GIFT OF MICHAEL REESE Nftw-f atk QFrtfnttt? EDITION HARPER'S ENCYCLOPEDIA of UNITED STATES HISTORY FROMqf458 a.d. to 190c BASED UPON THE PLAN OF BENSON JOH]l_LOSSJINQ^LL.D. SOMETIME EDITOR OF "THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL RECORD" AND AUTHOR OF "THE PICTORIAL FIELD-BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION " ' ' THE PICTORIAL FIELD- BOOK OF THE WAR OF l8l2 " ETC., ETC., ETC. WITH SPECIAL CONTRIBUTIONS COVERING EVERY PHASE _OF AJM FRTCAN HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT BY EMINENT AUTHORITIES, INCLUDING JOHN FISKE. WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D. THE AMERICAN HISTORIAN PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY WM.R. HARPER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D. GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D. PRESIDENT OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PROF. OF HISTORY UNIV. OF TORONTO ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D. MOSES COIT TYLER, LL.D. PROF. OF HISTORY AT HARVARD PROF. OF HISTORY AT CORNELL JOHN B. MOORE. EDWARD G. BOURNE, Ph.D. PR OF. OF INTERNATIONAL L4IV AT COLUMBIA " PROF. OF HISTORY AT YALE JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D. R. J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D. PROF. OF LITERATURE AT UNIV. OF CAZTFORNlAr^ , , PROF. OF SEMITIC LANGUAGES AT COLUMBIA WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Ph.D., LL.D. AJLfrfcEli'T; MAI0N* D.C.L., LL.D. U. S. COMMISSIONER. OF EDUCATION " ' ' ' CAPTAIN UNltED" STATES NAVY (Retired) ETC., ETC., ETC.',. ETC.; '•[';'; \\\ \\ \ \ /•. WITH A PREFACE ON THE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY BY WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D. PRESIDENT OF PRINCETON UNIVERSITY AUTHOR OP "A HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN PEOPLE" ETC., ETC. WITH ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, PORTRAITS, MAPS, PLANS, &c. COMPLETE IN TEN VQLUMES VOL. I MlVERSfTV HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS NEW YORK '-, 190§. - LONDO Rrssg (*> • - • • • Copyright, 1905, by Hakper & Brothers. Copyright, 1901, by Harper & Brothers. All rights reserved. ^y^^ OF THE UNIVERSITY %4/FORt^ • JO * 3 * • » » , » S . OF THE ^P UNIVERSITY WRITERS ON SPECIAL SUBJECTS Historians and Scholars LYMAN ABBOTT, D.D., LL.D., Author, and Editor of The Outlook, New York. EDWARD GAYLORD BOURNE, Ph.D., Professor of History at Yale Uni-' VERSITY. RICHARD T. ELY, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Political Economy at the University of Wisconsin. FREDERICK WILLIAM FARRAR, Dean of Westminster Abbey. JOHN FISKE, Former Professor of Philosophy at Harvard University, Author of " American Political Ideas," etc. JOHN FRYER, A.M., LL.D., Professor of Literature at the University of California. r- CARDINAL GIBBONS, the Head of the Roman Catholic Church in * America. WASHINGTON GLADDEN, D.D., LL.D. EDWIN LAWRENCE GODKIN, A.M., D.C.L., Former Editor of the New York Evening Post. RICHARD J. H. GOTTHEIL, Ph.D., Professor of Semitic Languages at Columbia University. WILLIAM R. HARPER, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D., President of the University of Chicago. ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, Ph.D., Professor of History at Harvard University. JOSIAH GILBERT HOLLAND, Editor and Author. THE MOST REVEREND JOHN IRELAND, Archbishop of St. Paul. JOHN B. MOORE, LL.D., Professor of International Law and Diplomacy at Columbia University. GOLDWIN SMITH, D.C.L., LL.D., Professor of History at the University of Toronto. MOSES COIT TYLER, A.M., L.H.D., LL.D., Former Professor of History ^ornell University. WOODROW WILSON, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Princeton University Statesmen and Publicists JAMES G. BLAINE, Former Secretary of State of the United States. HENRY SHERMAN BOUTELL, A.M., Member of Congress from Illinois. WILLIAM M. EVARTS, Former United States Senator from New York. JOHN W. FOSTER, LL.D., Former Secretary of State of the United States. WILLIAM E. GLADSTONE, Former Prime Minister of Great Britain and Ireland. BENJAMIN HARRISON, Former President of the United States. GEORGE FRISBIE HOAR, LL.D , United States Senator from Massachu- setts. HENRY^CABOT L£DGE, United States Senator from Massachusetts. JOHN TYLER MORGAN, United States Senator from Alabama. JUSTIN S. MORRILL, Former United States Senator from Vermont. EDWARD J. PHELPS, LL.D., Former United States Minister to the Court of St. James. THOMAS B. REED, Former Speaker of the House of Representatives. WILLIAM F. WHARTON, Former Assistant Secretary of State of the United States. HENRY WHITE, Secretary of the American Embassy to Great Britain. HIS EXCELLENCY WU TING FANG, Chinese Minister to the United States. Scientists and Specialists OSCAR P. AUSTIN, Chief of the United States Bureau of Statistics. A. E. BOSTWICK, Superintendent of the Circulating Branch of the New York Public Library. THOMAS C. CLARKE, Past President of the Society of Civil Engineers. CHARLES H. CRAMP, Head of the Ship-Building Firm of William Cramp and Sons. JOHN HANDIBOE, JOURNALIST. WILLIAM T. HARRIS, Ph.D., LL.D., Commissioner of Education for the United States. JOHN P. HOLLAND, the Inventor of the Holland Submarine Boat. W. H. HOTCHKISS, Chairman Executive Committee of the International Association of Referees in Bankruptcy. V RAMON REYES LALA, the Filipino Author and Lecturer. SIR HIRAM STEVENS MAXIM, C.E., M.E., the Inventor of the Maxim Gun. HERBERT PUTNAM, Litt.D., Librarian of the Congress of the United States. HARRY PERRY ROBINSON, Editor of the Railway Age. HAMLIN RUSSELL, Political Economist. ELIZABETH CADY STANTON, Author and Essayist. FREDERICK W. TAYLOR, Secretary of the Farmers' Institute Managers. ELIHU THOMSON, A.M., Ph.D., Electrician, Chevalier and Officer of the Legion of Honor. Men of Action LORD CHARLES BERESFORD, C.B., Rear-Admiral R.N., Author of " The Break-Up of China." J. H. GIBBONS, Lieutenant United States Navy, a Writer on Naval Sub- jects. FRANCIS V. GREENE, Major-General late United States Volunteers. ALFRgp T^MAHAN, D.C.L., LL.D., Captain United States Navy (Retired). NELSON A. MILES, Lieutenant-General U.S.A., Commanding United States Army. St. li. CONTRIBUTIONS BY SPECIALISTS Historical Essays AMERICA'S SHARE IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY, by Dean Farrar. AN APPRECIATION OF THE LIFE AND CHARACTER OF CHARLES SUM- NER, by George F. Hoar, United States Senator from Massa- chusetts. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN THE LIGHT OF MODERN CRITICISM, by Moses Coit Tyler, A.M., L.H.D., LL.D., Former Professor of Amer- ican History at Cornell. DEMOCRACY IN THE UNITED STATES, by Woodrow Wilson, Ph.D., LL.D., President of Princeton University. LIFE AND CHARACTER OF WILLIAM HENRY SEWARD, by Richard Grant White. MANIFEST DESTINY, by Professor John Fiske. THE BUDDHIST DISCOVERY OF AMERICA BY HUI SHEN, by John Fryer, A.M., LL.D., Professor of Literature at the University of Cali- fornia. ^ THE CAPTURE OF FORT WILLIAM AND MARY, by Ballard Smith. THE FEDERAL UNION, by Professor John Fiske. THE FUTURE OF THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY, by Albert Bushnell Hart, Ph.D., Professor of History at Harvard University. THE TOWN MEETING, by Professor John Fiske. Political AN ANGLO-AMERICAN UNDERSTANDING, by !Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D., LL.D. ANNEXED TERRITORY, by Benjamin Harrison, Former President of the United States. CHINA AND THE POWERS, by Lord Charles Beresford, Rear-Admiral Royal Navy of Great Britain. CHINESE-AMERICAN RECIPROCITY, by His Excellency Wu Ting Fang, Chinese Minister to the United States. iv CONSULAR SERVICE, by Henry White, Secretary of the Embassy at London, and by William F. Wharton, Former Assistant Secretary of State. FREE TRADE, by the Rt. Hon. William Ewart Gladstone, Former Prime Minister of Great Britain and Ireland. FREE TRADE AND PROTECTION, by Justin Smith Morrill, Former United States Senator from Vermont. PROTECTION OR FREE TRADE, by James G. Blaine, Former Secretary of State of the United States. THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY QUESTION, by John B. Moore, LL.D., Profess- or of International Law and Diplomacy at Columbia Univer- sity. THE BERING SEA ARBITRATION, by John W. Foster, Former Secretary of State. THE FEDERAL CONTROL OF ELECTIONS, by Henry Cabot Lodge, United States Senator from Massachusetts. THE FEDERAL ELECTION BILL, by Thomas Brackett Reed, Former Speak- er of the House of Representatives. THE NICARAGUA CANAL, by John Tyler Morgan, United States Senator from Alabama. THE NICARAGUA CANAL, by Thomas B. Reed, Former Speaker of the House of Representatives. THE STATES AND THE POPULAR VOTE IN PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS, BY John Handiboe, Journalist. THE SUPREME COURT, by Edward J. Phelps, LL.D., Former Minister to the Court of St. James. UNITED STATES COLONIAL CIVIL SERVICE, BY EDWARD GAYLORD BOURNE, Ph.D., Professor of History in Yale University. THE UNITED STATES SENATE, by Ex-Senator William A. Peffer THE SPEAKER OF THE HOUSE, by Gen. A. W. Greely. HOW THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES^ DOES BUSINESS, BY THOMAS Brackett Reed, Ex-Speaker. Educational AMERICAN PUBLIC EDUCATION, by Doctor Josiah Gilbert Holland. ELEMENTARY EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, by William T. Harris, Ph.D., LL.D., United States Commissioner of Education. FREE PUBLIC LIBRARIES, by Herbert Putnam, Litt.D., Librarian of Congress. NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY, by A. E. Bostwick, of the New York Pub- lic Library. THE CARE OF DEPENDENT CHILDREN, by Henrietta Christian Wright. UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, by William R. Harper, Ph.D., LL.D., D.D., President of the University of Chicago. Military and Naval NARRATIVE OF THE BATTLE OF MANILA BAY, by Ramon Reyes LALA. NARRATIVE OF THE NAVAL BATTLE OF SANTIAGO, BY Henry Cabot Lodge, United States Senator from Massachusetts. NAVAL SHIPS, by Alfred T. Mahan, D.C.L., LL.D., Captain United States NAVY (Retired). THE BATTLE OF SAN JUAN, by President Roosevelt. THE BUILDING AND MAINTAINING OF WAR-SHIPS ON THE GREAT LAKES, by Henry Sherman Boutell, Member of Congress from Illinois. THE GREAT LAKES AND THE NAVY, by Lieutenant J. H. Gibbons, U.S.N. THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, by Major-General F. V. Greene. THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR, by Lieutenant-General Nelson A. Miles, U. S. A. Commanding. Scientific ELECTRICITY IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY, by Professor Elihu Thomson, A.M., Ph.D., Chevalier and Officer of the Legion of Honor. ENGINEERING IN THE UNITED STATES, by Thomas C. Clarke, Past President of the American Society of Civil Engineers. EXPLOSIVES FOR LARGE GUNS, by Sir Hiram Stevens Maxim, Inventor of the Maxim Gun. INVENTION OF THE STEAMBOAT, by Chancellor Robert R. Livingston, with Letters by Robert Fulton. THE HOLLAND SUBMARINE BOAT, by John P. Holland Inventor of the Holland Submarine Boat. Industrial and Economic A CENTURY OF COMMERCE, by O. P. Austin, Chief of the United States Bureau of Statistics. AMERICAN VERSUS FOREIGN NEWSPAPERS, by E. L. Godkin, A.M., D.C.L. BANKRUPTCY, by Hon. W.' H. Hotchkiss, Chairman of the Executive Committee of the International Association of Referees in Bank- ruptcy. BIMETALLISM, by William M. Evarts, Former United States Senator from New York. FARMERS' INSTITUTES, by Frederick W. Taylor, Secretary of the Farmers' Institute Managers. PAUPERISM IN THE UNITED STATES, by Richard T. Ely, A.M., Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Political Economy at the University of Wisconsin. vt THE INDIAN PROBLEM, by Rev. Lyman Abbott, D.D., LL.D. THE NAVIGATION ACTS.— A Treatise on the Causes which Led up to the Passing of these Acts and the Results, Direct and Indirect, which they Accomplished, by Charles H. Cramp. THE SINGLE TAX, by Hamlin Russell. THE STATE REGULATION OF RAILWAYS, by H. P. Robinson, Editor of The Railway Age. Religious FREE THOUGHT, by Professor Goldwin Smith, D.C.L., LL.D., Author of " The Political History of the United States." JEWS AND JUDAISM, by Prof. R. J. H. Gottheil, Ph.D. PROTESTANT CHURCHES, by Rev. Washington Gladden, D.D. THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH, by Cardinal Gibbons, Head of the Roman Catholic Church in America. vii ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS, TREATIES, JOURNALS, PROCLAMATIONS, AND NARRATIVES FROM ORIGINAL SOURCES Original Documents MAGNA CHARTA, Text of the Charter Between King John and His Bar- ons, IN 1215, WHICH IS THE BASIS OF INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS. THE DUTCH DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE ON JULY 26, 1581. THE PETITION OF RIGHTS AND LIBERTIES, 1628. THE GRAND REMONSTRANCE, 1641. A Protest BY THE House of Commons AGAINST THE ACTS OF CHARLES I. (THE AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE, 1647. An Agreement Settled in 1648 in England Limiting Power of Rulers and Members of Par- liament. INSTRUMENT OF GOVERNMENT, 1653. ACT OF PARLIAMENT MAKING CROM- WELL Protector of England. THE BILL OF RIGHTS, 1689, Declaring the Rights of Individuals and Defining the Power of the King of England. QUEEN ELIZABETH'S CHARTER TO SIR WALTER RALEIGH FOR DISCOV- ERY AND COLONIZATION IN AMERICA. THE STAMP ACT, 1765. THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION, 1775. The First Union of the Colo- nies. THE MECKLENBURG DECLARATION. A Declaration of Independence of England said to have been Made by Citizens of North Carolina Prior to the Declaration of 1776. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. ARTICLES OF CAPITULATION, Yorktown, 1781. THE ORDINANCE OF 1787. Passed by Congress, Freeing the Northwest Territory from Slavery, etc. THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. THE VIRGINIA RESOLUTIONS OF 1798. THE KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS OF 1798. CONSTITUTION OF THE SOUTHERN CONFEDERACY. Complete Text. viii THE CUBAN CONSTITUTION OF 1901. The Decree of Autonomy and Doc- umentary History of Negotiations Preceding the War with Spain. Journals and Narratives THE NORTHMEN'S VOYAGES TO VINLAND. First Narrated in the "Hausbok," Written about 1305. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS. The Journal of His Voyages to America, with Details of His First Sight of Land. