis- 
 fied with very plain diet, in which 
 there is no gratification of the palate. 
 The gratification of licentiousness and 
 worldliness are often felt to be utterly 
 unsatisfactory. 
 
 " The word satisfaction is frequently em- 
 ployed to express the full accomplishment 
 of some particular desire, which always 
 communicates a temporary pleasure, what- 
 ever may be the nature of that desire." — 
 COGAN. 
 
 Please (Fr. plaisir, pleasure) has 
 the twofold meaning of exciting, 1, 
 anything of the nature of pleasure ; 
 and 2, specifically a feeling of honour- 
 able satisfaction, as when a superior 
 expresses himself as pleased with 
 another. Pleasu re holds an interme- 
 diate position between Satisfaction 
 and Gratification, being more than 
 tlie first, and less than the second. To 
 be pleased denotes a more lasting co - 
 dition than to be gratified, and also 
 conveys the idea of combined grati- 
 fication and approval of the judgment 
 arising from ol)jocts which operate 
 
[gratuitous] discriminated. 
 
 continuously upon our minds; as to 
 be pleased witli a landscape we con- 
 template, or a book we are reading, 
 or with the conversation, or society, 
 or manner, or conduct of others. 
 
 4^53 
 
 " The soul has many different faculties, 
 or, in other words, many different ways of 
 acting, and can beintenselyp/ea.^edormade 
 happy by all these different faculties or 
 ways of acting." — AddisoN. 
 
 Satiate (Lat. s^tiare) denotes ex- 
 cessi\re Satisfaction, or satisfaction 
 and something more. It deserves, how- 
 ever, to be remarked, that as exti-emes 
 proverbially meet, to be satiated is 
 oiten, practically, the opposite of being 
 satisfied; for to be satisfied denotes 
 pleasure and contentment, while 
 satiety is the feeling of dissatisfaction 
 and discontent produced by orer-satis- 
 faction. Satiate, Glvt {L&t. glutire, 
 to swallow doicn), andCi.OY (Fr. doner, 
 to nail, close up, and so clog, clou, 
 Lat. cldvus, a nail) have much in com- 
 mon. Indeed, (ituT and Cloy may be 
 taken as the complement of satiety, 
 the former denoting the excess of 
 supply over demand or legitimate re- 
 quirement, the latter the reaction in 
 individual feeling by way of loathing, 
 dissatisfaction, and loss of apprecia- 
 tion, naturally and necessarily conse- 
 c}uent upon the excess. Glut is used 
 impersonally, as when a market is 
 said to be glutted or overstocked; 
 Clov, only of persons and their de- 
 sires. 
 
 " The variety of objects dissipates care 
 for a short time ; bnt weariness soon en- 
 sues, and satiety converts the promised 
 pleasure to indifference at least, if not to 
 pain."— Knox. 
 "Thus must ye perish on a barbarous 
 
 coast! 
 Is this your fate, to glut the dogs with 
 
 gore. 
 Far from your friends, and from your native 
 
 shore .P" PoPE, Homer. 
 
 "Alas ! their love may be called appetite ; 
 No motion of the liver, bnt the palate 
 That suffer surfeit, cloymmt, and revolt ; 
 But mine is all as hungry as the sea. 
 And can digest as much." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 GRATITUDE. Thankfulness. 
 
 Gratitude (Fr. gtutitiide) relates 
 rather to the inner state of feeling. 
 Thankfulness to the exhibition of it m 
 
 I words. We commonly use GRATEFtTL 
 j in reference to human agents ; Thank- 
 } FUL, to Divine Providence. We may 
 ! look grateful. We speak our thanks. 
 I Thankfulness is mistrusted if it be not 
 j expressed; but gratitude may be too 
 deep for words. Thankfulness is un- 
 easy till it has acknowledged a kind- 
 ness; gi-atitude, till it has recom- 
 pensed It. 
 
 " Gratitude is a pleasant affection ex- 
 cited by a lively sense of benefits received 
 or intended, or even by the desire of being 
 beneficial. It is the lively and powerful 
 reaction of a well-disposed mind upon whom 
 benevolence has conferred some important 
 good."— CoGAN. 
 
 " Give us that due sense of all Thy mer- 
 cies, that our hearts may be unfeignedly 
 thankful."— Book of Common Prayer. 
 
 GRATUITOUS. Voluntary. 
 Willing. 
 
 Gratuitous (Lat. grutuitus, done 
 without profit or reward) means given 
 without equivalent or recompense, 
 granted irrespectively of claim, or 
 where none exists ; hence in the ap- 
 plied sense of uncalled-for by circusft- 
 stances, and, still further, unwar- 
 ranted by them, as a gratuitous insult 
 is one that was wholly unmerited, 
 and as a gratuitous assertion is one 
 for which no proof is forthcoming. 
 
 Voluntary (Lat. v'6luntdrius) is 
 more restricted in its sense than Wil- 
 ling, having the negative significa- 
 tion of not done under compulsion. 
 All our outward actions, whatever 
 may be the full nature of their mo- 
 tives, must be called Voluntary; but 
 they are not necessarily performed 
 willingly, that is, it does not follow 
 that our wishes and inclinations go 
 along with the actions performed. 
 The vows of the cloister must, of ne- 
 cessity, be taken voluniarilif. There 
 are multitudes of cases in which they 
 have not been taken willinglu. It may 
 be observed that Willing and Volun- 
 tary are applicable both to the agent 
 and the act ; Gratuitous, only to the 
 act. Voluntary and Willing belong 
 more to the freedom of act and motive 
 in the agent himself; Gratuitous, to 
 its effect upon othei-s, or the charac- 
 ter of such acts or motives in relation 
 
464 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [gratuity! 
 
 to others. A voluntary benent is one 
 which is given with fi'eedom of will; 
 a gratuitous benefit is one which has 
 been purchased bv nothing on the 
 
 pu 
 oftl 
 
 part or the receiver. 
 
 " The Greek word signifies most gratui- 
 tous, most free, undeserved, and the pare 
 eftect of grace." — Bates. 
 
 " Nothing is more certain than that God 
 acts not necessarily, but voluntarily with 
 particular intention and design, knowing 
 that He does good, and intending to do so, 
 freely and out of choice, and when He has 
 no other constraint upon Him but this, that 
 His will Inclines Him to communicate Him- 
 self and to do good." — Clarkk. 
 
 " His willingness to forgive returning 
 s'lnaers. "—Ibid. 
 
 GRATUITY. Gift. 
 
 Gift being simply a thing given, 
 GratdiTy (see Gratuitous) is a cer- 
 tain kind of gift. It is commonly 
 expected as due, but could not be 
 enforced as a legal claim. 
 
 " The Cavaliers and Presbyterians of the 
 city, hoping to improve this opportunity, 
 invited them to join with the city, as they 
 termed their party there, promising them 
 their whole arrears, constant pay, and a 
 present gratuity, giving them some money 
 in hand as an earnest of the rest." — LuD- 
 LOW, Memoirs. 
 
 GRAVE. Seuious. Solemn. 
 
 Grave (Fr. grave, Lat. griivis, 
 heavy) means characterized by weight, 
 but not used in the physical but only 
 in the moral or analogous sense; 
 hence important, and, as applied to 
 character or persons, having the ap- 
 pearance of being charged with affairs 
 weighty or important. This is some- 
 times more in appearance than reality, 
 and comes of humour. It is opposed 
 to gay, and may be predicated of 
 manner, appearance, and expression 
 of countenance. As Grave denotes an 
 appearance of habitual self-control or 
 sense of responsibility, so Serious 
 (Lat. serins) conveys the idea of con- 
 sideration or reflexiveness, as applied 
 to the air or expression of countenance. 
 Gravity may be special, seriousness 
 is habitual. Business makes people 
 grave, responsibility makes them se- 
 rious. The grave person is not merely 
 one who does not laugh, but who 
 nevQ»* shocks the proprieties of his 
 
 condition, of his age, or of his charac- 
 ter. The love of truth, the respect for 
 reason and conscience, the sense of 
 duty, tend to make people grave. The 
 combination of reflexiveness and ear- 
 nestness, or self-examination, makes 
 seriousness, which is hardly a matter 
 of mere humour like gravity. Impor- 
 tant thoughts make grave, thoughts 
 important to one's self make serious, 
 so that seriousness is closely allied 
 to apprehension. Like Grave, it is 
 used of circumstances, and then has 
 a stronger force. A grave considera- 
 tion is one of argumentative weight ; 
 a serious circumstance is one that is 
 likely to affect us. While Grave, as 
 so employed, means no more than im- 
 portant. Serious means giving cause 
 for apprehension, attended with dan- 
 ger or disastrous consequences. A 
 grave, but not a serious, assembly of 
 old men. 
 
 Solemn (L^t. solennis, solemnis, oc- 
 curring regularly as a religious rite ; 
 and so regular, formal) is primarily 
 marked by religious rites; hence, fitted 
 to awake serious reflexions. When 
 used of the manner or countenance of 
 an individual, it has the sense of af- 
 fectedly serious, and implies ridicule. 
 The judge is grave, the preacher se- 
 rious ; the service or the cathedral 
 solemn. 
 
 " Justice is grave and decorous, and in it« 
 punishments rather seems to submit to h 
 necessity than to make a choice." — BuRKE 
 
 " One might have expected that eventf 
 so awful and tremendous as death and 
 judgment, that a question so deeply in- 
 teresting as whether we shall go to heaven 
 or hell, could in no possible case, and in no 
 constitution of mind whatever, fail of ex- 
 citing the most serious apprehensions." — 
 Paley. 
 
 " But they who have the misfortune to be 
 of this make should by no means trust to 
 their own most solemn purposes, or even 
 vows. Their chief safety is in flight." — 
 Seckkr. 
 
 GRAVITY. Weight. Heavi- 
 
 NESS. 
 
 These terms are compared here in 
 a physical sense. Gravity is weight 
 scientifically, or rather philosophi- 
 cally, considered, and is therefore a 
 scientific term, and is hardly used ex- 
 cept in the phrase '* centre of gravity," 
 
[greedyj 
 
 and belongs to the theorj of gravita- 
 tion. 
 
 Weight (the amount weighed) is 
 wholly indefinite, and is opposed only 
 to that which is imponderable. The 
 lightest subs^tances hava some amount 
 01 weight. Weight, however, is al- 
 ways abstract, and is used scientifi- 
 cally, while Heaviness is concrete, 
 that is, expresses the sensation of 
 weight (A. S. hejig, heavii, hnrd to 
 heave, A. S. hebban). This is not 
 always the case with the adjective 
 heavy. A heavy burden means one 
 of which the weight is severely felt ; 
 but, " How heavy is this ? " is ecjulva- 
 lent simply to, " What is the weight 
 of this? " Weight, from its associa- 
 tion with the balance, has a sense 
 peculiar to itself — tliat of determining 
 power, as we speak of weighty consi- 
 derations. Everything has weight, 
 which is the natural tendency of all 
 bodies to the centre of the earth. Those 
 bodies which have much weight,either 
 in proportion to their bulk or to the 
 force and strength applied to them, 
 are heavy. A bag of gold is heavier 
 than a bag of feathers of the same 
 size, because gold has more weight 
 than feathers. W'eiglit depends more 
 upon substance, heaviness on quan- 
 tity. A pound or feathers and a pound 
 of gold have equal weight, though 
 feathers and gold are not equally 
 heavy. In tlieir secondary senses, 
 Gh A viTY denotes the weight of practi- 
 cal importance, H e a vix ess the weight 
 of care or trouble, Weightiness the ur- 
 gency of fact or reasoning. Heavy, 
 rather than Weighty, is the term em- 
 ploeyd to express the force which re- 
 sults from the weight of a body in 
 motion. Thus we speak of a heavy, 
 not a weighty, blow. The felled tree 
 falls not weightily, but heavily, to the 
 ground. Weight differs from gravity 
 as being the effect of gravity, that 
 is, the downward pressure of a body 
 under its influence. Weight is thus a 
 measure of the force of gravity. 
 " Entellus wastes his forces on the wind. 
 And thus deluded of the stroke designed, 
 Headlong and heavy fell." Dryden. 
 
 •' Without gravity, the whole universe, 
 if we suppose an undetermined power of 
 motion infused into matter, would have 
 been a confueed chaos without beaaty or 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 465 
 
 order, and never stable or permanent in 
 any ccmdition." — Bentlkt, 
 
 " "We know the weight of a given quan- 
 tity of matter on the surface of the sun as 
 well as we know its weight upon the sui-i';ii;e 
 of the earth." — Bishop Horsley. 
 
 GREATNESS. Generosity. 
 Magnanimity. 
 
 Greatness (A. S. great), m the 
 sense of greatness of mind, is a rela- 
 tive quality. It is a moral elevation 
 or superiority. Greatness of mind 
 comes of sentiments raised above the 
 sentiments of ordinary persons. 
 
 Magnanimity (Lat. magndnimild- 
 tem) though etymologically its Latin 
 equivalent, has a more extended mean- 
 ing. It is such greatness in all its 
 Iieight, plenitude, and perfection. 
 
 Generosity (Lat. ghurdsitdtem) is 
 literally the virtue of a noble race. 
 Greatness of mind leads to gi-eat acts ; 
 generosity does gi-eat things out of a 
 sublime disinterestedness, and for the 
 benefit of others. Magnanimity does 
 ^eat things without effort and with- 
 out any idea of sacrifice, Avith the 
 same ease that common persons do 
 common things. Magnanimity isAvith- 
 out self-consciousness, and has a sim- 
 plicity like that of genius. Greatness 
 of mind may perhaps aim at glory ; 
 generosity would not value gloiy with- 
 out doing good ; magnanimity can see 
 opportunities of glory and let them 
 pass, or pass over to another. Great- 
 ness of mind foregoes an opportunity 
 of revenge, generosity converts it into 
 a means of benefit, magnanimity would 
 forget the injury, and have the injurer 
 forget it also. Greatness of mind raises 
 our admiration, generosity our love 
 also; magnanimity is a thing about 
 which to feel entliusiastically. 
 
 GREEDY. Acquisitive. 
 
 Greedy (A. S.grd^dig) denotes the 
 low animal desire of possession and 
 eagerness of enjoyment, whether in 
 matters of food or any other object of 
 appetite or desire. 
 
 Acquisitive (Lat. acqutrere, part, 
 acquisitus) denotes the quality ot de- 
 riving gratification from the mere ad 
 dition to the existing stock of ones 
 possessions Hence the greedy longs 
 for quantity, the acquisitive is content 
 
466 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [grievance ' 
 
 with very little at a time. The greedy 
 looks to the thing to be gained ; the 
 acquisitive al&o derives pleasure from 
 the process of gaining it. The de- 
 sires of the o:rec(iyare coarse, orsliow 
 themselves in coarse form, the desires 
 of the acijuisitive may turn upon the 
 choicest tilings. The greedj' snatches 
 his prey when he can. Tlie acquisi- 
 tive is ever on the watch, and work- 
 ing little by little, not despising those 
 small thiugs which the greedy does 
 not seek. The wild beast hunting his 
 prey is greedy from hunger or natural 
 voracity. Tlie bird wliich roams in- 
 cessantly seeking materials for its nest 
 or food for its young, and gathering 
 them even in minutest portions, is ac- 
 quisitive. 
 
 GRIP:VANCE. Hardship. 
 
 A Grievance (O. Fr. gref, heavy, 
 tad, Lat. grUvis) is a mental hardship, 
 or a hai'dship as dwelt upon in the 
 mind. 
 
 Hardship is externally suffered. 
 Purely physical endurances, as ex- 
 posure to the elements, are hardships, 
 not grievances. Grievance cairies the 
 idea of matter of complaint or ti'ouble, 
 which might have been otherwise but 
 for the conduct of men. So heavy 
 taxation is a hardship when viewed 
 in its pauperizing effects, a grievance 
 as furnishing ground of complaint 
 against a government or an admini- 
 stration. Hardship comes from a force 
 stronger than ourselves, whether from 
 nature or from man. Grievance may 
 exist between equals. Among civi- 
 lized nations one may have a grievance 
 against another, where Hardship could 
 not be predicated ; yet the national 
 grievance might be such as to entail 
 hardship upon individuals. 
 
 " Heroes are always drawn bearing sor- 
 rows, struggling with adversities, under- 
 going all kinds of hardships, and having 
 in the service of mankind a kind of ap- 
 petite to difficulties and dangers."— Spec- 
 tator. 
 
 " Caase of the war and grievance of the 
 land." Pope, Homer. 
 
 GRIEVE. Mourn. Lament. 
 
 To GRifcVE is purely mental {see 
 Grievance) ; it is to feel the pain of 
 an inward distress. 
 
 To MouBN (A. ^. murnan, to 
 mourn, to care for) and Lameni (Lat. 
 idmentari) are to give outward expres 
 sion to grief, the former in visible, the 
 latter in audible signs. Bitter grief; 
 deep mourning ; loud lamentation. 
 Unlike Mourn and Lament, the verb 
 Grieve is used in the sense of actively 
 to trouble or hurt, as well as intransi- 
 tively to feel trouble. Misfortune 
 giieves me, or causes me to grieve. 
 
 " Who fails to grieve when just occasion 
 
 calls. 
 Or grieves too much, deserves not to be 
 
 blessed." YoUKG. 
 
 The term Mourn may indicate sorrdw, 
 either expressed or unexpressed; but 
 Lament implies its expression of ne- 
 cessity. 
 
 "As the apostle says of circumcision 
 and nncircumcision, so say I here, that 
 neither mourning for sin, nor confession of 
 it, avail anything, but a new creature." — 
 South. 
 
 " Eve, who, unseen, 
 Yet all had heard, with audible lament 
 Discovered soon the place of her retire." 
 Milton. 
 
 GRIN. Grimace. 
 
 The characteristic of a Grin (A. S. 
 grennUin, to grin) seems to be the 
 withdrawing of the lips so as to show 
 the teeth. 
 
 A Grimace (Ft. grimace, O. Scand. 
 grimu, a mask) is any distortion of the 
 countenance. It may be habitual or 
 intentional, and proceed fi-om a great 
 variety of feelings, from the most 
 excited wrath on the one hand, or 
 from a smirking self-complacency on 
 the other. 
 
 GROAN. Moan. 
 
 The Groan (A. S. grdiiian, to 
 groan) is produced by hard breath- 
 ing, and consists of inarticulate 
 sounds. 
 
 The Moan (A. S. mxnan, to ^oan) 
 is a plaintive sound produced by the 
 organs of utterance, and is often 
 slightly articulate. The moan is often 
 also voluntary ; the groan is involun- 
 tary, the result of deep pain, unless it 
 be simulated. There is a difference, 
 however, in the causes by which the 
 two are produced. Moaning comes 
 always from some pain or misery; 
 groaning comes from pain, but it 
 may also come from a strong feeling 
 
LguardJ 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 467 
 
 of resistance to what is felt to be 
 burdensome or unjust ; hence it is 
 often an expression of indignation. 
 The groans of suffering and of indig- 
 nation are combined in the follow- 
 ing:— 
 
 " Nor Philoctetes had been left inclosed 
 In a bare isle, to wants and pains expose.!. 
 Where to the rocks with solitary oro(7?is 
 His sufferings and our baseness he bemoans.'" 
 Dryden, Ovid. 
 
 GROW. Become. Increase. 
 
 To Grow (A. S. growan) is gradu- 
 ally to BicoME (A. S. becuman, to 
 attain to, to befall). A man may be- 
 come suddenly angry, but he only 
 grows angry by degrees. Grow often 
 indicates a state which one is ap- 
 proaching ; Become, a state which 
 one has reached. To become is to be 
 one thing from having been another. 
 To grow is to be approaching to some 
 state. A man is growing old before 
 he has reached old age. Not till he 
 nas reached it has he become old. 
 
 To Increase ^Lat. mcresche) is the 
 result or manirestation of growth . 
 Trade has been growing for years past, 
 and is now considerably increased. To 
 Increase, however, does not neces- 
 sarily imply to Grow ; rapid expansion 
 or dilatation of parts will produce in- 
 crease in bulk ; but the process of 
 growth implies either an accretion of 
 l)arts by external apposition, or an 
 assimilative power from within, as in 
 the vital force. The snowball grows 
 by accretion, and so increases as it 
 rolls. The tree grows by its own 
 vitality, and increases also in size. 
 
 GRUDGE. SriTE. Pique. 
 
 A Grudge (one of many similar 
 onomatopoetic words in otlier lan- 
 guages besides English : so grunt, 
 growl, 6<;c.) is a feeling of continuous 
 and sullen dislike cherished against 
 another, having its origin in some act 
 of the person against whom it is 
 felt. 
 
 Spite (perhaps an abbrev. of De- 
 spite, O. Fr. despit, Lat. dispectus, a 
 looking down, despising; but see 
 Wedgwood) is a more active and de- 
 monstrative form of malevolence (but 
 not so enduring as Grudge), which 
 shows itself in cutting words aud irri- 
 
 tating demeanour. It belongs to per- 
 sons who are quick to feel and weak 
 to control or hide their feelings. We 
 owe a grudge, and show spite. 
 
 Pique (Fr. piqxier, to prick) is 
 purely personal, and comes of offended 
 jiride, or a quick sense of resentment 
 against a supposed neglect or injury, 
 with less of malevolence than Grudu k. 
 or Spite, both of which are charac- 
 terized by a desire to injure, which 
 does not belong to Pique. The verb 
 to grudge has a negative force un- 
 known to the noun Grudge. We 
 grudge another that which we do not 
 regard him sufficiently to give him, 
 oi; to contemplate him as possessing, 
 with complacency. On the other 
 hand, a grudge is always an actively 
 malicious feeling, which would hurt 
 if it had the opportunity. 
 
 " Esau had conceived a mortal grudge 
 and enmity against his brother Jacob." — 
 South. 
 •' Begone, ye critics, and restrain your 
 
 spite ; 
 Codrus writes on, and will for ever wi-ite." 
 Pope. 
 
 " Out of a personal pique to those in ser- 
 vice, he stands as a looker-on when the go- 
 vernment is attacked." — Addison. 
 
 As a reflexive verb, to pique one's self 
 expresses a feeling of pride uu' 
 wounded, as — 
 
 " Men Tpique themselves on their skill in 
 the learned languages." — LoCKE. 
 
 GUARD. Guardian. 
 
 Of these Guard (Fr. garde, garder, 
 to guard, take care o*') is applied both 
 to persons and things ; Guardian, 
 less often to things, and more com- 
 monly to persons. But a more marked 
 difference is that Guard denotes a pro- 
 tector against physical danger, vio- 
 lence, theft, and the like ; Guardian, 
 against anything which may militate 
 against the interests of persons, espe- 
 cially during youth or minority, when 
 they are too inexperienced to manage 
 their own affairs. 
 
 " The guard which kept the door of the 
 king's house." — Bible. 
 
 " You may think, perhaps, that man i» 
 too mean, too insignificant a being to be 
 worthy of the minj^ration and gtKirdinn' 
 ship of celestial spirits."— Bishop Por 
 THUS. 
 
468 
 
 GUESS. Conjecture. Divina- 
 tion. Supposition. Hypothesis. 
 Surmise. 
 
 To Guess (formerly gessen. Da. 
 gisse) is to make a statement upon 
 ■what is unknown, with the hope of 
 being right ; if by lucky chance only, 
 this is in the strictest sense a guess ; 
 if with a very slight amount of know- 
 ledge, which is just sufficient to in- 
 cline the scale of probability, this is 
 a Conjecture (Lat. conjectural an 
 inference, conjicertj to cast together). 
 Hence Conjecture is employed of 
 complex, while Guess belongs to the 
 simplest, things. I hold something in 
 my nand, and in play I say to a child, 
 ** Guess what it is." An historian or 
 a diplomatist who is furnished with 
 inadequate evidence for knowledge, 
 conjectures motives and consequences 
 as best he may. 
 
 Supposition (Lat. sujyp6sitionem, a 
 ■placing under) belongs to that of which 
 part is known and part unknown ; a 
 fact, for instance, is known; its 
 cause is unknown ; therefore the 
 cause, or supposed cause, is placed 
 under the fact as a theoretical founda- 
 tion for it. And generally, to imagine 
 with probability, to infer from evi- 
 dence which, though not complete, is 
 the best that can be had, is supposi- 
 tion. Hence Supposition has in it 
 much more of rational inference than 
 Guess or Conjecture. 
 
 Hypothesis, similarly, is a placing 
 undei'y as the groundwork of argument 
 or of action (i^ttcQeo-k), but is techni- 
 cally employed of philosophical sup- 
 position, learned or scientific theories. 
 The French Academy has thus dis- 
 tinguished between Supposition and 
 Hypothesis. The supposition is a 
 proposition laid down for the sake of 
 an inference to be drawn from it. 
 The hypothesis is the supposition of a 
 thing, whether possible or impossible, 
 from which a conse(|uence is drawn. 
 Hence it follows that the hypothesis 
 is a supposition purely ideal, while 
 the supposition stands for a proposi- 
 tion either true or confessed. The 
 hypothesis is adopted for the sake of 
 accounting for facts or a system. The 
 hypothesis may be true or not ti-ue. 
 
 SYNONYMS [guess J 
 
 The supposition is excluded from the 
 thesis not because it is incapable oi 
 proof, but because it is taken as 
 proved. Hypothesis is sometimes 
 used in the sense of the system based 
 upon hypotheses. In this sense the 
 systems of Copernicus and Descartes 
 are called hypotheses. In this tech- 
 nical sense, as Hypothesis belongs to 
 science, so Supposition belongs to 
 logic. 
 
 Divination (lua,t. divinationem, the 
 faculty of predicting, divi7uitio7i) is 
 literally a term of ancient augury for 
 the gathering the will of heaven, 
 either naturally by a divine inspira- 
 tion, or artificially from certain mani- 
 festations; in this sense, divination 
 precedes prediction. To divine, ac- 
 cordingly, as commonly employed, is 
 to use such conjecture as depends 
 both upon hazard and upon natural 
 sagacity. It may be observed, in its 
 relation to prediction, that, unlike 
 that term, it is not restricted to the 
 future, but is equally applicable to 
 facts of the past. 
 
 Surmise (O. Fr. surmise, accusation, 
 surmettre, to lay upon) is a conjecture 
 of a matter of fact. Of the above, 
 those which are most nearly related 
 to one another are, Guess, Conjecture, 
 and Surmise. The subject of a guess 
 is always a fact, or something re- 
 garded in the simple light of a fact ; 
 a conjecture is more vague and ab- 
 stract, and may be on the possibility 
 of a fact. The subject of a guess 
 is definite and unmistakable when 
 known. The subject of a conjecture 
 may remain indefinite and unknown. 
 If a sentence be a set enigma, I guess 
 its meaning, and so know it. Ii it be 
 involved and indistinct, I can but con- 
 jecture its meaning, and may not ar- 
 rive at it after all. In guessing, if 
 successful, we arrive at a certain oi 
 probable conclusion from uncertain 
 premises. In conjecturing, we arrive 
 at an uncertain conclusion from un- 
 certain premises. 
 
 " You go on arguing and reasoning what 
 necessity of nature must signify, which is 
 only talking without book, and guessing 
 what words anciently meant, without coa 
 salting the ancients to know the fact." — 
 WATKKI.A.ND. 
 
■_gush] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 469 
 
 " Yon may see how onr (English) tongue 
 e i-iseu, and thereby conjecture how in 
 time it may alter."— Camdex. 
 
 " A sagacity which divined the evil de- 
 signs." — Bancroft. 
 
 " I am sure his reason by which he would 
 persuade you to become a convert to their 
 Church is shewed to be no reason, because 
 it proceeds upon this false supposition, that 
 the Church of Rome was once the Catholic 
 Church, which it never was." — Sharp. 
 
 "Hypothetical necessity is that which 
 the supposition or hypothesis of God's fore- 
 sight and preordination lays upon future 
 contingents." — C1.ARKE. 
 
 " There are various degrees of strength 
 in judgments, from the lowest surmise, to 
 notion, opinion, persuasion, and the highest 
 assurance, which we call certainty." — 
 Search. 
 
 A Surmise is in matters personal and 
 practical, what Hypothesis is in mat- 
 ters purely scientific. 
 
 GUIDE. Rule. Direction. 
 
 Guide (Fr. guide) is primarily a 
 living director ; hence, when em- 
 ployed of inanimate influences or 
 media, it conveys the idea of some- 
 thing which is not rigidly invariahle, 
 but still keeps up with our needs 
 under alteration of circumstances. 
 
 Rule (Nor. Fr. mile, Fr. r^sU, 
 Lat. rigiila, see Littre) on the otner 
 hand, is a rigid and inflexible thing, 
 a form of thought or a form of words, 
 a maxim which must be acted up to. 
 So conscience is the guide of men's 
 actions. The duty to one's neighbour 
 is the rule of Christian reciprocity. 
 
 A Direction (Lat. directionem, a 
 making straight) may be given at a 
 distance, or once for all, and is to be 
 acted upon by being remembered. It 
 is not universally applicable, but only 
 suited to the particular case. When 
 coming from a superior, a direction 
 has the force of an instructive com- 
 mand. 
 
 " Common sense, or that share and 
 species of understanding which Nature has 
 bestowed upon the greater part of men, is, 
 when competently improved by education, 
 and assisted by Divine grace, the safest 
 guide to certainty and happiness." — V. 
 Knox, Essays. 
 
 Rule is employed in more senses than 
 one. To say nothing of its purely 
 physical meaning of a rod or measure, 
 It signifies also an uniform course of 
 
 things, a regulative order, a constant 
 method, and both the exercise of 
 governing powers and the state of 
 those on whom it is exercised. In the 
 sense in which it is synonymous with 
 Guide and Direction, as the guide 
 regulates the movements, and the 
 direction indicates the couree, so the 
 rule regards principally the actions, 
 or what one ought to do; but it is 
 cold and without force in itself. 
 
 "There is something so wild and yet so 
 solemn in Shakespeare's speeches of his 
 ghosts and fairies, and the like imaginary 
 persons, that we cannot forbear thinking 
 them natural, though we have no rule by 
 which to judge them." — Addisox. 
 A rule is a compendium of principles 
 which is familiar to us, and so avail- 
 able for application under new or un- 
 familiar circumstances. 
 
 " I have before made mention how Mus- 
 covie was in our time discovered by Richard 
 Chanceler in his voyage towards Cathay by 
 the direction and information of M. Sebas- 
 tian Cabota, who long before had thi« 
 secret in his mind." — Hackluyt. 
 
 GUISE. Habit. Garb. 
 
 The former (Fr.^uj«, manner^ way) 
 includes the other two. Guise being 
 the combined effect of dress and de- 
 portment. 
 
 Garb (O. Fr. gai-be, fashion, grace- 
 fulness) is ofiicial or appropriate dress, 
 
 Habit (Fr. habit, Lat. hdbttum, con- 
 dition, dress) is much the same ; but 
 GARB,likeDREss,may comprise several 
 articles ofapparel,whileH A BIT denotes 
 one such article of a somewhat ample 
 character, as the habit of a monk. 
 " In easy notes and guise of lowly swain, 
 'Twas thus he charmed and taught the 
 
 listening train." Parnell. 
 
 " Habited like a juryman."— Churchill. 
 " That by their Moorish garb the warriors 
 
 knew 
 The hostile band." 
 
 HooLE, Orlando Furioso. 
 
 GUSH. Flow. Stream. 
 
 Of these. Flow (L&t. flnere) is the 
 generic term, and the others are modeg 
 of flowing. 
 
 Gush (Icel. gusa) is to flow abun* 
 dantly and forcibly, or, as it were, 
 burstingly. 
 
 Stream (A. S. st'^dm, a stream, 
 verb str^amian) is tq flow amply and 
 
470 
 
 continuously but quietly. A body of 
 water may flow broadly or narrowly ; 
 It sti'eams nai'rowly ; it gushes vio- 
 lently. 
 *' While his life's torrent gushed from out 
 
 the wound." PoPB. 
 
 *' Oh, could I flow like thee, and make thy 
 
 stream 
 My great example, as it is my theme : 
 Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, 
 
 yet not dull. 
 Strong without rage, without o'erflowing, 
 
 full." Denham. 
 
 H. 
 
 HABITATION. Abode. Doml 
 
 CILE. 
 
 Habitation (Lat. hdbitationem) is 
 a place which one inhabits, not neces- 
 sarily a house or tenement of any 
 kind. 
 
 Abode {see Abide) has the same 
 sense, but with a less direct reference 
 to the constant passing of one's life 
 there. Habitation is the natural or 
 habitual place of abode. 
 
 Domicile (Lat. domMlium) adds to 
 the idea of habitation and abode a re- 
 lationship to society and civil govern- 
 ment, and is consequently a term 
 rather technical than conversational. 
 An abode is pleasant or unpleasant, 
 convenient or inconvenient. A habita- 
 tion is suitable or unsuitable, healthy 
 or unhealthy, commodious or other- 
 wise. Habitation points more di- 
 rectly than Abode to furnishing ne- 
 cessary shelter and protection. The 
 woods are the abodes of birds, their 
 nests are their habitations. 
 
 " The body moulders into dust, and is 
 utterly incapable of itself to become a fit 
 habitation for the soul again." — Stilling- 
 
 FLEET. 
 
 "We will come and make our abode 
 with him. — Bible. 
 
 The legal force of the term domicile is 
 a residence at a particular place, with 
 positive or presumptive proof of an 
 intention to remain there. 
 
 HAPPEN. Chance. Occur. 
 
 To Happen (Icel. happ, chance, 
 luck) 19 used of all occurrences, 
 whether /ccidental or not, which are 
 not regarded as the result of specific 
 design on the part of the individual 
 
 SYNONYMS [habitation] 
 
 to whom the term is applied. For 
 that which is the issue of a train of 
 circumstances, however connected, 
 may be said to happen to those who 
 have had no hand in bringing it 
 about. 
 
 To Chance (Fr. chance, chance^ 
 hazard, Lat. cMentia), on the other 
 hand, is only used when the character 
 of the event, as regards the individual 
 whom it befalls, is fortuitous. 
 
 To Occur (Lat. occurrere, to run 
 towards) is a relative term, equivalent 
 to happening to a person, or to falling 
 undesignedly in his way. It is said, 
 not only of events, but of ideas or 
 thoughts which suggest themselves. 
 Events of remote history happen ; but 
 they are not occurrences to us. 
 
 "When four different persons are called 
 upon in a court of justice to prove the 
 reality of any particular fact that happened 
 twenty or thirty years ago, what is the sort 
 of evidence which they usually give ? Why, 
 in the great leading circumstances which 
 tend to establish the fact in question, they 
 in general perfectly agree."— Bishop Pok- 
 
 TKUS. 
 
 " If a bird's nest chance to be before 
 thee."— £"71^. Bible. 
 
 " There doth not occurre to me at this 
 present, any use thereof for profit." — 
 Bacon. 
 
 HAPPINESS. Felicity. Beati- 
 tude. Blessedness. Bliss. Bless 
 
 INO. 
 
 Happiness (Icel. happ, chance, 
 luck) is that feeling which results 
 from the conscious enjoyment of an 
 aggregate of good things. It is a 
 state of the soul, and is applied to 
 every degree of consciousness of well- 
 being, and is not employed of any 
 state, however keen, of mere animal 
 gratification, irrespectively of the 
 mental state. Happiness is a term 
 both of philosophy and of common 
 conversation. 
 
 Felicity (Fr. ftlicit^, LHt.felufitd' 
 tern ) is not only a more formal word 
 for happiness, but also involves a sub- 
 stantial ground of the feeling. It is 
 the consciousness not only of enjoy- 
 ment, but of a state of prosperity. 
 Our happiness is evident to others, 
 and may make us objects of envy ; our 
 felicity is felt by ourselves. Happi- 
 
[happy] 
 
 nesfl is less continuous, so that we 
 speak sometimes of a specific happi- 
 ness. I have had the happiness to 
 make his acquaintance. Felicity is 
 not so employed. External blessings 
 make up man's happiness, but his fe- 
 licity largely depends on himself. 
 
 Blessedness (A. S. bletsian, to 
 bless; connected with blithe and bliss) 
 denotes a state of the most refined and 
 pure happiness, arising from the pos- 
 session of the choicest ^oods or mate- 
 rial of happiness, and is the charac- 
 teristic of the person's entire state in 
 soul and body. Bliss is happiness of 
 a rapturous or ecstatic nature. 
 
 Beatittde (Lat. beatus) is the 
 Latin equivalent of Blessedness, and 
 is used in the higher and more spiri- 
 tual style. It conveys the idea of 
 imparted blessedness. Cicero seems 
 to have invented the word beatiUidoj 
 to express a condition of happiness 
 wanting in nothing. Blessing 
 nearly answers to the Latin benedic- 
 tion ; but, while Benediction is used 
 only of good wishes, Blessing is used 
 both of good wishes and good things. 
 (See Happy.) 
 
 " The word happy is a relative term ; m 
 strictness, any condition may be denomi- 
 nated happy in which the amonnt or aggre- 
 gate of pleasure exceeds that of pain ; and 
 the degree of happiness depends npon the 
 qnajitity of this excess." — Palky. 
 Happiness depends on the possession 
 of such things as wealth, honour, 
 friends, health ; the satisfaction of 
 mind involved in the enjoyment of 
 Buch things constitutes Felicity. 
 
 "Did faith ever violate peace, or. obe- 
 dience impair domestic felicity f " — War- 
 BURTON, 
 
 " As almost here she with her bliss doth 
 meet." 
 Daviks, Immortality of the Soul. 
 
 " Jnpiter has by him two great vessels, 
 one filled with blessings, the other with 
 misfortunes." — Tatler. 
 ** Abont Him all the sanctities of heaven 
 Stood thick as stars, and from His sight 
 
 received 
 Beatitude pa«t utterance." Miltoit. 
 
 '* The deeps and the snows, the hail and 
 the rain, the birds of the air and fishes of 
 the sea, they can and do glorify God, and 
 give Him praise in their capacity ; and yet 
 He gave them no speech, no reason, no im- 
 mortal yiirit, no capacity of eternal blessed- 
 ness. '—Bishop Taylor. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 471 
 
 HAPPY. Fortunate. Lucky. 
 
 Happy denotes the possession o 
 goods which are really such ; Fok 
 TUNATB CLat. fort undtus, f'ortiina,f'or- 
 tune), the possession of what are so 
 considered. Men may be called for- 
 tunate in reference to very small 
 things ; as a lucky throw in a game 
 of chance. Happy involves a larger 
 scale of benefit. A man is happy in 
 what he has ; fortunate, in getting it. 
 
 There is a close connexion between 
 Lucky ( Du. luk, geluk, good fortune^ 
 happiness) and fortunate ; but Lucky 
 is used only of minor occun-ences ; 
 Fortunate, of the larger results of 
 favourable chance. To be lucky is 
 less than to be fortunate ; to be fortu- 
 nate, less than to be happy. Luck 
 excludes all idea of effort; but a man 
 may be fortunate in his undertakings. 
 A fortunate man obtains what he 
 wishes and hopes to gain. A lucky 
 man gets what he may desire, but did 
 not expect to gain. Merchants who 
 make successful speculations are for- 
 tunate. Lottery prizes and unex- 
 pected legacies fall to the lucky. It 
 is more grand to be fortunate, more 
 complete to be happy. One is fortu- 
 nate as possessing what fortune has 
 to bestow, happy in the enjoyment 
 cf what constitutes true felicity. The 
 .'brtunate man has exultation, the 
 iiappy man serenity. Some men are 
 happy without having been fortunate, 
 others are fortunate in the estimation 
 of the world yet far from happy. To 
 be fortunate is to have much, to be 
 happy is to enjoy what one has. Am- 
 bition may be fortunate, moderation 
 is happy. 
 " Oh 1 Happiness, our being's end and 
 
 aim. 
 Good, Pleasure, Ease, Content, whate'er 
 thy name. POPK. 
 
 "As Sylla was sacrificing in his tent in 
 the fields of Nola, a snake happened to 
 creep ont of the bottom of the altar ; upon 
 which, Postumius, the Haruspex, who at- 
 tended the sacrifice, proclaiming it to be a 
 fortunate omen, called out upon him to lead 
 his army immediately against the enemy." 
 — Middleton, Life of Cicero. 
 
 " He who sometimes lights on truth is 
 right but by chance ; and I know not 
 whether the luckiness of the accident will 
 excuse the iiregnlarity of the proceeding," 
 —Locke. 
 
472 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 I hardly' 
 
 HARDLY. ScARCELv. 
 
 These terms are correctly employed 
 in proportion as it is borne in mind 
 that Scarcely relates to quantity, 
 Hardly to degree. " It is scarcely 
 ten miles off." " I shall hardly be 
 able to finish this work." 
 
 HARMLESS. Inoffensive. Un- 
 offending. Innocuous. 
 
 Harmless denotes in a twofold 
 sense the absence of the disposition to 
 do hurt, and the state of immunity 
 from harm. In the former sense, it 
 is used in reference to the power or 
 disposition of living creatures. We 
 speak of harmless animals. 
 
 Innocuous (Lat. inn'dcuus), on the 
 other hand, is employed of things, 
 and not persons ; as, an innocuous po- 
 tion, atmosphere, plant. Inoffen- 
 sive and Unoffending differ in that 
 the former means not being even in- 
 directly a source of annoyance or 
 offence, while the latter means devoid 
 of all disposition to offend. Un- 
 offending can only be employed of 
 human beings; Inoffensive, of in- 
 fluences in general, which are capable 
 of being unpleasantly or noxiously 
 felt ; as inoffensive odours. Harm- 
 less and Innocuous belong to the na- 
 ture of beings ; Inoffensive and Un- 
 offending are used relatively. 
 
 •' For when through tasteless flat humility, 
 In dough-baked men some harmlessness we 
 
 see, 
 'Tis but his phlegm that's virtuous, and not 
 
 he." DoNNK. 
 
 " Useful and inoffensive animals have a 
 claim to our tenderness, and it is honour- 
 able to our nature to befriend them." — 
 Beattie. 
 
 " Horace very truly observes that what- 
 ever mad frolics enter into the heads of 
 kiflgs, it is the common people, that is, the 
 honest artizan and the industrious tribes in 
 the middle ranks, unoffended and unoffend- 
 ing, who chiefly suffer in the evil conse- 
 quences." — Knox, Essays. 
 
 "And not only innocuous, but they 
 (spiders) are very salutiferous too, in 
 some of the most stubborn diseases." — 
 Derham. 
 
 HARSH. Rough. 
 
 Harshness (.ec Acrimony) acta 
 upon the affections and the feelings, 
 to which it does violence. 
 
 Roughness (A.S. riih, rough) is a 
 matter of manner, which externally 
 annoys, as indicating a want of con- 
 sideration or deference, but is easily 
 endured by sensible persons, where it 
 is seen to be a mere defect of polish. 
 Roughness is not necessarily a de- 
 fect. Morally, harshness is always 
 offensive to the mind, taste, feelings, 
 or senses. 
 
 •• Harshness and brutality."— Shaftes- 
 bury. 
 
 " I could endure 
 Chains nowhere patiently, and chains at 
 
 home. 
 Where I am free by birthright, not at all. 
 Then what were left of roughness in th« 
 
 grain 
 Of British natures, wanting its excuse. 
 That it belongs to freemen, would disgust 
 And shock me." CoWPER. 
 
 HASTE. Dispatch. Hurry. 
 Speed. Bustle. 
 
 Haste (Sw. hasta, to haste) is vo- 
 luntary speed directed to the com- 
 mencement or continuation of some- 
 thing. 
 
 Hurry (with other similar words, 
 probably onomatopoetic), is an effort 
 of Haste, embarrassed by confusion 
 or want of self-collectedness. Haste 
 signifies heat of action; hurry implies 
 haste, but includes trepidation or per- 
 turbation. What is done in haste may 
 be done well ; what is done in a hurry 
 can at best only be done inaccurately. 
 
 "Homer himself, as Cicero observes 
 above, is full of this kind of painting, and 
 particularly fond of description, even in 
 situations where the action seems to re- 
 quire haste."— Go-LDSMiTU. 
 
 Sisters, hence with spurs of speed, 
 ing fal 
 Each bestride her sable steed. 
 
 Each her thundering falchion wield. 
 
 Hurry, hurry, to the field." Gray. 
 
 Speed (A.S. sptdan, to sueceed, to 
 make haste) is the degree of rapidity 
 with which things are done. Haste 
 implies a wish for quickness ; speed, 
 its actual attainment. 
 
 Dispatch (O. Fr. despescher, now 
 dSpecher; L. Lat. dispMtcare, to get rid 
 of'ptdXca, a Jetter ; cf. empecher. See 
 Littre's reasons for preferring this 
 derivation) is the promptitude and 
 speed which are brought to bear upon 
 the execution of a task, business, or 
 transaction. 
 
[haie] 
 
 BusTiE (? perhaps i.q. the older 
 buskle, and so from A.S. bijsgiany to be 
 busy) is tumult or>itir arising from 
 hurried activity, whether on the part 
 of one person or of a crowd. It is the 
 most unpractical and weakest exhibi- 
 tion of hurry. 
 
 " Thon bustler in concerns 
 Of little worth, an idler in the best." 
 
 COWPKR. 
 
 " He saw a yonng Indian, whom he judged 
 to be about nineteen or twenty years old, 
 come down from a tree, and he also ran 
 away with such speed as made it hopeless to 
 follow him." — Cook's Voyages. 
 
 "A husbandman or a gardener will do 
 more execution by being able to carry his 
 scythe, his rake, or his flail with sufficient 
 dispatch through a sufficient space, than if 
 with greater strength his motions were pro- 
 portionately more confined and slow." — 
 Paley. 
 
 HASTINESS. Rashness. Teme- 
 rity. Precipitancy. 
 
 Hastiness is the disposition to over- 
 haste, and is applicable to too great 
 quickness of feeling as well as action ; 
 as a hasty temper, a hasty act. The 
 others relate only to actions. 
 
 Rashness (Da. and Sw. raskf quick, 
 rash) is the quality of determining or 
 acting from the impulse of tlie feelings, 
 with little or no reflexion on the cost or 
 consequence. It is the courage of the 
 unreflecting and of the inexperienced. 
 
 Temerity (Lat. tcmiritdtein) is that 
 kind of rashness which underrates or 
 disregards personal danger or conse- 
 quences, and is the passive state of 
 which rashness is the active quality. 
 To enter upon a hazardous specula- 
 tion would be called Rashness, but 
 not Tem erity. To approach too near 
 to the brink of a precipice would be 
 temerity. Rashness has in it more 
 of the excited, and temerity more of 
 the dogged. Rashness refers to the 
 act. Temerity to the disposition. 
 
 Precipitancy (Lat. pr^c^pitdre, to 
 throw headlong) is employed, not of 
 acts, but of the judgment which dic- 
 tates them. Haste in deciding upon 
 measures which required more consi- 
 deration and reflexion, is what is 
 commonly called Precipitancy. A 
 man is precipitate who judges, or 
 acts, or speaks before the time. 
 
 DISCBIMINATED. 
 
 473 
 
 " But £piphanius was made up of hastt' 
 ness and credulity, and is never to be trusted 
 where he speaks of a miracle." — JoRTIN. 
 
 " His beginnings must be in rashness, a 
 noble fault; but time and experience will 
 correct that error, and tame it into a deli- 
 berate and well-weighed courage." — Dry- 
 DEN. 
 
 "It must be acknowledged that the teme- 
 rity of making experiments may casually 
 lead to improvements in medical science; 
 but it is a cruel temerity, for experiments in 
 medicine are made on the sick at the ha- 
 zard of life."— Kxox. 
 
 " But if we make a rash beginning, and 
 reaolye precipitantlt/ without observing the 
 above-named rules and directions, in all 
 
 f)robability our hasty purposes will end in a 
 eisurely repentance." — ScoTT, Christian 
 Life. 
 
 HASTY. Cursory. 
 
 Hasty, as contrasted with Cursory, 
 is only employed of observation ; Cvu- 
 sORY{Lat.cursdrius,pertainingtoonewho 
 runs)also oftreatment. Thesubject wat 
 viewed hastily, and treated cursorily. 
 Hasty is always at least an unsatisfac- 
 tory epithet. Cursory is not so mucn 
 so ; as a cursory review may be all 
 that is needed. Hasty is that which 
 occupies little time ; cursory, which 
 occupies little thought. 
 
 "The turns of his (Virgil's) verse, his 
 breaking, his propriety, his numbers, and 
 his gravity, I have as far imitated as the 
 poverty of our language and the hastiness 
 of my performance would allow." — Dry- 
 DEK. 
 
 " It is an advantage to all narrow wisdom 
 and narrow morals that their maxims have 
 a plausible air, and on a cursory view ap- 
 pear equal to first principles. They are 
 light and portable." — Burkk. 
 
 HATE. DrsLiiE. 
 
 Hate (A.S. hatian) is to feel such 
 an enmity as to desire the injury, de- 
 struction, or removal of the obiect. 
 It is applied to persons and qualities 
 of a personal kind, though not always 
 strictly personal; as"to hate the light,** 
 for instance, which really means to 
 hate the knowledge which comes from 
 wise men. It is a perversion of lan- 
 guage to speak of hating the imper- 
 sonal. Dislike is aversion in a milder 
 form, aversion being a strong, settled, 
 and avowed dislike. Dislike is ap- 
 plicable, S.S Hate is not, to impersonal 
 influence ; asy to dislike a particular 
 taste or smeii. Hate is a matter oi 
 
474 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [HATErULj 
 
 principle ; dislike, a matter of taste, 
 feeling, or sentiment. 
 
 " Indeed the afiFection of hatred is of so 
 Qnpleasant a nature, that the being who 
 conld hate every thing wou.'d be his own 
 tormentor. " — Cogan. 
 
 "The Americans when the Stamp Act 
 was first imposed, undoubtedly disliked it 
 as every nation dislikes an impost." — JoHN- 
 SOX. 
 
 {See also Hatred.) 
 
 HATEFUL. Odious. 
 
 Of these tei'ms Hateful is the 
 stronger, Odious (Lat. ^diosus, Mium, 
 hatred) being frequently employed of 
 what is irksome, while Hateful is 
 nearly equivalent to detestable. Hateful 
 tyrants, hateful vices; odious mea- 
 sures, odious smells. Nothing is truly 
 hateful but that which is evil ; while 
 the offensive may be odious. 
 
 " Want is a bitter and a hateful good, 
 Because its virtues are not understood." 
 Drtden. 
 
 «• It was an odious thing to the people of 
 England to have a king brought unto them 
 upon the shoulders of Irish and Dutch." — 
 Bacon. 
 
 HATRED. Aversion. Antipa- 
 thy. Enmity. Repugnance. Ill- 
 Will. Rancour. Malice. Male- 
 voLKNCE. Malignity. Malignancy. 
 
 Hatred (A.S. hatian, to hate) is a 
 very general term. Hatred applies 
 properly to persons. It seems not ab- 
 solutely involuntary. It has its root 
 in passion, and may be checked or 
 stimulated and indulged. It may 
 spring from a variety of causes, and 
 springs up more readily in some na- 
 tures than in others. It is active and 
 resentful, and desires the harm or de- 
 struction ®f its object. Insulting 
 manners, or the existence or presumed 
 existence of offensive qualities in an- 
 other, are sufficient to produce hatred. 
 It needs a reaction as of gratitude or 
 some quickening of interest to expel 
 it, for as has been well said, it is a 
 shorter step from hatred to love, than 
 from hatred to indifference. 
 
 Aversion (Lat. dversionem^ a turn- 
 ing away, a loathing) is strong dislike. 
 Aversion is an habitual sentiment, and 
 springs from the natural taste or tem- 
 perament which repels its opposites, 
 as an indolent man nas an aversion to 
 
 industry, or a humane one to cruelty 
 
 We dislikewhat is unpleasant to us. We 
 have an aversion to what shocks or dis- 
 gusts, or raises a feeling of repugnance. 
 " Strictly speaking, aversion is no othe» 
 than a modification of desire ; a desire of 
 being liberated from whatever appears in- 
 jurious to well-being." — CoGAN. 
 
 Antipathy (Gr. avriTradiia, aversion) 
 is used of causeless dislike, or at least 
 one of which the cause cannot be de- 
 fined. It is founded upon supposition 
 or instinctive belief, often utterly 
 gratuitous, often not without some 
 truth, of the character of the person as 
 worthy of dislike. Both aversion and 
 antipathy have less of voluntariness 
 than hatred. 
 
 " There are many ancient and received 
 traditions and observations touching the 
 sympathy and antipatky of plants ; for that 
 some will thrive best growing near others, 
 which they impute to sympathy, and some 
 worse, which they impute to antipathy." — 
 Bacon. 
 
 Faults of which we have a peculiar 
 horror, or ways very unlike our own, 
 excite aversion. It is only removed 
 by our becoming more like others^ or 
 their becoming more like us. Diffe- 
 rence of temperament, singularity of 
 humour may cause antipathy. It can 
 only be extinguished when reason 
 asserts the mastery over fancy, and 
 judges soberly. 
 
 Enmity (Fr. inimitii, as if from a 
 Lat. tnimicitdtem) is the state of per- 
 sonal opposition, whether accompa- 
 nied by strong personal dislike or not; 
 as " a bitter enemy," or, on the other 
 hand, " the enemy," meaning the 
 hostile party. In some of its meta- 
 phorical or applied senses it is little 
 more than equivalent to strong oppo- 
 nent, as we speak of an enemy to 
 falsehood ; but an enemy is one who 
 carries hatred into practice. Enmity 
 may be tempered by generosity, and 
 the laws of honour. 
 " And by these guileful means he more pre 
 
 vailed 
 Than had he open enmity profest ; 
 The wolf more safely wounds when in 
 sheep's clothing drest." Lloyd. 
 
 Repugnance (Lat. rtpugnantia, op- 
 position) is characteristically em- 
 ployed of acts or courses of action, 
 measures, pursuits, and the like. We 
 
[haven] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 475 
 
 do not employ it directly of persons, 
 BO as to say, " I have a repugnance to 
 such an one ; " here we should use the 
 tei-m Aversion. It denotes an involun- 
 tary resistance to a particular line of 
 conduct to wbjch circumstances impel 
 us. A lepugnance to study. There is a 
 use of Repugnant and Kepugnance 
 analogous to that of abhorrent and 
 abhorrence, in which the terms denote 
 a strong contrariety and dissimilarity 
 between any two objects or subjects 
 capable of being brought into juxta- 
 position or comparison ; as slavery is 
 repugnant to Christianity. So in the 
 following • — 
 
 " If things in themselves evil, repugnant 
 to the principles of human nature, and 
 those of civil societies, as well as to the 
 precepts of Christianity, are made lawful 
 only for the carrying on their design, we 
 need not go farther to examine them, for 
 by these frnits we may know them." — 
 Stillingflekt. 
 
 But the noun Repugnance as em- 
 ployed of persons expresses a specific 
 feeling, not, like Aversion, an habi- 
 tual sentiment. 
 
 Ill-will is a settled bias of the 
 disposition away from another. It is 
 very indefinite, and may be of any 
 degree of strength. 
 
 Rancour (Lat. rancorem, rancidity^ 
 rancour) is a deep-seated and last- 
 ing feeling of ill-will. It preys upon 
 the very mind of the subject of it. 
 While enmity may be generous and 
 open, rancour is malignant and pri- 
 vate. It commonly denotes such ill- 
 will or disturbance of feeling towards 
 another as survives from a former 
 enmity or difference. So that, even 
 after the forms of enmity are laid 
 aside in reconciliation, something of 
 rancour is apt to remain behind. 
 
 " Rancour is that degi-ee of malice which 
 preys upon the possessor."— CoGAN. 
 
 Malice (Lat. mdlitia, bad quality, 
 spite) is that enmity which can abide 
 its opportunity of injuring its object, 
 and pervert the truth or the right, or 
 go out of its way, or shape courses of 
 action, to compass its ends. Malice 
 is, generally speaking, however, not 
 audacious or atrocious. It aims at 
 inflicting on its object petty suffer- 
 ings ratlier than great evils. 
 
 Malevolence (Lat. tndUivhlentia) 
 is the casual or habitual state of ill- 
 will, but diffei-s from ill-will in that 
 the latter is always casual, while male- 
 volence is with some habitual, or so 
 easily excited as to seem so. 
 
 " Malice is more frequently employed to 
 express the dispositions of in/ferior minds to 
 execute every purpose of mischief within 
 the more limited circle of their abilities." — 
 COGAN. 
 
 " Malevolence commences with some idea 
 <jf evil belonging to and connected with the 
 object ; and it settles into a permanent 
 hatred of his person and of everything rela- 
 tive to him." — CoQAN 
 
 Malignity (Lat. mHlignitatem) is 
 yet worse ; it is cruel malevolence, 
 or innate love of harm for the sake of 
 doing it. It is malice the most ener- 
 getic, inveterate, and sustained. A 
 further difference, it seems, ought to 
 be noted between Malignity and 
 Malignancy. While Malignity de- 
 notes an inherent evil of nature, 
 JMalionavcy denotes its indication in 
 particular instances. Malignant spi- 
 rits, for instance, conveys the idea of 
 spirits already engaged on their er- 
 rands of mischief ; and, again. Malig- 
 nity always implies evil purpose, 
 while Malignancy is said of unpur- 
 posed evil. The malignancy, not 
 malignity, of a disease. 
 
 " Now this shows the high malignity of 
 fraud and falsehood, that in the direct and 
 natural course of it, it tends to the destruc- 
 tion of common life by destroying that 
 trust and mutual confidence that men 
 should have in one another." — South. 
 
 " I will not deny but that the noxious 
 and malignant plants do many of them dis- 
 cover something in their nature by the 
 Bad and melancholick visage of their leaves, 
 flowers, and fruit."— Ray. 
 
 HAVEN. Harbour. Port. 
 
 A. Haven (A.S. hetfene) is always 
 a natural harbour. 
 
 A Harbour (see Harbinger) is 
 first a station for rest, shelter, lodg- 
 ing, entertainment; and thence a 
 sheltered station for ships, whether 
 natural or artificial. 
 
 A Port (Fr. port, Lat. portns, har- 
 bour) is commonly employed in the 
 sense of a frequented harbour, with 
 its commercial restrictions and regula- 
 tions, customs, dues, and the like. A 
 
476 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [haze] 
 
 port is a harbour riewed in its national, 
 civic, or commercial relations. 
 
 "And now the surrender of Dorchester 
 (the magazine from whence the other 
 places were supplied with principles of re- 
 bellion) infused the same spirit into "Wey- 
 mouth, a veiy convenient harbour and 
 A/^tren."— Clarendon. 
 
 " These legal ports were undoubtedly at 
 first assigned by the crown, since to each 
 of them a court of port-mote is incident, 
 the jurisdiction of which must flow from 
 royal authority." — Blackstone. 
 
 HAZE. Fog. Vapour. Mist. 
 
 Haze (etym. doubtful) is employed 
 to designate a light thin vapour which 
 thickens the air without a feeling of 
 dampness. 
 
 Fog ( Danish /oo-, orig. a sea term) 
 is thick watery vapour differing from 
 cloud only in the absence of elevation. 
 Those who, by ascending high hills, 
 find themselves in cloud, experience 
 no difference of sensation from that of 
 fog. 
 
 Vapour (Lat. vKpdrem)^ as a term 
 of physics, is any substance in the 
 gaseous or aeriform state of which 
 the ordinary state is liquid or solid. 
 
 Mist (A. S.mist) is watery vapour 
 dense enough to fall in visible par- 
 ticles, and so nearly approaching the 
 form of rain. 
 
 HEAD. Leader. Chief. 
 
 Head (A. S. heafod), as com- 
 ing from the Teutonic, is the 
 analogue of Chief (Fr. chej) Lat. 
 cdput), as coming from the Latin. 
 But, as now employed by ourselves, 
 Head denotes no more than the first in 
 an organized body, while Chief ex- 
 presses pre-eminence, personal and 
 active. A person may be the head of 
 a number, because there must be some 
 head ; but if he is the chief, his per- 
 sonal importance and influence is felt, 
 whether for good or ill. So personal 
 is the idea of Chief, that a man may be 
 chief among others without being in 
 any sense their head, that is, bound to 
 them in a relationship of command. 
 
 A Leader (A. S. l&dan, lad, a 
 jHith) is one who controls, diiects, and 
 instigates others in definite lines of 
 movement or action. The head is the 
 highest man. The chief is the strong- 
 
 est, best, or most conspicuous man. 
 The leader is the most influential man. 
 
 " A reform proposed by an unsupported 
 individual in the presence of heads ol 
 houses, public officers, doctors, and proo- 
 tors, whose peculiar province it would have 
 been urged is to consult for the academio 
 state, would have been deemed even more 
 officious and arrogant than a public ap- 
 peal."— Knox. 
 
 " I thank God I am neither a minister 
 nor a leader of opposition," — BuREE. 
 
 " The chief of ainners."— Bible. 
 
 HEALTHY. Wholesome. Sa- 
 lubrious. Salutary. Hale. 
 
 Healthy (A. S. htel^, health) bears 
 the twofold meaning of possessing 
 health, and imparting health. A 
 healthy person ; a healtny atmosphere. 
 
 Wholesome (whoUy in the sense of 
 sound)uieans tending to health or sound- 
 ness, or not inconsistent with them, 
 whether of body or mind ; as a whole- 
 some appetite, wholesome air, whole- 
 some advice. But both Healthy and 
 Wholesome are commonly employed 
 in more than a negative sense, as 
 when we say, "the situation is per- 
 fectly healthy," "the food is quite 
 wholesome." Healthy or Healthful 
 stands to Wholesome as the positive 
 to the negative. The former pro- 
 motes or increases our bodily strength; 
 the latter does no harm to our phy- 
 sical constitution. And so Healthy is 
 more commonly applied to what comes 
 to us in the way of exceptional bene- 
 fit ; Wholesome, to the necessaries of 
 life. Unwholesome fooa disorganizes 
 the functions of the body ; healthy air 
 and recreation improve the physical 
 powers. In like manner, a whole- 
 some truth, wholesome advice, is pre- 
 servative of morality and our interests. 
 A healthy tone of mind tends to the 
 improvement of our faculties. The 
 wholesome is assimilated and acted 
 upon by us ; the healthy acts upon us. 
 
 " A few cheerful companions m our walks 
 will render them abundantly more health- 
 ful, for, according to the ancient adage, 
 they will serve instead of a carriage, or, in 
 other words, prevent the sensation of 
 fatigue."— Knox, Essays. 
 
 "Not only grain has become somewhat 
 cheaper, but many other things, from 
 which the industrious poor derive an agree- 
 able and wholesome variety of food."— 
 Smith, Wealth of Nationt. 
 
[hearken] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 477 
 
 But Salubrious and Salutary 
 (LiSit. sUliibrhy sHlutdris; sUlus, health) 
 are stronger and more positive. A 
 salubrious air tends actually to esta- 
 blish health, while that which is salu- 
 tary tends to restore it. It may be 
 obserred that, while Salutary is em- 
 ployed of morals, as salutary advice, 
 Salubrious has no such application. 
 It may be added that Salubrious is 
 employed in a passive sense. Salu- 
 tary is always active. A salubrious 
 condition ; salutary remedies. 
 
 Hale (A. S. Hal, sound, whole) is 
 employed only of the human body. 
 It denotes a "health and soundness 
 which have survived impairing effects, 
 especially of old age. 
 " His stomach, too, begins to fail, 
 Last year we thought him strong and hale. 
 But now he's quite another thing." 
 
 Swift. 
 " Give the salubrious draughts with your 
 
 own hand ; 
 Persuasion has the force of a command." 
 King. 
 
 "When St. Paul delivered over to Satan, 
 the design of it was salutary, that the 
 spirit might be saved in the day of the 
 Lord Jesus."— Waterland. 
 
 HEAP. Accumulate. Amass. 
 Pile. 
 
 To Heap (A.S. heap) is to place 
 particles or substances upon one an- 
 other, go as to foi-m some degree of 
 elevation. The action is indefinite in 
 character, and may be performed with 
 or without rule or system. 
 
 In this respect it differs from Pile 
 (Fr. pile, Lat. pila, a pile, support ; and 
 BO, the thing supported) which is to 
 heap piecemeal, and with system or 
 care. To heap stones is general ; to 
 pile them is specific. But even if the 
 process of heaping have been per- 
 formed with care, the heap which is 
 the result has no distinctness of parts. 
 On the other hand, the word Pile may 
 be used in a phrase expressive of 
 praise. A heap of ruins. A noble 
 pile of architecture. 
 
 To Accumulate (Lat. accumularef 
 ciimidus,a heap) conveys the idea of 
 chance or desultory heaping. Men 
 heap things when they know where 
 to lay their hands to find them ; they 
 accumulate things when they heap 
 
 them as they find ihem ; hence Accu- 
 mulate tends more strongly thanllEAP 
 to a figurative or moral meaning. The 
 farmer heaps, but does not accumulate, 
 com, unless he buys it up from diffe- 
 rent quarters for storing. But by 
 industry and good fortune he accumu- 
 lates wealth. 
 
 Amass (Fr. amasser, to pile together, 
 TTuisse, a mass) is to accumulate in 
 large quantities what is of substantial 
 value, for the purpose of creating a 
 store or fund ; as to amass wealth or 
 learning : while that which is accu- 
 mulated may be of no value ; as an 
 accumulation of old clothes, or mud 
 at a river's mouth. 
 
 " The whole performance is not so much 
 a regular fabric as a heap of shining mate- 
 rials thrown together by accident, which 
 strikes rather with the solemn magnificence 
 of a stupendous ruin, than the elegant gi-an- 
 deur of a finished pile." — Johnson. 
 
 We heap things of the same or dif- 
 ferent kinds; we accumulate things 
 of the same kind. 
 
 " He did conceive that it was against the 
 first principles of Nature and false, that an 
 heap or accumulation should be and not be 
 of homogeneous things ; and therefore that 
 which in its first being is not treasonable 
 can never confer to make up an accumulative 
 treason." — State Trials. 
 
 " The heire shall waste the whourded 
 gold, anuwied with much payne." — SuKRKY. 
 
 HEARKEN. Attend. Listen. 
 
 These tei-ms have each a primary 
 and secondary meaning. The primary 
 meaning belongs to the acts, the se- 
 condary to the characteristics of the 
 acts. The primary meaning of to 
 Hearken (A.S. liT^rcnian) is volun- 
 tarily and specifically to exercise the 
 faculty of hearing; of Attend (Lat. 
 attendire, to tuni to, to give heed to) to 
 perform the mental act of bringing 
 the understanding to bear on what is 
 so heard ; and of Listen ( A.S. hlystan ) 
 to hearken and attend conjointly witli 
 some degree of propensity or interest. 
 The secondary meanings are in accor- 
 dance with ^ese. We hearken to 
 injunctions, commands. We attend 
 to instructions or advice. We listen 
 to entreaty or persuasion. 
 " But here she comes ; I fairly step aside 
 And hearken, if 1 in»y, her business.'" 
 
478 
 
 *' He now prepared 
 To speak, whereat their doubled ranks they 
 
 bend 
 From wing to wing, and half inclose him 
 
 round. 
 With all his peers; attention held them 
 mute." Mii,TON. 
 
 " The external ear, we are told, had ac- 
 quired a distinct motion upward and back- 
 ward, which was observable whenever the 
 patient listened to anything which he did 
 not distinctly hear." — Palby, 
 
 HEARTY. Sincere. Cordial. 
 Frank. Canwd. Open. Ingenu- 
 ous. Warm. 
 
 Hearty is having the heart in a 
 thing — earnest, sincere. Heartiness 
 implies honesty, simplicity, and cor- 
 diality ; hut the term leans rather to 
 expressing the outward demonstration 
 of feeling than any quality of the feel- 
 ing itself, though this is by no means 
 excluded ; as a hearty desire, a hearty 
 laugh, a hearty shake of the hand, to 
 return hearty thanks. So a hearty meal 
 is one partaken of with good-will in- 
 stead of with a languid or sickly ap- 
 petite. 
 "Where leisurely doffing a hat worth a 
 
 tester. 
 He bade me most heartily welcome to 
 Chester." CoxTON. 
 
 Sincere (Lat. sinccrus), unlike 
 Hearty, expresses nothing of the 
 strength of feeling, but only denotes 
 that it is genuine, and not pretended. 
 Sincere is very often mistaken for 
 Hearty, as in the common phrase, " 1 
 returnmy most sincere thanks." Thanks 
 are either sincere or not. Sincerity 
 does not admit of degrees, though the 
 exhibition of feeling does. Sincerity 
 is when the man disguises nothing 
 from others or from himself; and so 
 may be predicated both of principle 
 ana of practice or demeanour. It is 
 truth or truthfulness of motive. Sin- 
 cerity combines reality of conviction 
 and earnestness of purpose with purity 
 or freedom from unfairness or dis- 
 honesty. Unless these be combined,sin- 
 cerity becomes a very fallacious term. 
 
 " And a good man may likewise know 
 when he obeys God sincerely. Not but that 
 men often deceive themselves with an opi- 
 nion, or at least a groundless hope, of their 
 own sincerity. But if they will deal fairly 
 with themselves, and use due care and dili- 
 gence, there are very few cases (if any) 
 wherein they may not know their own sin- 
 cerity in any act of ubeilience to God. For 
 
 SYNONYMS [hearty] 
 
 what can a man know concerning himself 
 if not the reality of his own intentions." — 
 TlLLOTSOi\. 
 
 Cordial (Lat. cordi-, stem of cor, 
 cordis, the heart) is the Latin form of 
 the Saxon Hearty, and differs rather 
 in the mode of application than in the 
 essence of the meaning. Cordial is 
 more subjective. Hearty, more ob- 
 jective. Cordial feelings; hearty 
 manifestations of them. Cordial thanks 
 are thanks warmly felt, hearty thanks 
 are thanks warmly expressed. 
 
 A s SiNCER E relates to the disposition, 
 so Frank (¥r. franc, L. Lut.francus, 
 free) and Candid (Lat, candidus,white, 
 guiltless) relate to the speech and 
 manner. That man is frank who is 
 open and unreserved in the expression 
 of his sentiments, whatever they may 
 be. That man is candid who is fail* of 
 mind, without prejudice, ready to ad- 
 mit his own faults or errors. In the 
 full sense of the term. Candour is that 
 absence of reserve or dissimulation 
 which comes from purity, innocence, 
 and guilelessness. Sincerity prevents 
 a man from saying one thing while he 
 thinks another. It is a vii-tue. Frank- 
 ness makes him speak as he thinks. 
 It is the natural effect of disposition. 
 The sincere man Avill not deceive, the 
 frank man will not dissemble. Since- 
 rity is a security in the intercourse of 
 the heart. Frankness facilitates social 
 intercourse. 
 
 " Then would Britain and Ireland have 
 but one interest; and it is rank absurdity 
 in politics to expect any cordiality between 
 them whilst their interests ai-e separate." 
 —Anecdotes of Bishop Watson. 
 " Reserve with frankness, art with truth 
 
 allied. 
 Courage with softness, modesty with pridtf ' 
 POPK, 
 
 Candour is openness towards one's 
 self; frankness, towards others. 
 
 " If our modex'n infidels received these 
 matters with that candmir and seriousness 
 which they deserve, we should not see them 
 act with such a spirit of bitterness, arro- 
 gance, and maXice,"— Spectator. 
 
 Openness (A. S. open) denotes no 
 more than an opposite tendency to 
 that of concealment, reticence, or re- 
 serve. It is a less active quality than 
 frankness ; and, while openness is 
 consistent with timidity, frankness 
 implies some degree of boldneaa. 
 
[heaven] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 479 
 
 Ingen'uous (Lat. ingenuus') implies 
 a permanent moral quality. A man 
 may be not remarkable for frankness, 
 yet at heart thoroughly ingenuous, 
 that 18, a lover of integrity, and a 
 hater of dissimulation. INIen of retir- 
 ing manner are often truly ingenuous ; 
 for ingenuousness is, after all, more 
 allied to modesty than to frankness. 
 
 Waum relates to all the feelings, 
 and indicates the quality of specific 
 feeling as entertained in a high de- 
 gree. We speak, therefore, of the 
 wannth of resentment as well as of 
 friendship. 
 
 " By tbeu" frequent change of company 
 they (soldiers) acquire good breeding and 
 an openness of behaviour." — Hume. 
 
 " The evangelists ingenuously confess the 
 misbehaviour of the apostles on some occa- 
 sions. "—JoRTlN. 
 
 " The young plainly need it (admonition) 
 most, as they are just entering into the 
 world, with little knowledge, less experi- 
 ence, and yet scarcely even any distrust, 
 with lively spirits and luaiin passions to 
 mislead them, and time to go a great way 
 wrong if they do not go right."— Sec KJiR. 
 
 HEATHEN. Pagan. Gentile. 
 
 Heathen (A.S. hccien, orig. a 
 dweller on a heath, wild region) is a 
 term now employed to comprise all 
 nations or religions besides Chris- 
 tianity, Judaism, and Mohammedan- 
 ism. 
 
 Pagan (Lat. pdgdnus, one dwelling 
 in a village, pdgus) originally denoted 
 those who were remote from the 
 centres ofChristianity and civilization. 
 
 Gentile (Lat. gentilis, gentem, a 
 nation) bore, under the Hebrew term 
 goim, the meaning of all men who had 
 not received the Jewish rite of cir- 
 cumcision. It was afterwards trans- 
 ferred by the Christians to all who 
 were not Christians or Jews. In civil 
 matters a Gentile was one who was not 
 a Roman. The distinction at present 
 prevailing between Heathen and 
 Pagan is that the former denotes a 
 false creed, the latter a superstitious 
 worship. Heathen superstitions and 
 pagan idolatries. When used as an 
 epithet. Heathen has always an un- 
 favourable sense. Not so Pagan ; as 
 pagan art or architecture is employed 
 to designate those simply which Chris- 
 
 tianity hag had no influence in pro- 
 ducing. Gentile is a national term 
 expressing those who were not Jews. 
 Heathen, a national term expressing 
 thoie who were not converted to 
 Christianity. Pagan, an individual 
 tenn denoting those who remained 
 idolaters in spite of Christianity. 
 
 "It has always been my thought that 
 heathens who never did, n'>r without mi- 
 racle could, hear the name of Christ, wtre 
 yet in a possibility of salvation." — Dry 
 DEN. 
 
 " The ruin of Paganism in the age of 
 Theodorus is perhaps the only example of 
 the total extirpation of any ancient and 
 popular superstition, and may therefore 
 deserve to be considerevi as a singular 
 event in the history of th'^ he nan mind." — 
 Gibbon. 
 
 "A light to lighten the Gentiles, and 
 the glory of Thy people Israel." — English 
 Bible. 
 
 HEAVEN. Heavens. Para- 
 dise. 
 
 Heaven (connected with heave = 
 the place raised aloft) is opposed to 
 earth. It is the upper vault of the 
 firmament. Spiritually it is the abode 
 of God and of immortal spirits or in- 
 telligences, and is thus opposed to 
 hell ; a place of light and joy as op- 
 posed to darkness, misery, and doom. 
 The idea is vague, yet not obscure. 
 It expresses a definite reality. Hea- 
 vens represents the variable aspect 
 of the regions above the earth in their 
 physical character. So the stai-s of 
 ueaven, the serene or starry appear- 
 ance of the heavens. The moralist 
 and the divine treat of Heaven. The 
 astronomer and astrologer, in different 
 ways, study the Heavens. 
 
 Paradise (Heb. pardes, Gr. Trapa- 
 hiaoi), is literally a garden, the earthly 
 paradise having suggested the idea of 
 a heavenly. As Heaven is the abode 
 of purity, brightness, and happiness, 
 so Paradise is the place of perfect en- 
 joyment. It is God and His presence 
 that constitute heaven. It is for the 
 most the speoulations of men that 
 create a paradise. Some nations 
 seem to combine the idea of a spiri- 
 tual heaven with that of a sensual 
 paradise. Accordingly the word 
 Paradise lends itself to familiar treat- 
 
480 
 
 ment ; as, a paradise of luxury, indo- 
 lence, gaiety, sweets; a fools' para- 
 dise. 
 
 HEAVENLY. Celestial. Di- 
 vine. Godlike. 
 
 Heavenly is of or belonging to 
 heaven (A. S. heofon, connected with 
 heave — the place heaved or raised), in 
 its fullest sense material and spiritual, 
 and so like those pure spirits with 
 which heaven is peopled ; " heavenly 
 bodies," " heavenly bliss,*' " heavenly 
 virtues." 
 
 Celestial (Lat. cxlestis, cxlum, 
 heaven) is the Latin equivalent of the 
 Saxon Heavenly, but lends itself 
 more readily to the ideas of heathen 
 religions; while Heavenly has been 
 consecrated to Christian ideas. Ce- 
 lestial is also rather a poetic than a 
 prosaic term. 
 
 Divine (Lat. divinus) is restricted 
 to the person of God or celestial be- 
 ings, and is not employed of the ma- 
 terial heavens ; as. Divine Being, Di- 
 vine excellences, not Divine bodies. 
 The term is always of a personal cha- 
 racter, though not always strictly 
 personal; as Divine beauty, that is, 
 beauty as of a Divine being ; the Di- 
 vine will, or will of God. Godlike, 
 like God, or like a God, is not used 
 simply as a qualifying term, like 
 Heavenly and Divine, but is a term 
 oi great praise, whether of individuals 
 or qualities ; as, a godlike form, the 
 godlike quality of forgiveness. 
 
 " Endued with heavenly virtues." — Eng- 
 lish Liturgy. 
 
 " That mind will never be vacant which 
 is frequently recalled by stated duties to 
 meditations on eternal interests ; nor can 
 any hour be long which is spent in obtain- 
 ing some new qualification for celestial 
 happiness. " — Rambler. 
 
 " Which Divine revelation both the ne- 
 cessities of men and their natural notions 
 of God gave them reasonable ground to ex- 
 pect and hope for."— Clarke. 
 "Vain, wretched creature, how art thon 
 
 misled, 
 To think thy wit these godlike notions 
 
 bred! 
 These truths are not the product of thy 
 
 mind. 
 But dropt from Heaven, and of a nobler 
 
 kind." Dbtden. 
 
 SYNONYMS [heavenly] 
 
 HEED. Care. Attention. 
 
 Heed (A. S. htdan, to take care) 
 combines Attention and Care; but, 
 while Attention (Lat. attendh^e, to 
 tarn to, to give to) has the general 
 sense of a careful giving of the mind 
 to anything that is proposed to it. 
 Heed has exclusive relation to what 
 concerns one's own interests. One 
 pays attention to another ; one takes 
 heed to one's own ways. Heed is 
 practical attention on motives of cau- 
 tion. 
 
 Care (A. S. cam, care, sorrow) is 
 also cautious regard, but may be ex- 
 ercised on behalf of others as well as 
 one's self. To take care of another, 
 would be to associate with him. To 
 take heed of him, would be to avoid 
 him in care for yourself. Care ex- 
 tends to actions; Heed and Atten- 
 tion are confined to thought, except 
 when Attention means thought in 
 the sense of waiting on another. 
 
 " He who considers what Tacitus, Sueto- 
 nius, Seneca say of Tiberius and his reign, 
 will find bow necessary it was for our 
 Saviour, if He would not die as a criminal 
 and a traitor, to take great heed to His 
 words and actions."— LoCKE. 
 
 " With as much care and little hurt as 
 doth a mother use."— Chapman, Homer. 
 
 " Due attention to the inside of books, 
 and due contempt for the outside, is the 
 proper relation between a man of sense and 
 his books. " — Chestertield. 
 
 I HEINOUS. Flagitious. Fla- 
 j grant. Atrocious. 
 
 Heinous (Fr. haineux, huine, hatred) 
 is strictly hateful, odious ; hence, 
 hatefully bad. That is heinous which 
 partakes of the aature of aggravated 
 crime or offence. 
 
 That is Flagitious (Leit. flagttidsns, 
 Jidgttium, a burning shame) which is 
 disgracefully and shamefully bad in 
 persons, practices, or times. 
 
 Flagrant (Lat. fiagrans, Jidgrtre, 
 to burn) marks more strongly than 
 Flagitious the striking character, or 
 glaring badness of the thing. A fla- 
 gitious thing may be done in secret ; 
 a flagrant crime, misrepresentation, 
 or violation of duty, is one of which 
 the public necessarily takes cogni- 
 zance. Flagrant, unlike Flagitious, 
 applies to error as well as crime. 
 
[helpJ 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 481 
 
 Atrociois ( Lat. Strocem) carries the 
 deed back to the source, and repre- 
 sents it as springing from a violent or 
 savage spirit, or attended with aggra- 
 vating circumstances. Heinous and 
 Flagrant intensify specific kinds of 
 action ; Flagitious and Atrocious 
 are simply applicable to actions. So 
 flagitious or atrocious deeds ; heinous 
 cruelty ; a flagrant blunder. Flagi- 
 tious expresses the badness of the 
 deed ; Atrocious, the badness of the 
 motive, as one of violent and energetic 
 evil. 
 
 "There are many aathors who have 
 shovrn whei'ein the malignity of a lie con- 
 sists, and set forth in proper colours the 
 heinousness of the oflence." — Spectator. 
 It deserves to be remarked that all 
 these epithets appertain to character 
 and deeds, but are not directly ap- 
 plicable. We cannot say a heinous, 
 flagrant, or flagitious man, nor very 
 easily an atrocious man ; but an 
 atrocious tyrant, a heinous oflence, 
 a flagitious character. Milton, how- 
 ever, in an old-fashioned way, 
 says : — 
 
 " Punishing tyrants and flugitious per- 
 sons." 
 
 " Ruined fortunes B.nA flagitious lives." — 
 MiDDLETON, Cicero. 
 
 " The mysteries of Baethns were well 
 chosen for an example of corrupted rites and 
 of the mischief they produced, for they were 
 early and flagrantly corrupted." — War- 
 burtox, Divine Legation. 
 
 '• When Cataline was tried for some 
 atrocious murders, many of the consolars 
 appeared in his favour, and gave him an 
 excellent character." — Bishop Porteus. 
 
 HELP. Aid. Succour. Support. 
 
 Help and Aid may be here treated 
 as identical. For their finer points of 
 difference, see Help. 
 
 Help is of service to us in our work 
 or eflPorts, Succour (Fr. secours, Lat. 
 succurrere) is of service against dan- 
 ger, and Support (Lat. snpportare) at 
 all times. The support is required by 
 (he individual who is too weak for the 
 situation in which he is placed. Suc- 
 cour is that which he implores who is 
 too weak against the enemy that at- 
 tacks him ; help that which he seeks 
 who is too weak for the work or task 
 with which he is charged. Religion 
 ought to be a support under the trials 
 
 of life, a succour against its tempta- 
 tions and passions, a help in eftbrts 
 after virtue. The need of a support 
 proves only weakness; the neea of 
 help adds the idea of action ; the need 
 of succourinvolves that of fear. Help, 
 inasmuch as it necessarily implies ac- 
 tion, is only applicab](-> to living 
 agents ; succour, involv^mg danger, 
 is applicable to all things that may 
 fall into it ; support, implying weak- 
 ness, whether in a physical or moral 
 sense, is applicable to what is animate 
 or inanimate. So one speaks of sup- 
 porting a statement, helping or aid- 
 ing a man, succouring a falling state. 
 
 HELP. Aid. Assist. Succour. 
 Relieve. 
 
 To Help (A. S. helpau) is the 
 broadest of these terms, of which the 
 rest are modifications. It denotes 
 tlie furnishing of additional power, 
 means of deliverance, or relief; as to 
 help a man iu his work ; to help him 
 to escape; to help his sickness, his 
 infirmities, or his troubles. 
 
 To Aid (Fr. aider, Lat. adjiitare. 
 See BnACUY.r) is less energetic than 
 Help, and lends itself better to that 
 inactive kind of assistance which is 
 rendered by, or rather derived from, 
 inanimate things. " I fell, but re- 
 covered myself by the help of a 
 friend." " 1 crossed the mountains 
 safe with the aid of a chart and a 
 staff"." To aid is to help by co-opera- 
 tion, and, in some instances, to enable 
 to help one's self. There is a plain and 
 material force in Help which is by no 
 means so strongly expressed by Aid. 
 Hence Aid is the better tenn where 
 finer work is doing, especially the 
 work of the mind, as ''aid t© re- 
 flexion." Help more directly pro- 
 motes the end, aid facilitates the pro- 
 cess. 
 
 Assist (Lat. assistere, to stand by, to 
 defend us counsel) is purely personal, 
 though assistance is used with more 
 latitude. It would not be permissible 
 to say, " My stick assisted me to 
 rise ; " yet we might say, " I rose 
 with the assistance of my stick ; " the 
 simple word H elp or Aid would, how- 
 ever, be much better. Help is some- 
 thing more urgently needea than «» 
 I I 
 
482 
 
 sistance. Help is required in labour, 
 danger, difficulties, and the like ; as- 
 sistance in the pursuit of a study or 
 the performance of a work. Assis- 
 tance supposes the presence of a need, 
 which the assister stands by to watch 
 and to supply to the best of iiis power, 
 strength, and judgment. He who is 
 doing needs often to be assisted ; he 
 who is suffering, to be helped. The 
 man who is attacked by robbers needs 
 help, not assistance, unless, after his 
 rescue, he should find himself strong 
 enough to endeavour to rout or cap- 
 ture them. 
 
 Succour (Lat. succurrere, to runup 
 to) relates to a condition of trouble 
 or distress, and implies celerity and 
 timeliness in the aid brought. 
 
 To Relieve (Fr. relever, Lat. Itvis, 
 light) is to lighten of a burden, or to 
 lighten the burden itself. It is appli- 
 cable to anything of the nature of a 
 burden, as pain, distress, poverty. 
 We help generally; we aid the weak; 
 we assist the struggling ; we succour 
 the indigent or bereaved ; we relieve 
 the needy, the afflicted, or the anxious. 
 The aider should be active, the helper 
 strong, the assister wise, the succourer 
 timely, the reliever sympathizing. 
 " Who travels by the weary wandering 
 
 way. 
 To come unto his wished home in haste. 
 And meets a flood that doth his passage 
 
 stay. 
 Is not great grace to help him over past. 
 Or free his feet that in the mire stick fast." 
 Spenseb. 
 
 " Aiders, advisers, and abettors." — 
 Blackstone. 
 
 "But genius and learning, when they 
 meet in one person, are mutually and 
 greatly assistant to each other ; and in the 
 poetijal art Horace declares that either, 
 without the other, can do little." — Beat- 
 tie. 
 
 " The devotion of life or fortune to the 
 succour of the poor is a height of virtue to 
 which humanity has never arisen by its 
 own power." — Tatler. 
 
 " The inferior ranks of people no longer 
 looked upon that order as they had done 
 before, as the comforters of their distress 
 and the relievers of their indigence." — 
 Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 HERESY. Heteuodoxv. Schism. 
 
 HEnESY(Gr. aipia-i;, a choice, Eccles. 
 
 heresy) is a new opinion in religion set 
 
 SYNONYMS [heresy] 
 
 up by an individual or a sect against 
 the old, and is taken to relate to fun- 
 damental and vital points. 
 
 Heterodoxy (Gr. iTipoh^iec, error 
 of opinion) is a milder term, and de- 
 notes slighter deviations or defects in 
 the creed, for which the person is not 
 necessarily responsible; for hetero- 
 doxy may be the result of an inexact 
 theology, while heresy is deliberately 
 maintained. 
 
 Schism (Gr. a-xio-fj-a, a division, 
 schism) is a rending of external unity 
 or religious communion, of which 
 heresy is often the cause. 
 
 " The word heresy is Greek, and signifies 
 a taking of anything, particularly the 
 taking. of an opinion. After the study of 
 philosophy began in Greece, and the philo- 
 sophers disagreeing among themselves had 
 started many questions, not only about 
 things natural, but also moi*al and civil, 
 because every man took what opinion he 
 pleased each several opinion was called a 
 heresy, which signified no more than a 
 private opinion without reference to truth 
 or falsehood."— HoBBS. 
 
 '* Heterodoxy was to a Jew but another 
 word for disloyalty, and a zeal to see the 
 rigour of the law executed on that crime 
 was the honour of a Jewish subject." — 
 
 HURD. 
 
 " Schism is a rent or division in the 
 Church when it comes to the separating of 
 congregations, and may also happen to a 
 true Church as well as to a false." — MiL- 
 TOK. 
 
 HIDE. Conceal. Secrete. 
 Cover. Screen. Shelter. Shield. 
 Hide (A. S. kidan) is so to place 
 physically as to render invisible, or so 
 to treat morally as to make impercep- 
 tible. Strictly speaking, this is an 
 act of a voluntary agent; but the 
 licence of colloc^uial language em- 
 ploys the term in the sense of mere 
 exclusion from view ; as, " The trees 
 hide the house." To hide, however, 
 is always positive, while Conceal 
 (Lat. concildre) may be negative. A 
 man hides his feelings by a deliberate 
 effort, or by misleading the minds of 
 others; he conceals his intentions 
 sometimes by simply not revealing 
 them. To conceal is almost invaria- 
 bly to hide with intention. The little 
 brook is hidden when it is overgrown 
 j by foliage. On the other hand, the 
 I snake lies in the grass concealed. To 
 
[hideous] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 483 
 
 hide is a more simple and, as it were, 
 natural movement. To conceal is more 
 deliberate and reflexive. When sud- 
 denly surprised men hide what they 
 do not wish to be seen in their posses- 
 sion. They conceal it beforehand if 
 they anticipate a visit of inspection. 
 
 "Heaven fi-om all creatures hides the 
 book of fate." — PoPE. 
 
 " The next ground upon which such as 
 are wont to promise themselves security 
 both from the discovery and punishment of 
 their sins, is the opinion which they have 
 of their own singular art and cunning to 
 conceal them from the knowledge, or at 
 least of their power to rescue them from 
 the jurisdiction of any eartu./ judge." — 
 South. 
 
 Secrete ( Lat. stcentere, to separate, 
 part, sicr'ctus^ is never used in other 
 than a physical sense, and denotes the 
 specific and purposed hiding of what 
 is of a movable nature. Under this 
 term one's self must be included. 
 
 " The whole thing is too manifest to ad- 
 mit of any doubt in any man how long this 
 thing has been working, how many ti'icks 
 have been played with the Dean's (Swift't) 
 papers, how they were secreted from time 
 to time " — Pope. 
 
 The term Secrete commonly supposes 
 an unworthy or unlawful motive. In 
 another sense, and not as a synonym of 
 Conceal, Secrete is used of organic 
 operations ; so the snail secretes the 
 material of which the shell is formed. 
 
 To Cover (0. Fr. covrir, Lat. co- 
 optrtre) is only accidentally to hide; 
 hiding or concealment from view 
 being the result of total covering and 
 other circumstances, as the non-trans- 
 parency of the covering material. It 
 may be observed that hiding and con- 
 cealment imply an impossibility of 
 seeing or perceiving, though, of course, 
 not an impossibility of detection. A 
 man is concealed or hidden in a cup- 
 board ; but he is not so if his form 
 is simply covered by some covering 
 which exhibits the outline of his 
 Sgure, unless owing to some circum- 
 Htance the searcher failed to observe 
 it. Complete covering on the one side, 
 or such as to produce non-recognition 
 on the other, is needful to constitute 
 concealment. All that is essential to 
 corering is super-extension ; any- 
 
 thing else as concealment is acciden- 
 tal. 
 
 " Cover thy head, cover thy head, nay, 
 prithee, be covered."— Shakespeare. 
 
 Screen (O. Fr. escran, Mod. Fr. 
 derail, a screen) is to place in relation 
 to an interposed obstacle for the pur- 
 pose of protection or concealment. In 
 the former case, the influence may 
 not be such as to render invisibility 
 necessary, as to screen from wind or 
 draught by a plantation or a trans 
 parent glass partition. 
 
 ToSuelteu (connected with shield, 
 A. S. scyldan, to shield, to protect) is 
 very nearly the same as Screen ; but 
 while Screen is employed of protec- 
 tion against the less violent. Shelter 
 is used of the more violent, annoy- 
 ances. Shelter also is more complete 
 . than Screen. Screening is partial 
 shelter. To screen from harm; to 
 shelter from attacks ; to screen from 
 the sun or the wind ; to shelter from 
 the storm and blast ; to screen from 
 blame ; to shelter from violence. 
 
 " A ridge of hilla 
 That screened the fruits of th' earth and 
 
 seats of men 
 From cold septentrion blasts." 
 
 Milton. 
 " It was a still 
 And calmy bay, on th' one side sheltered 
 With the broad shadow of an hoary hill." 
 SPENSEB. 
 
 Shield (A.S. scyld), while it bears 
 generally the same meaning as Screen 
 and Shelter, involves more the idea of 
 
 Jersonal effort, and voluntary action, 
 t is to interpose for the purpose of 
 protection or defence. Generally 
 speaking arrangements screen, cir- 
 cumstances shelter, persons shield. 
 
 "God schilde us fro the werre." — R. 
 BauNNE. 
 
 HIDEOUS. Shocking. 
 
 Hideous (O. Fr. AtrfCTix) is primarily 
 frightful to behold, as a hideous mon- 
 ster. It has been extended to sounds, 
 as a hideous noise. The effect of 
 the hideous is produced through the 
 senses or the imagination, not through 
 the piure reason. 
 
 Shocking (Fr. choe, a shock, a eoiii- 
 sion) acts with more sudden effect, 
 and is applicable to the moral feelings 
 
484 
 
 and the taste. Things can be only 
 casually shocking; but hideousness 
 IS a permanent quality. The hideous 
 contradicts only beauty ; the shocking 
 contradicts morality. 
 
 " The war-dance consists of a great va- 
 riety of violent raotions and hideous contor- 
 tions of the limbs, during which the coun- 
 tenance also performs its part." — Cook's 
 Voyages. 
 
 " The grossest and most shocking vil- 
 I anies. " — Sec KER. 
 
 HIGH. Tall. Lofty. 
 
 High (A. S. hedh), as regards their 
 purely physical application, has an 
 additional sense to that of the other 
 two, as denoting, 1, continuous ex- 
 tension upwards ; and 2, position at 
 a point of elevation. A tree may be 
 high, tall, or lofty. Clouds are high 
 without being tall. In the sense in 
 which it is synonymous with the 
 other iwo, High denotes considerable 
 elevation. So we say, a high house, 
 but not a high man. 
 
 Tall (origin uncertain; means high 
 in stature, that is, with a slenderness 
 as well as height, and implies growth 
 upwards, natural or artificial. Hence 
 we speak of a tall man, tree, column, 
 mast, but not of a tall mountain or 
 house. 
 
 Lofty (loft, an upper room, prop, 
 meaning air; A. S. lyj't, Ger. lufl) 
 denotes an imposing elevation, or the 
 union of expansion with height ; as a 
 lofty room. High and Lofty are 
 applicable to moral characteristics ; 
 Tall is not. 
 
 " The full blazmg sun. 
 Which now sat high in his meridian tower." 
 Miltox. 
 
 " I fear to go out of my depth in sound- 
 ing imaginary fords which are real gulfs, 
 and wherein many of the tallest j)hiloso- 
 phers have been drowned, while none of 
 them ever got over to the science they had 
 In view." — BoLlNGBKOKE. 
 
 " Did ever any conqueror loftily seated 
 in his triumphal chariot yield a spectacle 
 so gallant and magnificent ] " — Barhow. 
 
 HILARITY. Joviality or 
 Jollity. 
 
 These differ as the subjects. Hila- 
 rity (Fr. hilarile, Lat. hilaritatem) 
 hnlongs to social excitement, espe- 
 
 SYNONYMS [high] 
 
 cially of the table among more refined 
 company; Joviality (Lat. J^vidlis, 
 of or belonging to Jupiter or Jove^ 
 the planet Jupiter having been sup- 
 posed to impart the mirthful chai-ac- 
 ter to those who were born under it), 
 to the same thing among the less re- 
 fined. It is only to state the same 
 thing in another form, to say that 
 hilarity is more an aft'ection of the 
 mind, joviality of the animal spirits. 
 
 " It (music) will perform all this in an 
 instant, cheer np the countenance, expel 
 austerity, bi'ing in hilarity." — BuRTON, 
 Anatomy of Melancholy. 
 
 " The sport of their loudest jovialities."— 
 Barrow. 
 
 HINT. Suggestion. Intimation. 
 Insinuation. Innuendo. 
 
 A Hint (A. S.hentan, to pursue) is 
 an indirect communication of instruc- 
 tion, the incompletely expressed form 
 of which has commonly for its cause 
 a reluctance on the part of the hinter 
 to speak more fully and plainly. 
 
 Suggestion (Lat. snggestionem, n 
 hint) is given visibly or entire '.o the 
 persons receiving it, though the com- 
 munication is commonly concealed 
 from others. The man who makes a 
 good suggestion claims more gratitude 
 than the hinter, who shuns responsi- 
 bility, unless it is the best that he 
 could do under the circumstances. 
 Both Hint and Suggest have ordi- 
 narily reference to practical assistance 
 and directions, Hint referring to the 
 present or the past, and Suggestion 
 to the future ; a hint of danger, a 
 suggestion how to avoid it. But Hint 
 rather concerns matters of know- 
 ledge; Suggest, matters of conduct. 
 
 To Intimate (Lat. iniimare, to make 
 known) meant at first to share secretly 
 or privately, in which sense it is at 
 present obsolete. It now means to 
 give obscure or indirect notice, or to 
 suggest apart from others. It is in 
 this point that Intimate differs from 
 Hint and Suggest, which relate to 
 the affairs of the person to whom the 
 hint or suggestion is made ; while In- 
 timate may relate primarily to the 
 mind or intentions of him who makea 
 the intimation. 1 give another a hint, 
 or make bim a suggestion \ iutimato 
 
I hoard] 
 
 my own wishes or purpose. But the 
 subject of the intimation is commonly 
 one in which the other is personally 
 concerned. 
 
 To Insinuate (Lat. instnuare, to 
 make one's waii to, to make known) is to 
 nitroduce gradually and artfully, to 
 state by remote allusion. Like Hint, 
 it comes commonly from a wnsh to 
 impart a fact or an impression without 
 incurring the responsibility of plainly 
 stating it. 
 
 An Innuendo is a law term, ex- 
 pressing a manner of indicating by a 
 nod (innuendo, gerund of Lat. innntre, 
 to nod to) a person or thing meant, 
 when otherwise there was some uncer- 
 tainty ; and is now used much in the 
 same sense as Insinuation, but as 
 more expressive of specific aim at 
 personal character and conduct ; and 
 is couched in langTiage of double 
 meaning, as insinuation is couched in 
 language of indirect application. 
 
 " He hath frequently taken the hint from 
 very trifling objections to strengthen his 
 former works by several most material con- 
 siderations and convincing argaments," — 
 Nei^on, Life of Bull. 
 " If good ? Why do I yield to that sugges- 
 tion. 
 Whose horrid image doth unfix my hair, 
 And make my sealed heart knock at my 
 
 ribs. 
 Against the use of nature?" 
 
 Shakespeare, Macbeth. 
 
 •'Mr. Plott, who, as he since informed 
 me, had prevailed with them to propose 
 this treaty, earnestly pressed me to lay 
 hold on the opportunity, intimating by his 
 words and gestures that if I refused it I 
 should not have another." — LuDLOW, 
 JiJetnoirs. 
 
 " Cervantes made Don Quixote say, ' If 
 the stories of chivalry be lies, so must it 
 also be that there ever was a Hector or an 
 Achilles, or a Trojan war.' A sly stroke of 
 satire by which this mortal foe of chivalry 
 would, I suppose, insinuate that the 
 Gi'ecian romances were just as extravagant 
 and as little credible as the Gothic." — 
 HuRD. 
 
 " As, by the way of innuendo, 
 Lucns is made a non lucendo." 
 
 Churchiix. 
 
 HIRELING. Mercenary. 
 
 Hireling (A. S. /(ifr, wages) is one 
 who serves or acts for hire, and is not 
 necessarily a term of venality, though 
 never one of honour. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 485 
 
 Mercenary (Lat. niercinarius, one 
 hired for wages) is also one who sei-ves 
 for wages, but is employed exclusively 
 in a bad sense when used of the charac- 
 ter, though not so when used of the em- 
 ployment. Hired soldiers, called mer- 
 cenaries, may earn their wages honour- 
 ably. A mercenary match is one made 
 for the sordid love of money. The 
 acting for profit exclusively in any 
 way IS called mercenary. 
 
 " The hireling fleeth because he is an 
 hireling. " — Bible. 
 
 " This is to show both how tyranny stands 
 in need of mercenari/ soldiers, and how those 
 merccTiaries &rehymutxxa.\ obligation firmly 
 assured unto the tyrant." — Ralegh. 
 
 HISTORY. Annate. Chroni- 
 cles. 
 
 Annals (Lat. annHlis, a record oj 
 the occurrences of a year), the bare 
 public registration of events connected 
 with the progress of affairs of state, 
 are the genn and rudiments of history. 
 These are followed by Chronici.f.s 
 (Gr. x^ovixa, i.e., &i6\ia, papers, books, 
 relating to time, xi°^°i)f which are only 
 ampler narratives, and fall short of 
 til at analysis of motive and action, 
 cause and effect, which are needed to 
 make up the idea of philosophic 
 History. By a poetic licence, Annals 
 is used as an elegant word for His- 
 tory ; as, " The short and simple an- 
 nals of the poor." — Gray. 
 
 " For justly Caesar scorns the poet's lays ; 
 It is to history he trusts for praise." 
 
 Pope. 
 
 " For among so many writers there hath 
 yet none to my knowledge published any 
 full, plain, and mere English history. Foe 
 some of them of purpose meaning to write 
 short notes in manner oiannales, commonly 
 called abridgments, rather touch the times 
 when things were done than declare the 
 manner of the doinp." — Grafton. 
 " A chronicler should well in diA-ers tongues 
 
 be seen. 
 And eke in all the arts he ought to have a 
 
 sight. 
 Whereby he might the truth of divera 
 
 actions deem. 
 And both supply the wants, correct that is 
 
 not right." 
 
 Mirrourfor Magistrates. 
 
 HOARD. Treasure. 
 Hoard (A. S. hard) is to amass 
 with commonly some degree of an- 
 
486 
 
 SYNONYMS [hOLdJ 
 
 vacy or secrecy, and is a term of col- 
 lective application. 
 
 Treasuue (Fr. trhor, Lat. tfiisau- 
 rus) is applicable to a single thing or 
 to a number. We hoard that which 
 we believe may stand us in good stead ; 
 we treasure that which is intrinsically 
 valuable, or on which we personally 
 place a value. 
 
 " As some lone miser visiting his store 
 Bends at his treasure, counts, recounts it 
 
 o'e:\ 
 Hoards after hoards his rising raptures fill ; 
 Yet still he sighs, for hoards are wanting 
 
 still." 
 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 HOLD. Arrest. Detain. Keep. 
 Retain. Preserve. Conserve. In- 
 tercept. 
 
 To Hold (A. S. healdan, lialdnv} as 
 used in a purely physical sense, is to 
 cause to remain in a fixed position or 
 relation, and is equally applicable to 
 voluntary agents and mechanical force 
 or support. 
 
 To Arrest (O. Yr.aresier, to cause 
 to stop) is to exercise a holding power 
 upon what is in action, movement, or 
 progi-ess, and, like Hold, may be either 
 voluntary or mechanical. 
 
 To Detain (Lat. dittncre) is a 
 milder term than Arrest, the result 
 being physical, but the cause not 
 necessarily so; as, to be detained by 
 important business ; or by physical 
 causes operating indirectly upon the 
 person ; as, to be detained by an acci- 
 dent. It is to hold against external 
 movement or claim. 
 
 Keep (A. S. c^pan) is to hold in 
 some desirable relation to one's self, 
 whether direct possession or not, 
 against separating or depriving forces, 
 and hence has often the sense of guar- 
 dianship. 
 
 Retain (Lat. r^tinhe) is to keep as 
 against any jnfri?iiic alteration or loss 
 of power to hold; as, a metal retains 
 heat ; I still retain my intention. 
 
 To Preserve (Lat. prcesei-vdre) is 
 to cause to continue whole, unbroken, 
 or unimpaired ; as, to presei-ve fruits, 
 to preserve silence. He kept silence, 
 that is, as something from which he 
 would not nart. He held his tongue. 
 
 that is, as something which he would 
 not allow to move. He retained his 
 silence, that is, in spite of attempts to 
 induce him to abandon it. He pre- 
 served silence, that is, from being 
 broken. The idea of preservation is 
 that of provision against deteriorating 
 OT destructive influences, accidents, 
 dangers. Vigilance and the use of 
 preventive or counteractive means are 
 the methods of preservation. 
 
 Conservation stands to preserva- 
 tion as the moral to the material. 
 That which is kept in physical in- 
 tegrity is preserved. This may be the 
 act of a moment, that which is con- 
 tinuously sustained in moral integrity 
 is conserved. 
 
 That is Intercepted (Lat. iiiter- 
 cdpcre, to intercept) which is arrested 
 between two points, as the point of 
 departm-e and arrival, or some point 
 in space, and the spectator or auditor. 
 Obstructive interposition is intercep- 
 tion. 
 
 '* A valiant protector, a careful conserver 
 and an happy enlarger of the honour and 
 reputation of your country."— Hacklyt. 
 
 " Remember, mortal princes, ye be but 
 dust. Ye be no Gods. God will shortly in- 
 tercept your breath." — JoYE 'jn Daniel. 
 
 "A person lays hold upon a thing when 
 he takes possession of it, and claims it as his 
 right and property. In this sense the 
 apostle speaks with much diffidence and 
 humility of his hope of laying hold of his 
 reward. " — HoRSLE Y . 
 " Consent to pay thee that I never had ! 
 Arrest me, foolish fellow, if thou dar'st." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 ** If I lend a man a hoi"se, and he after- 
 wards refuses to restore it, this injury con- 
 sists in the detaining, and not in the originai 
 taking ; and the regular method for me to 
 recover possession is by action of detenue." 
 — State Trials. 
 
 " Am I my brother's keeper ? " — Sible. 
 
 " Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are re- 
 mitted unto them ; and whosesoever sins ye 
 retain, they are retained." — Ibid. 
 
 "In this case, would this man, think we, 
 act rationally, should he, upon the slender 
 possibility of escaping, otherwise neglect 
 the sure infallible preservation of his life by 
 casting away his rich goods 1 " — SoUTH. 
 
 HOMAGE. Fealty. Court. 
 
 Homage (O. Fr. homage, L. Lat. 
 hominaticum, h'imtiiem^a man) was the 
 act bv which a feudal inferior pro- 
 
[honesty] 
 
 fessed himself to be the man or sub- 
 ject of the feudal lord. 
 
 Fealty (0. Fr. feu Ite, Lai. pit K- 
 tdtem) was the Jidellty of such a 
 tenant ; and, more strictly, a lower 
 species of homage made by oath on 
 the part of such tenants as were bound 
 to personal service. 
 
 Court (0. Fr. cort, Mod. Fr. cour, 
 an enclosed space) is to endeavour to 
 gain favour by such demeanour or 
 acts as are pi;actised at the coiirts of 
 princes. In present parlance, we 
 pay homage to men of excellence, 
 virtue, or power, or, by a figure of 
 speech, to the excellences themselves ; 
 we show fealty to principles by which 
 we have professed to be guided, or to 
 persons who are not so tar our supe- 
 riors as is implied in Homage. And 
 we pay court when we desire personal 
 favour, consulting the character and 
 humour of the person to whom we 
 pay it. 
 *• All these are spirits of air, and wood, and 
 
 springs. 
 Thy gentle ministers who come to pay 
 Thee homage, and acknowledge thee their 
 
 Lord. 
 What donbt'st Then ? Son of God, sit down 
 
 and eat." Milton. 
 
 " Stndious to win your consort, and seduce 
 Her from chaste fealti/ to joys impure." 
 Fenton. 
 " Needs a shipwrecked seaman be courted 
 to come to shore, or a weary traA-eller to a 
 place of rest ? "—Bishop Bkveridge. 
 
 HONESTY. Sincerity. Up- 
 rightness. Probity. Integrity. 
 
 Honesty (Fr. honnetett) is a per- 
 fectly plain and unambiguous term. 
 It denotes in the worthiest sense more 
 than commercial strictness of dealing. 
 Honesty is a virtue of man in every 
 state of life. Consistent honesty 
 would be perfect social virtue, the 
 whole duty to one's neighbour, fair- 
 ness and straightforwardness of 
 thought, speech, purpose, or con- 
 duct. 
 
 Sincerity (Fr. sinciritt) has a 
 double meaning, either, 1, reality of 
 conviction or earnestness of purpose ; 
 or, 2, exemption from unfairness or 
 dishonesty. The one is the condition 
 of mind in itself; the other, the rela- 
 tion of this state to practical matters. 
 
 DISCRI^IINATED. 
 
 487 
 
 Hence a man may be sincere and dic- 
 honfest. Sincere in his profession of 
 his purpose, and dishonest in the 
 means he employs to effect it. Sin- 
 cerity is a virtue so far as it forbids 
 us to say one thing and think another, 
 LTpuiGHTNEss is honesty combined 
 with a native dignity of character ; it 
 belongs to men who can mix with 
 their fellow-merx and retain an inde- 
 pendent bearing; while the poorest 
 labouring man who has no contact 
 with the world may be strictly honest. 
 As commonly taken, honesty is not so 
 much a matter of principle as of act 
 and habit. A man is said to be honest 
 who will not defraud, directly or in- 
 directly. An honest tradesman asks 
 fair prices, and sells good articles. 
 He may be a sad slanderer, and de- 
 prive others of their due in this re- 
 spect ; yet the world would still call 
 him honest. 
 
 Probity (Fr. probitd) and In- 
 tegrity ('Fr. intt^rit6) are higher 
 terms, indicative of higher virtues and 
 larger characteristics. The man of 
 probity is a man of principle, and not 
 merely of habit ; he is far more than 
 commercially honest ; he gives men 
 their due in all respects. He is up- 
 right in those obligations which the 
 law does not touch. Integrity comea 
 from a sense of responsibility, a desire 
 to keep that whole in oneself which 
 ought not to be broken. It will show 
 itself in the discharge of a trust or the 
 execution of an office, but not only so. 
 To the man of integrity life itself is a 
 trust. Fidelity to the obligations of 
 law and duty suffice for probity. In- 
 tegrity is a habitual regard to the 
 frinciples of morality and conscience, 
 ntegrity is the quality of the man 
 who is firm and constant in the dis- 
 charge of his duty. It stands opposed 
 to corruption. Probity is virtue under 
 a negative aspect. Do to others as 
 you would that they should do to you 
 is the rule of virtue. Do not to others 
 what you would not that they should 
 do to you is the rule of probity. Fi- 
 delity to law, to morals and conscience 
 which are prohibitive in their force, 
 constitutes probity. 
 
 " Goodness is that which makes men pre- 
 fer their duty and their promise before their 
 
488 
 
 SYNONYMS [pIOPE] 
 
 passious or their interest, and is properly 
 the object of trust. In our language it goes 
 rather by the name of honesty, though what 
 we call an konest man the Romans called a 
 good man."— Sir W. Temple. 
 
 " Let us consider that sincerity is a duty 
 no less plain than important, that our con- 
 sciences require it of us, and reproach us for 
 every breach of it." — Knox. 
 
 " 'Then,' says the good Psalmist, 'shall 
 I not be ashamed ; ' that is, then may I 
 safely confide in my own innocence and up- 
 rightness, when I have respect unto all Thy 
 commandments." — Attkrbury. 
 
 " If we could once get ourselves possessed 
 of this probity, this purity of mind and 
 heart, it would better instruct os in the use 
 of our liberty, and teach as to distinguish 
 between good and evil." — SHARP. 
 
 " Tntegrity undaunted goes 
 
 Through Libyan sands and Scythian snows. 
 
 Or where Hydaspes wealthy side 
 
 Pays tribute to the Persian pride." 
 
 Roscommon, Horace. 
 
 HOPE. Expectation. Trust. 
 Confidence. Assurance. 
 
 All these terms denote the reposing 
 of the mind upon the future. The 
 anticipation of the future is common 
 to Hope (A. S. hojtian, to hope) and 
 Expectation (Lat. exspectutionem, a 
 looking out, an expecting). In propor- 
 tion as it is welcome, we hope ; in 
 proportion as it is certain, we expect. 
 We may expect, but not hope for, an 
 occurrence which will cause us pain. 
 Hope is a faculty of the human soul, 
 a quality which diminishes with the 
 increase of age. The young who live 
 in the future are full of hope. It is 
 an active, energetic force, well fitted 
 to the time of life, which needs en- 
 couragement and support in its work. 
 
 Confidence and Assurance closely 
 resemble each other; but Confidence 
 (Lat. confidentia) is properly used only 
 in relation to moral agents, and on the 
 ground of probity of character. As- 
 surance (Fr. assurer, to secure, stir, 
 siciirus, Eng. sure) is confidence in 
 one's self, or such confidence as flows 
 fitmi internal conviction ujjon matters 
 of fact. Assurance is passive ; con- 
 fidence is active. Confidence is such 
 assurance as leads to a feeling of 
 security or I'eliance. We have assur- 
 ance in ourselves, we have confidence 
 in otliers. 
 
 To Trust (to think true) is to rest 
 upon another as able to bear what we 
 impose ; so we trust or not in what is 
 solid or unsolid ; men, who are trust- 
 worthy or otherwise; statements, 
 which may be veracious or not; 
 strength or efforts, which may or may 
 not be equal to the task. Trust in 
 opinion is belief; in religious opinion, 
 faith ; in pecuniary worth, stability, 
 and integrity, credit ; and in moral 
 probity, combined with sufficiency of 
 power, confidence. Assurance is based 
 upon mental confidence on moral 
 evidence in favour of the thing ex- 
 pected. 
 
 ♦' Hope is the encouragement given to 
 desire, the pleasing expectancy that its ob- 
 ject shall be obtained." — CoGAN. 
 
 " In its geneial operation the indulgence 
 of hope is mixed with certain portions of 
 doubt and solicitude; but when doubt i« 
 removed, and the expectation becomes san- 
 guine, hope rises into joy." — Ibid. 
 
 " In a word, every man implicitly trusts 
 his bodily senses concerning external objecti 
 placed at a convenient distance." — BiSHOP 
 HoRSi^y. 
 
 " Yet not terrible 
 That I should fear ; not sot-iably mild. 
 Like Raphael, that I should much confide ,• 
 But solemn, whom, not to offend. 
 With reverence I must meet, and then re 
 tire." Milton- 
 
 " On informing him of our difficulties and 
 asking whether we might venture across 
 the plain, he bid us, like Caesar, with an air 
 of assurance, follow him and fear nothing." 
 —Gilpin, 
 
 HOPELESS. Desperate. 
 
 Hopeless is an epithet of things ; 
 Desperate (Lat. d'tsph'are, to give up 
 hope, part, despirdtus) of things and 
 persons. H opeless is less strong than 
 Desperate, because it sometimes de- 
 notes no more than an absence of hope 
 of success in matters where success 
 is desirable and desired, but no more. 
 A project may have been hopeless 
 from the first ; so that no real hope 
 was placed in it. A desperate under- 
 taking is one which is associated with 
 gi-eat if not absolute ahmdonment of 
 hope, in what is not only desired but 
 begun. It deserves, however, to be 
 observed, that the full force of de- 
 spair does not survive in the adjective 
 Desperate. There must be some de- 
 gree of hope in a desperate undcrtakine , 
 
j^ HOWEVER J 
 
 though a desperate act must be the 
 simple result of despair. 
 
 ' These words are part of that visiou of 
 the valley of bones, wherein the prophet 
 Ezekiel doth, in a very lofty and lively 
 manner, set out the lost and hopeless state 
 of Israel, then under captivity." — Atter- 
 BURY. 
 
 " So Satan, whom repulse upon repulse 
 Met ever, and to shameful silence brought, 
 Yet gives not o'er, though desperate of suc- 
 cess. 
 And his vain importunity pursues." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 HOST. Army. Armament. 
 
 Host (Lat. hostis, an enemy) denotes 
 an opposing or hostile force of indefi- 
 nite number, not strictly organized ; 
 hence, generally, a very numerous 
 collection. 
 
 Army (Tr. armte, Lat. armntiis, 
 armed) is composed of a definite num- 
 ber of organized soldiers. 
 
 Armament (Lat. armdmenta, im- 
 plements, tackling) is a term which 
 draws the attention primarily to the 
 equipment, and secondarily to the 
 forces. It is a body of forces equipped 
 for war, and is applicable both to sea 
 and land forces. Musketry, artillery, 
 and all munitions of war are implied 
 in an annament. 
 
 " They belov 
 Lie well equipped and sheltered, nor re 
 
 mote 
 The whole united armament of Greece at 
 
 Salamis." Glovkr. 
 
 HOUSE. Family. Lineage. 
 Race. Stock. 
 
 House (A. S. hiis), when employed 
 as a synonym with the rest here given, 
 is only employed of very distinguished 
 families, as the House of Austria, the 
 House of York or Lancaster, and is an 
 historical term comprising successive 
 generations. 
 
 Family (Lat. fdmiLia, a household) 
 denotes those who descend from one 
 common progenitor; hence the term 
 may be applied to the whole human 
 race or "family of man." Family 
 is more used of the middle classes. 
 House of those of the highest quality. 
 Families are spoken of in connexion 
 with alliances, houses with high dig- 
 nities and titles. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 4«9 
 
 Lineage (Fr. lignagej lignCy a iine) 
 is that common line of descent which 
 constitutes the house or family. 
 
 Race (Fr. race, O. H. G. reiza, a 
 line : Littre) is more comprehensive, 
 indefinite, and broad ; as, the human 
 race, the Caucasian or Mongolian race 
 — indicating masses of men ethnologi- 
 cally one. 
 
 Stock (A. S. stoc) is an analogous 
 term, in which the descendants or 
 children are referred to their parents 
 or ancestors, as ti e scion belongs to 
 the stem. The term is commonly 
 employed when the qualities of the 
 nature are considered as inherited or 
 congenital. Men come of a good or a 
 bad stock. 
 " Thy mother was no goddess, nor thy 
 
 stock 
 From Dardanus." Dexham. 
 
 HOWEVER. Yet. Neverthe- 
 LESS. Notwithstanding. Stili. 
 But. 
 
 But (A. S. butan, except, besides) 
 has a twofold meaning, which might 
 be expressed by the phrases, " But 
 yet," and, " But on the contrary ; " as, 
 "This is not summer, but it is as 
 warm;" and, "This is not summer, 
 but winter." It is with the first ol 
 these meanings that the other terms 
 given above are synonymous. How- 
 ever has a waiving or cancelling 
 force. " However, the matter is not 
 important," would mean, that in any 
 case it is so, whether what had been 
 advanced were admitted or not. It 
 seems equivalent to saying that what 
 follows is so indisputable, that the 
 speaker is willing to forego all that 
 has been said. Yet is stronger than 
 But; and Still yet stronger. It does 
 not cancel, but retains previous ai*- 
 gument, and admits it ; maintaining 
 that what follows is not removed for 
 all that. " All you say is true ; still 
 I think." Notwithstanding and 
 Nevertheless are still stronger ; 
 Nevertheless being the strongest of 
 all. Yet brings into contrast both 
 expanded statements and simple 
 ideas. " Addison was not a good 
 speaker; yet he was an admirable 
 writer," might have been rendered 
 by, " Addison was not an orator, but 
 
490 
 
 SYJSONYMS 
 
 [hue] 
 
 a writer; " or, "Addison was inelo- 
 quent, yet accomplished ; " where it 
 will be observed that But follows a 
 negative expression, and Yet a posi- 
 tive and adverse, or seemingly ad- 
 verse, one; or, conversely, " He was 
 accomplished, but not eloquent." 
 Neverthelkss and Notwithstanding 
 are almost identical; they have no 
 difference beyond that which is ap- 
 parent on the face of the structure of 
 these composite forms. First, it will 
 be observed that Nevertheless is a 
 conjunctive abverb, while Notwith- 
 standing is also used as a preposition. 
 " He contradicted me, but I main- 
 tained the truth of what 1 had said, 
 notwithstanding," or, " nevertheless ;" 
 but we might also say, " I maintained 
 my statement, notwithstanding his 
 contradiction ; " where Nevertheless 
 could not have been used. This force, 
 however, has gi'own up out of trans- 
 position of the order ; in old and more 
 formal English, it would have been, 
 " His contradiction of me notwith- 
 standing; "that is, affording no effec- 
 tual opposition. Notwithstanding 
 implies that the fact stated remains 
 true; Nevertheless, that its force 
 remains undiminished. 
 
 HUE. Colour. Tint. 
 
 Hue (A. S. hiw, heow, wppearance) 
 was formerly written hew. It is, 
 strictly speaking, a compound of one 
 or more colours, so forming an inter- 
 venient shade. 
 
 The Colours (Fr. corileur, Lat. 
 c'ildrem) are properly the seven pris- 
 matic colours deduced from light by 
 the prism. 
 
 Tint (Fr. teinte) is a colour or hue 
 faintly exbibited. With painters a 
 tint is a subdued colour, weakened in 
 the case of oil colours by white, and 
 in water colours by water. Hue is a 
 vague conversational, rhetorical, or 
 poetical term. Colour is strictly ar- 
 tistic and scientific. Unlike Tint, 
 both Hue and Colour are applicable 
 to white. 
 
 "His robe, with Incid pearls besprinkled 
 
 o'er. 
 Receives a snowy hue unknown before," 
 HooLE, Tasso 
 
 " I took it for a fairy vision 
 Of some gay creatures of the element. 
 That in the colours of the rainbow li've." 
 Milton. 
 " Or blend in beauteous tint the coloored 
 mass," POPK. 
 
 HUGE. Enormous. Prodigious. 
 
 Vast. 
 
 These terms express excessive size. 
 Huge (O. Fr. ahuge, htige, vast: 
 Skeat, Etym. Diet.) denotes great 
 size, with shapelessness or massive- 
 ness preponderating over proportion. 
 
 Enormous (Lat. inormis, irregulary 
 enormous) is huge of its particular 
 kind, far exceeding its own proper 
 average or standard. 
 
 Prodigious (Lat. prodigiosus, pro- 
 digium, a prodigy) expresses size or 
 quantity such as produces astonish- 
 ment in our own minds. 
 
 Vast (Fr. vaslCj Lat. vastus, wastCy 
 vast) expresses the quality of great 
 superficial extent. 
 " The knight himself even trembled at his 
 
 fall. 
 So huge and horrible a mass it seemed." 
 Spenser. 
 
 " And on the other hand, had man's body 
 been made too monstrously strong, too 
 enormously gigantic, it would have rendered 
 him a dangerous tyrant in the world, too 
 strong in some respects even for his own 
 kind, as well as the other creatures." — 
 Derham. 
 
 "We may justly, I say, stand ama2ed 
 that men should be so prodigiously supine 
 and negligent in an aSair of this impor- 
 tance as we see they generally are." — 
 Sharp. 
 
 " What a vast field for contemplation is 
 here opened I " — Woolaston. 
 
 HUNGER. Appetite. 
 
 Hunger (A. S. hungor) relates to a 
 strong craving of food, either from 
 too long an abstinence or from na- 
 tural voracity. 
 
 Appetite (Lat. appetltus, eager de- 
 sire) belongs more to the taste, and 
 comes of the disj)osition of the organs 
 to find pleasure in eating. The first 
 is the more urgent but less nice, and 
 is contented with what is enough. 
 The second demands less imperatively, 
 but demands a gi'eater variety of ali- 
 ment. All kinds of food appease 
 hunger, while none excites it. Ap- 
 petite is more delicate. It is not every 
 
[HURTj 
 
 dish that satisfies it. Hunger is ap- 
 peased, appetite satisfied. Hunger is 
 a want, appetite a desire. Hence 
 Appetite is a convertible term for de- 
 sire ; and lends itself more readily to 
 secondary applications. Sordid or 
 i.oble appetites. We speak of a thirst, 
 lather than hunger, for glory or any 
 other specific object of desire. 
 
 HURT. Damage. Detriment. 
 Injury. Harm. Prejudice. In- 
 justice. Wrong. Mischief. 
 
 Hurt (O. Fr. hurter, Mod. heurter, 
 to strike against) is physical injury 
 causing pain, and is applied to ani- 
 mals as having a sensitive life, and to 
 plants as being quasi-sensitive. When 
 used of the mind or feelings, hurt is 
 employed analogously, in the sense 
 of receiving a rude shock ; as, " His 
 pride was hurt." The word i« em- 
 ployed in its strict meaning in *he 
 following : — 
 
 " The least hurt or blow, especially upon 
 the head, may make it (an infant) sense- 
 less, stupid, or otherwise miserable for 
 ever. " — Spectator. 
 
 Some degree of physical violence is 
 implied in Hurt. A subtle noxious 
 influence would injure, but not hurt. 
 The constitution might be injured or 
 harmed, but not hurt, by residence in 
 an unhealthy locality. 
 
 Damage (O. Fr. damage, orig. 
 from the Lat. dam7inm, loss or injury) 
 is harm externally inflicted on wliat 
 is of value ; as, trees, movable pro- 
 perty, crops, personal reputation. A 
 slave so severely hurt as to lose the 
 use of a limb is damaged, as being a 
 valuable commodity, but the term is 
 not employed of bodily injury to per- 
 sons in general. 
 
 "That to the utmost of our ability we 
 ought to repair any damage we have done 
 '.0 others, is self-evident." — Beattie, 
 
 This refers of course only to such 
 damage as involves a wrong done. 
 On the other hand, damage may be 
 purely material, as the damage done 
 to crops by a storm, or as in the case 
 given above. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 491 
 
 Detriment (Lat. detrimentum, loss, 
 damage) is used very generically, ana 
 would include loss of value by in- 
 
 ternal causes. It is also applied ta 
 what is of the nature of a good with- 
 out having a strictly appreciable 
 value ; as a detriment to religion and 
 morals. It stands, generally speak- 
 ing, to things of moral value as dam- 
 age to things of material value. 
 
 " Though every man hath a property in 
 his goods, yet he must not use them in 
 detriment of the commonwealth."— Sfaie 
 Trails. 
 
 Injury (Lat. injuria, injusticej 
 harm) has the purely physical mean- 
 ing of permanent hurt to physical ob- 
 jects, and of harm to whatever is 
 susceptible of it, as moral beings, and 
 even abstract goods ; as, a tree is in- 
 jured by a storm ; injury to a man's 
 person or to his character; injury to 
 the cause of religion or of progress. 
 The word Injury is one of the rarer 
 cases in which a term of moral import 
 has become applicable in a physical 
 sense, instead of the converse. The 
 primary idea is that of wrong or a 
 deed against justice. As such deeds 
 are often done by violence, and ac- 
 companied by material hurt, the term 
 has come to be applicable to the inflic- 
 tion or result of violence even in un- 
 conscious subjects. There are few 
 words in the English language having 
 such varied and extensive applica- 
 tions. 
 
 ♦' Many times we do injury to a cause by 
 dwelling on trifling arguments." — Watts. 
 
 Harm (A. S. hearm, grief, injury) 
 is personal and intentional injury, 
 but is not confined to this, and may 
 be unintentional and impersonal. 
 Harm is that sort of hurt which 
 causes trouble, difficulty, inconve- 
 nience, loss, or impedes the desirable 
 growth, operation, progress, and issue 
 of things. Harm is that which con- 
 tradicts or counteracts well-being, and 
 is unfavourable to the proper energy 
 of what has activity. H a rm is as wide 
 a term as Injury, from which it diffens 
 but slightly. But Harm is more 
 general than Injury, more vague and 
 less specifiable ; hence harm is often 
 undefined or undefinable injurjr. Mj 
 watch will not go. It is plain tha 
 some harm has happened to it; ye 
 I can perhaps trace no sign of ii. 
 lury. 
 
492 
 
 " And who is he that shall harm you, if 
 ye be followers of that which is good ? " — 
 Bible. 
 
 Prejudice (Lat. 'pr<EJiidicium, a 
 preceding judgment , disadvantage) is a 
 foregone conclusion, and, by an un- 
 favourable extension of meaning, 
 against a person ; hence generally 
 harm. It is, however, employed only 
 of persons and their interests or 
 causes; though the adjective preju- 
 dicial has a wider application in the 
 sense of hurtful. Shakespeare seems 
 to have gone to the extreme limit of 
 the word when he says — 
 " To seek how ws laay prejudice the foe." 
 
 " I am not to prejudice the cause of ray 
 fellow poets, though I abandon my own de- 
 fence." — D RYDKIi, 
 
 Injustice is the principle of which 
 injuiy is the manifestation. Injustice 
 is also used in the sense of moral in- 
 j ury ; as, a suspicion which does another 
 an injustice. Injustice relates to ex- 
 istent rights, which are disregarded 
 or violated ; but these rights are of 
 the broadest kind, and extend even 
 to the natural claims of humanity. 
 
 " If this people resembled Nero in their 
 extravagance, much more did they (the 
 Athenians) resemble and even exceed him 
 in cruelty and injustice."— BvB,KS. 
 
 Wrong (that which is wrung or 
 turned aside; so Fr. tort, Lat. tartus, 
 twistedj is an injury done by one per- 
 son to another in express violation of 
 justice. It may be observed that both 
 injustice and wrong lie in the prin- 
 ciple, injury in the act. So one may 
 commit a wrong or an injustice with- 
 out committing an injury, supposing 
 that circumstances turned out more 
 favourably or less unfavourably to the 
 person than we contemplated or in- 
 tended. On the other hand, where 
 design was absent, there might be in- 
 jury without injustice. An} thing is 
 a wrong which impairs a right of 
 whatever kind this right may be, as 
 of property, privilege, honour, repu- 
 tation. In fact, Wrong commonly ap- 
 plies to goods and reputation ; it robs 
 ©ne of one's due. 
 
 *♦ The distinction of public wrongs from 
 private, of crimes and misdemeanours from 
 «vil injuries."— Blackstone, 
 
 Mischief (O. Fr. meschef, the 
 
 SYNONYMS [HUSBANDJ 
 
 bringing to a bad end ; mes, which is 
 the Lat. minns, less, and chef, Lat. 
 cUput, a head ) is harm or damage 
 produced by something blameworthy, 
 as heedlessness, neglect, perversity, 
 wantonness. It is a confusion of 
 thought to use the term as simply 
 equivalent to Injurious, and to say, 
 as is sometimes said, "The heavy 
 rains have been mischievous to the 
 crops." Mischief conveys ibe idea 
 of a bad or wantonly injurioab intent, 
 as well as the harm in wlucli it re- 
 sults, and so belongs to beings of in- 
 telligence and will, not to elemental 
 or mechanical forces. Mischief is, 
 however, not so grave a term as in- 
 juiy or damage. It commonly denotes 
 not so much destnictive as detri- 
 mental effects produced by the folly, 
 idleness, or perversity of men. An 
 opposite to mischief is bonchief, i.e. 
 advantage, good fortune ; a word now 
 obsolete. It would seem that more 
 latitude might be allowed to the noun 
 Mischief than to the adjective mis- 
 chievous. The latter ought to carry 
 with it the idea of injurious intention, 
 the former may be used analogously, 
 and is a convenient term to express 
 untoward damage which is not of the 
 most serious kind, but which has the 
 effect of impairing the soundness of a 
 thing. 
 
 " Why boasteth thou thyself, thou tyrant, 
 that thou canst do mischief!" — English 
 Psalms. 
 
 HUSBAND. Spouse. 
 
 The Husband (not a true A. S. 
 word, but borrowed from Scand., and 
 this from Icel. husbmdi, the master oj 
 a liom^e ; Icel. hus, a house, buandi, 
 inhabiting, part.: Skeat, Etym. Diet.) 
 designates the physical quality, the 
 Spouse (Fr. epoux, Lat. spondere, part. 
 spo)isus, to betroth) the social con- 
 nexion. The husband answers to the 
 wife, as the man to the woman. The 
 spouse answers to the spouse as one 
 party to another. The spouse is the 
 higher, more spiritual term ; the hus- 
 band the more familiar. The husband 
 is the head of the wife, over whom 
 he has legal rights. The spouse ia 
 the pai-tner of the wife in moral as 
 well as natural anion. 
 
[idea] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 493 
 
 HYPOCRITE. Dissembler. 
 
 HYPOcniTE(Gr. uTroxfi'Tn?, an actor) 
 IS a false pretender to virtue or piety, 
 and is a Dissembler (Lat. dissimii- 
 Idtor) as to one half of his character, 
 tliat is, as to being what he pretends 
 not to be (see Dissemble), but not as 
 to the other, namely, the not being 
 what he pretends to be. Hypocrisy, 
 it has been observed, is the homage 
 which vice pays to virtue ; an idea 
 which is only expanded in the follow- 
 ing :— 
 
 " Hypocrisy is a more modest way of 
 sinning. It shows some reverence to reli- 
 gion, and does so far own the worth and 
 excellency of it as to acknowledge vhat it 
 deserves to be counterfeited." — Tillot- 
 80N. 
 
 " Thoa liest, dissembler ! on thy brow 
 I read distracted horrors figured in thy 
 looks." Ford. 
 
 I. 
 
 Conception. 
 
 IDP:A. Notion. 
 Perception. 
 
 The perceiving of something ex- 
 ternal by the mind through the 
 senses is called a sensation ; the 
 image as it exists in the mind as a 
 matter of reflexion is an Idea (Gr. 
 lUa), The idea is thus present to the 
 fancy, and independent of the cause 
 which excited it. When two or more 
 ideas are combined, so that the ex- 
 pression of them would take the form 
 of an affirmation, this is a Notion. 
 *' I saw the moon last night;" this 
 was sensation or physical perception. 
 " I recollect the image of what I 
 saw ; " this is the idea. I connect it 
 with roundness of shape, so as to say, 
 " It was spherical ; " this is a notion. 
 Ideas are faint or vivid, vague or dis- 
 tinct; notions are single or complex, 
 true or false. A notion is true of 
 which the ideas are veritably asso- 
 ciated in fact ; false when we associate 
 ideas necessarily or naturally inco- 
 herent. In a complex notion we often 
 associate some that are naturally 
 united with some that are incoherent. 
 The truth can only be obtained by 
 ditieu tangling tlie partS| and com- 
 
 paring anew the parts and their com- 
 binations with experience. Such is 
 the sense of the word Idea, for which 
 we are indebted to Locke, according 
 to the Cartesian sj^stem. Before him 
 the term Idea, as emploj'ed according 
 to the system of Plato, meant the 
 archetypes or patterns of created 
 things, as they existed in the creative 
 mind before, and independently of, 
 their embodiment in outward and 
 visible things. 
 
 Conception, according to Coleridge 
 (Lat. conciptre, to comprehend, part. 
 conceptus), is a conscious act of the 
 understanding, assimilating objects 
 or impressions ; that is, referring 
 them to the same general class or 
 order by means of some or more cha- 
 racters in common. 
 
 Perception (Lat. perdpere, to per- 
 ceive, part, perceptns) is a term ot 
 which the use varies with philoso- 
 phers. Its older use was nearly 
 identical with that of consciousness. 
 It has of late been narrowed to the 
 faculty whereby we acquire know- 
 ledge, and especially, through the 
 senses, of the external world. With 
 others perception and sensation are 
 confounded ; while with others, again, 
 sensation is physical, and perception 
 that operation of the mind in regard 
 to external things which follows and 
 is based upon sensation. 
 
 " Socrates and Plato suppose that ideas 
 be substances separate and distinct from 
 matter, howbeit subsisting in the thoughts 
 and imaginations of God, that is to say, of 
 mind and understanding." — Holland's 
 Hutarch. 
 
 " Whatsoever is the immediate object of 
 perception, thought, or understanding that 
 I call idea." — Locke. 
 
 " For it (the mind) being once furnished 
 with simple ideas, it can put them together 
 in several compositions, and so make 
 variety of complex ideas, without examin- 
 ing whether they exist so together in na- 
 ture, and hence I think it is that these 
 ideas are called iiotions, as they had their 
 original and constant existence more in the 
 thoughts of men than in the reality of 
 things."— Locke. 
 
 " By sight we have a conception or image 
 composed of colour and figure, which is ^1 
 the notice and knowledge the object im- 
 partcth to lis of its nature by the eye. By 
 hearing we have a conception called sound." 
 — HOBBS 
 
494 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [ideal] 
 
 " The power oi perception is that vre call 
 the understanding. Perceiption, which we 
 make the act of the understanding, is of 
 three sorts — 1, the perception of ideas in 
 our own minds ; 2, the perception of the 
 signification of signs ; 3, the perception of 
 the agreement or disagi'eement of any dis- 
 tinct ideas."— Locke. 
 
 IDEAL, Imaginary. 
 
 The use of the adjective Ideal 
 flows from the Platonic use of the 
 term Idea. It is not opposed to the 
 real, but abstracted from it. The ideal 
 is formed from the actual by abstract- 
 ing what is excellent in individual 
 specimens into an imaginary whole. 
 Imaginary denotes what has no 
 existence but in the imagination. In 
 the Ideal the component parts are 
 real, though the whole may be called 
 Imaginary, inasmuch as it is not prac- 
 tically met with ; but the Imaginary 
 is applicable to such things as nemr 
 could be met with ; things created by 
 the mind independently of experience, 
 as the animal called the griffin, for 
 instance. 
 
 " With inward view. 
 Thence on th' ideal kingdom swift she turns 
 Her eye, and instant, at her powerful 
 
 glance, 
 Th' obedient phantoms vanish or appear." 
 Thomson. 
 
 " When time shall once have laid his 
 lenient hand on the passions and pursuits 
 of the present moment, they too shall lose 
 that imaginary value which heated fancy 
 now bestows upon them." — Blair. 
 
 IDEAL. Model. 
 
 When these terms appear as syno- 
 nyms, it is that either might be taken 
 to mean the perfect form of anything. 
 Model (see Example) may mean 
 either a pattern of what a thing is, or 
 a pattern of what it might be at the 
 best. In the latter case, it stands to 
 .he Ideal as the conception to the 
 illustration. The Venus de Medicis 
 is the ideal of female beauty as it is a 
 conception of the sculptor, a model as 
 it is a statue. 
 
 " The ideal is to be attained by selecting 
 and assembling in one whole the beauties 
 and perfections which are usually seen in 
 different individuals, excluding everything 
 defective or unseemly."— Fleming. 
 
 " He that despairs measures Providence 
 by his own contracted model."— BovTU. 
 
 IDENTITY. Sameness. 
 
 Sameness (A. S. same) belongs to 
 things. 
 
 Identity (Fr. identity) to our cog- 
 nition of the things. We recognize 
 sameness when we establish identity. 
 
 IDIOT. Fool. 
 
 An Idiot (Gr. Ihcirt)/;, a private 
 person taking no part in public afi^airs, 
 and so ill informed, awkward, hence, 
 by a modern extension of meaning, 
 of weak mind) is one who is destitute 
 of the ordinary intellectual powers of 
 man. He is a born fool, the mental 
 condition being commonly accompa- 
 nied by some defect in the physical 
 formation. 
 
 Vooh(¥r.fol,fou, crazy) is capable 
 of other meanings, denoting, e.g., a, per- 
 son of very languid mind and sluggish 
 comprehension, or one who lives con- 
 trary to the principles of practical 
 wisdom. 
 
 "An idiot or natural fool is one that hath 
 had no nnderstanding from his nativity, 
 and, therefore, is by law presumed never 
 likely to attain any." — BlaCKSTONE. 
 
 " Thou fool, that which thou sowest is 
 not quickened, except it die." — Eng. Bibl» 
 
 IDLE. L^ 
 
 Ini 
 
 Idle (A. S. idel, emfty, vain) origi- 
 nally meant unprofitable, as, "idle 
 pastures," that is, not supporting 
 cattle. It has at present a twofold 
 meaning;, 1, unemployed, and 2, averse 
 to employment. Idleness bears refe- 
 rence to a man's proper tasks and 
 duties. He who escapes from these, 
 and will do nothing useful, is idle, 
 although he may be far from Lazy 
 (O. Fr. lusche. Mod. Fr. Idche, loose, 
 tunguishi7ig), and the opposite to In- 
 dolent. Idleness is consistent with 
 activity in other matters than those 
 or duty and business, as in reaction 
 or in mischief. 
 
 Indolent (Lat. in, not. and dolire, 
 to suffer pain) denotes a love of ease 
 and an aversion to activ-? effort, 
 whether of mind or body. It iB pos- 
 sible to be indolent in mind, and not 
 in body, and vice versa. Lazy is a 
 stronger and more disparaging terra 
 than Indolent, expressive of a slothful 
 habit of body, to which physical 
 
[ignorant] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 495 
 
 efibrt, and especially industrious em- 
 ployment, is hateful. Laziness is not 
 incompatible with reflexiveness and 
 study. 
 
 •' The truth is, idleness offers np the soul 
 as a blank to the devil for him to write 
 what he will upou it." — South. 
 
 " Shall we keep our hands in our bosom, 
 or stretch ourselves on our beds of laziness, 
 while all the world about us is hard at 
 work pursuing the designs of its creation ? " 
 —Barrow. 
 
 " But, indeed, there are crowds of people 
 who I nt themselves in no method of pleas- 
 ing themselves or others; such are those 
 whom we usually call indolent persons." — 
 Spectator. 
 
 IDLE. Leisure. Vacam. 
 
 As applied to portions ot time, 
 Idle, as an idle hour, is always taken 
 in a sense more or less unfavourable. 
 An idle hour is confessedly one which 
 might have been better spent. 
 
 A Leisure hour (Fr. loisir, to be 
 permitted, an obsolete infinitive ; I>at. 
 Cicere, see Littre) is one which has 
 been rightly spared fi-om business, or 
 which is open to being so, but of 
 which nothing is said as to the spend- 
 ing. 
 
 A Vacant hour(Lat racans, part, 
 of vdcdre, to be empty, disengaged) is 
 indefinitely one which might have 
 been filled up, but is not. A leisure 
 time is welcome ; a vacant hour may 
 be unwelcome if employment were 
 desired, In an idle hour we have 
 done what we aftei'wards regretted. 
 
 IGNOMINY. Infamy. Oppro- 
 brium. Shame. 
 
 Ignominy (Lat. ignoniinia, in-, noty 
 and ndm£ii, name, deprivation of good 
 name) is public disgrace which at- 
 taches to persons. 
 
 Infamy (Lat. infdmia) is total loss 
 of reputation, or extreme baseness, as 
 attaching to character or deeds. In- 
 famy is stronger than ignominy, inas- 
 much as it consigns the subject of it 
 to public detestation, while ignominy 
 brings contempt. It may also be ob- 
 served that ignominy depends upon 
 the sentiments of men, who may in- 
 flict it where it is undeserved ; whereas 
 infamy depends upon the fact of deeds 
 done. 
 
 Opprobrium, a Lat. word, re- 
 proach, scandal, is less strong, indi- 
 cating a mingled feeling of reproach 
 and disdain, which may be unde- 
 served. 
 
 Shame (A. S. sceamu) carries with 
 it the additional idea of the sense or 
 feeling of disgrace. But shame differs 
 from the rest in being irrespective of 
 social estimation and treatment. It is 
 a feeling which results from an appeal 
 direct or indirect to the natural sense of 
 right and wrong, either in accusation or 
 simple detection. It is the judgment 
 which, recognizing an enormity of 
 demerit, condemns to infamy. It is a 
 sense of profound humiliation asso- 
 ciated with the penalties paid for 
 base crimes which constitutes igno- 
 miny. Those punishments which 
 combine disgrace with pain are igno- 
 minious. Such are the pillory, the 
 gibbet, the cross. On the otherhand, 
 beheading was a punishment in our 
 own former history not ignominious. 
 
 " Who (the king) never called a Parlia- 
 ment but to supply his necessities, and 
 ha\ing supplied those, as suddenly and ig- 
 nominiously dissolved it, without redress- 
 ing any one grievance of the people." — 
 MlLTOX. 
 
 " But the afflicted queen would not yield, 
 and sai 1 she would not damn her soul nor 
 submit to such infamy ; that she was his 
 wife, and would never call herself by any 
 other name."— Burxet. 
 
 " ' He,' saith St. James, ' that speaketh 
 against his brother, and judgeth his bro- 
 ther, speaketh against the law and judgeth 
 the law ; ' that is, he opprobriously doth 
 impiy the law to be defective until he doth 
 complete or correct it."— Barrow. 
 
 " Sliame, which is an uneasiness of the 
 mind upon the thought of having done 
 something which is indecent, or will lessen 
 the valued esteem which others have for 
 us." — loCKE. 
 
 IGNORANT. Illiterate. Un- 
 learned. Unlettered. 
 
 Ignorant (Lat. ignorare, to be ig- 
 norant of) denotes want of know- 
 ledge, either of a single fact, or, 
 generally, of such matters as it is 
 considered that men ought to know. 
 
 Illiterate (Lat. iiritcratus) is ig- 
 norant of letters. Some persons are 
 ignorant of common practical every- 
 day matters, who are far from being 
 illiterate; others are illiterate who 
 
496 
 
 SYNONYMS [IMB1BB| 
 
 ■without the Of portuiiities of good 
 education, hare picked up a conside- 
 rable stock of general information. 
 
 Unlearned and Unlettered differ 
 from Illiterate in not implying re- 
 proach. A man may be learned in 
 one branch of learning, and unlearned 
 in another. Unlettered is rather a 
 rhetorical and poetical than a prosaic 
 term. An honest peasant of little or 
 no education ought to be called un- 
 learned ; a pretentious rich 'man, but 
 uneducated, may well be styled Illi- 
 terate. 
 
 " Yet ah I why should they know their fate. 
 Since sorrow never comes too late. 
 And happiness too swiftly flies ? . 
 Thought would destroy their paradise 
 No more. Where ignorance is bliss, 
 'Tis folly to be wise." Gray. 
 
 " Others are not capable either of the em- 
 ployments or divertisements that accrue 
 from letters. I know they are not, and 
 therefore cannot much recommend solitude 
 to a man totally illiterate." — Cowley. 
 
 " The immortality of the soul has been 
 commonly believed in all ages and in all 
 places by the unlearned part of all civilized 
 people, and by the almost general consent 
 of all the most barbarous nations under 
 heaven .' ' — Clarke. 
 
 Unlettered is a very old word in 
 English, as in the following : — 
 
 " And thei sighen the stidefastnesse of 
 Peter and Joon, for it was foundem that 
 thei weren men unlettrid" —^ICIXF. 
 
 IMBIBE. Absorb. 
 
 In Imbibing (l^oX.imbthh-e, to drink 
 vi) the moisture taken away from one 
 body is taken into another. 
 
 In Absorbing (Lat. absorhire, io 
 twallow or suck up) the moisture is 
 simply taken away. For instance, a 
 sponge both absorbs and imbibes 
 moisture. It absorbs it, inasmuch as 
 it sucks it away from the place where 
 it was lodged ; it imbibes it, inasmuch 
 as the particles of moisture pass into 
 the sponge. On the other hand, the 
 rays of the sun absorb moist/jre, but 
 do not imbibe it. The same difference 
 appears in the moral or secondary ap- 
 plications of the words. We imbibe 
 what we assimilate to ourselves in the 
 way ofinstructiofn, doctrine, principles, 
 and the like. Weare ourselves absorbed 
 by some occupation which takes all 
 our time, interest, and attention. 
 
 IMITATE. Copy. Counterfeit. 
 
 The idea common to these terms ia 
 that of making one thing to resemble 
 another. One Imitates (Lat. tmiidri) 
 through esteem or appreciation of the 
 object. 
 
 One Copies (Lat. copioy plenty, the 
 copy being a multiplication of the ori- 
 ginal) from dearth of supply, or steri- 
 lity of invention, or want of origina- 
 lity. 
 
 One Counterfeits (Fr. eoutrefaire) 
 for selfish ends of amusement or profit. 
 We imitate persons, character, con- 
 duct, writing, painting, speaking, 
 actions, works of art, and so forth, 
 when we try to identify ourselves 
 with the spirit and character of the 
 agents and performers, so as to act or 
 work in their manner. We copy 
 when we can servilely assimilate our 
 acts to those of others, or simply re- 
 produce their productions. We coun- 
 terfeit when we so produce that the 
 production is referred to a false author- 
 ship, or that it shall not be what it 
 pretends to be. The merit of imitation 
 IS in freedom, the merit of copy 
 is in exactness. Counterfeit produc- 
 tions are only to be condemned. One 
 may imitate yet keep one's own origi- 
 nality ; not so with copying. 
 
 IMITATE. Follow. 
 
 These terms both denote the regu- 
 lation of our actions by some thing 
 proposed or set before :is for that 
 purpose. But we Imitate (Lat. vnt- 
 tari) what is external to us; we Fol- 
 low what is sometimes external, 
 sometimes internal. We imitate an 
 example, or, which is tantamount to 
 tha same thing, we follow it ; but we 
 may also follow the dictates of reason 
 and common sense ; we may folloAv 
 even our own devices. We imitate 
 objects, persons, actions; we follow 
 guides, influence?!, dictates of reason, 
 impulses, and propensities. There is 
 a difference between following an ex- 
 ample and imitating an example. In 
 the first place, to Imitate an example 
 is accurate and direct, an example 
 being a model or pattern and as such to 
 be imitated. To Follow an example is 
 secottdary and inexact, for we can only 
 
IMMATERIAL 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 497 
 
 follow an example when we regard j 
 
 it in a derived sense as a guide. We 
 
 imitate an example when we do the 
 
 same things, we follow an example 
 
 when we do like things. One follows 
 
 a guide or a rule, one imitates a tjpe 
 
 or model. 
 
 " Acts of benevolence and love 
 
 Give us a taste of heaven above. 
 
 We imitate the immortal powers 
 
 Whose sunshine and whose kindly showers 
 
 Refresh the poor and barren ground. 
 
 And plant a paradise around." 
 
 SOMERVILK. 
 "Onr chief professors ha\'ing thonght 
 themselves above those rules that had been 
 folloiced by our ancestors, and that lay 
 open to vulgar understandings." — CHES- 
 TERFIELD. 
 
 IMMATERIAL. Unimportant. 
 Insignificant. Inconsiderable. 
 Trifling. Trivial. Frivolous. 
 Futile. Unessential. Irrelevant. 
 Petty. Nugatory. 
 
 Immaterial is used of the unim- 
 portant in minor and familiar matters, 
 especially in matters of practice; 
 while Unimportant commonly re- 
 lates to abstract difference of result ; 
 as " It is immaterial whether we go 
 to-morrow or not ; " *' It is unimpor- 
 tant whether the word be taken in the 
 one sense or the other." Unimportant 
 «8 general ; immaterial is specific. 
 Immaterial is unimportant as regai'ds 
 argumentative or practical considera- 
 tions, and so is an epithet of things, 
 and not of persons. An unimportant 
 person is one who cairies little or no 
 weight, either generally, or in regard 
 to a specific case. The epithet Imma- 
 terial is not applicable in this way. 
 
 " It is true that there be some scholasti 
 cal and immaterial truths, the infinite sub 
 divisions whereof have rather troubled than 
 informed Christendom."— Bishop Hall. 
 
 " They would be surprised to be informed 
 that one of the ancient critics has acquired 
 fc gi-eat reputation by writing on an art 
 which is sonversaut in sound rather than 
 in sense, and which is therefore in their 
 opinion unimportant" — Knox. 
 
 Inconsiderable and Insignificant 
 differ not so much essentially as in 
 their application; Inconsiderable 
 being used of size, number, weight, 
 imjwrtance ; Insignificant of matters 
 of personal bearing, appearance, 
 weight of character. 
 
 " Let him calmly reflect that within the 
 narrow boundaries of that country to which 
 he belongs, and during that small portion of 
 time which his life fills up, his reputation, 
 great as he may fancy it to be, occupies no 
 more than an inconsidei-able corner."-- 
 Blair. 
 
 " What schoolboy, what little insignifi' 
 cant monk, could not have made a more 
 elegant speech for the king, and in better 
 Latin, than this royal advocate has done I" 
 —Milton. 
 
 Tuiflino (trijiey a corruption of 
 trivial) applies not only to questions 
 of importance, but also of value or 
 utility. The trifling is opposed to 
 the grave and considerable. That is 
 trifling which need not exercise our 
 care, anxiety, or attention. 
 
 Trivial (Lat. ti^vialis, belonging to 
 a trtviiim, a place uhere three roads, 
 (tres vice), meet; hence common) denotes 
 that which is destitute of originality 
 or force, or is unimportant by reason 
 of the commonplace character of the 
 thing, and is very commonly em- 
 ployed of matters of consideration or 
 remark, pursuits and the like. A tri- 
 fling remark is not worth listening to, 
 because there is little or no force m it. 
 The trivial remark has lost ita force 
 by repetition. 
 
 Frivolous (Lat. frw)ilns, silly f tri' 
 fiing) denotes that which is in such a 
 manner unimportant as to be destitute 
 of gravity or earnestness, so that it in- 
 volves disgrace to allege, to follow it, 
 01 to heed it. The term is applicable 
 both to persons and things ; I rivial, 
 to things alone. Frivolous is a term 
 of habit and disposition ; Trifling, of 
 specific matters. 
 
 Futile ( Lat. /i(ti7t5, from fund^rej 
 to pour or let loose, pouring out easiln, 
 worthless) is employed of intellectual 
 subject-matter, or its expression by 
 statement and reasoning; as futile 
 theories or arguments. 
 
 " Those who are carried away with the 
 spontaneous current of their own thoughts 
 must never humour their minds in being 
 thns triflingly busy."— LoCKJt 
 
 The fundamental sense of Trivial is 
 seen in the following, where it is op- 
 posed to philosophical : — 
 
 " Ami for the pretended trivialnessoi the 
 fifth and sixth days' work, I think it is appa- 
 rent firoin what we have noted oc the fifth 
 K s 
 
498 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [immaterial] 
 
 day, that Moses his ranging of fish and fowl 
 together is a consideration not vulgar and 
 trivial, but philosophical."— More. | 
 
 " It is the characteristic of little and /rt» 
 roZtms minds to be wholly occupied with the 
 vulgar objects of life." — Blair. 
 Bacon employed the term Futile in 
 the sense of having a tendency to pour 
 forth in conversation, and so to pour 
 forth what was weak : — 
 
 "As for talkers and futile persons, they 
 are commonly vain and credulous withal." 
 
 It is now not applied directly to 
 persons, but to mental efforts in the 
 way of arguments, and especially of 
 objections, and by a further extension 
 of meaning to efforts or attempts ge- 
 nerally. A futile attempt is one in 
 which time, thought, and strength 
 have been as it were placed in a 
 vessel that pours out easily. 
 
 " He was prepared to show the madness 
 of their declaration of the pretended rights 
 of man, the childish futility of some of their 
 maxims, the gross and stupid absurdity, and 
 the palpable falsity of others."— BuRKE. 
 
 Nugatory (Lat. nugdtbrius, of or 
 belonging to a trifler, nngdtor) de- 
 notes that which is so far trifling that 
 it lacks operative force. In the nu- 
 gatory the mean bears no proportion 
 or a very inadequate one to the end 
 gained. 
 
 "If all are pardoned and pard<Jhed as a 
 mere act of clemency, the very substance of 
 government is made nugatory."— I. Tay- 
 lor. 
 
 Unessential is literally belonging 
 not to the essence, but, as it were, to 
 the accidents of a thing, not going to 
 form part of the thing itself. So Un- 
 essential and Immaterial differ in 
 denoting what does not constitute, the 
 former conceptional, the latter prac- 
 tical completeness. Station, it mi^ht 
 be said, is unessential to virtue, that 
 is, does not enter into the idea or de- 
 finition of it; immaterial to it, that is, 
 virtue can act without it. 
 
 Irrelevant belongs to argumenta- 
 tive considerations. An irrelevant re- 
 mark (i.e. not relevant, Lat. rtlivare, to 
 lighten) is one which does not apper- 
 tain in any way to the argument, does 
 not, as it were, hold of it, is not 
 subordinate to, but unconnected with 
 it. 
 
 The term Petty (Fr. petit, small) 
 
 we apply to what is so small as to be 
 beneath consideration. It denotes a 
 somewhat contemptible insignificance 
 or meanness. It is applicable to lit- 
 tleness in character, conduct, office, 
 argumentative consideration. 
 
 " Neither diflference of time, nor dis- 
 tance of place, nor rigour of unjust censuj'e, 
 nor any unessential error, can bar our in- 
 terest in this blessed unity." — Bishop 
 Hall. 
 
 " Some of which dispositions were upon 
 oath, some upon honour, and others neither 
 upon oath nor hononr; but all or most of 
 them were of an irregular and irrelevant 
 nat ure. " — BuRKK. 
 
 - " Divided power contention still affords. 
 
 And for a village strive the petty lords." 
 
 RowK, Lucan, 
 
 IMMATERIAL. Incori-oreal. 
 Spiritual. Disembodied. 
 
 Immaterial {see above) is em- 
 ployed of everything which exists, or 
 may be conceived to have existence, 
 apart from material composition, or 
 which does not fulfil the definition of 
 matter. Light and other imponder- 
 able agents might be called immaterial 
 in this sense, but more decidedly the 
 mind and thoughts of man. 
 
 Incorporeal (Lat. incorp^ireus, in-, 
 not, and corpus, a body) denotes the 
 absence of organized matter in the 
 constitution. Angels are incorporeal 
 beings. Incorporeal and Immate- 
 rial are relative and negative. 
 
 Spiritual (Lat. sp'n^tudlis) is abso- 
 lute and positive, indicative of the 
 actual presence or possession of that 
 distinct condition of existence which 
 we call spiritual, and which is not a 
 mere negation of the material or the 
 corporeal, as in the case of the pre- 
 existence of spirits to the formatior 
 of matter, the earth, or man. 
 
 Disembodied is employed of sucl 
 existences as have ceased to be cor 
 poreal. 
 "Angels are spirits immaterial and int«I 
 
 lectual." Hooker. 
 
 " Thus incorporeal spirits to smaller form 
 Reduced these shapes immense." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 " There is a natural body, and there i 
 a spiritual body." — English, Bible. 
 
 " Devils embodied and disembodied." 
 W. Scott 
 
[immodest] 
 
 IMMENSE. Infinite. Bound- 
 less. 
 
 The Immense (Lat. immensus, in-, 
 not, and metior, part, tnensus, to mea- 
 sure) is the relativelu Isfi^ute {infini- 
 lus, i»-, not, and f'mitiis, bounded). 
 The infinite is the essentially Bound- 
 less. The infinite is so by virtue of 
 itself ; the immense, by virtue of our 
 inability to place or discern limits. 
 The power of God is infinite ; the ex- 
 panse of ocean immense. Boundless 
 IS more applicable to what meets the 
 eye, which searches in vain for limits ; 
 while Immense expresses the effect 
 upon the mind, and the inability prac- 
 tically to define or limit ; as, bound- 
 less deserts, boundless beneficence. 
 
 " This power of repeating or doubling 
 any idea we have of any distance, and ad- 
 ding it to the former as often as we will, 
 without being ever able to come to any stop 
 or stint, let us enlarge it as much as we 
 will, is that which gives us the idea of im- 
 mensity." — Locke. 
 
 " I know that whatsoever hath or must 
 necessarily have limits or fines, is not, 
 cannot be infinite; and, therefore, this 
 globe in my hand cannot be infinite ; and 
 if I can find in any other thing a parity of 
 reason, I do and may remove inkniteness 
 from it as reasonably and evidently as I do 
 from this globe I hold, or this hour I write, 
 or this life I live." — Hale. 
 
 Boundless is a term poetical, rhe- 
 torical, and inexact; Immense is a 
 practical term, Infinite is metaphy- 
 sical. 
 •• Where'er the eye can pierce, the feet can 
 
 move. 
 This wide, this boundless universe is Jove." 
 Lyttelton, Speech of Cato. 
 
 IMMINENT. Impending. 
 Threatening. 
 
 These terms are all employed in 
 regard to some evil near at hand in 
 the way of peril or misfortune. 
 
 Imminent (Lat. imminere, to hang 
 over) denotes that which is ready to 
 fall, and is near at hand. So we may 
 say, " He was in imminent danger." 
 But we could not say, " He was in 
 Impending (Lat. impendcre, to hang 
 ever) danger," inasmuch as impend- 
 ing is indefinite as to time. The evil 
 imminent or impending is, however, 
 already brought into contact with us, 
 while a Threatening evil ''A. g. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 4P9 
 
 threatian, to urge, to threaten) is in 
 the future, and may pass off without 
 coming near us at all. The imminent 
 and impending evil has nearly touched 
 us, though we may have escaped from 
 them. We ourselves escape from im- 
 minent and impending danger ; but 
 the threatening danger passes away 
 from us. Thus also imminent has the 
 force of expressing degree ; impend- 
 ing, of expressing fact — any danger 
 while it exists is impending ; but only 
 a great as well as close danger would 
 be said to be imminent. VV'e might 
 therefore say thus, "I think it my 
 duty to warn you that danger is im- 
 pending. But I would not alarm you 
 needlessly. I do not speak of it as 
 imminent, because I think that, by 
 timely precautions, you may reason- 
 ably hope to escape' it." He who at 
 night approaches a precipice through 
 ignorance is in imminent danger of 
 his life ; but death is impending in 
 the natural course of things even when 
 we are most safe. 
 
 "So it is certain that it is absolutely 
 necessary my life should be out oiimmineni 
 hazard before I can take a delight in the 
 suflfeiings of othere, real or imaginary, or, 
 indeed, in anything else, from any cause 
 whatsoever."— B URKE. 
 
 " Destruction hangs o'er yon devoted wall. 
 And nodding Ilion waits th' impending fall." 
 
 Pope. 
 "The honour, sir, that flames in your fail 
 
 eyes 
 Before I speak, too threateningly replies." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 IMMODEST. Indecent. Inde- 
 
 LICATE. 
 
 The fii-st of these (Lat. imm'6destus, 
 unrestrained) belongs to the character 
 and disposition; the second (Lat. in- 
 dicens, unbecoming) to outward acts 
 and appearance, or expressions, as 
 conveying them. Want of reflexion 
 might lead to Indecency ; corruption 
 of nature is the cause of Immo- 
 desty. 
 
 Indelicate (see Delicate) denotes 
 an offence against refined propriety, 
 good manners, or perfect purity oi 
 mind. Indelicacy relates to what in 
 conventional. The coarser modes of 
 thought and speech of the humbler 
 classes, or their mode of dress indi- 
 
500 
 
 SYNONYMS [immolate] 
 
 cateB no immodesty of necessity in 
 them. On the other hand, an in- 
 delicacy in words, as coming from a 
 refined and educated person, being 
 calculated to convey more than its 
 eupei-ficial meaning-, may be very 
 much so. The refined licentious 
 literature of the day makes use of the 
 indelicate to express the indecent, 
 knowing the trained and susceptible 
 intellects with which it has to deal. 
 Indelicate, however, is also appli- 
 cable to moral propriety purely, and 
 often denotes want of sensitive con- 
 sideration for others ; so, to laugh in 
 the house of mourning is indelicate, 
 even where unfeeling would be 
 too strong a term, as it might be 
 done thoughtlessly ; where no such 
 thoughtlessness could be pleaded such 
 behaviour might be called indecent. 
 
 IMMOLATE. Sacrifice. 
 
 SACiuFicE(Lat.s*crY/"5f'ciMm)denote8 
 the depriving one's self of something 
 for the purpose of consecrating it to 
 the Divinity. It is so devoted as to 
 be transformed or lost to one's self. 
 
 Immolate (Lat. imni6lare; mola, the 
 cake placed on the head of the victim 
 to be slain) denotes the offering of a 
 bloody sacrifice. It involves the 
 death. A sacrifice may be of many 
 kinds of objects ; immolation is only 
 of living beings. That which is sa- 
 crificed is given to the Deity ; that 
 which is immolated is destroyed in 
 his honour. The purpose of sacrifice 
 is generally to perform an act of wor- 
 ship, that of immolation to perform 
 an act of propitiation. In their 
 secondary and moral application we 
 sacrifice that which we voluntarily re- 
 nounce for the sake of some other in- 
 terest, or the interest of another. We 
 immolate thai which we treat like a 
 victim, depriving it of what is precious 
 or desirable for our interests or those 
 of others. We are said to sacrifice 
 feelings, hopes, plans, and the like, as 
 well as persons. It would be by a 
 greater eflfort that we should speak of 
 immolating them. Self-immolation 
 may be on special occasions as an act 
 Df peculiar heroism. Self-sacrifice to 
 some extent is a daily duty. 
 
 IMMUNITY. Exemption. 
 
 Immunity (Lat. immuTiitdtem) is a 
 dispensation from an onerous charge. 
 
 Exemption (Lat. exemptionenij a 
 taking out) is an exception from a 
 common obligation. 
 
 Immunity in its primary sense is 
 seldom used, but of matters of juris- 
 prudence and finance. It is an ex- 
 emption from civil charges and fiscal 
 dues. Exemption is extended to all 
 kinds of charges, dues, duties, obliga- 
 tions ; hence an exemption from cares, 
 vices, diseases in the moral and the 
 physical order of things. Immunity 
 is properly a title or condition by 
 virtue of which persons or things are 
 withdrawn fi-om certain civil or social 
 burdens. Exemption is the particular 
 act conferring upon persons or things 
 a freedom from some burden to which 
 they would have been subjected to- 
 gether with others without this ex- 
 ception to the common rule. Im- 
 munity is rather a sort of right founded 
 or based on the nature or quality of 
 things. Exemption is rather a sort of 
 privilege accorded as a favour on cer- 
 tain considerations. Immunity is pri- 
 marily applicable to those exemptions 
 which are enjoyed by corporations, 
 communities, cities, or orders of per- 
 sons. Exemption to private privileges 
 is either personal or in connexion with 
 certain offices. Immunity relates 
 specially to persons enjoying it. 
 Exemption to advantages enjoyed. 
 
 " As no man is exempt from some defects, 
 or can live free fi-om some misdemeanours, 
 so by this practice (slander) every man may 
 be rendered very odious and infamous."— 
 Barrow. 
 
 " But man is frail, and can but ill sustain 
 I A long immunity from grief and pain." 
 COWPER. 
 
 IMPAIR. Injure. 
 
 To Impair (L. Lat. imphjorare, to 
 make worse) is to injure in a lasting 
 manner, so that though the detriment 
 be but partial, it is permanent. We 
 hear that a friend has received an in- 
 jury in the eye; we hope that his 
 eyesight will not be impaired. Hence 
 injury is of bodies themselves; im- 
 pairing is of their value, their action, 
 their utility, or their properties. (See 
 Injury.) 
 
[IMPEKTINENT] LUSCKIMINATED. 
 
 " Time sensibly all thiugs impairs. 
 
 Our fathers have been worse than theirs. 
 
 And we than ours." 
 
 Roscommon, Horace. 
 
 IMPART. Communicate. 
 
 Impart (Lat. impariire^ and -per- 
 t'tre, lo bestow) ia to give a part or 
 share. 
 
 Communicate (Lat. commwiicdre) 
 is to give so as to have in com- 
 mon. Impart has the stronger mean- 
 ing in one respect. We communicate 
 what has come to us generally ; we 
 impart what we regarded as pecu- 
 liarly our own. ** He told me the 
 fact. I now communicate it to you," 
 jUiight or might not be a favour to the 
 other party ; but, " I impart it to 
 you," would imply that 1 consider 
 myself in some sense as conferring a 
 favour in making the communication. 
 Impart is often used of natural action 
 not accompanied by consciousness or 
 purpose ; as the sun imparts warmtli. 
 Communicate involves also the will 
 or intention to impart; so we should 
 naturally refrain from saying that the 
 clouds communicated rain. There is, 
 however, an application of the word 
 Communicate, though not a common 
 one, namely, to transmit as a medium 
 of connexion, intercourse, or supply. 
 In this sense it is used of animate or 
 aianimate things, as, the telegraphic 
 wire communicates intelligence — that 
 is, serves as a common medium be- 
 tween the sender and the receiver. 
 
 " Well may he then to you his cares im- 
 part." Dryden. 
 
 " As the inquisitive, in my opinion, ar** 
 »uch merely from a vacancy in their own 
 imaginations, there is nothing, methinks, 
 BO dangerous as to communicate secrets to 
 them ; for the same temper of inquiry 
 makes them as impertinently communica- 
 tive." — Spectator. 
 
 IMPASSABLE. Impervious. 
 
 Impassable denotes that which can- 
 not be passed along, over, or through ; 
 as an impassable road, barrier, or mo- 
 rass. It relates to the movements of 
 living creatures. 
 
 Impervious ( Lat. impervius) relates 
 to that which cannot be pierced or 
 nenetrated by animate or inanimate 
 influences; as a wood is impervious 
 
 501 
 
 to the sun's rays. Impassable de- 
 notes an accidental or temporary, im- 
 pervious a permanent quality. 
 " But lest the difficulty of passing back 
 Stay his return, perhaps over this gulf 
 Impassable, impervious, let us try 
 Advent'rons work." MiLTON. 
 
 IMPERTINENT. Impudent. 
 Insolent. 
 
 Impertinent (Lat. tmi>ertinentein) 
 not pertaining to the matter in hand, 
 has the primary meaning of irrelevant ; 
 hence unbecoming in speech or action. 
 He is impertinent who meddles with 
 matters in which he has no concern. 
 He is rude because he does not see 
 his own subordinate relation to the 
 matter in question. 
 
 Impudence (LAt.impiUlentia, shame- 
 lessuess) is an unblushing assurance 
 which is accompanied by cool dis- 
 regard of the presence or claims of 
 others to respect ; and it is manifested 
 in words, looks, tones, gestures, or 
 even affected silence. Impudence is 
 a frolicsome disrespect. 
 
 Insolent (Lat. visolens, unusual, 
 insolent) has for its radical meaning 
 a disposition to act in violation of the 
 established rules of social intercoui-se. 
 It is now used in the sense of un- 
 bridled exhibition of impudence or 
 pride, to the disregard of the feelings 
 of others, or their purj>osed wounding. 
 The impudent person may be so from 
 levity of character. The impertinent 
 is so from want of humility and de- 
 ference. The insolent is commonly 
 urged, by some feeling of dislike, re- 
 bellion, or opposition, to a studied 
 disrespect. Impertinence is no re- 
 specter of propriety ; impudence no 
 respecter of delicacy ; insolence no 
 respecter of persons. Impertinence 
 is the converse of reserve ; impudence 
 of modesty ; insolence of meekness. 
 
 " I'd have the expression of her thoughts 
 
 be such 
 She might not seen reserved, nor talk to* 
 
 much ; 
 That shows a want of judgment, and of 
 
 sense ; 
 More than enough is but impertinence." 
 POM^KJt'l. 
 " Can any one reflect for a moment i-o 
 all those claims of debt which the minister 
 exhausts himself with contrivances to ang- 
 
502 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [impious] 
 
 ment with new usuries, without lifting up 
 liis hands and eyes in astonishment at the 
 impudence both of the claim and the ad- 
 judication ? " — BuKKE. 
 
 " The clergy, according to the genius of 
 that religion, having their authority forti- 
 fied with such severe laws, were now more 
 cruel and insolent than ever." — BuKiNkt. 
 
 IMPIOUS. luuELicious. Pro- 
 fane. 
 
 Irreligious (Lat. irrWgiosus) is 
 negative. 
 