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. Journal of His First Voyage to and Dis- covery of America. CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS. His Report to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of His Second Voyage, with the Replies of their Majes- ties to His Requests. FERDINAND COLUMBUS. Narrative of His Father's Voyages to America. VERRAZZANO. His Narrative of a Voyage to North America, 1524. CABEZA. Journal of His Trip Through New Mexico during the Year 1528. CORONADO. Relation of His Journey in 1540 Through What is Now the Southwestern Part of the United States. PHILIP AMIDAS. Journal of His Voyages to Virginia in 1584 and His Observations on the New Land. JOURNAL OF HENRY HUDSON'S DISCOVERY OF THE HUDSON RIVER, by Robert Juet. CORTEZ'S ACCOUNT SENT TO CHARLES V. OF HIS JOURNEY THROUGH MEXICO. THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW SWEDEN, by Rev. I. Acrelius, 1638. THE FIRST GERMAN SETTLEMENTS IN PENNSYLVANIA, by FRANCIS Daniel Pastorius, Esq., 1683. GOVERNOR HUTCHINSON'S ACCOUNT OF THE BOSTON TEA-PARTY. LAFAYETTE. His Narrative of the American Revolution Covering the Period while He was in America. GEORGE ROGERS CLARK. Narrative of His Capture of Vincennes in 1779, from His Memoirs. THOMAS JEFFERSON. Account of Meriwether Lewis's Life and Ex- pedition. (Lewis and Clark.) THE ASCENT OF FREMONT'S PEAK, 1842, by John C. Fremont. ADMIRAL DAVID PORTER'S ACCOUNT OF THE SINKING OF THE " ALBE- MARLE," by William B. Cushing. Treaties, Proclamations, Bills, and Tapers TEXT OF THE ALASKAN BOUNDARY TREATY CONVENTION, 1834. Be- tween England, Russia, and the United States, and the Modus Vivendi of 1899. THE CLAYTON-BULWER TREATY. Treaty Involving the Control of an Isthmian Canal between North and South America. TREATY OF WASHINGTON IN RELATION TO ALABAMA CLAIMS. THE TREATY WITH SPAIN, December io, 1898, ENDING THE SPANISH- AMERICAN WAR. SAMOA: TREATY OF WASHINGTON ANNEXING THE SAME, December 2, 1899. TREATY OF THE COURT OF INQUIRY ON INTERNATIONAL ARBITRATION, 1899-1901. THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. President Harrison's Message, Senator Foster's Letters, and the Treaties of 1893 AND 1897, together with the Resolutions of Annexation in 1898. ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS OF 1798. JOINT RESOLUTION OF CONGRESS ANNEXING TEXAS, July 4, 1845. TEXAS ORDINANCE AND JOINT RESOLUTION, 1845. FERNANDO WOOD'S MESSAGE SUGGESTING THE SECESSION OF NEW YORK CITY, 1861. THE FORCE BILL OF 1871. THE EDMUNDS AND THE EDMUNDS-TUCKER ACTS AGAINST MORMONISM, 1882 AND 1887. THE IMMIGRATION ACT OF 189 1. Limiting Immigration by an Educational and Financial Test. THE DINGLEY TARIFF OF 1897. THE GOLD STANDARD ACT, 1900. Act of Congress Establishing Gold Standard after the Defeat of the Democratic Silver Plat- form. NATURALIZATION LAWS IN ALL THE STATES. THE LAWS OF THE STATES RELATING TO THE ELECTIVE FRANCHISE. STATE LAWS ON EXEMPTION FROM TAXATION. DIVORCE LAWS. Legislation upon this Subject Throughout the States and Territories of the Union. THE LETTERS OF JOHN BROWN. Giving in His Own Words His Views and Creed. JEFFERSON DAVIS'S DOCTRINE OF STATE RIGHTS. THE GRANT-LEE CORRESPONDENCE, INVOLVING THE TERMS OF SUR- RENDER OF THE CONFEDERATE ARMY, 1865. THE IMPEACHMENT PROCEEDINGS AGAINST PRESIDENT JOHNSON. JOHN A. LOGAN ON THE CASE OF GENERAL FITZ-JOHN PORTER. GENERAL GRANT ON THE CASE OF GENERAL FITZ-JOHN PORTER. GENERAL McCLELLAN'S ACCEPTANCE OF THE NOMINATION TO THE PRESIDENCY. ADMIRAL SAMPSON'S AND ADMIRAL SCHLEY'S REPORTS ON THE NAVAL BATTLE OF SANTIAGO. GENERAL MERRITT. Report on the Capture of the City of Manila. GENERAL MacARTHUR. Proclamation to the Filipinos, Promulgated in 1900. THE LAST PROCLAMATION AND THE UNCONDITIONAL SUBMISSION OF AGUINALDO. MAJOR ANDRE. Poem, " Cow Chace." Written in Ridicule of General Wayne at Elizabethtown, 1780. VENEZUELA ARBITRATION AWARD, Oct. 3, 1899. BILLS VETOED BY THE PRESIDENTS, 1792-1898. THE WHEELER COMPROMISE, 1875. THE FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW, 1850. THE OSTEND MANIFESTO. FRANCIS HOPKINS. Poem, " The Battle of the Kegs." A Mock-Heroic Poem called forth by an Episode of the Revolution. THE HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY, 1902. XI EPOCH-MAKING ORATIONS AND ADDRESSES JAMES OTIS'S SPEECH AGAINST WRITS OF ASSISTANCE, 1761. JOHN HANCOCK'S ARRAIGNMENT OF GREAT BRITAIN IN 1774. PATRICK HENRY'S "LIBERTY OR DEATH" SPEECH, 1775. EDMUND BURKE'S ORATION ON CONCILIATION OF THE COLONIES IN 1775. FISHER AMES'S SPEECH IN FAVOR OF JAY'S TREATY, in Congress, April 28, 1795. JOSIAH QUINCY. Address on the Embargo, 1808. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S EULOGY OF LAFAYETTE. GENERAL HENRY LEE. Funeral Oration on George Washington. ROBERT YOUNG HAYNE'S SPEECH ON FOOTE'S RESOLUTION ON SECES- SION, 1830. DANIEL WEBSTER'S REPLY TO HAYNE. WENDELL PHILLIPS'S ADDRESS ON THE FREEDOM OF THE PRESS IN 1837, AND THE WAR FOR THE UNION, 1861. JUBILEE OF THE CONSTITUTION, 1839. Delivered by John Quincy Adams. THOMAS HART BENTON. Speech on the Annexation of Texas in 1844. THOMAS CORWIN. Oration on the War with Mexico, against Voting Funds to Carry It On. CALHOUN'S SPEECH ON THE RIGHT OF SECESSION. HENRY CLAY'S ORATION ON THE CONSEQUENCES OF SECESSION, 1850. LOUIS KOSSUTH. Speech in Faneuil Hall in 1852, during His Famous Visit to the United States. CHARLES SUMNER'S PROTEST AGAINST SLAVERY, May 25, 1854- STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS'S SPEECH ON THE KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL. PRESTON SMITH BROOKS'S DEFENCE OF HIS ATTACK ON CHARLES SUMNER. CHARLES SUMNER, Address by. The Crime Against Kansas. THEODORE PARKER, Address by. The Dangers of Slavery. JEFFERSON DAVIS. Inaugural Address to the Confederate States in 1861. BENJAMIN F. BUTLER. Farewell to the Citizens of New Orleans in 1862. ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS. Oration at Savannah on Slavery as the Corner-Stone of the Confederacy. xii STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS'S SPEECH OPENING THE FAMOUS LINCOLN-DOUG- LAS DEBATE. ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S REPLY TO STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS. HENRY WARD BEECHER'S SPEECH AT LIVERPOOL ON SLAVERY, 1863. EDWARD EVERETT. Oration on the Opening of the National Cemetery at Gettysburg, 1863. GEORGE BANCROFT. Famous Oration on the Death of Abraham Lincoln. HORACE GREELEY. Acceptance of the Presidential Nomination in 1872. ROSCOE CONKLING. Renomination of General Ulysses S. Grant for a Third Term in the Presidency. WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON. Oration on the Lessor* of Independence Day, Delivered July 4, 1876. L. Q. C. LAMAR'S ADDRESSES ON THE SILVER BILL OF 1878 AND THE RACE PROBLEM OF 1876. CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS. Speech on the Anniversary of Indepen- dence Day and of the Battle of Gettysburg. WILLIAM MAXWELL EVARTS. Speech on Bimetallism, at the Paris Conference in 188 i. GEORGE WILLIAM CURTIS. Oration on the Evils of the Spoils System, DELIVERED 1 88 1. JAMES G. BLAINE. Oration on James A. Garfield, February 27, 1882. HENRY W. GRADY. Oration on the New South, Delivered in New York, 1886. ROBERT G. INGERSOLL. Eulogy on Thomas Paine. JOHN JAMES INGALLS. Eulogy on Senator Benjamin H. Hill. HENRY CABOT LODGE. Speech on Restriction of Immigration, 1891. CHAUNCEY MITCHELL DEPEW. Washington Centennial Oration. WILLIAM JENNINGS BRYAN. Oration on " The Cross of Gold," at the Chicago Democratic Convention of 1896. JUSTIN SMITH MORRILL. Speech on the Remonetization of Silver, 1898. JOHN TYLER MORGAN. Speech on the Nicaragua Canal. ARCHBISHOP IRELAND. Lafayette and America. July 4, 1900. THEODORE ROOSEVELT. Address in Minneapolis, September 2, 1901.- WILLIAM McKINLEY. Address in Buffalo, September 5, 1901. JOHN COTTON'S SERMON, " GOD'S PROMISE TO HIS PLANTATIONS." PROTEST AGAINST TAXATION, 1764, by Samuel Adams. STEPHEN HOPKINS'S GRIEVANCES OF THE AMERICAN COLONIES, 1765. RIGHTS OF THE COLONISTS, 1772, by Samuel Adams. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN'S VINDICATION OF THE COLONIES, 1775- THE FIRST PRAYER IN THE CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES. De- livered by Doctor Duchie. ALEXANDER HAMILTON'S REPORT ON THE COINAGE IN 1791. EDWARD LIVINGSTON'S PLEA FOR THE ABOLITION OF CAPITAL PUNISH-* MENT. THE DEFECTS OF THE UNITED STATES ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION, by Richard Rush. Aiii JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER. Narrative of the Anti-Slavery Con- vention, 1833. THE NEWBURG ADDRESS AND WASHINGTON'S REPLY, 1783. ROBERT CHARLES WINTHROP. Centennial Oration, 1876. ALEXANDER STEPHENS. SAVANNAH ADDRESS, 1861. JAMES WILSON. VINDICATION OF THE AMERICAN COLONIES, 1775. m XIV PRESIDENTIAL MESSAGES AND PROCLAMATIONS GEORGE WASHINGTON. Farewell Address, containing the Germs of what afterwards became known as the monroe doctrine. First and Second Inaugural Addresses. Several Addresses to the Churches in the United States. Letters on the Constitution to Jay, Madison, Knox, Patrick Henry, etc. JOHN ADAMS. Message on the Threatening Attitude of France, May 16, 1797 THOMAS JEFFERSON. First Inaugural Address. JAMES MADISON. Famous Message on British Aggressions. Message on the Treaty of Peace, February 15, 1815. Proclamation Declaring War against England. JAMES MONROE. Message to Congress, December 22. 1822, declaring WHAT IS KNOWN AS THE MONROE DOCTRINE. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. Message to the Senate on a Pan-American Union. Address on the Jubilee of the Constitution, 1826. ANDREW JACKSON. Proclamation in Relation to the Question of Nul- lification. MARTIN VAN BUREN. Message ON the Panic OF 1837. WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. Inaugural Address AT WASHINGTON, 1841. JOHN TYLER. Message to Congress concerning the Boundary - Line between the united states and canada. Message on Negotiations with Great Britain on the United States Northern Boundaries. Message on the Annexation of Texas, April 22, 1844. JAMES K. POLK. Special Message in Regard to the Mexican War. -*— Inaugural Address delivered at Washington, 1845. ZACHARY TAYLOR. Message on the Central American States, March 1850. (On Nicaragua and Panama Canals.) Message concerning the Status of California, New Mexico, and Texas (June 23, 1850). MILLARD FILLMORE. Message on the Texas Boundary Controversy, 1850. FRANKLIN PIERCE. Special Message on Kansas, 1856. xv JAMES BUCHANAN. MESSAGE TO CONGRESS ON THE PROSPECTS OF CIVIL War. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. Proclamation Freeing All the Slaves in the United States. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. Address Delivered at the Cooper Institute, i860. First and Second Inaugural Addresses, and the Speech at Gettys- burg. 1865. ANDREW JOHNSON. Answer to the Articles of Impeachment, 1868. ULYSSES S. GRANT. Defence of General Fitz-John Porter. First Inaugural Address, 1869. Last Message to Congress, 1876. Address at the Centennial Exhibition, 1876. RUTHERFORD B. HAYES. Inaugural Address at Washington, 1877. Message on Military Interference in Elections. JAMES A. GARFIELD. Inaugural Address at Washington, 1881. Address on the Western Reserve. CHESTER A. ARTHUR. Message Vetoing the Chinese Immigration Bill in 1882. GROVER CLEVELAND. Proclamation, September 27, 1894, of Amnesty to the Mormons. Tariff Message of 1887, and Message on the Venezuelan Boun- dary Question, 1895. BENJAMIN HARRISON. Inaugural Address Delivered at Washington, 1889. Washington Centennial Address, 1889. WILLIAM McKINLEY. Second Letter of Acceptance, 1900, reviewing the History of the United States from 1896 to 1900. Second Inaugural Address at Washington, 1901. THEODORE ROOSEVELT. Message to Congress, December 3, 1901. xvi \ SPECIAL TOPICS NEW NETHERLANDS.— The Beginning and Growth of the Colony. THE AMERICAN INDIAN.— Legislation Governing Indians. THE PANAMA CANAL.— Attempts that have been made to Pierce the Isthmus of Panama. LABOR ORGANIZATIONS. — The History and Development of Labor Unions and their Work. CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA.— General Sketch of the Compo- sition of the Confederacy. COMMERCE OF THE UNITED STATES.— The Birth, Growth, and Present State of our Commerce (with Tables). ABOLITION AND THE ABOLITIONISTS. ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY. ARCTIC EXPLORATIONS. THE CABINETS OF THE PRESIDENTS SINCE 1789. THE CENSUS OF 1900 (with Comparative Tables). AMERICA'S PART IN THE SUGGESTED PARTITION OF CHINA. DIPLOMATIC SERVICE OF THE UNITED STATES. THE DEBT OF THE UNITED STATES FROM 1791 TO 1901. WASHINGTONIANA. MONETARY REFORM.— The Indianapolis Conference. RELIGION IN THE UNITED STATES (with Tables). CHRONOLOGY OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR, 1775-83. CHRONOLOGY OF THE EVENTS OF THE CIVIL WAR. THE WAR WITH SPAIN— A COMPLETE CHRONOLOGY. Sampson's AND Schley's Reports on the Naval Battle of Santiago. CHRONOLOGY OF THE PHILIPPINE INSURRECTION. ARMY.— A Chronologically Classified Statement of the Birth and Growth of the Army of the Colonies and of the United States. NAVY.— Chronological Sketch of the American Navy, from Revolu- tionary Times to the Present Day, with a List of all the Ves- sels in the United States Navy Arranged by Classes. PRESIDENTIAL ELECTIONS, 1 789-1901.— Popular AND Electoral Votes. PRESIDENTIAL ADMINISTRATIONS, 1789-1901. POLITICAL PARTIES IN THE UNITED STATES. PLATFORMS OF THE MINOR POLITICAL PARTIES. LIST OF THE HIGHER OFFICIALS OF THE UNITED STATES FEDERAL GOVERNMENT— EXECUTIVE, LEGISLATIVE, AND JUDICIAL, 1902. AMERICAN LEARNED SOCIETIES.— A List of all the Most Important. AMERICAN LABOR ARBITRATION (National Civic Federation).— A His- tory of the Movement and a List of all the Members. TARIFF LEGISLATION, 1789-1900. TREATIES OF THE UNITED STATES. UNITED STATES.— Each of the States and Territories of the Union is Treated in a Separate Article, with a Chronology of the Chief Events from its First Discovery or Settlement In each Case this Article has been Verified by the Governor of the State or Territory, His Representative, or the Historical Society. In Addition to these, there is a Chronology of the United States from 1492 to 1902, and a Preliminary List of the Early Discoverers and Explorers. CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA— GIVING THE NAMES OF ALL THE Members of the Provisional Congress, the Senators of Each State, the Full List of Generals above the Rank of Brigadier- Generals, and many Important Lists and Statistics. xvni ^ OF THE °> UNIVERSITY LIST OF PLATES President John Adams Frontispiece President J. Q. Adams Facing page 48 The Fleet of Columbus Approaching the New World President C. A. Arthur The Boston Massacre, March 5, 1770 . President James Buchanan . . . . Viewing the Battle of Bunker Hill . 112 224 380 43 2 444 MAPS United States, Showing Acquisition of Terri- tory Facing page 16 / Alaska 78 PREFACE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF AMERICAN HISTORY By Woodrow Wilson, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of Jurisprudence and Politics at Princeton University The study of American history has changed its whole tone and aspect within a generation. Once a plain and simple tale, — though heroic withal, — of a virgin continent discovered in the West, new homes for the English made upon it, a new polity set up, a new nation made of a sudden in the hot crucible of war, a life and a government apart, — a thing isolated, singular, original, as if it were the story of a separate precinct and parish of the great world,-^-the history of the United States has now been brought at last into perspective, to be seen as what it is, an integral portion of the general history of civilization; a free working-out upon a clear field, indeed, of selected forces generated long ago in England and the old European world, but no irregular invention, no histrionic vindication of the ^Rights of Man. It has not lost its unique significance by the change, but gained, rather, a hundred- fold both in interest and in value. It seemed once a school exercise in puritan theory and cavalier pride ; it seems now a chapter written for grown men in the natural history of politics and society, a perfect exposition of, what the European civilization of the seventeenth .and eighteenth centurion was to produce in the nineteenth century. „ What formerly appeared to be only a by-product of the creative forces of society is now clearly enough seen to be the epitome of a whole age. We see it all, now that America, having come out of her days of adolescence and preparation, has taken her place among the powers of the world, fresh and still in her youth, but no stranger among the peoples, — a leader, rather, and pace-maker in the wide fieldjjf affairs^ The history of the United States is modern history in broad and open analysis, stripped of a thousand elements which, upon the European stage, confuse the eye and lead the judgment astray. It spans a whole age of the xxi , PREFACE world's transformation, from the discoveries, the adventure, the romance of the sixteenth century, with its dreams of unbounded wealth in the far Indies and marvels at the ends of the earth, to the sober commerce and material might of the twentieth, with its altered dreams, of a world mastered, if not united, by the power of armed fleets patrolling it from end to end, in the interests of peace and European and American trade. At its outset American history discloses a novel picture of men out of an old world set upon the coasts of a new to do the work of pioneers, without suitable training either of thought or hand, — men schooled in an old civiliza- tion, puzzled, even daunted, by the wilderness in which they found them- selves as by a strange and alien thing, ignorant of its real character, lacking all the knowledge and craft of the primitive world, lacking everything but courage, sagacity, and a steadfast will to succeed. As they pushed their gigantic task they were themselves transformed. The unsuitable habits of an old world fell away from them. Their old blood bred a new stock, and the youth of the race to which they belonged was renewed. And yet they did not break with the past, were for long scarcely conscious of their own transformation, held their thoughts to old channels., were frontiersmen with traditions not of the frontier, traditions which they cherished and held very dear, of a world in which there were only ancient kingdoms and a civiliza- r tion set up and perfected time out of mind. Their muscles hardened to the work of the wilderness, they learned woodcraft and ranged the forests like men with the breeding, the quick instincts, the ready resource in time of danger of the Indian himself, and yet thought upon deep problems of re- ligion, pondered the philosophy of the universities, were partisans and fol- lowers of statesmen and parties over sea, looked to have their fashions of dress sent to them, with every other old-world trapping they could pay for, by the European ships which diligently plied to their ports. Xowhere else, perhaps, is there so open and legible a record of the stiffness of thought and the flexibility of action in men, the union of youth and age, the dominion of habit reconciled with an unspoiled freshness of bold initiative. And with the transplantation of men out of the old world into a wilder- ness went also the transplantation of institutions, — with the same result. The new way of life and association thrust upon these men reduced the com- ple xjthings of governm ent to their simples. Within those untouched forests" fney resumed again, as it by an unconscious instinct, the simple organization of village communities familiar to their race long centuries before, or here and there put palisades about a group of huts meant to serve for refuge and fortress against savage enemies lurking near at hand in the coverts, and lived in their " hundreds " again under captains, to spread at last slowly into counties with familiar sheriffs and quarter-sessions. It was as if they had xxii PREFACE brought their old-time polity with them, not in the mature root nor even in the young cutting, but in the seed merely, to renew its youth and yield itself to the influences of a new soil and a new environment. It was drawn back to its essential qualities, stripped of its elaborate growth of habits, as they themselves were. All things were touched, as it were, by the light of an earlier age returned. The study of American history furnishes, as a conse- quence, materials such as can be found nowhere else for a discrimination between what is accidental and what is essential in English political practice. Principles developed by the long and intricate processes of the history of one country are here put to experimental test in another, where every element of life is simplified, every problem of government reduced to its fundamental formulae. There is here the best possible point of departure, for the student who can keep his head and who knows his European history as intimately as he knows his American, for a comparative study of institutions which may some day yield us a sane philosophy of politics which shall forever put out of school the thin and sentimental theories of the disciples of Eousseau. This is the new riches which the study of American history is to afford in the light that now shines upon it : not national pride merely, nor merely an heroic picture of men wise beyond previous example in building States, and uniting them under a government at once free and strong, but a real under- standing of the nature of liberty, of the essential character and determining circumstances of self-government, the fundamental contrasts of race and social development, of temper and of opportunity, which of themselves make governments or mar them. It may well yield us, at any rate, a few of the first principles of the natural history of institutions. The political history of America was the outcome of a constitutional struggle which concerned Englishmen in England no less deeply than it concerned Englishmen in the colonies, a struggle whose motives were com- pounded both of questions of conscience and of questions of civil liberty, of longings to be free to think and of longings to be free to act. And English- men on the two sides of the sea were not wholly divorced in the issue of that struggle. Not America* alone, but the power to rule without principle and restraint at home as well, was once for all cut off from the crown of England. But there was sharp contrast, too, between the effects wrought in England and the effects wrought in America. On one side the sea an ancient people won their final battle for constitutional government ; on the other side a new people was created, — a people set free to work out a new experience both in the liberty of its churches and in its political arrangements, to gain a new consciousness, take on a distinctive character, transform itself from a body of loosely associated English colonies into a great commonwealth, not Eng- lish nor yet colonial merely, but transmuted, within little more than a xxiii PREFACE generation, into a veritable nation, marked out for an independent and striking career. At the Revolution the American States did hardly more than disengage themselves from the English dominion. Their thoughts, their imagina- tions, were still held subject to policy and opinion over sea. By the close of the War of 1812, these last, impalpable bonds were also thrown off. American statesmen had got their freedom of thought, and, within a genera- tion, were the leaders of a nation and a people apart. One has only to contrast the persistent English quality and point of view of the English colonies of to-day, self-governing communities though most of them are, which have led their own lives for generations together under parliaments and ministers of their own free choosing, with the distinctive character of the United States to realize how much of the history of nations is spiritual, not material, a thing, not of institutions, but of the heart and the imagination. This is one of the secrets American history opens to the student, the deepest of all secrets, the genesis of nationality, the play of spirit in the processes of history. Of course^the present separateness and distinctive character of the United States among the nations is due in part to the mixture of races in the make- up of their people. Men out of every European race, men out of Asia, men out of Africa have crowded in, to the bewilderment alike of the statesmen and of the historian. An infinite crossing of strains has made a new race. And yet there is a mystery here withal. Where, when, in what way, have our institutions and our life as a people been turned to new forms and into new channels by this new union and chemistry of bloods? There has been no break in our constitutional development. Nothing has been done of which we can confidently say, This would not have been done had we kept the pure Saxon strain. All peoples have come to dwell among us, but they have merged their individuality in a national character already formed; have been dominated, changed, absorbed. We keep until now some of the char- acteristic differences of organization and action transplanted to this conti- nent when races were separate upon it. We single out the Dutch element in the history of New York, the French element in the history of Louisiana, the Spanish influence in the far West. But these things remain from a time when Dutch and French and Spanish had their seats and their power apart and were independent rivals for the possession of the continent. Since they were fused they have given us nothing which we can distinguish as their own. The French who have come to us since that final settlement on the heights of Quebec have contributed nothing distinctive to our civilization or our order of government. The Dutch who have been immigrants amongst us since New Netherlands became New York have no doubt strengthened our Miv PREFACE stock, but they have adopted our character and point of view. No foreign stock long keeps its identity in our affairs. The fact should a little daunt those who make much of physical heredity and speak of the persistence of race characteristics as a thing fixed and inva- riable, if they are to apply their theory to communities which are dominated by one and the same national idea, and fused to make a common stock. It is where races act separately that they act in character and with individual distinction. In this again the history of the United States demonstrates the spiritual aspects of political development. Nations grow by spirit, no t / byhjoo fl; and nowhere can the significant principle of their growth be seen more clearly, upon a more fair and open page, than in the history of the United States. It is this principle which throws a light as if of veritable revelation upon the real nature of liberty, as a thing bred, not of institutions nor of the benevolent inventions of statesmen, but of the spiritual forces of which institutions themselves are the offspring and creation. To talk of giving to one people the liberties of another is to talk of making a gift of character, a thing built up by the confrivance of no single generation, but by the slow providence which binds generations together by a common training. From whatever point of view you approach it, American history gives some old lesson a new plainness, clarification, and breadth. It is an off- shoot of European history and has all its antecedents on the other side of the sea, and yet it is so much more than a mere offshoot. Its processes are so freshened and clarified, its records are so abundant and so accessible, it is spread upon so wide, so open, so visible a field of observation, that it seems like a plain first chapter in the history of a new age. As a stage in the economic development of modern civilization, the history of America consti- tutes the natural, and invaluable, subject-matter and book of praxis of the political economist. Here is industrial development worked out with in- comparable logical swiftness, simplicity, and precision, — a swiftness, sim- plicity, and precision impossible amidst the rigid social order of any ancient kingdom. It is a study, moreover, not merely of the make-up and setting forth of a new people, but also of its marvellous expansion, of processes of growth, both spiritual and material, hurried forward from stage to stage as if under the experimental touch of some social philosopher, some political scientist making of a nation's history his laboratory and place of demon- stration. The twentieth century will show another face. The stage of America grows crowded like the stage of Europe. The life of the new world grows as complex as the life of the old. A nation hitherto wholly devoted to do- mestic development now