 Impious (Lat. impins, irreverent) 
 and Profane are positive (Lat. pro- 
 f'dnus; pro, in front of, i.e. without, 
 and fanum, the temple, literally ex- 
 cluded from religious mysteries). A 
 man under no influence of religion is 
 irreligious. When applied to things, 
 however, it implies a tendency to be 
 unfavourable to religion, though with- 
 out of necessity a premeditated de- 
 termination or desire to be so. Im- 
 pious denotes a defiant irreligion, and 
 a disposition to do dishonour to what 
 religious men hold in veneration, espe- 
 cially as regards the character, works, 
 or dealings of the Supreme Being. As 
 Impious relates more commonly to the 
 thoughts, so Profane to the words or 
 acts of men. Profanity is irreverence 
 in speech about sacred things. It 
 may be observed that Profan e has the 
 milder sense, also, of secular, or not 
 dii-tinctivelif religious : so history may 
 be divided into sacred and profane. 
 Impious thoughts ; irreligious persons 
 or books ; profane language. 
 
 " They were the words of Job at a time 
 when to his other calamities this domestic 
 affliction was added, that one who ought to 
 have assuaged and soothed his sorrows 
 provoked his indignation by an impious 
 speech." — Blair. 
 
 " In his (Lord Bolingbroke's) reasonings 
 f(>r the most part he is flimsy and false, in 
 his political writings factious, in what he 
 calls his philosophical ones irreligious and 
 sophistical in the highest degree." — Ibid. 
 
 " Somewhat allied to this (blasphemy), 
 though in an inferior degree, is the ofiPence 
 oi profane and common swearing or curs- 
 ing."— Blackstone . 
 
 IMPLACABLE. Inexorable. 
 Unrelenting. Relentless. 
 
 Implacable (Lat. imptdcdbtlis, in-, 
 not, and pldcare, to appease) denotes a 
 disposition which nothing can ap- 
 pease 
 
 Ink.xorable (hm.inexoraViUs, in-^ 
 not, and exorare, to move by intreawig ) 
 is implacable to entreaty in particular 
 and in a specific case. 
 
 Unreleniing is not relenting (Fr. 
 ralentir, to retard ; lent, slow) that is, 
 yielding, from harshness, hardness, 
 or cruelty, as a fact ; while Relent- 
 less is unyielding as a property or 
 habit. A relentless cruelty ; an un- 
 relenting line of conduct. ** In spite 
 of the suflferings of his enemy, his re- 
 venge was implacable. He looked on 
 the tears and heard the entreaties o! 
 his prisoner, but remained inexora- 
 ble.' Unrelenting belongs rather to 
 the person. Relentless to the quality 
 which he exhibits. The implacable 
 man is so from moral hardness of 
 heart ; the inexorable may be so from 
 mental stubbornness or inflexible re- 
 solution. If partiality in the adminis- 
 tration of justice were asked by the 
 accused, tlie judge would be bound 
 to show himSfelf inexorable. 
 
 "An object of implacable enmity."— 
 Macaulay. 
 
 " Inexorable equality of laws." — GiBBON. 
 Unrelenting is passive. Relentless 
 active. The former denotes rather the 
 specific fact of not giving way before 
 external influences, which would tend 
 to stop the course of injustice or 
 cruelty; the latter the condition of 
 nature which suggests nothing in the 
 way of forbearance. 
 
 "He (Oldham) has lashed the Jesuits 
 with deserved and ujireletiting rigour. But 
 though severe punishment is often neces- 
 sary, yet to see it inflicted with the wanton 
 cruelty of an assassin is not agreeable."— 
 Knox. 
 
 " Nor hope to be myself less miserable 
 By what I seek, but others to make such 
 As I, though thereby worse to me redound 
 For only in destroying I find ease 
 To my relentless thoughts." Milton. 
 
 IMPLANT. Ingraft. Incul- 
 GATE. Infuse. Instil. 
 
 Implant, Ingraft, and Incuix;aie 
 (Lat. inculcdre, to tread in, to impress 
 upon) are employed of abstract prin- 
 ciples, and rules of right and wrong. 
 
 Instil (Lat. instiltdre, to ponr in by 
 drops, stillu, a drop) and Infuse (Lat. 
 injundere, part, infnsns, to ponr in) of 
 such things as move the heart, feel- 
 
[l3iPLY] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 503 
 
 ings, and passions. To Implant con- 
 veys the idea of that tender and care- 
 ful cultivation of the young which 
 belongs to the office of parents. That 
 which is implanted becomes part of 
 the nature, and grows with the 
 growth. To Ingraft conveys the idea 
 of such later training of the more 
 mature mind as belongs to the mas- 
 ter or j)receptor. Instil conveys the 
 idea of gently and gradually intro- 
 ducing sentiments with the aid of in- 
 fluences collateral to the influence of 
 the person instilling them, while In- 
 fuse denotes the direct endeavour of 
 the person ; nor does Infuse imply 
 such permanency in what is infused 
 as Instil. We instil abiding- senti- 
 ments ; we may infuse what is tem- 
 porary, as a spirit of patriotism, or 
 military ardour. To Inculcate points 
 to the repeated eflforts of exhortation, 
 j)recept, and Ae like, which are em- 
 ployed to give force to what is im- 
 pressed, by way of practical admoni- 
 tion. 
 
 "To provide effectnally for the mainte- 
 nance of the social virtues, it hath pleased 
 God to implant in man not only the power 
 of reason, which enables him to see the 
 connection between his own happiness and 
 that of others, but also certain instincts 
 and propensities which make him feel it." 
 — HuRD. 
 
 " Ingrafted love he bears to Ctesar." — 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " The Earls of Monmouth and Warring- 
 ton were in/i^sm^ jealousies into their party 
 wf n the same industry that the Earl of 
 Nottingham was at the same time instill- 
 iiig into the king jealousies of them; and 
 both acted with too much success." — BuB- 
 NET. 
 
 " For the wisdom of poets would first 
 make the images of Virtue so amiable that 
 her beholders should not be able to look off, 
 rather gently and delightfully infusing than 
 inculcating precepts." — Davknant. 
 
 IMPLY. Signify. Involve. 
 Entail. Necessitate. 
 
 Imply (a coined word) is to signify- 
 in substance or by fair inference, or 
 by construction, though not expressed 
 in words. 
 
 Involve (Lat. involvere, to roll up) 
 denotes a drawing after by practical 
 force, as Imply by metaphysical force. 
 Hence an implication may often be 
 recognized or not at will ; while that 
 
 which is involved follows of atern 
 logical or practical necessity. War 
 implies fighting ; but it involves such 
 things as taxation and bloodshed. 
 The premises of a syllogism do not 
 imply but involve the conclusion 
 which is evolved from them. On 
 the other hand a relative term, an 
 father, implies iis correlative, son. 
 
 Signify (Lat. sigiufycdre, to point 
 out) is to declare by any kind of con- 
 ventional sign, as by words — which 
 are signs of ideas — gestures, signals, 
 writing — which is written signals— 
 and the like. Implication is indirect 
 signification. Words which signified 
 little might be made to imply much 
 by the tone or manner in which they 
 were uttered. 
 
 " Vour smooth eulogium, to one crown ad- 
 dressed. 
 Seems to imply a censure on the.rest." 
 
 COWPEB. 
 
 " (3ne of which boats I sent away with 
 an officer round a point on the larboard 
 hand, to look for anchorage. This he found, 
 and signified the same by signal." — Cook's 
 Voyages. 
 
 Imply is opposed to Express; In- 
 volve goes beyond the interpretation 
 of things, and has to do with their 
 necessary relations. 
 
 " We cannot demonstrate these things so 
 as to show that the contrary involves a con- 
 tradiction."— TiLLOTSON. 
 
 Entail is from the O. Fr. entaillerj 
 to cut into. An estate in tail, or en- 
 tailed, is one which is cut down to or 
 limited to certain heirs ; hence to En- 
 tail is employed in the secondary 
 sense of to fix, or insure inalienably 
 upon a person. It has nearly the 
 same sense as Necessitate (Lat. nc- 
 cessttdtem, necessity), but Necessitate 
 implies action as the consequence, 
 while Entail is applicable to conse- 
 quences generally. So inasmuch as 
 action is involved in labour, we might 
 say that poverty entails or necessi- 
 tates labour. But riches entail (not 
 necessitate) anxiety. The force of En- 
 tail is suictly employed in the follow- 
 ing : — 
 
 •' We adhere to the determination of onr 
 fathers, as if their opinions were entailed on 
 us as their lands."— Glanvill. 
 
 And the contrary to liberty, whatever 
 
 name we call that by, is a person'; 
 
 Vci 
 
 ug 
 
604 
 
 hlndere J or nnable to conduct as lie will, or 
 being necessitated to do otherwise." — Rd- 
 WAIIDS, 
 
 IMPORT. Purport. Mkaxing. 
 Sense. Signification. Tenor. Drift. 
 Scope. 
 
 The Import (Fr. importer, Lat. 
 importdre, to carry or coitvey) is that 
 which a word, statement, phrase, or 
 document is specifically and directly 
 designed to convey. We, however, 
 more commonly speak of the meaning 
 or signification of words, and the im- 
 port of expressions or statements. 
 
 " To draw near to God is an expression 
 of awful and mysterious import." — Blair. 
 
 The Purport (O. Fr. pourporter, to 
 make knoun) is tlie import of some- 
 thing continuous, or regarded in its 
 continuity, and may be applied to 
 continuous action as well as con- 
 tinuous speech. Import is more allied 
 to Meaning and Signification ; Pur- 
 port to Drift and Scope. 
 " Thus there he stood, whilst high over his 
 
 head 
 There written was the purport of his sin. 
 In cyphers strange, that few could rightly 
 
 read." Spenser. 
 
 Both Import and Purport are em- 
 ployed of moral, not material, sub- 
 jects. Thus a certain vegetable pro- 
 duction is the meaning or signification, 
 not the purport, of the word oak. But 
 where more than this is meant we 
 may employ the term Import; as we 
 may say that a human habitation of 
 a certain character, capacity, solidity, 
 and the like, is the import of the 
 word house. 
 
 Meaning (A, S. miEnan, to intend 
 to tell) is used in a twofold sense, 
 either, 1, the casual intention of tlie 
 person, or, '2, the fixed import of tlie 
 thing. " That is not my meaning," 
 illustrates the first. " Take the words 
 in their grammatical meaning," the 
 second. 
 
 " Wha.t mean ye to weep and to break 
 mine heart?" — English Bible. 
 
 " The word is always sufficiently original 
 for ine in that language where its meaning, 
 which is the cause of its application, can be 
 found."— ToOKK. 
 
 Sense (L&i. semus, sensation, under- 
 itanding), unlike Meaning, is insepa- 
 
 SYNONYMS [iMPORTj 
 
 rably attached to the thing or the ex • 
 pression, and is irrespective of the 
 uses. We say, " I used the word iu 
 that sense ;" but we could not say, 
 *' That IS my sense," for meaning. 
 Sense is imposed force or technica. 
 recognized acceptation. 
 
 " Shall take it in the literal and gram- 
 matical sense." — Preface to Tkirty-Nine 
 Articles. 
 
 SiGMFicATioN(Lat. sig'n^/^rtttonem) 
 is nearly identical with Meaning or 
 Import. Signification, however, ia 
 the act of making known, as well as 
 the intention of the terms employed 
 for the purpose. Signification is at- 
 tached to the thing, and does not be- 
 long to the person. " As the wordo 
 have that signification ;" we could 
 not say, "That is my signification. 
 Signification has a stricter reference 
 than Meaning to what is of a symbo- 
 lical nature, as the signification of 
 words or of demonstrations ; bu* 
 Meaning is capable of reference tc 
 anything which requires interpre- 
 tation or accounting for, as, "1 can- 
 not understand the meaning of such 
 conduct;" that is, " I am at a loss to 
 interpret or account for it." The terra 
 Meaning is the most generic of all 
 these synonyms. 
 
 " It (Lord) is a word, therefore, of larga 
 and various signification, denoting dominioE 
 of every sort and degree, from the universal 
 and absolute dominion of God, to the private 
 and limited dominion of a single slave." — 
 Bishop Horslky. 
 
 Tenor, Drift, and Scope relate no; 
 to isolated terms, but to continuous 
 speech. The Tenor (Lat. tiindrem, 
 course, direction) is the general course 
 and character which holds on through 
 a speech or a remark. The tenor of 
 a speech might be affected by the 
 temper or feelings of the speaker, the 
 drift of it is an indirect expression oi 
 his permanent sentiments. 
 
 The DRiFT(or object towards which 
 it drives) is the object, not, however, 
 expressly notified, but gathered gene- 
 rally— tlie tendency of it, or aim not 
 foriually avowed. 
 
 The Scope (Gr. crxoTrdj, nuirk or ob- 
 jert • is the avowed design, that which it 
 is aimed at and is intended to embrace. 
 *' i o discuss such a point does not faU 
 
[IMPOIITUNATE I DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 mthin the scope of this discourse." 
 The Tenou and DiaFT(iifter,the former 
 including more than what is actually 
 said, and comprising the character of 
 it, the latter relating to the remarks 
 or statements only, but in connexion 
 with their aim or object. 
 
 " The whole tenor of the Gospels and 
 Epistles shows tlfii human virtues are all 
 light in the balance, and have no proper 
 efficacy in themselves for procuring human 
 salvation." — Wateklani). 
 
 " But so strangely- perverse is his com- 
 mentator, that he will suppose him to mean 
 anything rather than what the obvious drift 
 of his argument requires." — Warburton 
 On Pope. 
 
 " I think I could easily demonstrate that 
 firom Adam to Moses, from Moses to the 
 Prophets, from the Prophets to Jesus Christ, 
 the main scope and design of all Divine re- 
 velation hath been the gradual discovery of 
 this great mystery of the mediation." — 
 Scott, Christian Life. 
 
 IMPORTANCE. Consequence. 
 Weight. Moment. Account. 
 
 Importance (see Import) is the 
 quality of being important; but Con- 
 sequence (Lat. conscquentia, consequi, 
 to follow upon ) is not in this sense the 
 quality of being consequent. In other 
 words, it is only the nouns, and not 
 the adjectives, that are synonymous. 
 Another adjective, however, has been 
 framed — consequential^ which means, 
 assuming the air of dignity and impor- 
 tance. As applied to persons, a per- 
 son may be of importance specifically, 
 BO that a matter could not well go on 
 without him ; but he is of consequence 
 inherently. Consequence in this 
 sense is recognized importance in a 
 social point of view; a person of high 
 rank and consequence may not be of 
 importance in regard to a particular 
 matter. 
 
 Weight (A.S. rvegav, to bear, to 
 weigh) is efficacious importance, which 
 may have the eflfect of practical n- 
 fluence ; as, a character or considera- 
 tion of great weight. 
 
 Moment (Lat. momentum, move- 
 ment, injiuence, movhe, to move) is not 
 thus applicable to persons, but only to 
 events, afiairs, transactions, or prac- 
 tical considerations. Weight belongs 
 tc words and arguments. Moment to 
 occurrences. Consequence, as regards 
 
 505 
 
 things, is that sort of importance 
 which attaches to what is attended 
 with decided results. A thing of no 
 consequence is a thing which endj 
 with itself. " It is a matter of great 
 consequence that we should not delay 
 our departure ; for business of mo- 
 ment depends upon it; and the im- 
 portance of your position will give 
 weight to the expression of your 
 views." 
 
 Account (O. Fr. aconter ; Lat. ad, 
 and compiitare, to count) is theoretical, 
 as importance is practical. A thing 
 or person of account is one who or 
 which is deserving of an estimate, 
 whatever that estimate maybe. A thing 
 which is of no account is not worth con- 
 sidering. It does not express any 
 high or great estimate. We speak of 
 great importance, consequences, 
 weight, and moment, but seldom of 
 great account except for the purpose 
 of denying it. But Account involves 
 the exercise of reason on the nature or 
 character of things, and not on the 
 question of their relative magnitude. 
 That is of no account which is irrele- 
 vant, which forms no item in the cal- 
 culation in hand. 
 
 " And of the counseill non accompte 
 
 He set." GowEK. 
 
 "The cause was not common and ordi- 
 nary, such as were wont to be tried before 
 the governors of provinces, but of an un- 
 usual and public nature, not a question of 
 words and names, as Gallio thought it, but 
 a matter of the highest importance to the 
 world." — Stillixgflket. 
 
 " The corruption of our taste is not of 
 equal consequence with the depravation of 
 our virtue."— WartOxV. 
 
 "When to demonstration on the one 
 side, there are opposed on the other only 
 difficulties raised from the want of our 
 having adequate ideas of tbe things them- 
 selves, this ought not to ^e esteemed an 
 objection of any real weight.'" — Clarke. 
 
 " Whoever shall re^^ew his life, will find 
 that the whole tenor of his conduct has been 
 determined by some accident of no apparent 
 moment,"— Joh>son. 
 
 IMPORTUNATE. Urgent- 
 Pressing. 
 
 Importunate, which expresses the 
 quality of the verb importune (Lat. 
 importimus, troublesome, unmannerhf) 
 is only apjtlicable to persons, and de- 
 
506 
 
 SYNONYMS [ixMl'OSEj 
 
 aoies a peculiar tenacity and trouble- 
 some pertinacity of application. 
 
 Urgent (Lat. urgere, to impel) and 
 Pressing (Lat. ■prtmere, part, pressus, 
 to press), are equally applicable to mat- 
 ters of business and practical considera- 
 tions generally. There is a very slight 
 difference between them ; but Press- 
 ing seems to be more commonly used 
 of the abstract nature of things ; 
 ^Jrgent, of the things themselves: as 
 ^>ressing necessity ; pressing impor- 
 tance; an urgent appeal; an urgent 
 case; urgent affairs. Itmay be added, 
 that that which is pressing demands 
 immediate attention ; that which is 
 urgent immediate action; as also that 
 persons are pressing, and circum- 
 stances urgent. 
 
 " But of all other passages of Scriptnre 
 the necessity and efficacy of this importunity 
 in prayer that we speak of, is most wisely 
 set forth to us by our blessed Savionr, in 
 that remarkable parable of His in the ele- 
 venth of St. Luke's Gospel."— Sharp. 
 
 '* Bat time is urgent. Haste we to consult 
 Priest, prophet, or interpreter of dreams 
 (For dreams are also of Jove), that we may 
 
 learn 
 What crime of ours Apollo thus resents." 
 COWPKR. 
 " Mr. Gay, whose zeal in your concern is 
 worthy a friend, writes to me in the most 
 pressing terms about it." — Popk. 
 
 IMPOSE. Injoin. 
 
 We Impose (Fr. imposer, Lat. impb- 
 nhrCf to place npon), or circumstances 
 also may impose, what is of the nature 
 of a burden, charge, obligation. 
 
 We Injoin (Lat. injungire) that 
 which is the subject of authoritative 
 admonition, whether positive or nega- 
 tive. As it is authority that injoins, 
 so it is force or power that imposes. 
 Accordingly that which is imposed is 
 commonly more defined than that 
 which is injoined. A specific task is 
 imposed, a general course of conduct 
 ©r some principle of action is injoined, 
 leaving the application of it to be re- 
 gulated by circumstances; as, to injoin 
 moderation or secresy. 
 
 IMPOSTOR. Deceiver. 
 
 An Impostor ( Lat. impostor, a de- 
 ceiver) is a deceiver of the public, 
 while Deceiver (Ff. dicevoiry to de- 
 
 ceive) might be of the public or of a 
 private individual. Any one who 
 deceives by word or deed is a deceiver. 
 An impostor assumes a false appear- 
 ance, and impersonates what is not 
 truly his. An iu postor acts for his 
 own benefit; a deceiver may act 
 simply for the injury of another. 
 " But now, when Time has made th' im- 
 posture plain 
 (Late though he followed Truth, and limp- 
 ing held her train). 
 What new delusion charms your cheated 
 eyes again." Drydkn. 
 
 " Surely, if these things prove true, let 
 me be registered to my perpetual infamy, 
 not only for a most notorious deceiver, but 
 such an hypocrite as never trod upon the 
 earth before." — Sthvpe. 
 
 IMPRESS. Imprint. 
 
 Impress (Lat. impressare, freq. of 
 imprtmere) and Imprint ^compounded 
 of im- and print) have tneir physical 
 and their metaphorical senses. In the 
 fonner they are identical — meaning 
 to press for the purpose of making a 
 mark. In the latter, Imprint is so to 
 press upon the mind as to produce a 
 lively image of the thing ; Impress is 
 so to press as to produce a conviction 
 of its importance or necessity. " My 
 father's kind maxims are imprinted on 
 my mind ; he early impressed me with 
 their importance." We imprint on 
 the imagination or the memory ; we 
 impress on the understanding and the 
 heart. 
 
 " It seeming to me a near contradiction 
 to say that there are truths imprinted on 
 the soul which it perceives or understands 
 not ; imprinting, if it signify anything, 
 being nothing else but the making certain 
 truths to be perceived."— LoCKE. 
 " So deep the deadly fear of that foul swain 
 Was erst impressed in her gentle sprite." 
 Spenseb. 
 
 IMPRESSION. ^NDEKTAT''t.^f. 
 
 Mark. Print. Stamp. 
 
 In its physical sense, Impression 
 {see Impress) is a mark made by 
 pressure, either on the surface, or so 
 as to penetrate below the surface of 
 a body. It is of a distinct outline. 
 
 Indentation (Law Lat. indentdre, 
 to cut into teeth, dentes, or notches) is 
 a mark as of a tooth, either a sharji 
 depression by violence of the surface 
 of a solid body, or a lateral notching 
 
^inactive] 
 
 of it, as ill the indentations of a saw. 
 It may be entirely wanting in distinct- 
 ness of outline. 
 
 Mark (Fr. marque) is more general, 
 and may be cut, coloured, pressed, 
 smeared, or produced in any way 
 which causes a visible trace, whether 
 accidentally or by design, in protube- 
 rance or depression. 
 
 PniNT (see Impress) is an impres- 
 sion of definite outline, as the print of 
 feet upon sand, but implying less force 
 and depth than impression. 
 
 Stamp (a stronger form of the word 
 tep) is commonly employed at pre- 
 sent of merel}' superficial impression, 
 generally with colouring matter ; as, 
 to stamp a letter. Sometimes, how- 
 ever, it is of stronger force; so that 
 the cliaracteristic meaning of Stamp 
 is rather a formal, official, or sym- 
 bolical impression. Impression may 
 be made by any part of the body, or 
 by an instrument. Indentation com- 
 monly implies an instrument. Mark 
 is indefinite. Print maybe either; 
 and Stamp usually denotes an instru- 
 ment. A stamp is a characteristic 
 mark impressed. 
 
 IMPROVE. Better. Mend. 
 
 It is somewhat remarkable that, 
 contrary to the usual rule, the Latin 
 tenn Improve (im-, Lat. in, and 
 prove, Lat. probdre, to approve) is of 
 more extensive application than the 
 Saxon Better, which is seldom used 
 but of the outward circumstances or 
 condition; while Improve expresses 
 all tliat is expressed by the phrase to 
 make better, and is applicable to any- 
 thing which may be conceived by the 
 mind as existing in degi"ees of possible 
 goodness. 
 
 IMend (abbreviated from O. Fr. 
 amender, the Lat. imenddre) has not 
 the general scope of Improve, but re- 
 lates specifically to what is or has be- 
 come defective or faulty ( Lat. mendum, 
 aw error). The mind of the child is 
 improved when it is gradually in- 
 structed; his circumstances are bet- 
 tered when he is well fed and clothed 
 instead of poor. Mend is more generic, 
 and applies to what is physically im- 
 paired^ or morally ill-conducted. Im- 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 507 
 
 prove is better applicable than either 
 of the others to what exists only ia 
 the mind abstractedly ; as a plan, con- 
 ception, form of expression,'inatter of 
 taste, subject of beauty or power. 
 
 '* Reflect npon that great law of our na- 
 ture, that exercise is the ^eat source of 
 improvement in all our faculties."— Blair. 
 Formerly the term Better had much 
 the sense of Improve. So Bishop 
 Taylor, 
 
 " Grace is the improvement and better- 
 ing of nature ; and Christian graces are the 
 perfections of moral habits, and are bat 
 new circuxnstances, formalities, and de- 
 grees." 
 
 INACCESSIBLE. Unapproacu- 
 
 ABLE. 
 
 Unapproachable (Fr. approcher, to 
 approach, Lat. apprtipiare) expresses 
 more than Inaccessible (Lat. ^nac- 
 ccssibtUs, in-, not, and accidire, to 
 come to), for that which is unap- 
 proachable cannot be even drawi 
 near to; that which is inaccessible 
 cannot be come up to. 
 
 INACTIVE. Inert. Sluggish. 
 Slothful. 
 
 Inactive is general. It simply 
 denotes absence of activity, or in- 
 disposition to behave or act with 
 vigour. This may proceed from a 
 variety of causes, as diffidence, ti- 
 midity, or an insufficient knowledge of 
 the circumstances of the case. Per- 
 sons may even remain inactive pur- 
 posely. 
 
 Inert (Lat. inertem, unskilled, idle, 
 iJi-, not, artem, art) denotes some- 
 thing natural, constitutional, or habi- 
 tual. Yet it need not be the last, 
 and one might feel inert frou* tem- 
 porary indisposition. 
 
 Sluggish (slug, an idler, connected 
 with slack and slow, A. S. sldw) indi- 
 cates even more than this, as if some 
 defect of temperament obstructed all 
 ettbrts. 
 
 Slothful (A. S. sldw, stow) is com- 
 monly employed as a relative term in 
 connexion with activity as a duty to 
 one's self or to others; hence such 
 terms as, " Slothful in business." 
 The man is slothful who is sluggish 
 in such a way as to be dilatory or 
 negligent of the duties which claim 
 
608 
 
 SYNONYMS [inadequate] 
 
 his attention. The sluggish man does 
 what he has to do lazily or inertly ; 
 the slothful man gives his own ease 
 the preference, and indulges it when 
 he ought to be at work. 
 
 " Every one exerted himself to the ntter- 
 most with a quiet and patient perseverance 
 equally distant from the tumultuous vio- 
 lence of terror, and the gloomy inactivity 
 of despair." — Cook's Voyages. 
 " If to your builder you will conduct give, 
 A power to choose, to manage, and con- 
 trive. 
 Your idol chance, supposed inert and 
 
 blind. 
 Must be enrolled an active, conscious 
 mind." Blackmore, Creation. 
 " Every man who has undartaken to in- 
 struct others can tell what slow advances 
 he has been able to make, and how much 
 patience it requires to recall vagrant inat- 
 tention, to stimulate sluggish indiflerence, 
 and to rectify absurd misapprehensions." — 
 Knox. 
 
 " Not slothful in business, but fervent in 
 spirit."— £'n^/tsA Bible, 
 
 INADEQUATE. Insufficient. 
 Inadequate {in-y not, and tidcB- 
 
 ?nidre, part, -dtus, to make equal or 
 evel) refers to an external, Insuffi- 
 cient (Lat. insajficientem) to an in- 
 ternal requirement. That which is in- 
 adequate is insufficient for a purpose; 
 while Insufficient may refer only to 
 a want, or material requirement. For 
 instance, we might say, " You under- 
 took to bring a hundred, but you have 
 brought onlv ninety; this is insuf- 
 ficient." We could not use the term 
 Inadequate without specifying or 
 implying a purpose. In very many 
 cases the terms may be used inter- 
 changeably. Yet even in such 
 cases, Insufficient rather relates to 
 
 Juantity, Inadequate to proportion, j 
 f we said, " The population is 
 inadequately represented, we should 
 mean, that the number of repre- 
 sentatives was not in proportion to 
 the number of the population ; if 
 we said insufficiently, that there 
 were too few of the representatives 
 themselves. An insufficient num- 
 ber ; an inadequate force ; an insuf- 
 ficient amount; an inadequate pro- 
 vision. When the insufficient has 
 been so adjudged by the mind it may 
 be called inadequate, which very often 
 jneans, the insufficient conceived or 
 
 determined to be such — subjective in- 
 sufficiency. Moreover, insufficiency 
 denotes more simply a lack of quan^ 
 tity ; inadeq uate, a lack of force or 
 quality, where no purpose or direct re- 
 quirement exists. Insufficient falls 
 short of the measure of need, Inade- 
 quate of the measure of justice, pro- 
 priety, and right relationship. A pro- 
 lix speaker may have treated his sub- 
 ject quite sufficiently, yet very inade- 
 quately. 
 
 *' We must accept them (translations) 
 with all their unavoidable imperfections, 
 as in general sufficiently representative of 
 the sense of their originals, though in some 
 particulars that sense be iiuideqtuiiely con- 
 veyed to us." — HuRD. 
 
 The word sufficient had fonnerly a 
 meaning answering to adequate; as 
 when St. Paul asks, " Who is sufficient 
 for these things ? " 
 
 "It may here perhaps be pretended by 
 modern deists, that the great ignorance 
 and undeniable corruptness of the whole 
 heathen world has always been owing, not 
 to any absolute insufficiency of the light of 
 Nature itself, but merely to the fault of the 
 several pai'ticular persons in not sufficiently 
 improving that light." — CiARKB. 
 
 INADVERTENCY. Inatten- 
 
 TION. 
 
 Inadvertency (Lat. in-, not, and 
 adverthre, to turn the mind towards) is 
 the quality or effect of not taking no- 
 tice ; Inattention (m-, not, and at- 
 tendcre, to turn or stretch the mind 
 towards), of not taking heed. In the 
 fonner case there was an involuntary 
 accident ; in the latter a culpable 
 neglect. Or if there is anything cul- 
 pable in inadvertency, it is of another 
 nature, and comes from not realizing 
 the importance of what was over- 
 looked, not from any heedlessness as 
 being the cause of the overlooking, 
 which would be inattention. Inadver- 
 tency therefore is occasional ; inatten- 
 tion is more sustained, and, indeed, 
 may involve many acts of inadvertency. 
 In inadvertency you failed to observe 
 because not apprised ; in inattention, 
 though you had been apprised. In 
 the one case you might have avoided, 
 in the other you ought to have 
 avoided the fault. Yet both may 
 be culpable, in that inadvertence may 
 be where one might have foreseen, afl 
 
[inattentive] discriminated. 
 
 509 
 
 inattention where one might have 
 taken care. Earnest minds going 
 straight to their purpose may be in- 
 advertent, frivolous minds having no 
 purpose may be inattentive. Frequent 
 maavertence is stupidity, frequent in- 
 attention rudeness. 
 
 " When the intention seems upright, and 
 the end proposed is to make men better 
 and wiser, what is not ill execnted should 
 be received with approbation, with goo<l 
 words, and good wishes ; and small faults 
 and inadvertencies should be candidly ex- 
 cused." — JoRTiy. 
 
 " The universal indolence and inattention 
 among us to things that concern the pub- 
 lic, made me look back with the highest re- 
 verence on the glorious instances in an- 
 tiquity of a contrary behaviour in like cir- 
 cumstances." — Tatler. 
 
 INANITY. Vacuity. Vacancy. 
 
 Inanity (Lat. inanitatem, emptiness) 
 IS not now used in a physical sense. 
 It denotes such mental emptiness as 
 implies want of strength of mind, or 
 want of character, a characterless 
 vapidity of mind. The older philo- 
 sophers used the terms inane and 
 inanity in the sense of void, denoting 
 the voidness of space in the abstract, 
 as Locke : — 
 
 " The great inane, beyond the confines 
 of the world." 
 
 The noun inanition is employed to ex- 
 press the emptiness of the body either 
 from want of food, or want of diges- 
 tive power. 
 
 " But nothing still from nothing would 
 
 proceed. 
 Raise or depress, or magnify or blame. 
 Inanity will ever be the same." 
 
 Smart. 
 " However pleased people may appear, 
 they commonly retire from the company in 
 which these (noise and laughter) have 
 formed the only entertainment with an 
 unsatisfied and uneasy vacuity, and some- 
 times with disgust and disagreeable reflec- 
 tion."— Knox, Essays. 
 
 " He landed them in safety, and con- 
 ducted them to their companions, among 
 whom he remarked the same vacant indif- 
 ference as in those who had been on board." 
 Cook's Voyages. 
 
 Vacuity (Lat. vScuitatefn, exemp- 
 tion f a vacant space^ empty) denotes sim- 
 ply emptiness, or an empty space. 
 
 Vacancy draw* attention to the fact 
 
 that such emptiness is customarily 
 filled, and so only temporary. Va- 
 cuity of mind would denote that the 
 mind was unstored by education ; 
 vacancy of mind, that it was for a 
 time idle or unoccupied, or was want- 
 ing in the common faculties. 
 
 inattentive. Careless. 
 Thoughtless. Heedless. Negli- 
 gent. Remiss. 
 
 Inattentive (see Inattention) is 
 specific, and relates to casual matters. 
 It is not so much an expression of an 
 habitual temperament as of an occa- 
 sional state, though this may often 
 come from an habitual impatience of 
 persistent thought. Like Heedless, 
 It relat-es to the passing matters of the 
 moment, heedlessness (A. S. h^dan, 
 to 7ni7td) being inattention of a certain 
 kind or to certain particulars, as to 
 practical warning, advice, and conse- 
 quences of conduct. 
 
 Careless denotes that want of at- 
 tention to matters of minor or or- 
 dinary moment which comes from un- 
 awakened interest or indifference. 
 
 Thoughtless is employ td of more 
 serious inattention to matters of gjaver 
 moment. It designates that quality 
 which, though apparently not nighly 
 reprehensible, may lead to very dis- 
 astrous results. It is the unrestrained 
 conduct of the man who does not 
 pause to weigh the importance oi 
 actions or the probability of results. 
 
 Negligent and Remiss both refer 
 especially to cases where the contrary 
 qualities are matters of duty and re- 
 sponsibility ; but Negligent is a 
 term of more reproach than Remiss. 
 Negligence (Lat. negtigentia) may 
 lead to the omission of duty alto- 
 gether; while Remissness (Lat. re- 
 mittere, part, remissus, to slacken) at 
 least implies its performance, though 
 in a careless manner. Negligence in- 
 dicates want of care and interest ; re- 
 missness, want of activity and energy. 
 
 "What prodigies can power divine per' 
 
 form 
 More grand than it produces year by year. 
 And all in sight of inattentive man ?" 
 
 COWPKR. 
 " Therefore for Coriolauus neither to care 
 whether they lore or hate him maniiesta 
 
510 
 
 that true knowledge he has in their dispo- 
 sition, and out of his noble carelessness leta 
 them plainly see it."— Shakespeark. 
 
 " Seamen are so accustomed in ships of 
 war to be directed in the care of themselves 
 by their officers, that they lose the very 
 idea of foresight, and contract the thought- 
 lessness of children."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
 "To have no apprehension of mischief 
 at hand, nor to make a just estimate of the 
 danger, but heedlessly to run into it, be the 
 hazard what it will." — LoCKE. 
 " This paper hath undone me ; 'tis th' ac- 
 count 
 Of all that world of wealth I have drawn 
 
 together 
 For mine own ends — indeed, to gain the 
 
 popedom 
 And see my friends in Rome. Oh, negli- 
 gence ! 
 Fit for a fool to fall by." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 " Some indiscretion of conduct or fro- 
 wardness of temper, some remissness or tar- 
 diness in good offices, or some neglects or 
 failures in services."— Wateeland. 
 
 INAUGURATE. Initiate. 
 
 We Initiate (Lat. hutiare) when 
 we do something which is of tlie na- 
 ture of a fii*st act in a series of pro- 
 ceedings, which are of a continuous 
 character. 
 
 We Inaugurate when we formally 
 or solemnly set such proceedings in 
 motion or progress. As it was the 
 duty of the Roman augur to take the 
 omens at the commencement of some 
 public transaction and ceremony, the 
 word Inaugurate signifies to open 
 with formality. He who inaugurates 
 must have personal or official weight 
 that he may give sanction to what is 
 begun. He who initiates must have 
 skill and tact that he may give to the 
 proceeding the most suitable and 
 favourable commencement. 
 
 INBORN. Inbred. Inherent. 
 Innate. 
 
 The Inborn denotes more strictly 
 what is involved in the nature, In- 
 bred what has been involved in the 
 habits or training of individuals. 
 
 Innate (Lat. iiuiutus, inborn, part. 
 ofinnascor) is the Latin equivalent of 
 the Saxon Inborn, but is used in a 
 more philosophic way ; as, " the doc- 
 trine of innate ideas, ' that is, derived 
 from sources independent of sensa- 
 tions from external objects. 
 
 SYNONYMS [inaugurate] 
 
 Inherent (Lat. inhiEvire, tostick)y 
 unlike Inborn and Inbred, is appli- 
 cable to many other things than those 
 which have life, and has the general 
 force of essentially, or logically in- 
 volved ; 80 we speak of the inherent 
 properties of matter, as distinguished 
 from what may be temporarily or 
 accidentally attached to it. Innate, 
 Inborn, and Inherent may often be 
 used interchangeably; Inherent de- 
 noting permanent indwelling ; In- 
 nate and Inborn, that this indwel- 
 ling is not artificial or designed, but 
 congenital. 
 
 " When men have been so long seated in 
 a place that the majority of the inhabitants 
 are become natives of the soil, the i7ibom 
 love of a country has by that time struck 
 such deep roots into it that nothing but ex- 
 treme violence can draw them out." — War- 
 BURTON. 
 
 '• Haste and delay as inbred qualities 
 were remarkable in the two most martial 
 people of Greece."— Drayton. 
 
 " I consider a human soul without edu- 
 cation like marble in a quarry, which shows 
 none of its inlierent beauties till the skill of 
 the polisher fetches out the colours, makes 
 the surface shine, and discovers every orna- 
 mental cloud, spot, and vein that runs 
 through the body of xt."— Spectator. 
 
 " Certain innate principles, some primary 
 notions, ieo*va» lvvo»<w, characters as it were 
 stamped upon the mind of man, which the 
 soul receives m ita very flret being, and 
 brings into the world with it." — Locke. 
 
 INCAPABLE. Incompetent. 
 
 Incapable (Lat. in-, not, smdcUpd- 
 btlis, capable of) is an absolute term, 
 denoting want of spatial extent or 
 adequacy to contain, inadequate men- 
 tal, or physical, or moral power, or 
 general unfitness or insusceptibility. 
 
 Incompetent (Lat. incompetentem, 
 see Competent) denotes a specific and 
 relative incapacity as to a given task, 
 duty, office, or undertaking. Incom- 
 petent is only employed of persons; 
 Incai-able may be employed of inani- 
 mate substances, as a bridge may be 
 so dilapidated as to be incapable of 
 repair. An incompetent person ; an 
 incapable subject. The incompetent 
 cannot act ; the incapable cannot be 
 acted upon. The twofold force of In- 
 capable, or its active and passive sig- 
 nifications, appears in the following, 
 
[inconstant] discriminated. 
 
 where the word means iucapahle in 
 essence, and incapable in operation. 
 
 " Whatever is iticapdble of being a uanse 
 in any time ever was and ever will through 
 eternity continue equally incapable" — 
 Brooke. 
 
 " Now that incompetence arises from this, 
 that no man can judge rightly of two things 
 but by comparing them together ; and com- 
 pare them he cannot unless he exactly know 
 them both."— South. 
 
 INCOHERENT. Incongruous. 
 Inconsistent. Incompatible. 
 
 Incoherent (Lat.m-, not, cohttrere, 
 to stick togethei-) is seldom emj)loyed 
 of material substances, the term inco- 
 hesive better supplying its place. It 
 is generally applicable to cases which 
 are deficient in that sort of unity which 
 depends upon the interdependence of 
 parts, especially in sequence or con- 
 tinuity, and commonly implies defec- 
 tive torm of statement, because mere 
 ideas, though they may be incoherent, 
 cannot be pronounced so till they are 
 
 Incongruous (hat. incongruus) de- 
 notes that kind of absence of harmony 
 or suitableness of which the taste and 
 experience of men takes cognizance. 
 It 18 applied to the modes and quali- 
 ties of things; Inconsistent (I^at. 
 in-, not, and consisth-e, to stand toge- 
 ther), that kind which cannot be ad- 
 justed to some recognized third term 
 as a standard. It is applied to the 
 actions and sentiments of men. 
 
 Incompatible (Fr. incompatible), 
 that which cannot exist under similar 
 circumstances, conditions, or suppo- 
 sitions. It is applied to the essential 
 attributes of things. Unlike the 
 others, Incompatible is only used 
 specifically of cases preceded by the 
 tenn with. Generally speaking, it is 
 reason which decides upon incon- 
 sistency, taste upon incongruity, ex- 
 perience upon incompatibility, and 
 • udgment upon incoherency. 
 
 " Observe the incoherence of the things 
 here joined together, making 'a view 
 extinguish,' and * extinguish seeds.' " — 
 Blair. 
 
 " God commands not impossibilities ; and 
 all the ecclesiastical glue the liturgy or lay- 
 men can compound is not able to soder np 
 
 511 
 
 two such ineongruoui natures intc the one 
 flesh of a true beseeming marriage."— 
 MiLTOJI. 
 
 " If we should suppose Him to have been 
 an impostor and a false prophet, a character 
 would arise full of contradictions and in- 
 consistency." — JORTIN. 
 
 "Certain properties incompatible with 
 the essentiaJ properties of matter." — 
 Clarke. 
 
 inconstant. Changeable. 
 Mutable. Variable. Fickle. 
 Versatile. 
 
 That which is Inconstant (Lat. 
 i7iconstantem) whether the term be 
 employed of persons or qualities (it 
 is only by poetic licence that the term 
 is used of anything else, as Shake- 
 speare's "inconstant moon"), owes 
 its character to an impatience of uni- 
 form or sustained adherence and at- 
 tachment. Changeable denotes no 
 more than exhibiting the phenomenon 
 of easy or frequent change, whether 
 in opinions, feelings, or the pheno- 
 mena of physical nature and appear- 
 ances; as a changeable disposition, 
 changeable weather. As epithets of 
 character. Inconstant and Change- 
 able stand related to each other as 
 negative and positive. The change- 
 able person is continually rejecting 
 what he has adopted, in order to take 
 up something new. The inconstant 
 person simply attaches himself to no- 
 thing long. Changeableness is active, 
 inconstancy passive. Changeableness 
 is a fault of commission, inconstancy 
 of omission. See Constancy. 
 
 " Success on Maevius always does attend ; 
 Inconstant Fortune is his constant fiiend." 
 
 POMFRET. 
 
 " I choose to give an instance in the stuff 
 I have been speaking of, because the mix- 
 ture being more simple, the way whereby 
 the changeableness is produced may be the 
 more easily apprehended." — BoYLK. 
 
 Mutable (Lat. mutHbilis, from mu- 
 tiire, to change) is seldom used of any- 
 thing but external circumstances and 
 events of life, though Byron has the 
 forced phrase, " INlost mutable in 
 wishes. Mutable is a term of moral 
 reflexion, and is commonly associated 
 with change, as it aflfects men's hopes, 
 desires, attachments, observations, 
 and experience. 
 
512 
 
 SYNONYMS [iNCONTHOVERTII'.LE] 
 
 " What man that sees the ever-whirling 
 
 wheel 
 Of change, the which all mortal things 
 
 doth sway, 
 But that thereby doth find and plainly feel 
 How mutability in them doth play 
 Her crnel sports, to many men's decay? " 
 Spenser. 
 Variable ^Lat. vfiriahilis, change- • 
 able) denotes indefinite multiplicity of 
 change. A thing may be changeable 
 «vhicb is liable to one or two changes. 
 1 1 is variable when its transmutations 
 are so numerous that they defy antici- 
 pation, and may assume many dif- 
 ferent phases in a short space. In 
 matters of the will or feelings of men 
 we use the term Variable; in phy- 
 sical matters, Changeable. 
 
 Fickle (A. S. Jicol) denotes that 
 specific changeableness which ex- 
 hibits itself in matters of taste, pur- 
 pose, and attachment — the change- 
 ableness of easily transferred likes 
 and dislikes. 
 
 Versatile (L&t. versattlis ; versdre, 
 to tui^ frequently) denotes change- 
 ableness, not as involuntary, but 
 voluntary ; not as weakness, but as 
 indicating power of mind, an ability 
 easily to adapt one's self to altered cir- 
 cumstances; as a "versatile genius." 
 " We should also recollect that besides 
 this temporary variableness of the mind, 
 the tongue is unruly." — Knox. 
 " The one was fire and ficJdeness ; a child 
 Most' mutable in wishes ; but in mind 
 A wit as various, pay, gi-ave, sage, or wild, 
 Historian, bard, philosopher combined." 
 Byron. 
 " Nature seems incapable of such extra- 
 ordinary combinations as composed his 
 (Julius Caosar's) versatile capacity."' — Tbid. 
 
 INCONTROVERTIBLE. Indu- 
 bitable. Unquestionable. Indis- 
 putable. Undeniable. Irrefrag- 
 able. 
 
 These terms all express conclusive- 
 ness of evidence, not absolute cer- 
 tainty or truth. Incontrovertihle 
 (made up from in-, not, and the verb 
 controvert) applies to such matters as 
 are so clear and certain as not to ad- 
 mit of lengthened and argumentative 
 questioning or contradiction. 
 
 Indubitable (Lat. indiiMtabilis, in-, 
 not, and diibitdre, to doubt) throws the 
 matter back yet farther, and asserts 
 
 that not only may the matter not be 
 controverted in tei"ms, but not even 
 doubted of in the mind. Unquestion 
 ABLE expresses that which may not 
 be called in question ; Indisputable, 
 that which may not De disputed ; Un- 
 deniable, that which may not be de- 
 nied; Irrefragable (Lat. irrcf'rdgfi- 
 biiis, not to be withsicod) that of which 
 the argumentative force or the evi- 
 dence may not be broken. It is in their 
 application that their differences con- 
 sist. Incontrovertible is employed 
 of statements, views, or opinions, evi- 
 dence, and the like, but not of simple 
 facts; Indubitable, of facts and as- 
 sertions; Unquestionable, of propo- 
 sitions ; Indisputable, of rights and 
 claims also; Undeniable, of state- 
 ments ; Irrefragable, of evidence 
 and arguments. 
 
 " This therefore msy be assumed as an 
 incontrovertible principle that the diffe- 
 rence of good and evil in actions is not 
 founded on arbitrary opinions or institu- 
 tions, but in the nature of things and the 
 nature of man." — Blajr. 
 
 " There may be an indubitable certainty 
 where there is not an 'nf«llible certainty." 
 — WiLKINS. 
 
 "Making us ^ecei^e that for an un- 
 questionable truth which is really at b«st 
 but a very doubtful conjecture." — Locke. 
 
 " Precedents of indisputable authority." 
 — Rambler. 
 
 "Thus says he, it must be undeniably 
 plain ; thus, that is, gi-ant him his pre- 
 misses, and the conclusion follows without 
 doubt." — Warburton. 
 
 "I do not find that anything hitherto 
 has been so clearly and irrefrag&ly proved 
 for the immortality of tne sonf." — South. 
 
 INCREASE. Accession. Aug- 
 mentation. Addition. Enhance- 
 ment. MULTIP Lie Ario N . 
 
 Increase CLat. increscere, to in- 
 CI ease) is the most comprehensive of 
 these terms, and indeed includes the 
 rest. It denotes addition of bulk, 
 Quantity, number, degree, value, 
 force, and extension, either by inter- 
 nal vitality or by accession from with- 
 out. 
 
 Accession (Lat. accessidnem, an ad- 
 dition) is an accidental mode of in- 
 crease bv addition from without; 
 while both Addition ( Lat. additiimtm) 
 and Augmentation (Lat. augmentd- 
 
[indebtedJ 
 
 tionem) imply pwposed increase. 
 Augmentation is commonly increase 
 in what is of the nature of a desirable 
 possession, and is not consonantly 
 with present custom, so often em- 
 ployed, like Addition and Accession, 
 of such things as are evils, e.g-. misery 
 or misfortune. Increase and Aug- 
 mentation are intrinsic, Accession 
 and Addition extrinsic, being applic- 
 able to the thing which causes, not that 
 «^hich receives, increase. Increase 
 stands to addition or accession as the 
 effect to the cause, and expresses not 
 an operation, but a state or result. In 
 the case of increase and augmentation, 
 the thing added loses its individuality, 
 and passes into the general mass and 
 unity of the matter augmented ; in ad- 
 dition and accession, they still remain, 
 as it were, outside it. So the ad- 
 dition and accession may still be con- 
 templated after the union has been 
 made ; but no separate part or item is 
 expressed by iNCREASEorAuGMENTA- 
 tion. An estate bequeathed to a pro- 
 prietor, in addition to that which he 
 holds already, may be a valuable ac- 
 cession, and tend not only to increase 
 his property, but to augment con- 
 siderably the revenue derived from it. 
 Augmentation is iiitrinsic increase in 
 the stock and suhstcnice of things. It 
 affects quantity in the gross, as in- 
 crease affects quantity in extent. 
 
 '* Wherever the commerce between the 
 sexes is regulated by man*iage, and a pro- 
 iTsion for that mode of subsistence to which 
 each class of the community is accustomed 
 can be procured with ease and certainty, 
 there the nu mber of the people wil 1 increase ; 
 and the rapidity as well as the extent of the 
 increase will be proportioned to the degree 
 in which these causes exist." — Paxey. 
 
 " Ancient Troy, seated on an eminence 
 at the foot •f Mount Ida, overlooked the 
 mouth of the Hellespont, which scarcely 
 received an accession of waters from the tri- 
 bute of those immortal rivulets the Simois 
 and Scamander."— Gibbon. 
 "Thongh fortune change, his constant 
 
 spouse remains. 
 Augments his joys, or mitigates his pains." 
 Pope. 
 
 " All the praises and commendations of 
 the whole world can add no more to the 
 real and intrinsic value of a man than they 
 can add to his stature." — Swift. 
 
 Enhance (of which the root is O. 
 Pror. enanSf forwardSf Lat. infante) is 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 5n 
 
 not employ ed of mere material addition, 
 but to the heightening of a property 
 or quality first of favourable, after- 
 wards also of unfavourable qualities. 
 That which is enhanced possesses a 
 force, a value, a beauty. It had at one 
 time a physical meaning, viz. to raise, 
 which has entirely given way to the 
 metaphorical one; as in Spenser, 
 " Who naught aghast his mighty hand 
 enhanced," that is raised. 
 
 " The reputation of ferocity enhanced the 
 the value of their services in making them 
 feared as well as hated." — Southey. 
 
 Multiplication (Lat. multipticd- 
 tidnem) is the same thing as numerical 
 addition, or addition as applied not to 
 quantity but to numbers. The rule of 
 multiplication is virtually only a rule 
 of addition, by which any number is 
 added to itself a given* number of 
 times. It may be observed that Mul- 
 tiplication is sometimes employed 
 of indefinite increase of quantity. 
 
 ♦* I will greatly multiply thy sorrow." — 
 English Bible. 
 
 INDEBTED. Obliged. 
 
 Indebted (O. Fr. endetter, to bring 
 into debt) is in reference to what may- 
 have been received from or done for 
 us by others. It is a much stronger 
 term than Obliged. " I am indebted 
 to him for saving my life." It would 
 be inadequate to say Obliged (Lat. 
 obtigare, to bind, to oblige). Obliged 
 is never employed directly of events 
 or circumstances — which is the case 
 with Indebted — but only of persons. 
 " For the abolition of slavery in this 
 country we are mainly indebted (not 
 obliged) to Christianity." The feel- 
 ing of moral obligation is not neces- 
 sarily implied in Indebted ; hence the 
 term is employed with readiness of 
 many agents, where Obliged could 
 not be so employed. In such cases it 
 seems to mean little more than ac- 
 knowledgment of a cause or source ; 
 as, " For such elements of the national 
 character we are indebted to our Saxon 
 ancestry." On the other hand. Obliged 
 always indicates some amount of favour 
 received, and gratitude due, though 
 the favour may be very slight, and 
 cannot, as we have seen, be very gres;; 
 as, to be obliged by an act of substan 
 
 L L 
 
514 
 
 tial kindness, oi a piece of common 
 courtesy. 
 
 '« As a misery is not to be measured from 
 tfl8 nature of the evil, but from the temper 
 of the sufferer, I shall present my readers 
 who are unhappy either in reality or ima- 
 gination with an allegory, for which I am 
 indebted to the great father and prince of 
 poets."— Toiler. 
 " Thus man to heaven by his own strength 
 
 would soar. 
 And would not be obliged to God for more." 
 Dryden. 
 
 INDICATrON. Token. Symp- 
 tom. 
 
 Indication (Lat. indicare, part, in- 
 dtcdtus, to point out) is a subjective 
 token, that is, its force as a sign de- 
 pends upon the understanding of the 
 observer. Hence an indication may 
 be either very simple, direct, and pal- 
 pable, or complex, indirect, or infe- 
 rential. Indication has frequently 
 the force of a sign of something inhe- 
 rent in the person or subject. A 
 hearty shake of the hand is an indica- 
 tion of goodwill, sleep of weariness, 
 a crack in a wall of a sinking of the 
 foundation. 
 
 Token (A. S. tdcon, a token) conveys 
 simpler and more direct evidence, and 
 may consist in a visible material ob- 
 ject; as a book is given in token, or 
 as a token of friendship. Indica- 
 tion is not so used, being of a more 
 complex character ; as an act, a speech, 
 an expression, a line of conduct. 
 
 Symptom (Gr. crv/xitroo/xa,, a falling 
 iriya symptom) is a specific token or indi- 
 cation naturally attached to that which 
 it Indicates, so that seeing the one en- 
 ables us to infer the other. Like In- 
 dication, but more strongly, it con- 
 sists not in simple objects, and derives 
 its force from experience and induc- 
 tion of instances in which it occurs. 
 A token is recognized by sense and 
 feeling ; an indication, by observation 
 and experience ; a symptom, by know- 
 ledge and science. 
 
 " Modesty is the certain indication of a 
 great spirit, and impudence the affectation 
 of it." — Spectator. 
 
 " In every canoe there were young plan- 
 tains and branches of a tree which the 
 Indians call e midho. These, as we after- 
 wards learnt, were brought as tokent of 
 peace and amity."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
 SYNONYMS [INDICATION] 
 
 "It will save the patient from that syinp- 
 tome of being afraid of water, which is in- 
 cident unto such as be so bitten."— Hol- 
 land, Pliny. 
 
 Tokens and symptoms are of things 
 present; indications may also be of 
 things to come. Symptoms accom- 
 pany. Tokens are given. Indications 
 are made or given, accompany, pre- 
 cede, or even follow. 
 
 INDIFFERENCE. Apathy. In- 
 sensibility. Callousness. Neutra- 
 lity. 
 
 Indifference (Lat. indiffcrentem, 
 a word of Cicero's coinage to translate 
 alia.<^ofov) denotes no more than a 
 casual fact, namely, that the presence 
 or absence of something makes no 
 difference to a person. This may be 
 ill many ways, as with or without a 
 full knowledge of circumstances, so 
 that it might be removable or not. It 
 expresses a state, and not any quality 
 of persons. 
 
 Insensibility and Apathy (Gr. 
 aTraflfja, a-, not, and TraQof, suffering or 
 feeling ) are qualities inherent, though 
 insensibility is commonly acquired or 
 produced, apathy innate ; but Apathy 
 and Insensibility are used in diffe- 
 rent relations ; for insensibility may be 
 either intellectual or moral ; apathy 
 is always moral. Insensibility may 
 be either from want of understanding 
 or from want of feeling ; apathy is 
 from want of feeling. Again, in 
 apathy and in insensibility the matter 
 is looked at from different points of 
 view. Apathy as it exists in the per- 
 son ; insensibility as its existence is 
 evidenced by the unavailingness of 
 external appliances or influences to 
 excite feeling. Hence Apathy is used 
 abstractedly, Insensibility in specific 
 reference to some such appliance or 
 influence. A man is simply apathetic. 
 He is insensible to something. Indif- 
 ference is to the soul what tranquillity 
 is to the body, and insensibility is to 
 the soul what lethargy is to the body. 
 Indifference checks vigorous action 
 and strong desire. Insensibility is the 
 bane of tender and of noble feeline. 
 Indifference springing from the ab- 
 sence of passion leaves open the mind 
 to the sway of pure reason. Ingenai- 
 
[indignation] discriminated. 
 
 bility isolates a man from his kind and 
 makes him a brute or a savage. In- 
 difference is the placid summer lake, 
 insensibility is the same lake frozen. 
 Indifference, it has been said, makes 
 philosophers, and insensibility makes 
 monsters. Apathy is the extreme of 
 indifference ana drugs the mind, and 
 produces nothing but inaction. It is 
 possible to be insensible to some 
 things and not to others. The good 
 man is insensible to the attractions of 
 vice. The apathetic man never acts 
 but with an effort, against his inclina- 
 tion, and only when compelled by 
 external force. 
 
 515 
 
 Callousness keeps up in its secon- 
 dary a sti'ict analogy to its primary 
 meaning. Callum or callus, in Latin, 
 is hard skin or rind, that thickening 
 of the animal or vegetable integument 
 which is the result of use or exposure. 
 Hence callousness is the insensibility 
 of habituation. 
 
 " He discovered him to be a mean per- 
 son by the rusticity and hardness of his 
 body : not by a callousness of his feet or a 
 wart upon his fingers ; but his whole body 
 was hard and servile."— Bp. Tayloe, on 
 Repentance. 
 
 Neutrality, as its name sufficiently 
 indicates (Lat. neuter, neither), is the 
 Btate of taking no part on either side. 
 It may refer both to parties and to their 
 sentiments ; in other words, we may 
 be neutral in action or in feeling. It 
 may be the result of disposition or of 
 duty. Or a neutrality of action may 
 be accompanied by strong partiality of 
 feeling. It is a condition of commu- 
 nities as well as pei-aons, while the 
 others are confined to the latter. 
 
 " Men who possess a state of neutrality 
 in times of public danger desert the inte- 
 rests of their fellow-subjects." — Addison. 
 
 •' In matters of religion, he (the upright 
 man) hath the indifference of a traveller 
 whose great concernment is to arrive at his 
 journey's end." — Sharp. 
 
 " Pride is always an ignorant, lazy, or 
 cowardly acquiescence in a false appearance 
 «f excellence, and proceeds not from con- 
 sciousiiess of our attainments, but insensi- 
 bility of our wants." — Rambler. 
 
 " In this sullen apathy neither ti-ue wis- 
 dom nor true happiness can be found." — 
 HUMK. 
 
 Apathy, or a dispassionate state, was 
 
 recommended by the Stoical philo* 
 sophers as the secret of human hap- 
 piness. 
 
 INDIGENOUS. Aboriginal. 
 
 The separation in use between these 
 terms is at present wider than for- 
 merly. Indigenous (Lat. ind^genuSf 
 indu-, for in, and gigno, I beget) is 
 seldom used of races, but most com- 
 monly of the vegetable productions of 
 a country ; while Aboriginal (Lat. 
 dborlgtnes, original inhabitants) is used 
 only of men. But, even as employed 
 of men, a distinction is observable. 
 An indigenous people is an ethnologi- 
 cal, aborigines an historical, terra. 
 The former term is used to express 
 the earliest in physical history, the 
 latter the earliest in the history of 
 civilization. The race found in exis- 
 tence in newly-discovered countries 
 by civilized discoverers is called ab- 
 original. Indigenous is used in a 
 metaphorical way, not applicable to 
 Aboriginal, as — 
 
 "The emotions indigenous to the human 
 mind."— I. Taylor, 
 
 " Their language (that of the inhabitants 
 of Biscay) is accounted aboriginal." — SwiK- 
 BURNE. 
 
 INDIGNATION. Resentment. 
 
 Indignation (Lat. indignationem) 
 is a feeling akin to anger, but with- 
 out its selfishness, being excited by a 
 real or supposed wrong towards our- 
 selves or others, in which the feeling 
 of wrong predominates over and tem- 
 pers the sense of hurt, and in which 
 the existence of injury, though it 
 must mostly follow practically, is not 
 essential. 
 
 Resentment (Fr. ressentiment) 1b 
 more energetic and active than indig- 
 nation, which latter may be expressed 
 only in words, or even a look ; while 
 resentment seeks to make itself felt. 
 It is the reaction of the mind against 
 personal injury or insult. It may be 
 more or less lasting ; and in its purer 
 and more unselfish form may be ex- 
 cited on behalf of others. It denotes 
 a stronger feeling of personal dislike 
 against the offender than indignation, 
 which springs from the act. 
 
 " Indignation expresses a strong an-1 ele 
 
516 
 
 SYNONYMS [indisposition] 
 
 Tated disapprobation of mind, w^hich is also 
 inspired by something flagitious in the con- 
 duct of another."— CoGAN. 
 
 Up to a late period of English litera- 
 ture, the word Resentment was used 
 to signify the appropriate return of 
 feeling, whether in the way of grati- 
 tude or its opposite, which is the 
 simple and etymological force of the 
 word. So Bishop Hull writes — 
 
 *' Throughout this excellent song the 
 •acred Virgin expresseth a deep sense of 
 her own unworthiness, and upon that 
 account a profound resentment of the sin- 
 gular favour of the Almighty bestowed 
 upon her." 
 
 " Hesentment," says Cogan, " is a lesser 
 degree of wrath, excited by smaller offences 
 committed against less irritable minds. It 
 is a deep, reflective displeasure against the 
 conduct of the offender." 
 
 INDISPOSITION. Illness. (See 
 Disease.) 
 
 Indisposition is a slight disorder 
 of the healthy functions of the body. 
 Illness is continuous indisposition. 
 It supposes an actual or probable 
 termination, and conveys an idea of 
 the accidents of sickness generally, 
 without the features of any specific 
 complaint. 
 
 " By our laws, as that Modus lays them 
 down, the Kin^ neither can nor ought to 
 absent himself from his parliament unless 
 he be indisposed in health, nor then neither 
 till twelve of the Peers have been with him 
 to inspect his body and give the Parliament 
 an account of his indisposition." — MlLTON. 
 
 " Alstf, I only wish fov health again 
 Because 1 think my lover shares my pain ; 
 For what could health avail to wretched 
 
 me 
 If yor could unconcerned my ilhiess see." 
 LiTTLKTON. 
 
 INDISTINCT. Confused. Ob- 
 scure. 
 
 Indistinct (Lat. indistinctus, not 
 separated) may, like the other syno- 
 nyms here mentioned, be employed of 
 the physical or the mental perception 
 — ot the sight, the hearing, or the 
 understanding. That is indistinct 
 which does not present itself to the 
 eye or the mind in clear outline and 
 definite totality, so that we compre- 
 hend it positively and negatively, and 
 see at once what it is, and what it is 
 QOt. The distinct is clear iu itself. 
 
 and separable from surrounding ob- 
 jects. 
 
 Confused (Lat. conftmdtre, part. 
 cinifusus, to pour together, to conj'ound) 
 denotes a manifold indistinctness ot 
 parts, relations, or objects in relation- 
 ship. Want of force may make things 
 indistinct, want of definiteness makes 
 til em confused. An indistinct sound 
 is a faint sound, a confused sound is 
 a medley of sounds of different cha- 
 racters. 
 
 Obscure (Lat. obsciiriis) expresses 
 that which is difficult to comprehend 
 from want of light, clearness, or per- 
 spicuity. Indistinctness and obscurity, 
 as they are applied to matters of the 
 understanding, commonly relate, the 
 former to the mode of expression, the 
 latter to the subject matter. A per- 
 son's words may be indistinct even 
 from thickness of utterance. His ex- 
 pressions may be so from want of 
 power to make things plain. If he is 
 obscure, it is probably from insufficient 
 statements, or possibly from the in- 
 herent abstruseness of the subject. 
 So we speak of indistinct ideas, con- 
 fused statements, obscure subjects, 
 meanings, or allusions. 
 
 " The colours of objects, according as 
 they are more distant, become more faint 
 and languid, and are tinged more with the 
 azure of the intervening atmosphere. Tc 
 this we may add that their minnte parts 
 become more indistinct, and their outline 
 less accurately defined." — Rkid. 
 
 "Amphion so made stones and timber 
 
 leap 
 Into fair figures from a confused heap." 
 Waller. 
 
 " These questions of predestination being 
 perplexed, thorny, and troublesome through 
 their obscureness, may, without all detri- 
 ment of salvation, be either unknown of 
 discussed."— Bishop Hall. 
 
 INDIVIDUAL. Particular. 
 Single. Solitary. 
 
 The difference between these terms 
 is best seen by considering that against 
 which each stands opposed. Indi- 
 vidual (Lat. indwtdmis, indivisible^ 
 is opposed to collective; Particular 
 ( Lat. particularism to universal. Hence 
 an individual instance is one, and not 
 more ; particular is one, and rat 
 another. 
 
[ineffectual] discriminated. 
 
 Single (Lat. singiilus, more com- 
 monly plur. sirigiili) has the force of 
 only one, or even one, standing against 
 a possible plurality, and hence is com- 
 monly employed in a negative sen- 
 tence ; while Solitary (Lat. sotitdrinSy 
 alone by itself) is employed in positive 
 sentences. " I have found one soli- 
 
 617 
 
 tary mstance. 
 
 I have not found a 
 
 single instance." Particular implies 
 something specifically, as distin- 
 guished from generally or universally, 
 true. If I say, " It is true in this 
 particular case," I discard all respon- 
 sibility of statement as regai'ds other 
 such cases. 
 
 "It would be wise in them, as individual 
 and private mortals, to look back a little." 
 —Swift. 
 
 " Of this Prince there is little particular 
 memory." — Bacon. 
 
 "But he might have altered the shape 
 of his argument and explicated them better 
 in single scenes. 
 
 Cor. That had been single indeed." 
 
 B. JoNSON, Bhiery Man out of his 
 Humour. 
 " With solitary hand 
 Reaching beyond all limit at one blow. 
 Unaided could have punished the« and 
 
 whelm'd 
 Thy legions under darkness." Milton. 
 
 INEFFABLE. Unspeakable. 
 Unutterable. Inexpressible. 
 
 Ineffable (Lat. tneffdbilis, unpro- 
 nounceable, in-, not, e, out, and far i, to 
 speak) is commonly used only of those 
 things which transcend expression by 
 their admirable or precious qualities; 
 as the ineffable joys of heaven. Un- 
 speakable serves the purpose of a 
 •superlative adjective of quantity, 
 especially in summing up states of 
 mind ; as unspeakable joy, misery, 
 satisfaction. Unutterable has a 
 tendency to the unfavourable, as In- 
 expressible to the favourable. We 
 more often speak of unutterable sor- 
 row than unutterable joy. Unutter- 
 able, however, has the meaning of too 
 deep to be uttered at all ; while Inex- 
 pressible means too high or too deep 
 to be adequately conveyed in terms. 
 Hence it may apply to the inherent 
 expressiveness o£ words only, to which 
 the others are inapplicable; as, " Such 
 an idea of a foreign writer may be in- 
 fxpressible in English." 
 
 " He said, and on His Son with rays direct 
 Shone full. He all W.s Father fnll ex- 
 
 prest 
 Ineff<d>ly into His face received. 
 And thus the filial Godhead answering 
 spake." Milton. 
 
 " Him that without exception doth un- 
 speakably exceed all other things." — 
 Fisher, Godly Treatise. 
 
 " I believe few parents would wish their 
 sons to live the life of Cowper, which, 
 though virtuous and amiable, was at cer- 
 tain times unutterably woeful." — Knox. 
 " Who since the morning hour set cct fron 
 
 heaven. 
 Where God resides, and ere mid- day bi-- 
 
 rived 
 In Eden, distance inexpressible 
 By numbers that have name." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 INEFFECTUAL. Vain. Abor- 
 tive. Fruitless. 
 
 Of these terms, which all relate to 
 human endeavour. Vain is the most 
 general (Lat. vanus, empty). It may 
 apply to the object of the attempt as 
 well as to the attempt itself. Accord- 
 irgly, this twofold force is often ex- 
 pressed in the use of Vain. A vain 
 ambition may mean that the effort 
 will be fruitless, and the object not 
 worth achieving were it otherwise. 
 Accordingly, as the rest express 
 failure as limited by human weakness, 
 Vain may express that failure which 
 comes necessarily from the nature of 
 the thing aimed at, or even desired. 
 Thoughts, hopes, and desires or sup- 
 positions may be vain ; but only eflbrts 
 are ineffectual, abortive, or fniitless. 
 Ineffectual and Fruitless differ as 
 the specific from the general. The 
 former relates to a particular end, 
 which is represented as not gained ; 
 the latter to the absence generally 
 of profitable results. Again, Ineffec- 
 tual is applicable to material in- 
 fluences or powers ; Fruitless, to 
 the exertion of the human will. We 
 speak of fruitless attempts or ineffec- 
 tual attempts, but of ineffectual, not 
 fruitless, remedies. 
 
 Abortive (La,t. dbortivus, born pre- 
 maturely), like Fruitless, is only ap- 
 plicable to voluntary efforts, not to 
 mere natural powers, and commonly 
 to such efforts as imply some amount 
 of design, or complex efforts and 
 schemes. Ineffectual and Fkuitless 
 
518 
 
 nnply more strongly that the failure 
 is owing to the weakness of the per- 
 son making the attempt; Abortive is 
 more external in its character, and may 
 denote the untoward issue as the result 
 of unforeseen or irresistible counter- 
 action of what has been well prepared. 
 Unforeseen casualties may render the 
 best-laid plans abortive. 
 
 " Hereford was surprised on the 18th of 
 December by Colonel Birch and Colonel 
 Morgan, after it had been besieged for 
 about two months ineffectually by the 
 Scots."— Ludlow. 
 " Full sure he thought Troy's fatal hour 
 
 arrived. 
 Vain thought ! he knew not the designs of 
 Jove." CowPER. 
 
 " Any enterprise undertaken without re- 
 solution, managed without care, prosecuted 
 without vigour, will easily be dashed, and 
 prove abortive.** — Barrow. 
 
 " The fruitlessness of their inquiries into 
 the arcana of the Godhead."— Warbur- 
 TON. 
 
 INFATUATION. Folly. 
 
 Folly is of two kinds — mental and 
 practical. The 'former is weakness 
 of understanding ; the latter, weak- 
 ness of conduct. 
 
 Infatuation (Lat. infdtuare, to 
 make a fool of) brings out more 
 strongly the idea of Folly (Fr.folie) 
 in its practical aspect. The infatu- 
 ated man acts under some peculiar 
 beguiling, fascinating influence, lead- 
 ing him from the paths of prudence 
 and self-control — some one thought 
 or desire which blinds his understand- 
 ing to what he ought to do or avoid, 
 and for the sake of which other need- 
 ful considerations are sacrificed. 
 
 "The infatuations of the sensual and fri- 
 volous part of mankind are amazing ; but 
 the infatuations of the learned and sophis- 
 tical are incomparably more so." — I. 
 Taylor. 
 
 " Wh&t folly 'tis to hazard life for ill! " 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 INFERENCE. Deduction. Con- 
 clusion. Consequence. Induction. 
 
 Inference (Fr, inferer, to infer) is 
 the broadest of these terms, denoting 
 any process by which from one truth 
 or fact laid dowu or known we draw 
 another. Inference may be either by 
 Induc«i3n or Deduction, and hence 
 
 SYNONYMS [infatuation] 
 
 may be probable or certain. Infer- 
 ence by induction is more or less pro- 
 bable, except where all cases of the 
 kind have been collated, when it 
 ceases, strictly speaking, to be infer- 
 ence, and is only the assigning of a 
 common name, or stating an universal 
 proposition. From having seen twenty 
 swans all white, one might infer that 
 all swans are so. This would be only 
 a probability in itself, and, as a fact, 
 not true. In induction we observe a 
 sufficient number of individual facts 
 or cases, and extending by analogy 
 what is true of them to others of the 
 same class, establish a general princi- 
 ple or law. This is the method of 
 physical science. The process of de- 
 duction is the converse of this. We 
 lay down a general truth, and connect 
 a particular case with it by means of 
 a middle term. When inference is 
 conducted by the syllogistic process, 
 it is called Deduction (Lat. deduc 
 tionem, a dediiciiig, diductre, to draw 
 from), the thing inferred being the 
 Conclusion, which establishes, or, 
 as it were, shuts up (Lat. concliiderey 
 to shut up) the argument. A conclu- 
 sion is a proposition viewed relatively 
 to others from which it has been de- 
 duced. 
 
 A Consequence (Lat. constqueutia, 
 constqui, to follow 7ip) is a conclusion 
 regarded as admitting of degrees of 
 closeness or directness. Between the 
 first stage of any argument and any 
 particular consequence several links 
 of reasoning may intervene. Hence 
 the common phrase, *' remote conse- 
 quences," as meaning results which 
 will follow sooner or later from what 
 has been stated or conceded. Unlike 
 the rest. Consequence is applicable to 
 practical results, as a severe cold may 
 have beeivthe consequence of impru- 
 dent exposure. The consequence is 
 also logically taken in an abstract 
 sense. The conclusion is the propo- 
 sition which follows from the pre- 
 misses, tlie consequence being the 
 link between the two; and so the 
 conclusion may be drawn true in 
 fact though the consequence be false, 
 i.e. in reasoning ; or the conclusion 
 false in fact though the consequence 
 be true, i.e. logicallj' true. 
 
[infobm] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 519 
 
 " Thoogh it may chance to be right in 
 the conclusion, it is yet unjust and mis- 
 taken in the method of inference." — GulN- 
 VIXL. 
 
 " From the words of Moses cited by oar 
 Savionr, the doctrine of a future state 
 may as clearly be deduced as from any single 
 text which can be produced out of any one 
 of the Prophets." — JoRTIN. 
 
 " He granted him the major and minor, 
 but denied him the conclusion" — Addi- 
 80K. 
 
 " Link follows link by necessary conse- 
 quence."— Colkuidgk. 
 
 " When by thus comparing a number of 
 cases agreeing hi some circumstances, but 
 differing in others, and all attended with 
 the same result, a philosopher connects, 
 as a general law of nature, the event with 
 its physical cause, he- is said to proceed ac- 
 cording to the method of induction." — 
 Stewart. 
 
 INFERIOR. Second. Secon- 
 dary. Minor. 
 
 Inferior (Lat. comparative of 
 infh-us, low) is not employed gene- 
 rally in the physical sense, but ex- 
 presses the quality of being lower in 
 rank, importance, excellence, force, 
 ralue, and the like. 
 
 Second (Lat. secimdus) relates to a 
 presumed or declared order of se- 
 quence, implying a first, which it im- 
 mediately succeeds. The principle 
 of the sequence may be any; as, 
 place, time, value, dignity, or one ar- 
 bitrarily assumed. Secondary is op- 
 posed to ■primary J and denotes second 
 m order of necessity, importance, or 
 operation. 
 
 Minor (Lat. minor, less) has, in 
 addition to the idea of inferiority, 
 that of subdivision ; as the minor sec- 
 tions of a body, where the relation is 
 not extrinsic, but intrinijic. 
 
 *' Inferiors both in fortune and in under- 
 ■tanding." — Toiler. 
 
 " But here you exclaim of ' the strange 
 abuse made of quotations and second-h&nd 
 representations.' "— WATKRIt^ND. 
 
 " Europe herself hath so many mother- 
 languages quite discrepant one from the 
 other, besides secondary tongues and dia- 
 le«t«."— HowBlX. 
 
 " Asia Minor.'" — Geography. 
 
 INFLUENCE. Sway. Ascen- 
 dancy. 
 
 Influence (an astrological term, a 
 flowing in, O. Fr. influence, of plane- 
 
 tary virtues into men) is hidden or in- 
 direct exercise of power, which, in 
 personal matters, may spring from a 
 variety of sources, as talent, wealth, 
 position, or persuasive power. It is 
 in moral things analogous to what 
 takes place in physical, when effects 
 are produced by gentle, gradual, or 
 unobserved processes for good or ill. 
 Sway (A. S. swegian, to prevail) 
 is power of control either consciously 
 exerted or specifically tending to de- 
 finite ends ; while influence may be 
 altogether indefinite. Ascendancy 
 (also an astrological term, denoting 
 that degree of the ecliptic which risea 
 above the horizon at the time of birth, 
 supposed to exercise great influence 
 over the chai-acter and destiny of in- 
 dividuals) denotes, accordin g to its ori- 
 gin, a governing or controlling power 
 in relation to a certain time or set of 
 circumstances. It is uniform influence. 
 It is moral power which influences 
 human conduct to the exclusion of 
 other motives, and in individuals is 
 the result sometimes of natural supe- 
 riority, sometimes of personal aim, 
 and very often of both combined. 
 Sway is relative to a supposed course 
 or line of procedure which has been 
 affected. To sway the counsels or 
 decisions of an assembly, for instance, 
 is to exercise an altering or modifying 
 influence. 
 
 *' After the restoration there succeeded 
 in its place, and since the revolution has 
 been methodically pursued the more suc- 
 cessful expedient of influence." — Paley. 
 
 The primary import of Sway is seen 
 in the following : — 
 
 " Oft must menne on the oke smite till 
 the happie dente have entred whieh with 
 the oke's own swaie maketh it to come all 
 at ones."— Chauckr. 
 
 "That predominant love of righteous- 
 ness and hatred of iniquity maintaining an 
 absolute ascendency in the mind in all 
 times and unon all occasions." — Harlky. 
 
 INFORM. Acquaint. Apprisk. • 
 Advise. Instruct. Teach. 
 
 Inform (Lat. informare, to fashion, 
 to declare) relates only to matters of 
 fact made known to one who could 
 not have known them befoi'e. ^ 
 
 Instruction (Lat. instructionemfisi 
 arranging) relates lo the principles 
 
520 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [infraction 1 
 
 drawn from known facts. One in- 
 forms by virtue of possessing specific 
 knowledge of matters of fact which 
 have in some way, possibly even by 
 accident, come to one's ears. One 
 instructs by virtue of having more 
 knowledge. Priority of knowledge 
 makes the informant, superiority of 
 knowledge the instructor. 
 
 Teaching (A. S. tizcan, to teach), 
 as distinct from instruction, is applied 
 to practice ( it may be the practice of 
 a art or branch of knowledge). A 
 child is instructed in grammar, and 
 taught to speak a language. Teach 
 has a purely mechanical application, 
 which does not belong to Instruct. 
 A dog may be taught a trick ; but he 
 could not be instructed in anything. 
 The two processes of teaching and 
 instruction may thus go on simulta- 
 neously. In mathematics there is no 
 information, because the propositions 
 are not statements of fact, but are 
 based upon principles assumed. In- 
 formation is of new facts ; instruction 
 is of undeveloped truths. Information 
 extends knowledge; instruction gives 
 additional understanding; teaching, 
 additional power of doing. 
 
 Acquaint (Fr. accointer, L. Lat. 
 adcognttare, to make knowti), Apprise 
 (Fr, apprise, instruction, horn apren- 
 dre, the Lat. apprendcre), and Ad- 
 vise (Fr. avis, an opinionzzzhsit. ad vi- 
 sum, according to what has seemed best) 
 closely resemble Inform, inasmuch as 
 they relate to the communication of 
 matters of fact. I inform a man when 
 I simply tell him a fact which he did 
 not know before. I acquaint him 
 with that of which I furnish him with 
 all the details. So I inform him of 
 the fact, and acquaint him with the 
 particulars of it. I apprise him of 
 what particularly concerns him to 
 know, whether it be a good or an evil, 
 or a danger, or a probability of any 
 -sort. I advise him of that which I 
 impart to him formally, officially, or 
 as in duty bound, of what occurs in 
 due course, or in the way of business. 
 All the othei- terms may be used of 
 unintelligent things, but only livinff 
 persons can inform. 
 " Vour (Algernon Sidney's) present abode 
 
 was no secret to me before I knew it from 
 your own hand ; that information having 
 been given me about two or three month* 
 since by some English gentlemen." — Sib 
 W. Templk. 
 
 " Divers that first believe the Scripture 
 but upon the Church's score are afterwards 
 by acquaintedniiss brought to believe the 
 Scripture upon its own score." — BoYLB. 
 
 "It is evident from the care taken to 
 apprise the world of it, even before Chris- 
 tianity was promulgated, how important 
 and essential a part this must be of that 
 Divine religion." — Bishop Porteus. 
 
 " There were several letters from France 
 just come in with advice that the king was 
 in good health."— Addison, 
 
 " The coldness of passion seems to be the 
 natural ground of ability and honesty among 
 men, as the government or moderation of 
 them the great end of philosophical and 
 moral instructions." — Sir W. Temple. 
 
 " As a child is taught to expect from its 
 parent, so are we taught to expect from 
 God every good of which our nature is ca- 
 pable."— Gilpik. 
 
 INFRACTION. Infringement, 
 
 Although these terms are connected 
 by a common derivation (Lat. infrin- 
 gere, to break, to xveaken), they are 
 differently applied : Infraction being 
 reserved for the violation of public 
 riglitsand formal treaties ; Infringe- 
 ment of minor, or else more persona', 
 and social claims. The infraction ot 
 a treaty of commerce ; the infringe- 
 ment upon one's neighbour's liberty 
 or convenience ; an infringement ot 
 the laws of good society or good 
 manners. 
 
 "The infringers of the duties of im- 
 perfect obligation, which civil laws cannot 
 reach."— Warburton. 
 
 " The young King of Denmark, upon his 
 coming to the crown, complained of these 
 infractions. " — Burnet. 
 
 ingenious. Clever. Inven- 
 tive. 
 
 Ingenious (Lat. ingeniosus, having 
 good natural talents)is purelymental. 
 
 Clever (see Clever) is practical 
 as well as mental. Ingenuity is more 
 akin to genius, cleverness to talent ; 
 tlie one is inventive, the other execu- 
 tive. Tie use of Clever in En"lisb 
 is overdone, as the term is made to 
 stand for every form of intellectual 
 ability and adaptive faculty. Inge- 
 nuity is genius on a small scale, or a* 
 
[innkb] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 521 
 
 ■hown in matters of minor moment or 
 less gravity and seriousness. A 
 readiness in nicely doing actions not 
 habitual is commonly called Clever- 
 ness, where bodily activity is engaged, 
 and ingenuity where mental. Clever- 
 ness is ingenuity of the body, as in- 
 genuity is cleverness of the mind. 
 INIen may contrive ingeniously, and 
 manage cleverly. 
 
 " Of all the means which human ingenuity 
 has contrived for recalling the images of 
 real objects, and awakening by representa- 
 tion similar emotions to those which are 
 raised by the original, none is so full and 
 extensive as that wliich is executed by 
 words and writing." — BlaiR. 
 
 " He (the Duke of Monmouth) gave the 
 hangman but half the reward he intended, 
 and said if he cut off his head cleverly, and 
 not so butcherly as he did Lord Russell's, 
 his man should give him the rest." — Bur- 
 net. 
 
 Inventive (Lat. invtnire, part, in- 
 ventus, tojind) expresses the active and 
 practical side of ingenuity. The in- 
 genious person sees readily, the in- 
 ventive person projects, adapts and 
 contrives. He deals in expedients, 
 and constructs means to an end, where 
 such means are not ready to his hand. 
 
 " For Alcibiades, as he was passing in- 
 genious and inventive of matter, so he 
 wanted audacity, and was not so ready as 
 some others to utter the same." — Holland, 
 Plutarch. 
 
 INGRATIATE. Insinuate. 
 
 These terms differ as to the modes 
 adopted. Insinuate (Lat. in^nuare, 
 to make to wind in) leans to an unfa- 
 vourable signification, as often imply- 
 ing artfulness of purpose and selfish 
 ends ; Ingratiate (Lat. in, into, 
 gratia, favour), the compassing the 
 same end with candour and merit. In- 
 sinuate is used of physical influences 
 and substances, and, metaphorically, 
 of influences in the-^bstract ; Ingra- 
 tiate, only of the acts and demeanour 
 of human agents. Ingratiate is n»7er 
 employed, like Insinuate, of simple 
 idea«, notions, suppositions, or state- 
 ments. Insinuation, in this sense, is 
 indirect declaration, or a statement of 
 a part, leaving more to be inferred. 
 
 *' One of those who came off was the old 
 man who h«d already ingratiated himself 
 into our favour." — Cook's VoyaQss, 
 
 "Some do wind and insintiate into the 
 grace and favour of the hearer, and by 
 such an occasion draw his heart unto 
 them."— Holland, Plutarch, 
 
 INNOCENCE. Purity. 
 
 Innocence (Lat. imwcentia) is a 
 negative. Purity (Lat. piirttatem) is 
 a positive quality. Innocence is free 
 dom from harm or guilt, hence speci- 
 fically of some particular act or charge. 
 A very wicked and injurious person 
 may be quite innocent of a particular 
 crime. Purity is perfect moral clean- 
 ness. Purity is spotlessness of soul. 
 Innocence is purity of manners. 
 Purity is the cause and safeguard of 
 innocence. Purity regards the mind 
 and the motives, innocence the inten- 
 tions and the actions. 
 
 INNER. Inward. Internal. 
 Interior. Intrinsic. 
 
 These temis may be partly illus- 
 trated by those to which they stand 
 opposed. Thus inner is opposed to 
 outer, inward to outward, internal to 
 external, interior to exterior. Inner 
 is employed of such things as admit 
 of degrees of comparison in relation 
 to a state or position inwards. Thus 
 inner means more towards the centre, 
 and has a superlative — inmost or in- 
 nermost. The inner walls of a forti- 
 fication are those which approach the 
 stronghold. Inward is used, not like 
 inner, of physical locality or relation- 
 ship, but morally to express the 
 quality of being within, as opposed 
 to being exposed to observation or 
 view ; as, " He believes it in his in- 
 ward heart, whatever he may say." 
 
 Internal (Lat. internus)i3 always 
 specific, being not an absolute but a 
 relative term, and coupled with some 
 object in particular implied or ex- 
 pressed ; as, the internal arrange- 
 ments of a house ; internal trade, 
 which implies external commerce, to 
 which it stands opposed. 
 
 Interior (Lat. mtmor), like Inner, 
 admits of degrees, which are excluded 
 from Internal; as, the interior dis- 
 tricts of a country, which are re- 
 moved in different degrees from the 
 borders or confines of it. 
 
 Intrinsic is internally orinhe rentb 
 
522 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [inordinate] 
 
 belonging, as distinguished from what 
 is only apparent or fictitious ; hence 
 genuine, real. 
 
 INORDINATE. Immoderate. 
 Excessive. Extravagant. Exor- 
 bitant. 
 
 Inordinate (Lat. hiordiuatus, dis- 
 ordered) is well employed of human 
 desires ; as an inordinate ambition or 
 love of pleasure ; or human qualities, 
 as inordinate vanity. 
 
 Immoderate (Lat.immMh'atus, un- 
 restrained) has a wider application to 
 anything exceeding j ust limits ; as im- 
 moderate demands, immoderate grief. 
 
 Excessive (Lat. excidere^ sup. ex- 
 cessiim, to go beyond) differs from Im- 
 moderate in relating to the thing it- 
 self, not to the person ; as, " He was 
 immoderate in his claims ; " or, " The 
 demand itself was excessive." In the 
 term "excessive expenditure " there is 
 not the same reflexion on the conduct 
 of individuals as in " immoderate ex- 
 penditure." 
 
 Extravagant (Lat. extra, beyond, 
 and vUgciri, to wander) has the same 
 application, with the idea of a reck- 
 less absence of calculation or propor- 
 tion in matters of expending or de- 
 manding ; as, an extravagant demand 
 or claim. It is applicable to anything 
 which is immoderately expended, as 
 extravagant praise. 
 
 Exorbitant (Lat. exnvbilare to go 
 out of the track, orbtta) denotes the 
 designedly extravagant. A demand 
 may be extravagant from want of at- 
 tention ; it is exorbitant as the result 
 of an extortionate aim, or a desire to 
 enjoy or acquire more than is reason- 
 able, fair, or just. Exorbitant pas- 
 sions are those which claim over-in- 
 dulgence. The exorbitant is the more 
 extravagant form of the excessive. 
 Both are applicable to things which 
 being susceptible of increase have re- 
 ceived more than is due, but the latter 
 advances upon tlie former. That 
 which is excessive passes the ordinary 
 course or bounds. That which is ex- 
 orbitant passes them to a degree which 
 is out of all proportion. Exorbitant 
 pretensions are beyond excessive pre- 
 tensions. The first are strained, but 
 
 we do not know where the second 
 will end. Excessive is capable of a 
 meaning not altogether unfavourable. 
 Exorbitant always denotes what is 
 wrong. An excessive generosity is a 
 sort of noble weakness. An exorbi- 
 tant generosity could be only mad- 
 ness. 
 
 " Their object is to merge all natural and 
 all social sentiment in inordinate vanity." — 
 Burke. 
 
 " In the fourth place, from all that has 
 been said, we should learn never to be im,' 
 moderateli/ anxious about our external situa- 
 tion, but submit our lot with cheerfulness 
 to the disposal of Heaven."— Blair. 
 
 "Excessive lenity and indulgence are 
 ultimately excessive rigour." — Knox, 
 Essays. 
 
 " They declaimed against human reason. 
 They depressed it as extravagantly as their 
 adversaries had advanced it." — Warbur- 
 ton. 
 
 " To reduce the crown from the exorbi- 
 tances it affected within the ancient and 
 legal boundaries of the constitution." — 
 Bishop Hurd. 
 
 INQUIRY. Interrogate. Ask. 
 Question. 
 
 Inquire (Lat. inquirtre) denotes 
 the process of seeking for truth by 
 one or more questions, which may be 
 put in different ways and in different 
 directions, or answered from different 
 sources. 
 
 Interrogate (Lat. interr'dgare, t^ 
 ask) is to put several questions in a 
 formal and systematic manner, and is 
 directed only to one quarter and to 
 living persons. Ask is simpler, and 
 generally turns upon a simple aflSrma- 
 tive or negative answer to a matter of 
 fact; as, "Ask him if such is the 
 case." It has, of course, also the 
 sense of crave. 
 
 Question (Lat. qucestionem, an in- 
 quiry, quxrcre, to seek) is of wider 
 meaning ; and, in addition to the 
 sense of Interrogate, has that of dis- 
 puting or arguing from a doubt of some 
 specific statement or alleged fact. 
 Where Question is used in the sense 
 of putting questions, it differs from In- 
 terrogate in being of wider signifi- 
 cation. Interrogation is of some fact. 
 Question may be of the possession of 
 knowledge in a more extended way, 
 as to question a student in history, 
 
[inscrutable] discriminated. 
 
 523 
 
 Hence Question, unlike the others, 
 turns upon matters more strictly con- 
 nected with the condition of the per- 
 son questioned. Curiosity leads us to 
 question. Authoritativeness appears 
 in interrogation ; desire of knowledge, 
 in inquiry. 
 
 " And all that is wanting to the perfection 
 of this art (of medicine) will undoubtedly 
 be found if able men, and such as are in- 
 structed in the ancient rules, will make a 
 further inquiry into it." — Drydex. 
 
 " The traveller, whoever he might be, 
 coming to the fortified habitation of a chief- 
 tain, would probably have been interro- 
 gated"— io^^SO^. 
 " Th' eternal quest'ner shun ; a certain 
 
 rule, 
 There is no blab like to the quest'ning fool." 
 HAMiLTOif, Horace. 
 
 " Wejown it to be highly proper that men 
 should ask themselves why they believe; 
 but it is equally proper for them to ask why 
 they disbelieve." — Skckkr. 
 
 INQUISITIVE. Curious. Pry- 
 ing. 
 
 The Curious person (see Curious) 
 is eager for information generally, or 
 for the possession of it in any one of 
 many ways, as in problems of Nature, 
 art, or science, as well as with refer- 
 ence to causes of little or no impor- 
 tance or concern to himself. 
 
 He is Inquisitive (Lat. viqu'isitwus, 
 searching into^ who busies himself 
 with inquiries on a small scale, of no 
 intrinsic importance or of little prac- 
 tical concern to himself. 
 
 The Prying man (the derivation of 
 pry is very uncertain) uses his own 
 powers of observation, rather than 
 questions put to others, for the pur- 
 pose of discovering their secret affairs 
 out of a puerile or low-minded curio- 
 sity. 
 
 " Exercising upon theological matters 
 that inquisitiveness and sagacity that has 
 made in our age such a happy progress in 
 philosophical ones." — BovLE. 
 
 "Man is read in his face, God in his 
 creatures, but not as the philosopher, the 
 creature of glory, reads him, but as the 
 divine, the servant of humility; yet even he 
 must take care not to be too curious."— B, 
 JONSON. 
 
 " So close in poplar shades, her children 
 
 gone. 
 The raother nightingale laments alone. 
 Whose nest some prying churl had found." 
 Dryben, Virgil. 
 
 INROAD. Invasion. Incursion. 
 Irruption. Intrusion. 
 
 Forcible or unallowed entrance is 
 common to these words. An Inroad 
 is an entry by some novel and forcible 
 method, involving an injury and tres- 
 pass in the action. 
 
 Invasion ( Lat. inrosionem; invadHrey 
 to invade) denotes a forcible entry 
 upon what is the property of another, 
 with a violation of his right of pro- 
 perty, and with the direct intention 
 of depriving him of some such right, 
 or in retaliation for alleged injuries 
 committed by him. 
 
 Incursion (Lat. incursionem, an on- 
 set ; inciirr^re, to run into) is a lighter 
 kind of invasion, without the idea of 
 permanence or occupation, and, as a 
 transitory act, involving the original 
 intention of a return. 
 
 Irruption (Lat. irruptionem, a 
 rushing into) is more violent and sus- 
 tained, being done in the spirit of 
 destruction and conquest. 
 
 Intrusion (Lat. intrudere^ to thrust 
 into) is such an entry as, being with- 
 out violence, is nevertheless without 
 right or welcome. 
 " Far from their inroads in my pastures 
 
 feed 
 The lowing heifer, and the pampered steed." 
 TiCKELX, Iliad. 
 
 "The universal good-wiil which is so 
 strong in him exposes him to the assaults of 
 every iiivader upon his time, his conversa- 
 tion, and his property," — Tatler. 
 
 " So Greece to combat shall in safety go. 
 Nor fear the fierce incursions of the foe." 
 Pope, Homer. 
 
 " Letters had there been happily profest 
 in very ancient time with frequency of 
 scholars, until irruptions of pagans had 
 brought them to this lately restored defi- 
 ciency."— Drayton. 
 
 " The Pope would not desire any viols- 
 tion of the immunities of the realm, or to 
 bring those into public contention which 
 had been hitherto enjoyed without intrusion 
 or molestation." — Burnet. 
 
 INSCRUTABLE. Unseahch- 
 ABLE. Impenetrable. 
 
 Inscrutable (Lat. inscrntdbilis) re- 
 lates to that particular form of the 
 unsearchable which baffles intrinsic 
 inquiry, and so denotes what cnnnot 
 ^e comprehended by reason of the 
 
524 
 
 mystery and complexity which belong 
 to it. 
 
 Unsearchable relates to what 
 cannot be explored by reason of its 
 intrinsic depth or distance. Hence 
 I NSCRUTABLE is applicable to things of 
 ordinary kinds, but of extraordinary 
 difficulty ; as, " inscrutable designs : " 
 unsearchable, to extraordinary things ; 
 as, the "unsearchable attributes of 
 God." 
 
 Impenetrable (Lat. imptnctrdbtlis ; 
 paittrdre, to penetrate) stands to In- 
 scrutable as the more specific to the 
 more generic. Inscrutable denotes 
 the nature of the thing; Impenetrable 
 may apply also to what is made in- 
 scrutable. The decrees of God are 
 inscrutable ; the designs of a subtle 
 diplomatist may be impenetrable by 
 the disguise in which he clothes his 
 ideas. Inscrutable belongs to the 
 whole; Impenetrable also to the 
 parts in detail. 
 
 '* 'Tis not in man 
 To yield a reason for the will of Heaven, 
 Which is inscrutable.'" 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher. 
 " He who withont warrant but his own 
 fantastic surmise takes upon him perpetu- 
 ally to unfold the secret and unsearchable 
 mysteries of high Providence, is likely for 
 the most part to mistake and slander them." 
 — MiLTOK. 
 
 "Nothing almost escaped that he acheved 
 not, were the thing never sodifBcyle, or (as 
 who sayth) impenetrable"— ^ir T. Elyot. 
 
 INSIDE. Interior. 
 
 These terms differ in dignity. Any- 
 thing which has an outside may have 
 an inside. But, as the exterior is a 
 graver word than outhide, so is Inte- 
 rior than Inside. The interior of St. 
 Paul's Cathedral conveys a different 
 impression from the inside ; the latter 
 is simply that which is not the out- 
 side or the neighbouring street ; the 
 former is architecturally correlative to 
 the exterior. In the same way, in 
 speaking of insignificant, objects, we 
 use the term Inside; as the inside, 
 not the interior, of a glove, or a shoe. 
 
 INSIDIOUS. Treacherous. 
 
 An enemy is Insidious (Lat. insi- 
 diosus, artful). A friend is Treache- 
 rous (see Faithless). The insidious 
 nwin carries on a system of deccptiv,- 
 
 SYNONYMS [iNSIDEJ 
 
 ti-eatment under the mask of indiffe- 
 rence. The treacherous man betrays 
 all at once the friendship or confidence 
 which has been reposed in him. In 
 their metaphorical meanings, this dis- 
 tinction is sustained. A treacherous 
 climate is one which, under the ap- 
 pearance of cloudless skies and 
 warmth, harbours fever or other dis- 
 ease, which may at any time take 
 suQuen effect. An insidious disease is 
 one of which the virulence and certain 
 progress are marked by the absence 
 of pain, and the slow degrees by 
 which it develops itself. 
 
 " The upright man hath little of the ser- 
 pent, none of its lurking insidiousness." 
 —Barrow. 
 
 " The world must think him in the wrong. 
 Would say he made a treach'rous use 
 Of wit, to flatter and seduce." SwiPT. 
 
 INSIGHT. Inspection. 
 
 Insight is for one's self. Inspec- 
 tion (Lat. inspectionem ; inspicirej to 
 look into) is for some purpose external 
 to one's self directly connected with 
 the object inspected. Insight extends 
 knowledge or experience. Inspection 
 is for the sake of assurance or amend- 
 ment. Insight is quick, and may be 
 instantaneous ; inspection is careful 
 and gradual. Insight is connected 
 with the understanding; inspection 
 more simply with the bodily vision. 
 
 " Angels, both good and bad, have a full 
 insight into the activity and force of natural 
 causes." — SouTn. 
 
 " The embroilment in his father's affairs 
 could never have happened if the affairs 
 of that kingdom had been under a more 
 equal inspection." — BuRNHT. 
 
 INSINUATE. Suggest. 
 
 One Insinuates (Lat. insinuare, te 
 put into the bosom) finely and with 
 address; one Suggests (Lat. sitggc- 
 rcre, part, siiggestus) by influeiice and 
 design. In order to insinuate one 
 must manage the time, the occasion, 
 the air and manner of saying the 
 thing. To suggest, one must have 
 gained some sort of influence over the 
 minds of persons. One covers skil- 
 fully what one insinuates, one gives 
 force to what one suggests. The sub- 
 ject of an insinuation is commonly 
 an opinion ; that of suggestion an act 
 r^T course of action, though we may 
 
[instrument] discriminated. 
 
 also suggest openly and in matters of 
 opinion also ; as, to suggest an expla- 
 nation for a difficulty. There is both in 
 insinuation and in suggestion, a limi- 
 ted statement which is left to be en- 
 forced, expanded, or applied by the 
 understanding of the person addressed. 
 Insinuation is of a personal character, 
 having to do with men's characters, 
 motives, and actions ; suggestion may 
 be on any matter. The moral cowar- 
 dice which shrinks from the respon- 
 sibility of an outspoken declaration, 
 leads persons to insinuate. The mo- 
 desty which distrusts its own judg- 
 ment, or which is slow to dictate to 
 others, leads them to suggest. 
 
 525 
 
 INSIST. Persist. 
 Insist (Lat. insistere, to persevere, to 
 urge) andP EHSiST (persisterCyto continue 
 steadfastli^)hoih denote determined con- 
 tinuance in speech or action against 
 some amount of opposition, which is 
 overcome in the former case by deter- 
 mination and energy of will; in the 
 latter by p^severance and patience. 
 We insist as against others. We 
 persist in what exclusively relates to 
 ourselves. " He persisted in that 
 course." ''He insisted on his friend's 
 adopting it." Insist implies some 
 alleged right, as authority or claim. 
 Persist may be from obstinacy alone, 
 and either with or against rights. 
 " I urged you further ; theu you scratched 
 
 your head. 
 And too impatiently stamped with your 
 
 foot; 
 Yet I insisted ; yet you answered not. 
 But, with an angry wafter of your hand. 
 Gave sign for me to leave you." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 " I, on the other side, 
 Us'd no ambition to commend my deeds ; 
 The deeds themselves, though mute, spoke 
 
 loud the doer. 
 But they persisted deaf, and would not 
 
 seem 
 To count them things worth notice." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 INSTINCTIVE. Intuitive. 
 
 That is iNSTiNtTiVE (Lat. instin- 
 guere, part, instinctus, to instigate, im- 
 vel) which we are led to feel or to do 
 oy the involuntary and unreasoning 
 prompting of nature ; instinct being, 
 according to Paley's well-known de- 
 6nition, " A propensity prior to expe- 
 
 rience, and independent cf instruc- 
 tion." 
 
 That is Intuitive (Lat. intuirtf to 
 look on, part, intuttus) which is the 
 action or result of knowledge, inde- 
 pendent of reasoning or instruction. 
 The instinctive regards feeling and 
 action, whether bodily or mental, the 
 intuitive regards perception. Gene- 
 rally speaking, I do a thing instinc- 
 tively, and understand it intuitively. 
 
 INSTITUTE. Institution. 
 
 To Institute {Lat, instttiiere, part. 
 instttiitus) is to set up, to cause to 
 stand, to establish. That which is 
 publicly established with authority is 
 an institution. But the word Institu- 
 tion has the particular meaning of an 
 established, organized society. In- 
 stitute (setting aside its meaning of 
 authoritatively recognized precepts or 
 principles of jurisprudence) is simi- 
 larly employed. The diiference seems 
 to be that Institution being an old 
 word in English, and Institute in this 
 sense being an adoption of the French 
 Institut, which is a literary and phi- 
 losophical society, the term Institute 
 is restricted to this use. So among 
 other institutions in large towns, 
 literary, charitable, or commercial, 
 we observe generally in these days a 
 mechanics' institute. 
 
 INSTRUMENT. Implement. 
 Tool. 
 
 Instrument (Lat. instrumentum, 
 instruh-e, to furnish) is used in more 
 than reference to physical manipu- 
 lation. We speak of agricultural and 
 surgical, but also of mathematical 
 instruments. Anything which is em- 
 ployed to do a work or effect an end 
 is an instrument, as a musical instru- 
 ment. 
 
 Implement (Lat. implimentutn, in a 
 late sense of a fulfilling, implh-e, to 
 Jill up) is always restricted to physical 
 use. 
 
 Tool (A. S. tol) is a simpler word 
 for an instrument of the manual arts, 
 and differs from Implement in being 
 more general or less specific. An 
 implement is a tool regarded in refe- 
 rence to its particular purpose. In 
 the metaphorical application, Instru- 
 
526 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [insult] 
 
 MRNT is capable of an honourable or 
 indifferent, as well as dishonourable, 
 Tool only of a dishonourable, sense. 
 " The tool of a party." "An instru- 
 ment in the hands of God." " An in- 
 strument in bringing about a peace 
 between the two nations." The 
 character of a tool is simplicity, of an 
 implement technical adaptation, of an 
 instrument scientific ingenuity and 
 effectiveness. One speaks of the tools 
 of a carpenter, of the implements of 
 husbandry, of the instruments of the 
 astronomer. The implement goes to 
 perform a work with which it comes 
 into physical contact, the insti-ument 
 is a scientific invention for multipl}'- 
 ing and enhancing the faculties and 
 powers of men. 
 
 " The bold are but the instruments of the 
 
 wise." Dryden. 
 
 " Dilated and infuriate, shall send forth 
 From far with thund'ring noise among our 
 
 foes 
 8nch implements of mischief as shall dash 
 To pieces and o'erwhelm whatev^sr stands 
 Adverse." Milton. 
 
 INSULT. Affront. Outrage. 
 Indignity. 
 
 An Insult (Lat. insultdre, to leap 
 upon) is never accompanied by vio- 
 lence, as at present used — this sense 
 being reserved for assault ( Lat. asiUlre, 
 to leap upon, sup. assultum) another 
 compound of the same verb — but con- 
 sists in words or actions of an offen- 
 sive and derogatory kind. 
 
 Affront (O. Fr. afronter, Lat. ad 
 frontem, to the forehead or front) is a 
 marked intentional, if not public, 
 breach of politeness. It lies more in 
 manner than in words, and may be 
 unaccompanied by words. It is more 
 demonstrative and less bitter than 
 insult. 
 
 Outrage (Fr. outrage) is gross and 
 violent insult and indignity, or over- 
 bearing or cniel violation of the feel- 
 ings or the person. 
 
 Indignity (Lat. indignHixLiem, un- 
 warthiness, baseness) can only be prac- 
 tised upon persons claiming or entitled 
 to high respect ; the force of it de- 
 pending on the contrast between the 
 worth or station of the person, and 
 the treatment to which he is subjected. 
 
 " The defender oi religion should not imi- 
 tate the insulter of it in his modes of 
 disputation, which may be comprised in 
 sophistry, buffoonery, and scurrility," — 
 Warburton. 
 
 ♦' If thy brother or thy neighboBr have 
 offered thee an injury or an affront, forgive 
 him. "—Chilling WORTH. 
 
 As Indignity implies superiority in 
 the object of it, so Affront implies 
 equality ; while Insult may be to the 
 strong or the weak, to superiors, 
 equals, or inferiors. The weakness 
 and modesty of women are said to be 
 insulted or outraged, not affronted. 
 An affi-ont is a manifestation of re- 
 proach or contempt in the face of an- 
 other. It wounds, and is intended to 
 wound, those who are sensitive to 
 their honour. An insult is an insolent 
 attack. It is more easy to imagine an 
 affront where none was intended than 
 an insult. There never can be a jus- 
 tification of insult. Affront is passive 
 in its character, insult and outrage 
 active. Good men never insult, but 
 it would be better to affront another or 
 run the risk of doing so, than to appear 
 to sympathize with him in what is dis- 
 graceful. Affront does not exclude 
 politeness. Insult does. 
 
 " This is the round of a passionate man's 
 life : he contracts debts when he is furious, 
 which his virtue, if he has virtue, obliges 
 him to discharge at the return of reason. 
 He spends his time in outrage and repara- 
 tion." — Johnson. 
 
 " The Spaniards took it as the greatest 
 indignity in the world that Holland should 
 pretend to oblige the crown of Spain to 
 accept the very conditions of France." — 
 Sir W, Tkmple. 
 
 INSUPERABLE. Insurmount- 
 able. Invincible. Unconquer- 
 able. 
 
 Mental bairiers are commonly said 
 to be Insuperable (Lat. insupera* 
 bills ; in-f not, and siiptrare, to get over) ; 
 such are difficulties, obstacles, or ob- 
 jections. That is said to be insuper- 
 able which the person has not the 
 power of overcoming; as that is In- 
 surmountable (in', not, and turmount' 
 able, Fr. surmonter, to swmount) which 
 does not admit of sufficient external 
 appliances ; so, an insuperable aver- 
 sion, an insurmountable objection. 
 
 Invincible (Lat. invincK&^/is) is em* 
 
[insurrection] discriminated. 
 
 527 
 
 ployed to denote that which power 
 cannot oyercome ; as, invincible igno- 
 rance, the Invincible Armada. 
 
 Unconquerable (Lat. conqmrh-ey 
 in a late sense of to conquer), denotes 
 what cannot be overcome by the par- 
 ticular power of reason or persuasion, 
 and is accordingly applied usually to 
 the resistance which proceeds from an- 
 tagonistic feeling ; as, unconquerable 
 prejudice, aversion, and the like. 
 
 " Many who toil through the intricacy of 
 complicated systems are insuperably embar- 
 rassed with the least perplexity in common 
 affairs." — Rambler. 
 
 " Doubtless they saw in the attempt (to 
 convert the people beyond the Rhine) tuswr- 
 mountable difficulties, either from the diver- 
 sity of language, or the ferocity of these 
 nations so remote from Christian mildness," 
 — JORYIN, 
 
 " The invincibleness of general custom." 
 — WiLKIKS. 
 
 ** All is not lost ; the unconquerable will 
 
 And study of revenge, immortal hate. 
 
 And courage never to submit or yield. 
 
 And what is else not to be overcome." 
 
 MlLTOU. 
 
 INSURRECTION. Sedition. 
 Rebellion. Revolt. Revolution. 
 Mutiny. Defection. Riot. 
 
 An Insurrection (Lat. insurrec- 
 tionem, insurgire, sup. insiir rectum, to 
 rise up) is a rising up of individuals 
 against the laws of a community or 
 state or the authority of the govern- 
 ment. This may or may not be carried 
 out into fighting or active opposition, 
 the mere taking up arms against the 
 State being sufficient to constitute in- 
 surrection. 
 
 Sedition is, literally, a sepai*ation 
 of the people (Lat. seditionem ; se-, 
 apart, and itionem, a going). It is such 
 a commotion in the State as manifests 
 public discontent, without aiming at 
 violent opposition to the laws. It is 
 generally the work of turbulent and 
 audacious spirits. 
 
 Reb ellion (Lat. r'&bellionem) is from 
 the Latin re-, again, and helium, war. 
 The term was applied by the Romans, 
 not to risings at home, but abroad, a- 
 mong those conquered nations who, in 
 seeking to cast oflf the Roman power, 
 involved the State in a new war. It is 
 employed by us in the sense of a rieing 
 
 of the whole or the great majority of 
 a people against the supreme ruler of 
 government, being an extended insur- 
 rection or revolt. 
 
 Revolt (Fr. rdvolte), is an attempt 
 ta shake off one ruler or form of 
 government, for the purpose of sub- 
 stituting another. This may not have 
 come to overt acts of violence. A 
 parliament may be in a state of revolt 
 from the supreme ruler without using 
 more than meetings and proclama- 
 tions. It may be well to dwell a 
 little on the specific differences be- 
 tween Rebellion and Revolt. Re- 
 bellion is an outbreak of disobedience 
 and indignation. The rebel rises up 
 against the authority that presses upon 
 him. The Revolter turns against the 
 society to which he was attached. The 
 object of the former is to escaipe from 
 the power that dominates over him, 
 that of the latter, to overthrow and de- 
 stroy the power and the laws which 
 he has recognized. A successful re- 
 bellion ends in a revolt, a permanent 
 revolt in a revolution. Rebellion and 
 revolt are states of war, revolution is 
 a state of peace, though on a new foot- 
 ing. Revolt is commonly employed of 
 important matters, Rebellion some- 
 times of things less important. Hence 
 Rebellion is more easily applicable 
 to individuals and individual acts than 
 Revolt. Revolution, which is of the 
 same derivation, is such a radical 
 change in the political organization 
 as supposes a revolt successfully car- 
 ried out. 
 
 MuTiNir(Fr. meute, Lat. mofa, a troop 
 raised for some expedition, became = 
 6meute, whence, adj. mutin, Bracket) 
 is a movement of revolt against minor 
 institutions or against military or 
 naval authorities or commanders, as 
 the mutiny of a regiment or a ship's 
 crew. Insurrection, rebellion, and 
 revolt, may be universal or partial. 
 Sedition and mutiny are always par- 
 tial. Revolution always universal, 
 
 *' Our people here at home, grown difc 
 content 
 Through great exactions, insurrection$ 
 
 breed." Danikl. 
 
 " Sedition is of the like tendency with 
 treason, butwith(-at the overt acts th«it ar« 
 essential to tie la ;ter." — Brax dk 
 
628 
 
 SYNONYMS [intellect] 
 
 " For rebellion bein^ an opposition, not to 
 persons but to authority, which is founded 
 only in the constitution and laws of the 
 government, those, whoever they be, who 
 by force break through, and by force justify 
 their violation of them, are truly and pro- 
 perly rebels."— Locke. 
 
 " Our discontented counties do revolt." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Revolt is not commonly employed of 
 individuals, but of communities which 
 form part of a more extended juris- 
 diction, as the " revolted provinces." 
 
 " The violence of revolutions is generally 
 proportioned to the degree of the malad- 
 ministration which has produced them," — 
 Macaulay. 
 
 "In every mutiny/ against the discipline 
 of the college he was the ringleader." — 
 Ibid. 
 
 Defection differs from the above 
 in having not an active but a negative 
 force. Defection (Lat. dlfectmiem) is 
 the failure in duty, obligation, alle- 
 giance, to that to which one ought to be 
 attached or has attached one's self. It 
 springs from abated force of principle, 
 as estrangement of feeling. Insurrec- 
 tion, sedition, and mutiny are external 
 acts. Revolt, rebellion, revolution, 
 and defection are ex'pressive also of 
 acts or states of mind. 
 
 " There were fewer instances then of 
 leaving one sect for another than now we 
 have of defection to Popery, or of apostasy 
 to Mahometism." — Bentley. 
 
 Riot (O. Fr. riote, and not, Lit- 
 tre) the doing of anything in a tur- 
 bulent or violent way against the 
 peace, and by three or more persons 
 assembled for the purpose. Such is its 
 legal definition. In common parlance 
 any uproar or noisy and tumultuous 
 conduct in one or more may be called 
 a riot. 
 
 " His headstrong riot hath no curb." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 INTELLECT. Intelligence. 
 Understanding. Reason. 
 
 Intellect (Lat. intellectus, intelti- 
 gtre, to understand) is, in the strict 
 scientific view, that part of the human 
 soul by which it knows, as distin- 
 guished from those by which it feels 
 or wills. It is employed in the fur- 
 ther sense of the capacity for higher 
 forms of knowledge, as distinguished 
 from the faculties of perception and J 
 
 imagination ; the faculty of seeing the 
 relations of objects, involving compre- 
 hension and judgment. The former 
 identity of Intellect and Intelli- 
 gence has been of late years dissolved 
 (omitting its meaning of Information, 
 as contained in the newspapers), and 
 Intelligence now means a good 
 quality of the understanding, a readi- 
 ness to comprehend things of ordinary 
 occurrence, which may be quickened 
 by practice and experience ; while 
 Intellect is confined to the mental 
 powers and their capacity in the ab- 
 stract. Understanding is the Saxon 
 expression for the Latin Intellect and 
 Intelligence. Its characteristic seems 
 to flow from this fact. It is a native 
 word, and so applied in a more collo- 
 quial way, and to the things of life in 
 their more familiar and practical as- 
 pects. Hence such phrases of fi-equent 
 occurrence, as "A sound practical 
 understanding." " I understand it 
 sufficientlj' for practical purposes." 
 
 " The word intellect can be of no essential 
 use whatever, if the ambiguity in the signi- 
 fication of the good old English word under- 
 standing be avoided ; and as to intellection, 
 which a late very accurate writer has at- 
 tempted to introduce, I can see no advan- 
 tage attending it."— STEWART. 
 
 " In affirming that the universe proceeds 
 from chance, it would appear that atheists 
 mean either that it has no cause at all, or 
 that its cause did not act intelligently or 
 with design in the production of it." — 
 Beattie. 
 
 Reason (Fr. raison, Lat. rtitionem) 
 is used in manifold senses. As a syn- 
 onym here it may be defined as that 
 faculty or capacity of the human mind 
 by which it is distinguished from the 
 inferior animals ; an^ again, as being 
 different from the lower powers of 
 cognition, such as sense, imagination, 
 and memory, and as separate from the 
 feelings and desires. The reason is 
 distinguished from the understanding, 
 when the latter is made to include 
 conception, judgment, and reasoning. 
 It is then that faculty by which man 
 perceives first tiniths intuitively as 
 being beyond the reach of explana- 
 tion or what logicians term Discourse. 
 " The sense perceives, the understanding 
 in its own peculiar operation conceives, th« 
 reason, as rationaliaed understaading com- 
 prehends "- 0OLBBIDa& 
 
intercourseJ discriminated. 
 
 529 
 
 INTELLECTUAL. Mental. 
 
 Mental (Fr. mental, Lat. mentem, 
 the mind) is simply belonging to the 
 mind as distinct from the body; In- 
 tellectual (see Intellect) to the 
 powers, attributes, and dignity of 
 mind, as distinguished fi*om sense or 
 matter. "The conversation turned 
 on mental subjects," would mean 
 metaphysics ; on intellectual subjects, 
 might mean any branch of high know- 
 ledge or education. 
 
 " In order to the actual intellection of any 
 object, there is a spiritual intellectual light 
 necessary to enable the object to move or 
 affect the intellective faculty." — South. 
 
 " A strong expression of mental energy." 
 —Stewart. 
 
 INTENSE. Extreme. 
 
 Extreme (Lat. extrimus) qualifies 
 the last degree of measurement, In- 
 tense (Lat. intendere, to stretch, part. 
 intentus and -siis) a high degi-ee of 
 force. That which is extreme is be- 
 yond what is common, that which is 
 intense is strained or exercised beyond 
 what is common. Extreme pain is 
 very great pain, intense pain is very 
 violent pain. Extreme heat is regis- 
 tered by the then 
 makes itself felt. 
 
 INTERCEDE. Interpose. Me- 
 diate. Interfere. Intermeddle. 
 
 To Intercede (Lat. intercedere, to 
 go between)isof words ; to Interpose 
 (Fr. intei-poser) is of action. We in- 
 tercede with a superior on behalf of 
 an equal or inferior ; we interpose be- 
 tween equals. In interposition we 
 exercise our own power or authority ; 
 in intercession we endeavour to en- 
 list on our behalf the power or autho- 
 rity of another. 
 
 Mediate (Lat. mMiare, to be in the 
 middle) is to interpose between two 
 parties, as the equal friend of each, 
 with influence recognized by each. 
 
 Interfere (O.Fr. entre-ferir, toex- 
 change blows, Lat. /"erlre, to strike) and 
 Intermeddle are applicable to any 
 pre-existent or appointed course of 
 things, whether matters of personal 
 conduct or not ; as, to interfere in a 
 dispute ; to interfere with arrange- 
 ments ; or one arrangement may inter- 
 
 fere with another. Interfere implies 
 the exercise of influence, personal 
 power, or authority, for the purpose, 
 or with the effect of altering or modi- 
 fying some established course. Inter- 
 meddle is only employed of the inter- 
 ference of one conscious agent with 
 the affairs of others in an obti-usive 
 way, and without any recognized 
 right, but of self-will, 
 
 •' Moses interceded for transgressors, ana 
 caused an atonement to be made for them, 
 and stopped the wrath of God : so did 
 Christ."— Jortin. 
 " Those who in quarrels interpose. 
 Must often wipe a bloociy nose." 
 
 Gay. 
 " And thereupon was Warwick (by whose 
 
 ctist 
 All must be wrought) employed to medinle 
 A present marriage, to be had between 
 Him and the sister of the young French 
 queen." Daniel. 
 
 " In truth, it is not the interfering or 
 keeping aloof, bat iniquitous intermeddling 
 or treacherous inaction which is praised or 
 blamed by the decision of an equitable 
 judge."— BuRKK. 
 
 INTERCOURSE. Connexion. 
 Communication. Communion. 
 
 Dealing. 
 
 Intercourse (Lat. intercursus, in a 
 late sense, whence Fr. entrecours) 
 subsists only between persons. Con- 
 nexion (Lat. connexionem, a binding 
 together), and Communication (Lat. 
 communXcdtionem, an imparting) be- 
 tween both things and persons. In- 
 tercourse is a very wide term, com- 
 prehending every kind of reciprocal 
 action and dealing between persons 
 and communities, or nations, in mat- 
 ters of business, thought, words, or 
 feelings, from matters of the gravest 
 to the most ordinary character. Con- 
 nexion is permanent, as communica- 
 tion is temporary, intercourse ; the 
 former involving an unity and com- 
 munity of purpose or dealing ; the 
 latter a more casual interchange of 
 words and thoughts in the common 
 aflPairs of life. 
 
 Communion (Lat. commiinioHem, 
 participation in common) which lies less 
 in externals than Communication, is 
 among many, being such interchange 
 of offices as flows from i fcond of unity 
 in sentiment, feelings t conviction. 
 
 SI M 
 
530 
 
 SYNONYMS [interest^ 
 
 Communication is from one to an- 
 other ; communion is reciprocal. 
 
 Dealing (A. S. daUm, to divide) is 
 entirely confined to exteinal transac- 
 tions, being inapplicable to matters of 
 the mind and feeling. 
 
 '• This sweet intercourse 
 Of looks and smiles." 
 
 MlLTON. 
 
 " The eternal and inseparable conyiection 
 between virtue and happiness." — Atter- 
 BURY. 
 
 " Cardinal Wolsey in his ambassage into 
 (trance, commanded his servants to use no 
 French, but mere English to the French in 
 all commimica^towswhatsoerer." — Camden, 
 ' On flowers reposed, and with fresh flow- 
 rets crowned. 
 They eat, they drink, and in communion 
 
 sweet 
 Quaff immortality and joy." MiltoN. 
 
 " It (charity) must preside with a supe- 
 riority over all the desires of our hearts, 
 that neither wantonness nor lust, nor anger 
 and revenge, nor covetousness and ambi- 
 tion, may carry us aside from the ways of 
 righteousness and equity in onr dealings one 
 with another." — Sherlock. 
 
 INTEREST. Concern. 
 
 Concern (Lat. concernire, to mix 
 together, whence Fr. concerner) is 
 grave interest. As Interest (Lat. 
 interesse, to be of importance) m.a,y flow 
 from what touches our feelings, so 
 concern belongs to what is of practi- 
 cal importance to our circumstances 
 and state. So grave is the character 
 of Concern (while we may be inte- 
 rested even in ti'ifles),that the term is 
 sometimes employed to express tlie 
 extreme of compassion and even sor- 
 row. There is a distinct and objective 
 use of the term Interest, in which 
 it is synonymous, not with concern, 
 but with advantage. 
 
 INTERLOPER. Intruder. 
 
 The Interloper was one who ran 
 in between the legal trader and his 
 trade, for the purpose of appropriat- 
 ing its profits and advantages. We 
 owe the term to the Dutch (Dut. 
 looper, a runner, cf. Eng. leap) and to 
 the period when they monopolized the 
 carrying trade of the world. As at 
 present employed, the word retains 
 this force. 
 
 The Intruder (Lat. intruderej to 
 thru&t in) if one who pushes himself 
 
 into a place or a society in an un- 
 welcome mannei ; the interloper is 
 an intruder with the further design 
 of benefiting himself by the intrusion, 
 which he seeks to establish for a con- 
 tinuance; while the inti'uder may 
 possibly offend only once or momen- 
 tarily. 
 
 " They see plainly, whatever privileges 
 are allowed your company at Dort will be 
 given by the other towns, either openly or 
 covertly, to all those interlopers who bring 
 their woollen manufacture directly thither." 
 —Sir W. TEMPI.E. 
 
 " Aa intruder upon their retreat, and a" 
 disturber of their repose."— iJamiier. 
 
 INTERMEDIATE. Interven 
 
 INC. 
 
 These differ as being in the middle 
 differs from coming into the middle. 
 lNTERMEDiATE(Lat. intemicdius) time, 
 space, points ; 
 
 Intervening occurrences (Lat. 
 intervenire, to come between). The in- 
 termediate is calculated and fixed ; the 
 intervening is accidental and often 
 unforeseen. There is, however, a 
 sense in which Inconvenient stands 
 to Intermediate as the observation ot 
 a fact to the fact itself. When the in- 
 termediate is discerned in the course 
 of observation it is intervetiient, or 
 accruing in the course of time. 
 
 " lie saw also the intermediate joys of 
 paradise, wherewith the souls of the faith- 
 fnl are refreshed until the resuiTection." — 
 IksHop Bull. 
 
 ♦' But a law is then properly dispensed 
 with when it is capable of being obeyed, 
 and the person capable of yielding such 
 obedience to it is yet, by an intervenieni 
 power, discharged from his obligation to 
 obey."— South. 
 
 INTERMISSION. Interrup- 
 
 'iiON. Cessation. 
 
 Cessation (Lai. cessdre, to cease) is 
 final. Intermission and Interrup- 
 tion are not final, inasmuch as they 
 denote rest intermediate between two 
 movements. The one denotes extinct, 
 the others suspended motion. Inter- 
 mission (Lat. intermittcre, to discon- 
 nee t) is internal; inteiTuption external. 
 Intermission is temporary cessation 
 (or cessation at intervals) regarded in 
 itself, or as self-produced ; Interrup- 
 tion (Lat. interrumpere^ to break apart'^ 
 
[INTKODUCEJ DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 531 
 
 is the same thing as produced by ex- 
 ternal force or influence. It may be ob- 
 served that Intehmission denotes com- 
 plete cessation, while Interruption 
 may denote no more than such check 
 as produces an alteration of proceed- 
 ing. The stream which is interrup- 
 ted by a rock still flows on. An in- 
 termission of a supply of water im- 
 plies, for the time, a cessation of the 
 flow. An interruption of a speech 
 would denote that it was still pursued, 
 though the uniformity of its delivery 
 had been interfered with. 
 
 ** Scourge after scourge, and blows succeed- 
 ing blows ; 
 
 Lord, has Thy hand no mercy, and our 
 woes 
 
 No intermission ? " Habte. 
 
 " The parliaments and two or three high- 
 spirited kings had given some interruption 
 to the cruel exactions." — Burnet. 
 
 " The general eclipse and cessation of 
 oracles." — Holland, Plutarch. 
 
 INTERVAL. Interstice. In- 
 tersection. Interspace. 
 
 Interval (Lat. intervallum) is a 
 void space intervening between any 
 two objects, as points of time, or such 
 abstract difterence as is analogous to 
 this; as,e.^., to Jbe second to another in 
 some matter of proficiency, but at a 
 great interval. 
 
 An Interstice (Lat. interst^du/w) is 
 an interval between things closely set, 
 especially the parts which compose 
 an otherwise continuous body or sur- 
 face. 
 
 Interspace ( Lat. inter and spiitium) 
 is the space comprised by intersect- 
 ing lines, 
 
 INTERVENTION. Interposi- 
 tion. 
 
 These differ as the involuntary fi-om 
 the voluntary. Intervention (Lat. 
 intervtnlrey to come between) being 
 employed of accidental forces and 
 influences, as well as the acts of volun- 
 tary agents. Interposition (Lat. m- 
 terpbnere, to place between) only of the 
 latter. The moon is obscured by the 
 intervention of clouds ; a happy in- 
 terrention of circumstances. Human 
 or Divine interposition. An excep- 
 tion to this, however, occurs in the i 
 
 purely physical sense, in which In- 
 ter posiiion is sometimes used, as the 
 privation of the sun's light by the 
 interposition of an opaque body. In 
 that case, the difference between the 
 terms is that one implies previous 
 motion, the other not. Every plane- 
 tary obscuration is an interposition, 
 implying intervention. In the acts 
 of men, the motive of intervention is 
 commonly less authoritative or for- 
 cible than interposition. " He owed 
 his 1-ife to the intervention of another," 
 would mean, entreaty or help ; inter- 
 position would involve rescue. 
 
 " The species not only of sensible objects, 
 but even of notions of the mind, are pre- 
 served in the memory, without confusion 
 and dissipation, notwithstanding lapse of 
 time and intervention of infinite variety of 
 numbers."— Hale. 
 
 " The righteous would be detained pri- 
 soners here below by the chains of theij 
 unhappy natures, were there not some ex- 
 traordinary inferposure for their rescue and 
 enlargement."— Glanvill. 
 
 INTERVIEW. Meeting. 
 
 Meeting (A. S. mttan, to meet with, 
 obtain) is the simpler and more com- 
 prehensive, but less distinctive of 
 these tenns. It may serve to express 
 any coming together of physical or 
 inanimate, as well as animate objects 
 or voluntary agents ; as the meeting 
 of the waters, of clouds, of fi-iends, of 
 an assembly or conference. It may 
 be designed or accidental. 
 
 An Interview (Fr. entrevue, for- 
 merly entreveu) is, as its name denotes 
 a mutually-recognized meeting be- 
 tween tw© or more persons, usually 
 preconcerted, and for a purpose al 
 ready known. It involves a common 
 matter of importance to both parties, 
 which demands formal adj ustment. 
 " Stay, stay your steps, and listen to my 
 
 vows ; 
 'Tis the last interview that fate allows," 
 Dbyden, Virgil. 
 
 " We can just as easily conceive the con- 
 nection and mutual influence of soul and 
 body, as we can explain how two mathema- 
 tical lines indefinitely pi-oduced can be for 
 ever approaching each other, yet never 
 meei,"— Bishop Porteus. 
 
 INTRODUCE. Insert. Present. 
 
 Introduce (Lat. introductre, to lead 
 
 within) has its physical and its moral 
 
532 
 
 SYNONYMS [introductory] 
 
 senses. In the former it is synony- 
 mous -with Insert (Lat, i?jsem*e, part. 
 msertus), in the latter with Present 
 (Lat. prcese7itdre, to present, to present 
 one's self). As employed of physical 
 operations, to Introduce implies an 
 easier process than insertion,and is bet- 
 ter employed of cases where the way is 
 partly open or facilitated ; Insert, of 
 cases where the way has to be artifi- 
 cially made. Moreover, that which 
 is introduced may be hidden from 
 view ; that which is inserted is partly 
 visible after insertion. Insert has a 
 more purely physical force than In- 
 troduce, and commonly implies a 
 more permanent purpose. An addi- 
 tional topic is introduced ; an addi- 
 tional paragraph is inserted. The 
 surgeon's probe, having only a tem- 
 porary use, is introduced, not inserted, 
 into the wound. Introduction may 
 be a gradual process; insertion is 
 done at once. 
 
 •' They are the plainest and best dealers 
 in the world, which seems not to grow so 
 much from a principle of conscience or mo- 
 rality as from a custom or habit introduced 
 by the necessity of trade among them, which 
 depends as much upon common honesty as 
 war does upon discipline." — Sir W. 
 Temple. 
 
 In its other sense, and as a synonym 
 with present, to introduce is to bring 
 forward one person to the presence of 
 another as an equal ; to present is to 
 do the same thingto onewho is superior 
 to the person presented or introduced. 
 Persons are introduced to the acquain- 
 tance of one another generally; they 
 are presented, for instance, at court. 
 " The bud inserted in the rind, 
 The bud of peach or i-ose. 
 Adorns, though differing in its kind, 
 The stock whereon it grows 
 With flower as sweet, or fruit as fair. 
 As if produced by Nature there." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 " Ourlaws make the Ordinarya disturber 
 if he does not give institution upon the fit- 
 ness of a person presented to him, or at least 
 give notice to the patron of the disability of 
 his presentee" — Ayliffk. 
 
 INTRODUCTORY. Prelimi- 
 nary. Preparatory. 
 
 In the case of the Introductory 
 (s?e Introduce), the proceeding com- 
 monly has reference to thought and 
 understanding, while Preliminary 
 
 (Fr. priliminaire, Lat. prx, before ^ 
 and lirfien, a threshold) relates to mat- 
 ters of action. An introductory trea- 
 tise; a preliminary step. The one 
 precedes wider exhibition or fuller 
 knowledge, the latter more extended 
 action. 
 
 Preparatory (Fr. prtparatoire) 
 relates to the purpose rather than the 
 object, or the doer rather than the 
 deed. In the preparatory, I do what 
 will enable me the better to do some- 
 thing beyond. The preliminary is 
 congruous; the preparatory is effec- 
 tive ; the introductory is natural. 
 Preliminaries commonly belong to 
 matters of social arrangement or com- 
 pact, whether amicable or otherwise, 
 as the preliminaries of a contract, a 
 marriage, or a duel. 
 
 " This introductory discourse itself is tc 
 be but an essay, not a book,"— Boyle. 
 
 " I have discussed the nuptial prelimina- 
 ries so often, that I can repeat the forms in 
 which jointures are settled and pin-money 
 secured."— JoHNSON, 
 
 " A creature which is to pass a small 
 portion of its existence in one state, to be 
 preparatoiy to another, ought, no doubt, t« 
 have its attention constantly fixed upon 
 Its ulterior and permanent destination."— 
 Paley. 
 
 INTRUDE. Obtrude. 
 
 Unwelcome things or persons In- 
 trude themselves ; self-asserting 
 things or persons Obtrude them- 
 selves. We desire to rid ourselves of 
 that which intrudes by reason of its 
 inherent uncongeniality to us ; of 
 that which obtrudes by reason of the 
 simple irrepressibility of it. When 
 certain thoughts intrude themselves 
 on our minds they make us uneasy ; 
 when they obtrude themselves, they 
 prevent us from thinking of anything 
 else. 
 
 " Thy wit wants edge 
 And manners to intrude where I am 
 graced." Shakespeare. 
 
 " Experience teaches that it (plain speak- 
 ing) is too frequently under bad manage- 
 ment, and obtruded on society out of time 
 and season," — Observer. 
 
 INVECTIVE. Abuse. 
 
 Abuse (Lat. UbiUi, part, dbiisus) as 
 compared with Invective (Lat. in- 
 vect'iva, plur., angry complaijits), is 
 more personal and coarse, being 
 
rresolute] discriminated. 
 
 533 
 
 conveyed in harsh and unseemly 
 terms, and dictated by angry feel- 
 ing and bitter temper. Invective 
 is more commonly aimed at cha- 
 racter or conduct, and may be con- 
 veyed in writing and in refined lan- 
 guage, and dictated by indignation 
 against what is in itself blameworthy. 
 It often, however, means public 
 abuse under such restraints as are 
 imposed by position and education. 
 
 " It seemeth, therefore, mach amiss that 
 against them ■whom they term sacramen- 
 taries so many invective disconrses are 
 made." — Hooker. 
 
 " Thrasippus, a man of violent pansion, 
 and inflamed with wine, took some occa- 
 sion not recorded to break out into the 
 most violen. abuse and insult." — Cumber- 
 land. 
 
 INVIGORATE. Strengthen. 
 
 FORTIFV. 
 
 Strengthen (A. S. strene^u, 
 strength) is the simplest of tnese 
 terms, but it is not so positively ex- 
 pressive as the others. Anything is 
 strengthened which is made never so 
 little stronger than before, though it 
 be after all comparatively weak. 
 
 Invigorate (Lat. in-, and vtgdrem, 
 vigour) is specifically to strengthen, 
 as relates to the vital force of a body, 
 or what is analogous to it; as, the 
 spirit of a constitution. Hence only 
 living systems can be invigorated. 
 
 Fortify (Lat. fortif^dre, to 
 strengthen) is applied to structures 
 and systems, as such, and not in refe- 
 rence to any vital force which animates 
 the organization. The end of invigora- 
 tion is increased efiiciency of action ; 
 of fortification, increased eificiency of 
 resistance. That which is strength- 
 ened may yet be weak; that which 
 is invigorated or fortified becomes 
 strong. 
 
 " With the fierce race 
 Poured in a fresh, invigorating stream, 
 Blood where unquelled a mighty spirit 
 glowed." Thomson, Liberty, 
 
 " And there appeared an angel unto Him 
 from he&ven, strengthening Him." — English 
 Bible. 
 
 " Timidity was fortified by pride."— 
 Gibbon. 
 
 INVISIBLE. Imperceptible. 
 Invisible (Lat. xnvxiMiu) is that 
 vliich cannot be seen. 
 
 Imperceptible( Lat. m-, not, perce/)- 
 ttUilis, perceivable) is that which can- 
 not be perceived by the senses in 
 general or by the eye in particular. 
 That which is imperceptible is in- 
 visible, because by its smallness it 
 escapes our sight. God is invisible. 
 The ultimate atoms of which sub- 
 stances are composed are impercep- 
 tible. That which is invisible may 
 become visible. That which is im- 
 perceptible being so by nature remains 
 so for ever. 
 
 IRREPROACHABLE. Blame- 
 less. 
 
 The former is a stronger term, con- 
 vepng higher praise than the latter. 
 Blameless (Fr. hldmer, formerly 
 blasiner, Low Lat. blasphandre ; see 
 Bracket) expresses no more than 
 the harmless absence of whatis worthy 
 of censure. 
 
 Irreproachable (YrArreprochable ; 
 see Brachet, s.v. reprocher), the pos- 
 session of that which deserves praise 
 in relation to social life. An act may 
 be blameless ; a course of conduct irre- 
 proachable. To be irreproachable is 
 put forth in positive commendation ; 
 to be blameless in negative defence. 
 
 " He (Berkeley) erred ; and who is free 
 from error? but his intentions were trre- 
 proachable, and his conduct as a man and a 
 Christian did honour to human nature." — 
 Beattie. 
 
 " To this we owe much of the innocency, 
 and in some respects blamelessness , of our 
 lives, that we hare not been a scandal to 
 the Qospel, a shame to the good, and a 
 scorn to the bad." — Hopkins. 
 
 IRRESOLUTE. Undecided. 
 
 The Irresolute (see Resolution) 
 does not know what to resolve ; he is 
 therefore slow to take a part, while 
 the resolute is quick to do so. The 
 Undecided {see Decision) does noi 
 know what to decide ; he is therefore 
 slow to entertain a sentiment which 
 the decided is quick to form. So long 
 as a man is irresolute he cannot deter- 
 mine to act, so long as he is undecidec' 
 he cannot conclude. 2n the first cast- 
 he fears and deliberates, in the second 
 be doubts and examines. It is pos- 
 sible to be quite decided upon the 
 merit of a course of action without 
 having the resolution to adopt it. Tba 
 
634 
 
 irresolute doubts as to what he shall 
 do, the undecided as to what he ought 
 10 do. In irresolution the feeling is 
 lot affected towards an object power- 
 fully enough to prefer it. In indeci- 
 uion the mind does not see in any ob- 
 ject motives powerfully enough to 
 fix its choice. The soulthat is feeble, 
 timid, pusillanimous, indolent, unen- 
 ergetic, will be irresolute. The mind 
 which is timid, sluggish, light, with- 
 out understanding and without saga- 
 city will be undecided. The irresolute 
 man must be prompted, urged, incited, 
 the unilecided man must be enlight- 
 ened, instructed, persuaded, con- 
 vinced. 
 
 IRRITABLE. Irascible. 
 
 The former (Lat. irritare) is used of 
 substances as well as sentient beings, 
 the latter (Lat. irasci, to he angry) only 
 of sentient beings. Parts of the hu- 
 man frame are rendered irritable by 
 disease or injury. The idea is that 
 of an extreme and morbid suscepti- 
 bility. The merest trifle affects the 
 iriitable man. The irascible man 
 is quick to anger. I'he irritable 
 man does not allow vent to his 
 feelings. Reserved and timid persons 
 are often irritable. The irascible 
 man breaks out. The irritable man is 
 of extreme sensibility and suffers con- 
 tinually from this peculiarity of tem- 
 perament, and is an object of compas- 
 sion. The irascible man flies off 
 without cause, and is rather an object 
 of fear. The irritable man is to be 
 managed by sympathy, the irascible 
 by prudence. 
 
 ISSUE. Emerge. 
 
 Issue (Fr. issu, part of issir, to go 
 oftit, Lat. ejtre), in the purely physical 
 sense, denotes the coming forth of one 
 body out of another which comprised 
 it, and had some close relationship to 
 it, even if it were not so close as that 
 of cause and effect; while Emerge 
 (Lat. emergh-e) denotes no more than 
 the becoming visible by coming out of 
 that which before had the effect of con- 
 cealing, or in which the object had 
 been plunged and enveloped. " Horse- 
 men issued from the wood," would 
 convey the idea of their having been 
 
 SYNONYMS [irritable] 
 
 previously stationed there ; that they 
 emerged, would mean, that they were 
 seen to con-e out of it. Issue is as 
 often the result of mechanical force 
 exercised on inanimate things ; as 
 the stream issued from the rock. 
 Emerge is more appropriate to the 
 movements of voluntary agents. In 
 the secondary or analogous applica- 
 tions of these words. Issue denotes the 
 existence of cause and effect; Emerge, 
 that of antecedent and consequent. 
 
 •' From this Eternal Fountain of all 
 truth and of all good gifts, there issues light 
 which lighteth every one that cometh into 
 the world,"— Jortix. 
 
 " At the very moment when some of them 
 seemed plunged in unfathomable abysses of 
 disgi-a<-e and disaster, they have suddenly 
 emerged"— Bubke. 
 
 JADE. Weary. Tire. Harass. 
 Fatigue. 
 
 Jade (North Eng. form, yaud, a 
 sorry horse, has suggested a connexion 
 with A. S. eode, i.e. goes, or gone; as 
 if a wearied -out animal, but ?) denotes 
 the superinducement of weariness by 
 forced repetition of the same act or 
 effort ; a sensation of physical weari- 
 ness to little profit of work done. 
 
 To Weary (A. S, werig) denotes 
 the wearing effect of mental or bodily 
 exertion, which is accompanied with 
 dissatisfaction and distate of the em- 
 ployment. Weariness is less than the 
 former the result of specific exertion, 
 and may follow from satiety ; so that 
 men may weary even of enjoyments. 
 
 Tire (A. S. tenan, tirian, to vex, 
 iri'itate) has much the same force with 
 Weary, but commonly refers to more 
 active causes and greater lassitude in 
 consequence. It is the result of the 
 difficult, the laborious, or the burden- 
 some. 
 
 Fatigue {L&t. fMgdre, to weary) 
 relates to normal and systematic exer- 
 tion, which has resulted in such a 
 moderate effect as repose may correct. 
 
 Harass (O. Fr. harasser, to tire mit) 
 combines with the idea of wearying 
 
[jaunt] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 536 
 
 that of mental annoyance m care, im- 
 portunities, perplexity. The weari- 
 ness, however, is secondary. So that 
 a person may be considerably harassed 
 without being wearied or fatigued. 
 An accumulation of petty efforts and 
 instigations results in the feeling of 
 being jaded. 
 
 " What thousands seek. 
 With dishes tortnred from their native 
 
 taste. 
 And mad variety, to spur beyond 
 Its wiser will, the jaded appetite 1 " 
 
 Armstkoxg. 
 " Whether by fate, or missing of the way. 
 Or that she was by weariness detained. " 
 Surrey, Virgil. 
 " Yet whatever degree of elegance he 
 possesses, the natural monotony of French 
 verse tires the ears accustomed to the 
 various harmony of our English poet." — 
 Knox. 
 
 " Bankrupt nobility, a factious, giddy, and 
 Divided senate, a harass'd commonalty. 
 Is all the strength of Venice." 
 
 Otway. 
 " And so the conqueror, /ai/^erf in war. 
 With hot pursuit of enemies afar. 
 Reclines to drink the torrent gliding by, 
 Then lifts his looks to repossess the sky." 
 Parxell. 
 
 JANGLE. Jar. Wrangle. 
 
 Jangle (O. Fr. jangler) is a term 
 formed to express the sound of con- 
 fused talk, as of persons disputing 
 with one another. It expresses the 
 lighter discordance of feeling, and the 
 state of persons who are out of humour 
 with one another. 
 
 As Jangle stands to disputation and 
 contradiction, so does Wrangle (Low 
 Germ, urangen, to wrestle, to strive ; 
 compare A. S. wringan, to wring, to 
 strain) stand to contention; that is, it 
 involves more of argument, and of a 
 subject matter in which the disputants 
 are contending for poirits in which they 
 are personally interested. 
 
 Jar (a word formed perhaps to re- 
 present the sound, but see Skeat, 
 Eiwn. Diet.) denotes more than the 
 mere sound or expression of disagree- 
 ment, and includes discordant senti- 
 ment, feeling, purpose, and the like. 
 
 *' There are those, I know, who will re- 
 gard this praise, whatever it be , as injurious 
 to the learned prelate rather than honour- 
 able to him ; who will he ready to tell ug 
 
 that controversial _;(7n^ZJ7J^« are out of dat«, 
 that they never did any good, and are now 
 at length fallen into general and just con- 
 tempt." — HuRD, Life of Warburton. 
 " Cease, cease such_;ar.?,aud rest your minda 
 
 in peace." Shakespeare. 
 
 " I worshu) as my fathers did before ma, 
 Unpractis d in disputes and tvrangling 
 
 schools." Rows. 
 
 JAUNT. Excursion. Tour. 
 Trip. Ramble. 
 
 Jaunt (the same word aa Jaunce, 
 O. Fr. jancer, to play tricks with a 
 horse ; thus to "jaunt " is to play the 
 fool, hence to ramble ; Skeat, Ktym. 
 Diet.) is a pleasant journey of a lively 
 character, and so. not commonly ac- 
 companied with the fatigue of walk- 
 ing, having no specific object or 
 fmrpose beyond that of pleasurable 
 ocomotion. 
 
 An Excursion (Lat. excursionem, a 
 running forth) is a trip for pleasure 
 or health, commonly undertaken in 
 company, and with a definite point 
 or place in view. 
 
 Tour (Fr. tour, a turn) is a syste- 
 matic excursion, having for its object 
 the visiting of certain places, or the 
 observation of a pai-ticular district. 
 The road of return is different from 
 the setting out. 
 
 Ramble is a roving excursion 
 taken at leisure, with no determinate 
 object in view, and an expectation 
 that matters of interest sufficient will 
 present themselves in the course of 
 the roaming — with which word (A.S. 
 ryman, to make room) Ramble is per- 
 haps connected. 
 
 A Trip (Dut. trippen) is a short, 
 active expedition to a particular place, 
 undertaken with a view to a speedy 
 return. The word Jaunt had oi old a 
 graver meaning, equivalent to a weari- 
 some journey on foot. So Milton — 
 " Our Saviour meek, and with untroubled 
 
 mind^ 
 After his aery jaunt, though hurried sore, 
 Hungi-y, and cold, betook him to his rest." 
 The modern use of the term is illus- 
 trated by the following : — 
 " Then a fresh maggot takes tkem in th« 
 
 head. 
 To have one meTTj jaunt on shore ; 
 They'd not be fettered up, they swore." 
 Yaldkk. 
 
536 
 
 •' Of rest was Noah's clove bereft. 
 When with impatitmt wing she left 
 
 That safe retreat the ark. 
 Giving her vain excursions o'er. 
 The disappointed bird once more 
 Explored the sacred bark." 
 
 Cotton. 
 " He one day, attended by some of his 
 officers, endeavoured to make the tour of 
 the island." — Anson's Voyages. 
 
 "The little boat was obliged to make 
 three trips before we could all get over to 
 the rest of the party."— Cooks Voyages. 
 
 " We must not ramble in this field with- 
 out discernment or choice, nor even with 
 these must we ramble too long." — Boling- 
 BROKE. 
 
 JEER. Scoff. Giuk. Sneer. 
 
 Jeer (of uncertain origin) is per- 
 sonal, consisting of words addressed 
 to an individual ; which is also the 
 case with Gibe (cf. Icel. geib, idle 
 talk) ; but Jeer conveys more of ridi- 
 cule and contempt, Gibe of bitter 
 scorn and ill-will. 
 
 Scoff (O. N. skaup, derision) is to 
 manifest contempt in any way, as by 
 looks, gestures, or words. It relates 
 not so much to the person as to the 
 force of what he says or does. 
 
 Sneer (Low Ger. snarren, to 
 grumble) is coimected with the gri- 
 mace of expression rather than with 
 words. If employed, as it may be, of 
 spoken contempt, sneering is covert 
 and indirect, while scoff is open, in- 
 solent, and defiant. 
 *' ' Friend Tortoise,' quoth the jeering 
 
 Hare, 
 ' Your burthen's more than you can bear. 
 To help your speed it were as well 
 That I should ease you of your shell.' " 
 
 Lloyd. 
 " A Socrates himself in that loose age. 
 Was made the pastime of a scoffing stage." 
 
 Dryden. 
 •' Shrewd fellows and arch wags, a tribe 
 That met for nothing but a gibe." 
 
 Swift. 
 
 ♦' Who can refute a sneer .' "—Paley. 
 
 JEST. Joke. Sport. 
 
 As they relate to the display of the 
 humorous, a Jest (orig. meaning a 
 tale, geste ; O. Fr. geste, Lat. gesta, 
 ail exploit) is for the sake of others; a 
 Joke (Lat. j^cus) for one's own. 
 Jokes spring more purely out of the 
 imagination, and less fi'om external 
 circumstances, and are therefore com- 
 
 stjjionyms [jeer] 
 
 monly less personal and more liarm- 
 less. Joke indicates more of pure 
 Lilarity, wit, or humour; Jest more 
 of ridicule and satire. 
 
 Sport (an abridgment of disport, 
 0. Fr. se desporter, to carry one's self 
 away from work to amusement) relates 
 to both persons and things, and de- 
 notes no more than that they are 
 treated in a light, where they might 
 have been treated in a gi-aver, manner. 
 Sport stands to jest as playfulness to 
 ridicule. 
 
 " Let your jests fly at large ; yet there- 
 withal 
 
 See they be salt, but not yet mixed with 
 gall." Drayton. 
 
 " And joyoas mirth 
 Engages our raised souls, pat repartee. 
 Or viitty Joke, our airy senses moves 
 To pleasant laughter." Gay. 
 
 " And while the robes imbibe the solar ray. 
 O'er the green mead the sporting virgini 
 
 play. 
 Their shining veils unbound. " 
 
 Pope, Homer. 
 
 JOIN. Unite. 
 
 To Join (Fr. joigner, Lat. jimgere) 
 is to put things into pennanent con- 
 tact. 
 
 To Unite (Lat. unire) is, as its 
 etymology indicates, to join them in 
 such fasnion that they may be one. 
 The objects joined or united may be 
 of the same or of different natures. It 
 would be impossible to define the 
 point at which junction may become 
 union ; but practically it may be said 
 that things firmly brought together 
 are joined, inseparably brought to- 
 gether are united. This impossibility 
 of separation may come either from 
 the indissoluble force of the connexion, 
 or from the fact that the individuality 
 of the thing joined is lost. When two 
 streams ioin they become united intc 
 one. We join persons when we em- 
 ploy them for a common purpose, wt 
 unite them when we make them one 
 in their interests or feelings. Love 
 and friendship unite persons, while 
 they may join in social intercourse or 
 the same undertaking. Many are 
 joined in man-iage who are notuniten 
 in heart. Men unite in esteem ; they 
 may join in battle. That which is 
 joined may be separated, though it he 
 
[judgment] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 5S7 
 
 needful to employ force. That which is 
 united cannot be separated without 
 being broken. 
 
 JOURNEY. Travel. V'oyage. 
 
 These differ as the special from the 
 general. Travel (Fr. travail, pain ; 
 of. arbeit, labour, which in some parts 
 of Germany means to travel) is loco- 
 motion from place. 
 
 Journey (Yx.journte, a day, a day's 
 work, or xr^'-iey) is the portion of 
 travel perfonned on any one occasion. 
 It is well enough known that Voyag e 
 (Fr. voyage, hat. vidticnm, pronsion for 
 a journey ; 2, a journey) is now re- 
 stricted to travel by sea ; but it may 
 be remarked that this belongs to the 
 usage, not the derivation of the word, 
 the French voyage being used in the 
 sense of journey. Travel is indefinite ; 
 journey definite, having its ap)x,'inted 
 destination. We journey to a country, 
 and travel in it. 
 
 "We must all have the same loumey's 
 end, if we hope to get to heaven ; bat some 
 may meet with a freer road, and a calmer 
 •eason, and better company in their jotimej/ 
 than others."— Stiixingfleet. 
 
 " It was the well-known remark of the 
 Emperor Charles V., who had travelled so 
 frequently through both countries, that 
 everything abounded in France, but that 
 every thing was wanting in Spain." — Smith, 
 Wealth of Nations. 
 
 •• I love a sea-voyage and a blnst'ring tem- 
 pest." 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher. 
 
 JUDGE. Umpire. Arbiter. 
 Arbitrator. 
 
 Judge (Fr. juge, Lat. judiccm) is 
 generic, denoting, in its widest sense, 
 one who has knowledge sufficient to 
 decide a question ; and, in its more 
 restricted sense one who is invested 
 with authority to do so. 
 
 The Umpire (Fr. non'pair, odd 
 man; the third party called in be- 
 tween other two) and Arbiter (Lat. 
 arbiter, a judge) are such, not by na- 
 tural qualifications, but by specific 
 appointment, and only in private 
 matters. They pronounce a decision 
 on their own personal responsibility, 
 and are not required to give reasons or 
 quote precedents. The umpii-e is 
 commonly chosen for his skill and 
 
 conversance with the subject-matter 
 of the question ; the arbitrator, for 
 his good-temper and impartiality ; 
 the cases which come under the cog- 
 nizance of the former being questions 
 for adjudication in competition; of 
 the latter, cases of dispute. Arbiter is 
 the old term for what is now expressed 
 by Arbitrator, but has risen to a 
 loftier meaning — that of sovereign 
 controller, or one whose power of 
 governing and deciding is unlimited. 
 An umpire may be called in where 
 there is not agreement among arbi- 
 tratoi-8. 
 
 ' 'And now by this their feast all being ended, 
 Ihe judges which thereto selected were 
 Into the Martian field adown descended. 
 To deem this doubtful case for which they 
 all contended." 
 
 " If they (the arbitrators) do not agree, 
 it is usual to add that another person be 
 called in as umpire (imperator or impar), to 
 whose sole judgment it is then referred." — 
 
 Bl^CKSTONK. 
 
 " It is a sign from Jove. 
 Now follows war, with all its woes again ; 
 Or peace between us, by his fixed award ; 
 For Jove is arbiter of both to man." 
 
 CowPER, Iliad. 
 
 " It happens well if the matter in ques- 
 tion is not almost settled before the arbi- 
 trator is called into the debate." — Sternk. 
 
 JUDGMENT. Sense. 
 Sense (Lat. sensus, sentire, to feel) in 
 the intellectual application of the term 
 must by analogy be the same thing in 
 the mind which Sense in the material 
 application is in the body. It is the 
 faculty of warning, knowing, distin- 
 guishing, discerning objects, their 
 ?|ualities, their relations; when the 
 acuity connects, combines these rela- 
 tions, and pronounces on their exis- 
 tence, it is JvvGMEyT(TT.juge,a judge, 
 Lat. judicare, to judge). Sense is the 
 intelligence which takes cognizarce of 
 things ; judgment is thereason which 
 decides upon them, the verifying fa- 
 culty which determines on the facta 
 submitted to it by the sense. Sense 
 and judgment are often and easilj 
 confounded ; but sense is the per- 
 ceptive reason, judgment is the de- 
 terminative reason. Judgment is the 
 practical development of sense. If 
 the sense judges, it is not formally, 
 but lightly and instinctively. Yet a 
 
538 
 
 SYNONYM» 
 
 JUMr 
 
 person of great sense is acting ever 
 upon some degree of judgment. He 
 sees so far, so deeply, and so well, he 
 brings involuntarily so much reflexion 
 to bear upon the matter, that in his 
 case to see and to determine are the 
 same thing. Good sense is the ground 
 of solid judgment, but it is not suffi- 
 cient to contribute or insure it. Men 
 of very good sense are not always men 
 of sound judgment, because they allow 
 passion or prejudice, which does not 
 deprive them of their sense, to corrupt 
 their judgment. The integrity of a 
 judge is not merely his clear-sighted- 
 ness. He who has no sense is a beast. 
 He who has no judgment is a fool. 
 The man of sense has practical discern- 
 ment. The man of judgment has pro- 
 found discrimination. One listens to 
 the former and consults the latter. 
 
 JUMP. Leap. Bound. 
 
 To Jump (Sw. giimpa) is to throw 
 one's self off the ground in any direc- 
 tion, or to any height, however small, 
 from a standing posture, alighting 
 again on the feet. 
 
 To Leap (A. S. htedpaii) is the 
 same movement, but for a considerable 
 interval and without involving a re- 
 turn to one's footing, as to leap upon 
 a horse. Curtius leaped, not jumped 
 into the gulf in the Forum. 
 
 To Bound (Fr. bondir) is to move 
 forward by a leap or a succession of 
 leaps. 
 
 JUICE. Liquor. Liquid. Hu- 
 mour. 
 
 Juice (Fr. jus, Lat. jus, broth) is 
 the moisture which is naturally fur- 
 nished by bodies in greater or less 
 quantity, and may be expressed from 
 them, as in vegetables and fruits, and 
 less commonly in animal bodies. 
 Liquid is fluid which is not aeriform. 
 Liquor is liauid in relation to arti- 
 ficial uses ana treatment. 
 
 Humour (Lat. humorem, moisture) 
 is especially the moisture or fluid of 
 animal bodies secreted in health or 
 disease. 
 
 " If ,so, yet still I can assure our safety ; 
 For as you fear my softness of complexion, 
 I'll stain it with the Juice of dusky leaves." 
 Mason. 
 
 " A fermented liqtior, for example, which 
 is called beer, but which, as it is made of 
 molasses, bears very little resemblance to 
 our beer, makes a considerable part of the 
 common drink of the people in America." — 
 Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 " In oil of aniseeds, which I drew both 
 with and without fermentation, I observed 
 the whole body of the oil in a cool place to 
 thicken into the consistence and appear- 
 ance of white butter, which with the least 
 heat resumed its former liquidness," — 
 Boyle. 
 
 " A^mil. Is he not jealous ? 
 " Desdemona. Who ? he ? I think the sob 
 where he was born 
 Drew all such humours from him." 
 
 Shakespeaeb. 
 
 JUST. Right. 
 
 Just has taken up the combinec. 
 meanings of the Latin Justus and the 
 French juste ; the latter meaning 
 nicely coincident or fitting, as in the 
 English verb to adjust. A just ob- 
 servation may be one which expresses 
 justice or which bears a character of 
 fitness. The contrary to the former 
 would be an unjust, to the latter an 
 irrelevant or inappropriate one. 
 
 That is Right (Lat. rectus) which 
 goes straight to the point without de- 
 viation or error. That is right which 
 is according to rule, that is just which 
 is according to proportion. A right 
 remark is relatively true, a just remark 
 is well timed, opposite, and suitable. 
 Taking the terms in their purely moral 
 meaning, he does just who observes 
 in his dealings what is relatively due 
 to others, he does right who acts ac- 
 cording to the direction of a true rule 
 or law. 
 
 The French force of Just appears in 
 the following : 
 
 " Many of the poets, to describe the execu- 
 tion which is done by the passion, repre- 
 sent the fair sex as basilisks which destroy 
 with their eyes ; but I think that Cowley 
 has with greater justness of thought com- 
 pared a beautiful woman to a porcupine 
 that sends an arrow from every part." — 
 !Spectator. 
 
 " Hear then my argument, confess we must 
 A God there is supremely wise and just. 
 If so, however things affect our sight. 
 As sings our bard, whatever is is right." 
 Jknyns. 
 
 JUSTICE. Precision. 
 
 Justice is a safegunrd against the 
 
[kinsman] 
 
 false, Precision against the super- 
 fluous and useless. Justness or jus- 
 tice of thought produces precii?ion of 
 expression. 
 
 K. 
 
 KEEPING. Custody. 
 
 Kekping (A. S. ctpan, to stare vp) 
 i simple and generic. 
 
 Cusi ODY (Lat. custodia) is a specific 
 keeping, involving responsibility, and 
 is for the sake of obviating escape in 
 the case of persons, and loss in the 
 case of inanimate objects ; as the cus- 
 tody of prisoners or documents. 
 
 " In Baptista's keep my treasure is." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 ** Tailor, take him to thy custody." 
 
 Ibid. 
 
 KILL. Murder. Slay. Assas- 
 sinate. Slaughter. 
 
 To Kill is the broadest and sim- 
 plest term (witli some A. S. cicelUm, 
 to kill: Skeat, Etym. Diet., gives 
 Icel. kella, to hit on the head, kollr), 
 meaning no more than to deprive of 
 life, and is applied in the fullest sense 
 of the term life, as the vegetative life 
 of plants, which may be killed by 
 frost. In the case of persons, the act 
 may be the result of accident or self- 
 defence, as well as in malice pre- 
 pense. 
 
 To Murder (Fr. meurtre, murder, 
 Low Lat. mordrum) was anciently 
 employed only of the secret killing of 
 one human being by another, but now 
 means the killing with malicious fore- 
 thought and intention. To Assassi- 
 nate is to murder by secret, close, 
 and sudden attack upon the person, 
 who is generally one of importance. 
 The nature of the deed flows from the 
 origin of the word — haschisch, ine- 
 briating hemp by which the Assassins 
 of the East, or followers of the Old 
 Man of the Mountain, were incited to 
 their work of stabbing crusaders and 
 others. It is a deviation from the 
 original sense to apply it to poisoning. 
 
 Slay (A. S. sledn, to strike, to kill) 
 is to kill with a weapon, or by t lo- 
 lence, (not, for instance, by poison,) 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 539 
 
 and in a sort of animal wa}'', that is, 
 with little thought but that of de- 
 stroying animal life, whether in men 
 or other animals. It is violent, but 
 not necessarily illegal ; as, to slay in 
 battle. Slaughter commonly de- 
 notes killing in a promiscuous way, 
 or extensively. This is still the case, 
 even when the butcher slaughters a 
 single beast, the idea being that of 
 supplying the meat market. Kill and 
 Slay, but not the others, are applic- 
 able to cases of suicide, though in 
 composition we meet with the term 
 self-murder. 
 
 •• Thon Shalt not kill."— DKCX1.0QVE. 
 
 " The first great disturbance in the world 
 after the fall of man was by a murderer, 
 whom the vengeance of God pnrsned." — 
 South. 
 
 "Man. Of ruin, indeed, methonght 1 
 heard the noise. 
 Oh, it continues ! they have slain my son I 
 
 Chorus. Thy son is rather slaying them ; 
 that outcry 
 From slaughter of one foe could not ascend.' 
 Milton. 
 
 " He (Oliver Cromwell) said assassina- 
 tions were such detestable things that he 
 would never begin them ; but if any of the 
 king's party should endeavour to assassi- 
 nate him, and fail in it, he would make an 
 assassinating war of it, and destroy the 
 whole family." — Burnet. 
 
 KINGLY. Royal. Regal. 
 
 Kingly means like a king; Royal 
 (Fr. rot, Lat. rigem, a king), belong- 
 ing to the person of a king; Regal, 
 belonging to the attributes of a king. 
 A kingly form ; a royal residence ; 
 regal magnificence. 
 
 " He stands in daylight, and disdains to hide 
 An act to which by honour he is tied, 
 A generous, laudable, and kingly pride." 
 
 Dryden, 
 " And by descent from royall lynage came 
 Of ancient kinges and queenes." 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 " Our adversaries sometimes tell us of a 
 throne, a power of judging, a regal autho- 
 rity belonging to the Son, and that there- 
 fore he is God, and they observe, as they 
 think shrewdly, but in truth very weakly, 
 that the Holy Ghost has, therefore, none 
 of that title as having no regal dominion.' 
 — WATERI.AND. 
 
 KINSMAN. Relative. 
 Kinsman is one of the same kin, 
 and so related by blood. 
 
540 
 
 Relative (Fr. relatif) is one con- 
 nected either by blood or by affinity. 
 
 " By conseirt of the Britons, Hengist and 
 Horsa sent for their two sons or near kins- 
 men to come over with a new army of 
 Saxons by sea."— SiK W. Templk. 
 
 " Belativehas indeed, within my memory, 
 by a ridiculous aflfectation of false and un- 
 founded accuracy, crept into improper use 
 to the exclusion of relation."— TooKE. 
 
 KNAVISH. Dishonest. 
 
 The latter simply states that the 
 person is the opposite to honest, or 
 that the act is so ; the former ( A. S. 
 cnafa, cf. Ger. knabe, a boy, a young 
 man) carries the mind directly to the 
 person and his frauds and artifices. 
 Dishonest is a term of grave, Knavish 
 of contemptuous, reproach. The 
 former expresses a habit ; the latter a 
 propensity. 
 
 " Although his master had thoroughly 
 thwacked him for his knavish tricks played 
 a few days before, and that then it seemeth 
 he had opportunity to be revenged, he to 
 the contrary, employed himself after a 
 marvellous fashion to save his master." — 
 North, Plutarch. 
 
 " One thing was very dishonestly insin- 
 uated, that the prisoner was a Papist, which 
 was only to incense the jury against him, 
 and it had its effect."— iSfate Trials. 
 
 KNOWLEDGE. Learning. Eru- 
 dition. Science. Literature. Art. 
 Letters. Philosophy. 
 
 Knowledge is a general term, de- 
 noting the fact or the subject of know- 
 ing, clear perception or apprehension, 
 familiar cognizance. 
 
 Learning (A. S. leorman, to learn') 
 is acquired knowledge in any branch 
 of science or literature. 
 
 Science (Lat. scientia, scire, to 
 know) is, literally, knowledge, but 
 usually denotes knowledge according 
 to system. Science embraces those 
 branches of knowledge of which the 
 subject is ultimate principles, or 
 facts as explained by principles, or 
 laws arranged in natural order. 
 
 Literature (Lat. llth-a, a letter), 
 in its widest application, embraces all 
 compositions which do not appertain 
 to the positive sciences. As a man 
 of literature is versed in the belles 
 lettres, so a man of learning excels in 
 'vliat is taught in the schools, and be- 
 
 SYKONYMS [knavish] 
 
 longs almost wholly to the past ; while 
 Literature includes the current com- 
 positions of the day. 
 
 Erudition (Lat. iriidltus, cultiva- 
 ted) relates to literature and learning 
 rather than to science, and to its ex- 
 tensive attainment, involving a know- 
 ledge of subjects commonly unfami- 
 liar. 
 
 Art (Lat. artem) is the application 
 of knowledge to practice. As science 
 consists of speculative principles, so 
 art is a system of rules, serving to 
 facilitate the performance of certain 
 actions. Arts are divided into two 
 classes, the useful, mechanical, or 
 industrial arts, and the liberal, polite, 
 or fine arts. The fonner are called 
 ti-ades; the latter have to do with 
 imagination and design, as poetry, 
 painting, sculpture, designing, and 
 the like. The teim ''liberal arts" 
 was formerly applied to the subjects 
 of academical education ; as " De- 
 grees in arts at the universities." 
 
 Letters (Fr. lettre ; Lat. tith-a, a 
 letter) equivalent to the French 
 ^' belles lettres," polite learning — is to 
 Literature as the abstract to the con- 
 crete ; literature being letters in spe- 
 cific relationship ; as, the literature 
 (not the letters) of a particular coun- 
 tiy. 
 
 Philosophy (Gr. <piXoa-o<pla) is lite- 
 rally the love of wisdom, and there- 
 fore has varied in its application, ac- 
 cording to tlie kind of wisdom in 
 vogue. Phenomena as explained by 
 causes and reasons would be the sub- 
 ject of mental philosophy, pheno- 
 mena as the result of forces and laws 
 would be the subject of physical phi- 
 losophy. The different departments 
 of human knowledge, as theology, 
 natural history, ethics, metaphysics, 
 are specific applications oi philo- 
 sophy. 
 
 "Knowledge, then, seems to me to be 
 nothing but the perception of the connection 
 and agreement or disagreement and repug- 
 nancy of any of our ideas. In this alone it 
 consists. Where this perception is there is 
 knowledge." — LocKK. 
 
 " The parts of human learning have re- 
 ference to the three parts of man's under- 
 standing, which is the seat of learning, 
 history to his memory, poesy to his imagi. 
 
[lack] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 541 
 
 nation, and philosophy to his reason." — 
 Bacon. 
 
 " 'Twere well, says one sage, erudite, pro- 
 found. 
 
 Terribly arch'd and aquiline his nose. 
 
 And over-built with most impending 
 brows — 
 
 'Twere well could you permit the world to 
 live 
 
 As the world pleases. What's the world 
 to you?" CowPER. 
 
 " The works of speculation or science may 
 be reduced to the four classes of philosophy, 
 mathematics, astronomy, and physic." — 
 GlBBOX, 
 
 " Our descendants may possibly contem- 
 plate with equal ridicule and surprise the 
 preposterous partiality which the present 
 age has shown to the frippery and tinsel of 
 French literature."— ^vs^JlCE., Italy. 
 
 " Art can never give the rules that make 
 an art. This is, I believe, the reason why 
 artists in general, and poets principally, 
 have been confined in so narrow a circle." 
 —Burke. 
 
 " lehe for sothe in science otlettres knowe 
 thy konnyng." — R, GLOUCESTER. 
 
 "In philosophy the contemplations of 
 man do either penetrate unto God or are 
 circumferred to Nature or are reflected or 
 reverted on himself, out of which several 
 inquiries there do arise three knowledges, 
 divine philosophy, natural philosophy, and 
 human philosophy." — Bacon. 
 
 L. 
 
 LACONIC. Concise. 
 
 The Laconic, so called from the La- 
 conians or Lacedemonians, who affec- 
 ted it, is a species of Conciseness. See 
 Concise. 1 he term Concise is a term 
 of simple praise belonging to expres- 
 sion or style. Laconic expresses an 
 affected conciseness, -which springs 
 not from desire to do justice to the 
 expression, but fi-om some peculiarity 
 or sentiment of the speaker, who 
 wishes to avoid the smallest waste of 
 words upon the subject or the person 
 addressed. Conciseness is a proof of 
 regard, laconism of disregard. So 
 that it is associated not only with 
 brevity but with bluntness. To be 
 concise shows mental refinement, to 
 be laconic shows the moral want 
 of It. 
 
 Ntci 
 
 LACK. Wani. Need. 
 
 SITY. 
 
 Lack (an old Low Ger. word) re- 
 fers more directly to the failing 
 or inadequate source or supply; 
 Want (Icel. iwnfa, to be wanting), to 
 the inadequate supply or possession, 
 combined with the requirement or 
 demand. 
 
 Need (A,S. nedd, want, compulsion) 
 relates directly to the urgency of the 
 demand, and indirectly to the absence 
 of supply. Want is commonly ab- 
 sence of mere possession ; need, ab- 
 sence of means of action. As they 
 express states. Necessity (Lat. neces- 
 sitatem) is stronger than Need, for 
 whereas Need is negative, Necessity 
 has a positive and compelling force. 
 A man is in need of food. Under 
 some circumstances there is a neces- 
 sity for immediate action. Need is 
 pressing, necessity unyielding. Need 
 18 the strongest degree of requirement, 
 necessity of demand. In the phrase 
 of the English Psalms, " See that such 
 as are in iieed and necessity haveright," 
 the second term is an augmentation 
 of the first. Need may be tempora- 
 rily and easily removed ; necessity is 
 more lasting and less remediable. 
 We need, in cases of difficulty, the 
 advice and support of friends; but 
 lacking this, we are often compelled, 
 by necessity, to decide and act for 
 ourselves. The words Lack, Want, 
 and Need, rise in force. The super- 
 fluities of life — wealth, estates, g^eat 
 power or influence — I lack ; the con- 
 veniences which I am without, I 
 want; the necessaries which I am 
 without, I need. Lack is the absence 
 of excess; want, of comfort; need, 
 of sufficiency. 
 
 " But though each court a jester lacks, 
 To laugh at monarchs to their face. 
 Yet all mankind behind their backa. 
 Supply the honest jester's place." 
 
 DODSLEY. 
 
 " There is yet another cause of necessity 
 which has occasioned great speculation 
 among the writers upon general Iaw,namely, 
 whether a man in extreme want of food or 
 clothing may justify stealing either to re- 
 lieve his present necessities." — Black* 
 STOJTE. 
 
 •♦It is evident that nothing can be mora 
 amiable, suitable, and universally subser- 
 
542 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [lag] 
 
 rient both tvj the needs and to the refresh- 
 ments of the creature than light."— South. 
 
 LAG, Linger. Loiter. Saunter. 
 Tarry. 
 
 Lao (Gael, llag, weak, slack) is 
 commonly relative to others, with 
 whom the movements of the lagging 
 person are slow in comparison, a de- 
 finite line of progress being common 
 to all. 
 
 Linger (A. S. lengan, to prolong de- 
 lay) relates not to any definite onward 
 movement, either of others or of the 
 
 f>erson lingering, but simply to the 
 ocality at or near which the lingerer 
 stops and delays. It is sometimes 
 employed of inanimate, and therefore 
 involuntary things ; as, a lingering 
 hope or sickness. 
 
 Loiter (cf. Du. and Ger. luddern, 
 to loiter; Du. leuteren, bteren, to de- 
 lay) is to linger from tardiness or in- 
 dolence, as Linger implies a constrain- 
 ing or retarding influence attached to 
 the locality. 
 
 Saunter (which has been derived 
 from sainte terre, the Holy Land, as if 
 connected with the strolling of pil- 
 grims, but is, more probably, a modi- 
 fication of the German schlenlern, to 
 wander idly, of which other forms are 
 schlendern anislendern) is to move on- 
 wards, but in a lazy, dreamy fashion. 
 
 Tarry (Fr. tarder, to linger; Lat. 
 tarda.} e) diflf'ers from the others in de- 
 noting, for a time, movement abso- 
 lutely suspended, but in reference to 
 an implied progress. We lag through 
 laziness or absence of mind ; linger 
 through attachment ; loiter through 
 idleness; saunter for pleasuic; and 
 tarry for a purpose. 
 "Yet not content, more to increase his 
 
 fehame. 
 When so she tagged, as she needs mote so. 
 He with his spear (that was to him great 
 
 blame) 
 Would thnmp her forward, and enforce to 
 go." Spenser. 
 
 " On yonder cliffs, a grisly band, 
 I see them sit ; they linger yet. 
 Avengers of their native land," 
 
 Gray. 
 
 " We must proceed on speedily, and per- 
 sist constantly, nowhere staying or fcifer- 
 in^,"— Barrow. 
 
 " Upon the first suspicion a father has 
 that his sou is of a saunteriTt^ temper, he 
 
 must carefully observe him whether he be 
 listless and indifferent in all his actions, or 
 whether in some things alone he be slow 
 and sluggish, but in others vigorous and 
 eager."— Locke. 
 
 •' Why is his chariot so long in coming ? 
 why tarry the wheels of his chariot?"— 
 English Bible. 
 
 LAND. Country. Soil. Mould. 
 Earth. Globe. World. 
 
 Land (A. S. land) denotes, seve- 
 rally, the solid, as distinguished from 
 the fluid portions of the globe ; any 
 portion of that mass as related or 
 appertaining to an individual or a 
 people; the compositionof the earth's 
 surface as regards its agricultural use ; 
 and, by a rhetorical extension of mean- 
 . ing, the persons inhabiting a particu- 
 lar land. 
 
 Country (Fr. contrie, Latcontrdta, 
 the tract over against the spectator) is 
 a tract of land as it meets the eye, or 
 such a tract as connected with resi- 
 dents or inhabitants, or as opposed to 
 the city or the town. It is also, like 
 Land, often used for the inhabitants of 
 the country ; as, '' The unanimous 
 feeling of the country." According as 
 the term Country is employed under 
 a physical or a social aspect, it is ac- 
 companied by different sets of epithets. 
 It is populous or thinly inhabited, 
 prosperous or otherwise, fertile or ste- 
 rile. Land in imaginative style is 
 employed to represent a characteristic 
 locality which is peopled by certain 
 associations, as the land of dreams, a 
 land of plenty, fairy land. 
 
 Soil (Lat. s)ilum) is never employed 
 but of the physical components of the 
 earth's surface. 
 
 Earth (A. S. eor^e, orig. meaning 
 not certain), Globe, and World have 
 a special connexion with one another. 
 Omitting the use of Earth in the sense 
 of Soil, from which it differs in that 
 Soil is employed of the aggregate of 
 superficial substances, while Earth 
 designates only the lighter and looser 
 particles, just as Mould (A. S. 
 molde, mould, earth) again denotes es- 
 pecially the highly fertile and fine 
 jjarticles of decayed organic matter, 
 we come to regard it as a synonym 
 with Globe (Ft. globe, ha,t. ghbum, a 
 ball) and World (A. S. looruld), la 
 
[landscape] 
 
 speaking of the earth we commonly 
 have in mind its external and mate- 
 rial part. The term World denotes 
 the moral and abstract view of the 
 same thing ; the world of Nature and 
 the world of man in combination. We 
 speak of the construction, the produc- 
 tions, the geological formation, the 
 planetary movements of the earth, and 
 its relative place in the solar system. 
 The world is the earth viewed in re- 
 lation to its inhabitants. The earth 
 abounds in wonders and beauties. 
 The world is subject to the control 
 of a supreme Moral Governor. The 
 World is thus a term of higher moral 
 dignity than Earth ; so we speak of the 
 civilized world, not earth. It is in rela- 
 tion to its character as the abode of 
 recently-discovered j)eoples, that the 
 continent of America was called the 
 New World. The intellectual, politi- 
 cal, religious, gay, scientific world, a 
 poet's world of dreams, and the like, 
 all denote the idea of sentient occupa- 
 tion, or peopling. The same charac- 
 ter of connexion with mind and sen- 
 tient recognition, as of the Creator or 
 of the angels, belongs to the use of 
 the term World in reference to the 
 heavenly bodies ; as, " The unnum- 
 bered worlds which lie outside our 
 own." Earth is limited to our own 
 planet, though we speak of other 
 worlds. A future life of social hap- 
 piness is called a better world. Globe 
 IS used for the earth poetically, and 
 also under its scientific aspects, as in 
 geology and phj'sical geography. 
 
 " As 8ooa as the luTid of any country has 
 all become private property, the landlords, 
 like all other men, love to reap where they 
 never sowed, and demand a rent even \ar 
 its natural produce." — Smith, Wealth of 
 Nations. 
 
 " All the soil on that side of Ravenna has 
 been left there insensibly by the sea's dis- 
 charging itself upon it for many ages." — 
 Addison. 
 
 " It is said of Archimedes that he would 
 undertake to turn about the whole earth, 
 if he could but have some place beside the 
 earth to fix his feet upon." — South. 
 " Look downward oa that globe, whose 
 
 hither side 
 With light from hence, though but re- 
 flected, shines ; 
 That place u« earth, the ieat of man ; that 
 
 light 
 His day." Miltok. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 i)43 
 
 "Snre there is need of social intercourse. 
 Benevolence, and peace, and mutual aid 
 Bitween the nations, in a world that seemt 
 To toll the death-bell of its own decease. 
 And by the voice of all its elements 
 To preach the gen'ral doom." CowPER. 
 
 "Adam, earth's hallowed mould." 
 Mlltox. 
 
 LANDSCAPE. Prospect. View. 
 
 The English termination 'ship, like 
 the German schaft, is connected with 
 the verb schaffen, and the English 
 shape. Thus lordship, friendship, is 
 that which constitutes a lord, a friend, 
 and the like. To this class of words 
 belongs Landscape. Thus landscape 
 is a shape of land, or the artistic re- 
 presentation of it. It is, therefore, 
 such a prospect as comprises rural ob- 
 jects, or an open space of country. 
 
 Prospect ( Lat. prospectxts, from prb- 
 sjnccre^ to bok for ward) is a more gene- 
 ral term, denoting a broad expanse 
 overlooked, without denoting any- 
 thing of what composes it. Hence 
 we may have a prospect of the open 
 sea or of the starry heavens. 
 
 View (Fr. vue, Lat. vtdire, to see) 
 is yet wider in its application, and is 
 applicable to single objects ; as, a view 
 of a town or a street, as well as of an 
 extensive tract. It implies unity in 
 variety, and details combined into a 
 whole. Landscape has no secondary 
 sense. This is the case with View and 
 Prospect — the former signifying opi- 
 nions and aims, the latter the recog- 
 nized probability of events ; as some 
 persons are said to hold peculiar views; 
 after seasonable weather there is every 
 prospect of a good harvest. 
 
 " Straight my eye hath caught new plea- 
 sures. 
 Whilst the landscape round it measures." 
 MiLTOJf. 
 
 " Heavens I what a goodly ;)ros;7erf spreads 
 around , 
 
 Of hills, and dales, and woods, and lawns, 
 and spires. 
 
 And glittering towns, and gilded streams, 
 till all 
 
 The stretching landscape into smoke de- 
 cays." Thomson. 
 
 Unlike the rest, View is used subjec- 
 tively for the act of viewing, as well 
 as objectively for the thing viewed. 
 
544 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [language] 
 
 •* For what can force or guile vrith Him ? 
 Or who «aceive His mind, whose eye 
 V'«ws all things at one viewf He from 
 
 heaven's height 
 All these our motions rain sees and de- 
 rides." Milton. 
 
 LANGUAGE. Dialect. Idiom. 
 Tongue. Speech. 
 
 Language (Fr. langage; langue, the 
 tongue) is the most comprehensive of 
 these terms. It denotes any mode of 
 expressing or conveying ideas ; as, 
 the language of the deaf and dumb. 
 It may be written as well as spoken, 
 nor is the idea dependent upon any 
 particular mode of transmission. 
 
 On the other hand, in the word 
 Tongue (A. S. tunge, tonguCj speech)^ 
 the idea of spokennegs is exclusively 
 retained. Tongue, Speech, and the 
 other terms are applicable only to 
 human beings, while Language may 
 be employed of the natural utterances 
 of irrational animals ; as the language 
 of bii'ds. Spefcii is the faculty or 
 expression of articulate sounds, and 
 is used broadly of the whole human 
 race, while Tongue is commonly re- 
 stricted to the peculiar speech of a 
 people ; as the English or mother 
 tongue. 
 
 Dialect (Gr. ^laXtxrof, discourse, a 
 dialect) is speech characterized by 
 local peculiarities or specific circum- 
 stances ; as, for instance, a science or 
 a profession ; provincial dialect ; the 
 dialect of the learned. 
 
 Idiom (Gr. iSw^a, a pecidiaritUf an 
 jdiom ) is a foi-m of expression peculiar 
 to a language or an author ; and, in a 
 wider sense, the aggregate of pecu- 
 liarities in a language— that is, its 
 general cast or genius. The idioms 
 of a language belong to its structure, 
 and are the same, wherever the lan- 
 guage is spoken. The dialects vary, 
 as being forms engrafted upon it here 
 and there, or mutations to which it 
 has been subjected locally. 
 
 " The ends of language in our discourse 
 with others being chiefly these three— first, 
 to make known one man's thoughts to an- 
 other: secondly, to do it with as much 
 ease and quickness as is possible ; and 
 thirdly, thereby to convey the knowledge 
 of things, langvage is either abused or de- 
 ficient when it fails in any of these three." 
 —Locke. 
 
 " And we all know the common dialed 
 in which the great masters of this art used 
 to pray for the king, and which may justly 
 pass for only a cleanlier and more refined 
 kind of libelling him in the Lord, as that 
 God %vill ttu'n his heart and open his eyes." 
 —South. 
 " But whence art thoa inspired, and thou 
 
 alone. 
 To flourish in an idiom not thine own ? " 
 Drydkx. 
 " For what royalme almoste CEnglande 
 excepted) hath not all the good autonrs 
 that ever wrote translated into the mother- 
 toungue ? " — Udal. 
 
 " The acts of God to human ears 
 Cannot without process of speech be told." 
 Milton. 
 
 LARGELY. Copiously. Fully. 
 
 As adverbs expressing modes of 
 abundance. Largely (Fr. large, Lat. 
 largus) commonly implies the will of 
 an agent; as, "He distributed honours 
 largely among the citizens;" Copi- 
 ously (Lat. cbpiosus, having abun- 
 dance), the mere natural abundance 
 of supply ; as, " Rivers copiously sup- 
 plied in rainy seasons." 
 
 Fully (A. S.ful) applies indiscri- 
 minately to both, but commonly im- 
 plies an antecedent measure of re- 
 quirement or capacity. It is als< 
 more properly used of abstract things 
 than the others ; as, *' To be fully per- 
 suaded." 
 
 " Largelie promised, and slacklie per- 
 fourmed."— HoLlNSHED. 
 
 " If our barren wits were dried up, they 
 might be copiously irrigated from those 
 fruitful well-springs." — BuRTON, Anatomy 
 of Melancholy. 
 "All hail, Patroelus! let thy vengeful 
 
 ghost 
 Hear and exult on Pluto's dreary coast ; 
 Behold Achilles' promise /u/Zy paid. 
 Twelve Trojan heroes offered to thy shade." 
 Pope, Homer, 
 
 LAST. Continue. Endure. Re- 
 main. 
 
 Last (A. S. l&stan, to perform, con- 
 tinue) denotes a continuance in time, 
 and also a condition unimpaired. It 
 is applicable to physical and to ab- 
 stract things ; as, " This memorial 
 will last for many generations ; " 
 *' The storm lasted through the 
 night : " " Under the violence of the 
 waves, the ship will not last much 
 longer." The term, it will be seen. 
 
[latest] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 545 
 
 lends itself less appropriately to the 
 expression of mere physical conserva- 
 tion, and better to abstract duration. 
 It would be impossible now to say, 
 with Bacon, the "lasting of trees," 
 meaning their preservation. 
 
 Continue (Fr. continuer) is not 
 applicable at all in this sense, but 
 onlv to permanence in place, in time, 
 and in sequence as a matter of obser- 
 vation; as, " The sound continues ; " 
 " The border continues round the 
 pattern." The first-mentioned force 
 of Continue, that of permanence in 
 locality, is now so rare that it may be 
 considered nearly obsolete ; as, in the 
 sentence of the English Bible, " They 
 continue with Me now three days, 
 and have nothing to eat." Indeed, it 
 may be associated with action or 
 movement as Remain is associated 
 with rest. 
 
 To Endure (Fr. endurer) conveys 
 the idea of lasting, in spite of influ- 
 ences at work to destroy, and is ap- 
 plicable to physical and moral perma- 
 nence; as, "Metals endure a certain 
 deCTee of heat without melting; ' 
 " His patience, it is to be feared, will 
 not endure much longer." 
 
 Remain (Lat. remdnere) has the 
 same relation to Rest as Continue has 
 to action and movement. The walker 
 continues walking; the stander re- 
 mains standing. 
 
 •♦ Your sufferings are of a short duratiou ; 
 your joy will last for ever." — Hart, Sledi- 
 tation. 
 
 "The same dull sights in the same land- 
 scape mixt. 
 
 Scenes of still life, and points for ever 
 fixt, 
 
 A tedious pleasure in the mind bestow. 
 
 And pall the sense with one contiyiued 
 show." Addison. 
 
 " The favour of God is to them that ob- 
 tain it, a better and an enduring substance, 
 which, like the widow's barrel and cruse, 
 wastes not in the evil days of famine." — 
 
 HORNE. 
 
 " Entellus thus : My soul is still the 
 same, 
 
 Unmoved with fear, and moved with mar- 
 tial fame ; 
 
 But my chill blood is curdled in my 
 veins, 
 
 ind scarce the shadow of a man remains." 
 Drydkk, Virgil. 
 
 LATENT. Secret. Hidden. Oc- 
 cult. 
 
 Latent (Lat. ULtire, to be hid) is 
 applied to those cases of the hidden 
 or secret in which the possibility oi 
 propriety of the contrary state is con- 
 templated ; as, a latent motive ; a 
 latent cause of mischief. It is most 
 commonly employed of that which is 
 of the nature of an undeveloped or 
 suppressed force . 
 
 What is Secret (Lat. sicrctus, part, 
 of sicern'tre, to set apart) is so far re- 
 moved from common observation as 
 to be unperceived. It involves a 
 purposed hiding ; and, therefore, 
 that which is secret must be known 
 to some one. 
 
 What is Hidden (A. S. hidan^ to 
 hide) is so covered as to be invisible, 
 which may be from natural or from 
 artificial causes. In the former case, 
 it was never known to any ; as with 
 the hidden minerals not yet disin- 
 terred from the earth. 
 
 Occult (Lat. occHlh-e, part, occul- 
 tuSf to hide) denotes the untraceable 
 rather than the unknown, and is a 
 term of processes and influences, 
 the existence of which is known, but 
 whose mode of operation is latent, 
 below the surface, and not exposed to 
 the sight and observation of man- 
 kind. 
 
 " Every breach of veracity indicates som? 
 latent vice, or some criminal intention 
 which an individual is ashamed to avow. 
 And hence the peculiar beauty of openness 
 or sincerity." — Stewart. 
 
 " The blind, laborious mole 
 In winding mazes works her hidden hole." 
 
 Dryden. 
 " My heart, which by a secret harmony 
 Still moves with thine, joined in connection 
 sweet." Milton. 
 
 " It is of an occult kind, and is so insen- 
 sible in its advances as to escape observa- 
 tion."— I. Taylor. 
 
 LATEST. Last. Final. Ulti- 
 mate. Eventual. 
 
 Latest, the superlative of Late (A. 
 S. late), applies only to the last in the 
 order of time, being opposed to the 
 earliest. Last, which is an abbre- 
 viated form of the same word, relates 
 to the order of succession generally, 
 as well as of time in particular. 
 
546 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [laudable^ 
 
 ¥lKA-L{l.'dUfindlis, finis, cm end) is 
 employed of that which, in reference 
 to human actions, brings with it .an 
 end ; as, a final decision, which puts, 
 as it were, the finishing stroke to a 
 thing. 
 
 Ultimate (Lat. ultimdve, to come 
 to an end) brings out more strongly, 
 m relation to cause and eftect, the 
 fact of preceding circumstances, as 
 well as the finality of the fact itself. 
 The ultimate belongs to a line of 
 
 fmrpose or inquiry, as final does to a 
 ine of action. An ultimate object; 
 ultimate principles. A final farewell ; 
 a final (not ultimate) touch to a 
 painting. An ultimate conclusion; a 
 final (not ultimate) word. Final and 
 Ultimate are absolute, and can be fol- 
 lowed by nothing. Latest and Last 
 are sometimes used relatively, and so 
 admit the possibility of being followed 
 by something of the same kind. A 
 
 Eerson's last injunctions may be the 
 ist which he has had the opportunity 
 of giving ; the latest intelligence may 
 be so interesting as to cause us to look 
 forward with eagerness to the news of 
 to-morrow. 
 
 EvENTUAL(Lat. cventus ; e,oat, and 
 venire, to come) points not so much to 
 the finality of the eftect or conse- 
 quence as to the continuous opera- 
 tion of the preceding cause. That 
 is eventual which happens as a final 
 or remote consequence, or late in a 
 train of circumstances, without ac- 
 tually involving the idea of causation. 
 
 LAUDABLE. Praisewobthv. 
 Commendable. 
 
 Laudable (Lat. lauddbilis) and 
 Commendable (Lat. commenddbtlis) 
 seem better applicable to the ac- 
 tions or qualities of individuals, and 
 PuAisEwonTHv to the individuals 
 themselves; as, a praiseworthy cha- 
 ■•acter ; laudable ambition ; com- 
 ^nendable propriety. Laudable is 
 Aveaker than Commendable; the 
 former denoting that praise is pos- 
 sible, the latter, that it is appro- 
 priate and right. A thing is laud- 
 able in itself. It is commendable or 
 praiseworthy as exhibited in or done 
 by gome perpon. 
 
 " Yet in my opinion obsolete words may 
 then be laudabli/ revived when either they 
 are more sounding or more significant than 
 those in practice." — Dbydkn. 
 
 " But whether they so kept it or not, if 
 this gift of chastitie which they professed 
 were given them of God, small praise- 
 woorthie was it in them to keep it." — Fox, 
 Martyrs. 
 
 "He who, though undeservedly, hatn 
 lost his reputation, hath lost many oppor- 
 tunities of doing service to mankind. What 
 comes from him, though comm,endable and 
 profitable in itself, is often suspected, 
 slighted, and ill-received."— JouTIN. 
 
 LAWFUL. Legal. Legitimate. 
 Licit. 
 
 Lawful denotes conformable to 
 law (Fr. /oi, Lat. legem) in any sense 
 in which the term law may be em- 
 ployed, whether the law of the land, 
 moral law, propriety, or specific regu- 
 lation. Legal is conformable or aj)- 
 pertaining to the law of the land. 
 Legitimate has the wider sense of 
 conformable to law, rule, principle, 
 justice, fairness, or propriety. Legi- 
 timate denotes that which is in con- 
 formity with specific law or the prin- 
 ciples of a particular system. It 
 stands to rule as lawful to law. 
 
 Licit (Lat. licitum, permitted, Moire, 
 to be lawful) is far less common than 
 its negative, illicit. These terms re 
 gard the lawful or legal in reference 
 to mutual trade, intercourse, con- 
 nexions, or relations between man 
 and man. 
 
 " This judicial ti'ial of right yet remains 
 in some cases, as a divine lot of battle, 
 though controverted by divines, touching 
 the lawfulness of it." — Bacon. 
 
 "But if you lessen the rate of use, the 
 lender, whose interest it is to keep up the 
 rate of money, will rather lend it to the 
 banker at legal interest than to the trades- 
 man or gentleman who, when the law is 
 broken, shall be sure to pay the full natural 
 interest, or more." — LocKE. 
 
 " Every such process of reasoning, it is 
 well known, may be resolved into a series 
 of legitimate syllogisms, exhibiting sepa- 
 rately and distinctly in a light as clear and 
 strong as language can afford each suc- 
 cessive link of the demonstration." — 
 Stewakt. 
 
 LAX. Loose. Vague. 
 
 Lax (Lat. Uixus, /oose) is connected, 
 probably, with loose. It is employeu 
 of intellectual and moral, as well a? 
 
;lead"I 
 
 DI8CBIMINATED. 
 
 547 
 
 •jhysical, matters; as, a lax state- 
 Jient ; lax principles or habits ; a lax 
 fibre. It denotes want of logical 
 strictness, moral restraint, or physical 
 tension. 
 
 " The flesh of that sort of fish being lax 
 and spongy, and nothing so firm, solid, and 
 weighty as that of the bony fishes," — 
 Hay. 
 
 " In this general depravity of manners, 
 and laxity of principles, pure religion is 
 nowhere more strongly inculcated than in 
 our universities."— Johnson. 
 
 Loose (A. S. has, false, loose, weak) 
 has the same applications, but, as 
 physically employed, differs from Lax. 
 A loose rope may have been purposely 
 let loose ;butLAxwouldimplya want 
 of due constriction in its texture, as, 
 for instance, by dryness. Morally, 
 Lax is not employed of speech and 
 actions so commonly as Loose ; lax 
 principles ; loose talk or behaviour. 
 
 Vague (Fr. vague, hsLt.v^gus,wa)i' 
 dering) is employed only of intellec- 
 tual things. As Lax and Loose denote 
 both what is wanting in logical strict- 
 ness and moral propriety, so Vague 
 denotes that which is indefinite, and 
 ambiguous, whether from want of 
 clearness and precision of statement 
 or conception, or from definiteness of 
 authority. A vague idea; a va^ue 
 proposition ; a vague report, which is 
 equivalent to a rumour ; a vague notion 
 or impression, and, in consequence, 
 vague hopes and desires. 
 
 " The most voluptuous and loose person 
 breathing, were he but tied to follow uis 
 dice and his courtships every day, would 
 find it the greatest torment that could be- 
 fall him."— South. 
 
 " This law has been styled — and, notwith- 
 standing the objections of some wi'itei's to 
 the vagueness of the language, appears to 
 have been styled with great propriety — ' the 
 Law of Nature,'"— Mackintosh. 
 
 LAY. Put. Place. Set. 
 
 Of these the simplest and most com- 
 prehensive, and, therefore, the least 
 distinctive, is Put, which denotes no 
 more than to bring in any way to a 
 position or relation ; as, to put a ques- 
 tion ; to put a book on the shelf. 
 
 To Place (Fr. placer, Lat, platea, 
 a street, a courtyard) is to put in a par- 
 ticular part of space, or in a specific 
 position. A book is placed on the 
 
 shelf, as being the appointed anange- 
 ment for it. 
 
 To Lay (A. S. lecgun, to cause to lie) 
 can be used only ol those things 
 which may be made in some degree 
 to lie; while Set (A. S. settan), is 
 used of tliose which may be made to 
 stand. We lay a plate on the table, 
 and set a candlestick. To set a thing 
 is to give it fixity. So Lay points to 
 the flat or recumbent arrangement of 
 the object. Put to the distinct act of 
 the person, Place to the specific loca- 
 lity, and Set to the establishment of 
 the object. 
 
 LEAD. Conduct. Guide. 
 
 To Lead (A. S. Iddan, from Lid, a 
 path) is only employed of animate 
 objects, with commonly, though not 
 necessarily, the idea of preceding, to 
 show the way. It is associated with 
 the ideas of care, responsibility, and 
 persuasion. 
 
 CoNDUci (Lat. condwtre, part, con- 
 ductus) and Guide (Fr. guider) are 
 applicable to inanimate objects, and 
 to affairs in general ; as, to conduct 
 or guide a traveller or a transaction. 
 As applied to sentient beings. Conduct 
 is more prominently associated with 
 the ideas of authority and office ; 
 Guide, with those of knowledge and 
 skill. One conducts an argument or 
 a lawsuit, guides a ti-aveller, leads a 
 child. One conducts or guides those 
 who do not know the way; one leads 
 tliose who cannot or will not go alone. 
 We are conducted in our proceedings 
 in order that we may do precisely 
 that which we have to do ; we are 
 guided that we may not wander from 
 the right line or road. AVe are led to 
 those points or persons wliom it is re- 
 quired we should reach. To guide is 
 to teach or to show the Avay ; to con- 
 duct is to show the road, to direct tlie 
 movements, as the head ; to lead is to 
 direct the very steps. A general guides 
 his army when he knows, as it does 
 not, the line of march ; he conducts his 
 army when he gives them the full bene- 
 fit of his skill and experience. He leads 
 his army when he has given orders to 
 follow him. Men are guided by rea- 
 son, conducted by experience, and, 
 too often, led by passion. 
 
548 
 
 STNONYMS [lean] 
 
 'He tried each art, reproved each dnll 
 
 delay, 
 Allured to brighter worlds, and led the 
 
 way." Goldsmith. 
 
 " A favonr'd goat, conductor of my herd, 
 Strayed to a dale whose outlet is the post 
 ToPhocian's left.and penetx'ates to Greece." 
 Glover, Leonidas. 
 *' Common sense, or that share and species 
 of understanding which Nature has be- 
 stowed on the greater part of men, is, when 
 competently improAed by education, and as- 
 sisted by divine grace, the safest guide to 
 certainty and happiness." — Knox, Essays. 
 
 LEAN. Meagre. Lank. 
 
 Lean ( A. S. hlekne) signifies deyoid 
 ofj'at, Meagre (Fr. maigre, lean), de- 
 void oi flesh. Meaghe lends itself 
 much more readily to metaphorical 
 uses, meanmg destitute of fulness 
 and power, deficient in quantity 
 or requisite quality, as, a meagre 
 supply ; a meagre statement, argu- 
 ment, exposition, or treatment of a 
 subject. 
 
 " i^Cturst, Leanness, excess of animal secre- 
 tions, ai'e signs and effects of too great 
 thinness of blood." — Arbuthxot. 
 " Thou art so leaii and meagre waxen late, 
 That scarce ''thy legs uphold thy feeble 
 gait." SpKNSKR. 
 
 That is Lank (A, S. Idanc) which 
 is so long and slender as to appear 
 weak and deficient in firmness or ful- 
 ness. 
 
 " The clergy's bags 
 Are lank and lean with thy extortions." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 LEAN. Bend. Incline. 
 
 Of these Bend (A. S. bendan) and 
 Lncline (Lat. hiclhiare, to bend), do 
 not involve of necessity a relation to 
 the perpendicular, which is implied 
 in Lean (A. S. hlcinan, to make to 
 bend), except when it is used in the 
 metaphorical sense of leaning in opi- 
 nion or moral inclination. That which 
 inclines, leans, or bends only in a 
 slight degree, and in relation to any 
 kind of line, vertical, horizontal, or 
 otherwise. The tower of Pisa leans, 
 and might be said to incline, in a 
 certain direction. In this case, In- 
 cline is only a more refined word. 
 A road inclines to the right, if its 
 deviation is but slight ; it bends, if it 
 is sufficiently rapid to form a distinct 
 curve. In their moral tjwage, a man 
 
 leans to certain opinions, as having a 
 natural or constitutional tendency to 
 adopt them. He bends when strong 
 external pressure of circumstances 
 bears upon him ; as, e. g. to necessity. 
 He inclines when he is prompted 
 by natural preference and bias, or 
 tendency of the will. Both Bend 
 and Incline ai'e intrinsic ; Lean has 
 also an extrinsic application when 
 it is followed by the prepositions upon 
 or against. 
 "Thus to relieve the wi-etched was his 
 
 pride. 
 And ev'n his failings leaned to virtue's 
 side." Goldsmith. 
 
 " She had ^so contrived another puppet, 
 which, by the help of several little springs 
 to be wound up within it, could move all 
 its limbs, and that she had sent over to her 
 correspondent in Paris, to be taught the 
 various leanings and bendings of the head, 
 the risings of the bosom." — Spectator. 
 
 " Shall I venture to say, my lord, that in 
 our late conversation you were inclined to 
 the party which you adopted rather by the 
 feelings of your good nature than by the 
 conviction of your judgment ? " — BuRKE. 
 
 LEAVE. Liberty. Licence. 
 Permission. 
 
 Leave is the simplest term (A. S. 
 leaf, ■permission) ; it imples the placing 
 of a person in a position to act or not, 
 as he pleases ; a discretionary pennis- 
 sion ; Liberty (Fr. liberty), that all 
 obstructions or hindrances are removed 
 to specific action ; as, liberty of speech ; 
 liberty of access. These two may be 
 taken as well as given. License and 
 Permission must be specially granted. 
 Liberty is fuller, more discretionary, 
 and generally more courteous; leave 
 is more familiarly permissive. The 
 characteristic difierence between the 
 two maybe further seen in the phrases 
 to take leave, and to take a liberty. 
 The first is to assume permission 
 without stopping to ask lor it; the 
 second is to give one's self a freedom 
 of action, beyond due resti-aint. 
 
 Licence (Lat. licent'ui, permission) 
 is liberty in a particular case, for- 
 mally, or even legally granted by 
 special permission ; as, a licence to 
 print ; a marriage licence or a poetic 
 licence. 
 
 Permission (Lat. permissionem) is 
 the mere absence on the part of an- 
 
[lift] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 549 
 
 otlier of prevention or of opposition, 
 without implying sanction or approval. 
 
 " Then let ns not think hard 
 One easy prohibition, that enjoy 
 Free leave so large to all things else, and 
 
 choice 
 Unlimited of manifold delights." 
 
 Milton. 
 
 " So that the idea of liberty is the idea of 
 a power in any agent to do or forbear any 
 particular action, according to the deter- 
 mination or thonght of the mind, whereby 
 either of them is preferred to the other." — 
 Locke. 
 
 As Licence implies the principle of 
 liberty, so it implies also a contrary 
 principle of restraint, except when it 
 is employed of one's self, in which it 
 is simply equivalent to reckless as- 
 sumption of liberty. He who receives 
 licence from authority receives cer- 
 tain free powers, but modified by the 
 authority which granted it. So, poli- 
 tically speaking, licence may imply 
 not a Httle which is against freedom. 
 
 " My lords, from the precedent now be- 
 fore us, we shall be induced — nay, we can 
 find no reason for refusing — to lay the press 
 under a general licence, and then we may 
 bid adieu to the liberties of Great Britain." 
 —Chesterfield. 
 
 " The will 
 And high permission of all-ruling Heaven 
 Left him at large to his own dark designs." 
 Milton. 
 
 LEAVE. Quit. 
 
 We Leave that to which we may 
 return. 
 
 We Qun (Fr. quitter^ to leave, to 
 part from) that to which we purpose 
 not to return. 
 
 LENGTHEN. Prolong. 
 
 To Lengthen is to add to one of the 
 ends or to extend the substance. 
 
 To PnoLONG (Fr. prolonger, Lat. 
 proloitgdre) is to throw fai'ther on the 
 termination of a thing, whether by 
 continuity, by postponements, or by 
 the introduction of incidental matter. 
 One is commonly said to lengthen a 
 cord, a rod, a discourse, or letter ; to 
 prolong a walk, a conversation, a 
 story, an occupation. 
 
 LEVITY. Giddiness. Lightness. 
 Volatility. Flightiness. 
 
 Levity (Lat. levitdtem, lightness) 
 ie :bat kind of lisrhtness which denotes 
 
 an inability or inaptitude to weigh the 
 importance of principles in thought 
 and action, and so borders on immo- 
 rality, if it is not actually such. It is, 
 in its outward form, a disregard of 
 the proprieties of time and place. 
 
 Giddiness (A. S. gyddiauy to be 
 merry) is wild thoughtlessness, espe- 
 cially such as comes of exuberant 
 spirits, combined with scanty powers 
 of reflexion, as in some young persons ; 
 an inability, as in the case of vertigo, 
 to collect the thoughts. 
 
 Lightness (A. S. leoht, light) is 
 that quality of mind which disposes 
 it to be influenced by trifling con- 
 siderations, and shows itself therefore 
 in inconstancy of purpose and want of 
 steadfastness and resolution. 
 
 Volatility (Lat. vMdltlis, flying, 
 ti-ansitory) is active lightness of dis- 
 position ; a tendency to fly from one 
 thing to another from curiosity and 
 petty interest, and to extract pleasure 
 of a passing kind from a variety of 
 objects and pursuits. 
 
 Flightiness (A. S.fliht,flyht, afly- 
 ing) comes of mental unsteadiness, 
 which shows itself in capricious fan- 
 cies, irregular conduct, and disordered 
 intentions ; it betokens intellectual de- 
 ficiency. 
 
 " That leviti/ which is fatigued and dis- 
 gusted with everything of which it is in 
 possession." — Bu.HKE. 
 
 " Young heads &re giddy, and young hearts 
 are warm. 
 
 And make mistakes for manhood to re- 
 form." COWPEB. 
 " When I therefore was thus minded, 
 
 did I use lightness ?" — English Bible. 
 
 " Volatile and fugitive instances of re- 
 pentance are not the proper and propor- 
 tioned remedy to the evil of vicious habits." 
 —Bishop Taylor. 
 
 " The flighty gambols of chance are ob- 
 jects of no science nor grounds of any 
 dependence whatever." — Searle. 
 
 LIFT. Heave. Raise. Kiev ate. 
 Erect. Exalt. Hoist. Heighten. 
 
 The idea common to these terms \a 
 that of making high or higher than 
 before. 
 
 To Lift (Icel. lypta, to raise) is to 
 bring up from a specific spot to 3 
 higher by a direct exertion of per- 
 
550 
 
 PYNONYMS [likeness] 
 
 sonal or mechanical force, producing 
 % separation in the thing lifted from 
 Its former points of rest or support. 
 That is lifted which is drawn up into 
 the air, as that maj be Raised (Icel. 
 reisa, to raise) which still preserves 
 mediate or immediate contact with the 
 ground — tliat is, of course, in the 
 physical senses of these terms. We 
 lift a ladder when we take it up off the 
 ground. We may raise it by one end 
 only, so as to place it against the 
 house. 
 
 Heave (A. S. hebban, to lift) denotes 
 the raising slowly, as of weight or 
 with difficulty. It has the additional 
 force of impelling as well as raising ; 
 as, to heave a stone at an object. !See 
 Swell. 
 
 Elevate (Lat. ilivare; IcviSj light in 
 weight) is to raise relatively, or to 
 brinp^ from a lower place to a higher. 
 
 To Erect (Lat. irigere, part, erec- 
 tits) is to raise pei-pendicularly, still 
 preserving the relation to, and sup- 
 port of, some base or foundation on 
 which the thing erected rests. 
 
 To Exalt (Lat. exaltdre, to elevate) 
 is so to raise as to produce with the 
 raising an impression of dignity and 
 superiority ; the physical being em- 
 blematical of a moral raising. 
 
 Hoist (O. Dut. hyssen), commonly 
 combines the idea of gradual raising 
 of something weighty with that of 
 mechanical means, or at least of some 
 effort ; as to hoist a package, a sail, 
 or an ensign. 
 
 Heighten (A.S. hedh, high) is to 
 increase an already existing height, 
 as opposed to lowering; to make 
 higher or taller. A thing already 
 raised or erected may be further heigh- 
 tened, as a flag-staff, by an addition 
 to its substance. 
 
 " As for the casting up of the eyes, and 
 lifting up of the hands, it is a kind of 
 appeal to the Deity." — Baco?^ . 
 
 *'Shed thy faire beames unto my feeble 
 
 eyne. 
 And raise my thoughtes too humble and 
 
 too vile." Spenser. 
 
 " If a pagan had been present at one of 
 the Christian assemblies and, at the eleva- 
 tixm of the Host, had seen them all fall 
 dovrn and •wcrship,"— Sharp. 
 
 *♦ Round her throne. 
 
 Erected in the bosom of the just, 
 
 £ach virtue 'listed forms her manly guard." 
 Young. 
 
 " Walked boldly upright with exalted 
 head." Drydkn. 
 
 " Let him take thee 
 
 And hoist thee up to the shouting ple- 
 beians." Shakespeare. 
 
 "Fancy enervates while it soothes the 
 heart. 
 
 And while it dazzles wounds the mental 
 sight ; 
 
 To joy each heightening charm it can im- 
 part. 
 
 But wraps the hour of woe in tenfold 
 night." Beattik. 
 
 LIKENESS. Resemblance. 
 Similarity. Similitude. 
 
 Likeness (A.S. lie) is the most 
 familiar and comprehensive. It is 
 applicable both to the internal nature 
 and to the outward semblances of 
 things. 
 
 Resemblance (Fr. ressembler, to be 
 alike) has much the same meaning, 
 but has a more subjective, as likeness 
 a more objective, force ; that is, like- 
 ness belongs rather to objects them- 
 selves ; resemblance, to their proper- 
 ties, and the effect produced by them. 
 Hence Likeness seems more appro- 
 priate in the case of visible and pal- 
 pable objects ; Resemblance, in the 
 qualities of things, and where the 
 likeness is fainter. A strong like- 
 ness in feature ; a faint resemblance 
 in manner. 
 
 Similarity (Fr. similaire, similar) 
 lends itself more readily to express 
 likeness in properties or accidents of 
 things than things themselves ; as, a 
 similarity of appearance, nature, dis- 
 position, of proceeding, of result, or 
 of such things as are judged purely 
 by the mind, and not the senses ; as » 
 similarity of belief. Similitude is 
 to similarity as the concrete to the 
 abstract, similitude being embodied 
 similarity or likeness as it is not only 
 recognirved or appreciated, but repre- 
 sented and expressed. Hence a simi- 
 larity may be shown by a similitude, 
 in the rhetorical sense of the term. 
 When a tjTant is called a tiger, it is a 
 similitude based upon a similarity'. 
 
 " There is a fabulous narrative that in the 
 northern countries there should be aa herb 
 
[little] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 551 
 
 that grovreth ia the likeness of a, lamh, and 
 feefleth upon the grass." — BaCON. 
 
 " To do good is to become most like God. 
 It is that which of all other qualities gives 
 us the resemblance of His nature and per- 
 fection. "— Sharp. 
 
 " From the knowledge I had of this tree, 
 and the similarity it bore to the spruce, I 
 judged that, -with the addition of inspissated 
 juice of wort and molasses, it would make 
 a very wholesome beer."— CoctK's Voyages. 
 
 " Thus they turned their glory into the 
 similitude of a. calf that eateth h&y."— Eng- 
 lish Psalms. 
 
 LIKELY. Probable. 
 
 Likely (literally, /j/ce what has hap- 
 pened, and so like to happen) has the 
 same sense as Probable (Lat. pr'dbd- 
 bilis), and an additional force beyond 
 it. Probable qualifies only facts or 
 events as regards the evidence which 
 is greater for than against it, hence af- 
 fording ground for belief ; as, probable 
 evidence distinguished from mathe- 
 matical or demonstrative. But Likely 
 has the further force of possessing an 
 inherent tendency to bring about a re- 
 sult, and so the probable cause of it. 
 In this way Likely is applicable to 
 persons and events, not simply in re- 
 gard to their occurrence, but their 
 effects and actions. " It is probable 
 that I shall go to-morrow," might be 
 expressed thus: *' I am likely to go 
 to-morrow," where "lam probable" 
 could not have been employed. 
 
 LIMB. Member. 
 
 Member (hat. membrum, a limb) is 
 a general term applied to any distinct 
 section or portion of an organized 
 body performing a distinct office, as 
 the eye, the ear. 
 
 Limb (A. S. Urn) is the term re- 
 stricted to the arms and legs. Mem- 
 ber lends itself, as Limb does not, to 
 secondary or metaphorical uses ; as, a 
 member of Parliament, a family, or an 
 association. 
 "And on the grass her dainty limbs did 
 
 lay. 
 In secret shadow, far from all men's sight." 
 Spknser. 
 
 "But now are they many members, yet 
 not one body." — English Bible. 
 
 LISTLESS. Careless. Supine. 
 The Listless person (originally lust- 
 
 less, t.e. wanting in vigour) is in a state 
 of mental and moral torpor, which ex- 
 cludes the desire of any object which 
 requires exertion. Listless stands to 
 the ends of action as Careless to ac- 
 tion itself, whether physical or men- 
 tal. The careless man does his work 
 without pains ; the listless man does 
 not think it worth doing at all. 
 
 SuriXE is the Lat. siipiniis, lying on 
 the back, as opposed to pronus, binding 
 forwards. So the supine is without 
 that proneness which comes from the 
 propensity to activity and the faculty 
 of interest. As listlessness is em- 
 ployed of minor matters, so supine- 
 ness implies matters of some principle 
 and obligation. The careless person 
 is not necessarily supine ; he may be 
 active, ener^f^e, and lively, but spe- 
 cifically indifferent or uninterested in 
 the object before him. The listless 
 person has no interest. The supine 
 may have some amount of it, but not 
 enough to be an incentive to action, 
 or enough to overcome a constitutional 
 laziness. Listlessness is rather the 
 absence of desire; supineness, the ab- 
 sence of pure interest. Carelessness 
 may come from an excess of animal 
 spirits, and a playful defiance of for- 
 tune. A person is supine by nature; 
 circumstances may make him. listless. 
 
 " That listlessness and depression of spirits 
 Trhich generally accompany national disas- 
 tei-»."— Eustace, Italy. 
 
 " If, indeed, the little improvement they 
 apparently derive from such perfunctory 
 lectures arises from their own supineness^ 
 themselves only are justly culpable ; but I 
 suspect their very supineness usually arise* 
 from the indifference and dulness of the 
 tutors' manner." — Knox, Essays. 
 " The Priest whose office is, with zeal sin 
 
 cere. 
 To watch the fountain and preserve it clear, 
 Carelessly nods and sleeps upon the brink 
 While others poison what the flocks must 
 drink." COWPER. 
 
 LITTLE. Small. D'^T.^"JTIVE. 
 Minute. 
 
 Little (A. S. lytel) is the most 
 general term, and is applicable to 
 quantity as well as size; as a little 
 person, a little water. 
 
 Small (A. S. smtzi) applies to tliat 
 which is wanting in extension or ex- 
 tent. We could not say " a sma]! 
 
552 
 
 water," but " quantity " or " piece of 
 water." Both have the moral import 
 of insignificant or mean. Little and 
 Small being both relative terms, the 
 former is stronger than the latter; 
 Little meaning remarkably or excep- 
 tionally small. Hence Small belongs 
 more purely to standards of compari- 
 son, without implying disparagement. 
 If my income has diminished, I must 
 occupy a smaller (not a littler) house. 
 Little is opposed to big ; small to 
 large. A little child is contrasted 
 with a grown man. A small child is 
 a proportio7uitely small, that is, puny 
 or ill-developed child. Little is often 
 associated with the feelings, as Small 
 is not. So it may be a term of endear- 
 ment ; as, a little darling. 
 
 Diminutive (Lat. diminucre, to 
 diminish, part, dlminutus) is relative 
 to an assumed or expressed standard ; 
 as a diminutive person is one who falls 
 far below the average size. 
 
 Minute (Lat. witnun-e,part. mmuttis, 
 to diminish) is that which requires or 
 implies closeness of observation or in- 
 spection, and is a term of purely phy- 
 sical proportion, except when it is 
 used analogously or metaphorically. 
 
 " I confess I love littleness almost in all 
 things ; a little, convenient estate, a little 
 cheerful house, a little company, and a very 
 little feast,"— Cowley. 
 " Thenceforth I 'gan in my engrieved breast 
 To scorn all difference of gi*eat and small 
 Sith that the greatest often are opprest. 
 And unawares do into danger fall," 
 
 SpENSEB. 
 
 "The diminutiveness of his figure vras 
 totally eclipsed by the expansion of his 
 instrument." — Student. 
 
 " Whose corpuscles, by reason of their 
 minuteness, swim easily for a while in the 
 water,"— Boyle. 
 
 LIVELIHOOD. Living. Sub- 
 sistence. Support. Maintenance. 
 Sustenance. 
 
 The means of living or supporting 
 life, or the life so supported, are the 
 ideas common to these terms. 
 
 Livelihood stands to Living (A, S. 
 Uf, life; liban and lyhharij to live) as 
 the general result to the course or 
 means ; the getting of the living being 
 the livelihood, that is, occupation, 
 calling, or work in life. A livelihood 
 
 SYNONYMS [LIVELIHOODj 
 
 is a calling or profession regarded as 
 the condition of subsistence ; while 
 living is the subsistence itself. Both 
 Livelihood and Living are restricted 
 to rational creatures, whose mainte- 
 nance depends upon their own exer- 
 tions. 
 
 Subsistence (Lat. subsistere, to sus- 
 tain) is employed of what furnishes 
 support to animal life generally and 
 directly, as food ; while to Support 
 ( Lat. supportdre, to convey to) is to fur- 
 nish with the means of sustenance in 
 any shape, as money, foocl, aci the 
 like. 
 
 Maintenance (Fr. 7nainfe7iir; Lat. 
 mUnus, the hand, and t^nire, to hold) 
 has a wider meaning, and denotes 
 generally the keeping up of anything 
 which has to be upheld m a course of 
 being, action, or operation; as the 
 maintenance of life, of the body, of a 
 fabric, of respectability, of splendour, 
 of public war or worship. 
 
 Sustenance (Lat. sub, uiider, and 
 tcnire, to hold) denotes no more than 
 means of supporting life, but is not 
 restricted to animal life, being applic- 
 able to the vegetative life of plants. 
 Sustenance passes into the body of 
 things ; not so maintenance, nor (in 
 all cases) support. Livelihood is 
 earned. Living is procured. Subsis- 
 tence accrues. Support is given. 
 Maintenance is aflforded. Sustenance 
 is imparted. Unlike the rest. Main- 
 tenance and Support are applicable 
 to things of the moral nature : as the 
 support of courage and hope; the 
 maintenance of order, cheerfulness, or 
 resolution. 
 
 " My lord, saith he, was never worthy man 
 So nobly bred, and of so high descent. 
 Of so fair livelihood, and so large rent." 
 Drayton. 
 " 'Tis the very profession and livelihood 
 of such people, getting their living by those 
 practices for which they deserve to forfeit 
 their lives."— South. 
 
 " By the means of subsistence, I under- 
 stand not the means of superfluous gratifi- 
 cations, but that present competency which 
 every individual must possess in order to be 
 in a capacity to derive a support from hia 
 industry in the proper business of his call- 
 ing."— Bishop HORSLEY. 
 
 *' By giving up the belief of a God, I throw 
 away all these considerations, and leave my- 
 
DISCRIMINAIED. 
 
 [loud] 
 
 self utterly destitute and supportless." — 
 Scott, Christian Life. 
 
 " All men are sensible of the necessity of 
 justice to maintain peace and order; and 
 all men are sensible of the necessity of peace 
 and order for the mainteTuxnce of society." — 
 Hume. 
 
 " It is a mistake to suppose that the rich 
 man maintains his servants, tradesmen, 
 tenants, and labourers. The truth is, they 
 maintain him." — Palky. 
 
 " The sheriffs of Hertford and Essex were 
 commanded to ward him there, and to pre- 
 vent all sustenance to be brought him." 
 
 Drayton. 
 
 LONELY. Solitary. 
 
 Lovely conveys the idea of the 
 melancholy or the forsaken ; while 
 Solitary (Lat. sulitdrius) denotes no j 
 more than the absence of life or so- 
 ciety. A bird of solitaiy habits is dis- 
 tinguished fi-om gregarious birds. A 
 lonely wanderer is not only solitary, 
 but feels it in sadness. Places are soli- 
 tary, as being without inhabitants. 
 They are lonely, as producing in per- 
 sons the efiects of isolation. So we may 
 be lonely, though not solitaiy, in 
 crowds. As the essence of solitariness 
 is separation, not the feelings conse- 
 quent upon it, it is a synonym of 
 iingle ; as a solitary instance, that is, 
 one, and only one. 
 
 "To the misled and lonely traveller." 
 Shakespeare. 
 " Hie home unto my chamber. 
 Where thou shalt find me sad and solitary." 
 Ibid. 
 
 LOQUACIOUS. Talkative. 
 Garrulous. 
 
 The LoQu Acious person ( Lat. I6qua- 
 cenij from I6qui, to speak) is one who 
 is in the habit of talking continually or 
 excessively. The Talkative person is 
 not necessarily so exclusively fond 
 of the sound of his own voice, and 
 likes talkativeness in others as well. 
 
 The Garrulous person (Lat. g^r- 
 rtilus, garrire, to chatter) is unduly 
 communicative, and fluently eloquent 
 in imparting small and valueless in- 
 formation. He tends more distinc- 
 tively to talk about his neighbour's 
 affairs and his own. He is full of 
 petty experiences, which he occupies 
 the time of others in detailing. Chil- 
 dren are often talkative ; lively women 
 'oquacious ; old men garrulous. 
 
 553 
 
 " Why loqiMcity is to be avoided, the wise 
 man gives us a sufficient reason, Prov. x. 19: 
 • In the multitude of words there wanteth 
 not sin ; ' and Ecdes. v. 7 : ' In many words 
 there are divers vanities.' " — Ray. 
 
 " Pardon, my lord, the feeble garrulity 
 of age, which loves to diffuse itself in dis- 
 course of the departed great." — BuRKB. 
 
 " With such cautions, there is no doubt 
 but that talkativeness is greatly to be pre- 
 ferred to taciturnity, both for our own 
 and others' pleasure and improvement." — 
 Kxox, Essays. 
 
 LOUD. Noisy. Clamorous. Ob- 
 streperous. Sonorous. 
 
 Loud (A. S. hliid) is producing any 
 kind of sound in a high degree, 
 whether continuously or not. It is a 
 characteristic also of the sound itself 
 striking the ear witli force. 
 
 Noisy (O. Fr. noise, Lat. nausea^ 
 disgust, quarrel; but LiTTREinclinesto 
 noxia, hurt, damage, annoyance) means 
 producing confused, unmusical, sense- 
 less, and abnormal sound, which can- 
 not be reduced to musical notes, or a 
 ratio of vibration. Tlie loud deafens 
 us, the noisy distracts us. 
 
 Clamorous (Lat. cldmdre, to call 
 aloud ; cldmorem, a shout) applies only 
 to the unrestrained and noisy exercise 
 of the human or animal voice, as the 
 manifestation of some strong senti- 
 ment or desire. 
 
 Obstreperous (Lat. ohstreptirey to 
 make a noise at) is producing a dis- 
 turbing or tumultuous noise. 
 
 Sonorous (Lat. sonorus, sounding) 
 is having the power or quality of 
 loudness by nature, as a sonorous 
 voice, a sonorous metal ; and carries 
 with it no disagreeableness of im- 
 pression, on the one hand, or musica 
 character, on the other, but is simplj 
 opposed to weakness or deadness ol 
 sound. 
 
 "The loudest peals and rattlings of our 
 conscience." — Barrow. 
 
 " The king's demand of a supply pro 
 duced one of those noisy speeches which 
 disaffection and discontent regularly dic- 
 tate."— JoHNSON. 
 
 "We may much more easily think to 
 clamour the sun and stai-s out of their 
 courses, than to word the great Creator of 
 them out of the steady purposes of His owf. 
 will by all the vehemence and loudness ft 
 our petitions."-. South. 
 
554 
 
 " There are who, deaf to mad ambition's 
 
 call, 
 Wonld shrink to hear th' obstreperous 
 
 trump of fame. 
 Supremely blest if to their portion fall 
 Health, competence, and peace." 
 
 Beattie. 
 *' They have sonorous instruments, but 
 they can be scarcely called instruments of 
 ronsic." — Cook's Voyages. 
 
 LOWER. Rfduce. 
 
 To LowEn is the simpler and gene- 
 ric term, beino- applicable to anything 
 which exists in degree, and of which 
 that degree may be altered for more 
 or less. 
 
 To Reduce (Lat. reducere,to bring 
 back) is to lower in a certain way, 
 that is, to lower in reference to an ex- 
 clusively internal standard. We lower 
 a bucket into a well. AVe reduce a 
 substance to powder, the particles 
 beingregarded as in their individuality 
 prior to their existence in combina- 
 tion. We reduce expenses, that is, 
 make tliem lower by bringing them 
 back to what they have been or ought 
 to be. We reduce an argument to a 
 simple statement when we regard this 
 statement as containing the primary 
 truth or meaning, and all else as ac- 
 cretion, accident, or surplusage. To 
 lower is to reduce in respect to size, 
 quantity, rank, value, and the like. 
 As applied to persons. Lower relates 
 to moral estimation and social posi- 
 tion. Reduce to their cii'cumstances 
 and resources. 
 
 '* Many writer<» seem to have imagined 
 that the increase of the quantity of gold and 
 silver, in consequence of the discovery of 
 the Spanish West Indies, was the real cause 
 of the lowering of the rate of interest 
 through the greater part of Europe."— 
 Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 "They resolve that all manner of life 
 whatsoever is generable and corruptible, 
 or edncible out of nothing, and reducible to 
 nothing again."— CuDWORTH. 
 
 LOWLY. Humble. Modest. 
 Diffident. 
 
 Lowly is rather a term of the natu- 
 ral disposition, and sometimes ex- 
 presses simply the social condition ; 
 
 Humble (Lat. hYirxilis), of the spirit 
 and intellect, except when meaning 
 socially inferior ; as, a humble station 
 of life. Humility is more reflexive 
 
 SYNONYMS [lower] 
 
 than lowliness. A man by self-disci- 
 pline and thoughtfulnessmay become 
 truly humble, who is by no means of 
 a lowly disposition naturally. Humi- 
 lity resembles modesty ; but it implies 
 rather a readiness to yield what is due 
 to us than a shrinking from notice. 
 Humility, it has been well observed, 
 does not consist in a disposition 
 falsely to underrate ourselves, but 
 " in being willing to waive our rights, 
 and descend to a lower place than 
 might be our due ; in being ready to 
 admit our liability to error, and lis- 
 tening patiently to ohifctions, even 
 when they thwart our views ; in freely 
 owning our faults when conscious of 
 having been wrong ; and, in short, 
 in not being over-careful of our own 
 dignity." 
 
 Modesty (Lat. mMestia) does not 
 imply self-distrust, but an unwilling- 
 ness to put ourselves forward, and 
 the absence of over-confidence in our 
 own powers. The modest man is not 
 ignorant of his powers, but does not 
 vaunt or assume upon them. 
 
 A Diffident man, on the other 
 hand (Lat. difftdere, to distrust) is 
 over-distrustful of his own powers, 
 and, whether from an exaggerated 
 dread of failure, or from any othei 
 cause, shrinks from undertaking what 
 he may be quite competent to perform. 
 Modesty and humility are virtues; 
 diffidence is not in itself a virtue, and 
 may amount to a defect. The oppo- 
 site to diffidence is confidence; to 
 modesty, impudence or assurance ; to 
 humility,prideorconceit. Diffidence, 
 however, unlike the rest, bears the 
 additional sense of distrust of others. 
 In short, diffidence is distrust. This, 
 when entertained of others, is a kind 
 of suspicion ; when of ourselves, a 
 kind of modesty, or, in excess, a kind 
 of fear. 
 
 " As lofty pines o'ertop the lowly reed. 
 So did her graceful height all nymphs ex- 
 ceed." CONGREVE. 
 
 " I will invite all manner of persons, of 
 what manners or dispositionssoever, whether 
 the ambitious or Au?7ifiZe-minded, the proud 
 or pitiful, ingenuous or base-minded." — 
 Spectator, 
 
 " Modesty is a kind of shame or bashful- 
 ness proceeding fr®m the sense a man has 
 
[madness] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 555 
 
 of his own defects comparetl with the per- 
 fections of him whom he comes before " — 
 South. 
 
 "To rely at all times upon the care and 
 protection of God, without unreasonable 
 anxiety, diffidence, and distrust." — Clarke. 
 
 LUXURIANT. Exuberant. 
 
 Luxuriant (Lat. /«x(imre, to imu' 
 ton^ to grow in size, luxmy) applies 
 only to vegetation and what is analo- 
 gous to growth ; as luxuriant crops, a 
 luxuriant imagination. 
 
 Exuberant (Lat. exiibh-are, to be in 
 grtat abundance ; iiher, the ndder) is to 
 the production what luxuriant is to 
 the growth ; the foraaer denotes a 
 flourishing life, the latter a copious, 
 and sometimes excessive, produce. 
 Hence Exuberance is sometimes em- 
 ployed to imply that kind of abun- 
 dance which needs to be restrained, 
 as exuberant grief, exuberant joy ; 
 while Luxuriant is never used but in 
 a happy and favourable sense. 
 
 '* Poets no less celebrated for the luocu- 
 rinvcy than for the elegance of their ge- 
 nius." — Observer. 
 
 " So that allowing me in my exuberance 
 one way, for my deficiencies in the other, 
 yon will find me not unreasonable."— 
 Burke. 
 
 M. 
 
 MACHINE. Engini.. 
 
 A Machine (Fr. machine^ Lat. 
 wacKina) is a combination of bodies 
 adapted to ti-ansmit force and apply it 
 to the production of some specific work 
 or effect. 
 
 Engine (Fr. engin, Lat. ingtnium, 
 in the sense of a machine, a war engine) 
 is more commonly applied to machines 
 of the more massive kind which pro- 
 duce some difficult result by the em- 
 ployment of a high degi'ee of power. 
 Locomotive machines, for instance, 
 are called engines. 
 
 MADNESS. Derangement. In- 
 sanity. Mania. Frenzy. Aberra- 
 tion. Alienation. Craziness. 
 
 Madness (A. S. gemM, mad) ex- 
 presses any kind or degree of disorder 
 of the intellect, whether permanent 
 or transient, casual or congenital ; as, 
 
 hereditary madness, the madness of 
 rage, or any other passion. 
 
 Insanity (Lat. insanitatem, unheal- 
 thiness) is a more philosophical or 
 technical term for madness, and is 
 popularly used for all such diseases. 
 It is not employed, like Madness, of 
 passing derangement. 
 
 Lunacy has now nearly the same 
 extent of meaning, though once used 
 to denote periodical insanity (Lat. lu 
 ndt'iciis, one affected bij the moon). 
 
 Derangement, Alien .\TiON, Aber- 
 ration are not scientific but colloouial 
 terms expressive of the aspects or the 
 disease. 
 
 Mania, Delirium, and Frenzy 
 denote excited states of the disease ; 
 INIania (Gr. fxuvia, madness), as de- 
 noting simply its violence; Delirium 
 (Lat. diririum, madness; diHruSj 
 from de,from, and lira, a furrow, one 
 who goes out of his tvati in ploughing), a 
 wandering, inconsecutive state of 
 mind. Frenzy (Gr. 4>^ivi:ri^, inflamma- 
 tion of the brain) is applied to more 
 ordinary and temporary kinds of men- 
 tal excitement ; as, a frenzy of rage ; 
 the frenzy of the prophet or the poet. 
 See Idiot. 
 
 " Festus, said Paul, thou art beside thy- 
 self, much learning doth make thee mad." 
 —Eng. Bible. 
 
 " It is in the highest degree improbable, 
 and I know not whether it hath ever been 
 the fact, that the same deravgement of the 
 mental organs should seize different person* 
 at the same time, a derangement I mean so 
 much the same as to represent to their 
 imagination the same objects." — Palet. 
 
 "There is a partial insanity of mind and 
 a total insanity. The partial insanity &eema 
 not to excuse them in the committing of 
 any offence for its matter capital." — Halk. 
 
 " Manie 
 Engendred of humours melancolike." 
 
 Chaucer. 
 "Who deem religion /renry." 
 
 COWPEK. 
 " The aberration of youth." — Hall. 
 Craziness (from craze, connected 
 with Fr. ecraser, io break) is the imbe- 
 cility of a broken-down intellect, and 
 as it were, a decrepit state of mind. 
 , It is commonly the result of age or 
 severe mental pressure or trial, and is 
 often accompanied by hallucination in 
 
656 
 
 connexion with personal life and his- 
 tory. 
 
 •' Grief hath crazed my wits." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 MAGICIAN. Necromancer. 
 Sorcerer. Wizard. Enchanter. 
 
 The Magician (Fr. magicien, Gr. 
 fxayof), was one skilled in magic or 
 the black art. 
 
 The Sosrcerer (Lat. sortiarins, lit. 
 one uiio told fortunes by lot, sortem) 
 is literally a diviner by lots. The 
 magician is looked upon as a benign, 
 the sorcerer as a dangerous being. 
 
 Necromancer (Gr. vsKpofjcavreU, 
 vecromancy) pretended revelations 
 from the dead. The Wizard was at 
 first the wise man, afterwards the 
 magician or sorcerer. As the magi- 
 cian had it in his power to produce 
 blessings by his supernatural skill, 
 and the necromancer divined by his 
 communications with the dead, the 
 sorcerer had the power of hurting by 
 evil spells and channs, while the 
 wizard was able by an unearthly 
 trickery, to add to or extricate from 
 the misfortunes and embarrassments 
 oflife. 
 
 It was the oflSce of the Enchanter 
 (Lat. incantdtorem) to bind by a spell 
 and to enchain by illusion. 
 
 MAINTAIN. Sustain. 
 
 (Fr. maintenir, and soutenir, the Lat. 
 mdnu thiere and sustmere). To main- 
 tain is to keep in the same state, to 
 sustain is to keep in the same place. 
 The thing which is not maintained 
 will change, deteriorate, or lapse ; the 
 thing which is not sustained will fall. 
 Vigilance maintains, power sustains. 
 Power sustains the laws. The magis- 
 trates maintain their execution. We 
 sustain what is weak, and maintain 
 what is variable. You sustain assaults, 
 eflfects; you maintain order, claims, 
 and things generally in their proper 
 course, place, and condition. 1 he 
 term Sustain is applicable physically; 
 Maintain is only applicable morally, 
 or to speak generally, the object main- 
 tained lies more remote, and is more 
 abstract than the object sustained. 
 Food sustains life. It is, as it were, 
 an advance on this to say that health 
 
 SYNONYMS [magician] 
 
 is maintained by temperance. The 
 law will maintain you in your rights 
 and sustain you in your eiForts to se- 
 cure them. An establishment cannot 
 be maintained when the diminished 
 income of the proprietor is insufficient 
 to sustain its expenses. 
 
 MAJESTY. Dignity. 
 
 Majesty (Lat. mqjestdtem)is purely 
 external, belonging as a personal at- 
 tribute to the highest persons in the 
 community. 
 
 Dignity (Lat. dignitatem) mani- 
 fests itself externally, but is also re- 
 lated to internal and essential quali- 
 ties, and may exist in all ranks. 
 Virtue, respectability of character, in- 
 nocence under unjust suspicion, may 
 maintain a native dignity. Some noble 
 qualities belong to dignity. Where 
 it is only in external bearing it indi- 
 cates a sense of what is due to one's 
 self or the station which one holds. 
 It is the mean between pomposity and 
 insignificance. On the other hand, an 
 imposing person and gorgeous dress 
 may invest the meanest tyrant with 
 an air of majesty. 
 
 MAIM. Mutii-ate. Mangle. 
 
 To Maim (Fr. subst. mahain, con- 
 nected with Lat. mancus, maimed, ff«- 
 /ecfii;e,LATHAM)is to deprive of the use 
 of a member or limb of the body, so as to 
 render a person less able to attack or 
 defend himself in fighting, or, by 
 an extension of the term, less com- 
 petent to physical action and move- 
 ment generally. 
 
 To Mutilate (Lat. mYMlare, to 
 maim), is to deprive, not only of the 
 use of the limb or member, but of 
 the limb or member itself, or of any 
 portion of the body. 
 
 To Mangle (^Low Lat. mitciildre, to 
 disfigure by wounds; mangtUare, to in- 
 jure, Wedgewood) is to cut or bruise 
 with repeated strokes or injuries in an 
 iiregular manner, producing ruptures 
 and laceration. 
 
 " By the actient law of England he that 
 maimed any man, whereby he lost any part 
 of his body, was sentenced to lose the like 
 part. "— Blackstone. 
 
 " The rhapsodies of Homer were ntic-es- 
 sarily in a very mutilated state, or recorded 
 
[manful] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 557 
 
 in men's meniories after aa imperfect man- 
 ner and by piecemeal only." — Observer. 
 
 '* Concise manglers of the human face 
 divine " (said of painters).— TiCKELL. 
 
 MAINTAIN. Assert. Vinui- 
 CATE. Hold. Support. Uphold. 
 
 Maintain (Fr. maintenir, Lat, 
 manus, the hand, and ten'cre, to hold), 
 in the sense in which it is synony- 
 mous with the other terms here given, 
 denotes the holding firmly or with 
 vigour and constancy; while Hold 
 (A. S. healdan) denotes simply enter- 
 taining with any degree ot firmness 
 in argumentative defence, and even 
 without argument at all. We hold 
 views, opinions, or belief; we main- 
 tain, besides these, positions, argu- 
 ments, rights, claims. 
 
 To Assert (Lat. asscrere, lay hold of, 
 claim) is to lay down a statement or 
 advance a claim in a positive manner, 
 as if identifying one's self with it, and 
 being ready to accept its consequences. 
 Asserting commonly precedes main- 
 taining; the former being positive 
 declaration, the latter persistent up- 
 holding afterwards. We assert facts 
 and claims. 
 
 To Vindicate (Lat. viiidicare, to 
 claim) is to defend with an implied 
 degree of success. Maintain, Assert, 
 and Hold apply to things. Vindicate 
 and Support also to persons. It stands 
 to justice as Assert and Maintain to 
 truth. Hold is always used of per- 
 sons ; Support, also of evidence. We 
 hold truths or convictions ; we sup- 
 port the forms in which they are ex- 
 pressed as propositions. To hold is 
 moral or intellectual; to support is 
 operative or technical. We support 
 resolution, plans, movements, or per- 
 sons in their efforts. 
 
 "Judge Anderson, who sate at the assizes 
 in ^he county of Suffolk, did adjudge it not 
 maintainable, because it was not spoken 
 maliciously." — WoOD, Athena Oxonienses. 
 
 " Now nothing is more shameful and un- 
 worthy a natural philosopher than to assert 
 anything to be done without a cause, or to 
 gire no reason of it." — Ray. 
 
 " For God, 
 Nothing more certain, will not long defer 
 To vindicate the glory of His name 
 Against all competition." Milton. 
 
 ' This is the unity of the Christian 
 
 Church, the holding of Christ for the head, 
 and not, tis the present Church of Rome 
 teaches, the holding of the Pope for the 
 visible head of it." — Pearck, Sermons. 
 
 "The question is not whether a thing be 
 mysterious, for all things are mysterious, 
 but whether the mystery be supported by 
 evidence." — GiLPlN. 
 
 Uphold (up and A. S. healdan, to 
 hold) is to maintain in a state of 
 power, dignity, sti*ength ; to prevent 
 from falling into the contraries of 
 these,whether persons, cases, feelings, 
 principles, statements, views, posi- 
 tions, sentiments, or opinion. We 
 are induced to uphold by a sense of 
 justice, truth, usefulness, and some- 
 times, it must be added, self-interest. 
 
 " Honour shall uphold the bomble iu 
 spirit." — Eng. Bible, 
 
 MALICIOUS. Malevolent. Ma- 
 lignant. 
 
 Malicious denotes the character 
 which delights in doing harm for 
 hai-m's sake. It may, however, be 
 applied to parts of the character, or 
 to manifestations of it ; as to take a 
 malicious pleasure in anything. 
 
 Malevolent (Lat. mdlh)6lus) is 
 more strictly personal against others. 
 
 Malignant (Lat.mrf/i^?«nteTO, part. 
 o£ mitlignHre or dri, to do maliciously) 
 is that which is virulently bent upon 
 harm or evil, and lends itaelf more 
 readily to express the character of 
 inanimate influences, where the harm 
 is contemplated without the intention; 
 as a malignant ulcer or fever. Mali- 
 cious carries the idea of designing ; 
 Malevolence, that of impulse of na- 
 ture; Malignant, intrinsic vice or 
 hannfulness. 
 
 "Malicious slander is the relating of 
 either truth or falsehood for the purpose of 
 creating misery." — Paley. 
 
 " Emulation is indeed frequently accom- 
 panied with ill-will toward our rivals ; but 
 it is the desire of superiority which is the 
 active principle, and the malevolent affec- 
 tion is only a concomitant circumstance." 
 —Stewart. 
 
 " In some connections malignity seems 
 rather more pertinently applied to a radi 
 cal depravity of nature and malignancy to 
 indications of this depravity in temper and 
 conduct in particular instances."- CoGAN. 
 
 MANFUL. Manly. Mannish. 
 Manful is commonly applied t« 
 
558 
 
 SYNONYMS L^ARINEJ 
 
 conduct; Manly, to character. Man- 
 ful opposition; manly bravery. Man- 
 ful is in accordance with the strength 
 of a man; Manly, with the moral ex- 
 cellence of a man. Manful is what a 
 man would, as such, be likely to do ; 
 Manly, what he ought to do, and to 
 feel as well. Mannish expresses the 
 unseemly imitation or likeness to tlja 1 
 characteVof a man, in those who have 
 some other character to support ; and 
 so is applicable to the coarseness of 
 women, or the assumption and preco- 
 city of children. 
 " Manly virtue, like the sun. 
 His course of glorious toil should run. 
 Alike diffusing in his flight 
 Congenial joy, and life, and light." 
 
 Swift. 
 " I kill'd a man, whose death I much re- 
 pent ; 
 But yet I slew him manfully in fight. 
 Without false vantage or base treachery." 
 Shakespeaee. 
 " But, alas ! the painted faces and 7nanish- 
 nesse, and monstrous disguisedness of one 
 sex." — Bishop Haxl. 
 
 MARINE. Mauitime. Naval. 
 Nautical. 
 
 Marine (Lat. mlirinus, belonging 
 to the sea), and Maritime (Lat. 
 mdrtttmus, meaning the same), both 
 mean belonging to the sea, but under 
 different aspects ; Marine, to the sea 
 in its simplest aspect or natural state, 
 as marine productions or deposits; 
 Maritime to the sea as it is employed 
 by man, or in relation to the life of 
 man ; as a maritime people, maritime 
 trade or occupations. An analogous 
 difference may be observed in the use 
 of the terms Naval and Nautical. 
 
 Naval (Lat. ndvdlis) is simply be- 
 longing to ships; Nautical (Lat. 
 nauttcus, belonging to sailors) belong;ing 
 to anything with which ships are spe- 
 cially connected, or for which they 
 are employed. A naval life, the naval 
 profession, a naval armament ; nauti- 
 cal discoveries, a nautical almanac. 
 
 " The code of maritime laws, which are 
 called the laws of Oleron, and are receive:! 
 by all nations in Europe as the ground and 
 substructure of all their marine constitu- 
 tions, was confessedly compiled by our King 
 Richard the First, at the Isle of Oleron."— 
 BXiACKSTONK. 
 
 " The victory uf Duilius, as it was ho- 
 
 noured at Eome with the first nav«^ triumph 
 that was ever seen in that city, so gave it 
 unto the Romans a gi'eat enconragement 
 to proceed in their wars by sea." — Ra- 
 legh. 
 
 " The nauticall compasse." — Camdew. 
 
 MARINER. Sailor. Seaman. 
 
 Mariner {see Marine) is one 
 w uose occupation is connected with 
 the navigation of ships. A Sailor, 
 as at present employed, designates 
 one who serves especially in the 
 navy; while Seaman is common to 
 the navy and the merchant service. 
 
 MARK. Indicate. Designate. 
 
 The proper force of the verb to 
 Mark (Fr, marquer) is to distinguish, 
 to enable us to discern an object by 
 peculiar characters, so that one cannot 
 misunderstand or confound them. 
 
 The proper force of Indicate (Lat. 
 indtcare) is to give knowledge and in- 
 formation about a subject which one 
 does not know, or of which one is in 
 search, so as to direct one's view, 
 one's steps, or one's thoughts to see, 
 remark, or discover it. 
 
 The proper force of Designate 
 (Lat. disigndre) is to set forth the 
 thing hidden by means of the relation 
 of certain signs to it, so that without 
 actually subjecting the thing to the 
 sight we may know it and be sure of 
 it. Marks, such as impressions, spots, 
 stains, Avhether natural or artificial, 
 enable us to know and recognize a 
 thing amid a multitude of others of 
 the same kind by some distinctive pro- 
 perty or exclusive feature. Indica- 
 TioNs,suchas gestures, sign-posts,con- 
 ventional pointers, show us by giving 
 us information, the object of our search 
 or the line of procedure ; and by di 
 recting us to it, help us to reach it. 
 Signs, such as a signature, signals of 
 flags, telegraphs, or beacons, by their 
 significance or demonstrative force 
 founded upon the nature of things or 
 arbitrarily established, inform us that 
 a thing is, where it is, or what it is. 
 The hand of the clock marks the hour, 
 the index of a book indicates the page 
 on which a certain article is printed. 
 The flag of a ship designates the nation 
 I to which it belongs. 
 
[marvel] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 559 
 
 MARRIAGE. Wedding. Nup- 
 tials. Mathimony. Wedlock. 
 
 MAnRiAGE(Fr.77wrwo^e) is properly 
 the act which unites man ana wife ; 
 
 Matrimony (Lat. maUHmbiiium, 
 uedlock; mdtrem, a mother)^ the state 
 of such union, with all its relation- 
 ehips, rights, and obligations. Al- 
 though man-iage is sometimes used 
 for the state, matrimonj is never 
 used for the act. Wedlock is the 
 old Saxon term for matrimouy, and 
 is a term of legal associations; as 
 lawful wedlock. 
 
 Wedding (A. S. loeddian, to cove- 
 nant, promise) is employed only of the 
 ceremony of the marriage. 
 
 Nuptials (Lat. nuptidlis, belonging 
 to a marriage, nupticB. pi.) is little more 
 than the Latin equivalent of the Saxon 
 Wedding. Like most Latin equiva- 
 lents, however, it has a more dignified 
 meaning. We should naturally speak 
 of a village wedding, and the nuptials 
 of a prince. 
 
 " Mai'riage Love's object is, at whose bright 
 
 eyes 
 He lights his torches, and calls them his 
 
 skies ; 
 For her he wings his shoulders and doth 
 
 fly 
 To her white bosom as his sanctuary." 
 Ben Joxson. 
 " The misinterpreting of the Scripture 
 directed mainly against the abuses of the 
 law for divorce given by Moses, hath 
 changed the blessing of inatrimony not 
 seldom into a familiar and co-inhabiting 
 mischief." — Miltox. 
 
 " Is mirth seasonable on the day oi mar- 
 riage ? Behold, the greatest tvedding that 
 ever was is this day solemnized ; heaven 
 and earth are contracted; divinity is es- 
 poused to humanity; a sacred, an indis- 
 soluble knot is tied between God and man." 
 —Barrow. 
 
 " The relation between Christ and His 
 Church, it is evident, must be of a nature 
 not to be adequately tj-pified by anything 
 in the material woi-ld ; and nothing could 
 be found in human life which might so 
 aptly represent it as the relation of husband 
 and wife in the holy state of wedlock." — 
 Bishop Horsley-. 
 " He (Earl Athelwold) then besought me 
 
 for some little space 
 "he nuptials might be secret." Mason. 
 
 MARSH. Swamp. Bog. Quag- 
 mire. Morabs. Fen. 
 A Marsh (Fr. maraiSf Low Lat. 
 
 mariscus), is a considerable tiact ol 
 low swampy land, sometimes cohered 
 with water. 
 
 A. Swamp (old Norse, squampOf tc 
 splash; Wedgewood) is a piece of 
 flat spongy land not coveied with 
 water, and of no considerable extent. 
 Swamp indicates the character of 
 patches of land. Marshes are some- 
 times so extensive as to form geo- 
 graphical features of a country. A 
 Bog is a soft and treacherous swamp 
 covered with vegetation, yet not com- 
 pact enough to bear more than a 
 slight weight upon its surface. It 
 is this incomj)leteness and shifting 
 character of the ground which is 
 more distinctively expressed by quag- 
 mire, as it were " quakemire.* 
 Morass, which is another form ol 
 Marsh, is an extensive marsh, sterile 
 and too wet for pasturage ; 
 
 While Fen (A. S. fen) is a marsh 
 I producing reeds, sedge, coai'se grass, 
 and a variety of aquatic vegetation. 
 
 MARTIAL. Warlike. Military. 
 Soldier-like. 
 
 Martial (Lat. martUtU$, belonging 
 to Mars, the God of War) is, to a great 
 extent, equivalent to Warlike; as, 
 a martial or warlike people ; a martial 
 or warlike appearance. However, 
 AVarlike lends itself better to express 
 what belongs to war in action. So a 
 martial, not a Avarlike, sentence or 
 tribunal ; martial, not warlike, law. 
 
 Military (Lat. m'ltitdris, belonging 
 to a soUiier) is directly pertaining to 
 soldiers, and so indirectly pertaining 
 to war ; as military disci])line, which 
 includes much besides what is peculiar 
 to war, as, for instance, punctual 
 routine, provisions, honours, ammu- 
 nition, roads. "The town wore a 
 very military appearance ;" that is, 
 there were many soldiers going about. 
 Soldier-like expresses what is ap- 
 propriately belonging to the charac- 
 ter, conduct, and appearance of a 
 soldier, and is individually, not ab- 
 stractedly, applied. 
 
 MAR\'EL. Prodigy. Wondsb. 
 
 Miracle. Monster, Phenomenon. 
 
 Marvel (Fr. inerveille, Lat. mi'd 
 
660 
 
 SYNONYMS [mass] 
 
 talis, wonderful) is commonly a re- 
 lated wonder. But it has also the 
 wider sense of a production which 
 strikes us with admiration as a work 
 in its kind of surprising excellence. 
 
 Prodigy (Lat. prdd(gium) is an 
 unusual portent of Nature. 
 
 Wonders (A. S. wunder, wundor) 
 are natural and true, and owe their 
 character to our inexperience. 
 
 Miracles (Lat. niiruciilum, a mar- 
 vel, mirdri, to wonder) are deviations 
 from the known and established con- 
 stitution and course of things, being 
 supernatural, as wonders are natural, 
 and marvels, for the most part, ficti- 
 tious. 
 
 Monster ( Fr. monstre, monstrum, a 
 divine omen, from monere, to warn, ad- 
 vise) is a marvellous deviation from 
 the ordinary type, being some speci- 
 fic form, wonderful for enormity or 
 shapelessness. A marvel or a won- 
 der is complex, as a prodigy is simple. 
 The former are occurrences, the latter 
 phenomena. What is wonderful takes 
 our senses, what is marvellous takes 
 our reason, by surprise ; what is pro- 
 digious is opposed to our experience. 
 The wonderful is opposed to the com- 
 mon, the marvellous to the probable. 
 Nature is full of wonders. The com- 
 mon production of an oak from an 
 acorn is a wonder. The old romances 
 abounded in the marvellous. Miracles 
 attest the prophet. Prodigies were 
 of frequent occurrence, according to 
 Livy, in the earlier Roman history, 
 as when a statue sweated, or a cow 
 spoke with the human voice. A mon- 
 ster may be a creation of the imagina- 
 tion or a fi'eak of Nature, as the hydra 
 in one case, or a calf with six legs in 
 the other. Wonder may be regarded 
 also as the generic term which com- 
 
 ? rises the rest. Universal eflforts of 
 Jature produce prodigies. Super- 
 natural power works miracles ; a rare 
 industry and artistic skill, or boldness, 
 or genius works marvels. A marvel of 
 painting or of architecture, for instance. 
 In proportion as the laws and forces 
 of N ature have become known, natural 
 phenomena, as eclipses or electric 
 fires, have ceased to be prodigies. 
 As tHe Chi'istian religion has become 
 
 established, the original need of mira- 
 cles has ceased. In proportion as art 
 spreads, its marvels lose their cha- 
 racter by becoming more common. 
 
 A Phenomenon (Gr. (poAySfXivov, a 
 thing shown) is literally no more than 
 an appearance — hence a striking or 
 unexpected exhibition. In a scientific 
 sense it denotes the outward result or 
 illustration of a law, that part of a 
 thing which presents itself to our 
 observation as distinguished from the 
 ground, substance, or unknown consti- 
 tution which underlies it and puts it 
 forth, as the phenomena of heat, elec- 
 tricity, or of the human mind. 
 
 "Among the various phenomena, which 
 the humaa mind presents to our view, 
 there is none more calculated te excite our 
 curiosity and our wonder than the commu- 
 nication which is carried on between the 
 sentient thinking and active principle within 
 us, and the material objects with which we 
 are surrounded." — D. Stewart. 
 " With which they wrought such wondrous 
 
 marvels there." Spenser. 
 
 " And yesterday the bird of night did sit, 
 Ev'n at noonday, upon the market-place. 
 Hooting and shrieking. When these pro- 
 digies 
 Do so conjointly meet, let not men say 
 These are their reason, they are natural." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 "Behold a wonder! they but now who 
 
 seemed 
 In bigness to surpass earth's giant sons. 
 Now less than smallest dwarfs in nan-ow 
 
 room 
 Throng numberless." MiLTON. 
 
 "A miracle, then, is the extraordinary 
 effect of some unknown power in Nature 
 limited by divine ordination and authority 
 to its circumstances, for a suitable end." — 
 Grew. 
 
 " A monster which hath not the shape of 
 mankind, but in any part evidently bears 
 the resemblance of the brute creation, hath 
 no inheritable blood, and cannot be heir in 
 any land, albeit it be brought forth in mar- 
 riage."— Blackstone. 
 
 MASS. VoLUMK. Dimensions. 
 Quantity. 
 
 The Mass (Fr, 7nas.se) is the quan- 
 tity of matter belonging to a boay. 
 
 The Volume (Lat. vUumen, volvere, 
 to roll) is its extent in length, width, 
 and depth. One judges of the mass 
 of a body by its weight, the weight of 
 all bodies being proportioTiate to the 
 quantity of matter which they contain. 
 
[materials] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 561 
 
 Dimension (Lat. dimensidnem) is 
 me&sure in a single line, as length, 
 breadth, height, thickness, circumfe- 
 rence. When the aggregate of these 
 is expressed by the plural dimensions, 
 it is equiv^alent to extent or size. 
 
 QuAT^TiTY (Lat. quantitdtem) is the 
 abstract quality of amount, the being 
 80 much and neither more nor less. It 
 is that attribute of a thing whioh 
 makes it capable of measurement. 
 
 MASSACRE. Carnage. 
 Butchery. Slaughter. 
 
 Massacre (Fr. vuissacre) denoted 
 originally the killing of victims for 
 sacrifice. It now denotes the pro- 
 miscuous slaughter of many, and is 
 more commonly applied to the de- 
 struction of human than of merely 
 animal life. It is a term of direct 
 reproach, being the act of treachery 
 or indiscriminate barbarity. 
 
 Carnage (L. Lat. caniaffcum, Lat. 
 carnem, Jiesh) is such slaughter as 
 produces a mass of animal remains. 
 It expresses the same result as Mas- 
 sacre, but not the same intention. 
 After a great battle there may be 
 ten-ible carnage, yet no massacre. 
 Barbarity, ferocity, atrocity in all 
 their horrors dictate 
 
 Butch er v (Fr. houcherie^ a slaughter 
 house), which points more directly to 
 the character of the person or persons 
 committing acts of slaughter upon 
 men, as if they Avere no better than 
 animals. 
 
 Slaughter ( A. S. sledn, to smite, to 
 slay) points not so directly to the 
 character of the person as of the deed, 
 and commonly denotes extensive, in- 
 discriminate, or superfluous taking 
 away of life, whether human or other- 
 wise. It bears, however, no neces- 
 sary meaning of wantonness or 
 cruelty, but only extensive destruc- 
 tion of life, or the killing of a large 
 carcase, when it is employed of the 
 inferior animals. 
 
 MASTER. Possessor. Owner, 
 Proprietor. 
 
 As a synonym with the following, 
 Master (Lat. mdgister) relates pri- 
 marily to beings gifted with life ; the 
 
 master of a house is t^a master of the 
 persons inhabiting it. The other 
 terms apply to mere goods as such. 
 Master, however, denotes an active 
 power; otherwise, though one might 
 be Possessor, he would not be master. 
 
 Owner (A. S. dgnian, to possess) 
 and Proprietor (Fr. proprietaire, 
 Lat. proprius, one's own) are essen- 
 tially the same ; but the former is 
 more familiar and employed of less 
 important as well as more important 
 possessions. The owner of a book or 
 an estate ; the proprietor of an estate, 
 not of a hook. Unlike Master, these 
 three tenns indicate not of necessity 
 active control. So a minor is, in the 
 eye of the law, owner, proprietor, 
 and possessor of his estate ; but he is 
 not master of it until he comes of 
 age. So insane persons possess that 
 over which they are not permitted to 
 exercise control. Both Owner and 
 Proprietor convey, as Possessor does 
 not necessarily, the idea of right. 
 The possessor may have hecome such 
 by fraud or force as against the right- 
 ful owner or proprietor. 
 
 "When I have made myseU master of a 
 hundred thousand drachmas." — AddiSON. 
 
 " Think of the happiness of the Prophet* 
 and Apostles, Saints and Martyrs, posses- 
 sors of eternal glory." — Law. 
 
 " It is evident that though the things of 
 nature are given in common, yet man by 
 being master of himself, and proprietor of 
 his own person, and the actions or labour of 
 it, had still in himself the great foundation 
 of property. "— Locks. 
 
 MATERIALS. Matter. Sub 
 ject. 
 
 Materials (Lat. mnttrialis, belong- 
 ing to matter) is Matter so selected 
 or prepared as to serve the purpose of 
 artificial production; while Matter 
 denotes, in the aggregate, all that con- 
 stitutes the palpable and visible, as 
 distinct from the world of mind, and 
 spiritual conception or being. The 
 productions of Nature are composed 
 of matter ; those of art, of materials 
 In their metaphorical application to 
 things intellectual and literary, the 
 matter of a work is the whole sub- 
 stance of it, as composed by the 
 author : the materials are the exter- 
 
562 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [mature] 
 
 nal elements which he imports and 
 assimilates in tho production of his 
 work. 
 
 The Subject (Lat. subjectum, the 
 thing placed under, the subject), in this 
 case, is that concerning which state- 
 ments are made, or which is generally 
 brought into view by discussion and 
 illustration. In philosophy we meet 
 with the compound term subject- 
 matter ; this is distinguished from ob- 
 iect-matter. The former is that with 
 which the science is directly, the 
 latter that with which it is neces- 
 sarily, but indirectly, concerned. For 
 instance, of philosophy at large, it 
 might be said, that its subject-matter 
 is truth ; its object-matter, happiness. 
 It is important to distinguish specially 
 between the matter and the subject. 
 The matter is the class of objects of 
 which one ti-eats. The subject is the 
 specific object of which one treats. 
 The varieties of the Gospel are the 
 matter of sermons. A particular ser- 
 mon has, for instance. Charity for its 
 subject. 
 
 " Materials for sacrifice." — Draytok. 
 "As thee, O Queen, the matter of my 
 
 " This subject for heroic song 
 Pleased me long choosing, and beginning 
 late." Milton. 
 
 MATURE. Ripe. 
 
 These words illustrate the tendency 
 so often observable of Saxon words 
 to adhere to the physical and literal, 
 and of Latin words, to the moral and 
 metaphorical. 
 
 Ripe (A. S. ripe, rip, hai-vest) is 
 in Saxon what Mature {maturus, 
 ripe) is in Latin. Ripe denotes com- 
 plete natural development, or what is 
 simply analogous to it ; as a fruit is 
 ripe, or a plan of action is ripe. Con- 
 sideration, judgment, thougnt, when 
 carried out to the full, are said to be 
 Mature. Ripe belongs to what is 
 ready to be dealt with practically ; Ma- 
 ture to what Las had sufficient time 
 bestowed upcr it. A scheme is mature 
 as being well digested, ripe as being 
 fit for carrying out. 
 
 " When they (the acts of men) be done 
 •;th such moderation that nothing in the 
 jing may seem superfluous or indigent. 
 
 we say that they be maturely done."— Sir 
 T. Eltot, The Governour. 
 
 "Should they submit ere our designs are 
 
 ripe, 
 We both must perish in the common 
 
 wreck. 
 Lost in a general nndistinguish'd ruin." 
 Addison, Cato. 
 MAY. Can. 
 
 Can denotes power ; May, proba- 
 bility, possibility, and permission. 1 
 can, or cannot, walk ; that is, I have, 
 or have not, the power to walk. It is 
 remarkable that the negative Cannot 
 is used in the sense of extreme im- 
 probability ; as, " Surely it cannot be 
 raining with this bright sun ; " in 
 which cases it seems to take the place 
 of May NOT. So we should say, " I 
 think, with the wind from the south, 
 it may rain to-day." But we should 
 not say, " Surely, with the wind from 
 the north, it may not," but " it cannot 
 rain to-day." May not negatives, not 
 probability, but permission. 
 
 MEAN. Abject. For Mean see 
 Base and Design. 
 
 The Abject (Lat. abjectus, cast 
 away, abjictre, to cast away) represents 
 the extreme of lowness as produced 
 by mental causes, or social circum- 
 stances. Abject melancholy; abject 
 poverty. It is not a term of purely 
 moral import. Abject misery ; abject 
 superstition ; not abject vice. It be- 
 longs to the low, not as it is base, but 
 as it is disesteemed. Abject is also cha- 
 racteristically employed of the spirit. 
 It is a term of comprehensive import. 
 It belongs to the extreme of moral 
 and social humiliation. 
 
 " And banish hence these abject, lowly 
 dreams." Shakespeare. 
 
 MEAT. Flesh. 
 
 Meat (A. S. mete) is not a term 
 directly expressive of any natural 
 substance in particular, whereas Flesh 
 (A. &.jic£sc) is. In old English Meat 
 meant food. The meat-offering of the 
 Anglican version of the Book of Le- 
 viticus is not flesh, but flour. Hence 
 it follows that, as applied to the ani- 
 mal substance, meat is always eatable, 
 while the flesh of many animals is no- 
 
'^meditate] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 563 
 
 MEDITATE. Contemplate. 
 Muse. Reflect. Consider. Re- 
 gard. Ponder. Revolve. 
 
 To Contemplate (Lat. contemplari, 
 part, contemplatus) is a more direct 
 act of the mind than Meditate (mi- 
 dttdri, part, mtditdtus) or Muse (Fr. 
 muse'^, to loiter or trifle)^ as is seen in 
 the difference of their grammatical 
 use ; Contemplate being essentially a 
 transitive verb ; Meditate and Muse, 
 except where Meditate is used in the 
 sense of intend, being followed by the 
 preposition upon. Meditation is in- 
 ternal ; contemplation external. The 
 poet, for instance, meditates ; the 
 astronomer contemplates. Not but 
 that we may mentally contemplate a 
 mental subject ; yet, in that case, we 
 still take, as it were, an external view 
 of it, and consider it in itself, and in 
 its totality ; when we meditate upon 
 it, we regard its internal nature, pro- 
 perties, bearings, relations, or issues. 
 Contemplation takes in the whole at 
 once ; meditation takes it to pieces. 
 Contemplation is fixed and sustained 
 attention ; meditation implies analy- 
 sis, and the viewing of a subject in 
 many different ways. We contem- 
 plate what is before us, or present in 
 imagination, in fact, or in anticipa- 
 tion. We meditate on what is absent, 
 past, or future. Hence the terms Con- 
 template and Meditate sometimes 
 bespeak practical purpose or intention 
 to act. To muse is to meditate with 
 less effort of mind, and is incompatible 
 with its painful exercise. We may 
 meditate on a matter which has caused 
 us profound sorrow ; we should 
 hardly be said to muse upon it. Yet 
 Muse seems to denote more decided 
 absence of mind than Meditate. 
 Musing belongs to the past, and, in 
 this respect, unlike Contemplate and 
 Meditate, is inapplicable to the fu- 
 ture. 
 
 " He that accustoms himself to meditate 
 upon the greatness of God, finds these ques- 
 tions continually rising and stirring in his 
 heart."— South. 
 
 ♦* To Contemplation's sober eye^ 
 
 Such is the race of man ; 
 And they that creep and they that fly. 
 
 Shall end where they began." 
 
 " There flow'ry hill, Hymettng with th« 
 
 sound 
 Of bees' industrious murmur oft invites 
 To studious musing." MiLTON. 
 
 Reflect (Lat. refitcttre^ to bind 
 backwards) applies solely to the past. 
 It is the turning back of the mind to 
 meditate upon itself, its own acts and 
 states, or what has occupied it, or 
 been presented to it as external facts. 
 Reflexion is commonly said of matters 
 of speculation or moral action ; Con- 
 sider (Lat. considirdre), of mattei-a 
 practical, requiring the use of obser- 
 vation and judgment. We reflect upon 
 what we are or shall be, have done or 
 ought to do. We consider facts or 
 cases presented to us, our present 
 condition, position, and resources, and 
 what steps we ought to take for right 
 action. Meditation is more involun- 
 tary than reflexion. We ponder and 
 take to pieces and view in all its 
 lights that which lies near our hearts ; 
 but we need often to be stopped in 
 our career of heedlessness, and to 
 have our minds drawn off from more 
 attractive and less important things, 
 in order that we may give serious re- 
 flexion to what we should otherwise 
 disregard. 
 
 " Forced by reflective reason, I confess 
 That human science is uncertain guess." 
 Prior. 
 "But mercy, lady bright, that knowest 
 
 well 
 My thoughts, and seest what harmes that 
 
 I feel. 
 Consider all this, and rue upon my sore." 
 Chaucer. 
 
 To Regard (Fr. regarder, to look) 
 is to look at with attention or inte- 
 rest ; hence to consider in such a way 
 as to form a judgment. This force 
 it shares with consider ; as, " I con- 
 sider or regard him as a friend." In 
 this sense Consider implies more pre- 
 vious thought than Regard. " I con- 
 sider that he has acted wisely," would 
 involve a more deliberate judgment 
 to that effect, than " I regard his ac- 
 tion as a wise one." The latter is to 
 look upon in a certain light; the 
 former is to do this upon certain 
 grounds. 
 
 Ponder (Lat. ponder are, to weight 
 denotes a long-sustained meditation 
 on what is of deep personal coDPPra. 
 
564 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [mEDLEYj 
 
 •* He valned his reJigion beyond his own 
 safety, and regarded not all the calumnies 
 and reproaches of his enemies, as long as 
 he made this his constant exercise — to keep 
 a conscience void of offence, both towards 
 God and towards men." — Stillinqflkkt. 
 " The modest queen awhile, with down- j 
 cast eyes, 1 
 
 Pondered the speech, then briefly thus re- 
 plies." Dryden, Virgil. 
 
 Revolve (Lat. rh^olvcre, to roll back, 
 to reflect upon) is au analogous term. 
 It is to turn a thing over and over 
 repeatedly in the mind, as a material 
 substance is turned over in the hand, 
 for the purpose of viewing under all 
 aspects and lights. It had formerly a 
 peculiar application to books and read- 
 ing, from the oldest books being parch- 
 ment rolls, -whence the word " vo- 
 lume." 
 
 "This having heard straight I again re- 
 volved 
 The Law and Prophets." MiLTON. 
 
 MEDLEY. Mixture. Miscel- 
 lany. 
 
 Medley (Fr. melee, nielevf to mix, 
 formerly mesler) is such a compound 
 as involves a mass of ill-assorted, un- 
 related, or confused ingredients. 
 
 Miscellany (Lat. misceUdneus, 
 mixed) is a compound of things which 
 are so various as not to stand strictly 
 connected, yet may be brought to- 
 gether for a purpose and with method. 
 A miscellany has the diversity without 
 the incongruity of a medley. 
 
 Mixture (Lat. mixtiira, a mixing) 
 is the more general term, denotipo- a 
 combination or interfusion of particles 
 or ingredients, which may be either 
 congruous or incongruous, propor- 
 tionate or disproportionate, judicious 
 or injudicious. A mixture may be of 
 two ; a medley is of more than two. 
 " More oft in fools' and madmen's hands 
 
 than sages'. 
 She seems a medlej/ of all ages." 
 
 SvriFT. 
 
 " In great villainies there is often such 
 a mixture of the fool as quite spoils the 
 whole project of the knave."— South. 
 
 " The miscellaneous matter I propose to 
 give in these sheets, naturally coincides 
 with the method I have taken of disposing 
 them into distinct papers."— Oiscrrer. 
 
 Meet. Fit. Apt. 
 
 Meet (A.S. gem£t,fit, •proper, and 
 
 this from metan, to meet with ; thus 
 answering strictly to the Lat. con- 
 veniens, and the older English conve- 
 nient, in the sense of ^t) is a moral 
 term, as Fit is both natural and arti- 
 ficial or acquired, and Apt natural 
 only. 
 
 " It is meet and right so to do."— ^»^/j- 
 Cfin Liturgy. 
 
 " That which ordinary men are fit for, I 
 am qualified in." — ShakksPEARE. 
 
 " They have not always apt instrn 
 ments." — BuRKE. 
 
 MELODY. PIahmony. Accor 
 DANCE. Concord. Unison. 
 
 Melody (Gr. (ji.t\xlict, a sinking 
 is the rhythmical succession of siag^ 
 notes in music, so as to form a who' 
 or musical thought. 
 
 Harmony (Gr. a^fxovla, a fitting to 
 gether, harmonii) is the concord of tw 
 or more musical strains differing ii 
 pitch. 
 
 Concord (Lat. concordia, con-, to 
 gether, and cor, cordis, the hearty r 
 the fitness of two or more sounds k 
 be heard simultaneously, not being 
 Unisons (Lat. unishius, having one 
 and the same sound), i.e. similar notes, 
 in different octaves, sounded together. 
 Accordance expresses the abstract 
 Quality of which any given concord ie 
 tne specific illustration. The first, 
 third, and fifth notes of a key, being 
 in accordance, form a concord when 
 struck together. 
 
 " The melody of birds." Milton. 
 " These accessory sounds, which are 
 caused by the aliquots of a sonorous body 
 vibrating at once, are called harmonies, 
 and the whole system of modern harmony 
 depends on them."— Sir W. Jones. 
 " While kindred notes, with undulation 
 
 sweet, 
 ^ccorda7ii wake from all thy vocal strings." 
 
 Mason. 
 " If the true concord of well-tuned sounds 
 By unions married do offend thine ear. 
 They do but singly chide thfe, who con- 
 founds 
 In singleness the parts that thou shonld'st 
 bear." Shakespeare. 
 
 " They say of two strings that are perfect 
 unisons, touch the one, the other also 
 sounds." — Lkiohton. 
 
 MEMORABLE. Signal. 
 
 These terms are applied to facts or 
 exemplifications of principle, proper- 
 
[memory] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 565 
 
 ties, or character, but with some little 
 difference of subject-matter. 
 
 Signal (Lat. signdlis, belonging to 
 « sign, signum) is used of events in 
 regard both to their moral and their 
 historical value or importance. Thus 
 we might say, "a signal bravery;" 
 "a memorable exploit;" "signal," 
 not "memorable, "benevolence." 
 It may be added, that Signal expresses 
 an already existent notoriety ; Memo- 
 rable, that such notoriety is due. As 
 they relate to actual occurrences, that 
 is signal which is conspicuously re- 
 markable as well as memorable. That 
 is memorable which, whether exter- 
 nally striking or not, is to be had in 
 remembrance, for its intrinsic impor- 
 tance. That which is signal is strik- 
 ing, conspicuous, produces a marked 
 effect and sensation, having the cha- 
 racter which is best expressed by the 
 French eclat. 
 
 " These knowing no other Europeans but 
 Spaniards, it might be expected they would 
 treat all strangei-s with the same cruelty 
 which they had so often and so signally 
 exerted against their Spanish neighboui-a." 
 — Anson's Voyages. 
 " Yet registers of memorable things 
 Would help, great prince, to make thy 
 
 judgment sound. 
 Which to the eye a perfect mirror brings, 
 Where all should glass themselves who 
 would be crowned." SxiKLiNG. 
 
 MEMORIAL. Monument. Re- 
 minder. 
 
 Memorial (Lat. mcmh-iale, neut. 
 of mem'6ridlis,belo7iging to memory) and 
 Monument (Lat. m'dnumentumf a me- 
 morial) have, etymologically, the 
 meaning in common, of something 
 which puts in mind, or aids the 
 memory. They differ in their appli- 
 cations. A monument is public, and 
 purposely set up to keep in general 
 remembrance. A memorial may be 
 private, and may keep in remembrance 
 not by the nature of the thing, but by 
 circumstance and association. 
 
 Reminder is a casual and tempo- 
 rary memorial, and applies, as the 
 other two do not, more especially to 
 the future, in connexion with ob- 
 ligations and intentions incurred or 
 formed in the past. Memorial be- 
 longs more to the feelings of indivi- 
 
 duals; Monument, to the cherished 
 remembrance of illustrious deeds by 
 the public. A memorial is the more 
 affectionate ; monument, the more 
 laudatory. 
 
 " And was it not worthy his being hated 
 of his brethren, and being sold out of his 
 country, to give such a noble example of 
 fidelity and chastity, as to stand a monu- 
 ment of it in Holy Writ for the admiration 
 and imitation of all following ages?" — 
 South. 
 
 A memorial or a reminder may consist 
 in woi-ds. Not so a monument, though 
 it may bear them. 
 
 " Though of their names in heavenly re- 
 cords now 
 Be no memorial, blotted out and razed 
 By their rebellion from the Book of Life." 
 Milton. 
 "There is an active and actual know 
 ledge in a man of which these outward 
 objects are rather the reminders than the 
 fii-st begetters or implanters."— MoRK 
 
 IMEMORY. Recollection. Re- 
 membrance. Reminiscence. 
 
 Memory (see above) is the generic 
 term, expressive of that capacity of 
 the mind by which we retain the 
 knowledge of past thoughts or events. 
 
 Remembrance (Lat. rememiiran, to 
 call to mind) and Recollection (Lat. 
 rlcoltigtre, part. rccolUctus, to gather 
 again) express, the former the simple 
 action, the latter the exercise of the 
 memory. " Do you remember me ? " 
 " 1 do." This implies no more than 
 a state ; an impression has not been 
 effaced. Recollect denotes an effort 
 often of a complex character. "I 
 cannot recollect all the circumstances 
 of the story, but I remember it gene 
 rally." 
 
 Reminiscence (Lat. reminisci,tore' 
 memher)y like Recollection, involves 
 a more decidedly conscious, and less 
 spontaneous, exercise of the memory 
 than Remember ; but reminiscence is 
 the recovery of single traces or cir- 
 cumstances ; recollection is a combi- 
 nation of several. What sensibility is 
 to sensation, memory is to remem- 
 brance. 
 
 " This laying up of our ideas in the repo- 
 sitory of the memory, signifies no more but 
 this, that the mind has a power in many 
 cases to revive perceptions which it has once 
 had, with this additional perception an- 
 
566 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [mention] 
 
 oexed to them, that it has had them 
 before." — LoCKK. 
 
 " In other cases, the various particulars 
 which compose our stock of knowledge are 
 recalled in consequence of an effort of our 
 will. This latter operation, too, is often 
 called by the same name, memory, but is 
 more properly distinguished by the word 
 recollection." — Stewart. 
 
 " P'-tto imagined, after more ancient 
 philosophers, that every man is born with 
 a certain reminiscence, and that when we 
 seem to be taught, we are only put in 
 mind of what we knew in a former state." 
 
 — BOLINQBROKK. 
 
 " And so likewise, though not so fre- 
 quently, religion is expressed by the re- 
 membrance of God. Now, remembrance is 
 the actual thought of what we do habi- 
 tually know. To remember God is to have 
 him actually in our minds, and upon all 
 proper occasions to revive the thoughts of 
 Him." — TiLLOTSON. 
 
 Reminiscence ia intermediate between 
 remembrance and recollection, being 
 more conscious and energetic than 
 remembrance, but less particular and 
 detailed than recollection. Reminis- 
 cence is commonly used in the sense 
 of a faint, and, as it were, shadowy 
 remembrance. 
 
 MENTION. Notice. 
 
 A Mention (Lat. mentionem) is 
 more explicit than Notice (Lat. no- 
 ttiia, knowledge), in one sense of the 
 term Notice, and less so in another. 
 Mention commonly means the simple 
 direction of attention to an object in 
 words, without further account or 
 treatment of it. Notice, as it is purely 
 mental and is synonymous with obser- 
 vation, falls short of tliis. On the 
 other hand, as synonymous with an- 
 nouncement, Notice is more explicit 
 than Mention, being the formal men- 
 tion of something by way of informa- 
 tion. In both senses, however, there 
 is in Notice a more active excitement 
 of attention in our own mind or in 
 that of another. We mention a fact as 
 such ; we give notice of it, as being a 
 matter of interest to others. So much 
 less lively is the sense ofMENTiON than 
 that of Notice, that the word some- 
 times means little more than the 
 utterance of the name of a person 
 or an object, as in the following ex- 
 ample: — 
 " New tbf mntton (of God's name) israin 
 
 when it is useless, and it is useless when it 
 is neither likely nor intended to serve any 
 good purpose." — Paley. 
 " But they persisted deaf and would aot 
 
 seem 
 To count them things worth notice." 
 
 Milton. 
 Yet Notice is never a wordofsti'ong 
 meaning : we may be said to notice 
 with our minds anything which we 
 do not overlook, and with our lips any- 
 thing which we do not pass over in 
 silence. 
 
 MERCILESS. Unmerciful. 
 
 The former is actively, the latter 
 passively, deficient in mercy. The 
 man who is bent upon retaliation or 
 reti-ibution, and will not listen to any 
 pleading or possible extenuation of 
 the offence is Unmerciful. If, when 
 the time of vengeance is come, he 
 sanctions or inflicts excessive pain 
 upon the offender, he is Merciless. 
 
 " Merciless to dying sinners in stopping 
 up the passages of repentance and salvation 
 against them." — South. 
 
 " The temple is of no use without an 
 altar, and the man cannot pray without 
 mercy. God never can hear the prayers of 
 an unmerciful man." — Bp. Taylor, 
 
 MERCY. Clemency. Leniency. 
 Compassion. Pity. Commisera- 
 tion. Condolence. Sympathy. 
 
 Mercy (Fr.mercf, Lat. merct:dem)has 
 relation to the infliction of retaliation 
 or punishment, and denotes in general 
 a disposition on the part of superiors 
 in power whether by authority or by 
 circumstances not to exact all the suf- 
 fering from an offender which would be 
 due on the score of his offence ; or, in 
 a wider sense, not to exact die whole 
 amount of what is due on the score of 
 any obligation when the rendering of 
 it would inflict pain or privation. 
 Mercy is judicial in its character, 
 without sentiment, and laying hold of 
 external circumstances which may 
 wan-ant a diminution of punishment. 
 1 1 is a moral and especially a Christian 
 duty in all. On the other hand it 
 must not interfere with the efficient 
 administi-ation of justice. 
 
 Pii Y, on the other hand (Fr. piti^, 
 Lat. pietdtem) is more purely personal 
 and emotional, not discriminating 
 calmly^ as mercy does, between cir- 
 
[mercy] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 567 
 
 cumstances which do and do not di- 
 minish the culpability of the indivi- 
 dual, or are aflFected by his moral 
 character. Moreover, mercy is felt 
 or exercised toward those who are in 
 our power ; pity, to such as may not 
 be so. The judge may have mercy 
 upon the criminal or not. The crowd 
 may pity him or not. We pity others 
 as sufferers. We are merciiul to them 
 as offenders. 
 
 Compassion (Lat. compassidiiem,fel- 
 low-feeling) and pity are much alike ; 
 but compassion is such fellow-feeling 
 in trouble as comes from an equal ; 
 pity, such as comes from one who in 
 some sense is a superior. We should 
 feel, for instance, pity, not compas- 
 sion, for a dumb animal overburdened, 
 or in any way ill-treated. Pity often 
 implies an approach to contempt, 
 which compassion never does, having 
 in it more of tenderness, and less of 
 weakness. We compassionate those 
 into whose state or feelings we may 
 conceive ourselves as entering. We 
 may pity those with whom we feel at 
 the time nothing in common, as the 
 reckless or the silly^. Hence a high- 
 spirited person will feel it a degra- 
 dation to be an object of pity. The 
 martyr or the dying hero are not 
 objects of pity. The object of pity, 
 according to Aristotle, is suffering not 
 wholly unmerited, but the result of 
 faults rather than crimes, as shown in 
 characters of common stamp. Pity is 
 a quality belonging to rational beings 
 in virtue of theii- common nature, the 
 feeling extending to inferior creatures 
 so far as, like themselves, they are ca- 
 pable of suffering. It sleeps in the 
 human heai-t till awaked by the sight 
 of agony or misery, or the cry of pain. 
 He who is without pity is cruel. The 
 love of the divine Father, Christianity 
 teaches us, is infinite pity, the love 
 of the incarnate Son is infinite com- 
 passion. 
 
 " The Lord is long-suffering, and of great 
 mercy, forgi\'ing iniquity and transgression, 
 and by no means clearing the guilty." — 
 Bible. 
 
 " His fate compassion in the victor bred. 
 Stern as he was, be yet revered the dead." 
 POPB. 
 ' Oni^htest, thou not to have had compat' 
 
 sion on thy fellow-servant, evet as I h&d 
 pity on thee ? " — Bible. 
 
 Clemency (Lat. ahnentm] and Le- 
 niency (Lat. linire, to ioften)^ like 
 Mercy, are employed not of suffering 
 generally, as Pity and Compassion. 
 but in regard to offenders or merited 
 punishment. Clemency lies rather in 
 the disposition of the person ; leniency, 
 in the character of the act. We speak 
 of lenient, but could not speak of cle- 
 ment, punishment. Clemency is a 
 magisterial quality, a virtue or not 
 according to circumstances. It lies in 
 the discretion of individuals, and so 
 may be exercised in a mistaken 
 manner. 
 
 Sympathy (Gr. a-ufXTriditaf fellow- 
 feeling) is literally a fellow-feeling 
 with others, whether in joy or grief. 
 It is now commonly restincted to such 
 a feeling under pain or trouble, and 
 so nearly resembles Commiseration 
 (Lat. commisirare, to pity, to excite com- 
 passion) ; but sympathy involves 
 equality, while commiseration may, 
 and most commonly does, imply in- 
 feriority in some sense on the part of 
 the suffering party. Commiseration 
 may be regarded as standing midway 
 between pity and compassion, having 
 less contempt than pity, and less 
 generosity than compassion. Yet 
 commiseration is a softer emotion than 
 compassion, We speak of a barren 
 compassion more often than of a barren 
 commiseration, as if the former were 
 more easily assumed than the latter. 
 May we not say that where both are 
 equally sincere, compassion is the 
 more noble, commiseration the more 
 tender? Clemency is used analogously 
 of other forces than human action ; as 
 the clemency of the seasons. It de- 
 notes no more than an indisposition 
 to employ rigorous measures, where 
 it is used of persons. I^emency ex- 
 presses the fact of such absence of 
 rigoui-, and is applicable to the judg- 
 ment as well as the conduct. We 
 may judge as well as treat leniently. 
 In some such cases the leniency may 
 come of other kinds of disposition be- 
 sides compassion; and accordingly 
 leniency is not so purely moral as cle- 
 mency. Prejudice, weakness, or eveo 
 guilt in ourselves, may induce us to 
 
668 
 
 SYNONYMS [merit] 
 
 regard the character or conduct of 
 
 others with leniency. 
 
 " I know you are more clement than wild 
 
 men. 
 Who of their broken debtors take a third, 
 A Bixth, a tenth, letting them thrive again 
 On their abatement. That's not my 
 
 desire." Shakespeare. 
 
 " Say that my lenity shall grant your prayer. 
 How for the future shall I rest assured 
 Of your allegiance ? " Smollktt. 
 
 " Common experience is my guide, and 
 that must have informed everybody how 
 much we continually sympathize with the 
 sentiments and affections of the company 
 among whom we converse." — Search, 
 Light of Nature. 
 
 " There is one kind of virtue which is in- 
 born in the nobility, and indeed, in most of 
 the ancient families of this nation ;— they 
 are not apt to insult on the misfortunes of 
 their countrymen. But you, sir — I may 
 tell it you without flattery — have grafted 
 on this natural commiseration, and raised it 
 to a nobler virtue." — Deydex. 
 
 Condolence (Lat. condiilere, to 
 suffer with) is to sympathy as the ex- 
 pression of feeling to the feeling it- 
 self. 
 
 •' I come not, Samson, to condole thy chance. 
 As these, perhaps ; yet wish it had not been. 
 Though for no friendly intent." 
 
 MlLTOJf. 
 
 MERIT. Desert. Worth. 
 
 Of these, Desert (O. Fr. deserte, 
 from deservir, to deserve) and Merit 
 (Lat. TOcrYtam, from mereri,to deserve) 
 have the twofold meaning of the 
 moral quality or relationship of good 
 and of evil deserving; though the 
 noun when used without qualification 
 is assumed in a favourable sense and 
 without the uncertainty which belongs 
 to the verb, while Worth (A. S. 
 loeordh) is employed only in a favour- 
 able sense. Worth is the intrinsic 
 and permanent value of moral cha- 
 racter, and belongs to the per- 
 sons. Merit belongs to the action 
 and particular case. The verb IMerit 
 is stronger than the verb Deserve. 
 *' He deserves a reward," would imply 
 no more than that there is a fitness in 
 the case for such reward. " He merits 
 a reward," that there would be an 
 injustice m withholding it. Worth 
 describes the qualities; merit, the 
 actions of a man. Merit and Desert 
 are well-nigh identical in meaning; 
 
 but Merit is used more abstractedly ; 
 as, " the merits of the case;" " the 
 merits of a literary production." I* 
 represents excellency less strictly in 
 connexion with its dues than doee 
 Desert, which always takes into ac- 
 count some correspondent treatment 
 of persons. 
 
 Worth belongs directly to moral 
 character. Merit may accrue from 
 what is excellent in other ways, aa 
 literary merit. 
 
 " High words that bore 
 Semblance of worth, not substance." 
 
 Milton. 
 "All power 
 I give thee. Reign for ever, and assume 
 Thy merits." Milton. 
 
 " Fame due to vast desert is kept in store, 
 Unpaid till the deserver is no more." 
 
 CONQRBVE. 
 
 METAMORPHOSE. Transfi- 
 gure. Transform. Transmute. 
 
 We speak of a thing as Metamor- 
 phosed (Gr. fjt,iTafA,6^<p(joa-ii, transfor- 
 mation) when, the identity being 
 preserved, the form, or particles com- 
 posing it are entirely changed. 
 
 TRANSFiGURATiON(Lat. transfigiira- 
 tlonem) is such a marked change as 
 still, however, leaves the original 
 figure or form plainly discernible. 
 
 Transformahon (l.at. transformd- 
 tionem) is the normal or ^rmaaent 
 change in the form of bodies, which 
 is the result of internal laws of growth ; 
 as the transformation of a caterpillar 
 into a butterfly. 
 
 Transmutation (Lat. transmutU' 
 iionemy a transposition) is employed 
 more commonly, not of the whole, but 
 of the particles which constitute it. 
 Transformation usually does not go 
 beyond a change of visible appearance; 
 a3 the transformation of an actor by a 
 change of dress. Metamorphosis is 
 change of internal structure also. 
 Narcissus was not only transformed 
 into tlie likeness, but metamorphosed 
 into the substance, of a flower, 
 Transfiguration and Transmuta 
 TiON denote the highest decree, thf 
 former of spiritual, the latter ot 
 material, change. Our Saviour was 
 transfigured upon the mount. It was 
 supposed that the philosopher's stone. 
 
[mighty] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 569 
 
 if found, would transmute other sub- 
 stances into gold. Metamorphose is 
 a term which belongs peculiarly to 
 the region of mythology and fable ; 
 Transfoumation to the natural order 
 of things. A metamorphosis is com- 
 monly a marvellous, unexpected, pro- 
 digious, complete change of form. 
 Transformation is the only one of the 
 terras which lends itself to express a 
 purely moral change of character, as if 
 a sinuer should be transformed into a 
 saint. There was a mystical and theo- 
 logical use of this term. By sustained 
 and intense contemplation of God, the 
 soul might be transformed into the 
 Deity. 
 
 " Thus men my Lord he metamorphosed 
 From seemely shape to byrds and ugly 
 beasts." Gascoigkk. 
 
 "He was transfigured before them."— 
 English Bible. 
 
 "Thus it must be in our transformation 
 onwards. The Spirit of God doth thus alter 
 us through grace, whiles we are yet for 
 essence the same." — Bp. Hall. 
 
 'I That perpetual course oi tra-nsmutation 
 which the matter of human bodies runs." — 
 Scott's Christian Life. 
 
 METAPHOR. Figure. Simili- 
 tude. Simile. 
 
 Figure (Lat. /zgura, shape, figure 
 of speech), as here referred to, is a rhe- 
 torical mode of expressing abstract 
 ideas in words, suggesting pictures 
 drawn from the -world of sensible 
 images. 
 
 Metaphor (Gr. fx£Ta.<po^a) is a 
 Similitude (Lat. simJlttudinem, like- 
 ness, a simile) conveyed in a word, as 
 a similitude is a comparison by an 
 image conveyed in more than one 
 term. As " a torrent of eloquence," 
 is a metaphor. " His words flow like 
 a stream, ' is a similitude. The Simile 
 is the root idea of which the similitude 
 is the rlietorical amplification. The 
 simile is a matter of thought ; the simi- 
 litude, a feature of style. 
 
 " In all languages the series of physical 
 causes and effects is metaphorically likened 
 to a chain, the links of which are supposed 
 to be indissolubly and necessarily connec- 
 ted."— D. Stewart. 
 
 " The Temple of Jerusalem was reallie 
 the materiall temple, and figurativelie it 
 was the bodie of Christ,"— Fox, Martyrs. 
 
 " Such is the similitude between Jtidaism 
 
 the ancient stock, and Christianity which 
 was engrafted upon it." — GiLPiN, Sermont. 
 " Similes always fail in some part."— 
 Locke. 
 
 MIGHTY. Strong. Powerful. 
 
 P-vfENT. 
 
 Mighty ( A. S. miht, might) denotes 
 the possession ot force or power of 
 any kind, whether bodilj' or mental ; 
 and, in an extended sense, the posses- 
 sion of ample resources for effective 
 action ; as, a mighty nation. 
 
 Strong (A. S. Strang) is a term of 
 great simplicity and breadth, denoting 
 physical power in action,in endurance, 
 or in resistance, the possession of 
 ample resources of action ; denoting 
 also that which is morally or logically 
 cogent or influential, efficacious, sti- 
 mulating, well-established, vigorous 
 by nature, or energetic on a specific 
 occasion. 
 
 Powerful, according to its deriva- 
 tion (Fr. pouvoir), denotes the capabi- 
 lity of producing great effects of any 
 kind, which is also the definition ot 
 Potent (Lat. patens, part, of posse, to 
 be able) ; but Potent is not so com- 
 monly employed of directly physical 
 force, but of physical and moral in- 
 fluence, or of influence alone. A power- 
 ful arm or blow. A potent remedy ; 
 a potent prince. Mighty expresses 
 the union of majesty with strength, 
 and belongs peculiarly to living 
 beings. It would be only by an effort 
 of the imagination, attributing to it a 
 kind of personality, that a machine 
 could be called mighty. Nor in this 
 case should we say strong, but power- 
 ful, unless we meant that it was firmly 
 constructed. Strong and Powerful 
 are both used of physical force ; the 
 latter, both of that which is mechani- 
 cal and that which is muscular ; the for- 
 mer, only of that which is muscular. In 
 their application to persons, a power- 
 ful man is strong ; but a strong man 
 is not necessarily powerful. Strong 
 is more appropriately used of those 
 who are of sound constitution and 
 firmness of body, and are capable of 
 bearing much fatigue; Powerful, of 
 those who can put forth great force 
 at the moment. Power is active in its 
 signification ; strength, active and 
 
570 
 
 passive. A strong mind is firm, and 
 not easily shaken by adverse circum- 
 stances. A powerftil mind exerts 
 strong influence over others. 
 " Great Gormond, having with huge migh- 
 tiness 
 Ireland subdned, and therein fixed his 
 
 throne." Spenser. 
 
 " He ceased ; and next him Moloch, sceptr'd 
 
 king. 
 Stood up, the strongest and the fiercest 
 
 spii'it 
 That fought in heaA'en, now fiercer by de- 
 spair." Milton. 
 " Strong and substantial, it hath stood 
 against all the storms of factions, both of 
 belief and ambition, which so powerfully 
 beat upon it." — Daniel. 
 
 " His founder's merit was the merit of a 
 gentleman raised by the arts of a court and 
 the protection of a Wolsey to the eminence 
 of a great and potent lord." — Burke. 
 
 MIMIC. Imitate. Ape. Mock, 
 Simulate. 
 
 To Mimic (Lat. adj. miniicus) is to 
 ridicule by imitation of what is per- 
 sonally peculiar. 
 
 To Imitate (Lat. imitari, part, vmi- 
 tdtus) is the generic term, of vphich 
 the rest are kinds, having the broad 
 sense of following as an example or 
 pattern, or producing an external sem- 
 blance of anything, and is applicable 
 both to physical production, and to 
 moral conformity of conduct. To 
 Ape is servilely to imitate, especially 
 in externals, commonly implying the 
 inability to imitate higher peculiari- 
 ties, and better worth imitating. The 
 term does not, like Mimic, involve con- 
 temptuous imitation. 
 
 Simulate (Lat. ^miildre ; sVoiV/Zs, 
 like) expresses that kind of imitation 
 which amounts to a fictitious exhibi- 
 tion of character, the wearing of an- 
 other's appearance, the comporting of 
 one's self so as to be mistaken for him. 
 It is rhetorically applied to things as 
 well as persons ; so it is a peculiarity 
 of bvsterical disorder that it simulates 
 different diseases. 
 
 Mock (Fr. moquer ) denotes such 
 action as manifests ridicule or con- 
 tempt. A derisive exhibition of per- 
 sonal peculiarities is an easy and 
 natural way of showing such contempt ; 
 but, inasmuch as it is not the only 
 way, mockery includes the idea of per- 
 
 SYNONYMS LMIMIC] 
 
 sonal insult and derision in any man- 
 ner openly indicative of contempt, 
 even tnough there be no mimicry in 
 the mocking. The object of mockery 
 is to make a man ridiculous or con- 
 temptible in his own eyes. It indi' 
 cates the worst conceivable disposition 
 towards him, and so is the most irre- 
 concilable insult. It is hatred, out- 
 rage, and contempt in one. Yet effec- 
 tive as it is in itself, it indicates weak- 
 ness of mind in those who employ it. 
 
 " When full-grown, vanity is the worst of 
 vices and the occasional mimic of them all. 
 It makes the whole man false."— BuRKE. 
 
 " ImitationxB a facultie to expresse true- 
 lie and perfitelie that example which ye go 
 about to folow." — AsCHAM. 
 
 " The people of England will not ape the. 
 fashions they have never tried, nor go back 
 to those which they have found mischievous 
 on trial."— Burke. 
 
 " And many a fane he reared that still sub- 
 lime 
 la massy pomp has mocked the stealth of 
 
 time." Warton, 
 
 *' The first smooth Caesar's art caressed. 
 Merit and virtue simidating me." 
 
 Thomson. 
 
 MIND. Intellect. Spirit. 
 Soul. 
 
 Mind (A. S. tnynd) is taken to de- 
 note the whole rational faculty in 
 man, the power of judgment, and 
 sometimes a particular state of the 
 judgment ; a bias of the intellectual or 
 the moral nature; a judgment or 
 opinion ; an inclination or desire. 
 
 The Intellect (Lat. intellectus) is 
 commonly taken for the faculty of 
 man's nature, by which he knows, as 
 distinguished from those by which he 
 
 Eerceives only or desires ; especially 
 is capacity for the higher forms of 
 knowledge. The word was formerly 
 commonly used in the plural. 
 
 Spirit (Lat. spirttus, breath), and 
 Soul ^A. S. sdwl) both denote that in 
 a man s nature which is not his body ; 
 but Spirit is used relatively ; Soul, 
 absolutely. Spirit is employed when 
 some idea of the body which it tenants, 
 or has tenanted, is still in the mind ; 
 Soul, as denoting man's higher, spiri- 
 tual, and immortal self. When taken 
 by themselves, Spirit often expresses 
 energy of moral resolution; Soul, 
 
[MISERABLE] 
 
 energy of feeling. A spiritless per- 
 formance ; a soulless composition. 
 Mind is opposed to matter ; soul, to 
 body ; spirit, to flesh. The intellect 
 is often coupled, and even contrasted, 
 with the will. 
 
 " First, in man's mind we find an appetite 
 To learn and know the truth of every- 
 thing. 
 Which is co-natural, and born with it. 
 And from the essence of the soul doth 
 spring." 
 Davies, Immortality of the Soul. 
 
 "The privilege of a much nearer access 
 than is allowed us to contemplate God's per- 
 fections, the advantage of having incom- 
 parably more illuminated intellects to appre- 
 hend them with."— BoYl£. 
 
 " Or unsphere 
 The spirit of Plato, to unfold 
 What worlds or what vast regions hold 
 Th' immortal mind that hath forsook 
 Her mansion in this fleshy nook." 
 
 MiLTOir. 
 " Four different opinions have been enter- 
 tained concerning the origin of human 
 souls : 1. That they are eternal and divine. 
 2. That they were created in a separate 
 state of existence before their union with 
 the body. 3. That they have been propa- 
 gated from the original stock of Adam, 
 who contained in himself the mental as well 
 as the corporeal seed of his posterity. 4. 
 That each soul is occasionally created and 
 embodied in the moment of conception." — 
 Gibbon, Decline and Fall. 
 
 MISCONSTRUE. Misinterpret. 
 
 The difference is slight between the 
 usages of these terms ; yet Miscon- 
 strue (prefix mis-, the Fr. mes-y 
 which is the Lat. minus, and con- 
 $trucre, to construct) seems more 
 commonly employed of things of 
 which the meaning has to be ga- 
 thered by inference ; Misinterpret 
 (Lat. interprctem, an interpreter), of 
 those of which it is directly expressed. 
 Hence we should say, " to misinter- 
 pret words or actions; " "to miscon- 
 sti'ue motives." The simple verb Con- 
 strue stands to sentences as Inier- 
 PRET does to words. Misconstrue 
 seems more general than Misin ikr- 
 PRET, which is more direct and per- 
 sonal. Interpretations should be truth- 
 ful. Constmctions of conduct should 
 be charitable. I misinterpret a man's 
 actions when I pass wrong judgment. 
 I misconsti-ue them when 1 err in the 
 nature of their intentions. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 571 
 
 *' When the apostle had been speaking of 
 the righteousness of God displayed by the 
 wickedness of man, he was not unaware of 
 the misconstruction to which this represen- 
 tation was liable" — Paxet. 
 
 " Mr. Hume'sgreat principle with respect 
 to the origin of our ideas, which (as I 
 before hinted) is only that of Locke under 
 a new form, asserts the same doctrine 
 with greater conciseness, but in a manner 
 still less liable to misinterpretation." — 
 Stkwart. 
 
 MISERABLE. Unhappy. 
 VVreiciied. 
 
 Unhappy (prefix u«-, and /lop, /uc/c) 
 is the least forcible of these terms. 
 A child deprived of its toy is unhappy. 
 It may amount to little more than the 
 absence of positive contentment. 
 
 Miserable (Lat. mtseraMlis), and 
 Wretched (A. S. wrec, ivretched) 
 M-e employed only of the extreme 
 degrees of unhappiness in feeling 
 and reflexion. Miserable seems to 
 denote rather the feeling or state; 
 Wretched, the outward exhibition 
 of such unhappiness ; as the beggar 
 who is in a miserable condition pre- 
 sents a wretched appearance. 
 
 '* Our language, by a peculiar signifi- 
 cance of dialect, calls the covetous man the 
 miserable man." — South. 
 
 Miserable and Wretched imply a 
 higher organization and faculties 
 of reflexion than unhappy. An 
 irrational animal might be unhappy. 
 He who loses hope is miserable, and, 
 if he fall into despair, is wretched. 
 Great unhappiness must be supposed 
 if the condition of the person is called 
 miserable. In that case unhappy ex- 
 presses the state directly, miserable 
 the effect or impression produced by 
 it. A life is unhappy in which some- 
 thing occurs to mar the happiness of 
 it, a life is miserable which is desti- 
 tute of the elements of happiness. 
 MisKRABLE and Wretched very com- 
 monly, and Unhappy less commonly 
 and with less force and latitude 
 of meaning, are employed to denote 
 the debasement rather than the actual 
 suffering of such conditions. The 
 proud and prosperous quite as much 
 as the suffering and the poor are in 
 the sight of an infinitely perfect God 
 "miserable sinners." It is in this 
 
572 
 
 SYNONYMS [mode] 
 
 wdy that we speak !»f a miserable wri- 
 ter, and his wretck d productions. 
 
 " No doubt there is to every wrong and 
 Ticions act a suitable d» gi-ee of unhappiness 
 and punishment annexiid." — WoOLASTON. 
 
 " Every man, be he never so extreme and 
 wretched a sicner, may and ought to hope 
 assuredly, that albeit the majesty of God is 
 supereminenf and unspeakable dignity, yet 
 is He gracious, merciful, and mild."— 
 FuiiLKR. 
 
 MODE. Mannir. 
 
 While Mode (Lat. triSdus) is also 
 applicable to way of being, Manner 
 (Fr. maniere) denotes way of action. 
 Manner, too, is casual ; mode, syste- 
 matic. Mode might be defined regu- 
 lar manner. Hence manner of action 
 implies voluntariness on the part of 
 the agent ; mode of action, uniformity 
 in the thing acting. Modes of exis- 
 tence. Manners of conduct or opera- 
 tion. 
 
 "If they find a deter "ninate intellection 
 of any modes of being which were never in 
 the least hinted by their external or inter- 
 nal senses, I'll believe that snch can realize 
 chimaeras." — Glakvill. 
 
 " It is not the mannei >f the Romans 
 to deliver any man to die before that he 
 which is accused have the accusers face to 
 face." — English Bible. 
 
 MODERATE. 1 inPER. 
 
 Both Moderate (Lat. nidderare and 
 -ri) and Temper (Lat. tempcrdre), 
 denote the reducing of that which is 
 excessive. But that is moderated 
 which is i-educed by any force. That 
 is tempered which is reduced by an 
 alien and contrary force. So, for in- 
 stance, anger is moderated by pride, 
 calculation, good mannei s, or regai'd 
 for appearances. On the other hand, 
 it may be tempered by compassion, 
 by love, by recollection of previous 
 kindness. A man insulted by another 
 may moderate his anger in order to 
 gather up his strength and satisfy his 
 revenge. Irritated by a child, liis 
 anger is tempered by a feeling of pity 
 for the ignorance and weakness of one 
 so young. So again, great grief at the 
 loss of a friend might be moderated 
 by a feeling of the strong dutj' of sub- 
 mission to the Divine will, or the ne- 
 cessity which we recognize of not ag- 
 gravating the grief of others by our 
 own lamentations. It might be tern- 
 
 pered by a certain joy that great pain 
 was at an end, or that the death to us 
 so heavy a loss, was a gain and a bless- 
 ing to the departed, and a hope of 
 reunion in another and a better life. 
 To moderate is to suppress ; to tem- 
 per is to counterbalance. The former 
 belongs rather to the manifestation of 
 feeling, the latter to the feeling itself. 
 It is one thing to moderate laughter, 
 and another to temper the sense of 
 ridicule. Religion may be said to 
 moderate the troubles of men so far as 
 it leads to resignation, to temper them 
 so far as it gives consolation. 
 
 MODERN. New. Novel. Fresii. 
 Recent. 
 
 Modern (Lat. m'ddernus, from mM'd, 
 just now) denotes the thing of to-day, 
 as distinguished historically from tno 
 things of former times ; New (Lat 
 n'dvus) that which hasbeen just fonned, 
 or just submitted to our observation or 
 experience; Novel (Lat. n'dvellus), 
 that which being new, strikes us also 
 with a feeling of strangeness ; Fresf 
 (A. S. ferse), that of which the in- 
 fluence i3 unabated or revived, or 
 which, being new, strikes us with a 
 sense of abundance in supply; Recent 
 (Lat.recentem), that between whichand 
 the present moment a short interval 
 only has elapsed. It may or may not be 
 in existence still. Modern belongs at 
 least to an order of things which still 
 exists, and has its influence on society. 
 Recent facts are fresh in our memory. 
 Modern fashions are in vogue in the 
 present day. What we get in ex- 
 change for the old is new. What has 
 never occurred before, or never in the 
 same form, is novel. As New is op- 
 posed to old, so is Novel to familiar or 
 expected. That which is new pre- 
 supposes something precedent. That 
 which is novel is abruptly new. The 
 new year follows the old. A new 
 edition is one more edition. A novel 
 style of writing is one which is exhi- 
 bited for the first time. The novel 
 affects our understanding, imagina- 
 tion, or taste ; the new is only a fresh 
 item of our experience. 
 " Yet was much taxed, by that age precise, 
 
 ^or faults which modem timet not 
 
 strange have thought.' 
 
 SxiRUl^e. 
 
[monarchJ 
 
 DISCHIMINATED. 
 
 573 
 
 " And thoa profoundest hell. 
 Receive thy neiv possessor." 
 
 MiLTOX. 
 
 « I must beg not to have it supposed that 
 1 am setting op any Tiovel pretensions for 
 the honour of my own country." — ^WaIi- 
 POLE. 
 
 *' That love which first was set will first 
 
 decay ; 
 Mine of a. fresher date, will longer stay." 
 Dryden. 
 
 " Amphitryon, recent from the nether 
 sphere." Lewis, St^tius. 
 
 MODIFY. Qualify. 
 
 To Modify (Lat. ni6inficare, to set 
 limits) is to change the form or exter- 
 nal qualities of a thing, to vary hy 
 giving a new form or shape ; to reduce 
 to other and often diminished limits. 
 It is not employed directly of phy- 
 sical objects, but of physical substances 
 And properties. We do not modify 
 vood or stone, but matter in the ab- 
 stract, or such properties or effects as 
 light and sound. We modify what 
 has a mental or subjective form and 
 totality, as a rule, by making its re- 
 quirements more or less stringent, 
 jr a contract by altering its terras ; 
 we Qualify (Lat. qudles, of what 
 kind, and fdctrey to make) when we 
 impart to a thing requisite properties 
 by addition or diminution. We 
 modify the form and qualify the sub- 
 stance of things. We modify by re- 
 modelling, we qualify by reconsti- 
 tuting. We modify by changing the 
 outlines, we qualify by changing the 
 ingredients. A statement which is 
 too large needs to be modified, one 
 which is too strong, to be qualified. 
 
 MOMENT. Instant. 
 
 Instant (Lat. i?i5tare, part, instant- 
 em, to be at hand) is the point of time 
 now present. 
 
 Moment (Lat. momentum, for movi- 
 tHentum, from moveie, to move) is not 
 restricted to the present, but is com- 
 mon to it and the past. We say, 
 *' Do so this instant;" or, " He 
 thought so at the moment" (not " at 
 the instant"); or, "Do so this mo- 
 ment." But they may be used inter- 
 changeably when they are used ab- 
 gti-actedly from what occurs in them, 
 or as simply equivalent to a point, or 
 
 the shortest possible or conceivable 
 time. " In the twinkling of an eye ; " 
 " In a moment," or, *' In an instant." 
 " It happened at that moment," or 
 ** at that instant." Moment is not 
 employed to express so strictly as In- 
 stant a minute point of time, has a 
 more extended signification, and is 
 often equivalent to time when a thing 
 occurred. Moment takes into itseli 
 other associations than that of time, 
 while Instant is merely the minutest 
 period. So it has made all the diffe- 
 rence between success and failure to 
 act at the right instant or an iastant 
 too late. The same results have 
 turned upon seizing or letting slip the 
 favourable moment. Every moment 
 is precious to those who know the 
 value of time. Instant is an atom of 
 time in general. Moment is a little 
 piece or our time. *' I have not a 
 moment to lose ; I must go this in- 
 stant." So happy moments, not happy 
 instants. 
 
 " All these which in a moment Then b«- 
 hold'st. 
 
 The kingdoms of the world, to Thee I 
 give." MiLTOX. 
 
 *' He made him stoop perforce nnto his kne*. 
 
 And do unwilling worship to the saint 
 That on his shield depainted did he see : 
 
 Such homage, till that instant, never 
 learned he." Spexskb. 
 
 MONARCH. Prince. Sove- 
 REIGN. Potentate. 
 
 Monarch (Gr. /xivapxoiy ruling 
 alone) denotes the possessor of su- 
 
 fireme and peculiar power politically, 
 t determines nothing of the extent 
 of such power, but only that it is un- 
 divided. Hence the term is employed 
 rhetorically of what is first of its kind 
 in Nature. " The monarch of the 
 forest or of the beasts." 
 
 The term Prince {¥t. prince, Lat. 
 princtpem) is also indefinite as to the 
 extent of power, and commonly de- 
 notes a secondary degree of it ; so that 
 a monarch or his nobles might equally 
 be called princes. 
 
 Sovereign (Fr. souverain) is an 
 hereditary monarch viewed in his re- 
 lation to his own subjects; while 
 Potentate (Low Lat. p'6tentdtns, a 
 sovereign) expresses the possession of 
 great power, authority, and extended 
 
574 
 
 dominion, as well as his relation to 
 other princes and nations, or, as they 
 are sometimes called, powers. 
 "Heaven's awful monarch." 
 
 Milton. 
 " The sisters I salle gyve a rich prince of 
 myght." R. BBtJNNE. 
 
 " Ch&ritee, 
 WTiiche a the vertue soveraine." 
 
 GOWKR. 
 " Exalting him not only above earthly 
 princes and potentates, but above the high- 
 est of the celestial hierarchy."— BoTZK. 
 
 MOOD. Temper, Humour. 
 
 Humour (Lat. humorem, moisture) 
 and Mood (A. S. mod, mind, disposi- 
 ti<m) agree in denoting a temporary 
 state of the mind and feelings ; but 
 Mood relates more directly to the 
 mind, Humour to the feelings. 
 . Temper (Fr. temperer, to temper, 
 Lat. temph-are) is the constitution of 
 the mind, particularly in regard to the 
 passions and affections, or to some 
 one which modifies its disposition 
 generally. 
 
 •• With pity calmed, down fell his angry 
 mood." Shakespeare. 
 
 " Remember with what mild and gi-acious 
 temper he both heard and judged."— 
 
 MiLTOK. 
 
 •' Examine how your humour is inclined. 
 And what the ruling passion of your mind. " 
 Roscommon. 
 
 MORALS. Morality. 
 
 Morals (Lat. mores) is a word de- 
 noting the doctrine and practice of 
 the duties of life. Morality is the 
 relation in conformity or nonconfor- 
 mity to the principles of morals, but 
 often employed in reference to the 
 former alone. 
 
 MORBID. Diseased. 
 
 These are etjrmologically equiva- 
 lent, Morbid being the Latin form 
 {morbidus, sickly; morbus, disease) of 
 the English Disease, i.g. dis-ease, 
 violation of ease and well-being ; but 
 Morbid has a technical application 
 to cases of a prolonged nature ; to con- 
 tinuous derangement or deterioration 
 without violent symptoms, and is as 
 often used of the mental as of the physi- 
 cal constitution ; as, a morbid condi- 
 tion of the nervous system, a morbid 
 •ensibility. It is also employed, only 
 
 SYNONYMS [mood] 
 
 abstractedly, of states and conditions, 
 not of parts affected. We say •' » 
 diseased," but not " a morbid limb." 
 Morbid expresses that abnormal in- 
 fluence which tends to show itself in 
 disease. 
 
 ""Whilst the distempers of a relaxed fibre 
 prognosticate and prepare all the morbid 
 force of convulsion in the body of the state, 
 the steadiness of the physician is over- 
 powered by the very aspect of the disease." 
 Burke. 
 
 " They should choose such places as were 
 open to the most favourable aspects and in- 
 fluence of the heavens, where there was a 
 well-tempered soil, clear air, pure springs 
 of water, that diseased persons coming from 
 unhealthy places might obtairi recovery." 
 —Bates. 
 
 MOREOVER. Besides. 
 
 These terms agi-ee in expressing an 
 additional fact by way of reason to 
 what may have been stated already. 
 They seem to diflfer, not in them- 
 selves, but in the relative weight of 
 the reason which they introduce ; 
 Moreover implying that what is 
 added is of some importance ; while 
 Besides implies that though stated 
 with a view to add weight, the case 
 would have been good enough with- 
 out it. "I cannot well go out to-day ; 
 I am much engaged ; besides, it is 
 beginning to rain." " There will 
 always be war among men, so long 
 as ambition reigns in human hearts ; 
 moreover, other causes are perpetu- 
 ally at hand." 
 
 MOROSE. Sullen. 
 
 Moroseness (Lat. morosm, self' 
 willed) and Sullenness (formerly 
 solein, Lat. solus, alone, lonely) are 
 states of mind or temper ; but the 
 former manifests itself in those who 
 are in influence ; the latter, in those 
 who are in subservience. " If the- 
 master is morose, little wonder that 
 the servant is sullen." Moroseness 
 comes from harsh views of human 
 nature ; sullenness, from a feeling of 
 discontent. The one is wrong ac- 
 tively; the other, wrong passively. 
 The one is a matter of treatment; the 
 other, a matter of endurance. Mo- 
 roseness is more purely mental ; sul- 
 lenness shows itself in the demeanour. 
 
 " Many m all ages have followed St. Jobs 
 into the wilderness, and chosen retirement, 
 
[motive] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 675 
 
 not oat of any moroseness of temper or mis- 
 anthropy."— Bishop HORITK. 
 
 " I found him seated with so much sullen 
 and stupid gravity, that, notwithstanding 
 what had been told me, I really took him 
 for an idiot, whom the people, from some 
 saperstitious notions, were ready to wor- 
 ship."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
 Movi 
 
 Loco- 
 
 motion 
 
 MOTION. 
 
 Motion (Lat. motibnem, a moving) 
 is abstract, Movement is concrete, 
 that is, bound up with the thing itself 
 that moves. So, the laws of motion ; 
 the movements of the planets ; the 
 movements of an army ; or a body of 
 men in motion. The motion of the 
 heavenly bodies might be spoken of 
 as well as their movements. In that 
 case, the idea of motion is opposed to 
 that of rest ; movement is definite and 
 specific motion in regard to a parti- 
 cular subject. Hence Motion is a 
 more scientific or technical word than 
 movement. So we use the terms, 
 "perpetual motion;" "composition 
 and resolution of motion," not of 
 movement. On the other hand, where 
 personal action is regarded as under 
 rule, we apply to such changes of the 
 bodily position the term Movement. 
 " He made a motion with his hand." 
 " Some animals are naturally grace- 
 ful in their movements." 
 
 Locomotion (Lat. l)iciis,a place, and 
 m'6vere, part, motus, to move) is the 
 particular motion from one place to 
 another. In locomotion the whole 
 body moves, in motion either the 
 whole or one or more of the parts. 
 Motion is seen in plants, but not loco- 
 motion. 
 
 " Devoid of sense and motion." 
 
 Melton. 
 •• In hnman works, though labor'd on with 
 
 pain, 
 A thousand movements scarce one purpose 
 
 gain; 
 In Gktd's one single can its end produce. 
 Yet serves to second too some other nse." 
 Pope. 
 " The loco-motive manner of an English- 
 man circalates his person and of coarse his 
 jash into every quarter of the kingdom." — 
 Observer, 
 
 MOTIVE. Purpose. Object. 
 Inducement. Reason. 
 
 Motive (Lat. mbiivus, t^at which 
 
 moves to the doing of anything, Fr. motif) 
 is the term commonly employed of that 
 which excites to action and determines 
 choice. 
 
 The motive is of the nature of an 
 Inducejieni when it leads us to action 
 (Lat. indfictre, to lead on) by its agree- 
 ment with our inclinations or desires 
 of good. 
 
 It is a Reason (Fr. raison, Lat. 
 rdtibnem) when it takes such a form 
 as commends itself to our reason or 
 judgment. 
 
 Object (Lat. obftccre, part, objectus, 
 to cast over against one) is that to 
 which the desires are directed, and on 
 which the purpose is fixed as the end 
 of action or effort ; something which 
 it is endeavoured to realize or bring 
 about ; the final cause. 
 
 The Purpose (O. Fr. pourpos, ac- 
 cording to some from pourpenser, to be- 
 think one's self; with others, more 
 probably, the Lat. propMtum) is the 
 operation of that process of which the 
 object is the end and aim. The ob- 
 ject is definite and fixed ; the purpose 
 is continuous and variable till the 
 object is gained. The inducement is 
 always practicable and tangible ; the 
 reason is the definition of the induce- 
 ment. The purpose may, however, 
 be regarded n-om two p>ointa of view ; 
 that is, either as an end, in which 
 case it is identical with object, or as 
 a plan for attaining it. But an object 
 is external to one's self; a purpose 
 may be internal, as a purpose to lead 
 a new life. 
 
 " By motive, I mean the whole of that 
 which moves, excites, or invites the mind 
 to volition, whether that be one thing 
 singly, or many things conjointly." — ED- 
 WARDS, Freedom of the Will. 
 
 " He travelled the world on purpose to 
 converse with the most learned men."- 
 Guardian. 
 
 " Be ready always to give an answer to 
 every man that asketh you a reason oi the 
 hope that is in you." — Eng. Bible. 
 
 " Object, beside its proper signification, 
 eame to be abusively applied to denote mo- 
 tive, end, final cause. . . . This innovation 
 was probably borrowed from the Ftench." 
 — Sir W. Hamilton. 
 
 "Let, then, the fortune or the honour 
 (for both are included in the magical word 
 •ilver) which eminent worth may propose 
 
676 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [move 
 
 to itself, be among the inducements which 
 erect the hopes and quit-ken the application 
 of a virtuous man." — Bishop Hurd. 
 
 MOVE, Stiu. 
 
 The verbs are used both as transi- 
 tives and intransitives. As transitives, 
 to Move (Lat. mdvcre) is to impel 
 a thing so as to cause it to change 
 its place ; being employed analogously 
 of what induces moral as well as 
 physical change. 
 
 To Stir (A. S. styrian) is to move 
 in such a way that the movement is 
 accompanied by some amount of in- 
 ternal commotion or disturbance. 
 Again, Stir in the intransitive sense, 
 expresses more distinctively that kind 
 of quick, short movement which is con- 
 fined to the individual or object, and 
 implies little or no change of locality. 
 
 "The mind stirs not one jot beyond 
 those ideas which sense or reflection have 
 offered for its contemplation." — LoCKE, 
 
 " In Him we live and move and have our 
 heiag."—JEaifflisk Bible. 
 
 MUTTER. Murmur. 
 
 To Mutter, formed to express the 
 kind of sound, is to utter articulate 
 words, but in a confused, indistinct 
 undertone. 
 
 Murmur (Lat. murmur) is inarticu- 
 late, like the sound of running water, 
 and the sign ofsuTlennessand discon- 
 tent. Mutter does not necessarily 
 imply the expression of any particular 
 feeling, as the magician may mutrer 
 his incantation. 
 
 MUTUAL. Reciprocal. Corre- 
 lative. 
 
 Mutual (Lat. mutuus, interchanged) 
 implies nothing as to time or order of 
 action. 
 
 Reciprocal (Lat. rtcipr^icus), in- 
 volves an idea of priority and succes- 
 sion. A mutual thing is simply a 
 thing which exists between two per- 
 sons ; a reciprocal thing so exists as 
 the result of a giving and returning. 
 •' The attachment was mutual," would 
 mean simply that it was felt on both 
 sides ; that it was reciprocal, that 
 what one had given the other also had 
 refurned. 
 
 " But as He framed a whole, the whole t 
 
 bless, 
 On mutual wants built mutual happiness." 
 Pope. 
 " This atonement was the end of the in 
 carnation, and the two articles reciprocate 
 for an incarnation is implied and presup 
 posed in the Scripture doctrine of atone 
 ment, as the necessary means to the end.' 
 —Bishop Horsley. 
 
 That is Correlative (prefix cor-, 
 Lat. con-, with, and relative) which 
 bears a reciprocal relationship, but is 
 confined to what has the nature of 
 fixed arrangement in nature or aii;. 
 In correlatives the two related things 
 go together, so that the existence oi 
 one draws after it of necessity the 
 existence of the other. Sometimes 
 this is in idea, sometimes in actual 
 expression. " Spiritual things and 
 spu'itual men," says Spelman, "are 
 correlatives, and cannot in reason be 
 divided." On the other hand father 
 IS a coiTelative term an implies a son, 
 as son a father ; so centre and circum- 
 ference. 
 
 " It is an universal observation which we 
 may form upon language, that where two 
 relative parts of a whole bear any propor- 
 tion to each other in number, rank, or con- 
 sideration, there are always correlative 
 terms invented which answer to both the 
 parts and express their mutual relation." 
 —Hume. 
 
 MYSTERIOUS. Mystical. Ca- 
 
 BALISTICAL. MaGICAL. 
 
 Mysterious( Lat. 7n!/stmHm,a secret, 
 from Gr. jUt;(7T>)p»ov) denotes that a 
 thing is not only obscure, but that 
 there is in the character of that ob- 
 scurity something which excites 
 curiosity and wonder. 
 
 Mystical (Gr. (xva-rMo^, secret, con- 
 nected with mysteries) denotes that 
 which does not so much excite emo- 
 tion as baffle curiosity and compre- 
 hension, by secret meanings involved 
 in the subject as it meets the ear or 
 the eye ; as, mystic words of prophecy, 
 that is, words which have a meaning 
 not limited to their primary applica- 
 tion. Mazes of the mystic dance ; 
 that is, whose movements are more 
 than they seem, and are significant of 
 ideas and emotions. The mysterious 
 opposes itself to inquiry ; the mysti- 
 cal invites it. The mystical speaks 
 
[:name] 
 
 a double language, the mysterious is 
 darkly silent. 
 
 " By a silent, unseen, rmjsteriotis process, 
 the fairest flower <if the garden springs from 
 a small, insignificant seed," — HoRNE. 
 
 " Fool, thon didst not understand 
 L te mystic language of the eye, nor hand." 
 DONKE. 
 
 Cabalis7Tcal (see Cabal) pre- 
 serves its primary idea, the mystic 
 value and significance of signs, such 
 as letters, words, signs, and numbers, 
 all ofwhich,asbelonging to the Jewish 
 Law, were by the Cabal ists invested 
 with a meaning, supposed to contain 
 a mystery, and in some cases to have 
 a predictive force. As the cabalistic 
 points to an inherent virtue of signs, 
 so the Magical (Gr. /uaymog, Mayog, 
 a magian) points to the preternatural 
 powers of human agents. A magical 
 effect is produced when it is such as 
 seems far to exceed the time, oppor- 
 tunities, materials, or resources of him 
 who brings it about ; hence the magi- 
 cal is startling in itself, and imposing 
 in its effects. It is mysteriously effec- 
 tive, as if its operation were aided by 
 something abf)ve ordinary processes 
 and powers. 
 
 " Some have imagined that envy has a 
 certain magical force in it, and that the 
 eyes of the envious have by their fascination 
 blasted the enjoyments of the happy." — 
 Spectator. 
 
 " Rabbi Elias, from the first chapter of 
 Genesis, where the letter aleph is six times 
 found, cabalistically concludes that the 
 world shall endure just six thousand years, 
 aleph in computation standing for a thou- 
 sand."— Sir '• Herbert, Traveh. 
 
 .STAKED. Bare. Uncovered. 
 
 Naked (A. S. nacod) denotes the 
 absence of any covering; Bare (A. S. 
 bier), destitute of some specific or 
 proper covering. A man is naked 
 when he has no clothes upon him ; 
 his head is bare when his hat or head 
 covering is absents A tree which has 
 iost its leaves in winter could only be 
 called naked by analogy, that is, by 
 being regarded as destitute of a kind 
 of clou ing. It is, when stripped of 
 
 laSLlfllMINATED. 
 
 577 
 
 its leaves, conji..onIy called bare. 
 When applied to objects in general, 
 Bare commonly conveys the idea of 
 destitution or privation ; bare walls 
 means unfurnished walls. While 
 Nakld is used sometimes in a favour- 
 able sense, meaning unobscured, un- 
 encumbered (as we speak of the 
 naked truth), Bare always denotes 
 want, insufficiency, or isolation. 
 
 Uncovered (prefix ?m-and couvrv\ 
 Lai. co'bptrire) is entirely a colourless 
 term, and depends upon the context. 
 Anything may be uncovered which is 
 capable of being covered, whether in 
 the sense of clothed or not. Com- 
 monly speaking, the naked is the un- 
 covered where it might be covered ; 
 the bare, the uncovered where it 
 oit^ht to be, or might be better con- 
 ceived as, covej'ed. 
 
 " Wretched, and miserable, and poor, and 
 blind, and naked."— Miglisk BMe. 
 " For never-resting time leads summer oa 
 To hideous winter, and confounds him 
 
 there ; 
 Sap checked with frost, and lusty leaves 
 
 quite gone ; 
 Beauty o'ersnowed, and bareness every- 
 where." Shakespeare. 
 "None of the Eastern people use the 
 compliment of uncovering their heads when 
 they meet, as we do." — Dampier's Voy. 
 ages. 
 
 NAME. Appellation. Denomi- 
 nation. Title. Designation. 
 
 Of these Name (A.S. nama, name, 
 noun), connected with the Lat. nbmen, 
 is the simplest and most generic, in- 
 dicating simply the word by which a 
 thing or person is distinguished. It 
 is the cun-ent representation of the 
 thing itself. 
 
 Appellation (Lat. appelldtidnem, 
 an entitling) properly denotes a de- 
 scriptive term where some individual 
 is expressed, or some ueculiar charac- 
 teristic ; as, " Alexander of Macedon's 
 appellation was * the Great; 
 " S. Thomas Aquinas' appeilati 
 'the Angelic Doctor.'" 
 
 A Title (Lat. titiilns) is a name in 
 some way indicative of dignity, dis- 
 tinctiveness, or prominence, and not, 
 as appellatives may be, of reproach. It 
 is a kind of honourable political appel- 
 lation. 
 
 or, 
 ation was 
 
578 
 
 DENOMiNATiON(Lat.deno/HVTiafio»iem, 
 a naming after') is a distinctive name, 
 implying sectional division or classifi- 
 cation It may be expressed by either 
 a noun or an adjective ; as, Pharisee, 
 good, bad. It deserves, hovrever, to 
 be remarked, that the term belongs to 
 such distinctions as are imposed by 
 men, not such as are based upon the 
 differences of nature ; though the de- 
 nominations so imposed may agree 
 with natural distinctions. We do iiot, 
 for instance, speak of plants, animals, 
 or minerals of different denomina- 
 tions. 
 
 Designation (Lat. designdtidnem,a 
 describing) is a distinctive title, point- 
 ing out more specifically one indivi- 
 dual from others. The word carries 
 the mind beyond the fact of a distinc- 
 tive name, to the effort of those who 
 imposed it as peculiarly appropriate or 
 characteristic. Designation is to the 
 individual what denomination is to 
 the class. 
 "A name which every wind to heaven would 
 
 bear. 
 Which men to speak, and angels joy to 
 hear." CowLKY. 
 
 " Men must endeavour to palliate what 
 they cannot cure. They must institute 
 some persons, under the appellation of 
 magistrates, whose peculiar office it is to 
 point out the decrees of equity, to punish 
 transgressors." — HuME. 
 
 " If the qualities which 1 have ranged 
 under the head of the sublime be all found 
 consistent with each other, and all different 
 from those which I place under the head of 
 beauty ; and if those which compose the 
 class of the beautiful ha^-e the same consis- 
 tency with themselves, and the same oppo- 
 sition to those which are classed under the 
 denomination of sublime, I am in little pain 
 whether anybody chooses to follow the 
 name I give them or not, provided he allows 
 that what I dispose under different heads 
 are in reality different things in nature." — 
 Burke. 
 
 " The ranking of things into species, 
 which is nothing but sorting them under 
 several titles, is done by us according to the 
 ideas that we have of them."— Lockk. 
 
 " This is a plain designation of the Duke 
 of Marlborough. One kind of stuff used to 
 fatten land is called marl, and every one 
 knows that borough is the name of a town." 
 —Swift. 
 
 NARRATE. Recount. Tell. 
 Narrate (Lat. narrdre) belongs to 
 the rhetorical ; Recount (Fr. raconter) 
 
 srNONYMS [narrate] 
 
 to the instructive. Tell to the popu- 
 lar and familial . One narrates with 
 study , by rule, and with due attention to 
 atyle, and with a view to engaging and 
 interesting the auditory or the public. 
 One recounts with care, as anxious 
 that all important facts should be 
 taken count of. One tells plainly, 
 simply, intelligibly, agreeably, amus- 
 ingly. 
 
 NARROW. Contracted. Con- 
 fined. 
 
 Narrow (A. S. nearu, nearo, con- 
 nected with near) denotes no more 
 than the being of little breadth, with- 
 out of necessity implying either £hat 
 it is the result of any artificial pro- 
 cess, or any disparaging force ; as, a 
 narrow stream. A narrow escape is 
 one in which the interval between 
 the point of danger and the person 
 avoiding it is near or narrow. 
 
 Contracted (Lat. contrithcre, part. 
 contractus, to draw i?i) implies an arti- 
 ficial process, or the result of narrow- 
 ing influences. Metaphorically, a 
 narrow mind is so by nature ; a con- 
 tracted mind is so by association, 
 training, or prejudice. 
 
 Confined (Fr. confiner, to confine, 
 Lat. confinis, bordering upon) implies 
 more strongly than Contracted the 
 operation ot external forces. A stream 
 is contracted within its ordinary 
 course by the drought of summer ; it 
 is confined to a narrow bed by arti- 
 ficial embankments. 
 
 " Men should accustom themselves by the 
 light of particulars to enlarge their minds 
 to the amplitude of the world, and not re- 
 duce the world to the narrowness of their 
 minds." — Bacon. 
 
 " The more effectual contraction of the 
 wind-pipe in any strong or violent expira- 
 tion or coughing." — Ray. 
 
 " That man can do wrong arises from a 
 weakness and not a superior strength in 
 him, from the imperfection of his -vnews, and 
 the conjinedness of his powers." — Hoadlky. 
 
 NATIVE. Natal. Natural. 
 
 Native (Lat. natwiu) indicates a 
 relation to an object on the score of 
 origin ; pertaining to one's birth ; as, 
 native land or language; conferred 
 by birth, as native genius. 
 
 Natural (Lat. naturalis, belonging 
 
[necessary] 
 
 to nature) pertaining to the constitu- 
 tion of Nature, or some particular 
 nature, as opposed to what is uncon- 
 nected with Nature, artificial, dis- 
 torted, or the like. 
 
 Natal (Lat. ndtalis, belonging to 
 one's birth) means belonging to the 
 event or circumstances of a man's 
 birth ; as a natal day, hour, star. 
 
 NAUSEA. Loathing. Disgust. 
 
 As employed of repugnance of feel- 
 ing towards objects. Nausea (literally 
 Sea-Sickness, Gr. vava-ia', vreD?, a ship) 
 is commonly employed of that dislike 
 which is the result of over-much 
 supply, involving tediousness and 
 satiety ; Loathing (see Loathe), of a 
 strong constitutional dislike, whether 
 physical or of tlie moral taste ; Dis- 
 gust (O.Fr. desgouster^ to loathe; goiist, 
 Lat. gustus, taste) of what strongly 
 offends the moral sense rather than 
 the physical ; as, disgust at the conduct 
 of another. 
 
 NEAR. Nigh. Close. 
 
 As adverbs, Near (A. S. nedra^ 
 comparative of ?ic<i/i, nigh), Nigh, and 
 Close (Fr. clos, part, of c lore, to shut) 
 may be thus in usage distinguished. 
 We commonly now employ Near both 
 of time and space, while we restrict 
 NiGii to space. Nigh at hand. "The 
 time draweth nigh," would be now 
 expressed by the " Time draws near." 
 We seldom employ Nigh but with 
 amplification ; as, nigh at hand. 
 Near is by no means so strong and 
 definite as Close. Houses are near to 
 each other which are separated by 
 what the speaker may consider a 
 moderate interval ; they are close 
 when they almost touch. Near is 
 employed as an adjective, an adverb, 
 and a preposition ; Nigh, as an ad- 
 iective and an adverb, but not as a 
 preposition ; in that case, it requires 
 the addition of To. Near is only, 
 however, used as an adjective when 
 it is separated by the verb from its 
 substantive ; as, " The house is near ; " 
 but not "A near house." Both Near 
 and Close have a metaphorical sense 
 of parsimonious, which is not to the 
 uresent purpose. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 579 
 
 NEAREST. N'.Ji.. 
 
 Nearest denotes the closest proxi- 
 mity of space, Next the proximate 
 place in order. The nearest house is 
 that to which the distance is the 
 shortest, the next house is that to 
 which one comes after the present in 
 course or computation. 
 
 NECESSARY. Essential. Re- 
 quisite. Needful. 
 
 Necessary (Lat. necessdriits) is an 
 indefinite term. Necessity may relate 
 to the order and course of Nature, 
 or the projects and designs of men, 
 or the laws of thought and argumen- 
 tation. That is necessary wliich is of 
 essential and indispensable obligation. 
 Requisite (Lat. rcquisitum, a ivant, 
 a requirement) relates to some end, 
 whether of thought or action, which 
 the requisite indispensably subserves. 
 Essential (Lat. essentia, essence; 
 esse, to be) denotes what is needful to 
 make a thing what it is or professes 
 to be — being regarded as vitally part 
 and parcel of the thing itself. Neces- 
 sary relates to the course of things; 
 Essential, to the constitution of 
 things, and our conceptions of them ; 
 Requisite, to human deliberation and 
 choice. Needful is less abstract than 
 Necessary, and applies to personal re- 
 quisites specifically and in aetail. " To 
 cross the water is necessary in order 
 to travel in France; but money is 
 needful to travel at all." Necessary 
 is a term primarily of logic ; Ess entia l 
 of metaphysics ; Requisite, of practi- 
 cal life. That is necessary to a thing 
 which the very notion of it seems to 
 draw after it. That is essential with- 
 out which it would not fulfil its defi- 
 nition or be what it is. That is re- 
 quisite without which it would be in 
 a condition of deficiency or want. 
 
 " A certain kind of temper is necessary 
 to the pleasure and <iuiet of our minds." — 
 TillotS(jk. 
 
 " Judgment is more essential to a general 
 than courage." — Dknham. 
 
 "All truth requisite for men to know." 
 Milton. 
 It may be observed that nothing ib 
 more common than the employment 
 of Essential in the sense of strongly 
 desirable or necessary. Hence such 
 
580 
 
 intolerable vulgarisms as that " It is 
 very essential to wrap up one's self in 
 col^ weather." It should have been 
 either Requisite or Necessahy ; the 
 latter representing- the act as induced 
 by circumstances ; the former, by our 
 own wants and feelings. 
 " All things needful for defence ahonnd." 
 Dryden. 
 
 The needful is, generally speaking, 
 tliat form of the jjecessary which in- 
 volves a double object — the imme- 
 diate and the remote. The necessary 
 is wanted for itself, except so far as 
 abstract ends are additionally con- 
 sidered, as happiness, comfort, and 
 the like ; the needful, for something 
 also to which it conduces. 
 
 NEEDY. Necessitous. 
 
 Nekdy (A. S. nead^ want, compul- 
 sion) and Necessitous (see Necessary) 
 are both employed of persons lacking 
 the common necessaries of life, or of 
 their station in it ; but Needy is em- 
 ployed more directly of the person, 
 and Necessitous of the condition. 
 Hence necessitous may imply a casual 
 state ; while Needy implies one more 
 permanent, as being characteristic of 
 tlie individual or class. 
 
 NEFARIOUS. Iniquitous. 
 
 These terms both express the 
 strongest disapprobation of human 
 conduct or trarxsactions ; but Ne- 
 rARious(Lat. ntfdrms, execra We) points 
 more directly to the intrinsic badness 
 of the deed ; Iniquitous (Lat. 'iniquus, 
 unfair, unjust), to the detriment done 
 to others, who are involved in the 
 object or consequences of the act. 
 Iniquitous, however, is quite applic- 
 able also to deeds or conduct regarded 
 intrinsically. In that case that is ini- 
 quitous which is flagi-antly immoral, 
 that is nefarious which is regarded as 
 violating sacred obligations, deeds of 
 unhallowed wrong. 
 
 " That for their own nefarious ends 
 
 Tread upon Freedom and her friends." 
 Cunningham. 
 
 " In thiscity (Athens) there were parties, 
 tnd avowed ones too, for the Persians, 
 Spartans, and Macedonians, supported each 
 of theaa by one or more demagogues pen- 
 sioned and bribed to this iniquitous ser- 
 vice."— B URKK. 
 
 STNONYMS [needy] 
 
 NEGLECT. Disregard. Slight. 
 
 These may be all regarded as both 
 nouns and verbs. Neglect (Lat. 
 negligcre, to neglect, part, neglectus) ii 
 not so positive as Slight (old Ger. 
 sleht, smooth, simple). Neglect may be 
 the cor.sequence of inattention or pre- 
 occupation. Slight of persons is alwaj^s 
 an act of dislike and contem})t. It is 
 not absolutely confined to persons as 
 its object. We may slight as well as 
 neglect an opportunity. To neglect 
 it is to overlook it ; to slight it, is to 
 think little of it, and so undervalue 
 it. Disregard relates more specifi- 
 cally to what is brought into per- 
 sonal relation to one's self, and has 
 commonly a positive and deliberate 
 force, amounting to intentional neg- 
 lect, or the setting a small value 
 on a thing, or a voluntary overlooking 
 of it ; as, to disregard an insult, or an 
 attempt, on the part of another, to do 
 one an injury. We should speak of 
 slighting rather then disregarding the 
 good offices of others. Some exex'ciseof 
 judgment, whether wisely or not, is 
 involved in Disregard; while Slight 
 may be the result of prejudice, and 
 neglect, of ignorance or inattention. 
 
 "Thus said, he turned, and Satan, bowing 
 
 low. 
 As to superior spirits is wont in Heaven, 
 Where honour due and reverence none 
 
 neglects. 
 Took leave." MiLTON. 
 
 "It is too common for those who have 
 been bred to scholastic professions, and 
 passed much of their time in academies, 
 where nothing but learning confers ho- 
 nours, to disregard every other qualifica- 
 tion." — liambler. 
 
 " Hear your own dignity so much pro- 
 faned. 
 See your most dreadful laws so loosely 
 
 slighted. 
 Behold yourself so by a son disdained." 
 Shakespkakk. 
 
 NEIGHBOURHOOD. Vicinity. 
 Proximity. Propinquity. 
 
 Neighbourhood (A. S. ncdhgebiir, 
 is Saxon, Vicinity ( Lat. vtclnttdtem, 
 viclniis, a neighbour) is Latin. Hence, 
 as commonly happens, the Saxon term 
 is the more comprehensive. Neigh- 
 bourhood is, in the first place, em- 
 ployed both of the place or places in 
 the vicinity, and of the persons iii- 
 
^niggardly] discriminated. 
 
 581 
 
 habiting them ; Vicinh y, only of the 
 place. Again, Neighbourhood is em- 
 ployed to designate the general near- 
 ness or collectiveness of persons or 
 objects among one anotlier ; Vicinity, 
 only of the nearness of one thing to 
 another, or a person to a place. Hence 
 a difference in the form of expression ; 
 as, to live in the vicinity of the sea, 
 rather than the neighbourhood, no- 
 thing mwe being meant than physical 
 proximity. 
 " Till, towards night, they came unto a 
 
 plain, 
 I5y which a little hermitage there lay, 
 Vnr from all neighbourhood the which annoy 
 it may." SPEXSER. 
 
 " The weather was pleasant, and we daily 
 saw some of those birds which are looked 
 npon as signs of the vicinity of land, such 
 as boobies, men-of-war, tropic birds, and 
 gannets." — CooK's Voyages. 
 
 Proximity (Lat. proximus, nearest) 
 is the closest degree of nearness, as 
 
 Fropisqvity (Lat. pr(ipinquus,neav) 
 expresses only nearness, in general 
 and irrespectively of degree ; while 
 neighbourhood is social nearness, 
 vicinity topographical neai*ness, and 
 proximity close nearness. As Neigh- 
 BouRiioooand Vicinity are confined to 
 physical nearness, Proximiiy and 
 JPropinquity are applicable to moral 
 nearness, as of ideas, time, kindred. 
 
 " If he plead proximity of blood. 
 That empty title is with ease withstood." 
 Dkyden. 
 
 *' The ligaments in the inside of the scle- 
 rotic tunicles of the eye draw the retina 
 nearer to the crystalline humour, and by 
 their relaxation suffer it to return to its 
 natural distance according to the exigency 
 of the object in respect of distance or pro- 
 pinquity." — Eay. 
 
 NEWS. Tidings. Inteliigence. 
 
 Nevts denotes what is generally 
 new in the way of intelligence from 
 any or all quarters. This may be in- 
 teresting to ourselves in common with 
 others, or it may be wholly uninteres*^ 
 ing. 
 
 Tidings are news of what has tidpd 
 or betided (A. S. tid ; tide, tiine), more 
 or less expected from a particular quar- 
 ter, and always personally interesting. 
 As we may have news of a foreign 
 war, and tidings of our friends en- 
 gaged in it. News may be good or 
 
 bad ; but we speak ol good more 
 often than of evil or bad tidings. 
 
 Intelligence (Lat. inteltigere, to 
 understand) is a more formal word, 
 denoting public or official communi- 
 cation of news, and is always of gene- 
 ral interest, whether good or bad, and 
 commonly on definite subjects. 
 
 " I wonder that, in the present situation 
 of affairs, you cai^ take pleasure in writing 
 anything but news." — Spectator. 
 
 " When presumptuous Spain 
 Baptized her fleet invincible in vain. 
 Her gloomy monarch, doubtful, uad re- 
 signed 
 To every pang that racks an anxious .nind. 
 Asked of the waves that broke upon his 
 
 coast 
 ' What tidings /' and the surge replied, 'All 
 lost ! ' " COWPER. 
 
 "My lion, whose jaws are at all hours 
 open to intelligence, informs me that there 
 are a few enormous weapons still in being." 
 — Stkele. 
 
 NIGGARDLY. Miserly. Ava- 
 ricious. Covetous. Sordid. 
 
 All these terms describe excess of 
 selfishness in the use or ac<juisition of 
 money or valuable possessions. The 
 Nig(j;-.rdly man (Icel. hnoggr, nig- 
 gard, sparing) is hard upon others; 
 the Miserly man (Lat. miser, miser' 
 able), upon himself as well. He lives 
 only for his hoard. 
 