finds its first task roughly finished and turns about to look curiously into the tasks of the great world at large, seeking its special XXV PREFACE part and place of power. A new age has come which no man may forecast. But the past is the key to it; and the past of America lies at the centre of modern history. Princeton, New Jersey, September 9, 1901. *V e* The American School of Historical Writers By Albert Bushnell Hart, Professor of American History at Harvard University, and author and editor of many works on American History American History is fortunate not only in the romantic setting of its earlier periods, and in the succession of great events, momentous to man- kind, but quite as much in the interest of Americans to record and to de- scribe the development of their own country. Before the reader and the student can come into contact with his ancestors, a cohort of men must clear away the obscuring noteless facts, and must leave standing the men and women of might and influence in the history of the United States. Now hundreds of chroniclers, scores of zealous investigators, and a throng of secondary writers have taken part in the work of making their country known to itself. Looking over the whole field of American historiography, it is easy to recognize a succession of literary impulses; first come the narratives of such discoverers and explorers as Champlain, written with many different pur- poses, but much alike in the freshness and life which they put into their story. A few years later, in the first half of the seventeenth century, arise a group of writers of whom Winthrop is a type, builders of commonwealths, who have left us a heritage of wisdom on the conditions of colonization. About the beginning of the eighteenth century we find conscious historians piecing together conditions and records, and trying to see the meaning and proportions of previous events; they reach from Cotton Mather to Hutch- inson. Just after the Revolution, a new national self -consciousness led to several efforts to tell at some length the history of that great struggle. The beginnings of the literary period of American history, about 1830, included new and ambitious attempts to compress the whole history of the country into one systematic work : in this period George Bancroft is the most signifi- cant name. Since the Civil War a new school of historians has arisen, for c xxvii HISTORICAL WRITERS the most part choosing limited periods and treating them intensively; of these Henry Adams is a type. At the outset must be made clear the distinction between the recorders of events and the critical analytic writers; the first, men like Columbus, are al- ways a part of the event which they describe; while the second may look back- ward from a distance of centuries, as did John Fiske; but at both extremi- ties of our national history we find some writers who combine first-hand and contemporary knowledge with the power to see the spirit animating the body politic ; such were Bradford almost three centuries ago, and Hopes and Von Hoist to-day. To enumerate all the good servants of America in either category is impossible; but the best and the typical may be selected. The first discoverers and explorers not only laid the foundation on which later generations of writers have built; they also left us narratives which, in directness, simplicity, and elevation of thought, make them comparable with Herodotus and the Venerable Bede. What may be called the first school of American historians is made up of those who themselves felt the sting of the salt spray ; heard the breakers beating upon mysterious shores ; saw the painted savages come down to view the great white-winged monsters from which came forth a race of white men of incalculable wealth and unearthly powers; smelt the land odors from uncleared forests; and brought home pearls and beavers and savage captives. The letters of Columbus, despite some ignoble boasting and a certain sordidness which ill became so great a man, were memorials of a splendid achievement worthy of handing down to his children's children. So the narratives of Gomara and Pizarro on the conquest of Mexico and Peru give an unfading picture of the harsh, con- quering race, and of that heroic spirit through which a handful overcame a multitude. The Gentleman of Elvas somehow appeals to the native Amer- ican sense of humor when he tells us how De Soto was hemmed in between the Mississippi and his enemies ; " and on both sides there were many Ind- ians, and his power was not now so great, but that he had need to help himself rather by flight than by force." The narratives of the first English explorers have the same quality of virility, intensity, and undaunted spirit. Doubtless Sir Francis Drake was a gentleman who could make a good deal of trouble to-day on a twenty-knot ship in the midst of an enemy's commerce, and he would hardly understand the niceties of the law of contraband of war; but who can help enjoying his rollicking voyage to the Pacific, with its store of unctuous enumerations of plunder: "a silver chalice, two cruets, and one altar cloth"; "thirteen bars of silver, each weighing four hundred ducats, Spanish "; " eight llamas. or sheep of Peru, every one of which sheep had on its back two bags of leather, HISTORICAL WRITERS each bag containing fifty pound weight of fine silver"; "a chest full of royales of plate and goodly stores of silks and linen cloth " ; " great riches as jewels and precious stones"; "thirteen chests full of royales of plate, fourscore pound weight of gold, and six-and-twenty ton of silver." What adventurous boy would not to-day be proud to share the life of such a pirate, and to revel in the riches of perfidious Spain? Nor do the voyagers have all the romance of history to themselves. While the English language lives will live honest John Smith, who has been so painfully misunderstood because his historical novel, although carefully studied on the spot and singularly accurate in its setting, came early to be accepted, and has many times been criticised, as though it were sober history. It is fortunate for later generations that so many of the early worthies could either handle the pen themselves, or had a companion or scrivener to set down in order the details of whatever was strange in scenery, in inhabitants, in wild animals, and in products. Nowadays we do not realize the absolute novelty of the new world, for nowadays no part of the world is remote, except perhaps the Antarctic continent. The sense of discovery was very stimulating : men like Champlain could with equal ease explore, fight, found communities, and write the most engaging narrative; heroes like Father Jogues have left us not only a most complete account of the natives of America, but an imperishable record of the superiority of soul over such accidents as tomahawks and bone-breaking gauntlets, and red-hot coals. In real richness, variety, and romance, American history is full, even when we compare it with the contemporary accounts of European countries; and we know actually more of the conditions, the standards, and the social life of the American Indians in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries than we know of the life of the English, French, or German peasantry of that time. What wonder if the early writers were a little hampered by the attempt to describe a new barbarism in terms of an old civilization? Why should not the early historian make an " emperor " out of a naked savage who had at least the physical power to sweep the Europeans off the new continent if he chose ? Was it not natural that " kings " and " princesses " and " noble- men " should stalk out of lodges that really held unclean and untrust- worthy savages? To Virginia, to New Amsterdam, to New England, the Indians were a mighty military power, often superior in battle, and all but victorious in the greaj; campaign which lasted more than a hundred years. If the red man had had the musket, and the white man the bow and arrow, we should to-day be writing the history of the United States "as the liori would have painted it." Tn these contemporary narratives, many of them interfused with fancy, and few recognizing the real squalor, degradation, and sinfulness of savage life, we have a great cycle of historical material xxix HISTORICAL WRITERS told in the simplest historical fashion; and this is the first school of writers of American history. As soon as English colonization actually begins, we find a second group of writers of whom two, Bradford and Winthrop, stand pre-eminent; men who recorded the annals of the time in the full faith that we to-day should carefully read them, and should find disclosed in them the soul of the earliest commonwealths. It is of great significance that throughout the colonies, and especially in New England, there were highly educated men capable of leaving a record, reasonably accurate, and phrased in the big, broad, rugged English of the time. If one of the objects of the historian is to dis- cover motives, what can be more significant than Bradford's long and ana- lytic account of the reasons for the foundation of Plymouth plantation ? The opening words of the * Of Plimoth Plantation " seem like the stately gate- way to an epic. " And first of the occasion and inducements thereunto, the which that I may truly unfold I must begin at the very root and rise of the same. The which I shall endeavor to manifest in a plain style with sincere regard unto the simple truth in all things, at least as near as my slender judgment can attain the same." In this manuscript, covering the period 1608-1645, so carefully written, so long preserved, used by Prince, Hubbard, Cotton Mather, and Hutchinson, to disappear, and to come to light again in the palace of the Bishop of London at Fulham, almost in our own day — in this precious memorial, we have the first attempt at a consciously reasoned history of America. Bradford tells only that part which he knew; he de- pended upon his own memory and the immediate communications of his friends ; but the book is a remarkable account of what we now call the con- stitutional history of the community. Indeed, there is much in Bradford to reward the student of mankind, the sociologist, the economist, the lawyer, the ecclesiastical historian, and the lover of picturesque narrative. Here wt, have the foundations of an English colony and the growth of its polity, the slow building of the walls of a government which was at the same time a municipality ; here we read of Indian wars, stratagems, powwows, and peace- makings; here is the record of an important experiment in communism, ending like all such experiments in the final parceling out to individuals of such territory and property as was left. We learn something of what emigrants' food and quarters were on board ship, while crossing the Atlantic ; we have an insight into fisheries and agriculture and trade, and interest and profit at " the rate of cento per cento " ; and in the midst of affairs we have the splendid story of calm, resolute, unshrinking men, slowly piecing together a political community and preparing the way for the later United States. The other great historical writer of this period, John Winthrop, is far less HISTORICAL WRITERS systematic and argumentative. An annalist and yet possessed of a keen sense of selection, in the midst of much that is trivial and some things that reveal the intense Puritan curiosity about things better left undisturbed, he still deals in the main with the imposing problems of free government. The staples of his history are the interplay of man against man, of class with class, the rivalries of the grave magistracy with the pushing General Court ; the final compromise by which a legislature of two houses was organ- ized in Massachusetts. In his story of the period from 1630 to 1648, he gives us not simply crude materials, but a description of the farthermost bases of American political ideas, as worked out on American soil. Bradford and Winthrop are by no means the only men of that period who deal with events as the warp and woof of a systematic narrative. Cap- tain Edward Johnson, in his Wonder Working Providence of Sion's Saviour, published in 1654, essays what he calls a History of New Eng- land, from those beginnings "when England began to decline in religion like lukewarm Laodicea," till u these soldiers of Christ first stood on this western end of the world/' But Johnson and other writers of similar worthy purposes had neither the literary skill nor the sense of continuity for which Bradford and Winthrop are remarkable. No others left a well- founded and well-knit narrative extending over so many years. No others felt so clearly that they were both upbuilders and recorders of their own upbuilding . For the inner life of most of the New England settlements besides Plym- outh and Massachusetts, there is a painful dearth of contemporary narrative. The histories of Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire have to be pieced out of scattered and minute references in journals and public records. It is much the same in the middle and southern colonies; except for the vivacious accounts of the settlers of the Jerseys and Pennsylvania, written by Gabriel Thomas and others, there is hardly any contemporary history of the middle colonies, though much material for "history. On the founda- tions of Virginia and Maryland there are interesting contemporary notices by Strachey, John Smith, Wingfield, White, and others; but no man writes with the feeling that he is drawing out the real meaning of the events which he describes, for the use of later generations; no man foresees the oak which is to spring from his acorn. The separate history of the Carolinas came much later and must be collated from many scattered narratives. When Georgia was founded in the eighteenth century, the historical sense was more developed, and of that colony there are several excellent contemporary ac- counts. We must leap across more than half a century from the end of Bradford xxxi HISTORICAL WRITERS and Winthrop's histories to reach a third school made up of local historians and annalists, most of whom have now become simply material for later writers. Of these the first and the worst is Cotton Mather, whose magnum opt! ifi ikcjtfn gnn h'a fftm/ i A m erica n ", <"_**■<>■ flnnUsi/t stiral History of New England, first published in 1702. It would be hard to cap this sin- gular production for