 The Avaricious (Lat. Hvdi^tia, ava- 
 rice,) is simply ra])acious for himself; 
 the Covetous (O. Fr. covoiter, to covet, 
 Lat. cUp^idus, desirous of) is so at the 
 ';xpense of others. The quality of the 
 miser stai-ving in the midst of plenty 
 is more ridiculous than pitiable ; that 
 of the niggardly man, the more pitiable 
 and hateful ; for he would profit 
 though others should starve, that of 
 the avaricious and covetous, the more 
 formidable. Avarice is greediness; 
 but covetousness would snatch the 
 food from another's mouth. The ava- 
 ricious man is a man of cares and de- 
 siios; the covetous man, one of envy 
 a.i.d design. 
 
 Sordid (Lat. sordidus, foul) ex- 
 presses the sacrifice or loss of what is 
 noble, and the adoption of what is 
 mean in feeling and conduct in refe- 
 rence to the acquisition of gain. As 
 the covetous man is desirous of ap- 
 propriating the wealth of others, so 
 
582 
 
 the avaricious man is simply inordi- 
 nately desirDus of gain. The ava- 
 ricious are eager to get, and hug it 
 when got. The covetous are also 
 eager to obtain, but not so desirous of 
 keeping. The avaricious are never 
 profuse, but the covetous may be, and 
 may even be spendthrifts, desiring 
 the wealth of others that they may 
 squander it or keep it. As the cha- 
 racter of the avaricious and covetous 
 are more concerned with acquiring, 
 so the niggard!}' is more concerned 
 with retaining. The niggardly man 
 finds it hard to part with his money, 
 and would cheapen as far as possible 
 the just claims of others upon him; 
 while with the miser all thoughts, 
 either directly or indirectly affecting 
 either himself or others, are second to 
 the dominant idea of mere hoarding, 
 to which the claim of hunger itself is 
 often made to give way. 
 
 " On the other side there is not in Na- 
 ture anything so remotely distant from God, 
 or so extremely opposite to Him, as a 
 greedy, griping 7iiggard."—BAiiB.o\r. 
 
 " For the sake of collecting what is never 
 to be used, and adding to his beloved heap, 
 the miser will forego the comforts, the con- 
 veniences, and almost the necessaries of ex- 
 istence, and voluntarily submit all his days 
 to the penuries and austerities of a mendi- 
 cant." — HoRNE. 
 
 " Still, however (said Asem), the inha- 
 bitants must be happy. Each is contented 
 with his own possessions, nor avariciously 
 endeavours to heap up moi'e than is neces- 
 sary for his own subsistence ; and each 
 has therefore leisure for pitying those that 
 stand in need of compassion." — Gold- 
 smith. 
 
 " The difierence between avarice and co- 
 veitice is this, coveitice is for to coveit 
 swiche things as ihou hast not, and ava- 
 rice is to withholde and keep swiche things 
 as thou hast without rightful uede." — 
 Chaucer. 
 
 ** Sordid, unfeeling, reprobate, degraded. 
 Spiritless outcast." 
 
 SouTHEY, Anti-Jacobin. 
 
 " The miser will forego the comforts, the 
 conveniences, and almost the necessaries of 
 existence." — HoRNE. 
 
 NIGHTLY. NocTunNAL. 
 
 Nightly is derived directly from 
 the English word nig]t t ; Nocj u hn a l, 
 from the Lat. noctem, night, whence 
 noctiaiius. Vet they are somewhat 
 difitrently employed. The former is 
 
 SYNONYMS [nightly] 
 
 a term of more familiar character 
 than the latter ; but a further differ- 
 ence is discernible, flowing, however, 
 from the same difference of oiigin. 
 Nightly means simply, at time of 
 night, or every night; while Noctur- 
 nal means, connected with the nature 
 of the night. A nightly visit. Thenoc- 
 tm-nal habits of some birds, insects, 
 and quadrupeds. 
 
 NOMINATE. Appoint. 
 
 As applied to the Appointment to 
 certain offices, the Nomination (Lat. 
 nomuiare, to name) commonly stands 
 to the Appointment (O. Fr. apointery 
 to appoint ; Low Lat. appunctare) A9 
 the first step to the completion. The 
 appointment consists in the formal 
 confeiTing of office in a regular 
 method ; the nomination, in the right 
 of naming the individual to be so ap- 
 pointed. Where there is no discre- 
 tion left, the nomination is virtually, 
 but not fonnally or legally, the ap- 
 pointment. But there are cases in 
 which the two are distinct •, as where 
 a person or a corporate body has the 
 right of nominating more than one 
 person to an office, out of which one 
 is selected by a higher power for the 
 appointment. 
 
 "The nomination of persons to places 
 being a pi-erogative of the king."— Claren- 
 don. 
 
 "The accusations against Columbus 
 gained such credit in a jealous court, that 
 a commissioner was appointed to repair to 
 Hispaniola, and to inspect into his con- 
 duct."— Robertson. 
 
 NOTE. Annotation. Comment. 
 Commentary. Observation. Re- 
 mark. 
 
 In the sense in which it is syno- 
 nymous with the other terms here 
 given, Note (Lat. nota, a mark) is 
 always written, being either a brief 
 wi-iting to assist the memory, or a 
 marginal comment or explanation. It 
 is this latter aspect of the word which 
 is more fully expressed by Annota- 
 tion, especially in illustration of the 
 meaning of a text. 
 
 CoMMENT(Lat.co7?»«misri,part.com- 
 mentns, to rejiect upon) has a less sys- 
 tematic meaning, and denotes the 
 expression of anything which may 
 
[NOTES 
 
 casually suggest itself as worth mak- 
 ing: in relation to what is said or 
 written, and may be itself either 
 written or said. The purpose of com- 
 ment is elucidation. When the com- 
 ment is only spoken as well as casual, 
 and has relation rather to the circum- 
 stances of the case than to its inter- 
 pretation, it may be called an Ouser- 
 VATioN or Remark. This last (Fr. 
 remarquer, to remark) is of more gene- 
 ral meaning still, and may be em- 
 ployed of anything by way of ob- 
 servation, even where no explanation 
 or illustration is intended, and by 
 way of reference to any subject which 
 may be thought worthy of it, or to 
 aftord an opportunity for it. 
 
 Observation (Lat. observdtidnem, a 
 watchiiig, a remark) is not only not 
 explanatoiy, but presupposes a com- 
 plete understanding of the matter 
 upon which the observation is 
 founded. 
 
 Commentary (Lat. commentarii, and 
 -ria, note-books, memoirs) is a systema- 
 tic collection of comments in a literary 
 form, and by way of explanation and 
 illustration. In the title " Cajsar's 
 Commentaries," the term bears the 
 meaning of memoirs of particular 
 transactions. Its more ordinary mean- 
 ing is that of a book of expositions on 
 the work of an author. Certain dif- 
 ferences are specially worthy of no- 
 tice between the verbs to Observe and 
 to Remark. To remark is slighter than 
 to observe, and a remark slighter 
 than an observation. 1 may make a 
 casual remark which is very remotely 
 connected with the subject under 
 consideration ; hence such phrases 
 as, " I may as well remark in pass- 
 ing." To remark is to note down 
 casually; to observe is to note down 
 more carefully. A phenomenon in 
 the heavens may be remarked by a 
 casual spectator, and if it be con- 
 spicuous can hardly escape remark. 
 It will be observed by an astronomer. 
 Observation oi'teu follows upon re- 
 mark, and is the analysis or expan- 
 sion of it. " Did you remark the 
 level of the thermometer yesterday 
 at mid-day? " " No, I did not; but I 
 will observe it moi-e carefiilly to-day," 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 58^. 
 
 The careful general remarks those 
 individuals who behave with bravery, 
 while he observes the operations of 
 the enemy. Observe is commonly 
 more general, remark more specific. 
 Some persons observe the conduct 
 and behaviour of others for the pur- 
 pose of remarking upon their faults 
 
 NOTES. Remarks. Considera- 
 tions. Observations. Reflexions. 
 
 Taking these terms in their literary 
 connexion. Notes contain .something 
 short and precise. Remarks show 
 that a distinction or selection of one 
 or more points has been made. Ob- 
 servations designate some matter of 
 criticism and research. Reflexions 
 are thoughts added to those of tlie 
 autlior. Notes are often necessary. 
 Remarks are sometimes useful. Ob- 
 j servations ought to be erudite, and 
 ! reflexions just. Notes ai-e commonly 
 { explanatory. They are called for by 
 ; obscurity of expression or recondite- 
 { ness of allusion, or unfamiliarity of 
 subject-matter ; as when manners and 
 customs have much changed from 
 those of the period, or are dissimilar 
 to those of the country of the author. 
 Remarks may serve to set the sub- 
 ject of the text in a stronger light, 
 as turning on some particular point 
 Avorthy of notice. Historical observa- 
 tions tend to clear up some historical 
 allusions, while an observation on a 
 peculiarity of style or expression will 
 prevent its being overlooked. Re- 
 flexions, being of a gratuitous charac- 
 ter, need to be very pertinent, or they 
 may supplant and obscure the origi- 
 nal thoughts of the author. Notes 
 should be short and clear, for their 
 object is to explain, and if extended 
 they become commentaries. Remarks 
 should be new, useful, critical. The 
 two defects of a remark are triteness 
 and uninterestingness ; i.e. saying in 
 the first instance what the world 
 knows, and in the second what it does 
 not care to know. Observations 
 should be luminous, curious; for their 
 object is to draw forth what is fine, 
 to elucidate what is obscure, to draw 
 attention to what is interesting, to 
 give prominence to what is concealed. 
 Considerations ought to have the op- 
 
■584 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [nOx'IFY] 
 
 posite cliaracter to notes. They should 
 DO full and profound, and only on 
 matters in themselves considerable. 
 Reflexions should be natural and easy 
 without being- trivial, expressed in a 
 manner new and pointed, solid and 
 judicious rather than subtle and in- 
 genious, flowing- naturally out of the 
 subject, and imprinting themselves 
 upon the mind. 
 
 NOTIFY. SiGMFV. Ceutify. 
 
 To Notify (hat. not'ificdre, to make 
 known) is to Signify (Lat. signiftcare) 
 in a formal, perspicuous, and authen- 
 tic manner, so that the thing shall be 
 not only known but indubitable, cer- 
 tain, notorious. That which is signi- 
 fied to us we cannot be ignorant of. 
 'J'hat which is notified to us we cannot 
 elude. One generally signifies inten- 
 tions, and notifies orders or desires. 
 'J'he word Notify is sometimes used, 
 after the analogy of Certify, directly 
 upon the person ; as, to notify the 
 meeting. Signify is not so employed, 
 but has an impersonal use of its own ; 
 it does uot signify that it is of no con- 
 sequence. Certify is the most for- 
 mal ; " I certify " some fact, and the 
 certijicate will be used in some matter 
 of business ; it may even be necessary 
 that I shall have first sworn to its 
 truth before a magistrate. 
 
 NOTORIOUS. Noted. 
 
 While Noted is reserved for that 
 which is well known, favourably or 
 eminently. Notorious (Lat. jiotoHa, a 
 notice^ ?/eii;s is employed toexpress what 
 is publicly known, and universally in 
 men's mouths, commonly, though 
 not invariably, with an unfavourable 
 meaning. But this is only a rough 
 distinction. The case seems to be 
 afliected by the question whether the 
 matter is one of facts or persons. At 
 least. Notorious is never used of what 
 is known purely for good. We speak 
 indiscriminately of a notorious or a 
 noted fact, but not person; nor aie 
 virtue and excellence ever said to be 
 notorious. Notorious is that which 
 is so well known that the extensive 
 knowledge of it is taken as an evi- 
 dence of iti certainty. It is a term 
 of ancient cirii law. 
 
 NOXIOUS. Hurtful. Pueju- 
 irciAL. Pernicious. Detrimental. 
 Deleterious. Injuuious. 
 
 Of these, the most general in theii 
 application are Hurtful (see Hurt) 
 and Injurious, of which the others 
 may be regarded as modifications. 
 
 Noxious (Lat. noxius, from noxa, 
 hurt) is applied physically and ana- 
 logously to physical influences, and 
 to what is like them in morals, as a 
 noxious air or climate ; noxious prin- 
 ciples or practices. 
 
 Prejudicial (Lat. prcejudicidlis, be- 
 longing to a preceding judgment, with 
 an implied unfavourable character, 
 formed beforehand) bears specific re- 
 lation to some particular nature, action, 
 or operation as prejudicial to charac- 
 ter, interest, health, life. 
 
 Pernicious (Lat. perntciosus ; per- 
 nlciesj destruction) denotes that which 
 tends, by ita injurious quality, to the 
 destruction of its subject. 
 
 Detrimental (Lat. detrhnentum, 
 loss, harm, from detercre, to wear away 
 or impair) is less strong than Perni- 
 cious, and denotes a tendency, not tc 
 destroy, but to impaii* and diminisl 
 in force or value. 
 
 Deleterious (Lat. delere, to abolish, 
 annihilate) brings out more strongly 
 the purely physical side of Pernicious, 
 as "deleterious medicines," and is 
 most commonly employed in con- 
 nexion with the life and health of 
 men. 
 
 " Again it is urged that Nature has not 
 only produced many noxious and poisonous 
 herbs, but also destructive and devoui-ing 
 animals, whose strength surpasseth that of 
 men. " — C udworth. 
 
 " Charles II. had great vices, but scarce 
 any virtues to correct them ; he had in 
 him some vices which were less hurtful, 
 which corrected his more hurtful ones." — 
 Burnet. 
 
 " That which in the first instance is pre- 
 judicial may be excellent in its remoter 
 operation ; and its excellence may arise 
 even fi-om the ill effects it produces in the 
 beginning. "—B CJBKE. 
 
 " He who has vented a pernicious doc 
 trine, or published an ill book, must know 
 that his guilt and his life determine not 
 together. — South. 
 
 " Though every man hath a property in 
 his goods, he must uot use them iu detrir 
 meat of the commonwealth ^'—StaUTrial*, 
 
[obdurate] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 685 
 
 " In some places those plaute which are 
 entirely poisonous at Lome lose iheir dele- 
 terious quality by being carried abroad." — 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 "We naturally love excellence wherever 
 we see it J but the envious man hates it, 
 and wishes to be superior to othej"s, p->t by 
 raising himself by honest means, hut by 
 injuriously pulling them down." — BkattIK. 
 
 NUMBER. Count. 
 
 These terms Kumueu (being de- 
 rived from Lat. niiina-dre, niimerus, a 
 number) and Count (from Fr. comp- 
 tefy and coaler , the Lat. comyidare, to 
 compute) may often be employed 
 strictly in the place of Count, as to 
 number the sand ot the sea-shore (or 
 to count it) ; but Number (to say no- 
 thing of such a phrase as, "To num- 
 ber houses in a street," meaning, to 
 fix numbers upon them) has also the 
 force of presenting as the result of 
 computation; as, *'The army num- 
 bered fifty thousand." It has also a 
 more rhetorical and solemn character 
 than Count in the sense of to pass into 
 a previously existing number ; as, 
 *'Hewas numbered with the dead." 
 On the other hand, it is devoid of that 
 force of reckoning, in the sense of 
 moral estimation, which belongs to 
 Count, as in such a phrase as, " I 
 count it simple folly ; " and expresses 
 no more than arithmetical computa- 
 tion or addition. 1 number denotes 
 the saire t}>'ng as 1 tell off, not, I es- 
 timate. 
 
 NUMERAL. NuMEuicAi.. 
 
 Numeral means of or belonging to 
 numbers, and is applied to terms, 
 especially of grammar ; as a numeral 
 adjective. Numerical is of or be- 
 longing to number in the abstract; 
 as a numerical difference — a difference 
 of number, as distinguished, for in- 
 stance, from one of quality. The dif- 
 ference between six oranges and eight, 
 where all are o[ equal size and good- 
 ness, would be numerical. 
 
 0. 
 
 OATH. Vow. 
 
 Oath (A. S. d^) belongs to engage- 
 Dneuts with men ; 
 
 Vow (Fr. v(£u) to engagements 
 made directly with God. In the oath 
 one takes God to witness to one's en- 
 gagement with our willingness to 
 submit to the effects of His vengeance 
 if one should violate one's undertak- 
 ing. But in a vow one voluntarily 
 enters upon an engagement with God, 
 and employs the vow to make the ob- 
 ligation more binding, and the neglect 
 or violation of it more criminal. The 
 oath is an ascititious bond by which 
 one renders men more sure of one's 
 good faith. Jephthah kept religiously 
 the rashest of all vows. Joshua kept 
 his promise to the Gibeonites with all 
 the strictness of an oath. Yet the 
 oath should be only in relation to 
 things lawful between man and man 
 and the vow Avhich violates a law o* 
 nature is a sacrilege rather than a 
 
 Y»W. 
 
 OBDURATE. Hardened, Cal- 
 lous. Obstinate. Pertinacious. 
 Contumacious. 
 
 While Hardened is the most 
 general term, the others, Avith the 
 exception of Obstinate, may be re- 
 garded as modifications of it. We 
 speak of persons or their feelings as 
 hardened when we mean to express 
 the result of habituation, and this 
 actively or passively; as, hardened in 
 vice ; hardened against impressions, 
 as, for instance, scenes of suffering. 
 
 Callous {¥r. calleux ; L%t. callbsus, 
 thick-skhmed, from callum, callus, the 
 thick skin of animal bodies) commonly 
 denotes rather insensibility through 
 nature or habituation, than any blunt- 
 ing of the moral feelings. This latter 
 use, however, is not excluded, as in 
 the phrase, *' A callous conscience." 
 
 Obdurate (Lat. obdurdre, part, ob- 
 durdtus, to harden), on the other hand, 
 denotes the state of being hardened 
 against moral influences. They rise 
 in meaning in the following order: 
 Ca llous denotes a deadening of the 
 sensibilities; Hardened, a settled dis- 
 regard of and habit of resistance 
 against the claims of persuasion, duty, 
 and sympathy; Obdurate, a moral de- 
 termination in opposition to both 
 moral principle and natural fseiing. 
 
586 
 
 Obstinate (Lat. obstvidtus, resolute, 
 in a good or bad sense) is more purely 
 mental than moral, and denotes such 
 inflexible conduct as consists in stand- 
 ing out against persuasion, instruc- 
 tion, entreaty, and, by an extension 
 of the use of the tenn, against attack. 
 Pertinacious (Lat. ferfindcenifVery 
 tenacious) represents obstinacy, as it 
 were, from the other or opposite 
 point of view. As obstinacy consists 
 m holding out, so pertinacity consists 
 in holding on. The man who reite- 
 rates and clings to his own purpose or 
 opinion is pertinacious ; the man who 
 does so in direct opposition to external 
 influence is obstinate. 
 
 Contumacious (Lat. contiimdcem, 
 haughty J stubborn) expresses the resis- 
 tance to the demands of constitutec' 
 authority. 
 
 " The ear is wanton and ungoverned, and 
 the heart insolent and obdurate, till the one 
 is pierced , and the other made tender by- 
 affliction." — South. 
 
 " Tell such people of a world after this, 
 of their being accountable for their actions, 
 and of the Gospel denunciations of damna- 
 tion upon all who lead such ungodly lives 
 without repentance ; they are hardened to 
 everything of this kind."— Gilpin, Ser- 
 mons. 
 
 "Licentiousness has so long passed for 
 sharpness of wit and greatness of mind, that 
 the conscience is grown callous." — L'Es- 
 TRANGE. 
 
 " So was both sides with obstinate despite. 
 With like revenge, and neither party 
 bowed." Daniel. 
 
 " Disputes with men pertinaciously obsti- 
 nate in their principles are, of all others, 
 the most irksome." — Hume. 
 
 " Now, these courts being thus esta- 
 blished in the Church, when any offender is 
 presented into any of them, he is cited to 
 appear there, which if he neglect or refuse 
 to do, he is pronounced contumacious." — 
 Beveridqe. 
 
 OBEDIENCE. Submission. 
 
 Obedience (Lat. ^bidientia) is an 
 action. SuBMissiON(Lat. submissionem) 
 is a result of the will. It may be 
 passive while obedience is necessarily 
 active. One submits to an evil which 
 there seems no possibility of removing. 
 One obeys a law in aoin^ what it 
 commands, or in avoiding what it for- 
 bids. Obedience is to will, authority, 
 law, submission is to power. Obe- 
 
 SYNONYMS [oBEDIENCEJ 
 
 dience may be absolutely forced. Sub- 
 mission must always be to some extent 
 involuntary, though the submission 
 may be coeixed, and so repugnant to 
 one's feelings. Obedience may be invo- 
 luntary, or even contrary to one's will. 
 Real obedience to an order may be 
 the result of a feigned submission to 
 the authority which gives it. Obe- 
 dience is from time to time in the de- 
 tails of action. Submission is once 
 for all. A child may obey to-day and 
 disobey to-morrow. Such an one is 
 not strictly in submission to his pa- 
 rents. Submission commonly proceeds 
 from the character and disposition, 
 obedience from duty or principle. 
 Obedience does not imply to so great 
 an extent as submission, the surren- 
 der of the will to another. One obeys 
 the jirecepts of religion. Men some- 
 times submit their reason to faith. 
 Where submission is mentioned it is 
 in its humility; where obedience is 
 mentioned it is in the recognition of 
 and co-operative with right. 
 
 OBEDIENT. Compliant. Yield- 
 ing. Submissive. Dutiful. Ob- 
 sequious. 
 
 Obedient (Lat. '6bcdientem, part, 
 of ^bidire, to obeif) involves a relation- 
 ship of inferiority to another, and a 
 recognized physical or moral subser- 
 viency; but the moral power is the 
 primary, the physical the secondary, 
 application. We obey God, men, and 
 laws, commands, and the like, as the 
 media through which their will is ex- 
 pressed and made known to us. It is 
 only by analogy that the ship is said 
 to obey the helm, or a body to fall in 
 obedience to the law of gravitation. 
 
 CoxMPLiANT (verb comply, not con- 
 nected with ply and pliant, but orig. 
 from Lat. compltre, to complete) indi- 
 cates more equality between the par- 
 ties, than Obedient. As obedience 
 stands to law, command, injunction, 
 or jirecept, so compliance stands to 
 wishes, desires, demands, requests, 
 proposals, and the like. 
 
 Yielding (A. S. geldan^ to pay) is' 
 a term expressive of the natural dis- 
 position or tendency to comply, and, 
 involves commonly some weakness of 
 
[observance] DISCKIMINATED. 
 
 587 
 
 nature and incapacity of resistance to 
 the will of another, where such resis- 
 tance is lawful or needful. 
 
 Submissive (Lat. submitttrej tolower, 
 to lower ones self) is a stronger term 
 than Obedient, and carries the mean- 
 ing- of prospective obedience or com- 
 pliance with possible as well as actual 
 commands or desires of another. 
 
 Dutiful (duty, that which is due, 
 Fr. du) denotes that character of act, 
 conduct, or disposition which allows 
 itself to be swayed by the conscious- 
 ness of a moral relationship, involv- 
 ing the right of the one party to sub- 
 mission, obedience, or deference, and 
 the obligation of the other party to 
 render it without coercion, but by 
 the understood, rather than expressed, 
 power of control. 
 
 Obsequious (Lat. obstquiosus, com- 
 plaisant) has now lost its original use, 
 in which it was equivalent to Com- 
 pliant, and has lapsed into the unfa- 
 vourable meaning of over-compliant, 
 or demonstratively, over-courteously, 
 and almost servilely attentive to the 
 wishes of another. 
 " Yet to whate'er above was fated. 
 
 Obediently he bowed his soul ; 
 For what all-bounteons Heaven created. 
 
 He thought Heaven only should control." 
 COWPEK. 
 
 " The Earl of Surrey, afterwards Duke 
 of Norfolk, to show how compliant he was 
 to the humours of the princes which he 
 served, did as dexterously comply with his 
 prodigality as he had formerly with his 
 father's sparingness." — BuKXET, 
 
 " That yieldingness, whatever founda- 
 tions it might lay to the disadvantage of 
 posterity, was a specific to preserve us in 
 peace in his own time." — Lord Halifax. 
 
 " He in delight 
 Both of her beauty and submissive charms. 
 Smiled with superior love, as Jupiter 
 On Juno smiles when he impregns the 
 
 clouds 
 That shed May flowers." Milton. 
 
 " I advised him to persevere in dutifully 
 bearing with his mother's ill-humour." — 
 Anecdotes of Bishop Watson. 
 
 "The common people have not yet con- 
 tracted that obsequiotisness and submission 
 which the rigour of their government, if no 
 revolution occurs to redress it, must in time 
 reduce them to." — Observer, 
 
 OBLOQUY. Contumely. 
 
 The contemptuous sneaking against 
 
 another is commdn to these words; 
 but while Obloquy denotes disparage- 
 ment generally (Lat. obloqni, to speak 
 against), Contumely (Lat. contH- 
 milia) involves the unmerited treat- 
 ment of another, accompanied with 
 disrespect. A person may be pub- 
 licly spoken against out of his ovra 
 hearing, in which case he still incurs 
 obloquy ; but contumely is shown to 
 his face, and is not confined to words. 
 
 " That particular sort of obloquy which 
 is called detraction or backbiting." — Bar- 
 Row. 
 
 " Nothing aggravates tyranny so much 
 as contumely "—BuviKB., 
 
 OBSEQUIES. Funeral. 
 
 These terms express different as- 
 pects of the same thing 
 
 Funeral (L. Lat. fimtrdlia, pi., 
 things belonging to a funeralj fiinus, 
 -^ris) represents the interment of the 
 dead as accompanied by its proper 
 rites, ceremonies, and attendance. 
 
 Obsequies (Lat. obs^quicB) is the 
 same funeral solemnity regarded as 
 the last duty performed to a deceased 
 person. The idea of obsequies is that 
 of respectful valediction; that of fune- 
 ral is mournful ceremony, 
 
 " Bat you must know, your father lost a 
 
 father. 
 That father lost, lost his ; and his survivor 
 
 bound 
 In filial obligation for some term 
 To do obsequious sorrow." ^ 
 
 Shakespeark. 
 "The funeral bake-meats coldly furnish'd 
 
 forth 
 The marriage table." Ibid. 
 
 OBSERVANCE. Observation. 
 
 Observance (Lat. observantia, ob- 
 se)-vance of duties, respect) is the due 
 rendering to rule, law, custom, or 
 occasion, a formal or practical recog- 
 nition. The observance of sacred days; 
 the observance of the principles of 
 truth, justice, or the laws. 
 
 Observation (Lat. observationem) 
 is simply the act of close and attentive 
 contemplation, with the view of be- 
 coming closely acquainted with the 
 object; as, the observation o£ the 
 heavens. The intention of an obser- 
 vance is the fulfilment of a moral or 
 religious duty ; the intention of ob« 
 
588 
 
 SYNONYMS LOBSEUVEJ 
 
 servation is to acquire or retain ex- 
 actly some additional fact for the in- 
 formation of ourselves or the instruc- 
 tion of others. 
 
 " Since the obligation upon Christians to 
 comply vrith the religious observance of 
 Sunday arises from the public uses of the 
 institution, and the authority of toe apos- 
 tolic practice, the manner of observing it 
 ought to be that which best fulfils these 
 uses, and conforms the nearest to this prac- 
 tice."— Paley. 
 
 " The difference between experiment and 
 obsei-vation consists merely in the compara- 
 tive I'apidity with which they accomplish 
 their discoveries, or rather in the compara- 
 tive command we possess over them as in- 
 struments for the investigation of truth." 
 — Stswart. 
 
 OBSERVE. Keep. Fulfil. 
 
 These words are synonymous as 
 they express in common the practical 
 regard of a commandment, rule, or 
 law. The literal sense of Observe 
 (Lat. observare) is to keep before one's 
 eyes, to pay attention to. 
 
 To Keep (0. Eng. kepen, A. S. 
 cipan) is to hold in one's hand for the 
 purpose of preserving, maintaining, or 
 defending unimpaii'ed. 
 
 The idea of Fulfilling is that of 
 filling up, completing, consummating. 
 You observe the law by your atten- 
 tion in executing that which it pre- 
 scribes. You keep it by the continual 
 care you exercise that it shall not be 
 violated in any point. You fulfil it 
 by exactness in entirely supplying all 
 that it supposes, and affording all the 
 action which it requires. 
 
 To observe a rule or law marks 
 generally fidelity in the discharge of 
 one's duty. To keep it marks perseve- 
 rance and sustained regard. To fulfil 
 it points to the completeness of the re- 
 sult. 
 
 We observe customs, traditions, 
 casual precepts, as e.g. the ordinance of 
 keeping certain days holy. We keep 
 laws or obligations which are perpe- 
 tually binding, and so might be at any 
 moment violated, as the marriage vow : 
 we keep the obligation to accomplish 
 an engagement, or to fulfil a task. 
 One keeps silence by persistently 
 avoiding the breaking of it. One 
 observes silence when it is imposed 
 by injuaction oi analogously by cir- 
 
 cumstances. The former may have 
 in it more of obstinacy than right. 
 The latter is at least in obedience to 
 principle, or allegiance to another. 
 Fulfil belongs rather to moral, as 
 Keep and Observe to legal require- 
 ments. 
 
 OBSTACLE. Impediment, 
 
 The following remarks may be 
 added to what has already been said 
 under the head of Difficulty. 
 
 The Obstacle (o&siac(i/um) is some- 
 thing before you, which stops your 
 progress. 
 
 The Impediment (Lat. imptd'imen- 
 tu,m)ishere and there, around and about 
 you, to detain you in your movements. 
 In order to advance, the former must be 
 surmounted, the latter removed. An 
 obstacle implies to some extent the 
 ideas of greatness, importance, power 
 of resistance. Hence efforts are needed 
 to surmount it, or to destroy it in order 
 to pass over it. The impediment im- 
 plies something inconvenient, annoy- 
 ing, embarrassing, hence it must be 
 got rid of and taken away ; like an 
 ample garment which prevents free- 
 dom of action, or a cljain which fetters 
 the limbs. The obstacle belongs to 
 important matters and great enter- 
 prises and difiiculties. The impedi- 
 ment belongs rather to common mat- 
 ters and ordinary difficulties. An im- 
 pediment is vexatious. An obstacle 
 may even provoke to courage and ad- 
 ditional effort. The timid, unenter- 
 prising person sees many obstacles. 
 The indifferent person, \yho wants 
 heart, will see many impediments. 
 
 OCCASION. Occurrence. Con 
 juncture. Case. Circumstance. 
 
 Occasion (Lat. occdsionem) is em- 
 ployed of any new event, whethei* it 
 present itself or is purposely sought, 
 and in a sense quit«^ indefinite as to 
 time or object. 
 
 Occurrence (Lat. occurrtre, to rim 
 ugainst)is employed only of that which 
 comes without our seeking, and in 
 fixed relation to the present time. 
 
 Conjuncture( Lat. co?i;u/Jctura;co/t- 
 Juiigire, to join togelher) marks a 
 situation which has resulted from a 
 
[offend] 
 
 JMSCRIMINATED. 
 
 589 
 
 concourse of events, matters of busi- 
 ness, or matters of interest. 
 
 Case (Lat. cams, cMtre, to fad) ia 
 employed to express the foundation 
 of the affair, with a particular refe- 
 rence to the nature and speciality of 
 the thing^. 
 
 Circumstance (Lat. circumstantial 
 a surrounding, an attribute) denotes 
 s'.mething which stands related to 
 another, as an accessory to the main 
 transaction. Occasions are, generally 
 speaking, common or uncommon, 
 usual or unusual, ordinary or extra- 
 ordinary. Occurrences are expected 
 or unexpected, singular or unremark- 
 able, welcome or unwelcome. Con- 
 junctures are advantageous or unto- 
 ward. A^case is important or un- 
 important, simple or complicated, 
 common or uncommon, good or bad. 
 A circumstance is trivial or grave, 
 important or unimportant, pressing 
 or immaterial, relevant or in*elevant 
 to the matter in hand. An occasion 
 is a time for action. An occurreuce 
 for speculation. A conjuncture for 
 prudent management. A case a thing 
 for study and comprehension. Cir- 
 cumstances for attentive consideration, 
 as being the signs and distinctive in- 
 dications of cases. 
 
 OCCASION. Opportunity. 
 
 Occasion (Lat. occdsionem, a befall- 
 ing, an opportunity) is no more tb.an 
 something which falls in our way, or 
 presents itself in the course of cir- 
 cumstances or events. 
 
 An Opportunity (Lat. opportunt- 
 tatem) is an occasion regarded in its 
 relation to ourselves and our own in- 
 tentions, as an available source or 
 season of action by reason of fitness 
 and convenience. The occasion com- 
 monly controls us ; but we avail our- 
 selves of the opportunity. We may 
 have frequent occasion to meet a cer- 
 tain person, but no op])ortunity of 
 talcing him apart to converse with 
 him privately. An occasion is some- 
 times nearly of the nature of a cause, 
 ^hen an internal motive finds excite- 
 ment in external circumstances; but 
 an opportunity is nothing unless we 
 are to seize it. 
 
 " Every man is obliged by the Supreme 
 Maker of the universe to improve all the 
 opportunities of good which are afforded 
 him."— JOHXSON. 
 
 " Sin, taking occasion by the command- 
 ment, deceived me." — English JBible. 
 
 OCCUPANCY Occupation. 
 
 The differepce between these two 
 words flows frtwO the different forces 
 of the verb occupy — to take posses- 
 sion, and to hold possession. 
 
 Occupancy (Lat. occiipdre, to take 
 possession of) is the taking or having 
 possession in relation to rights, claims, 
 or privileges; Occupation, in relation 
 to no more than the fact of possessing 
 and holding. We speak of the occu- 
 pancy of an estate ; and the occupa- 
 tion, not occupancy, of a country by 
 an army. Occupancy has a passive, 
 occupation also an active sense. 
 
 "As we before observed that ocaipancy 
 gave the right to the temporary use of the 
 soil, so it is agreed upon all hands that 
 occupancy gave also the original right to 
 the permanent property in the substance ol 
 the earth itself, which excludes eveu'y one 
 else but the owner from the use of it." — 
 Blackstoxe. 
 
 " Whereas of late yeares a great com- 
 passe hath yeelded but small profit, and 
 this onelie through the idle and negligent 
 occupation of such as dailie manured and 
 herd the same in occupying." — HoLINSHED. 
 
 OFFEND. Displease. Vex. 
 Mortify. 
 
 Offend (Lat. offendere, to strike 
 against) relates always to the conduct 
 of one person towards another, and 
 implies, therefore, conscious amenta 
 on both sides, and a condition of real 
 or supposed slight on one side. It 
 belongs to superiors and equals rather 
 than to inferiors to be offended. In 
 the case of equals, it still implies an 
 alleged deficiency of regard or con- 
 sideration. In its more general force 
 Offend denotes an abrupt collision of 
 anything against the feelings or taste, 
 and so is applicable to inanimate in- 
 fluences, as an ugly drawing offends 
 the eye. This force is more prominent 
 in the adjective Offensive. 
 
 Displease (Lat. dispUcire, to dis- 
 please) is less strong, and belongs not 
 so much to personal offence received 
 at the hands of another as the feel- 
 
590 
 
 6rNONYMS 
 
 [offender] 
 
 ing of dissatisfaction on the part of a 
 superior, where the measure of re- 
 quirement or duty has not been ful- 
 filled by the other. Displease is more 
 directly applicable to the conduct of 
 the person ; G^ fend, to the person him- 
 self. 
 
 Vex (Lat. veidre) is to make angry, 
 or irritated by petty provocations or 
 annoyances, especially if repeated. 
 We commonly use the term Vex to 
 express an abuse of power, annoyance 
 by a sort of persecution. 
 
 Mortify (Lat. mortif^cdre, to cause 
 death to) differs from all in being ab- 
 Eolutely referable to occurrences in-e- 
 spective of actions or agents ; and 
 expresses a strong feeling of personal 
 disapproval mixed with disappoint- 
 ment in what has occun-ed or been 
 done, where the question is of persons. 
 That is mortifvirjiJ which disturbs a 
 6t<ate of complacency of mind. 
 
 " The emperor himself came ranning to 
 the place in his armonr, severely reproving 
 them of cowardice who had forsaken the 
 place, and grievously offended with those 
 who had kept such negligent watch." — 
 Knolles. 
 
 "When Thou wert so wrathfully dis- 
 pleased at us." — English Bible. 
 
 "Sorrow may degenerate into vexation 
 and chagrin."— -CoGAN. 
 
 " I am morticed by those compliments 
 which were designed to encourage me," — 
 Pope. 
 
 OFFENDER. Delinquent. 
 
 The one is an active and positive, 
 the other a passive and negative, 
 transgressor. He who violates law or 
 social rule is an Offender ; he who 
 neglects to comply with its require- 
 ments is a Delinquent (Lat. drtin- 
 qaire, to fail, offend). It may be ob- 
 served that, as every citizen is bound 
 positively to obey the laws of his 
 country, as well as negatively not to 
 slight or fall short of them, so a de- 
 linquency, though by the force of the 
 terra it implies omission, may, in some 
 cases, be a commission. So in the 
 following — 
 
 " A delinquent ought to be cited in the 
 place or jurisdiction where the delinquenaj 
 WHS committed." — Ayliffe. 
 
 In thia broader sense, a delinquent is 
 
 one whose acts fail of his obligations 
 to the State. So again — 
 
 " He that politicly intendeth good to a 
 common weal may be called a just man ; 
 but he that praetiseth either for his own 
 profit, or any other sinister ends, may be 
 well termed a delinquent person." — State 
 Trials. 
 
 Delinquent is a more limited term 
 than Offender . The delinquent offenda 
 against the majesty and justice of law. 
 The offender may run counter to any 
 law, rule, custom, or even to taste. 
 " The proud he tamed, the penitent he 
 
 cheered. 
 Nor to rebuke the rich offender feared," 
 Dryden. 
 
 OFFER. Give. Present. Prof- 
 fer. 
 
 All these words describe forms of 
 donation. To Give {see Give) is the 
 simplest, and expresses plain, direct, 
 and unqualified bestowal, but is ap- 
 plicable to what is injurious as well 
 as desirable, as to give a blow or an 
 offence, as well as what is distinc- 
 tively termed a gift. 
 
 Present (Lat. prcesentare, to place 
 before) is a more formal word than 
 Give, and is therefore employed of 
 the gift from an inferior to a supe- 
 rior. 
 
 Offer (Lat. offerre) is of a more 
 contingent nature, and involves the 
 question of acceptance on the other 
 side. We offer a gift, and then pre- 
 sent it if accepted. Where'there is no 
 qualification. Gift is generally taken 
 to imply something of considerable 
 value ; Present, something of no great 
 value; and Offering, what is given to 
 a superior in some formal manner in 
 token of such superiority or to con- 
 ciliate favour. A present has for its 
 motive some feeling of regard ; a gift 
 may be without any. Any benefit 
 conferred, without compliment to its 
 object, may be called a gift. Hence 
 the gifts, not the presents, of Nature 
 or of fortune. We offer remarks. 
 Thoughts and opportunities present 
 themselves. We only present what 
 we have actually by us, so as to give 
 it from hand to hand. We offer that 
 which we desire to give or even to do. 
 You present your compliments by 
 what you actually say or write. You 
 
[old] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 591 
 
 offer your services by proposing to 
 give them when occasion shall re- 
 quire. You present what you have 
 in your hand, you offer what you have 
 in your power. One offers to pay. 
 The tradesman presents the bill for 
 payment. 
 
 Proffer (Lat. prq/erre) is less posi- 
 tive than Offer. It has tlie sense of 
 proposing to ofler or of offering, and 
 at the same time leaving it to the feel- 
 ing and judgment of the other to 
 accept. It is a more foi-mal, delibe- 
 rate, and oflScial act than to offer. 
 
 •' He made a proffer to lay down his 
 commission of command in the army." — 
 Clarkxdox. 
 
 •• When offers are disdained, and love de- 
 nied." Pope. 
 
 " And when they had opened their trea- 
 sures, they presented unto Him gifts, gold, 
 and frankincense, and myrrh." — English 
 Bible. 
 
 "Mrs. Johnson used to define ^present, 
 that it was a gift to a friend of something 
 he wanted or was fond of, and which could 
 not be easily gotten for money." — Swift. 
 
 OFFICE. Function. Duty. 
 
 Office (Lat. offtcium) has more 
 than one sense, as a special duty con- 
 ferred by public authority for a public 
 purpose ; and so any special duty, 
 trust, or charge. By an extension of 
 meaning, it is employed of what is 
 analogous to duty in reasoning beings, 
 that is, a definite operation ; as the 
 oflSce of the gastric juice in digestion, 
 or of a particular piece in machinery. 
 
 Function (Lat./w7ictwnem, a dis- 
 charging; fungi, to discharge) is, pro- 
 perly, tne discharge of the office or 
 Duty, and follows the application of 
 those terms to both conscious and un- 
 conscious action. There is connected 
 with Function the idea of continuous 
 action, and of belonging to an or- 
 ganized body, or to what is analogous 
 to it- Duties are performed, offices 
 filled, functions discharged. Office is 
 set and appointed work arising out of 
 a relative connexion with system, 
 whether natural or conventional. The 
 function is the carrying out of the 
 office. The duty is the function re- 
 garded in connexion with the obliga- 
 tion to discharge it, and so belongs 
 not, except by a strained analogy, *o 
 
 any but beings of intelligence and re- 
 sponsibility. 
 
 " All members have not the same q/Kce," 
 — Eiiglish Bible. 
 
 "Everv soldier was able to do all the 
 functimis of an officer." — Burnet. 
 
 " The hardest and most imperative dufy." 
 — Hallam. 
 
 OFFSPRING. Issue. Progeny. 
 Offspring (literally, that which 
 spnngs off from another) and Progeny 
 (Lat. progenies) are applicable to the 
 young of all animals; while Issue 
 (Fr. issu, part, of iuer, Lat. erire, to 
 go forth) is applicable only to the 
 human race. Offspring applies more 
 commonly to the first, Prog eny also 
 to succeeding, generations ; Issue is a 
 term not so much of nature as of 
 genealogy, and is employed where a 
 record ^r any purpose is kept of the 
 individual members of a family. It is 
 more commonly after a man's death 
 that we speak of his issue. Offspring 
 and Issue relate directly to the pa- 
 rents; Progeny to ancestors gene- 
 rally, even though not in the direct 
 line of parentage. Perhaps, too, we 
 more commonly use the term Off- 
 spring in connexion with physical 
 (qualities or characteristics ; progeny, 
 in connexion with moral. The de- 
 generate progeny of noble ancestors. 
 A numerous and healthy offspring. 
 
 " From whence it follows that these were 
 notions not descending from us, not onr (^ 
 spring, but our brethren." — South. 
 " Next him King Leyr in happy peace long 
 reigned. 
 But had no issue male him to succeed. 
 But three fair daughters, which were all 
 nptraiued 
 In all that seemed fit for kingly seed." 
 SPENSKB. 
 " What idle progeny succeed 
 To chase the rolling circle's speed. 
 Or urge the flying ball." Gray. 
 
 OLD. Ancient. Antique. Anti- 
 quated. Aged. Elderly. Obso- 
 lkte. 
 
 Old (A. S. eald) denotes what has 
 existed for a long time, and, in some 
 cases, exists still, as an old man; in 
 others does not exist still, as the old 
 Romans. It has also the force of 
 standing for a simple expression of 
 duration of existence, without imply- 
 
592 
 
 SYNONYMS [omen] 
 
 ing that this duration is of great ex- 
 tent, as an infant a week old. 
 
 Ancient (Fr. ancien, Low Lat. an- 
 tiajius, (rom ante, before) has the same 
 application to that which is past, and 
 that which still continues to exist. 
 The Ancient Britons have ceased to 
 exist. An ancient forest exists still. 
 It is opposed to modern, and has the 
 force of historically old, or of age in 
 what has been long recognized by 
 men. 
 
 Antique (Lat. anliquus, ani:ient) 
 now conveys the idea of what is 
 curiously old, and is peculiar to the 
 age to which it belongs, or exhibits 
 peculiarities in consequence of its 
 age ; as, " An antique carving ; " 
 " Antique root of an oak." 
 
 Antiquated (Lat. antiqudri, pass, 
 in a late sense of to decay) describes 
 that which, by lapse of time, has 
 passed out of fashion or use. 
 
 Ageb (Fr. age, Lat. (Btdtem; for the 
 intermediate forms, see Brachet) car- 
 ries with it the progress of years in 
 life and growth, whether human or 
 any other life ; as, an aged man ; an 
 aged tree. It is a term of more dig- 
 nity than old, connecting the subject 
 with times and events which have 
 successively passed over it. 
 
 Elderly is never used but of men 
 and women, and denotes the approach 
 of old age. 
 
 Obsolete (Lat. obsolesccre, sup. ob- 
 s^lctumy to grow out of tise) expresses 
 that of which the life or force has 
 fallen into desuetude. It is applied 
 chiefly to terms, documents, customs, 
 and observances, and is never used of 
 persons. 
 *• So must thou live, till like ripe fruit thou 
 
 drop 
 luto thy mother's lap, or be with ease 
 Gathered, not harshly plucked, for death 
 
 nuature ; 
 f his is old age." MiLTON. 
 
 '• Had ancient times conspired to disallow 
 What then was new, what had been ancient 
 now ?" Pope, Epistles of Horace. 
 
 Ancient is generic; Antique, specific. 
 Ancient qualifies anything which be- 
 longs to the nations of antiquity, ex- 
 cept the style of their art, which is 
 lied Antique. Hence, in some cases, 
 
 the antique is not, in fact, ancient, 
 but modern. Ancient architecture is 
 the science of building as practised 
 by the ancients ; antique architecture 
 exhibits the style of long-past ages. 
 This may be in a recently-erected 
 building. 
 
 " The melancholy news that we grow old. 
 Young. 
 "His antickc sword 
 Kt'Sellions te .iis arm lies where it falls, 
 Rei'ugnant to command." 
 
 Shakes PE ARK. 
 "And if we do chance to think upon the 
 serious resolutions we then entertained, we 
 look upon them as the weak results of our 
 infirmity, useful indeed for that time, but 
 now antiqicated and grown unreasonable." 
 —Hale. 
 " His house was known to all the vagrant 
 
 train. 
 He chid their wand'rings, but relieved their 
 
 pain ; 
 The long-remembered beggar was his guest. 
 Whose beard descending swept his aged 
 
 breast." GOLDSMITH. 
 
 " A squire of the house fell in love with 
 me. Somewhat an elderly man, big-bearded 
 and personable," — Shelton, Don Quixote. 
 
 " Obsolete or obsolescent." — Johnson. 
 
 OMEN. Prognostic. Presage. 
 
 OiMEN (Lat. omen) and Prognostic 
 (Gr. 'TTPoyvoocrrixog, foreknowing) are 
 both indications observed in external 
 objects ; but the omen rests on fanci- 
 ful or superstitious association ; prog- 
 nostic, on the laws of nature, being 
 based upon a knowledge of the se- 
 quence of phenomena. The term 
 Omen is, however, used conversation- 
 ally in the sense of a possible or pro- 
 bable prognostic ; something which 
 renders the occurrence of another 
 thing probable, or to be hoped, or 
 dreaded. It is, however, more com- 
 monly referred to the former than the 
 latter. In our elder literature. Prog- 
 nostic often occu;-s in the sense of 
 divination. 
 
 A Presage (Fr. presage, Lat. pr«- 
 sdgium) is subjective, and commonly 
 expresses something anticipated for 
 good or ill, of wliich it seems impos- 
 sible to give the gi'ounds, but of 
 which one feels the strong proba- 
 bility. Such being its indefinite 
 character, it is of course often to be 
 resclved into tiie mere effect of emo- 
 
[onset] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED, 
 
 593 
 
 tion or of fancy. The omen may 
 belong to the present and its under- 
 takings ; the presage and prognostic 
 belong to what 13 future. 
 " The chief sabjoins. Oft have these eyes 
 
 beheld 
 Dire omens, and my skill the cause re- 
 vealed ; 
 Yet never felt I this excess of fear. 
 Or did the stars more ominous appear." 
 Lewis, Statins. 
 " The consequences are before us, not in 
 remote history, not in future prognostica- 
 tion ; they are about us, they are upon us." 
 —Burke. 
 
 When a presage is founded upon some 
 external fact or appearance, it is then 
 identical with an omen or prognostic ; 
 but it differs from them in being 
 capable of denoting a mere feeling 
 of anticipation without assignable 
 grounds. In that case it is more 
 commonly, like foreboding, used of 
 the calamitous than the fortunate; as 
 Pope says, " With sad, presaging 
 heart." 
 
 "The enthusiastic love of Nature, 8im- 
 plicity, and truth in evei-y department both 
 of art and of science, is the best and surest 
 presage of genius." — Stewart. 
 
 OMIT. Neglect. 
 
 The act of letting pass is common 
 to these two words ; but Osirr (Lat. 
 ^miiih-e, to let go) is entirely neutral 
 in its meanmg, and expresses no 
 more than the negation of action or 
 attention. This may be laudable, cul- 
 pable, or indifferent, according to the 
 nature and circumstances of the case. 
 We may omit purposely, or through 
 oversight and forgetfulness ; and that 
 where action would be wise, prudent, 
 and right, or altogether the contrary 
 of these. 
 
 Neglect (Lat. negtigtre, part, neg- 
 lectus) is alwaijs imprudent or cul- 
 pable, implying omission where the 
 contrary was a matter of duty, wis- 
 dom, or obligation. The term Omit is 
 in some cases applied to things with- 
 out life ; while Neglect is never ap- 
 plied but to creatures of consciousness 
 and will. "The text of a certain 
 manuscript omits the passage in ques- 
 tion." So in law, casus Omissus, a case 
 not provided for. 
 
 " Our Saviour likewise tells us that men 
 
 shall not only be proceeded against for tdob 
 of commission, but for the bare omission 
 and neglect of their duty, especially in the 
 works of mercy and charity." — TiLLOTSON. 
 
 " In heaven. 
 Where honour due and reverence none 
 7ieglects." Milton. 
 
 ONLY. Single. 
 
 As one (A. S. an) expresses simple 
 unity, so Only (whicli is onely or 
 one-like) and Single (Lat. singhlus; 
 more frequently plural, singiiU) ex- 
 press modifications of unity. Only 
 denotes unity in reference to a class ; 
 Single, one as distinguished from 
 many others. Single has often the 
 sense of one where more might be 
 expected or wanted,and is thus joined, 
 as Only cannot be, with a negative ; 
 as, not a single drop, which is tanta- 
 mount to, not even one drop. It may 
 be observed that, while Single is an 
 adjective, Only is, generally speak- 
 ing, an adverb. 
 
 ONSET. Attack. Assault. En- 
 counter. 
 
 Onset (literally, a setting on) is 
 commonly applied to such an attack 
 or charge as betokens the commence- 
 ment of a sustained effort. It is only 
 employed where there are two parties 
 to the conflict, the one attacking, and 
 the other resisting. We may speak 
 of an onset upon the walls of a castle, 
 but only as implying living defenders. 
 Nor is the term commonly used of 
 individual, but of collective, attacks ; 
 an army or a detachment, not an in- 
 dividual combatant, makes an onset. 
 
 Attack (Fr. attaquer) amd Assavlt 
 (O. Fr. assalt, Lat. ad, to, saltus, a 
 leap) may be made upon unresisting 
 objects, as a fortification; assault 
 being more direct and violent than 
 attack, which may be impei-sonal ; as, 
 to attack the enemy or the enemy's 
 camp, a man, or his opinions. Both 
 these are applicable to individuals. 
 An attack is a term of varied force. 
 An attack may be furious or mild, 
 impetuous or cautious, while both 
 onset and assault indicate energetic 
 movement. 
 
 Encounter (O. Fr. encontrer, to 
 encounter, Lat. in- and contra, agatn$t) 
 is a hostile meeting face to face be- 
 
594 
 
 tweeii two persons oi parties, often 
 the result of a chance meeting, and is 
 never em})loyed of unresisting or in- 
 animate material, as the walls of a for- 
 ti fication But in the sense of coming 
 upon something by chance, we employ 
 the term of inanimate things ; as, to 
 encounter a difficulty. In this appli- 
 catioa the term is seldom used but of 
 the abstract — that is, the difficulty, 
 not that which constitutes it. So a 
 ditch being a possible obstruction, 
 we might speak of encountering an 
 obstacle in the form of a ditch, but 
 hardly of encountering the ditch it- 
 self. 
 
 " As when iu Indian forests wild. 
 Barbaric armies suddenly retu-e 
 • After some furious onset." 
 
 Grainger. 
 " Satan, who that day 
 Prodigious power had shown, and met m 
 
 arms 
 No equal ranging through the dire attack 
 Of fighting seraphim." Milton. 
 
 "At length a universal hubbub wild 
 Of stunning sounds and Aoices all confused, 
 Borne through the hollow dark, assaults his 
 
 ear 
 With loudest vehemence." Ibid. 
 
 An exception to this is in a legal use 
 of the term Assault, which implies 
 no attack or stroke, but even excludes 
 them. 
 
 " Assault is an attempt or offer to beat 
 another, without touching him ; as if one 
 lifts up his cane or his fist in a threatening 
 manner at another, or strikes at him but 
 misses him."— Blackstonk. 
 
 OPENING. Apertuue. 
 Opening means, generally, any 
 
 {ilace naturally made, or purposely 
 eft, open (A. S. openian, to open). 
 
 Aperture (Lat. iipertura, an open- 
 ing) is the same thing, but used in an 
 exacter and, as it were, more scien- 
 tific sense. To say nothing of Open- 
 ing in the sense of beginning or in- 
 troduction, nor of the fact ihtrh Open- 
 ing may express the process or art of 
 opening,while aperture expresses only 
 the result or fact, Opening may be very 
 loosely employed ; as, " An opening 
 in the mountains, with nothing but 
 •ky beyond." An aperture is com- 
 monly an opening of the nature of a 
 perforation, being surrounded by the 
 substance which exhibits it, as an 
 
 Si'NONYMS [OPENIJNG] 
 
 aperture to admit light into a hut. 
 An opening may be extremely slight ; 
 an aperture is of some considerable 
 size. We occasionally see openings 
 in bad masonry or ill-seasoned wood- 
 work, which we should not call Apeu- 
 TUUES. An opening is called an aper- 
 ture when it answers a natural pur- 
 pose. Yet it seems that art makes 
 openings and nature makes apertures 
 in smaller objects, 'ilie surgeon who 
 opens a vein would hardly be said to 
 make an aperture, yet it might natu- 
 rally be said that blood discharged it- 
 self through the aperture. 
 
 " A pei-son that is short-sighted in look- 
 ing at distant objects, gets the habit of con- 
 tracting the aperture of his eyes by almost 
 closing his eye-lids." — Reid. 
 " Large was the cave, but scarce at noon of 
 
 day 
 The winding mouth received a feeble ray. 
 Yet from an opening to the right appeared 
 A beam of sunshine that the dwelling 
 
 cheered ." 
 
 HooxE, Orlando Furioso. 
 
 OPERATE. Work. Act. 
 
 Work (A. S. weorcan) is employed 
 of the systematic and regular exhibi- 
 tion of force, whether conscious or 
 mechanical. 
 
 Operate (Lat. b/jerdre, to workf 
 labour) is a term more definitely in- 
 volving rule and purpose or effect 
 than work. A fermenting fluid might 
 be said to work, or the muscles of tlie 
 face under agitation; but Operate, for 
 the most part, includes moral in- 
 fluences or abstract forces,^ a law 
 may be said to operate for the harm 
 or benefit of society, or a system oi 
 institution is in full or partial opera- 
 tion. 
 
 Act (Lat. tigci-e, to do, part, actus), 
 when not employed of the result of 
 moral motives, but in a physical 
 sense, is ordinarily used to denote 
 the mechanical operation of that which 
 is working as it ought, or so as to pro- 
 duce the required result ; as a part of 
 a machine which has been obstructed, 
 when the obstruction is removed, be- 
 gins to act. Action is uniform move- 
 ment according to appointment and 
 design. A diseased joint, when healea, 
 might be said to work or to act, not 
 to operate. Act commonly refers to 
 
OPPOSEj 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 5m 
 
 structural working or freedom of play 
 in a complex or organized subject. 
 Work is applied to the whole, Act to 
 the parts. A machine is said to work- 
 well when all its parts act properly. 
 
 "Nature and grace must operate nni- 
 forinly, even as gi'a%'itation operates uni- 
 formly upon matter." — JoKTIX, 
 * Oh, thou hast read me right, hast seen 
 
 me well ; 
 To thee I have thrown off that mask I 
 
 wore ; 
 And now the secret workings of my brain 
 Stand all revealed to thee." RowE. 
 
 "An increase of the electrical matter 
 Rtlds much to the progi'ess of vegetation. 
 It probably acts there in the same manner 
 as In the animal body." — Bryuoxe. 
 
 OPINION. Sentiment. Notion. 
 As the sensations stand to the ideas 
 of men, so are their Sentiments (Fr. 
 ientiment, Lat. senttre, toj'eel) to their 
 Opinions (Lat. tpinionem) . Each in- 
 volves the exercise of judgment ; the 
 former concerning sensations and ex- 
 ternal, the latter concerning ideas and 
 internal, phenomena. An opinion is 
 maintained by the pure intellect on 
 the subjects of science, argument, 
 principles, or facts and occurrences. 
 The sentiments are opinions enter- 
 tained in matters of feeling and taste. 
 A sentiment may therefore be either 
 an erroneous opinion, or an unformed 
 one, according as it is not or is veri- 
 fied by the pure judgment. Judg- 
 ments formed of the truth or false- 
 hood ofreligious doctrine are opinions; 
 judgments formed of the spirit of its 
 precepts, and of practices flowing out 
 of them, are sentiments. Sentiments 
 depend upon the moral constitution 
 and habits; opinions are of the na- 
 ture of inferences and deductions, 
 which fall short of absolute know- 
 ledge. Sentiments ai'e things of the 
 heart and mind ; opinions, of the mind 
 alone. There is more of instinct in 
 gentiment; more of definition in opi- 
 nion. " I conteniplate a work of art, 
 and myself feel the admiration to 
 which I consider it to be generally 
 entitled." Tliis is a sentiment. *''l 
 see in it a style of art wlrtch seems to 
 betoken a foreign artist. 1 refer it to 
 an Italian school of sculpture." This 
 IS an opinion. 
 ** Opinion ia the resalt of obsenre and ia> 
 
 termediate perception. That the planets 
 revolve about the sun is a branch of know- 
 ledge; that they are inhabited hy beings 
 similar to men is only an opiviun.'' — BeIc 
 8HAM. 
 
 " I am apt to suspect that reason and 
 sentiment concur in almost all moral deter- 
 • minations and conclusions." — HuME. 
 
 Notion (Lat. notionem, a taking 
 cognizance, a conception'), in this sense, 
 denotes the uninformed or immature 
 decision of the mind, resulting rather 
 from the appearances of things, and 
 such opinion as the existent state of 
 our knowledge inclines us to enter- 
 tain. Metaphysically, a notion is 
 that which is expressed by a logical 
 proposition, as idea is that which is 
 expressed by a logical term. It is 
 sometimes extended to the process of 
 forming the judgment Avhich is ex- 
 pressed by the proposition. 
 
 " iVofion, again, signifies either the act 
 of apprehending, signalising, that is, the 
 remarking or tiikijig note of the various 
 notes, marks, or charactei-s of an object 
 which its qualities afford, or the result of 
 that act."— Sir W. Hamilton. 
 
 OPPOSE. Resist. Withstand. 
 Thwart. 
 
 To Oppose (Lat. opponhe, part. 
 oppositiis) is always active, and im- 
 plies a direct object. 
 
 Resist (Lat. rcsistcre, to sta}id 
 against) is both active and passive, 
 and may have an indirect object. The 
 former is the exertion of conscious 
 force; the latter is employed of in- 
 animate objects, as water of itself 
 might be said to resist the action or 
 progress of fire, while its progress 
 might be said to be opposed by those 
 who are engaged in extinguishing it. 
 Opposition consists in bringing to 
 bear an adverse force of our own ; re- 
 sistance, merely in neutralizing an 
 advei*se force. With- in Withstand 
 is equivalent to the re- in Resist. The 
 term has a purely negative sense. We 
 oppose by activeyb»r«. We resist by 
 inherent power. We withstand by 
 inherent Jinnness. 
 
 To Thwart (A. S. thiceor, oblique, 
 transverse, verb thweorian) denotes, 
 not in particular any kind or degi^e 
 of force, and denotes such action as 
 defeats a purpose, design, or scheme 
 
596 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [oral] 
 
 It relates, therefore, exclusively to 
 the opposition to mental power ex- 
 erted towards the accomplishment of 
 an object, which it is the interest of 
 the opposing party to defeat, or 
 which it is in the nature of circum- 
 Btances to counteract. 
 
 " I am too weak to oppose your cunning." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " That mortal dint. 
 Save He who reigns above, none can re- 
 sist." MiLTOK. 
 
 "Some village Hampden, that with daunt- 
 less breast 
 The little tyrant of his fields ivithstood." 
 Gray. 
 
 "E'en at thy altars while I took my stand. 
 The pen of truth and honour in my hand, 
 Fate, meditating wrath 'gainst me and 
 
 mine. 
 Chid my fond zeal, and thwarted my design." 
 Churchill. 
 
 ORAL. Verbal. Vocal. 
 
 Oral (Fr. oral, Lat. os, oris, the 
 mouth) means spoken by word of 
 mouth; Verbal (verbum, a word), 
 the same thing ; Vocal (Lat. vocdlis), 
 belonging to the voice (Lat. vocem). 
 The difference is in the application. 
 They stand each in opposition to 
 other ideas. Oral is opposed to written 
 or printed in volumes and documents, 
 and stands related to history, records, 
 and tradition ; verbal, to common and 
 brief communications; vocal, to in- 
 strumental in music, or to sounds 
 produced in other ways, or to silence. 
 
 "Before the invention of the arts of 
 writing, carving, and painting, oral tradi- 
 tion must have been the only vehicle of 
 historical knowledge ; and with respect to 
 this, it is well worth our notice that the 
 wisdom of Providence has made provision 
 for the instruction of youth in the disposi- 
 tions and circumstances of their aged 
 parents."— Priestley. 
 
 " These verbal signs they (children) some- 
 times borrow from others, and sometimes 
 make themselves, as one may observe 
 among the new and unusual names chil- 
 dren often give to things in their first use 
 of language."— Locke. 
 
 " Nothing can be said to be dumb but what 
 naturallyspeaks; nothing canspeak naturally 
 but what hath the instruments of speech, 
 which, because spirits want, they can no 
 otherwise speak vocally than as they take 
 voices to themselves in taking bodies," — 
 Bishop Hall. 
 
 ORBIT. Circuit. Circle, Com- 
 pass. Cycle. 
 
 The Orbit (Lat. orbita) is the path 
 desci'ibed by the orb or heavenly 
 sphere. It may be spherical or ellip- 
 tical. 
 
 " Only there is this difference, that the 
 bodies of the great system were projected 
 at great distances from each other, and in 
 such a manner that the planets revolve in 
 orbits almost circular, so as not to come too 
 near to the sun, or to be carried too far 
 from him in their revolutions." — Mac- 
 LAURIN. 
 
 The Circle (Lat. ctrcftZus) is pri- 
 marily a mathematical figure, being a 
 curved line at all points equidistant 
 from the centre. It has its secondary 
 application denoting a company bound 
 together and associating by some com- 
 mon tie ; the domestic circle, a large 
 circle of acquaintance. 
 
 " It is in the nature of things that they 
 who are in the centre of a circle should ap- 
 pear directly opposed to those who viewed 
 them from any part of the circumference." 
 — BURKK. 
 
 Circuit (Lat. circiCitus) is move- 
 ment round some tract or circum- 
 scribed district. It is employed of the 
 act, the space, and the outline of the 
 revolution; as, a planet's circuit, to 
 complete the circuit, and the like. 
 To make a circuit of a district is ana- 
 logous to the drawing of a circle not 
 in geometrical exactitude, but in the 
 fact of returning finally to the starting 
 point. A circuit is made for some 
 systematic purpose, as of survey, 
 measurement, inspection, and is pre- 
 scribed as well as circumscribed. 
 
 Compass (Fr. compas, L. Lat. com- 
 passus) combines the idea of circularity 
 with that of enclosure. The verb to 
 compass has the senses of to environ, to ( 
 go round, and metaphorically to bring 
 about as a design. In old English the 
 verb to compass had the meaning of 
 get the better of, in which it resembles 
 that of the present word circumvent, 
 though witli a less unfavourable 
 meaning morally. When we have 
 fetched a colnpass we have enclosed 
 something in a circuit. This need not 
 be mathematically a complete circular 
 movement. 
 
 " So th'j circuit or comj'ass of Ireland u; 
 
fORIGINALj 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 597 
 
 I.gOO miles, ^t hich is 200 less than Csesar 
 doth reckon or accotint." — Stow. 
 
 Cycle (Lat. cyclns, Gr. xuxXo?, a 
 ring or circle) is subjective. It is a 
 conceived circle or imaginary orbit ; 
 a conception of periodic movement 
 and recurrence. If, for instance, it 
 were believed that all things happen 
 by a chain of necessity in fixed and 
 immutable sequence, it would be con- 
 ceivable that the same things should 
 occur and the same forms reappear, 
 each in its own place and order, 
 though the cycles should be of enor- 
 mous circumference, that is, consist of 
 enormous intervals of time between 
 the exhibition and re-exhibition of the 
 same phenomena. In common lan- 
 guage we sometimes speak of a cycle 
 of fashion; as, if what is in vogue at 
 ©ne time may after many changes be 
 expected to become so again. The 
 aycle of the seasons. 
 
 " The last bad q/cle of twenty years."— 
 fiURKE. 
 
 ORDER. Dispose. 
 
 To Dispose (Fr. disposer) involves 
 ao aaore than an orderly or harmo- 
 nious jcia^ing of things. 
 
 To Order (Fr. ordre, subst. ; Lat. 
 ordtnem) is applicable to the cov- 
 ti7iiious exercise of a controlling 
 power. Dispose belongs rather to 
 things external ; Order, to things 
 moral. 
 
 " To him that ordereth his conversation 
 right will I show the salvation of God." — 
 Evg. Bible. 
 
 " The rest themselves in troops did else 
 dispose." SpKXSKR. 
 
 ORDER. Rule. 
 
 A wise and harmonious disposition 
 of things is expressed by these word.'', 
 but the Rule (Lat. regiila) is prior in 
 the order of thought. It relates 
 closely to the authority and the form 
 of such disposition, while Order 
 belongs to its result. The rule is the 
 principle, the order is the application 
 of the principle. Where we see 
 order, we may have the operation 
 of rule. One observes order, and fol- 
 lows a rule ; and to do the latter is 
 the surest way of effecting the former. 
 An institution is obviously in excel- 
 Wi< order. If the cause were inves- 
 
 tigated, it would be found that its rules 
 were carefully attended to. 
 
 ORIGINAL. Primary. Pristine. 
 Primitive. Primordial. 
 
 Original (Lat. orlg^nem, an origin) 
 denotes that which is connected with 
 the origin or beginning of a thing. 
 The original meaning of a word is that 
 which it bore at or near its first em- 
 ployment, without of necessity in- 
 volving the ideas of priority or suc- 
 cession. 
 
 Primary (Lat. pr'imariiis, of the 
 Jirst rank) essentially involves succes- 
 sion ; as the primary meaning of a 
 word implies other derived or secon- 
 dary senses ; while its original mean- 
 ing may be that which it retains still ; 
 so a primary consideration comes first 
 in order of importance. That which 
 is primary is first morally ; that which 
 is original is first historically. The 
 former denotes gradation of force, the 
 latter native association. 
 
 Primordial (Lat. primordidli.'i, be- 
 longing to Jirst beginniitgs, primordia) 
 is applied only to such matters as have 
 a history or a development. So in 
 botany a primordial leaf is that which 
 is immediately developed from the 
 cotyledon ; in geology the term is 
 sometimes applied to the lowest beds 
 of the Silurian period ; in history or 
 physiology we speak of the primordial 
 condition of man ; and in metaphy- 
 sics of the " primordial facts of an in- 
 telligent nature" (Su-W. Hamilton). 
 
 Pristine (Lat. pristinus) has rela- 
 tion to the morals, manners, and cus- 
 toms of men. 
 
 Primitive ( Lat. /)rim^tit>u5)conveyg 
 the idea of what is original in mode, 
 fashion, or form ; so we speak of the 
 primary meaning, and the primitive 
 form, of a word ; primitive manners ; 
 primitive simplicity. 
 
 •' His form had not yet lost 
 All its original brightness." MiLTOX. 
 
 " Those I call original or primary qnali- 
 ties of body, which I think we may observe 
 to produce simple ideas in ns, namely, sol- 
 idity, extension, figure, motion or rest, 
 and number." — LoCKE. 
 
 " Parliaments never recover their pri* 
 tine dignity, honour, power, privileges, iJ 
 this should miscarry."— PRYifNK. 
 
598 
 
 " This is that that will restore to the 
 world the golden age of primitive Chris- 
 tianity, when the love and unity of the dis- 
 ciples of Jesus was so conspicuous and re- 
 markable that it became a proverb, ' See 
 how the Christians love one another.'" — 
 Sharp. 
 
 OSrENSIBLE. Colourable. 
 Specious. Plausible. 
 
 Ostensible (Lat. ostendare, to shoio 
 or hold out) is, literally, that which 
 may be (and so is) held out ; 1, by 
 way of true account ; and 2, by way 
 of fictitious account. I'he latter is 
 now its more frequent application. 
 That which is ostensible presents 
 such an appearance as affords a pre- 
 sumption of reality. Colourable 
 denotes that which is so artificially 
 treated as to conceal the truth and 
 lull suspicion, giving an appearance 
 or right or justice. 
 
 Specious (Lat. sp^cidsiiSj fair) is 
 superficially fair, just, or correct, ap- 
 pearing well at first view, but in 
 reality unsound. 
 
 Plausible (Lat. plausWilis, desei-v- 
 in^ applunse) is said of those things 
 which please the ear and do not satisfy 
 the judgment ; while Specious relates, 
 etymologically, to what pleases the 
 eye, yet is not truly what it seems to 
 be. Ostensible causes, pretexts, mo- 
 tives. Colourable views, statements, 
 arguments, interpretations. Specious 
 argument, talk. Plausible represen- 
 tations, accounts, stories. 
 
 " It is certain that he (D'OuA'illy) ingra- 
 tiated himself much with that favourite, 
 and attended him into Spain, where he was 
 even employed in the treaty of marriage, 
 though ostensibly acting only in the cha- 
 racter of a painter." — Walpole. 
 
 " Those colourable and subtle crimes that 
 seldom are taken within the walk of human 
 justice." — Hooker. 
 
 '• I propose next to describe the specious 
 or decent man. By the decent man, I 
 mean him who governs all his actions by 
 appearances." — GiLPlN. 
 
 " Covetousness is apt to insinuate itself 
 by the plausibility of its pleas." — South. 
 
 OSTENTATION. Parade. Show. 
 
 Of these, the simplest is Show (A. 
 S. sceawe, a show), which expresses 
 the purposed exhibition of what might 
 be kept cncealed, or less demonstra- 
 tively displayed. It has also the 
 
 SYNONYMS [ostensible] 
 
 peculiar force ot appearance, as dis- 
 tinguished from reality. 
 
 Ostentation (Lat. ostentationem^ 
 display) is studied display without the 
 exteriKil eflfect of show, but with a 
 stronger implication of motives. A 
 man may make a show of his Avealth 
 in equipages, plate, and the like, and 
 make large subscriptions for pur ^)0se3 
 of ostentation ; that is, producing the 
 same inference of his wealth through 
 something not so striking to the eye. 
 Parade (Vr. parade) is, like Show, 
 essentially external. As ostentation 
 is a parade of virtues or other quali- 
 ties, so parade is ostentation of any- 
 thing calculated to impress the minds 
 of others in relation to one's own 
 capacities, powers, possessions, or 
 superiority and excellences of any 
 kind. Parade is not only ostenta- 
 tious, but continuous and complex 
 show, seeking to produce its effect by 
 many objects, and not only one. Pa- 
 rade is formal, artificial, and studied 
 show of what is intended to captivate 
 the eye or the understanding. When 
 one views thesubjectinamoral point 
 of view. Parade designates rather the 
 action and the purpose of it. Ostenta- 
 tion the principle or cause of the ac- 
 tion and the way of doing it. One 
 makes a parade of a thing, not an 
 ostentation of it. One does a thing 
 with ostentation, and for the sake of 
 parade. It is ostentation that makes 
 a parade of things. 
 
 " I mention this, not ostentatiously, as 
 taking credit on the score of industry and 
 discovery, but hoping that the labour of the 
 task will be some apology on my behalf." — 
 Observer. 
 
 " It was not in the mere parade ot 
 royalty that the Mexican potentates ex- 
 hibited their power." — Robertson, 
 
 "A crown. 
 Golden in show, is but a wreath of thorns ' 
 Milton. 
 
 OVER. Above. Beyond. On. 
 Upon. 
 
 That is Over (A. S. ofer, ever) 
 another thing which is higher verti- 
 cally or in a perpendicular line, either 
 with or without intervening space ; 
 as, a bird may hover over its prey ; to 
 spread a cloth over a table. It is em- 
 ployed to express, not oaly position, 
 
[OTERSIGnT] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 599 
 
 but a movement over ; as to leap over 
 a stream. Its other senses are analo- 
 gical, a mode of employment which it 
 shares with the rest,ancl with which wc 
 are not now concerned; as, for instance, 
 in cases of measurement or supe- 
 riority. When trees or branches are 
 said to hang over a wall, there seems 
 to be implied a double force of verti- 
 cality and passage over it. 
 
 Above (A. S. dbufan, i.e. an, on ; 
 he, by, and ufan, upward: Skeat, 
 Etym. Diet.) denotes excess of height. 
 
 Beyond (A. S. begeonJan, be' and 
 geond, across, beyond) betokens that 
 which surpasses a given point in dis- 
 tance from the spectator ; but this 
 measurement, thougli primarily taken 
 horizontally, is not so confined. In 
 speaking of ivy, for instance, as grow- 
 ing up the side of a house, we might 
 say, that it had already gi-own beyond 
 the first story, the idea being that of 
 space measured vertically. 
 
 On and Upon . A. S. on, in, or on; 
 npp, vp) require to be distinguished. 
 On denotes that the thing is placed on 
 the upper side of the other, and of 
 course m contact with it ; Upon de- 
 notes that the position is one of a cer- 
 tain degree of elevation. We place a 
 book upon a shelf; but it is idle and 
 contradictory to say that we place 
 it upon, instead of simply on, the 
 ground. 
 
 OVERBEAR. Overpower. Over- 
 whelm. 
 
 That which Overbears is inherent 
 weight or power ; that which Over- 
 powers is strength put forth against 
 resisting strength; that which Over- 
 whelms (over, and Du. uemelen, to 
 whirl, turnronnd: Wedgwood) covers 
 and, as it were, drowns in incapacity. 
 A domineering manner overbears. 
 Weight of superior argument or su- 
 perior muscle overpowers. Masses 
 of matter or adverse circumstances 
 overwhelm. In Overpower the idea 
 is conveyed of reduction to the power 
 of another. This is less strongly 
 implied in Overbear, and not at all 
 in Overwhelm. Overbear and 
 Overpower are never used but in an 
 idvei^e sense; OvEuwHEi MED is some- 
 
 times differently emplo3^ed ; as, per- 
 sons are said to be overwhelmed with 
 compliments, attentions, benefits, and 
 the like, as well as by grief, busineRs, 
 or difficulties, or troubles. 
 
 "The judgment being the hegemonical 
 power and director of action, if it be led hj 
 the overbeariiigs of psission, and stored hy 
 lubricous opinions instead of clearly coa- 
 ceived truths, and be peremptorily resolred 
 in them, the practice will be as irregular as 
 the conceptions erroneous." — Glanvill. 
 
 " They spoke like men conquered with an 
 overpowering force and evidence of the most 
 concerning truths."— SouTH. 
 
 " The story was proved hy overwhelming 
 testimony to be false." — Macaulat. 
 
 OVERRUN. Overspread. 
 To Overrun is said of many indivi- 
 duals, and commonly in a hostile or 
 offensive sense; Overspread, either 
 of many individuals, or a common 
 substance, and commonly in a neutral 
 sense. It is the necessity of implying 
 intervals in the subject, instead of 
 continuous expansion, which has origi- 
 nated such an expression as " ground 
 overrun with weeds." 
 " Then did her glorious flowers wax dead 
 
 and wan. 
 Despised and trodden down of all that over- 
 ran." Spenser. 
 " Undoubted signs of such a soil are found. 
 For here wild olive-shoots overspread the 
 
 ground. 
 And heaps of berries strew the fields 
 around." Drydkn. 
 
 OVERSIGHT. Superinten- 
 dence. Supervision. 
 
 A reference to the word Over will 
 show how Oversight has acquired 
 two apparently opposite meanings — 
 that of control or supervision, and 
 that of inadvertency. The former 
 flows from the stationary, the latter 
 from the motive, force of the word 
 Over {see Inadvertency). It differs 
 from Inadvertency in being purely 
 negative, while Inadvertency may 
 denote active eiTor. We do wrong things 
 through inadvertency. W^e omit to do 
 right or needful things through over- 
 sight. It diflers from superintendence 
 in that it relates only to persons. The 
 superintendence of an institution, and 
 the oversight of its inmates. TL« 
 object of superintendence is official 
 control, that of Supervision (Lat. 
 
600 
 
 iupevy over, and vidire, sup. visut, 
 to see) is conformity. Supervision 
 of persons is to ensure the regu- 
 larity of demeanour, superrision of 
 ■works or productions to ensure cor- 
 rectness of performance. He who 
 superintends other men is vested 
 with considerable authority in his own 
 person; he who has the supervision 
 of them is himself responsible to a 
 superior power. The chief super- 
 intends, the delegate supervises. 
 
 " Taking the oversight thereof, not by 
 constraint, but willingly." — Eng. Jiible. 
 
 " In a word, he is Sbt forth as operator 
 and manager, director and supervisor over 
 all the works of God." — Waterland. 
 
 " It is He that gave the sun its light, 
 and who directs the courses of the stars ; 
 ■who is superintendent everywhere, and 
 steers the whole world,"— Waterland, 
 ii. 3. 
 
 " The mistress of the family always swper- 
 intends the doingof it."— Cook, First Voy 
 age, i. 18. 
 
 OUTLIVE. Survive. 
 Although these terms are nearly 
 the same in foi-m. Survive (Lat. siiper- 
 vivere, to outlive) being the Latin 
 equivalent of the Saxon word Out- 
 live, yet Outlive is commonly em- 
 ployed of the correspondent lifetime 
 of other persons ; while Survive is 
 employed generally of any point of 
 time, and even of influences antago- 
 nistic to life. We outlive persons and 
 periods. We survive efforts or effects, 
 as a severe accident. 
 
 "Conscience accompanies a man to his 
 grave ; he never outlives it ; and that for 
 this cause only, because he cannot outlive 
 himself " — South. 
 
 " Christ's soul survived the death of His 
 body, therefore shall the soul of every be- 
 liever survive the body's death." — BiSHOP 
 Horsley. 
 
 Outlive expresses the superiority of 
 life in duration; Survive, its inherent 
 power also. It is often the difference 
 between length and strength of exis- 
 tence. 
 
 OUTWEIGH. Preponderate. 
 Predominate. 
 
 The former is used directly as a 
 transitive verb; the latter requires 
 the addition of a preposition. In 
 that way they are synonymous. Out- 
 
 STNONYMS [OUTLIVE J 
 
 WEIGH, however, is used of intrinsic, 
 PiiEPONDERATE (Lat. prtEpondcrdre, 
 p>'(B, before, and pandas, ponderis, a 
 weight) of extrinsic, objects of com- 
 parison. Thus we say, " one advan- 
 tage outweighs another ; " but of 
 several advantages considered collec- 
 tively, one preponderates. Outweigh 
 being the Saxon form, directly ex- 
 presses the material influence; Pre- 
 ponderate better expresses the intel- 
 lectual or moral. That which pre- 
 ponderates has special tceivht; that 
 which Predominates (Lat. prce, and 
 d^minari, to bear rule) has special 
 force ; the one influences, the other 
 impels us. That which preponderates 
 makes itself felt ; that which predomi- 
 nates does so by the suppression of 
 other agents or powers. One con- 
 sideration preponderates over others, 
 as a motive to action; a predominating 
 passion neutralizes other impulses. 
 
 " It is really no small argtuaent of the 
 predominance of conscience over interest 
 that there are yet parents who can be wil- 
 ling to breed up any of their sons if hope 
 fully endowed to so discouraged and diS'- 
 couraging a profession."— South. 
 *• Since evil outiveighs good, and sways man- 
 kind. 
 True fortitude assumes the patient mind." 
 Savage. 
 
 " This only may be said in general, that 
 as the arguments and proofs pro and con, 
 upon due examination, nicely weighing 
 every particular circumstance, shall to any 
 one appear upon the whole matter in a 
 greater or less degree to preponderate on 
 either side, so they are fitted to produce in 
 the mind such different entertainment us 
 we call belief, conjecture, guess, doubt, 
 wavering, distrust, disbelief, &c." — Locke. 
 
 PACE. SrEP. 
 
 A Pace (Lat. passus) is either a 
 measured Step, consisting generally 
 of three feet, or it is an abstract term, 
 denoting the aggregate of steps, and 
 the mode in whicJi they are taken, 
 especially in relation to the rapidity of 
 movement. 
 
 A S-i Ep (A. S. steppan, to step, stride) 
 is employed in the sense of an un- 
 measured pace, an advance made bv 
 
[pale] 
 
 one removal of the foot; or, objec- 
 tively, that which aids the foot to do 
 this, as the steps of a staircase ; or, 
 yet further by analogy, any grada- 
 tion ; as, to do a thing step by step ; or 
 a movement morally considered, as to 
 take a bold step. Both Step and Pace 
 are used in the absti-act of the manner 
 of progressive movement by the feet; 
 but in this use Pace is employed, as 
 has been observed, as distinguishing 
 one mode or rate of progress from 
 another, as a walk from a trot ; Step 
 as being peculiar to the individual ; as, 
 to know a person by his step. A per- 
 son may move at a rapid pace without 
 taking quick steps. 
 
 PAIN. Agonv. Anguish. Suf- 
 fering. Pang. 
 
 Pain (Fr. peine, Lat. pccna), first, 
 penal infliction, and then, suffering of 
 body or mind, is still used in this 
 double sense; as, to be in great pain, to 
 act under pain of another's displea- 
 sure. Pain is the energetic opposite 
 to pleasure — the state, whether phy- 
 sical or mental, which is most repug- 
 nant to conscious and sensible beings. 
 J t is indefinite as to degree, and may 
 be slight or severe. 
 
 Pang (etym. uncertain) is severe 
 and transient, as Agony (Fr. agonie, 
 Gr. ayiovia, a struggle, agony) is severe 
 and permanent pain. 
 
 Anguish (Fr. angoisse, Lat. an- 
 gnstia, narrowTiess, poverty ; angere, to 
 choke) is employed to denote the dis- 
 traction, as agony denotes the strug- 
 gles, of pain. "The mind or body in an- 
 guish is enslaved by physical or mental 
 pain, so wrung or distressed as to be 
 incapacitated by it. Suffering is 
 strictly the state of which pain is the 
 cause and account. I see a person in an 
 evident state of suffering. I do not 
 know the cause or nature of his suflfer- 
 ing till he has told me that he is under 
 the influence of physical or mental 
 pain, as the case may be. 
 
 " What pleasure and pain are we learn 
 by experience, and they are feeUngs the idea 
 of wmch cannot be communicated by defini- 
 tion."— Bklsham. 
 
 " The virtue and good intentions of Cato 
 and Brutus are highly laudable ; but to what 
 purpose did their zeal serve ? Only to hasten 
 ttia fatal period of the Roman goAernment, 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 601 
 
 and render its conmlsions and dying agonies 
 more violent and painful." — HuMB. 
 
 " The death of Wolsey would make a fine 
 moral picture, if the hand of any master 
 could give the palHd features df the dying 
 statesman that chagrin, that remorse, 
 those pangs of anguish which in those last 
 bitter moments of his life possessad him." 
 — Gilpin. 
 
 " Who best 
 Can suffer best can do; best reign who 
 
 first 
 Well hath obeyed." Miltos. 
 
 " Oh, sharp conTulsive pangs of agonizing 
 
 pride l " Drydex. 
 
 PAINTING. Picture. 
 
 Painting, asits name plainly enough 
 expresses, is a representation of ob- 
 jects by coloured pigment8(Fr.peindre, 
 peint). 
 
 Picture (which comes directly from 
 the Latin pictiora, from ping ere, pict its , 
 as Painting comes indirectly through 
 the French) is a similar representation 
 in light and shade, but not necessarily 
 in colour, as by crayon, pencil, In- 
 dian ink, or photography. The his- 
 torian (in the secondary sense) draws 
 a lovely picture ; the poet paints in 
 glowing colours. 
 
 PALE. Pallid. Wan. 
 
 The comparative absence of colour 
 constitutes paleness from whatever 
 cause the fact may spring. A Pale 
 cheek (Fr. pale, Lat. pallidas) indi- 
 cates sickness or delicacy. A pale 
 blue may be the natural colour of a 
 flower. It is also applied to the com- 
 parative absence of light, as a pale 
 star. 
 
 Pallid (Lat. paltidus) denotes an 
 abnormal condition of paleness. 
 
 Wan (A. S. wann) denotes a lurid, 
 livid, or sickly paleness in the human 
 countenance, but is employed analo- 
 gously, as we speak of the wan light 
 of the moon ; that is, one imparting a 
 paleness which is like to wanness to 
 the objects on which it rests. 
 " And now the ^afc-faced empress of the 
 
 night 
 Nine times had filled her orb with bor- 
 rowed light." Drydkn, Ovid. 
 " There the red anger dared the pallid 
 fear." Drydkjt. 
 
 " Moreover, in the wars of Antony the 
 sun continued almost a year long with ft 
 pale and wan colour."— HoLItAKD, FUrKy. 
 
602 
 
 PALPABLE. Pehceptible. 
 Taxoible. 
 
 There is an affinity between Pal- 
 pable (Lat. palpaKlis, palpdre and-?-i, 
 to stroke, touch softly) and Tangible 
 (Lat. tangihilis) as there is between 
 visible (Lat. vmb'dis) and Perceptible 
 (Lat. perceptilnlis). Visiule is a 
 stronger term than Perceptible. 
 Visible is that which you may see, 
 Perceptible that which you can see. 
 Accordingly Perceptible commonly 
 means that which it is barely possible 
 to see or perceive. It is obvious that 
 P ERC EPTi RLE belongs to all the senses, 
 Visible only to sight. The sun in its 
 meridian splendour may be spoken of 
 as visible. It is preceptible through 
 a mist. Owing to the much wider 
 sense of perceive than see, Percep- 
 tirle has a manifold application as to 
 subtle and invisible influences, and to 
 matters the existence or presence of 
 which is recognized by the combined 
 operations of sense and reflexion. Pal- 
 pa ui.e and Tangible diflfer, not so 
 much in their ideas as in their applica- 
 tions. Palpable regards the faculties 
 of perception, observation, judgment, 
 understanding. Tangible regards the 
 solid or substantial properties of the 
 object itself. A palpable trutii or 
 absurdity is one which the commonest 
 nnderstauding can take hold of. A 
 tangible result or benefit is opposed 
 to a nominal, unsubstantial, and as it 
 were shadowy one. 
 
 •' Clodius was acquitted by a corrupt jury 
 that had palpably taken shares of money." 
 —Bacon. 
 
 " The woman decays perceptibly every 
 week."— SoUTHEY. 
 
 " Direct and tangible benefit to your- 
 selves and others."— SouTHEY. 
 
 PALPITATE. Flutteb. Pant. 
 Throb. 
 
 To Palpitate (Lat. pdpitare, to 
 throb) is to pulsate with strong, quick, 
 and regular beats. 
 
 To Flutper (Low Germ. Jluttern) 
 is to pulsate with weak and irregular 
 beats. 
 
 Panting (connected with old Fr. 
 pantois, out of breath) is with regard 
 to the breath what palpitation is with 
 regard to the heart; while Tn rob de- 
 
 8YN0NYMS PALPABLE j 
 
 notes a pulsation from the inside to the 
 outside of any part of the frame, the 
 action appearing to be outwards to- 
 wards the surface. 
 " The shining moisture swells .nto her 
 
 eyes 
 In brighter flow ; her wishmg bosom heaves 
 With palpitations wild." THOMSON. 
 
 " Set the grave councils up upon their 
 
 shelves again, and string them hard, lest 
 
 their various and jangling opinions put 
 
 their leaves into aflutter." — Milton. 
 
 I " His breath in quick short pantinc/s comes 
 
 and goes." Pope. 
 
 " When with tumultuous throbs our pulses 
 
 beat 
 And dnbioas Reason totters on her seat." 
 Thomson. 
 
 PANEGYRIC. Encomium. Eu- 
 logy. 
 
 The idea of praise is common to 
 these words. Encomium (Gr. httx- 
 fxiov, a laudatory ode to a conqueror) de- 
 notes no more than warm praise. 
 
 Eulogy (Gr. BuXoyia, praise) is more 
 formal, and is applied only to per 
 sons. 
 
 Panegyric (Gr. Trawyv^iM?, i.e. 
 Xo'yo?, a festival oration) is an elaborate 
 oration ; a laudatory discouree. En 
 coMiuM is employed of things as well 
 as persons ; but in that case the thing 
 is always the result of human action, 
 though not directly the object of per- 
 sonal praise ; as, to pass encomiums on 
 the Constitution of Great Britain, 
 Eulogy commonly relates to merito- 
 rious actions ; panegyrics, to per- 
 sonal character. The panegyric should 
 be public; the encomium, warm; the 
 euhjgy, eloquent. The eulogy may 
 be tempered with criticism, the scope 
 of panegyric is only praise. The 
 panegyric too, unlike the others, al- 
 ways bears reference to the whole 
 character, and not to a performance 
 or an act. The panegyric can hardly 
 be otherwise than partial and strained. 
 It needs an orator eloquent yet dis- 
 creet. 
 
 " I think I am not inclined by nature or 
 policy to make a. pnnetjyrick upon Sinylhing 
 which is a just and natural object of cen- 
 sure." — Burke, 
 
 "Thus Plutarch assures us that our 
 author (Cicero), having made a speech in 
 public full of the highest encomiums on 
 Crassus, he did not scruple, a few days 
 
[partake] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 603 
 
 afterwards, to reverse the panegyric, and 
 represent him before the same aadience in 
 all the darkest colours of his invective." — 
 MSLMDTH, Cicero. 
 
 " Take away this love, and the whole 
 earth is but a desert. And though there 
 were nothing more worthy eulogies than 
 virginity, it is yet but the result of love, 
 since those that shall people paradise, and 
 fill heaven with saints, are such as have 
 been subject to this passion, and were the 
 products of it." — Boyle. 
 
 PARE. Peel. 
 
 Peel (Fr. peler, to skin, O. Fr. pel, 
 the skin, Lat. petlein') denotes a natu- 
 ral, as Pare {Fr.parer, Lat. pitrare, 
 to prepare) an artificial process. That 
 is pared which is ahraded into spe- 
 cific shape; that is peeled which is 
 deprived of a natural layer or integTi- 
 ment spread over it. Peel is used 
 only in a material sense ; Patie, in a 
 moral sense. 
 
 " The king began to pare a little the pri- 
 vilege of clergy." — Bacon. 
 Peel is used metaphorically by Mil- 
 ton when he says : — 
 " But govern ill the nations under yoke. 
 Peeling their provinces." 
 
 PART. Division. Portion. 
 Share. 
 
 Of these terms, V aut (J. at. partem) 
 is the most general in signification. 
 It is equal or unequal, being that 
 which is less than the whole, in num- 
 ber, quantity, or bulk. Hence, spe- 
 cifically, an equal or proportionate 
 division of quantity ; as, " an homer 
 is the tenth part of an ephah." It may 
 he organic or inorganic, physical or 
 conceptional, or even metaphorical, 
 in the sense of portion allotted or in- 
 terest possessed. 
 
 Division (Lat. divhiovem) always 
 implies action or design, which has 
 been exercised in limitation and sepa- 
 ration. A division always retains 
 connexion with that which is divided. 
 We might say, " a disintegrated part 
 or portion;" but "a disintegrated 
 division " would be a contradiction 
 of terms. 
 
 Portion (Lat. portibnem) has com- 
 monly the meaning of such a division 
 as bears refei-ence to an individual or 
 to the whole of which it is a part, as 
 riewed or treated by an individual. 
 
 So a portion of land is a quantity in 
 which some person or persons are 
 interested. A portion of Scripture ia 
 such as comes under review, a.s a di- 
 vision made, not in reference to the 
 subject matter, but the person dealing 
 with it. 
 
 Share (A. S. scear, a division) ia 
 especially a portion allotted by pur- 
 pose or accident, and so is much more 
 subjective than PoRTioN,which is more 
 objective. A share is a portion in 
 which an individual has a right. In 
 reference to the testamentary allot- 
 ment in itself of property, for in- 
 stance, we should use the term I'or- 
 TioN. In reference to the claim or 
 possession of such portion by an in- 
 dividual inheritor, we should use the 
 term Share. 
 
 It is a custom in Normandy that 
 the daughters who receive of an in- 
 heritance cannot receive more than a 
 third part of the inheritance for their 
 share, which they divide into equal 
 portions. 
 
 "All the par^."! were formed in his mind 
 into one harmonious whole." — LoCKE. 
 
 " The communities and divisions of men." 
 —Addison. 
 
 "In the primitive ages women were 
 married without portions from their rela- 
 tions, being purchased by their husbands, 
 whose presents to the woman's relations 
 were called her dowry." — Potter, Anti- 
 quities of Greece. 
 
 "When they trade upon a joint stock, 
 each member sharing in the common prodt 
 or loss in proportion to his share in thii 
 stock, they are called joint-stock compa- 
 nies."— Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 PARTAKE. Participate. Share. 
 
 To Partake is literally to take a 
 pari, share, or portion (and is followed 
 by " of," sometimes by " in ") in com- 
 mon with others. This is also the 
 etymological force of Partu:ipatk 
 {Lat. pa rficipare, i.e. partem ciipere, to 
 take part), which is the Latin equiva- 
 lent of it. But in Participate there is 
 implied a more perfect unity and com- 
 munity of feeling or possession. Hence 
 it is followed, not by " of," but " in." 
 Two persons may partake of the same 
 dish ; but they participate in each 
 otner's feelings, convictions, joys, or 
 Bon-ows. To Share (use Part) is ^ 
 
604 
 
 SYNONYMS [particle] 
 
 partake or participate according to 
 an allotted or regulated method. 
 Share is more easily and naturally 
 applicable to such things as are desi- 
 rable, but is also by a kind of analogy 
 employed of a proportionate amount 
 of what is undesirable ; as to have 
 one's share of the goods and ills of 
 life ; to share another's joys and sor- 
 rows. PARTAKE is sometimes em- 
 ployed in ihe sense of taking a part of 
 something. So we partake of a dish by 
 helping- ourselves to a portion of it. 
 Participate would imply that others 
 share it with us. In the sense of 
 having a part of a thing, Partake is 
 employed of inanimate things in re- 
 gard to their substance, qualities, or 
 nature. Instinct in some animals 
 seems to partake of the nature of 
 reason. 
 " From court retired, and pomp's fastidious 
 
 pride. 
 The hero dared to throw the king aside. 
 And in the rustic cot, well pleased, par- 
 took 
 Of labour's mean repast and cheerful look." 
 Lloyd. 
 
 " Of all this I have not only had know- 
 ledge, 
 Bat great participation in yonr joys." 
 
 DiGBY, Elvira. 
 
 " It redresses the old Manichaean impiety, 
 so derogatory to it (God's glory), which 
 makes an evil principle a sJiarer with Him 
 in the direction of the universe." — War- 
 BURTOX. 
 
 PARTICLE. Atom. Molecule. 
 
 Particle (Lat. parttciila) is no 
 more than a minute piece of a material 
 ■ubstance — e.g. a particle of bread. 
 Sometimes the particle, as such, pos- 
 sesses a name of its own indicative of 
 its nature, as a particle of dust, which 
 does not exist except in particles. 
 
 Atom (Gr. aro^of, indivisible) is 
 literally a particle so small as to be 
 indivisible. But as a term of physical 
 science it has the sense of (1) an ul- 
 timate particle of matter presumed to 
 be indivisible, and (2) an ultimate 
 particle of matter not necessarily in- 
 divisible. These are distinctions of 
 theory in regard to the nature of 
 matter. 
 
 The particle under the second of 
 these divisions is the Molecule (Lat. 
 
 moleciila, the diminutive of moles, a 
 mass). It is not asserted of the mole- 
 cule that it is indivisible so much as 
 that it is not contemplated, like the 
 old philosophic question of atoms, 
 from a mechanical point of view, but 
 maintained as a hypothesis. 
 
 PARTY. Factiox. 
 
 Party. See Cabal for the special 
 use of this word, which is common to 
 all the synonyms there given. In its 
 common sense it denotes a number of 
 persons united in opinion or action, 
 or both, with a desire to influence the 
 remainder of the body ; or, in a de- 
 gree less marked, a number taking 
 part in the same thing. 
 
 Both Faction {see Faction) and 
 Party (Fr. parti) denote the union 
 of several persons distinguished from 
 others holding diiferent views; but 
 Faction implies activity and secret 
 plotting. Party implies no more than 
 a sharing of the same opinions. Party 
 by itself has not the odious associa- 
 tion of Faction. Anyone who receives 
 support from a number has a party in 
 his favour, though he may not be the 
 head of a party as an agitator. When 
 a faction has gained influence it is 
 likely to become a recognized party 
 in the state. 
 
 PASSAGE. Course. 
 
 Both these terms have the twofold 
 signification of the act and the way of 
 movement. 
 
 Passage (Fr. passage) is more me- 
 chanical; Course (Fr. course) is less 
 mechanical, though not necessarily 
 implying actual volition. A man 
 finds a passage, but pursues a course. 
 Any transit from one point to another 
 is a passage. A line of movement 
 chosen, directed, or circumscribed is 
 a course. We speak of the course, 
 not the passage, of the stars generally, 
 and of the passage of a planet, if we 
 mean no more than its transit from 
 one definite point to another in the 
 heavens. 
 " The sickly young sat shiv'ring on the 
 
 shore, 
 Abhorr'd salt water, never seen before. 
 And prayed their tender mothers to delay 
 The passage, and expect a better day," 
 Drydeh. 
 
[passive] 
 
 In theii' secondary meanings, the word 
 Passage is commonly internal and 
 mental or conceptional, Course exter- 
 nal. The passage of the mind fi'om 
 one point of consideration to another ; 
 the course of events, history, law, or 
 the world. 
 " Therefore this sm of kind not personal. 
 
 But real and hereditary was ; 
 The guilt thereof, and punishment to all 
 
 By anirse of nature and of law doth 
 pass." 
 Davtes, Immortality of the Soul. 
 
 PASSIONATE. Angry. Hasty. 
 
 Passionate (Fr. ■passion^ L.ht. -pas- 
 $ionem, a feeling, suffering) denotes a 
 constitutional temperament of readily 
 excited passion, and often in the spe- 
 cifically restricted sense of irascibility. 
 The passionate man is easily roused by 
 injury or insult, or the supposition of 
 them, but is not commonly resentful 
 or malicious. 
 
 Anguy denotes rather a state than 
 a disposition (Lat. angorem, a strung- 
 ling ; Gr. tt}/;if£iv, to choke). Anger has 
 less of the vehement and impetuous, 
 more of deep disturbance of feeling. 
 To be passionate is always inexcus- 
 able. To be angry may be even laud- 
 able and rightful, if the feeling do 
 not pass into selfish vindictiveness, 
 but be excited simply by the wrong, 
 and not by the personal provocation 
 of the action. 
 
 Hasv (I).', haste, to haste; cf. 
 Ger. hasten) denotes that eagerness 
 of temperament which is combined 
 with want of reflexion, and which 
 therefore shows itself in other ways 
 besides anger, as in unreflecting 
 speech, or hasty conclusions. The 
 hasty man is soon offended, but not 
 generally ready to offend in return. 
 The passionate person shows his feel- 
 ing by excited looks and utterances, 
 and indications of violence under a 
 loss of self-control, without of neces- 
 sity any sense of injury, but more 
 commonly feeling provocation or an- 
 tto/ance. A feeling of injury, or of an- 
 noyance so great as to seem to amount 
 to it, produces anger and resentment. 
 
 *• It la a very common expression that 
 »uch a one is very good-natured, but very 
 p,inxin>iofp. The expression, indeed, is very 
 good-natured to allow passionate people to 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 605 
 
 much quarter ; bat I t'oink a passionate 
 man deserves the least indulgence imagin- 
 able."- ^/jecf^t^w. 
 
 "They have their several sounds and 
 notes of expression, whereby they can sig- 
 nify their dislike and anger ; but only maa 
 can clothe his angry thoughts with words 
 of offence, so as that faculty which was 
 given him for an advantage is depraved to 
 a further mischief." — BiSHOP Haix, 
 
 ** * As for that heat and hastiness,' quoth 
 he, ' which was in him misliked and offen- 
 sive, age and time would daily diminish 
 and bereave him of it; gi-ave and sage 
 counsel, which now was wanting, would 
 come on apace every day more than other.' ' 
 — HoLLAXD, Livy. 
 
 PASSIVE. Patient. Sibmis- 
 
 SIVE. 
 
 Passive (Lat. passivus, suffering, 
 capable of suffering) relates simply to 
 matters of action, and is opposed to 
 active, or in some cases to a state of 
 non-resistance, resistance being, how- 
 ever, a species- of action. It follows 
 therefore that, except where the state 
 of being passive is purposely assumed, 
 there is nothing of moral force in the 
 term ; while 
 
 Pah ent, another foi-m of the same 
 verb (Lat. pHtientem, participle of 
 pdti, to suffer), is essentially a moral 
 term. It may be remarked, however, 
 that this moral force is by no means 
 so strong in the adjective Patient as 
 in the noun patience. Patient may 
 mean bearing what is painful or dis- 
 agreeable, without any expression of 
 suffering or discontent, as a patient 
 animal under its burden. It is, how- 
 ever, applicable only to conscious 
 agents, while Passive may be em- 
 ployed of that which makes no phy- 
 sical resistance, whether conscious or 
 unconscious. 
 
 Submissive (Lat. submitth-e, part. 
 submissus, to submit) denotes that 
 which by self-surrender shows pa- 
 tience in a specific relation, that is, 
 to some particular exercise of will in 
 a superior, or one stronger than one's 
 self. 
 
 " The primary idea attached to the word 
 is that of passiveness, or being impulsively 
 acted upon." — COGAK. 
 
 *' In medical language a person op- 
 pressed with disease is called a. patient, of 
 an involuntary sufferer^ and the calmness 
 with which he sabmitfi is termed patience: 
 
606 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [pathetic] 
 
 that is, the mind yields with tranquillity to 
 
 the pains and indispositions of the body." 
 
 —Ibid. 
 
 " If thou sin in wine and wantonness, 
 
 Boast not thereof, nor make thy shame thy 
 
 glory : 
 Frailty gets pardon by submiss^veness." 
 Herbert. 
 
 PATHETIC. Affecting. Mov- 
 ing. Tragic. 
 
 Of these terms, the mo»t general is 
 Moving, which, tliough its etymology 
 indicates no more than raising feelings 
 or passion, is by usage restricted to 
 tender or mournful feeling ; the ten- 
 dency to excite feelings of other kinds 
 being commonly expressed by the 
 kindred word stirring. 
 
 The Affecting and the Pathetic 
 are of necessity nearly allied, the 
 Greek iraBoq nearly expressing the 
 Latin affectus, a state or disposition, or 
 mood; but Pathetic expresses more 
 the effect of the person and the narra- 
 tion ; Affecting, the simple nature of 
 the facts of the case. A sad tale may 
 be aflfecting when read as a mere 
 account of facts. A pathetic narra- 
 tive is one which, besides the moving 
 nature of the cii'cumstances, is told in 
 a moving manner. Hence the story 
 is pathetic, thecu'cumstances affecting 
 the appeal moving. The pathetic acts 
 through words, the afiecting through 
 the senses generally. 
 
 Teaoic (Gr. Tp«ytxcf) is a term 
 which serves to combine the idea of 
 the pathetic with a certain degree of 
 dignity in the sufferer. The suffer- 
 ing of a child might be very affecting, 
 but would hardly be spoken of as 
 tragic in itself. The tragic requires 
 the element sf personal history com- 
 bined with a certain considerableness 
 of personal character. That is more 
 forcibly tragic which involves the 
 misery of many at once. The violent 
 death of the father, by which the 
 wliole family are reduce(l to want and 
 wretchedness, is essentially tragic. 
 
 "Had the words, 'emcept these boiwls,' 
 been placed anywhere else, the pathetical- 
 ness, grace, and dignity of the sentence 
 had been much abated."— Blackwall, 
 Sacred Classics. 
 
 It is only bv usage that Akfkcting is 
 conticed to the sense of exciting, not 
 
 this or that feeling generally, but 
 the feeling of pi^ or commiseration 
 in particular. Burke used the term 
 in Its wider sense when he wrote — 
 
 " It is one thing to make an idea clear, 
 and another to make it affecting to the 
 imagination." 
 
 " I would have had them writ more mo- 
 vingly." Shakespeare. 
 
 " Sith that the greatest often are opprest, 
 And uaav.'ares doe into danger fall; 
 And ye that read these verses tragicall 
 Learne by their losse to love the low de- 
 gree." SPENSEK. 
 
 PAUSE. Hesitate. 
 
 These terms are applicable to speech 
 and action. We Pause (Fr. pause, 
 L. Lat. paiisa, a cessation) on purpose, 
 as in speaking, in order to give effect 
 to what we say, or in action to give 
 time for reflexion. 
 
 We Hesitate (Lat. hcEsttare, to re- 
 main^xed) involuntarily, as not having 
 sufficient conversance with our sub- 
 ject, or from natural defect, or as not 
 sure of our ground, or as not having 
 determined or judged. 
 " Constant rotation of th' unwearied wheel 
 That Nature rides upon, maintains her 
 
 health. 
 Her beauty, her fertility. She dreads 
 An instant's pause, and lives but while she 
 moves." COWPER. 
 
 " Upon these grounds, as they professed, 
 they did without any mincing, hesitaiicy, or 
 reservation, in the most full, clear, down- 
 right, and peremptory manner, with firm 
 eonfldence and alacrity, concui'rently aver 
 the fact." — Barrow. 
 
 PAY. Wages. Stipend. Salary. 
 Payment. 
 
 Of these, the simplest is Pay (Fr. 
 payer, the Lat. pacdre, to appease). It 
 applies to money regularly or sj'-ste- 
 matically given, as compensation for 
 fixed services — in this way differing 
 from Pa yment, which is specific com- 
 pensation on some one account. The 
 soldier receives pay ; the tradesman 
 payment. 
 
 Wages (Fr. gage, pledge, stake, 
 L. Lat. vMiuvfi) conveys the idea of 
 pledged pay for services agreed upon, 
 the services being manual or of an 
 inferior sort ; in this way differing 
 from Salary and Stipend, which are 
 for serrices of a higher than manual 
 
PEASANT J 
 
 DISCKIMINATED. 
 
 607 
 
 Ciiaracter. The servant receives 
 wages ; the master, for work of 
 another kind, receives stipend or 
 salary. The difference between 
 Stipend (Lat. stipendium, pay) and 
 Salauy (Lat. sKldnum, originally a 
 Roman soldier's allowance for salt, 
 from sal, salt) is as follows: the 
 salary flows out of the appointment ; 
 the stipend, out of the duties per- 
 formed. Thus a fixed stipend would 
 he equivalent to a salary. Yet, 
 though the salary is more continuous 
 and regular than the stipend, the 
 stipend, so far as it goes, is more 
 sure than the salary ; for the stipend 
 implies a contract between the par- 
 ties, which could not be set aside 
 without mutual consent; while a 
 salary may be contingent upon the 
 will or liberality of him who pays it. 
 Stipend and Salary being for more 
 than menial offices are mostly for life. 
 I'hey belong to the tenure of some- 
 thing that may be called an office. 
 
 " Fi'om the time of the siege of Veii, the 
 armies of Rome received jmy for their ser- 
 vice during the time which they remained 
 m the field."— Smith, Wcallh oflNations. 
 
 " Both temporal prosperity and eternal 
 felicity are the wages of the labour which 
 we take,"— Baerow. 
 
 "The stipends of the most useful part of 
 the clergy — those who officiate— are often 
 not greater than the earnings of a hii'eling 
 mechanic." — Ky ox . 
 
 " As to my salary, he told me I should 
 have twenty-four dollars per month, which 
 was as much as he gave to the old gunner." 
 -Dampikr's Voyages. 
 
 PEACEABLE. Peaceful. Pa- 
 cific. 
 
 These terms, though belonging to 
 the same root, are variously applied. 
 
 Peaceable (O. Fr. pais, Lat. pdcem, 
 peace) refers more directly to the cha- 
 racter or disposition of men; Pacific 
 (Lat. paci/Yc us, peace-imiking) to the 
 designs and intentions of men ; while 
 Peaceful refers to the state or con- 
 dition both of men and things. A 
 peaceable disposition ; pacific mea- 
 sures ; a peaceful attitude of affaii*s, 
 or a peaceful scene. 
 
 ' ' What do these worthies 
 Bat rub and «ix)il,burn, slaughter, and en- 
 slave 
 Peaceable nation*." MiLTOK 
 
 " Thus Belial, with words clothed is 
 
 reason's garb, 
 Counsel'd ignoble ease and peaceful sloth. 
 Not peace." Milton. 
 
 " Slow from his seat the reverend Priam 
 
 rose. 
 His god-like aspect deep attention drew. 
 He paused, and these pacific words ensue." 
 Pope. 
 
 PEASANT. Clown. Country- 
 MAN. Hind. Swain. Rustic. 
 
 The first three of these terms owe 
 their distinctive character to that to 
 which by implication each stands op- 
 posed. 
 
 So a Peasant ( Fr. paysan, a villager y 
 Lat. pdgus, a village) is a counti-yman, 
 as distinguished irom the lords or 
 tenants of the soil; a Clown (Icel. 
 kluiini, a boor) is a countryman, as 
 distinguished from one trained and 
 educated in cities; and a Countht- 
 MAN, one who lives and works in the 
 country (Fr. contrte, L. Lat. contrulOj 
 the ti'act which lies over against the 
 spectator), as distinouished from a 
 citizen. Hind and Swain are now 
 seldom used, except in poetry. As 
 the clown is the boorish countryman, 
 so the hind (A. S. ma7i of the 'dovies- 
 tics, see Sk EAT, Elii7n. Diet.; hina-man, 
 a farmer) is the simple-minded and il- 
 literate, as the swain (A. S. swdn) is 
 the innocent and homely countryman, 
 who appears in Arcadian pictures of 
 rural life and loves. 
 
 The Rustic (Lat. rusficus, of the 
 cou7itrif, rus) is the countrvman re- 
 garded under the combined view of 
 his unlettered simplicity of mind and 
 manners, and as a type and represen- 
 tative of the life which he leads, and 
 the manners by which he is sur- 
 rounded. Hence, as an epithet, Rusnc 
 seems to oscillate between the two 
 ideas of the word rude, that is, sim- 
 plicity and coarsenefes. 
 
 "By an easy extension of the word, 
 pagan and rural became almost synony* 
 mous, and the meaner rustics acquired that 
 name which has been corrupted into pea- 
 sants in the modern languages of Europe." 
 —Gibbon. 
 
 "A clownish mien, a voice with rustic sound 
 And stupid eyes that ever loved (he 
 
 ground." Drydkn. 
 
 " A simple countryman that brought he* 
 figs." Shakkspkaub. 
 
608 
 
 *' Let him use his harsh 
 Unsavoury reprehensions upon those 
 That are his hinds, and not on me." 
 
 Beaumont and Fuetcher. 
 
 " Remote from cities lived a swain." 
 
 Gay. 
 
 " Let bashfuJness, that rustic virtue, by; 
 
 To manly confidence thy thoughts apply." 
 
 Dryden, Ovid. 
 
 On the other hand, Spenser has — 
 
 *' And gentle sprite deform with rude rus- 
 ticity.'" 
 
 PEEL. Rind. 
 
 We commonly use Peel ( Fr. peUrj 
 to skill, O. Fr. pelf skin, Lat. pellem) 
 only of the separable external integu- 
 ments of natural productions; Rind 
 (A. S. riiid), of the harder, harsher 
 integuments of artificial productions, 
 though, rarely, of natural also. Com- 
 parative hardness and difficulty of 
 separation seem involved in Rind ; 
 comparative softness and ease of se- 
 paration, in Peel. The stiucture in 
 the case of the peel assists, of the rind 
 resiMs the operation. 
 
 PENETRATE. Pierce. 
 
 To Penetrate (Lat. paietrare, to 
 olace within, to pierce into) is to make 
 a way into a thing, with commonly 
 the implied notion of some degi'ee of 
 difficulty, and, therefore, a gradual 
 operation ; nor is the nature of the 
 means or instrument of penetration of 
 any definite character. 
 
 To Pierce, on tlie other hand ( Fr. 
 percer), denotes a quick penetration 
 with a sharp instrument. In most 
 cases. Penetrate denotes a natural, 
 Pierce i\n artificial, process. The same 
 distinction is preserved in their secon- 
 dary or moral meanings. It is genius 
 or intuition that pierces ; it is saga- 
 city and labour ot investigation that 
 penetrates. 
 " The world may search in vain with all 
 
 their eyes. 
 Nor ever penetrate through this disguise." 
 Drvdkn. 
 
 '* We have enough to fill us with admira- 
 tion of the munificence, power, and wis- 
 dom of the infinite Creator, when we 
 contemplate the noble faculties of this our 
 superior part, the vast reach'and compass 
 of our understanding, th(' prodigious quick- 
 Bess and piercingnest of its thought*."— 
 Derham. 
 
 SYNONYMS [peel] 
 
 PEOPLE. Nation. 
 
 People (Lat. poptiuis) is a term 
 denoting, primarily, a community 
 under the mere aspect of number, and 
 so is often used of the multitude of 
 the governed, as distinguished from 
 their rulers. As People is a geographi- 
 cal, so Nation (Lat. ndtionem) is a 
 political term, implying some ethno- 
 logical unity, though not necessarily 
 one and the same government ; as, the 
 German nation. In this sense, we 
 might speak of the Irish nation, as 
 being descended from one stock, and 
 subject to one government, though 
 the government were foreign to the 
 stock. The nation is a great family, 
 the people is a great assembly. The 
 same language m the mouths of two 
 widely-separated peoples shows that 
 they were originally one nation. A 
 diversity of languages in the speech 
 of one nation, like the English, shows 
 that the nation is a mixed people. If 
 the state be conquered or subjected 
 by revolution to another order of 
 things, the nation, strictly speaking, 
 is destroyed, though the people re- 
 mains. This comes of the political 
 distinction that the nation is the body 
 of citizens, the people the mass of in- 
 habitants. 
 
 " Thou must prophesy again before many 
 
 peoples. "— English' Bible. 
 
 " Mountains interposed 
 Make enemies of nations, who had else. 
 Like kindred drops, been mingled into 
 one." CowPKR. 
 
 PERCOLATE. Permeate. Per- 
 
 VADE. 
 
 That Percolates (Lat. percoldre) 
 which filters through small interstices, 
 that Permeates (Lat. ;>ermea;-g) which 
 finds its way along intricate passages ; 
 that Pervades (Lat. pervddtre) ■wliich 
 goes through a thing. The charac- 
 teristic idea of Permeate is intricate 
 peneti-ation, of Percolate diffusive 
 penetration, and of Pervade complete 
 penetration. All three have their 
 secondary applications. The political 
 theorist and reformer will often ti'ust 
 to time for the success of his doctrine. 
 He hopes that, though he may not 
 live to see the end, the idea may jier- 
 eolate into the minds of men, per- 
 
[perplex] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 699 
 
 meate through the different classes of 
 society, and finally pervade its entire 
 structure. 
 
 PERDITION. Destruction. 
 
 There is a growing tendency in 
 English to restrict the former more 
 and more to a moral application, so 
 that, while Destuuctk n (Lat. ae- 
 structionem) is used of the discerption 
 of the material particles constituting 
 an organized or constructed body. 
 Perdition (Lat. ferditibnem) shall 
 mean the destruction of the immate- 
 rial part — the life or the soul of men. 
 This seems to flow rightly from the 
 words. That goes to perdition which 
 gwes to absolute loss — which is, as it 
 were, lost to life and view. That is 
 destroyed which is broken up. 
 
 PEREMPTORY. Dogmatical. 
 
 Peremptory (Lat. ph-emptorius — 
 (1) deadly, (2) with jurists, destroy- 
 ing all controversy, decisive) is, lite- 
 rally, destructive, but, specifically, 
 destructive of debate or remonstrance. 
 A peremptory command is one which 
 leaves no alternative but to obey. It 
 thus belongs more to the will and 
 temper of the individual than to the 
 subject-matter of what he says or 
 thinks. It is a wider term than 
 
 Dogmatical (Gr. Joy/xaTJxo?, di- 
 dactic), which represents a particular 
 kind of peremptoriness, namely, the 
 insisting on the acceptance of one's 
 own opinion by another, or the sub- 
 mission to it, as laid down in an arro- 
 gant or magisterial way. As Dogma- 
 tical belongs to matters of belief and 
 opinion, it is only connected with 
 beings capable of entertaining these ; 
 while Peremptory, expressing, pri- 
 marily, force of dema::j, and, secon- 
 darily, of persDnal demand, is appli- 
 cable to the requirements or exactions 
 of unintelligent force, as, for instance, 
 ot circuinstarces, obligations, and the 
 like. 
 
 "Peremptoriness is of two sorts, the one 
 a magisterialness in matters of opinion, the 
 other a positiveness in relating matters of 
 fact," — Government of the Tongue. 
 
 "And in their particular opinions they 
 are as assertive and dogmatical as if they 
 were omniscient," — GI.A.HT JJU 
 
 Pr:RFORMANCE. Production. 
 
 Both these temis represent the idea 
 of a work that is the product of opera- 
 tion in skilled labour of an artistic 
 kind. In the case of Production, 
 the idea may be one of analogy, aa 
 when we speak of the productions of 
 Nature. 
 
 In the case of Performance (O. Fr. 
 parfournir, to accomplish), the idea in 
 restricted to conscious agency or ope- 
 ration. In this last way, Performance 
 is more external than Production, in- 
 asmuch as it denotes that which is 
 done by the exercise of skill ; while 
 Production involves the idea of men- 
 tal power. A recitation is a perfor- 
 mance ; a poem is a production. In 
 the performance the manner is every- 
 thing, and the result next to nothing; 
 in the production the result is every- 
 thing, and the manner next to nothing 
 In production, the purpose of the 
 operation is the thing produced ; in 
 performance, the thing is done for the 
 sake of doing it. 
 
 "His musical performances, indeed, were 
 not to the taste of the Italians."— MacatT- 
 LAY. 
 
 "It 8 ft great mortification to the vanitjr 
 of man, that his ntmost art and industry 
 can never equal the meanest of Nature'f 
 productions, either for beauty or value." — 
 H UME. 
 
 PERPLEX. Embarrass. Puzzle. 
 Pose. Entangle. 
 
 We are Puzzled (puzsfe, said to be 
 corr. of the word opposal) when our 
 faculties are confuse^ bv what we can- 
 not understand, by moral or pu^sical 
 antagonisms or contradictions, which 
 we cannot reconcile or clear. 
 
 We are Posed (pose, said to be a corr. 
 of the word oppose) when we are arres- 
 ted by a mental difficulty, or meet with 
 a problem which we cannot solve. 
 
 We are Perplexed (Lat. perplexus, 
 interwoven), when we are unable, 
 under contending feelings or views, 
 to determine an opinion or to pursue 
 a definite line of conduct. 
 
 We are Embarrassed (Fr. embar- 
 ■>-asser; barre, a bar) in matters of 
 action, thought, or speech, b/ any- 
 thing that interferes with their free 
 action. The perplexed person does 
 
610 
 
 not know wliicli way to turn. The 
 embarrassed person moves, but witb 
 difficulty. We areENTANGLED(?toio;/e, 
 gaid to be another form of twaiigie, to 
 have a jingling sound: Wedgwood) 
 when we find ourselves in verbal or 
 practical difficulties, either by our own 
 error or oversight, or by the designs 
 of others. We are puzzled by cal- 
 culations or riddles; perplexed by 
 casuistry ; embarrassed, in some cases, 
 before our superiors, or in speaking 
 foreign language, 
 express ourselves 
 " Till, by their own perplexities involved, 
 They ravel more, still less resolved. 
 But never find self-satisfying solution." 
 Milton. 
 " Awkward, embarrassed, stifT, without the 
 
 skill 
 Of moving gracefully, or standing still ; 
 One leg, as if suspicious of his brother. 
 Desirous seems to run away from t'other." 
 
 Churchill. 
 " Hebrew, the general puzzler of old 
 
 heads. 
 Which the gray dunce with pricks and 
 
 comments reads. 
 And dubs himself a scholar, by it grew 
 As natural t* him as if he'd been a Jew." 
 3ro>ie. 
 
 " This text is produced by our Saviour 
 out of Moses his law, in ap«wer to a ques- 
 tion wherewith a learned Pharisee thought 
 to pose and puzzle him." -Barrow. 
 
 " It (integrity) is much plainer and 
 easier, much the safer and more secure 
 way of dealing in the world ; it has less of 
 trouble and difficulty, of entanglement and 
 perplexity, of danger and hazard in it." — 
 Spectator. 
 
 PERSON. Individual. 
 
 Person (Lat. persona, a character, 
 personage) is always an individual 
 human being except in theological 
 language, in which it stands related 
 to substance, the person being the 
 living manifestation, in this sense, of 
 the common nature in the individual. 
 
 " There is one person of the Father, 
 another of the Son, and another of the 
 Holy Ghost." 
 
 Individual (Lat. individmis, indi- 
 visible) represents that which, being 
 one, subsists as a distinct being, es- 
 pecially as distinct from other mem- 
 bers of the same class, genus, or 
 species. Hence, though the indi- 
 vidual may be both personal and 
 human, it is not of necessity either, 
 
 SYNONYMS [person] 
 
 but may be an inanimate object. So 
 a botanist, speaking of some mark 
 upon a leaf, or petal of a flower, and 
 regarding it as accidental, might say 
 of it that it did not belong to the 
 species, but was a peculiarity of the 
 individual. 
 
 PERSEVERE. Persist. Con- 
 tinue. 
 
 Continue is the generic term, 
 denoting no more than to do as one 
 has done hitherto. 
 
 To Persevere (Lat. perseverdre, 
 perstvcrus, to pursue a matter ivith 
 constancy) is to continue in a given 
 course in spite of discouragements. 
 While continuance is neutral, inas- 
 much as it may be from habit or no 
 very definite cause, and is applicable 
 to unintelligent operations, persever- 
 ance has commonly a favourable sense, 
 as coming from reflexion and judg- 
 ment, and as indicative of moral 
 energy. 
 
 Persistence (Lat. persistcre, to con- 
 tinue steadfastly) has commonly an 
 unfavourable force, as coming of 
 dogged desire to gain one's point, or 
 reluctance to surrender it. But this 
 need not be blameworthy. It may be 
 the contrary. Persevere carries with 
 it more weight, and is employed ot 
 graver matters than Persist. A boy 
 may persevere in his studies, or per- 
 sist in playing and trifling. Persis- 
 tence may be inactive and mental; 
 perseverance is active and practical. 
 Persevere has to do more with the 
 doing a thing ; Persist, with the mo- 
 tive. We persevere in study; we 
 sometimes, in spite of sound argument 
 to the contrary, persist in the same 
 opinion. We persevere in spite of 
 discouragement, we persist in spite of 
 opposition. We persist in resolutely 
 abiding by the resolutions we have 
 taken. Persevere applies more pro- 
 perly to actions and conduct. Persist 
 to the will and opinions. It is in 
 matters of efibrt and practice that we 
 persevere, in matters of sentiment that 
 we persist. By persevering we reach 
 our end, by persisting we maintain 
 our position. 
 
 " Anotber usual concomitant of infidelity 
 is its obstinacy and pertinacious per^istini) 
 
[perverse] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 611 
 
 in error. This, likewise, was the temper of 
 the Jews, not to be convinced by any evi- 
 dence that conld be offered to them." — TiL- 
 LOTSON. 
 
 ** He might nave learnt 
 Less overweening, since he failed in Job, 
 Whose constant perseverance overcame 
 Whate'er his cruel malice could invent." 
 Milton. 
 
 Continue is more applicable than even 
 Persist to purely inactive states, and 
 has sometimes the sense of mere ab- 
 sence of movement or change. 
 
 " Continue thou in the things which thou 
 hast learned, and hast been assured of, 
 knowing of whom thou hast learned them." 
 — English Bible. 
 
 PERSONS. People. 
 
 In colloiuial language, these terms 
 are synonymous: as, many Persons 
 say so ; many People do it. The dif- 
 ference seems to be, that in the term 
 Persons the individuals are more 
 thought of, and with more deference, 
 while in the term People, the indi- 
 viduals are merged in the aggregate. 
 "At the dinner yesterday there were 
 five people," would be, if not inele- 
 gant, expressive ofcontemptuousness. 
 " People of that sort." " Persons 
 of distinction." " People say." "It 
 is said by many respectable persons." 
 It may be observed that Persons in 
 this general sense does not appear in 
 the objective case. " This often 
 pleases people" (not persons). 
 
 PERSPICUITY. Clearness. 
 
 As applied to what is spoken or 
 written. Clearness (Lat. cldrus, 
 clear) is the more general term, de- 
 noting the capability of being well 
 understood, which comes from plain- 
 ness and directness of thought or par- 
 ticular expressions; while Perspi- 
 cuity (hat. perspicuitatem, clearness) is 
 employed of the style of expression 
 rather than the mode of thought. It 
 may be said that that which is well 
 and thoroughly conceived will be 
 clearly expressed. Clearness comes 
 of exact acquaintance with the sub- 
 ject. Pure idiom, and propriety of 
 language,neatness of construction, and 
 a good selection of terms, will go far 
 to ensure perspicuity of style. 
 
 " I shall, Mrith as much impartiality and 
 perspicuity as I may like a faithful advo- 
 
 cate to my country, and cordial indifferent 
 
 well-wisher both to king and parliament, 
 
 truly state and debate this ccntrover«y."— 
 
 Prynne. 
 
 "O prophet of glad tidings, finisher 
 
 Of utmost hope I now clear I unaerstand 
 
 What oft my steadiest thoughts have 
 
 searfhed in vain. 
 Why our great expectation should be called 
 The Seed of woman." Milton. 
 
 PERUSE. Read. 
 
 To Read (A.S. rcedan) is to inter- 
 pret characters into their words 
 whether mentally only or audibly also; 
 and, more generally, to gather tlie 
 meaning by observation of anything 
 which expresses itself by outward 
 effects or indications ; as to'read a cha- 
 racter in a- face. Peruse, the etym. 
 of which is quite uncertain, meant for- 
 merly to observe closely and in detail. 
 This might be the matter of some 
 book or not. So Milton — 
 
 " Who first with curious eye 
 Perused him." 
 
 So now to peruse is to read thought- 
 fully. One peruses at length a work 
 in which one is interested ; one reads, 
 it may be a name upon a sign-post. 
 
 PERVERSE. Froward. 
 
 P ER verse (Lat. j^ervcrt^rc, part, per- 
 versus, to overthrow) is, literally, turn- 
 ed the wi'ong way, hence disposed, 
 more or less, to be obstinately wrong. 
 Froward {from, and the termination 
 of direction, -ward) is nearly the Eng- 
 lish equivalent ; a person who is, from- 
 ward being one who swerves from the 
 line of regularity or government. In 
 usage, Froward denotes the disposi- 
 tion which is reluctant to obey or 
 submit ; hence it has a direct relation 
 to the will of others. Perverse de- 
 notes a settled contradiction to the 
 will of others, and a tendency to do 
 the distasteful to others for its own 
 sake. Frowardness is a fault of chil- 
 dren; perversity of all who are old 
 enough to form contradictory judg- 
 ments and determinations, and t^j 
 adhere to them out of a settled crook- 
 edness of heart. 
 
 '• To worship the God of Israel and him 
 only to serve ; yet such was the perverse- 
 ness of the people that this was the com- 
 mandment that of all others they could 
 never be made to keep." — Sharp 
 
612 
 
 SYNONYMS [pestilent] 
 
 *'ltis nothing but a little sally of anger 
 like the frowardness of peevish children, 
 who, when they cannot get all they would 
 have, are resolved to take nothing." — 
 Burke. 
 
 PESTILENT. Pestilential. 
 
 Pestiferous. 
 
 These words are all formed from 
 the Latin root -pestis, the plagiiey taken 
 generally for a contao'ious disorder. 
 Pestilent denotes what belongs to 
 the plague or to the character of the 
 plague, that which is contagious. 
 Pestilential denotes that which is 
 infected by the plague and has a ten- 
 dency to spread the contagion. 
 
 Pestiferous (L&t. pest^'er, bnnging 
 pestilence) that which actually com- 
 municates or carries it. A pestilent 
 thing has harm, poison, evil, and the 
 like, in itself, whether physical or 
 moral ; a pestilent viper, pestilent 
 writings. Pestilential is belonging 
 to pestilence, and pestilence marks the 
 actual spread and reign of the pest or 
 plague. Pestilent things may be dor- 
 mant, pestilential things are exercis- 
 ing noxious influences with danger to 
 those subjects which may come within 
 their influence. Pestilent is opposed 
 to innocuous, Pestilential to sUu- 
 brious. 
 
 PETITION. Prayer. Entre/^tv. 
 Suit. Request. 
 
 Petition (h^t. pttltionenif ptth'e, to 
 seek or ask) and Prayer (Ft. prier, 
 Lat. pricdri, to pray) dilFer in that the 
 prayer is commonly for greater gifts 
 or blessings of supreme importance ; 
 while petition relates to the more or- 
 dinary wants of our nature or circum- 
 stances. From this flows the further 
 difference, that prayer involves a more 
 decided superiority in him who is the 
 object of prayer; while petition may 
 be to a superior or an equal. The 
 characteristic idea of Peiition is the 
 formal recognition of power or autho- 
 rity in auowier; of Prayer, earnest- 
 ness and submission in one's self. 
 
 Ei>iTREAT (O. Fr. entraiter, to en- 
 tieat of) involves a certain equality 
 between the parties ; it is a request 
 of an urgent character dictated by the 
 feelings, and having reference to some 
 specific act in tJie power of the other 
 
 to perform, or, in some cases, to ab- 
 stain from. The prayer and the peti- 
 tion may be personal or collective, 
 the entreaty is personal or individual. 
 
 Request (O. Fr. re vies, b, jow re- 
 quete) is a more simple anQ iess for- 
 cible expression, and may come from 
 a superior, an equal, or (with due de- 
 ference) an inferior. Its subject is 
 action in another. 
 
 The Suit (Fr. suite, a following) is 
 a petition often prolonged, for some 
 favour towai'd one's self, and so is only 
 made to those who have it in theii 
 power to grant favours ; as, a gentle- 
 man pays his suit to a lady, a courtier 
 to a prince. It indicates not neces- 
 sarily the general superiority of an- 
 other ; but a superiority on the point 
 with which the request is concerned, 
 and the possession of that which he 
 may grant to another. 
 
 " If there should happen any uncommon 
 injury or infringement of the right* before 
 mentioned, which the ordinary course of 
 law is too defective to reach, there still re- 
 mains a fourth subordinate right appertain- 
 ing to every individual, namely, the right 
 of petitioning the king, or either house of 
 parliament, for the redress of grievances." 
 — Blackstonk. 
 
 " For some I sought 
 By prayer th' offended Deity to appease. 
 Kneeled, and before Him humbled all my 
 
 heart. 
 Methought I saw him placable and mild 
 Bending His ear." Milton. 
 
 *' Entreat me not to leave thee, nor to 
 return from following after thee." — English. 
 Bible. 
 
 " When a person hath received an injury, 
 and thinks it worth his while to demand a 
 satisfaction for it, he is to consider with 
 himself, or take advice, what redress the 
 law has given for that injury, and there- 
 upon is to make application or suit to the 
 Crown, the fountain of all justice, for that 
 particular specific remedy which he is de- 
 termined or advised to pursue."— Black- 
 stonk. 
 
 "At the approach of evening he took 
 leave ; but not till he had requested per- 
 mission to renew his visit." — ROLDSMITH. 
 
 PHRASE. Sentence. Expres- 
 sion. Proposition. Period. Paha- 
 GRAPH. Clause. 
 
 A Phrase (Gr. <|>pac-tf, a way oj 
 speaking, <ppal^nv, to speak) is a portion 
 of a sentence consisting of two or 
 mor» words, and is imj>resBed with a 
 
[phraseology] discriminated. 
 
 613 
 
 character of its own,- though it ig not 
 grammatically independent. 
 
 A Sentence (Lat. senientia) is 
 grammatically complete, and stands 
 for any short saying of that character. 
 
 An Expression (Lat. erpressimem, 
 a wording) is a distinctive form of ut- 
 terance, regarded in a technical or 
 rhetorical point of view, and may 
 therefore consist of either one or more 
 words. 
 
 A Period (Gr. wifwSoc, a circuit, a 
 well-rounded sentence) is a sentence 
 wholly divested of the idea of its 
 meaning, and regarded only in its 
 material construction as a matter of 
 grammar. 
 
 A Paragraph (Gi*. 7rec^a.y^a.<pri) 
 meant, at first, a marginal writing, 
 but has come to signify a group of 
 sentences or periods limited by the 
 common point to which they reier. 
 
 A F Roposn ION (Lat. propMtionem) 
 is a sentence regarded in a logical 
 point of view, that is, as stating the 
 connexion or disconnexion between 
 the subject and predicate, by an affir- 
 mative or negative copula; as, "Men 
 are, or are not, responsible for their 
 actions." 
 
 A Clause (Fr. clause^ Lat. claum) 
 is grammatically a portion of a sen- 
 tence containing a subject and predi- 
 cate, and in its legal sense an article, 
 stipulation, or proviso. It is, generally 
 speaking, some sentence or paragraph 
 having a force of its own, in which it 
 stands related to the rest of the docu- 
 ment, and by which the rest is modi- 
 fied and governed. 
 
 " Exclusion of all popish members to sit 
 in either house of parliament, with a clause 
 in favour of the Duke of York. " — Baker, 
 C/iarles 11. 
 
 " So bravely set forth, so eqoipt, and so 
 
 shod, 
 That, as Homer has phrased it, he looked 
 
 like a god." Byron. 
 
 "A sentence is an assemblage of words 
 expressed in proper form, and ranged in 
 proper order, and concurring to make a 
 eomplete sense." — LowTH. 
 " Eternal God, for whom whoever dare 
 Seek new ejqpressions, do the circle square. 
 And thrust into strait corners of poor wit 
 Thee who art cornerless and infinite, 
 I woald bat praise Thy name, not name 
 
 Thee now," Donkk, 
 
 " Logicians use to clap a proposition, 
 As justices do criminals, m prison. 
 And in as learned authentic nonsense, writ 
 The names of all their moods and figures 
 fit." Butler, 
 
 " A period is the distinction of a sentence 
 in all i-espects perfect, and is marked with 
 one full prick over against the lower part 
 of the last letter, thus (.)."— Ben Jonson. 
 
 " The king's secretaries must first allow 
 and paragraph them, and then they are 
 allowed. "— E yel YN. 
 
 PHRASEOLOGY. Diction. 
 Style, 
 
 In the order in which these words 
 here stand, they advance from the 
 more particular to the more general. 
 
 Phraseology {see Phrase) is the 
 employment of particular expressions 
 in such a way as to be distinctive, 
 but not as a matter of critical praise 
 or blame. We do not speak of good 
 or bad phraseology. 
 
 Diction (Lat. dictionem, deliverii, 
 an expression) is the construction, dis- 
 position, and application of words. 
 The term is employed in cases where 
 clearness and accuracy are at stake ; 
 while Style (Lat. stylus, siilus, a 
 pointed style, usually of iron, for 
 writing on waxen tablets) is em- 
 ployed of the characteristics of pro- 
 ductions and performances w hich lay 
 claim to an artistic character, as 
 writing, oratory, painting, and the 
 like. Diction belongs more to the 
 matter, style to the author. PJiraseo- 
 logy belongs to speaking and writing, 
 diction to written compositions. The 
 style of an orator would include his 
 diction. The component requisites 
 of diction are clearness and correct- 
 ness. Style is more subtle, and be- 
 longs to the personal peculiarities 
 which mark the talent or genius of 
 the writer or speaker, such as pro- 
 priety, elegance, ease, precision, ele- 
 vation, pointedness, expressiveness, 
 rapidity, or deliberateness, flippancy, 
 sententiousness, pungency, and so on. 
 " The Book of Sophisms (of Aristotle) 
 still supplies a very convenient phraseology 
 for marking concisely some of the prinoipai 
 fallacies which are apt to impose on the 
 understanding in the heat of a viv^ voce 
 dispute,"— Stewart. 
 
 " Though he (Dryden) wrote hastily, aai 
 often incorrectly, and his style is not fre» 
 
614 
 
 Trom faults, yet there is a richness in his 
 diction, a copiousness, ease, and variety in 
 his expression, which have not been sur- 
 passed by any that have come after him." 
 — Blaib. 
 
 " Though our author's plan should be 
 faultless, and his story ever so -well con- 
 ducted, yet if he be feeble or flat in style, 
 destitute of afiecting scenes, and deficient 
 in poetical colouring, he can have no suc- 
 eess." — Ibid, 
 
 PIECE. Part. 
 
 Piece (Fr. piece) is a part actually 
 separated ; while Paut (Lat. partem) 
 may be separated or divided only con- 
 ceptionally. So we speak of a part of 
 a joint before it is cut off, a piece 
 afterwards. Piece involves the idea 
 of comparative smallness ; part, of 
 comparative magnitude. A certain 
 part of a volume might comprise 
 pages ; choice pieces would naturally 
 mean small extracts. 
 
 PILLAGE. Plundkr. Rapine. 
 Booty. Spoil. Prey. 
 
 The idea of property violently taken 
 from others is common to these terms. 
 
 Pillage (Fr. pillage, from piller, to 
 pillage) points more directly to the 
 stripping undergone by those who are 
 deprived of their goods ; Rapine (Lat. 
 rttpina, rKptre, to seize), to the snatch- 
 ing away on the part of the robbei's 
 themselves of whatever valuables 
 come within their reach; Plunder 
 (Germ, pidndern, to plunder), to the 
 quantity and value of the things car- 
 ried off. Plunder and Booty (Icel. 
 byte, exchange, barter ; and this from 
 byia, to distribute, the original idea of 
 *^ booty " being share. Skeat, Etym. 
 Diet.) differ in the comparative law- 
 fulness of the latter. Booty is spoil 
 taken in war; but the term Spoil 
 (Lat. spoliiim) is more pertinent to 
 individuals, booty to the army, or to a 
 band of brigands, in which case there 
 is, of course, no idea of lawfulness, 
 but only of professional gain from 
 others. An army carries off booty ; 
 spoil is the gain of combatants. Like 
 Pillage, it implies emphatically the 
 stripping of others of their personal 
 property and goods. 
 
 Prey (0. Fr. praie. Mod. Fr. pyie, 
 ]jSLt prteda) is that which is seized 
 
 SYNONYMS [PTECeJ 
 
 for purposes of possession under the 
 impulse of animal appetite. 
 
 '• Whereupon I went myself, and took 
 away from our men whatever they had 
 pillaged, and gave it to the owners." — 
 Hakluyt's Voyages. 
 " Let that go heap a mass of wretched 
 
 wealth, 
 Purchas'd by rapine worse than stealth. 
 And brooding o'er it sit." Bkn Jonson. 
 
 " For the phmdering of malignants, and 
 sequestering their estates, I answer that I 
 think the parliament never yet approved 
 the plundering, or, in plain English, robbing 
 of any man by any of their forces, they 
 having pZwnrfererf no places taken by assault, 
 for aught I hear, though the king's forces, 
 on the contrary, have miserably plundered 
 all the kingdom almost."— Prynne. 
 Robbing is more specific than plun- 
 dering. Persons are sometimes robbed 
 of their purses or their watches. It 
 is yet worse if they are plundered of 
 all they possess. Hence, Plundering 
 as applied to houses or localities, 
 denotes a more varied or promiscuous 
 kind of robbery; but unlike Plunder, 
 whicli is sometimes, nay commonly, 
 done with leave, as when a victorious 
 array plunders a city. Robbery is al- 
 ways in violation of law and right. 
 Prey is never employed but in an 
 odious sense. It involves ideas of 
 violence and destruction. It is the 
 only one of the terms which lends it- 
 self freely to a secondary sense. A 
 man falls a prey to his own passions 
 when those passions seem to seize 
 him, to keep hold of him, to deprive 
 him of free action, and to bring him 
 to destruction. 
 
 *' So rich a booty forced to forsake. 
 To put himself and prisoner out of pain. 
 He on the sudden stabs him." 
 
 Drayton. 
 
 •'He combated this strong one, this 
 mighty and dreadful foe of ours, and 
 baffled him, and bound him, and disarmed 
 him, taking away the whole armour in 
 which he trusted, and spoiled him, rifled all 
 his baggage, bare away all his instruments 
 of mischief."— Barrow. 
 " In gallant trim the gilded vessel goes. 
 Youth on the prow, and Pleasure at the 
 
 helm. 
 Regardless of the sweeping Whirlwind's 
 
 sway, 
 That, hushed, in grim repose, expects his 
 evening jorey." GRAY. 
 
 PILLAR. Column. 
 
 Pillar (Fr. pilier, L. F,at. ptlare, 
 
[piteous] 
 
 Lat. p'lla, a stone pier) comraonly 
 conveys the idea of support ; Column 
 (Lat. co/umnj) superadds those of size 
 and ornamentation. Support is, how- 
 ever, not an essential idea of either. 
 Both words may be used analogously 
 of what is like a pillar or column ; as, 
 " Lot's wife became a pillar of salt;" 
 " The columns of an army." In this 
 case, column is a term of greater 
 dignity than pillar ; an architectural 
 monument, though in the form of a 
 pillar, is thus called a column. 
 
 PINCH. Squeeze. Gripe. 
 Press. Clench. 
 
 Pinch (Fr. vincer) denotes ter- 
 minal compression, as between two 
 substances closing upon their ex- 
 tremities ; as to pinch with pincers 
 or the fingers ; the shoe pinches 
 when the two sides, or the upper 
 leather and sole, have the effect of 
 meeting too closely or tightly upon 
 the foot ; a pinch of snuflp is so much 
 as is compressed between the ends of 
 the fingers. Objects animate or in- 
 animate, acting mechanically, may 
 be said to pinch, Squeeze, or Press ; 
 while Gripe denotes a voluntary ac- 
 tion. 
 
 Press (Lat. preintre, part, pressus, 
 to press) denotes no more than the 
 effect of forcible action persistently 
 
 Eassing from one body to another ; 
 ence, as pinching involves two direc- 
 tions or applications of force, pressing 
 may be applied to one or many. In 
 pressing pap)er the active force is em- 
 ployed only on one side or direction. 
 
 Squeeze (A. S. cwysan, to crush 
 or squeeze) denotes a compression of 
 larger surfaces or more points of con- 
 tact than pinch, while it implies, un- 
 like press, more than one side for the 
 application of the force. 
 
 Gripe (A. S. gripa, a gripe, a 
 handful) denotes movement which 
 results in tight, sharp holding, and 
 is a voluntary action. 
 
 Clench or clinch is connected with 
 cling, and has the force of complete 
 union or consolidation of two or more 
 parts into a compact mass by an ex- 
 ternal grasp or cJ itch. In its meta- 
 phorical sense, t) Clench is to esta- 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 615 
 
 blish finally and unalterably by a 
 decisive word or act, so as to pre- 
 clude both the necessity and the pos- 
 sibility of after modification, contra- 
 diction, or alteration ; an argument 
 clenched is finally determined and 
 closed. 
 
 PINION. Wing. 
 
 The Pinion (Fr. pigyion) is a fea- 
 thered wing; while Wing (Dan. 
 and Swed. vinee) is more e-enerallv a 
 
 and Swed. vinge) is more generally a 
 lateral appendage of comparatively 
 light material, moved with a vibratory 
 motion, and supporting the flying 
 body by its pressure upon the atmo- 
 sphere. Hence insects, for instance, 
 have wings, but not pinions. 
 
 PITEOUS. Pitiful. Pitiable. 
 Despicable. Contemptible. 
 
 The former three ^rms, though 
 drawn from the same word pity (Fr. 
 pilie, Lat. pielatem, and so a doublet 
 of piety), have different shades of 
 meaning. Piti a ble means deserving 
 of pity, that is, it relates to what is a 
 fit object of pity. Piteous is moving 
 or exciting pUy; Pitiful, full of 
 what awakens pity, as a cliaracteristic 
 of disposition, but afterwards trans- 
 ferred from the subject feeling or ex- 
 hibiting to the object awakening pity. 
 Piteous is sometimes, however, used 
 in the sense of feeling pity. When 
 Pitiful is used in the sense of morally 
 deserving of pity, the term involves 
 a feeling very different from compas- 
 sion. The object of pity is alwaj'S 
 weak : where this is a reprehensible 
 moral want, the word involves a 
 mixture of disapprobation and con- 
 tempt. 
 
 Despicable (Lat. despicdbtlis) and 
 Contemptible (Lat. contemptibilis) 
 are only partially synonymous with 
 the above, that is, so far as pity 
 and contempt are akin, or as that 
 which would awaken contempt in 
 one mind might excite pity in 
 another. Crime and error may be 
 viewed under the light of unhappi- 
 ness and misfortune, though vice, 
 which merits more than pity and 
 misfortune, is no fit object of con- 
 tempt. Despicable is commonly em- 
 ployed in reference to the energetic 
 
616 
 
 SYNONYMS [plan] 
 
 and the positive; Contemptible, of the 
 inactive and negative. Man's con- 
 duct is despicable when it proceeds 
 from motives, or exhibits a character 
 which we despise on account of mean- 
 ness or vice ; whereas we use tlie term 
 Contemptible of characters or efforts 
 wliich we disregard on the simple 
 ground of weakness. . " He exhibited 
 a despicable ingratitude and selfish- 
 ness. " His opponent seems to have 
 regarded his opposition as contempti- 
 ble." Vanity is contemptible ; malice 
 is despicable. 
 
 *' She sitting by him as on ground he lay. 
 Her mournful notes full piteously did 
 
 frame. 
 And thereof made a lamentable lay." 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 On the other hand, Thomson, in his 
 advice to the angler : — 
 " But if too young and easily deceived, 
 A worthless prey scarce bends the pliant 
 
 rod; 
 Him, piteous of his youth, and the short 
 
 space 
 He has enjoyed the vital light of heaven. 
 Soft disenoage, and back into the stream 
 The speckled captive throw." 
 
 So in the case of pitiful : — 
 
 " And as they went, they heard a rueful 
 
 cry 
 Of one that wailed and pitifully wept." 
 
 SpEXSER. 
 On the other hand: — 
 
 " Miles Smith was hurtful to none but 
 himself; he was pitiful to the poor, and 
 hospitable to his neighbours." — Wood, 
 Athen. Oxon. 
 
 " Samson possesses all the terrific majesty 
 of Prometheus chained, the mysterious dis- 
 tress of ffidipus, and the pitiable wretched- 
 ness of Philoctetes." — Observer. 
 
 " ' And,' as he says rarely well, ' though 
 some creatures seem to be made of much 
 coarser stuff" than others, yet even in 
 the vilest the Maker's art shines through 
 the despicableness of the matter.' " — 
 
 BOYLK. 
 
 *' A Nazarite ii? f-lace abominable. 
 
 Vaunting my strength in honour to their 
 Dagon ? 
 
 Besides, how vile, contemptible, ridi- 
 culous. 
 
 What act more execrably unclean, pro- 
 fane ! " Milton. 
 
 PLAN. Design. Scheme. Pro- 
 ject. 
 
 Pi AN(Fr. vlati^ is, liteially, some- 
 thing drawn on a pUtne; hence, a 
 mrlhod of action or construction in 
 
 any way. The plan has reference to 
 the means to be adopted for an end 
 rather than the end itself; as the plan 
 of a campaign has victory over the 
 enemy for its final object. A plan is 
 well or ill arranged or devised, effec- 
 tual or ineffectual, practicable or im- 
 practicable. 
 
 A Design (Fr. designer, Lat. desig- 
 nare, to mark out, design) is the concep- 
 tion of the final object or purpose, and 
 is,morally, good or bad, or, artistically, 
 worthy or unworthy. The plan often 
 precedes the design, and is the mode 
 by which the design is effected. The 
 design is the thing which we wish to 
 execute," the plan is the method of 
 executing it. One proposes an end, 
 one has views, one forms a design. 
 'I'he good Christian has no other end 
 than heaven, nor any other view than 
 to please God, nor any design' but to 
 work out his salvation. 
 
 Scheme (Gr. a"xr)y.a.j form, manner) 
 and Project (Lat. prdjectum,a thing 
 stretched forth) includes both end and 
 means. A Scheme carries the ideas 
 of ingenuity and contrivance, it ex- 
 cludes largeness and grandeur of aim, 
 and is often selfish ; Puoj kct, the com- 
 bination of whatever faculties or 
 eflforts are needed for carrying out de- 
 signs of importance, being a word of 
 greater dignity than Scheme, which 
 is often employed of mean and petty 
 designs. A man has a project in view ; 
 he constructs a scheme ; he acts upon 
 a plan which he considers may enable 
 him to realize his design. I'lan, 
 Sen EME, and Proj ect may be confined 
 to one's self and one's own afifairs; 
 Design operates upon some thing or 
 person beyond them. Project is more 
 general than Design, which is more 
 specific. " 1 have a project for making 
 money." " I have a scheme for doing 
 so at other people's expense." Schemk 
 and Project are speculative and ex- 
 ceptional. Plan and Design enter, io 
 some measure, into the business of 
 every day. A tendency to idealize 
 leads men to conceive designs ; a cer« 
 tain inquietude induces them to start 
 projects. It may be added that Pro- 
 ject is more undefined than Design, 
 which is clearer and more specific 
 
[pledge] 
 
 He who forms a project has sketched 
 out bis intentions, he who has a de- 
 sign has realized them in detail. De- 
 sign is not so purely personal as 
 scheme, but more so than Project. 
 The design of the avaricious man is to 
 et money, his project is to become 
 rich. The design is more immediate, 
 the project more remote. One's own 
 interests are always more or less 
 closely connected with one's designs, 
 but one may have a project for the 
 benefit of another. A good general is 
 as anxious to conceal his own designs 
 as to discover those of the enemy. A 
 good minister of state ought to be full 
 of projects for the honour of the sove- 
 reign and the amelioration of the 
 I <»ople. 
 
 " The vigour of a boundless imagination 
 told him how a phm might be disposed that 
 would embellish Nature and restore Art to 
 its proper office — the just improvement or 
 imitation of \t."—^ KX.V01M, Anecdotes of 
 Painting. 
 
 " The machine which we are inspecting 
 demonstrates by its construction, contri- 
 vance, and design. Contrivance must 
 have had a contriver, design a designer, 
 whether the machine immediately pro- 
 ceeded fi'ora another machine or not." — 
 Paley. 
 
 " The idea of the possibility of multiply- 
 ing paper money to almost any extent was 
 the real foundation of what is called the 
 Mississippi scheme, the most extravagant 
 project, both of banking and stock-jobbing, 
 that perhaps the world ever saw."— SMITH, 
 Wealth of Nations. 
 
 PLEADER. Advocate. De- 
 fender. 
 
 Taking these terms, not in their 
 technical, but their ordinary and con- 
 versational use, a Defender (Lat. 
 dejeiidtre, to defend) assists him who 
 or that which is attacked ; a Pleader 
 {see Pi.ea) is one who urges a require- 
 ment in favour of another or him- 
 self. 
 
 Advocate (Lat. advocdre, part, ad- 
 v'UcdtuSf to call to the side for support) 
 is employed of any who promotes by 
 words ; as, to advocate certain prin- 
 ciples. We defend persons ; plead 
 for their necessities; advocate their 
 caiiso. 
 
 '* No culprit ought to plead in irons. " — 
 
 OrRKK. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 017 
 
 ** The advocates thereof to be brandea 
 for incendiaries." — Milton. 
 
 " It would be ridiculous to suppose that 
 the defendant comes and defends, or in the 
 vulgar acceptation, justifles." — BlacK- 
 STONE. 
 
 PLEASURE. Comfort. Enjoy- 
 ment. Fruition. 
 
 Pleasure (Fr. plaisir, Lat. yilit- 
 cere, to please) is a very extensive 
 word, embracing almost every feeling 
 or sensation which is not painful, from 
 its lowest to its highest degree 
 
 Enjoyment {Fr.joie,joy, Lat. gau 
 dia, pi.) is keen pleasure specificallii 
 derived from a particular source. 
 
 Comfort (L. Lat. confortdre, to 
 rlrengthen) has acquired a twofold 
 meaning: 1, a state of quiet enjoy- 
 ment flowing from a sense of complete 
 supply of every want ; and 2, relative 
 ease afforded under mental trouble, 
 in which sense it is nearly the same 
 as consolation ; but consolation is more 
 active. We give consolation, ana 
 take comfort. Comfort, in this case, 
 applies to the mitigation of lesser 
 evils. 
 
 Fruition (L.a,t. frui, pdivt. fniit us, 
 to enjoy) is a term of the elevated 
 spiritual or rhetorical st^-le. It ex- 
 presses the pleasure and full satisfac- 
 tion that issues from possession. 
 
 "Where I mayhave/rwiYtonofher love." 
 —Shakespeare. 
 
 PLEDGE. Deposit. Security. 
 Earnest. Gage. 
 
 These tei-ms vary according to the 
 different interests which are consulted 
 or secured. A Pledge (O. Yv.pl^ge, 
 ]Mod. Fr. pleige, a pledge, snretu) is 
 something deposited with another a.s 
 a security for a debt or engagement, 
 enabling that person to verify and 
 claim the issue of it. It is commonly 
 given in return for a favour received 
 or a claim recognized. It is a specific 
 article. 
 
 Deposit (Lat. depontre, part. dlj))i- 
 sitxis, to put down) is very general, 
 and expresses any case in which a 
 part is lodged with another as a re- 
 sponsible keeper, in relation to the 
 whole as forthcoming It may be 
 anything of value, as a sum of monev. 
 
618 
 
 Sl:«ONYMS 
 
 [PLIABLEJ 
 
 A Security (Lat. securus, se nnd 
 cura, without care or anxiety) is 
 something given to place another be- 
 yond risk of loss, and applies, techni- 
 cally, to the document, transaction, 
 or source of this security. Pledges 
 and securities are commonly demanded 
 as well as given; a deposit is commonly 
 voluntary. Deposit, too, denotes 
 something movable ; Security may 
 be immovable property, as land. The 
 person himself may become a security. 
 In an extended sense anything may 
 be called a pledge which binds a per- 
 son after it is given to honour, inter- 
 est, or love. Children are pledges of 
 affection to the parents. Earnest, 
 like first fniits, is a part paid or 
 given, as a warrant that more is forth- 
 coming of the same kind. In the case 
 of Pledge, the forthcoming thing is a 
 definite and specific article; in the 
 case of Earnest, it is general and in- 
 definite. It may be, and generally is, 
 some act ; as a victory in a youthful 
 competition may be an earnest of 
 future energy and success in life. 
 A pledge binds us to payment, in- 
 demnification, or compensation of 
 some kind. It has regard to the ob- 
 ligation of the person giving it ; an 
 earnest has rather relation to the con- 
 fidence of the person receiving it. 
 
 ♦* But threw his gamitlet, as a sacred pledge 
 His cause in combat the next day to try." 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 "To them were committed the oracles 
 of God, that is, with them were entrusted 
 all the revelations of the will of God, the 
 law and the prophecies, as the people with 
 whom God thought fit to deposit these 
 things for the benefit of the world."— 
 Clarke. 
 
 "For your security from any treachery, 
 having no hostage worthy to countervail 
 you, take my word, which I esteem above 
 all respects."— SiDXEY, Arcadia. 
 
 "And when the Gospel is preached unto 
 us, we beleve the mercy of God, and in be- 
 leving we receave the Spirite of God, 
 which is the earnest of eternal lyfe.*"— 
 Tyndall. 
 
 The legal account of Earnest is thus 
 given by Blackstone : 
 
 " If any part of the price is paid down, if 
 it be but a penny, or any portion of the 
 goods delivered as earnest, which the civil 
 law calls arrha, and interprets tobeempti- 
 •nis veadrtfonis contractae argumentum. 
 
 the property of the goods is absolutely 
 bound by it." 
 
 A Gage (Fr. gage, Lat. vddium) is 
 specifically a pledge or security for 
 action or performance, to be forfeited 
 in case of non-performance. 
 " A moiety competent 
 "Was gaged by our king." Shakespeare. 
 
 PLIABLE. Pliant. Flexible 
 
 Supple. 
 
 Pliable (Fr. plier, Lat. 'pUcare, to 
 fold) is stronger than Pliant, which 
 has the same derivation. The stick 
 of a driving whip may be pliant; the 
 lash is pliable. A stick of wax, which 
 would only just bear bending with- 
 out breaking, we should call pliant 
 rather than pliable. Pliant may be 
 defined as capable of bending; Pli- 
 able of being bent about. 
 
 Flexible (Lat. JiexWilis) com- 
 monly imparts the idea of specific 
 purpose, and might be defined spe- 
 cifically pliable, or pliable for a par- 
 ticular purpose. As Pliable expresses 
 the nature, so Flexible implies anob- 
 iect, of the bending, and applies to 
 portions of the body bent about at 
 will. 
 
 Supple (Fr. so»p/e, Lat. snpplex) is 
 primarily usedof the joints of the body, 
 and of other substances analogously. 
 It denotes an easy, active, or, as it 
 were, willing pliability, and would be 
 inapplicable to substances which bend 
 sluggishly and by force, like sealing- 
 wax. In their metaphorical applica- 
 tion, a pliant disposition means easy- 
 going; pliable, easily affected and 
 altered by external influences. Flexi- 
 ble is employed of the mind and pur- 
 pose, denoting one whose determina- 
 tion may be changed, especially by 
 persuasion or entreaty. Supple has 
 sometimes the force of moulding itsell 
 to suit a purpose, especially the cha- 
 racter and tastes of another; a sup- 
 ple character, meaning one capable of 
 cringing ; but this is an employment 
 metaphorical rather than strictly 
 analogous. 
 
 " So is the heart of some men. When 
 smitten by God, it seems soft and pliable, 
 but taken off from the fire of afliiction, it 
 presently becomes horrid, then stiff, and 
 then hard as a rr-:k of adamant, or ri 
 
lPOLITEJ 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 619 
 
 the gates of death and hell. 
 Taylor. 
 
 -Bishop 
 
 So, physically, the finders of those 
 who are quick-handed might be called 
 Pliable; the arm of the agile, 
 Pliakt. 
 
 " The younger they are when they begin 
 with that art (of music), the more pliable 
 and nimble their fingers are touching the 
 instrument." — Sharp. 
 " Who foremost now delight to cleave. 
 With pliant arm, thy glassy wave." 
 
 Gray. 
 
 " "^hKh flexibility (of the spine), we may 
 also observe, varies in different parts of the 
 chain ; is least in the back, where strength 
 rather than flexure is wanted ; greater in 
 the loins, which it was necessary should 
 be more supple than the back ; and greatest 
 of all in the neck, for the free motion of 
 the head."— Paley. 
 
 *' This ^ives the mind a freedom, and 
 the exercising the understanding in the 
 several ways of inquiry and reasoning, 
 which the most skilful have made use of, 
 teaches the mind sagacity and wariness ; 
 and a suppleness to apply itself more closely 
 and dexterously to the bents and turns of 
 the matter in all its researches." — Locke. 
 
 FLIGHT. Predicament. 
 
 Plight (A. S. pliht, a wager, dan- 
 ger), meant originally risk ; and, as a 
 pledge is a matter of risk, so it came 
 secondly to mean a condition of risk, 
 danger, or difficulty. 
 
 Predicament is a term of scholastic 
 philosophy, the Latin pra:dtcdmenturri 
 being the translation of the Greek 
 xetTnyo^Uy a generalized mode under 
 which statements or propositions 
 could be made. According to Aris- 
 totle, these were ten in number — 
 substance, quality, quantity, relation, 
 action, passion, time, place, situation, 
 habit. Hence to be in a predicament 
 is to be emphatically in a state or 
 marked condition, and, by a peculiar 
 restriction, a condition of awkward- 
 ness or difficulty. Predicament is 
 commonly used of such embarrass- 
 ments as are consequent on our own 
 actions, and are of a moral nature ; 
 Plight, of such as are accidental, phy- 
 sical, or external. A man who by 
 oversight, for instance, has bound 
 himself to two diffisrent engagements 
 at different places at the same time, is 
 in a predicament. One who has fallen 
 into a ditch .in full dress is in a plight. 
 
 But the distinction is recent. In old 
 writers Plight has much the meaning 
 of predicament at present, and was 
 afterwards used in no unfavourable 
 sense, but in that of condition gene- 
 rally. So that "in good plight " w ould 
 involve no contradiction. 
 
 " For never knight I saw in such misseem- 
 ing plight" SpEKSER. 
 
 " woful sympathy, piteous prerficameJii." 
 
 POISON. VENOM. 
 
 Poison (Fr. poison, Lat. pottonem, a 
 draught, a poisonous draught), is gene- 
 ral, but commonly denotes what is re- 
 ceived into the system as such by the 
 mouth or the respiratory organs ; as, 
 hemlock or noxious gas. 
 
 Venom (Lat. vminum), what is dis- 
 charged from animals, and received 
 externally, as in the bite or sting of 
 the serpent or the scorpion. The me- 
 taphorical uses of the term corre- 
 spond to this distinction. The in- 
 stillation of false principles into the 
 mind is poisonous. The shafts of 
 malice are venomous. This distinc- 
 tion is not absolute ; for instance, "the 
 poison of asps is under their lips." 
 
 " As souls, they say, by our first touch take 
 
 in 
 The poisonous tincture of original sin." 
 Donne. 
 
 *' The God of truth defend you and all 
 other that maintain His truth from the 
 venomous poyson of lyars." — Strype. 
 
 POLITE. Polisued. Refined. 
 
 For Polite, as expressing the ex- 
 ternal manner, see Civil. 
 
 Polished (Lat. pUire, to polish) 
 may be applied to anything which 
 exhibits traces of finish in training 
 or preparation ; as a polished man, 
 polished manners, a polished dis- 
 course. IlEFiNED(prefix?-e-, and Fine, 
 which see) expresses anything which 
 shows that it is purified from what is 
 coarse, low, vulgar, or inelegant. 
 As Poute is opposed to rude, so 
 Polished is opposed to rough, and 
 Refined to coarse. Politeness and 
 polish are attributes of external 
 things ; refined, of the mind, thoughts 
 and feelings, training, education, and 
 principles, as well as manners and 
 
620 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [poLi ric] 
 
 speech. It may be observed that in 
 Politeness two things are needed — 
 the feeling of respect according to right 
 proportion, and due adherence to 
 conventional modes of expressing 
 such respect. Politeness is the result 
 of a perfect sense of propriety, ac- 
 quired by moving in the higher circles 
 of more refined society. True polite- 
 ness is not over-courteous to superiors, 
 nor over-affable to inferiors, but satis- 
 fies by a behaviour which weighs and 
 discriminates aright. Polite, unlike 
 PoLiiHED, which is exclusively ap- 
 plied as a generic quality to manners 
 and productions, is employed of 
 learning and literature. 
 
 "What but custom could make those 
 salutations polite in Muscovy which are 
 ridiculous in France or England? We call 
 ourselves, indeed, the ■politer nations ; but 
 it is we who judge thus of ourselves, and 
 fancied politeness is something more owing 
 to custom than i-eason," — WATTS, Logic. 
 ♦Though graced with polished manners 
 and fine sense." Cowper. 
 
 " This refined taste is the consequence of 
 education and habit; we are born only with 
 a capacity of entertaining this refinement." 
 —Reynolds. 
 
 POLITIC. PUUDENT. 
 
 Practically, these terms are often 
 nterchangeable ; but Puudent (Lat. 
 'jrudens, for prdvtdens, looking forward) 
 "s a term which conveys somewhat of 
 3ioral praise (see Prudence) ; while 
 Politic (Lat. pMiticus, belonging to 
 the city, or civil polity, Gr. mXig) ex- 
 presses only the more selfish side of 
 pnidence. As prudence is self-pre- 
 servation, so policy is self-seeking. A 
 prudent action involves reflexion and 
 self-conti-ol ; a politic action, worldly 
 wisdom and ingenuity. Politic had 
 originally the same meaning which 
 Political has now, and which it still 
 retains in such phrases as, *' body 
 politic," till it came to mean some- 
 thing of the character of personal 
 diplomacy. 
 " When that comes, think not thou to find 
 
 me slack 
 On my part aught ou'leavouj-mg, or to 
 
 need 
 Thy politic maxims." MiLTON. 
 
 " It is no disparagement to a wise man to 
 learn, and by suspecting the fallibility of 
 things, and his own aptness to mistake, to 
 walk prudently and safely with an eye t» 
 
 God, and an ear open to his stipenor."— 
 Bishop Taylor. 
 
 POMP. Magnificence. Sp;.f,n- 
 
 DOUR. 
 
 Pomp (Lat. pompa) is derived from 
 the Greek tto/attii, a sending or conduct- 
 ing ; hence, a procession. By an ex- 
 tension of meaning, it denotes a show 
 of magnificence. But the character of 
 pomp is always personal; and the 
 purpose of pomp is the exhibition of 
 what tends to exalt the dignity or im- 
 portance of persons. This character 
 IS more marked in the adjective pom- 
 pous, which, when said of persons, 
 denotes such a manner as betrays self- 
 importance. A pompous retinue. A 
 pompous military display is one of 
 which the object is to display the 
 power and importance of the state, 
 the army, the general, or the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 Magnificence and Splendowk lie 
 more inherently in the objects them- 
 selves. Magnificence (Lat. magntfi- 
 centia) is imposing from greatness, 
 costliness, and the like. Splendour 
 (Lat. splendorem ; splendere, to shine, 
 glitter) is dazzling from the bright- 
 ness and richness of the things exhi- 
 bited. The grand and the bright com- 
 bined make up the splendid. A vast 
 and finely-grown tree is magnificent 
 without being splendid. A magnifi- 
 cent army might mean one of the 
 finest and bravest men; a splendid 
 army, one richly conditioned or ac- 
 couti'ed. Magnificence is predicated 
 of objects of beauty on a large scale, 
 as scenery, animal forms, artificial 
 productions ; but not of human con- 
 duct. The materially prominent is 
 needed to make up the magnificent. 
 '• The mighty potentate, to whom belong 
 These rich regalia pompously displayed." 
 Young. 
 " Far distant, he descries. 
 Ascending by degrees magnificent 
 Up to the wails of heaven, a structar* 
 
 high." Milton. 
 
 " Millions of spirits for his fault amerced 
 Of heaven, and from eternal splendours 
 
 flung 
 For his revolt." Ibid, 
 
 POOR. Indigent. Nekdv. Ne- 
 cessitous. Penurious. 
 Of these terms, Poor (0. Fr.potre, 
 
positionJ 
 
 Anire^ Lat, pawph'etn) must be re- 
 i;arded as the simplest and most gene- 
 ric ; the othere expressing some mode 
 or aspect of poverty. 
 
 Indigent (Lat. indigentein, part. 
 of indigere, to want) denotes a rela- 
 tive poverty ; poverty in respect to 
 su-jh things as are naturally or neces- 
 sarily pertinent to a man's state, cir- 
 cumstances, or position in life, and is 
 commonly applied to persons of some 
 standing in society. We should not 
 speak of a common beggar as indi- 
 gent. Needy is a term which ex- 
 presses not so much the severe pres- 
 sure, as the petty inconveniences and 
 privations of poverty. The needy 
 man is he who never has quite enough 
 for his wants. Necissitous has much 
 the same meaning, but is capable of 
 application to a specific condition. 
 We should say a necessitous rather 
 than needy condition ; a needy rather 
 than necessitous person. It is re- 
 markable that, while the substantive 
 Penury (Lat. penuria, want, need) 
 expresses permanent and abject want, 
 especially as the result of imprudence 
 or misfortune, as in the phrase, " to 
 be brought to penury," the adjective 
 Penurious is well-nigh restricted to 
 the meaning of exhibiting penury to- 
 ward others, or treating one's self penu- 
 riously. Hence the word is equiva- 
 lent to niggardly or parsimonious. 
 Poor may be employed in reference 
 to the want or absence of anything 
 that has value, even to impersonal ob- 
 jects. A thing is poor as a production 
 of literature, science, or art. So a 
 person may be poor in some respects, 
 not in others. 
 
 *' Hath not God chosen the poor of this 
 world, rich in faith, and heirs of the king- 
 dom which He hath promised to them that 
 love Him? But ye have despised the poor." 
 —English Bible. 
 
 The Poor, unlike the rest designated 
 by the other synonyms, are a pei-ma- 
 nent class of society, as distinguished 
 from the rich. 
 
 " Themistocles, the great Athenian gene- 
 ral, being asked whether he would choose 
 to marry his daughter to au indigent man 
 of merit, or to a worthless man of an estate, 
 replied that he should prefer a man with- 
 out an estate to an estate without a man." 
 —Spectator. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 621 
 
 '♦ Spare the blnshes of needi/ merit." 
 
 DwiQHT. 
 "There are multitudesof necessifoMs heirs 
 and penurious parents." — Arbuthnot. 
 
 POSITION. Place. Situation. 
 Station. Location. Locality. 
 
 Position (Lfit. pMtionem, a placing^ 
 has both a subjective and an objective 
 meaning; that is, it denotes the state 
 or manner of being placed, and so is 
 synonymous with placement or atti- 
 tude, or the spot where something is 
 placed. Out of these, metaphorical 
 or analogous senses naturally flow. 
 Position is complex placement, that 
 is, it regards the placing of a thing, 
 both in the whole and in detail. If 
 Position be used physically, it is 
 voluntarily assumed ; if morally, it is 
 that in which persons find themselves 
 often against their inclination. 
 
 Place (Fr. place, Lat. pldtta, a 
 broad road or square) is purely objec- 
 tive, denoting a separate or distinct 
 portion of space, and sometimes that 
 portion specifically occupied by a 
 body. The meanings whicn the word 
 also bears of rank, office, and the like, 
 are no more than analogous applica- 
 tions of this. Where Position is used 
 as synonymous with Place, it signifies 
 place as it concerns or affects the per- 
 son or thing placed. Hence to say that 
 a house is in this or that place, is no 
 more than to say that it stands here or 
 there. That it is in this or that posi- 
 tion, means that it bears certain rela- 
 tions more or less advantageous to the 
 objects by which it is surrounded. In 
 this sense position nearly coincides 
 with Situation (Lat. situs, a site). 
 Situation may be defined "relative 
 position." It involves the nature or 
 character of the position. Station is 
 a fixed and definite place of staying cr 
 stopping (Lat. stdtionem, from stare, 
 to stand), with the idea of antecedejH 
 and subsequent progress or movement 
 more or less strongly implied. It 
 sometimes denotes habitual stay. Sta- 
 tion is only employed of persons ot 
 animate objects, or what are consi- 
 dered as such. It often means social 
 position. 
 
 Location (Lat. l6cationem,aplacing), 
 like most words of similar formation^ 
 
622 
 
 gfNONYMS 
 
 'POSSESSi 
 
 stands both for the act and the result * 
 of locating. The difference is to be 
 observed between Locality and Loca- 
 tion. Locality is objective, location 
 subjective. Locality is place regarded 
 externally to the object located; loca- 
 tion is place regarded relatively to it, 
 and in connexion with it, and the as- 
 signment of it. Hence the locality of 
 a thing is that place which belongs to 
 it by nature or by accident; its location 
 that in which it has been fixed as an 
 act of appointment. 
 
 "We have different prospects of the same 
 thing, according to our different positions to 
 it."— Locke. 
 
 " What place can be for us within heaven's 
 bound ? " Milton. 
 
 " The word place has sometimes a more 
 confused sense, and stands for that space 
 which any body takes up ; and so the uni- 
 verse is a place." — Locke. 
 
 The situation of a thing or person is 
 the correlative of the condition ; that 
 is, the situation is the state in refe- 
 rence to external objects or influences. 
 The condition is the internal state ir- j 
 respectively of such externals. 
 
 " Nor did the shores and woods appear 
 less destitute of wild fowl, so that we hoped 
 to enjoy with ease what in our situation 
 might be called the luxuries of life." — 
 Cook's Voyages. 
 
 " Besides, it were a coward's part to fly 
 Now from my hold that have let out so 
 
 well; 
 It being the station of my life, where I 
 Am set to serve and stand as centinel. 
 
 Daniel. 
 
 " A lot of earth so singularly located as 
 marks it out by Providence to be the em- 
 porium of plenty, and the asylum of peace." 
 —Observer. 
 
 Locality differs from Place in pos- 
 sessing, besides the meaning of mate- 
 rial placement, the abstract quality of 
 existing in place. 
 
 *' It is thought that the soul and angels 
 are devoid of quantity and dimension, and 
 that they have nothing to do with grosser 
 locality."— GIjXNYIUj. 
 
 POSSESS. Have. 
 
 Have (,A. S. habban, allied to Lat. 
 cUptre, to take) is a simpler and wider 
 term than Possess (Lat. poss^dire), 
 possession being a mode of having. 
 Generally it may be said that one has 
 what is p8.rt or or closely connected 
 vith one s self. One possesses what 
 
 is external to one's self, but appropria- 
 ted for certain purposes. I have or I 
 possess an estate ; but I have, not I 
 possess, a bad cold. When Possess is 
 used of what is internal to one's self, 
 the thing is regarded externally; 
 that is, in reference to its use and 
 purpose, rather than the subject in 
 which it resides. Thus a man has 
 legs by virtue of his human organiza- 
 tion. He possesses legs, as being an 
 animal gifted with that particular 
 means of locomotion. So, in reference, 
 not to what a man is, but what he 
 does, or is capable of dojlng, we say, 
 that he possesses reason and certain 
 mental faculties or powers. To have 
 generally expresses a transitory, to 
 possess a more permanent, power or 
 control. To possess is always there- 
 fore to have ; but to have is not always 
 to possess. A man is said to have 
 money, which is, however, always 
 changing and circulating, and to pos- 
 sess a house, lands, and the like. We 
 are masters of what we possess, not 
 always so of what we have. 
 
 It is not necessary that a thing should 
 be actually in our hands, or that we 
 should have the power of disposing of 
 it in order to have it. It is enough 
 that it belongs to us. But in order to 
 possess a thing, it is necessary that 
 It should be in our hands, and that we 
 should have the power of enjoying or 
 disposing of it. The miser has money 
 in his coffers ; he can hardly be said 
 to possess it, rather he himself is pos- 
 sessed by the spirit of avarice. 
 " It is held 
 That valour is the chiefest virtue. 
 And most dignifies the haver." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " If the soul is not in the very time of 
 the act in the possession of liberty, it cannot 
 at that time/be in the useof it." — Edwards, 
 On the Will. 
 
 POSTERIOR. Subsequent. 
 
 That is Posterior which comes later 
 (Lat. posterior) in time or place. That 
 is. Subsequent (Lat. subs^ui, to follow 
 upon) which succeeds in order. What 
 takes place at one period of history 
 may be erroneously confounded with 
 a posterior event of like character. 
 What is obscure in a document may 
 be illusti-ated by a subsequent clause. 
 
[praise] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 623 
 
 POUR. Shed. Spill. 
 
 Poun (etymol. uncertain) is to 
 cause to flow in a profuse manner. 
 The term is indicative of design, or at 
 least arrangement as to the source 
 and quantity in the matter ; as, " the 
 clouds pour down rain." 
 
 Spill (A. S. spillaiif to spill) is 
 more limited as to quantity, and com- 
 monly implies accident, though not 
 absolutely, as the spilling of blood in 
 a duel. Yet even here the action is 
 indirect. 
 
 Sued (A. S. sceddati) is to give forth 
 with acertain pro fuseness, though not 
 necessarily in a liquid form (to which 
 Pour also is not absolutely restricted), 
 of what formed part of, or Avas inti- 
 mately connected with, the body from 
 which the matter is parted ; as, a man 
 sheds his blood or the blood of an- 
 other. A tree sheds its leaves; a 
 bird, its feathers; serpents, their 
 skins, and the like. 
 "A multitude, like which the populous 
 
 North 
 Poured never from her frozen loins to 
 
 pass 
 Rhene or the Danaw." Milton. 
 
 " The shedding trees began the ground to 
 
 strow 
 With yellow leaves, and bitter blasts to 
 blow." Dryden. 
 
 " He who would have shuddered to spill 
 a drop of blood in a hostile contest as a pri- 
 vate man, shall deluge whole provinces as 
 an absolute prince."— Kxox. 
 
 POVERTY. Destitution. Pau- 
 perism. 
 
 Poverty (Fr. pauvrete, Lat. pau- 
 pertdtein) is lack of wealth. Desti- 
 tution (Lat. destitutionem, aforsaking, 
 a desertion) is lack of resources of 
 living. Pauperism is the social or 
 political state or treatment of the 
 poor. 
 
 PRAISE. Applaud. Approve. 
 Commend. Extol. 
 
 To Praise (O. Fr. preis, value, 
 merit, Lat. pritium) is, literally, to 
 set a high value upon, and, by a fur- 
 ther extension of meaning, to express 
 .t in words, and is the generic term. 
 
 Applaud (Lat. applaiidcre, to clap 
 the hands) is to praise with some de- 
 gree of excited feeling, and in a de- 
 
 monsti'ative way. As praise ought to 
 be judicious, and the result of judg- 
 ment, so applause is commonly the 
 result of a satisfaction or approval 
 quickly excited, and is given to minor 
 performances ; as, we might applaud 
 a rope-dancer without praising him ; 
 that is, without any expression o* 
 moral feeling ; we express our admi- 
 ration of his mere skill. 
 
 To Extol (Lat. extollcre, to raise, 
 elevate) denotes a sustained expression 
 of praise for lofty acts, or character, 
 and usually in lofty language. 
 
 Approve (O. Fr. approver, Lat. ap- 
 probare) is a much milder term, and 
 denotes no more than the entertain- 
 ment of a judgment in favour either of 
 persons or acts and proceedings, with 
 an understanding in many cases that 
 it is expressed ; but approval is al- 
 ways specific, while praise may be 
 general. We praise a man generally, 
 or his character. We appro-e his 
 acts or his conduct in particular 
 cases. 
 
 To Commend (Lat. commenddre) 
 means, in the first place, to intrust, 
 and afterwards to mention as worthy 
 of trust; that is, to praise. It differs 
 from Praise, in tliat praise may be the 
 expression of the attributes of the ex- 
 cellent for its own sake ; while Com- 
 mend implies an act of judgment on 
 our part, which precedes the expres- 
 sion. Commendation is a moderate 
 degree of praise. We praise, but could 
 never presume to commend, the Al- 
 mighty. We bestow commendation. 
 We offer as well as bestow praise. 
 Praise and commendation are by 
 speech ; applause may be by act. 
 Praise may be general or specific; 
 commend is specific. We praise a 
 man's character generally, or big con- 
 duct on a given occasion. We com- 
 mend some act in particular. Com- 
 mendation is the expression of ap- 
 proval. 
 
 " If these words have any meaning at all, 
 by praise they must mean the exercise or 
 testimony of some sort of esteem, respect, 
 or honourable regard. " — Edwards, On the 
 Will. 
 
 " The Greeks have a name in their Ian 
 guage for this sort of people, denoting tha 
 they are applauders by profession, and we 
 
(124 
 
 stigmatise them with the opprobrious title 
 of table-flatterers."— Melmoth, Pliny. 
 As Praise and Applaud have refe- 
 rence to liuman character and acts, so 
 Extol is sometimes used of what has 
 no direct connexion with these, as vir- 
 tue in the abstract, or some particular 
 virtue, or something which is simply 
 excellent or practically beneficial, as 
 an institution, form of government, 
 and the like. When Extol is used of 
 persons it commonly indicates conside- 
 rable elevation in the person extolled. 
 Hence applause is of acts or perfor- 
 mances regarded as acts accomplished. 
 We may praise, approve of, or com- 
 mend what a man is doing, we applaud 
 ■what he has done. We applaud under 
 feelings of approbation suddenly ex- 
 cited. We praise by reason. We 
 applaud by impulse. 
 
 " Extollers of the Pope's supremacy." — 
 Barrow. 
 
 *• Those very exceptions which our Saviour 
 makes are a proof that in every other case 
 He approves and sanctions the duty of rest- 
 ing on the Sabbath day."- -Bishop Por- 
 TKUS. 
 
 " He had mean better than his outward 
 
 show. 
 Can any way speak in his just commend t 
 For by his rusty outside he appears 
 To have practised more the whip-stool: 
 
 than the lance." Shakespeare. 
 
 PRAY. Supplicate. Conjure. 
 
 The idea common to these terms is 
 that of asking with ardour and sub- 
 mission of those who are in a condi- 
 tion to grant the object of our desire. 
 As between man and man, Suppli- 
 cate (Lat. suppiicare) is more re- 
 spectful than Pray. It indicates a 
 more lively desire and a more urgent 
 need. 
 
 We Pray (¥r.prier) our equals and 
 our friends to do us some service. We 
 supplicate princes or persons in power 
 to accord us some favour or render us 
 justice. But ae between man and 
 God we use both terms : we pray as 
 an act of homage,and supplicate as an 
 act of entreaty. 
 
 To Conjure (Lat. conjurare, to 
 unite under an oath) is not only to 
 pray earnestly, but to rest our prayers 
 upon some appeal whicli gives them 
 additional weight. 1 conjure you by 
 
 SYNONYMS [pray] 
 
 your father or mother, your professed 
 friendship for myself, your sense of 
 duty or of right, and the like. This 
 gives to Conjure an element of supe- 
 riority which does not belong to 
 prayer and supplication. There ia 
 mixed with the idea of entreaty that 
 of a righteous coercion, as if he who 
 conjured had on the ground of that 
 by which he conjures a right, if not 
 to the granting of his prayer, at least 
 to a favourable consideration of it. At 
 the same time we are not said to con- 
 jure in reference to God. 
 
 PRECARIOUS. Uncertain. 
 
 The Precarious (Lat. precarius^ 
 obtained by entreaty) is a species of 
 the Uncertain. Derived from the 
 Latin prtcdri, to pray, it signified pri- 
 marily that which is contingent upon 
 the will of another to grant. It retains 
 its etymological force so far that it re- 
 lates always to matters of personal 
 interest, or aflTecting the condition of 
 men. Matters of fact are uncertain ; 
 matters of possession or acquisition are 
 precarious. A thing is uncertain 
 until it is determined. It is precarious 
 until it is assured or secured to our- 
 selves. 
 
 "That consideration which carries the 
 mind the most forcibly to religion, which 
 convinces us that it is indeed our proper 
 concern, namely, the precariotlsness of our 
 present condition." — Paley. 
 
 PRECEDENCE. Priority. Pre- 
 eminence. Preference. 
 
 Precedence (Lat. j[)?'«cedere, to so 
 before) is matter of privilege, a dis- 
 tinction of rank or priority of con- 
 sideration. It also denotes priority 
 of time and order. 
 
 Priority (Fr. priority, Lat. prioi y 
 earlier) denotes an anterior point 
 either of time or order, without im 
 plying necessarily anything else. 
 
 Pre-kminence (Lat. prcB-'emHn- 
 entia) is absolute priority of nature 
 or quality, more commonly, but not 
 universally, in a good sense. 
 
 Preference (0. Fr. prijere'^f Lat. 
 preeferre, to prefer) is the deliberate 
 selection of a thing or person, as 
 being worthy of higher estimation, 
 
[pkecise] 
 
 or the state of a thing or person so 
 selected. 
 
 *' The younger sons and daughters of the 
 king, and other branches of the royal fa- 
 mily who are not in the immediate line of 
 BUfcession, were therefore little farther re- 
 garded by the ancient law than to give 
 them, to a certain degree, precedence before 
 all peers and public officers, as well eccle- 
 siastical as temporal." — Blackstone. 
 
 " In payment of debts he must observe 
 the rules of priority, otherwise, on de- 
 ficiency of assets, if he pays those of a lower 
 degree first, he must answer those of a 
 higher out of his own estate. "— Black- 
 STOXE. 
 
 "The sense of sight, accordingly, main- 
 tains pre-eminence over our other senses in 
 furnishing materials to the power of con- 
 ception." — Stewart. 
 
 " I trust it will be allowed by all, that in 
 
 every act of will there is an act of choice, 
 
 that in every volition there is a preference 
 
 a prevailing inclination of the soul." 
 
 -Edwards, On the Will. 
 
 PRECEDING. Antecedent. 
 Anterior. Foregoing. Former. 
 Previous. Prior. 
 
 Antecedent (Lat. anttcidentem, 
 part, of antecedire, to go before), Pre- 
 ceding, Foregoing, and Previous 
 (Lat. prcevius, going before) are used of 
 what goes before; Anterior (Lat. 
 comparative of ante, before), Former 
 (A. S.forma, early, former, and suffix 
 -er), and Prior (Lat. prior), of what 
 exists before. Antecedent relates 
 onlj to the order of time, denoting 
 priority in an established course or 
 sequence. Anterior is opposed to 
 posterior ; antecedent to subsequent. 
 Antecedent and Preceding differ 
 in that the former may be separated 
 from the point or object to which it 
 relates by a considerable interval, 
 while the latter excludes this. Pre- 
 vious has a less abstract force than 
 preceding. Thus a preceding in- 
 quiry is merely an inquu-y that went 
 before; a previous inquiry would 
 have in it something of a relative 
 character, as preparatory or prelimi- 
 nary. Foregoing is the same as Pre- 
 ceding, but is restricted to matters 
 of statement, and also implies a rela- 
 tive character ; as, the foregoing ar- 
 gument. We do not speak of fore- 
 going efvents. 
 
 Former is restricted to a compari- 
 
 DISCRIMINATEU 
 
 625 
 
 son of one object with one other, na 
 opposed to latter, and connected with 
 no other idea than that of priority in 
 time. 
 
 PRECIOUS. Valuable. Costl/. 
 
 Of these terms, Valuable (Lat. 
 vnlire, to be loorth) is the weakest and 
 most indefinite, inasmuch as it de- 
 notes any degree of value, and may 
 even be opposed to valueless. 
 
 Precious (Lat. prttiosus, prttium, 
 price) expresses the possession oi 
 great value. The value of the pre- 
 cious is inherent ; that of the Costly 
 (O. Fr. coster, Lat. constdre, to stand 
 at, to cost) is conventional and ex- 
 trinsic. A precious stone is synony- 
 mous with a jewel. A costly stone 
 would be any which had been largely 
 paid for. An elaborate work of art, 
 as a carved mantel-piece, would be 
 costly rather than precious ; but we 
 speak of valuable, not costly, paint- 
 ings, because they do not present 
 criteria of marketable value. 
 
 '♦ In the precious metals, where a small 
 difference in the quantity makes a great 
 difference in the value, even the business 
 of weighing with proper exactness requires 
 at least veiy accurate weights and scales." 
 —Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 The precious is commonly not re- 
 markable for quantity, but for quality. 
 A thing having no commercial value, 
 which therefore could, under no cir- 
 cumstances of e,xchange, be costly, 
 may nevertheless be precious to us by 
 reason of its associations, as, for in- 
 stance, on account of the giver. 
 
 " Besides, there lies a nearer way for 
 good qualities to arrive at their valuable- 
 Tiess; for we find the very sight of them 
 raising an esteem in the beholder, without 
 staying for the benefits to be received from 
 them."— Search. 
 
 " Sir John Gates, vice-chamberlain to the 
 king, who was now grown into great favour, 
 obtained another part ; for the king gave 
 him all the duke's rich furs, and much of 
 his costlj/ household stuff." — Strypb. 
 
 PRECISE. Concise. Succinct. 
 
 Precise (Lat. prxcidh-e, pracisus, 
 to cut short) relates to what one says, 
 Concise (Lat. concid^re, to cut up) to 
 the manner of saying it. The one re- 
 gards the thing as its object, the 
 other the expression. The speech, 
 narrative, or style which is precise 
 
626 
 
 SYNONYMS [PREDOMINANl j 
 
 does not wander from the subject, re- 
 jects ideas foreign to it, and disre- 
 gards all that is not directly to the 
 point and purpose. The concise states 
 and explains much in a few words, 
 and discards all superfluities of speech. 
 The opposite of the precise is the dis- 
 cursive, the opposite of the concise is 
 the diffuse. The precise is always 
 good ; the concise may be too con- 
 tracted for vulgar ears, which will 
 more easily take in what is stated at 
 greater length. A trained understand- 
 ing is needed for the concise, lest what 
 is too compressed may pass by un- 
 heeded or unappreciated. Common 
 understandings can appreciate what 
 is precise. 
 
 The Succinct (Lat. succingcre, to 
 gird from helow, to gird up) aims at 
 o^iving a faithful impression, exclud- 
 ing all useless ideas, and choosing 
 those only which are essential to the 
 end in view. The succinct is the 
 opposite of the amplified or expanded. 
 
 PREDOMINANT. Prevailing. 
 Prevalent. Ruling. 
 
 That is said to be Ruling (Fr. 
 regie, Lat. rcgiiia, rule) which exer- 
 cises a decided influence over one or 
 more in reference to moral, but not 
 physical, influence. So we should 
 not speak of a i-uling sickness or dis- 
 ease, but of a ruling fashion, for in- 
 stance. 
 
 Prevailing and Prevalent (Lat. 
 "prxvUl'cre, to have great power), how- 
 ever, are used both of moral or phy- 
 sical influences; butPREVAiLiNG lends 
 itself more readily to the former, Pre- 
 valent to the latter. The prevailing 
 feeling in a community ; a prevalent 
 disease. The noun prevalence seems 
 equally applicable to both. 
 
 Predominant, as the word indi- 
 cates (Lat. prcE, before, and diimiiidri, 
 to rule) is overruling or exercisino- a 
 force or influence to the suppression 
 of others. Prevalent, however, ex- 
 presses more of energy than Prevail- 
 ing. A prevailing belief is one which 
 is widely spread ; a prevalent opinion, 
 one which exercises a wide influence. 
 Prevailing and Prevalent relate to 
 numbersorarea of extension ; Ruling 
 and Predominant, to inherent ft rce. 
 
 The ruling passion is that which ex- 
 ercises the strongest sway, not neces- 
 sarily over a number, but over the 
 individual. 
 
 " Ahnost every one has a predominant in- 
 clination, to which his other desires and 
 affections submit, and which governs him, 
 though perhaps with some intervals,through 
 the whole course of his life." — Hume. 
 What generally prevails is prevalent: 
 what actually prevails is prevailing. 
 A ruling passion sways the life; a 
 predominant passion will not allow 
 others to assert the mastery ; a pre- 
 valent passion is permanently influen- 
 tial ; a prevailing passion is the pas- 
 sion of the hour or the day. 
 "At length that grounded maxim, 
 So rife and celebrated in the mouths 
 Of wisest men, that to the public good 
 Private respects must yield, with grave 
 
 authority 
 Took full possession of me, and prevailed." 
 Milton. 
 
 "Condillac has certainly contributed more 
 than any other individual to the prevalence 
 of the logical error now under considera- 
 tion,"— Stewart. 
 
 PRE-EMINENCE. Superiority. 
 
 Pre-eminence (Lat. pr(e-emmentia) 
 is superlative, Superiority (Lat. 
 sYiperiorttdtem, superior) is compara- 
 tive. A man is superior to one or 
 more or all others ; he is pre-eminent 
 above all others. Besides this, the 
 teimsPRE-EMiNENCE and Superiority, 
 when used Avithout qualifications, 
 turn upon different qualities. Pre- 
 eminence is a matter of dignity, supe- 
 riority of intrinsic qualities. Supe- 
 riority, it has been said, depends upon 
 the height of the figure, pre-eminence 
 on the height of the chair. 
 
 PREFACE. Prelude. Intro- 
 duction. 
 
 Preface is compounded of pree, 
 before, and /an", to speak ; Prelude, 
 of pr<£, before, and ludere, to plaxj. In 
 their common usage, this distinction 
 of ideas is preserved. 
 
 A Preface is made up of pre- 
 liminary words ; a prelude of pre- 
 liminary acts. Although a Prelude 
 is commonly used of conscious acts, 
 as ushering in subsequent acts or 
 events, it is also, by an exten- 
 sion of meaning, sometimes used of 
 
[PRESUMEJ 
 
 DI8C11IMINATED. 
 
 G27 
 
 events abstractedly, as indicating 
 others which follow by relation or se- 
 cjuence ; as, "The ^rowlin^ of thunder 
 is a prelude to the coming storm." 
 On the other hand, a preface is always 
 an indication of design. It is the lay- 
 ing down of something which shall 
 prepare the mind for subsequent state- 
 ment or representation. 
 
 Introduction (Lat. introdnctre, to 
 bring in) has in it more of relation to 
 the condition of the person whose re- 
 quirements it meets, Preface and 
 Trelude to the character of the thing 
 which it demonstrates beforehand. 
 Preface hasa closer andexacter,PuE- 
 LUDE a remoter and more general con- 
 nexion with that which it precedes. 
 A preface is intended for the better 
 understanding of what follows. A 
 prelude brings the mind into a temper 
 and attitude to receive it. An intro- 
 duction is literally an arrangement 
 which enables a person the better to 
 enter into a thing whether with his 
 body or his mind. 
 
 " It is a great beauty in an introduction 
 when it can be made to turn on some one 
 thought fully brought out and illustrated, 
 especially if that thought has a close con- 
 nexion with the following discourse, and at 
 the same time does not anticipate anything 
 that is afterwards to be introduced in a 
 more proper place." — Blair. 
 •• As when of old some orator renown'd 
 In Athens, or free Rome, where eloquence 
 Flourished, since mute, to some great cause 
 
 add rest, 
 Stood in himself collected ; while each 
 
 part. 
 Motion, each act, won audience, ere the 
 
 tongue ; 
 Sometimes in height began, as no delay 
 01 preface brooking, through his zeal of 
 
 right." Milton. 
 
 " The moving storm 
 Thickens amain, and loud triumphant 
 
 shouts. 
 And horns, shrill-warbling in each glade, 
 
 prelude 
 To his approaching fate." Somervile. 
 
 PREPOSSESSION. Prejudice. 
 
 The common distinction drawn be- 
 tween these words is that they both 
 express a judgment formed before- 
 hand, and without full inquiry; 
 while in the case of Prepossession 
 (pre-, and possession) it is favourable, 
 and in Prejudice (Lat. prajud'icium, 
 < previous judicial tnquiri/) it is un- 
 
 favourable. But a further dilFerence 
 has to be noted. Prejudice relates 
 only to questions of practical, while 
 Prepossession is applicable to those 
 of purely theoretical, judgment. For 
 instance, a person might commence 
 the study of astronomy, prepos- 
 sessed with the idea that the moon 
 was larger than the sun. This, 
 though a prepossession, would not 
 be a prejudice- It deserves to be 
 remarked that falsehood or unfair- 
 ness is implied both in Prejudice 
 and Prepossession, and that precon- 
 ceived or premature judgments hap- 
 pening to be right are not provided for 
 in the terms. A con-ect prejudice and 
 a right prepossession are, according 
 to usage, moral contradictions, though 
 they are not so in fact, by rea- 
 son of the instinctive tendency of 
 our minds to relegate to the category 
 of the positively false all mattei-s of 
 mere anticipation by conjecture. Both 
 Prejudice and Prepossession involve 
 a mingled state of feeling and opinion 
 respecting a person or other object ; 
 but feeling is the more influential in 
 prepossession ; opinion, in prejudice. 
 
 " Let us suppose for a moment that this 
 happy aer?, were arrived, and that all the 
 prepossessions of childhood and youth were 
 directed to support the pure and sublime 
 truths of an enlightened morality." — 
 Stewart. 
 
 " If, after all his profession, he cannot 
 bear any opposition to his opinion, if he 
 cannot so much as give a patient hearing, 
 much less examine and weigh the argu- 
 ments on the other side, does he not plainly 
 confess it is prejudice governs him ? " — 
 Locke. 
 
 PRESUME. Assume. 
 
 These verbs are compounds of the 
 Lat. siimtre, to take ; the latter being 
 to take to one's self, the former to 
 take beforehand. To assuite is to 
 take something for proved or granted 
 which has not been so. To presume 
 is to believe beforehand, to forestull 
 evidence. I assume for the purpose 
 of argument. I presume possibly for 
 the same purpose, but on the ground 
 of an inherent probability. This 
 comes out much more strongly in the 
 nouns. An assumption is only an 
 arbitrary statement or adoption of 
 opinion. A presumption is an item 
 
628 
 
 SYNONYMS [pretence] 
 
 in a sum of probabilities. Repeated 
 assumptions severally break down the 
 argument. Repeated presumptions 
 may constitute moral certainty. 1 
 may assume in argument what I sus- 
 pect or disbelieve, and allow it to 
 pass to the account of that argument 
 if the question of its truth is to me 
 indilFerent. I assume as a basis of 
 opinion. I presume the opinion itself. 
 For instance, one might say to another, 
 " Assuming that you are rightly in- 
 formed, and in earnest, I never heard 
 so extraordinary an account." Here 
 the belief is in abeyance, because it is 
 contingent upon the seriousness and 
 veracity of the speaker, while there is 
 as yet no proof. " I presume that you 
 are serious and truthful " amounts to 
 saying that I nm inclined to believe 
 it. One cannot presume what is con- 
 trary to analogy. It is waste of time 
 to assume in argument what your ad- 
 versary would never concede. Pre- 
 sumption, though always founded 
 upon reason, being a reasonable fore- 
 stalling of proof, nevertheless varies 
 widely in degree of force or truth. 
 Some presumptions are only conjec- 
 tures. On the other hand a strong 
 presumption is an instalment of the 
 proof, being the proof itself in course 
 of transformation from probability 
 into certainty. 
 
 "The consequences of assumed prin- 
 ciples."— Whewell. 
 
 " When the fact itself cannot be demon- 
 sti'atively evinced, that which comes nearest 
 to the proof of the fact is the proof of such 
 cii-cumstances which either necessarily or 
 usually attended such facts, and these are 
 c&Wed presumptions."— BIjXCKSTOne. 
 
 PRETENCE. Pretext. Excuse. 
 Pretension. 
 
 Pretence and Prktensiom (Lat. 
 ■prcKtendcre, to stretch or put forward) 
 differ as the false from the real. A 
 pretence is a show in act or in word 
 of what has no real existence in one's 
 self, a justification of one's conduct 
 before others in some fictitious way, 
 or a fictitious assumption of what 
 does not really belong to us. It in- 
 volves both the exhibition of some- 
 thing unreal, and tlie concealment of 
 something real. Pretension, as the 
 word is commonly taken, is the setting 
 
 forward or putting before the public 
 something which really belongs to us, 
 or at least a claim which we are pre- 
 pared to vindicate, and involves no 
 concealment whatever, except where 
 a public claim is made to what is in 
 itself untenable. Pretei.sion is active 
 and demonstrative: pretence is de- 
 fensive on account of others. It is 
 commonly connected with personal 
 character or abilities, and Avhere 
 ungrounded is the result of miscal- 
 culation. 
 
 Pretext (Lat. prcetexh-e, to weave 
 before, or iii front) is anything which 
 is put forward as the ostensible 
 ground of action, and is relative to 
 something lying beyond it, and justi- 
 fied by it. A pretext is a false or 
 colourable vindication of action. Pre- 
 text differs from Excuse (Lat. eicu- 
 sare, to excuse) as the asserter from 
 the disclaimer. A pretext declares a 
 thing to be right ; an excuse declares 
 it to be only permissible, if not wrong. 
 A pretext is a ground of independent 
 action; an excuse involves a condi- 
 tion of dependence on the judgment 
 of others. A false excuse is a pre- 
 tence. PRETExrand Pretence are also 
 different. The pretext deceives as to 
 facts ; the pretence, as to conse- 
 quences. The former conceals the 
 true; the latter puts forward the 
 false. The pretence disguises the 
 motive ; the })retext covers the act. 
 If we say, " Religion has often been 
 used as a pretext for persecution," we 
 mean that it has been employed to 
 compass the perpetration of certain 
 acts of cruelty. When we say, "He 
 obtained money under false pre- 
 tences," we mean, he induced others 
 by his misrepresentations to act upon 
 false grounds in giving him the money. 
 The pretext exists in fact, but is un- 
 fairly employed or applied. The pre- 
 tence has no existence. If a child 
 makes indisposition a pretext for idle- 
 ness, he is not so ill as he pretends to 
 be ; if he makes it a pretence, he is 
 not ill at all. 
 
 " I believe, upon a due survey of history, 
 it will be found that the most considerable 
 villainies which were e^er acted upon the 
 stage of Christendom have been authorised 
 with the glistering pretences of conscience 
 
[pride] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 629 
 
 and the introduction of a greater purity of 
 religion."— South. 
 
 " He said there were some among them 
 that, under colour and pretext of honesty, 
 did commit many lewd parts." — North, 
 Hutarch. 
 
 " You see that an opinion of merit is dis- 
 couraged, even in those who had the best 
 pretensions to entertain it, if any preten- 
 sions were good."— Paley. 
 
 " In vain would his excusers endeavour to 
 palliate his enormities by imputing them to 
 madness." — SwiFT. 
 
 PRE^^ENT. Anticipate. Ob- 
 viate. Preclude. Forestall. 
 
 To Prevent (Lat. prcevtnire, sup. 
 'Ventuniy to go before, anticipate) is lite- 
 rally to go before simply, and in old 
 English meant to go before with the 
 implied purpose of aiding, as it now 
 implies a purpose of counteracting. 
 It differs from Anticipate (liat. an- 
 iicipare) as the negative from the 
 positive ; to prevent being to cause a 
 thing not to be done or take place ; to 
 anticipate is to cause it to take place 
 or effect by doing it or bringing it 
 about one's self or in one's own way. 
 I prevent another from making a re- 
 mark by saying or doing something 
 which silences him. I anticipate him 
 by making it myself. The anticipa- 
 tion of pleasure is a part of the plea- 
 sure, and often the best and purest 
 part. 
 
 To Oi3ViATE (Lat. ohviare, to meet 
 on the road) is to place a thing in the 
 way, or inteiTupt the course of things ; 
 hence, specifically, to prevent a thing 
 from taking its com*se. To obviate is 
 to prevent by interception. We pre- 
 vent by direct action upon a thing ; we 
 obvia'.e by means of something else as 
 a mrdium. Obviate never has the 
 purely physical sense of Prevent ; as 
 wc could not say, "To obviate a man 
 from passing along a particulai* road." 
 It denwtes not necessarily the bringing 
 Df design to bear upon the natural 
 force and sequence of things, for cir- 
 cumstances may obviate. 
 
 To Preclude (Lat. pvtzcludh^ef to 
 ^ovbid access to) is to shut out by an- 
 deipation, or to prevent by necessary 
 5onsequence. To prevent removes 
 orce; to obviate neutralizes force. 
 Ill tliose synonyms are applicable 
 
 both to conscious and uticoriscious 
 force. To prevent a difficulty, would 
 be to cause the difficulty not to occur. 
 To preclude the difficulty, would be 
 to render it impossible that it should 
 occur. To obviate the difficulty, would 
 be to neutralize it wheii it did occur. 
 Hence we coiqmonly speak of pre- 
 venting occurrences, obviating neces- 
 sities, precluding possibilities, sup- 
 positions, or contingencies. The 
 permissible or possible is precluded ; 
 the urgent or cogent is obviated. 
 
 " For physick is either curative or pre- 
 ventive. Preventive we call that which, by 
 purging noxious humours and the causes 
 of diseases, preventeth sickness in the 
 healthy, or the recourse thereof in the 
 valetudinary."— Brown, Vulgar Errors. 
 " Time 1 thou auticipatest my dread ex- 
 ploits." Shakespeare. 
 
 " The following outlines will, I hope, not 
 only obviate this inconvenience, but will 
 allow me in future a greater latitude of 
 illustration and digression." — Stewart. 
 
 "The design of subscription being to 
 preserve one uniform tenor of faith, to 
 preclude diversity of opinions." — Water- 
 land. 
 
 Forestall (lit. to buy up before it is 
 placed in the market-stall) is to antici- 
 pate, and so prevent the action of 
 some influence, power, or person. It 
 involves the ideas of prior occupation 
 or measures taken in advance, where- 
 by the thing anticipated is monopo- 
 lized, or turned to one's own account. 
 He who forestalls another takes to hig 
 own benefit the object of another 
 man's endeavours. One forestalls by 
 vigilance, by diligence, by prompti- 
 tude of action, by a more skilful use 
 of means, by a better acquaintance 
 of the relation between causes and 
 effects. 
 " Why need a man forestall his date of 
 
 grief. 
 And run to meet what he would most 
 avoid ? " Milton. 
 
 PRIDE. Disdain. 
 
 The first of these words is taken 
 both in a good and a bad sense, the 
 latter only in a bad. In the sense in 
 which they are synonymous, they 
 denote a sentiment which induces 
 us to avoid familiarity with others 
 on the ground of a feeling of their 
 inferiority in birth, talent, property, 
 
630 
 
 or station ; with this difFerence, that 
 PniDE is founded on the high conside- 
 ration of ourselves, Disdain on the 
 lOw consideration of others. The 
 latter is, therefore, the more odious 
 and intolerable, because it seems the 
 more active or aggressive. If the 
 object be to procure eocial esteem or 
 respect, they must be considered 
 Kjually ineffective to this end. With 
 proud persons one can hardly venture 
 to speak, especially to speak familiarly. 
 Disdainful persons are best avoided 
 altogether. It is easier to say what 
 pride is not than what it is. It is not 
 simply the vanity which prunes itself 
 on little peculiarities, nor the pre- 
 sumption which considers itself ca- 
 pable of great things, nor the disdain 
 which adds contempt of others to a 
 high opinion of one's self; but it is 
 closely allied to all these defects, and 
 partakes of the spirit of all. 
 
 PRINCIPLE. Element. Rudi- 
 ment. 
 
 These terms are used physically 
 and metaphysically, or analogously. 
 
 Physically, the Phinciple of a 
 thing is its cause — that which has 
 nothing prior to it. This is the simple 
 sense of the Latin principium, begin- 
 ning. In this sense of starting-point, 
 the term is in English well-ni^h obso- 
 lete. " Doubting, sad end of princi- 
 ple unsound,*' wrote Spenser, — that is, 
 sad end of unsound beginning. Hence 
 it means an ultimate source or origin of 
 physical things, whether an enei-gy, 
 a substance, or an element or ulti- 
 mate ingredient. In science and in 
 morals the seeming vagueness of the 
 term Principle flows from its twofold 
 nature as a starting-point of inquiry. 
 The principles of mathematics are 
 axioms and postulates. The prin- 
 ciples of morals are said to be certain 
 self-evident truths. But that which 
 is first in the synthetical is last in the 
 analytical ])rocess, and so a principle 
 according to the former is an initia- 
 tory item, according to the latter is an 
 ultimate conclusion. In chemistry 
 what is called a principle in sub- 
 stances is not an ingredient from 
 which one passes on to other ingre- 
 dients, but a substance obtained and 
 
 SYNONYMS [PIIINCIPLEJ 
 
 exhibited by analysis. In matters of 
 science principles are general! rules of 
 which the science is the applicaticii 
 and development. 
 
 The Elemknts (Lat. tlcmentiim) of 
 a science are its beginnings. He who 
 has learnt the elements of it has made 
 the first complete step in the know- 
 ledge of it. On the other hand, to 
 know its principles is to know the 
 philosophy of it. The element in phy- 
 sics is the ultimate indecomposable 
 ingredient (ultimate in point of inves- 
 tigation, primary in point of natural 
 constitution), which goes to make up 
 a substance. 
 
 The Rudiment (Lat. riidimentuin) 
 is an incomplete development of the 
 first stage in the existence of any thing 
 complex or organized. 
 
 PRIVACY. Retirement. Soli- 
 tude. Seclusion. Loneliness. 
 
 Privacy (Lat. pnvatus, part. pj"t- 
 vdre, to bereave, to set free) is opposed 
 to publicity, and is a condition of per 
 sons. 
 
 Retirement (Fr. retirer, to draw 
 back) is a condition both of places and 
 persons. Privacy may be of short 
 duration ; retirement implies a longer 
 duration. Hence we say, " hours of 
 
 privacy 
 
 'a life of retirement." 
 
 Solitude (Lat. solttudinem) and 
 Seclusion (Lat. sicludere, to shut offy 
 part, scclusus) imply more than this 
 —an absence from all society ; while 
 both Privacy and Retirement are 
 compatible with the companionship of 
 a few, but in different senses. Seclu- 
 sion is the extreme of retirement. Se- 
 clusion is sought ; solitude may be 
 imposed. The prisoner in his com- 
 pulsory confinement is not said to be 
 in seclusion, though the word etymo- 
 logically expresses this exactly. Nor 
 is Solitude applicable to persons col- 
 lectively, but individually. The in- 
 habitants of a retired village might be 
 said to live in seclusion, but hardly in 
 solitude. 
 
 Loneliness (lone, corr. of alore) 
 has been well defined the solitude of 
 the heart. Some have never felt 
 more lonely than in a crowd, where 
 it bas been an utterly strange and un- 
 
[proceed] 
 
 sympathizing one; the very fact of 
 the mere external publicity'bringing 
 home the more forcibly the feeling of 
 moral isolation. As Privacy is op- 
 posed to Publicity, so Retirement 
 may be opposed to sociality ; Soli- 
 tude, to society ; Seclusion, to so- 
 ciability; Loneliness, to companion- 
 sbip. Privacy is sought for the 
 sake of any employment with which 
 publicity intei*feres. Retirement is 
 sought for purposes of reflexion, or 
 as a relaxation after public duties. 
 Seclusion commonly indicates a pecu- 
 liar humour or constitution of mind. 
 Solitude may be voluntary or involun- 
 tary ; loneliness is involuntary. 
 
 " Which fair and happ7 blessing thou 
 
 Tnight'st well 
 Ha>e far more raised, had not thine 
 
 enemy 
 Retired : privacy made thee to sell 
 Thy greatness for thy quiet." Daniel. 
 
 " He was banished into Patmos, a little 
 island in the archipelago, and during his 
 retirement there was favoured in a particu- 
 lar manner with revelations from heaven, 
 which he committed to writing, and left 
 behind him for the benefit of the Church." 
 — Watkrland. 
 
 " At which this honest man. 
 Finding that naught but hate and scorn he 
 
 wan, 
 Amongst these idiots and their beastly 
 
 kind. 
 The poor, small remnant of his life behind 
 Determineth to solititde to give. 
 And a true hermit afterward to live." 
 
 Drayton. 
 " The invisible mansion of departed 
 spirits, though certainly not a place of penal 
 confinement to the good, is nevertheless 
 in some respects a prison. It is a place of 
 seclusion from the external world." — 
 Bishop Horsley. 
 
 PROCEED. Advance. 
 
 To Proceed (Lat. "procldtre) is 
 simply to go on; to Advance (Fr. 
 avancer) is to go forward. He pro- 
 ceeds -who does not halt. He ad- 
 vances who makes ground and is 
 growing nearer to a proposed point. 
 We cannot advance without proceed- 
 ing; but we may proceed without 
 advancing. To Advance regai'ds the 
 end, to Proceed, thebeginning, of our 
 journey. In advancing we are nearer 
 to a point before us; in proceeding 
 we leave a point behind us. How ob- 
 vious is the difference between "to 
 
 DISCRIMINATED, 
 
 631 
 
 proceed with one s studies," and " to 
 advance in one's studies " ! 
 
 " Farther advances in mathematical 
 
 knowledge."— Locke. 
 
 •* Then he forth on his journey did pro- 
 ceed 
 
 To seek adventures which mote him 
 befall." Spenser. 
 
 PROCEED. Arise. Flow. Em.v 
 NATE. Issue. Spring. 
 
 The two first of these terms are 
 employed to express the course of 
 cause and effect; but Proceed 
 lends itself more readily to moral, 
 Arise (A. S. dHsan, to arise) to phy- 
 sical, sequence and causation. So we 
 might say, with nearly equal pro- 
 priety, " His cordial reception arose 
 cr proceeded from his popularity," 
 inasmuch as the circumstance is re- 
 garded both as an external fact or 
 occurrence, and as a moral result ; 
 but we should say, "The scanty har- 
 vest arose," not proceeded, "from 
 the drought." Simple causation, too, 
 is best expressed by Arise; complex, 
 by Proceed. 
 
 Flow (A. S. Jlowan, to flow) and 
 Emanate (hat. cmandre, to flow out 
 of) are metaphorical terms, and are 
 therefore best employed when the 
 metaphors are best preserved. To 
 Flow denotes continuity and abun- 
 dance; Emanate, little more than 
 source and origin. "All these sad 
 occurrences have flowed from a bad 
 system of administration." "The 
 timely hint emanated from his good* 
 nature." Em an atf., in spite of its de- 
 rivation, is not employed simply of 
 fluid. The water is not said to ema- 
 nate fi-om the fountain. It is em- 
 ployed of fine and subtle substances, 
 as light vapour, odour, minute cor- 
 puscles. The ideas of the term are 
 first source and origin, then spread or 
 influence. Acts emanate from autlio- 
 rity, and laws from a sj'Stem of 
 government. It is seldom used of 
 foolish, weak, or deleterious influ- 
 ences. 
 
 Issue (Fr. J5s», part, of issir,Lat.exire, 
 to go out, to end) and Spring differ in 
 that Issue takes into consideration the 
 end as well as the beginning ; whii* 
 Spring (A. S. spring, a spring, foun' 
 
632 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [proceeding] 
 
 tain-hend) regards only the begin- 
 ning. " Such attempts spring from 
 ignorance, and must issue in failure." 
 We might say also, " issue from ig- 
 norance." Spring more strongly 
 iftarks the relation of cause and effect ; 
 while Issue often denotes little more 
 than the relation of antecedent and 
 consequent. Actions are said to spring 
 from feelings which are their motives. 
 " Teach me the various labours of the 
 
 moon. 
 And whence jyroceed th' eclipsesof the sun." 
 Dryden. 
 '• Yet many will presume ; 
 Whence heavy persecution shall arise 
 On all who in the worship persevere 
 Of spirit and truth. " MiLTON. 
 
 " Those thousand decencies that daily y?ow 
 From all her words and actions." Ibid. 
 
 " That subsistiHg form of government 
 from which all laws emanate." — De Quiif- 
 CEY. 
 
 «' From this Supreme Being, from this 
 eternal fountain of all truth and of all 
 good gifts, there issues light which lighteth 
 eveiy one which cometh into the world." — 
 JOKTIX. 
 
 "Also it is necessarie to uuderstande 
 whennes that sinnes sprivgen and how they 
 encresen, and which they lien." — Chaucer. 
 
 PROCEEDING. Procedure. 
 Process. Procession. 
 
 A Proceeding is a complex action 
 capable of being distinguished as to 
 its parts, steps, or stages. Proce- 
 dure is proceeding in the abstract, 
 that is, the act or manner of proceed- 
 ing; the Process is the proceeding- 
 regarded as separate or apart from the 
 agent, more especially as something 
 conducted by method and rule. The 
 Procession is the movement, as the 
 Procedure is the mode, of pi oceeding. 
 See Train. 
 
 "What could be more fair than to lay 
 open to an enemy all that you wished to 
 obtain, and to desire him to imitate your 
 ingenious proceeding."— 'Bxj'RKK. 
 
 "If the external procedures of God's 
 providence be the rule to measure His love 
 or hatred by, then it cannot be avoided but 
 that the rich and powerful have the fairest 
 plea for heaven, and the martyr the shrew- 
 dest marks of approbation," — South. 
 
 In Old English the word Process was 
 used to signify detailed description, 
 or the account of what we now call a 
 process, as in the following of Shake- 
 B pea re : — 
 
 " In brief, to set the needless /Jrocess by. 
 How I persuaded, how I prayed and 
 
 kneeled. 
 How he repelled me, and how I replied." 
 
 PRODUCE. Product. Produc- 
 TiCN. Manufacture. 
 
 Produce (Lat. produccve, to lead 
 forward, to beget) is now restricted to 
 what is naturally produced from any 
 source, as by the soil in vegetation, 
 but for useful purposes, and in the ag' 
 gregate ; as the produce of a poultry 
 yard, a farm, a field. Product is 
 specific, in the sense of that which is 
 produced by some operation in par- 
 ticular, whether mental, moral, me- 
 chanical, or natural. Production is 
 used both of the operation and the 
 result of producing. In the latter 
 sense, it is not confined to the useful 
 or the natural, but is applicable to the 
 ornamental and the artistic. The 
 production may be viewed simply as 
 a phenomenon in itself. The pro- 
 duct has a theoretical or material 
 value. 
 
 " It is evident he means not only exter- 
 nal actions, but the acts of choice them- 
 $elves, when he speaks of all free actions as 
 the produce of free choice." — Edwards, 
 On the mil. 
 
 " Man is the flower and chief of all pro- 
 ducts of Nature upon this globe of the 
 earth." — More. 
 
 " The value of land consists in this, that 
 by its constant production of saleable com- 
 modities it brings in a certain yearly in- 
 come." — Locke, 
 
 Manufacture (Lat. mitnufactus, 
 made by the hand) includes both manual 
 and mechanical operation ; but it is 
 confined to the process of reducing 
 raw materials to forms convenient for 
 use. The work of art, or the article 
 of food, or the dwelling, is not said to 
 be manufactured. Manufacture is the 
 application of science, art, and force, 
 whether manual or mechanical, to the 
 productions of skilled labour. 
 
 " A trading and manufacturing country 
 naturally purchases with a small part of its 
 manufact2ired produce a great part of the 
 trade produce of other countries." — Smith 
 Wealth of Nations. 
 
 PRODUCTION. Work. 
 
 Production is fi'om the Latin pro- 
 ducere, to brin^ forth 01 forward, one 
 of its j)rincipal meanings being to giv« 
 
[profession] discriminated. 
 
 633 
 
 birth, hence to bring to light by inhe- 
 rent causation or efficacy. This is tlie 
 peculiar force of the term Productiox. 
 ft is so that we speak of the produc- 
 tion of nature, of the earth, of the hu- 
 man mind, of anything which gives 
 existence, which brings forth a thing 
 from its own substance or stock. 
 
 WoHK (A. S. iveorc) is the result of 
 eftbrt and labour, as a work of indus- 
 try or of art. One speaks of the 
 work, not the production, of the car- 
 penter and the stonemason. The 
 production is the issue of fecundity, 
 the work is the result of travail. The 
 production comes forth from the pro- 
 ductive causes,the work from the hands 
 af the skilful or industrious workman. 
 I'he production receives a being, the 
 work a form. The tree is a production 
 of the earth, the timber formed out of 
 this production becomes a work, by 
 the shape given to it. The universe 
 is a production of infinite power, a 
 work of infinite intelligence. It is 
 evident that the same things may be 
 often regarded in the light of a pro- 
 duction or an art, in proportion as an 
 original creative faculty or an opera- 
 tive process is under contemplation. 
 We may speak of the productions of 
 art or of nature. But a book which 
 was an abridgement or a translation of 
 another, not having invention, would 
 be a work, not a production. This 
 term would belong to the original 
 from which it was abridged. 
 
 PROFANATION. Sacrilegk. 
 Desecration. 
 
 Profanation (Lat. ■pr6fanatibnem) 
 is an ii-reverence or outi-age committed 
 against the sacred tilings of religion. 
 
 Sacrilege (Lat. saonltgiiim) is a 
 crime committed against the Deity 
 himself. It is a profanation of a 
 church to put it to vile uses ; it is sacri- 
 lege to rob it, because sacred things 
 having been dedicated to the service 
 of God, this is to rob God himself. 
 To complete the idea of Sacrilege and 
 Profanation it is necessary that there 
 should be an intention of a criminal 
 kind. 
 
 Desecration (Lat. de, from, sCtcer, 
 uicred ; disecrare being to consecrate) is 
 
 a milder term, and may be the result 
 of ignorance or even necessity. It 
 means the treating in any way which 
 is not distinctive reverence. It some- 
 times happens that a church is no 
 longer required, or that no funds re- 
 main to support it. It is made use of as 
 a store-house. This is not a purposed 
 profanation of the holy place, yet a 
 I esecration which all thoughtful per- 
 sons would depl«re. 
 
 PROFESS. Declare. 
 
 To Profess (Lat. ■profiten, part. 
 proj'essus) is employed only of what 
 relates td one's self. To Declare (see 
 Declare) is employed of any fact 
 coming within one's cognizance. 
 There is always a particular and pri- 
 vate motive for profession. A decla- 
 ration may be made on any account, 
 as, for instance, in obedience to duty, 
 or for the sake of another. 
 
 " Luther that professed openly to abhore 
 al that might be uoted Papish, defended 
 stoutly the presence of Christes bodie in 
 the Sacrament, and to be present really 
 and substantially even with the same words 
 and termes," — lip. Gardner. 
 
 PROFESSION. Trade. Bvsi- 
 NESS. Art. 
 
 BusiN ESS is the most general of these 
 terms, and comprises any exercise of 
 knowledge and experience for pur- 
 poses of gain. Wiien learning or 
 skill of a high order is required, 
 it is called a Profession. When it 
 consists of buying and selling mer- 
 chandise, it is a Trade (Fr. traite, 
 Lat. trdhcre, part, tractus, to draw or 
 cai-ry). When there is a peculiar ex- 
 ercise of skill, it is called an Art. 
 Those exercise an art who exchange 
 skilled labour for money ; those a 
 trade, who exchange commodities for 
 money ; those a profession, who ex- 
 change intellectual exertion for money. 
 The art of the baker lies in making 
 loaves; his trade, in selling them. 
 
 *' Amongst so many gi-eat foundations of 
 colleges in Europe, I find strange that they 
 are all dedicated to professions, and none 
 left free to arts and sciences at large." — 
 Bacon, 
 
 "A bank cannot consistently with its 
 own interest advance to a trader the whole. 
 or even the greater part of the circulating 
 
634 
 
 capital witli which he ^rr7flfes."— Smith, 
 Wealth of Nations. 
 
 " It seldom happens that men of a 
 ^tadiaus turn acquire any degree of reputa- 
 tion for their knowledge of Ousiness" — 
 Bishop Porteus. 
 
 "Art can never give the rules that make 
 nn ar•^"— BuRKK. 
 
 PROFICIENCY. Improvement. 
 Pkogress. 
 
 Proficiency (Lat. proftctre, to 
 make progress) is more marked than 
 Improvement (prefix im-and O. Fr. 
 prover, probdre, to approve of). In re- 
 gard to persons Improvement is em- 
 ployed of tilings both manual and 
 mental, active and reflexive ; Pro- 
 ficiency is employed more commonly 
 of matters of practical skill or active 
 exercise of mind. Any degree of 
 better condition, capability, or per- 
 formance is Improvement; but Pro- 
 ficiency denotes such a degree as finds 
 the person in possession of a positive 
 power and skill. 
 
 Progress (Lat. progrtdi, part, pro- 
 gressus, to go forward) is more indefi- 
 nite, expressing movement onvv'ards, 
 without implying any point gained. 
 Improvement may be predicated of 
 any thing which is capable of existing 
 in degi'ees of better or worse. Pro- 
 ficiency regards only the agent. Pro- 
 gress belongs to the work. Personal 
 improvement is more general than 
 proficiency. Improvement betokens 
 a better state, proficiency an in- 
 creased skill or ability in some one 
 particular. It deserves to be remarked 
 that the English word improve is 
 vitious, being a coined word with the 
 meaning of approve. 
 
 " The clergy in particular, as they then 
 engrossed almost every other branch of 
 learning, so, like their pred£cessors, the 
 British Druids, they were peculiarly re- 
 markable for their proficiency m the study 
 of the law."— Blackstone. 
 
 " Reflect upon that great law of Nature, 
 that exercise is the chief source of improve- 
 ment in all our faculties."— Blair. 
 
 "Growth is progress, and all progress 
 designs and tends to the acquisition of some- 
 thing which the growing person is not yet 
 possessed of." — South. 
 
 PROFUSENESS. Profusion. 
 PiiOFusENESs^'Lat pr'iifundcre, part. 
 
 SYNONYMS [proficiency] 
 
 pr'dfusus, to pour forth) is simply the 
 quality or exhibition of the profuse. 
 Profusion is the existence of the pro- 
 fuse in what is desirable or good. 
 Profuseness of epithets; profusion of 
 praise. Profuseness is the quality 
 which, as a cause, produces profusion 
 as a result. 
 
 " He who with a promiscuous, nndistin- 
 guishing profuseness does not so much dis- 
 pense as throw away what he has, proclaims 
 himself a fool to all the intelligent world 
 about him." — South. 
 
 " The raptured eye, 
 The fair profusion, yellow Autumn spies." 
 Thomson. 
 
 PROHIBITION. Inhibition. 
 
 Prohibition (Lat. prohibitionem) 
 and Inhibition (Lat. inhibere, to re- 
 strain), the former bein^ literally to 
 abolish and the latter to liold in, have 
 this distinction in usage. The prohi- 
 bition stops a man from doing a thing, 
 the inhibition stops him after he has 
 begun to do it. Prohibit implies no 
 motive in particular, Inhibit implies 
 the desire to stop what is contrary to 
 established order. One forbids what 
 ought not to be done; one prohibits 
 what might otherwise be done ; one 
 inhibits persons from doing what they 
 have assumed the right of doing. 
 Forbid is the generic tenn. Prohi- 
 bition belongs to government and 
 discipline. Inhibition has a technical 
 force as belonging to law. In this 
 case it is authority exercised to compel 
 adherence to law. 
 
 PROMISCUOUS. Indiscrimi. 
 
 NATE. 
 
 Promiscuous (Lat. promiscuus, 
 mixed, promitciious) is a term ap- 
 plied to objects; Indiscriminate 
 (Lat. indiscriminitim, without distinc- 
 tton), to actions. A promiscuous 
 crowd ; an indiscriminate accusation. 
 The promiscuous appearance of seve- 
 ral objects brought together may be 
 owing to the indiscriminate way in 
 which they have been dealt with. 
 
 " Say, Muse, their names then known, who 
 
 first, who last. 
 Roused from the slumber on that fiery 
 
 couch. 
 At their great emperor's call, *» next io 
 
 worth. 
 
[promote] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 635 
 
 Came singly where he stood oa the bare 
 
 strand. 
 While the promiscuous crowd stood yet 
 
 aloof." Milton. 
 
 " Since, then, in our own order of being, 
 the power of the individual over external 
 bodies is not at all proportioned to his piety 
 or his morals, but is exercised indiscrimi- 
 ■nately, and in equal degi'ees, by the good 
 and by the bad, we have no reason from ana- 
 logy to suppose but that the like indiscrimi- 
 ruitio7i may obtain in higher orders, and 
 that both the good and evil angels may ex- 
 ercise powers far transcending any we 
 possess, the effects of which to us will 
 seem preternatural."— Bishop Horsley. 
 
 PROMISE. Engagement. 
 
 Promise (Fr. promesse, Lat. promit- 
 th-e, part. promissuSf to promise) is used 
 directly of the object, as to promise a 
 gift. We do not say, to engage a 
 gift, but to engage that the person 
 shall receive it. 
 
 An Engagement (Fr. engager, to 
 impledge ; gage, a pledge, Low Lat. 
 vHduun) is only in this sense a stronger 
 word than Promise, by which it is in- 
 tended to express that the promiser 
 feels as if he had put liimself under a 
 pledge to execute his promise. " I 
 promise that you shall have it, "means, 
 simply, " I give you my word that I 
 will give it to you." " 1 engage that 
 you shall have it," means, " 1 pledge 
 everything in my power to cause you 
 to have it." The word of the pro- 
 miser is, as it were, put in pledge, 
 though no actual pledge is given. It 
 is like saying, " I pledge my word 
 that it shall be so. Promise sup- 
 poses an accordance where all the 
 gain is on the side of the person to 
 whom the promise is made, and all 
 the power of benefiting on the side of 
 the person who makes the promise. 
 Engagement supposes an agreement 
 in which the advantages are on both 
 sides. One promises to do another a 
 service, one engages to deliver goods 
 at a certain time and place, for which 
 he who receives them engages to pay. 
 
 " Christian simplicity relates to promises 
 and acts of grace and favour, and its caution 
 is that all promises be simple, ingenuous, 
 agreeable to the intention of the promiser, 
 truly and effectually expressed, and never 
 giving less in the performance than in the 
 promises and words of the expression." — 
 Bishop TAYiiOR. 
 
 " The king objected that the rendezvous 
 being appointed for the next week, he was 
 not willing to quit the army till that was 
 passed ; because if the superior officers pre- 
 vailed, they would be able to make good 
 their engagement, if not, they must apply 
 themselves to him for their own security." 
 — Ludlow, Memoirs. 
 
 PROMOTE. Advance. Forward. 
 Encourage. 
 
 We speak of Promoting (Lat. pr5- 
 m'dvire, part, promotxis, to muke to move 
 Jh-wards) interests, of Advancing 
 (Fr. avancer) causes, of Forwarding 
 plans or purposes, and of Encourag- 
 ing (Fr. encourager, ca-ur, the heart) 
 eflforts. The last application is a 
 little distorted, inasmuch as to En- 
 courage meaning to give heart, it is, 
 strictly speaking, only persons that can 
 be encouraged. We encourage an 
 undertaking by lending countenance 
 and strength to those who undertake 
 it. Promote is used both of good and 
 evil designs or movements ; Advance, 
 only of good. We might speak of 
 promoting happiness and contentment 
 or discontent and disturbance. We 
 should speak of advancing happiness, 
 not unhappiness ; here we should use 
 Promote. To promote seems to mean 
 no more than to give additional in- 
 fluence ; to advance, to do so in cases 
 where such influence is a fair object 
 of desire. Forward is a simpler term, 
 but is always more closely connected 
 with persons. We should endeavour 
 to advance the truth on all occasions, 
 and to forward the efforts of those 
 to whom it is dear, but never believe 
 that we can promote good in any way 
 by promoting persecution. 
 
 " All my mind was set 
 Serious to learn and know, and thence to do 
 What might be public good; myself, 1 
 
 thought 
 Born to that end, born to promote all truth. 
 All righteous things." Miltox. 
 
 " True religion is the best support of 
 every government, Trhich being founded 
 on just principles, proposes for its end 
 the joint advancement of the virtue and 
 the happiness of the people."— Bishop 
 Horsley. 
 
 " The occasional propensity to this super- 
 stition (of symbolic figures) was, without 
 qnest\on, forivarded and encour^g''.d by the 
 priesthood." — W arburton. 
 
63G 
 
 PROMOTION. Advancement. 
 Preferment. Aggrandizement. 
 
 As applied to the raising of persons 
 in their social position, Pkomotion 
 seems restricted to those offices which 
 are held in a scale of gradation, as in 
 the array, navy, government offices, 
 and mercantile houses. Advance- 
 M ENT is a general term, applicable to 
 any raising of individual position ; 
 while Preferment (Lat. prtEj'erre, to 
 place before) involves some peculiar 
 greatness or dignity of office in that 
 to which the person is preferred, 
 especially in Church or State. Ag- 
 grandizement is applicable not only 
 to persons, but also to families and 
 communities; it is advancement in 
 rank, power or honour. That which 
 is aggrandized becomes socially 
 greater. 
 
 " Can place so lessen us or aggrandize." 
 Young. 
 
 " The government is elective ; promotion 
 depends in a great degree upon talents and 
 virtues, and consequently there is a stimu- 
 lus to exertion, and a scope for honourable 
 ambition." — EuSTACE, Italg. 
 
 " Those that are advanced by degrees are 
 less envied than those that are advanced 
 suddenly." — Bacon. 
 
 " Sir Antonio More was made receiver of 
 the revenues of West Flanders, a prefer- 
 ment with which they say he was so elated, 
 that he burned his easel, and gave away 
 his painting tools." — Walpole, Anecdotes 
 of Painting. 
 
 PROMULGATE. Publish. Di- 
 vulge. Reveal. Disclose. (5ee 
 Disclose.) 
 
 Promulgate (Lat. promulgdre, to 
 make known, publish) is a mode of 
 Puulishing (Fr. publier, Lat. pubti- 
 care, publicus, public, for piiptWicus, 
 from piipiilns, the people) ; for to Pub- 
 lish is indefinite, and means simply 
 to make generally known, as facts ; 
 while Promulgate is to make exten- 
 sively known, to give a wide, and, if 
 possible, extending, publicity. Nor 
 is it applied to facts, but rather to 
 principles, opinions, doctrines ; hence 
 promulgation is not only publication, 
 but systematic and often repeated 
 publication. 
 
 Divulge (Lat. cTivulgdre, to make 
 commonly known) is to make known 
 ««'hat was known only to one's self or 
 
 SYNONYMS [promotion] 
 
 to a few, or which there was some 
 propriety or obligation of keeping 
 secret. Divulge often refers to • 
 breach of confidence, but does not 
 necessarily imply this. 
 
 To Reveal (literally, to draw back 
 the veil, Lat. reveldre, which hid an ob- 
 ject) differs from Divulge, inasmuch 
 as Reveal implies no more than the 
 bare fact of antecedent ignorance, not 
 any propriety or obligation of con- 
 cealment. To divulge is to give 
 knowledge of facts before kept secret. 
 To reveal is this, and more. It is 
 applicable to what was unknown from 
 being high, abstruse, or mysterious. 
 It applies also to principles as well as 
 facts, and to knowledge in its broadest 
 acceptation. 
 
 All these differ from Disclose (O. 
 Fr. desclos, part, of des-clorre, to un- 
 close), in that Disclose may express 
 the accidental or unintentional, while 
 they involve a purpose. We reveal 
 that which is to their interest to know 
 to whom the revelation is made. We 
 divulge what is to the interest of some 
 not to make known. 
 
 *' An absurd theory on one side of a ques- 
 tion forms no justification for alleging a 
 false fact or promulgating mischievous 
 maxims on the other." — Burke. 
 " How best the mighty work He might 
 
 begin. 
 Of Saviour to mankind, and which way 
 
 first 
 Publish His God-like office, now mature." 
 Milton. 
 
 " Descamps says that this mystery, as it 
 was then held, was stolen from Vaillant by 
 the son of an old nian, who scraped the 
 grounds of his plates for him. This might 
 be one of the means of divulging the new 
 art (of mezzotinto)." — Walpole. 
 " Early the morrow next before that day. 
 
 His joyous face did to the world reveal. 
 They both uprose and took their ready 
 way 
 
 Unto the church, their prayers to ap- 
 peal." Spensek. 
 
 ** Thus it was then, and thu« it hath been 
 ever since, Truth has had concealed and 
 timorous friends, who, keeping their senti- 
 ments to themselves or disclosing them only 
 to a few, complied with eiTors and snpersti- 
 lions which they disliked and despised."— 
 Jortin. 
 
 PRONOUNCE. Utter. Articu- 
 late. Deliver. 
 What is given forth by the voice as 
 
[proof] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 637 
 
 mere sound may be said to be Ut- 
 YERfiD (A. S. iit, out, compar. utor). 
 
 What is spoken in distinct syllables 
 is Articulated (Lat.arf&(i/af»s, part. 
 o£ arttciUare, to articulate). What is 
 spoken m harmonious, proportioned, 
 and sustained articulation is Pro- 
 nounced, as words or sentences. 
 
 What is given forth by sustained 
 pronunciation is Delivered (Fr. de- 
 livrer, to release). Thus do these terms 
 grow upon one another, as sound, 
 syllables, words,andspeech. Pronounce 
 has the general meaning of making 
 to understand by means of the voice 
 in articulate speech. Man alone 
 utters intelligent speech, though some 
 birds can articulate syllables and 
 words. Difference of climate and 
 habit renders the inhabitants of one 
 countiy almost incapable of pro- 
 nouncing certain syllables in the lan- 
 guage of another, yet practice will 
 overcome such difficulties. The same 
 '■vords are pronounced differently in 
 different provinces of a country, or by 
 the educated and uneducated. 
 
 " In order to be fully and easily under- 
 st ;od, the four chief requisites are a degree 
 c loudness of voice, distinctness, slowness, 
 «4nd propriety oi pronunciation." — Blair. 
 
 •' The ashen beam, his power of utterance 
 
 left 
 Still unimpaired, butm the dust he fell." 
 CoWPER, Iliad. 
 
 " They must be put into his (the cate- 
 f hist's) hands the moment they are capable 
 of articulating their words, and their in- 
 struction must be pm-sued with unremitting 
 diligence." — Bishop Porteus. 
 
 PRONOUNCE. Declare. 
 
 As applied to the making known by 
 rerbal utterance, Declare denotes 
 the clear and positive assertion of a 
 thing; Pronounce denotes such a 
 declaration as rests, in some degree, 
 upon individual responsibility. We 
 declare facts, intentions, and the like ; 
 we pronounce sentence, judgment, an 
 opinion. 
 
 *' But the attorney answered them that 
 he is not the declarer of his intention : he 
 must be judged by tte book, by his words, 
 more certainly by the effect." — State 
 Trials. 
 
 " The confident and pronunciative school 
 of Aristotle."— Bacon. 
 
 PROOF. Testimony. Evidence. 
 Deposition. 
 
 Proof (Fr. preuve, Lat. pr'Ubdre, to 
 vrove, approve) is used in two senses : 
 1, any effort or process whicli tenda 
 to establish a fact or truth ; and 2, 
 such an amount of it as shall lead to 
 conviction, and produce belief. Being 
 a simpler werd than Testimony (Lat. 
 testimonium, from testis, a witness) and 
 Evidence (Lat. Ividentia, distinctness 
 in speech), it is used more generally of 
 the ordinary facts of life. Evidence 
 is a term of higher dignity, and is ap- 
 plied to that which is " moral and 
 intellectual ; as, the evidences ot 
 Christianity, or the body of proofs, or 
 alleged proofs, tending to establish 
 facts in law. Testimony is strictly the 
 evidence of a witness given upon 
 oath. It always implies, more or less 
 directly, proofs afforded by a living 
 witness, though it is often used ot 
 unconscious things in the way ot 
 analogy; as, the testimony of Nature, 
 of conscience, and the like. Proof is 
 a plainer and stronger term than 
 evidence. Proof is positive, evidence 
 may be probable, presumptive, ques- 
 tionable, or circumstantial. Proof 
 belongs more dii-ectly to facts; evi- 
 dence to truth, or what is moral in 
 its nature ; testimony to what is per- 
 sonal. The suffering of a martyr, 
 borne in j)ersonal testimony of his 
 belief, is not conclusive, though it is 
 no slight evidence of the truth of that 
 for which he suffers : it is incontest- 
 able proof, where it is voluntarily 
 undergone, of his own sincerity. 
 
 Deposition (Lat. d'cp'6sitionem, de- 
 position, diS a legal term) is the written 
 testimony of a witness taken down in 
 due form of law, and affii-med or sworn 
 to by the deponent. In a less techni- 
 cal sense it is to declare upon oath, or 
 as solemnly bearing witness. 
 " Seeing 'twas he that made you to depose. 
 Your oath, my Lord, was frivolous and 
 vain." Shakespeare. 
 
 '* To conform our language more to com- 
 mon use, we ought to divide arguments 
 into demonstrations, proofs, and probabili- 
 ties; by proofs meaning such arguments 
 from experience as leave no room for doubt 
 or opposition." — HuMB. 
 
 " The difficulty is when testimonies con- 
 tradict common experience, and the reports 
 
638 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [propagateJ 
 
 of history aad witnesses clash with the 
 ordinary course of Nature or with one an- 
 other."— Locke. 
 
 " Evidence signifies that wnich demon- 
 strates, makes clear, or ascertains the truth 
 of the very fact or point in issue, either on 
 the one side or on the other." — Black- 
 STONE. 
 
 PROPAGATE. Sprkad. Circu- 
 late. Disseminate. 
 
 Of these, to Spread (A.S. spra:dan) 
 is the most indeterminate, so that the 
 rest may be regarded as modifications 
 of this. 
 
 To Circulate (Lat. circfdare, to 
 vmke circular) is to spread within a 
 circle or particular area ; as, " the 
 rumour circulates, or is circulated, 
 through the town." 
 
 To Disseminate (Lat. disscnnnare ; 
 semen, seed) is a metaphorical term, 
 conveying rather the idea of scatter- 
 ing and diffusion than that orf" any after 
 up-growth. 
 
 This is indicated by Propagate 
 (Lat. propagarCf to propagate, bymeam 
 of layers). A rumour is propagated 
 when many in succession give force 
 to it. Doctrines are propagated when 
 those who spread them succeed in 
 making them take root. Ideas are 
 disseminated when they are largely 
 scattered about, and, as it were, sown 
 broadcast. That which is circulated 
 is matter of local and temporary inte- 
 rest; that which is disseminated is 
 accepted and retained ; that which is 
 propagated becomes deeply and last- 
 ingly established. Disseminate im- 
 plies less active and laborious effort 
 than Propagate. 
 
 " It was the singular and miraculous 
 blessing of the Gospel in the hands of the 
 first propagators of it, that there was no 
 speech nor language where their voice was 
 not heard."— Bishop Hall. 
 
 "He chooses a company of very ordinary 
 unlettered men, but very honest men, to be 
 the wi^.nesses of His conversation and doc- 
 trine ; and these He designs for the spreaders 
 of His religion throughout the world."— 
 Sharp. 
 "Our God, when heaven and earth He did 
 
 create, 
 Formed man, who should of both partici- 
 pate. 
 If our lives' motions theirs must imitate. 
 Oar knowledge, like our blood, must ctrcu- 
 late." Denham. 
 
 " The horrid scenes that have been pass- 
 ing there have all been, it lias been said, 
 by the dissemination of speculative notion! 
 about liberty and the rights o/man among 
 the negroes of that island." -HoiiSLEY. 
 
 PROPERTY. Quality. Attri- 
 bute. Accident. 
 
 Property (Yr.proprieti)h a pecu- 
 liar quality. It is thus very exten- 
 sively applied; as, the properties of 
 matter, which are, in some cases, per- 
 manent, as extension, gravitation, or 
 colour; transmntative, as shown in 
 chemical affinities, as, for instance, 
 the explosiveness of gunpowder, these 
 being accompanied by change in the 
 substances themselves; and percep- 
 tible, that is, such as produce affec- 
 tions on sentient beings, as smells, 
 poisons. 
 
 Quality (Fr. qualile, Lat. qiidtita- 
 tern) is that which makes, or helps to 
 make, a thing what it is. It is there- 
 fore a subjective or metaphysical 
 term; and in metaphysics qualities 
 are primary and secondary, or neces- 
 sary to the conception of a thing, anc 
 not so essential ; as, Avhiteness is a 
 primary quality of snow, and a se- 
 condary quali^ of a horse. 
 
 Attribute (Lat. attributum, a thing 
 ascribed, or predicated) is, more pro- 
 perly, a personal quulitu, and so is 
 mainly moral, as Property is mainly 
 physical, and Quality metaphysical ; 
 as, " Justice and mercy are attributes 
 of God." We may say, roughly, that 
 qualities are perceived ; properties, 
 discovered; attributes, ascribed. 
 
 In logic an Accident (Lat. acct- 
 dens, acctdcre, to happen) is a property 
 or quality which is non-essential to 
 the thing in which it occurs, as black- 
 ness in ink, which may be red or blue. 
 So the conditions of human life, which 
 ai-e not essential to it, but forms in 
 which it manifests itself as wealth or 
 poverty, may be called the accidents 
 of existence. 
 
 " What the light is — whether a substance 
 or an accident, whether of a corpw'all or 
 incorporalJ nature — it is not easy to deter- 
 mine." — H AKEWELI.. 
 
 " Pi-operty is correctly a synonym for 
 peculiar quality ; but it is frequently uned 
 as co-extensive with quality in general " - 
 Sir W. Hamilton 
 
[i^roposal] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 639 
 
 " Humility and Patience, Industry and 
 Temperance, are very often the good quali- 
 ties of a poor man." — Addisox. 
 
 •* But mercy is above this sceptr'd sway; 
 It is an attribute to God Himself." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 It maybe added that we do not speak 
 of the attributes of any but great per- 
 sons or personifications ; while we 
 speak of the properties of brute matter, 
 and the qualities even of the com- 
 monest men. 
 
 PROPORTION. Ratk. Ratio. 
 
 Proportion (Lat. prdpnrtionem) is 
 the relation or adaptation of one por- 
 tion to another or to the whole in 
 ooint of magnitude or quantity, and 
 ;s a term of greater dignity than the 
 others, being employed, not of mere 
 quantity only, but of such quantity as 
 relates to truth, justice, or artistic 
 impression. 
 
 Rate (Lat, rlitam, sc. partem , a 
 reckoned part) is an established por- 
 tion or measure, a fixed allowance. 
 Proportion is a Jixed value ; rate is 
 a concurrent value ; and is thus em- 
 ployed of movement or continuous pro- 
 portion. " At the rate or running value 
 or proportion of six miles an hour." 
 Ratio is only employed of the relation 
 vhich one quantity or magnitude has 
 o another ; for instance, as two is to 
 four, so is four to eight ; as two is to 
 six, so is six to eighteen, and the like. 
 
 "Proportion is the measure of relative 
 quantity "—Burke. 
 
 " Nor will the purity which is inseparable 
 from it ever let us know what the vast and 
 sinking expenses of lewdness and unclean- 
 ness are. In a word, it is vice only that is 
 the chargeable thing ; it is only shame and 
 repentance that men buy at such costly 
 raies."— Sharp. 
 
 PROPOSAL. Proposition. 
 
 Overture. 
 
 These terms represent two aspects 
 of the word propose — that is, to set 
 forth (Lat. proponcre). A Proposal 
 is something set forth, or laid down 
 before another for consideration. A 
 Proposition is something laid down 
 in words simply — an alfiiTAation or 
 denial, that is, logically, — any asser- 
 tion of the connexion or disconnexion 
 of two teims being a proposition. 
 
 affirmative or negativt The ^rms 
 are often confounded. But it is also 
 true that the same thing may be called 
 a proposal and a proposition, accord- 
 ing to the view taken of it ; that is to 
 say, a statement is a proposition ; a 
 statement made for purposes of con- 
 sideration is a proposal also ; yet there 
 seems also a further difference in 
 usage ; Proposition being used for 
 something to be deliberated upon , Pro- 
 posal, something to be done. 
 " Spare that proposal, father 1 spare the 
 
 trouble 
 Of that solicitation." MiLTOX. 
 
 " If a proposition ascribing the nature of 
 things has an indefinite subject, it is gene- 
 i-ally to be esteemed universal in its propo- 
 sitional sense." — Watts, Logic 
 
 An Overture (Fr. ouverturg, an 
 opening) is literally an opening up or 
 commencement. 
 
 A Proposal (Fr. proposer) is a 
 thing put forth or forward, and speci- 
 fically for consideration, that is for 
 acceptance or rejection by another 
 party. A proposal is always with a 
 view to action. An overture is less 
 definite, the end being often implied 
 rather than expressed. A friendly 
 word, for instance, towards one 
 from whom we had been estranged 
 would be an overture of reconciliation. 
 The force of Proposal lies in the thing 
 proposed, which must depend for its 
 acceptance on the desirableness of it. 
 The force of Overture lies in the per 
 son making it and the fact that it has 
 been made. Individual feeling od 
 judgment operates in prompting an 
 overture which is always connected 
 closely with one's own state, interest, 
 or desire, while it is possible to make 
 a proposal for another's sake alto- 
 gether. Overture implies some ante- 
 cedent relation between the parties 
 out of which the overture springs, and 
 to some point connected with which 
 one of the two parties is prompted to 
 give expression. Accordingly, an 
 overture is not only as regards the 
 movement of the party making it, b; t 
 also the matter as it lies between the 
 two initiating, while the proposal ia 
 final. The overture is to lead to some- 
 thing beyond. The proposal is itseli 
 the end. Hence an overture might in 
 
640 
 
 SYNONYMS [PKOPOSK 
 
 many cases be defined as an initiatory 
 proposal. 
 
 PROPOSE. Offer. Purpose. 
 
 The meaning of Propose has been 
 partly considered under Proposal. 
 To propose and to Offer (Lat. offerre, 
 to present forward)hoth relate to prac- 
 tical affairs. We propose for consi- 
 deration ; we offer for acceptance. In 
 argument, to propose a remark, would 
 mean, to lay it down for deliberation 
 or discussion on its own merits; to 
 offer a remark, would mean, to pre- 
 sent it for acceptance or rejection, as 
 relevant or irrelevant. To Offer com- 
 monly implies a single undivided in- 
 terest ; to Propose implies complex or 
 common interests. Where one person 
 is concerned, we offer, or where many 
 are as one in community of condition. 
 Where many are concerned, we pro- 
 pose. No two terms are more com- 
 monly confounded than Purpose and 
 Propose ; but the former denotes 
 a settled, the latter, a contingent, 
 state of mind. I propose to do some- 
 thing, if I have not yet made up my 
 mind. I purpose when I have made 
 it up. Yet the words Purpose and 
 Propose might often be used indif- 
 ferently, provided it be remembered 
 that they express different aspects of 
 the same thing. I purpose to do a 
 thing when I have formed a practical 
 intention to do it. I propose to do it 
 when I recognize it as a design which 
 I shall carry out, provided that no- 
 thing should occur to hinder or deter 
 me. See Offer. 
 
 " But I should ill become this throne, 
 
 peers. 
 And this imperial sovereignty, adorned 
 With splendour, armed with power, if 
 
 aught proposed. 
 And judged of public moment, in the shape 
 Of difficulty or danger, could deter 
 Me from attempting." Milton. 
 
 "Tlie ship a naked helpless hull is left ; 
 Forc'd round and round, she quits her 
 
 purposed way. 
 And bounds uncertain o'er the swelling 
 
 sea." RowE, Lucan. 
 
 PROROGUE. Adjourn. 
 
 Prorogu e is a legislative term (Lat. 
 vror'ignrej in the sense of asking the 
 people's consent to a law, &c.) and 
 
 only applied to national legislative as- 
 semblies. 
 
 Adjourn (Fr. ajonrner, Low Lat. 
 adjournare^ Brachet) is employed of 
 ordinary deliberative meetings. 
 
 " By the king's authority alone and by 
 his writs are they (the two houses of peers 
 and commons) assembled and by him alone 
 are they prorogued and dissolved, but each 
 house may adjourn itself." — Bacox. 
 
 PROSPERITY. Welfare. 
 Well-being. 
 
 Welfare and Well-beino are ab- 
 stract terms. 
 
 Prosperity (Lat. prospcritatem) ig 
 a relative term. It is welfare regarded 
 as the successful issue of conduct in 
 the acquisition of material goods, and. 
 such estimation as is founded upon 
 the possession of them. Success and 
 progress are involved in the idea of 
 prosperity. Welfare is not so high a 
 term as well-being ; welfare denotes 
 a sufficiency of material goods ; well- 
 being denotes that it is well with the 
 whole nature, moral as well as bodily; 
 as, virtue is necessary to the well- 
 being, though not to the welfare of 
 a man, to which it is, in some respects, 
 often opposed. Well-being is more 
 commonly usedof persons collectively, 
 Welfare personally. The welfare of 
 an individual, the well-being of a com- 
 munity. 
 
 " Pros/1 irity is but a bad nurse to virtue 
 a nurse which is like to starve it in its in- 
 fancy, and to spoil it in its growth." — 
 South. 
 
 " Therefore, fair damsel, be ye well aware. 
 Lest that too far ye have your sorrow 
 
 sought. 
 You and your country both I wish welfare. 
 And honour both, for each of other worthy 
 are." Spenskr. 
 
 " A necessity, indeed, of fitness, that is, 
 that things could not have been otherwise 
 than they are without diminishing the 
 beauty, order, and well-being of the whole, 
 there may be, and, as far as we can compre- 
 hend, there certainly is." — Clarke. 
 
 PROSPEROUS. Fortunate. 
 
 The man is FoRTUNATE(Lat^ijrtH»rt« 
 tus) whose welfare was unloolced for; 
 Prosperous, whose welfare was 
 matter of hope and effort. Good 
 fortune comes; but prosperity is, 
 partly, at least, earned, tliough not 
 of necessity honestly and well earned. 
 
[proverb] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 64i 
 
 " Amongst men, those who are ■prosper- 
 ously unjnst are entitled to panegyric; but 
 afflicted virtue is insolently stabbed with all 
 mannevofreproaches."— DRYDEN,yMrena/. 
 
 " For first with words, nearer admira- 
 tion than liking, she would extol his excel- 
 lences, the goodliness of his shape, the power 
 of his wit, the valiantness of his courage, 
 the fortiinateness of his successes." — Sid- 
 ney, Arcadia. 
 
 PROVERB. Aphorism. Apoph- 
 thegm. Byword. Axiom. Maxim. 
 Saying. Adage. Saw. Truism. 
 Principle. 
 
 The term Proverb (Lat. prover- 
 birnrn) is employed with considerable 
 latitude of meaning, as equivalent to 
 any saying which is frequently re- 
 peated,especially one forcibly express- 
 ing some practical truth, the result 
 or experience or observation. It is 
 " one man's wit and many men's wis- 
 dom." It had of old attached to it the 
 idea of mystical value, and hence 
 came to signify something difficult to 
 understand ; as, " His disciples said 
 unto Him, Lo, now speakest Thou 
 plainly, and speakest no proverb." 
 
 "The proverb is true, that light gains 
 make heavy purses, for light gains come 
 often, great gains now and then." — BacOK. 
 
 Aphorism (Gr. a.<po^iirfA,6':, a defini- 
 tion) differs from Proverb in relating 
 to abstract truth rather than to prac- 
 tical matters. The aphorisms of Hip- 
 pocrates defined the symptoms of 
 disease. An aphorism may be defined 
 as the substance of a doctrine. The 
 characteristic of an aphorism seems to 
 be the disproportion between the sim- 
 plicity of the expression and the rich- 
 ness of the sentiment conveyed by it. 
 
 "That aphorism of the wise man, 'The 
 desire of the slothful killeth him, for his 
 hands refuse to labour.' " — Barrow. 
 
 Apophthegm (Gr. a.'no<pBiyfj,a.) is a 
 terse, concise saying, of a sententious 
 character. The apophthegm is in 
 common what the aphorism is in 
 higher matters. It is a saying che- 
 rished for its aptness, effectiveness, 
 and truth ; as in the definition of pro- 
 verb given above. An apophthegm 
 is a memorable saying emanating 
 from energetic thought. 
 
 "In a numerous collection of our Sa- 
 Tiour's apophthegms, many of them refer- 
 nng to sundry precepts of the Jewish law. 
 
 there is not to be found an example o> 
 sophistry, or of false subtilty, or of any- 
 thing approaching thereunto."— Palky. 
 
 Byword originally meant littlo 
 more than a common saying, whethei 
 expressed by a single term or in more 
 than one. It has taken to itself in 
 later times a contemptuous significa- 
 tion, as if what is frequently named 
 were a thing of meanness or derision ; 
 something the fiimiliarity of whose 
 mention has bred contempt. 
 
 " I agree with him fully in the last, and 
 if I were forced to allow the fii'st, I should 
 still think, with our old coarse byword, 
 that the same power which furnished all 
 their restorateurs sent also their present 
 cooks."— Burke. 
 
 An Axiom (Gr. a^loofxa.) is some- 
 thing which is claimed to be conceded 
 as a self-evident proposition. It 
 differs, however, from Truism, in 
 being a foundation of argument, which 
 a truism is not. Moreover, ti-uism be- 
 longs to morals; axiom, to science. The 
 axiom is a cardinal verity, which is 
 appreciated by any understanding 
 which is in a normal and sound 
 state. 
 
 " There are a sort of propositions which, 
 under the name of maxims and axioms, 
 have passed for principles of science." — 
 Locke. 
 
 " Allow a man the privilege to make hia 
 own definitions of common words, and it 
 will be no hard matter for him to infer 
 conclusions which, in one sense, shall be 
 true, and in another, false, at once seeming 
 paradoxes and manifest truisms." — Berke- 
 ley. 
 
 Maxim (Lat. maxima^ i.e. senten- 
 tidrum, greatest, i.e. widest, most gene' 
 ral of propositions) is an established 
 principle or proposition in matters of 
 practical truth ; its characteristic is 
 the authorit}^ with which it is invested, 
 so that it may be appealed to retro- 
 spectively. It is a guide and rule of 
 conduct. It is abstract and specula- 
 tive, though founded upon observa* 
 tion and experience ; so differing from 
 Principle (Lat. principinniy a begin- 
 ning, a principle) which carries know- 
 ledge with it, and is applicable to 
 action as a guide or basis of proceed- 
 ing. A principle is a funaamental 
 truth, or comprehensive law, from 
 which others are derived, or on which 
 they are founded. See Doctrinb. 
 
642 
 
 SI? NONYMS 
 
 [providence 
 
 •'A good principle not rightly nnder- 
 stood may prove as hnrtful as a bad." — 
 MlLTOK. 
 
 It may be observed, generally, that 
 principles are last in the order of in- 
 vestigation, and first in the order of 
 practice. They are arrived at by 
 analysis, and when found become 
 bases or starting-points for action or 
 scientific inquiry. A Saying and a 
 Saw are probably etymologically con- 
 nected, and represent, the former the 
 more philosophical, the latter, the 
 more vulgar aspect of a proverb. A 
 wise " saw," for instance, has become 
 an expression somewhat satirical, to 
 denote the aiming at the sententious 
 in that which is really commonplace. 
 Adage (Lat. Mdgium) represents 
 in proverbs the aspect of their long 
 establishment; as Maxim, their au- 
 thority; and Proverb, their com- 
 monness. Hence we commonly find 
 the word coupled with some adjective 
 expressive of this : "the old adage," 
 or the like ; as, the common proverb ; 
 the vulgar saw ; the excellent saying ; 
 the incontrovertible maxim; the es- 
 tablished or universal principle. The 
 adage has more merit as a saying than 
 the proverb. The proverb is popular, 
 familiar, and full of common sense. 
 The adage gives to the same thing 
 point and cleverness, and peculiar 
 turn of expression, antithetical or 
 otherwise. Hence a proverb may be 
 coarse and vulgar. In that case it 
 would not be called an adage. 
 •' Severs to censure, earnest to advise. 
 And with ©Id saws the present age chas- 
 tise." Frakcis, Horace. 
 
 "It was a common saj/ing-vnth him, that 
 such altercations were for a logician and 
 not merely for a philosopher." — Sir T 
 MORK. 
 
 The term Saying, it will be seen, does 
 not of necessity imply much autho- 
 rity, and is often the habitual expres- 
 sion of an individual only. " Two 
 bodies cannot occupy the same space 
 at the same time," is an example of 
 an axiom. " Know thyself," is a 
 maxim. " He who hurts thee in- 
 structs thee," is an ancient adage. 
 When Leonidas was asked why brave 
 men preferred honour to life, his an- 
 swer was an apophthegm: " Because/' 
 
 said he, "life comes from fortum 
 but honour comes from virtue." 
 was an aphorism of Hippocrates, " TL 
 virtue of remedies is m assisting na 
 ture." " The dog returns to L* 
 vomit," is a proverb. 
 
 " The antithetic parallelism gives ai 
 acuteness and force to adages and mora 
 sentences, and therefore abounds in Sole 
 mon's Proverbs." — LovfTH. 
 
 PROVIDENCE. Prudence. 
 
 These words are etymologicalh 
 identical (hat. providentia, prudentia . 
 prndens being a contracted form of pro- 
 vtdens), but Providence is a habit 
 Prudence, a quality. Hence the first 
 may be employed of the inferior ani- 
 mals ; the latter, only of men. Pro- 
 vidence is more restricted than Pru- 
 dence, for it is directed only to the 
 supplying of needful wants, or the 
 making preparation against want, 
 danger, or necessity ; while Prudence 
 is applicable to everything which be- 
 longs to our interests, even of the 
 highest kind. Prudence is rather 
 contemplative, and guards; provi- 
 dence is active, and anticipates. 
 " Yet, by experience taught, we know how 
 
 good. 
 And of our good and of our dignity 
 How provident He is." MiLTON. 
 
 " Our blessed Saviour having prefaced 
 concerning prudence, adds to the integrity 
 of the precept, and for the conduct of our 
 religion, that we be simple as well as pru- 
 dent, innocent as well as wary." — Bishop 
 Taylor. 
 
 PROVINCIALISM. Solecism. 
 Barbarism. 
 
 A Provincialism (Lat. provincial 
 an outlying country subjugated to Rome, 
 a province) is an expression or mode 
 of speaking which marks a distance 
 from the metropolis, or more refined 
 centre of a community or nation. The 
 style is simply unpolished. 
 
 A Solecism (Gr. a-oXoiKicr/uoi) is said 
 to mean a corruption of the Attic dia- 
 lect by the inhabitants of the Athenian 
 Asiatic colonies of Soli in Cilicia. It 
 amounts to a violation of grammatical 
 rule, or the inversion or contradic- 
 tion of the ordinary processes of the 
 laws of thought. 
 
 A Barbarism (Gr. ^ap^eLpia-fM;) is 
 
^pursue] 
 
 an expression not only foreign to a 
 language, but uncongenial to its 
 structure and modes, exliibiting in 
 its character a want of acquaintance 
 with its genius and the modes on 
 which its language proceeds. John- 
 son says : " A barbarism may be in one 
 word, a solecism must be of more," 
 upon the authority of the Greek gram- 
 marians, who had made the same dis- 
 tinction. By a further extension of 
 the term, Solkcism, like Barbarism, 
 has been made applicable to what is 
 unrefined or irregular in manners. The 
 barbarism offends against taste and 
 usage, the solecism against rule and 
 law, the provincialism against culture 
 and refinement. 
 
 PROXY. Substitute. 
 
 The Proxy (i.e. Procuracy, Lat. 
 procurationem, the office of the procura- 
 tor, or proctor) is always personal. 
 
 The Substitute (Lat. substXtiiere, 
 to place instead, part, substttutiis) may 
 be personal or otherwise. The proxy 
 is an agent, the substitute either an 
 agent or an instrument. Hence, 
 where both are persons, more repre- 
 sentative independence of action is 
 implied in Proxy than in Substitute. 
 The pleader appears by proxy. The 
 conscript is sometimes allowed to pay 
 money for a substitute. It may be 
 observed that a substitute properly 
 implies the antecedent existence, not 
 only the analogous use, of the thing 
 itself; so that De Quincey's expres- 
 sion seems to be questionable, that in 
 the time of Shakespeare ladies wore 
 masks as " a substitute for the modern 
 parasol." 
 
 PRUDENT. Prudential. 
 
 We use Prudent of character and 
 conduct ; Prudential, of the motives 
 of conduct. Hence, a prudent course ; 
 prudential morality ; that is, morality 
 which is founded upon the theory that 
 virtue is safer than vice. Pnv d e nt is 
 exhibiting the moral quality of pru- 
 dence. Prudential is actuated by 
 nothing higher than prudence. 
 
 " I know not how any honest man can 
 harge his conscience in pi-udentlally con- 
 _iTing at such falsities."— More, On En- 
 thusiasm , 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 643 
 
 PUNISHMENT. Chastisement 
 Chastisement (0. Fr. ckastier) is 
 administered to him who has com- 
 mitted a fault, to prevent him from 
 falling again into the same offence. 
 
 Punishment ( Fr. punir) ia visited 
 on him who has committed a crime, 
 by way of expiation and example. 
 Children are chastised by their pa- 
 rents, maltifactors punished by the 
 judge. Chastisement, to be effective, 
 must be rare ; punishment, to be effec- 
 tive, must be severe. Chastisement 
 should be dispensed temperately, 
 punishment proportionately. Reli- 
 gion teaches us that the Almighty, as 
 a Father, chastises us in this life as 
 children, that we may not be punished 
 by Ilim as our Judge in the life to come. 
 He who chastises is in some sort a 
 superior with power of control. Hf 
 who punishes may be an equal, an in 
 ferior, or even one's self. Circum 
 stances may punish, or the offenci 
 may draw after it consequences 
 which may make it its own punish 
 ment. Parents wlio are too indul- 
 gent to chastise their cliildren are 
 sometimes punished for it in the in- 
 gratitude and rebellion of the same 
 children. Political punishments should 
 be severe only in those cases in which 
 the crime tends to the disorder and 
 ruin of the State. Frequent chastise- 
 ments lead commonly to no bette* 
 end than a disgust of virtue. 
 
 PURGE. Purify. 
 
 Purge is to make pure (Lat. pur- 
 gare) ; to Purify (Lat. purijtcare) is 
 \o bring back a thing to its proper 
 purity. We purge by taking away 
 what is foul, hurtful, or obstructive, 
 especially in conglomeration of foreign 
 substances. To purify is to dissipate, 
 remove, or destroy what there is bad, 
 vicious, or foul in the substance of 
 tlie thing itself. The fire purifies the 
 metal, the winds purify the air. 
 Pure and wholesome principles purify 
 the morals, the actions, the inten- 
 tions, the mind. 
 
 PURSUE. Prosecute. 
 
 These words are etymologically the 
 same, the former coming to us, me- 
 diately, through the French pounuivrt 
 
644 
 
 (i.e. Lat. yros^qitire: Buachet); the 
 latter, directly, from the Lat. -prostqui^ 
 part, prosccutus, to pursue. As ap- 
 plied to processes of mental applica- 
 tion, they differ very slightly ; but 
 *^URSUE seems rather more to belong 
 to general, Prosecute, to specific, 
 investigations or undertakings. So 
 we commonly say, to pursue one's 
 studies (indefinitely); but (definitely) 
 to prosecute a particular subject of 
 inquiry. There seems also a further 
 difference. Pursue is applicable to 
 the guiding principle. Prosecute to 
 the subject-matter. We pursue a line 
 of inquiry or given instructions, we 
 prosecute an investigation itself, or a 
 work. We pursue an intention, we 
 prosecute an undertaking. 
 
 " The conclusion which I draw from 
 these premises pursuant to the query laid 
 down is,t,hiit the learned doctor in condemn- 
 ing Arius has implicitly condemned him- 
 self." — Waterland, 
 " She was no whit thereby discouraged 
 From prosecuting of her first intent." 
 
 Spenser. 
 
 PUSH. Shove. Thrust. Propel. 
 
 All these words denote giving an 
 impulse to a body, but differ as to the 
 manner. 
 
 Push (Fr. pousser, to thrust, Lat. 
 pulsdre) is indefinite. It maj' mean 
 to press against with force, with or 
 without producing change of place in 
 the object. 
 
 To Shove (A. S. sceofan) is to 
 drive along, and so implies a change 
 of position ; the action being by 
 gradually increasing force or pressure, 
 and not by sudden impulse, especially 
 by causing it to slide or move along 
 the surface of another body. 
 
 Thrust (Icel. thrysta, to press, 
 thrust) is applicable to cases in which 
 a definite line of movement or a point 
 of contact is supposed. We push per- 
 sons ; we thrust at them in cases in 
 which a line of aim, especially with 
 «ome weapon, is contemplated. 
 
 Propel (Lat. propelltre, to drive 
 forwards) denotes a more equable or 
 -egulated application of force, com- 
 aaonly also sustained, for the purpose 
 of pushing along a given course or 
 .ine of movement, and so is often 
 
 SrNONYMS [push 
 
 used in speaking of the scientific ap 
 plication of power to locomotion. 
 
 PUTREFY. Rot. Corrupt. 
 
 These terms may be taken in the 
 following order: Corrupt (Lat. cor- 
 rumpere, to destroji, to spoil, part, cor- 
 ruptiis). Putrefy ( Lat. phtrijieri), and 
 Rot (A. S. rotian), to express the 
 different stages of decomposition of 
 organized bodies. The first, that in 
 which the form as seen in life is be- 
 ginning to be marred ; the second, 
 that in which it decays offensively ; 
 and the last, that in which its particles 
 cease to cohere and begin to mingle 
 with foreign matter. The verb cor- 
 rupt is seldom used now in an intran- 
 sitive sense. Formerly this use was 
 more common, as by Bacon, but 
 always rare. 
 
 "Though this action of putrefaction 
 comes the nearest to animal digestion, it so 
 far differs from it that the salts and oils are 
 only detained in the animal body so long as 
 they remain benign and friendly to it ; but 
 as soon as they putrefy entirely, are either 
 thrown offer must produce mortal distem- 
 pers."— Arbuthnot. 
 
 " Live the brute 
 Since as the brute we die, the scorn of man. 
 Of godlike man, to revel and to rot." 
 
 Young. 
 " Corruption is a reciprocal to generation " 
 — Bacon. 
 
 Q 
 
 QUALIFIED. Competent. 
 Entitled. 
 
 A man is Qualified (L. Lat. 
 qualXficare, to make, of such and 
 such quaiitii) for a task when his 
 powers, either by training or by na- 
 ture, have a special aptitude for that 
 task. 
 
 A man is Competent (Lat. com- 
 petcre, to suit, to be qualified) to such a 
 task when he has simply the natural 
 powers, so that after-training may be 
 added. Hence qualification is compe- 
 tency specifically developed. It follows 
 that a man may be competent without 
 being qualified, inasmuch as compe- 
 tency regards native powers ; qualifi- 
 cation, artificial acquirements. Hu* 
 qualification extends eve^ beyond 
 
quarrelJ 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 645 
 
 this ; and, while competency always 
 belongs to inherent power, qualifica- 
 tion sometimes denotes such powers 
 as ara altogether extraneous to the in- 
 dividual, and come to him from with- 
 out, or are conferred upon him. The 
 fulfilment of any necessary condition 
 whatever is, so far, a qualification. So 
 that we speak of persons as qualified 
 by then- age to hold certain offices. 
 
 Entitled (prefix en- and Lat, 
 ttttiUis, a title) denotes an assertive 
 kind of qualification ; that is, is ap- 
 plied to cases not only of fitness but of 
 privilege, and denotes the condition 
 to claim with success. 
 
 " The true reason of requiring any quali- 
 fication with regard to property in voters is 
 to exclude such persons as are in so mean a 
 situation that they are esteemed to have no 
 will of their own." — Blackstone. 
 
 •' But the Socinians, who concluded that 
 this was not thus, because they knew not 
 how it could be thus, are highly to be re- 
 proved for their excess in the inquiiies of 
 reason, not where she is not a compete7it 
 judge, but where she is not competently in- 
 structed."— BiSHOP Taylou. 
 
 " Entitling themselves to a contemp- 
 tuous mercy by a display of their imbecility 
 and meanness." — Burkk. 
 
 QUARREL. Difference. Dis- 
 pute. Altercation. Affray or 
 Fray. Feud. Broil. Brawl. 
 
 A Quarrel (O. Fr. querele, Lat. 
 qucreltty a complaint) is vague, general, 
 and indefinite. Any angry contest, 
 confined, however, to words, may be 
 called a quarrel. The etymological 
 force of the word, however, so far 
 survives, that a quarrel always pre- 
 sumes a wrong, or ground of com- 
 plaint of some kind. Hence the 
 phrase, " to pick a quarrel," meaning 
 to seek wilfully that occasion of con- 
 test which does not readily present 
 itself. By an extension of meaning, 
 the verb to quarrel is applied to mat- 
 ters in which no question of right at 
 all is concerned, and so denotes little 
 more than actively to complain, as in 
 the phrase, "to quarrel with one's 
 food ;" or to find fault, as, " to quarrel 
 with a slight mistake." Shar})nessof 
 temper is the usual cause of quarrels 
 in which there is commonly more 
 i»-ntation than hatred. 
 
 ** If opoQ a sadden quarrei two persons 
 
 fight, and one of them kills the other, this 
 is manslaughter," — Blackstone. 
 
 Difference (Lat. differentia) is 
 employed of personal matters of 
 minor consequence. It is used both 
 for the dissimilarity of opinion or feel- 
 ing and for the manifestation of it. 
 Differences between persons are com- 
 monly caused by a collision of in 
 terests. 
 
 A Dispute (Lat. dispiitdre, to du, 
 cuss) is a difference more or less strong 
 kept within the bounds of argument 
 and the expression of opponent views 
 or claims. Difference of opinion is 
 the common cause of dispute. Verbal 
 disputes are often prolonged by ob- 
 stinacy and inattention to the just 
 value of terms. It may be upon a 
 point external to both parties. It 
 closely resembles Altercation (Lat. 
 altercationem, a debating, wraiigling), 
 which is literally the alternate ex- 
 pression of feelings of difference. Al- 
 tercations properly involve but two 
 persons ; while disputes may involve 
 many. An altercation is a wordy 
 dispute, into which are introduced ill- 
 temper and personalities. 
 
 " Ought lesser differences altogether to 
 divide and estrange those from one another 
 whom such ancient and sacx'ed bonds 
 unite ? "—Blair. 
 
 " I here, in this place, make this offer to 
 them, that if I (Prynne) may be admitted a 
 fair dispute on fair terms for my cause, that 
 I will maintain, and do here make the 
 challenge, against all the prelates in the 
 king's dominions, and against all the prelates 
 in Christendom, let them take in the Pope 
 and all to help them, that their calling is 
 not jure divino." — State Trials, 
 
 " When Jacob abruptly left the house of 
 his father-in-law Laban, and was pursued 
 and overtaken by him, a warm altercation 
 took place." — GiLPIlT. 
 
 Affray or Fray (O. Fr. effroyer, to 
 frighten, from a supposed Lat. exfrlgid- 
 dre) is literally to cause to turn cold, 
 or to cause to fear. In this case the quar- 
 rel is of apu6/ic nature,and has ceased to 
 be a matter of mere words. Hence it 
 has been defined by Blackstone, " The 
 fightmg of two or more persons in a 
 public place, to the terror of others." 
 
 " The Provost of Edinburgh, his son, ant' 
 several citizens of distinction were killed in 
 the fray. "—Robertson. 
 
 A Feud (A. S. fxhiS) is properly 
 
646 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [query; 
 
 a combination of kindred to avenge 
 injuries or insults, which in uncivi- 
 lized times extended from the offenders 
 on either side to their kith and kin, 
 and tended to perpetuate itself for 
 generations. Hence the term ex- 
 presses a deep-rooted, long-standing 
 animosity between two parties, and, 
 by an extension of meaning', some- 
 times between two individuals. 
 
 A Broil (connected with brawl ?) 
 is an angry contention of more than 
 two ]>ersons, carrying with it the idea 
 of chance disturbance and fortuitous 
 entanglement in quarrel. 
 
 "Yet ofttimes in his maddest mirthful 
 
 mood. 
 Strange pangs would flash along Childe 
 
 Harold's brow, 
 A« if the memory of some deadly feud, 
 Or disappointed passion, lurked below." 
 Byron. 
 " There is no preserving peace, nor pre- 
 renting broils and stirs but by punctually 
 observing that ordinary rule of equity that 
 in cases of doubtful debate, and points of 
 controverted practice, the fewest should 
 yield to the most, the weakest yield to the 
 strongest, and that to the greatest number 
 should be allowed at least the greatest ap- 
 pearance of reason." — Barrow. 
 
 Brawl (Wei. brawl, a boast) de- 
 notes a noisy and indecent quarreling, 
 such as offends against peaceableness 
 of manners. Where the law imposes 
 strict order, or society demands mu- 
 tual forbearance and a common re- 
 spectfulness, a slight degree of un- 
 seemly loudness or coarseness of 
 words and manner is sufficient to 
 constitute a brawl. 
 
 " Let a man that is a man consider that 
 he is a foole that brawleth openlie with his 
 wife." — Golden Boke, 
 
 QUERY. Question. 
 
 A Question (Lat. qucestidnem) is 
 simply such a form of inquiry as in- 
 volves a verbal answer. 
 
 A Query is a question on a pecu- 
 liar subject-matter, that is, where the 
 answer involves a knowledge of the 
 scientific or abstruse. A question 
 may be grave or idle. A query is 
 always grave, Truth generally is 
 the object of a c'lestion; curious truth, 
 of a query. 
 " St. Paul, answering that querte of the 
 u.Jiosophick iufide}. ' How are the dead 
 
 raised up, or with what body do they come P" 
 replieth in this manner."— CuD WORTH, 
 
 " But this question asked puts me in 
 doubt. " — Milton. 
 
 QUICKNESS. Celerity. Ex- 
 PEDiTiON. Rapidity. Swiftness. 
 Velocity. Fi.eetness. Speed. Fast- 
 ness. 
 
 Quickness (A. S. cwic, living, ac- 
 tive) is the generic term of which all 
 the rest may be regarded as specific 
 applications. 
 
 Celerity (Lat. celerltdtem), and 
 Swiftness (A. S. sivift, from swifuny 
 to move quickly) can only be said of 
 objects passing from one spot to an- 
 other; while the more generic term 
 Quickness may be used of things 
 moving upon the same spot. Q uickness 
 has relation to time by itself, as well 
 as to space ; as, quickness of sight or 
 hearing. A dog may run swiftly and 
 hear quickly, but not swiftly. Celerity 
 is commonly used of such movements 
 as results from will, and so belongs to 
 persons and impersonations ; while 
 Rapidity (Lat. rttpuUtatem) and 
 swiftness are employed both of con- 
 scious and mechanical movement. 
 Rapidity is associated with excited 
 movement, and more or less of impe- 
 tuosity. The torrent, the whirlwind, 
 the changes produced by the elements, 
 or by political revolutions, are rapid. 
 The quick answer to a call, a ready 
 pursuit of an object in a creature of 
 intelligence, is celerity. So we do 
 not speak of the celerity of a cannon- 
 ball, or even of a bird in its flight, but 
 tlje velocity of the one, and the rapi- 
 dity of tlie other. 
 
 Velocity (Lat. vilocitdtem) is em- 
 ployed where mechanical rapidity, 
 and nothing else, is intended or con- 
 templated, and is a scientific term for 
 rate of movement, however slow. 
 Hence velocity is the term used -where 
 any comparison of speed is spoken of. 
 
 Expedition (Lat. expkiltiunern, at. 
 expedition) is exclusively confined tc 
 the complex actions of intelligent 
 agents ; and Fleetness(A. S.Jieotan. 
 to float), to the quickness of anima. 
 movements from place to place. Il 
 employed of inanimate things, it is by 
 a rhetorical analogy to animate niotioiii 
 
[kagsJ 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 647 
 
 In Rapid is sometimes implied the idea 
 of cjuick succession, that is, quickness 
 which has the effect of diminishing 
 intervals. So the swift revolutions of 
 a wheel, would mean the mere velo- 
 city of the wheel's rotatory move- 
 ment ; the rapid revolutions, would 
 mean the short periods in which the 
 rotations were completed. 
 
 Speed (A. S. spedan,to speed, pros- 
 per) is rapidity in relation to the dis- 
 tance to be traversed, or the transac- 
 tions to be accomplished. When we 
 are informed of the distance which the 
 horseman has traversed, and the com- 
 paratively small time he has spent on 
 the journey, we infer the gi-eat speed 
 at which he must have ridden. 
 
 Fast (A. S.ftcst) meaning quick in 
 motion is the same word as fast, 
 meaning Jinn. Hence the idea of 
 fastness is that of close pressure, ur- 
 gent and continuous movement; to 
 follow fast upon another is to come 
 after him without leaving an interval. 
 Rapidity in succession and then ra- 
 pidity in motion generally. It rains 
 fast, that is, the drops follow one 
 upon the other without interval. 
 
 " He saw a young Indian, whom he 
 judged to be about nineteen or twenty years 
 old, come down from a tree, and he also ran 
 away with such speed as made it hopeless 
 to follow him." — Cook's Voyages. 
 
 "All my predictions are now verifying 
 too /asi."— Chesterfield. 
 ** Hamlet, this deed of thine for thine espe- 
 cial safety. 
 Which we do tender as we dearly grieve ; 
 For that which thou hast done must send 
 
 thee hence 
 With fieiy quic/mess." Shakkspeark. 
 
 *' Time, with all its celeriti/, moves slowly 
 to him whose whole employlnent is to watch 
 its flight." — Idler. 
 
 "With winged expedition, swift as light- 
 ning." , MiLTOX. 
 
 " We mortals could have little better 
 ground for our faith and hope in such an 
 omnipotent arbitrary will as this, than we 
 could have in the motions of senseless atoms 
 furiously agitated, or of a rapid whirl- 
 wind."— C UDWORTH. 
 
 "Herald, be swift, and bid Machaon bring 
 His speedy s&cv-our to the Spartan king." 
 Pope, Homer. 
 
 " It appears, from experiments of falling 
 bodies, and from experiments of pendulums, 
 which, berng of equal leugtlis and unequal 
 gravities, rjai'ate in equa times, that all 
 
 bodies whatsoever in spaces void of sensible 
 resistance, fall from the same height with 
 equal velocities "—Clarke. 
 
 QUOTE. Cite. 
 
 To Cite (Lat. ctture, to summon) is 
 literally to call as a witness, and, in 
 its literary sense, to call in the words 
 of another in aid of one's own. In 
 this way it becomes a synonym with 
 Quote (Old Fr. quoter, from the Lai. 
 qtt^itiis, how many, or which in order). 
 To cite an author, and to quote an 
 author, have practically nearly the 
 same meaning; but we use the term 
 Cite when the mind dwells primarily 
 upon the matter imported ; Quote 
 when we think of the precise words. 
 To cite Shakespeare as an authority, 
 does not imj)ly so exact a reproduc- 
 tion of his words as the term Quote, 
 for we may cite roughly, but we are 
 bound to quote exactly. A lawyer 
 cites a case as a precedent; he may 
 even go on to quote the words in 
 which judgment was given upon it. 
 
 " I propose this passage entire, to take off 
 the disguise which its quoter put upon it." 
 — Atterbury. 
 
 "This little song is not unlike a sonnet 
 ascribed to Shakespeare, which deserves to 
 be cited here, as a proof that the Eastern 
 imagery is not so different fi'ora the Euro- 
 pean as we are apt to imagine." — JoKKS, On 
 Eastern Poetry. 
 
 R. 
 
 RAGS. Tatters. Shreds. 
 
 These terms agree in expressing 
 torn pieces of almost any textile fabric, 
 but differ in their association. Rags 
 (etym. unknown) are associated with 
 poverty, beggary, and consequently 
 contempt. A ragged child belongs to 
 poor and negligent parents. The 
 ruritans called the surplice a rag of 
 popery. 
 
 Tatters (O. Nor. tbturr, a rag, 
 tatter; Wedgwood) are torn pieces, 
 not separated like ra^'S, but hang- 
 ing about in connexion with the 
 body and substance of the piece. 
 The term is capable of an honourable 
 association, as the banners of a regi- 
 ment which bas seen much service 
 
648 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [ramble 
 
 may hang in tatters. Dirty rags, not 
 (Yvty tatters, commoi^ly. 
 
 ".HREDS (A.S. screadian, to cut, to 
 tvar) points to the violence which has 
 torn the substance into pieces. As 
 fcubstances are shivered into frag- 
 ments, so they are torn into shreds. 
 
 RAMBLE. Roam. Rove. Range. 
 Stroll. Wander. 
 
 The idea of going in a free, irregu- 
 lar manner is common to these terms. 
 To Ramble (frequentative of Roam^ 
 IS to go about from place to place, 
 without any determinate object in 
 view, but in sheer relaxation of mind. 
 
 To Roam (perhaps Ger. raum, room, 
 ipace; Wedgwood) has not the free- 
 dom and carelessness of Ramble, and 
 is often associated with restlessness, 
 or an impulse to uneasii wandering. 
 As Roam implies something in the 
 impelling to wander, so Rove involves 
 the idea of a future purpose, and is 
 commonly associated witii search or 
 wandering in quest of an object. 
 
 Range (orig. to send ranks of sol- 
 diers over the country ; Fr. rang, rank) 
 differs from the preceding in being 
 within certain limits ; as, the ranger of 
 a park. The hunter ranges the woods 
 or the mountains, that is, wanders 
 about some more or less definitely 
 prescribed area, and with no listless - 
 ness or want of aim, but, on the con- 
 trary, with a purpose of observation 
 or quest. It implies a right and a 
 freedom. To Wander (A. S. wan- 
 diian) and to Stroll (Da. strelle, to 
 stroll) closely resemble each other; 
 but a stroll is commonly on foot, 
 while Wander may be also on horse- 
 back or on water. Stroll excludes 
 that idea of accident and ignorance 
 of the cour&e or road which some- 
 times attaches to the idea of wander- 
 ing. Nor has it so direct a reference 
 to a line of right or proposed move- 
 ment which has been erroneously left 
 or lost. 
 
 " We must not ramble in this field with- 
 out discernment or choice, nor even with 
 these must we ramble too long." — Bolinq- 
 BKOKB, On the Study of History. 
 
 " Where'er I roam^ whatever realms I see. 
 My heart, QatraveU'd. fondly turns to 
 
 'till to my brother turns with censslesf 
 
 l)ain, 
 Anci 'rags at each remove a lengthening 
 
 ^,.-iin." Goldsmith. ' 
 
 " The wiij ravings of men's fancies inti.- 
 odd similitudes, startling metaphors, hu 
 morous expressioas, and sportive represen 
 tations of things, are grown more acceptable 
 in almost all conversations, than the most 
 solid reason and discourse." — ScoxT, CTiris 
 tian Life, 
 
 " A milk-white hind, immortal and un 
 
 changed, 
 Fedou the lawns, and in the fovest raf-yed 
 Without unspotted, innoc^ent within. 
 She feared no danger, for she knew no sin, 
 Drvden. 
 
 " These mothers stroll to^ieg sustenance 
 for their helpless infants." — SwiFT. 
 
 " They wandered about ii\ "heepskins 
 and goatskins." — English Bible. 
 
 RANGE. Arrange. 
 
 Arrange and Range represent re- 
 spectively the compounded and uu- 
 compounded form of the French ran- 
 ger, from rang, a rank or range. Ar- 
 range expresses the relationship 
 which one establishes among several 
 things which one ranges together. 
 Range expresses only an individual 
 idea. Arrange is complex. One ar- 
 ranges one's library by ranging one's 
 books. To range is to put in place, ar- 
 range is to put in order. We arrange 
 occasionally, we are ranging per- 
 petually. To arrange is an operation 
 which requires some action of mind. 
 To range is little more than physical. 
 The former implies taste and know- 
 ledge, the latter is to follow a generic 
 rule. Arrange implies a freedom of 
 will and choice. Range the obligation 
 of a predetermined order. 
 
 RANSOM. Redeem. 
 
 These words are etymologically 
 identical, Rans(5m being the old Fr. 
 raensom, and Fr. ran^on, Lat. rtdemp- 
 tionem,, a buying off, a release. In its 
 application, Redeem is general; Ran- 
 sosj, particular. We redeem things 
 and persons. We ransom persons 
 only. Moreover, the means of re- 
 deeming are manifold. We may re- 
 deem not only by money, but by care, 
 by the expenditure of labour, and the 
 like. We ransom only by ruDney 
 Character, life, honour may .je n 
 
[kavage] 
 
 deemed. Only persons, or their life 
 or liberty, are the objects of ransom. 
 " Talk not of life or ransom, he replies ; 
 Patax)clas dead, whoever meets me dies." 
 Pope, Homer. 
 •' For no way else, they said, but this 
 
 could be. 
 Their wrung-detained honour to redeem. 
 Which true-bred blood should more than 
 
 life esteem." Daxiel. 
 
 RAPACIOUS. Ravenous. Vora- 
 cious. 
 
 Rapacioi'S (Lat. rUpncem, from rH- 
 piire, to seize) means given to seize from 
 a desire of possessing. This is appli- 
 cable to matters of greed in food, but 
 obviously extends far beyond them. 
 
 Ravenous (raven, to plunder, to de- 
 vour, O. Fr. ravine, violence, Lat. rd- 
 pvier, pillage) and Voracioifs (Lat. 
 vh-dcem, vorare, to devour) apply only 
 to matters of food, except by rhetori- 
 cal analogy. Of these two. Ravenous 
 denotes rather the state ; Voracious, 
 the nature of the animal. A voracious 
 beast is one that satisfies its appetite 
 by large quantities of food ; a rave- 
 nous animal or appetite may have 
 been simply made so by long priva- 
 tion. There are some animals which 
 cannot be called voracious, for they 
 pass considerable intervals without 
 taking any food ; yet at the times of 
 eating they have become ravenous. 
 
 " There are two sorts of avarice ; the one 
 is but of a bastard kind, and that is the 
 rapacious appetite of gain, not for its own 
 sake, but for the pleasure of refunding im- 
 mediately through all the channels of pride 
 and luxury."— CoWLEV. 
 
 " The curiosity of the one, like the hun- 
 ger of the other, devours ravenously, and 
 without distinction, whatever comes in its 
 way, but neither of them digests." — Bo- 
 X-INGBROKK, Study of History. 
 
 " But it ought to be observed that it is 
 this slowness which alone suspends the vo- 
 racity of this animal (the sloth)."— Paley. 
 
 RARE. Scarce. 
 
 We call a thing Rare (Lat. rams, 
 thru, scanty) when only a few of the 
 kind exist, or can be procured. We 
 gpeak of a thing as Scarce, which 
 exists, or is to be had at the present 
 time, in diminished quantities. Dia- 
 monds are rare when they are com- 
 pared with pebbles. They are scarce 
 •rhen there happen to be comparn- 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 649 
 
 lively few in the market. Thus Rare 
 bears reference to the intrinsic cha- 
 racter of things; Scarce, to their re- 
 lation to circumstances and require- 
 ments. Scarce implies a previous 
 plenty, which is not the case with 
 Rare. Rare qualifies what is an ob- 
 ject of novelty, curiosity, or intrinsic 
 value ; Scarce, what is a matter of ne- 
 cessity or common demand. Things 
 are rare by nature ; they become scarce 
 by circumstances. 
 
 " A perfect union of wit and judgment is 
 one of the rarest things in the world." — 
 Burke. 
 
 " For the rarity of transparent gems, 
 their lustre, and the great A'alue which 
 their scarceness and mens folly sets upon 
 them, emboldens some to say, and inclines 
 others to believe, that such rare and noble 
 productions of Nature must be endowed 
 with proportionable and consequently with 
 extraordinary qualities." — Boyle. 
 
 RATIONAL. Reasonable. 
 
 These are respectively forms coming 
 to us directly from the Latin {riiiionem., 
 reason) and the French form of the 
 same word, raison. Rational has re- 
 lation to reason as a faculty of the 
 mind, and is opposed to irrational ; 
 as, a rational being, a rational state of 
 mind. Reasonable has reference not 
 so much to the speculative as to the 
 practical reason, denoting governed 
 by, or in accordance with, right 
 reason ; as, " Reasonable views in- 
 volve prospects of success." 
 
 " Can there, then, be enthusiasts who 
 profess to follow reason! Yes, undoubtedly, 
 if by reason they mean only conceits. 
 Therefore such persons ai-e now commonly 
 called I'easouists, or rationalists, to distin 
 guish them from true reasoners, or rational 
 mquirers." — Watkrland. 
 
 " The adjective reasonable, as employed 
 in our language, is not liable to the same 
 ambiguity as the substantive from which it 
 is derived. It denotes a character in which 
 reason, taking it in its larger acceptation, 
 possesses a decided ascendant over the tem- 
 per and passions, and implies no particular 
 propensity to a displsvy of the discursive 
 power — indeed, it does not exclude the idea 
 of such a propensity."— StewaRT. 
 
 RAVAGE. Devastation. Deso- 
 lation. Havoc. 
 
 Ravage (Fr. ravage, ravir, to carry 
 cff violently) is the violence that mars 
 and spoils; Devastation (dirvastdre. 
 
650 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [reach] 
 
 to lay waste), the violence that de- 
 8troys and lays waste; Desolation 
 ( Lat. desoldtionem), the violence which 
 makes empty and uninhabited. Ra- 
 vage is sudden, violent, seizing and 
 dragging away, as the imperious con- 
 queror ravages the territories he has 
 subdued, or tlje overflowing torrent 
 ravages the fields which it should 
 fertilize, or the flame and the tempest 
 commit ravages. Other forces, such 
 as war, pestilence, and famine, deso- 
 late a country. Tyranny and foreign 
 invasions desolate kingdoms. That 
 which ravages cannot be resisted. It 
 is rapid and terrible. That which de- 
 solates cannot be arrested : it is cruel 
 and relentless. That which devastates 
 spares nothing: it is fierce and un- 
 wearying in its work. Ravage spreads 
 alarm and terror ; desolation, mourn- 
 ing and despair ; devastation, fear 
 and horror. 
 
 Havoc (A. S. hafoc, a hawk, whence 
 probably the Welsh hafog, destruction, 
 the word being used as a cry of en- 
 couragement to hawks, " Cry havoc, 
 and let slip the dogs of war "), denotes 
 indiscriminate destruction, whether 
 with specific violence of purpose or 
 not. Recklessness or accident, as 
 well as design, may produce havoc. 
 
 " Louis XIV. ravaged defenceless coun- 
 tries with armies sufficient to conquer them 
 if they had been prepared to resist." — Bo- 
 
 LINGBROKK. 
 
 " So dismal and amazing a devastation." 
 — TlLLOTSON. 
 
 " Every kingdom divided against itself 
 shall be brought to desolation."— English 
 Bible. 
 
 " If their first charge could be supported, 
 they (the elephants) were easily driven back 
 npon their confederates. They then broke 
 through the troops behind them, and made 
 no less havock in the precipitation of their 
 retreat than in the fury of their onset."— 
 liambler. 
 
 REACH. Extend. Stretch. 
 
 Reach (A. S. •'•Scan) is a more sig- 
 nificant term, though a simpler one, 
 than Extend ( Lat. eitendere, to stretch 
 ont), inasmuch as it involves not the 
 mere abstract idea of extension, but 
 such extension as attains to a given 
 point ; as, a tall man reaches to the 
 top of the door. No such limitation is 
 ccrrejed by Extend or Stretch. The 
 
 idea of attainment in addition to ex- 
 tension, which belongs to Reach, is 
 more plainly seen in the transitive 
 application of Reach, as the sound 
 reaches the ear. 
 
 The latter, Stretch (A. S. streocan ), 
 conveys the idea of efibrt, or is em- 
 ployed where continuity as the result 
 of effort may be imagined ; as, when 
 we speak of a promontory stretching 
 far out to sea, the analogy suggested 
 is that of an outstretched arm. Ex- 
 tend is the most abstract of the three, 
 and is applicable both to lines and 
 spaces. In their secondary applica- 
 tion, Extend is effortless, as observa- 
 tion, power, influence may be ex- 
 tended, that is, simply earned out 
 farther; they may be stretched un- 
 duly ; they may reach or not to the 
 desired point or amount. Extension 
 is employed scientifically, as a pro- 
 perty of matter or space. 
 
 " Being at liberty to indulge himself in 
 all the immunities of invisibility, out of the 
 reach of danger, he (Junius) has been bold ; 
 out of the reach of shame, he has been con- 
 fident." — Johnson. 
 
 " If any one ask me what this space I 
 speak of is, I will tell him when he tells me 
 what his extension is. For to say, as is 
 usually done, that extension is to have partes 
 extra partes, is to say only that extension is 
 extension." — Locke. 
 
 " His slanting ray 
 Slides ineffectual down the snowy vale. 
 And tinging all with his own rosy hue. 
 From every herb and every spiry blade. 
 Stretches a length of shadow o'er the field." 
 COWPKR. 
 
 REALM. State. Common- 
 wealth. 
 
 The State (Lat. status, a standing) 
 is the body politic of a country, some- 
 times restricted to the legislative body, 
 sometimes extended to the entire 
 body of the people as governed by the 
 laws of their representatives. It de- 
 notes government in the most abstract 
 sense. 
 
 Realm (Fr. roiiaume ; roi, Lat. ri- 
 gem, a kine) denotes such a nation as 
 is monarchical and aristocratic in its 
 constitution. Hence such emphatic 
 expressions as, "a peer of the realm," 
 " the parliament of the realm." We 
 may also, with less regard to its aris- 
 tocratic constitution, speak of " the 
 
[recede] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 651 
 
 parliament of the country ; " but we 
 do not commonly speak of '* a peer of 
 the country." 
 
 CoMMONWEAiTn (comtnoii and 
 toealth, weal, or ivell-being) is a term 
 not bearing so distinctively upon the 
 form of government, but belongs to a 
 free country, as being so administered 
 as to aim at the public good. 
 
 " His realm is declared to be an empire, 
 and his crown imperial, by many Acts of 
 Parliament, particularly the statutes 24 
 Henry VIII., ch. 12, and 25 Henry VIII., 
 ch. 28, which at the same time declare the 
 king to be the supreme head of the realm 
 in matters both civil and ecclesiastical." — 
 Blackstoxe. 
 
 "The Puritans in the reign of Mary, 
 driven from their homes, sought an asylum 
 in Geneva, where they found a state with- 
 out a king, and a Church without a bishop." 
 — Choate. 
 
 The term Com.monwealth has re- 
 ceived a strong anti-monarchical tinge 
 from the fact that this name was given 
 to the government of England which 
 intervened after the death of Charles 
 I., and. ended with the resignation 
 of Richard Cromwell. 
 " The Commonwealth yet panting under- 
 neath 
 The stripes and wounds of a late civil wai*. 
 Gasping for life, and scarce restored to 
 nope." Ben Joxson. 
 
 REASON. Cause. 
 
 Reason (Fr. raison, Lat. rUtionem) 
 relates originally to logical sequence. 
 A reason is the Cause, not of the 
 existence of a thing, but of our know- 
 ing it. It is the mode in which we 
 take account of its being, so answer- 
 ing to the question, How 1 as, " How 
 do 3'ou know that your friend has 
 gone this road ? " " Because I re- 
 cognize his footmarks." In common 
 conversation it is often used loosely 
 instead of Cause, either the physical 
 cause, namel}'^, that which produces 
 an effect ; or the final cause, namely, 
 the purpose for which u thing is 
 done. Reasons are logical ; causes 
 are natural. The cause of a vessel's 
 sailing is the wind acting upon the 
 sails. The reason of its sailing is the 
 order given to its captain. The result 
 of a reason is a conclusion ; the re- 
 sult of a cause is an effect. The cSiise 
 gives the physical, the reeson, the 
 
 metaphysical, account. Generally 
 speaking, the cause is' sufficient or in- 
 sufficient; the reason is satisfactory 
 or unsatisfactory. 
 
 "Be ready always to give an answer to 
 every man that asketh you a reason of the 
 hope that is in yon with meekness and 
 fear." — English Bible. 
 
 " In the notice that our senses take of 
 the common vicissitudes of things, we can- 
 not but observe that several particulars, 
 both qup.lities and substances, begin to 
 exist, and that they receive this their ex- 
 istence from the due application and opera- 
 tion of some other being. From this ob- 
 servation we get our ideas of cause and 
 "—Locke. 
 
 REBOUND. Reverberate. 
 Recoil. 
 
 Rebound (Fr. rebondir) is simply 
 to spring or start back on collision by 
 the elastic force of the body struck or 
 rebounding. 
 
 Reverberate (Lat. reverberare, to 
 beat back) is now restricted to the re- 
 bounding of sound, and sometimes, 
 but rarely, spoken of the reflexion or 
 rays of light. 
 
 Recoil (Fr. reenter, to move back, 
 lo draw back) is employed in those 
 cases in which the rebound strikes or 
 closely affects the person causing the 
 movement or projection, as when a 
 gun recoils, or a plot for the injury 
 of another recoils upon the plotter. 
 
 " A dreadful sound 
 Which through the wood loud bellowing 
 did rebound." Spexser. 
 
 " And every soun 
 Tis but of aire reverberatioun." 
 
 Chaucer. 
 
 " First Fear at hand, its skill to try. 
 Amid the chords bewildered laid. 
 
 And back recoiled, he knew not why. 
 E'en at the sound himself had made.' 
 Collins, 
 
 RECEDE. Retreat. Retire. 
 Withdraw. Secede. Abscond. 
 
 To Recede (Lat. recedere) is to go 
 back. 
 
 To Retreat (Fr. rttracter, Lat. 
 retractdre) is to draw back. Hence Re- 
 cede is the more purely mechanical. 
 A body passing away from us recedes 
 into the distance. Retreat, except 
 when it is employed in poetic ana- 
 logy, involves a purpose in receding. 
 
652 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [receipt] 
 
 Buch as the object of leaving one 
 locality oi* position to go to another. 
 
 Retire (Fr. retirer, to withdraw) is 
 closely similar to Retrea r, but more 
 strongly denotes the purpose of ab- 
 senting one's self from view. A party 
 of soldiers, unable to hold one post in 
 fighting, may retreat to another. A 
 combatant, convinced that he has no 
 chance of success, may retire alto- 
 gether from the contest. 
 
 WnnuRAW is in English exactly 
 what Retire is in French ; but, as is 
 common in such cases, withdraw is 
 the more familiar and less dignified 
 term. An army retires from the occu- 
 pation of a country. An individual 
 withdraws on finding the company 
 uncongenial to him. 
 
 Seleue (Lat. scccdcre, to withdraw) 
 denotes a public and formal act of 
 separation from a body with which 
 one was associated, more especially 
 religious and political bodies. 
 
 Abscond (Lat. abscondh-e, to hide 
 away) has in English taken an intran- 
 sitive sense instead of the transitive 
 sense of the Latin. It is to go into 
 continuous retirement, to withdraw 
 from the sight and intercourse of 
 men, commonly with an implied 
 fiirtiveness of purpose, as the debtor 
 or the offender against the laws ab- 
 sconds to avoid detection. Ray speaks 
 of swallows absconding in the winter. 
 Bentley used the verb actively. 
 
 " Nothing discoverable in the lunar sur- 
 face is ever covered and absconded from us 
 by the interposition of any clouds or inists 
 but such as rise from our own globe." — 
 Bkntley, Sennons. 
 
 RECEIPT. Reception. 
 
 These terms — both derived from the 
 Latin rcciipere, part, receptus, to re- 
 ceive — differ in the applications to 
 which usage has restricted them. 
 
 Receipt applies to inanimate ob- 
 jects, as being simply taken into pos- 
 session; Receition, to persons, and 
 to such objects as are connected with 
 will and sentiment on the part of the 
 givers. A receipt of goods is acknow- 
 ledged. The reception of favours 
 merits gratitude. " His friend met 
 witha warm reception." 1 acknow- 
 
 ledge the receipt, not the reception, of 
 a letter. 
 " At the receipt of your letter."— Shakb> 
 
 SPEARE. 
 
 " His reception is here recorded on a 
 medal, on which one of the ensigns present« 
 him his hand." — AcDlSON. 
 
 RECLAIM. Refoum. 
 
 To Reclaim (Fr. r^clamer, to claim 
 back) always denotes an external in- 
 fluence, such as the exhortations and 
 representations of friends. 
 
 Reform (Fr. reformer) commonly 
 implies motives springing from with- 
 in. A man reforms himself, and re- 
 claims his neighbour. Reclaim is 
 also more specific. Reform is of the 
 character generally. Reclaim refers 
 to some specific vice or error, to the 
 latter of which Reform does not apply 
 so forcibly. Reclaim has also a more 
 extended sense. We may be reclaimed 
 from misery or eiTor. We are reformed 
 only from vice. On the other hand, 
 individuals are reclaimed ; systems or 
 institutions also are reformed. 
 
 "A qualified property may subsist in 
 animals ferae naturaj per industriam ho- 
 minis, by a man's reclniming and making 
 them tame by art, industry, and educa- 
 tion." — Blackstone. 
 
 " This shall certainly be our portion as 
 well as his, unless we do prevent it by a 
 speedy reformation of our lives." — Sharp. 
 
 RECLINE. Repose. Rest. 
 
 Jo Recline (Lat. rhsViniire, to lean 
 backivards) is to lean back for sup- 
 port. 
 
 Repose (Fr. reposer) is to place 
 one's self in the easiest position for 
 rest. 
 
 To Rest (Fr. re'ster, to rem an) ia 
 to cease from labour or exertion, and 
 may be in a standing or any other 
 posture. 
 
 " To their supper fruits they fell. 
 Nectarine fruits, which the compliant 
 
 boughs 
 Yielded them side-long as they sat recline 
 On the soft downy bank, damask'd with 
 flowers." Mllton. 
 
 The word Recline in the above is an 
 adjective. 
 
 " So forth she rode, without repose or rest, 
 Seurching ail lands, and each r-^motesl 
 part. 
 
t 
 
 RECOVER J 
 
 Following the guidance of her blinded 
 
 gnest, 
 "ill that to the sea-coast at length she her 
 
 addrest." Spknser. 
 
 RECOGNIZE. AcKxvowLEDOE. 
 
 To Acknowledge is opposed to 
 keeping back or concealing. It is to 
 avow our knowledge, where that 
 knowledge had been previously con- 
 fined to ourselves, and where the 
 avowal of it on our part furnishes 
 others with peculiar and complete 
 evidence. The extent to which ac- 
 knowledgment furnishes knowledge 
 to others, in the sense of information 
 which thej did not previously possess, 
 is a matter of degree. To acknow- 
 ledge one's obligations for the kind- 
 ness of others, is little more than 
 openly to express them. To acknow- 
 ledge one's fault, may or may not im- 
 
 ly that it was not known to others. 
 
 'c acknowledge a secret man-iage, is 
 to give others a completeness of in- 
 formation which otherwise they had 
 not possessed. The difference between 
 acknowledge and Rkcugmze (Lat. 
 recognoscere, to knoio agubi) turns on 
 the previous state of our own minds. 
 We acknowledge what we knew dis- 
 tinctly before, though we did not 
 make that knowledge public. We 
 recognize what we saw at first only 
 indisiinctl'j. That which we recog- 
 nize we know, as it were, anew, and 
 admit it on the ground of the evidence 
 which it brings. A person is recog- 
 nized as an ambassador when he pro- 
 duces his testimonials. We recognize 
 a friend after a long absence when we 
 have had time to put together the 
 ocular evidence of his identity. We 
 recognize truths, principles, claims, 
 and the like when such grounds for 
 them have been laid before us as we 
 feel we cannot reject. Hence acknow- 
 ledgment is for the sake of others ; re- 
 cognition is on our own account. In 
 acknowledging we impart knowledge ; 
 in recoojmzing we receive it. Ac- 
 knowledgment is active, recognition 
 is passive. 
 
 " Hang, beg, starve, die in the street* ! 
 For by my soul I'll ne'er acknowledge 
 
 thee. 
 Nor, what is raoi'e, shall never do thee 
 good." SHAKKSPKAR2. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 653 
 
 " But the view in which the State re- 
 gards the practice of morality is evideatlj 
 seen in its recognition of that famous maxim 
 by which penal laws in all communities ai-e 
 fashioned and directed, that the severity 
 of the punishment must always rise ia pro- 
 portion to the propensity to the crime." — 
 Warburton. 
 
 RECOUNT. Relate. 
 These terms dilFer in the character 
 of the subject-matter. The idea oi 
 giving an account of circumstances 
 or occurrences is common to both ; 
 but we Relate (Lat. rtferre, part. 
 rtidtns, to bring back) generally ; we 
 RErouNT(Fr. raconter, to relate) spe- 
 cifically. Anything which has oc- 
 curred of a complex character, and in 
 order of occurrence, may be related. 
 We recount in closer detail what is 
 personally connected with ourselves 
 and matter of our own experience. 
 We relate the story of another's ad- 
 ventures ; we recount our own. The 
 term Relate is also broadly applicable 
 to all modes of connected statements, 
 as by writing or by word of mouth ; 
 Recount is commonly restricted to 
 word of mouth. We relate things 
 that have occurred ; we recount them 
 as they occurred. We ought to re- 
 count fully, and to relate accurately. 
 Nor are we usually said to recount 
 matters of very recent occurrence. 
 The old soldier recounts the battles 
 in which he was engaged, he may re- 
 late what he saw an hour ago. 
 " To all His angels, who with ti-ne ap. 
 
 plause 
 Recount His praises." Miltok. 
 
 " Truth she relates in a sublimer strain 
 Than all the tales the boldest Greek* 
 
 coald feign." Waixkb. 
 
 RECOVER. Retrieve. Re^ 
 
 GAIN. 
 
 Reco./er is the O. Fr. recouvrer, 
 fi'om the Lat. rccuperdre, to recover. 
 
 Retrieve is from the French re- 
 trouver, tojind again, It. ritrovare. We 
 are said to recover what has been 
 accidentally lost, or lost from want 
 of reflexion ; to retrieve that the loss 
 of which is more distinctly charge- 
 able upon us as a fault. A man loses 
 his purse, and by assiduous inquiry 
 and search succeeds, perhaps, in re- 
 covering it. He retrieves his good 
 
654 
 
 name. A man may recover by good 
 luck ; but he retrieves through his 
 own exertions. 
 
 Reoain (Fr. regagnevj to regain) 
 denotes the recovery of what is of 
 simple and obvious value. We re- 
 cover what is of general, even indi- 
 rect, advantage. We retrieve what 
 It is a positive loss to have parted 
 with. We regain possessions ; we re- 
 trieve losses ; we recover advantages. 
 
 " Though wicked men be under the in- 
 fluence of their corrupt prevailing inclina- 
 tions, in the ordinary course of their lives, 
 yet at some certain seasons, and especially 
 in the absence of temptations, their en- 
 chanted reason and understanding may 
 recover its due force and spring." — Water- 
 land. 
 
 " There is much to be done, undoubtedly, 
 and much to be retrieved." — Burkk. 
 
 " My soul attends thy voice ; and banish'd 
 
 Virtue 
 Strives to regain her empire of the mind." 
 Johnson. 
 
 RECTITUDE. Justice. 
 
 Rectitude (Lat. rectitndinem, 
 $traightness, uprightness) is conformity 
 to the rule of right in principle and 
 practice. 
 
 Justice (Lat. jusittia) refers more 
 especially to the carrying out of law 
 as regards the treatment of others. 
 Rectitude is, therefore, in one's self ; 
 justice is on account of others. Jus- 
 tice is by moralists sometimes divided 
 into — commutative, Vv'hich assures to 
 every man what is his own in fact 
 or by promise; distributive, which 
 deals out to several according to their 
 deserts ; and general, which through 
 any channels, though not strictly com- 
 mutative or distriljutive, carries out 
 the ends of law, as in the government 
 of his children by a parent. 
 
 " Nor is the lowest herd incapable of 
 that sincerest of pleasures, the conscious- 
 ness of acting right ; for rectitude does not 
 sonsist in extensiveness of knowledge, but 
 in doing the best according to the lights 
 afforded."— Search. 
 
 " The king-becoming gi-aces, 
 tis justice, verity, temperance, and stable- 
 
 ness, 
 r have no relish of them." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 REDRESS. Relief. 
 
 Heduess (Fr. -edresser, to sl^aighte^t) 
 
 SYNONYMS [rectitude] 
 
 is, literally, the bringing back to the 
 right, and is said only in regard to 
 matters of right and justice; while 
 Relief (Fr. relief, relever, to raise 
 anew) is said of the lightening of 
 anything that may be regarded as o( 
 the nature of a burden, as pain, in- 
 convenience, obligation, or necessity. 
 Power and justice redress, charity 
 and humanity relieve. 
 
 " Thus heavenward all things tend. For 
 all were once 
 
 Perfect, and all must be at length re- 
 stored. 
 
 So God has greatly purposed ; Who would 
 else 
 
 In His dishonour'd works Himself endure 
 
 Dishonour, and be wronged without re- 
 dress." CowPKR. 
 
 " The inferior ranks of people no longer 
 looked upon that order, as they had done 
 before, as the comforters of their distress, 
 and the relievers of their indigence." — 
 Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 REEL. Stagger. Totter. 
 
 Involuntary and unsteady motion 
 in animate beings is common to these 
 terms. 
 
 To Reel (connected with roll) is to 
 move in such a way as to border on 
 the loss of equilibrium. 
 
 To Stagger may be applied to 
 standing as well as walking, and de- 
 notes a difficulty of preserving the 
 power of standing upright (Dut. 
 staggeren, to stagger). As reeling is 
 the effect of force or misdirected 
 movement, as in intoxication, bo stag- 
 gering indicates either great pres- 
 sure, as of a burden, or unsteadiness 
 of brain, and consequent weakness. 
 
 Totter (Du. touteren, to oscillate, 
 swing: Wedgwood) is the indication 
 of weakness, especially in the support 
 of the limbs, and is applied, as the 
 others are not, to what is inanimate ; 
 as, a building tottering to its fall. 
 
 " They reel to and fro and stagger like a 
 drunken man, and are at their wits' end." 
 — Eng. Psabyis. 
 
 " Tottering on the seat of elevation."— 
 Idler. 
 
 RE-ESTABLISH. Restouf.. 
 Repair. Repi.ace. Rehabilitate, 
 
 Re-establish (Fr. ritahlir) signi- 
 fies properly to put upoL t fonnei 
 
[refractory] discriminated. 
 
 655 
 
 looting, to restore to a former state ; 
 Restore (Lat. restaiirare), to reinstate 
 a tiling in its integrity, its force, its 
 consideration, and condition ; Repair 
 ( Lat. rcparer, to mend), to give back to 
 a thing its form, its totality, its origi- 
 nal aspect. We re-establish what has 
 been overthrown, ruined, desti'oyed. 
 One restores what has been degraded, 
 disfigured, dilapidated. One repairs 
 what has been spoilt, damaged, and 
 deteriorated. Like the verb establish, 
 however, we do not speak of re-es- 
 tablishing things purely material, but 
 things which have the nature of force, 
 order, law, continued existence, or 
 operation. The others are capable of 
 a purely material application. We 
 re-establish that which had lost its 
 influence and its action. We restore 
 that which, being capable of variation, 
 has lost much of its stability, force, 
 vigour, activity, or excellence. We 
 repair that which has been injuriously 
 aiiected contrary to its own intrinsic 
 perfection or the established order of 
 things. We are also said to repair 
 the evil or the loss itself. 
 
 Replace has a more decided mean- 
 ing, that of putting a thin^ back to 
 the place from which it had been re- 
 moved. It may be observed that the 
 terra has also the meaning of furnish- 
 ing a substitute for what has altogether 
 disappeared, so that the identity of 
 the original is lost. 
 
 REFERENCE. Relation. 
 
 Both these words are formed from 
 the Lat. rt/erre, part, rcldtus, to carrif 
 back, but express different aspects of 
 the same idea. The relation is the 
 fixed connexion recognized as exist- 
 i[ig between two things in any way. 
 
 The Reference is tlie act of refer- 
 ring, or the state of being referred, 
 and springs out of the case and the 
 occasion. Thus the reference is the 
 specific institution of a mental con- 
 nexion which ends when the mind 
 ceases to regard the relation, while 
 the relation is inherent and perma- 
 nent. Unless Christianity stood re- 
 lated to the forms of social life, we 
 could not speak of it in reference to 
 Javery. 
 
 REFORM. Reformation. 
 
 Reformation (Lat. r^'ormaTS. M 
 shape anew) is usually employed of 
 matters of grave moral or political 
 importance in the interests of nations 
 and the character of individuals. 
 
 Reform is oftener applied to prac- 
 tical details. We speak of a reforma- 
 tion in morals and in religion; a 
 reform in government and administra- 
 tion or management. So reform is 
 commonly local or particular, re- 
 formation is general. An organiza- 
 tion, a polity, or the character of an 
 individual, may need reform in one or 
 more particulars, without requiring 
 such a radical alteration as would be 
 implied in the term Reformation. 
 Whately has well remarked, 
 
 " It is a recent custom to speak of re- 
 forming abuses ; but this is an impropriety 
 of language. Abuses may be remedied or 
 extirpated, but they cannot be reformed. 
 In the same way, we speak improperly of 
 curing diseases. It is, correctly speaking, 
 the patient who is cured." 
 Under another view, Reformation 
 and Reform also differ as active and 
 passive. Reformation is often used 
 in the sense of the act of reforming ; 
 Reform, of the state of being re- 
 formed. A reformation may be going 
 on ; a reform may be effected. 
 
 " This was a proper time to enter upon 
 the business of a reformatio7i, which eA'ery 
 man who gave himself a moment's time 
 to think must be satisfied was absolutely 
 necessary." — Pitt, Speech on Parliamen- 
 tary Reform, 
 " What vice has it snbdned, whose heart 
 
 reclaimed 
 By rigour? or whom laughed into reform? " 
 COWPER, 
 
 REFRACTORY. Unruly. Un- 
 
 GOVERNABLE. 
 
 Refractory (Lat. refract arius, ob- 
 stinate) is the active and positive con- 
 dition of Unruliness. The unruly 
 child is simply hard to keep under 
 rule. The refractory child perversely 
 breaks rule. An unruly temper or 
 disposition is under no sound prin- 
 ciple of control ; a refractory temper 
 rebels agamst it. 
 
 Ungovernable (LslI. gubernare, to 
 steer, to govern) denotes that extreme 
 of refractoriness which successfully 
 sets at defiance all attejnpts at control. 
 
656 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [refresh"^ 
 
 " That religion thus nnrsed up by politi- 
 cians might be every way compliant with 
 and obsequious to their designs, and no way 
 refractory to the same."— Cudworth. 
 
 " Who alone canst order the unruly wills 
 and affections of sinful men."— Anglican 
 Liturgy. 
 
 "Haughty and ungovernable spirits."— 
 Hale. 
 
 REFRESH. Revive. Renovate. 
 Renew. 
 
 REPnESH (Fr. rafraichir, to cool, re- 
 fresh) denotes the renewal of what is 
 vital or vivid ; as to refresh one who 
 is faint, or a colour which has become 
 faded. 
 
 Revive (Lat. rhuvtre, to live again) 
 IS to renew that which is of the nature 
 of vital force, or may be regarded as 
 analogous to it 
 
 Renew and Renovate, which are 
 dififerent forms of the same word, the 
 former coming to us through the 
 French iieuf, and the latter through 
 the Latin jibwits, new, differ in being 
 employed, the former more distinc- 
 tively of moral, the latter, of physical, 
 subjects; as, to renew a vow; to re- 
 novate furniture. All involve the 
 idea of a restoration of things to their 
 former state. Revive and Refresh 
 belong specially to animal bodies. 
 One who had fainted revives when the 
 functions of life return. One who is 
 weary is refreshed when those func- 
 tions are performed with more anima- 
 tion; Refresh thus implying an in- 
 ferior degree of antecedent exhaustion 
 to that implied by Revive. Any- 
 thing of which the force or action 
 has lain dormant or in abeyance 
 may be said to be revived, as a cus- 
 tom, a claim, a practice. In this ap- 
 plication. Revive belongs rather to 
 things external, Renew, to things in- 
 ternal, to one's self. To renew a cus- 
 tom, would mean a custom of one's 
 own : to revive a custom, would indi- 
 cate that others besides one's self are 
 interested. Dormant energies, and 
 even weakened impressioM are said 
 to be revived. Renovate never im- 
 plies any cessation or interval of time ; 
 whereas Renew is often employed of 
 the taking up of what has been sus- 
 pended. 
 •• In order to keep the mind in repair, it 
 
 IS necessary to replace and refreshen those 
 impressions of Nature which are continu- 
 ally wearing away," -Reynolds. 
 
 " Gross corruptions of the Christian doc- 
 trine, which the caprice and vanity of this 
 licentious age, have revived rather than 
 produced."— Bishop Horsley. 
 
 " All Nature feels the renovating force 
 Of winter." Thomsox. 
 
 " The old custom upon many estates is to 
 let for leases of lives renewable at pleasure " 
 —Swift. 
 
 REFUSE. Decline. Deny. Re- 
 ject. Repel. Reuvfe. Repulse. 
 Refuse (Fr. refuser, Lat. r^fntdre, 
 to push back) indicates the expression 
 of an unwillingness to grant what 
 others desire, request, or demand. 
 
 Decline (Lat. diclinare, to bend 
 away from) is a gentle yet determined 
 refusal to act in a manner proposed, 
 jmd most commonly fi-om motives ot 
 consideration or prudence. We may 
 decline what is advantageous to our- 
 selves, as well as what is desired by 
 others. 
 
 We Deny (Yt. denier, Lat. dinegdre) 
 what is desired of us by others, ex- 
 cept in the sense in which denial u 
 opposed to affirmation. 
 
 We Reject (Lat. rejicere^ part, re- 
 jectus, to cast back) what is strongly 
 opposed to our taste, judgment, or in- 
 clination. 
 
 We Repel (Lat. repelltre, to drive 
 back) what others press upon us. 
 
 Rebuff (It. ribuffo, rebuff, reproof) 
 denotes such a refusal or repelling as 
 by its decisive character inflicts a 
 shock upon the other party — refusal 
 that may be felt. To repel is to re- 
 ject with violence, to rebuflfis to refuse 
 with contempt. 
 
 To Repulse, another form of Repfi 
 (Lat. rcpellh-e, rtpulsus) is eflfectually 
 to repel, to force back upon another 
 his own advances, overtures, ap- 
 proaches, eflforts, attacks. Only the 
 movements of intelligent agents are 
 repulsed, while natural or mechanical 
 forces may be repelled 
 
 Entreaties, invitations, are refused, 
 proposals are declined, requests and 
 petitions are denied, ]»ropositions and 
 counsels are rejected, advances are re- 
 
[BEMAINDER] UISCRIMINATED. 
 
 657 
 
 pelled, importunities rebuffed, attacks 
 
 repulsed. 
 
 " Complete to have discovered aud repulsed 
 
 Whatever wiles of foe or seeming friend." 
 
 MlLTOX. 
 
 "A flat refusal on his (their prince's) 
 part reduces them to the melancholy alter- 
 native of continuing to submit to one grie- 
 vance a^.'l to stand exposed to the other 
 danger, or of freeing themselves from both 
 without his consent." — BoLlKGBROKB. 
 
 " He (Evelyn's father) was a studious 
 decliner of honours and titles." — EvTiXYK. 
 •• Begin, then, sisters of the sacred well. 
 That from beneath the seat of Jove do 
 
 spring. 
 Begin, and somewhat loudly sweep the 
 
 string. 
 Hence with denial vain and coy excuse." j 
 MiXTON. I 
 
 " For always the weakest part of man- } 
 kind are the most suspicious ; the less they i 
 understand things the more designs they | 
 imagine are laid for them, and the best | 
 counsels are soonest rcject&i by them." — 
 Stillingfleet. 
 
 " They repelled each other strongly, and 
 yet attracted each other strongly." — Mac- 
 AULAY. 
 
 " Marvel. ing that he who hadnever heard 
 •nch speeches from any knight should be 
 thus rebuffed by a woman ; and that marvel 
 made him hear out her speech." — Sidney, I 
 Arcadia. I 
 
 REITERATE. Repe.^t. ! 
 
 To Repeat (Lat. repctere) is no 
 more than to do or say what one has 
 already said or done ; aud this once 
 again or oftener as the case may be. 
 
 To Reiter ATE (Lat. reiteratio, subst. 
 from obs- reitirdre) is to do this in 
 a fixed and determined way, hence 
 naturally, though not necessarily, to 
 exhibit one's determination by fre- 
 quency of the same words or act. He 
 who repeats is often content with 
 repeating the substance, he who re- 
 iterates is led by his obstinacy to re- 
 peat in exact form. 
 
 RELUCTANT. Averse. Ad- 
 verse. Unwilling. 
 
 'Re\.vctavt (hat.rtluctdri,ta stniggte 
 against) is a tenn of the will, which, 
 as it were, struggles against the deed, 
 and relates always to questions of ac- 
 tion. 
 
 Averse (Lat. dversus, turned away 
 from) is a term of the nature or dis- 
 position, and relates to objects or to 
 
 actions, as a mattei of taste. It indi- 
 cates a settled sentiment of dislike, as 
 reluctance is specific in regard tp 
 sets. 
 
 Adverse (Lat. adversus, opposed to) 
 denotes active opposition and hos- 
 tility, as a matter of judgment. Un- 
 willing is the widest of all, and ex- 
 presses no more than decided dis- 
 inclination. It is, however, the 
 weakest tenn of all, and refers to 
 action only. 
 
 "Well, says I, since it must be so, here 
 is my arm ; but I go half reluctantly, for I 
 like this place so well, I could be content 
 to live here always." — Search, Light of 
 Nature. 
 
 Averse is only predicated of beings of 
 intelligence and will. Adverse may be 
 employed even of physical influences, 
 as adverse winds. \Vhen predicated 
 of persons. Adverse is much stronger 
 than Averse. The man who is aveiiee 
 to a measure onlj- dislikes it, and may 
 still perhaps adopt it. He who is ad- 
 verse to it, thinks it his bounden duty 
 to do all he can to oppose and prevent 
 it. 
 
 "Happy wei'e it for us all if we bore 
 prosperity as well and wisely as we endure 
 an adverse fortune."— SouTHKY. 
 
 ♦'Nature is so far from producing it 
 (virtue) that it yieldeth mighty obstacles 
 and resistances to its birth, there being in 
 the best dispositions much averseness from 
 good, and great pi"onenes8 to evil."— Bab- 
 row. 
 
 " Which deferring, as it must needs h« 
 the argument of an evil man, and an indi- 
 cation of unwillingness to live worthily, so 
 it can serve really no prudent end to which 
 it can fallaciously pretend." — Bishop Tay- 
 lor. 
 
 REMAINDER. Rest. Rem- 
 nant. Residue. 
 
 Remainder (see Remain) is not so 
 general as Rest (Fr. rester, to stop o^ 
 remain), which is indeed the most 
 general of all these tenns, and de- 
 notes, universally, that which remains 
 or is left after the separation of a part 
 or parts, whether in fact or contem- 
 plation, and may be so as the result of 
 circumstances or purposely. The re- 
 mainder is tlie rest under certain con- 
 ditions, most commonly the smaller 
 part which remains after the greater 
 part has been taken away. It is alsc 
 u V 
 
668 
 
 more applicable to mental and moral, 
 Rest to physical, matters. 
 
 Remnant (Lat. rhndnh^e, to stay be- 
 hind) has in itself much the same 
 meaning as Remainder, of which it is 
 only another fonu, but differs from it 
 in the implied process which preceded 
 the leaving, which, in the case of 
 remnant, is that of use, consumption, 
 or waste. It is commonly a very small 
 part. 
 
 Residue (Lat. residuiis, rcsid'ere, to 
 remain behind) is that part which has 
 not been disposed of; that is, either 
 purposely omitted to be used, or un- 
 touched by a previous process of dis- 
 tribution or use. Neither Remnant, 
 Remainder, nor Residue can be em- 
 ployed, like Rest, to express the result 
 of purpose. 
 "Scarce seven, the thin remainder of my 
 
 fleet. 
 From storms preserved, within year har- 
 bour meet." Dryden, Firgil. 
 It is possible that the rest may be the 
 larger part, while in the case of the 
 others it is the smaller. Out of a com- 
 
 Eany of twenty, for instance, it mi^ht 
 appen that one should give expression 
 to a particular opinion, and that all 
 the rest should dissent from it; on the 
 other hand, the remainder would im- 
 ply a minorit}-^, and the remnant a 
 small minority. 
 
 "Plato and the rest of the philosophers." 
 — STILLINarLEKT. 
 
 " The remnant shall return, even the 
 remnant of Jacob, unto the mighty God. 
 For though thy people Israel be as the sand 
 of the sea, yet a remnant of them shall re- 
 turn." — English Bible. 
 
 " He burneth part thereof in the fire, 
 with part thereof he eateth flesh, he roasteth 
 roast, and is satisfied. Yea, he warmeth 
 himself, and saith. Aha 1 I am warm, I 
 have seen the fire. And the residue thereof 
 he maketh a god."— Ibid. 
 
 REMISSION. Absolution. Par- 
 don. Grace. 
 
 Grace (Lat. gratia) may be re- 
 garded as the generic terra under 
 which the rest are included. 
 
 Pardon (Fr. pardon), in the tech- 
 nical sense of jurisprudence, is the 
 grace accorded by the Prince to one 
 who, though implicated in an affair, 
 is yet not tlie autlior of it, nor an ac- 
 
 S5fN0NYMS [remission] 
 
 complice. It is then the grace of K-at 
 punishing the innocent. 
 
 Remission (Lat. remissionem) is the 
 grace which is accorded to one who 
 has committed an involuntary murder, 
 or has killed another while defending 
 his own life. It is a grace extended 
 to the unfortunate, or to the hapless 
 exerciser of his own right. There was 
 also another act called the abolitioiiy 
 which was nothing less than the arbi- 
 trary pardon of one in absolute power 
 extended to a crime irremissible in it- 
 self: a robbery of justice. 
 
 Absolution (Lat. absMutionem) is a 
 judgment by which an accused person 
 is declared innocent, or reinstated as 
 such. 
 
 In common language, the proper 
 idea of Remission is that of forbearing 
 from the exercise of the right to in- 
 flict a penalty. One remits a penalty 
 or a debt either wholly or in part. That 
 of absolution is the loosino- or freeing 
 tlie accused from the bonds by which 
 he was tied. The exact force of abso- 
 lution is expressed in a prayer of the 
 English Liturgy, which contains these 
 words : " though we be tied and bound 
 with the chain of our sins, yet let the 
 piti fulness of Thy great mercy loose 
 us." That of pardon is to grant the 
 entire remission of a fault which one 
 has a right to punish as a superior, or 
 an offence which one is in a position 
 to resent, so that it shall be forgotten, 
 and be as if it had not been committed. 
 It is literally to ^ii;fi with perfect free- 
 dom, and without any reserve. That 
 of grace is the accordance of a pardon 
 entirely gratuitous, so as to receive 
 the offenaer to grace or favour. Re- 
 mission is an act of moderation, aboli- 
 tion of a tyrant's favour, absolution of 
 a just or propitious judge; pardon is 
 an act of clemency or generosity, and 
 grace of affection or goodness. Re- 
 mission is opposed to exaction, aboli- 
 tion to justice, absolution to con- 
 demnation, pardon to punishment, 
 grace to the rigour of justice. The 
 sinner, by the remission of his sins, i* 
 freed from rendering account of them. 
 The abolition of them deals with them 
 as if he had never committed them. 
 By absolution he is loosed in heaven 
 
,_BEPAKATIONj DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 and earth. By pardon, he is no longer 
 an object of punishment. By grace, 
 he is restored to the favour of God. 
 
 659 
 
 REMOVE. Move. 
 
 We Move (Lat. m^ivere) when we 
 alter in the slightest degi-ee the posi- 
 tion of an object, or even cause an 
 internal motion of its parts ; we Re- 
 move (Lat. rtmovere) when we take it 
 away bodily. 
 
 RENEGADE. Apostate. Re- 
 
 CUSANT. 
 
 These terms both express one who 
 has deserted his faith, his professed 
 principles, or his party. 
 
 The Apostate (Gr. aTroo-TaTif, lite- 
 rally, one who stands off or away) is a 
 religious Renegade (Low Lat. rene- 
 i^atus, from rhitgarej to deny), and the 
 renegade is a political apostr % An 
 apostate denies his former laith ; a 
 renegade deserts his former policy. 
 
 Recusant (Lat. reci'isa litem, refus- 
 ing, rejecting) is a historical term, and 
 has been apjjlied in English history to 
 those — mostly Roman (Catholics — who 
 refuse to acknowledge the king's su- 
 Iremacy in things ecclesiastical. 
 
 RENOWNED. Famous. 
 
 A person cannot be Renowned (Fr. 
 renomme) but for great and illustrious 
 deeds; while he maybe Famous (Lat. 
 fdmosus, famous, infamous) for this and 
 also for some incident of importance 
 which is associated with him, but does 
 not of necessity betoken any greatness 
 of chai-acter ; as, " Empedocles is fa- 
 mous for having been swallowed by a 
 volcano, and Tarquin for having been 
 expelled from Rome." Those only 
 are renowned who are principals in 
 great actions. The history of the fa- 
 mous is commonly better known than 
 that of the renowned. Joan of Arc is 
 more renowned than known. No 
 moral worth is implied in renown, 
 though persons may be renowned for 
 virtue. Renown is emphatically the 
 preservation from oblivion. Things as 
 well as persons may be renowned. 
 Champagne is renowned for its wine. 
 The idea of renown is conspicuous 
 «ud celeb}-ated success. 
 
 " He was a wight of high rtHOnm." 
 Shakespkabk. 
 
 " Henry the Fifth, too famous to live lonjj.** 
 
 REPAIR. Reparation. 
 
 Repair (Fr. reparer^ to repair, rmnd, 
 Lat. rtpdrdre, to prepare) is the result 
 of which Reparation is the process. 
 A bridge, for instance, is undergoing 
 a process of reparation till it is placed 
 in a condition of repair. Repair, too, 
 is a physical process ; reparation is a 
 moral action. Repair is always phy- 
 sical or analogous in its use ; repai-a- 
 tion is purely moral. We speak of 
 repairing a house, a road, a bridge, or, 
 analogously, of repairing shattered 
 fortunes ; but of making repai"atiou 
 for injury and wrong to the characters 
 of others. 
 
 " Sunk down, and sought repair 
 Of sleep, which instantly fell on me." 
 MUCTON. 
 
 " I am sensible of the scandal I have 
 given by my loose writings, an«l made what 
 reparation I am able." — Drydej^c. 
 
 REPARATION. Restitution. 
 Restoration. 
 
 All these terms denote the undoing 
 of that which has been done to the 
 injury of another; but Reparation 
 {see above) relates to moral injury ; 
 Restitution, to the wrongful depri- 
 vation of property. A man who has 
 stolen a sum of money from another 
 will be compelled, if convicted, and 
 his circumstances permit it, to make 
 restitution (Lat. vestAtu^re, to restore). 
 if injury has been done to a man's re- 
 putation, the injurer may find it hard, 
 even if he should be willing, to make 
 adequate reparation. 
 
 Restoration (Lat. restaurare, to re- 
 store) ditters in denoting the specific 
 giving back of that which had been 
 taken away. Restitution of stolen 
 property may be made by paying its 
 value in money. Restoration implies 
 the giving back of the articles stolen. 
 
 "Mo discords and mo jealousies 
 AIo murmures and nio novelties 
 And also mo dissimulations 
 And eke fained reparations." 
 
 Chauckr. 
 
 " On a couvKtion of larceny in particular 
 the prosecutor shall have restitutioti of hit 
 
660 
 
 goods by virtue of the statute 21 Henry 
 vIII. c. 11."— Blackstone. 
 
 •' If I have done any wrongto any man, 
 I restore fouxtold"— English JSiile. 
 
 REPARTEE. Retort. 
 Reparteb {Vr.repartieja rejoinder) 
 is a fai i.ess grave word than Retort 
 (Lat. reUtrqucre, part, retortus, to twist 
 back again, to retort) being restricted 
 to meaning a sharp, ready, and witty 
 reply; while Retort is applied to mat- 
 ters more earnest, as arguments, accu- 
 sations, and the like. 
 
 " A man renowned for repartee 
 Will seldom scruple to make free 
 With friendship's finest feeling." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 " I did dislike the cut of a certain cour- 
 tier's beard ; he sent me word, if I said his 
 beard was not cut well, he was in the mind 
 it was. This is called the retort courteous." 
 —Shakespeare. 
 
 In Repartee there is more of wit; 
 in Retort there is more of logic. Re- 
 partee throws back a joke upon the 
 joker ; retort throws back the issues 
 of an argument upon the arguer. It 
 is plain that the same thing may often 
 be called a repartee or a retort. Many 
 a serious thing is said in jest. A re- 
 partee which veils argument under 
 wit is a retort, and of a very effective 
 kind. 
 
 REPEAT. Rehearse. Recite. 
 Recapitulate. 
 
 Of these, Repeat (Lat. reptlire) is 
 the most comprehensive, and is ap- 
 plicable both to actions and words, 
 the rest only to words. Again, we 
 may repeat single words, or even in- 
 articulate sounds. We apply the 
 other tei-ms only to many words con- 
 secutively. And again, we may re- 
 peat that which originally came from 
 ourselves as well as that which came 
 from others. 
 
 Rehearse, lit. to harrow over agam 
 (Fr. Iiei'se, a harrow) conveys the idea 
 of solemnity or exactness in utterance. 
 We reheai'se as before an audience 
 and in detail that which it is of public 
 interest to listen to. A rehearsal may 
 be subsequent or preliminary. 
 
 We Recite (Lat. rtcitare, to read 
 cut publicly) when our avowed pur- 
 pose is to gire the exact words of 
 
 SYNON JTMS [REPARTEEJ 
 
 another. Rehearsal applieg equally 
 to deeds and words ; recital, more 
 directly to words, and to deeds only 
 as already committed to some form ol 
 relation. 
 
 Recapitulate (Lat. rtcHpitUldref 
 to go over the headings, citpitilla, pi. 
 again) is to go over again, as the 
 principal things mentioned in a pre- 
 ceding discourse, in a concise and 
 summary manner, for the purpose of 
 refreshing the memory of the hearers, 
 whether the original statement or ex- 
 position were our own or another's. 
 
 " Yet I can repeat whole books that I 
 hare read, and poems of some selected 
 friends which I have liked to charge my 
 memory with."— Ben Jonsok. 
 •' Let Diyden with new rules our stage 
 
 refine. 
 And his great models form by this design ; 
 But Where's a second Vii-gil to rehearse 
 Our hero's glory in his epic verse ? " 
 
 Rochester. 
 
 '• From this time forwards, I presume, 
 the Athanasian Creed has been honoured 
 with a public recital among the other 
 sacred hymns and Chm-ch offices all over 
 the west."— Waterland. 
 
 "Hence we may see the reason why 
 creeds were no larger nor more explicit, 
 being but a kind of recapitulation of what 
 the catechumens had been taught mbre at 
 large, the main heads whereof were com- 
 mitted to memory, and publicly rmfecf, and 
 so became a creed." — Ibid. 
 
 REPENTANCE. Penitence. 
 Compunction. Contrition. Re- 
 morse. Regret. 
 
 Repentance (Fr. repentance, re- 
 pentir, to repent) is a practical state 
 of mind, involving, with the sorrow 
 for past acts, the resolution to avoid 
 them for the future — deep Regret 
 and renunciation being combined. 
 Penitence is the same thing, with a 
 less general and more theological ap- 
 plication. Repentance may have re- 
 spect to our worldly interests ; peni- 
 tence, to the state of the soul. It is 
 even possible to repent having done a 
 good thing ; as, for instance, kindness 
 to another, which has been abused. 
 
 Compunction (Lat. compuncius, 
 pricked with remorse) is a warning of 
 the conscience against the act, which, 
 however, is not strong enough to pre- 
 vent it, and so often accompanies its 
 commission. Compunction may pre* 
 
[reprehension] discriminated. 
 
 661 
 
 cede or follow the act ; the rest only 
 follow it. 
 
 Contrition (Lat. contirh-e, pai-t. 
 eontritns, to bruise) is a continuous 
 state of grief and self-condemnation, 
 which has not found relief in action, 
 and is a mere painful condition of the 
 conscience, either in regard to a spe- 
 cific act or to past conduct generally. 
 Compunction may he for the present ; 
 but contrition is always for the past. 
 Contrition may be eitlier specific or 
 general. Compunction is always spe- 
 cific. 
 
 Remorse (Fr. remords, L&t. remor- 
 dhe, to bite again) is the strongest 
 form of compunction for the past ; a 
 gnawing anguish occasioned by re- 
 flection upon a past deed or course. 
 Neither compunction nor remorse de- 
 note that genuine regret of wrong- 
 doing for its own sake which is ex- 
 pressed by Contrition. 
 
 Regret (Fr. regret j from regretter, 
 formerly regretevy meaning to pity) 
 does not carry with it either the 
 energy of remorse or the sacredncss 
 of contrition, or the practical charac- 
 ter of repentance. 
 
 '* What this repentance was which the 
 new covenant required as one of the condi- 
 tions to be performed by all those who 
 should receive the benefits of that covenant, 
 13 plain in the Scriptnre to be not only a 
 sorrow for sins past, but (what is a natural 
 consequence of such sorrow, if it be real) a 
 turning from them into a new and contrary 
 life."— Locke. 
 
 " Hearen may forgive a crime to penitence. 
 For Heaven can judge Upenitencehe true." 
 Dbyden. 
 
 " Repentance extorted from us by the 
 prospect of death can be only a sorrow for 
 sin, perhaps rendered more passionate by 
 our present fears. And this being only 
 s-orrow and compunction, and perhaps a 
 good resolution, it is plain that still these 
 are only the steps in the repentance of a 
 sinner, and not complete repentance in all 
 its parts." — Hoadly. 
 
 " If the sorrow arise merely from the 
 fear of punishment, it is called, in the lan- 
 guage o' the schools, attrition, and is 
 deemed the lowest and least honourable 
 species of repentance ; if from a desire to 
 plerise God, and a tender sense of having 
 offended so good a Father, it is styled con- 
 trition, and is of a more generous and noble 
 kind."— Bishop Hornk. 
 
 " When remorse is blended with the fear 
 of punishment, and arises to despair, it 
 
 constitutes the supreme wretchednes* of 
 the mind." — CoOAJf, 
 '* Alike regretted in the dust he lies. 
 Who yields ignobly, or who bravely dies." 
 
 Pope, Homer, 
 We eren apply the term Regret to 
 circumstances over which we have 
 had no control ; as, any untoward cc- 
 cun-ence ; the absence of friends or 
 their loss. When connected with 
 ourselves, it relates rather to unwise 
 acts than to wrong or sinful ones ; as, 
 foolish or rash conduct, carelessness, 
 the loss of opportunities, and the like, 
 and may be entirely selfish. Contri- 
 tion is the spontaneous grief which is 
 felt by a heart touched by the sense 
 of having offended against God in sin 
 and evil. Repentance is the bitter 
 yet wholesome reflexion of a scrupu- 
 lous mind dwelling on some repre- 
 hensible act performed. Remorse is 
 the vengeance of an outraged con- 
 science. 
 
 REPERTORY. Repository. 
 
 The object of a Repository (Lat. 
 rep'intoHum) is the safety and preser- 
 vation of the articles laid up ; the ob- 
 ject of a Repertory (Lat. rh)ertd- 
 rium) is to have them so stored that 
 they may be readily available. 
 
 REPETITION. Tautology. 
 
 The latter stands to the former as 
 species to genus. Not every Repe- 
 tition (Lat. rtpctcre, to repeat) is 
 Tautology (Gr. rauToXo-yia. ; to owto', 
 the same thing, andxsj/fjv, to say). Re- 
 petition may be often necessary, justi- 
 fiable, and efiective. Tautology is 
 such repetition as is none of these, 
 and is therefore vain and tiresome. 
 