whimsicality, variety of contents, and treatment; it is everything except history. To Cotton Mather's mind nothing came amiss : tradition, rumor, gossip, memory, experiences, every-day facts, were all equally put to his service. So far as a naturally keen and well-practised memory could go, he sounded and verified these various sources, but it was not in his mind to reject a statement because he could not show it to be probably true. The make-up of the book is a monument to the perverted learning of the time. Anagrams, prefatory poems, attestations, introductory poems, general introductions, epitaphs, old sermons pitchforked in, little biographies, contemporary letters, squibs, polemic pamphlets, dialogues, prophecies, the last dying speeches of criminals, wonderful prodigies, and " remarkables " of Indian wars — all was fish that came to Mather's net; and it is one of the tasks of the present-day historian to delve in the many fonts of type of this ponderous book in order to discover how much is truth, how much prejudice, and how much downright error. Contemporary with Mather is the first really good local history, Beverley's History of Virginia, published about 1705 ; and it is worth noting that Bev- erley had in his mind the modern conception that history includes a view of the social conditions and standards of the time. He makes it his business not only to describe the foundings of the commonwealth of Virginia, for which he had to depend on material made by others, but also to tell us of the products, the social institutions, the education, and the labor system of his time. Here we have really the first example of an American history, written not from personal experiences, or from the memory of those who had gone through such experiences, but from printed and even written records, or at least from a restatement of such printed narratives as he could find. Beverley set an example which unfortunately was followed by few writers of his century. To be sure there are some other agreeable books of the same kind: Smith's History of New Jersey, published in 1765; William Smith's History of New York, written in the eighteenth century, though not pub- lished till many years later; Stith's Virginia (to 1624), published in 1747; and several ecclesiastical histories of merit, especially Neal and Backus. But these writers are independent of each other, are local and had but a limited circle of readers. One man deserves to be specially noticed because he made it his task to accumulate small details, and was the first to estab- lish many of the accepted conventions of American history. Thomas Prince, xxxii HISTORICAL WRITERS in the preparation of his Annals, published from 1736 to 1755, made a collection of documents which served him as the basis for a chronological conspectus of the history of New England, which, unluckily, reached only to 1633. Like his follower, Abiel Holmes, he has long since been forgotten, except by specialists; the work of both Prince and Holmes was that of laying rough stones which are hidden out of sight by the finished structure. The first general historian of America upon the model of the three great contemporary English writers, Hume, Robertson, and Gibbon, was Thomas Hutchinson in his History of Massachusetts Bay. An official, a man of prop- erty, of high connections, much experiences in town and colonial government, he began to publish in 1764. His second volume was published three years later, when the storm-cloud of the Revolution was already gathering. A third volume, which includes the unhappy history of the pre-revolutionary controversies, did not appear till long after his death. In Hutchinson as in Prince, we have a study of historical sources, though very limited in kind; he seems scarcely to have known that there were manuscript records of the lower house of the Massachusetts legislature, and his history is directly founded on private papers and the records of the governor and council. What is really important in Hutchinson is his attempt to write a history in a narrative form, covering a century and a half, which should deal with events in their right proportions, and in which he should also apply the same methods of judgment and segregation to a period within which he had himself lived. Nobody now reads Hutchinson for his style, and his account of early Massachusetts is long since surpassed, but the experience of the trained public man gives a permanent value to his conclusions, and his is dis- tinctly a genuine historian's work. Among the evidences of a quickened national consciousness was the growth of a new school of historians immediately after the Revolution. Among them were several notable historians of a single commonwealth — Proud's Pennsylvania, Trumbull's Connecticut, Burk's Virginia, and — far the best of them all — Belknap's New Hampshire. At the same time arose several conscientious and hard-working writers, who wrought upon the history of their country, taking into view not a colony nor a section, but the whole nation; and they also conceived the modern idea of choosing a limited field and treating it with thoroughness and in detail. Of these the most notable are Ramsay, Mercy Warren, and Timothy Pitkin. Dr. Ramsay, whose book, published in 1811, describes much of the military side of the Revolution, and includes an invaluable discussion of the effects of that great struggle on the political and social life of Americans. Mercy Warren was the first woman to publish a narrative history, which, however one-sided, was written XXxiii HISTORICAL WRITERS by an eye-witness, and that eye-witness a woman of high education and great spirit. ' It was this able person, called by her friends the Marcia of the American Bevolution, who ventured to attack the great John Adams and accused him of leaning towards monarchism. Better than all the others is honest Pitkin, whose history, published in 1828, covers with clearness and insight the history of the foundation of the American republic from 1763 to 1797, with a few foot-notes referring to the scanty sources available at that time. Pitkin had a strong liking for statistics, and his books remained until up to a few years ago almost the only well-thought discussion of the political and economic conditions of the colonies, as a background for a discussion of the causes of the Kevolution. Besides these important studies of material at first-hand, the great libra- ries contain many so-called histories of the United States, published in the first third of the nineteenth century. It seems to have been a habit of the New England country clergy to combine with the country newspapers to produce a history; the parson furnished scissors, paste, and circumambient rhetoric, and produced a manuscript chiefly out of extracts from his prede- cessors; the printer set it up on the off days when the week's paper was printed and copy for the next had not yet appeared. This process, not un- known in later and wiser generations, adds nothing to American histori- ography and needs no further description. Although up to 1830 there had appeared no account of the development of America which is now read as a classic, and still less any first-hand Amer- ican history of a foreign country — the foundations were laying upon which historians might safely build. During the whole time from the beginning of the Eevolution down, materials were being collected and made available, without which the work of Hildreth and Bancroft would have been impos- sible. It is the happy fortune of America that the great men of the revo- lutionary period either kept copies of their letters or wrote such important documents that they were preserved by those who received them. In the letters of Washington and Franklin, of John Jay, of Jefferson, of Madison, of Monroe, and a score of other revolutionary worthies, we find the true spirit of their times, and in 1791, Dr. Jeremy Belknap, himself the author of the excellent history of New Hampshire, founded in Boston the Massa- chusetts Historical Society, the first in time of a long series of public-spirited organizations, whose aim it has been to collect memorials which would other- wise perish, and to put them in permanent form for later generations. Our ancestors have always been rather tenacious of public records, partly because of the importance of such evidence in settling questions of property, and partly from an instinctive feeling that what they were doing was worth remembrancing. It is this sense of doing something worth while which XXXIV HISTORICAL WRITERS finds expression in the famous resolutions of the Cambridge town meeting in 1765: "that this vote be recorded in the town book that the children yet unborn might see the desire their ancestors had for their freedom and hap- piness." Accident, neglect, the Revolutionary War, caused the loss of many precious records, especially in the South, but enough remained to make an almost inexhaustible mine for the antiquary and investigator. Three dif- ferent influences were brought to bear side by side with each other to effect the publication of historical material : the historical societies ; the state gov- ernments, in many cases animated by the societies ; and the strong historical spirit of a few investigators. Of these latter, the chief is Jared Sparks, who published his edition of the Writings of Washington in 1836, followed by his Franklin's Works, and by his Correspondence of the American Revolution; he also established a series of brief biographies, all of them edited and several written by Mr. Sparks. It is hard to overestimate the influence of this man, endued as he was with an immense capacity to take advantage of his great opportunities. According to the historical canons of his time he was a most intelligent editor; he thought it his duty to correct the mis- takes of grammar or expression in the originals before him, so that he might more clearly bring out the sense ; and it wounded him that the Father of his Country should misspell. Sparks's editions, therefore, overlay the originals with literary shellac and varnish, but he does not conceal the original grain. Himself a conscientious investigator, a careful historical writer, he combines within his own achievements three historical triumphs : he opened up great evidences of truth; he was the first exemplar of the co-operative method of writing history ; and he was himself no mean author. Upon the foundations thus laid, and infused with that lively national spirit which began to be distinctly felt after the War of 1812, there now appears a writer who had a combination, almost unexampled in America up to that time, of an historian's qualities : ambition, training, wealth, social connections, political experience, and an intense desire to write a history of his country from its earliest beginnings down to the end of his own time. That man was George ^ncroftj-who, beginning his self-imposed task about 1830, in 1883 was still systematically engaged on it. A whole cycle of national history had passed by between the beginning and end of his work, and his fifty years of labor was enough only to bring him from the discovery of America down to the adoption of the federal Constitution in 1788. Here at least was a different conception of history, so different from those who preceded him that he became the founder of a new school. Besides a capacity for vast labor, Bancroft created a machinery for the assembling of material up to that time unknown in America : he sent all over the world XXXV HISTORICAL WRITERS for transcripts of documents; he collected a valuable library; as Secretary of the Navy under Polk, he had opportunities for intimate acquaintance with the archives of the federal government; he wrote patiently, and repeat- edly rewrote his own work, which in its most elaborated form includes twelve good-sized volumes. That Bancroft is to-day rather the companion of the scholar than of the patriot reader is not strange; he began and carried on his work in the midst of an atmosphere of what may be called professional history; his intellectual predecessor was Kobertson; his intellectual compeers were Macaulay and Prescott. He wrote to be read and chose the style which most attracted readers half a century ago; he wrote to justify his fathers for the Revolution, and his mind was quicker to grasp the grievances of the colonies than the difficulties of the English ad- ministration. A sincere and honest man whose public service has been enor- mous, Bancroft is now neglected by readers, and his example is avoided by writers. It is unfortunate for Bancroft's permanent fame that a considerable part of his work has no foot-notes ; his reason was that other people followed him on his authorities, without giving him credit; he thus cut off not only a means of checking his conclusions, but also a useful aid to inquirers. Ban- croft has often been charged with rearranging and docking his quotations. His habit of referring to many materials available only in his own collection of transcripts makes it difficult to examine this charge, but where he refers to printed materials he does not seem consciously to have altered the sense of a quotation by omission or transposition. Side by side with Bancroft is a writer much less known and much less appreciated, who nevertheless has deserved well of his countrymen — Richard Hildreth, who attempted the same task as Bancroft, and in six volumes, the last of them published in 1856, brought down his history from the earliest colonial times to 1820. In many respects Hildreth more nearly approaches to the modern standard of the historian than any one who preceded or accom- panied him. He has such a grasp of facts and so well knows how to assemble them, and to discriminate among them, that almost any event of large im- portance that has happened in our history is mentioned in his volumes. He, too, had his thesis to prove; strongly federalist in sympathy, his later vol- umes are to a considerable degree a justification of the Hamiltonian theory of government ; and like Bancroft, he does not see fit to append those foot- notes which are a restraint upon a writer, an opportunity to examine his ground, and a useful equipment for later investigators. Only one other general history of the United States in the period from 1830 to 1860 need be mentioned here. Tucker's History of the United States, published in 1857 and covering the period from 1774 to 1841, is the only work of the kind written by a Southern man. Just why