 " Our long-tongued chatterers do, after 
 a sort, wound and weary the ears of their 
 hearers by their tautologies and vain repe- 
 titions of the same things."— HOLLAND, 
 Plutarch. 
 
 REPREHENSION. Reproof. 
 
 Blame is involved in both terms, 
 but more mildly in the former than 
 the latter. The former (Lat. rtprH- 
 hendere, to blame) denotes little more 
 than an expression of blame ; the 
 latter is its authoritative expression. 
 Many might express reprehension 
 who would not think themselves en- 
 titled to adiz inister reproof. 
 
662 
 
 Reprehension may be indirect ; 
 Reproof is personal and direct (Lat. 
 r^riibnre, to reprove, condemn). A 
 master of a school may be repre- 
 hended by the parents of his scholars ; 
 while he visits the scholars themselves 
 with reproofs. 
 
 " Foolish reprehension 
 Of faulty men." Spenskr. 
 
 *' Those best can bear reproof that merit 
 praise." — Pope. 
 
 REPRESENT. Remonstrate. 
 
 The literal sense of Represent 
 (Lat. reprccsentare) is to make once 
 more present, to bring again before 
 the eyes ; that of Remonstrate (Lat. 
 re- and monstrdre, to show} is to exhibit 
 anew, to advertise agam in a forcible 
 manner. In its present acceptation Re- 
 present implies a modest and gentle 
 putting forward of grounds of action 
 or change of opinion, intention, or 
 conduct ; Remonstrate implies an ex- 
 hibition, with more or less of force, of 
 duties or obligations for the purpose 
 of dissuading one or recalling him 
 from a false step. You represent to 
 me what I seem to forget. You re- 
 monstrate with me on what I ought 
 to respect. Representation can-ies 
 instruction, counsel, advice. Re- 
 monstrance adds to these elements of 
 warning and of censure. Your repre- 
 sentation tends to clear up my views, 
 your remonstrance to correct my con- 
 duct. Remonstrance supposes an 
 actual wrong, representation may 
 possibly turn upon a matter of im- 
 policy, or a course of conduct which 
 IS simply undesirable. One may use 
 representation where the relative con- 
 dition of another may deter us from 
 the exercise of remonstrance. In- 
 direct and apparently casual informa- 
 tion is often the most efficacious 
 mode of representation, while a grave 
 silence may amount to a strong and 
 perhaps the only available, remon- 
 strance. , 
 
 REPRESENTATIVE.. Deputy. 
 Delegate. 1^ 
 
 These all denote persons employed 
 to act on behalf of others. The ap- 
 pointment makes the Deputy (Ir. 
 diputi) ; the being sent elsewhere to 
 
 SYNONYMS [represent] 
 
 act makes the Delegate (Lat. d'dl- 
 gure, to send to a place, part, diligdtus) ; 
 the faithful transmission, or, literally, 
 presenting again, of the will or sense of 
 the constituent body makes the Re- 
 presentative. 
 
 " In so large a state as ours, it is there 
 fore very wisely contrired that the people 
 should do that by their representatives 
 which it is impracticable to perform in per- 
 son — representatives chosen by a number 
 of minute and separate districts, wherein 
 all the voters are, or easily may be, dis- 
 tinguished."— Blackstone. 
 
 "Our Saviour pleads our cause and 
 manages our affairs there, and the Holy 
 Spirit, as His Deputy and Vice-gerent, 
 doth it here." -Sharp. 
 
 " The bishops being generally addicted 
 to the former superstition, it was thought 
 necessary to keep them under so arbitrary 
 a power as that subjected them to ; for 
 they hereby held their bishoprics only dur- 
 ing the king's pleasure, and were to exe]> 
 cise them as his delegates in his name, and 
 by his authority."— Buenet. 
 
 REPRESS. Restrain. Sup- 
 
 Repress (Lat. r'^rimcre, part, re- 
 pressus), literally, to press back, is 
 applied to matters of feeling, as to 
 emotions which tend to manifest ' 
 themselves in outward expression. 
 
 Restrain (Lat. restringere) bears 
 reference, not so much to the mani- 
 festation of the impulse as the im- 
 pulse itself. He restrains his feelings 
 who does not allow them to rise be- 
 yond a certain pitch ; he represses 
 them who allows no expression of 
 them by word or looks. 
 
 Suppress (Lat. suppiHmtre, part, 
 suppressus, to press down, to put a stop 
 to) is total, while Repress may be 
 partial, and denotes a more complete 
 overcoming, or a keeping down to 
 such an extent that it shall not be 
 able to show itself; as, to suppress a 
 rebellion, in the first instance ; or a 
 correspondence, in the second. On 
 the other hand, an unseemly expres- 
 I sion or manifestation of opinion, as in 
 the plaudits of a law court, is said io 
 be repressed. 
 
 " And no doubt overgrowthey wonld.and 
 cover the whole face of the earth were they 
 not repressed and withstood by good hn»- 
 bandrie " — Holland's Pliny. 
 
 " The suppression of idolatry in the Ro 
 
[require] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 663 
 
 man Empire, and the establishment of the 
 Christian Church upon its ruins was an 
 event the most wonderful in the Gentile 
 world, to which nothing but the power of 
 God was adequate." — Bishop Horsley. 
 
 " And with these sayings scarce re- 
 straiTied they the people that they hadtoot 
 done sacrifice unto them." — English Bible. 
 
 REPRIEVE. Respite. 
 
 These words are used in common in 
 the sense of" a temporary relief from 
 any pressure, burden, or trouble. 
 
 The Reprieve (0. Fr. repreuver, 
 Lat. r'^r^bdre, to disallow) is, how- 
 ever, something given or granted. 
 
 The Respite (O. Fr. respit, Lat. re- 
 spectuSy a lookiii^ back, co7isideration) 
 comes to us in the course of circum- 
 stances. We commonly speak of a 
 reprieve from punishment, a respite 
 from toil. 
 
 " A reprieve, from reprendre, to take 
 back, is the withdrawing of a sentence for 
 an interval of time, whereby the execution 
 is suspended." — Blackstone. 
 
 The derivation, however, given by 
 Blackstone, is erroneous. 
 
 " If we may ventui'e to declare more par- 
 ticularly in what sense God might be said 
 to have hardened their hearts, it was very 
 probably by forbearing to strike terror into 
 them, l)y gi'^'ing them respite, and not pur- 
 suing them constantly and without remis- 
 sion. "— Waterland. 
 
 REPRISAL. Retaliation. 
 
 Reprisal (Fr. reprise, a retaking) 
 is, literally, the taking again in re- 
 turn for something taken. Both in 
 this case and in Retaliation (Lat. 
 retdlidre, to retaliate ; re-, again, and 
 talis, such as) there is an implied 
 suffering on the part of the party on 
 whom the reprisal or retaliation is 
 made. Retaliation, however, is the 
 more general term, while Reprisal is 
 often restricted to cases of war and 
 hostility. Retaliation may be simply 
 in the making another to suffer loss, 
 whereas reprisal implies gain to the 
 party making it. "An eye for an 
 eye, or a tooth for a tooth,' is retalia- 
 tion, not reprisal. Retaliation is 
 seldom now employed, as it used to 
 be, equally in the sense of returning 
 or requiting good and evil, but is con- 
 fined to the latter. In reprisal the 
 satisfaction consists of solid benefit ; 
 
 in retaliation, of the indulgence of 
 
 revenge. 
 
 " In this case letters of marque and re- 
 prisal (words used as synonjrmous, and sig- 
 nifying, the latter, a taking in return, the 
 former, the passing the frontiers in order 
 to such taking) maybe obtained in order to 
 seize the bodies or goods of the subjects of 
 the offending state until satisfaction be 
 made wherever they happen to be found." 
 — Blackstoitb. 
 
 " Revenge in this case naturally dictates 
 retaliation, and that we should impose the 
 like duties and prohibitions upon the im- 
 portation of some or all of their manafao- 
 tures into ours. Nations accordingly sel- 
 dom fail to retaliate in this manner." — 
 Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 REQUIRE. Demand. 
 
 Require (Lat. rhpiirere, to needy to 
 xcant) is less strong than Demand 
 (Fr. demander, Lat. danandare, to 
 entrust ; and in later Latin to denuind. 
 See Littre, s. v. de77iander, to ask or 
 claiju). We demand on the ground of 
 authority; we may require on the 
 ground of expediency, necessity, or 
 right. We demand what in some way 
 redounds to our own gain, advantage, 
 or use. We may require that another 
 should act in a certain way, or do a 
 certain thing for his own sake. We 
 require when we lay down conditions 
 of any kind. We demand when we 
 employ our power, social, moral, or 
 accidental, to exact such conditions, 
 as founding the exaction upon some 
 strong reason. We demand that 
 which is owing and ought to be 
 given; we require that which we 
 wish and expect to have done. The 
 creditor makes a demand on the 
 debtor, the master requires a certain 
 duty from his servant. It is unjust 
 to demand of another what he ought 
 not to give. It is unreasonable to re- 
 quire of him what is not in his power 
 to do. 
 
 "That if the Gentiles, whom no .aw in- 
 spired. 
 By nature did what was by law required. 
 They who the written rule had never 
 
 known 
 Were to themselves Iwth rule and law 
 alone." Drydkn. 
 
 " The dii'ectors of some of those bank* 
 sometimes took advantage of this optional 
 clause, and sometimes threatened those 
 who demanded gohl and silver in exchange 
 for a considerable number of their notes. 
 
664 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 reserve! 
 
 that they wonld take advantage of it un- 
 less snch demanders would content them- 
 selves with a part of what they rfewiaWet/." 
 — Smitti, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 RESERVE. Retain. 
 
 To Ret.4in (Lat. rctXnire) is to 
 keep back simply as an act of power. 
 It is to continue to hold, to restrain 
 from departure, escape, and the like, 
 as against influences which might de- 
 prive us of things. 
 
 Reserve (Lat. rtservare) is to keep 
 back or retain contingently, as a por- 
 tion of a larger quantity, or over 
 against the fulfilment of some condi- 
 tion, or the accession of some circum- 
 stance. To reserve implies the exer- 
 cise of judgment or aiscretion. To 
 retain may be lawful or unlawful. 
 VVlien we reserve, we at least profess 
 a reason for what we do ; but we may 
 retain by open violence. Retention 
 implies nothing beyond itself ; reser- 
 vation implies a further purpose be- 
 yond the act. Reserve is thus purely 
 moral, while Retain is physical and 
 mechanical. I reserve a remark for a 
 a favourable opportunity. A heated 
 body retains heat. The memory re- 
 tains events. 
 
 " When a landed estate therefore is sold 
 witii a reservation of a perpetual rent, if 
 it is intended that this rent should always 
 be of the same value, it is of importance 
 to the family in whose favour it is re- 
 served, that it should not consist in a par- 
 ticular sum of money." — Smith, Wealth 
 of Nations. 
 
 " We will add to all this the retainment 
 of the same name which the deceased had 
 liere, unless there be some special reason to 
 change it, so that their persons will be as 
 punctually distinguished and circumscribed 
 as any of ours in this life."— More, Im- 
 mortality of the Soul. 
 
 RESIGN. Abdicate. 
 
 We can only Abdicate (Lat. abdi- 
 care, to reject, to abdicate) a high 
 dignity, power, or station. We can 
 Resign (Lat. resigtiare, to cancel, to 
 resign) any situation, employment, or 
 office, high or low, or any advantage. 
 A king abdicates the throne. A do- 
 mestic servant may resign his situa- 
 tion. According to etymology, Rk- 
 sioNATioN would be by writing, for 
 tignare, came to be used &fi = scribcre ; 
 abdication, by word of mouth* but 
 
 this distinction is not auTiered to 
 practically. Abdication is always 
 purely voluntary. But persons are 
 sometimes forced to resign. He who 
 abdicates performs a final act^ while a 
 resignation has to be tendered to some 
 superior authority for acceptance or 
 refusal. The monarch may abdicate 
 at will, but the minister has before 
 now been refused permission to re- 
 sign. A more important difference is 
 that resignation recognizes that the 
 office or other thing given up flowed 
 from the source to which it is given 
 back. Resign has a much wider meta- 
 phorical use than Abdicate. So we 
 may resign expectations or hopes of 
 what we never as a fact possessed. 
 The monarch does not resign ; or, if 
 he do, it denotes tlie understanding 
 that he owed his elevation originally 
 to the people, the aristocracy, or 
 others, as the case may be. 
 
 " Deaneries and prebends may become 
 void, like a bishopric, by death, by depri- 
 vution, or by resignation, to either the king 
 or the bishop." — Ulackstone. 
 
 " The consequences drawn from these 
 facts, namely, that they amounted to an 
 abdication of the government, which abdica- 
 tio7i did not affect only the person of the 
 king himself, but also of all his heirs, and 
 rendered the throne absolutely and com- 
 pletely vacant, it belonged to our ancestors 
 to determine." — Blackstone. 
 
 RESOLUTION. Determination. 
 Decision. 
 
 A choice between action and inac 
 tion is Resolution. A choice be- 
 tween one motive and another is De- 
 termination (Lat. dilermmare, to 
 limit, to settle). 
 
 An irrevocable choice is a Decision 
 (decidere, to cut short, to determine). 
 Resolution is opposed to practical 
 doubt ; determination, to uncertainty 
 or practical ignorance ; decision, to 
 hesitation or incompleteness of final 
 purpose. After deliberation we re- 
 solve; after consideration we deter- 
 mine ; after decision nothing remains 
 but action. Decision commonly im- 
 plies a choice among several courses of 
 action. We determine what to do, 
 and resolve to carry out our determi- 
 nation. Determination is a less ener- 
 getic form of decision. Resolution is 
 a promise made to one's self to under- 
 
[restrict] 
 
 take a thing. It implies a finer moral 
 
 choice. A stubborn man may be de- 
 termined, a firm man is resolyed, what 
 to do. A decided character is quick 
 in forming a judgment, and firm in 
 adhering to it. He has a sharp under- 
 standing of distinct motives and lines 
 of conduct. AVhat he has decided he 
 is likely to carry out resolutely. Both 
 determination and decision are at an 
 end when the action has been entered 
 upon, but resolution may be carried 
 on into tJie action itself. Decision is 
 an act of the mind, and supposes ex- 
 amination. Resolution is an act of 
 the will, and supposes deliberation. 
 Our decisions should be just, that we 
 may not rej)ent of tliera. Our resolu- 
 tions should be firm, that we may not 
 break them. Women come generally 
 to decisions wliich have no better 
 foundation than imagination and feel- 
 ing. Men pride themselves on their 
 superior strength ; yet hoAV often do 
 they make resolutions in trouble which 
 they forget in prosperity. In matters 
 of science we speak of the decision of 
 a question, and the resolution of a 
 doubt or difiiculty. 
 
 '• Be it with resolution, then, to fight." — 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " The will IS said to be determined when 
 in consequence of some action or influence 
 its choice is directed to and fixed upon a 
 particular object." — Edwabds, On Free- 
 dom of the Will. 
 
 " The guidance of instinct, indeed, as it is 
 more decisively determinate, seems to bring 
 np an ofispring with less deviation from the 
 purposes of Nature than the superior fa- 
 tally of reason." — KjfOX, Essays. 
 
 RESORT. Repair. 
 
 Resort (Fr. ressortiVf sorttr, to go 
 out) has both a moral and a material 
 meaning, Repair (O. Fr. repairer, to 
 return home) only a material. To re- 
 pair is to betake one's self to a place. 
 To resort is to have recourse either in 
 the sense of repair, in which case it 
 implies habitual repairing, or in that 
 of applying one's self to some person, 
 or medium of action, for the purpose 
 of procuring an end. Resort has often 
 the force of betaking one's self to some 
 special or extraordinary means when 
 the present or ordinary are found in- 
 sufficient as he who cannot gain his 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 665 
 
 desire by entreaty may tesort to vio- 
 lence or threats. 
 
 RESTRAIN (see Repress). Con 
 TROL. Check. Curb. 
 
 We Restrain (Lat. restringirej t« 
 draw hack, restrain) only vital or moral, 
 not mechanical force. 
 
 We Control (0. Fr. contrerole, a 
 list by which we rheck another list) any 
 force which develops itself into con- 
 tinuous action or movement. Re- 
 straint may hinder action altogether ; 
 control implies its continuance under 
 regulation. 
 
 Check (Yr.ichec, '^ check!'* in play- 
 ing chess, lit. ^'king.'" Pers. shah) 
 denotes a slight force of restraint in 
 movement or action, interposed with 
 some degree of suddenness. 
 
 CxiRB (Fr. courber, Lat. curvdre, 
 to bend) is employed only of moral 
 forces, impulses, emotions, and the 
 like, denoting a pressure of restraint 
 put upon the feelings, the desires, or 
 the will, by the control or self-control 
 of the individual. 
 
 " Nor is the hand of the painter more 
 restrainuble than the pen of the poet."— 
 Brown, Vulgar Errors. 
 
 " If the seeds of piety and virtue be but 
 carefully sown at first, very much may be 
 done by this means, even in the most de- 
 praved natures, towards the altering and 
 changing of them, however to the checking 
 and controlling of our vicious inclinations." 
 — Tillotsok. 
 
 " Collier's attack upon the stage obliged 
 the succeeding dramatic poets to curb that 
 propension to indecency which had carried 
 some of their predecessors so far beyond the 
 bounds of good taste and good manners." — 
 Beattie. 
 
 It maybe observed that the objects of 
 restraint, control, or check may be 
 indifferent; while what requires to be 
 curbed is generally a vicious inclina- 
 tion or action. 
 
 RESTRICT. Restrain. 
 
 Although these are but different 
 forms of "the same verb (Lat. restnn- 
 gcre, part, restrictus, to restrain), they 
 have acquired a different application 
 in usage. Restrain is employed of 
 the simple exercise of power, whether 
 physical or moral. Restrict implies 
 moral restraint by prohibition to cer- 
 
666 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [result] 
 
 tain defined limits. Hence Restrain 
 is general ; Restrict, specific and rela- 
 tive. Restriction is relative restraint. 
 The imprisoned man is under restraint. 
 He who is abroad on parole is under 
 restriction. 
 " Restrain in me the cursed thonghts that 
 
 Nature 
 Gives way to in repose." 
 
 Shakespkark. 
 " This is to have the same restriction as 
 all other recreations." — Government of the 
 Tongue. 
 
 RESULT. Effect. Conse- 
 quence. 
 
 Of these, Effect (Lat. effectus, an 
 effect) may be regarded as the gene- 
 ric, of which the others are special 
 forms. 
 
 Results (Yr.risidtery to result, Lat. 
 risultare) and Consequences (Lat. 
 conshntentia, a consequence) are diffe- 
 rent forms of Effect. The effect fol- 
 lows immediately from the cause, 
 which may be physical, mental, or 
 moral. They can therefore be gene- 
 rally calculated upon beforehand. 
 Consequences are more remote, 
 springing less directly from causes, 
 following in the train of events, and 
 involving collateral causes or in- 
 fluences. To foresee the consequences 
 of a thing is a matter of comparison 
 and sagacity; to foresee the effects, 
 belongs to absolute knowledge ; for, 
 given the cause, the effect follows ot 
 course. The effect is, commonly 
 speaking, the object of action, ex- 
 cept where the action is complex and 
 purposely indirect; as, for instance, 
 in diplomacy, where the end directly 
 aimed at may be something which 
 will follow indirectly as a consequence. 
 A consequence is, in short, commonly 
 the effect of an effect. Results are 
 still more remote than consequences, 
 and more general, being the sum ot 
 all prior causes or operations specified 
 or unspecified. The effect of plough- 
 tig is the loosening of the soil ; the 
 consequence is the condition of prepa- 
 ration to receive the seed ; the result, 
 by the action of sun, frost, rain, snow, 
 wind, and other causes, is the general 
 fertility of the land. 
 
 " Such suppose a Deity that, actuig wisely 
 but necessarily, did contrive the general 
 
 frame of things in the world, from whence, 
 by a series of causes, doth unavoidably re- 
 sult whatsoever is now done in it."— Cdt>- 
 WORTH. 
 
 " Kappy the man that sees a God employed 
 In all the good and ill that checker life, 
 Resolving all events, with their ejects 
 And manifold results, into the will 
 And arbitration wise of the Supreme." 
 
 COWPER. 
 *' There are, indeed, such consequences as 
 are plainly necessary, and those which on 
 their first sight cany in them no less cer- 
 tainty than the principles from which they 
 were immediately derived. Of this nature, 
 are they which are reciprocally deduced 
 from their certain and intrinsical causes to 
 their effects." — Bishop Hall. 
 
 RETRIBUTION. Requital. 
 
 Both thesfe terms denote the giving 
 back, or giving, something the cha- 
 racter of whicli dejiends upon past 
 conduct, and may be either in the way 
 of reward or punishment. 
 
 But Retribution (Lat. rttrthuere, 
 part. retrHhiduSy to give back) bears a 
 more distinct relation to the justice of 
 what is so done; while REQuiTAL(from 
 requite, which is re- and quit, in the 
 sense of pay, something given to 
 quiet the sense of obligation in an- 
 other ; so quit-rent, quittance, may have 
 no reference to justice or equity, but 
 be simply the result of personal feel- 
 ing. Ingratitude may even requite 
 good with evil ; but retribution bears 
 reference to the demands and propor- 
 tion of the case. 
 
 " But yet, in the state of Nature, one 
 man comes by no absolute or arbitrary 
 power to use a criminal, when he has got him 
 into his hands, according to the passionate 
 heats or boundless extravagancy of his own 
 will, but only to retribute to him, as far as 
 calm reason and conscience dictate, what 
 is proportionate to his transgression." — 
 LOCKK. 
 
 " They find they had condemned them- 
 selves when they so readily passed so severe 
 a sentence upon those husbandmen who had 
 so ill requited the lord of the vineyard," — 
 Stillinqfleet. 
 
 RETURN. Restore. 
 
 \Vp Return (Fr. retoui-ner, to re- 
 turn) wnat was borrowed or lent. We 
 Restore (see above) what was taken 
 or given. It is in such cases a duty 
 to return with punctuality and exact- 
 ness ; to restore wholly, and without 
 diminution. We return that which 
 
[ridicule] 
 
 came to us under conditions and ex- 
 pectations, as civilities or loans. We 
 restore tliat of which the alienation 
 was not expressed, or was uncondi- 
 tional, as confidence, deposits, stolen 
 goods, and it goes back in its original 
 form ; while we may return one thing 
 by another, being of a different form 
 but equivalent. 
 
 REVERIE. Dream. 
 
 These are etymologically coinci- 
 dent. Reverif, being a dreaming, 
 from the French rever, to dream ; but 
 a reverie is a day, or wakeful. Dream. 
 In their remoter and metaphorical 
 applications. Reverie points rather to 
 the inconsecutiveness, Dream, to the 
 unreality, of the subject of thought. 
 Men, fi-om absence of mind, wander 
 off into reveries. Ardent and ambi- 
 tious minds entertain dreams of happi- 
 ness or greatness, which are, in the 
 multitude of cases, not realized. 
 
 REVERSE. Invert. Subvert. 
 
 These are compounds of the Latin 
 verb vertere, to turn; but there are 
 points of usage in which they differ, 
 though in some cases they may be 
 used interchangeably. We might 
 say, for instance, " to reverse or to 
 invert an order." Now to Reverse 
 is literally to turn so as to face another 
 way. To Invert is to turn over or 
 upside down. But it will be easily 
 understood that to reverse, in the 
 sense of turning that side before 
 which ought to be beliind, may be as 
 violent an alteration, when we come to 
 speak metaphorically, as to place that 
 below which ought to be above. To 
 Invert, in the above phrase, is a 
 stronger form of expression than to 
 Reverse. We may reverse in some 
 cases without contravening nature or 
 propriety. Such contravention is 
 commonly employed in invert. We 
 may reverse a proposition by making 
 it negative instead of affirmative ; or 
 a decree, by giving it a contrary effect. 
 Such procedure may be right or wrong 
 according to circumstances. Subvert 
 is a stronger term, implying the vio- 
 lent overturning of what used to stand 
 as it were firm and erect. 
 
 •*Edch court of appeal, in their respective 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 667 
 
 stages, may, upon hearing the matter of la\T 
 in which the error is assigned, reverse or 
 affirm the judgment of the inferior couxta.'' 
 — Blackstone. 
 
 " The sagacious Kepler first made the 
 noble discovery that distinct but iiiverted 
 pictui-es of visible objects are formed upon 
 the retuia by the rays of light coming fvDm 
 the object."— Reid. 
 
 " Now, if the acts of voluntary agents 
 follow necessarily upon the impulse of ex- 
 ternal causes, there will be a constant 
 fatality upon them utterly subversive of 
 liberty, estimation, and prudence." — 
 Search. 
 
 REVERT. Return. 
 
 To Return may be physical or 
 mental, indicating the simple going 
 jack to a former point. 
 
 To Revert, though no more than 
 its Latin equivalent (rgrerftre, to make 
 to turn hack) is never used in any but 
 a mental sense. Return may be used 
 of unconscious. Revert can only be 
 used of conscious, agents. As em- 
 ployed of intellectual mattei-s,RETURN 
 denotes simply the going back to a 
 certatn point. To revert is to carry 
 back one's attention with more specific 
 effort. Things return to a point, and 
 revert to a state, more especially to 
 the same state as formerly. Revert 
 being Latin, is used in the higher or 
 more thoughtful style; Return, in 
 that which is the more simple. 
 
 " All things reverted to their primitive 
 order and regularity, calm, quiet, and com- 
 posed."— WaterulND. 
 
 " When the unclean spirit is gone out of 
 a man, he walketh through dry places seek- 
 ing rest, and findeth none. Thenhesaith, 
 I will retui-n unto my house from whence I 
 came out; and when he is come, he findeth 
 it empty, swept, and SBXui&heA"— English 
 Bible. 
 
 RIDICULE. Deride. 
 
 As common laughter may be either 
 sympathetic or hostile — that is, we 
 may laugh with others, or laugh at 
 them — so Ridicule and Derisio^ 
 ( both forms of the Lat. rid'tre, to laugh 
 are always hostile; but Ridicule is 
 the lighter term of the two. Ridicule 
 indicates a merry, good-humoured 
 hostility. Derision is ill-humoured 
 and scornful. It is anger wearing 
 the mask of ridicule, and adoptinc 
 the sound of laughter. We ridicul'. 
 
668 
 
 what offends our taste. We deride 
 
 what seems to merit our scorn. 
 
 " Jane borrowed maxims from a doubting 
 
 school, 
 Aud took for truth the test of ridicule. 
 Lucy saw no such virtue in a jest ; 
 Truti wa£ with her of ridicule the test." 
 Crabbk. 
 " British policy is brought into derision 
 in those nations that awhile ago trembled 
 at the power of our arms, whilst they looked 
 up with confidence to the equity, firmness, 
 and candour, which shone in all our nego- 
 tiations."— BURKK. 
 
 RIGHT. Justice. 
 
 Right (Lat. rectus) is the object of 
 Justice (Lat. justttia). It is a per- 
 son's due. Justice is the conformity 
 of actions with right. It is that which 
 gives and preserves to each what is 
 his due. The first is dictated by na- 
 ture or established by authority, either 
 homan or divine. It may change ac- 
 cording to circumstances. The second 
 is a rule always to be followed, and 
 never varies. 
 
 RIGHTEOUS. Godly. 
 
 These terms are of a spiritual cha- 
 racter. The Godly man is he who 
 has a mind which habitually converses 
 with God, as in prayer, meditation, 
 the reading and study of the Scrip- 
 tures, public worship, and a temper 
 consonant with such things. 'Ihe 
 Righteous man is he who practically 
 recognizes righteousness ; that is, that 
 morality which is based upon revealed 
 religion, doing that which is right, as 
 being in conformity with the Divine 
 will ; especially between man and 
 man. 
 
 "A godly, righteous, and sober life." — 
 English Liturgy. 
 
 RIGID. Rigorous. 
 
 Rigid, the Lat. rigidus, stiff, hard, 
 and Rigorous, from the Lat. i^gorem, 
 stillness, are both derivatives of ri^ere, 
 to be stiff, especially from cold, but 
 Rigid is applicable to physical con- 
 ditions; Rigorous, not. Rigid mus- 
 cles. Rigorous justice. When Rigid 
 18 employed of moral subjects, it in- 
 dicates a character or condition ; Rioo- 
 Bous, a force. Rules are rigid when 
 they are inflexible to relaxation. 
 Rules or ruleis are rigorous when 
 
 SYNONYMS [right] 
 
 they are hard and energetic in what 
 they exact. Hence we speak of " the 
 rigidity of a statute," " the rigour of 
 a law when applied, as, for instance, 
 in enforcing penalty. The rigid man 
 binds himself; the rigorous man 
 binds others. So that Rigid is gene- 
 rally passive, rigorous, active, in its 
 force. Rigidity of nature, character, 
 principle, or disposition shows itseli 
 in rigorousness of action, operation, 
 or treatment. Hence the words mav 
 often be used interchangeably ; but to 
 deal rigidly is to deal with inflexible 
 adherence to principle. To deal rigo- 
 rously is to deal in the energetic ap- 
 plication of that principle. 
 
 " Be not too rigidly censorious. 
 
 A string may jar in the best master'a 
 
 hand. 
 And the most skilful archer misa his aim." 
 RoscoMMOK, Horace. 
 
 "Capitation taxes are levied at little ex- 
 pense, and where they are rigorously ex- 
 acted afford a very sure revenue to the 
 state."— Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 ROAD. Route. Course. Way. 
 
 Road (A. S. rdd, a riding, a road) 
 is, strictly, a public way tor horses 
 and can'iages, and when used meta- 
 phorically conveys the ideas of public 
 or common recognition and du-ectness 
 of end ; as in such phrases as, " the 
 sure road to honour," or, " to ruin." 
 
 Route (Fr. route, Lat. rupta (scili- 
 cet via), a broken waif, a cross road) is 
 a circular or circuitous travel, which 
 may consist of more than one road 
 successively. 
 
 Course (Lat. cursus, currere, to run) 
 differs from Route as the defined from 
 the indefinite. A traveller finds his 
 way to a town by a circuitous route. 
 The sun runs his course. A road is 
 fixed or marked naturally. A route 
 is unmarked or unfixed. A course 
 is fixed by necessity or by appoint- 
 ment. Yet Route involves the idea ot 
 a Hue ordinary and frequented, as 
 " the overland route to India." 
 Routes differ according to the diffe- 
 rent points or places by which one 
 passes to the proposed destination. 
 
 Way (A. S. wctg) expresses broadly 
 the general manner of travel. To go 
 by coach, by railway, and by ship are 
 
[rodomontadeJ discriminated. 
 
 6B9 
 
 diflferent wa_ys of travelling : but this 
 is rather an analogical extension of the 
 term. The term, especially in the 
 plural, lends itself to moral meanings. 
 Good or evil ways, tJiat is modes of 
 conduct. The way indicates primarily 
 truth of proceeding. A certain road 
 or path is spoken of as the way or not 
 the way which leads to such a place. 
 
 '* The gates of hell are open day and night. 
 Smooth the descent and easy is the icay. 
 But to return and view the cheerful skies. 
 In this the task and mighty labour lies." 
 Dryden's Virgil. 
 
 '• At our first sally into the mtellectual 
 world, we all march together along one 
 straight and open road," — Johnson. 
 •• Wide through the furzy field their roxtte 
 they take." Gay. 
 
 " He rejoiceth as a giant to run his 
 course." — English Psalms. 
 
 ROBBERY. Depredation. 
 Theft. 
 
 These words denote the taking 
 away of that wliich is the property of 
 another, but differ somewhat in the 
 chai'acter of the actions. 
 
 Robbery (O. Fr. rober, Low Lat. 
 rHuhare, to rob) diffei'S from Theft 
 (A. S. theofj a thief )in being effected 
 by open violence ; while thelt is com- 
 mitted by stealth or privately, and of 
 articles of comparatively small value. 
 
 Depredation (Lat. depreeddre, to 
 plunder) is desultory robbery, with 
 no direct violence, and in the absence 
 of the lawful owners, the property 
 being left ungiiajded. It is more 
 commonly a collective than an indivi- 
 dual act, and of a desultory cha- 
 racter. 
 
 " Larceny from the person is either by 
 privately stealing, or by open and violent 
 assault, which is usually called robbery." — 
 Blackstone. 
 
 " Nevertheless, I shall in this case send 
 my brother with a detachment of hoi*se to 
 harass Antony in his retreat, and to protect 
 Italy from his depredations." — Melmoth, 
 Cicero. 
 
 " One of our men in the midst of these 
 hardships was found guilty of theft, and 
 tondemned for the same to have three 
 blows from every man in the ship with a 
 two inch and a half rope on his bare neck." 
 — Dampier's Voyages. 
 
 ROBUST. Strong. Sturdy. 
 Robust (La*, rohustus, hardf strong) 
 
 implies some degree of size and mus- 
 cular power, combined -with sound- 
 ness of constitution. A man of small 
 size would not be called robust, nor 
 one who, though possessed of muscu- 
 lar sti-ength, was of a sickly constitu- 
 tion. 
 
 Strong (A. S. sti'xng) is the simple 
 and generic term applicable to both, 
 and ai Robust is not, to other sub- 
 stances and objects, as a strong rope. 
 Strong may denote power of mental 
 or muscular action ; passive power, 
 as of resistance, endurance, or cohe- 
 sion ; may mean powerful in the sense 
 of influential ; or powerful mechani- 
 cally ; impetuous ; logically cogent or 
 convincing ; or powerfully affecting 
 the organs or senses. 
 
 Sturdy is the O. Fr. estourdi, Mod. 
 Fr. itourdi, passive participle of the 
 verb Hourdir, to stun, and so stunned^ 
 dazed, giddy. Its earlier meaning in 
 English was, accordingly, foolislily 
 obstinate. It is now only pliysically 
 employed, and that of persons, and 
 denotes the strength which belongs 
 to compactness and solidity. Where 
 it is employed of certain impersonal 
 objects, this seems rather by way of 
 poetic analogy ; as a sturdy oak. It is 
 also sometimes transferred from the 
 actor to the work ; as a sturdy oppo- 
 sition. The sturdy man is of no great 
 size, but well-knit of limb, and, with- 
 out being powerful, can keep his 
 ground and hold his own. 
 '♦ Survey the warlike horse ! Didst thou in- 
 vest 
 With thunder his robust distended chest ? ' 
 Young. 
 " No man ran enter into a strong man's 
 house and spoil his gcx)ds ex ept he will first 
 bind the strong man, and then he will spoil 
 his house." — English Bible. 
 " E^en in this early dawning of the year. 
 Produce the plough and yoke the sturdy 
 
 steer. 
 And goad him till he groans beneath his 
 
 toil, 
 Till the bright share is buried in the soil." 
 Drydbn. 
 
 RODOMONTADE. Gasconade. 
 Rant. 
 
 Rodomontade, from Rodotnonte^ 
 a boasting hero in the " Orlando 
 Furioso" of Ariosto, denoted first 
 empty boasting, then empty, blus 
 
670 
 
 BYNONYMS 
 
 [room] 
 
 tering talk. Gasconade, from the 
 inhabitants of Gascony, who had the 
 reputation for this propensity, ex- 
 presses no more than conceited ex- 
 firessions of self-confidence ; while 
 I ANT (cf. Ger. ranzen, to make a noise) 
 has in it nothing of tha element of 
 vaunting, but, retaining that of blus- 
 tering talk, has added to it that ot 
 great mental excitement. The ranter 
 endeavours to substitute vehemence 
 in declamation for dignity of thought. 
 
 ROOM. Space. 
 
 Space (Lat. spHtium) is absolute. 
 
 Room (A. S. rum, room, space) is 
 relative. Room is space set apart for 
 a purpose, or regarded in reference to 
 such purpose. Space is used inde- 
 finitely to express that which sur- 
 passes our comprehension. It may 
 be infinitely extended in idea, or 
 bounded. Room is always bounded. 
 Space is a term more commonly asso- 
 ciated with the facts of Nature ; Room, 
 with the requirements of man. Room 
 is space specifically sufiicient. 
 
 " The ground of a certain rich man 
 brought forth plentifully, and he thought 
 within himself, saying. What shall I do, 
 because I have no rooin where to bestow my 
 fruits ? "—English Bible. 
 
 " This space, considered barely in length 
 between any two beings, without consider- 
 ing anything else between them, is called 
 distance ; if considered in length, breadth, 
 and thickness, I think it may be called ca- 
 pacity. The terra extension is usually ap- 
 plied to it, in what manner soever consi- 
 dered."— LoCKE. 
 
 ROTUNDITY. Roundness. 
 
 These words ar^ from Lat. r'btun- 
 duSf rotmd (from r'dta, a wheel), and 
 its der. the Fr. rond. Roundness is 
 the general terra. Rotundity is that 
 specific roundness which belongs to 
 the volume of solid bodies. So we 
 might speak at discretion of the 
 roundness or the rotundity of a turnip, 
 but of the roundness, not the rotun- 
 dity, of a mathematical circle ; round- 
 ness is ap})lied to a very partial con- 
 vexitj', as in the roundness, but not 
 rotundity of a hill. We might speak 
 of the roundness or the rotundity of 
 the earth, of the roundness as regards 
 Its shape, of the rotundity as regards 
 the ca{)ncity comprised in its round- 
 
 ness. Rotundity is now, however, a 
 
 term more colloquial than scientific. 
 
 A more scientific term would be 
 
 spherical. 
 
 " Make it thy vernal care, when April 
 
 calls 
 New shoots to birth, to trim the hedge 
 
 aslant, 
 And mould it to the roundness oS the 
 
 mound, 
 itself a shelving hill." Mason. 
 
 "And thou all-shaking thunder, 
 Strike flat the thick rotundity of the world." 
 Shakespkaee. 
 
 ROUGH. See Coarse, Abrupt, 
 and Harsh. 
 
 ROUND. Tour. Circuit. 
 
 A Round (see Rotundity) is made 
 in the way of personal business of an 
 ordinary or familiar kind, as when 
 visitors, watchmen, or tradesmen go 
 their rounds. 
 
 A Tour (Fr. tour, a twti) is made 
 in the way of pleasure, as a tour 
 through the Lake District. We 
 speak, however, of a round of plea- 
 sure as well as of business, and in 
 either case a definite course seems 
 implied. 
 
 A Circuit (Lat. circuitus) isofficial 
 and pre-defined, and seems to imply 
 primarily a purpose of visitation and 
 inspection. Rounds, in the plural, 
 is physically applied ; Round, in the 
 singular, is used in the secondary 
 sense, as a round of pleasure or 
 gaiety. 
 
 RURAL. Rustic. 
 
 These words are both derived from 
 one source — 'La.t.rus,ruris, the country, 
 from wliich are formed the adjectives 
 7'uratis, and rusttcus. 
 
 Rural, however, is emplojred of 
 the country, or matters belonging to 
 it, as distinguished from man, or from 
 towns, and is so associated with the 
 pleasant things of Nature. 
 
 Rusiic is applied to the persons or 
 conditions of men in reference to sim- 
 plicity or rudeness of manners. Ety- 
 mologically, it is opposed to such 
 words as civil, urbane, denoting the 
 refinement of cities. A rural abode 
 means one pleasantly situated in the 
 country ; a rustic abode, one wanting 
 in elegance. We, however, use the 
 
SAD 
 
 niSORIMINATED. 
 
 671 
 
 <eim Rustic in reference to certain 
 gtjrles of construction, in which there 
 is an affectation of rudeness combined 
 with real elegance; as an e'egant 
 country retreat built in a rustic style 
 of architecture ; that is, with stone oi 
 wood which shall wear an appearance 
 of undesigned in-egularity. 
 •* For I have loved the rural walk through 
 
 lanes 
 Of grassy s-warth, close cropp'd by nib- 
 bling sheep. 
 And skirted thick with intertexture firm 
 Of thorny boughs." COWPER. 
 
 " Lay bashfulness, that rustic virtue, by ; 
 To manly confidence thy thoughts apply." 
 Dryden. 
 
 SACRED. Holy. Divine. 
 
 Sacred (Lat. sdcrkm) is less strong 
 than Holy (A. S. hMig), though 
 many cases occur in which the words 
 might be used indifferently, as the 
 sacred vessels, or the holy vessels of 
 the sanctuary. But Sacred denotes 
 rather the character conferred upon 
 objects or persons by setting them 
 apart for certain purposes ; Holv, an 
 intrinsic chai-acter which they possess 
 in themselves. So we speak of a holy 
 man, not a sacred man. It is well if, 
 in cases where the office is sacred, the 
 man himself is holy. Holy is opposed 
 to unholy; sacred, to profane. We 
 speak of the Holy Scriptures, and the 
 Sacred Scriptures ; the former as era- 
 bodying and reflecting the holy per- 
 son, will, character, and attributes of 
 an all-holy God ; the latter as unlike 
 or apai-t from other books, and de- 
 serving of peculiai' treatment and re- 
 verence. 
 
 Divine (^Lat. duviniLs) is a weaker 
 and vaguer word, meaning like a 
 Deity or the Deity, or in any way 
 connected with Him ; as, the Divine 
 justice. Divine worship. Divine is 
 opposed to human. The expression 
 of the holy in garb or appearance 
 generally is denoted by tne term 
 sanctity (Lat. Muctttdtem). 
 
 " For how can we think of Him without 
 dread and reverence, when we consider 
 how He is secluded by the infinite sacred- 
 
 ness of His awn Majesty from all immediate 
 converse and mtercourse with us?"— ScoTT, 
 Christian life. 
 
 "When Christ not only triumphed over 
 hell and the gi-ave, but was exalted to the 
 right hand of God, He then not only be- 
 stowed these miraculous gifts of the Holy 
 Ghost on the apostles, but settled a con- 
 stant order of such in the Chui-ch, who 
 were to attend to the necessities of it, till 
 there will be no further need of instruc 
 tion." — Stillingflket. 
 
 "Therefore there was plainly wanting a 
 Divine revelation to recover mankind out of 
 their universally degenerated estate into a 
 state suitable to the original excellence of 
 their nature; which Divine revelation both 
 the necessities of men and their natural 
 notions of Gtod gave them reasonabl* 
 ground to expect and hope for."— Ci^AJlKB. 
 
 SAD. Gloomy. Mournpul, 
 Dej£cted. Melancholy. Moody. 
 Sad is the most generic of these 
 terms. It is, according to Wedgwood, 
 the Wei. sad^ meaning firm, discreet^ 
 and moans excessive sedateness. Its 
 earlier uses were purely physical, 
 in the sense of heavy, close, hard. 
 As Spenser," His hand more saci than 
 lump of lead." Hence producing a 
 heavy or sombre impression or effect ; 
 as, " sad-coloured clothes. ' — Wal- 
 ton. From this it passed to a moral 
 sense, and was applied to temper, 
 mood, or chai'acter, in the sense in 
 which we now employ the term 
 serious; as Bacon says, "A sad and 
 religious woman ; " hence affected 
 with unhappiness, or, reflexively, 
 producing depression ; as, "a sad 
 misfortune." Sadness is reflexive. 
 1 1 implies some cause or ground for 
 the feeling. To be sad without know- 
 ing why, Would be folly and unreason. 
 We ai-esad when we reflect upon loss, 
 privation, <lisappointment, and the 
 like. When Sad appears as an epithet 
 of things or events it does not neces- 
 sarily denote a feeling of great sorrow 
 in the speaker. A person suffering 
 I under a terrible aflaiction would not 
 * speak of it as a sad event though it 
 might be so designated by another, nor 
 I would the person suffering under 
 severe mentaJ pain be called Sad. 
 " Man's feeble race what ilU await: 
 Labour and Penury, the racks of Pain, 
 Disea?e and Sorrow's weeping train. 
 And Death, sad refuge from the storm* of 
 fate." Gbay. 
 
672 
 
 Gloomy (A. S. glom, gloom) has 
 preserved its etymological force, and 
 differs from Sad in its indefiniteness 
 and indistinctness. Men are often 
 gloomy without knowing why, as 
 ander a general forebuding of misfor- 
 tune. Sadness is almost always the 
 result of the past ; gloominess more 
 commonly bears upon the future, 
 which is contemplated with misgiv- 
 ing. 
 
 " For the English are naturally fanciful, 
 and very often disposed by that gloominess 
 and melancholy of temper which is so fre- 
 quent in our nation to many wild notions 
 and visions to which others are not so 
 liable." — Spectator. 
 
 Mournful(A. S. murnan,to mourn) 
 applies more distinctively to the ex- 
 yression of the sad ; as, the mournful 
 sound of a bell ; a mournful sight or 
 sound ; a gloomy prospect. Mourn- 
 ful is literally full of what causes 
 mourning. It therefore denotes a 
 quality, while Sad denotes a state. 
 By the sight or recital of what is 
 mournful the mind may be made sad. 
 
 "Yet if he steps forth with a Friday 
 look and a Lenten face, with a blessed 
 Jesu, a mournful ditty for the vices of the 
 tiues, oh 1 then he is a saint upon earth, 
 an Ambrose or an Augustine." — South. 
 
 Dejected (Lat. dijtcere, part, di' 
 lectus, to ca6t down) is, literally, cast 
 down, and, like Sad, betokens a spe- 
 cific cause, the subject of reflexion. 
 It is a term denoting the external 
 effect as well as state of sorrow, and 
 brings before the eye of the mind the 
 downcast look and hanging head. It 
 is obviously applicable only to per- 
 sons. Yet it is not a term of the 
 gi'eatest seriousness. Dejection is not 
 overwhelming sorrow, but betokens 
 sadness and disappointment rather 
 than bitter grief. It is a transient 
 rather than a peraianent state. 
 
 " When our souls are dejected, distressed, 
 Vprmented with the remembrance of our 
 former sins. He saith to us, as He said to 
 the man in tlie Gospel, * Be of good cheer. 
 My son, thy sins are all pardoned.*" — 
 Beveridqe. 
 
 It may be observed that dejected and 
 Moody (A. S. rndd, mind, disposition) 
 differ from the rest of these synonyms 
 in bring only passive, while they may 
 also be u«ed actively ; that is, a» not 
 
 SYNONYMS [safe J 
 
 only occupied by but producing a 
 feeling of sadness, and the like. 
 
 MELANCH0LY(Gr./u£7\.aj';t°^ja,(UEXa?, 
 black, and %oX)5, bile) denotes a con- 
 tinued if not chronic state of depres- 
 sion of spirits arising from any cause. 
 Melancholy is commonly the con- 
 comitant of over-thoughtful disposi- 
 tions, which suspect life of dissatis- 
 faction, though they may not have 
 had bitter experiences. 
 " And Melancholy marked him for her 
 
 own." Gkay. 
 
 Moody (A. S. modig) differs from 
 melancholy, dejected, sad, and 
 gloomy, in being more fitful and ca- 
 pricious. It is less passive, and ex- 
 presses itself in discontent, ill-humour, 
 peevishness, and a desu-e to commit 
 harm, as if brooding in sullenness. 
 " And moody madness laughing wild 
 Amid severest woe." Gray. 
 
 SAFE. Secure. 
 
 The word Safe (Fr. sauf^ Lat. sal- 
 vus) is employed in an abstract way, in 
 which Secure (Lat. seciirus, without 
 care) is not. We may say, " It is safe, 
 or safer, to travel by day," where we 
 eould not say, " It is secure." Safety 
 differs fi-om security, as the objective 
 from tlie subjective, security being 
 the sense or recognition of safety. If 
 I say, " He is safe," I mean in a state 
 removed from danger; if 1 say " He is 
 secure," I mean in a state which he 
 or I can recognize as removed from 
 danger. Hence Secure has travelled 
 on to mean entertaining a sense of 
 safety, which may be even in opposi- 
 tion to the facts of the case. " While 
 they slept secure the enemy attacked 
 the camp ; " where the security was 
 not safety, but emphatically the con- 
 trary. But there are further diffe- 
 rences to be noted between safety and 
 security. Safety is absolute, security 
 relative; or, in other words, those 
 who are simply out of danger are safe ; 
 those who are removed beyond the 
 reach of danger are secure. Safety 
 regards the present in connexion with 
 the past ; security is also for the 
 future. Safety is a more abstract 
 term than Security. If effectual mea- 
 sures have been taken for the security 
 of a thing, it is in a condition of safety 
 
[sanction] 
 
 r,iriCRIMINATED. 
 
 673 
 
 Again, Security sometimes implies 
 such restriction upon the individual 
 as prevents him from being a cause of 
 alarm or danger. In looking at a 
 caged lion, we think less of his safety 
 than ofour own security. The felon, 
 captured and imprisoned, is secure, 
 without being safe. 
 
 " Secure from Fortune's blows." 
 
 Dbyden. 
 "And so it came to pass that they es- 
 caped all safe to laad." — English Bible. 
 
 SAKE. AccocNT. 
 
 Sake (A. S. sacu, cause or suit in 
 law) is employed both of persons and 
 things, as also is Account (Fr. ac- 
 sompte, Lat. ad and compiitdre, to 
 reckon). We say, grammatically, 
 "for the sake" and "on account." 
 But Sake denotes an ulterior purpose 
 which is contemplated ; Account, an 
 anterior cause or motive which in- 
 duces. Moreover, Account is no more 
 than a cause ; Sake, a cause in which 
 one is concerned. If I say, " i am 
 doing this for his sake," 1 mean that I 
 am doing it because 1 have an end in 
 view, which I believe it will be to his 
 interest that I should accomplish. If 
 I say, " I am doing it on his account," 
 I mean broadly, tliat he is in some 
 way the cause of my doing it. Hence 
 it follows that where the object is ser- 
 viceable, we use Sake ; as, " to make 
 sacrifices for the sake of peace ; " that 
 is, to promote the ends of peace. On 
 the other hand, " I took the high 
 road rather than the fields, on account 
 of the darkness," where the darkness 
 is no more than the subject of con- 
 sideration which influenced my choice. 
 
 " Knowledge is for the sake of man, and 
 act man for the sake of knowledge." — Sir 
 W. Hamilton. 
 
 "In matters where his judgment led 
 him to oppose men on a public account, he 
 would do it vigorously and heartily." — 
 Attkrbury. 
 
 SALUTATION. Salute. 
 
 These worils coming from the Lat. 
 sdliitem, health, safetij, refer more di- 
 rectly, the former to the person, the 
 latter to the thing. A Salutation 
 may be in words or any other way, 
 implyine personal expression of feel- 
 ing. The Salute is never in words. 
 
 There is more of familiarity in Salu- 
 tation, and of respect or formal de- 
 monstration in Salute. 
 
 " But at the very time while he is bowing 
 at the threshold of the rich man, the philo- 
 sopher shall pass by, and because he pos- 
 sesses only a competency, without super- 
 fluity and without influence, he shall not 
 be honoured with the common civility of a 
 salutation." — Knox, Essays. 
 
 " I sent a lieutenant ashore, to acquaint 
 the governor of our arrival, and to make an 
 excuse for our not saluting ; for as I could 
 salute only with three guns, except the 
 swivels, which I was of opinion would not 
 be heard, I thought it was better to let it 
 alone." — Cook's Votjages. 
 
 SANCTION. Countenance. Sup- 
 port. Ratify. 
 We Countenance ( Lat. continentiuy 
 
 festurCf demeanour) persons; we 
 ANCTioN things; we Support things 
 and persons. Persons are counte- 
 nanced by the apparent approval of 
 others. Mere numbers may counte- 
 nance. Proceedings are sanctioned 
 (Lat. sancire, part, sanctusj to sanctionor 
 ratify) by the approval, especially of 
 persons of weight or authority. Per- 
 sons or measures are supported ( Lat. 
 supportarey to carry, convey,) by any 
 means which may give assistance or 
 encouragement, or promote the end in 
 view. Superiors only can counte- 
 nance and sanction ; all of every de- 
 gree may support, which implies, 
 more than the rest, active co-opera- 
 tion. 
 
 •• The strictest professors of reason have 
 added the tanction of their testimony."— 
 Watts. 
 
 " But as to the civil religion, Socrates 
 never opposed it, but always countenanced 
 it both by discourse and example." — Bknt- 
 LEY 
 
 " The apparent insufficiency of every in- 
 dividual to his own happiness or safety 
 compels ns to seek from one another assis- 
 tance and support." JoHNSON. 
 
 As Sanction, Countenance, and 
 Support are equally applicable to 
 things done and to things proposed, so 
 Ratify (Low Lat. rattfwdrey to con- 
 firm) belongs only to things done. To 
 ratify is to approve so as to make 
 valid what has been done by another, 
 especially a delegate or representative. 
 It wears an official and political air. 
 involving the ideas of interest and 
 
674 
 
 authority in the person or power 
 that ratifies. Ratification is given to 
 acts done without the knowledge or 
 the full knowledge of others to whom 
 the agents are responsible. 
 
 " It is impossible for the Divine Power 
 to set a seal to a lie by ratifying an impos- 
 ture with such a miracle."— South. 
 
 SAVE. Spare. 
 
 We may be Saved (Fr. tauvevy Lat. 
 \alvusy safe) fi'om any evils. We are 
 Spared (A.S. spdrian, to spare) only 
 from those which it is in the power of 
 some one to inflict. To save may be 
 the effect either of accident or design. 
 To spare is always designed, denotmg 
 intentional forbearance. " He was to 
 have been shot as a deserter, but the 
 clemency of his commander spared 
 his life. " He was sti'uck by a bullet, 
 but the watch in his pocket saved his 
 life." The difference may be seen at 
 opce in the two phrases, *' he saved 
 my life," and " he spared my life." 
 
 " Then he called for a light, and sprang 
 in, and came trembling, and fell down be- 
 fore Paul and Silas, and brought them out 
 and said. Sirs, what must I do to be saved t " 
 —English Bible. 
 
 " God spared not the angels that sinned, 
 but cast them down to hell, and delivered 
 them into chains of darkness, to be reserved 
 unto judgment ; and spared not the old 
 world,"— 76id. 
 
 SCANDAL. Reproach. 
 
 The same thing may be matter of 
 both Scandal (Gr. erxaviaXov, o stiim- 
 bling-block) and Reproach (Fr. re- 
 procher, Lat. repr'bpidre, the bringing 
 near or home of an offence) ; but Re- 
 proach points rather to the intrinsic 
 blame of the act; Scandal, to the 
 offence caused by it in the minds of 
 others, and of society at large. It 
 may be observed that Scandal is used 
 for the offensive act, and for the im- 
 putation, even including the un- 
 rounded imputation of it. 
 " The loss in war sustained through his 
 
 SrNONYMS [save] 
 
 A lasting scandal to the English name." 
 Drayton. 
 
 "The Chevalier Bayard, distinguished 
 among his contemporaries by the appellation 
 of the knight witnout fear and without re- 
 proach."— Robertson. 
 
 SCANDALOUS. Infamous. 
 
 Scandalous (see Scandal) is ap- 
 plied only to deeds and transactions ; 
 while Infamous (Lat. irif privative, 
 and/anjosus, see Famous) is used both 
 of transactions and persons. Infa- 
 mous is the stronger term of the two ; 
 a scandalous act being one which is 
 calculated to excite a high degree of 
 social blame; an infamous act, one 
 which is calculated to brand the cha- 
 racter of the doer with detestation for 
 life. 
 
 •* Nothing scandalous or offensive to any." 
 —Hooker. 
 
 " If anything be of ill-report, and looks 
 infamously to the sober part of mankind, 
 why, that very consideration is enough to 
 deter yon from the practice of it, for yon 
 are to recommend your religion to all the 
 men in the world by all the ways that are 
 possible." — Sharp. 
 
 SCANTY. Meagre. 
 
 These terms are closely similar; 
 and when employed as synonyms, as a 
 meagre supply, a scanty supply, seem 
 nearly identical. But Scanty (Norse 
 skanta, measured, exactly Jitted, Wedg- 
 wood) refers rather to the r'^lation of 
 the thing supplied to the will of the 
 supplier; Meagre (Fr. maigre, thiriy 
 Lat. mdcrum), to the littleness or po- 
 verty of the thing in itself. A meagre 
 supply may be the result of circum- 
 stances. A scanty supply reflects 
 upon the giver or provider. Scanty 
 relates more to number, measure, or 
 rule ; Meagre, to quantity generally. 
 The proportionately mea^e is the 
 scanty. Scanty is therefore applic- 
 able to number as well as quantity 
 or amplitude; meagre only to the 
 latter. 
 
 " The lowest class of labourers, therefore, 
 notwithstanding their scanty subsistence, 
 must, some way or another, make shift to 
 continue their race so far as to keep up 
 their usual numbers." — Smith, Wealth of 
 Nations. 
 
 " His education had been bat meagre." 
 
 —Motley. 
 
 The expressions " scanty hope " and 
 ** meagre hope" would thus mean — 
 the latter, that the amount of hope was 
 very small ; the former, that tne cir- 
 cumstances of the case afforded littl* 
 ground for hope. 
 
fBCATTERJ 
 
 SCARCITY. Famine, Dearth. 
 
 Scarcity (see Scarce) is a generic 
 terra, and expresses the scant supply 
 of any article needful or desirable. 
 Dkarth, which is dearness, is applied 
 to articles of food primarily, though, 
 by a poetic analogy, extended to mean 
 poverty in supply generally ; as, " a 
 dearth of plot and narrowness of 
 imagination. — Drydeu. Scarcity is 
 notso serious atermas Dearth. There 
 may be a scarcity in the market of 
 articles of luxury ; a dearth is such 
 scarcity as is felt to be a privation. 
 
 Fa MIX E (Lat. fdmes, hunger) is re- 
 stricted to a grievous scarcity of food 
 or provisions, and expresses the con- 
 dition as well as the fact of such 
 want. It is used, unlike the others, 
 only generally and not of specific 
 articles or commodities. The famine 
 is the evil, the dearth or the scarcity 
 is the cause of the evil. In a time of 
 dearth provisions are very dear, in a 
 time of famine victuals must be pro- 
 vided anyhow. 
 
 "Value is more frequently raised by 
 scarcity than use." — Idler. 
 
 " The famine is sore in the land." — Eng- 
 Ksh Bible. 
 
 " For I find the dearth at this time was 
 very great ; wheat was at four marks the 
 quarter, malt at two pounds four shillings, 
 pease at two pounds five shillings." — BuR- 
 NET. 
 
 SCATTER. Spread. Disperse. 
 Sprinkle. Strew. 
 
 Scatter (A. S. scateran, to scatter) 
 is applicable only to separable or se- 
 parated bodies: as, to scatter seed 
 upon the ground ; to scatter papers 
 about a room. It is mostly, but not 
 absolutely, an aot of design, but done 
 without exactness. It involves also 
 dissination from ope point or centre, 
 I en Lot gc 8y8teniatic*lly as Dis- 
 
 J»ERiB. 
 
 Spread (A.S. spriBdan), on the 
 other hand, applies both to separable 
 and inseparable or unseparated bodies ; 
 as, to spread butter upon bread ; to 
 •pread documents upon a table. Yet 
 tne idea of collectiveness is always 
 more orless retained in Spread; while 
 it is contradicted and lost in Scatter. 
 The term Spread may indicate exten- 
 
 D/SCRIMINATED. 
 
 675 
 
 sion in one direction, or in more than 
 one, and it carries with it the idea of 
 design. 
 
 Disperse (ha.t. dispergh'e, pari, dit- 
 persuSf to scatter in different directions) 
 is the consequence of intelligent will, 
 or of mere force; as, the troops were 
 dispersed by the enemy ; the sun dis- 
 perses the clouds. What is especially 
 implied in Disperse is the disr iption 
 ofapreviouslycompactbody. Scatter 
 is a stronger terra than Disperse when 
 the term is applied to acts of raan's 
 volition or the force of circumstances. 
 " The .Tews have, by the providence 
 of God, been scattered throughout all 
 lands." A party of pleasure may 
 disperse themselves over the hills. 
 Scatter and Disperse are terms with- 
 out limit. Spread may be with limit 
 as well as design, as when manure is 
 spread over a field, or a given part of 
 it. It may be purposely scattered, or 
 purposely spread ; in the former case 
 It would be in patches ; in the Ir.tter, 
 it would form a continuous cov ssiny 
 to the soil. 
 
 To Sprinkle (A. S. $pr(£ncan) is te 
 cause to fall lightly and scantily in 
 drops, or solid particles like drops, of 
 liquid. 
 
 "Our bones lie scattered before the pit." 
 —English F^alms. 
 
 "As touching the spreading of mucke, 
 ftud minsrling it with the mould of a land, it 
 is exceeding good to do it when the wind 
 •etteth full west."— Holland, Pliny. 
 
 " Not in a professed history of persecu- 
 tions, or in the connected manner in which 
 I am about to recite it, hnt dispersedly, and 
 occasionally, in the course of a mixed gene- 
 ral history, which circumstance alone nega- 
 tives the supposition of any fraudulent de- 
 sign."— P alky. 
 
 Strew (A. S. streowian^ ia to scatter 
 so as substantially to spread over an 
 area or surface. Grammatically it is 
 applicable both to the area and the 
 objects upon it. It involves a degree 
 of magnitude in such objects. So we 
 strew flowers but not seeds. We 
 scatter with freedom and at random. 
 We may strew carefully and artisti- 
 cally. We may spread with geome- 
 trical exactness. 
 " She may strmv dangerous conjectures.' 
 
 SHAKEaPEAKB. 
 
676 
 
 SCORN. Despise. Contemn. Di»- 
 OAiN. Spurn. 
 
 These terms all express a feeling of 
 dislike, coupled with a sense of one's 
 own superiority to a person or object. 
 Contemn (Lat. contemncre, to despise) 
 is less frequently used than phrases 
 into which it enters, as to show or 
 feel contempt. We are not commonly 
 said to contemn individuals, but ob- 
 jects, qualities, character, and the 
 like, hence there is a moral element 
 inherent in Contemn, which does not 
 of necessity belong to Despise (Lat. 
 despicere^ to look down upon). The 
 naturally pn*oud man despises his in- 
 feriors. Despise, however, often 
 stands as the verb, to which the noun 
 tontempt (instead oid£spite) belongs. 
 Contemn lends itself, as the others do 
 not, to a collective expression of feel- 
 ing. Society contemns, but does not 
 disdain or despise or scorn. Men are 
 sometimes called contemners of that 
 which, professing to be good or use- 
 ful or authoritative, is deemed by 
 them to be wanting in these qualities. 
 
 To Scorn (It. scomare, to break off 
 the horns of an aniTual; when used re- 
 flexively, to be ashamed) and Disdain 
 (Old Fr. desdaigneVf Lat. de-,dignari) 
 are used in stronger senses than Con- 
 temn and Despise. Yet they are not 
 used toward persons, though their 
 •on jugate nouns are. We do not say, 
 " He scorned him," but " He scorned 
 his eflbits or threats ; " nor " I dis- 
 dain you," but " I disdain your acts, 
 words, insinuations, character," and 
 the like. Yet we should say, " He 
 was treated with scorn, " or, "regarded 
 with disdain," Disdain shows itself 
 m supercilious haughtiness when ex- 
 hibited towards persons, and may 
 have no better foundation than a con- 
 temptuous disposition. To disdain 
 IS to feel unworthy of one's self. We 
 Bcom the coward. We are too apt to 
 despise the lowly and weak. We 
 disdain the presumptuous. We de- 
 spise others for their inti-insic mean- 
 ness. We disdain them m compari- 
 son with ourselves. So if we despise 
 proffered help, it is because we think 
 It so weak as not to be worth having. 
 If vre disdain it, it is because we 
 
 SYJs^QTNYMS [scorn] 
 
 think ourselves too strong to need it. 
 Contempt implies an exercise of 
 judgment on the character or capabi- 
 lities of another, and an inference 
 drawn disparaging to them. Hence 
 C ONT empt is used of impersonal th ings, 
 as a contempt of danger, which means 
 a low estimate of its nature or power 
 to intimidate. There is a further 
 difference betweenDisDAiNandScoRN. 
 We disdain on comparison with our- 
 selves personally. We scorn what is 
 in itself contemptible or disgraceful. 
 Alexander disdained to share the Per- 
 sian empire with Darius. A man of 
 honour scorns to deceive another. 
 Scorn is energetic contempt. The 
 moral element in Contemn is apparent 
 in the fact that one can contemn one's 
 superiors in authority, we can only 
 despise, disdain, or scorn those who 
 are our inferiors, or whom we take to 
 be so. 
 
 " I am, ridiculonsly enongh, accused to 
 be a contemner of universities — that is, in 
 other words, an enemy of learning, with- 
 out the foundation of which I am sure 
 no man can pretend tc be a poet." — 
 Dryden. 
 
 ' It was this that raised his spirits and 
 made him (Job) stand his ground against 
 the opposition of his friends and the scorn 
 of his enemies," — Stillingfleet. 
 
 " For he (Pyrrhus) was a man that 
 could tell how to humble himself towards 
 the great, by whom he might win benefit, 
 and know also how to creep into their 
 credit ; and in like manner was he a great 
 scorner and despiser of such as were his in- 
 feriors." — North, Plutarch. 
 " Let not ambition mock their useful toil. 
 Their homely joys and destiny obscure ; 
 Nor grandeur hear with a disdainful 
 
 smile 
 The short and simple annals of the poor." 
 Gray. 
 
 It may be observed that Disdain, un- 
 like Scorn or Contempt, may be in 
 some cases a virtue, as where a man 
 disdains to take an unfair advantage 
 of another. 
 
 Spurn, consonant to its etymology 
 (A. S. spurnan, allied to spor^ a hed)y 
 implies »uch contempt as shows itself 
 in the repulse of the object. He who 
 is spurned feels himself not only de- 
 spised, but thrust away. 
 " The rule of knighthood I disdain and 
 apnrn." Shakkspkake. 
 
[sedate] 
 
 SCREAM. Shriek. 
 
 A Scream (It. scramare, escluinare. 
 to cry out) is a cry, shrill, sharp, and 
 sudden, as in fright or pain ; and a 
 Shriek (compare screech and similar 
 imitative words) might be defined 
 nearly in the same way ; but scream- 
 ing may be voluntary or involuntary. 
 Sbriekiixg is only involuntary. We 
 do not shriek, except when suddenly 
 overborne ; but we sometimes scream 
 with the object of being heard at a 
 distance. Shriek is more forcible 
 than scream. The ill-tempered child 
 screams with disappointment. A 
 Bhriek of horror may rise at the sight 
 of a sudden and disastrous accident. 
 
 SCURRILOUS. Abusive. 
 
 Scurrility (Lat. scurrititatem^ 
 scurraj a buffoon) is low and virulent 
 Abuse (Lat. Hbutiy to misuse, part. 
 Ubiisus), but without the sustained 
 earnestness of abuse. It depends 
 upon taunts and contemptuous ridi- 
 cule, rather than upon anything else. 
 There is an argumentative consis- 
 tency about abuse, whether it be 
 merited or unmerited ; while scurrility 
 will condescend to mean, vile, or ob- 
 scene vituperation. The angry, re- 
 sentful man may be abusive; the 
 coarse-minded man is scurrilous. 
 Abuse is virulent condemnation. 
 Scarrility is virulent derision. 
 
 '•The absurd and scurrilous sermon 
 which had very unwisely been honoared 
 with impeachment." — MACAULA.Y. 
 
 " Barbarous abusiveness."—Mii,TOV. 
 
 SECRECY. Concealment. 
 
 Concealment (Lat. concelare, to 
 hide) may be employed to express 
 the act as well as the state of conceal- 
 ing ; while Secrecy (Lat. sicretus, 
 part, of stcernh-e, to set apart) ex- 
 presses the state or quality alone. 
 Secrecy involves limited knowledge ; 
 while concealment is consistent with 
 total ignorance of the existence of a 
 thing. There cannot be secrecy with- 
 out concealment ; but there may be 
 concealment without secrecy. Con- 
 cealment is oftener against others ; 
 secrecy, for the sake of ourselves. 
 Thq commission of a crime is com- 
 monly both secret and concealed. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 677 
 
 Secret, in being kept to himself bv 
 the author ; concealed, as being hid- 
 den from the knowledge of others. 
 Secrecy is purposed concealment. 
 
 " When King John of France, in order 
 to pay his debts, adulterated his coin, all 
 the officers of his mint were sworn to 
 secrecy." — Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 " Some to the rude protection «f the 
 
 thorn 
 Commit their feeble offspring ; the cleft 
 
 tree 
 Offers its kind concealment to a few. 
 Their food its insects, and its moss their 
 
 nest." Thomson. 
 
 SECRET. Clandestine. 
 
 Clandestine (clandestviusy eori' 
 cealed ; claniy secretly) is less wide, but 
 more distinctive in meaning than 
 Secret (see above). Clandestine ap- 
 plies only to matters of human ac- 
 tion ; while Secret maj be employed 
 of anything unknown. The idea of 
 the clandestine carries with it that of 
 a purposed and unlawtiil secrecy. 
 When Johnson uses the term clan- 
 destine in the following unusual way, 
 " I went to this clandestine lodging, 
 and found, to my amazement, all the 
 ornaments of a fine gentleman," there 
 is still involved the idea of continued 
 secrecy in keeping up a clandestine 
 mode of life. 
 
 "An Englishman will do yon a piece of 
 service secretly, and be distressed with the 
 expressions of your gratitude." — Kkox, 
 Essays. 
 
 " But it will be urged still that civil 
 Rf5semblies are open and free for any one 
 to enter into, whereas religious conven- 
 ticles are more private, and thereby give 
 opportunity to clandestine machinations,"— 
 LOCKK. 
 
 SEDATE. Composed. 
 
 Composed (Fr. composer, to compose, to 
 make up) relates to a specific state on a 
 specific occasion; Sedate (Lat.scddfMS, 
 part, of seddre, toaUaif), to an habitual 
 temper and demeanour. Composed de- 
 notes tranquillity, in opposition to any 
 excitement of feeling, as alarm or 
 anger. Sedate denotes quietness, as 
 opposed to levity or any extravaganot; 
 of conduct or appearance. 
 " Go 1 fair example of untainted youth. 
 Of modest wisdom and pacific truth ; 
 Composea m sufferings, and in joy sedate. 
 Good without noise, without preteusioD 
 great." Popk. 
 
678 
 
 SEDUCE. Suborn. Coruupt. 
 
 Literally, to Seduce (Lat. scdmhe) 
 is to draw off or aside. 
 
 To Suborn (Lat. siiborrmre) is to 
 prepare or dispose in an underhanded 
 way, and to Corrupt (Lat. cprrum- 
 p^re, part, corruptiis) is to break up 
 the component particles of a body. 
 The two former are employed of per- 
 sons only, the last of certain things, 
 as principles, minds, purity, integiity. 
 To lead from the path of purity and 
 right by specious representations or 
 misrepresentations is the idea of Se- 
 duce. To induce him to do wrong by 
 exciting his self-interest is that of 
 Suborn. To instil vice, to infect with 
 bad sentiments or principles by any 
 means whatever is that of Corrupt. 
 We seduce the innocent, the ignorant, 
 the simple, by appearances, by attrac- 
 tive externals, by illusions, tricks, 
 imposition. We suborn the cowardly, 
 the weak, the unprincipled, women, 
 witnesses, servants, judges, preju- 
 diced pei'sons, or those with peculiar 
 failings, by flatteries, promises, 
 threats, and that which touches their 
 interest. We corrupt what is pure, 
 sound, good, virtuous, wholesome, 
 innocent, but accessible to evil influ- 
 ences and capable of perversion, by 
 the force of contagion. The seduced 
 is the dupe or victim of the seducer. 
 The suborned lends himself volun- 
 tarily to the process. The corrupted 
 is the prey or spoil of the corrupter. 
 The first falls into a snare. The 
 second yields to a temptation. The 
 third succumbs to an influence. 
 
 SEEK. Search. 
 
 Both these terms are employed to 
 express the looking after something 
 not Jn sight. Grammatically, Seek 
 (A. S. itcun) is employed directly of 
 tne object sought; while Search (Fr. 
 chercher) is applied directly to the 
 place in which it is expected to be 
 found. We seek a thing, and search 
 for it. To search is to seek specula- 
 tively, widely, and laboriously. We 
 are said to seek eagerly, to search 
 carefully. 
 
 " Ask, and it shall be given yon ; seek, 
 and ye shall find ; knock, and it shall be 
 •peued uuto yon." — Ehiglish Biblt, 
 
 SYNONYMS [seduce] 
 
 •' Search the Scriptures, for in them y« 
 think ye have eternal life." — Ibid. 
 
 SEEM. Appear. 
 
 Seem (A. S. seman, to seem, appear) 
 is a term of which the meaning rises 
 upon that of Appear (Lat. apparire). 
 An object appears when it becomes 
 simply visible to the eye or recog- 
 nizable to the mind. It seems when 
 it is referred to something beyond 
 itself either in the mind or outside it ; 
 as, " such a proposal seems fair." Ap- 
 pear expresses more directly the phe- 
 nomena or facts as they are presented 
 to us ; Seem, the impression of like- 
 ness or probability which we derive 
 from them. So the probability of a 
 fact is expressed more naturally by 
 Appear ; the probability of an infe- 
 rence, by Seem. " From the state of 
 the ground, it appears that it rained 
 last night." " From the look of the 
 clouds, it seems likely that we shall 
 have rain before long." It seems 
 probable. It appeal's certain. A 
 seeming likelihood. An apparent 
 truism. Apparent sometimes means 
 obvious ; but Seeming never means 
 certain, but always uncertain. To 
 seem is to appear m such a way, that 
 is to appear as possessing certain 
 qualities or a certain character. An 
 object may be said to seem or to ap- 
 pear fine, good, pleasant. It seems 
 such by its conformity to goodness, 
 beauty, plea santness . 1 1 appears such 
 by the impression produced upon 
 yourself. In the one case one com- 
 pares objects, in the other perceptions. 
 That which appears good lias the air 
 of being so, that which seems good is 
 like something else that is good. Re- 
 semblance is correlative to difference, 
 appearance to reality. A work of art 
 seems well executed on examination, 
 it appears so perhaps at a superficial 
 glance. *' It appears to me," indicates 
 a lighter persuasion of the fact than 
 " it seems to me." After reflexion, do 
 that which seems right, not merely 
 that which appears right. 
 
 SELF-WILL. Self-conceit. 
 Self-sufficiency. 
 
 The Self-willed person is go- 
 verned by his own will, and does^ot 
 yield to the will or wishes of others, is 
 
SENSIBLE] 
 
 unaccommodating, uncompliant. The 
 Self-conceited person has a high 
 and over-weening opinion of his own 
 powers or endowments. The Self- 
 sufficient person has the same 
 opinion of his own strength or abili- 
 ties; hence he despises the assistance 
 as well as the suggestions of others. 
 Self-will is in determination and pur- 
 pose ; self-conceit, in personal judg- 
 ment and estimation ; self-sufficiency, 
 in opinion and action. The self-willed 
 cai'es nothing for differences of right 
 and wrong, true and false, where his 
 mind is bent upon action ; the self- 
 conceited is much concerned about 
 these things, but admits no criterion 
 but his own notions. 
 
 SENSIBILITY. Tenderness. 
 
 Sensibility (Lat. sen^b^iCitaiem), as 
 it is a moral quality, means suscepti- 
 bility of feeling. 
 
 Tenderness (Fr. tendre, Lat. Ihter) 
 i% an analogous term, expressing that 
 quality which is the opposite to hard- 
 ness of heart. The impressions or 
 affections entertained by the person of 
 sensibility and the person of tender- 
 ness are such as are favourable to 
 otliers with whom they have to deal. 
 Sensibility is a natural disposition to 
 be affected by whatever interests hu- 
 manity, and to interest itself with such 
 things. Tenderness is a quality which 
 imposes affectionate feelings in a 
 touching degree. Sensibility is ex- 
 cited. Tenderness excites us. A heart 
 of sensibility is easily moved and won. 
 A heart of tenderness attaches itself. 
 The foi-mer is comparatively dormant 
 until aroused into action, the other is 
 spontaneously active. The one is like 
 sparks of electricity, the other a sweet, 
 pure, and steady burning flame. Sen- 
 sibility disposes to tenderness. Ten- 
 derness exalts sensibility. The man 
 of sensibility is ever open to pity, 
 clemency, mercy, gratitude, and the 
 feelings generally which prompt us 
 to wish well and do well to others. 
 The man of tenderness has within him 
 the germs of the most active affections, 
 love, friendship, benevolence, charity 
 — those feelings which make us exist 
 for others and in others. Sensibility 
 compassionates, tenderness consoles 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 679 
 
 and relieves. Sensibility makes sacri- 
 fices ; tenderness loves to make them, 
 and realizes the divine saying, " It is 
 more blessed to give than to receive." 
 There is a sensibility which is cowar- 
 dice, which shuns through weakness 
 of mind the sight of suffering. There 
 is also an excessive tenderness which 
 cannot deny or resist, and is therefore 
 at the mercy or tie abuse of others. 
 This id but a blina &i»vl barren pas- 
 sion. 
 
 SENSIBLE. Sensitive. Sen- 
 tient. 
 
 All these terms are derived from 
 the same source, the Lat. senttre, to 
 feel. Sensible expresses either a 
 habit of the body or mind, or only 
 a state relating to a particular object, 
 as a person may be sensible of cold, 
 injury, kindness. Sensitive ex- 
 presses a permanent or habitual con- 
 dition, in which the sense or feeling 
 is quickly acted upon, bein^ naturally 
 keenly alive to external influences. 
 Sentient expresses a character oi 
 nature, the possession of the power or 
 faculty of feeling, and of reflecting 
 upon the feeling, as, " angels or men 
 are sentient beings." It is the fact 
 that beings are of a sentient nature 
 which qualifies them for being sen- 
 sible of certain impressions in particu- 
 lar. Sensitive denotes a very ener- 
 getic, and at the same time a very re- 
 stricted, property. There is a plant 
 called " tne sensitive plant," which is 
 neither sentient nor sensible. Sf.nsi- 
 tive and Sentient are always active. 
 Sensible is both active and passive, 
 in the sense of recognizing and recog- 
 nized by the feelings. When Sensible 
 is employed in the sense of wise or 
 pruder.t, it denotes the exercise ac- 
 tively oi sense, in its meaning of men- 
 tal perception or understanding. The 
 two uses of Sensible are illustrated in 
 the two following quotations : — 
 
 *' Our senses, conversant about partiealar 
 sensible objects, do convey into the mind 
 several distinK.t perceptions of things, ac- 
 cording to those various ways wherein 
 those objects do affect them, and thus we 
 come by those ideas we have of yellow, 
 white, heat, cold, soft, hard, bitter, sweet, 
 and all those which we call sensible qnaJ^ 
 ties." — LoCK£ 
 
680 
 
 "For, as in the ccllation it is not the gold 
 or the silver, the fi>od cr the apparel, in 
 which the benefit consists, but the %Yill and 
 benevolent intention of him who bestows 
 them ; so reciprocally it is the good accep- 
 tance, the sensibleness of and acquiescence 
 in the benefactor's goodness that constitutes 
 the gratitude." — Barrow. 
 
 "This spiritual sword of God's awful 
 word penetrates the inmost recesses of the 
 human mind, pierces to the very line of 
 separation, as it were, of the sejisitive and 
 the intelligent principle."— Bishop Hors- 
 LEY. 
 
 " From hence we may gather that the 
 pro\ idence of God is over all His works, and 
 that in the formation of sentient as well as 
 unsentient natures. He had in view that 
 series of changes and events they would 
 produce, and ordered His whole multitude 
 of second causes so as to execute that plan 
 of providence He had in His intention." — 
 Search, Light of Nature. 
 
 SENTIMENTAL. Romantic. 
 
 The Sentimental person is one of 
 wi-ong or excessive sensibility', or who 
 imports mere sentiment into mattera 
 worthy of more vigorous thought. 
 
 The Romantic (Old Fr. romance, 
 Roman, or Romant, originally the 
 growing French language, tlie " riu<- 
 tic Latin," opposed to the " Latin 
 tongue;" hence applied to composi- 
 tions in the vulgar tongue ; see Bra- 
 ciiET, 8.V. Roman) creates ideal scenes 
 and objects by the extravagant exer- 
 cise of the imagination. The senti- 
 mental character is soft and sickly; 
 the romantic is extravagant and wild. 
 
 " She has even the false pity and senti- 
 mentality of many modern ladies." — War- 
 TON, English Poetry. 
 
 " I cannot but look on an indifferency of 
 mind as to the good or evil things of this 
 life as a mere romantick fancy of sach who 
 would be thought to be much wiser than 
 they ever were or could be." — Stllling- 
 FLEET. 
 
 SEPARATE. Detach. Disjoin. 
 Disconnect. Divide. Part. Sever. 
 Sunder. 
 
 To Sepakaip (Lat. sipitidre, se- 
 i.e. apart, and parare,' to prepare) is 
 sm ployed both of physical and mental 
 objects. We may separate one thing 
 in its entirety from another or from 
 other things, or a part from the whole 
 ;o which it belong!. The leading idea 
 iff StPAnATiON is the establishing an 
 {Qterval of distance between objects, 
 
 SYNONYMS ^^ENTIMKNTAL] 
 
 or the reversing of contiguity, whethei 
 that contiguity be by natural adhe- 
 sion, or by artificial or casual colloca- 
 tion ; permanent inter-removal is the 
 object or result of separation. The 
 interval of space may be great or 
 small. 
 
 To Detach (Fr. detacher, to un- 
 fa&ten) is to undo a link or fastening 
 which kept any two things connected. 
 It is a word of physical, not mental 
 or moral, import, generally. 
 
 To Disjoin (Lat. disjungtre, Fr. 
 joindre, to join) is the opposite of to 
 join, and therefore expresses the re- 
 versal of an union which is the effect 
 of design. 
 
 Disconnect (Lat. dis- and conncc- 
 tere, con-, together, and necttre, to knit) 
 is a more complex word than Disjoin, 
 as connect is more complex than join, 
 and expresses any kind or degree of 
 junction, union, coherence, or even 
 relationship, which is metaphysical 
 junction. To disconnect is to part 
 things which are commonly asso- 
 ciated. We disconnect in order to 
 neutralize common or reciprocal ac- 
 tion, force, or relationship. 
 
 Divide (Lat. dxvidere) is applicable 
 only to the whole and entire object, 
 Avhich is intrinsically separated into 
 two or more parts. Yet it is to be 
 observed that, even in physical ob- 
 jects, it is not necessary that the 
 thing divided should have actually 
 ever been one, only it would be one 
 but for the division. In this way a 
 wall may be said to divide two houses. 
 
 Part (Lat. parifn, and re-, to share) 
 is very nearly identical. We part in 
 order to neutralize union ; but, as wa 
 separate what was contiguous, so we 
 part what was whole. Part is oftec 
 used of such division as involves a se- 
 paration of parts without destroying 
 the unity of the whole, as to part th? 
 hair on the forehead. A current Krty 
 be parted by a rock. Soiretimes it 
 means to distribute portions of a thing. 
 We divide what was one. We detach 
 what was fastened. We disconnect 
 what was associated. 
 
 We SuNDKR (A.S. sunder, separate 
 what was oomprebanued. 
 
[severe] 
 
 We Sever (Old Fr. sevrer, to sepa- 
 rate) or disserer (which seems only a 
 redundancy) what requires some ef- 
 fort to part. This comes from the fact 
 that Sever is employed of things which 
 are united in physical growth and or- 
 f^anization or some natural union. 
 BothSfiVER and Sunder commonly in- 
 volve the inferiority of what is severed 
 oj' sundered to that from which it is 
 taken. Sever seems to lend itself 
 more readily to expressing repeated 
 acts of disconnexion, as to sever limb 
 from limbjwhere we should hardly use 
 Sunder. To Divide and to Separate 
 need especially to be distinguished. 
 To divide is to cut or resolve into 
 parts. To separate is to place those 
 
 Earts at a distance from each other. 
 Ibjects may be divided, yet near. 
 When separated they are mutually 
 removed. The object of division is to 
 presei-ve unity under certain condi- 
 tions; of separation, to dissolve unity 
 altogether. Society is divided into 
 classes. The hermit is separated from 
 society. Division usually follows 
 some principle of nature or arrange- 
 ment. Separations are often unnatu.- 
 ral, violent, or unavoidable. Every 
 separation involves a division ; but 
 there is many a division without se- 
 paration. 
 
 "The Latin word (coloiiia) signifies 
 simply a plantation. The Greek word 
 eer»)da, on the conti"a.ry, signifies a separa- 
 tion of dwelling, a departure from home, a 
 going out of the house." — Smith, Wealth 
 of A'ations. 
 
 " They are, in short, instruments m the 
 hands of our Maker to improve our minds, 
 to rectify our failings, to detach us from 
 the present scene, to fix our affections on 
 things above/' — PoRTEUS. 
 
 " The Athenian Sophists taught it (logic) 
 in conjunction with rhetoric and philoso- 
 phy; but Aristotle brought it to perfec- 
 tion, and seems to have been the fii-st who 
 professedly disjoined it from other arts and 
 •cicnces."— Beattie. 
 
 " The Episcopal Church of England, be- 
 fore the Reformation connected with the 
 See of Rome, since then disconnected, and 
 protesting against some of her doctrines, 
 and against the whole of her authority as 
 binding on our National Church." — BuRKE. 
 
 "Capsar had made a law for the dividing 
 of the lands of the Campania unto the sol- 
 diers."— No RTH, Plutarch. 
 
 " But, indeed, the chief parter of the 
 fray was night."— SiDMiv, Arcadia. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 681 
 
 " The angels shall come forth, and sener 
 the wicked from among the just." — £>i^- 
 lijh Bible. 
 
 "He cutteth the spear in sunder.'^— 
 English Psalms. 
 
 SERIES. Sequence. Succes- 
 sion. 
 
 Series (Lat. sh-ies, a row, a succes- 
 sion) denotes a number of individuals 
 or units standing in order or follow- 
 ing in succession. 
 
 Sequence ( Lat. seqnentia, a follow- 
 ing) denotes of necessity a moving 
 series or the quality of it, in which 
 that which follows does so by vii-tue 
 of that which went before. Sequence 
 is succession by a regular force or 
 law. 
 
 Succession (Lat. sxiccessiouemf a 
 succeeding) may be with or without 
 interconnexion. Succession to the 
 throne is accordino; to rule or law. 
 On the other hand, a succession oi 
 misfortunes may be without such 
 common rule or cause, but casual. 
 Series implies of necessity a number 
 more than two. Sequence and Suc- 
 cession may denote no more than one 
 thing following upon another. Se- 
 quence involves a principle, succes- 
 sion only states a fact. A succession 
 of notes might be struck on a musical 
 instrument with no regard to time, 
 interval, or melody; the diatonic 
 scale is a sequence of eight notes. 
 
 " Snch divine fatalists make fa'-.e to be 
 an implexed series or concatenation ol 
 causes, all in themselves necessary, where- 
 of Gwl is the chief— CuDWORTH. 
 
 " Tell my friends. 
 Tell Athens, in the sequence of degree. 
 From high to low throughout." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " Of the same kind is the Dutch tax 
 upon successions. Collateral successions 
 are taxed according to the degree of rela- 
 tions from five to thirty per cent, upon the 
 whole value fcf the succession." — Smith, 
 Wealth of Nations. 
 
 SEVERE. Ajstere. 
 
 One is Austere (Lat. uuslirm) in 
 one's manner of life. Severe (Lat. 
 scvLTus) in one's manner of tliought. 
 The opposite to austerity is luxurious- 
 ness, the mean a well regulated life. 
 The opposite to severity is over-in- 
 dulgence, the mean a just recognitiou 
 
682 
 
 SYNONYMS [severity 
 
 of law. One is austere in one s self, 
 severe either to one's self or to others. 
 Men have been known of the most 
 austere virtue who have leant to the 
 side of benignity rather than severity 
 toward others. On the other hand, 
 more frequently, men by no means 
 austere in their own lives have visited 
 the faults and sins of others with im- 
 placable severity. Severity comes 
 rather from principle and character, 
 austerity from habit. One may ad- 
 mire the austere, and fear the severe 
 man. It is difficult to love either. 
 
 SEVERITY. Rigour. 
 
 Severity (Lat. scvirttatem) relates 
 more to the way of thinking and 
 judging, Rigour (Fr. riguetir, Lat. 
 rigorem) to the manner of punishing. 
 Severity is ready to condemn and 
 does not excuse. Rigour abates 
 nothing of the penalty, and does not 
 pardon. We speak of the severity of 
 manners, of the rigour of justice and 
 the law. 
 
 SHADE. Shadow. 
 
 Light intercepted produces the 
 effect denoted by these terms. But 
 Shade (A. S. sceddan, to separate, to 
 shade) denotes no more than the 
 general effect of comparative dark- 
 ness ; while Shadow implies a limit 
 or foi-m in accordance with the object 
 intercepting. The shadow of a tree 
 has an outline agreeing with the 
 shape of the tree itself. The shade 
 of a tree is that variable quantity of 
 ground and atmosphere which is 
 screened from the sun's rays. 
 
 " The means by which the painter works, 
 and on which the effect of his picture de- 
 pends, are light and shade, warm and cold 
 colours. " — Reynolds. 
 
 " They say that in the town Syene, 
 which is above Alexandria fifty stadia, at 
 noone tide in the middes of summer, there 
 is no shadow at all ; and for farther ex- 
 periment thereof, let a pit besunke in the 
 ground, and it will be light all over in 
 every corner ; whereby it appeareth that 
 the sunne then is just and directly over the 
 place as the very zenith thereof." — Hol- 
 land, Pliny. 
 
 SHAKE. TuFMnTF. Shudder. 
 Quiver. Quake. 
 Shake (A. S. tcacauy to shake) mfty 
 
 be regarded as the generic term, of 
 which the others are modifications. 
 
 To Tremble (Fr. trembler, Lat. 
 tremulare) is said both of persons and 
 things, and is a quick vibratory and 
 involuntary shaking, as in persons 
 from cold or fear; in things from 
 weakness or jarring forces. 
 
 To Shudder (probably imitative, 
 compare Low Germ, schuddern) is 
 only applied to sentient heinous, as 
 the effect of fear, hoiTor, aversion, or 
 anticipation. 
 
 Quiver is a quick vibration of the 
 particles of a body resulting from 
 their own inherent elasticity. 
 
 To Quake (A. S. cwaeian) is to 
 shake from want of compactness or 
 tenacity in the material affected ; as, 
 to quake with fear comes fi*om a loss 
 of muscular consistency ; the quaking 
 bog, sand, or moss wants firmness 
 and solidity. 
 
 '* The foundations of the earth shook, and 
 were removed, because He was wroth." — 
 English Bible. 
 
 " Tremble, thou earth, at the presence of 
 the Lord."— Ibid. 
 
 " Who see dire specti-es through the 
 gloomy air 
 
 In threatening forms advance, and shud- 
 dering hear 
 
 The groan of wandering ghosts and yellings 
 of despair." Blackmore. 
 
 " With that at him a quiv'ring dart he 
 
 threw. 
 With so fell force and villanous despite. 
 That thi-ongh hia habergeon the fork-head 
 
 flew." Spenser. 
 
 " Anon she 'gan perceive the house to 
 
 gua/ce. 
 And all the dores to rattle round about." 
 Jbid. 
 
 SHAKE. Agitate. Toss. 
 
 Here, as in the case of the intran- 
 sitive verb. Shake is indefinite. 
 
 Agitate (Lat. HgXtare), frequenta- 
 tive of dgere, to drive) is to shake rela- 
 tively, that is, to a normal or ordinary 
 state of quietude; as, "the sea is 
 agitated by a storm." 
 
 Toss ("the radical image is pro- 
 bably shown in Nor. tossa, to strew ;" 
 Wedgwood) differs from the others 
 in implying change of place in tlie 
 thing tossed, which is either once or 
 
[short] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 683 
 
 more than once thrown up so as to 
 fall on another spot. 
 
 '* The shake that is given to one part of 
 the earth by the firing and explosion of 
 Babterranean exhalations." — Boyle. 
 Agitate is used of the mind, in its 
 secondary application in regard to 
 passions and emotions ; and Shake, of 
 what the mind entertains, as, for in- 
 stance, convictions, beliefs, and the 
 Uke. 
 
 *' Winds firom all quarters agitate the air. 
 And fit the limpid element for nse. 
 Else noxious." CowPEB. 
 
 " Fear ye not Me ? saith the Lord ; will 
 je not tremble at My presence, which have 
 placed the sand for the bound of the sea by 
 a perpetual decree, that it cannot pass it, 
 and though the waves thereof toss them- 
 selves, yet can they not prevail, though 
 they roar, yet can they not pass over it." — 
 English Bible. 
 
 SHALLOW. Superficial. 
 
 The Superficial is that which lies 
 at the surface(Lat. stlperficies, surface), 
 and so is closely related in sense to 
 Shallow (compare shoal, and shelf, 
 A.S. scylfe), which is wanting in 
 depth. The terms might, in the 
 majority of cases, be used indiscrimi- 
 nately, as a person of shallow or of 
 superficial understanding. But Shal- 
 1.0W is, by usage, more frequently asso- 
 ciVed with matters of understand- 
 ing ; Superficial, with matters of ob- 
 servation. A superficial view. A 
 shallow decision. Shallow is always 
 a term of reproach ; not so Super- 
 ficial. A superficial consideration of 
 a subject may be all that time and 
 opportunities permit. A shallow con- 
 sideration would indicate want of due 
 investigation or capacity in the in- 
 vestigator. A superficial acquaintance 
 with a subject will lead to a shalloAV 
 treatment of it. 
 
 " It then evidently will appear that up- 
 right simpUcity is the deepest wisdom, and 
 perverse craft the merest shallotcness." — 
 Barrow. 
 
 " These things are never to be under- 
 stood without much more than a superficial 
 knowledge of the Scriptures, and especially 
 the Scriptures of the New Testament." — 
 Bishop IIorsley. 
 
 SHIELD. Buckler. Target. 
 Shield i« the generic term (A.S. 
 tevld) being a broad piece of defensive 
 
 armour carried upon the arm, of no 
 material in particular, and of no one 
 shape. 
 
 The Buckler (O. Fr. bocler, Lat. 
 bucfUa, a boss) was an oblong shield of 
 considerable size almost covering the 
 body. 
 
 Target (Fr. targe) was a small 
 shield, and being small approached 
 the round form or was actually cir- 
 cular. 
 
 SHOCK. Concussion. 
 
 Shock (Fr. choc) is a violent and 
 sudden shake. 
 
 Concussion is from Lat. concHtere, 
 con-, together^ and qudtcre, to shake). 
 A concussion is the violent collision 
 of two bodies physically. Shock is 
 used, besides, in cases where tlie re- 
 sult is not physical, but mental ; as, a 
 shock of the nervous system ; a shock 
 to the mind. A concussion of the 
 brain. 
 
 " The infidel principles which have been 
 recently diffused with uncommon industry 
 and art, have an immediate tendency to 
 produce in a reading age this shocking coe- 
 mption."— Knox, Essays. 
 
 " How can that concussion of atoms be 
 capable of begetting those internal and vital 
 affections, that self-consciousness, and those 
 other powers and energies that we feel in 
 our minds ?"— Bentlky. 
 
 SHORT. Brief. Concise. Sue- 
 ciNCT. Summary. 
 
 Short (A. S. scort, sceort ; sciran, to 
 shear) may be regarded as the generic 
 tenn here, of which the others re- 
 present specific forces. Everything 
 may be called short which possesses 
 relative length in an inferior degree, 
 whether naturally or artificiallv, being 
 either mentally or physically mea- 
 sured, if applied to space and time. 
 
 Brief (Lat. brcvis, short) is em- 
 ployed only of time and of matters of 
 speech, which have taken compara 
 lively sftort time to utter. 
 
 Concise (Lat. concldere, pArt. conct 
 sus, to cut ih.trt) and Succinct (Lat. 
 Siiccinctus, girt up, contracted, part, of 
 succingcre) are employed, not of mere 
 matter as such; both terms signify 
 brevity and comprehensiveness com- 
 bined; but we speak of a concise 
 phrase or style, a succinct narrative or 
 
684 
 
 SYNONYMS [show] 
 
 account. Conciseness indicates the 
 master of language, who can produce, 
 like the bold style in painting, effect 
 with the least expenditure of words. 
 Succinctness indicates the man of 
 judgment and quick discrimination, 
 who can select from a quantity of 
 material that which is most impor- 
 tant and characteristic for purposes of 
 relation. 
 
 Summary ( Lat. sum/narmm, a sum- 
 mnry, epitome) is a term applicable to 
 both speaking and acting. It often 
 gains time at the loss of fulness and 
 correctness, indicating mental activity 
 and practical decision, and sometimes 
 unscrupulousness. Where it belongs 
 to exposition in words, it denotes 
 that brevity which comes from touch- 
 ing only main topics and not details. 
 
 *' After short silence then 
 And summons read, the great consult 
 began." Milton. 
 
 " 1 shall content myself to show very 
 briejly how a religious and virtuous life doth 
 conduce to our future happiness." — Tillot 
 SON. 
 
 " He expresses himself so concisely, em- 
 ploys words so sparingly, that whoerei will 
 possess his ideas must dig for them, and 
 oftentimes pretty far below the surface." — 
 Richardson, Life of Milton. 
 *'A tale should be judicious, clear, succinct. 
 The language plain, and incidents well- 
 link'd." COWPER. 
 
 " Now, for this present I will breefely 
 and summarily touch those principall points 
 which are confessed and agreed upon as 
 touching the said eclipses." — HOLLAND, 
 Pliny. 
 
 SHOW. ExiiiBiTioy. Repre- 
 sentation. Sight. Spectacle. Pa- 
 geant. Scene. 
 
 Show is here tne most general and 
 comprehensive term (A. S. scawiany 
 scedwian, to look, see, view). A show 
 is commonly something set forth to 
 be seen of a more or less aggregate 
 or complex character for the amuse- 
 ment of others. We do not speak of 
 the exhibition of a single object, how- 
 ever curious, as a show. Like most 
 simple terms, it has its vulgar side. A 
 sliow appeals to the eye as a matter of 
 curiosity or imposing effect, rather 
 than to the taste. A show does not 
 absolutely, involve design ; as a fine 
 bIiow of blossom on fruit-trees. 
 
 Exhibition (Lat. exhWitionem, a 
 handing out, a delivering), especially 
 since the establishment of national, 
 local, or international exhibitions, de- 
 notes a show of works eminent as 
 works of art or industry. In the case 
 of natural objects, they are shown or 
 exhibited, according as we contem- 
 plate their natural beauty or attrac- 
 tiveness, or the skill which has pro- 
 duced, and the taste which has col- 
 lected them. So we speak sometimes 
 of a flower-show, sometimes of a hor- 
 ticultural exhibition. An exhibition 
 always involves design. It is a pre- 
 concerted show. 
 
 Representation (Lat. reprccsentarty 
 to manifest^ to represent, in art) is the 
 exhibiting or, as it were, recalling 
 and reproducing an object by art, ana 
 may be of one or more than one such 
 object at a time ; as, the representation 
 of a beast or bird on canvas ; a thea- 
 trical representation of an historic 
 scene. 
 
 A Sight (A. S. gesiht, sight, view) 
 is a term expressing not the effort 
 which produces the object contem- 
 plated or exhibited, but the interest of 
 the object itself; hence a sight exhi- 
 bits itself, and maybe, and commonly 
 is, natural, not artificial and casual. 
 It may be of a single object, or of 
 many. 
 
 Spectacle (Lat. spectdculum, spec- 
 tare, to look at) is a sight preconcerted 
 for public view, and full of interest in 
 its details, and striking in its arrange- 
 ments, being of a complex character, 
 connected with the social life of man 
 
 •' Tnere is nothing which lies more within 
 the province of a spectator than public 
 shows and diversions, and as among these, 
 there are none which can pretend to vie 
 with those elegant entertainments that are 
 exhibited in our theatres," — Spectator. 
 
 " If we consider what Numa ordained 
 concerning images and the representation 
 of the gods, it is altogether agreeable unto 
 the doctrine of Pythagoras, who thought 
 that God was neither sensible nor mortal, 
 but invisible, incorruptible, and only intel- 
 igible."— North, Plu tarch. 
 
 "Moses said, I will now tarn aside and 
 see this great sight, why the btish is not 
 burned."— ^n^riisA Bible. 
 
 The spectacle, being closely allied to 
 human life and manners, differs froni 
 
[show] 
 
 M«3CRIMINATKl). 
 
 685 
 
 the rest in commonly exciting some 
 Aentimeat or emotion, as of hor- 
 ror, pity, approbation. The spec- 
 tacle, therefore, may be striking and 
 imposing, or quite the contrary, so 
 that the feeling raised in the mind 
 may be out of proportion to what is 
 exhibited or displayed, as in the fol- 
 lowing of Cowper : — 
 
 "The paralytic, who can hold her cards. 
 Bat cannot play them, borrows a friend's 
 
 hand 
 To deal and shuffle, to divide and sort 
 Her mingled snits and seqaences, and sits 
 Spectatress both and spectacle, a sad 
 And silent cipher, while her proxy plays." 
 Pageant (which originally meant 
 a scaffold or platj'orm, something put 
 together for use in public shows, Lat. 
 pangere, to make fast) is an imposing 
 but transient spectacle. Hence it is a 
 favourite term of moralists when they 
 contrast what is powerful and splen- 
 did in human life with its short-lived 
 duration. 
 
 " Thus unlamented pass the proud away 
 
 The gaze of fools and pageant of a day." 
 
 - Pope. 
 
 Scene (Lat. scena, Gr. trxKvrij a tent, 
 booth) is an assemblage of objects pre- 
 sented to the eye at once, having in- 
 ten-elation, whether in inanimate na- 
 ture, or composed of living agents, 
 anited in place, time, and circum- 
 stance of action. A scene impresses 
 us with emotion as of pleasure, admi- 
 ration, gloom, horror, and does not 
 exist apart from the interest excited 
 by it. It addresses itself to our feel- 
 ings, as a spectacle to our observation 
 and taste. 
 
 " Probably no lover of scenes would have 
 had very long to wait for •ome explosion be- 
 tween parties both equally ready to take 
 offence and careless of giving it." — Da 
 QUINCY. 
 
 SHOW. Exhibit. Display. De- 
 monstrate. Indicate. Evince. 
 Argue. Manifest. 
 
 Show, here, as in the case of the 
 noun, must be taken as the generic 
 term, of which the rest are specific 
 forms. It is indefinite, and means no 
 more than to bring to view. 
 
 Exhibit (see above) commonly de- 
 notes to show in oi'der to attract notice 
 to what is rare or interesting, with 
 
 more or less of publicity ; while show 
 may be public or private to one or to 
 many, and may be even indirect and 
 undesigned. That which is shown is 
 commonly remarkable as a whole, so 
 that it is 8ufl5cient to take a general 
 view of it. That which is exnibited 
 is commonly remarkable in detail and 
 challenges examination and inspec- 
 tion. 
 
 Display (OM Fr. desploier, Lat. 
 dis-, abroad, aud plicare, to fold) is to 
 exhibit from personal desire that the 
 object should be seen as extensively 
 as possible, and with such publicity 
 as redounds to the honour or impor- 
 tance of the person exhibiting. We 
 exhibit in public. We display for 
 the sake of publicity. It is to spread 
 out in exhibition. 
 
 To Demonstrate (Lat. dimon- 
 strart) is to show as the result of 
 argument or scientific experiment. 
 Demonstration is planned or pur- 
 posed showing, through media specifi- 
 cally chosen or adapted to the purpose. 
 It is to give clear or ocular proof. 
 
 Indicate (Lat. indicare) differs 
 from demonstrate in being wanting in 
 such plan and purpose ; the indica- 
 tion being in the inherent nature or 
 force of the thing itself. Indica- 
 tion involves a conscious power of 
 judgment and interpretation brought 
 to bear upon the object, which only 
 has a power of indication if reflexion, 
 comparison, and experience are pre- 
 sent in the observer. Indication, 
 unlike the preceding, is indirect and 
 uncertain. There can be no degree or 
 question in demonstration which is 
 absolute, while indication is relative 
 and may be in some cases easily Ttiis- 
 interpie ted . The proper idea of indi- 
 cation is the giving certain informa- 
 tion or throwing certain light on an 
 object of which one is ignorant or in 
 search, so as to direct our eyes, our 
 steps, our attention, to see, observe, 
 or find it. The index of a book indi- 
 cates the divisions, and the place of 
 the subject sought. The finger indi- 
 cates the distant object which one de- 
 sires to point out. 
 
 Evince (Lat. emiicere. f« prevail 
 entirely) is to show oy particu- 
 
686 
 
 lar and convincing proof. It had 
 originally the sense of conquer or sub- 
 due in argument, a sense which is 
 now obsolete. As Milton — 
 " Error by his own arms is best evinced." 
 It is most correctly employed when it 
 is refen-ed to some conclusion, either 
 true, or maintained to be true; as to 
 evince the truth or falsehood of a 
 statement. There is a loose sense, in 
 which it is used instead of manifest 
 or exhibit ; as, " He evinced great 
 emotion." This has perhaps sprung 
 from its likeness in sound to evidence. 
 
 Argue (Lat. arguere, to make 
 known) is nearly related to Indicate, 
 and stands to probability and infer- 
 ence as Indicate stands to fact. If I 
 say, " Such expressions indicate ill- 
 will," 1 mean that they point it out as 
 actually^ existing. If 1 say, " They 
 argue lU-will," I mean that ill-will is 
 naturally suggested to account for 
 them. 
 
 Manifest (Lat. mdnifestus, mani- 
 fest) is, in its simplest aspect, the op- 
 posite to conceal; but it seems spe- 
 cially applicable to the indirect 
 exhibition of feeling or motive in 
 sentient beings. So we speak of 
 persons manifesting joy or grief at 
 announcements, or manifesting a 
 strong desire for an object, or mani- 
 festing signs of impatience. A mani- 
 festation is an external, visible, and 
 tangible token of what would other- 
 wise be more or less concealed. But 
 Manifest means more than disclose ; 
 it is to lay open, not merely before 
 the sight but the observation and the 
 understanding. It is not merely to 
 make visible, but to make evident. 
 
 " In some disorders it is no more possible 
 for men to hinder wicked thonghts from 
 taking possession of their minds, or blas- 
 phemous words from coming out of their 
 mouths than to hinder any other distemper 
 (for plainly this is one) which may attack 
 •ny other part of them from showing itself 
 by its common effects." — Skckkr. 
 
 " Instead of the shadows and figures of 
 the Mosaic law, which veiled and in a great 
 measure concetded what they exhibited, it 
 presents ns with the undisguised truth anC 
 very substance." — Jbid. 
 
 *' Some grains must be allowed to a rhe- 
 torical display which will not bear the 
 rigour of a critical severity." — Glanvill. 
 
 SYNONYMS [show] 
 
 So entirely does demonstration de« 
 pend upon evidence, that the tenn is 
 atpplied, not only to persons, but to 
 the subject matter of the evidence 
 itself, as in the following of Burke : — 
 
 " May no storm ever come which will 
 put the firmness of their attachment to the 
 proof, and which, in the midst of confusions 
 and terrors and sufferings, may demonstrate 
 the eternal difference between a true and 
 severe friend to the monarchy and a slip- 
 pery sycophant of the court." 
 
 "I believe what you scholars call just 
 and sublime, in opposition to turgid and 
 bombast expression, may give you an idea 
 of what I mean when I say modesty is the 
 certain indication of a great spirit, and im- 
 pudence the affectation of it." — Spectator. 
 
 " And give me leave to tell you that it ia 
 no weak evincement of my passion for 
 and concern in your happiness that I can 
 refrain envying you." — BoYLE. 
 " Eve, thy contempt of life and pleasure 
 
 seems 
 To argue in thee something more sublime 
 And excellent than what thy mind con- 
 temns." Milton. 
 
 " The magistrate is not to be obeyed in 
 temporals more than in spirituals, where 
 a repugnancy is perceived between his com- 
 mands and any credited manifestations ox 
 the Divine will." — Palky. 
 
 SHOW. Semblance. 
 Show, in the sense in which it is a 
 synonym with Semblance (Fr. sem- 
 bler, Lat. simillare, similis, like), has 
 a more varied meaning. Show maj 
 denote a purposed exhibition ; while 
 semblance is naturally inherent. A 
 person may make a show of leai-ning, 
 but there will be a semblance of it if 
 only there actually exist in him some 
 amount of learning, or it be attributed 
 to him by the ignorance of obsei-vers. 
 A semblance is a natural show of 
 similarity. 
 " And to the ground his eyes were lowly 
 
 bent 
 Simple in shew and voide of malice bad 
 And all the way he prayed as he went 
 And often knockt his brest as one that did 
 
 repent." Spenser. 
 
 '* He made an image of entaile 
 Like to a woman in semblance." GoWKR, 
 
 SHRILL. Sharp. 
 
 Although a sound cannot be Shrill 
 (Low Germ, schrellj harsh, in sound 
 as in taste) without being also Sharp 
 (A. S.scearp, potnred, quick) yet Shrill 
 regards not the pitch, but the quality 
 
[significant] discriminated. 
 
 687 
 
 of the noise. A shrill sound is at 
 once high-pitched, penetrative, and 
 harah. On the other hand, Sharp is 
 high in pitch as opposed to flat. 
 Power is involved in Shrill more than 
 in Sharp. A sharp sound may be far 
 from loud, a shrill sound is heard at a 
 distance. 
 
 SHRINK. Contract. 
 
 Shrink (A. S. scrincan, to shrink) 
 expresses the contraction of conscious 
 bemgs under the influence of fear; 
 while Cojo-RACT ( Lat. contrdhere, part. 
 contractus, to draw together, to shorten) 
 IS seldom used but of physical sub- 
 stances j nor are these saia quite in- 
 discriramately to shrink and contract. 
 Contract being the more scientific 
 term of the two, is employed of the 
 shrinking of bodies less in common 
 use. W e speak of the shrinking of 
 flannel by washing; of the contraction 
 of metals under the influence of cold. 
 Shrink is also used of such contraction 
 as intimately aflfects the particles of 
 which a substance may be composed ; 
 while Contract is used of the mere 
 closer collocation of such parts oe 
 particles. The rings of the snake do 
 not shrink, but contract. In their 
 secondary application, Shrink belongs 
 to the reluctance to action or endu- 
 rance ; Contract, to the narrowing of 
 the field of observation, or the scope 
 of privilege and indulgence. 
 " Retarn, Alpheus ; the dread voice is past 
 That shrunk thy streams." Milton. 
 
 " It is given very well in cases of con- 
 traction and shrinking of sinews."— Hoi/- 
 LAND, Plini/. 
 
 SHUT. CLOSE. 
 
 To Close (Fr. clos, part. ofO. Fr. 
 clore, to shut) is merely to put close 
 together. 
 
 To Shut (A. S. scyttaii, scittan, to 
 shut up, lock up) is to close so as to 
 hinder ingress or egress. So Shut is 
 a stronger term, capable of implying 
 more substantial obstruction, than 
 Ct 381. The petals of a flower close. 
 The gates of a city are shut at night. 
 Inasmuch, however,asthe word Close 
 is simply the Latin equivalent of Shut, 
 there are numberless cases in which 
 the worda may be used indiscrimi- 
 uateiy. But, like most cases of this 
 
 kind, the Saxon is the commoner term 
 for physical and common, close for 
 metaphysical and secondary, pro- 
 cesses of termination. " He closed 
 his discourse by shutting his book." 
 
 " If, after all, some headstrong, hardy lont 
 Would disobey, though sure to be shut out. 
 Could he with reason murmur at his case. 
 Himself sole author of his own disgi-ace ? " 
 COWPKR. 
 
 " The Lord Himself hath not disdained 
 so exactly to register in the Book of Life 
 after what sort His servants have closed op 
 their days on earth." — HoOKKR. 
 
 SIGi^fALIZE. Distinguish. 
 
 The former term is stronger than 
 the latter. To Signalize one's self 
 (Lat. signalis, belonging lo a sign) is 
 eminently and conspicuously to Distin- 
 guish one's self (Lat. distingucre, to 
 mark with a point or dot). He distin- 
 guishes himself who gains honour. He 
 signalizes himself who performs strik- 
 ing deeds, for which he obtains re- 
 nown. So Signalize is especially ap- 
 plicable to individuals; while many 
 may be distinguished. 
 
 " The knight of La Mancha gravely re- 
 counts to his companion the adventures by 
 which he is to signalize himself." — John- 
 son. 
 
 " Few are formed with abilities to dis- 
 cover new possibilities, and to distinguish 
 themselves by means never tried before. 
 — Rambler. 
 
 SIGNIFICANT. Expressive. 
 
 Significant (Lat. signXficarej to 
 mean) is specific; Expressive (Lat. 
 exprimere, pai't. expressus, to express) is 
 general. That is expressive which 
 habitually and forcibly shows expres- 
 sion, as opposed to inexpressive. 
 That is significant which strongly 
 expresses or indicates some particular 
 thing. An expressive countenance 
 manifests clearly successive and varied 
 emotions. A gesture is significant 
 which plainly and forcibly illustrates 
 what is on the mind. Expressive 
 can-ies with it the idea of excellence. 
 Significant is neutral for bad or good, 
 and may be either. Expressive is re- 
 stricted to looks and words ; as, an 
 expressive eye ; an expressive phrase, 
 Signific;»nt is applicable to complex 
 actions or measures; as, "Such a 
 measure is significant of a libe^' 
 
589 
 
 fiOiicy." Expressive belongs to the 
 present. Significant is indicative also 
 of the future. The expressive appeals 
 more directly to the senses ; the sig- 
 nificant, to the understanding. Ex- 
 pressive stands to feeling- as Sionifi- 
 CANi to fact. 
 
 " The new name war aiways significant, 
 and for the most part, when given by 
 Divine authority, predictive of some pecu- 
 liarity in the character, the life, the achieve- 
 ments, or the destinyof the person on whom 
 it was imposed."— Bishop Horslky. 
 
 " The murrain at the end of the Third 
 Georgic has all the expressiveness that 
 words can give it." — Addison. 
 
 SIGNIFY. Denote. 
 
 Denote (Lat. den6tare, to mark 
 out) is to Signify {see Significant) 
 by an outward sign, and so is less 
 wide in its application than Signify, 
 inasmuch as it is always patent and 
 direct, wijile Signify may be covert 
 and indirect. There is a distinctness 
 of exposition in Denote which does 
 not belong to Signify. The dove does 
 not signify innocence, nor the lamb 
 gentleness ; but they denote those 
 qualities when employed as symbols. 
 As signify stands to sign, so denote 
 stands to symbol. I'hat which denotes 
 marks out plainly ; whereas we often 
 require a key to ascertain a significa- 
 tion. The hands of the clock do not 
 signify, they denote, the hour. Sim- 
 ple things or objects are denoted, 
 complex signified. 
 
 "Nobody ever saw one animal by its 
 gestures and natm-al cries signify to ano- 
 ther, • This is mine ? that is yours ; I am 
 willing to give this for that.'"— Smith, 
 Wealth, of Nations. 
 
 " ' He hath given to the poor.' These 
 words denote the freeness of his bounty, 
 and determine the principal objects there- 
 of," — Barrow. 
 
 SILLY. Simple. 
 
 Silliness (A. S. sklig, happy, 
 blessed), like innocence, has deterio- 
 rated in meaning. An innocent is now 
 sometimes used for aa imbecde or 
 idiotic person. So Silly meant at first 
 innocent, happy; hence, not up to 
 the world's ways — child/i7ce,and after- 
 wards cbildis/i. Silliness is energetic 
 Simplicity ( Fr.simp/M;i<e,Lat.simp/Yc5f- 
 tdtem). The simple person is behind 
 the world, and so in the transactions 
 
 SYNONYMS [signify] 
 
 of life likely to be duped. The sillj 
 person wants judgment or experience, 
 and so is continually acting out false 
 ends and mis-estimating the compara- 
 tive forc^ value, and significance of 
 things. Silly is active ; Simple, pas- 
 sive. Ihe simple is deceived by 
 others. The silly betrays liimself. 
 Simplicity is allied to ignorance ; 
 silliness, to folly. In the present 
 sense. Simple is more peculiarly an 
 epithet of persons. Silly extends 
 farther ; as, a silly speech, book, no- 
 tion, manner. Simplicity is stolid. 
 Silliness is frivolous. 
 
 " What can be more sillily aiTogant and 
 misbecoming than for a man to think that 
 he has a mind and understanding in him, 
 but yet in all the universe beside there is 
 no such thing ? " — LoCKK. 
 " Beseeching your excellence to defend 
 My simplenesse, if ignoraunce offend 
 In any wise." ChauCKR. 
 
 SIMPLE. Single. 
 
 Simple {see Silly) denotes the ex* 
 istence of a thing apart from other 
 things of any kind; Single (Lat. 
 singUlm, more commonly plur. sino;fUif 
 one apiece), from other things oi the 
 same kind. If a direction began, 
 "Take a simple sheet of paper," 
 this would mean that no other article 
 was required. If, "Take a single 
 sheet," this would mean that only 
 one sheet was required. 
 
 SIMPLE. Plain. 
 
 Simple (Lat. simplex) marks the 
 opposite to that which is compound, 
 complex, or complicated. Tnat is 
 simple materially which is of one 
 substance, that is simple mechani- 
 cally which is of uniform structure, 
 and has one force or purpose, that ia 
 simple morally which has one pur- 
 pose or design, as simplicity is in 
 this sense opposed to d-uplicity. 
 
 That is Plain (Fr. plain, Lat. 
 planus) which is smooth, open, clear, 
 unencumbered, and so obvious, mani- 
 fest, unmistakeable. That which is 
 simple needs not to be explained, 
 that which is plain has already ex- 
 plained itself. A simple statement 
 IS uninvolved, not abstruse, not in- 
 cluding many meanings, and so equi- 
 vocal or ambiguous. A plain state* 
 
[site] 
 
 ment is not uncertain or obscure, but 
 lies naked and open, so that to look at 
 it or hear it is to understand it. That 
 which is hard to understand is not 
 plain, that which is difficult to under- 
 stand is not simple. So the simplest 
 expression in a language is not plain 
 to him who does not understand that 
 language. The stammerer is unin- 
 telligible, not because he does not 
 speak simply, but because he does 
 not speak plainly. Simplicity regards 
 primarily the nature of the object or 
 subject, plainness the faculties of the 
 person to perceive and understand it. 
 If one man speaks simply, it is the 
 fault of the other if he does not under- 
 stand plainly. 
 
 SINGULAR. Extraordinary. 
 
 There is always something singu- 
 lar (Lat. singularis, alone of its kmd) 
 in the extraordinary (Lat. extraor- 
 dindrius, without the usual order )y and 
 something extraordinary in the singu- 
 lar, whether the case be favourably or 
 unfavourably regarded. That which 
 is singular is, as its name indicates, 
 unique, standing aloof from others, 
 having a character of its own. Ex- 
 TUAORDiNARY is that which is out of 
 the common order or the common 
 measure, uncommon, unusual. The 
 extraordinary is unlike its kind. The 
 singular is, as it were, a kind of its 
 own. Rare qualities, exclusive pro- 
 perties, distinctive features make the 
 singular. Excess or defect, great- 
 ness or smallness, in relation to an 
 established or natural standard, make 
 the extraordinary. The extraordinary 
 strikes by comparison, the singular 
 by not admitting of it. The force of 
 the magnet is singular. The power 
 of steam is extraordmary. Every 
 man who has any originality or inde- 
 pendence of ■ character must be to 
 some extent singular. Every man 
 who is possessed of any force or 
 energy of nature is to some certain 
 extent extraordinary. One may be 
 singular in trivial things, as, for in- 
 stance, common opinions, or style of 
 dress ; but the extraordinary is more 
 pronounced, and therefore more im- 
 portant. Singular is an epithet of 
 things, fine, delicate, rare, subtle, ro- 
 
 DI8CRIMINATED. 
 
 68f» 
 
 fined. Extraordinary of things lofty, 
 beautiful, sublime, or excellent. When 
 taken in bad part, Singular offends 
 nature, truth, simplicity, justice, pro- 
 priety; Extraordinary is extrava- 
 gant, disproportioned, excessive, un- 
 congenial. The singular surprises, the 
 extraordinary astonishes. 
 
 SINUOUS. Tortuous. 
 
 The difference between these terms 
 is much illustrated by a simple atten- 
 tion to their etymology. 
 
 The Sinuous (Lat, stnus. a fold) 
 goes in folds, the Tortuous (Lat. 
 torquire, part, tortus, to twist) goes 
 in twists. That is tortuous which 
 twists about, that is sinuous which 
 winds, doubles, and re-doubles, so as 
 to form deep curves or folds. A wind- 
 ing stream which scoops hollows in 
 its banks, is well termed sinuous. A 
 road which is far from straight may 
 well be termed tortuous. Sinuous is 
 more commonly applied to things 
 which have course and movement, 
 while Tortuous expresses the charac- 
 teristic form. The winding stream 
 has its sinuosities. The path along 
 its bank is tortuous. Tori uous has a 
 moral application in which Sinuous 
 does not share. It involves ideas of 
 violence, covertness, disorder, pur- 
 posed indirectness, evasion, and the 
 like. A tortuous policy is that which 
 aims covertly, indirectly, evasively, 
 and is wanting in straightforward- 
 ness, ease, and simplicity. 
 
 SITE. Place. Spot. 
 
 The Site (Lat. situs) is the area on 
 which stands a building or a collec- 
 tion of buildings, or some form ot 
 human habitation, permanent or 
 temporary, and is not employed in 
 any other relation ; as the site of a 
 mansion, or a city, or an ancient 
 camp. 
 
 Place (Fr. place, Lat. pUtea, a 
 street or open court) is, in its broadest 
 acceptation, any portion of space 
 measured off, either actually or by 
 the mind, from other space. 
 
 A Spot (originally meaning the 
 mark made by something dropped 
 or 8|»la.shed, probably one of many 
 
690 
 
 similar imitative word^; is a small 
 extent of space defined with exact- 
 ness. " 1 search for the site of an 
 old house. 1 know, generally, that 
 this is the place to look for it ; yet I 
 cannot find the spot." 
 The site, the wealth, the beauty of the 
 
 place, 
 Will soon inform thee 'tis imperious Rome, 
 Rome, the great mistress of the conquered 
 
 world." 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher. 
 «• As in simple space we consider the re- 
 lation of distance between any two bodies 
 or points, so in our idea of place we con- 
 eider the relation of distance betwixt any- 
 thing and any two or more points, which 
 are considered as keeping the same dis- 
 tance one' with another, and so considered 
 as at rest." — LoCKE. 
 •• A jolly place, said he, in times of old, 
 But something ails it now; the spot is 
 
 cursed." WoRDSWORTH. 
 
 SITUATION. Position. 
 
 The following remarks are in addi- 
 tion to what has been observed else- 
 where on these two words. The idea 
 which is common to the two terms 
 Situation and Position, is that of 
 resting upon something, upon some 
 base. Situation expresses the idea of 
 occupying a place. Position that of 
 being made to stand. Situation em- 
 braces all the relations of a thing, 
 Position that of dii-ection only. Situa- 
 tion, which is a thing dependent upon 
 circumstances, has no rule to deter- 
 mine it. Position is or is not accord- 
 ing to rule. A situation is pleasant 
 or unpleasant, easy or otherwise, 
 happy or otherwise, embarrassing or 
 otherwise. A position just or other- 
 wise, true or false, right or wrong, 
 du'ect or oblique. We find ourselves 
 in a situation, and take up a position. 
 The situation of an army is the sum 
 of its surrounding circumstances, its 
 position is the g^i'ound it has taken up 
 with a view to attack or defence. As 
 employed of the moral state and cir- 
 cumstances of persons,PosiTiON points 
 rather to their permanent,SiTUATroN to 
 their occasional state. 1 am not in a 
 situation to help you, would mean 
 that the circumstances of my present 
 condition do not allow it. I am not 
 in a position to do so, would mean 
 that I do not occupy such a place in 
 
 SYNONYMS [situation] 
 
 life as would give me a vantage 
 ground in any such attempt. 
 
 SITUATION. Site. 
 
 Both of these are from the Lat 
 citas, a situation. A thing stands in 
 a situation, and rests upon a site. 
 The situation embraces all the loca' 
 aspects and relationships in which a 
 thing is placed. The site is confined 
 to the ground on which it is erected 
 or reposes. In English Site has no 
 other than a physical meaning. Situa- 
 tion is also circumstantial. We use 
 the term Site whenever there is a 
 question about exact location. Hence 
 the term expresses inaccurately the 
 place on which something existed, or 
 within the area of which it was con- 
 fined. So we venture to speak of the 
 site of an ancient town, and yet more 
 questionably of an ancient forest or 
 garden. 
 
 SITUATION. State. 
 
 Situation has in it more of the 
 accidental and transient. State more 
 of the habitual and pennanent; an 
 awkward situation, a bad state ol 
 health. Sometimes, however, the 
 situation is permanent and the state 
 variable, but this is when they are 
 affected by the peculiar nature of the 
 objects of which they are predicated. 
 The situation of a house is permanent 
 because the house itself is fixed. A 
 man may be in a precarious state of 
 health, because human life is a 
 changeable and uncertain thing. 
 Nevertheless, taken by itself, the 
 state is more lasting than the situa- 
 tion. The situation results from the 
 accidents of position. The state is 
 the whole intrinsic manner of being. 
 Situations vary infinitely. States are 
 definite though abstract, as a state of 
 health or disease, want or competency, 
 a state of nature. Situation is the 
 fluctuating condition of individuals. 
 State is a certain condition of things. 
 Without money in your pocket, 
 though you may have plenty at home, 
 you may chance to find yourselr m 
 the situation of a poor man ; but it 
 will be no slight consolation to you 
 in your temporary difficulty to feel 
 that at least you are not in a state of 
 
[slack] 
 
 poverty. The mind is in a situation 
 of tranquillity when it is removed 
 beyond the reach of disturbing in- 
 fluences, it is in a state of tranquillity 
 when it is at peace with itself. The 
 actual exemption from troubles con- 
 stitutes its situation in the first case, 
 the sum of the conditions necessary 
 for its continued peace constitute its 
 Plate in the second. A state of affairs 
 gives the idea of something less likely 
 soon to alter than a situation of affairs. 
 Your affairs are in a good situation 
 when they afford you an opportunity 
 of advantageous action. 1 hey are in 
 a good state when you yourself are 
 prosperous. 
 
 SKETCH. Delineation. Out- 
 
 LINE. 
 
 The first (Fr. esquisse, a sketch) fills 
 up the outline in part, giving a few 
 broad touches, by which a lively 
 though imperfect idea is gained ; 
 while Outline gives no more than 
 the bounding lines of the scene or 
 picture. It is not, however, neces- 
 saiy that the contour of a perfect 
 figure should be given by an outline, 
 which may be only partial. 
 
 Delineation (Lat. delineare, to 
 mark out a line) goes further than 
 the others, having for its aim a fuller 
 conception and larger representation. 
 The object of an outline is to give 
 some notion, however meagre ; of a 
 sketch, some representation, how- 
 ever imperfect; of a delineation, 
 some amount of accurate knowledge. 
 In the secondary sense, we speak of 
 the outline of a plan, work, or pro- 
 ject ; a sketch of an object, character, 
 or proceedings, where a lively, a de- 
 lineation where an accurate, impres- 
 sion is sought to be conveyed. An 
 outline is drawn for one's own guid- 
 ance. A delineation is given for the 
 information of another. Delineation 
 lends itself better to mental, as sketch 
 to physical, objects. A delineation is 
 an imperfect description ; as a sketch 
 is an imperfect representation. Out- 
 line is employed of things literary as 
 well as artistic, and Sketch of the pro- 
 cess of description. Outlines of his- 
 tory, sketches of character, delinea- 
 tions of schemes or projects. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 691 
 
 " The mpthod of Robens was to sketch 
 his coaapositions in colours, with all the 
 parts more determined than sketches gene- 
 rally are. From this sketch his scholars 
 advanced the picture as far as they were 
 capable ; after which he retouched the 
 whole himself."— Reynolds. 
 
 " Pen the contours and outlines with a 
 more even and acate touch." — Eatklyn. 
 
 " We, in the writings of the Evangelists, 
 have a complete summary of His triennial 
 preaching ; we have joined with the detail 
 of many of His miracles the delineation of 
 His character, and the history of His won- 
 derful life of piety and love." — BxSHOP 
 HORSLEY. 
 
 SKIN. Hide. 
 
 The Skin (A. S. scin, the skin) is 
 the external membranous covering of 
 animal bodies. Itis used generically 
 for the same covering, whether in 
 life, or after it is stripped fi-om the 
 body, as green, dry, or tanned. 
 
 Hide (A. S. hyd, the skiUfa hide) is 
 also used of the skin dressed or raw, 
 but commonly used of the undressed 
 skins of pachydermatous animals, as 
 oxen and horses, and especially such 
 as are prepared as leather. It is only 
 used contemptuously of the human 
 skin. 
 
 SLACK. Loose. 
 
 Slack (A. S. sleac, slctc, slack, 
 gentle) is used in secondary physical 
 senses, as a slack pace; but in its 
 primary physical sense it is only em- 
 ployed of such cord-like substances 
 as are capable of eying and tension. 
 
 Loose (A. S. leas, false, loose, loeak), 
 on the other hand, has a wider mean- 
 ing, and extends to substances which 
 do not admit of these, as, to go about 
 loose, which means unfastened. "His 
 coat sits loose." In the moral appli- 
 cation we speak of slackness in refe- 
 rence to energy and enterprise ; loose- 
 ness, in reference to principles of 
 conduct or obligation. Looseness is 
 unfixedness. Slackness is fixedness 
 without tension. 
 
 " What means the bull. 
 Unconscious of his strength, to play the 
 
 coward. 
 And flee before a feeble thing like man. 
 That knowing well the slackness of his arm, 
 Trusts only in the well-invented knife." 
 Blaxb. 
 
 " All the bonds and restraint* oadet 
 
692 
 
 SYNON TMS [slant] 
 
 vrhieh men .ay. He so far loosed, that any 
 man might be free who would concur to hia 
 own liberty and enlargement." — Barrow. 
 
 SLANT. Slope. 
 A Slant (Sw. slmta, to slide) is a 
 deviation from a perpendicular line. 
 
 A SLOPE(acc.to Wedgwood, bang- 
 ing like a slack, Dut. slap, rope) in- 
 clines from an horizontal plane, and 
 so is a direction downwards. The 
 masts of ships are often purposely 
 made to slant. The side of a hill 
 slopes. The inclined plane is made to 
 slope. 
 "The slant lightning, whose thwart flame 
 
 driv'n down. 
 Kindles the gummy bark of fir or pine." 
 Milton. 
 •' The slope of faces, from the floor to th' 
 
 roof. 
 As if one master-spring controlled them 
 
 all. 
 Relaxed into a universal grin." 
 
 COWPKR. 
 
 SLEEP. Slumber. Doze. 
 
 Sleep (A. S. slap) is the natural 
 and periodical suspension of the func- 
 tions of the organs of sense. 
 
 Slumber (A. S. slumerian, to 
 slumber) is to sleep lightly, except in 
 the poetic style, in Avhich it means 
 sleep. 
 
 " He at last fell into a slumber, and thence 
 into a fast sleep." — Bunyan. 
 
 " From carelessness it shall fall into a 
 slumber, and from a slumber it shall settle 
 into a deep and long sleep." — South. 
 
 Doze (Icel. dusa, to dose) indicates 
 an unsound sleep, such as may be 
 taken at regular hours under indispo- 
 sition, or at irregular hours at uncer- 
 tain intervals. 
 
 " The one side resembles Cerberus bark- 
 ing for a sop. The other resembles him 
 when, after he has received it, he wraps 
 himself up in his own warm skin and 
 enjoys a comfortable doze." — Knox, jEs- 
 says. 
 
 The last of these terms is too familiar 
 to be employed in secondary mean- 
 ings ; but we speak of the slumber 
 of indolence and the long sleep of 
 deatb. 
 
 SLENDER. Thin. 
 
 Slender (O. Dut. slindery thin) is 
 thin or narrow in proportion to cir- 
 cumference or width, as, a slender 
 
 stem or stalk of a plant. ITie propor- 
 tion of height to circumference is very 
 considerable. It is used in secondary 
 senses, as = feeble, inconsiderable, 
 meagre, spare. A slender hope, ar- 
 gument, pittance, diet. 
 
 Thin (A. S. thyn, thin, lean) is the 
 generic term. That substance is thin 
 in which there is relatively a small 
 intei-val between the opposite sur- 
 faces. A thing may be thin and short 
 at the same time; but Slender de- 
 notes proportionate length. Thin has 
 its secondary and analogous senses ; as, 
 the opposite to dense, thin air, or thin 
 crops; flimsy, as a thin disguise or 
 pretext. 
 
 Slight (Ger.schlecht, bad, mean) ha8 
 the wide sense of wanting in force, 
 mark, and so in strength or impor- 
 tance; as, a slight bruise, a slight 
 figure ; hence, secondarily, a slight 
 impression, slight importance. 
 
 Slim (Ger. schlimm, awry, bad, 
 weak, sly) is restricted to the human 
 figure, or what is analogous to it, th at 
 is, to objects which may be supposed 
 to stand erect, like it, as a tree or a 
 column. 
 
 " Hire middel smal, hire armes long and 
 sclendre." Chaucek. 
 
 " Where thinly scattered lay the heaps ot 
 dead." Pope, Homer. 
 
 " Nor should you suffer yourselves to 
 suspect that the weight of this argument ia 
 at all diminished if there be others ac- 
 counted in the rank of learned men who 
 have affected to think slightly of the reli- 
 gion of their country." — Warburton. 
 
 " A slim excuse." — Barrow. 
 
 SLOW. Tardy. 
 
 Slow (A. S. sldw), the simple and 
 generic tenn, has many meanings 
 which are not comprised by Tardy 
 (Lat. tardus, sbw)a,s, wanting rapidity 
 of movement, a slow stream ; long or 
 late in happening, as the time comes 
 slowly ; not ready in thought or in 
 action, as slow of speech. Tardy is a 
 term of habit, denoting a habit of 
 being behindhand. Tardiness implieg 
 only a slowness antecedent to a cer- 
 tain point, which may be followed by 
 activity ; but slowness is characteris- 
 tic of movement, operation, and pro 
 cess throughor*.. 
 
[sole] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED, 
 
 693 
 
 " Having uttered some words which we 
 were very soriy we could not nnderstand, 
 he went back to his companions, and the 
 whole body slowly retreated." — Cook's 
 Voyages, 
 
 " Those words of our Lord to Nicodemns 
 express sfm^e kind of marvel at his slowness 
 of apprehension : ' Art thou a master of 
 Israel and knowest not these things ? ' " — 
 Watkrland. 
 
 Tardiness being Latin, and so a more 
 polite term, lends itself more easily to 
 express the idea of slowness in its 
 most abstract form. Yet merely me- 
 chanical motion is not expressed by 
 Tardiness, which is only employed 
 where slowness is contemplated in 
 connexion with some quality which 
 has induced it. 
 
 " His tardiness of execution exposes him 
 to the encroachments of those who catch a 
 hint and fall to work." — Idler. 
 
 SMOOTH. Even. 
 
 Tha t is Smooth ( A . S . sm^iSe, smoelS , 
 smooth) which is so Even (A. S. ef'en) 
 as to be absolutely free from all in- 
 equalities. That is even which is free 
 from any considerable protuberances 
 and depressions. A polished table- 
 top is smooth. A country in which 
 are no abrupt undulations is even. In 
 their secondary application, we use 
 Even of character and temper in a 
 favourable, Smooth of demeanour in 
 an unfavourable, sense. A smooth 
 speech or smile is one winch avoids 
 offence, but is of doubtful sincerity. 
 Evenness of disposition. Smoothness 
 of tongue. 
 
 " So the carpenter encouraged the gold- 
 smith, and he that smootketh with the ham- 
 mer him that smote the anvil." — English 
 Bible. 
 
 " This even-handed instice 
 Commends the itgredients of our poisoned 
 
 chalice 
 To our own lips." SHAKESPEARE. 
 
 SOCIAL. Convivial. Sociable. 
 
 Social (Lat.'socia/is, sociu's, a com- 
 ftanion) has the senses of pertaining 
 to society, or the aggregate body of 
 the public, and disposed to mix in 
 friendly converse, or consisting in such 
 converse. It is therefore a term of 
 much wider extent than the other 
 two. 
 
 The convivial (Lat. eonvtvaliSf per- 
 taining to aguestjCotiviva) is tliR social 
 
 in matters of feasting or festivity. We 
 speak of convivial meetings in refe- 
 rence to the enjoyments of the table ; 
 of social meetings, in reference to the 
 interchange of kindly or congenial 
 conversation. Sociable superadds to 
 the idea of social, as a per?onn; quality, 
 a certain aptitude to promote the ends 
 of conversation and society. A man 
 fond of mixing in company, but of a 
 taciturn disposition, is social, not so- 
 ciable. Social implies, in short, ac- 
 tive, Sociable, passive, aptness for 
 society. He is social who associates 
 with others. He is sociable who is 
 capable of being associated with. 
 IMan is a social animal ; but all men 
 are not sociable. Social is a property 
 of the race ; Sociable, of the indivi- 
 dual. Social, therefore, refers to the 
 natural desire of men, collectively, to 
 congregate in society ; Soci ab le, to the 
 particular inclination of some to con- 
 tinual intercourse with tlieir neigh- 
 bours, or with fi'iends and acquain- 
 tances, whom, for the most part, they 
 are not scrupulous, diffident, or nice 
 in selecting. Hence Social is more an 
 epithet of manners or nature ; Sociable 
 of persons. 
 
 " Thou, in thy secrecy, although alone. 
 Best with thyself accompanied, seek'st not 
 Social communication ." ^I iLTON. 
 
 " Rather he was a man of great benig- 
 nity and pleasantness, and sociableness in 
 his conversation, witness his freque.^t 
 vouchsafing his presence at feasts and eu 
 tertainments." — SHARP. 
 
 " Kind laughter and conwitua/ joy.* 
 Akekside. 
 
 SOLE. Solitary. 
 
 Solitary (Lat. ioi^ffariws) and Sole, 
 both derived from the Lat. sohiSy 
 atone^ differ as synonyms in express- 
 ing the former, that oneness which is 
 the result of external, the latter of in- 
 ternal limitation. "The landscape 
 did not furnish even a solitary tree." 
 *'This was the sole ground of his de- 
 fence." This comes of the fact that 
 Solitary commonly expresses physical 
 isolation, or isolation as a bare fact ; 
 Sole, isolation morally. Solitary is 
 also negative ; Sole, positive. Soli- 
 tary is that which is simply unaccom- 
 panied. Sole denotes that which is 
 capable of acting by itself. A solitary 
 instance of patriotism ; or, the sole 
 
694 
 
 defender of his country's cause. That 
 IS sole which is able to exist alone. 
 That is solidary which is compelled to 
 exist »part. The force of Sole has 
 been exactly hit in a passage given 
 from Sir E. Bering's speeches under 
 the article Sole in Richardson's Dic- 
 tionary — 
 
 " This ambition of a sole power, this dan- 
 gerous soleship, is a fault in our Church in- 
 deed," 
 " Who out of smallest things could without 
 
 end 
 Have raised incessant armies to defeat 
 Thy folly ; or with solitary hand. 
 Reaching beyond all limit, at one blow. 
 Unaided, could have finished thee, and 
 
 whelmed 
 Thy legions under darkness." MiLTON. 
 
 SOLICITUDE. Care. Concern. 
 Anxiety, 
 
 Care (A. S. cdni) is the most in- 
 definite of these, being sometimes at- 
 tended with pain, and sometimes not, 
 according to the nature of the object 
 and the tlegree of intensity of mental 
 application ; from the corroding care 
 which besets him who can with diffi- 
 culty find means of subsistence for 
 himself and his family, to the ordinary 
 care which is bestowed upon objects 
 ?vhich ought not to be neglected or 
 injured, and is altogether painless. 
 
 Solicitude (Lat. solicitudinem)^ 
 Anxiety (Lat. anxius, migere, to 
 throttle), and Concern {Ft. concenter, 
 to belong to, Lat. concernere, to sift 
 together) are all confined to the mind, 
 being not, like care, capable of a prac- 
 tical meaning. Solicitude is made up 
 of desire and a feeling of uncertainty. 
 Anxiety is made up of fear and a 
 feeling of uncertainty. I feel solici- 
 tude when I wish strongly that some- 
 thing shall be according to my inten- 
 tions, hopes, or plans, yet feel the 
 probability of its not being so. 1 feel 
 anxiety when I desire that harm or 
 disappointment may not come, j^et 
 feel from how many sources it may 
 spring up at any moment. Anxiety 
 is against possible evils. Solicitude 
 is for positive good. Solicitude is con- 
 fined to the present and the immediate 
 future. Anxiety may run out into 
 the distant future. Anxiety is with 
 Bone persons habitual. Solicitude is 
 
 SYNONYMS [SOLICITUDEj 
 
 felt on specific occasions. Concern 
 is very sti-ong interest, and, specifi- 
 cally, such excitement of feeling as 
 may spring out of this ; but as it is 
 felt only in connexion with persons, 
 it differs from the others in being 
 less felt in regard to the future, and 
 more to the present, and even the past. 
 I may feel deeply concerned, not 
 only for what may happen, but also 
 for what has happened to my friend. 
 Anxiety and solicitude, on the other 
 hand, belong only to the future. 
 " Others, in virtue placed felicity — 
 But virtue joined with riches and long life; 
 In corporal pleasure, he, and careless ease." 
 
 MiLTOK. 
 " The statesman, lawyer, merchant, man 
 
 of trade, 
 Pants for the refuge of some rural shade. 
 Where, all his long anxieties forgot. 
 Amid the charms of a sequestered spot, 
 He may possess the joys he thinks he sees.*' 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 " Hence we are bid to work out our sal- 
 vation with fear and trembling, with a holy 
 solicitude " — ScoTX, Christian Life. 
 
 " I sti'ove a thousand ways to lessen her 
 care, and even forgot my own pain in a con- 
 cern for hers."— Goldsmith. 
 
 SOLID. Firm. Substantial. 
 Compact. 
 
 Solid (Lat. sWdiis) denotes that 
 which has firm texture and consis- 
 tency of parts. It is opposed to liquid, 
 fluid, hollow, or incompact. It differs 
 in degree according to the degree oi 
 such firmness or consistency, accord- 
 ing as it resists partially or entirely 
 efforts made to penetrate it. 
 
 Substantial (Lat. substantia) is 
 opposed to that which has no consis- 
 tency at all. All objects that admit oi 
 being handled are more or less sub- 
 stantial. 
 
 Firm (Lat. firmus) denotes that 
 which either in its integral form or its 
 component particles resists movement 
 or displacement. Meat, in distinction 
 to drink, is solid food. Substantial 
 food is that which is capable of giving 
 fulness, nourishment, and support to 
 the body. The post driven fast and 
 deep into the ground is firm. The 
 flesh which is not flabby is firm. We 
 use these terms iu secondary senses 
 Solid attainments, substantial bene 
 fits, firm convictions, and the like 
 
sovereign] discriminated. 
 
 695 
 
 " The idea of solidity we receive by onr 
 touch, and it arises from the resistance 
 which we find in a body to the entrance of 
 any other body into the place it possesses 
 till it has left it."— LoCKE. 
 
 " For if you speak of an acquired, rational, 
 and discursive faith, certainly these reasons 
 which make the object seem credible must 
 be the cause of it, and consequently the 
 strength and Jlrmiti/ of my assent must rise 
 and fall together with the apparent credi- 
 bility of the object." — Chillixgworth. 
 " Even as his first progenitor, and quits. 
 Though placed in Paradise (for earth has 
 
 still 
 gome traces of her youthful beauty left). 
 Substantial happiness for transient joy." 
 
 COWPEB. 
 
 That is Compact (^Lat. comyingtre^ 
 part, compactiis, to fasten together) of 
 which the particles are densely close, 
 or the component parts so arranged as 
 to occupy little comparative space. It 
 is opposed to diffuse, disjointed, 
 flabby. 
 
 " A different spinning every different web 
 Asks from your glowing fingers ; some re- 
 quire 
 The more compact, and some the looser 
 wreath." Dyer. 
 
 SOLVE. Resolve. 
 These are the simple and a com- 
 pound fonn of the Lat. solctre, to 
 loose or melt. Solve is used when 
 there is but one fixed and positive 
 explanation to be arrived at; Re- 
 solve, when there is a difficulty to 
 be disposed of. , We solve a problem, 
 b}- doing it. We resolve a difficulty 
 by undoing it. To solve is simply to 
 remove doubt ordifficulty^ To resolve 
 is to remove it by referring it to first 
 principles or corresponding ones. 
 Hence the phrase, " Resolve into." 
 ** A body of very considerable weight 
 has to be raised. How is the pro- 
 blem to be solved ? It is resolved, 
 or resolves itself, into a question of 
 mechanics." 
 
 " And as that Thebau monster that pro- 
 posed 
 Her riddle, and him who solved it not de- 
 voured. 
 That once found out and solved, for grief 
 
 and spite. 
 Cast herself headlong from th' Ismenian 
 
 steep. 
 So, struck with dread and anguish, fell the 
 fiend." MiLTOX. 
 
 " Positive precepts, though we are used to 
 eoDsider them merely as prescribed, and to 
 
 resolve them commonly into the mere will 
 and pleasure of the Legislator, yet are al- 
 ways founded upon reasons known, perhaps, 
 in part to us, but perfectly kno^-n to Ghid ; 
 and so they are ultimately resolvable into 
 infinite wisdom and goodness." — Water- 
 LAXD. 
 
 SORRY. Grieved. Hurt. 
 
 Sorry (see Sorrow) and Guieved 
 (Lat. grUvdre, to burden) differ from 
 the nouns sorrow and grief in being 
 used in a lighter sense and of more 
 ordinary matters. We are commonly 
 sorry for what is on our owb account, 
 and grieved on account of another. 
 To be gi-ieved is more than to be 
 sorry, " I am sorry that I was not 
 at home when you called." " I was 
 much grieved to hear the loss he had 
 sustained." 
 
 Hurt (see Hurt) is used of wounded 
 feelings, and denotes the sense of 
 having been treated unfairly, incon- 
 siderately, or without due respect. 
 We are sorry for circumstances. We 
 are grieved at acts and conduct. We 
 are hurt by treatment or beliaviour. 
 
 " I am sorr]/ for thee, frieud, 'tis th» 
 Duke's pleasure." — Shakespeahe. 
 
 "He doth not willingly afflict uor grievi 
 the children of men." — English Bible. 
 
 " No man is hurt, at least few are so, by 
 hearing his neighbour esteemed a worthy 
 man."— Blair. 
 
 SOVEREIGN. SUPRE.ME. 
 
 The idea involved in the tenn So- 
 vereign (0. Fr. soverain, Lat. sHpi' 
 rdmis) is that of the greatest power. 
 
 The idea of Supreme (Lat. stipre- 
 muSy from the same root super) is that 
 of the highest rank. In every case 
 and application, then, the thing which 
 is supreme is the most raised, whether 
 this be in authority, power, influence, 
 or efficacy. So, too, independent and 
 absolute authority makes sovereignty 
 or the sovereign, inasmuch as SLch 
 authority is above all. Eveiy thing 
 is inferior in rank to that which is 
 supreme. Every thing is subject to 
 the influence of that which is sove- 
 reign. A sovereign remedy is effica- 
 cious in the supreme degi-ee, and being 
 regarded not as to rank but power is 
 therefore called sovereign and not 
 supreme. God is the supreme Being 
 inasmuch as He is emphatically the 
 
696 
 
 self-existent one, He is the sovereign 
 lord of all things inasmuch as He is 
 the Almighty, and the moral ruler and 
 governor of the universe. 
 
 SOUND. Sane. Healthy. 
 
 Sound ( A.S. siind, sound, healthy) 
 is extended to all bodies, animate or 
 inanimate, which are materially in 
 their normal condition ; not subject, 
 that is, to rupture, decay, or imper- 
 fection. Hence it is employed in a 
 secondary sense of what is efficient ; 
 as, a sound opinion ; sound advice ; 
 sound sleep, that is unbroken ; sound 
 justice, that is impartial. 
 
 Sane (Lat. sdnus) is, in modern 
 English, seldom employed of the body, 
 but only of the mind. A sane man 
 is a man of sound mind. Sound is a 
 term conveying some degree of praise. 
 Sane is no more than the opposite to 
 insane. 
 
 Healthy (A.S. /ke/<S ) denotes more 
 than sound, thougli it is applicable 
 only to the frames and constitutions 
 of organized things. A sound body 
 is without defect. A healthy body is 
 in the enjoyment of life. A sound 
 tree grows. A healthy tree is luxu- 
 riant in growth. Soundness may be 
 tested. Healthiness speaks for itself. 
 It is analogously applied ; as, a heal- 
 thy tone of public morals. 
 " I would I had that corporal soundness 
 
 now, 
 As when thy father and myself in friend- 
 ship 
 First tried our soldiership." 
 
 Shakespeark. 
 "A happiness that often madness hits on, 
 Which sanity and reason could not be 
 So prosperously delivered of." Jbid. 
 
 " Charles of Sweden is of a very vigorous 
 and health!/ constitution, takes a pleasure 
 in enduring the greatest fatigues, and is 
 little curious about his repose." — Burnet. 
 
 It maybe observed that, while Sound 
 and Sane are only expressive of pas- 
 sive qualities, Healthy has also an 
 active force, in the sense of imparting 
 health ; or a relative force, as consis- 
 tent with health; as, a healthy drauglit, 
 a healthy climate. 
 
 SPEAK. Talk. 
 
 Communication by veibal signs is 
 common to these words. Speak (AS. 
 
 SYNONYMS [sound] 
 
 sj)6caii) is indefinite, and may involve 
 one word or many. A person re- 
 covering from insensibility may be 
 just able to speak, though not to 
 talk (A.S. tal, number ^ tale, talk). 
 which is to speak consecutively ana 
 on divers subjects. The word is allied 
 to " tell." Speech is of one. Talk 
 may be shared by several. To speak 
 is a characteristic of man ; to talk, of 
 loquacious man. 
 
 ♦• They sat down with him upon th^ 
 gi'ouud seven days and seven nights, and 
 none spake a word unto him." — English 
 Bible. 
 
 " Their talk, when it was not made up of 
 nautical phrases, was too commonly made 
 up of oaths and curses." — MaCAULAY. 
 
 SPECIAL or Especial. Specific. 
 Pauticulau. Peculiar. 
 
 Special and Specific are both de- 
 rived from Lat. sptcies; Particular is 
 the Lat. parttculdriSf partem, a part. 
 Special comes under general, as spe- 
 cies under genus. A general rule ap- 
 plies to the largest range of cases ; a 
 special rule, to a narrower range; 
 while Specific and Particular point 
 to individual cases, yet as comingunder 
 the species or the whole. Pa aricuLAR 
 divides the individual from othei-s ; 
 Specific connects it with what is pre- 
 dicated concerning it. This appears 
 in the verbs spec^'y and particularize. 
 To particularize is to take the subject 
 to pieces, and show what it is made 
 up of. To specify is distinctly to 
 point out what it is we speak about. 
 vVe specify by one. We particularize 
 by many in detail. 
 
 Peculiar (Lat. pccHliaris, relating 
 topecfilium,one'sownpropertii)auali&ea 
 that which belongs to an individual 
 or to a class. Particular qualifies 
 what belongs to one sort or kind only, 
 exclusively of others ; hence Peculiar 
 stands to Particular as the individual 
 to the species or genus. The parti- 
 cular flavour of the pine-apple is that 
 which distinguishes it from other 
 kinds of fruit. But if we were doubt- 
 ful about the taste of a particular 
 pine-apple, we should say that it had 
 a peculiar flavour. As to the sub- 
 stantives, Particularo ure minor cir- 
 cumstances, which constitute the de- 
 tails of complex idea? ">r occurrences ; 
 
[SPECULATIONJ DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 697 
 
 peculiarities are qualities which attach 
 to individual objects or persons. 
 
 " But it is rather manifest that the 
 essence of spirits is a substance specifically 
 distinct from all corporeal matter whatso- 
 ever." — More. 
 
 Both Special and Specific mean, in 
 the first instance, pertaining to or con- 
 stituting a species ; but Specific gene- 
 rally means indicative of a particular 
 thing ; Special, relating to a particu- 
 lar puipose. " 1 mentioned it specifi- 
 cally." " I have resei-ved it specially.'' 
 And in this way both seem often to 
 belong to individuals, the whole idea 
 of species being lost. A specific Act of 
 Parliament is one definitively pointed 
 out. A special Act of Parliament is 
 one framed to meet a particular case. 
 Hence Special has sometimes the 
 force of chief, prominent, and the 
 like, as being that to which observa- 
 tion or regard is more particularly 
 directed. 
 
 *' Our Saviour is represented everywhere 
 in Scripture as the special patron of the 
 poor and afflicted." — Bishop Atterburv. 
 
 " In fact, all medicines will be found 
 
 goecific in the perfection of the science." — 
 OLERIDGE. 
 
 " Of this prince there is little particular 
 memory."— Bacon. 
 
 That which is particular is rftsfi»^iaV/et/ 
 from the rest. That which is peculiar 
 is unlike the rest. Particular is an 
 absolute term; Peculiar is relative. 
 A particular property is one, and not 
 another. A peculiar property belongs 
 to one thing, and not to another. 
 " The gods still listened to their constant 
 
 prayer, 
 And made the jioets their peculiar care." 
 Pitt. 
 
 SPECK. Spot. Mottle. 
 
 A Speck (A. S. specca, a speck, 
 blemish) is a small spot. So a ground 
 of one colour, as the tawny hide of a 
 leopard, would be called Spotted, if 
 the foreign maculations bore some 
 considerable proportion to tlie ground 
 covered; Speckled, if each were 
 inconsiderable in itself, and especially 
 if they were not conspicuous. If they 
 were still further so, and the colours 
 were diflferent, or of diflferent shades, 
 it would be said to be Mottled (O. 
 Fr. maltcl^, curdled). 
 
 SPECTATOR. Beholder. Ob- 
 server. 
 
 A Spectator (Lat. spectator, spec- 
 tare, to look on, to gaze at) is a looker 
 on. The term is indefinite. He may 
 be concerned or unconcerned with 
 what he sees. The term, however. 
 implies a more or less complex cha- 
 racter iu that which engages his at- 
 tention. 
 
 The Beholder (A. S. behealdan, U 
 holdy observe, guard) views with some 
 degree of interest what he sees. The 
 Observer looks on attentively, and 
 takes account of particulars, and re- 
 ceives impressions, on which he sub- 
 sequently rellects. Generally speak- 
 ing, the spectator is interested or un- 
 interested ; the beholder is attentive 
 or inattentive; the observer is close 
 or casual. 
 
 " Two powers divine the son of Atreiu 
 
 aid. 
 Imperial Juno and the martial maid ; 
 But high in heaven they sit, and gaze from 
 
 far. 
 The tame spectators of his deeds of war." 
 Pope, Homer. 
 
 " I frequently offered to turn my sight 
 another way, but was still detained by 
 the fascination of the peeper's eyes, who 
 had long practised a skill in them to recall 
 the parting glances of her beholders" — 
 Spectator. 
 
 " I do love 
 To note and to observe, though I live ont 
 Free from the active torrent ; yet I'd 
 
 mark 
 The currents and the passages of things 
 For mine own private use, and know the 
 
 ebbs 
 And flows of state." Ben Jonson. 
 
 SPECULATION. Theory. 
 
 Speculation (Lat. sptciildri, lospy 
 out, explore) is closely akin, etvmolo- 
 pically, to Theory, which is the 
 Greek Qioifia, from Bioophv, to speculate. 
 But speculation is carried on by the 
 use of common judgment and common 
 sense upon the transactions of life ; 
 theory, upon scientific matters by the 
 exercise of the scientific faculties. 
 
 "Sudden fortunes, indeed, are sometimes 
 made iu such places by what is called the 
 trade of speculation. The speculative mer- 
 chant exercises no one regular established 
 
 or well-known branch of business." Smith 
 
 Wealth of Natums. 
 
 " Theory is a general collection of infe^ 
 
698 
 
 SYNONYMS [spend] 
 
 rences drawn from facts and compressed 
 into principles." — Parr. 
 
 SPEND. ExPKND. 
 
 Spend (A. S. spendan, to consume, 
 spend), is a term which we use indefi- 
 nitely; Expend (Lat. expendire, to 
 weigh out in payment, to expend), rela- 
 tively. He who spends simply pays 
 out. He who expends pays out from 
 a particular source and on a particular 
 object. " He spent so much at col- 
 lege," tells no more than the amount. 
 *' He expended so much," would 
 mean such a proportion of his income 
 as he set apart for some purpose, what- 
 ever it may have been. Yet it deserves 
 to be remarked that Expend has gene- 
 rally the character of sober purpose. 
 We spend, not expend, money upon 
 frivolities. 
 
 " Why do ye spend money for that which 
 is not bread ? " — English Bible. 
 
 " This duty implies a due esteem and 
 valuation of benefits, that the nature and 
 quality, the measure and quantity, the 
 circumstances and consetjuences of them 
 be well expended; else the gratitude is 
 like to be none, or very defective." — Bar- 
 row. 
 
 SPONTANEOUS. Willing. Vo- 
 luntary. 
 
 These terms diminish in force in 
 the order here given. Spontaneous 
 (Lat. spontdneus, of one's own accord) 
 is employed of that which bursts forth 
 from some inherent force of nature, 
 and may be even independent of will ; 
 as, a spontaneous burst of applause. 
 Hence it is applicable to inanimate 
 things. Willing expresses a free 
 action of the will congenially exer- 
 cised ; but it more commonly relates 
 to what is done in accordance with 
 the desire of others ; while Volun- 
 tary (Lat. v'6limtarius) implies that 
 the motive lay in oneself. " He did 
 i/: voluntarily," that is, he proceeded 
 to do it of his own accord. " He did 
 it willingly," that is, he readily ac- 
 ceded to the request or proposal to do 
 it. Voluntary is not so strong as 
 Willing; for Willing implies a pre- 
 ference of the will ; while any deed 
 may be called voluntary which is not 
 involuntary or compulsory. 
 
 •♦ By spontaneity is meant inconsiderate 
 
 action, or else nothing is meant by it." — 
 HOBBS. 
 
 " 'Tis impossible but they must wish God 
 would be pleased particularly to signify ex- 
 pressly the aceeptabloness of repentance, 
 and His willingness to forgive returning 
 sinners." — Clarke. 
 
 " Nothing is more certain than that God 
 acts not necessarily but voluntarily with 
 particular intention and design, knowing 
 that He does good, and intending to do so 
 freely and out of choice, and when He has 
 no other constraint upon Him but this, 
 that His goodness inclines His will to 
 communicate Himself and to do good." — 
 Clarkk. 
 
 SPRING. Fountain. Source. 
 
 The Spring (A. S. spring, a spring, 
 fountain-head) is the hidden origin of 
 the stream where the water rises me- 
 chanically from the earth. 
 
 The term Fountain (Fr.fontaine), as 
 now employed, denotes a jet or stream 
 of water artificially produced. The 
 water from a fountain falls splashing 
 from some degree of elevation. The 
 Geyser springs of Iceland project 
 themselves to a considerable heio;bt 
 into the air like a natural fountain; 
 but, being natural, are not called 
 fountains. 
 
 The Source (Fr. source, Lat. sursa, 
 a spring, Braciiet; from surgere, to 
 rise) of a stream follows upon the 
 spring, and is measured from the 
 point where the water begins to flow 
 laterally. The two latter are used in a 
 secondary sense ; Source, in the way 
 of that Avhich produces a continuous 
 supply ; Fountain, in the higher and 
 more mystical style, as, " The eternal 
 Fount of truth and light;" "The 
 king is the fountain of honour." 
 Spring is used less often directl;^, aa 
 Bentley, " A secret spring of spiritual 
 
 joy-" 
 
 *• Upon the sprynge of freshe wellea. 
 She stope to dwell and no where elles." 
 GoWER. 
 " And in the midst of all a, fountain stood. 
 Of richest substance that en earth might 
 be. 
 So pure and shiny, that the silver flood 
 Through every channel running one 
 
 might see." Spknskb. 
 
 " If there is anyone English word which 
 is now become virtually literal in its meta- 
 phorical application, it is the word source. 
 Who is it that ever thonght of a spring or 
 fountain of water in speaking of God as tb« 
 
[STATEj 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 699 
 
 source of existence, of the sun as the source 
 of light and heat, of land as one of the 
 sources of national wealth, or of sensation 
 and reflection as the only sources (accord- 
 ing to Locke) of human knowledge ? — pro- 
 positions which it would not be easy to 
 enunciate with equal clearness and concise- 
 ness in any other manner." — Stewart. 
 
 SPY. Emissary. 
 
 The Spy (Fr. espier, now epier) is a 
 less formal term than Emissary (Lat. 
 imissdrius, an emissary, spy, imitttre, to 
 send forth). A spy is, "^indefinitely, 
 one set to watch others. In war, or 
 between hostile nations, the spy 
 enters the enemy's camp or territory, 
 but for the mere purpose of observa- 
 tion. His safety depends on his being 
 unrecognized. The emissary is some- 
 times not afraid of being recognized, 
 and mingles in the councils of the 
 enemy, which he endeavours to in- 
 fluence. The commonest and meanest 
 of men may be spies. A certain de- 
 gree of intelligence and responsibility 
 are associated with the emissary, 
 who is more fully acknowledged 
 by those who depute him, though 
 not officially ; while spies generally 
 carry on their business on their 
 own account. A clever spy may be 
 promoted to be an emissary. A per- 
 son may turn spy for himself; but 
 appointment makes the emissary. 
 The spy plays a simple and negative 
 
 Jmrt, the part of the emissary is mani- 
 old and active. He will raise false 
 reports, or spread suggestions, and is 
 a tool of agitation, while a spy is only 
 a tool of information. 
 
 " As esich is known to be a spy upon the 
 rest, they all live in continual restraint, 
 and having but a narrow range for censure, 
 they gratify its cravings by preying upon 
 one another." — Idler. 
 
 " But as pain is stronger in its operation 
 than pleasure, so death is in general a much 
 more affecting idea than pain ; because 
 there are very few pains, however exqui- 
 site, which are not preferred to death ; nay, 
 what makes pain itself, if I may say so, 
 more painful is, that it is considered as 
 an emissary *x) this King of Terrors."— 
 Burke. 
 
 STAMMER. Stutter. 
 
 He is said to Stammer (A. S. 
 stumor, stammering) who from any 
 cause speaks inarticulately and dis- 
 'ointedl}', as from indecision, want of 
 
 words, or natural defect of speech. 
 He only is said to Stutter (an ono- 
 matop word, compare Gei-m. stottern^ 
 who sutlers from the last. The stam- 
 merer utters words, though with diffi- 
 culty. The stutterer is frequently un- 
 able to form a word at aU. 
 
 STANDARD. Criterion. Test. 
 
 A Standard (O. Fr. estendard, 
 Lat. extendere) is a measure of quan- 
 tity or excellence. 
 
 A Criterion (Gr. npirnpiov, a stan- 
 dard test) is a measure of judgment; 
 Test (with some Lat. testis, a witness ; 
 with others, Lat. testiun, a clay vessel, 
 i.e. chemist's crucible, a measure oj 
 quality). We employ a "standard to 
 demonstrate the degree of excellence 
 which a thing may have reached. We 
 use a criterion as something esta- 
 blished and approved, by which facts, 
 principles, or acts are tried, in order 
 to a correct judgment respecting 
 them. A test is a trial or criterion of 
 the most decisive kind, by which the 
 internal properties of things or per- 
 sons are ti-ied and proved. It is capa- 
 ble of a more purely physical applica- 
 tion than the others, as, the strength 
 of a rope may be tested by the weight 
 suspended. Coins, weights, and mea 
 sures are fixed by governments at 
 certain standards for the sake of uni- 
 formity in commercial transactions. 
 Manners are a criterion of station and 
 training. Self-denial is in most cases 
 a test of sincerity. 
 
 " It is therefore necessaiy to have re- 
 course to some visible, palpable, material 
 standard, by forming a comparison with 
 which all weights and measures may be re- 
 duced to one uniform size ; and the prero- 
 gative of fixing this standard our ancient 
 law vested in the crown." — Blackstone. 
 
 " Our knowledge thei'efore is real only so 
 far as there is a conformity between our 
 ideas and the reality of things. But what 
 shall be the criterion? How shall the 
 mind, when it perceives nothing but its 
 own ideas, know that they agree with 
 things themselves?" — Locke. 
 
 " Life force and beauty must to all impart^ 
 At once the source, the end, and test of 
 art." PoPB. 
 
 STATE. Condition. Situation. 
 State (Lat. stdtus, position) ex- 
 presses an habitual, or permanent. 
 
700 
 
 SYNONYMS [statue] 
 
 Condition (Lat. conditionem, condh-t. 
 to put togethe"^) an accidental, and 
 Situation (I^at. situs, a site) a rela- 
 tive, aggi'egate of personal surround- 
 ings or circumstances of things. A 
 man is born in a high, low, or inter- 
 mediate state of life. His house is in 
 good or bad condition, as it wants 
 much or little repair. If it is in a 
 very bad state, it may have to be 
 pulled down. The same house is in 
 an eligible or ineligible situation, ac- 
 cording to the relation it bears to 
 aspect, neighbourhood, and the like. 
 If one is in a bad state of health, the 
 restoration will be at least long ; if in 
 a bad condition, lighter remedies will 
 be sufficient. All three terms are em- 
 ployed of social relationship. In that 
 case a situation is specific office or em- 
 ployment. The condition of life bears 
 reference to social rank ; the state of 
 life to social occupation. Money will 
 gometimes make men forget their 
 humble condition, and even tempt 
 them to forget the duties of that state 
 of life to which they belong. 
 
 "The A'ery nature of a state of trial 
 shows us the necessity of being satisfied 
 with God's appointment of it." — GiLPlN. 
 
 " Whilst the Church of Christ was sub- 
 ject to insults and persecution from the 
 Pagan powers, and in a low and distressed 
 condition, the Christians assembled toge- 
 ther as often as they could, and took all 
 possible care to instruct and animate and 
 comfort and relieve one another." — JoRTlK. 
 
 " Thus situated, we began to clear places 
 in the woods, in order to set up the astro- 
 nomer's observatory, the forge to repair 
 our iron work, tents for the sail-makers and 
 coopers to repair the sails and casks in, to 
 land our empty casks, to fill water, and to 
 cut down wood for fuel, all of which were 
 absolutely necessary occupations." — Cook's 
 Voj/ayes. 
 
 STATUE. Image. 
 
 A Statue (Fr. statue, Lat. stUtua) 
 is a solid substance carved or moulded 
 into the likeness of a living being. 
 The statue is more or less erect, 
 standing or sitting. We do not speak 
 of a recumbent statue. 
 
 The Image (Lat. imdg'inem) is a 
 likeness of a person or thing, and so 
 may be of an inanimate object. The 
 image of an object may be seen in 
 gliadow on a wall. In regard to 
 similitudes of the same classes of ob- 
 
 jects as those represented by statues, 
 the image is generally smaller than 
 the statue, less artistic, and more 
 specifically imitative. 
 
 STAY. Remain. 
 
 To Stay (Lat. stare, to stand) is to 
 desist from motion. 
 
 Remain (Lat. rtrndna-e) is to per- 
 severe in rest. Stay is not used of 
 impersonal objects ; as we say, "when 
 two is taken from four, two remains." 
 To stay is a voluntary act. " I will 
 gladly stay here ;" or, " I shall be 
 compelled to remain here." A stone 
 remains, not stays, in the place where 
 it is put. " The only hope that re- 
 mains," we say, not stays. Stay is in 
 some respects absolute ; Remain, re- 
 lative. That stays which no will is 
 exerted to remove. That remaing 
 which is left after the exercise of some 
 power or influence, especially such aa 
 remove other things in the same con- 
 dition. Stay has often a reference to 
 future, Remain to past, movement. 
 '* I was so fatigued with my journey 
 that I determined to stay a day 
 longer;" or, "I shall not remain 
 here more than another day." Practi- 
 cally, the words are often inter- 
 changeable. Remain can hardly be 
 employed independently when the 
 case is one of human action, but re- 
 quires the addition of words. " I 
 cannot stay," or, "I cannot remain 
 here any longer." 
 
 *' After a stay of more than two montha 
 at Concordia, their number was diminished 
 nearly one-half by 8ickne«ss, in conseqnenc* 
 of the fatigue and hardship which they had 
 sufi'ered by the shipwreck ; and the sur- 
 vivors were sent in a small vessel to Eu 
 rope."— Cook's Voyages. 
 
 " That an elder brother hath power otei 
 his brethren remains to be proved." — 
 Locke. 
 
 STEEPLE. Tower. Spire. 
 Belfry. 
 
 The Steeple (A. S. stipel) of a 
 church is not, strictly gpeaVin^, an 
 architectural feature of it. It is the 
 highest portion of the building, ti»e 
 steep member, and may be a tower on 
 a spire. 
 
 The Tower (Fr. touVj Lat. turrim) 
 is the steeple when it is of a rectan- 
 
[stout J 
 
 lylSCRIMINATED. 
 
 701 
 
 gular form or round, though church 
 towers of the latter kind are very rare 
 except as subordinate towers or tur- 
 rets. They are also commonly battle- 
 mented. 
 
 The SwRE (Fr. spire, Lat. spira, 
 Gr. cTTrsr^a, a cod) is an elongated 
 pyramidal erection, based upon the 
 tower, and belonging especially to 
 the two intermediate periods of eccle- 
 siastical architecture, the first and 
 second Pointed, being unknown to 
 the early Norman, and often pur- 
 posely omitted in the Perpendicular 
 style. 
 
 A Belfry is the French beffroi ; 
 the L. Lat. berfredus^ M. H. G. 
 bervrit, a waich-tower ; which it is in- 
 teresting to note, if only for the pur- 
 pose of warning against any connexion 
 with bells, with which it is sometimes 
 associated. It is at present the part 
 of the building in which the bells are 
 commonly hung, but according to its 
 etymology it means not what is ex- 
 pressed by the modern Italian cam- 
 vanile,hut a watch-tower, or tower of 
 defence. 
 
 STOCK. Store. 
 
 A Stock (A. S. stoc, a stocky tnmk) 
 and Store (Fr. estorer, tobuildjuriiish, 
 Lat. instaurdre) are employed to denote 
 a supply of accumulated property or 
 goods. The stock is that which is 
 available as the means of its own in- 
 crease. The store is that to which 
 additions have to be made. The store 
 is the result of industry ; the stock is 
 the source and foundation of it. 
 
 " The revenue or profit arising from stock 
 nati rally divides itself into two parts, that 
 which pays the interest and which belongs 
 to the owner of the stock, and that surplus 
 part which is over and above what is neces- 
 sary for paying the interest." — SMITH, 
 Wea'-th of Nations. 
 
 " He not only uses the whole profit of the 
 stock which he employs in this manner, 
 but a part of the stock itself, by the ex- 
 pense and loss which necessarily attend the 
 storing and keeping of corn." — Ibid. 
 
 STORM. Tempest. Hurricane. 
 
 Stoam (A. S. stomiy storm, tempest) 
 being of northern origin, Tempest 
 Lat. tempcstas, season, or weather), bad 
 weather, of southern origin, and 
 4uBaicANE V originally a Carib word. 
 
 huracan) of tropical origin, express 
 the same phenomenon, varied accord- 
 ing to the peculiarities of different 
 latitudes. A Storm implies violent 
 wind disturbing clouds, woods, and 
 seas, with rain, or perhaps snow oi 
 hail. Te3ipest is violent wind ac- 
 companied by rain, thunder, and 
 lightning. Hurricane is a storm of 
 that degree of intensity which is, 
 strictly speaking, known only within 
 the ti-opics. 
 
 ** A daring pilot in extremity, 
 Pleased with the danger when the waves 
 
 went high. 
 He sought the storms." Drtdkx. 
 
 "The afternoon was tempestttous, with 
 much rain, and the surf everywhere ran so 
 high, that although we rowed almost round 
 the bay, we found no place where we could 
 land." — Cook's Voyages, 
 
 " I shall speak next of hurricanes. These 
 are violent storms, raging chiefly among 
 the Caribbee Island?, though by relation 
 Jamaica has of late been much annoyed by 
 them. They are expected in July, August, 
 or September."— Dampier's Voyages. 
 
 STOUT. Fat. Corpulent. Lusty 
 Brawny. 
 
 Stout (Old Fr. estout, estot, bold)^ 
 m our older writers, was employed to 
 express the combination of physical 
 strength and courage, and when it 
 stood for either of these separately it 
 was for the latter. Traces still re- 
 main of this use in such phrases as, 
 "A stout hea|^;" "A stout resis- 
 tance." It is now commonly used for 
 thick-set or bulky, but not in excess, 
 unless this is specifically said. It de- 
 scribes an appearance characteristic 
 of strength and vigour. It is em- 
 ployed analogously of material sub- 
 stances ; as, a stout plank ; stout 
 cloth ; a stout vessel. In the human 
 subject it respects the state of the 
 muscles and bones. 
 
 Fat (A. S. fcttt) denotes an exhi- 
 bition of the oleaginous substance de- 
 posited in the cells of the adipose or 
 cellular membrane. When this exista 
 in superabundance, the person is said 
 to be Corpulent (Lat. corpiilentus, 
 fleshy, fat). Fat may be local or 
 partial. Corpulent applies to the 
 whole body. 
 
 Lusty (A. S. Imt, desire^ delight) ii 
 less in use now than formerly. Likt 
 
702 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [strain] 
 
 Stout, it denotes abundance of life and 
 vigour, and thus differs from corpu- 
 lence, which may be the effect of dis- 
 ease. 
 
 Brawny (Old Fr. hraon, a -piece of 
 fiesh) indicates the union of stoutness 
 or corporal development with muscu- 
 lar power. 
 *• He was to wit a stout and stnrdy thief. 
 
 Wont to rob churches of their orna- 
 ments. 
 And poor men's boxes of their due relief. 
 
 Which given was to them for good in- 
 tents." Spenser, 
 
 " All the superfluous weight of an animal 
 beyond the vessels, bones, and muscles, is 
 nothing hnt fat ; but the conversion of the 
 aliment into fat is not properly nutrition, 
 which is a reparation of the solids and 
 fluids."— Arbuthnot. 
 
 " Some labour fasting, or but slightly fed. 
 To lull the grinding stomach's hungry 
 
 rage. 
 Where Nature feeds too corpulent a frame, 
 'Tis wisely done." Akmstroi^g. 
 
 " Young and lusty as an Eagle." — Eng- 
 lish Bible. 
 
 " Brawny limbs."— Washington Irving. 
 
 STRAIN. Stress. Sprain. 
 
 Strain (Lat. stringeref to draw 
 tight) is great, perhaps undue, tension, 
 but in a normal way or direction ; as 
 when an unusually heavy weight is 
 suspended to a rope. We strain the 
 voice, and, figuratively, we strain an 
 expression ; that is, w% put a great or 
 undue stretch upon it, so as to make 
 it extend to some meaning which it 
 does not easily and naturally express. 
 
 Sprain (O. Fr. espreindre, Lat. ex- 
 primercy to press out, squeeze out) de- 
 notes abnormal and usually sudden 
 straining of the muscles or ligaments 
 of a joint, and belongs to animal 
 bodies. 
 
 Stress (Old Eng. stresse, equivalent 
 to distress, Lat. distringere) is strain, 
 pressure, or force peculiarly and speci- 
 fically exerted, whether mechanical or 
 voluntary; as, a ship puts into port 
 under stress, that is, peculiar pres- 
 sure, of weather. We lay great stress, 
 that is, peculiarly strong accentuation, 
 on a particular word, or, in a secon- 
 dary sense, upon an observation, re- 
 mark, argument, or consideration. 'J'he 
 distinctive idea of Strain is force; of 
 
 Sprain, distortion ; of SrftEss, specif* 
 
 force. 
 
 " Now every English eye intent 
 
 On Branksome's armed towers was bent ; 
 
 So near they were that they might know 
 
 The straining harsh of each cross bow," 
 Walter Scott. 
 
 " The single-twyned cordes may no such 
 stresse indure. 
 
 As caybles brayded threfold may, togethet 
 wrethed sure." Surrey, 
 
 " The sudden turn may stretch the swell- 
 ing vein, 
 
 The cracking joint unhinge, or ankle 
 sprain." Gay, 
 
 STRAIT. Narrow. Tight. 
 
 It is to be regretted that the first ot 
 these terms seems gradually to have 
 dropped more and more into disuse, 
 till it bids fair to part with itself 
 in.-tjsxLJiirecl;iohs, and to divide its 
 meaning between^TiGHT and Narrow, 
 neither of which can be equivalent to 
 it. The fundamental idea of the Strait 
 is restriction. If restriction from de- 
 viation, then the word means direct. 
 If restriction from expansion, then it 
 means Narrow. 
 
 Narrow (A. S. nearo, narrow, not 
 related to " near ") is altogether in- 
 definite, as the mere opposite to broad ; 
 as, a narrow road, a nan-ow ribbon. 
 
 But Strait (Lat. strictus, from stnn- 
 gt^re, to strain or draw tight, Old Fr. 
 estroit, Mod. Fr. ^troit) denotes that 
 kind of narrowness which is accom- 
 panied by some degree of practica' 
 pressure, confinement, restriction, or 
 inconvenience. So we speak of strait- 
 ened cii'cumstances ; a strait waist- 
 coat. 
 
 Tight (Old Eng. part, passive of 
 the verb to tie) denotes that which is 
 firmly held together in its compo- 
 nent parts, as a tight cask; fitting 
 close to another body, as a tight coat ; 
 stretched as a rope, as opposed to 
 loose. It is in the second of these 
 senses that it is synonymous with 
 Strait and Narrow. 
 
 " Strait is the gate, and narrow is the 
 way which leadeth unto life, and few there 
 be that find it."— English Bible. 
 
 Tight originally meant well adapted 
 and close fitting. The notion of vio- 
 lent compression is an after-growtb 
 in the use of the word- 
 
[strife] 
 
 •' While they are among the English they 
 wear good clothes, and take delight to go 
 Deat and tight."— BAMPisn's Voyages. 
 
 " Placed so tightly as to squeeze myself 
 in half my natural dimensions,"— Knox. 
 
 STREAM. Current. Tide. 
 
 Stream (A. S. stredm) denotes the 
 uniform movement of a fluid or liquid 
 body, or a body which, being com- 
 posed of separate moving parts or 
 particles, may be regarded as fluid ; 
 as, for instance, a crowd in a certain 
 direction. It conveys the idea of 
 uniform force operating as a cause, 
 and a consequent steadiness in the 
 movement of the body. 
 
 Current (Lat. currentem, rimningf 
 part, of currcre, to run) expresses no 
 more than a flow of some degree of 
 force, and may be unsteady as to 
 strength and direction. Hence we 
 sa}', " a steady stream," " shifting 
 currents." Smaller currents some- 
 times run in diiferent, and even con- 
 trar}'^, directions to the main stream. 
 
 Tide (Old Eng. tide, meaning time, 
 cf. Ger. zeit, ti7ne) is periodical flux 
 and reflux of the waters of the ocean, 
 or other waters connected with it. It 
 originally meant season. So Fuller: 
 *' At the tide of Christ his birth." In 
 poetry or poetical speecli the periodi- 
 cal idea is dropped, and that ofjiow 
 only retained. The secondary uses of 
 the terms coiTespond with the pri- 
 mary. We go with the stream when 
 we make our opinions or actions ac- 
 cord witli prevalent powers and in- 
 fluences. We speak of the current jf 
 popular opinion as something which 
 may at any time change its direction ; 
 of the current of our thoughts, mean- 
 ing their temporary direction and 
 flow ; and of the tide of folly or of 
 fashion, as a periodically recurrent 
 force. 
 
 " Strenms never flow in vain ; where 
 
 streams abound. 
 How laughs the land, with various plenty 
 
 crowned ! " CoWPKR, 
 
 "It is extremely vexatious to a. man of 
 eager and thirsty curiosity to be placed at 
 a great distance fi'om the fountain of intel- 
 ligence, and not only never to receive the 
 current of report till it has satiated the 
 greatest part of the nation, but at last to 
 &ud it muddied in its course and corrupted 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 703 
 
 with taints or mixtures from every channel 
 through which it &fmed,"—Bambler. 
 " There is a tide in the affairs of men. 
 Which, taken at the flood, leads on to for- 
 tune ; 
 Omitted, all the voyage of their life 
 Is bound in shallows and in miseries." 
 Shakkspkark. 
 
 STRENUOUS. Energetic. 
 
 Strenuous (Lat. strhmus, active, 
 vigorous) stands to Energetic (see 
 Energy) as effort does to force. The 
 strenuous endeavour is that which is 
 made with vigour and perseverance, 
 directed to the gaining of a certain 
 end in a certain way; while the ener- 
 getic endeavour is only that which is 
 made with lively efibrt. Hence 
 Strenuous is only used of conscious 
 labour, and not abstractedly. Mea- 
 sures and steps may be energetic, but 
 not strenuous ; though legislators may 
 make strenuous efforts to carry certain 
 measures, and give them legal force. 
 An energetic attempt may be mis- 
 directed; but a strenuous attempt, 
 whether successful or not, indicates 
 a strength of purpose well applied. 
 Energetic qualifies both disposition 
 and act. Strenuous act, but not dis- 
 position. An energetic act or person. 
 A strenuous endeavour, not a strenu- 
 ous person. The idea of energy is 
 simple ; that of strenuousness is com- 
 plex, being made up of fearlessness 
 and perseverance, besides energy. 
 " But what more oft in nations grown cor 
 
 rupt. 
 And by tneir vices brought to servitude. 
 Than to love bondage more than liberty. 
 Bondage with ease than strenuous liberty?" 
 
 Milton. 
 The original idea of Energy, as de- 
 rived from the Greek philosophy, was 
 the power and mode of operation 
 peculiar to each thing in the order of 
 Nature. 
 
 " If, then, we will conceive of God truly, 
 and as far as we can adequately, we must 
 look upon Him not only as an eternal, 
 but also as a Being eternally energetic," — 
 Grew. 
 
 STRIFE. Contention. Discord. 
 
 Strife (Ger. streben, to strive) dif- 
 fers from Contention (Lat. conten- 
 tionem, a strainings a contest) more in 
 the matter of dignity than anything 
 else SrniFr 'ta the plniaor and com 
 
704 
 
 moner word, employed of plainer and 
 commoner tilings, and carries with it 
 the idea of lew, noisy contention 
 about things which are not worth the 
 words and temper spent upon them. 
 Strife is vulgar contention about 
 trifles, and with the selfish and narrow 
 end of mere personal superiority or 
 mastery in talk. Contention involves 
 the idea of something better worth 
 fighting for — some desired possession 
 or end. Both words are commonly- 
 used in an unfavourable sense, though 
 not exclusively ; for we speak some- 
 times of a generous strife or conten- 
 tion in a matter of right. 
 
 Discord (Lat. discordia) differs 
 from Strife as the negative from the 
 positive. Discord involves want of 
 unity or harmony of will or feeling, 
 and shows itself in an inability to act 
 in concert. Strife is positive and ac- 
 tive, expressed by Avords and acts of 
 violence, and is emphatically emula- 
 tive; while it is quite possible that 
 discord may exist without emulation. 
 Strife commonly arises from a quarrel- 
 some temper, and contention from a 
 selfish disposition. 
 
 " Where there is then no good 
 For which to strive, no strife can grow np 
 
 there 
 From faction ; for none sure will claim in 
 
 hell 
 Precedence, none whose portion is so small 
 Of present pain, that with ambitious mind 
 Will covet more," Milton. 
 
 " Contentions and strivings about the 
 law." — English Bible. 
 
 Discord, unlike strife and contention, 
 may be not only exhibited by persons, 
 but is inherent in the nature of things, 
 though where this is the case with 
 things moral, it is better expressed 
 by the word discordance. In the fol- 
 lowing passage Discord is used for an 
 inherent or essential disharmony, and 
 discordance for the operation or mani- 
 festation of it : — 
 
 "While genuine revelation and sound 
 philosophy are in perfect good agreement 
 with each other, and with the actual con- 
 stitution of the universe, the errors of the 
 religious on the one side, and the learned 
 on the other, run in contrary directions ; 
 and the discordance of these errors is mis- 
 taken for a discord of the truths on which 
 they are severally grafted." — Blsiiop 
 HORSLHY. 
 
 SYNONYMS [strive] 
 
 STRIVE. Contend. Vie. Strug- 
 gle. Endeavour. 
 
 To Strive {see Strife) is the most 
 common and generic of these terms. 
 It sio-nifies simply to use effort, and 
 may be regarded as the verb repre- 
 senting the idea of the noun effort. 
 To make an effort is to strive. It may 
 express such effort relatively to, or 
 irrespectively of, any efforts oi others ; 
 as, to strive to gain an honest living, 
 or to strive for a prize or mastery, it 
 commonly involves a desirable object, 
 or what is deemed so. 
 
 Contend (Lat. contendere, to stram, 
 to contend) denotes such effort as is 
 contravened by other effort. The 
 uppermost idea in Strive is effort ; in 
 Contend, competition. 
 
 Vie (] A. S. wigan, to contendy or, 
 according to some, Fr, envier, to chal- 
 ^nge, a term of gamesters, Lat. inv'i- 
 tare) is, as its derivation shows, a sort 
 of contending ; but it does not imply, 
 as Contend does, the substantial ac- 
 quisition of anything, but something 
 which is indirectly advantageous, or 
 thought to be so ; as, to vie with 
 another in the good opinion of a third 
 party; or to vie with others in beauty, 
 or the exhibition of wealth, gi-andeur, 
 hospitality, and so on. It is capable, 
 as the others are not, of application to 
 inanimate things ; as flowers may vie. 
 Struggle (? A. S. streccan, to 
 stretch) denotes such striving as pro- 
 ceeds from necessity, either from the 
 absolute need of the thing struggled 
 for, or from the disproportionof power 
 to the means requisite for attaining 
 the object. Hence there is a desul- 
 toriness or irregularity in Struggle 
 which contrasts with a steadiness and 
 regularity in Strive. 
 
 Endeavour still preserves, though 
 perhaps faintly, the force of its deri- 
 vation (Fr. en devoir, to put in duty, 
 and so act on principle). The charac- 
 teristic idea of Endeavour is now 
 principle, though not necessarily con- 
 scientious principle. To endeavour is 
 to strive to do that which falls to ua 
 to do under the circumstances, that 
 which bears a relation to our duty, 
 wants, or requirements. It is a word 
 ol' the widest possible application. 
 
[study] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 Ended rour is consistent, thoughtful, 
 and prolonged effort. We endeavour 
 to do a thing when we combine with 
 effort a calculation of all available 
 means wlich may be brought to bear 
 on tlie accomplishment of our pur- 
 pose. 
 " The state that strives for liberty, though 
 
 foiled. 
 And forced t' abandon what she bravely 
 
 sought. 
 Deserves at least applause for her attempt. 
 And pity for her loss." CoWPKR. 
 
 To Contend is sometimes used in the 
 simple sense of vigorously maintain; 
 as, " To contend for the sufficiency of 
 the Scriptures as a rule of faith." 
 Here, however, indirect opposition, 
 at least, though not direct competi- 
 tion, is implied. It may be observed 
 that, while Strive is employed of sim- 
 ple physical effort without any com- 
 petition, as, to strive to ascend a 
 precipitous mountain, Contend is not 
 so employed, but only of matters of 
 truth, argument, and the like ; as, " to 
 contend for the faith once delivered 
 to the saints." 
 
 *' When the wills of divers men produce 
 such actions as are reciprocally resistant one 
 to the other, this is called contention," — 
 HOBBS. 
 
 " We are all embarked in one bottom, 
 and have our mutual dangers to struggle 
 with."— Gilpin. 
 
 There was in Old English a noun vie, 
 meaning a challenge ^ which is now 
 cbsolete. 
 
 " Though some of the more potent chiefs 
 may vie with the king in actual possessions, 
 they full very short in rank and in certain 
 marks of respect, which the collective body 
 have agi-eed to pay the monarch." — Cook's 
 Voyages. 
 
 The Old English phrase, in connexion 
 with the word Endeavour, was a 
 reflexive verb, "to endeavour one's 
 self; " in French, se mettre en devoir. 
 
 " Let us endeavour ourselves diligently to 
 keepe the presence of His Holy Spirit." — 
 Homily for Rogation Week. 
 
 •• Daily endeavour ourselves to follow the 
 blessed steps of His most holy life." — Eng- 
 lish Prayer Book, Collect for Second Sunday 
 after Easter. 
 
 "That by the grace of God they will 
 evermore eruieavour themselves faithfully to 
 observe such things as they by their own 
 confession have assented unto." — Ibid., 
 CtnfirtHation Service. 
 
 705 
 In- 
 
 stubborn. 0BST1N.4TE. 
 
 VETERATE. 
 
 These terms stand to each other as 
 the negative to the positive. To per- 
 sist in one's own ways of thought or 
 action, in spitf; of the efforts or wishes 
 of others, is common to both. But 
 an Obstinate man will do what he 
 has determined upon (Lat. obstinatusy 
 
 gart. of obstinare, to be resolved on). A 
 TUBBORN man(A.S. styb, stybb, stub; 
 the stump of a tree) will not do what 
 others would have him do. Stubborn- 
 ness is an asinine exhibition of passive 
 obstinacy. A stubborn resistance, in 
 the secondary sense, might be shown 
 by the walls of a castle against the 
 besiegers ; an obstinate resistance, by 
 the defenders. 
 
 " Thus the main difficulty is answered ; 
 but there is another near as stubborn, which 
 this solution likewise removes." — Wab- 
 BUBTON. 
 
 " But stubbornness and an obstinate dis- 
 obedience must be mastered with force and 
 blows ; for this there is no other remedy." 
 — LocKB, On Education. 
 
 Inveterate (Lat. iiivtttrdtuSj part. 
 of invtterare, to keep J or a long timej to 
 render pei'vianent) unlike the others is 
 not applied directly to persons but to 
 qualities. It marks that which by 
 length of time and habit has taken as 
 it were deep root, or has become so 
 fixed as to be difficult of removal or 
 eradication. Customs, habits, preju- 
 dices, I'eelings, abuses, diseases be- 
 come inveterate. Bacon used the term 
 in no unfavourable sense when he 
 spoke of "an inveterate and received 
 opinion." 
 " Heal the inveterate canker of oar wound." 
 
 Shakespeakk. 
 Its force now is always unfavour- 
 able. 
 
 STUDY. Learn. 
 
 Learn {see LEARNI^G) has a two- 
 fold sense which we may call a lighter 
 and a graver. In its lighter sense it 
 means to acquire information without 
 effort, perhaps accidentally. In ita 
 graver to acquire with effort a know- 
 ledge of facts or principles. 
 
 Study (Lat. stiidium, desire,^}, sta- 
 dia, studies) always implies effort. 
 To study is to labour in order to be- 
 come wise, to learn is sc to labour 
 
706 
 
 with success. Quick minds commonly 
 learn easily, and are often averse to 
 study. To study is a more concen- 
 trated application of the mind, so 
 that one can only study one thing at a 
 time, while one may learn many. 
 The more one learns the more one 
 knows. But unhappily it sometimes 
 happens that the more one studies the 
 fess one seems to know. Some things 
 men study without learning them, 
 and some they learn without study. 
 Not those who have studied most are 
 most learned, but those who have 
 learned most. Youth is the time for 
 study, but it is only in mature years 
 that we really learn, when the mind 
 is formed to digest what is committed 
 to the memory. 
 
 STUPID. Dull. 
 
 Stupio (hsLt. stiipXdus ; stiipire, to be 
 stupefied, amazed, dull) denotes that 
 sluggish, lumpish character of intellect 
 which comes of natural want. 
 
 Dull (A. S. dol, foolish, mistaken) 
 is not quite the same. It implies 
 slowness, but not necessarily defi- 
 ciency of intellect. A boy apparently 
 dull may understand a subject well, 
 and retain it when once he has mas- 
 tered it. The stupid boy will never 
 grasp it at all. Dulness is the heavy- 
 clod, which may be tilled and ferti- 
 lized. Stupidity is the hard rock, on 
 which nothing will grow. Dulness 
 often sees surely but slowly. Stupi- 
 dity is always gaping through a fog. 
 Dulness is at worst a want of adequate 
 perception. Stupidity is a mental in- 
 sensateness. Dulness belongs to the 
 province of knowledge ; stupidity, to 
 matters of the practical understanding 
 in the affairs of life. 
 
 "But bycause that in cunning I am 
 young, and can yet but ereepe, this lewd 
 ABC have I set into learning ; for I cannot 
 passen the telling of three as yet; and yf 
 God will, in short time I shall amend this 
 levrdnesse in joyning of syllables, which 
 thyng for duhiesse of witte I may not in 
 three letters declare."— Chaucer, Testa- 
 ment of Love. 
 
 " Is not your father grown incapable 
 Of reasonable affairs ? Is he not stupid 
 With age?" ShAKKSPKARE. 
 
 SUB.IECT. Object. 
 
 Thege terms are made from different 
 
 SYNONYMS [stupid] 
 
 forms of the Lat. jttch'e, part, jacttia^ 
 to cast ; the one being what is cast or 
 placed under, the other what is cast 
 or placed over against. The tenn 
 Object commonly represents that 
 which is perceived by the sight- 
 sensible images of things ; Subject, 
 that which the mind deals with and 
 reflects upon. A shell lying upon the 
 beach is an object of the sea-shore. 
 When taken up and observed, it be- 
 comes the subject of contemplation or 
 remark. The object when reflexion 
 is combined with observation becomes 
 a subject, as in the following : — 
 " An eye like his, to catch the distant goal. 
 Or, ere the wheels of verse begin to roll. 
 Like his to shed illuminating rays 
 On every scene and subject it surveys." 
 COWPKR. 
 "Philosophically, object is a term for 
 that a'bout which the knowing subject is 
 conveitiant ; what the schoolmen have 
 styled the materia circa quam." — Sir W. 
 Hamilton. 
 
 SUBORDINATE. Subject. Sub- 
 servient. 
 
 Subordinate (Lat. sub, under, or- 
 dindtus, arrano-ed) respects the station 
 and ofiice of one person to another, 
 and, when employed of things, denotes 
 an inferior relative degree of impor- 
 tance. In society some act in higher, 
 others in subordinate, capacities. A 
 man's integrity and honour are para- 
 mount, his ease and comfort subordi- 
 nate, considerations. Where subor- 
 dination carries with it submission or 
 obedience, this comes from the specific 
 nature of the orders or gi-aaes as 
 being interrelated. 
 
 Subject is amenable to power or 
 influence founded upon a law of re- 
 lationship natural or conventional; 
 as, a child is subject to his parents. 
 
 Subservient (Lat. suhservire, to be 
 subject to) bears reference to the pro- 
 motion of ends. One thing is subser- 
 vient to another when it helps to bring 
 it about. One person is subservient 
 to another when he allows himself to 
 be made a tool of. The leading idea 
 in subordination is relative impor- 
 tance ; in subjection, relative power 
 in subservience, relative instrumen 
 tality. 
 
 "Qod hs^th bestowed, for Hia own wi« 
 
[suffer] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 707 
 
 reasons, different talents on different men ; 
 to one man He hath given ten, to another 
 only one. Now, this subordination, in fact, 
 oervades all the works of God." — Gilpin. 
 
 *' Every man, being as has been showed, 
 naturally free, and nothing being able to 
 put him into subjection to any earthly 
 power, but only his own consent, it is to be 
 considered what shall be understood to be 
 a sufficient declaration of man's consent to 
 make him subject to the laws of any govern- 
 ment." — LoCKK, 
 
 SUBORN. Bribe. 
 
 Of these, Bribe (O.Fr. bribe, a gift, 
 a piece of bread) is the simplest and 
 most comprelieusive. Anything may 
 be termed a bribe which is given 
 with a view to corrupt the conduct of 
 another in whatsoever station or rela- 
 tionship. 
 
 Suborn (Lat. sUbomure, to furnish, 
 tu furnish secretly, sub, under, and 
 ornare, to arrange) means primarily to 
 procure or provide in a furtive or 
 underhanded way, till it came to be 
 restricted to the legal application of 
 procuring a person to take a false 
 oath. The idea of a gift of value, 
 which is essential to Bribe, does not 
 belong to Suborn. A false witness 
 may be suborned by any pensuasion 
 or inducement. He is only bribed 
 when he receives a valuable considera- 
 tion. 
 
 " Subornation of perjury is the offence of 
 procuring another to take such a false oath 
 as constitutes perjury in the principal." — 
 Blackstonk. 
 
 " The Roman law, though it contained 
 many severe injunctions against bribery, 
 as well for selling a man's vote in the 
 Senate or other public assembly as for the 
 barteringof common justice, yet, by strange 
 indulgence in one instance, it tacitly en- 
 couraged this practice, allowing the magis- 
 trate to receive small presents, provided 
 they did not in the whole exceed a hun- 
 dred crowns in the jeaT,"—Ibid. 
 
 SUBSIDE. Abate. 
 
 These words, as here compared, 
 imply a coming down from a previous 
 «tate; but Abate (Fr. abattre, to beat 
 down) refers to degrees of force or 
 intensity; Subside (haX. subsidtre, to 
 tit down, to settle down) to degrees of 
 quantity, agitation, or commotion. 
 To abate is to diminish in force. To 
 subside is to settle down either 
 materially or analogously. The wind 
 
 abates. The sea subsides. The popu- 
 lar rage abates. The popular tumult 
 subsides. There are cases in which 
 both words would be equally applic- 
 able, according to the point of view 
 from which we regarded the subject. 
 Anger might be said to abate or 
 to subside ; the former in regard to 
 its violence, the latter in regard to 
 the agitation and disturbance of mind 
 which accompany it. {See Abate.) 
 
 " It is indeed very difficult to conceive 
 how anything which was not deposited here 
 at its creation, or brought here by the 
 diligence of man, could find its way to a 
 place so severed from the rest of the world 
 by seas of immense extent, except the 
 hypothesis which has been mentioned on 
 another occasion be adopted, and the rock 
 be supposed to have been left behind when 
 a large tract of country of which it was part 
 subsided by some convulsion of Nature, 
 and was swallowed up in the ocean." — 
 Cook's Voyages. 
 
 SUFFER. Bear. Endure. 
 
 When Suffer (Lat. sufferre, sub, 
 under, and ferre, to bear) is used as 
 an intransitive verb, it implies no 
 more than simply to be in pain of 
 body or mind. So to suffer pain 
 (transitively) means simply to feel it. 
 
 Bear and Endure (A. S. biraii, 
 and Fr. endurer, Lat. indiirdre) im- 
 ply some degree of fortitude in the 
 feeling, when used metaphorically, 
 or of moral pressure. We might 
 say, " My suffering is greater than I 
 can bear." In its literal and physical 
 sense, Beau means to receive the 
 weight or pressure of a thing, 
 whether in a literal or a metaphorical 
 sense, which may be light or heavy, 
 painful, or not. Suffer, Bear, and 
 Endure have also the secondary sense 
 of tolerate, or sustaining with com- 
 placency. In such cases Bear is the 
 common and generic term, and a dif- 
 ference may be noted between Suffer 
 and Endure. " I cannot suffer his 
 remarks to pass unnoticed," has the 
 sense of allow or permit. *' I can- 
 not endure such conduct," has the 
 sense of " I cannot bear up under it. 
 It grieves me." We speak of moral 
 sufferance and physical endurance; 
 the former is active, the latter pas- 
 sive. When employed of moral sub- 
 i jects, as, for instance, the conduct of 
 
708 
 
 SYNONYMS [SUITOTJ] 
 
 men, Suffer has a much lighter force 
 than Endure. *" I cannot suffer such 
 behaviour," would imply that the 
 speaker had it in his power authori- 
 tatively to stop it. "1 cannot endure 
 it," would mean that is excessively 
 irksome or annoying to me, and that 
 I should be glad to be rid of it. Bear 
 is sometimes to endure becomingly, 
 as Endure is to bear resolutely. 
 
 '• Thon hast given ine to possess 
 Life in Myself for ever ; by Thee I live, 
 Thongk now to Death I yield, and am his 
 
 due. 
 All that of Me can die; yet, that debt 
 
 paid. 
 Thou wilt not leave Me in the loathsome 
 
 grave. 
 His prey, nor suffer My unspotted soul 
 For ever with corruption there to dwell." 
 Milton. 
 " From henceforth let no man trouble 
 me, for I hear in my body the marks erf the 
 Lord Jesus." — English Bible. 
 
 " And I am sure it will be no comfort to 
 them in another world that they were ac- 
 counted wits for deriding those miseries 
 which they then feel and smart under the 
 severity of. It wUl be no mitigation of 
 their dames that they go laughing into 
 them ; nor will they endure them the 
 better because they would not believe 
 them."— Stillingflekt. 
 
 SUITOR. Lover. Wooer. 
 
 The Suitor (Fr. suitey a following) 
 is the more dignified; Lover (A. S. 
 lufy love) is the more ordinary ; 
 Wooer (A. S. wogan, to woo, marry) 
 is the more warm and eager. The 
 latter is confined to the courting of 
 the tender sex ; the former, not. W^e 
 have lovers of money, lovers of plea- 
 sure, and suitors at court for the 
 favours of monarchs. 
 
 "But Cinyras, who daily sees 
 A crowd of noble suitors at his luiees. 
 Among so many knew not whom to choose. 
 Irresolute to grant, or to refuse." 
 
 Dryden, Ovid. 
 
 "The Revolution showed them (the 
 Tories) to have been in this respect no- 
 thing but a genuine court party, such as 
 might be expected in a British govern- 
 ment, that is, lovers of liberty, but greater 
 lovers of monarchy." — HuMK. 
 
 " Yet was she fair, and in her countenance 
 Dwelt simple truth in seemly fashion. 
 Long thus I wQo'd her with due obser- 
 vance. 
 In hope unto my pleasure to have won. 
 Bet was as far at last as when I first 
 be^un." SvsNSEB. 
 
 SULLY. Soil. Tarnisk. 
 
 Sully and Soil are both demed 
 from the French souiller, to soil, dirty ; 
 Lat. siicUldre, to wallow like a pig ; but 
 Soil is the more comprehensive, and 
 admits of a simply physical applica- 
 tion ; while Sully is almost confined 
 to the moral. We speak of su41ying 
 brightness and purity ; of soiling 
 cleanliness, or the natural hue and 
 condition. A soiled garment. A 
 sullied reputaani.. 
 
 Tarnish (tr. ternir, to tarnish) 
 points not to external disfigurement 
 by the contact of foreign matter, 
 but to the marring of the intrinsic 
 colour or brightness. Dirt soils com- 
 mon things. Impurity sullies things 
 spotless. Damp tarnishes colour or 
 brightness. Brightness and honour 
 may be sullied, cleanness and virtue 
 soiled, brightness and reputation tar- 
 nished. 
 
 " The over-daring Talbot 
 Hath sullied all his gloss of former hononi 
 By this unheedfal, desperate, wild adven- 
 ture." Shakespeare. 
 
 It may be observed that, in their 
 secondary applications. Tarnish be- 
 longs only to the account in whict 
 hnman character is held ; Soil and 
 Sully, to the character itself as well, 
 by intrinsic defilement or corruption. 
 
 *' Beside them both, upon the soiled grass. 
 The dead corse of an armed knight was 
 
 spread. 
 Whose armour all with blood besprinkled 
 
 was." 
 
 " So far as they either want anything oi 
 original exactness, or have lost any of their 
 first freshness, and are, as it were, faded 
 and tarnished by time, so far are they ob- 
 scure." — Locke. 
 
 SUMMIT. Top. Apex. Vertex. 
 Culmination. 
 
 Of tliese the simplest and most 
 generic is Top (A. S. top, a ball, a 
 tuft at the top of anything ; Bosworth) 
 which is simply the uppermost por- 
 tion of anything having some cha- 
 racter of verticJility. 
 
 The Summit (Fr. tommet) is the top 
 regarded as the extreme point of ele- 
 vation. The term, therefore, is not 
 applicable in other cases than those in 
 which may be recognized a gradation 
 
[SUPPLTj 
 
 of ascent The summit is the final 
 point in a series of points of altitude. 
 
 The Apex (Lat. dpex) is the sum- 
 mit regarded abstractedly, that is as the 
 highest point, but without reference to 
 the ascending scale of altitude from 
 which it is possible to divorce it ; as, 
 e.g. a futile attempt may be illustrated 
 by trying to make a pyramid stand 
 upon its apex. 
 
 The Vertex (Lat. vertex) is the 
 highest point or part, as the crown of 
 the head or the highest part of the 
 heavens. 
 
 The Culmination (Lat. ciilmen, cul- 
 minis or cWimen, a top) is the vertical 
 point regarded as the point of con- 
 summation or arrival. It is to move- 
 ment what Vertex is to position. 
 Apex, Vertex, and Top are physical, 
 except by metaphorical application. 
 Summit and Culmination nave their 
 recognized moral meanings, as the 
 summit of ambition, which is the 
 highest point to which it can rise or 
 aspire, the culminating point of suc- 
 cess or reputation, which is the point 
 of perfect attainment or honour. 
 
 SUPERSEDE. Overrule. 
 
 Supersede (Lat. siipersidere, to sit 
 above J to be superior to) is employed 
 both of persons and facts or opera- 
 tions; Overrule, only of the will of 
 persons consciously exercised. When 
 the subject of the verb Supersede is a 
 person, the object is commonly a per- 
 son, as when one supersedes another 
 in an appointment ; when a thing, 
 the object also is commonly a thing ; 
 as, " What he has done supersedes 
 the necessity of further action on my 
 part." What is superseded is a fact 
 or a person. What is overruled is a 
 power or an operation, or a person in 
 •ogard to them. To overrule is to 
 bring to pass by interference results 
 lot purposed or contemplated by the 
 igent. Hence to Supersede has often 
 A negative, while Overrule has a 
 positive effect. He who supersedes, 
 causes that a thing shall not be done. 
 He who overrules, causes that it shall 
 be done in his own way. 
 
 " It seems neither decorons in respect to 
 God, nor congraooa to reason, that He 
 ■hoold do all things Himself immediately 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 709 
 
 and miraculonsly. Nature being qnitesttper 
 seded, and made to signify nothing."— Cui> 
 WORTH. 
 
 •♦ Had not th' Eternal King Omnipotent 
 From His stronghold of heaven high over- 
 ruled 
 And limited their right." Milton. 
 
 SUPERNATURAL. Preter- 
 NATURAL. Superhuman. Miracu- 
 lous. 
 
 That is Supernatural (Lat. supra 
 ndturam) which is above the order oi 
 nature; that is Preternatural (Lat. 
 prater naturam) which is beyond the 
 common operation of nature ; that is 
 Superhuman (Lat. supra, above, and 
 huTndnus, human) which is beyond the 
 power of man; that is Miraculous 
 (Lat. niiraciilum, a marvel) which is 
 connected with some act overruling 
 the course of nature. Supernatural 
 and Superhuman are applicable to per- 
 sons as well as properties, powers, and 
 acts. Preternatural and Miracu- 
 lous not to persons but only to the rest. 
 It is plain that all may combine in the 
 same event or transaction. Thus to 
 raise the dead is supernatural, as 
 being not a fact of natural experience, 
 preternatural as being the result of no 
 known powers of nature, superhu- 
 man as that which man's knowledge 
 and strength could not effect, and 
 miraculous as an astounding transac- 
 tion modifying the existing laws ol 
 nature as known to us, or suspending 
 them, as introducing some new law 
 over and above them. 
 
 SUPPLY. Furnish. Phovide. 
 Administer. Equip. 
 
 Supply (Lat. supplerCy to Jill up) is, 
 literally, to fill up ; hence, to fill up a 
 deficiency, or furnish what is want- 
 ing. Hence it stands related to wanty 
 as Furnish (Fr./bwna'r, to furnish) to 
 use. What is wanting to make a thing 
 complete must be supplied. What is 
 required for immediate or eventual 
 use must be furnished. " I want a 
 horse. My friend furnishes me tviih 
 one." " I have lost my horse. Mt 
 friend supplies me with another." A 
 house is furnished, not supplied, urith 
 chairs and tables. A larder ir not 
 well furnished, but well supplied with 
 provisions. Furnish does not neces- 
 
710 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [supportJ 
 
 «arily refer to any antecedent want, 
 it denotes simply the place ready for 
 use; as, "His book-shelves were 
 well furnished with books." Hence 
 common wants are said to be supplied. 
 Superfluous luxuries are furnished. 
 Fortune furnishes the rich man's table 
 with delicacies; while the poor man 
 can hardly supply his family with the 
 common necessaries of life. 
 
 Provide (Lat. provtdere, to see be- 
 fore one's self, to provide) is to furnish 
 or supply with care or calculation, as 
 against the future, or so as to secure 
 gufficiency or proportion in the thinjj 
 provided. 
 
 «♦ Why are useful things good ? Because 
 tbey minister to the supply of our wants and 
 desires. Why is this swpp/y good ? Because 
 it satisfies the mind. Why is satisfaction 
 good? Here you must stop." — Search, 
 Light of Nature. 
 
 " His writings and his life furnish abun- 
 dant proofs that he was not a man of strong 
 sense." 
 
 " The pleasures of a healthy infant are so 
 manifestly provided for by another, and the 
 benevolence of the provision is so unques- 
 tionable, that every child I see at its sport 
 affords to my mind a kind of sensible evi- 
 dence of the finger of God, and of the dis- 
 position which directs it."— Paley. 
 
 Administer ( Lat. ad and ministrare , 
 manus, the hand) is to afford, give, 
 furnish or supply, but according to a 
 rule and proportion of giving, and so 
 is not employed but of things subject 
 to human arrangement and control. 
 It is more than to dispense, for it is to 
 dispense with discretion and manage- 
 ment. We may supply, furnish, or 
 dispense by a single act and on a single 
 occasion, but we administer by a series 
 of acts and in the continuous discharge 
 of official duty. 
 
 Equip (connected with skiff and 
 $hip) is to fit out with what is required 
 for action. Men are equipped for a 
 jouniey or expedition when they are 
 supplied with all that they can require 
 for it. Ships are equipped when they 
 are manned, rigged, provisioned, 
 armed, and the like, and troops when 
 they are i)rovided with all necessaries 
 for active service. The form of the 
 word EoiJip and the modern use of 
 equipage tempt a confusion with the 
 Latin equu$f a horse. 
 
 "Then well equippeda, rapid bark prepared." 
 
 Hooi^. 
 " For forms of government let fools contest. 
 That which is best administered is best." 
 POPK. 
 
 SUPPORT. Sustain. 
 
 The idea of keeping up so as to pre- 
 vent from falling is common to these 
 terms. 
 
 Support (Lat. supportdre, to carry 
 aw&y) is applicable to anything super- 
 imposed, whether heavy or light. 
 
 Sustain (Lat. sustmlre, to uphold) 
 implies a certain degree of weight in 
 the thing sustained. Sustain implies 
 also greater continuance than Support. 
 Support, as regards persons, conveys 
 the idea of help, which is foreign to 
 Sustain. So we might say, " The sup- 
 port which you render me will enable 
 me to sustain my many heavy losses." 
 To sustain is often a more complex 
 matter than to support. Common 
 food, under ordinary circumstances, 
 is sufficient to support life. When 
 the body is in the last stage of ex- 
 haustion, it will require extraordinary 
 skill and care to sustain life. Both 
 are used in secondary senses. Thus 
 we may support a resolution by 
 simply voting for it. It is a harder 
 matter to sustain an argument in its 
 favour. 
 
 " The question is not whether a thing be 
 mysterious, for all things are mysterious, 
 but whether the mystery be supported by 
 evidence."— GiLPliT. 
 
 " He is not Creator only once, but per- 
 petual Creator, being the sustainer and 
 preserver of the whole universe." — Water- 
 land. 
 
 SURFACE. Superficies. 
 
 These, which are the same word, 
 the latter being Latin, the former a 
 French modification of it, differ as 
 the more common from the scientific. 
 The Superficies is the scientific sur- 
 face. The Surface is the popular 
 superficies. A surface is of such or 
 such a colour, smooth or rough. A 
 superficies is plane, and contains such 
 or such extent. 
 
 SURPRISE. Astonishment. 
 
 Consternation. 
 
 Both these terms express feelings 
 which arise from that wnich happens 
 
[symmetry] 
 
 unexpected ly. They differ in mode 
 and in degree. 
 
 We Me Surprised (Fr. surpris, sur- 
 prendre, Lat. super, prehendtre, to come 
 upon suddejily) if that happens which 
 we did not anticipate, oi- that does 
 not happen which we did. Surprise 
 thus contradicts calculation or expec- 
 tation. A greater degree of unac- 
 countableness in the cause, or of 
 importance in the etiect, raises the 
 surprise into Astonishment (Old 
 Fr. estonner, Mod. Fr. iionner). We 
 are surprised at what was unexpected. 
 We are astonished at what is above 
 our comprehension. We are surprised 
 to find a person in the house whom 
 we thought had gone out. We are 
 astonished at meeting one whom we 
 had thought to be in a distant land or 
 dead. There is such a thing as a light 
 and pleasant surprise. Astonishment 
 is no light thing — in short, astonish- 
 ment is extreme surprise mixed with 
 fear, admiration, or some emotion 
 which exercises considerable influ- 
 ence. The singular surprises, the 
 marvellous astonishes. You are sur- 
 prised by the delicacy of a work, as- 
 tonished at the grandeur of a piece of 
 architecture ; cleverness surprises, 
 genius astonislies. Surprise is more 
 m the senses and may pass away 
 quickly, astonishment is more in the 
 reason, and may even increase by re- 
 flexion. We are (((/ce/i by surprise. We 
 are struck with astonishment. We are 
 not surprised by what we expected, 
 nor astonished by what we are fami- 
 liar with. Astonishment is more in 
 the senses, and comes of things blam- 
 able or uncongenial. Surprise is in 
 the mind, and comes of things extra- 
 ordinary. 
 
 Consternation (Lat. consterndre, to 
 throw into confusion, to dismaij) is more 
 in the heart and conies of things dis- 
 tressing. The first of these words is 
 seldom used but in a neutral sense, the 
 second equally in a bad or good, the 
 third in a bad. The unexpected sur- 
 prises, that which surprises by its 
 greatness, astonishes, that which over- 
 whelms, throws us into consternation. 
 We are surprised suddenly, but some 
 degree of reflexion upon a thing is ne- 
 cessary to astonishment. Silly persons 
 
 DlSCRIMIiNx^TED. 
 
 711 
 
 and children are easily surprised, those 
 only who are capable of weighirg cir- 
 cumstances are astonished. Consterna 
 tion is produced by a very grievous as- 
 tonishment which finds us unprepared 
 and powerless to act. 
 
 " The ship strack. The shock threw ua 
 all into the utmost conster7iatioH."—CooK'a 
 Voyages. 
 
 " Whatever presents itself in a sudden 
 and unexpected manner has, in most cases, 
 a much greater effect upon us than subjects 
 of very superior importance for which we 
 have been gradually prepared. The more 
 sudden, that is, the greater the improbabi- 
 lity of its appearing at that instant, and the 
 more unexpected, that is, the greater dis- 
 tance the train of thought was from the 
 expectancy, the more violent will be the first 
 percussion ; and this circumstance will give 
 peculiar energy to the exciting cause, what- 
 ever its ])ecniiar complexion may be. A 
 strong impulse is given by the very mode 
 of its appearance previous to our being able 
 to acquire a distinct knowledge of its nature. 
 This impulse is the emotion we term swr- 
 prise. " — CoGAN. 
 
 "Astonishment is that state of the soul in 
 which all its motions are suspended with 
 some degree of horror."— Burke. 
 
 SWELL. Heave. 
 
 To Swell (A. S. sweUaii) is to di- 
 late so as to exhibit increased bulk or 
 surface. It is indefinite as to scale or 
 degi-ee. The ocean swells, and some- _ 
 ti-.ues the little finger. 
 
 To Heave (A. S. hebban, to lift, 
 heave) necessarily implies a scale of 
 magnitude and more accelerated mo- 
 tion. The waves of the ocean heave 
 and swell. They heave as they are 
 bodily thrown upwards ; they swell, 
 as by that means a greater superficies 
 belongs to each wave. The bosom 
 struggling with emotion heaves, and 
 swells as a consequence of the heav- 
 ing. 
 
 "Though the waters thereof rage and 
 sivell, and though the mountains shake at 
 the tempest of the same."— English Psalms. 
 
 " Back to th' assembly roU'd the thronging 
 
 train. 
 Desert the ships, and pour upon the plain, 
 Mui'muring they move, as when old Ocean 
 
 roars. 
 And heaves huge surges to the trembbng 
 
 shores." Pope, Homer. 
 
 SYMMETRY. Proportion. 
 Proportion isee Proportion; k« 
 
712 
 
 fiYNONYMS 
 
 [SrSTEMj 
 
 that abstract relation in dimenMons, 
 of which Symmetry (Gr. ruixfxiTpla.) 
 is an external manifestation. Both 
 denote a due and harmonious admea- 
 surement of the parts to each other 
 and to the whole ; though Proportion 
 means also this relation, without of 
 necessity implying that it is harmo- 
 nious, and applies also to numbers as 
 well as magnitude ; while Symmetry 
 is only employed of the latter. Sym- 
 metry is harmonious proportion in 
 structure or construction. It is the 
 grnceful conformity of the parts to the 
 whole, or the members to the body. 
 Symmetry is artistically of two kinds 
 — respective and uniform. In the 
 former, opposite sides are equal to 
 each other; in the latter, the same 
 balance co-ordinates the whole. It is 
 of the former that mention seems to be 
 made in the following : — 
 
 " Symmetry and proportion contribute 
 
 Sreatly to order, because the one gives 
 espatch to the eye by enabling it to take 
 in objects by pairs, and the other smooths 
 the passage over them by mutual depen- 
 dence of parts."— Skaech, Light of Na- 
 ture. 
 
 SYSTEM. Method. 
 
 System (Gr. ava-TnfJi.a., an organized 
 whole) regards fixed subjects which 
 •hare rational dependence or con- 
 nexion. 
 
 Method (Gr. jm.e9o5o?, scientific in- 
 urdry, method) regards fixed processes. 
 System is logical or scientific colloca- 
 tion. Method is logical or scientific 
 procedure. But, inasmuch as a mode 
 of procedure may be itself harmonized, 
 System is frequently used in place of 
 Method. We sometimeh say, "to go 
 systematically to work," meaning 
 methodically. Method lays down 
 rules for scientific inquiry, and is the 
 way which leads to system. " All 
 method," says Sir W. Hamilton, " is a 
 rational progress — a progress toward 
 on end. '^ When Watts says, "The ' 
 best way to learn any science is to 1 
 begin with a regular system, or a short ' 
 and plain scheme of that science well 
 drawn up into a narrow compass," he 
 is recommending a tnethcd. 
 
 T. 
 
 TACIT. Silent, Implicit. 
 
 Tacit ( Lat, tUcttiu, siUnt^ tachrt, to 
 be mute) is employed only of things 
 abstract, as, a tacit consent, agreement, 
 recognition. 
 
 Silent (Lat. part, s'ilentem, from 
 silere, to be silent) characterizes either 
 persons or things as opposed in the 
 former case to talkative or talking, 
 and in the latter to noisy or sounding. 
 
 " Friendship, when strict, comprehends a 
 tacit agreement and covenant between 
 those who enter into it, to look upon the 
 concerns of each other in a great measure 
 as their own." — Secker. 
 
 Silence may have the effect of affirma- 
 tion and consent, or the opposite. In 
 the one case, it would be equivalent 
 to tacit assent ; in the other to tacit 
 denial. It has the latter effect in the 
 following : — 
 
 "What the compilers recommended 
 chiefly to our faith, he silently passes over, 
 and instead of recommendmg the same 
 doctrine, seems to throw it quite out."— 
 Waterland. 
 
 Implicit (Lat. implicttuSy part, of 
 rmplicare, to involve) expresses that 
 which has force by virtue of being 
 contained in something else, and is 
 opposed to developed or expressed. 
 That which is tacit may liave a nega- 
 tive force, and depend upon what is 
 not done or said. That which is im- 
 plicit has a positive though indirect 
 force by virtue of what is said or done. 
 Implicit is a term which belongs to 
 statements of truth or fact ; Tacit, to 
 the relations, intercourse, and dealings 
 of men ; an implicit assertion, a tacit 
 understanding. 
 
 " Which (faith) they generally taught, 
 consisted in an implicit believing whatever 
 the Church proposed, without any explicit 
 knowledge of particulars."— Burnkt. 
 
 TACITURNITY. Silence. 
 
 As at present employed, Silence is 
 more general and less specifically ex- 
 pressive than Taciturnity (see above). 
 
 Silence may be occasional or ha- 
 bitual. 
 
 Taciturnity (Lat. tacit urnttatem) 
 is hibirual. A man may be at once 
 
[taxlyJ 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 713 
 
 talkative* and silent; but he cannot 
 be at once talkative and taciturn. He 
 is silent who does not speak. He is 
 taciturn who Bhuns to speak. 
 
 " Here, I have said, at least I should pos 
 
 sess 
 The poet's treasure, silence, and indulge 
 The dreams of fancy, tranquil and secure." 
 COWPER, 
 " Let it, however, be remembered by 
 those who bring such instances in their own 
 justification, that the cause of Addison's 
 taciturnity was a natural diffidence in the 
 company of strangers."— Knox, Essays. 
 
 We may infer from such a saying as 
 the above, that taciturnity may spring 
 from other causes besides constitu- 
 tional temperament. Even a talkative 
 person would be taciturn on any oc- 
 casion OH which he imposed a certain 
 degree of silence upon himself; but 
 this is a limited use of the term Taci- 
 
 Tl'RNITV. 
 
 TAJ.lSiAIAN. Aaiulet. 
 
 The Talisman (Ar. telesm) differs 
 from the Amulet ( L. Lat. amnlitnm, 
 Ar. hanidlet) in being something not 
 necessarily worn upon the person. A 
 ring or a staff may be a talisman, if a 
 divinity, a genie, a fairy, or a magician 
 be said to have consecrated it. The 
 amulet is commonly suspended round 
 the neck or sewed in the garments, 
 and inseparably accompanies the in- 
 dividual. The talisman has greater 
 powers, is a more potent charm, than 
 the amulet. The amulet is defensive. 
 It is srpposed to preserve from danger, 
 sickness, death. The talisman is more 
 active. It works wonders, is powerful 
 against others, transports from place 
 to place, or renders invisible. Amu- 
 lets belong to the region of history 
 and fact, at least in part, talismans 
 are purely ideal and magical. Amulets 
 are commonly certain recognized 
 articles, as with the Arabs a verse of 
 the Koran on a slip of parchment. 
 Anything may become a talisman. 
 
 TALLY. Correspond. Match. 
 
 Tally is from the French tadkr^ to 
 cut. The old tally was a cut or 
 notched stick kept by the purchaser, 
 inswering to another in the possession 
 of the seller ; a mode of keeping ac- 
 counts anterior to the common use of 
 
 writing. Hence, metaphorically, one 
 thing is said to tally with another 
 where a certain agreement exists be- 
 tween them, whether physical or 
 moral. Agreeably to its derivation, 
 Tally expresses that kind of corre- 
 / spondence which has the nature ot 
 evidence. A tally is evidential agree- 
 ment. Such a juxtaposition ot two 
 things as amounts to a probability or 
 proof of some proposition stated rela- 
 tive to one of the two. Evidence 
 which goes to substantiate in one 
 shape what independent evidence 
 substantiates in another shape, is said 
 to tall}'. So, for instance, an act of an 
 individual may tally with what one 
 has heard of his character and habits 
 generally, and so goes to confirm that 
 account. 
 
 " Then the mention of the Sacrament aa 
 taken in the antelucan meetings tallies 
 exactly with Tertutlian's account of the 
 Eucharist."— Watkrland. 
 
 Correspond (Lat. con-f together, 
 and rispondire, to answer) is a wider 
 term, including the sense of Tally. It 
 expresses adaptation in design and 
 use; congruityor harmony of appear- 
 ance, character, arrangement, state- 
 ment, description, and the like. It 
 expresses agreement of the most re- 
 mote kind, as where actions are said 
 to correspond with professions, or 
 the contrary, or results with expecta- 
 tions. 
 
 Match (A. S. mcECca, a mate, one of 
 the same make) is confined to physical 
 objects and facts, and is not applic- 
 able to inferences drawn from the 
 latter. One colour matches another 
 (in nature and appearance). One 
 man matches another (in skill or 
 strength). To match is to produce as 
 similar or equal ; or, intransitively, to 
 show one's selfor itself as such. Ideas, 
 for instance, tally with descriptions, 
 or correspond to one another; but 
 they never match. On the other 
 hand, we might say, " It would be 
 difficult to match such villainy;' 
 that is, to place a similar instance oi 
 fact by the side of it. 
 
 " Each object must be fixed in the dn« 
 
 place, 
 Anrl {liflTering parts have correspcndinti 
 
 grace ; 
 
714 
 
 Till, by a cnrions art disposeJ, we find 
 One perfect whole, of all the pieces joined." 
 Dryden. 
 
 " No history or antiquity can match his 
 policies or his conduct." — South. 
 
 TASK. Work. 
 
 Task (Old Fr. tasche, mod. of which 
 tdche, a task) is to Work (A.S. weorc) 
 as the specific to the general. A task 
 is a definite amount of labour, mental 
 or physical, imposed by another, or 
 self-imposed. \Vork in some form 
 falls to all, and to every man every 
 day. A task falls to him specifically 
 and occasionally. A series of minor 
 tasks may make up the work of the 
 day. 
 
 " Dare to be wise, begin ; for once begun. 
 Your taiili is easy; half the work is done." 
 Francis, Horace. 
 
 TASTE. Tact. 
 
 These stand to each other as percep- 
 tion and discrimination to treatment 
 and management. 
 
 Taste (Old Fr. taster) is nice per- 
 ception, the faculty of discerning 
 beauty and excellence, especially in 
 art and manners. 
 
 Tact (Lat. tactus, touch) is delicacy 
 and sensibility in the special point of 
 dealing with others, according to the 
 variety of human character and cir- 
 cumstances. Hence, tact is the prac- 
 tical application of taste in the affairs 
 of life. But taste only discriminates 
 excellence ; tact is subtle, deals with 
 conflicting varieties of temper in per- 
 sons, and sagaciously recognizes the 
 most politic and eflfective line of con- 
 duct under the circumstances of the 
 person and the case. It is possible to 
 have the most delicate taste without 
 tact. In such a case, the man of taste 
 would be merely offlended by the un- 
 toward character of a transaction or 
 of those engaged in it, without having 
 the practical skill to adjust it. Taste 
 sees the harmony and disharmony of 
 things. Tact deals with inharmonious 
 elements in human character and con- 
 duct, and accommodates them to its 
 own ends. Thus tact involves taste, 
 though taste does not of necessity in- 
 volve tact. 
 
 SYKONYMS [task] 
 
 TASTE. Flavour. Relish. 
 Savour. 
 
 Of these, Taste (Old Fr. taster 
 JMod. tdter^ lo touch or feel) is the 
 most generic and indefinite, denoting, 
 generally, the faculty or the feeling 
 excited by the application of certain 
 substances to the tongue. It may be 
 pleasant, unpleasant, or neutral. 
 
 Flavour (Low 'Lo.t.Jiavorem, a yel- 
 low hue, but possibly the meaning of 
 flavour has been modified by O. Fr. 
 Jiairer, to exhale an odour, Lat. fra- 
 grare : Skkat, Etym. Diet.) is predomi- 
 nating, peculiar, or distinctive taste, 
 and is sometimes extended to com- 
 prise the meaning of distinctive odour 
 as well as taste, in consonance with 
 the Latin fragrare, to he fragrant. 
 There is a certain taste common to all 
 apples, and a certain flavour belong- 
 ing to specific kinds. 
 
 Relish (Fr. re-, lecher, to lick again) 
 is the continued enjoyment of the taste, 
 and is sometimes an artificial flavour, 
 or, at least, artificially employed. It 
 may be a flavour introduced as acces- 
 scry to another, or a stimulant to it. 
 Flavour is either naturally inherent, 
 or artificially imparted, and in either 
 case is inherent in the substance it- 
 self. Relish is used analogously of 
 tlie enjoyment of any pleasure. 
 
 Savour (Lat. sdporem, from sapcre, 
 to taste or savour) is, in modem Eng- 
 lish, of less common use, designating 
 that which tastes as well as smells. 
 The term Savour is, however, very 
 commonly employed in the secondary 
 sense, to which it is now nearly con- 
 fined ; as when we say that a man's 
 actions savour of vanity, that is, betray 
 indications of it. The savour is to the 
 flavour as the manifestation of the 
 character to the character itself. 
 
 '* The organ of taste is the tongue and 
 palate ; bodies that emit light, sounds, and 
 smells are seen, heard, and smelt at a dis- 
 tance ; but bodies are not tasted but by 
 immediate application to the organ ; for till 
 our meat touch our tongues or palates we 
 taste it not, how near soever it be.'"— 
 Locke. 
 
 " Had there been a taste in water, be ii 
 what it might, it would have infected 
 everything we eat or drink with an impor- 
 tunate repetition of the same flavour. "— 
 Palky. 
 
TAX] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 715 
 
 "Oo whither Fate and Inclination strong 
 Leads thee ; I shall not lag behind, nor err 
 The Tray ; then leading, such a scent I 
 
 draw 
 Of carnage, prey innumerable, and taste 
 The savour of death from all things there 
 
 that live." MiLTOK. 
 
 •• On which with eager appetite they dine ; 
 A savoury bit that served to relish wine," 
 Dryden, Ovid. 
 
 TAUNT. Reproach. 
 A Taunt (Fr. tancer, to rebuke, 
 Low Lat. tentiare, z^contentiare, from 
 contendere) is a species of Reproach, 
 involving^ severity and insult. Re- 
 proach is dictated, commonly, by a 
 strong sense of justice or of wrong 
 received or exhibited towards another, 
 or of wrong done in any way. Taunt 
 involves a desire to annoy, as by con- 
 temptuousness, provocation, or sar- 
 casm. We may reproach unselfishly. 
 Taunt is always selfish, and is a kind 
 of derision. Strictly speaking, no- 
 ticing is a reproach to a man but his 
 own actions ; but we sometimes ta ^nt 
 others with the meanness of their 
 birth. Hence the common retort that 
 what one is taunted with is no re- 
 proach. 
 
 " Being taunted by the way that he (John 
 Davies) was a Papist, he denied not but that 
 in Oxon he was instructed in the Romish 
 religion by his tutor, and confirmed in the 
 same by Sir Christopher Blount, one of the 
 conspirators, while he was in the Irish 
 wars." — "Wood, Athenm Oxon. 
 " Consenting to the safeguard of your ho- 
 nour, 
 I thought your marriage fit ; else imputa- 
 tion 
 For that he knew you might reproach your 
 
 life, 
 And choke yonr good to come." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 TAUTOLOGY. Repetition. 
 
 Tautology (Gr. rauToXoyia, to ahro, 
 rnxnoj the same thingy and Xf'yav, to saij) 
 is vain and vicious Repetition (Lat. 
 reficiere, to repeat). Repetition is 
 generic ; tautology, specific. Repeti- 
 tion may be needless and faulty, or 
 it may be necessary and emphatic. 
 " That is truly and really tautology 
 where the same thing is repeated, 
 though under never so much variety 
 of expression." And this variety of 
 expression is necessary to the term, 
 for mere repetition of the same words 
 
 I or phrases is not in itself tautology^ 
 but tiresome repetition or reiteration. 
 Yet Warburton says : 
 
 "A repetition of this kind, made in dif- 
 ferent words, is called a pleonasm, but when 
 in the same words, as it is in the text in 
 question, if there be any repetition at all, it 
 is then a tautology." 
 
 Richardson, in his Dictionary, com- 
 prises both forces of the word, when 
 he says that tautology is " a repeti- 
 tion, or repeated use of the same 
 words, or words of the same or equi- 
 valent signification." And this, per- 
 haps, is the best. 
 
 TAX. Assessment. Lmpost. Rate. 
 Duty. Custom. Due. Tribute 
 Toll. Charge. Levy. 
 
 All these terms denote payments in 
 some form or another, made by the 
 people to the government, or by sub- 
 jects to those who exercise power and 
 authority over them. 
 
 Tax (Fr. taxer, Lat. taxdre, to value, 
 is the most generic, and so admits very 
 readily of a secondarj'^ application ; as, 
 a tax upon corn, and a tax upon pa- 
 tience. It denotes no more than a 
 compulsory payment according to an 
 estimate, commonly in money, and for 
 defraying the general or any specific 
 expenses of the ruling body, as, an 
 education tax. 
 
 " A farmer of toxes is of all creditors 
 proverbially the most rapacious." — MacAU- 
 LAY. 
 
 Assessment (Lat. asstdhre, part, as- 
 sessus, to sit by or near, as asses'ior) is a 
 valuation of pi-operty or profits for 
 the purpose of taxation, or tne specific 
 sum so raised. It is made by autho- 
 rized persons according to their dis- 
 cretion, as distinguished from a fixed 
 sum demanded by law. 
 
 " In the beginning of the civil wars be- 
 tween Charles the First and his Parlia- 
 ment, the latter having no other sufficient 
 revenue to support themselves and their 
 measures, introduced the practice of laying 
 weekly and monthly assessments of a spe- 
 cific sum upon the several counties of tne 
 kingdom."— BlaCKSTONE, 
 
 The Impost (Fr. impost, Lat. im- 
 ponere, impo^tus, to impose) is a term 
 of wide signification, comprising 
 state-enforced payments, both of 
 money and in kind. 
 
716 
 
 *' Trade was restrained, or the privilege 
 granted on the payment of tolls, passages, 
 portages, pontages, and innnmerable other 
 vexatious impetts, of which only the bar- 
 barons and almost unintelligible names 
 •nbsist at this day."— Burke. 
 
 Rates (Lat. rUtus, reckoned') are 
 payments upon assessed property or 
 supplies, and are now confined to the 
 smaller local taxes of parishes or 
 local districts, as, rates for the relief 
 of the poor, upon -water, gas, houses, 
 highways. We do not speak of nates 
 upon land or commodities. 
 
 " I collect out of the Abbay Booke of 
 Burton that xx one were ratable at two 
 marks of silver." — Camdek. 
 
 Duty (O. Fr. deu, owed, Lat. di- 
 bere, to owe), literally, that which is 
 given as a due or debt, is used in the 
 sense of a tax paid upon the importa- 
 tion, exportation, and consumption of 
 goods, aa Custom (O. Fr. costume — 
 with intermediate changes — from Lat. 
 consiietiuitnem) is upon the same in 
 reference to importation and exporta- 
 tion only, according to the rules of 
 the Custom House, especially in re- 
 gard to the payment on exciseable 
 ?oods. The ordinary use of the term 
 )uTY is familiar enough. There was 
 a time when the term was used to 
 mean that which was fairly due to 
 individuals. 
 
 ♦' When thou receivest money for thy 
 la'ionr or ware, thou receivest thy duty. " 
 — Tyndale. 
 Or, more legally — 
 
 " The man shall give unto the woman a 
 ring, laying the same upon the book, with 
 the accustomed duty to the priest and 
 clerk." — English Rubric. 
 
 Due (see Duty) differs slightly 
 from Duty in denoting what munici- 
 palities, companips, or private per- 
 sons are entitled to claim on the 
 ground of certain authority, office, 
 occupation, or specific rights ; as, the 
 
 Eort dues paid by ships on entering a 
 arbour; or church dues for religious 
 services, now called often " fees," as 
 of old "duties." 
 
 TniBUTE (Lat. tribuere, to give, and 
 that from tr\biis, f'-om the old Roman 
 custom of voting money by tribes) is 
 enforced and arbitrary payment of a 
 governor upon subjpctv«(, or of a 
 government upon a province, espe- 
 
 SYN0NYM8 ["^^^^^^s] 
 
 cially when subjugated in war. Tri- 
 BUTE lends itself more readily than 
 any other of these terms to the secon- 
 dary meaning of a deferential offer- 
 ing, and in this sense loses all charac- 
 ter of compulsoriness, and, indeed, 
 denotes a voluntary oflfering. 
 " As such we loved, admired, almost 
 
 adored. 
 Gave all the tribute mortals could afiFord." 
 DRYDEIi. 
 
 Toll (A. S. tol, tribute, tax) meant, 
 anciently, the payment of a sum of 
 money for the privilege of buying 
 and selling within the bounds of a 
 manor; afterwards, more generally, 
 a tax upon any liberty or privilege, 
 and, at present especially, for that 
 of passing over a bridge or along a 
 hio^hway, or of vending goods in a 
 fair or market. 
 
 Charge (O. F. charger, to load) is 
 now commonly restricted to payments 
 on land or incomes accruing from 
 land in rental ; as a rent-charge. 
 
 Levy (Fr. lever, to raise) is the 
 most widely applicable term of all, 
 being employed of taxes, tolls, tri- 
 butes, contributions, fines, and troops. 
 
 TEDIOUS. Irksome. 
 
 Irksome is from the Old English 
 verb to irk, meaning to tire and to be- 
 come tired. Compare the Lat. urgere, 
 to urge, and perhaps the word loork. 
 So Shakespeare : 
 '• To see this sight, it irks my very soul.' 
 
 Tedious, from the Latin teedium 
 {wearinsss, loathing), denotes weari- 
 ness caused by time. The nature of 
 the thing to be done makes it irksome. 
 The time taken up in doing it makes 
 it tedious. Hence Tedious denotes 
 what is felt after a work is begun or 
 a process commenced ; while Irksome 
 may denote the feeling which pre- 
 vents one from undertaking it at all. 
 " The tedious length of nine revolving 
 years." Pope. 
 
 "All things considered, it was perhaps 
 less irksome to live the life of a hermit in 
 a solitary den than to submit to tb« 
 humours of a bigot, a fanatic, and a merci- 
 less tyrant. " — JORTIN. 
 
 TEEM. Abound. 
 
 Abound (Lat. ofrunda re) is generic. 
 
[tknacity] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 717 
 
 having the wide meaning of pos- 
 sessing largely. 
 
 Tkem (Saxon tyinan, to teem, propa- 
 gate) is specific. It is to abound in 
 such a way as to be prolific of life, or 
 in a tnanner analogous to this. A 
 river abounds in fish, as to their quan- 
 tity. It teems with fish, as to their 
 Quality of living animals. For, in old 
 English, the word to Teem meant to 
 be pregnant or to produce, as Shake- 
 speare — 
 
 " If she must teem, 
 Create her child of spleen." 
 
 Dryden's use of the term is literally 
 correct when he speaks of 
 " Teemiiig birds," 
 
 i.e., alive and engendering them in 
 abundance. 
 
 " His mind teeming with schemes of 
 future deceit to cover former villainy." — 
 Waxtkr Scott. 
 
 TEMPORARY. Transient. 
 TuANsiTORY. Fleeting. Fugitive. 
 
 Temporary (Lat. temp'6rdriusy from 
 teinpusy time) denotes not only that 
 which lasts but for a time, as opposed 
 to permanent, but that which was in- 
 tended only so to last, A temporary 
 substitute will be superseded when a 
 permanent one has been found. The 
 cessation of that which is temporary 
 has been foreseen and calculated 
 upon, perhaps pre-arranged. 
 
 TRANSTENT(Lat. transtre, topassover) 
 denotes that which, by its awn nature 
 or inherent force, rapidly passes by, 
 and so is of no long continuance. 
 
 Transitory (Lat. transltorius, 
 adapted to passing through, fleeting) 
 adds to the mere idea of transience 
 that character by virtue of which a 
 thing is transient. 
 
 Fleeting expresses the idea of 
 Transitory in a more vivid manner 
 (Icelandic yZif^to, quick), placing, as 
 it were, before the mind's eye the 
 tendency and the fact at the same 
 time. What is transient is in itself 
 momentary or of short duration. 
 What is transitory is liable to pass 
 away. Brevity is more denoted by 
 the former ; uncertainty, by the lat- 
 ter. Short-lived enjoyments are tran- 
 sient; but it is of the nature of all 
 
 earthly pleasures to be transitory. 
 Fleeting is still more strong than 
 Transient. That is transient which 
 stays but for a little while. That is 
 fleeting which hardly stays at all, but 
 seems, even while we contemplate or 
 possess it, to be hurrying past or 
 away. Transitory is capable only of 
 a moral and abstract use, while Tran- 
 sient and Fleeting are applicable to 
 objects of physical sense, as sights, 
 sounds, or colours. 
 
 "For this purpose a large space had 
 been cleared before the temporary hut ol 
 this chief, near our post, as an area where 
 the performances were to be exhibited." — 
 Cook's Voyages. 
 " Give them as much as mortal eyes can 
 
 bear, 
 A transient view of Thy full glories there." 
 
 Dryden. 
 " And thou, fair Freedom, taught alike to 
 
 feel 
 The rabble's rage, and tyrants' angry 
 
 steel ; 
 Thou transitory flower, alike undone 
 By proud contempt, or favour's fostering 
 
 sun. 
 Still may thy blooms the changeful clime 
 endure." Goldsmith. 
 
 " 'Tis sooner past, 'tis sooner done. 
 Than summer's rain, or winter's sun ; 
 "blost fleeting when it is most dear, 
 'Tis gone while we but say, 'tis here." 
 Carkw. 
 While the rest express shortness of 
 duration only as a fact or quality in- 
 herent in things, Fugitive (Lat. 
 filgitivus) has the additional force of 
 expressing such as results from cha- 
 racter or disposition in living beings. 
 " The fickleness and fugitiveness of ser- 
 vants justly addeth a valuation to their 
 constancy who are standards in a family," 
 —Fuller's Worthies. 
 
 TENACITY. PERTINACirY. 
 
 Tenacity (Lat. taidcitatem, from 
 thiere, to hold) is that quality which 
 leads to holding a thing close and 
 letting it go with reluctance. It is 
 employed of the physical and the 
 moral properties. 
 
 Pertinacity (Lat. perttnax, very 
 tenacious, adv. pertindciter) is exclu- 
 sively a moral quality. Tenacity is 
 passive ; pertinacity active. We are 
 tenacious in desiring to keep ; per- 
 tinacious, in persisting to act. Men 
 may be tenacious in a good sense, as, 
 
718 
 
 SYNONYMS [tender] 
 
 to be tenacious of the right or the 
 truth, or of what personally concerns 
 themselves, as to be tenacious of one's 
 i-eputation. Pertinacious is always 
 somewhat unfavourable. Peutinacity 
 is an excessive sticking to one's pur- 
 pose. Persistence at the blameable 
 or weak point becomes pertinacity. 
 
 " Tenaciousness, even of a resolution 
 taken for opposition's sake, serves either 
 to good or to bad purposes ; when to the for- 
 mer, it is called steadiness and bravery ; 
 when to the latter, perverseness and obsti- 
 nacy."— SkaeCH, Light of Nature. 
 "The tenacity of wax.'' — Ibid, 
 " For to be like God was the first temp- 
 tation which robbed man of his innocence, 
 and so pertinaciously was this urged upon 
 these two apostles by the men of Lystra, 
 that it is said that Paul and Barnabas could 
 Bcarcely refrain them from doing sacrifice to 
 them."— South. 
 
 TENDER. Offer. 
 
 We Offer (see Offer) absolutely 
 or acceptance. 
 
 We Tender (Fr. tendre, Lat. ten- 
 dh-e, to stretch) when we offer con- 
 tingently upon the pleasure of another 
 to accept with satisfaction to himself; 
 as, to tender something in satisfaction 
 of a debt. There is more of formality 
 in tendering ; more of voluntariness 
 in offering. We offer in the first in- 
 stance. We commonly tender in re- 
 tirrn. So we are said to tender (not 
 to offer) or to return thanks. 
 
 " His tendering upon so fair and eajsy 
 terms an endless life in perfect joy and 
 bliss, his furnishing us with so plentiful 
 means and powerful aids for attainmg that 
 . happy state— how pregnant demonstrations 
 are these of unspeakable goodness towards 
 us."— Barrow. 
 
 That which is offered to me I may de- 
 cline or accept as I please ; that which 
 is tendered if it be just, adequate, suit- 
 able, I am under an obligation to 
 accept. 
 
 TERRITORY. Dominion. 
 
 Both terms indicate extensive tracts 
 of country; but Dominion (see Do- 
 minion) points to the sovereignty 
 over the land. Territory (Lat. terri- 
 lOriuniy a district) to its extent and to 
 the jurisdiction short of actual sove- 
 reignty exercised over it. We speak 
 of the dominions of a king ; of the 
 territories of a republic, state, city, or 
 
 company. The Queen's dominions. 
 Tlie territory of the Hudson's Bay 
 Company. 
 
 " The kingdom of England, over which 
 our municipal laws havejurisdiction.includes 
 not by the common law either Walei, Scot- 
 land, or Ireland, or any other part of the 
 king's dominions, except the territory oi 
 England alone. " — Blackstonk. 
 
 THEOLOGIAN. Divine. 
 
 The Theologian (Gr. flsoXoyoj, one 
 who speaks ydiscourses, of God) studies; the 
 DiviyiE{luB,t. divinuSfdivine) teaches. It 
 constitutes a theologian to be learned in 
 theology, whether he expound or not ; 
 but the divine teaches in public or 
 writes, and is an ecclesiastic, while 
 the theologian may be a layman. The 
 theologian is sometimes an official 
 referee on matters of theology. 
 
 " The old theologians and divines, who of 
 all philosophers are the most ancient." — 
 Holland, Plutarch. 
 
 THINK. Believe. 
 
 To Think (A. S. thencan, to think, 
 reason) is used in three senses : 1, to 
 express the ordinary operation of the 
 intellect; 2, an opinion formed in the 
 mind ; and 3, a belief in something as 
 nearly, but not quite, certain. As, 
 " Man is a thinking being." " I think 
 him a sensible man." " I think that 
 he has left the house." 
 
 To Believe (prefix be ior se-lyj'an, 
 to believe) has also two meanings : 1, 
 a decided faith ; the other, nearly 
 synonymous with the third meaning 
 of Think, but with a rather stronger 
 conviction. " I believe so ; " or, " 1 
 think so, but am not certain." In this 
 sense, Believ e rises upon Think. For 
 instance, I ask another, " Were these 
 words uttered in the course of the 
 conversation?" Answer: "I think 
 so." Question : " But do you say 
 that you believe they were? In this 
 way, to think is to be disposed to be- 
 lieve ; and to believe is to have made 
 up one's mind to think. 
 
 THOUGHT. Idea. Imagination. 
 
 Cogitation. 
 
 The Idea {see Idea) represents the 
 object; the Thought (see Think) 
 considers it; the Imagination (Lat. 
 Xmdginationem) forms it. The Irst 
 
[threat] 
 
 paints; the second examines and 
 weighs ; the third too often betrays. 
 We have ideas of the sun and moon, 
 or any material objects which we have 
 seen. We have thoughts on moral 
 subjects. We form imagination by 
 combining ideas. The imagination is 
 our own, the thought may be bor- 
 rowed from another. An idea should 
 be just and true, a thought fine, an 
 imagination brilliant. In argument, 
 especially, men are bound to simplify, 
 adjust, and clear up their ideas. 
 Thoughts ought not to be far-fetched. 
 Imaginations are not to be confounded 
 with realities. The idea belongs both 
 to the external object and to the mind 
 which entertains it. A thought is an 
 act ofjudgment and comparison among 
 many ideas. Thoughts are more per- 
 sonal than ideas ; for some ideas exi^t 
 necessarily. It cannot be said of any 
 thoughts that they so exist; and so 
 we are not always responsible for false 
 ideas, though we are to be blamed for 
 entertaining wrong thoughts. Right 
 thoughts are based upon exact ideas. 
 A thought is made up of the combina- 
 tion of an idea and a sentiment ; and 
 so great and noble thoughts come not 
 only fi-om the intellect but the heart. 
 An idea has. as it were, an indepen- 
 dent existence. A thought does not 
 live fully till it is expressed. A good 
 idiUB. is felicitous, appropriate, or use- 
 ful one. A good thought is the germ 
 of a good action. 
 
 Cogitation (Lat. cogitdtionem, a 
 thinking, reflexion) is a term scientific 
 and metaphysical. It is the employ- 
 ment of the mind in continuous thought. 
 Cogitation is associated with volition 
 and sensation as faculties of human 
 nature. It is a somewhat old-fashioned 
 word, and wears a pedantic air. Cogi- 
 tation is as it were the taking counsel 
 with one's self. 
 
 " He that calleth a thing onto his mind 
 whether by impression or recordation cogi- 
 tateth and considereth, and he tiat em- 
 ployeth the faculty of his fancy also cogita- 
 teth, and he that reasoneth doth in like 
 manner cogitate and devise." — Bacon. 
 
 " I hope it will not be thought arrogance 
 to say that perhaps we should make greater 
 prepress in the discovery of rational and 
 contemplative knowledge, if we sought it m 
 the fountain, in the consideration of things 
 
 DISCRIMINATED 
 
 719 
 
 themselves, and made use rather of our owu 
 thoughts than other men's to And it." — 
 Locke. 
 
 •' Whatsoever the mind perceives in itself, 
 or as the immediate object of perception, 
 thought, or understanding, that I call idea" 
 —Ibid. 
 
 " Every imagination of the thoughts of 
 his heart was only evil continually." — Kiig- 
 lish Bible. 
 
 THOUGHTFUI^. Considerate. 
 
 The Thoughtful person {see Think) 
 considers carefully, and acts with re- 
 flexion in regard to the circumstances 
 of a case. 
 
 The Considerate person (Lat. 
 cons'iderdre, to consider) does the same 
 in reference to the relation borne to it 
 by other persons. We should be 
 thoughtful of particulars and details, 
 considerate towards the feelings and 
 position of others. There is reflexion 
 in thoughtfulness ; anticipation, in 
 considerateness. Considerateness may 
 be positive or negative, or, in other 
 words, may show itself in kindness 
 or forbearance. Thoughtfulness of 
 others is considerateness. But there 
 is also another difference. Thought- 
 fulness does not overlook circum- 
 stances, considerateness does not over- 
 look their consequences. He who is 
 thoughtful is not likely to forget ; he 
 who is considerate is not likely to 
 leave things unprovided for. 
 
 " Thoughtfulness concerning our deport- 
 ment, our welfare, that of othei*s, and the 
 public, so far as it will really be of use, is 
 a duty of indispensable obligation." — 
 Secker. 
 
 There was a time when Considerate 
 meant simply reflexive, without any 
 reference to others ; as, 
 
 " We apply it (the term enthusiasm), 
 through an indolent custom, to sober and 
 considerate asserters of important truths as 
 readily as to wild and extravagant conten- 
 ders about them."— Byrom, On Enthu- 
 siasm. 
 
 And so Milton — 
 
 •' Considerate pride, waiting revenge ; " 
 that is pensive, brooding. 
 
 '* ^neas is patient, considerate, and car© 
 fal of his people."— DRTDElf. 
 
 THREAT. Men AC K. 
 
 Tlaese words being derived, th« 
 
720 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [throwj 
 
 forme/ from a Saxoi), the latter from 
 a Latin root, differ, as such words so 
 related commonly do, in representing, 
 the foi-mer, the physical and ordinary, 
 the latter, the moral and more remote 
 or dignified. 
 
 Threat (A. S. threat,i,a host ; 2, a 
 ihreatenmg) may be used of small or 
 great evils. So of the verb Threaten. 
 One boy may threaten to strike an- 
 other. On the other hand we speak 
 of the land as Menaced (0. Fr. 
 menace, Lat. itiindcem, adj. full of 
 threats) with the evils of war or famine. 
 Hence to menace involves the action 
 of conscious beings; while Threaten 
 is used of common influences and phe- 
 nomena. The clouds are said to 
 threaten (not to menace) rain. A 
 threat may be confined to words, and 
 a menace to acts : a threatening letter, 
 a menacing attitude. 
 " Threatened this moment and the next 
 implored." 
 
 " Is it not experience which reudem a 
 dog apprehensive of pain when you menace 
 him, or lift up the whip to beat him t " — 
 HuMB, On the Human Understanding. 
 
 THROW. Hurl. Toss. Cast. 
 Flino. 
 
 Throw (A. S. thrdwaii) denotes 
 method and some amount of aim. 
 " I have thrown 
 A brave defiance in King Henry's teeth." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 Hurl, a certain amount of force, 
 and weight in the thing hurled. It 
 is a contraction of hurtle, and retains 
 the force of dashing or striking against, 
 contained in Fr. heurter. 
 
 " And oft the swain. 
 On some (sheep) impatient seizing, hurls 
 them in." Thomson. 
 
 Cast (Icel. kasta, to cast) is more 
 dignified, and has less of effort, mean- 
 ing sometimes little more than to let 
 go ; as, to cast anchor. 
 
 " Let us cast lots for it whose it shall 
 be." — English Bible, 
 
 Toss denotes no great violence or 
 distance, but a sudden rapid throw- 
 ing, as of a light body. 
 
 " They look upon little matters as un- 
 worthy the notice of God, and esteem it de- 
 rogatory from the Divine Slajesty to 
 suppose Him attentive to the crawlings of 
 
 an emmet, or tossings of a feather in a 
 tempestuous air." — Search. 
 
 To Fling (one of many similar imi- 
 tative words, as fiog, Sw. 'Jlenga, to 
 beat, Lat. in-,Ji'igcre : Wedgwood) is to 
 cast forth from self, commonly with 
 an effort of will. 
 •' Tis Fate who flings the dice, and as she 
 
 flings. 
 Of kings makes peasants and of peasants 
 kings." Dryden. 
 
 TIME. Duration. 
 
 Duration (Lat. durare, to last) 
 cannot be conceived but in relation 
 to some object. 
 
 Time (Lat. tempus) exists by itself, 
 absolute and independent. Time has 
 been personified by mythologists and 
 poets. Duration is to time what ex- 
 tent is to space. It is the space or 
 time occupied between the beginning 
 of a thing and the end. But tliis dis- 
 tinction is not all. The word Time is 
 often used in this sense. Duration is 
 not only a certain quantity of time, 
 but such a quantity regarded under 
 one especial aspect. While a time in 
 this sense may contain a thousand 
 different events, and stands related to 
 a preceding and a subsequent time, 
 Duration applies only to a solitary 
 fact separated and isolated in time. 
 We are to some extent masters of our 
 time, and may employ it as we will ; 
 our duration upon earth is not a 
 matter of our own power. 
 
 TIME. Season. 
 
 Time (A. S. tima ; time, season) is 
 here the generic term. 
 
 Season (Fr. saison, Lat. sdtionem, 
 sowing-time) is a certain time ; that is, 
 time measured not merely chronolo- 
 gically, but in reference to anything 
 to which it is especially adapted. A 
 season is a fit period ; as, youth is the 
 season of enjoyment. 
 
 " Our conception of time originates in 
 that of motion; and particularly in those 
 regular and equable motions carried on in 
 the heavens, the parts of which, from their 
 perfect similarity to each other, are correct 
 measures of the continuous and successive 
 quantity called time, with which they are 
 conceived to co-exist. Time, therefore, 
 may be defined the perceived number •' 
 successive movements." — QiLLiES, An»ly 
 sis of Aristotle's Ethics. 
 
LTlllESOMEj 
 
 " Still sing the God of smsons as they 
 
 roll. 
 For me, when I forget the darling theme. 
 Whether the blossom blows, the summer 
 
 ray 
 Russets the plain, inspiring autumn gleams. 
 Or winter rises in the blackening east. 
 Be my tongue mute, my fancy paint no 
 
 more. 
 And, dead to joy, forget my heart to beat," 
 Thomsox. 
 
 TIMELY. Seasonable. Oppor- 
 tune. 
 
 Timely means in good time; Sea- 
 i^.NABLE, in right time. Timely aid 
 is thai which comes b-fore it is too 
 late. Seasonable aid, that which meets 
 the nature of the occasion. 
 
 "And Brett, with his men, manfully 
 endured their charge till more English and 
 Portuguese coming timely in to their suc- 
 cour, beat them back into the city." — Cam- 
 DEX, 
 
 "Mercy is seasonable in the time of 
 affliction." — Ecclesiasticus, English Bible. 
 
 The difference is slight between 
 these and Opporiuxe {Lvit.oyiportunxis) 
 which seems to express more the 
 occurrence of that which by its time- 
 liness aids some particular project or 
 specific course of things. Like Timely 
 and unlike Seasonable, it qualifies a 
 case rather than a class of cases. 
 Things are opportune for the occa- 
 sion, and not as a rule. The shower 
 which falls seasonably and in timely 
 preservation of a crop may be iHop- 
 portune as regards a party of plea- 
 sure. 
 
 " The murkiest den. 
 The most opportune place, the strong'st 
 
 suggestion 
 Our worser senses can, shall never melt 
 Mine honour into lust^" 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 TIMID. Timorous. Afraid. 
 Pusillanimous. 
 
 Afraid ({or a ffrai/ed, part, of ajfiav, 
 (0 frighten, O. Fr. effveier) denotes a 
 temporai-y state. 
 
 Timid and Timorous (Lat. tiinere, 
 to be afraid) denote qualities or habits. 
 Timid is, however, sometimes em- 
 ployed of the state of mind at the 
 ■moment, without denoting a perma- 
 nent quality. Timorous is only used 
 of the permanent quality. Timid 
 "♦"ids itself better to express physical, 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 21 
 
 and TiMoiioLS, moral timidity. A 
 timorous disposition is opposed tt an 
 adventurous one; a timid disposition, 
 to a courageous one. Extreme cau- 
 tion in statesmen shows itself in timo- 
 rous measures and a timorous policy. 
 Tliough of no small moral courage, 
 yet some men, in conditions of phvsi- 
 cal danger, have shown themselves 
 timid as children. 
 
 Pusillanimous (Lat. pusilldinmiSf 
 faint-hearted) is applied to moral 
 beings acting on an important scale, 
 as also to their spirit, measures, con- 
 duct, policy. The term is not, for 
 instance, applicable to timid children, 
 but to those in whom courage and 
 decision might" be expected or re- 
 quired as manly and responsible 
 agents!. 
 
 " We are apt to speak of a low and pusil- 
 lanimous spirit as the ordinary cause by 
 which dubious wai-s terminated in humilia- 
 ting treaties."— Burke. 
 
 TIRESOME. Wearisome. Te- 
 dious. Troublesome. 
 
 Tiresome and Troublesome are 
 applicable both to things and per- 
 sons. 
 
 Wearisome and Tedious only t', 
 things, and the acts of persons, ''"ne 
 force of that which is tiresome ( A . S. 
 tirian, to vex, irritate) is more active 
 and energetic, produciag a feeling of 
 physical annoyance and exhaustion 
 of patience. Wearisome (A.S. ivcrig, 
 vceary, depressed) is said of things 
 more continuous in their operation, 
 and producing the impression ol 
 monotony and want of relief. A 
 refractory child is tiresome ; a long 
 journey through an uninteresting 
 country is wearisome. Tedious (Lat. 
 ta:dium, neuriitess, loathing) denotes 
 the weary length of time occupied ; 
 Troublesome, that which causes 
 trouble (Fr. tronbler, Lat. tnrhidare, 
 to disturb, turbiilu, a crowd), discom- 
 posure, annoyance, or difficulty in 
 our own minds, as when the same 
 cliild, by his refractoriness, sets us a 
 difficult task in managing him. Such 
 things as vain repetitions, importu- 
 nate requests, slight disappointments 
 and checks are tiresome. Monoto 
 nous tasks and journevs are wean 
 
 S A 
 
722 
 
 some. Prolix speeclies are tedious. 
 Complicated tasks, and problems dif- 
 ficult to solve, or threads difficult to 
 unravel, are troublesome. 
 
 " This being a religion founded only on 
 temporal sanction, and burdened with a 
 minute and tiresome ritual, had the people 
 known it to be only preparatory to another, 
 founded on better promises and easier ob- 
 servances, they would never have borne 
 ihe yoke of the law."— Warburton. 
 
 " But no worthy enterprise can be done 
 by us without continual plodding and 
 icearisomeness to our faint and sensitive 
 abil i ties. " — Milton. 
 
 "It reqnired no such metaphysical appa- 
 ratus as Clarke employs, somewhat 
 tediously, to prove that all perfections, 
 natural and moral, must be attributes of 
 the self-existent all-perfect Author of all 
 being."— BOLINGBROKE. 
 
 "We found walking here exceedingly 
 troublesome, for the ground was co^-ered 
 with a kind of grass, the seeds of which 
 were very sharp, and bearded backwards." 
 — Cook's Voyages. 
 
 TOLERATE. Suffer. Permit. 
 
 One Tolerates (Lat. loltrare) 
 things when, having the power to 
 8top them or to escape from them, 
 one refrains to do either. 
 
 One Suffers thera (Lat. sufferre) 
 when one does not resist or oppose 
 them, either as overlooking or con- 
 niving at them, or as feeling one's 
 inability to prevent. 
 
 One Permits them (Lat. permitttve) 
 when one gives some degree of con- 
 sent to them. 
 
 Tolerate and Suffer are only used 
 ofwhatisbad, or believed to be so, or 
 painful and disagreeable ; Permit, of 
 things good, bad, or in themselves 
 indifferent. We are sometimes in- 
 duced to tolerate evils and incon- 
 veniences lest worse things happen 
 to us. We suffer as feeling that 
 greater harm may accrue from resis- 
 tance, or that tlie remedy may be 
 worse than th/3 disease. Human laws 
 may never permit what the divine 
 law forbids, though they sometimes 
 forbid what that law permits. 
 
 TOMB. Grave. Sepulchre. 
 
 Tomb (Fr. tomhe, L. Lat. tumba) at 
 present implies a construction having 
 walls of stone or other such durable 
 material; while 
 
 SYNONYMS [TOLEUATEJ 
 
 Grave(A.S. ^rcef, from grqfan, to 
 carve, to dig) denotes no more than a 
 simple excavation of the earth for the 
 reception of a dead body. 
 
 Sepulchre (Lat. sqmkhrnm, fron 
 sepi'lire, to bury) being a word oJ 
 Latin origin, and so carrying out 
 minds back to times when the dead 
 were buried in ancient fashions, as, 
 for instance, in sepulchres hewn out 
 of the rock, is naturally a word of 
 rare use, and occurs principally in 
 connexion with some special truth 
 or reflexion. In such expressions 
 the grave represents in a simple man- 
 ner the end of mortal life ; the tomb, 
 the silence and inactivity of death ;• 
 the sepulchre, the conventional asso- 
 ciations of death and burial, lo go 
 down to the grave. The silence of 
 the tomb. The sepulchres of departed 
 kings. 
 
 TOME. Volume. 
 
 One Volume (Lat. voldmen, a roll, 
 a book) may contain many Tomes 
 (Lat. tomus, Gr. rifj-oc), or one tome 
 may contain many volumes. The 
 tome is distinguished by the divi- 
 sions of the work, the volume bj the 
 arrangements of the binder. 
 
 TONE. Sound. 
 
 Sound (Lat. si^nus, sound) is no 
 more than the effect produced upon 
 the auditory nerves by the vibration 
 of the waves of the atmosphere, and 
 is determined by the physical struc- 
 ture of the organ, or more generally 
 by the physical character of the sub- 
 stance or cause producing it. A sound 
 is loud or soft. 
 
 The Tone (Gr. tovoj, a sxretchtng, 
 tightening, a tone, rfituv, to stretch) is 
 the character of the sound, which 
 does not belong to it till it has reached 
 that point of regularity and distinct- 
 ness of vibration wliich constitute a 
 musically appreciable note. The 
 sound of a musical instrument is loud 
 or soft; the tone is high or low-pitched, 
 melodious or not, and the like. Hence 
 the term Tone is capable of a secon- 
 dary meaning, according to which it 
 exjiresses the accordance of words or 
 acts with a certain condition of mind, 
 temper, disposition, character, and tb« 
 
[touchJ 
 
 like : as, a hi^h tone of mind ; the j 
 general tone of his writings. 
 
 "To almost every sentiment we utter, 
 more especially to every strong emotion. 
 Nature hath adapted some peculiar tone of 
 voice, insomuch that he who should tell 
 another that he was very angry, or much 
 grieved, in a tone which did not suit snch 
 emotions, instead of being believed, would 
 be laughed at."— Blair. 
 
 " That which is conveyed into the brain 
 by the ear is called sonnd, though in truth, 
 nntil it come to reach and affect the percep- 
 tive part, it be nothing but motion. The 
 motion which produces in us the perception 
 of sound is a vibration of the air, caused by 
 an exceeding short hut quick tremulous mo- 
 tion of the body from which it is propagated, 
 and therefore we consider and denominate 
 them as bodies sounding." — LoCKE. 
 
 TORMENT. TouruRE. 
 
 Both are modifications of the Lat. 
 verb torqnere, to twist. As now em- 
 ployed, Torture is an excess of 
 Torment. So in the verbs, to tor- 
 ment is only a little stronger than to 
 annoy ; while to torture is to put to 
 extreme agony. Both are employed 
 both of the body and of the mind. 
 
 " Perfect love casteth out fear, because 
 fear hath torment." — English Bible. 
 
 "Such passion here. 
 Such agonies, such bitterness of pain. 
 Seem so to tremble through the tortured 
 
 stone. 
 That the touched heart engrosses all the 
 
 view. 
 Almost unmarked the best proportions pass 
 That ever Greece beheld." 
 
 Thomsox. 
 
 TORPID. Benumbed. 
 
 The latter (Old Eng. num, dull, 
 stupid) denotes a temporary and even 
 transient state, as when the fingers 
 are benumbed with cold. 
 
 Torpid (Lat. torpidus, benumbed) 
 denotes a more continued condition, 
 and is only applicable to creatures in 
 their whole nature, while Benumbed 
 is applicable to portions of their or- 
 ganization. Hibernating animals ( Lat. 
 hdierndre, to winter), their iaculties 
 being easily benumbed by cold, lie 
 torpid through the winter. In the 
 secondary sense. Benumbed denotes 
 the operation of an external influence ; 
 Torpid, a natural sluggishness of 
 ituental constitution or feeling. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 723 
 
 " For ere the beech and elm have cast iheii 
 
 leaf 
 Deciduous; when now November dark 
 Checks vegetation in the torpid plant 
 Exposed to his cold breath, the lack begins." 
 COWPEU. 
 
 " Some on a broken crag were strugglijjg 
 
 cast. 
 And there by oozy tangles grappled fast ; 
 Awhile they bore the o'erwhelming billow s' 
 
 rage. 
 Unequal combat with their fate to wage. 
 Till all benumbed and feeble they forego 
 Their slippery hold, and sink to shades be 
 
 low." Falconer, Shipwreck. 
 
 T O T A L. Sum. Aggregate. 
 Amount. 
 
 Total (Lat. totus, whole) is purely 
 arithmetical, or quantitative. 
 
 Sum (Lat. summa) is not so. We 
 speak of the sum of considerations, 
 observations, and the like. 
 
 Aggregaie (Lat. aggrtgare, part. 
 aggrtgatus, to gather into a Jiock) ia 
 less formal in its force, and points 
 simply to the result of many items, 
 particulars, individuals, or objects 
 brought together, so as lo form a col- 
 lective mass or whole, whatever may 
 have been the nature of the process, 
 voluntary or involuntary, uniform or 
 casual, mental or mechanical, which 
 may have brought them together. 
 The total is the result of computation, 
 the sum is the amount of addition, 
 the aggregate, the collection of num- 
 bers or quantity. 
 
 The Amount (O. Fr. amonter, t^ 
 amount to) is the relative sum or total 
 in number or quantity ; the sum or 
 total as it at present stands, or the 
 point to which it has at present reached. 
 Hence, such phrases as " the whole 
 amount," " the full amount," " the 
 present or actual amount." The total, 
 the sum, and the aggregate are final. 
 The amount may possibly be increased 
 by subsequent additions, or may not 
 amount to so much, or may amount 
 to more on some future occasion. An 
 aggregate of annual subscriptions is 
 not likely to amount to exactly the 
 same sum in two successive years. The 
 total of each year will be difierent. 
 
 TOUCH. Contact. 
 Touch (Fr. touche) involves both 
 the net or faculty and the state. 
 
724 
 
 Contact (Lat. cuiningire, part. 
 coHttictits, to touch upon) refers only to 
 the state. A substance is soft to the 
 touch when it comes in contact with 
 us. The physical condition, apart 
 from all volition or sensation, is all 
 that is denoted by contact. 
 
 " The fifth and last of our senses is touch, 
 a sense spread over the whole body, though 
 It be most eminently placed in the tip of the 
 fingers. By this sense the tangible qualities 
 of bodies are discerndQ, as hard, soft, smooth, 
 rough, dry, wet, clammy, and the like. 
 But the most considerable of the qualities 
 that are perceived by this sense are heat 
 and cold." — LoCKK. 
 
 " The basking sharks will permit a boat 
 to follow them without accelerating their 
 motion, till it comes almost within contoci." 
 —Pennant, British Zoology. 
 
 TOUCHING. Pathetic. 
 That which is Touching (Fr. tou- 
 cher) moves the mind in a tender 
 manner by striking it as it were in a 
 sensitive part. 
 
 The Pathetic (Gr. 7ra9jiT»;to?, sensi- 
 tive) moves it by the action of tender 
 sentiments continuously exhibited. 
 The pathetic has an uniform tendency 
 to take effect upon all persons suscep- 
 tible of tender feelings, while that 
 may be touching in one case which 
 would not be in another, as when 
 certain tender associations are excited 
 in connexion with personal experience. 
 That which is touching finds its way 
 gently to the heart,and mduces a sweet- 
 ness of sympathy. That which is 
 pathetic conquers, subdues it, carries 
 it away, sometimes, in spite of itself, 
 fillsit,perhaps,with painful sensations. 
 While it is possible to smile at the 
 touching, one weeps at the pathetic. 
 A touching appeal conciliates, a pa- 
 thetic appeal overpowers. An expres- 
 sion, or a single idea may be touch- 
 ing; but representations, prolonged 
 addresses are pathetic. There is 
 something complex, elaborate, sus- 
 tained in the pathetic, and a pathetic 
 simplicity is a sort of contradiction of 
 ideas; on the other hand, a touching 
 simplicity is most natural. The exhibi- 
 tion of the noble, the generous, the 
 affectionate, and other such senti- 
 ments may be touching, but the pre- 
 sence of some degree of grief or pain 
 ,«• anxiety is needed to make up the 
 
 SYNONYMS [touching] 
 
 pathetic. The artless expression of a 
 child's love for its parent has in it 
 nothing pathetic, yet may be very 
 touching. The touching excites only 
 tenderness, the pathetic may rouse 
 indignation against the cause of the 
 misery or suffering. 
 
 TRACK. Trace. Vestige. Foot- 
 step. 
 
 Track (Fr. true, from traquer, a 
 hunting term, to beat a uoody to sur- 
 round) is a mark or impression left by 
 some body or bodies, animate or not, 
 that have passed along a given line ol 
 movement ; as, the track of a ship in 
 the sea ; of a caravan in the sand. It 
 is not a path or road, but the indica- 
 tion of a line of travel (where it is on 
 land) which may become such. A 
 track is a new path, as a path is a 
 beaten track. A track may, however, 
 be no more than a line of travel with- 
 out visible trace. 
 
 Trace, which has the same origin, 
 is a line, or series of marks or prints. 
 It is more vague than Track, and is 
 sometimes used subjectively, that is, as 
 expressive of purely mental investi- 
 gation, while Track is always objec- 
 tive, or external. We speak of the 
 track of wheels, hoofs, or human 
 feet, and of the traces of some 
 body which we cannot verify particu- 
 larly. A track is a plain, a trace is 
 an uncertain and defective, indica- 
 tion. 
 
 A Footsi Kp is a stepping-place of 
 the foot, and may be made by present 
 feet. 
 
 A Vestige (Lat. vestigium, afoot- 
 step) is a footstep of the past, and 
 seldom used but in a secondary mean- 
 ing. In this secondary way, we 
 speak of a vestige as an isolated mark ; 
 while a trace implies more or less ot 
 continuity and connexion. When as 
 ocular evidences of the past vestiges 
 increase in number and connectedness, 
 they become traces. A skeleton dug 
 up in an uninhabited island, would 
 be a vestige of human life at some 
 unknown period of the past ; but the 
 finding in the same neighbourhood of 
 domestic utensils, weapons, and the 
 like, would be to discover traces of 
 
[train] 
 
 the former occuiiation of the country. 
 In its secondary application, Footstep 
 rather serves as an emblem of Rure- 
 ness and guidance than of uncertainty. 
 It is well when men tread in the 
 footsteps of the great and wise and 
 good that have gone before them. 
 
 " From the Spanish trade in the South 
 Seas running aH in one track, from north 
 to south, with very little deviation to the 
 eastward or westward, it is in the power of 
 two or three cruisers, properly stationed in 
 diflferent parts of this track, to possess them- 
 selves of eveiy ship that puts to sea." — 
 Ansox's Voyages. 
 
 " And such is Virgil's episode of Dido and 
 ^neas, where the sourest critic must ac- 
 knowledge that if he had deprived his ^Kneis 
 of so great an ornament because he found 
 no traces of it in antiquity, he had avoided 
 their unjust censure, but had wanted one 
 of the greatest beauties of his poem." — 
 Drykex. 
 
 '* There may, perhaps, be some reason to 
 suppose that men became gradually ac- 
 quainted with the nature and effects of fire 
 by its permanent existence in a volcano, 
 there being remains of volcanoes, or ves- 
 tiges of their effects, in almost every part 
 of the world." — CooK'S Vo 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 725 
 
 " How on the f&Meving footsteps of decay 
 Youth presses 1 " Bryant. 
 
 TRADE. CoMMERCF. Traffic. 
 Dealing. 
 
 Trade (It. tratta, a hill of exchange, 
 trading of ships), denotes, in the first 
 instance, simple drawing from the 
 source of supply, whether at home or 
 from abroad. It is the exchange of 
 commodities for money. 
 
 Commerce (Fr. commerce, Lat 
 commercium, trade) is trade on a large 
 scale between different places and 
 communities, involving the acces- 
 sories of such trade, the rules and 
 mode of carrying it on. Treaties be- 
 tween different nations, brokerage, 
 ship insurances, and many other such 
 things, associate themselves with the 
 use of the comprehensive term Com- 
 M erce. An extensive and flourishing 
 commerce has often followed in tracks 
 first opened by a few enteiprising 
 traders. 
 
 Traffic (Fr. trafc, It. traffico) is 
 specific and local trade, as along a 
 particular line of road, or between 
 two towns. It is extended in common 
 nnrlance to comprise not only trading, 
 
 but travel or intercourse. We speak 
 of the traffic along a main street as 
 comprehending every sort of passenger 
 and carriage frequenting it. It con- 
 sists in buying and selling the same 
 things at profit. It is often used of 
 sordid or iniquitous dealing, as a 
 traffic in slaves, that is in the liberty 
 of men, or in the chastity of women. 
 
 Dealing (A. S. d&lan, a part, por- 
 tion) is, in its primary sense, a divid- 
 ing or distributing, hence dealing is 
 the doing of a distributing or retailing 
 business, as distinguished from that of 
 a manufacturer or producer. Dealers 
 in particular goods or articles buy 
 them up in portions, according to the 
 state of the market, and make profit on 
 them in detail. 
 
 " Thy sin's not accidental, but utrade." 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " The greatness of a state and the happi- 
 ness of its subjects, how dependent soever 
 they maybe supposed in some respects, are 
 commonly allowed to be inseparable with 
 regard to commerce; and as private men 
 receive gi-eater security in the possession of 
 their trade and riches from the power of 
 the public, so the public becomes powerful 
 in proportion to the opulence and extensive 
 commerce of private men." — HuME, Essay 
 on Commei'ce. 
 
 " As soon as he came aboard, he gave leave 
 to his subjects to traffick with us ; and then 
 our people bought what they had a mind 
 to."— Dampier's Voyages. 
 
 " They buy and sell, they deal and traf- 
 fic." — South. 
 
 TRAIN. Procession. Retinue. 
 
 In a Train (Fr. train, from tniire, 
 Lat. trahtre, to draw) there are per- 
 sons of all conditions; indeed, the 
 fundamental idea of Train is no more 
 than a continuation of connected 
 things in movement. Where trains 
 are personal, they are composed of 
 different individuals, all subordinate to 
 c«ie leading person. But Ave speak 
 of trains of many things ; as a train of 
 ideas. 
 
 It is in the personal sense that it is 
 synonymous with Retinue (Fr. re- 
 tenne, from retenir, to retain). Retinue 
 is applicable only to persons. We may 
 not speak of a retinue of carriages. 
 
 The idea of Procession (Lat. pro* 
 cessionem, a going or marching onwards) 
 is that of a number of persons or con- 
 
726 
 
 SYNONYMS [TRANSACT] 
 
 ?picuous objects, as carriages, ban- 
 ners, moving in order and in line. 
 The term is, however, civil, and not 
 military. Retinue strictly denotes the 
 retained or engaged followers. A 
 prince entering a public hall with his 
 own retinue might be joined by the 
 authorities of the place, who would 
 follow in his train. 
 
 "If we look immediately into ourselves, 
 and reflect on what is observable there, we 
 shall find our ideas always, whilst we are 
 awake or have any thought passing in train, 
 one going and another coming without in- 
 termission." — Locke. 
 
 '* Ranked in procession walk the pious 
 
 train. 
 Offering first-fruits, and spikes of yellow 
 grain." Dryden, Ovid. 
 
 " The great Lard Mortimer erected again 
 the round table at Kenilworth, after the an- 
 cient order of King Arthur's Table, with the 
 retinue of an hundred knights and an hun- 
 dred ladies in his house, tor the entertain- 
 ing of such adventui'ers as came thither 
 from all parts of Christendom." — Dray- 
 TON. 
 
 TRANSACT. Nkgotiate. 
 
 We Transact (Lat. transigtre, part. 
 transacUis, to can-y through, transact) 
 business generally. 
 
 We Negotiate (Lat. negotiari, to 
 carry on business) a particular busi- 
 ness. No more is involved in Trans- 
 action than the performance of a com- 
 plex action by more than one person. 
 Negotiate implies that in the ti-ans- 
 action there is an adjustment of mutual 
 interests. Doing makes transaction ; 
 while deliberating is necessary for ne- 
 gotiation. Terms and a common 
 basis have to be found in negotiation, 
 as well as a common end. Transac- 
 tion is general, negotiation is com- 
 mercial or political. 
 
 " In a country fully stocked in propor- 
 tion to all the business it had to transact, 
 as gi-eat a quantity of stock would be em- 
 ployed in every particular branch sis the 
 nature and extent of the trade would per 
 mit."— Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 " A negotiator must often seem willing to 
 hazard the whole issue of his treaty, if he 
 wishes to secure any one material point."— 
 BURKK. 
 
 TRANSACTION. Proceeding. 
 A Transaction is something done 
 and completed. 
 
 A Proceeding (see Proceeding) is 
 either yet incomplete, or is contem- 
 plated in its stages or continuity, not 
 in its consummation. The transac- 
 tions of the reign of such a monarch 
 denote what was done in that reign. 
 The proceedings involve the acts in 
 detail, motives, and mutual behaviour, 
 as exhibiting justice or injustice, 
 civilization, or the want of it, and the 
 like, and are regarded as events in 
 progress. We speak of the proceed- 
 ings of individuals, and of the trans- 
 actions of companies or of individuals 
 collectively. Transaction is some- 
 times used in the sense of an account 
 of a complex proceeding, as transac- 
 tions of a philosophical society. 
 
 " 'Tis said they all, with one consent, 
 Agreed to draw up th' instrument. 
 And, for the general satisfaction, 
 To print it in the next transaction." 
 Butler. 
 
 TRANSCRIBE. Copy. 
 
 To Transcribe (Lat. transcnb^re) 
 is to write over from something else. 
 It applies only to writing and print- 
 ing, or the engraving of letters, as 
 inscriptions. Nor does it denote of 
 necessity a similarity of style in the 
 printing to the original, but only an 
 accurate representation of the words 
 and matter. 
 
 Copy (Lat. copia, plenty, a multipli- 
 cation of the original) goes beyond 
 writing, as, for instance, to painting, 
 and, moreover, implies something of 
 the character and appearance of the 
 original as reproduced. One may 
 transcribe for the purpose of neatness, 
 cleanliness ; one copies for the sake 
 of use and convenience. 
 
 " We can distinguish in the present case, 
 as perhaps a good critic may, the peculiari- 
 ties of the author from those of his tran- 
 scribers." — WaTERLAiVD. 
 
 " This order has produced great numbei* 
 of tolerable copyers in painting, good 
 rhymers in poetry, and harmless projector* 
 in politics." — Tatler. 
 
 TRANSGRESS. Infringe. Vio- 
 late. Contravene. 
 
 That whicn is Transgressed (Lat. 
 transgredi, part, iransgressus, to step 
 beyond) is the moral law generally, or 
 any command to which moral autho- 
 
[tiianspoutJ 
 
 rity belongs, as if a child should 
 transgress the command of his parent. 
 
 That which is Violated (Lat. vio- 
 lare, to treat witli violence, to profane) 
 is a known law, obligation, or com- 
 pact. 
 
 That which is Isfiunged (see In- 
 fuinoe) is civil laws and rights, re- 
 gulations of minor force, such as the 
 customs of society. 
 
 " Human laws oblige only that they be 
 not despised, that is, that they be not trans- 
 aressed yrithont a reasonable cause ; but the 
 laws of God must be obeyed in all cases, and 
 there is no cause to break them, and there 
 can be no necessity upon us to commit sin." 
 —Bishop Taylor. 
 
 \'ior.ATE has a wider application than 
 either Transouess or Infringe. It 
 not onlyinvol ves a more defiant and for- 
 cible contradiction and disobedience, 
 but it extends to other matters than 
 tliose of law and custom, as to princi- 
 ples, and abstract truth, justice, and 
 right. That which ought to restrain 
 may be transgressed ; that which ought 
 to be respected may be infringed ; 
 that which ought to be held sacred 
 may be violated. 
 
 " When it comes to be these men's own 
 case to be oppressed by violence or over- 
 reached by fraud, where, then, are all their 
 pleas against the eternal distinction of right 
 and wrong ? How, on the contrary, do they 
 then cry out for equity, and exclaim against 
 injustice ! How do they then challenge 
 and object against Providence, and think 
 neither God nor man severe enough in 
 punishing the violators of right and truth 1" 
 —Clarke. 
 
 " We promise that such a course shall be 
 taken with him as may sufficiently testify 
 that we no less heinously brook the viola- 
 tion of your right than the infringement of 
 our own authority."— MiLTOX. 
 
 CoSTRWESiios {htit.contra,against, 
 vcn'ire, to come) has regard to positive 
 rule, order, discipline, administration. 
 One contravenes what is laid down or 
 put forth authoritatively. One in- 
 fringes in those cases in which dis- 
 obedience involves breach of faith and 
 disregard of contract, formal or im- 
 plied ; as a subject infringes the laws 
 of the realm, or a prince infringes the 
 liberties of his subjects. Transgres- 
 sion is where there is law of any kind, 
 natural, social, political, conven- 
 tional, divine. Violation audaciously 
 attacks what is essential in nature. 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 72? 
 
 manners, society, religion. The un- 
 disciplined spirit contravenes, the un- 
 faithful infringes, the licentious ti'ans- 
 gresses, the reckless violates. Contra- 
 vention is a fault or offence ; infraction 
 an act of dishonesty and injustice. 
 Transgression of disobedience or crime. 
 Violation is enormity and brutality. 
 
 " So plain a proposition .... was not 
 likely to be contravened." — SoUTHEY. 
 
 TRANSPARENT. Translucent. 
 Pellucid. 
 
 That is Transparent (Lat. trans, 
 beyond, and parire, to appear) which 
 admits of objects on the other side of 
 it being seen distinctly. That is 
 
 Translucent (Lat. translucentem, 
 part, of translucire, to be translucent 
 or transparent) which merely admits 
 of a penetration or passage of light 
 througli it. Fine glass and pure 
 water are transparent, so are fine 
 fabrics, as gauze, which implies a 
 discontinuity of substance. In this 
 way a leafless hedge may be trans- 
 parent, but this discontinuity would 
 prevent the application of the term 
 translucent or diaphanous (Gr. J<a, 
 through, and <pa,iviiv, to show) which is 
 its Greek equivalent. Some stones, 
 as, for instance, that called jade, are 
 translucent. 
 
 Pellucid (Lat. pellmidus, for per- 
 lucidus, transparent) in our older 
 writers was used in the sense of 
 Transparent. It now denotes, as in 
 the term " pellucid stream," that 
 which is in its nature transparent, 
 but in fact can only be seen clearly 
 into, and not through, admitting, 
 from the nature of the case, a perfect 
 penetration, but not passage through, 
 of light. 
 
 TRANSPORT. Transfer. 
 
 Transport (Lat. transportdre, to 
 carry over or beyond) is indefinite, 
 Transfer (Lat. transferre, to bear over 
 or beyond) is definite. Hence the 
 former term may be used indepen- 
 dently ; the latter involves the men- 
 tion of the person, point, or locality 
 to which the transference is made. 
 Convicted felons were transported for 
 life, that is, carried beyond the seae, 
 I'lit when thev arrived at tlieir destiny 
 
728 
 
 SYNONYMS [tREACIIEUOUS] 
 
 tion, if the penal settlement were 
 ovor-8tockeil, it was necessary to 
 transfer them to another. Transport 
 has only a physical employment. 
 Those things on\y are transported 
 which are materially movable. Trans- 
 fer is applicable to those things which 
 have a consistence and fixity, but only 
 in a secondary sense. Goods, mer- 
 chandise, and the like are transported 
 when they are taken away, trans- 
 ferred when they are consigned to 
 other keeping. Houses and public 
 buildings are not commonly trans- 
 ported, but a court of law, a public 
 office, a queen's drawing-room may 
 be transferred or removed to a diffe- 
 rent building. 
 
 TREACHEROUS. Traitorous. 
 Treasonable. 
 
 Treacherous (Fr. trtchene, trick- 
 eru) is moral, and respects private re- 
 lationship between man and man. 
 
 Traitorous (Lat. traditdrem, a be- 
 trayer, from trddh'e,to deliver or betray) 
 is civil, social, or political, and re- 
 spects the relationship between man 
 and any person or power to which he 
 owes allegiance, or any cause to the 
 support of which he is bound by 
 fealty or honour. 
 
 That is Treasonable (Fr. trahtson; 
 treason, trahir, to betray) which comes 
 under what has been authoritatively 
 defined to be of the nature of treason. 
 A man's conscience tells him when he 
 is treacherous. His conscience or his 
 understanding would tell him when 
 he had been traitorous ; but he might 
 have done a treasonable act through 
 ignorance, and without intent to com- 
 mit treason, and so find that he had 
 unwittingly made himself amenable 
 to the law. 
 
 TREATMENT. Usage. 
 
 Treatment (Fr, traiter, to treat, 
 Lat, tractdre) is casual or occasional, 
 or at least imj)lies no more, unless 
 more be said. 
 
 Usage (Fr, nsage) is continuous 
 and habitual. A man may meet with 
 ill-treatment in a crowd. Some do- 
 mestic animals suffer much from ill- 
 usage. It may be observed that 
 treatment is employed of favourable 
 
 or unfavourable treatment. Usage is 
 not emj>loyed in a favourable sense. 
 Ill-usage is also stronger than ill- 
 ti'eatment. The former is always 
 positive and demonstrative ; the latter 
 may be through contempt and neg- 
 lect. 
 
 TRICK. Artifice. Stratagem. 
 Subterfuge. Manceuvre. 
 
 Of these. Trick (0. Fr. tricher, to 
 trick) is the simplest and most generic, 
 the rest being modifications of this 
 fundamental and simple idea. Trick 
 commonly involves deception for self- 
 interest. 
 
 An Artifice (Lat.artificium, handi- 
 craft) is an elaborate, artful, or in- 
 genious trick. As artifice turns upon 
 false manipulations, arrangements, or 
 appearances, so Stratagem (Gr. 
 a-rf&Thynfxa, a piece of generalship) 
 turns upon false judgments and 
 movements. It is an artifice planned 
 for the purpose of gaining a practical 
 end. Children play tricks. Design- 
 ing persons have recourse to artifice. 
 Those who convert life into a compli- 
 cated game employ stratagem. 
 
 Subterfuge (Lat. subterfiigere, to 
 fee by stealth) is something under 
 cover of which one makes an escape. 
 It is an artifice employed to escape 
 censure, or to elude the force of an 
 argument, or to j ust ^"^ opinions or ac- 
 tions. Trick expiesses more directly 
 deceptive ingenuity in the agent, 
 which may or may not practically 
 affect others. A trick at cards need 
 not do so. On the other hand, an 
 artifice touches the condition of'others 
 to their misleading. The three first 
 involve acts ; the subterfuge may be 
 by words or acts, and commonly is 
 made up of both. The term Trick 
 has other meanings, as a vulgar or 
 unseemly habit; and such manipula- 
 tion in art as is calculated to produce 
 a telling effect by means not strictly 
 artistic is sometimes called a trick. 
 
 " As his pre-eminence depends not npon 
 u trick, he is free from the painful sus- 
 jiicions of a juggler, who lives in perpe- 
 tual fear lest his trick should be dis- 
 covered." — Rkyxolds. 
 
 The trick is generally something 
 f)etty. The artifice is more elaho- 
 
Ltry] 
 
 DTSCROtlNATEI). 
 
 729 
 
 rate and aignified. A trick is a cheat 
 on the senses; an artifice, on the 
 understanding; a stratagem, on the 
 reason or judgment. A clever trick 
 dupes us. An ingenious artifice mis- 
 leads us. A deep stratagem captivates 
 or entraps us. A subterfuge is either 
 transparent, or, if successful, leaves 
 us in the lurch. 
 
 " The skill of artifice, or office mean." 
 Milton. 
 
 " I always consider his (the Spectator) 
 making them and their dress so frequently 
 the subject of his lucubrations an innocent 
 ttratagem to draw their attention to his 
 book, and thus to allure them to the 
 noblest speculations on subjects moral and 
 divine." — Knox. 
 
 " By a miserable subterfuge, they hope 
 to render this proposition safe by denying 
 itfi authority." — BuRKE. 
 
 In Manceuvre (Fr. manceuvre, 
 from Mediaeval Lat. mdnu-optra^work 
 of the hand, contr. to mtinopera ; see 
 6rachet) is involved primarily the 
 idea of complicated movements skil- 
 fully conducted, and only secondarily 
 that of deception. The manoeuvres 
 of a fleet may be to test seamanship, 
 aptitude for fighting, and the like. A 
 manceuvre -which deceives is a strata- 
 gem. The stratagem is the work of 
 an individual, the manceuvre com- 
 monly though not necessarily of a 
 body. 
 
 " Here I could not shake off old habits so 
 far as to resist the temptation of getting 
 into a post-chaise for the last stage, by 
 which manoeuvre I took the credit of 
 having travelled like a gentleman." — Ob- 
 server. 
 
 TRUTH. Veracity. Verity. 
 
 Truth (A. S. treowdhe, treodh, 
 frywdh) regards things. 
 
 Veracity (Lat. virdcem, true) re- 
 gards the true representation of things. 
 We speak of the truth of history, 
 and the veracity of the historian. 
 The thing said is true or not. The 
 relator is veracious or otherwise. I 
 
 " Those propositions are true which ex- 
 press things as they are ; or truth is the 
 conformity of those words or signs by which 
 thing* are expressed to the things them- 
 selves."— WoOLASTON. 
 
 " Truth or falsehood lying always in some 
 affirmation or negation, mental or verbal, 
 our ideas are not capable any of them of 
 l<eing false till the muid passes some judg- 
 
 ment upon them, that is, affirms or denies 
 something of them." — Locke. 
 
 "To the honour of their author (Sue- 
 tonius), it must be said that he appears to 
 have advanced nothing through flattery or 
 resentment, nor to have suppressed any- 
 thing through fear, but to have paid au 
 undaunted regard to veracity."— Kaox. 
 
 TRY. Attempt. Endeavour. 
 
 To Try is generic ( Fr. trier, to cull, 
 pick out, Lat. trltdre, to beat the corn 
 from the chaff). 
 
 Attempt (O. Fr. atempter, tounder- 
 take, Lat. atteutare), and Endeavour 
 ( Fr. mettre en devoir, to put in duty) 
 are specific. We cannot attempt 
 without trying, though we may try 
 without attempting. We attempt 
 with an intention to compass a cer- 
 tain end. When we try, we are alto- 
 gether uncertain as to the result. 
 An endeavour is a svstematic or con- 
 tinuous attempt. A single attempt 
 may be fruitless, yet at last we may 
 succeed in our endeavours. It may 
 be remarked that all three of these 
 terras imply a partial failure wliere 
 they are used of the past, though not 
 of the future. I shall try, attempt, 
 or endeavour, from the nature of the 
 case, leaves the issue uncertain. I 
 tried, attempted, or endeavoured, im- 
 plies that success did not follow, 
 ina.sinuch as if it had, it would, of 
 course, have been stated rather than 
 the fact of the ti-ial. 
 
 " A natural and unconstrained behaviour 
 has something in it so agreeable, that it is no 
 wonder to see people endeavouring after it. 
 But at the same time it is so very hard to 
 hit when it is not born with us, that people 
 often make themselves ridiculous in at- 
 tempting it." — Addison. 
 
 Both Attempt and Endeavour are 
 weightier words than TRV,and involve 
 more dignified or more difl^cult ends. 
 One may try to do a very common- 
 place thing. One attempts what is 
 worthy to be called an aim, though 
 not necessarily a high one. Specific 
 and definite design is not so strongly 
 implied in Try as in Attempt. We 
 attempt to do or get something in par- 
 ticular which is the object of our 
 effort. We sometimes try when we 
 wish to ascertain a result of which we 
 are ignorant. Crabb says that when 
 a burglar attempts to break into a 
 
730 
 
 SYNONYMS [tumid] 
 
 house he ti-ies the locks ; but this is 
 another application of the word Trv, 
 to test or put to the proof. 
 
 TUMID. TuuGiD. 
 
 Tumid (Lat. ttimtdus, swelling, tii- 
 m'cre, to sxcell) denotes a swelling pro- 
 ceeding from an alteration of the in- 
 ternal structure ; as, tumid flesh, the 
 tumid waves. 
 
 Turgid (Lat. turgtdus, infialed, tur- 
 gh-e, to swell) is that which wears a 
 swollen or inflated aspect. Both are 
 employed in a moral sense ; as, a tur- 
 gid style, turgid language ; tumid ex- 
 pressions. 
 
 " The tumid hills,— Miltox. 
 
 " Turgidity of the eyes.— Arbuthnot. 
 
 TUMULTUOUS. Tumultuary. 
 
 Tumultuous expresses that tumult 
 nas taken place, and is actually going 
 on ; TuMULiuARY, no more than that 
 there is a tendency to tumult. The 
 former expresses confusion and vio- 
 lence and noise ; the latter, disorderli- 
 ness and sedition. A rabble is tumul- 
 tuary in disposition, or favours tumul- 
 tuary measures, before it breaks out 
 into tumultuous acts. 
 
 " The workmen, accordingly, vejy seldom 
 derive any advantage from the violence of 
 those iM?«wZiuoMS combinations, which gene- 
 rally end in nothing but the punishment or 
 ruin of the ringleaders." — Smith, Wealth 
 of Nations. 
 
 " Insolence and noise. 
 The tempest of tumultuary joys." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 TURGID. Bombastic. 
 
 As applied to persons and their 
 style, Turgidity {see Tumid) denotes 
 an inflated diction; Bombastic (Low 
 Lat. bombax, cotton, Gr. 0ofx^u^, a silk- 
 worm) that particular turgidity which 
 is connectedi with personal pomposity 
 and self-importance, and exaggerates 
 not only style, but facts. A style is 
 bombastic which is inflated and non- 
 sensical. It is turgid when its expres- 
 sions are pompously inflated, though 
 it may be not otherwise than sound in 
 sense. 
 
 •• The twgidness of a young scribbler." — 
 Warbubton. 
 
 '• A theatrical, bombastic, windy phraseo- 
 logy of heroic virtue." -BuRKB. 
 
 TWIRL. Twist. Twine. Whirl. 
 
 Twirl (A. S. thwirily anything that 
 is twirled, as a churn-staff or jiail) in- 
 volves the exercise of force so as to be 
 circulatory, and commonly comes from 
 the hand or fingers. 
 
 Twist (A. S. twi, two) is to turn 
 sharply from a given line, without of 
 necessity completing a circle, as to 
 twist a stick is to destroy its straight- 
 ness. To twirl is to turn it rapidly 
 round in the air. The former does 
 not lend itself to secondary meanings. 
 On the other hand, we are said to 
 twist words when we bend them vio- 
 lently to our own meaning. Whirl 
 is rapidly to twist circularly, having 
 so far the meaning of Twirl, but more 
 equably, with more violence, and in a 
 larger circle. Twine is continuous 
 and steady, while twist is a single and 
 perhaps violent act; and has reference 
 to a conversion of condition, by which 
 two or more things flexible and weaker 
 may become one thing comparative'ii 
 inflexible and strong. 
 
 TYPE. Form. 
 
 The Type (Gr. 'zvirog, a hloWyformy 
 or impression, rvTrrsiv, to beat) is a cha- 
 racteristic Form ( Lat. /bnna) ; that is, 
 it is the aggregate of characteristic 
 qualities, either an ideal representa- 
 tion or an actual specimen, combining 
 all the particulars of the class which 
 it is employed to illustrate. 
 " Great Father of the gods, when for our 
 
 crimes 
 Thou send'st some heavy judgment on the 
 
 times. 
 Some tyrant king, the terror of his age. 
 The type and true vice-gereut of thy rage. 
 Thus punish him." I^YDEN, Fersius. 
 
 "But supposing the self-subsistence of 
 matter from eternity, could the world, fuH 
 of innumerable forrtis, spring by an im 
 petus from a dead formless priucijile ? " 
 —Bates. 
 
 TYRO. Novice. 
 
 The Tyro (Lat. tiro, a recruit) is 
 primarily a young soldier; hence a 
 beginner in some branch of study with 
 which he is therefore but slightly ac- 
 quainted. 
 
 A No VIC E ( Lat. n'6vicrus, new, fresh) 
 is one who is new in any business. 
 Sometimes one newly received into 
 
[undertaking] discriminated. 
 
 731 
 
 the church or a religious community. 
 According to their origins are the 
 uses of the terms. A tyro is frf sh and 
 unskilled, a novice is new and uu- 
 familiarized. One who is bj no means 
 a tyro at learning may be a novice at 
 college. 
 
 u. 
 
 UGLINESS. Deformity. Dis- 
 
 PIOUREMENT. 
 
 These terms agree in expressing 
 that character which is the opposite 
 of beauty. Ugliness (A. S. oga, 
 dread, adj. oga- lie) is the generic term 
 of whicli the others express species. 
 
 As applied to persons, DEFonMiry 
 {dtfoiiriitutem) belongs to the figure, 
 ugliness to the countenance. Ugli- 
 ness is superficial as of colour, defor- 
 mity is of disproportion of parts. 
 
 Disfigurement (Lat. dis-, and 
 fighnij form) conveys the idea of 
 
 f)artial deformity by some specific 
 isature regarded by itself or super- 
 imposed. See Deface. 
 
 UNCERTAINTY. Suspense. 
 Doubt. 
 
 Doubt (Lat. diiViiare, to doubt) 
 indicates the absence of sufficient study 
 and inquiry ; Uncertainty (see Cer- 
 iain), the absence of judgment 
 formed; Suspense (Lat. suspensus, 
 liovernigf hesitatiiig), the absence of 
 determination, lie is doubtful who 
 hesitates fi'om ignorance. He is un- 
 certain who hesitates from irresolu- 
 tion. He is in suspense who cannot 
 decide. It has to be remarked, how- 
 ever, that of late the term Suspense 
 has come to mean that anxiety of mind 
 which comes from ignorance of the 
 intentions of another, where our 
 interests hang on those intentions. 
 Formerly the king would be said to be 
 in suspense who had not made up his 
 mind whether or not to pardon the 
 offender. Now the offender is said to 
 be in suspense until his fate is made 
 known to him. 1 tinay be observed that 
 Doubt is a term of more restricted ap- 
 plication than Uncertainty. Doubt 
 
 is subjective only,uncfci«^inty is both 
 subjective and objective. Doubt ex- 
 ists only in the human mind, but un- 
 certainty both in the mind and the 
 object contemplated. A man is un- 
 certain of the duration of his life 
 because life itself is uncertain. 
 
 " All which together seldom or never fail 
 to produce that various and doubtful signi- 
 fication in the names of substances which 
 causes such uncertainty, disputes, or mis- 
 takes when we come to a philosophical use 
 of them."— Locke. 
 
 In the following passage we have 
 the union of the old sense of Suspense 
 and the new. 
 
 " While a great event is in suspense, 
 the action warms, and the very suspense, 
 made up of hope and fear, maintains n« 
 nnpleasing agitation in the mind." — Bo- 
 lingbbokb. 
 
 " Modest doubt is called 
 The beacon of the wise." 
 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 UNDER. Below. Beneath. 
 
 That which we are Under (A. S. 
 under)\s that by which we are covered, 
 overhung, or overtopped. That which 
 we are Below {he- and /aw) is simply 
 something which is higher than our- 
 selves. That which we are Beneath 
 (A. S. bene^an) is much higher than 
 we. 
 
 UNDERTAKING. Enterprise. 
 Expedition. 
 
 A work projected is the idea com- 
 mon to both these terms ; but an 
 Undertaking denotes something 
 which involves reflexion and pei-seve- 
 rance with other mental and moral 
 qualities. 
 
 Enterprise (Fr. entreprise, entre- 
 prendre, to undertake) involves the 
 personal qualities of activity, courage, 
 endurance, and the like. Undertakings 
 are usuaJly the works of individuals. 
 Enterprises may be made conjointly 
 by bodies of men. An undertaking 
 lies more in the path of ordinary duty. 
 We go out of our way to make enter- 
 prises. Undertakings may be from a 
 sense of obligation ; enterprises are 
 more speculative, and turn on some 
 prospect of personal gain. Tlie un- 
 dertaking may be arduous ; the enter- 
 prise, hazardous. Yet the verb un 
 
732 
 
 dertake has so broad a manning that 
 it is a common phrase, " to umlertake 
 an enterprise." 
 
 " These critics, by their very imperfect 
 know!e(5ge of the Hebrew language, which 
 in their time had been a dead ianguiige 
 among the Jews themselves for many ages, 
 »nd by their prejudices against our Saviour, 
 were but ill qualified for their arduous zm- 
 der taking. "—Bisnop Horsley. 
 "And yet the undertakers, nay, performers 
 Of such a brave and glorious enterprise 
 Are yet unknown." 
 
 Beaumont and Fletcher. 
 
 The Expedition (Lat. exptdire, ex- 
 pedttus, to despatch) involves as essen- 
 tial that which in Undertaking and 
 Enterprise is only accidental, the idea 
 of distance in the matter undertaken. 
 An expedition is an excursion for 
 some object of consequence, as the 
 procuring of something of value, con- 
 quest, search, or scientific discovery. 
 It is understood, if nothing be ex- 
 pressed to the contrary, to be under- 
 taken by a body of persons. 
 
 "The expedition miserably failed." — 
 Prescott. 
 
 UNINTELLIGIBLE. Incom- 
 prehensible. Inconceivable. 
 
 These three terms denote equally 
 that which is beyond the reach of the 
 human understanding, but they have 
 their shades of difference. 
 
 Unintelligible (Lat. intelligtre, to 
 understand) relates to the expression ; 
 Incomprehensible (Lat. incomprthen- 
 sibWis) to the nature of the human 
 mind ; 
 
 Inconceivable (Lat. m-, not, conci- 
 pcre, to conceive) to the force of the 
 imagination. That which is unintel- 
 ligible wants distinctness and expres- 
 sion. It is confused, obscure, answers 
 to nothing and states nothing. In- 
 distinct articulation, the combination 
 in the same statement of woi'ds bear- 
 ing incongruous or contradictory 
 forces, is unintelligible. The unin- 
 telligible is to be disregarded and 
 avoided. It is often far otherwise 
 with the incomprehensible and the 
 inconceivable. The incomprehensible 
 is above or beyond the grasp of the 
 understanding,while the unintelligible 
 is no object for its exercise. The in- 
 eonceivnble is that forthe understand- 
 
 SYNONrMS [uNINIELLIGIBLE] 
 
 ing of which no grouiids can be fur- 
 nished or supposed . 
 
 UNION. Junction. 
 
 Union (Lat. fmio7?em) relates to two 
 or more things which are found to 
 resemble, agree with, or suit one an- 
 other. 
 
 Junction (Lat. junctionem) is of 
 two or more things which are brought 
 to a close proximity to one another. 
 Union denotes the being one, Junc- 
 tion the being joined, hence a con- 
 formity belongs to union, collocation 
 to junction. A junction which is so 
 close as to pass into identity, or the 
 production of a third thing, is a union ; 
 the union of blue and yellow makes 
 green. The junction of rivers, the 
 junction of armies results in their 
 union. The idea of junction is more 
 material than union, which is more 
 metaphysical ; for that is union which 
 has not division, while that is junction 
 which has not separation. Union is 
 force in individuals, in associations,and 
 in communities. Vast areas of com- 
 mon intercourse have been opened by 
 the junction of two lines of railway. 
 
 UNIVERSAL. General. 
 
 What is Universal (Lat. wiiverstis 
 all taken collectively) includes every 
 particular. 
 
 What is General includes the ma- 
 jority of particulars. A general rule 
 (Lat. gtnus, gentris, kind) admits of 
 exceptions. What is universal has no 
 exceptions. Universal is opposed to 
 individual ; general, to particular. 
 " The foresight of government is 
 directed to the general welfare." 
 '' The Providence of God contemplates 
 the universal good." ''The faculty 
 of speech is general, not universal, 
 among men." The general is totality 
 in the gross, the universal is totality 
 in detail. 
 
 " For Catholic in Greek signifies wntrersflr/; 
 and the Christian Church was so called, as 
 consisting of all nations to whom the Qos))el 
 was to be preached, in contradistinction to 
 the Jewish Church, which consisted for the 
 most part of Jews only." — SIilton. 
 
 A Ithough universalitydoes not, sf ric*.ly 
 speaking, admit of degrees, yet it is 
 sometiines loosely so employed. In 
 
DISCKIMINATED. 
 
 [utility] 
 
 that way, that is general which is 
 most universal, as in the following: — 
 " A writer of tragedy must certainly adapt 
 himself to the general taste, because the 
 dramatic, of all kinds of poetry, ought to 
 be most uviversally relished and under- 
 stood. "—MasoN. 
 
 UNLIKE. DiFFi RiiNT. {See Dif- 
 ference.) 
 
 Different (Lat. differre, to differ) 
 IS applicable both to quality and 
 number ; hence two things may be 
 different ^ numerically) without being 
 Unlike (in character), furthermore, 
 Unlike is negative; Different is posi- 
 tive. Unlike is wanting in simi- 
 larity; Different is possessing dis- 
 similarit3^ Thinga which come under 
 the same genus or species are called 
 different, not unlike; while things 
 specifically distinct are said to be un- 
 like. So a rose is utterly unlike a 
 stone. But both blue and green 
 being colours, we say, " Blue is 
 different from gi-een." Unlikeness is 
 the absence of details in common. 
 Difference is general dissimilarity. 
 
 URBANITY. Suavity. 
 
 Both are forms of polite behaviour. 
 Both are more appropriately said of 
 elders or superiors than of juniors or 
 inferiors. Urbanity (Lat. urbanXtd- 
 tein, rejinementy urbdnus, belonging to 
 a town or cilii) is more than Suavity 
 (Lat. iudvitdteni, su-eetness, pleasitnt- 
 veis), and indeed comprises it. Sua- 
 vity belongs to the disposition ; urba- 
 nity, to the manners and demeanour. 
 Suavity shows men as gentle in them- 
 selves. Urbanity makes them agree- 
 able to others. Suavity is a matter 
 of looks and voice ; urbanity, of 
 observation and words. 
 
 " You cannot read and taste his (Horace's) 
 beauties without improving your urbanity 
 of manners, together with your knowledge 
 of polite literature."— Kn<jx. 
 
 " I know not whether the curiosa felici- 
 tas, or that charm of his writings which re- 
 sulted from study and happiness united, 
 may not be said to consist in delicacy of 
 sentiment and suavity of expression." — 
 Ibid. 
 
 UTILITY. Service. Use. Avail. 
 Usefulness. 
 
 Utility (Lat. ntWitatem, from idiUf, 
 useful) 18 that abstract quality of 
 
 733 
 
 anything which makes it of Use, or 
 useful in the concrete. If an im- 
 provement were made in a machine, 
 we should speak of the utility of tlie 
 invention, and of the machine itself 
 as being of gieater use or more useful. 
 That is useful which we habitually 
 want for familiar ends, as a useful 
 walking-stick, or which meets more 
 rare and important ends, and fulfils 
 them in a higher manner, and with 
 wider applicability. A useful thing 
 is good for a purpose only. 
 
 A Serviceable (Fr. service; service) 
 thing is good in itself, having many 
 properties of usefulness. Hence Ser- 
 viceable is commonly said of those 
 things which have to meet more com- 
 plex or urgent requirements, or which 
 aid us in effectively compassing some 
 peculiar end. In the case of the use- 
 ful this requirement is ordinary ; in 
 the serviceable, it is extraordinary, or 
 at least uncommon. But Useful has a 
 more abstract and general application 
 than Serviceable. Useful know- 
 ledge is that knowledge which has in 
 it anavailableness for practical pur- 
 poses, serviceable knowledge would 
 mean that sort of information which 
 came in to help us under given cir- 
 cumstances. Useful points more di- 
 rectly to the quality of the tiring. Ser- 
 viceable to the fact that it is ready for 
 use whenever it may be needed. A 
 distinction has to be observed between 
 utility and Usefulness. Utility is 
 the active. Usefulness the passive, 
 term. Our utility is shown by what 
 we actually do ; our usefulness, by 
 what we are able to do. Utility is 
 usefulness exerted. Utility is in ac- 
 tion ; usefulness in inherent nature, 
 character, property, or quality. Use 
 is the habitual or systematic application 
 of that which has usefulness. 
 
 "In common life we may observe that 
 the circumstance of utility is always ap- 
 pealed to, nor is it supposed that a gi-eater 
 eulogy can be given to any man, than to 
 display his usefulness to the public, and to 
 enumerate the services which he has per- 
 formed to mankind and to society." — 
 HUMK. 
 
 Avail (Fr. a, i.e., ad, to, and valoir, 
 valer, to be of tvorth, to be useful) ex- 
 presses practical value, and, like the 
 
734 
 
 SfNONYMS 
 
 term value, is wholly indefinite. It 
 points to that kind of usefulnesH or 
 serviceableness which depends not on 
 adaptation or instrumentality, but on 
 the inherent efficacy of things to effect 
 a purpose. As if it should be said, 
 " Entreaties and tears availed no- 
 thing." 
 
 " But prayer against His absolute decree. 
 No more avails than breath against the 
 
 wind 
 Blown stifling back on him that breathes it 
 
 forth. 
 
 Milton. 
 
 V. 
 
 VAIN. FUUITLESS. iNTEFFECTUAt,. 
 
 Useless. 
 
 Vain (Lat. vdnus) extends to 
 thoughts, deeds, and efforts. That is 
 vain which wants substance, reality, 
 solidity. 
 
 Fruitless (Lat. fructus, fruit) is 
 generally applied to an undertaking 
 which fails, not from inherent weak- 
 ness or unsoundness, but fi-om some 
 external obstacle, accidental or de- 
 signed, which has frustrated it. A 
 man may give the best possible advice 
 to another ; but where prejudice and 
 obstinacy exist such advice will be 
 fruitless. On the other hand. Useless 
 points to what is in itself and perma- 
 nently uncalculated to compass the 
 end proposed, often implymg that 
 means are employed which do not suit 
 the case, or efforts that are misdirected 
 or misemployed. Fruitless points to 
 the disappointment of the agent as 
 well as the failure of the act. 
 
 Ineffectual (Lat. in-, not, ejf'ec- 
 tus, an effect) has no reference to this, 
 and is employed in simple reference 
 to cause and effect, to cases in which 
 the means employed are inadequate 
 to the end proposed. An ineffectual 
 attempt fads. A fruitless attempt 
 disappoints as well as fails. A vain 
 attempt ought never to have been 
 made. 
 " Full sure, he thought, Troy's fatal hour 
 
 arrived. 
 Ta/w thought 1 he knew not the designs of 
 
 [vain] 
 
 'ks and Trojajis he or- 
 
 That both to Gr» 
 
 dained 
 
 Hard conflicts yet, and agonies and groans." 
 COWPER, flind. 
 
 " One can scarcely read such accounts as 
 these without condemning the vain efforts 
 of dying patriotism which laboured so fruit- 
 lessly (may one not almost say so weakly?) 
 to protract the liberty of such a people."— 
 Bishop Hurd. 
 
 " But yet the most careful endeavours do 
 not always meet with success, and even our 
 blessed Saviour's preaching, who spake as 
 never man spake, was ineffectual to many." 
 — Stillingfleet. 
 
 " Nature never makes excellent things 
 for mean or no uses ; and it is hardly to be 
 conceived that our infinitely wise Creator 
 should make so admirable a faculty, which 
 comes nearest the excellency of His own 
 incomprehensible being, to be so idle and 
 uselessly employed, at least a part of its 
 time here, as to think constantly without 
 remembering any of those thoughts, with- 
 out doing any good to itself or others, or 
 being any way useful to any other part of 
 the creation." — Locke. 
 
 VALOUR. Courage. 
 
 One may have Valour (Lat.u^Y/tje, 
 to be strong) without Courage (Fr. 
 courage, cxur, the heart) ; but the man 
 of courage will not be found destitute 
 of valour. Valour is great boldness 
 in confronting the attacks of a perso- 
 nal enemy, and may, after all, in per- 
 sons whose trade is not war, be very 
 seldom, if ever, called for. But 
 courage is required every day, and all 
 the day long, against many things 
 which are not swords or clubs, viz., 
 the trials, difficulties, and privations 
 of life, or the approach of death — 
 there is no room here for valour, but 
 all must be met with courage. Valour 
 is chivalrous action, perhaps; but 
 courage is chivalrous feeling as well. 
 And so, e.g., where the man of valour 
 despises only the perils of vengeance, 
 the man of courage may despise its 
 satisfactions. 
 
 VANISH. Disappear. 
 
 Vanish (Lat. vanesc^rgf to pass away, 
 to disappear) betokens a rapid Dis- 
 APPEARANCE(Lat. dis-, apart, and Eng. 
 appear); while disappearance is gene- 
 ric, and may be gradual or sudden. 
 Ordinary laws, movements, or jausea 
 lead to tilings disappearing ; sudden, 
 unusual, or strange causes, to their 
 
[version] 
 
 ▼anishing. That which vanishes is 
 eommonlv not expected to appear 
 again. That which disappears may 
 do so periodically, and periodically re- 
 appear. 
 
 " For when he bowed 
 His hoary head, and strove to drink the 
 
 flood. 
 Vanish' d, absorb'd, and at his feet adust. 
 The soil appeared, dried instant by the 
 
 gods." CowPER, Odyssey. 
 
 " Thus then he disappeared, was rarifyed. 
 For 'tis improper speei-h to say he dy'd. 
 He was exhal'd ; his great Creator drew 
 His spirit, as the sun the morning dew." 
 Dryden. 
 
 VARIATION. Change. V.^- 
 
 niETY. 
 
 VAniATiON (Lat. viiviatibnem) con- 
 si.sts in being sometimes of one fashion 
 or appearance, and sometimes of an- 
 other. 
 
 Change (Fr. changer. Low Lat. 
 crtm/>mre) consists in simply ceasing to 
 be of the same. Hence change may 
 be to an opposite quality or state, 
 while variation is within the limits 
 of the same kind. Variation may be 
 frequent change within limits. The 
 inconstant are liable to change, the 
 fickle and capricious to variation. As 
 successive cnanges in the same sub- 
 ject constitute variation, so a multi- 
 tude of different objects is needed to 
 constitute variety. The variation of 
 the magnetic needle. A variety of 
 colours. Modes of human conduct 
 exhibit variation. Natural species 
 exhibit varieties. 
 
 Venal. Mercenary. 
 
 Venal (Lat. vinalis, offered for sate) 
 IS a far stronger term than Merce- 
 nary (Lat. mercinariuSy hired for 
 wages). The mercenary character is 
 influenced by desire of gain, rather 
 than by other influences. The venal 
 character is ready to sacrifice honour 
 to gain, and, as it were, to sell himself 
 for profit. The mercenary man merely 
 calculates the profit of all he does. 
 \' ENALStands to Mercenary as sale to 
 hire. The barbarian troops who 
 served in the Roman army for pay 
 were mercenary. The Praetorian 
 guards, who would murder one em- 
 peror or elect another for the highest 
 bribe were venal. The venal person 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 735 
 
 parts with his individuality ; the mer- 
 cenary only partially surrenders him- 
 self. A saying of Brissot is quoted, 
 " My pen is venal, that it may not be 
 mercenary ; " as if he had said, " 1 sell 
 my writings, that 1 may not have to 
 let out my pen." 
 
 "Oh, through her strain 
 Breathe thy pathetic eloquence, that 
 
 moulds 
 Th' attentive senate, charms, persuades^ 
 
 exalts, 
 Of honest zeal th' indignant lightning 
 
 throws, 
 And shakes Corruption on her venal 
 
 throne." Thomsox. 
 
 " Thus needy wits a vile revenue made, 
 And verse became a mercenary trade." 
 Dryden. 
 
 VENIAL. Pardonarle. 
 
 Venial ( Lat. vtnia, indulgence, par- 
 don) is nearly equivalent with 1'ar- 
 DONABLE {see Pardon). Pardonable, 
 however, may be employed of things 
 ofless moment than Venial. We speak 
 of venial sins or offences; of pardon- 
 able weaknesses, oversights, mis- 
 takes, and the like. This comes of 
 the circumstance that Venial is a tech- 
 nical term theologically. Venial are 
 opposed to mortal sins. 
 
 " There is no certainty of distinction be- 
 tween the mortal and venial sins, there 
 being no catalogues of one and the other, 
 save only that they usually reckon but 
 seven deadly sins, and the rest are, or may 
 be easily by the ignorant supposed to be, 
 venial; and even those sins which are under 
 those seven heads are not all mortal, for 
 there are amongst them many ways of 
 changing their mortality into veniality." — 
 Bishop Taylor. 
 
 " That most interesting and pardonable 
 of human weaknesses, love." — Dickens. 
 
 VERSION. Translation. 
 
 There are certain characteristic 
 points of usage in connexion with 
 these two words which it is easier to 
 note than it would be to define strictly 
 wherein the difference lies. 
 
 In tlie first place, Version (Lat. 
 vertire, to turn, to trauslute) is com- 
 monly employed of ancient renderings 
 of books from one language to an- 
 other; while Translation (Lat. 
 translatwnem) is commonly used of 
 such renderings into a modern lan- 
 guage. A committee is appointed 
 
736 
 
 SYNONYMS [vexation] 
 
 for the re-translation of the Scrip- 
 tures. The translators of the Septua- 
 giiit version are unknown. But, on 
 the other hand, the term Version seems 
 to lend itself peculiarly to express 
 any translation of the Bible ; so that 
 we may without impropriety say that 
 when such translators have finished 
 their work, we shall be in possession 
 of a new version of the Scriptures. 
 On the other hand, we should not 
 speak of a new version of the works 
 of Homer. A version implies less 
 strongly than translation the personal 
 action of the translator. When ver- 
 sion is so referred to it, has a somewhat 
 different sense. An individual's trans- 
 lation of a passage takes in the ideas 
 of peculiar style, with its degi-ees of 
 superiority or inferiority ; his version 
 of the passage would mean his view 
 of its right representation. A diffe- 
 rent witness will give a different ver- 
 sion of a transaction. The translation 
 is the production of the translator. It 
 is more or less lively, accurate, faith- 
 ful to the original ; the version is a 
 literary, natural, or historical form in 
 which a work appears, and is de- 
 posited. It is more or less ancient, 
 authentic, scarce, and the like. 
 
 VEXATION. MoRTiFicATior, 
 Chagrin. 
 
 Vexation (Lat. vexare, to vei} 
 rises from troubles of a teasing na- 
 ure, especially such as are repeated 
 
 or recurrent. It is the petty crossing 
 
 of our wishes and views. 
 
 Mortification (Lat. mortificare, 
 to hilt, to cause death) relates to what 
 is more closelypersonal,asour hopes, 
 pride, and the like. That vexes which 
 annoys; that mortifies which both 
 disappoints and humiliates us; or, 
 while it vexes us, interferes with our 
 self-complacency, and reverses what 
 we had set our minds upon. This is 
 in accordance with the etymology of 
 the term Mom ify. This means first to 
 destroy the vital power and functions, 
 then to do this in a partial manner, as 
 to abate their vigour by fasting or 
 other bodily discipline, the purpose of 
 this being to bring the passions into 
 Bubjection. and the soul into a state 
 
 of humiliation. The term Mortify is 
 used of such circumstances as dis- 
 appointed or humiliated us. 
 
 Chagrin (literally, a galling as by 
 hard leather) is a combination of both 
 the others. Chagrin is the French 
 form shagreen, the Eng. of the Turkish 
 sagri, the well-known preparation. 
 
 " Hear me, and touch Belinda with 
 chagrin." — PopK. 
 
 '* Her taxes are more injudiciously and 
 more oppressively imposed, more vexa- 
 tiousiy collected." — BuRKE. 
 
 " How often is the ambitious man mor^t- 
 fied with the very praises he receives, if 
 they do not rise so high as he thinks they 
 ought 1 "— AXrDISON. 
 
 VIBRATION. Oscillation. 
 
 The former (Lat. vibrare) is the re- 
 sult of the inherent elasticity of sub- 
 stances, the latter (Lat. oscillationeniy 
 a swinging) is the effect of gravitation. 
 Time is measured by the oscillations 
 of the pendulum ; tone is determined 
 and constituted by a certain number 
 of vibrations in a given time. A bell 
 which is swung may diustrate at the 
 same time vibration and oscdlation — 
 vibration by the elasticity of the metal 
 when struck by the clapper, oscilla- 
 tion when set swinging. 
 
 VICE. See Crime. 
 
 VICISSITUDE. Change. 
 
 As Change (Fr. changer, L. Lat. 
 itmihiare) is generic, so Vicissitude 
 (Lat. vtcissttiid^nem, change, alterna- 
 tion) is change of state in those things 
 by which men are affected ; as the 
 vicissitudes of fortune or the seasons. 
 Mere alteration of state is change in 
 the literal and physical sense. Vicis- 
 situde is that which exhibits the cha- 
 racter of changefulness. 
 
 " Such are the vicissitudes of the world 
 through all its parts, that day and night, 
 labour and rest, hurry and retirement en- 
 dear each other; such are the changes that 
 keep the mind in action. We desire, we 
 pursue, we obtain, we are satiated, we 
 desire something else, and begin a new 
 pursuit." — llnmbler. 
 
 VICTORY. Conquest. Triumph. 
 
 Success. 
 
 Victory (Lat. victoria) is the 
 bringing of defeat upon an enemy or 
 an nnttigoiiiat. 
 
[virtue] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 737 
 
 Conquest (Lat. conqmrh-e, part. 
 conqivmtus, to annex) is the bringing 
 by force of some person or possession 
 into one's own power. 
 
 Triumph (Lat. triumphiis) is the 
 external demonstration of victory by 
 formal public ceremonial, or by a de- 
 meanour of exultation. 
 
 Success (Lat. successus) is the ar- 
 rival of a person or a project at the 
 appointed termination. Some degree 
 of struggle against difficulties is im- 
 plied in success, but it is indefinite ; 
 and success may be due as much (or 
 even more) to fortune as to courage, 
 energy, or skill. 
 
 VIEW. Survey. 
 
 To View (O. Fr. veu, part, of voir, 
 to see) and to Survey (0. Fr. surveuir, 
 to overlook) both denote looking, lor 
 the purpose of examination ; but View 
 is an instantaneous taking in of the 
 whole of an object. Survey denotes 
 a gradual and measured inspection of 
 it in detail. To view a thing is to 
 look at it ; to survey is to look over it. 
 
 " In her arch'd recess 
 He slept the night beside her, and by day 
 Reclining on the rocks that lined the 
 
 shore. 
 And viewing wishfully the barren deep. 
 Wept, groaned, desponded, sighed, and 
 wept again." Cowper, Odyssey. 
 
 " Let observation, with extensive view. 
 
 Survey mankind from China to Peru, " 
 Johnson. 
 
 VIGOROUS. Strong. Robust. 
 
 The Vigorous person (Lat. vigor , 
 farce, vigour) may be Strong of mind, 
 the Robust person (Lat. robustus) is 
 only called so in reference to his 
 bodily constitution. Energy and ac- 
 tivity belong to the vigorous. The 
 vigorous is energetic in doing, the 
 sti'ong is powerful in enduring. Vigo- 
 rous expresses activity of mind or 
 body, which may be shown casually, 
 while Strong and Robust belong to 
 permanent states — the former of 
 muscle, the latter of temperament 
 and constitution. A man may do a 
 vigorous thing from sudden excite- 
 ment or courage. He may be mus- 
 cularly strong without being constitu- 
 tionally robust. The strong man can 
 lift a great weight ; the robust man 
 
 can bear fatigue ; a vigorous man 
 would attack violently. A strong 
 man would bear up under what might 
 overwhelm another. 
 
 VIOLENCE. Force. 
 
 Violence (Lat. vi^lentia) is undue 
 or abnormal Force, whether of the 
 powers and influences of Nature or of 
 the will of sentient beings. The vio- 
 lence of men exceeds law. The vio- 
 lence of the elements exceeds the 
 avei-age. (See Force.) 
 
 " Violences and extremities of Nature." 
 —Bishop Taylor. 
 
 VIRTUAL. Potential. 
 
 Virtual (Lat. virtus, strength or 
 goodness) belongs to that which is 
 present, though not in fact ; Poten- 
 tial (Lat. potent ia, power) to that 
 which is present, but not in act. Vir- 
 tual is opposed to formal, potential 
 to actual. The virtual is strong but 
 indefinite. The potential is pojiver- 
 ful but inactive. A man is virtually 
 
 g resent by his proxy — tliat is, though 
 e is not present in fact, the effect is 
 as if he were. Man's duration is 
 potentially infinite or eternal — that is, 
 though it be not actually so, it is 
 capable of being made so. Virtuality 
 is practical effectiveness, potentiality 
 is implicit, that is, undeveloped sus- 
 ceptibility, capability, or power. 
 
 VIRTUE. Honour. 
 
 It will be hardly necessary to ob- 
 serve that Honour (Lat. hiinorem) is 
 here taken for the principle and not 
 the award of honour, in which sense 
 it is synonymous with gloi-y and/am«, 
 q.V. 
 
 Virtue (Lat. virtutem) is the act- 
 ing upon the rule " Do to others as 
 you would that they should do to 
 you." Virtue is moral excellence, 
 that which gives moral merit and 
 value. Hence the degree of virtue in 
 an action will depend upon the cir- 
 cumstances and the person. A temp- 
 tation to dishonesty resisted by a rich 
 man may be a common duty, in a 
 poor man the same thing might be a 
 high virtue. The virtuous man actJ? 
 from a recognition of the force of 
 truth and right, which he believes 
 
 3 B 
 
738 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 [visceba] 
 
 ought to have tne precedence of all 
 other motives, as being tlie most 
 worthy ; the man of honour thinks 
 and feels in a noble kind of way. He 
 is not a creature of obedience or re- 
 flexion, or of imitation ; but he thinks 
 and speaks and acts with a sort of 
 loftiness which makes him his own 
 director, a law unto himself. Honour 
 is an instinct of virtue, defective in 
 principle, yet frank and unflinching. 
 It is a natural quality, yet capable of 
 being developed by education, ca- 
 pable of laying down principles and 
 following examples. 
 
 VISCERA. Intestines. En- 
 trails. Bowels. 
 
 Of these the generic term is En- 
 trails (Fr. entrailles). It comprises 
 the rest. The Viscera (Lat. viscera) 
 are those internal organs which are 
 destined to produce the changes need- 
 ful to health or life. Such are the 
 heart 
 like. 
 
 The Intestines (Lat. intestimis, 
 intus, within) are properly certain 
 substances internally fleshy and ex- 
 ternally membranous, which serve the 
 purpose of digesting, purifying, and 
 distributing the chyle, and voiding 
 the excrements. The viscera are 
 different bodies charged each with its 
 own proper functions. The intestines 
 form one continuous body, though 
 divided into specific portions. 
 
 Bowels (Fr. boyau, O. Fr. boyel) 
 only differs from Intestines as the 
 popular term from the scientific. 
 
 VISITANT. Visitor. 
 
 Visitors (L. Lat. visitdtorem, visi- 
 tare, to visit) are always persons. 
 
 Visitants is employed with more 
 of poetic latitude to denote any living 
 creatures which visit. An angel might 
 be called a celestial visitant. The 
 birds which come back in the spring 
 may be called the visitants of the 
 grove. 
 
 He alone. 
 To find where Adam, sheltered, took his 
 
 way, 
 Not unpereeived of Adam, who to Eve, 
 While the great visitant approached, thus 
 spake." Milton. 
 
 " Distingnishinfe the familiar inet,^ or 
 relation fi-om the most modest visitor" — 
 Tatler. 
 
 VOTE. SUFVRAGE. 
 
 Vote (Fr. vote, Lnt. votum, a vow) 
 is generic. 
 
 Suffrage (Lat. suffrdgium, a vote) 
 is specific. A vote may be given on 
 any subject, being a formal or consti- 
 tutional expression of opinion on the 
 part of a member of a body in regard 
 to the actions or interests of the body. 
 A suffrage is a vote on certain mat- 
 ters, as on a controverted opinion, or 
 on the appointment of a person to an 
 office of trust. The suffrage seems to 
 imply more than the support implied 
 by a vote. A suffrage is an expres- 
 sion of sentiment, so sti'ong that it 
 carries sometimes the meaning of a 
 petition. It may be added that suf- 
 frage is nothing until it is expressed. 
 Vote denotes a power or privilege as 
 well as the exercise of it. A man has 
 a vote and gives it. He gives his 
 suflfrage. 
 
 " To vote in this way, to vote incorrup- 
 tibly, to vote on high motives, to vote on 
 large principles, to vote honestly, requires 
 a great amount of information." — F. W. 
 Robertson. 
 
 " I ask your voices and your suffrages." — 
 Shakespeare. 
 
 " I firmly believe that there is a pnrga- 
 tory, and that the souls therein detained 
 are helped by the suffrages (prayers) of 
 the faithful."— Creeti of Pius IV. 
 
 VOUCH. Attest. 
 
 Vouching (0. Fr. voucher, to call— 
 Lat. v)icdre — a third person to repre- 
 sent one's self when attacked in one's 
 rights ; an old law term) is a kind of 
 Attestation (Lat. attestdri, to hear 
 witness) in which the witness volun- 
 tarily undertakes to make himself re- 
 sponsible for the truth of what he 
 says. Hence the term is sometimes 
 employed in the sense of making a 
 promise for another, or undertaking 
 that he shall do something. Attesta- 
 tion relates to the past, or what has 
 happened ; Vouch, also to the future, 
 or what has been undertaken to be 
 done. 
 
 " I wi'ite concerning a man so fresh in 
 all people's remembrance, that is so lately 
 dead, and was so much and so well known* 
 
[waste] 
 
 that I shall have many vouchers who will 
 be ready to justify me in all that I am to 
 relate." — Bub>'ET. 
 
 " AttestaH-m of the chief priests and 
 scribes to the fore-appoiuted place of our 
 Savi«or"3 nativity."— Bishop Hall. 
 
 W. 
 
 WANDER. Deviate. Err. 
 Stray. Swerve. Diverge. 
 
 Wander (A. S. wandvian, to ivan- 
 der) is indefinite and continuous. It 
 is the continuous result of mind or 
 purpose. It does not imply a dere- 
 liction of any straight line or ap- 
 pointed course, thouo^h certain wan- 
 derings are of this nature. In 
 wandering there is discontinuity of 
 progress, whether the case be one of 
 bodily or mental wandering. It does 
 not involve of necessity any departure 
 from a line of obligation or right. 
 
 Deviate ( Lat. de,from, and via, a 
 way) is definite and instantaneous. 
 A person or thing has deviated the 
 moment that it has left an appointed 
 or regular line of movement, plan, or 
 rule. It is, unlike Wander, applicable 
 to merely mechanical movement. 
 
 " There Nature deviates, and here wan- 
 ders vni\." Pope. 
 
 Err (Lat, errdre, to wander, to err) 
 is always purely intellectual, involv- 
 in;^ a misconception or miscalculation 
 of truth. It is employed only in a 
 secondary sense of moral things in 
 relation to an analogous line or path 
 of rectitude. 
 
 Stray (O. Fr. estrayer, L. Lat. 
 extrarius, a strayed beast) denotes 
 illicit wandering, as from a direct 
 course, or from a constituted com- 
 pany, or fi-om prescribed limits. It 
 is the result, not so much of delibe- 
 rate purpose, as of the absence of 
 purpose, and the effect of heedless- 
 ness. It is the fault of the young, the 
 idle, and the thoughtless to stray, 
 as it is the lot of humanity at large 
 to err. 
 
 Swerve (Sw. svarfa, to turn: La- 
 tham ; cf. Du. swei^ven, to wander) is 
 ♦o deviate from the line of right pur- 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 739 
 
 posely and consciously, or mechani- 
 cally. 
 
 *'Alas! where at this moment is the 
 Church of France ? Her altars demolished, 
 her treasures spoiled, her holy things pro- 
 faned, her persecuted clergy and her plun- 
 dered prelates icandercrs on the earth." — 
 Bishop Horsley. 
 
 "We have erred and strayed from Thy 
 ways like lost sheep," — English, Prayer 
 Book. 
 
 " Our affections and passions put fre- 
 quently a bias so secret and yet so strong 
 on our judgments, as to make tht-m swerve 
 from the direction of right reason." — 
 BoLINGBROKE. 
 
 Diverge (Lat. divergiunij a point 
 of separation, dis- 2indvergire,to incliiu 
 or tend), unlike the others, is applic- 
 able not only to one, but also to two 
 or more moving objects or lines. It 
 may be a conscious or unconscious 
 process, and unlike Devi.ate denotes 
 nothing of error or wrong. I deviate 
 from the path when I do not know it 
 or lose sight of it, I diverge from it 
 to take another. 
 
 " The centre of six ways 
 Diverging each from each like equal rays." 
 OOWPKR. 
 
 WARRANT. Guarantee. 
 
 These words are etymologically 
 identical, warrant being the English 
 form of the French guarantir ; and in 
 their primary senses they are identi- 
 cal also, namely, to undertake that 
 something shall be forthcoming from 
 another ; as the payment of a debt or 
 the performance of a duty. Hence, 
 to undertake to secure anything to an- 
 other. But to Warrant has passed 
 beyond this into the sense of holding 
 a person harmless for doing an act ; 
 hence, to authorize. 
 "Canst thou, and honoured with a Chris- 
 tian name. 
 Buy what is woman-born, and feel no 
 
 shame. 
 Trade in the blood of innocence, and plead 
 Expedience as a warrant for the deed ? " 
 COWPER. 
 
 " The treaty of Nimeguen, of which the 
 King of England was i/tiarantee." — BiTR- 
 XET. 
 
 WASTE. Squander. Dissipate. 
 
 The two last are modes of the first. 
 To Waste (A. S. wtstan) is primarily 
 to desolate, then to wear away ; then 
 to spread, or gpread unwarilv, un- 
 
740 
 
 STNONTMS 
 
 [watch] 
 
 necessarily or without return. He 
 wastes w' o lavishes. He also very 
 often waL-ces who neglects. 
 
 Squander (probably a nasalized 
 form of scatter, with which in East 
 Anglia squander is synonymous ; and 
 compare O. Germ, schwenden, to 
 vanish, dwindle) is always active and 
 positive — to spend lavishly or pro- 
 fusely without need and without re- 
 turn. As to squander is to waste m 
 the gross, so to Dissipate (Lat. diss^i- 
 pare, to scatter, to squander)is to waste 
 in detail, bit by bit. Want of plan 
 may lead to squandering. Want of 
 self-constraint in the purchase of 
 pleasure in all forms leads to dissi- 
 
 Eiting. Extravagance squanders, 
 evity dissipates. Waste is more 
 general than Squander and Dissipate. 
 VVe may waste resources of any kind ; 
 as time, opportunities, power, talents. 
 We are not said to squander or dissi- 
 pate anything but money, or such re- 
 sources as are analogous to it. 
 
 " What honour that. 
 But tedious waste of time, to sit and hear 
 So many hollow compliments and lies — 
 Outlandish flatteries ? " MiLTON. 
 
 " And such expense as pinches parents 
 
 blue. 
 And mortifies the liberal hand of love. 
 Is squandered in pursuit of idle sports 
 And vicious pleasures." CowPER. 
 
 " We see the vanity of the living in their 
 boundless provision for futurity, and in the 
 dissipation of the large fortunes of covetous 
 persons by the extravagance of the heirs." 
 —Priestley. 
 
 WATCH. Observe. 
 
 Watching (identical wiihwaking), 
 (A . S. wacan, to awake, act. and neut., 
 and wcKcan, to watch), is a strict, con- 
 stant, close, and eager Observation 
 (Lat. ohservkre). 
 
 We Observe with coolness the 
 
 ?)resent state of a case. We watch 
 or what is to take place hereafter. 
 Where we are interested we observe. 
 Where we are suspicious we watch. 
 
 WATCHFUL. Wakeful. Vigi- 
 lant. 
 
 He is Wakeful who does not or 
 cannot sleep ; or, in a more extended 
 sense, whose senses are alive and 
 ready to be acted upon. 
 
 He is Watchful who is careful to 
 observe closely. 
 
 He is Vigilant (Lat. vigilare, to 
 keep awake) who is actively watchful. 
 A policeman must be wakeful, or he 
 will go to sleep on his rounds ; he 
 must be watchful, or much will 
 escape his notice which he ought to 
 have observed, or robberies will be 
 committed which might have been 
 prevented. He must be vigilant, if 
 he has taken upon himself to act as a 
 detective. We speak of a watchful 
 observer; of a vigilant inquirer. 
 
 " He must watchfully look to his own 
 steps who is to guide others by his autho- 
 rity and example." — Barrow. 
 
 " It is not iron bands nor hundred eyes. 
 Nor brazed walls, nor many MJrt/ce/MZ spies." 
 Spenser. 
 " While we watch vigilantly over every 
 political measure, and communicate an 
 alarm through the empire with a speed 
 almost equal to the shock of electricity, 
 there will be no danger that a king should 
 establish despotism, even though he were 
 to invade the rights of his people at the 
 head of a standing army." — Knox 
 
 WAVE. Billow. Surge. 
 Breaker. 
 
 Wave (A. S. weeg, a wave) is 
 generic, being an oscillating mass or 
 ridge of fluid, commonly water, 
 though we speak analogously of 
 waves of the atmosphere and of light. 
 The rest are specific. 
 
 Billow (Dan. bolge, connected 
 with bulge, bilge, bole, bellu, &c. &c.) 
 is the largest kind of sea-wave. 
 
 Surge (Lat. surgere, to nse) is a 
 swelling and subsiding wave, the 
 term being more commonly used in 
 the plural. 
 
 Breaker is a wave of which the 
 top is separated into foam, and broken 
 off from the body of the wave either 
 by the force of the wind or the im- 
 pact of the body of water upon rocks 
 or a shallow bottom. 
 
 WEALTH. Affluence. Opu- 
 lence. Riches. 
 
 Wealth (A. S. wela, well beings 
 riches) is the simplest and the geneno 
 term, denoting at first prosperity, 
 weal as opposed to woe, and after- 
 
[wisdom] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 741 
 
 wards large possessions of money, 
 poods, or land. 
 
 Affluence (Lat. afflucre, to flow 
 toivards) carries with it the idea of 
 large sources and unfailing supplies 
 of the good things of this life, espe- 
 cially of those elegances and luxu- 
 ries which are the tokens of wealth. 
 
 Opulence (Lat. 'dpiilentia, riches) 
 carries with it the idea of abundance, 
 as Riches (Fr. richesse, the noun 
 being therefore in English properly 
 singular, not plural) of value. Riches 
 expresses an abundance of valuable 
 things in-espectively of ownership, as 
 Wealth may express the same ; while 
 Affluence and Opulence are not 
 spoken of irrespectively of the subjects 
 of them ; -es, riches is a snare to many ; 
 the wealth of London is enormous. 
 Affluence, Opulence, and Riches 
 are used only in the sense of material 
 possessions. Affluence is hardly ap- 
 plicable, like Opulencl, to localities. 
 Opulent (not affluent) provinces or 
 cities. So much more strictly rela- 
 tive to persons are wealth, affluence, 
 and opulence, that men's condition 
 might be spoken of as one of either 
 of these ; but it would be impossible 
 to speak of a condition of riches. 
 Riches and opulence diflFer in that 
 riches is an abundance of good things, 
 opulence is the assemblage of enjoy- 
 ments which riclies can procure. A 
 miser is rich, not opulent. Possession 
 and enjoyment are the two conditions 
 of opulence. 
 
 " That wealth consists in money, or in 
 gold and silver, is a popular notion which 
 naturally arises from the double action of 
 money as the instrument of commerce and 
 as the measure of xaAue."— Smitk, Wealth 
 of Natio7is. 
 
 "Though an unwieldy affluence may 
 afford some empty pleasure to the imagi- 
 nation, yet that small pleasure is far from 
 being able to countervail the embittering 
 cares that attend an overgi-own fortune." — 
 
 BOYLK. 
 
 The wealth of the Medici made them 
 masters of Florence, though it is probable 
 that it was not considerable compared to 
 the united property of that opulent repub- 
 lic."— HuMK. 
 
 '* With the greater part of rich people, 
 the chief enjoyment of riches consists in the 
 parade of riches, which, in their eye, is 
 aerer so complete as when they appear 
 
 to possess those decisive marks of opulence 
 which nobody can possess but themselves." 
 —Smith, Wealth of Nations. 
 
 WIND. Breeze. Blast. Gale. 
 Gust. 
 
 Of these. Wind (A. S. wind) is 
 the most comprehensive and indefi- 
 nite. 
 
 Bkeeze (Fr. brise, It. brezza, Sp. 
 brisa (N. E. wind), origin unknown: 
 Littr£) is a gentle, orderly wind. 
 
 Blast (A. S. blcsst) denotes vio- 
 lence or effort of blowing ; as the blast 
 of a trumpet, of bellows, of artillery. 
 