most of the xxxvi HISTORICAL WRITERS history-writing down to the Civil War was done by New England men is not easy to discover; traditional interest in history, good libraries, the in- fluence of a live State historical society, the nearness of a book-buying public, the close connection between literary and public life—^-these are some of the reasons. Tucker aimed to look at our history from a different angle, but he has little of the method or style of the trained historian, he does not attract the reader, and is less quoted than his careful work deserves. So far, most of the interest of American writers had been given to their own country ; it was a mark of a growth in cosmopolitanism when two writers chose for their themes fields of European history, though in both cases there was a connection with American history in its wider aspects. Prescott chose first the Spaniards in America, and then the Spanish monarchy in the six- teenth century. In his time he was considered one of the safest as well as one of the most brilliant historical writers. Brilliant he is, and he chose for his theme the romantic period which connected European civilization with the earliest phases of American history. His Ferdinand and Isabella, his Conquest of Peru, his Conquest of Mexico, his Charles V., his Philip II., published during the two decades from 1837 to 1858, were read with interest and enthusiasm by scholars, business men, and school-boys, just as Macaulay was read at the same time both in England and America. In every way he is a notable figure, this man almost blind, working patiently year after year in his Boston library and slowly committing to the press his beautifully written volumes, which are still among our best historical works, although the meth- ods of the author and his judgment of his sources are no longer accepted as final. Motley came a little later, chose a similar theme, but without a direct con- nection with American history. His Dutch Republic, his United Nether- lands, his John of Barneveld, have been sources of inspiration to thousands of readers; and if the maturer student now searches them in vain for any insight into the organization of the marvellous military people whom he described; if he finds little about their colonies and nothing about their gov- ernment; if he learns not the source of their wealth, nor the secret of their national persistence, he does get a striking picture of the heroism of the later- day Athenians contending against the Persians of the sixteenth century. Motley was really not an historian, but a describer of mighty historic deeds. Motley began to publish in 1856, and continued long after the Civil War, but he belongs to the ante-bellum school, and that school, notwithstand- ing its great services, had as yet treated history only in partial fnshion. Ma- terials were collected and much learning was expended in explaining and an- notating them and in brief articles and papers founded upon them. Upon the other side, several ambitious attempts had been made to give in one con- xjxvij HISTORICAL WRITERS spectus an account of what was most noteworthy in the whole history of the nation. A school of biographers had also arisen, some of whom had pub- lished elaborate works like the painfully minute Rives's Madison; or history was grouped about the life of one individual as in Marshall's Washington, or Irving's Columbus. As yet, however, there was little grouping of great masses of related facts in monographs, and few examples of historians who took a brief period as their whole field. For some years after the Civil War, Motley and Bancroft were still the noted American historians, and the development of a new spirit in history is due first of all to the achievements of another writer, whose work, though begun long before, was ended only in 1885. Francis Parkman is the greatest of all the writers who have ever made America their theme or have written as American scholars, and his greatness depends upon three qualities rarely brought together in one man ; he was a matchless investigator, a man of the most unflinching tenacity, and somehow he knew how to write so that men loved to read him. His method was that of the special field, long enough in his case, but narrow in geographical dimensions. He wrote upon what he himself called " the history of the woods," upon the century and a half of hostile contact between the French colonists and the English colonists, ac- centuated by the fierce savages who were between them. Back of the romance of history was the romance of Parkman's own life,* One of the most unassuming and modest men who ever lived, he went on his way without seeming to know that he was a hero; but in an autobiographical fragment, drawn up in 1868, he has revealed the inner man. At the age of eighteen he had formed the splendid plan of his history, all of which he lived to complete, and while still a young man he made that adventurous overland trip to Oregon, which is faithfully commemorated in his Oregon Trail, published in 1851, an account of a journey intended to give him an " inside view of Indian life." He returned with a physique naturally feeble, further weakened by the hardships of the prairie, and resulting in a state which he describes as follows : " The conditions were threefold : an extreme weakness of sight, disabling him even from writing his name except with eyes closed; a condition of the brain prohibiting fixed attention except at occasional and brief intervals; and an exhaustion and total derange- ment of the nervous system, producing of necessity a condition of mind most unfavorable to effort." After 1851, he says that there had not been "any waking hour when he has not been in some degree conscious of the presence of the malady"; although later "the con- dition of the sight has so far improved as to permit reading, not exceeding, on an average, five minutes at a time. ... By reading that amount and xxxviii HISTORICAL WRITERS then resting for an equal time, this alternative process could generally be continued for about half an hour, then, after a sufficient interval, it would be repeated, even three or four times in the course of the day." It was thus that large parts of his literary monument were prepared ; and the difficulties but enhanced the result, for they make it evident that it is not the fascination of the subject, nor the pleasure of breaking new ground, nor the careful prep- aration of material that fix Parkman as the greatest of all American his- torians, but the soaring spirit, which had its message to tell and could not be fettered. Parkman is a kind of bridge between the older and the newer school of his- torians, for he began with the same traditions as Bancroft and Hildreth, and he furnished a model and an impetus for Henry Adams, McMaster, Winsor, Rhodes, and Roosevelt. Before describing the more recent group of writers, most of them still living, it is necessary to show what an awakening came over the country in historical matters during and after the Civil War. If it be true that interest in athletic sports and open-air life is to be traced from the Virginia and Georgia campaigns, it is equally true that, just as in the post-revolutionary period, the country awoke after 1865 to a new sense of the dignity and importance of its own history and institutions. This con- sciousness took form in various directions : first, in the systematic training of young men to be writers and teachers of history; second, in the appearance of a new literature of carefully wrought monographs, resembling though usually superior to the German doctors' dissertations; and third, in the devo- tion of their lives to historical writing by a new series of historians. Most of the elder historical schools in America from the days of Bradford and Winthrop down to Hildreth and Palfrey were made up of college-bred men; and most of the writers are grouped about one little New England college. Winthrop was a founder of Harvard ; Hutchinson, a graduate, Ban- croft, Hildreth, Parkman, Belknap, Prescott, Motley, were its sons; Jared Sparks, its president. And yet that college made no effort, and no other college made effort, to train young men in historical methods, and very little was done to instruct them in historical data. Each successful writer was his own teacher, and handed down few traditions. In several of the colleges were intelligent and highly educated men, who taught history by hearing formal recitations from a dull text-book ; but the creative and inspiring side of teaching commonly went into mental and moral philosophy. Early in the seventies arose two fishers of men, Charles Kendall Adams in the University of Michigan, and Henry Adams in Harvard University, and about the same time began a new system of graduate instruction in Johns Hopkins University, where for twenty-five years Herbert B. Adams was xxxix HISTORICAL WRITERS the inciter of historical teachers and writers. All these men, and others who speedily followed them, made it their task, not only to inform their students, but also to make them searchers for truth. Henry Adams had the habit on the first day of the term of deliberately frightening out of his course all but the most eager and undaunted students; and from the residuum he built up an enthusiastic company of able young men. He edited and published a volume of essays on Anglo-Saxon Law, prepared under his guidance by students whose names have since been attached to many more formal works ; but he grew tired of enforcing historical truths through other people, and he withdrew to the ten years' labor of preparation of his masterpiece. Charles Kendall Adams, at the University of Michigan, introduced with some useful modifications the German seminary method, and he also sent out students imbued with his methods, to be college professors and presidents. This was also the method steadily and effectively applied at Johns Hopkins, and the young men trained there have been widely distributed throughout the country. In 1877, Justin Winsor came to Harvard, and so long as he lived he was the greatest force for historical learning in his university. This remarkable man in many ways resembled Sparks ; he was a great organizer, and as libra- rian of the Boston Public Library and of the Harvard College Library fur- nished models to the world of libraries in which the main purpose was to have books used. As an editor and historical writer he has left three series and various independent volumes; but one of his greatest services to learning was his untiring interest in the young men and young women, students of history, who came under his influence. Himself a man of method and ac- customed to deal with great masses of material and to draw from them his conclusions, he infused into all those who came into contact with him the spirit of scientific historical work. Perhaps Mr. Winsor's chief claim to eminence in his craft was his profound acquaintance with practical bibli- ography, not only a knowledge of books, but a consciousness of what books are important, a power of discrimination ; and upon the period of American history from discovery to the War of 1812, his Narrative and Critical His- tory is an example of broad scholarship applied with high intelligence to the service of science. Although he gave but few college courses, Mr. Win- sor was in effect a teacher and a trainer, as well as a librarian and an author, and he drew into his co-operative labors the most ardent young men. Mr. Winsor's labors were to a large degree monographic. He secured from various other people short studies of episodes and movements, all founded upon a minute study of sources, and each annotated by the author and supplemented by Mr. Winsor's own unfathomable learning, with precise xl HISTORICAL WRITERS references to the original material. Similar monographic work has for twenty years been going on all over the country and particularly in the uni- versities. Following the example of Johns Hopkins, other universities after 1880 founded special graduate schools and developed systematic instruction and preparation looking towards the degree of Ph.D. The fledgling doctors were expected to write theses, and their results, in most cases printed, con- stituted a new stratum in the historical materials of America. In many instances they were published in separate volumes, like Woodrow Wilson's Congressional Government; others were grouped in various series, of which the oldest is the Johns Hopkins Studies, comprising a volume every year since 1883, and thus has been furnished an opportunity of reaching the world on a subject which did not stimulate the ordinary publisher, or commend itself to the magazine editor. Later, other institutions took up the system: Columbia University, the University of Pennsylvania, the University of Michigan, the University of Wisconsin, the University of Nebraska, Cornell University, Brown Univer- sity, Harvard University, and other institutions have taken the responsibility for the publication of single or grouped studies, often representing the well- directed labor of several years. Here many historical writers who have later blossomed out into more general literary work have tried their prentice hands; here young men and young women have the opportunity to put upon record evidence of their power to deal with historical subjects, an evidence often of much service to them through the effect which it may have upon the mind of the college presidents and other grandees who have the power to hold out the golden sceptre. In such monographs the residuary results, ' drawn from the distilling of great masses of otherwise undigested material, are made available for other writers. The stream of such publications goes on unceasingly, and their character tends to improve as the opportunities for study and for direction from older men increase. The better writers out- grow their doctor's theses, and sometimes wonder that their judgments were ever so crude; but the result is an opening up of fields of great importance which had long remained untilled. For example, until a few years ago there was nowhere to be found any account, based upon the sources, of Presidential elections, of the Speakership of the House of Representatives, or of the Senate, or of the veto power, or of Congressional committees, or of the actual system for nomination for office ; the student of American institutions has now the benefit of careful studies in all these subjects: and it is worth noting