 A Gale (Icel. gola, a breeze) is a 
 strong but steady wind. 
 
 A Gust (Icel. giifitr) is a wind at 
 once violent and fitful, or, rather, it is 
 itself a fit of wind. 
 
 WISDOM. Prudence. 
 
 Prudence (Lat. prudentiu, for pravi- 
 dentia) is a reasonable foresight. 
 
 Wisdom (A. S. vnsdom) makes us 
 act and think to the purpose. Pru- 
 dence prevents us from acting and 
 thinking to the contrary. The one is 
 positive and the other negative. The 
 one seeks to find the rio;ht way for ac- 
 complishing its ends, the other seeks 
 to make itself acquainted with foe 
 wTong with a view to avoiding it. 
 The wise man employs what seems to 
 be the best means of success, walking 
 by the light of reason. The prudent 
 man takes the way that he thinks the 
 most sure, and trusts not himself to 
 unknown paths. Wisdom is higher 
 than prudence, for it has truth for its 
 object, while prudence proposes hap- 
 piness. Wisdom is reason made per- 
 fect by knowledge. Prudence is right 
 reason applied to the conduct of life, 
 and therefore comes largely from ex- 
 perience of life. Wisdom is theo- 
 retical, prudence practical. Of all 
 the qualities of the mind wisdom is 
 the highest, and prudence the most 
 usefiil. Wisdom is not properly a 
 virtue, but only so far as it is brought 
 to bear upon morals. Prudence is one 
 of the cardinal virtues, sharing its 
 place with temperance, justice, and 
 rectitude. Wisdom shows generally 
 the end and the way. Prudence, with 
 its practical knowledge and expeci- 
 
742 
 
 ence, will often point out ways with 
 which wisdom does not happen to be 
 cognizant. Wisdom enlightened by 
 knowledge dictates ti'ue precepts. 
 Prudence aided by experience recom- 
 mends reasonable rules. Wisdom 
 takes high and broad views, prudence 
 deals with details of conduct and 
 counts its steps. The one thinks well, 
 the other acts well. It was this wis- 
 dom that Solomon asked from on high. 
 And so wisdom guides while prudence 
 cautions. It may be said that wisdom 
 contains prudence as a part of itself. 
 One cannot be wise without being 
 prudent, but one may be after a sort 
 prudent without being wise. So we 
 speak of the Almighty as perfectly 
 wise, not prudent; for they are strong 
 who are wise, but the weak may be 
 prudent. Yet though prudence is 
 only apart of wisdom, wisdom is with- 
 out it worse than imperfect. Pru- 
 dence is wisdom's practical safeguard. 
 
 WISH. Desire. 
 
 In Wish (A. S. wtscan, to wish, to 
 adopt) the feeling is gentler, and the 
 object more remote. 
 
 In Desire (Fr. d^sir, Lat. desidt- 
 riiim) the feeling is more eager, and 
 .he object more at hand. Wishes are 
 at most warm and strong. Desires 
 may be impetuous and ungovernable. 
 In expressing one's feelings toward 
 others over whom we have authority, 
 it is a much milder fonn of command 
 to eay, " 1 wish you to do this," than 
 to say, " I desire you to do this," 
 though the feeling prompting the in- 
 junction may be the same. The former 
 is the gentler, the latter the more 
 authoritative mode of speech. Desire 
 errs on the side of a want of regulation, 
 wishes on the side of misapprehension 
 of good and of undue number. 
 
 " A icish is an inactive desire. It is the 
 result of that longing after happiness so na- 
 tcral to man in cases where no expecta- 
 tions can be formed, no efforts can be 
 made."— Cog an. 
 
 " Desire influential to action may be de- 
 fined that uneasy sensation excited in the 
 mind by the view or by the contemplation 
 of any desii'able good which is not in our 
 possession, which we are solicitous to ob- 
 tain, and of which tlie attainment appears 
 at least possible."— iiid. 
 
 SYNONYMS [wish] 
 
 WITNESS. Dep NtNT. 
 
 The Witness (A. S. witnes, know- 
 ledge, testimony) is he who knows 
 from personal perception or observa- 
 tion, and, in an extended sense, a 
 person who for legal purposes attests 
 generally ; while Deponent (Lat. 
 dtpdnere, to lay down ; and, afterwards, 
 to bear witness) is one who gives his 
 evidence in a court of law. Every 
 deponent is a witness ; but every wit- 
 ness is not a deponent, as, for in- 
 stance, he who witnesses the signing 
 of a document. Witness is the ge- 
 neric, Deponent the specific and tech- 
 nical term. In law the deponent is 
 one who gives written testimony un- 
 der oath, which is called a deposition, 
 to be used in the trial of a case before 
 a court of justice, as distinguished 
 from the aflSant who makes an affidavit 
 or declaration under oath to establish 
 the truth of his statement. 
 
 " There is satisfactory evidence that 
 many professing to be original witnesses of 
 the Christian miracles passed their lives in 
 labours, dangers, and sufferings, voluntai-ily 
 undergone in attest«tion of the accounts 
 which they delivered, and solely in conse- 
 quence of their belief in the truth of those 
 accounts, and that they also submitted from 
 the same motives to new rules of conduct." 
 — Pai^y. 
 
 " The pleader having spoke his best, 
 Had witness ready to attest. 
 Who fairly could on oath depose. 
 When question on the fact arose. 
 That every article was true ; 
 No further these deponents knew." 
 
 Swirr. 
 
 WOOD. FoRBST. Grove. Brake 
 Thicket. Copse. 
 
 A space of ground covered by trees 
 is the idea common to these terms ; 
 but a Wood (A. S. wudu) is smaller 
 than a Forest (Fr. f'oret, Lat. ftirest is, 
 unenclosed woodland; see Bracket's 
 account), more cared for and culti- 
 vated. The wood is near human 
 dwellings and often visited. It is 
 traversed by frequent footsteps. It 
 is bright with wild flowers, and re- 
 sounds to the songs of birds. The 
 forest is wild, remote, and unfamiliar, 
 prhaps impenetrable, little trodden 
 by human feet, the resort of the 
 hunter, the haunt of wild animals. 
 In its original meeoing the forest did 
 
[wrath] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 743 
 
 not necessarily imply trees, though , 
 trees naturally grew in most unculti- \ 
 vated solitudes. The term forest | 
 meant a space of ground kept ibr the i 
 chase, and belonging to the king or a i 
 noble, and subject to peculiar laws. 
 
 The Grove (A. S.gi-df), connected 
 with the verb grave and groove, is ety- 
 mologically a place cut out among 
 trees. The grove differs from the 
 wood and the forest. It is commonly 
 frequented. Its trees are cultivated 
 to their full heiglit, and it is cleared 
 of all underwood. It was of old the 
 site of the temple of some deity, or 
 was a shady retreat of students and 
 philoBophers. 
 
 WORK. Labour. Toil. 
 
 Work (A. S. weorc, tao^/c, labour) 
 is the generic term. It may be hard 
 or light. 
 
 Labour (Lat. lUborem) is hard 
 work. 
 
 Toil (0. Du. Uiyl, labour, connected 
 with ti'.lj A. S. tilian) is grievous 
 work. 
 
 WORLDLY. Secular. Tem- 
 poral. 
 
 Worldly (A. S. woruld-lic) means 
 relating to the world, especially rela- 
 ting to this world or life in contradis- 
 tinction to the life to come ; as worldly 
 pleasures, affections, maxims, actions, 
 and the like. 
 
 Secular (Lat. scBciildris ; seciiUun, 
 the age or fashion) means relating to 
 tlie world, in the sense of worldly 
 fashions, habits, or modes of living. 
 
 Temporal (Lat. temporalis, tempiLs, 
 time) means, literally, lasting for a 
 time, as distinguished from eternal. 
 In common parlance. Worldly is op- 
 posed to heavenly ; Temporal, to eter- 
 nal ; Secular, to ecclesiastical or reli- 
 gious. Secular is morally an indiffe- 
 rent term. The same may commonly 
 be said of Temporal; but Worldly 
 has generally a bad sense, as a worldly 
 spirit is one which is imbued by sordid 
 principles of gain, and is wanting in 
 high-mindedness or purity of motive. 
 The Upper House of Parliament in 
 Great Britain consists of Lords spiri- 
 tual and temporal. The office of a 
 
 clergyman is ecclesiastical; that of a 
 schoolmaster in itself secular, though 
 the two are often combined in the same 
 person. 
 
 " When we have called off our thoughts 
 from worldly pursuits and enga|fements, 
 then, and not till then, are we at liberty to 
 fix them on the best, the most deserving 
 and desirable of objects, God." — Atter- 
 BURY. 
 
 " For it is to be considered that men of a 
 secular life and conversation are generally 
 so engaged in the business and affairs of 
 this wyrld, that they very rarely acquire 
 skill enough in religion to conduct them- 
 selves safely to heaven through all those 
 difficulties and temptations that lie in their 
 way."— Scott, Christian Life. 
 
 " This act 
 Shall bruise the head of Satan, crush his 
 
 strength, 
 Defeating Sin and Death, his two main 
 
 aims. 
 And fix far deeper in his head their stings. 
 Than temporal death shall bruise the Vic- 
 tor's heel. 
 Or them whom He redeems." MiLTON. 
 
 WRATH. Anger. Choler. Ire. 
 Rage. 
 
 An impatience and disturbance ot 
 spirit against others is characteristic 
 of these terms. Wrath (A. S. wrek^, 
 wrath) is commonly connected with 
 a proud, vindictive, or imperious na- 
 ture. We speak of the wrath of 
 kings and mighty men, and so the 
 term hardly seems to harmonize with 
 the idea of anger in inferior mortals. 
 We speak especially of the wrath of 
 the Almighty. The term Wrath, un- 
 like Anger, is inapplicable to the pas- 
 sions of inferior animals. Wrath is 
 violent and continuous anger, accom- 
 panied by vindictiveness, or, at least, 
 by a desire of inflicting punishment 
 upon its object. 
 
 " A revenger to execute lurath upon him 
 that doeth evil." — English Bible. 
 
 Anger, on the other hand (Lat. 
 angorem, compression of the neck, from 
 angere, to choke, Gr. ayxitv, lo press 
 tightly), is the term to express the 
 common feeling of men, who are 
 ready to feel keen displeasure against 
 wrong, real or supposed, whether in 
 the case of others or themselves. 
 Anger may be selfish or disinterested. 
 
 "Anger is the strong jmssiou or emotion 
 impressed or excited By a sea»e of iniujrv 
 
744 
 
 SYNONYMS 
 
 WREATH 
 
 received or in contemplation, that is, by the 
 ideaof something of a pernicious nature and 
 tendency being done or intended in viola- 
 tion of some supposed obligation to a con- 
 trary conduct." — CoGAN. 
 
 Choleu (Fr. colere, Lat. chMcra, 
 bile; from Gr. y^oXepa, the cholera) 
 denotes the constitutional aspect of 
 anger, or the feeling- as it affects tlie 
 frame, gestures, and countenance of 
 men. The choleric is quick to Anger, 
 by force of natural tempei-ament. 
 
 " His constitution, indeed, inclined him to 
 be choleric; but he gained so perfect an 
 ascendant over his passion that it never 
 appeared, except sometimes in his counte- 
 nance upon a very high provocation." — 
 BOTLE. 
 
 Ire (Lat. ira) may be taken as some- 
 times a poetic equivalent of Anger. 
 But anger is more severe and enduring; 
 ire, more explosive, less reasoning, 
 pretending less of cause and ground 
 of offence. 
 
 " Breaches through which the wrath of 
 an ire/w^ judge may hereafter break in upon 
 us."— South. 
 
 Rage (Fr. rage, Lat. rdbies) is a 
 vehement, ungovernable ebullition of 
 anger akin to the influence of a dis- 
 ease, breaking forth into extravagant 
 expressions and violence of demean- 
 our. Wrath may be justifiable, and 
 anger may be just ; but rage is a dis- 
 temper of the soul to be regarded only 
 with abhorrence. 
 
 " Anger, in the excess of its violence, 
 when it is excited to a degree of frenzy, so 
 that the mind has totally lost self-com- 
 mand, when it prompts to threats and ac- 
 tions extravagant and atrocious, is termed 
 ra^e."— CoGAN. 
 
 WREATH. Garland. Chaplbt. 
 
 Wreath (A. &.wr(zdh) is anything 
 coacinuously twisted into substantial 
 form or which wears such an appear- 
 ance, as a wreath of vapour or of 
 flowers. 
 
 The Garland (0. Fr. garlande) is 
 a wreath of leaves, flowers, or fea- 
 thers. 
 
 Chaplet (O. Fr. chapelet, a little 
 head-dress) is a garland or wreath to 
 be worn on the head. The chaplet is 
 placed on the person or a statue. The 
 nirland is commonly carried in the 
 hand, and the wreath deposited for 
 decoration or oommemoration in some 
 
 particular locality, or suspended upon 
 some object. 
 
 WRENCH. Wrest. Wring. 
 
 Wrench (A. S. wrencan) denotes 
 the combination, in the exercise ol 
 force, of pulling and twisting. 
 
 Wrest (A. S.ti)r«5fan) denotes the 
 same thing, but superadds the idea of 
 disengagement. A thing is commonly 
 said to be wrenched out, and wrested 
 away, the action of wresting originat- 
 ing in a desire to twist the thing out 
 of some position or possession in which 
 it is held. 
 
 Wring (A. S. wringan) denotes 
 the exercise of a force by twisting, 
 which does not pass beyond the struc- 
 ture of the thing or substance twisted ; 
 as to wring one's hands, to wring a 
 wet cloth. To wring and to wrench 
 may be the work of accident or de- 
 sign; to wrest, always of design. The 
 two former are only used in physical 
 and analogous senses. To wrest has 
 also the moral meaning of distort, as 
 by violent twisting to misinterpret 
 words. 
 
 WRITER. Penman. Author. 
 Scribe. 
 
 Of these, the most generic is Wri- 
 ter, meaning one who writes, whether 
 by writing be meant literary composi- 
 tion or the mere formation of letters 
 by the pen, or any similar process 
 (A. S. writaii). 
 
 Penman is a man who handles a 
 pen (Lat. penna, a feather), and pro- 
 perly means one skilled in the use of 
 the pen mechanically — a master oi 
 caligraphy. 
 
 Author (Lat. auetor) is one whose 
 pen or writing is the medium of ori- 
 ginal thoughts. The term has a 
 familiar and a more dignified mean- 
 ing. A writer of a letter is not termed 
 technically an author, unless the letter 
 passed into a literary form. On the 
 other hand, he who wrote the letter 
 might be called, in the general sense 
 of the term, the author of it, if its 
 contents were canvassed. 
 
 ScRiBK ( Lat. scrihh-e, to write) is a 
 
 f)rofes8ional writer officially and pub- 
 icly appointed, or pxercining the art 
 
(_zeal] 
 
 DISCRIMINATED, 
 
 746 
 
 of transcribing or writing from dicta- 
 tion as a trade. The office belongs to 
 ancient times and foreign countries, 
 rather than to ourselves. 
 
 " The crncifixion of Christ under Pontius 
 Pilate is related by Tacitus, and divers of 
 the most remarkable. circumstances attend- 
 ing it, such as the earthquake and miracu- 
 lous darkness, were recorded iu the public 
 Roman registers, commonly appealed to by 
 the first Christian writers, as what could 
 not be denied by the adversaries them- 
 selves."— Clarke. 
 
 " Sanderson calls him a common penman, 
 who penciled the dialogue (probably the 
 decalogue) in the Dutch Church, London, 
 bis first rise of preferment." — WALPOI.E, 
 Anecdotes of fainting. 
 
 " Aa authorless pamphlet." — Fitllkr. 
 
 " Scribe was a name which, among the 
 Jews, waa applied to two sorts of officers : 
 1. To a civil ; and so it signifies a notary or, 
 in a large sense, any one employed to draw 
 up deecS and writings. 2, This name scribe 
 signifies a church officer, one skilful and 
 conversant in the law to interpret and ex- 
 plain it. '—South. 
 
 Y. 
 
 YIELD. Submit. 
 
 To Yield (A. S. geldan, to pay, 
 yield) is to suiTender one's self in con- 
 sequence of external pressure— 
 
 ** I was not born to yield, thou haughty 
 Scot." 
 
 It differs somewhat from Submit. At 
 least Milton makes a distinction: 
 ** And courage never to submit or yield." 
 To Yield is less voluntary than to 
 Submit. We yield when our force haa 
 been vainly exerted against force 
 which has proved superior to our own. 
 We sometimes submit because it is 
 prudent, or not altogether unconge- 
 nial, or because we recognize superior 
 authority. I yield because I am com- 
 pelled; I choose whether I will sub- 
 mit or not. Yielding is therefore 
 final and complete. It is possible that 
 submission may be partial. In yield- 
 ing, the characteristic idea is the 
 mastery over one's own will ; in sub- 
 mission, the placing one's self at the 
 jvili of another. It is true that we 
 
 may yield to moral as well as to phy- 
 sical force, as we may yield to en- 
 treaty ; still it ia always force to which 
 we yield. One yields after a struggle, 
 one may submit wi^jiout resistance. 
 
 YOUNG. Juvenile. Puerile. 
 Youthful. 
 
 Young (Lat. jUvUnis) denotes the 
 age of youth ; the rest its characteris- 
 tics. Juvenile denotes the character 
 of youth in regard to its tendencies, 
 training, pursuits, and the like ; Pue- 
 rile (Lat. puevy a boy), the character 
 of such actions or thoughts as savour 
 of youth in grown-up persons, whose 
 judgment and tastes are presumed to 
 be mature. Youthful, on the other 
 hand, denotes the normal character of 
 youth, and expresses the quality which 
 rightly and naturally belongs to the 
 period of youth, and may be expected 
 to manifest itself in connexion with 
 the earlier times of human life. Young 
 is simply opposed to old. 
 
 " I have been young, and now am old ; 
 yet never saw I the righteous forsaken, nor 
 his seed begging their bread."— English 
 Psalms. 
 
 *' Here (in ' Romeo and Juliet ') is one of 
 the few attempts of Shakespeare to exhibit 
 the conversation of gentlemen, to represent 
 the airy sprightliness of juvenile elegance." 
 — Johnson. 
 
 " 'Tis sure a practice that savours much 
 of pedantry, a reserve of puerility we have 
 not shaken off from school."— Brown, 
 Vulgar Errors. 
 
 " Is she not more than painting can ex- 
 press. 
 Or youthful poets fancy when they lore ? " 
 ROWK. 
 
 ZEAL. Ardour. Fervour. 
 
 Zeal, in reference to these other 
 synonyms, is specific, while they are 
 characteristic or habitual. Zeal (Fr 
 ztle, Gr. ^nXoi) is passionate ardour 
 in favour of a person or a cause. 
 
 A RDOu R ( Lat. ardor ; ardere, to buiii ) 
 is simply warmth or heat of passion 
 in love, pursuit, or exertion. 
 
 Fervour (LaL fervor ;fervere, to 2m 
 
746 
 
 SYNONYMS DISCRIMINATED. 
 
 [zeal] 
 
 hot) denotes the constitutional state 
 or temperament of individuals. We 
 speak of the fervour of passion, decla- 
 mation, supplication, desire, as de- 
 monslrative of warmth. Ardour is 
 more deeply seated ; as ardent friend- 
 ship, love, zeal, devotedness. "The 
 ardour of his friendship prompted the 
 fervour with which lie spoke. ' 
 
 " There is nothing in which men more 
 dec«ive tiiemselves than in what the world 
 
 calls zeal. There are so many passions 
 which hide themselves under it, and so 
 many mischiefs arising from it, that some 
 have gone so far as to say it would have 
 been for the benefit of mankind if it had 
 never been reckoned in the catalogue ol 
 virtues." — Spectator. 
 "Ail martial fii-e herself, in every breast 
 She kindled ni'dours infinite, and strength 
 For ceaseless fight infused into them all." 
 
 COWPER. 
 
 " Wing'd with the fervour of her love." 
 Shaksspeake 
 
INDEX, 
 
 Abandon, 1 
 Abandoned, 3 
 Abase, 4 
 Abasement, 6 
 Abash, 7 
 Abate, lessen, 7 
 
 subside, 707 
 
 Abatement, 304 
 Abbey, 276 
 Abbreviate, 16 
 Abdicate, 664 
 Abduction, 23 
 Aberrant, 8 
 Aberration, 555 
 Abettor, 9 
 Abeyance, 350 
 Abhor, 10 
 Abide, 10 
 Ability, 11 
 Abject, base, 149 
 
 niean, 562 
 
 Abjure, 13 
 Abnegation, 314 
 Abnormal, 8 
 Abode, 470 
 Abolish, 14 
 Abominable, 404 
 Abominate, 10 
 Aboriginal, 515 
 Abortive, 517 
 Abound, 71 1) 
 Above, 15, 598 
 Abridge, 16 
 Abridgment, 16 
 Abrogate, 14 
 Abrupt, 17 
 Abscond, 651 
 Absent, 18 
 Absolute, 19 
 Abbolution, 20, 6^8 
 Absolre, 31 
 
 Absorb, 496 
 Absorbed, 18 
 Abstain, 22 
 Abstemious, 23 
 Abstinence, 22 
 Abstinent, 23 
 Abstract, abridgynent, lo 
 
 to distinguish, 345 
 
 Abstracted, 18 
 Abstraction, abduction, 
 23 
 
 estrangement, 394 
 
 Abstruse, 24 
 Absurd, 24 
 Abundant, 279 
 Abuse, misuse, 26 
 
 invective, 532 
 
 Abusive, 677 
 Academy, 26 
 Accede, '27 
 Accelerate 28 
 Accent, 30 
 Access, 32 
 Accessible, 72 
 Accession, 512 
 Accessory, 9 
 Accept, 30 
 Acceptable, 31 
 Acceptance, 31 
 Acceptation, 31 
 Accinent, casually, 32 
 
 chance, 218 
 
 qiudity, 638 
 
 Accidental, 210 
 Acclamation, 238 
 Accommodate, 61 
 Accommodating, 236 
 Accompany, 34 
 Accompaniment, 33 
 Accomplice, 9 
 Accomplish, 34 
 Accomplishments, 48 
 Accord, 80 
 
 Accordance, 564 
 Accordant, 268 
 Accordingly, 266 
 Accost, 36 
 Account, bill, 37 
 
 narrative, 37 
 
 consideration, 269 
 
 importance, 505 
 
 sake, 673 
 
 Accountable, 39 
 Accredit, 41 
 Accrue, 44 
 Accumulate, 477 
 Accurate, 395 
 Accuse, 222 
 Accustom, 43 
 Acerbity, 48 
 Achieve, accomplish, 34 
 
 finish, 43 
 
 Achievement, 410 
 Acid, 44 
 Acknowledge, own, 'tl 
 
 recognize, 653 
 
 Acquaint, 519 
 Acquaintance, 45 
 Acquiesce, 27 
 Acquire, 46 
 Acquirement, 47 
 Acquirements, 48 
 Acquisition, 47 
 Acquisitive, 465 
 Acquisitiveness, 361 
 Acquit, 21 
 Acquittal, S36 
 Acrid, 4-i 
 Acrimony, 48 
 Act, action, 49 
 
 to do, 348 
 
 to operate, 591 
 
 Action, an act, 49 
 
 gesture, 50 
 
 battle, 152 
 
 Actire, btuitt 195 
 
748 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Active, diligent, 329 
 Activity, alertness, 86 
 
 energy, 379 
 
 Actor, 50 
 Actual, 50 
 Actuate, S'J 
 Acute, 54 
 Adage, 641 
 Adapt, to adjust, 6X 
 
 to fit, 435 
 
 Add, 55 
 
 Addict, "^ee 
 
 Addition, 512 
 Address, to accost, 36 
 
 speech, 56 
 
 dexteritu, 323 
 
 direction, 331 
 
 Adduce, 57 
 Adequate, 58 
 Adhere, 24i 
 Adherence, 60 
 Adherent, 60 
 Adhesion, 60 
 Adhesive, 61 
 Adjacent, 273 
 Adjective, 387 
 Adjoining, 273 
 Adjourn, 6i0 
 Adjudge, 1.'58 
 Adjunct, 33 
 Adjure, 263 
 Adjust, 61 
 Administer, 709 
 Administration, 223 
 Admirable, 62 
 Admissible, 63 
 Admission, 63 
 Admit, to receive, 63 
 
 to allow, 63 
 
 Admittance, 63 
 Admonish, 64 
 A dopt, 65 
 Adore, 65 
 Adorn, 66 
 Adroit, 67 
 Adroitness, 323 
 Adscititious, 122 
 Adulation, 437 
 Adulterated, 281 
 Advance, to adduce, 57 
 
 to proceed, 631 
 
 to promote, 635 
 
 Advancement, 636 
 Advantage, 68 
 Advent, 69 
 Adventitious, 122 
 Adventure, 60 
 
 Adventurous, 69 
 Adversary, 379 
 Adverse, contrary, 70 
 
 reluctant, 657 
 
 Adversity, 71 
 Advert, 91 
 Advertence, 91 
 Advertise, 71 
 Advice, 71 
 Advise, to admonish, 6 i 
 
 to inform, 519 
 
 Advisedly, 72 
 Advocate, 617 
 Affable, 72 
 Affair, 73 
 Affect, concern, 73 
 
 to assume, 74 
 
 Affecting, 606 
 Affection, 127 
 Affectionate, 75 
 Affiance, belief, 161 
 
 dependence, 314 
 
 Affinity, 75 
 Affirm, 125 
 Affix, 76 
 Affliction, 77 
 Affluence, 740 
 Afford, to allow, 91 
 
 (0 yield, 78 
 
 Affray, 645 
 Affront, 526 
 Afraid, 721 
 After, 79 
 Age, 295 
 Aged, 591 
 Agent, 417 
 Aggrandizement, 636 
 Aggravate, 400 
 Aggregate, 723 
 Aggressor, 80 
 Aggrieve, annoy, 100 
 
 exasperate, 400 
 
 Agility, 86 
 Agitate, 682 
 Agitation, 80 
 Agony, 601 
 Agree, to assent, 27 
 
 accord, 80 
 
 Agreeable, 81 
 Agreement, 82 
 Agriculturist, 425 
 Aid, n., 481 
 
 v., 481 
 
 Ailment, 338 
 Aim, 83 
 Air, manner, 83 
 atmosphere, 85 
 
 Air, character, 220 
 Alacrity, 86 
 Alarm, n., 85 
 
 v., 449 
 
 Alertness, 86 
 Alien, 441 
 
 Alienation, estrangement 
 394 
 
 madness, 555 
 
 Alike, 387 
 All, 87 
 Allay, 106 
 Allege, 57 
 Allegiance, 88 
 Allegory, 414 
 Alleviate, 106 
 Alliance, 88 
 Allied, 247 
 Allot, 90 
 Allow, to admit, 63 
 
 to permit, 90 
 
 to bestow, 91 
 
 Allude, 91 
 Allure, 383 
 Alluring, 130 
 Ally, 260 
 Almanack, 200 
 Almost, 92 
 Also, 92 
 Alter, 219 
 Alteratioij, 219 
 Altercation, 645 
 Alternative, 231 
 Altitude, 370. 
 Always, continually, 92 
 
 ever, 395 
 
 Amalgamate, 244 
 Amalgamation, 256 
 Amass, 477 
 Amazement, 94 
 Ambassador, 92 
 Ambiguous, 93 
 Ambition, 254 
 Ambuscade, 94 
 Ambush, 94 
 Amenable, accountable, 3i 
 
 ■ docile, 348 
 
 Amend, 93 
 Amendment, 280 
 Amends, 252 
 Amiable, 95 
 Amicable, 95 
 Amount, 723 
 Ample, spacious, 95 
 
 copious, 279 
 
 Amulet, 713 
 Amusement, 96 
 
INDEX. 
 
 749 
 
 Analogous, 43'2 
 Analogy, 97 
 Analysis, 97 
 Anathema, 290 
 Ancestors, l-tO 
 Ancient, 591 
 Ancillary, 1.^7 
 Anecdote, 37 
 Anger, T^iS 
 Angle, 280 
 Angry, 60rt 
 Anguish, 601 
 Animadvert, 171 
 Animal, 98 
 Animate, to inspire, 98 
 
 to cheer, 2'26 
 
 to excite, 403 
 
 Animation, 99 
 Animosity, 48 
 Annals, 485 
 Annex, 55 
 Annexed, 60 
 Annotation, 582 
 Announce, 99 
 Annoy, 100 
 Annoyance, 343 
 Annul, 14 
 Anomalous, 101 
 Answer, 101 
 Answerahle, 39 
 Antagonist, 379 
 Antecedent, 625 
 Anterior, 625 
 Antic, 102 
 Anticipate, 629 
 Antipathy, 474 
 Antiquated, 591 
 Antique, 591 
 Anxiety, 694 
 Apartment, 102 
 Apathy, 514 
 Ape, 570 
 Aperture, 594 
 Apex, 708 
 Aphorism, 641 
 Apology, 103 
 Apophthegm, 641 
 Apostate, 659 
 Appal, 341 
 Apparatus, 104 
 Apparel, 355 
 Apparent, 104 
 Apparition, 454 
 Appeal, 56 
 Appear, 678 
 Appearance, 10^ 
 Appease, 106 
 
 Appellation, 577 
 Append, 55 
 Appendage, 33 
 Appetite, 490 
 Applaud, 623 
 Applause, 108 
 Application, 108 
 Apply, 76 
 Appoint, to allot, 90 
 
 to constitute, 270 
 
 — — to nominate, 582 
 Apportion, 90 
 Apposite, 109 
 Appraise, 109 
 Appreciate, 109 
 Apprehend, 110 
 Apprehension, alarm, 85 
 
 Jear, 427 
 
 Apprise, 519 
 Approach, access, 32 
 
 approximate. 111 
 
 Approbation, 111 
 Appropriate, sidiahle, 
 111 
 
 to usurp, 112 
 
 Approval, 111 
 Approve, 623 
 Approximate, 111 
 Apt, ready, 112 
 
 meet^ 564 
 
 Aptitude, 113 
 Arbiter, 537 
 Arbitrary, 19 
 Arbitrator, 537 
 Arbour, 113 
 Architect, 190 
 Archives, 113 
 Ardent, 194 
 Ardour, fei-vouVf 431 
 
 zeal, 745 
 
 Arduous, 113 
 Argue, to debate, 299 
 
 to show, 685 
 
 Argument, 114 
 Ai'ise, to ascend, 120 
 
 to flow, 438 
 
 to proceed, 631 
 
 Aristocracy, 114 
 Ai-mament, 489 
 Armistice, 115 
 Arms, 115 
 Army, 489 
 Aroma, 414 
 Arouse, 403 
 AiTaign, 222 
 Arrange, to adjust, 61 
 to range, 648 
 
 Array, 356 
 Arrest, 486 
 ArriT?al 69 
 An-ive, 115, 249 
 Arrogance, 115 
 Arrogate^ 112 
 Art, pjojession, 633 
 — — knowledge^ 540 
 Artful, 117 
 Article, 118 
 Articles, 458 
 Articulate, 636 
 Artifice, 728 
 Artificer, 120 
 Artificial, 119 
 Artist, 120 
 Artizan, 120 
 As, 266 
 Ascend, 120 
 Ascendancy, empire, 121 
 
 influence, 519 
 
 Ascertain, 121 
 Ascititious, 122 
 Ascribe, 122 
 Ashes, 122 
 Ask, request, 123 
 
 inquire, 522 
 
 Aspect, appearance, 106 
 
 view, 124 
 
 Asperity, 48 
 Aspersion, 20. 
 Assail, 128 
 Assailant, 80 
 Assassinate, 53''. 
 Assault, v., 128 
 
 n., 593 
 
 Assemblage, 124 
 Assemble, 248 
 Assembly, 124 
 Assent, 27 
 
 affirm, 125 
 
 Assert, to affirm, 125 
 
 to maintain, 557 
 
 Assessment, 715 
 Asseverate, 125 
 Assiduous, 329 
 Assign, adduce, 57 
 
 allot, 90 
 
 Assist, 481 
 Assistant, 126 
 Associate, 251 
 Association, alliance, 88 
 
 society, 126 
 
 Assortment, 220 
 Assuage, 106 
 Assume, affect, 74 
 appropriate, 112 
 
750 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Assume, presume, 627 
 Assurance, boldiiess, 179 
 
 hope, 488 
 
 Astonishment, 710 
 Asylum, 127 
 Atmosphere, 85 
 Atom, 604 
 Atonement, 408 
 Atrocious, 480 
 Attach, affix, 76 
 
 connect, 264 
 
 Attached, 60 
 Attachment, 127 
 Attack, i'., 128 
 
 n.,593 
 
 Attain, 46 
 Attainments, 48 
 Attempt, n., 368 
 
 v., 729 
 
 Attend, hearken, 477 
 
 accompany, 34 
 
 Attention, application, 
 
 108 
 
 care, 480 
 
 Attentive, 129 
 Attest, 738 
 Attire, 355 
 Attitude, 129 
 Attractions, 130 
 Attractive, 130 
 Attribute, ascribe, 122 
 
 quality, 638 
 
 Audacity, 179 
 Augmentation, 512 
 Augur, 131 
 August, 460 
 Auspicious, 133 
 Austere, 681 
 Austerity, 133 
 Authentic, 135 
 Author, 744 
 Authoritative, imperative, 
 
 134 
 
 antheniic, 135 
 
 Authority, 136 ' 
 Authorize, 137 
 Auxiliary, 137 
 Avail, 733 
 Avarice, 131 
 Avaricious, 581 
 Avenge, 131 
 Aver, 125 
 Average, 137 
 Averse, adverse, 70 
 ■ reluctant, 6^7 
 Aversion, disgmt, 3-10 
 hatred, 474 
 
 Avidity, 361 
 Avocation, 375 
 Avoid, 391 
 Avouch, 125 
 Avow, 'W 
 Await, 407 
 Awaken, 403 
 Award, 138 
 Aware, 138 
 Awe, 85 
 .A wful, 352 
 Awkward, 139 
 Awry, 287 
 Axiom, 641 
 Azure, 139 
 
 B 
 
 Babble, 140 
 Bad, 140 
 Badge, 141 
 Badly, 141 
 Baffle, 142 
 Balance, 143 
 Balk, 333 
 Ball, 143 
 Band, 143 
 Bane, 144 
 Banish, 144 
 Bank, 246 
 Bankruptcy, 145 
 Banquet, 146 
 Banter, 147 
 Barbarism, 642 
 Barbarous, 147 
 Bare, mere, 1 Id 
 
 naked, 577 
 
 Bargain, 82 
 Barren, 148 
 Barter, 149 
 Base, vile, 149 
 
 foundntioUy 150 
 
 Bashful, 151 
 Basis, 150 
 Bastard, 2Bj 
 Battle, 152 
 Bawling, 238 
 Be, ^06 
 Beam, 153 
 Bear, afford, 78 
 
 suffer, 707 
 
 Bearing, 83 
 Beast, 98 
 Beat, strike, 154 
 
 defeat, 154 
 
 Beatification, 154 
 
 Beatitude, 470 
 Beautiful, 155 
 Because, 266 
 Become, 467 
 Becoming, 156 
 Beg, 123 
 Beggar, 157 
 Begin, 157 
 Beginning, 157 
 Beguile, 300 
 Behaviour, 1.59 
 Behind, 79 
 Behold, 159 
 Beholder, 697 
 Belfry, 700 
 Belief, 161 
 Believe, 718 
 Below, 731 ■ 
 Bemoan, 162 
 Bend, 548 
 Beneath, 731 
 Benediction, 163 
 Benefaction, donatio 
 163 
 
 endowment, 377 
 
 Beneficent, 164 
 Benefit, 68 
 Benevolence, 165 
 Benevolent, 164 
 Benignity, 165 
 Bent, bias, 166 
 
 crooked, 287 
 
 Benumbed, 723 
 Bequeath, 167 
 Bereave, 168 
 Beseech, 123 
 Besides, also, 92 
 
 except, 402 
 
 moreover, 57'4 
 
 Bestow, allow, 91 
 
 give, 455 
 
 Betimes, 361 
 Betoken, 131 
 Betray, 300 
 Better, 507 
 Beverage, 356 
 Bewail, 162 
 Bewilderment, 94 
 Beyond, above, 15 
 
 over, 598 
 
 Bias, 166 
 Bid, 168 
 Big, 169 
 Bigot, 382 
 Bill, 37 
 Billow, 740 
 Bind, tie, 169 
 
INDEX. 
 
 761 
 
 Bind, oblige, 170 
 Bishop 171 
 Biting, 213 
 Bitter, 44 
 Blame, 171 
 Blameless, 53:^ 
 Blanch, 173 
 Bland, 453 
 Blandishment, 437 
 Blank, 375 
 Blast, 741 
 Blaze, 43.5 
 Bleach, 173 
 Blemish, 174 
 Blend, 261 
 Blessedness, 470 
 Blessing, benedictiotiy 163 
 
 happiness, 470 
 
 Blind, '241 
 Blink, 175 
 Bliss, 470 
 Blithe, 227 
 Block, 175 
 Blood-thirsty, 175 
 Bloody, 175 
 Bloom, 176 
 Blossom, 176 
 Blue, 139 
 S. under, 39( 
 Blunt, 245 
 Board, 176 
 Boast, 176 
 Boatman, 17? 
 Bodily, 280 
 Body, 177 
 Boisterous, 177 
 Bog, 559 
 Bold, 178 
 Boldness, 179 
 Bombasiic, 730 
 Bondage, 207 
 Boon, 68 
 Boorish, 233 
 Booth, 180 
 Booty, 614 
 Border, boundary, 180 
 
 brim, 185 
 
 Bore, 214 
 Bough, 182 
 Bound, border, 180 
 
 circuw scribe, 233 
 
 jump, 538 
 
 Boundary, 180 
 Boundless, unbounded, 
 182 
 
 immense, 499 
 
 Bountiful, 164 
 
 Bowels, 738 
 Bower, 113 
 Brace, n,, 182 
 Brace, v., 182 
 Brag, 176 
 Brake, 742 
 Branch, 182 
 Brandish, 183 
 Brave, 6o/ii, 178 
 
 challenge, 217 
 
 Brawl, 645 
 Brawny, 701 
 Breach, 183 
 Break, rend, 183 
 
 breach, 183 
 
 Breaker, 740 
 Breed, 184 
 Breeding, 366 
 Bi'eeze, 741 
 Bribe, 707 
 Brief, 683 
 Bright, 184 
 Brilliant, 184 
 Brim, 185 
 Bring, 186 
 Brink, 185 
 Biisknesi, 86 
 Brittle, 187 
 Broad, 187 
 Brou, 645 
 Broker, 417 
 Brook, 188 
 Bruise, 188 
 Brutal, 147 
 Brute, 98 
 Buckler, 683 
 Bud, 189 
 Buffoon, 189 
 Build, 189 
 Builder, 190 
 Building, 365 
 Bulk, 190 
 Bulky, 191 
 Burden, load, 191 
 
 cargo, 209 
 
 Burdensome, 191 
 Burial, 192 
 Burlesque, 192 
 Burning, 194 
 Burnish, 195 
 Burst, 183 
 Bush, 195 
 Business, affair, 73 
 
 employment, 375 
 
 profession, 633 
 
 Bustle, 472 
 ; Busy. 195 
 
 But, 489 
 Butchery, 561 
 Butt, 195 
 Buxom, 227 
 Buy, 196 
 Bjrword, 641 
 
 C. 
 
 Cabal, 196 
 Cabalistical, 576 
 Cabin, 197 
 Cajole, 197 
 Calamity, 198 
 Calculate, 199 
 Calendar, 200 
 Call, bid, 168 
 
 invoke, 200 
 
 Callous, 585 
 Callousness, 514 
 Calm, v., 106 
 
 «., 201 
 
 Calumny, 203 
 Can, 562 
 
 Cancel, abolish, 14 
 — ■ — efface, 367 
 Candid, 478 
 Canonization, 154 
 Cant, 204 
 Canvass, 217 
 Capability, 11 
 Capacious, 95 
 Capacity, 11 
 Capital, 230 
 Caprice, 204 
 Captious, 205 
 Captivate, 20« 
 Captivity, 207 
 Capture, 208 
 Carcase, 177 
 Cardinal, 230 
 Care, charge, 223 
 
 heed, 480 
 
 solicitude, 694 
 
 Careful, 213 
 
 Careless, inattentive,^/} 
 
 listless, 551 
 
 Caress, 209 
 Cargo, 209 
 Caricature, 192 
 Carping, 205 
 Carnage, 561 
 Carousal, 146 
 Carriage, 209 
 Can-y,' 186 
 Case, cause, 210 
 
752 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Case, example, 398 
 
 — — occurrence, 588 
 
 Cash, 210 
 
 Cast, character, 220 
 
 throw, 720 
 
 Casual, 210 
 
 Casualty, S2 
 
 Catalogue, 211 
 
 Catastrophe, 198 
 
 Catch, 212 
 
 Categorical, 409 
 
 Cause, ca^e, 210 
 
 create, 283 
 
 -' — reason, 651 
 
 Caustic, 213 
 
 Caution, 64 
 
 Cautious, 213 
 
 Cave, 214 
 
 Cavern, 214 
 
 Cavilling, 205 
 
 Cavity, 214 
 
 Cease, 215 
 
 Cede, 215 
 
 Celebrate, 216 
 
 Celebrated, 423 
 
 Celerity, 646 
 
 Celestial, 480 
 
 Censorious, 205 
 
 Censure, 171 
 
 Ceremonial, 444 
 
 Ceremonious, 4-14 
 
 Ceremonj, 216 
 
 Certain, 50 
 
 Certify, 584 
 
 Cessation, close, 243 
 
 intermission, 530 
 
 Chafe, 217 
 Chaffer, 149 
 
 •Chagi'in, 736 
 ' Challenge, 217 
 Chamber, 102 
 Champion, 218 
 Chance, accident, 218 
 
 happen, 470 
 
 Change, barter, 149 
 
 variation, 219, 735 
 
 in alter, 219 
 
 vicissitude, 736 
 
 Changeable, 511 
 Changeablencss, 204 
 Chaplet, 744 
 Character, letter, 220 
 
 reputation, 220 
 
 stamp, 220 
 
 disposition, 343 
 
 Characteristic, 222 
 Characterize. 316 
 
 Charge, to accuse, 222 
 
 care, 223 
 
 tax, 715 
 
 Charlatan, 224 I 
 
 Charm, 206 
 
 Charming, 310 
 
 Charms, 130 
 
 Chase, 224 
 
 Chasm, 183 
 
 Chasten, 225 
 
 Chastise, 225 
 
 Chastisement, 643 
 
 Chastity, 225 
 
 Chat, 140 
 
 Chattels, 458 
 
 Chatter, 140 
 
 Cheat, 226 
 
 Check, 665 
 
 Cheer, 226 
 
 Cheerful, 227 
 
 Cherish, 229 
 
 Chide, 171 
 
 Chief, main, 230 
 
 leader, 476 
 
 Chiefly, 230 
 Childish, 231 
 Chimerical, 231 
 Choice, 231 
 Choke, 232 
 Choler, 743 
 Choose, 233 
 Chronicles, 485 
 Qiurlish, 233 
 
 Cinders, 122 
 
 Circle, 596, 143 
 
 Circuit, orbit, 596 
 
 round, 670. 
 
 Circulate, 638 
 
 Circumscribe, 233 
 
 Circumspect, 213 
 
 Circumstance, situation, 
 235 
 
 occasion, 588 
 
 Circumstantial, 236 
 
 Circumvention, 446 
 
 Cite, bid, 168 
 
 quote, 647 
 
 Civic, 236 
 
 Civil, polite, 236 
 
 civic, 236 
 
 Civilization, 289 
 
 Claim, 237 
 
 Clamorous, 553 
 
 Clamour, 238 
 
 Clandestine, 677 
 
 Clash, 239 
 
 Clasp, 239 
 
 Class, 2 K) 
 
 Classification, 1^ 
 Clause, 612 
 Clean, 240 
 Cleanly, 240 
 Clear, absolve, 21 
 
 apparent, 104 
 
 bright, 184 
 
 to explain, 24^ 
 
 fair, 419 
 
 Clearness, 611 
 Cleave, 241 
 Clemency, 566 
 Clench, 615 
 Clever, 520 
 Cleverness, 11 
 Climb, 120 
 Cloak, 241 
 
 Clog, 242 
 Cloister, 276 
 Close, n., 243 
 v., 433 
 
 near, 579 
 
 to shut, 687 
 
 Clothes, 355 
 Clothing, 355 
 Clown, 607 
 Cloy, 462 
 Clumsy, 139 
 Clutch, 212 
 Coadjutor, 12e 
 Coalesce, 244 
 Coarse, 245 
 Coast, 246 
 Coax, 197 
 Coerce, 170 
 Coeval, 246 
 Cogent, '140 
 Cogitation, 718 
 Cognate, 247 
 Cognizance, 141 
 Cohere, 244 
 Coherent, 247 
 Coin, 210 
 Coincide, 80 
 Cold, 247 
 Collate, 247 
 Colleague, 251 
 Collect, 248 
 Collected, 201 
 Collection, 124 
 College, 26 
 Collision, 239 
 Colloquy, 277 
 Colossal, 455 
 Colour, dye, 248 
 hue,'490 
 
INDEX. 
 
 753 
 
 Uolomable, 598. 
 Column, 61 i 
 Combat, 152 
 Combatant, 218 
 Combination, alliance, 88 
 
 cabal, 196 
 
 Combine, 264 
 Combustion, 435 
 Come, 115, '2W 
 Comedy, 192 
 Comely, 249 
 Comfort, cheer, 226 
 
 pleasure, 617 
 
 Comical, 356 
 Command, 249 
 Commanding, 134 
 Commemorate, 216 
 Commence, 157 
 Commencement, 157 
 Commend, 623 
 Commendable, 546 
 Commensyrate, adequate 
 58 
 
 coeval, 246 
 
 Comment, 582 
 Commentaiy, 582 
 Commerce, 725 
 Commercial, 250 
 Commiseration, 566 
 Commission, 41 
 Commit, intru)it, 250 
 
 perpetrate, 251 
 
 Commodious, 276 
 Commodity, 458 
 Common, 251 
 Commonly, 447 
 Commonwealth, 650 
 Commotion, 262 
 Communicate, 501 
 Communication, 5i. 
 Communion, 529 
 Community, 126 
 Compact, agreement, 82 
 
 solid, 694 
 
 Companion, 251 
 Company, assembly, 124 
 
 band, 143 
 
 Comparatively, 252 
 Compare, 247 
 Compartment, 252 
 Compass, 596 
 Compassion, 566 
 Compatible, 268 
 Compel, 170 
 Compendium, 16 
 Compensation, 252 
 '''orapetent, adequate, 58 
 
 Competent, qualified, 644 
 Competition, 254 
 Complain, 254r 
 Complaint, 338 
 Complaisant, 236 
 Complete, enlire, 384 
 
 finish, 43;> 
 
 Completion, 271 
 Complex, 256 
 Complexity, 255 
 Compliant, 586 
 Complication, 255 
 Compliment, 437 
 Comply, 27 
 Component, 270 
 Compose, 256 
 Composed, calm, •z<ji 
 
 sedate, 677 
 
 Compositeness, 255 
 Composition, mixture, 
 
 256 
 
 frame, 4^15 
 
 Compound, complex, 256 
 
 to compose, 256 
 
 Compounding, 255 
 Comprehend, apprehend, 
 
 110 
 
 comprise, 256 
 
 Comprise, 256 
 Compromise, 61 
 Compunction, 660 
 Compute, 199 
 Comrade, 251 
 Concavity, 214 
 Conceal, 482 
 Concealment, 677 
 Concede, 215 
 Conceited, 370 
 Conceive, 110 
 Conception, ^ajici/, 421 
 
 idea, 493 
 
 Concern, affair, 73 
 
 affect, 73 
 
 interest, 530 
 
 solicitude, 6j4 
 
 Concert, concord, 259 
 
 contrive, 275 
 
 Conciliate, 258 
 Concise, succinct, 258 
 
 laconic, 541 
 
 precise, 6^5 
 
 short, 683 
 
 Conclude, 433 
 Conclusion, close, 24. > 
 
 inference, 518 
 
 Conclusive, 259 
 ( (Concomitant, 33 
 
 Concord, harmony, 259 
 
 melody, 564 
 
 Concur, 80 
 Concussion, 683 
 Condemn, 171 
 Condensed, 258 
 Condescending, 72 
 Condition, article, 118 
 
 state, 699 
 
 Condolence, 566 
 Condone, 404 
 Conduce, 259 
 Conduct, behaviour, 159 
 
 to direct, 330 ^ 
 
 to lead, 547 
 
 Confabulation, 277 
 Confederacy, 88 
 Confederate, 260 
 Confer, 455 
 Conference, 277 
 Confess, 44 
 Confide, 250 
 Confidence, 488 
 Confidential, 420 
 Confine, border, 180 
 
 circumscribe, 233 
 
 Confined, 578 
 Confinement, 207 
 Confirm, corroborate, 260 
 
 establish, 393 
 
 Conflagration, 435 
 Conflict, 260 
 Conform, 27 
 Conformation, 443 
 Confound, to abash, 7 
 
 to confuse, 261 
 
 Confront, 261 
 Confuse, to abash, 7 
 
 to confound, 261 
 
 Confused, 516 
 Confusion, 262 
 Confute, 263 
 Congenial, 81 
 Conglomeration, 256 
 Congratulate, 263 
 Conjeccure, 468 
 Conjuncture, crisis, 287 
 
 occasion, 588 
 
 Conjure, adjure, 263 
 
 to pray, 624 
 
 Connect, 264 
 Connexion, 529 
 Conquer, 264 
 Conqueror, 265 
 Conquest, 736 
 Consanguinity, 75 
 Conscientious, 265 
 Si. 
 
754 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Conscious, 138 
 Consciousness, 428 
 Consecrate, 266 
 Consent, 27 
 Consequence, importance, 
 
 505 
 
 inference, 518 
 
 result, 666 
 
 Consequently, ^66 
 Conserve, 486 
 Consider, 563 
 Considerate, civil, 236 
 
 thoughtful, 719 
 
 Consideration, ^67 
 Considerations, obsei-m- 
 
 tions, "267 
 
 notes, 583 
 
 Consign, 250 
 Consistent, coherent, 247 
 
 compatible, 268 
 
 Console, 226 
 Consonant, 268 
 Conspicuous, 104 
 Conspiracy, 196 
 Constancy, 268 
 Consternation, alarm, 85 
 
 surprise, 710 
 
 Constituent, 270 
 Constitute, appoint, 270 
 
 to create, 283 
 
 Constitution, 445 
 Constrain, 170 
 Construct, 189 
 Construction, 365 
 Consult, 270 
 Consume, 270 
 Consummation, 271 
 Contact, 723 
 Contagion, 271 
 Contain, comprise, 256 
 
 hold, 271 
 
 Contaminate, 272 
 Contemn, 676 
 Contemplate, beliold, 159 
 
 meditate, 563 
 
 Contemporary, 246 
 Contemptible, 615 
 Contemptuous, 337 
 Contend, to debate, 299 
 
 to strivi, 704 
 
 Contention, 703 
 ^Contentment, 273 
 Contest, 260 
 Contiguous, 273 
 Continence, 225 
 Continency, 225 
 Contingency, 32 
 
 Contingent, 210 
 
 Continual, 273 
 
 Continually, 92 
 
 Continuance, 274 
 
 Continuation, 274 
 
 Continue, to last, 544 
 
 to persevere, 610 
 
 Continuity, 274 
 
 Continuous, 273 
 
 Contract, to contract, 16 
 
 agreement, 82 
 
 ! to shrink, 687 
 
 Contracted, 578 
 
 Contradict, 274 
 
 Contrariety, 325 
 j Contrary, 70 
 ; Contrast, 325 
 ; Contravene, 726 
 : Contribute, 259 
 ! Contrition, 660 
 I Contrivance, 407 
 
 Contrive, 275 
 
 Control, charge, 223 
 
 to restrain, 665 
 
 I Controversy, 114 
 ! Controvert, 275 
 j Contumacious, 585 
 
 Contumely, 587 
 
 Convene, 276 
 
 Convenient, 276 
 
 Convent, 276 
 
 Conventional, 119 
 
 Conversant, 277 
 
 Conversation, 277 
 
 Converse, 277 
 
 Convert, to change, 219 
 
 proselyte, 278 
 
 Convey, 186 
 
 Convict, to detect, 279 
 
 criminal, 286 
 
 Convince, 279 
 
 Convivial, 693 
 
 Convoke, 276 
 
 Cool, 247 
 
 Copious, abundant, 279 
 
 diffuse, 328 
 
 Copiously, 544 
 
 Copse, 742 
 
 Copy, example, 398 
 
 to imitate, 496 
 
 to transcribe, 726 
 
 Cordial, 478 
 
 Corner, 280 
 
 Coronet, 323 
 
 Corporal, 280 
 
 Corporeal, 280 
 
 Corpse, 177 
 
 Corpulent, 701 
 Correct, to amend, 93 
 
 to chasten, 225 
 
 accurate, 395 
 
 Correction, 280 
 Correlative, 576 
 Correspond, 713 
 Corroborate, 260 
 Corrupt, to contaminatt 
 272 
 
 to putrefy, 644 
 
 to seduce, 678 
 
 Corruption, 315 
 Coruscation, 436 
 Cost, 280 
 Costly, 625 
 Costume, 355 
 Cottage, 197 
 Counsel, 71 
 Count, to calculate, 199 
 
 to number, 585 
 
 Countenance,yace, 416 
 
 sanction, 673 
 
 Counterfeit, spurious, 28J 
 
 r to imitate, 496 
 
 Country, 542 
 Countryman, 607 
 Couple, n., 182 
 
 v., 182 
 
 Courage, 734 
 Courageous, 178 
 Course, current, 245, 282 
 
 passage, 604 
 
 road, 668 
 
 Court, 486 
 Coui-teous, 72, 2^^ 
 Covenant, 82 
 Cover, 4S2 
 Covetous, 581 
 Covetousness, 131 
 Coward, 282 
 Coxcombical, 439 
 Coy, 151 
 Crack, 183 
 Crafty, 117 
 Crave, 124 
 Craven, 282 
 Craziness, 5£i 
 Create, 283 
 Credit, belief, 161 
 
 character, 220 
 
 Crew, 143 
 ^rime, 284 
 I'rimiual, adj., 286 
 
 n., 286 
 
 Criminate, 222 
 Crisis, «07 
 
INDEX. 
 
 J6h 
 
 Critorion, 699 
 Criticism, 287 
 Crooked, 287 
 Cross, 448 
 Crowd, 288 
 Crown, 323 
 Cruel, 147 
 Crush, 188 
 Cry, 238 
 Culmination, 708 
 Culpable, 289 
 Culprit, 286 
 Cultivation, 289 
 Culture, 289 
 Cunning, 117 
 Cupidity, 131 
 Curb, 666 
 Cure, 290 
 Curious, abstruse, 24 
 
 hiquisitive, 523 
 
 Current, course, 282 
 
 stream, 703 
 
 Curse, 290 
 
 Cursory, desultory, 291 
 
 histit, 473 
 
 Curtail, 16 
 Curved, 287 
 Custody, 539 
 Custom, /aiftioH, 291 
 
 tax, 715 
 
 Cycle, 596 
 
 D. 
 
 Daily, 293 
 Dainty, 293 
 Damage, 491 
 Damp, 293 
 Damsel, 294 
 Dandyish, 439 
 Danger, 294 
 Dangerous, 295 
 Dare, challenge, 217 
 
 venture, 295 
 
 Daring, 178 
 
 Dark, 295 
 
 Dastard, 282 
 
 Date, 295 
 
 Daub, 296 
 
 Daunt, 341 
 
 Dead, 296 
 
 Deadly, 297 
 
 Dealing, intercourse, 529 
 
 trade, 725 
 
 Dearth, 675 
 Death, 297 
 
 Debar, 298 
 Debase, 4 
 Debate, 299 
 Debauch, 272 
 Debilitate, 380 
 Decay, 300 
 Decease, 2i'7 
 Deceit, 301 
 Deceitful, 117 
 Deceive, 300 
 Deceiver, 506 
 Decency, 302 
 Decent, 156 
 Deception, 301 
 Decide, to determine, 302 
 
 to judge, 302 
 
 Decision, 665 
 Decisive, 259 
 Declaim, 302 
 Declare, to announce, 99 
 
 to profess, 633 
 
 to pronounce, 637 
 
 Decline, decay, 300 
 
 to refuse, 656 
 
 Decorate, 66 
 Decorum, 302 
 Decoy, 383 
 Decrease, 7 
 Decree, 303 
 Decry, 304 
 Dedicate, 266 
 Deduce, 316 
 Deduction, subtraction, 
 
 304 
 
 inferetice, 518 
 
 Deed, 49 
 Deface, 305 
 Defalcation, 305 
 Defamation. 203 
 Defeat, bajfle, 142 
 
 beat, 154 
 
 Defect, 174 
 Defection, 527 
 Defective, 305 
 Defence, 103 
 Defend, 306 
 Defender, 617 
 Defer, 306 
 Deference, 307 
 Deficient, 305 
 Defile, to contaminate, 
 
 272 
 
 gorge, 308 
 
 Definite, detenninate, 308 
 
 positive, 308 
 
 Definition, 308 
 Definitive, 308 
 
 Deform, 305 
 ; Deformity, 7Sl. 
 ' Defraud, 226 
 I Defray, 309 
 ! Defunct, 296 
 I Defy, 217 
 
 Degenerate, 321 
 
 Degrade, 4 
 
 De^ee, 240 
 
 Dejected, 671 
 
 Dejection, 309 
 
 Delay, 306 
 
 Delegate, to accredit, 41 
 
 representative, 662 
 
 Deleterious, 584 
 
 Deliberate, to consult, 
 270 
 
 to debate, 299 
 
 Deliberately, 72 
 
 Delicacy, 293 
 
 Delicate, 309, 433 
 
 Delicious, 310 
 
 Delight, 206 
 
 Delighted, 456 
 
 Delightful, 310 
 
 Delineation, 691 
 
 Delinquent, 590 
 
 Deliver, rescue, 311 
 
 surrender, 312 
 
 pronounce, 312, 63t 
 
 Deliverance, 312 
 
 Delivery, 312 
 
 Delude, 300 
 
 Deluge, 312 
 
 Delusion, 301 
 
 Demand, claim, 237 
 
 require, 663 
 
 Demeanour, air, 83 
 
 behaviour, 159 
 
 Demise, bequeath, 167 
 
 death, 297 
 
 Demolish, 313 
 
 Demonstrate, 685 
 
 Demur, 313 
 
 Demurrer, 313 
 
 Denial, 314 
 
 Denomination, 577 
 
 Denote, 688 
 
 Denounce, 171 
 
 Deny, contradict, 274 
 
 disavotv, 333 
 
 refuse, 656 
 
 Department, 252 
 
 Departure, 297 
 
 Dependence, 314 
 
 Depict, 316 
 
 Deplore, 162 
 
756 
 
 Deponent, 742 
 Deportment, 209 
 Depose, 4 
 Deposit, 617 
 Deposition, 637 
 Depravation, 315 
 Depraved, 3 
 Depravity, 315 
 Depreciate, 304 
 Depredation, 669 
 Depress, 4 
 Depression, 309 
 Deprive, bereave, 168 
 
 debar, 298 
 
 Depth, 315 
 Depute, 41 
 Deputy, ambassador, 92 
 
 representative, 662 
 
 Derange, 315 
 Derangement, 555 
 Deride, 667 
 Derive, 316 
 Derogate, 316 
 Describe, 316 
 Description, 37 
 Descry, 317 
 Desecration, 633 
 Desert, abandon, 1 
 
 desolate, 318 
 
 merit, 568 
 
 Design, purpose, 317 
 
 plan, 616 
 
 Designate, 558 
 Designation, 577 
 Designing, 117 
 Desirable, 371 
 Desire, 742 
 Desist, 22 
 Desolate, 318 
 Desolation, 649 
 Despair, 319 
 Despatch, 28 
 Desperate, 488 
 Desperation, 319 
 Despicable, 615 
 Despondency, dejection, 
 309 
 
 despair, 319 
 
 Despotic, 19 
 Destination, 319 
 Destine, 90 
 Destiny, destination, 319 
 
 fate, 319 
 
 Destitute, devoid, 320 
 
 forlorn, 443 
 
 Destitution, 623 
 Uestroy, conaume, 270 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Destroy, demolish, 313 
 Destruction, 609 
 Destructive, 320 
 Desuetude, 321 
 Desultory, 291 
 Detach, disengage, 339 
 
 separate, 680 
 
 Detail, 321 
 Details, 321 
 Detain, 486 
 Detect, convict, 279 
 
 descry, 317 
 
 Deter, 321 
 Deteriorate, 321 
 Determinate, 308 
 Determination, 664 
 Determine, to decide, 302 
 
 to judge, 302 
 
 Detest, 10 
 Detestable, 404 
 Detract, 316 
 Detraction, 203 
 Detriment, disadvantage^ 
 33% 
 
 hurt, 491 
 
 Detrimental, 584 
 Devastation, 649 
 Develop, clear, 241 
 
 unfold, 322 
 
 Deviate, 739 
 Device, 372 
 Devise, bequeath, 167 
 
 contrive, 275 
 
 Devoid, 320 
 Devolve, 42 
 Devote, 266 
 Devout, 322 
 Dexterity, 323 
 Dexterous, 67 
 Diadem, 323 
 Dialect, 544 
 Dialogue, 277 
 Dictate, 323 
 Diction, 613 
 Dictionary, 324 
 Die, to decay, 300 
 
 to expire, 408 
 
 Diet, 324 
 
 Dift'erence, variety, 325 
 
 dissent, 343 
 
 quarrel, 6io 
 
 Different, divers, 347 
 
 unlike, 733 
 
 Difficult, 113 
 Difficulty, 326 
 Diffidence, 327 
 Diffident, bashj'ul, 151 
 
 Diffident, lowlyy 554 
 Diffuse, 328 
 Digest, 16 
 Dignity, loftiness, 328 
 
 majesty, 556 
 
 Digression, 386 
 Dilate, 329 
 Dilatory, 329 
 Diligent, 329 
 Dim, 295 
 Dimensions, 560 
 Diminish, 7 
 Diminutive, 551 
 Diocesan, 171 
 Dire, 352 
 Direct, to conduct, 330 
 
 straight, 331 
 
 Direction, addresSj 331 
 
 guide, 469 
 
 Directly, 331 
 Disability, 332 
 Disadvantage, 332 
 Disaffection, 332 
 Disagreement, diffe^-ence^ 
 325 
 
 dissent, 343 
 
 Disallow, 298 
 Disappear, 734 
 Disappoint, 333 
 Disapprobation, 333 
 Disapproval, 333 
 Disaster, 198 
 Disavow, 333 
 Disbelief, 334 
 Discard, 334 
 Discern, 317 - - 
 Discernment, 334 
 Discharge, defray, 309 
 
 discard, 334 
 
 acquittal, 336 
 
 to fulfil, 449 
 
 Disciple, 60 
 Discipline, 225 
 Disclaim, 333 
 Disclose, divulge, 336 
 
 promulgate, 636 
 
 Discompose, 142 
 Disconcert, 142 
 Disconnect, 680 
 Discontinue, 215 
 Discord, 703 
 Discordant, 344 
 Discourage, 321 
 Discourse, address, 56 
 
 conversation, 277 
 
 Discover, descry, 31** 
 disclose, 336 
 
INDEX. 
 
 757 
 
 Discover, ^nd, 432 
 Discovery, 337 
 Discredit, 337 
 Discreet, 213 
 Discretion, 334 
 Discriminate, 345 
 Discrimination, 334 
 Discursive, 328 
 Discuss, 299 
 Disdain, pride, 629 
 — — scoi-n, 676 
 Disdainful, 337 
 Disease, 338 
 Diseased, 574 
 Disembodied, 498 
 Disengage, 339 
 Disentangle, 339 
 Disfavour, 337 
 Disfigure, 305 
 Disfigurement, 731 
 Disg^-ace, to abase, 4 
 
 discredit, 337 
 
 Disguise, 339 
 Disgust, dislike, 340 
 
 nausea, 579 
 
 Dishearten, 321 
 Dishonest, 540 
 Dishonour, to abase, 4 
 
 discredit, 337 
 
 Disinclination, 340 
 Disjoin, 680 
 Dislike, disgust, SiO 
 
 hate, 473 
 
 Disloyalty, 332 
 Dismal, 340 
 Dismay, 341 
 Dismiss, 334 
 Disorder, confusion, '262 
 
 to derange, 315 
 
 disease, 338 
 
 Disown, 333 
 Disparage, 304 
 Disparity, 341 
 Dispassionate, 342 
 Dispatch, 472 
 Dispel, 342 
 Dispense, 342 
 Disperse, dispel, 342 
 
 scatter, 675 
 
 Display, 685 
 Displease, 589 
 Displeasure, 343 
 Dispose, 597 
 Disposition, bent, 166 
 
 character, 3^13 
 
 Disprove, 263 
 Dispute, controvert, 275 
 
 Dispute, debate, 299 
 
 quarrel, 645 
 
 Disqualification, 332 
 Disqualify, 298 
 Disregard, 580 
 Dissatisfaction, 343 
 Dissemble, disguise, 339 
 
 feign, 429 
 
 Dissembler, 493 
 Disseminate, 638 
 Dissent, 313 
 Dissertation, 392 
 Dissipate, 739 
 1 Dissolute, 344 
 Dissonant, 344 
 Distant, 344 
 Distaste, 340 
 Distemper, 338 
 Distend, 329 
 Distinct, 104 
 Distinction, 325 
 Distinctive, 222 
 Distinguish, descry, 317 
 
 discriminate, o'iS 
 
 signalize, 687 
 
 Distinguished, 373 
 Distract, 345 
 Distracted, 18 
 Distraction, 345 
 Distress, 77 
 Distribute, 342 
 District, 346 
 Distrust, 327 
 Disturbance, 262 
 Disuse, 321 
 Diuraal, 293 
 Dive, 346 
 Diverge, 739 
 Divers, 3-17 
 Diversion, 96 
 Diversity, 325 
 Divert, 345 
 Diverted, 18 
 Divide, 680 
 Divination, 468 
 Divine, heavenly, 480 
 
 sacred, 671 
 
 a theologian, 718 
 
 Diviner, 348 
 Division, 603 
 Divulge, to disclose, 336 
 
 to promuls;ate, 636 
 
 Do, 348 
 Docile, 3-18 
 Doctrine, 348 
 Document, 349 
 Dogma, 348 
 
 Dogmatical, 009 
 
 Dole, 349 
 
 Doleful, 349 
 
 Domestic, 350 
 
 Domicile, 470 
 
 Dominion, authority, 136 
 
 empire, 373 
 
 territory, 718 
 
 Donation, 163 
 
 Doom, 319 
 
 Dormancy, 350 
 
 Double-dealing, 359 
 
 Doubt, hesitation, 350 
 
 uncertainty, 731 
 
 Doubtful, 350 " 
 
 Dower, 351 
 
 Doze, 692 
 
 Drag, 351 
 
 Drain, 351 
 
 Drama, 351 
 
 Draught, abridgment, 16 
 drink, 356 
 
 Draw, 351 
 
 Dread, alarm, 85 
 
 fear, 427 
 
 Dreadful, 352 
 Dream, 667 
 Dreary, 340 
 Dregs, 353 
 Drench, 354 
 Dress, 355 
 Drift, tendency, 356 
 
 import, 504 
 
 Drink, 356 
 Droll, 356 
 Droop, 357 
 Drop, 357 
 Dross, 353 
 Drowsy, 358 
 Drunkenness, 358 
 Dubious, 350 
 Due, 715 
 Dull, dismal, 340 
 
 stupid, 706 
 
 Dumb, 358 
 Dupe, 300 
 Duplicity, 359 
 Durable, 359 
 Duration, 274 
 Dutiful, 586 
 Duty, obligation, 36(' 
 
 office, 590 
 
 tax, 715 
 
 Dwell, 10 
 Dye, 248 
 
758 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Each, all, 87 
 
 every, 395 
 
 Eager, 360 
 Eagerness, 361 
 Early, 361 
 Earn, 46 
 Earnest, eager, 360 
 
 pledge, 361, 61" 
 
 Earth, 542 
 Ease, quiet, 362 
 
 easiness, 362 
 
 Easiness, 362 
 Ebb, 300 
 Ebullition, 362 
 Eccentric, aberrant, 8 
 
 singular, 363 
 
 Economical, 364 
 Ecstasy, 365 
 Edge, 185 
 Edict, 303 
 Edification, 366 
 Edifice, 365 
 Education, 366 
 Educe, 366 
 Efface, 367 
 Effect, accomplish, 34 
 
 result, 666 
 
 Effective, 368 
 Effects, 458 . 
 Effectual, 368 
 Effeminate, 430 
 Effervescence, 362 
 Efficacious, 368 
 Efficient, 368 
 Effigy, 368 
 Effort, 368 
 Efirontery, 179 
 Egotistical, 370 
 Elaborate, 434 
 Elder, 370 
 Elderly, 591 
 Election, 231 
 Elegant, 249 
 Element, 630 
 Elevate, 549 
 Elevation, 370 
 Elicit, 366 
 Eligible, 371 
 Eliminate, 366 
 Elocution, 371 
 Eloquence, 371 
 Elucidate, 408 
 Elude, 391 
 'Ema.n&te, flow, 438 
 proceed, 631 
 
 Emancipation, 371 
 
 Embarrass, clogy 242 
 
 perplex, 609 
 
 Embellish, 66 
 
 Embers, 122 
 
 Embezzlement, 305 
 
 Emblem, 372 
 
 Embrace, adopt, 65 
 
 clasp, 239 
 
 compnse, 256 
 
 Embryo, 372 
 
 Emend, 93 
 
 Emerge, 534 
 
 Emergency, 287 
 
 Eminent, 373 
 
 Emissary, 699 
 
 Emit, 373 
 
 Emolument, 451 
 
 Emotion, agitation, 80 
 
 feeling, 428 
 
 Emphasis, 30 
 
 Empire, ascendancy, 121 
 
 kingdom, 373 
 
 reign, 374 
 
 Empiric, 224 
 
 Employ, 374 
 
 Employment, ,'>75 
 
 Empower, 137 
 
 Empty, 375 
 
 Emulation, 254 
 
 Enable, 137 
 
 Enactment, 376 
 
 Enchant, 206 
 
 Enchanter, 556 
 
 Encircle, 233 
 
 Encomium, 602 
 
 Encompass, 233 
 
 Encounter, attack, 128 
 
 onset, 593 
 
 Encourage, cheery 226 
 
 excite, 403 
 
 promote, 635 
 
 Encroach, 376 
 
 Encumber, 242 
 
 Encyclopaedia, 324 
 
 I'^nd, aim, 83 
 
 close, 243 
 
 finish, 433 
 
 Endeavour, efort, 368 
 
 to try, 729 
 
 to strive, 704 
 
 Endemic, 386 
 
 Ending, 243 
 
 Endfess, 377 
 
 Endow, 377 
 , Endowment, 377 
 I ]<:ndue, H77 
 
 Endurance, 378 
 Endure, to last, 544 
 
 to suffer, 707 
 
 Enduring, 359 
 Enemy, 379 
 Energetic, 703 
 Energy, 379 
 Enervate, 380 
 Enfeeble, 380 
 Enforce, 380 
 Engagement, battle, 152 
 
 employment, 375 
 
 promise, 635 
 
 Engagmg, 130 
 Engender, 184 
 Engine, 555 
 Engrossed, 18 
 Enhancement, 512 
 Enjoyment, 617 
 Enlarge, 329 
 Enlighten, 381 
 Enliven, 226 
 Enmity, 474 
 Enormous, 490 
 Enough, 58 
 Enrapture, 206 
 Enslave, 206 
 Ensnare, 384 
 Ensue, 439 
 Ensure, 381 
 Entail, 503 
 Entangle, implicate, 3f>S 
 
 perplex, 609 
 
 Enterprise, adventure, 69 
 
 undertaking, 731 
 
 Enterprising, 69 
 Entertain, 382 
 Entertainment, amuse* 
 ment, 96 
 
 banquet, 146 
 
 Enthusiast, 382 
 Entice, 383 
 Entire, 384 
 Entitled, 644 
 Entrance, 384 
 Entrap, 384 
 Entreat, 123 
 Entreaty, 612 
 Entrust, 41 
 Enucleate, 366 
 Enumerate, 199 
 Enunciation, 385 
 F^nvious, 385 
 Environ, 233 
 Envoy, 92 
 Epicure, 386 
 Epidemic, 38f 
 
INDEX. 
 
 759 
 
 Cpiiode, 386 
 Epistle, 387 
 Epithet, 387 
 Epitome, 16 
 Epizotic, 386 
 Epoch, 295 
 Equable, 387 
 Equal, even, 387 
 
 equivalent^ 389 
 
 Equip, 709 
 Equitable, 419 
 Equity, 388 
 Equivalent, 389 
 Equivocal, 93 
 Equivocate, 389 
 Era, 295 
 Eradicate, 389 
 Erase, 367 
 Erect, to build, 189 
 
 to establish, 393 
 
 to lift, 549 
 
 Err, 739 
 
 EiTand, 390 
 Erratic, 8 
 Error, 390 
 Erudition, 540 
 Eruption, 391 
 Escape, 391 
 Eschew, 391 
 Escort, 34 
 Especial, 696 
 Especially, 230 
 Espy, 317 
 Essay, effort, 368 
 
 treatise, 392 
 
 Essence, 392 
 Essential, 579 
 Establish, 393 
 Esteem, 109 
 Estimable, 95 
 Estimate, to appraise, 
 
 tj calculate, 199 
 
 Estrangement, 394 
 Eternal, 377 
 Eulogy, 602 
 Evade, 391 
 
 Even, equal, 387 
 
 smooth, 693 
 
 Event, 235 
 Eventual, 545 
 Ever, 395 
 Everlasting, 377 
 Every, all, 87 
 
 each, 395 
 
 Evidence, 637 
 Evident, 104 
 Evil. bad. 140 
 
 109 
 
 Evil, ill, 395 
 
 Evince, 685 
 
 Evoke, 200 
 I Evolve, 366 
 ! Exact, accurate, 395 
 
 : to extort, 396 
 
 i Exaggeration, 397 
 
 I Exalt, 549 
 
 i Examination, 397 
 
 Example, 398 
 i Exasperate, 400 
 
 Excavation, 214 
 
 Exceed, 401 
 I Excel, 401 
 ! Excellence, 40J 
 I Excellent, 62 
 I Except, 402 
 ; Exceptional, 8 
 
 Excess, 402 
 
 Excessive, immoderate, 
 
 • inordinate, 522 
 
 Exchange, 149 
 Excite, animate, 403 
 
 awaken, 403 
 
 Exclamation, 238 
 Exclude, 298 
 Exculpate, 21 
 Excursion, 535 
 Excuse, apology, 103 
 
 pardon, 404 
 
 pretence, 628 
 
 Execrable, 404 
 Execration, 290 
 Execute, 34 
 Exemplification, 398 
 Exemplify, 408 
 Exempt, 446 
 Exemption, 500 
 Exercise, 405 
 Exert, 405 
 Exertion, 368 
 Exhale, 373 
 Exhaust, 351 
 Exhibit, 685 
 Exhibition, 684 
 Exhilarate, 226 
 Exhort, 405 
 j Exigency, 287 
 Exile, 144 
 Exist, 406 
 Exonerate, 21 
 Exorbitant, 522 
 Expand, 329 
 Expatiiate, 144 
 Expect, 407 
 Expectancv, 3.V) 
 
 Expectation, 488 
 Expedient, reamrse, 407 
 
 Jit, 407 
 
 Expedite, 28 
 Expedition, quichiess, 64tf 
 
 undertaking, 731 
 
 Expeditious, 329 
 Expend, 698 
 Expense, 280 
 Experience, 368 
 Experiment, attempt^ 368 
 
 trial, 408 
 
 Experimental, 408 
 Expert, 67 
 Expiation, 408 
 Expire, 408 
 Explain, clear, 241 
 
 elucidate, 408 
 
 Explanation, 308 
 Explanatory, 409 
 Explicit, 409 
 Exploit, 410 
 Exploitation, 397 
 Exploration, 397 
 Explosion, 391 
 Expostulate, 255 
 Expound, 410 
 Express, explicit, 409 
 
 signify, 410 
 
 Expression, ennnciatioHy 
 
 385 
 
 termy 411 
 
 phrase, 612 
 
 Expressive, 687 
 Expunge, 367 
 Exquisite, 62 
 Extant, 50 
 Extend, dilate, 329 
 — — reach, 650 
 Extensive, 411 
 Extent, 412 
 Extenuate, 412 
 Exterior, 412 
 Exterminate, 38S 
 External, 412 
 Extirpate, 389 
 Extol, 623 
 Extort, 396 
 Extract, 366 
 f2xtraneou8, 412 
 Extraordinary, remark' 
 
 able, 413 
 
 singubr, 689 
 
 Extravagant, prodigal, 
 
 413 
 
 inordinate, 522 
 
 Extreme, close, 243 
 
760 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Extreme, intense, 529 
 Extremity, 243 
 Extricate, 339 
 Extrinsic, 412 
 Exuberant, 555 
 Exult, 414 
 Eye, 159 
 
 Fable, 414 
 Fabric, edifice, 365 
 
 • manufacture, 415 
 
 Fabricate, to build, 189 
 
 to forge, 442 
 
 Fabrication, 414 
 
 Fabulous, 421 
 
 Face, to confront, 261 
 
 front, 416 
 
 — — countenance, 416 
 Facetious, 416 
 Facile, 348 
 Facility, 362 
 Fact, 235 
 Faction, cabal, l9-( 
 
 ■ party, 604 
 
 Factions, '417 
 
 Factitious, 119 
 
 Factor, 417 
 
 Faculty, 417 
 
 Failing, 417 
 
 Failure, bankruptcy, 145 
 
 failing, 417 
 
 Faint, 418 
 Fair, goodly, 419 
 
 jxist, 419 
 
 Faith, 161 
 Faithful, 420 
 Faithless, 420 
 Fall, 357 
 Fallacious, 421 
 False, 421 
 Falsehood, 421 
 Falsified, 281 
 Falsity, 421 
 Falter, 422 
 Fame, reputation, 422 
 
 report, 423 
 
 glo^^, A57 
 
 Familiar, conversant, 277 
 
 free, 423 
 
 Familiarity, 45 
 Familiarize, 4^ 
 Family, 489 
 Famine, 675 
 Famous, celebrated, ■12.S 
 renowned, 659 
 
 Fanatic, 382 
 Fanciful, 424 
 Fancy, caprice, 204 
 
 imagination, 424 
 
 Fantastical, 424 
 Far, 344 
 Fare, 424 
 Farmer, 425 
 Fascinate, 206 
 Fashion, custom, 291 
 
 form, 443 
 
 Fast, abstinence, 22 
 
 firm, 425 
 
 'hard, 425 
 
 Fasten, 426 
 
 Fastidious, 426 
 
 Fastness, 646 
 
 Fat, 701 
 
 Fatal, 297 
 
 Fate, 319 
 
 Fatigue, weariness, 426 
 
 to jade, 534 
 
 Fault, blemish, 174 
 
 failing, 417 
 
 Faulty, 289 
 Favour, 426, 460 
 Favourable, 133 
 Fealty, 486 
 Fear, alarm, 85 
 
 apprehension, 427 
 
 Fearful, 352 
 Fearless, 178 
 Feasible, 427 
 Feast, banquet, 146 
 
 festival, 431 
 
 Feat, 410 
 Feature, 428 
 Feeble, 428 
 Feed, 229 
 Feeling, 428 
 Feign, 429 
 Felicitate, 263 
 Felicity, 470 
 Fellowship, 430 
 Felon, 286 
 Female, 430 
 F'eminine, 430 
 Fen, 559 
 Fennent, 362 
 Fermentation, 362 
 Ferocious, 430 
 Fertile, 431 
 Fervour, ardour, 431 
 
 zeal, 745 
 
 Festival, 431 
 Festivity, 431 
 Fetch, 186 
 
 Fetter, 242 
 Feud, 645 
 Fickle, 511 
 Fickleness, 204 
 Fiction, 414 
 Fictitious, artificial, 119 
 
 counterfeit, 281 
 
 Fidelity, 268 
 Fierce, 430 
 Fiery, 194 
 Figure, effigy, 368 
 
 form, 443 
 
 metaphor, 569 
 
 Figurative, 432 
 Final, conclusive, 259 
 
 latest, 545 
 
 Find, 432 
 
 Fine, beautiful, 155 
 
 — nice, 309 
 
 — delicate, 433 
 
 — to mulct, 433 
 Finical, 439 
 Finish, achieve, 4S 
 
 close, 433 
 
 Finished, 434 
 Finite, 435 
 
 Fire, 435 
 Firm, fast, 425 
 
 solid, 69^ 
 
 Firmness, 268 
 Fit, expedient, '107 
 to adapt, 435 
 
 — meet, 564 
 Fitness, 113 
 
 Fix, to establish, 39.3 
 
 to fasten, 4^6 
 
 Flag, 357 
 Flagitious, 480 
 Flagrant, 480 
 Flame, 435 
 Flare, 436 
 Flash, 436 
 Flat, 436 
 Flatterer, 437 
 Flattery, 437 
 Flavour, 714 
 Flaw, 174 
 Fleeting, 71? 
 Fleetness, 64r' 
 Flesh, 5(i2 
 F'lexible, 618 
 Flicker, 436 
 Flightiness, 549 
 Fling, 720 
 
 Flourish, to brandish, 
 183 
 — to thrive, iSS 
 
INDEX. 
 
 761 
 
 Flow, to arise, 438 
 
 • to gusli , 469 
 
 to proceed, 631 
 
 Flower, 176 
 
 Fluctuate, 313 
 
 Fluid, 439 
 
 Flutter, 602 
 
 Foe, 379 
 
 Foetus, 372 
 
 Fog, 476 
 
 Foible, 417 
 
 Foil, 142 
 
 Follow, to succeed, 439 
 
 to imitate, 496 
 
 Follower, 60 
 Folly, 518 
 Foment, 229 
 Fond, 75 
 Fondle, 209 
 Fondness, 127 
 Food, diet, 324 
 
 fare, 494 
 
 Fool, 494 
 Foolish, 24 
 Footstep, 724 
 Foppish, 439 
 Forbear, 22 
 Forbid, 298 
 Force, energy, 379 
 
 violence, 737 
 
 Forcible, 440 
 Forebode, 131 
 Forecast, 441 
 Forefathers, 440 
 Forego, 440 
 Foregoing, 625 
 Foreign, 412 
 Foreigner, 441 
 Forerunner, 4 H 
 Foresight, 441 
 Forest, 742 
 Forestall, 629 
 Foretell, 4-12 
 Forethought, 441 
 Forfeit, 4:>;i 
 Forge, 442 
 Forgetfulness, '142 
 Forgive, 404 
 Forlorn, 443 
 Form, ceremony, 216 
 
 character , 220 
 
 to create, 283 
 
 Jjgure,443 
 
 — — to frame, 445 
 
 type, 730 
 
 Fonner, 625 
 Formal, 444 
 
 Formidable, 352 
 Forsake, 1 
 Forthwith, 331 
 Fortify, 533 
 Fortitude, 378 
 Fortuitous, 210 
 Fortunate, happy, 471 
 
 prosperous, 640 
 
 Fortune, 218 
 Forward, 635 
 Forwards, 444 
 Foster, 229 
 Found, 393 
 Foundation, 15:) 
 Fountain, 698 
 Fraction, 444 
 Fracture, 444 
 Fragile, 187 
 Fragment, 444 
 Fragrance, 44-1 
 Frail, 187 
 Frailty, 417 
 Frame, constitution, 445 
 
 form, 445 
 
 Frank, 478 
 Fraud, 446 
 Fray, 645 
 Freak, 204 
 Free, to deliver, 311 
 
 familiar, 423 
 
 independent, 426 
 
 exempt, 426 
 
 Freedom, 447 
 Freight, 209 
 Frenzy, ecstasy, 365 
 
 madness, 555 
 
 Frequent, 447 
 Frequently, 447 
 Fresh, new, 448 
 
 modern, 572 
 
 Fret, 217 
 Fretful, 448 
 Friendly, 95 
 Fright, 85 
 Frighten, 449 
 Frightful, 352 
 Frigid, 247 
 Frivolous, 497 
 Frolic, 451 
 Front, 416 
 Frontier, 180 
 Froward, 612 
 Frugal, o64 
 Fruitful, 431 
 Fruition, 617 
 Fruitless, ineffectual, 517 
 vain^ 734 
 
 Frustrate, 142 
 Fugitive, 717 
 Fulfil, to discharge, 449 
 
 to observe, 588 
 
 Fully, 544 
 Fulness, 450 
 Function, 591 
 Funeral, 587 
 Furious, 450 
 Furnish, 709 
 Futile, 497 
 
 G. 
 
 Gam, to acquire, 46 
 
 emolument, 451 
 
 Gainsay, 275 
 Gait, 209 
 Gale, 741 
 Gall, 217 
 Gallant, 178 
 Gambol, 451 
 Game, amusement, 97 
 
 plau, 451 
 
 Gang, 143 
 Gap, 183 
 Gape, 183, 452 
 Garb, 469 
 Garbled, 281 
 Garland, 744 
 Garment, 355 
 Garnish, 66 
 Garrulous, 553 
 Gasconade, 669 
 Gather, 248 
 Gathering, 124 
 Gaudy, 452 
 Gay, cheerful, 227 
 
 gaudy, 452 
 
 Gaze, 452' 
 Gelid, 247 
 Gem, 452 
 Gender, 452 
 General, 732 
 Generally, 447 
 Generation, 295 
 Generosity, 465 
 Generous, 164 
 Genial, 133 
 Genius, ability, 11 
 
 character, 220 
 
 taste, 453 
 
 Gentile, 479 
 Gentle, 453 
 Genuine, 135 
 
762 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Germinate, 189 
 Gesticulation, action, 50 
 
 antic, 102 
 
 Gesture 50 
 Get, 46, 
 Ghastly, 45 J 
 Ghost, 45 1 
 Gibe, 536 
 Giddiness, 549 
 Gift, endowment, o77 
 
 gratuity, 464J 
 
 Gigantic, 455 
 
 Girl, 294 
 
 Give, to grant, 455 
 
 to ofer, 590 
 
 Glad, 456 
 Glance, 457 
 Glare, 436 
 Gleam, 153 
 Glide, 457 
 Glimmer, 153 
 Glimpse, 457 
 Glisten, 153 
 Glitter, 153 
 Globe, ball, 113 
 
 land, 542 
 
 Gloomy, dark, 295 
 
 sad, 671 
 
 Glossary, 324 
 Glory, to boast, 176 
 
 lumour, 457 
 
 Glow, 458 
 Glut, 462 
 Godlike, 480 
 Godly, 668 
 Gold, 458 
 Golden, 458 
 Good-humour, 459 
 Goodly, 419 
 Good-nature, 459 
 Goodness, 458 
 Goods, 458 
 Gorge, 308 
 Gorgeous, 459 
 Gourmand, 386 
 Govern, 4,59 
 Government, 223 
 Grace, favour, 426, '1^ 
 
 remission, 658 
 
 Graceful, 249 
 Gracious, 460 
 Grade, 2-10 
 Grand, 460 
 Grant, to admit, 63 
 
 to allow, 91 
 
 to cede, 215 
 
 to givCf 455 
 
 Grapple, 212 
 Grasp, 212 
 Grateful, 31 
 Gratify, 462 
 Gratified, 456 
 Gratitude, 163 
 Gratuitous, 463 
 Gratuity, 46 1 
 ''-rave, seriouSy 464 
 
 tomb, 722 
 
 Gravitation, 356 
 Gravity, 464 
 Great, big, 169 
 
 grand, 460 
 
 Greatness, bulh, 190 
 
 magnanimitif, 165 
 
 Greediness, 361 
 Greedy, 465 
 Greet, 36 
 Grief, 77 
 Grievance, 466 
 Grieve, 466 
 Grieved, 695 
 Grim, 454 
 Grimace, 466 
 Grin, 466 
 Gripe, to catch, 212 
 
 to pinch, 615 
 
 Grisly, 451 
 Groan, 466 
 Gross, 245 
 Grotesque, 363 
 Grotto, 214 
 Ground, 150 
 Group, 124 
 Grove, 742 
 Grow, 467 
 Grudge, 467 
 Guarantee, 739 
 Guard, to defend, 306 
 
 guardian, 467 
 
 Guardian, 467 
 Guerdon, 252 
 Guess, 468 
 Guide, 7-nle, W^ 
 
 to lead, 5i? 
 
 Guile, 446 
 Guilt, 284 
 Guilty, 286 
 Guise, 469 
 Gush, 469 
 Gust, 741 
 
 Habiliment, 35.'" 
 
 Habit, custom, 291 
 
 drei>s, 355 
 
 gnise, 469 
 
 Habitation, 470 
 Habituate, 43 
 Habitude, 291 
 Hail, 36 
 Hale, to haul, 352 
 
 healthy, 476 
 
 Hallow, 266 
 Hallucination, 390 
 Handsome, 155 
 Handy, H76 
 Happen, 470 
 Happiness, 470 
 Happy, 471 
 Harangue, 56 
 Harass, 534 
 Harbinger, 441 
 Harbour, to entertain, 381 
 
 haven, 475 
 
 Hard, difficult, 113 
 
 Jast,425 
 
 Hardened, 585 
 Hardihood, 179 
 Hardly, 472 
 Hardship, 466 
 Harm, 491 
 Harmless, 472 
 Harmony, concord, 259 
 
 melody, 564 
 
 Harsh, 472 
 Harshness, 48 
 Haste, 472 
 Hasten, 28 
 Hastiness, 473 
 Hasty, cursory, 473 
 
 passionate, 605 
 
 Hate, 473 
 Hateful, 474 
 Hatred, 474 
 
 Haughtiness, arrogamt, 
 115 
 
 dignity, 328 
 
 Haunt, 447 
 Have, 622 
 Haven, 475 
 Havoc, 619 
 Hawl, 351 
 Hazard, chance, 218 
 
 danger, 294 
 
 Haze, 476 
 Head, 476 
 Heal, 290 
 Healthy, wholesome, 476 
 
 sound, 696 
 
 Heap, 477' 
 
INDEX. 
 
 763 
 
 Hearken, 477 
 
 Hopeless, 488 
 
 Hearty, 47B 
 
 Horde, 143 
 
 Heat, 458 
 
 Horrible, rJ52 
 
 Heathen, 479 
 
 Horrid, 352 
 
 Heave, to lift, .549 
 
 Host, 489 
 
 to swell, 711 
 
 Hostile, 70 
 
 Heaven, 479 
 
 Hot, 194 
 
 Heavens, 479 
 
 House, 4«9 
 
 Jleavenlv, 180 
 
 However, 489 
 
 Heaviness, 464 
 
 Hue, 490 
 
 Heavv, 191 
 
 Hug, 239 
 
 Heed, 480 
 
 Huge, 490 
 
 Heedless, 509 
 
 Humanity, 165 \ 
 
 Height, 370 
 
 Humble, to abasBy % 
 
 Heighten, 549 
 
 loicly, 554 
 
 Heinous, 180 
 
 Humid, 293 
 
 Help, n., 481 
 
 Humiliate, 4 
 
 v., 4Sl 
 
 Humour, burlesque, 192 
 
 Hence, '266 
 
 caprice, 2(^4 
 
 Heresy, 482 
 
 to indulge, 462 
 
 Hero, 218 
 
 Juice, 538 
 
 Heroic, 178 
 
 mood, 574 
 
 Hesitate, to demur, 313 
 
 Hunger, 490 
 
 to falter, 422 
 
 Hunt, 224 
 
 to pause, 606 
 
 Hurl, 720 
 
 Hesitation, 350 
 
 Hurricane, 701 
 
 Heterodoxy, 482 
 
 Hun-y, 472 
 
 Hidden, 545 
 
 Hurt, damage, 491 
 
 Hide, to conceal, 482 
 
 sorry, 695 
 
 skin, 691 
 
 Hurtful, 584 
 
 Hideous, 483 
 
 Husband, 492 
 
 Hi^h, 484 
 Hilarity, 484 
 
 Husbandman, 425 
 
 Husbandry, 289 
 
 Hind, 607 
 
 Hut, 197 
 
 Hinder, to clog, 242 
 
 Hyperbole, 397 
 
 to debar, 298 
 
 Hypocrite, 493 
 
 Hint, 484 
 
 H^T)othesis, 468 
 
 Hireling, 485 
 
 ' 
 
 History, accorcnt, 37 
 
 
 aniials, 485 
 
 I. 
 
 Hit, 154 
 
 
 Hoard, 485 
 
 Idea, notion, 493 
 
 Hoist, 519 
 
 thought, 718 
 
 Hold, (0 contain, 271 
 
 Ideal, imaginai'y, 494 
 
 arrest, 486 
 
 model, 494 
 
 to maintain, 557 
 
 Identity, 494 
 
 Hole, 214 
 
 Idiom, 544 
 
 Holiday, 431 
 
 Idiot. 494 
 
 Hollow, cavity, 214 
 
 Idle, lazy, 494 
 
 empty, 375 
 
 leisure, 495 
 
 Holy, devouty 322 
 
 Ignition, 435 
 
 sacred, 671 
 
 Ignominy, 495 
 
 Homage, 486 
 
 Ignorant, 495 
 111. badlu, 141 
 
 Honesty, 487 
 
 Honour, e/orv, U^7 
 
 evil, 395 
 
 virtue, 7V 
 
 Illiterate, 495 
 
 Hope, 488 
 
 Illness, 516 
 
 Illuminate, 381 
 Illumine, 381 
 Illusion, 301 
 Illustiate, 408 
 Illustration, 396 
 Illustrious, 37o 
 Ill-will, 474 
 Image, effigy, 368 
 
 statue, 700 
 
 Imaginary, chimenral, 
 
 231 
 
 ideal, 494 
 
 Imagination, Ja?jci/, 124 
 
 thought, 718' 
 
 Imbibe, 496 
 Imbrue, 354 
 Imbue, 354 
 Imitate, to follow, 496 
 
 to copy, 496 
 
 to mimic, 570 
 
 Iramaferial, unimpoi iuut, 
 
 497 
 
 incorporeal, 498 
 
 Immediately, 331 
 Immense, 499 
 Imminent, 499 
 Immoderate, 402, 5'2'i 
 Immodest, 499 
 Immolate, 500 
 Immunity, 500 
 Immuring, 207 
 Impair, 500 
 Impart, 501 
 Impassable, 501 
 Impeach, 222 
 Impede, 242 
 Impediment, difficulty^ 
 
 326 
 
 obstacUj 588 
 
 Impel, 53 
 Impending, 499 
 Impenetrable, 523 
 Imperative, 134 
 Imperceptible, 533 
 Imperfect, 305 
 Imperfection, 417 
 Imperious, 134 
 Impertinent, 501 
 Impervious, 501 
 Impetuous, 450 
 Impious, 502 
 Implacable, 502 
 Implant, 502 
 Implement, 525 
 Implicate, 382 
 Implicit, 712 
 Implore, 123 
 
764 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 Imply, comprise, 256 
 
 signify f 503 
 
 Import, 504 
 Importance, 505 
 Importunate, 505 
 Impose, 506 
 Impost, 715 
 Impostor, 506 
 Imprecation, 290 
 Impress, 506 
 Impression, 506 
 Imprint, 506 
 Imprisonment, 207 
 Improve, 507 
 Improvement, 634 
 Impudence, 179 
 Impudent, 501 
 Impugn, 263 
 Impute, 122 
 Inability, 332 
 Inaccessible, 507 
 Inactive, 507 
 Inadequate, 508 
 Inadvertency', 508 
 inanimate, 296 
 Inanity, 509 
 Inattention, 508 
 Inattentive, 509 
 Inaugurate, 510 
 Inborn, 510 
 Inbred, 510 
 Incapable, 510 
 Incarceration, 207 
 Incessant, 273 
 Incident, accident, 32 
 
 circumstance, 235 
 
 Incidental, 210 
 
 Incite, 403 
 
 Inclination, 166 
 
 Incline, 548 
 
 Inclose, 233 
 
 Include, circumscribe, 233 
 
 — comprise, 256 
 
 Incoherent, 511 
 Incompatible, 511 
 Incompetent, 510 
 Incomprehensible, 732 
 Inconceivable, 732 
 Incongruous, 511 
 Inconsiderable, 497 
 Inconsistent, 511 
 Inconstant, 511 
 Incontinently, 331 
 Incontrovertible, 512 
 Incorporeal, 498 
 Increase, to grow, 467 
 — — accession, 512 
 
 I Incredulity, 334 
 j Inculcate, 502 
 I Incursion, 523 
 I Indebted, 503 
 j Indecent, 499 
 ! Indelicate, 499 
 I Indentation, 506 
 I Independent, 446 
 Indicate, to iruirk, 558 
 
 to show, 685 
 
 Indication, 514 
 Indict, 222 
 Indifference, 514 
 Indigenous, 515 
 Indigent, 620 
 Indignation, 515 
 Indignity, 526 
 Indiscriminate, 634 
 Indisposition, 516 
 Indisputable, 512 
 Indistinct, 516 
 Individual, particular, 
 516 
 
 person, 610 
 
 Indolent, 494 
 Indubitable, 512 
 Induce, 53 
 Inducement, 575 
 Induction, 518 
 Indulge, 462 
 Industi-K^us, 329 
 Inebriation, 358 
 Inebriety, 358 
 Ineffable, 517 
 Ineffectual, 517,734- 
 Inequality, 341 
 Inert, 507 
 Inexorable, 502 
 Inexpressible, 517 
 Infamous, 674 
 Infamy, 495 
 Infatuation, 518 
 Infection, 271 
 Inference, 51^ 
 Inferior, 519 
 Infest, 447 
 Infidelity, 334 
 Infinite, boundless, 182 
 
 immense, 499 
 
 Infirmity, 417 
 Influence, to affect, 73 
 
 ascendancy, 121,519 
 
 Inform, 519 
 Infraction, 520 
 Infringe, to encroach, 376 
 
 to transgress, 726 
 
 Infringement, 520 
 
 Infuse, 502 
 Ingenious, 520 
 Ingenuous, 478 
 Ingraft, 502 
 Ingratiate, 521 
 Ingredient, 270 
 Ingi-ess, 384 
 Inherent, adherent, 60 
 
 inborn, 510 
 
 Inhibit, 298 
 Inhibition, 634 
 Inhuman, 147 
 Inimical, 70 
 Iniquitous, 580 
 Iniquity, 284 
 Initiate, 510 _ 
 Injoin, 506 
 Injunction, 249 
 Injure, 500 
 Injurious, 584 
 Injury, wrong, 284 
 
 damage, -J 91 
 
 Injustice, wrong, 284 
 
 harm, 491 
 
 Innate, 510 
 Inner, 521 
 Innocence, 521 
 Innocuous, 472 
 Innuendo, 484 
 Inoffensive, 472 
 Inordinate, 522 
 Inquire, 522 
 Inquiry, 397 
 Inquisition, 397 
 Inquisitive, 523 
 Inroad, 523 
 Insanity, 555 
 Inscrutable, 523 
 Insensibility, 514 
 Insert, 531 
 Inside, 524 
 Insidious, 524 
 Insight, 524 
 Insignificant, 497 
 Insinuate, ingratiate, 521 
 
 suggest, 524 
 
 Insinuation, 484 
 Insist, 525 
 Insolent, 501 
 Insolvency, 145 
 Inspection, examinatiofif 
 397 
 
 insight, 524 
 
 Inspire, 98 
 Instance, 398 
 Instant, 573 
 Instantaneously, 33J 
 
NDEX. 
 
 765 
 
 nstantly, 331 
 nstigate, 28 
 nstil, 502 
 nstinctive, 525 
 nstitute, to establish, 393 
 
 institution, 525 
 
 nstitution, 525 
 nstruct, 519 
 nstruction, 366 
 nstrument, 525 
 nsufficient, 508 
 nsult, 526 
 nsuperable, 526 
 nsurmountable, 526 
 nsurrection, 527 
 ntegral, 384 
 ntegrity, 487 
 ntellect, reason, 528 
 
 mind, 570 
 
 ntellectual, 529 
 ntelligence, inteltec 1, 528 
 
 neti>«, 581 
 
 ntemperate, 402 
 ntend,3J7 
 ntense, 529 
 ntent, 129 
 ntercede, 529 
 ntercept, 486 
 nterchange, 149 
 ntercourse, 529 
 nterdict, 298 
 nterest, advantage, 68 
 
 concern, 530 
 
 nterfere, 529 
 nterior, inner, 521 
 
 inside, 524 
 
 nterloper, 530 
 ntenneddle, 529 
 ntennediate, 530 
 nterment, 192 
 ntermission, 53i) 
 nternal, 521 
 nterpose, 529 
 nterposition, 531 
 nterpret, 410 
 nterrogate, 522 
 nten'uption, 530 
 ntersection, 531 
 nterspace, 531 
 nterstice, 531 
 nterval, 531 
 ntervening, 530 
 ntervention, 531 
 nterview, 531 
 ntestines, 7S8 
 ntimacy, 45 
 ntimate, 410 
 
 Intimation, 484 
 Intimidate, 449 
 Intombment, 192 
 Intoxication, 358 
 Intrench, 376 
 Intrepid, 178 
 Intricacy, 255 
 Intrinsic, 521 
 Introduce, 531 
 Introduction, 626 
 Introductory, 532 
 Intrude, encroach, 376 
 
 obtrude, 532 
 
 Intruder, 530 
 Intrusion, 523 
 Intrust, 250 
 Intuitive, 525 
 Inundate, 312 
 Inure, 43 
 Invade, 376 
 Invasion, 5'i3 
 Invective, 532 
 Inveigh, 302 
 Inveigle, 384 
 Invent, 275 
 Invention, 337 
 Inventive, 520 
 Inventory, 211 
 Inversion, 277 
 Invert, 667 
 Invest, 377 
 Investigation, 397 
 Inveterate, 705 
 Invidious, 385 
 Invigoi-ate, 533 
 Invincible, 526 
 Invisible, 533 
 Invite, 168 
 Inviting, 130 
 Invoke, 200 
 Involve, comprise, 256 
 
 imply, 503 
 
 Inward, 521 
 Irascible, 534 
 Ire, 743 
 Irksome, 716 
 Irony, 192 
 Irrational, 24 
 Irrefragable, 512 
 Irregular, 101 
 Irrelevant, 497 
 Irreligious, 502 
 Irreproachable, 533 
 Irresolute, 533 
 Irritable, 534 
 Irritate, 400 
 Irruption, 523 
 
 Issue, flow, 438 
 
 to emerge, 534 
 
 offspring, 591 
 
 proceed, 631 
 
 J. 
 
 Jade, 534 
 Jangle, 535 
 Jar, 535 
 Jargon, 204 
 Jaunt, 535 
 Jealous, 385 
 Jeer, 536 
 Jeopardy, 294 
 Jest, 536 
 Jewel, 452 
 Jocose, 416 
 Jocular, 416 
 Join, to coalesce, 244 
 
 to unite, 536 
 
 Jointure, 351 
 Joke, 536 
 Jollity, 484 
 Journey, 537 
 Jovial, 227 
 Joviality, 484 
 Joyful, 456 
 Judge, to decide, 302 
 
 arbiter, 537 
 
 Judgment, discernment 
 334 
 
 sense, 537 
 
 Juice, 538 
 Jump, 538 
 Junction, 732 
 Jurisdiction, 136 
 Just, fair, 419 
 
 right, 538, 668 
 
 Justice, equity, 388 
 
 precision, 538 
 
 rectitude, 654 
 
 Justification, 103 
 Juvenile, 745 
 
 K. 
 
 Keen, 54 
 
 Keep, to hold, 486 
 
 — — to observef 588 
 
 Keeping, 539 
 
 Kill, 539 
 
 Kind, affectionate, 75 
 
 character, 220 
 
766 
 
 Kind, gi-acious, 460 
 Kindness, 163 
 Kindred, 75 
 Kingdom, empire, 373, 
 
 374 
 Kingly, 539 
 Kinsman, 339 
 Knavish, 540 
 Knowledge, 540 
 
 Laborious, 329 
 
 Labour, 743 
 
 Lace, 169 
 
 Lacerate, 183 
 
 Lack, 541 
 
 Laconic, 541 
 
 Lading, 209 
 
 Lag, 542 
 
 Lament, to bemoan, 162 
 
 to grieve, 466 
 
 Lampoon, 192 
 Land, 542 
 Landscape, 543 
 Language, 544 
 Languid, 418 
 Languish, 357 
 Lank, 548 
 Large, big, 169 
 
 broad, 187 
 
 extensive, 41 1 
 
 Largely, 544 
 Lass, 294 
 Lassitude, 426 
 Last, to continue, 544 
 — — latest, 546 
 Lasting, 359 
 Latent, 545 
 Latest, 545 
 Laudable, 545 
 Laughable, 356 
 Lavish, 413 
 Law, 303 
 Lawful, 546 
 Lax, 546 
 Lay, 617 
 Lazy, 494 
 Lead, 547 
 Leader, 476 
 Leading, 230 
 League, 88 
 Lean, meagre, 548 
 
 to bend, 548 
 
 Leap, 538 
 Learn, 705 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Learning, 540 
 Leave, liberty, 548 
 
 to quit, 549 
 
 Legal, 546 
 Legitimate, 546 
 Leisure, 495 
 I/engthen, 549 
 Leniency, 566^ 
 Lessen, 7 
 Lethargic, 358 
 Letter, character, 220 
 
 epistle, 387 
 
 Letters, 540 
 Level, equal, 387 
 
 jlat, 436 
 
 Levity, 549 
 Levy, 715 
 Lexicon, 324 
 Liable, 39 
 Libel, 203 
 Libeml, 164 
 Liberate, 311 
 Liberty, freedom, 447 
 
 leat)e, 548 
 
 Licence, 548 
 Licentious, 344 
 Licit, 546 
 Lie, 421 
 Life, 99 
 Lifeless, 296 
 Lift, 549 
 Lightness, 549 
 Like, 387 
 Likebv 551 
 Likeness, 550 
 Likewise, 92 
 Liking, 127 
 Limb, 551 
 Limit, border, 180 
 
 to circumscribe, 233 
 
 extent, 412 
 
 Limited, 435 
 Lineage, 489 
 Lineament, 428 
 Linger, 542 
 Liquid, 439, 538 
 Liquidate, 309 
 Liquor, 538 
 List, 211 
 Listen, 477 
 Listless, 551 
 Literature, 540 
 Little, 551 
 Live, 406 
 Livelihood, 552 
 Lively, 227 
 Living, 552 
 
 Load, 191 
 Loathe, 10 
 Loathing, 579 
 Locality, 621 
 Location, 621 
 Locomotion, 57A 
 Lodge, 10 
 Loftiness, 328 
 Lofty, 484 
 Loiter, 542 
 Loneliness, 630 
 Lonely, 553 
 Look, 159 
 Loose, lux, 546 
 
 slack, 691 
 
 Loquacious, 553 
 Lot, 319 
 Loud, 553 
 J-^ve, 127 
 Lovely, 155 
 Lover, 708 
 Low, 149 
 Lower, to abase, 4 
 
 to reduce, 554 
 
 Lowly, 554 
 Lowness, 6 
 Loyalty, 88 
 Lucid, 184 
 Lucky, 471 
 Lucre, 451 
 Ludicrous, 356 
 Luminous, 184 
 Lump, 175 
 Lustrous, 184 
 Lusty, 701 
 Luxuriant, 555 
 
 Machination, 196 
 Machine, 555 
 Madness, 555 
 Magical, 576 
 Magician, 556 
 Magnanimity, 465 
 Magnificence, 620 
 Magnitude, 190 
 Maid, 294 
 Maim, 556 
 Main, 230 
 Maintain, to sustain, 556 
 
 to assert, 557 
 
 Maintenance, 552 
 ]\Iajestic, 460 
 Majesty, 556 
 Make, 28S 
 
Malady, 338 
 Malediction, 290 
 Malefactor, 286 
 Malevolence, 474 
 Malevolent, 557 
 Malice, 474 
 Malicious, 557 
 Malignancy, 474 
 Malignant, 557 
 Malignity, 474 
 Malversation, 305 
 Manage, 275 
 Management, 223 
 Mandate, 376 
 Manful, 557 
 Mangle, 556 
 Mama, 555 
 Manifest, apparent, 104 
 
 to show, 685 
 
 Manifold, 347 
 Manly, 557 
 Manner, air, 83 
 
 custom, 291 
 
 ' mode, 572 
 
 Mannish, 557 
 Manoeuvre, 728 
 Manufacture, Jabric, 415 
 
 produce, 632 
 
 Manunxission, 371 
 Margin, 185 
 Marine, 558 
 Mariner, 558 
 Maritime, 558 
 Mark, butt, 195 
 
 impnssioii, 50b 
 
 to indicate, 558 
 
 Marquee, 180 
 Marriage, 559 
 Marsh, 559 
 Martial, 559 
 Marvel, 559 
 Mask, 241 
 Mason, 190 
 Mass, block, 175 
 
 volume, 560 
 
 Massacre, 561 
 Massive, 191 
 Master, 561 
 Match, 713 
 Mate, 251 
 Material, 280 
 Materials, 561 
 Matrimony, 559 
 Matter, 561 
 Mature, 562 
 Maxim, 641 
 May, 562 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Meagre, Uan, 548 
 
 scanty, 674: 
 
 Mean, average, 137 
 
 base, 149 
 
 to design, 317 
 
 abject, 562 
 
 Meaning, 504 
 Meat, 562 
 Mechanic, 120 
 Mechanician, 120 
 Mediate, 529 
 Meditate, 563 
 Medium, 137 
 Medley, 564 
 Meed, 252 
 Meek, 453 
 Meet, 564 
 Meeting, assembly, 124 
 
 intervieiv, 531 
 
 Melancholy, dejection, 
 309 
 
 sad, 671 
 
 Melody, 564 
 Member, 551 
 Memoir, 37 
 Memorable, 564 
 Memorial, 565 
 Memory, 565 
 Menace, 719 
 Mend, 507 
 Mendicant, 157 
 Menial, 350 
 
 Mention, 566 
 Mercantile, 250 
 Mercenary, hireling, 
 
 venial, 735 
 
 Merchandize, 458 
 Merciful, 460 
 JMerciless, 566 
 Mercy, 566 
 Mere, 148 
 Merit, 568 
 Merry, 227 
 Message, 390 
 Messenger, 441 
 Metamorphose, 568 
 Metaphor, 569 
 Metaphorical, 432 
 Method, custom, 291 
 
 system, 712 
 
 jNIien, 83 
 Mighty, 569 
 Mild, 453 
 Military, 559 
 Mimic, 570 
 Mind, 970 
 
 185 
 
 767 
 
 Mingl;,, 261 
 Minislei, 92 
 Minor, 519 
 
 Minute, circumstantial, 
 236 
 
 little, 551 
 
 Miracle, 559 
 Miraculous, 709 
 Mirthful, 227 
 Misadventure, 198 
 Miscellany, 564 
 Mischance, 198 
 Mischief, 491 
 Misconstrue, 571 
 Misdeed, 284 
 Misdemeanour, 284 
 Miserable, 571 
 Miserly, 581 
 Misery, 71 
 Misfortune, 198 
 Misgiving, 327 
 Mishap, 198 
 JNIisinterpret, 571 
 Mislead, 300 
 Mist, 476 
 Mistake, 390 
 Mistrust, 327 
 Misuse, 26 
 Mitisfate, 106 
 Mix," 26J 
 Mixture, composition, 2fi6 
 
 a medley, 564 
 
 Moan, 466 
 
 Mob, 288 
 
 Mock, 570 
 
 Mode, 572 
 
 Model, example, 398 
 
 ideal, 494 
 
 Moderate, abstinent, 23 
 
 fair, 419 
 
 to temper, 573 
 
 Modern, 572* 
 Modest, bashful, 151 
 
 lowly, 554 
 
 Modify, 573 
 
 IVIoist, 293 
 
 Molecule, 604 
 
 Molest, 100 
 
 Moment, importance, 5 ."> 
 
 instant, 573 
 
 Monarch, 573 
 Monastery, 276 
 Money, 210 
 Monograph, 392 
 Monster, 559 
 Monument, 565 
 Mood, 574 
 
768 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Moody, 671 
 Morality, 674 
 Morals, 574 
 Morass, 559 
 Morbid, 574 
 Moreover, 674 
 Morose, 574 
 Mortal, 297 
 Mortification, 736 
 ftlortity, 589 
 Motion, 575 
 Motive, 575 
 Mottle, 697 
 Mould, character, 220 
 
 ' form, 443 
 
 earth, 542 
 
 Mount, 120 
 Mountebank, 224 
 Mourn, 466 
 Mournful, 671 
 Move, to affect, 73 
 
 to stir, 576 
 
 to remove, 659 
 
 Movement, 575 
 Moving, 606 
 Mulct, 433 
 Multifarious, 347 
 Multiplication, 512 
 Multitude, 288 
 Municipal, 2S6 
 Munificent, 164 
 Muniment, 319 
 Murder, 539 
 Murmur, to comjilaiii, 254 
 
 to mutter, 576 
 
 Muse, 563 
 Muster, 248 
 Mutable, 511 
 Mute, 358 
 Mutilate, 5*56 
 Mutiny, 527 
 Mutter, 576 
 Mutual, 576 
 Mysterious, 576 
 Mystical, 576 
 
 N. 
 
 Naked, 577 
 
 Name, 577 
 
 Narrate, 578 
 
 Narration, 37 
 
 Narrative, 37 
 
 N arrow, contracted, 578 
 
 straight, 702 
 
 Natal, 578 
 
 Nation, 608 
 Native, 578 
 Natural, 578 
 Nature, 220 
 Naughty, 140 
 Nausea, 579 
 Nautical, 558 
 Naval, 558 
 Nice, delicate, 309 
 
 exact, 395 
 
 Niggardly, 581 
 Nigh, 579 
 Nightly, 582 
 Nimbleness, 86 
 Near, 579 
 Nearest, 579 
 Nearly, 92 
 Necessary, 579 
 Necessitate, 503 
 Necessitous, needy, 580 
 
 poor, 620 
 
 Necessity, 541 
 Necromancer, 556 
 Need, 541 
 Needful, 579 
 Needy, necessitous, 580 
 
 poor, 620 
 
 Nefarious, 580 
 Neglect, disregard, 580 
 to omit, 593 
 
 Negligent, 509 
 Negotiate, 726 
 
 Neighbourhood, 580 
 
 Neophyte, 278 
 
 Neutrality, 514 
 
 Nevertheless, 489 
 
 New, fresh, 448 
 
 modern, 572 
 
 News, 581 
 
 Next, 579 
 
 Nobility, 114 
 
 Noble, 460 
 
 Nocturnal, 582 
 
 Noiseless, 358 
 
 Noisy, 553 
 
 Nominal, 119 
 
 Nominate, 582 
 
 Note, 582 
 
 Noted, 584 
 
 Notes, 583 
 
 Notice, 566 
 
 Notify, 584 
 
 Notion, idea, 493 
 
 opinion, 595 
 
 Notorious, 584 
 
 Notwithstanding, 489 
 
 Nourisl), 229 
 
 Hi Orel, fable, 41-1 
 
 new, 572 
 
 Novice, 730 
 Noxious, 584 
 Nugatory, 497 
 Number, 586 
 Numeral, 585 
 Numerical, 685 
 Nunnery, 276 
 Nuptials, 559 
 Nurture, 229 
 
 O. 
 
 Oath, 686 
 Obdurate, 585 
 Obedience, 586 
 Obedient, 686 
 Object, aim, 83 
 
 to demur, 313 
 
 motive, 676 
 
 subject, 706 
 
 Objurgate, 171 
 Obligation, 360 
 Oblige, 170 
 Obliged, 513 
 Obliging, 236 
 Obliterate, 367 
 Oblivion, 442 
 Ohliviousness, 4i't 
 Obloquy, 587 
 Obnoxious, 39 
 Obscure, dark, 296 
 
 indistinct, 516 
 
 Obsequies, 587 
 Obsequious, 686 
 Observance, ceremonii, 
 
 216 
 observation, 587 
 
 Observation, a note, 682 
 
 observance, 587 
 
 Observations, 583 
 
 Observe, to behold, 159 
 
 to keep, 588 
 
 to watch, 740 
 
 Observer, 697 
 
 Obsolete, 691 
 
 Obstacle, difficulty, 326 
 
 impediment, 688 
 
 Obstinate, obdurate, 68."^ 
 stubborn, 705 
 
 Obstre])erous, 553 
 
 Obstruct, 242 
 
 Obstruction, 3^ 
 
 Obtain, 46 
 
 Obtrude, 632 
 
Obverse, 277 
 Obviate, 629 
 Obrious, 104 
 Occasion, to cajisBy 283 
 
 occurrence, 588 
 
 opportunity, 589 
 
 Occasional, 210 
 Occult, 545 
 Occupancy, 589 
 Occupation, employment, 
 375 
 
 occupancy, 589 
 
 Occur, 470 
 
 Occu rre nee ,circum stance, 
 
 occasion, 588 
 
 Odd, 363 
 Odious, 474 
 Odour, 444 
 Offence, 284 
 Offend, 589 
 Offender, 590 
 Offer, to give, 590 
 
 to propose, 640 
 
 to tender, 718 
 
 Office, 591 
 Officious, 195 
 Offspring, 591 
 Often, 447 
 Old, 591 
 Older, 370 
 Omen, 592 
 Omit, 593 
 On, 598 
 Only, 593 
 Onset, 593 
 Onwards, 444 
 Opaque, 295 
 Open, 478 
 Opening, 594 
 Operate, 594 
 Opinion, 595 
 Opinionated, 370 
 Opponent, 379 
 Oppose, 595 
 Opposite, 70 
 Opportune, 721 
 Opportunity, 589 
 Opprobrium, 495 
 Oppugn, 263 
 Option, 231 
 Opulence, 740 
 Oral, 596 
 1 Oration, 56 
 I Oratory, 371 
 Orb, 143 
 Orbit, 596 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Order, character, 220 
 
 class, 240 
 
 com.mand, 249 
 
 direction, 331 
 
 to dispose, 597 
 
 rule, 597' 
 
 Ordinance, 376 
 Ordinarily, 447 
 Ordinary, 251 
 Orifice, 214 
 Origin, 157 
 Original, beginning, 157 
 
 primary, 597 
 
 Ornament, 66 
 Oscillation, 736 
 Ostensible, 598 
 Ostentation, 598 
 Outcry, 238 
 Outdo, 401 
 Outline, 691 
 Outlive, 600 
 Outrage, 526 
 Outward, 412 
 Outweigh, 600 
 Over, cd)ove, 15, 598 
 Overbear, 599 
 Overcome, 264 
 Overflow, 312 
 Overpower, 599 
 Overrule, 709 
 Overrun, 599 
 Oversight, 599 
 Overspread, 599 
 Overture, 639 
 Overwhelm, 599 
 Own, 44 
 Owner, 561 
 
 P. 
 
 Pace, 600 
 
 Pacific, 607 
 
 Pacify, 106 
 
 Pack, 182 
 
 Pagan, 479 
 
 Pageant, 684 
 
 Pam, 601 
 
 Paint, 248 
 
 Painting, 601 
 
 Pair, 182 
 
 Pale, 601 
 
 Palliate, 412 
 
 Pallid, 601 
 
 Palpable, apparent^ 10 i 
 
 tangible, 602 
 
 Palpitate, 602 
 
 769 
 
 Panegyric, 602 
 Pang, 601 
 Panic, 85 
 Pant, 602 
 Parable, 414 
 Parade, 598 
 Paradise, 479 
 Paradoxical, 24 
 Paragraph, 612 
 Paraphernalia, 104 
 Parasite, 437 
 Pardon, excuse, 404 
 
 absolution, 20, 658 
 
 Pardonable, 735 
 Pare, 603 
 Parody, 192 
 Parsimonious, 364 
 Part, division, 603 
 
 piece, 614 
 
 to separate, 680 
 
 Partake, 603 
 Participate, 603 
 Particle, 604 
 Particular, 236 
 
 exact, 395 
 
 individual, 516 
 
 special, 696 
 
 Particularly, 230 
 Partizan, 60 
 Partner, 251 
 Partnership, 88 
 Party, 604 
 Pass, 308 
 Passage, 604 
 Passion, 428 
 Passionate, 605 
 Passive, 605 
 Pastime, 96 
 Pathetic, affecting, 606 
 
 touclting, 724 
 
 Patience, 378 
 Patient, 605 
 Pattern, 398 
 Pauperism, 623 
 Pause, 606 
 Pay, v., 309 
 Pay, n., 606 
 Payment, 606 
 Peaceable, 607 
 Peaceful, calm,. 201 
 
 peaceable, 607 
 
 Peasant, 607 
 Peculation, 305 
 Peculiar, 696 
 I Peel, to pare, 603 
 
 rind, 608 
 
 Peer, 182 
 
 3d 
 
70 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Peevish, 448 
 Pellucid, 7'27 
 Penalty, 433 
 Penetrate, 608 
 Penetration, 334 
 Penitence, 660 
 Penman, 744 
 Penurious, savingj 364 
 
 poor, 620 
 
 People, nation^ 60S 
 
 persons, 611 
 
 Perceive, to apprehend, 
 
 110 
 
 to behold, 159 
 
 Perceptible, apparent, 
 
 104 
 
 palpable, 602 
 
 Perception, /gc/m^, 428 
 
 conception, 493 
 
 Percolate, 608 
 Perdition, 609 
 Peremptory, 609 
 Perfect, entire, 384 
 
 finished, 434 
 
 Perfidious, 420 
 Perforation, 214 
 Perform, 34 
 Performance, 609 
 Performer, 50 
 Perfume, 444 
 Peril, 294 
 Perilous, 295 
 Period, date, 295 
 
 sentence, 612 
 
 Perish, 300 
 Permanence, 268 
 Permanent, 359 
 Permeate, 608 
 Permissible, 63 
 Permission, 548 
 Permit, to allow, 90 
 
 to tolerate, 722 
 
 Pernicious, destructive, 
 
 320 
 
 noxious, 584 
 
 Perpetrate, 251 
 Perpetual, 273 
 Perplex, 609 
 Persecute, 100 
 Persevere, 610 
 Persist, to insist, 525 
 
 to persevere, 610 
 
 Persistent, 359 
 Person, 610 
 Persons, 611 
 Perspicuity, 611 
 Persuade, to convincef^9 
 
 Persuade, to exhoriif'405 
 Pertinacious, 585 
 Pertinacity, 717 
 Perturbation, 262 
 Peruse, 611 
 Pervade, 608 
 Perverse, 612 
 Pervert, 278 
 Pest, 144 
 Pestiferous, 612 
 Pestilent, 612 
 Pestilential, 612 
 Petition, 612 
 Petty, 497 
 Petulant, 448 
 Phantasm, 454 
 Phantom, 454 
 Phenomenon, 559 
 Philosophy, 540 
 Phrase, 612 
 Phraseology, 613 
 Picture, 601 
 Piece, 614 
 Pierce, 608 
 Pile, 477 
 Pillage, 614 
 Pillar, 614 
 Pinch, 615 
 Pine, 357 
 Pinion, 615 
 Pious, 322 
 Pique, 467 
 Piteous, doleful, 349 
 
 pitiful," 615 
 
 Pitiable, 615 
 Pitiful, 615 
 Pittance, 349 
 Pity, 566 
 Place, to lay, 547 
 
 position, 621 
 
 site, 689 
 
 Placid, 201 
 
 Plain, appo) en t, 101 
 
 simple, 688 
 
 Plan, 616 
 Plank, 176 
 Plausible, 598 
 Play, drama, 351 
 
 game, 451 
 
 Player, 50 
 Plea, 103 
 Pleader, 617 
 Pleasant, agreeable, 81 
 
 facetious, 416 
 
 Please, 462 
 Pleased, 456 
 Pleasing, 81 
 
 Pleasure, 617 
 Pledge, earnest, 361 
 
 deposit, 617 
 
 Plenipotentiary, 92 
 Plenitude, 450 
 Plenteous, 279 
 Plentiful, 279 
 Pliable, 618 
 Pliant, 618 
 Plight, 619 
 Plot, 196 
 Pluck, 351 
 Plunder, 614 
 Plunge, 346 
 Poise, 143 
 Poison, 619 
 Polish, 195 
 Polished, 619 
 Polite, civil, 236 
 
 polished, 619 
 
 Politic, 620 
 Pollute, 272 
 Poltroon, 282 
 Pomp, 620 
 Ponder, 563 
 Ponderous, 191 
 Poor, 620 
 Populace, 288 
 Port, 475 
 Portend, 131 
 Portion, 603 
 Portrait, 368 
 Pose, 609 
 Position, place, 621 
 
 situation, 690 
 
 Positive, actual, 50 
 
 defnite, 308 
 
 Possess, 622 
 Possession, 458 
 Possessor, 561 
 Possible, 427 
 Posterior, 622 
 Postpone, 306 
 Posture, 129 
 Potent, 569 
 Potentate, 573 
 Potential, 737 
 Potion, 356 
 Pound, 188 
 Pour, 623 
 Poverty, 623 
 Power, authority, 136 
 
 energy, 379 
 
 faculty, 417 
 
 Powerful, 569 
 Practicable, 427 
 Practice, 291 
 
Practise, 4^5 
 
 Pragmatical, 195 
 
 Praise, applause, 108 
 
 ■ to applaud, 623 
 
 Praiseworthy, 545 
 
 Prank, 451 
 
 Prate, 140 
 
 Prattle, 140 
 
 Pray, 624 
 
 Prayer, 612 
 
 Precarious, 624 
 
 Precedence, 624' 
 
 Precedent, 398 
 
 Preceding, 625 
 
 Precept, 249 
 
 Precinct, 180 
 
 Precious, 625 
 
 Precipitancy, 473 
 
 Precise, exact, 395 
 
 concise, 625 
 
 Precision, 538 
 
 Preclude, to debar, 298 
 
 to prevent, 629 
 
 Precursor, 441 
 
 Predecessors, 440 
 
 Predicament, 619 
 
 Predict, 442 
 
 Predominant, 626 
 
 Predominate, 600 
 
 Pre-eminence,precede/ice, 
 624 
 
 Pre-eminence, superio- 
 rity, 626 
 
 Preface, 626 
 
 Prefer, 233 
 
 Preferable, 371 
 
 Preference, choice, 231 
 
 precedence, 624 
 
 Preferment, 636 
 
 Prejudice, hurt, 491 
 
 prepossessiori, 627 
 
 Prejudicial, 584 
 
 Prelate, 171 
 
 Preliminary, 532 
 
 Prelude, 626 
 
 Premeditation, 441 
 
 Preparatory, 532 
 
 Preponderate, 600 
 
 Prepossession, 627 
 
 Preposterous, 24 
 
 Prerogative, 237 
 
 Presage, to augur , 131 
 
 omen, 592 
 
 Prescribe, 323 
 
 Prescription, 291 
 
 Present, actual, 50 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Present, to introduce, 531 
 
 fo offer, 590 
 
 Preserve, 486 
 Press, 615 
 Pressing, 505 
 Presume, 627 
 Presumption, 115 
 Pretence, 628 
 Pretend, to affect, 74i 
 
 to feign, 429 
 
 Pretension, claim, 237 
 
 pretence, 628 
 
 Preternatural, 709 
 Pretext, 628 
 Pretty, 155 
 Prevailing, 626 
 Prevalent, 626 
 Prevaricate, 389 
 Prevent, to clog, 242 
 — — • to anticipate, 629 
 Previous, 625 
 Prey, 614 
 Price, 280 
 Pride, arrogance, 115 
 
 disdain, 629 
 
 Primarily, 230 
 Primary, 597 
 Primitive, 597 
 Primordial, 597 
 Prince, 573 
 Principal, 230 
 Principally, 230 
 Principle, doctrine, 348 
 
 element, 630 
 
 maxim, 641 
 
 Print, 506 
 Prior, 625 
 Priority, 624 
 Priory, 276 
 Pristine, 597 
 Privacy, 630 
 Privilege, 237 
 Prize, to appraise, 109 
 
 capture, 208 
 
 Probability, 218 
 Probable, 551 
 Probity, 487 
 Proceed, to flow, 438, 631 
 
 to advance, 631 
 
 Proceeding, procedure, 
 632 
 
 transaction, 726 
 
 Procedure, 632 
 Process, 632 
 Procession, process^ 632 
 
 train, 725 
 
 Proclaim, 99 
 
 774 
 
 Proclamation, 303 
 Procrastinate, 306 
 Procrastinating, 329 
 Procreate, 184 
 Procure, 46 
 Prodigal, 413 
 Prodigious, 490 
 Prodigy, 559 
 Produce, afford, 78 
 
 to create, 283 
 
 product, 632 
 
 Product, 632 
 Production, performance, 
 
 609 
 
 produce, 632 
 
 work, 632 
 
 Productive, 431 
 Profanation, 633 
 Profane, 502 
 Profess, 633 
 Profession, 633 
 Proffer, 590 
 Proficiency, 634 
 Profit, 68 
 Profligate, 3 
 Profundity, 315 
 Profuse, 413 
 Profuseness, 634 
 Profusion, 634 
 Progenitors, 440 
 Progeny, 591 
 Prognostic, 592 
 Prognosticate, 131 
 Programme, 16 
 Progress, 634 
 Prohibit, 298 
 Prohibition, 634 
 Project, 616 
 Prolific, 431 
 Prolix, 328 
 Prolong, to defer, 306 
 
 to lengthen, 549 
 
 Prominent, 373 
 Promiscuous, 634 
 Promise, 635 
 Promote, 635 
 Promotion, 636 
 Prompt, apt, 112 
 
 diligent, 329 
 
 Promulgate, 636 
 Proneness, 166 
 Pronounce, to utter j 312, 
 
 636 
 
 to declare, 637 
 
 Proof, experiment, 408 
 
 testimony, 637 
 
 Propagate, to breed^ 184 
 
772 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Propagate, h? spread, 638 
 Propel, 644 
 Propensity, 166 
 Proper, 156 
 Property, goods, 468 
 — — quality, 638 
 Prophesy, 442 
 Prophet, 348 
 Propinquity, 580 
 Propitiate, 258 
 Propitious, 133 
 Proportion, rate, 639 
 
 symmetry, 711 
 
 Proportionate, 58 
 Proposal, 639 
 Propose, 640 
 Proposition, phrase, 612 
 
 proposal, 639 
 
 Proprietor, 561 
 Propriety, 302 
 Prorogue, 640 
 Prosecute, 643 
 Proselyte, 278 
 Prospect, 543 
 Prosper, 438 
 Prosperity, 640 
 Prosperous, 640 
 Protect, 306 
 Protest, 125 
 Protract, 306 
 Proverh, 641 
 Provide, 709 
 Providence, 642 
 Province, 346 
 Provincialism, 642 
 Provisions, 424 
 Provoke, 400 
 Proximity, 580 
 Proxy, 643 
 Prudence, providence, 642 
 
 wisdom, 741 
 
 Prudent, cautious, 213 
 
 politic, 620 
 
 prudential, 643 
 
 Prudential, 643 
 
 Prying, 523 
 
 Publish, to advertise, 71 
 
 to announce, 99 
 
 to promulgate, 636 
 
 Puerile, childish, 231 
 
 young, 745 
 
 Pull,' 351 
 Punctual, 395 
 Punish, 225 
 Punishment, 643 
 Purchase, 196 
 Pure, 240 
 
 Purge, 643 
 
 Purify, to chasten, 225 
 
 to purge, 643 
 
 Purity, 521 
 Purlieu, 180 
 Purport, 504 
 Purpose, design, 317 
 
 motive, 575 
 
 to propose, 640 
 
 Purposely, 72 
 Pursue, to cJiase, 224 
 
 to prosecute, 643 
 
 Push, 644 
 Pusillanimous, 721 
 Put, 547 
 Putrefy, 644 
 Puzzle, 609 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quack, 224 
 Quagmire, 559 
 Quaint, 24 
 Quake, 682 
 Qualified, 644 
 Qualify, 573 
 Quality, 638 
 Quantity, 560 
 Quarrel, 645 
 Quarter, 346 
 Querulous, 448 
 Query, 646 
 Question, to inquire, 522 
 
 a query, 646 
 
 Quicken, 28 
 Quickness, 646 
 Quiet, calm, 201 
 
 ease, 362 
 
 Quit, 549 
 
 Quiver, 682 
 
 Quote, cite, 169 647 
 
 R. 
 
 Race, 489 
 Rancour, 474 
 Rage, 743 
 Rap, 647 
 Raiment, 355 
 Raise, 549 
 Rally, 147 
 Ramble, ja«nt, 535 
 
 to roam, 648 
 
 Range, to adjust, 61 
 
 to arrange, 648 
 
 to roam, 648 
 
 Rank, 240 
 
 I Rans.rai, 648 
 Rant, 669 
 Ripacious, 6^9 
 Rapidity, 646 
 Rapine, 614 
 Rapture, 365 
 Rare, 649 
 Rashness, 473 
 Rate, to calculate, 199 
 
 proportion, 639 
 
 taxy 715 
 
 Ratify, 673 
 Ratio, 639 
 Rational, 649 
 Ravage, 649 
 Ravenous, 649 
 Ray, 153 
 Reach, 650 
 Read, 611 
 Ready, 112 
 Real, 50 
 Realize, 449 
 Realm, 650 
 Reason, intellect, 528 
 
 motive, 575 
 
 cause, 651 
 
 Reasonable, yan", 419 
 
 rational, 649 
 
 Rebellion, 527 
 Rebound, 651 
 Rebuff, 656 
 Rebuke, 171 
 Recall, 13 
 Recant, 13 . 
 Recapitulate, 660 
 Recede, 651 
 Receipt, 652 
 Receive, to take, 30 
 
 to admit, 63 
 
 Recent, 572 
 Reception, 652 
 Reciprocal, 576 
 Recite, 660 
 Reckon, 199 
 Reclaim, 652 
 Recline, 652 
 Recognize, 44, 653 
 Recoil, 651 
 Recollection, 565 
 Recompense, 252 
 Reconcile, 258 
 Recondite, 24 
 Record, 37 
 Records, 113 
 Recount, to narrate, 578 
 
 to relite, 653 
 
 Recover, 653 
 
INDEX. 
 
 773 
 
 Recreation, 96 
 Rectify, 93 
 Rectitude, 654 
 Recusant, 659 
 Redeem, 648 
 Redound, 42 
 Redress, 654 
 Reduce, 554 
 Reduction, 97 
 Redundancy, 402 
 Reel, 654 
 Re-establish, 654 
 Refer, 91 
 Reference, 655 
 Refined, 619 
 Refinement, 289 
 Reflect, 563 
 Reflexion, 428 
 Reflexions, considerations, 
 267 
 
 7wtes, 583 
 
 Reform, to amend, 93 
 
 correction, 280 
 
 to reclaim, 652 
 
 Refractory, 655 
 Refrain, 22 
 Refresh, 656 
 Refuge, 12? 
 Refuse, dregs, 353 
 
 to decline, 656 
 
 Refute, 263 
 Regain, 653 
 Regal, 539 
 Regard, to behold, 159 
 
 consideration, 267 
 
 deference, 307 
 
 to meditate, 563 
 
 Regimen, 324 
 Region, 346 
 Register, 211 
 Regret, to complain, 254 
 
 repentance, 660 
 
 Regularity, 268 
 Regulate, to direct, 330 
 
 " to govern, 459 
 
 Regulation, 303 
 Rehabilitate, 654 
 Rehearse, 660 
 Reign, 374 
 Reiterate, 657 
 Reject, 656 
 Rejoice, 414 
 Rejoinder, 101 
 Relate, 653 
 Relation, account, 37 
 
 reference, 655 
 
 Relationship, 75 
 
 Relative, 539 
 Relatively, 252 
 Release, 311 
 Relentless, 502 
 Relevant, 109 
 Reliance, 314 
 Relief, 654 
 Relieve, to appease, 106 
 
 to help, 481 
 
 Religious, 322 
 Relinquish, 1 
 Relish, 714 
 Reluctant, 657 
 Remain, to continue, 544 
 
 to stay, 700 
 
 Remainder, 657 
 Remark, 582 
 Remarkable, 413 
 Remarks, 583 
 Remedy, 290 
 Remembrance, 565 
 Reminder, 565 
 Reminiscence, ^65 
 Remiss, 509 
 Remission, 20, 658 
 Remnant, 657 
 Remonstrate, to complain, 
 
 255 
 
 to represent, 662 
 
 Remorse, 660 
 Remote, 344 
 Remove, 659 
 Remuneration, 252 
 Rend, 183 
 Render, 455 
 Renegade, 659 
 Renew, 656 
 Renounce, 13 
 Renovate, 6h6 
 Renown, 422 
 Renowned, 659 
 Repair, to re-establish, 
 
 654 
 
 reparation, 695 
 
 to resort, 665 
 
 Reparation, n., 659 
 
 v., 659 
 
 Repartee, 660 
 
 Repeal, 14 
 
 Repeat, to reiterate, 657 
 
 to rehearse, 660 
 
 Repel, 656 
 Repentance, 660 
 Repertory, 661 
 Repetition, 661, 715 
 Repine, 254 
 Replace, 654 
 
 Reply, 101 
 Report, 423 
 Repose, ease, 362 
 
 to recline, 652 
 
 Repository, 661 
 Reprehension, 661 
 Represent, 662 
 Representation, 684 
 Representative, 662 
 Repress, 662 
 Reprieve, 663 
 Reprimand, 171 
 Reprisal, 663 
 Reproach, to blame, 171 
 
 scandal, 674 
 
 taunt, 715 
 
 Reprobate, 3 
 Reproof, 661 
 Reprove, 171 
 Repudiate, to abjure, 13 
 
 to disavow, 333 
 
 Repugnance, 474 
 Repugnant, 70 
 Repulse, 656 
 Reputation, character^ 
 
 220 
 
 fame, J 22 
 
 Repute, 422 
 Request, to ask, 123 
 
 petition, 612 
 
 Require, 663 
 Requisite, 579 
 Requisition, 237 
 Requital, compensation, 
 
 252 
 
 retribution, 666 
 
 Rescue, 311 
 Research, 397 
 Resemblance, ana log u, 
 
 97 
 
 likeness, 550 
 
 Resentment, 515 
 Reserve, 664 
 Reserved, 151 
 Reside, 10 
 Residue, 657 
 Resign, to forego, 440 
 
 to abdicate, 664 
 
 Resignation, 378 
 Resist, 595 
 Resolution, analpsis, 97 
 
 determination, 664 
 
 Resolve, to decide, 302 
 
 to solve, 695 
 
 Resort, 665 
 Resource, 407 
 Respect, 307 
 
774 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Respite, 663 
 Response, 101 
 Responsible, 39 
 Rest, ease, 362 
 
 to recline, 652 
 
 remainder, 657 
 
 Restitution, 659 
 Restoration, 659 
 Restore, to re-establish, 
 
 654 
 
 to return, 666 
 
 Restrain, to circumscrioe, 
 
 233 
 
 to repress, 662, 
 
 665 
 
 to restrict, 665 
 
 Restrict, 2.33, 665 
 Result, 666 
 Retain, to hold, 486 
 
 reserve, 664 
 
 Retaliation, 663 
 Retard, 242 
 Retinue, 725 
 Retire, 651 
 Retirement, 630 
 Retort, 66^ 
 Retract, 13 
 Retreat, asylum, 127 
 
 to recede, 651 
 
 Retribution, 666 
 Retrieve, 653 
 Return, to restore, 666 
 
 to revert, 667 
 
 Reveal, to disclose, 3'3ti 
 
 to promulgate, 636 
 
 Revenge, 131 
 Reverberate, 651 
 Revere, 65 
 Reverence, to adore, 65 
 
 deference, 307 
 
 Reverie, 667 
 Reverse, converse, 277 
 
 to invert, 667 
 
 Revert, 667 
 Reviling, 203 
 Revive, 656 
 
 Revolt, 527 
 Revolution, 527 
 Revolve, 563 
 Revoke, to abjure, 13 
 
 to abolish, 14 
 
 Reward, 252 
 Rhetoric, 371 
 Riches, 740 
 Ridicule, 667 
 Ridiculous, 356 
 Right, claim, 237 
 
 Right, direct, 331 
 
 Juir, 419 
 
 just, 538 
 
 justice, 668 
 
 Righteous, 668 
 Rigid, 668 
 Rigorous, 668 
 Rigour, austerity, 133 
 
 severity, 682 
 
 Rim, 185 
 Rind, 608 
 Riot, 527 
 Ripe, 562 
 Rise, to ascend, 120 
 
 beginning, 157 
 
 Risk, 294 
 Rite, 216 
 Rivalry, 254 
 Road, 668 
 Roam, 648 
 Robbery, 669 
 Robust, strong, 669 
 
 vigorous, 737 
 
 Rodomontade, 669 
 Roll, 211 
 Komance, 414 
 Romantic, 680 
 Room, apartment, 102 
 
 space, 670 
 
 Rot, 644 
 Rotundity, 670 
 Rough, abrupt, 17 
 
 coarse, 245 
 
 harsh, 472 
 
 Round, 670 
 Roundness, 670 
 Rouse, 403 
 Route, 668 
 Rove, 646 
 Royal, 539 
 Rub, 217 
 Rude, 245 
 Rudiment, 630 
 Rueful, 319 
 Rugged, 17 
 Ruin, 144 
 Ruinous, 320 
 Rule, decree, 303 
 
 to govern, 459 
 
 to gxiide, 469 
 
 order, 597 
 
 Ruling, 626 
 Rumour, 423 
 Rupture, 444 
 Rural, 670 
 Rustic, jmisant, 607 
 rural, 670 
 
 S. 
 
 Sacred, 671 
 Sacrifice, 500 
 Sacrilege, 633 
 Sad, 671 
 Safe, 672 
 Sagacious, 54 
 Sailor, 558 
 Sake, 673 
 Salary, 606 
 Salubrious, 476 
 Salutary, 476 
 Salutation, 673 
 Salute, accost, 36 
 
 salutation, 673 
 
 Sameness, 494 
 Sample, 398 
 Sanction, 673 
 Sane, 696 
 Sanguinary, 175 
 Sarcasm, 192 
 Satiate, 462 
 Satire, 192 
 Satirical, 213 
 Satisfaction, compensu' 
 tion, 252 
 
 contententment, 273 
 
 Satisfy, 462 
 Saturate, 354 
 Saunter, 542 
 Savage, barbarous, 147 
 
 ferocious, 430 
 
 Save, 674 
 Saving, 364 
 Savour, 714 
 Saw, 641. 
 Saying, 641 
 Scale, 120 
 Scan, 159 
 Scandal, 674 
 Scandalous, 674 
 Scanty, 674 
 Scarce, 649 
 Scarcely, 472 
 Scarcity, 675 
 Scare, 449 
 Scatter, 675 
 Scene, 684 
 Scent, 444 
 Scheme, 616 
 Schism, 482 
 Scholar, 60 
 School, 26 
 Science, genius, 4o3_ 
 
 knou'ledge, 540 
 
 Scoff, 536 
 
INDEX. 
 
 775 
 
 Scold, 171 
 Scope, aim, 83 
 
 import J .504 
 
 Scorching, 194 
 Scorn, 676 
 Scornful, 337 
 Scream, 677 
 Screen, 482 
 Scribe, 744 
 Scruple, 313 
 Scrupulous, 265 
 Scrutiny, 397 
 Scura, .353 
 Scurrilous, 677 
 Seaman, 558, 
 Search, examinatioUy 397 
 
 to seeky 678 
 
 Season, 720 
 Seasonable, 721 
 Secede, 651 
 Seclusion, 630 
 Second, 519 
 Secondary, 519 
 Secrecy, 677 
 Secret, latent, 545 
 
 clandestine, 677 
 
 Secrete, 482 
 Secular, 743 
 Secure, to ensure, 381 
 
 safe, 672 
 
 Security, 617 
 Sedate, 677 
 Sediment, 353 
 Sedition, 527 
 Seditious, 417 
 Seduce, to entice, 383 
 
 to suborn, 678 
 
 Sedulous, 329 
 See, 159- 
 Seek, 678 
 Seem, 678 
 Seemly, 156 
 Seize, 212 
 Seizure, 208 
 Selection, 231 
 Self-conceit, arrogance, 
 115 
 
 self-will, 678 
 
 Selfish, 370 
 Self-sufficiency, 678 
 Self-will, 678' 
 Semblance, 686 
 Seminary, 26 
 Senior, 370 
 Sensation, 428 
 S>eii»e, feeling, 428 
 — — * import, 604 
 
 I S>ense, judgment, 537 
 
 'SenHihihty, Jeeling, 128 
 
 *£ndeniess, 679 
 
 Sensible, conscious, 138 
 
 ' sensitive, 679 
 
 ' Sensitive, 679 
 j Sensualist, 386 
 
 Sentence, 612 
 I Sententious, 258 
 
 Sentient, 679 
 
 Sentiment, 595 
 
 Sentimental, 680 
 
 Separate, 680 
 
 SepulcJire, 722 
 
 Sepulture, 192 
 
 Sequence, 681 
 
 Serene, 201 
 
 Series, 681 
 
 Serious, 464 
 
 Servant, 350 
 
 Service, 733 
 
 Servitude, 207 
 
 Set, 547 . 
 
 Settle, 39.) 
 
 Settled, 201 
 
 Sever, 680 
 
 Several, 347. 
 
 Severe, 681 
 
 Severity, austerity, 133 
 
 rigour, 682 
 
 Sex, 452 
 
 Shackle, 242 
 
 Shade, 682 
 
 Shadow, 682 
 
 Shake, to tremble, 682 
 
 to agitate, 682 
 
 Shallow, 683 
 
 Shame, 495 
 
 Shamelessness, 179 
 
 Shape, character, 220 
 
 form, 443 
 
 Share, pa rf, 603 
 
 to partake, 603 
 
 Sharp, acute, 54 
 
 shrill, 686 
 
 Shed, 623 
 
 Shelter, refuge, 127 
 
 to hide, 482 
 
 Shield, to hide, 482 
 
 buckler, 683 
 
 Shift, 407 
 
 Shine, 153 
 
 Shock, 683 
 
 Shocking, 483 
 
 Shoot, 189 
 
 Shore, 246 
 
 Short, 683 
 
 1 Shouting, 238 
 
 j Shove, 644 
 
 I Show, ostentation, 598 
 
 r exhibition, 684 
 
 ' to exhibit, 685 
 
 semblance, 686 
 
 Showy, 452 
 
 Shreds, 647 
 
 Shrewd, 54 
 
 Shriek, 677 
 
 Shrill, 686 
 
 Shrink, 687 
 
 Shrub, 195 
 
 Shudder, 682 
 
 Shun, 391 
 
 Shut, 687 
 
 Shy, 151 
 
 Sickness, 338 
 
 Sight, 684 
 
 Sign, 372 
 
 Signal, emblem, 372 
 
 memorable, 564 
 
 Signalize, 687 
 
 Significant, 687 
 
 Signification, 504 
 
 Signify, to express, 410 
 
 to implu, 503 
 
 • to notify, 584 
 
 —— to denote, 688 
 
 Silence, 712 
 
 Silent, dumb, 358 
 
 tacit, 712 
 
 Silly, 688 
 
 Similarity, 5.50 
 
 Simile, 569 
 
 Similitude, likeness, 
 550 
 
 metaphor, 569 
 
 Simple, plain, 688 
 
 silly, 688 
 
 single, 688 
 
 Simulate, to feign, 
 429 
 
 to mimic, 570 
 
 Sin, 284 
 
 Since, 266 
 
 Sincere, 478 
 
 Sincerity, 487 
 
 Single, ijidividual, 516 
 
 only, 593 
 
 simple, 688 
 
 Singular, eccentric, 363 
 
 extraordinary, 689 
 
 Sink, 357 
 
 Sinuous, 689 
 
 Site, place, 689 
 
 ■ situation, 690 
 
776 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 
 Situation, circumstance, 
 
 Solid, 694 
 
 Splendour, 6S0 
 
 235 
 
 Solitary, desolate, 318 
 
 Split, 183 
 
 posiiioii, 621, 690 
 
 individual, 516 
 
 Spoil, 614 
 
 site, 690 
 
 lonely, 553 
 
 Spontaneous, 698 
 
 state, 690, 699 
 
 sole,'^69S 
 
 Sporadic, 386 
 
 Size, 190 
 
 Solitude, 630 
 
 Sport, amusement, 96 
 
 Sketch, 691 
 
 Solve, 695 
 
 to jest, 536 
 
 Skill, 11 
 
 Sonorous, 553 
 
 Sportive, 227 
 
 Skin. 691 
 
 Soon, 361 
 
 Spot, site, 689 
 
 Slack, 691 
 
 Soothe, 106 
 
 speck, 696 
 
 Slander, ^03 
 
 Sophistical, 421 
 
 Spouse, 492 
 
 Slang, 204 
 
 Sophisticated, 281 
 
 Sprain, 702 
 
 Slant, 692 
 
 Sorcerer, 556 
 
 Spread, to propagate, 638 
 
 Slaughter, to kill, 539 
 
 Sordid, 581 
 
 to scatter, 675 
 
 massacre, 561 
 
 SoiTOw, 77 
 
 Sprightly, 227 
 
 Slavery, 207 
 
 Sorry, 695 
 
 Spring, to flow, 438, 631 
 fountain, 698 
 
 Slay, 539 
 
 Sort, 220 
 
 Sleep, 692 
 
 Soul, 570 
 
 Sprinkle, 675 
 
 Sleepy, 358. 
 
 Sound, healthy, 696 
 
 Sprout, 189 
 
 Slender, 692 
 
 tone, 722 
 
 Spruce, 439 
 
 Slide, 457 
 
 Sour, 44 
 
 Spurious, 281 
 
 Slight, neglect, 580 
 
 Source, beginning, 157 
 
 Spurn, 676 
 
 slender, 692 
 
 spring, 698 
 
 Spy, 699 
 
 Slim, 692 
 
 Sovereign, monarch, 573 
 
 Squander, 739 
 
 Slip, 457 
 
 suprem,e, 695 
 
 Squeamish, 426 
 
 Slope, 692 
 
 Space, 670 
 
 Squeeze, to crush, 188 
 
 Slothful, 507 
 
 Spacious, 95 
 
 to pinch, 615 
 
 Slow, 692 
 
 Spare, 674 
 
 Stability, 268 
 
 Sluggish, 507 
 
 Sparing, 364 
 
 Stagger, 654 
 
 Slumber, 692 
 
 Sparkle, 153 
 
 Stain, 248 
 
 Sly, 117 
 
 Speak, 696 
 
 Stammer, 699 
 
 Small, 551 
 
 Special, 696 
 
 Stamp, character, 220 
 
 Smear, 296 
 
 Specie, 210 
 
 r impression, 506 
 
 Smell, 444 
 
 Species, 220 
 
 Standard, 699 
 
 Smooth, 693 
 
 Specific, 696 
 
 Stare, 452 
 
 Smother, 232 
 
 Specious, 598 
 
 Startle, 449 
 
 Snatch, 212 
 
 Speck, 697 
 
 State, realm, 650 
 
 Sneer, 536 
 
 Spectacle, 684 
 
 sitiuttim, 690 
 
 So, 266 
 
 Spectator, 697 
 
 condition, 699 
 
 Soak, 354 
 
 Spectre, 454 
 
 Stately, 460 
 
 Sober, 23 
 
 Speculation, 697 
 
 Station, 621 
 
 Sociable, 693 
 
 Speech, address, 56 
 
 Statue, 700 
 
 Social, 693 
 
 language, 544 
 
 Statute, 303 
 
 Society, associalion, 
 
 Speechless, 358 
 
 Stay, to abide, 10 
 
 126 
 
 Speed, to accelerate, 28 
 
 to remiiin, 700 
 
 YeUowship, 4:30 
 
 haste, 472 
 
 Steadfastness, 268 
 
 Soa,"453 
 
 quickness, 646 
 
 Steadiness, 268 
 
 Soil, lund, 542 
 
 Spend, 698 
 
 Steep, 354 
 
 to sully, 708 
 
 Sphere, 143 
 
 Steeple, 700 
 
 Sojourn, 10 
 
 Spill, 623 
 
 Step, 600 
 
 Solace, 226 
 
 Spire, 700 
 
 Sternness, lo3 
 
 Soldier-like, 559 
 
 Spirit, animation, 99 
 
 Stick, 241 
 
 Sole, 693 
 
 soul, 570 
 
 Stifle, 232 
 
 Solecism, 642 
 
 Spiritual, 498 
 
 Still, calm, 201 
 
 Solemn, 464 
 
 Spite, 467 
 
 however, 489 
 
 Solicit, 123 
 
 Splendid, bright, 184 
 
 Stimulate, 403 
 
 Solicitude, 694 
 
 — — grand, 460 
 
 Stipend, 606 
 
INDEX. 
 
 777 
 
 Stir, 576 
 
 Stock, /a»n?7i/, 489 
 
 store, 701 
 
 Store, 701 
 Storm, 701 
 Story, 37 
 Stout, 701 
 Straight, 331 
 Strain, 702 
 Strait, 702 
 Strange, 363 
 Stranger, 441 
 Strangle, 232 
 Stratagem, 728 
 Stray, 739 
 Stream, brook, 188 
 
 to gush, 469 
 
 current, 703 
 
 Strength, 379 
 Strengthen, 533 
 Strenuous, 703 
 Stress, accent, 30 
 
 strain, 702 
 
 Stretch, 660 
 Strew, 675 
 Strictness, 133 
 Stricture, 287 
 Strife, 703 
 Strike, 154 
 Strip, 168 
 Strive, 704 
 Stroll, 648 
 Strong, mighty, 569 
 
 robust, 669 
 
 vigorous, 737 
 
 Stubborn, 705 
 Structure, 365 
 Struggle, 704 
 Study, application, 108 
 
 to learn, 705 
 
 Stupid, 706 
 
 Sturdy, 669 
 
 Stutter, 699 
 
 Styles 613 
 
 Suarity, 733 
 
 Subdue, 26* 
 
 Subject, accountable, 39 
 
 materials, 561 
 
 object, 706 
 
 subordinate, 706 
 
 Subjugate, 264 
 Sublime, 460 
 Submerge, 312 
 Submission, 586 
 Submissive, obedient, 586 
 
 passive, 605 
 
 Submit, 745 
 
 Subordinate, 706 
 Suborn, to seduce, 678 
 
 to bribe, 707 
 
 Subsequent, 622 
 Subservient, 706 
 Subside, 707 
 Subsidiary, 137 
 Subsist, 406 
 Subsistence, 552 
 Substance, 392 
 Substantial, 694 
 Substantiate, 449 
 Substitute, 643 
 Subterfuge, 728 
 Subtle, 117 
 Subtraction, 304 
 Subvert, 667 
 Succeed, 439 
 Success, 736 
 Succession, 681 
 Succinct, concise, 258 
 
 precise, 625 
 
 short, 683 
 
 Succour, help, 481 
 
 to help, 481 
 
 Suffer, to allow, 90 
 
 to bear, 707 
 
 to tolerate, 722 
 
 Suffering, 601 
 Sufficient, 58 
 Suffocate, 232 
 Sufii-age, 738 
 Suggest, to dictate, 323 
 
 to insinuate, 524 
 
 Suggestion, 484 
 Suit, to Jit, 435 
 
 petition, 612 
 
 Suitable, 111 
 Suitor, 708 
 Sullen, 574 
 Sully, 708 
 Sum, 723 
 
 Summary, abridgment, 
 16 
 
 cursor i^, 291 
 
 short, 683 
 
 Summit, 708 
 Summon, 168 
 Sumptuous, 459 
 Sunder, 680 
 Sundry, 347 
 Superb, 460 
 Supercilious, 337 
 Superficial, 683 
 Superficies, 710 
 Superfluity, 402 
 Superhuman, 709 
 
 Superintendence, 599 
 
 Superiority, excellence, 
 401 
 
 pre-eminence, 626 
 
 Supernatural, 709 
 
 Supersede, 709 
 
 Supervene, 42 
 
 Supervision, 599 
 
 Supine, 551 
 
 Supple, 618 
 
 Supplicate, to ask, 
 123 
 
 to pray, 624 
 
 Supply, 709 
 
 Support, help, 481 
 
 livelihood, 552 
 
 to maintain, 557 
 
 sanction, 673 
 
 to sustain, 710 
 
 Supposition, 468 
 
 Supposititious, 281 
 
 Suppress, 662 
 
 Supreme, 695 
 
 Sure, 52 
 
 Surface, 710 
 
 Surge, 740 
 
 Surmise, 468 
 
 Surmount, 264 
 
 Surpass, 401 
 
 Surprise, 710 
 j Surrender, 312 
 j Surround, 233 
 i Survey, 737 
 
 Survive, 600 
 j Susceptibility, 428 
 
 Suspense, 731 
 
 Suspicion, 327 
 
 Suspicious, 385 
 
 Sustain, to maintain, 
 556 
 
 to support, 710 
 
 Sustenance, 552 
 
 Swain, 607 
 
 Swamp, 559 
 
 Swarm, 288 
 
 Sway, 519 
 
 Swell, 711 
 
 Swerve, 739 
 
 Swiftness, 646 
 
 Sycophant, 437 
 
 Symbol, 372 
 
 Symmetry, 711 
 
 Sympathy, 566 
 
 Symptom, 514 
 
 Synchronous, 246 
 
 Synopsis, 16 
 
 System, 712 
 
778 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Tacit, 712 
 
 1'aciturnity, 712 
 
 Tact, 714 
 
 Taint, 272 
 
 Take, SO 
 
 Tale, 37 
 
 Talent, 11 
 
 Talisman, 713 
 
 Talk, 696 
 
 Talkative, 553 
 
 '1 all, 484 
 
 Tally, 713 
 
 Tame, 453 
 
 Tangible, apparent, 104 
 
 jxilpuble, 602 
 
 Tantamount, 389 
 Tardy, 692 
 Target, 683 
 Tarnish, 708 
 Tarry, 542 
 Tartness, 48 
 Task, 714 
 Taste, genius, 453 
 
 tart, 714 
 
 flavour, 714 
 
 Tatters, 647 
 
 Taunt, 715 
 
 Tautology, repetition, 661, 
 
 715 
 Tax, 715 
 Teach, 519 
 Tear, 183 
 Tease, 100 
 Tedious, irksome, 716, 
 
 721 
 Teem, 716 
 Tell, to disclose, 336 
 
 to narrate, 578 
 
 Temerity, 473 
 Temper, disposition, 
 
 343 
 
 to moderate, 572 
 
 mood, 574 
 
 Temperament, 445 
 Temperate, 23 
 Tempest, 701 
 Temporal, 743 
 Temporary, 717 
 Tempt, 383 
 Tenacious, 61 
 Tenacity, 717 
 Tend, 259 
 Tendency, bent, 166 
 
 drift, 356 
 
 Tender^ 718 
 
 Tenderness, attachment, 
 127 
 
 sensibility, 678 
 
 Tenet, 348 
 Tenor, 504 
 Tent, 180 
 Tentative, 408 
 Tenn, condition, 118 
 
 tvord, 411 
 
 Terminate, to flnish, 43 
 
 to cease, 215 
 
 to close, 433 
 
 Termination, 243 
 Terrible, 352 
 Terrific, 352 
 Terrify, 449 
 Territory, 718 
 Terror, 85 
 Test, 699 
 Testify, 410 
 Testimonv, 637 
 Theft, 669 
 Then, ^66 
 Thence, 266 
 Theologian, 718 
 Theory, 697 
 Therefore, 266 
 Thick, 187 
 Thicket, 742 
 Thin, 692 
 Think, 718 
 Thought, 718 
 Thoughtful, 719 
 Thoughtless, 509 
 Thoughts, 267 
 Threat, 719 
 Threatening, 499 
 Thrifty, 364 
 Thrive, 438 
 Throb, 602 
 Throng, 288 
 Throw, 720 
 Thrust, 644 
 Thwart, 595 
 Tide, 703 
 Tidings, 581 
 Tie, 169 
 Tight, 702 
 Tillage, 289 
 Time, date, 295 
 
 duration, 720 
 
 seaso7i, 720 
 
 Timely, 720 
 Timid, 721 
 Timorous, 721 
 Tinge, 248 
 Tint, 490 
 
 Tire, 534 
 Tiresome, 721 
 Title, 577 
 Toil, 743 
 Token, 514 
 Tolerate, to allow, 90 
 
 to suffer, 722 
 
 Toll, 715 
 Tomb, 722 
 Tome, 722 
 Tone, 722 
 Tongue, 544 
 Too, 92 
 Tool, 525 
 Top, 708 
 Torment, 723 
 Torpid, 723 
 Tortuous, 689 
 Torture, 723 
 Toss, to shake, 682 
 
 to throw, 720 
 
 Total, whole, 384 
 
 amount, 723 
 
 Totter, 654 
 Touch, to affect, 7S 
 
 contact, 723 
 
 Touching, 724 
 Tour, excursion, 535 
 
 circuit, 670 
 
 Tower, 700 
 
 Trace, to derive, 316 
 
 track, 724 
 
 Track, 724 
 Tract, district, 346 
 
 treatise, 392 
 
 Tractable, 348 
 Trade, profession, 633 
 
 commerce, 725 
 
 Traducement, 203 
 Traffic, 725 
 Tragic, 606 
 Train, to accustom, 43 
 
 procession, 725 
 
 Training, 366 
 Traitorous, 728 
 Tranquil, 201 
 Transact, 726 
 Transaction, 726 
 Transcend, 401 
 Transcribe, 726 
 Transfer, to deliver, 312 
 
 to transport, 727 
 
 Transfigure, 568 
 Transform, 568 
 Transgress, 726 
 Transgression, 284 
 Transient, 717 
 
INDEX. 
 
 779 
 
 Transitory, 717 
 Translation, 735 
 Translucent, 727 
 'JVansmute, 568 
 Transparent, 727 
 Transport, to banish, 144 
 
 to carry, 186 
 
 ecstasy, 365 
 
 to transfer y7 '27 
 
 Travel, 537 
 Travestie, 192 
 Treacherous, faithless, 
 
 420 
 
 insidious, 524 
 
 traitorous, 728 
 
 Treasonable, 728 
 Treasure, 485 
 Treat, 146 
 Treatise, 392 
 Treatment, 728 
 Tremble, 682 
 Tremendous, 352 
 Tremor, 80 
 Trepidation, agitation, 
 
 80 
 
 alarm, 85 
 
 Trespass, 281 
 Trial, effort, 368 
 
 experiment, 408 
 
 Tribute, 715 
 Trick, to cheat, 226 
 
 artifice, 728 
 
 Trifling, 497 
 Trip, 535 
 Triumph, 736 
 Trivial, 497 
 Troop, 143 
 Trouble, 77 
 Troublesome, 721 
 Truce, 115 
 Truck, 149 
 True, 50 
 Truism, 641 
 Trust, belief, 161 
 
 hope, 488 
 
 Trusty, 420 
 
 Truth, 729 
 
 Try, 729 
 
 Tug, 351 
 
 Tumble, 357 
 
 Tumid, 7S0 
 
 Tumult, 238 
 
 Tumultuary, 730 
 
 Tumultuous, boisterauSy 
 
 177 
 
 tumultuary, 730 
 
 Turbulent, 177 
 
 Turgid, bomkistic, 730 
 
 tumid, 730 
 
 Turn, 166 
 Twine, 730 
 Twirl, 730 
 Twist, 730 
 Type, 730 
 Tyrannical, 19 
 Tyro, 730 
 
 U. 
 
 Ugliness, 731 
 Ultimate, conclusive, 259 
 
 latest, 545 
 
 Umpire, 537 
 Unapproachable, 507 
 Unbelief, 334 
 Unbounded, 182 
 Uncertain, doubtful, 350 
 
 precarious, 624 
 
 U ncertainty, 731 
 Unconquerable, 526 
 Uncouth, awku-ard, 139 
 
 coarse, 245 
 
 Uncovered, 577 
 Undaunted, 178 
 Undecided, 533 
 Undeniable, 512 
 Under, 731 
 Understand, 110 
 Understanding, 528 
 Undertaking, 731 
 Unessential, 497 
 Unfold, 322 
 Ungainly, 139 
 Ungovernable, 655 
 Unhappy, 571 
 Uniform, 387 
 Unimpassioned, 342 
 Unimportant, 497 
 Unintelligible, 732 
 Union, 732 
 Unison, concord, 259 
 
 Tuelody, 564 
 
 Unite, to coalesce, 244 
 
 to attach, 264 
 
 to join, 536 
 
 Universal, 732 
 University, 26 
 Unleai'ned, 495 
 Unless, 402 
 Unlettered, 495 
 Unlike, 733 
 Unlimited, 182 
 Unmerciful, 566 
 
 Unoflfending, 472 
 Unprincipled, 3 
 Unproductive, 148 
 
 ' Unquestionable, 512 
 
 I Unravel, 322 
 
 I Unrelenting, 502 
 
 i Unruly, 655 
 
 j Unsearchable, 523 
 
 I Unspeakable, 517 
 
 i Untruth, 421 
 Unutterable, 517 
 Unwilling, 657 
 Upbraid, 171 
 Uphold, 557 
 Upon, 15, 598 
 Uprightness, 487 
 Uproar, 238 
 Urbanity, 733 
 Urge, to hasten, 28 
 
 to enforce, 381 
 
 Urgent, 505 
 Usage, custom, 291 
 
 treatment, 728 
 
 Use, accustom, 43 
 
 to employ, 374 
 
 utility, 733 
 
 Usefulness, 733 
 Useless, 734 
 Usually, 447 
 Usurp, 112 
 Utility, 733 
 Utter, 312, 636 
 
 V. 
 
 Vacanc}^, 509 
 Vacant, empty, 375 
 
 idle, 495 
 
 Vacuity, 509 
 Vagary, 204 
 Vague, 546 
 Vain, 517, 734. 
 Valiant, 178 
 Valour, 734 
 Valuable, 625 
 Value, to appraise, 109 
 
 cost, 280 
 
 Vanish, 734 
 Vanity, 115 
 Vanquish, 264 
 Vapour, 476 
 Variable, 511 
 Variableness, 204 
 Variance, 343 
 Variation, change, 219 
 difference, 325 
 
780 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Variation, varieti/, 73r> 
 
 Variety, variation, 219 
 
 difference, 325 
 
 change, 735 
 
 Various, 347 
 
 Vary, 219 
 
 Vast, 490 
 
 Vaunt, 176 
 
 Vehement, 460 
 
 Veil, 241 
 
 Velocity, 646 
 
 Venal, 735 
 
 Venerate, 65 
 
 Venial, 735 
 
 Venom, 619 
 
 Venture, danger, 294 
 
 to dare, 295 
 
 Venturesome, 69 
 
 Veracity, 729 
 
 Verbal, 596 
 
 Verge, 185 
 Verify, 121 
 Veritable, 50 
 Verity, 729 
 Versatile, 511 
 Version, 735 
 Vertex, 708 
 Vestige, 724 
 Vestment, 355 
 Vesture, 355 
 Vex, 589 
 Vexation, 7'36 
 Vibration, 736 
 Vice, 284 
 Vicinity, 580 
 Vicissitude, 736 
 Victor, 265 
 Victory, 7'36 
 Victuals, 424 
 Vie, 704 
 View, aim, 83. 
 
 aspect^ 124 
 
 to behold, 159 
 
 landscape, 543 
 
 to survey, 737 
 
 Vigilant, 740 
 Vigorous, 7S7 
 Vigour, 379 
 Vile, 149 
 Vilification, 203 
 Vindicate, to avenge, 131 
 
 to maintain, 557 
 
 Violate, 726 
 Violence, 737 
 Violent, 450 
 Virtual, 737 
 Virtue, goodnesa, 458 
 
 Virtue, honour, 737 
 V^isage, 416 
 Viscera, 738 
 Visible, 104 
 Vision, 454 
 Visionary, 382 
 Visitant, 738 
 Visitation, 198 
 Visitor, 738 
 Vitiate, 272 
 Vituperate, 171 
 Vivacious, 227 
 Vivacity, 99 
 Vivid, 184 
 Vocabulary, 324 
 Vocal, 596 
 Vocation, 375 
 Vociferation, 238 
 Vogue, 291 
 Voiceless, 358 
 Void, destitute, 320 
 
 empty, S75 
 
 Volatility, 549 
 Volume, mass, 560 
 
 tome, 722 
 
 Voluntary, gratuitous, 
 463 
 
 spontaneous, 698 
 
 Voluptuary, 386 
 
 Voracious, 649. 
 
 Vote, 738 
 
 Vouch, 738 
 
 Vow, to consecrate, 266 
 
 oath, 585 
 
 Voyage, 537 
 Vulgar, 251 
 
 W. 
 
 Wages, 606 
 Wakeful, 740 
 Walk, 209 
 Wan, 601 
 Wander, to roam, 648 
 
 to deviate, 739 
 
 Want, 541 
 Wares, 458 
 Warlike, 559 
 Warm, 478 
 Warmth, 458 
 Warn, 64 
 Warrant, 739 
 Wary, 213 
 Waste, 739 
 Watch, 740 
 Watchful, 740 
 
 Waterman, 177 
 
 Wave, 740 
 
 Waver, 313 
 
 Way, 668 
 
 Wealth, 740 
 
 Weaken, 380 
 
 Weakness, 417 
 
 Weapons, 115 
 
 Weariness, 426 
 
 Wearisome, 721 
 
 Weary, 534 
 
 Wedding, 559 
 
 Wedlock, 559 
 
 Weight, burden, 191 
 
 heaviness, 464 
 
 importance, 505 
 
 Weighty, 191 
 
 Welcome, 31 
 
 Welfare, 640 
 
 Well-being, 640 
 
 Wheedle, 197 
 
 Wherefore, 266 
 
 Whim, 204 
 
 Whirl, 730 
 
 Whiten, 173 
 
 Whole, all, 87 
 complete, 384 
 
 Wholesome, 476 
 Wicked, 140 
 Wickedness, 284 
 
 Wide, 187 
 Wield, 183 
 Willing, spontaneous,463f 
 
 698 
 Wily, 117 
 Win, 46 
 Wind, 741 
 Wing, 615 
 Wink, 175 
 Wisdom, 742 
 Wish, 742 
 Wit, buffoon, 189 
 
 • humour, 192 
 
 Withdraw, 651 
 Withstand, 595 
 Witness, 742 
 Wizard, 556 
 Woeful, 349 
 Wonder, amazement, 94 
 
 marvel, 559 
 
 Wood^ 742 
 Wooer, 708 
 Word, 411 
 Work, to operate, 594 
 
 production, 632 
 
 task, 714 ' 
 
 labour, 742 
 
INDEX. 
 
 78' 
 
 World, 542 
 Worldly, 743 
 Worship, 65 
 Worth, value, 280 
 
 7Jierit, 668 
 
 Wrangle, 535 
 Wrath, 743 
 Wreath, 744 
 Wrench, 741 
 Wrest, 744 
 Wretched, 571 
 
 Wring, 744 
 Writer, 744 
 Wrong, offence, 284 
 hurt, 491 
 
 Yet 489 
 
 Yield, to afford, 78 
 
 Yield, to concede, 21r 
 
 to submit, 745 
 
 Yielding, 586 
 Young, 745 
 Youthful, 745 
 
 Zeal, 745 
 Zealot, 382 
 

 
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