that within this field of practical politics some of the best work of collecting and generalizing from the scat- tered materials has been done by women. Twenty years ago there was almost nothing in the way of careful, first-hand studies of the slavery ques- xli HISTORICAL WRITERS tion; now we have able monograpns on various individual commonwealths, on fugitive slaves, on slavery in the District of Columbia, on the slave-trade, and on the underground railroad — nearly every one a result of scientific study under the direction or impetus of college teachers. The system of monographs has done much to make the conditions and the merits of historical writing widely known. Where half a century ago one man knew how to write an acceptable historical narrative, forty persons have now had some experience. One of the influences which has done much to stimulate investigation in limited topics has been the American Historical Association, founded in 1884. In its two functions of holding meetings at which younger men are brought into association with older writers, and of printing an annual report in which shorter or longer papers may be printed and distributed to an impatient world, the Association has made the path of young writers easier; and its list of presidents has included most of the foremost historical writers of the time. The most widely known and most useful series of monographs, a revival of Sparks's idea of brief biographies by experts, is the widely read American Statesman Series, which is edited, and of which several volumes have been written by John T. Morse, Jr. Similar to it in scope are the American Men of Letters, Makers of America, Beacon Biographies and other like combina- tions, all in principle an attempt to tell the story of a brief period through the lives of public men who stood for a dominant idea. Under modern conditions one of the measures of the interest in a science is the kind of journals which are created to represent it. In many respects the publications of the various state and local historical societies have for more than a century been sober periodicals; besides the more special issues of Collections, such societies annually print Transactions, or Records which contain briefer and less imposing matter, and in several cases, as for ex- ample the Pennsylvania Historical Society, this publication has not only the character but the form of a magazine. From the founding of Carey's American Museum, in 1787, and especially after the establishment of the North American Review, in 1815, there has always been a medium for his- torical articles, often elaborate enough to be monographs. Not till 1857 was there a periodical devoted entirely to history; Dawson's Historical Mag- azine, which kept up a respectable existence till 1875. Then followed the Magazine of American History from 1877 to 1896. These were both private enterprises, which were able to get very little aid and comfort from the established historical writers of the time, and they received little that was significant from the new race of monographists. In 1895, a journal was founded under the title of the American Historical Review, with the express purpose of uniting scattered historical forces, of xlii HISTORICAL WRITFRS dealing with all fields and phases of history, and of offering an opportunity for the publication of the result of the latest scholarships. Through a re- lation established with the x\merican Historical Association in 1898, the circulation and influence of this review were much increased, and history remains one of the few great fields of learning in America on which rival universities have not established rival and struggling journals. The illustrated magazines of the time, and the political reviews also give scope for historical articles, often of great excellence, by able hands, and in many cases drawn out into a series which eventually becomes a book. No historical writer, young or old, need suffer for a medium through which to make his conclusions known, provided he really has conclusions worth draw- ing; and in the pages of the special and general periodicals future writers of history will find a fund of valuable materials. The connection of history with universities has had some admirable effects; among them has been an intimate relation between the profession of teaching history and the profession of writing history. The American historians of half a century ago were, with few exceptions, litterateurs, men of private station and of private means, who gave up a large part of their lives to historical writing for the love of scholarly occupation and the hope of fame. The collection of materials was a tedious and expensive task ; they were the men who had the time and money to travel afar, in order to get the proper horizon, and to make some acquaintance with other countries and languages. In the Sparks manuscripts, in the Parkman manuscripts and the Bancroft manuscripts, are many extracts copied from records not avail- able in print. A man sat down to write a history as he now sits down to found a review, with ambition as a frontlet and with money in his pocket. Sometimes good Uncle Sam gave them a diplomatic position in which they might pursue their investigations ; thus Prescott was made Minister to Spain, Motley to the Netherlands, Bancroft to Germany. The growth of scientific instruction in history has developed a new race of historical writers who have gone forth to supersede the older type; among the present best-known American writers upon history, McMaster is a pro- fessor in a university, Schouler is a lecturer in a university, Charles Francis Adams is a most ardent overseer of a college, John Fiske was once an in- structor in history in a college and a college librarian, Von Hoist was a pro- fessor, Moses Coit Tyler was a professor, and Winsor was a college librarian. This academic connection is the more striking when we remember that in pure literature the most noted writers to-day have mostly come up outside university precincts and are little associated with college life. Some reasons for the taking up of formal history by college men are ob- vious; since the scientific basis of history has become recognized, history is d xliii HISTORICAL WRITERS more likely to be undertaken by those who have had a scientific training and a scientific opportunity. From the other direction, the publication of an excellent history often leads to a call which for the rest of a man's days connects him with some college; thus McMaster's first volume led to his transference from an instructorship in mathematics to a professorship in American history. It has become a tradition that the university professor of history ought to have part of his time for literary duties, and he often has the use of superior libraries. Perhaps the best explanation is simply that preparation for classes and preparation for publication run on all fours with each other ; and the enthusiasms of both pursuits are alike. All explanations, however, fail to account for the fact that among the many American teachers of ancient, mediaeval, continental, and English history, hardly a single one is at work on a magnum opus in his own field; so far, text-books, brief histories, or an account of an episode, are all that have been exhibited. While Doyle and Lecky and Trevelyan place them- selves among the best writers on American affairs, what American professor has undertaken a history of England, or of any part of it, as a life-long task ? The few considerable pieces of such work do not come from the universities at all: Henry C. Lea is a publisher; Hannis Taylor's England, James Breck Perkins's France, Tom Watson's bizarre France, a kind of etherealized Georgia, are written by hard-working lawyers or politicians; William E. Thayer has made Italian history his theme, and Professor Charles M. Andrews is author of a history of modern Europe; while Professor Sloane's best-known work is his Napoleon; they alone of American historians of Europe are in close touch with universities. Two remarkable exceptions must be noted to the general rule, that the more noted living writers of history are given up to American history. Captain Mahan has so far chosen to write chiefly on the naval history of Grfeat Britain; but aside from the interest of the trained naval officer in that country which has taught the world most about fighting at sea, he has really in mind a principle of national polity which he thinks his countrymen ought to keep in mind; he is an American writing for the instruction, first of all, of America, and then of all mankind. Henry C. Lea, in his studies of eccle- siasticism, and especially in his History of the Inquisition, has shown a rare cosmopolitan spirit. In general it is safe to say that the chief interest of American historical writers is in the affairs of their own country, and almost all the living writers give themselves up to a distinct and limited area. Perhaps no competent scholar will ever write a complete history of America from the sources ; the last attempt was Winsor's, and he was unable, even by his skilful use of the co-operative method, to get much beyond the beginning of the nineteenth xliv HISTORICAL WRITERS century. Each man now assumes that he may begin on the foundations laid by somebody else. John Fiske has, in his own method, traversed the ground of Bancroft and Hildreth, to the adoption of the Constitution. Edward Eggleston has chosen the era of commonwealth building. James Schouler has written a history in six volumes, extending from the end of the Revolu- tion to the end of the Civil War. Professor McMaster has chosen the same beginning, and appears to look forward to about the same date for his end. Rhodes has chosen to begin at 1850, long enough before the Civil War, so that he may make plain the reason for that titanic struggle, and he expects to bring the work down to a point near the present day. Henry Adams chose the sixteen years, 1801-1817, from the inauguration of Jefferson to the end of Madison's administration, and having finished that period has apparently abandoned further historical writing. No attempt has been made in this article to enumerate all the good writers in or on America, for the aim is to describe tendencies and not men; and prophecies as to what is to be accomplished by the fledglings would only cause distrust in the prophet's judgment. It is, however, safe to say that, through a long process of development, in which the recorders of history and the critics of historical events have united to bring together a vast body of materials, we have now reached a point where there is a permanent body of active, highly trained, ambitious writers of history who, with the aid of the monographers, the patient earth-worms who prepare soil to bear fruit, constitute what may not unreasonably be called the American School of His- torical Writing. One of the leading spirits in this favored present was the late John Fiske. Gibbon is like the march of an army ; legion after legion, cohort after cohort, trumpets fanfaring at regular intervals, horses cavalcading, all glowing in shining armor; perhaps Fiske might be compared to a holiday procession, men singers and women singers, both young men and maidens, flutes, harps, and psalteries, and children dancing in the rear. There is a wholesome, sunny serenity about his volumes ; he does not go very deeply into the Welt- schmerz, but he tells the story so that he who runs may read. His books are the books of the prosperous man, who likes to see the evidence of healthy growth in his country. Perhaps illustration may be clearer than statement on this point. Five living writers of American history stand out plainly as the present heads of their craft : Herman von Hoist, Henry Adams, Henry C. Lea, Alfred T. Mahan, and James Ford Rhodes; what they do is the best that is now being done. Von Hoist has finished his labor of thirty years, on what is substantially a histoiy of the slavery contest from 1828 to 1860. He fights the battle xlv HISTORICAL WRITERS over again, for he loves intensity. His chief service has been to bring home to Americans the inevitableness of a contest, after the traditional principles of free government were so violently contradicted by slavery. A good hater, a powerful hitter, Von Hoist has done much to break in pieces the con- ventional apotheosis of our public men, and to lead us to see the real elements of the'Civil War. Henry Adams seems to have given up historical writing; a man of in- dependent fortune, he likes to diverge around the world and to give sage advice to young politicians. He need never put pen to paper again in order to assure his reputation as one of the world's great historical narrators. It is his forte to be at the same time scientific, careful, and imaginative, to penetrate the intricacies of complex characters, to seize the spirit of bygone times; his is the study of motive, the discerning of guiding principles of national character. He has almost a lordly disregard of his" own foot-notes ; he gives a reference, not because he feels the need of a backer, but because he has so many reserves that he may give them or withhold them as he pleases. His style, less absorbing than Parkman's, is equally limpid, almost equally effective. Henry C. Lea has chosen a theme apparently remote from our participa- tion : his three great works are histories of the monastic orders, of torture, and of the Inquisition. Steady, sane, infinitely painstaking, resolute, and impartial, he is a model of the careful habits of the business man applied to the ascertaining of historical truth ; his books are interesting, they are just, they are permanent. In interest of subject, in insight of investigation, in the power to reach and state conclusions, and in style, he stands among the best of American historical writers, and exemplifies the value of the study of other peoples and their civilization. Captain Mahan is the only American military or naval officer to win dis- tinction as an historical writer. His theme in all his books is the Sea Power, the strength of the naval country: to impress that power on the reader he masses his argument and illustrations; and he has carried the world; he has altered the purposes of mankind. Rhodes is the latest knight to besiege the enchanted castle of literary fame, and he is the only one of the four who reveals the intellectual forces that lie outside the colleges; only a short time a college student, never a college teacher, brought up to business in a bustling Western city, he has wooed both Lady Fortune and the muse of history, and both have smiled upon him. His most characteristic merits are his care, his impartiality, his clear and read- able style, and, above all, his ability to discover the ruling motives of a people in a time of passionate stress. The impression made upon the observer of historical writing is hopeful. xlvi HISTORICAL WRITERS Our greatest historian, Parkman, lives only in his imperishable books; but leaving him out, there has never been an American historian equal to the best living writers in training, in conception of what historical research means, in discrimination, in insight, or in genuine historical style. Where are the poets to replace Lowell and Longfellow and Whittier? Where are the es- sayists to equal Emerson ? Where the novelists to measure height with Haw- thorne ? Yet in historical writing the authors of the golden age give way to the present American School in popularity among readers, and in usefulness to scholars; and perhaps some day a new generation of authors may arise to whom the historians of this quarter-century will give God-speed. H^^^vKA HARPERS' ENCYCLOPEDIA OP UNITED STATES HISTORY A. Al, a symbol used in the record of reports induced the United States govern- American and foreign shipping and in ment to establish a weather bureau. He Lloyd's Register of British and Foreign was appointed meteorologist to the United Shipping, in rating vessels for insurance. States Signal Service (q. v.) in 1871, Al is the highest. Hence Al is used of and in 1879 became meteorologist to the the highest mercantile credit, and, collo- United States Weather Bureau (q. v.). quially, Al is first-class, first-rate. Abbett, Leon, statesman; born in A. B. Plot. See page 11. Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 8, 1836; removed Abbadie, M. d', royal governor; born to New Jersey in 1859; member of the about 1710; came to America in 1763 to State Assembly 1869-70, and Senate take charge of a variety of business inter- 1875-78; elected governor of New Jersey, ests that King Louis XV. had established 1883 and 1889; appointed judge of the in New Orleans, and also to exercise the New Jersey Supreme Court in 1893. He authority of military commander of the died in Jersey City, Dec. 4, 1894. province. Owing to the sale of Louisiana Abbey, Edwin Austin, painter; born to Spain, he was directed in 1764 to turn in Philadelphia, April 1, 1852; was edu- over his command to a Spanish official, cated at the Philadelphia Academy of Fine He was a man of noble impulses, had pro- Arts, and in 1871 entered the publish- tected the Indians, caused the masters to ing house of Harper & Brothers, for which treat their slaves more kindly, and in he went to England in 1878. He became many ways had endeared himself to the widely noted for his book illustrations, people of the province. The surrender of and in 1890 exhibited his first painting, his command to those whom he regarded A May Day Morning. He was elected a as enemies grieved him so seriously that member of the Royal Academy in 1898, of he died Feb. 4, *\765. See Louisiana; the Royal Water Color Society in London, New Orleans. and of the National Academy of Design in Abbe, Cleveland, meteorologist; born 1902. He was an American juror on in New York, Dec. 3, 1838. He was grad- painting at the Paris Exposition of 1900. uated at the College of the City of New The last of his notable works in the York in 1857; studied astronomy with United States was the design of a series Brunnow at Ann Arbor, Mich., and with of paintings illustrating the Holy Grail Gould at Cambridge, Mass.; and, after for the walls of the new Public Library serving four years in the United States in Boston. In March, 1901, he was corn- Coast and Geodetic Survey, he became missioned by King Edward VII. to paint director of the Cincinnati Observatory the scene of his coronation in Westmin- in 1868. The value of his local weather ster Abbey. I.— A 1 ^ABfiOtf— ABBOTT Abbot, Benjamin, educator; born, 1762. He was graduated at Harvard in 1788. Thillips Academy, Exeter, N. H., was conducted by him until 1838. Among his pupils were George Bancroft, Lewis Cass, Edward Everett, John G. Palfry, Jared Sparks, and Daniel Webster. He died in Exeter, N. H., Oct. 25, 1849. Abbot,. Ezra, theologian; born in Jack- son, Me., April 28, 1819. He was gradu- ated at Bowdoin College in 1840, became associate librarian at Harvard College in 1856, and from 1872 till his death was Professor of New Testament Literature and Interpretation at the Cambridge Divinity School. He was a member of the American Committee of New Testa- ment Revisers, was one of the editors of the American edition of Smith's Bible Dic- tionary, and published numerous works in Biblical criticism. He was especially distin- guished in the line of Greek scholarship. He died in Cambridge, Mass., March 21, 1884. Abbot, Henry Larcom, military en- gineer; born in Beverly, Mass., Aug. 13, 1831. He was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1854, entered the Corps of Engineers, in which he reached the rank of colonel, and was re- tired in 1895. In the Civil War he com- manded the siege artillery of the armies operating against Richmond, designed the systems of submarine mine defences and of mortar batteries for the government, and was brevetted major-general of volun- teers and brigadier-general U. S. A. After his retirement he designed the new harbor at Manitowoc, Wis., and was a member of the Technical Committee of the New Panama Canal Co. His publications in- clude Siege Artillery in the Campaign Against Richmond ; Experiments to De- velop a System of Submarine Mines; and Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi, the last in co-operation with General Humphreys. He received the degree of LL.D. from Harvard, and became a mem- ber of many scientific societies. Abbot, Joel, naval officer; born in Westford, Mass., Jan. 18, 1793; entered the navy as midshipman at the beginning of the War of 1812; served first on the frigate President, and next on Lake Cham- plain with Commodore Macdonough, who when he asked Abbot if he were ready to die for his country received the reply: " Certainly, sir ; that is what I came into the service for." He Was then ordered to enter the British lines as a spy and de- stroy a number of spars which had been stored at Sorel. For his success in this dangerous exploit and for his bravery in the engagement at Cumberland Head on Sept. 11, 1814, he received a sword of honor from Congress and was commis- sioned a lieutenant. He was given charge of the pirate ship Mariana in 1818; pro- moted commander in 1838; and in the following year was given command of the Boston navy-yard. During Commodore Perry's expedition to Japan in 1852 Abbot commanded the Macedonian, and later was appointed flag-officer of the squadron. He died in Hong-Kong, China, Dec. 14, 1855. Abbott, Benjamin Vaughan, legal writer; born in Boston, Mass., June 4, 1830. He was graduated at the New York University in 1850; was admitted to the bar two years afterwards; and, after en- gaging in general practice with his broth- er Austin for several years, applied him- self to a compilation of works on legal subjects. Alone, or in conjunction with his brother, he compiled nearly 100 volumes of digests, reports, legal treatises, and other allied works, including Dic- tionary of Terms in American and Eng- lish Jurisprudence, National Digest, and a revison of the United States Statutes. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Feb. 17, 1890. Abbott, Charles Conrad, naturalist; born in Trenton, N. J., June 4, 1843. He was graduated at the Medical De- partment of the University of Pennsyl- vania in 1865; spent several years in mak- ing a valuable collection of archaeological specimens, which he presented to the Pea- body Museum at Cambridge, Mass.; and was an assistant in that institution in 1876-89. Among his publications are The Stone Age in New Jersey; A Naturalist's Rambles About Home; several volumes on bird life, and a number of novels. Abbott, Edward, fourth son of Jacob Abbott, was born July 15, 1841 ; was grad- uated at the University of the City of New York in 1860. During 1862 and 1863 he was connected with the Sanitary Commission of the Army of the Potomac. He was a Congregational minister -from 1863 to 1878, when he entered the Protes- tant Episcopal Church. Among his pub- ABBOTT lished writings are Paragraph Histories of the Revolution; Revolutionary Times; United States, etc. Abbott, Horace, manufacturer; born in Sudbury, Mass., July 29, 1806. He built the first rolling-mill in the United States, and supplied the armor plates for the Monitor, Roanoke, Agamenticus, Mo- nadnock, etc. He died Aug. 8, 1887. Abbott, Jacob, writer for youth; born in Hallowell, Me., Nov. 14, 1803. He was graduated at Bowdoin College in 1820, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1825. From 1825 to 1829 he was Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy in Amherst College. He chose the pursuit of literature in the attractive and useful field of affording instruction to the young. One of the earliest of his almost 200 volumes printed was The Young Chris- tian, issued the year of his gradu- tion at Andover. His books are remark- able for their wealth of information, their absolute purity of tone and expression, and for their wonderful attractiveness for the young of both sexes. Few men have done so much for the intellectual and moral training of the young for lives of usefulness as Jacob Abbott. His interest in young people never abated through a long and laborious life. His later years were spent upon the old homestead at Farmington, Me., significantly called " Few Acres," for its area of land was small and it was cultivated and adorned by the hands of its owner. Here he died, Oct. 31, 1879. Abbott, John Stevens Cabot, histo- rian; born in Brunswick, Me., Sept. 18, 1805; brother of Jacob; was graduated at Bowdoin College in 1825, and at Andover Seminary; was ordained as a Congrega- tional minister in 1830, and held several pastorates in Massachusetts till 1844, after which he applied himself wholly to literature. Among his notable works are The French Revolution of 1789; The His- tory of Napoleon Bonaparte ; Napoleon at St. Helena; The History of Napoleon HI.; The History of the Civil War in America; A Romance of Spanish History; and The History of Frederick II., called Frederick the Great. He died in Fair Haven, Conn., June 17, 1877. Abbott, Lyman, clergyman and editor; born in Roxbury, Mass., Dec. 18, 1835; third son of Jacob; was graduated at the University of the City of New York in 1853; was admitted to the bar there, and for a time practised in partnership with his brothers Benjamin Vaughan and Aus- tin. Subsequently he studied theology with his uncle, John Stevens Cabot, and was ordained as a Congregational minister in 1860. He was secretary of the Freed- men's Commission in 1865-68 ; became edi- tor of the " Literary Record " in Harper's Magazine, and conductor of the Illus- trated Christian Weekly; and for a time was associated with Henry Ward Beecher (q. v.) in the editorship of The Christian Union. In 1888 he succeeded Mr. Beecher as pastor of Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. In 1898 he resigned and took full editorial charge of The Outlook, formerly The Christian Union. Among his publications is A Dictionary of Religious Knowledge. See Indian Prob- lem, The. An Anglo-American Understanding. — Dr. Abbott in 1898 suggested the follow- ing as the basis of an Anglo-American un- derstanding: The American people wisely attach great importance to Washington's " Farewell Address," and give deserved weight to his counsels. Not one of those counsels has been more influential and more safe-guard- ing than his admonition to his country- men to avoid entangling alliances with European nations. Yet Americans must not forget that changes wrought by human progress make inapplicable in one century advice which was wise in the preceding century; that if there be peril to a nation in recklessly advancing along strange paths to an unknown future, there is also danger to a nation in fastening itself too firmly to its past traditions, and refusing to itself permission to recognize changes of conditions which necessitate changes of policy. It is because Spain adheres to the traditions of the sixteenth century, and England has from time to time departed from those traditions, using them as a guide towards the future, not as a prohibi- tion to progress, that Spain has sunk from a first-class to a fourth-class power, while England still remains a leader among the nations of the world. When Washington issued his " Farewell Address," the United States was a feeble ABBOTT, LYMAN nation, composed of thirteen colonies, just emancipated from foreign domination. It took as many weeks to go from the north- ern to the southern border of this nation as it now takes days. The States had not yet been welded into a united nation, and were separated from one another not only by time and distance, but by jealousy and rivalry. The union of the States had not passed beyond the experimental stage. The Constitution of the United States was still on trial. All west of the Alleghanies was an untrodden, and for the most part un- known, wilderness. The population, even along the seaboard, was scanty; the cities were few and small; there was no com- merce and little manufactures. In 1809 Jefferson presented to the country his ideal on the subject of manufactures and commerce : " Manufactures sufficient for our consumption, of what we raise the raw material (and no more) ; commerce suffi- cient to carry the surplus produce of agri- culture beyond our own consumption, to a market for exchanging it for articles we cannot raise (and no more)." A vast and little - known and little - travelled ocean separated us from Europe. Under these circumstances to engage in European strifes, to aid France against Great Brit- ain, to concern ourselves with the balance of power, to undertake, directly or indi- rectly, to promote the battles of democracy in the old world, to assume to judge that our as yet unproved institutions were the best for countries other than our own, and to rush into the hazard of a foreign war by the unrestrained expression of our sym- pathies with democratic uprisings would have been foolish indeed. These were the entangling alliances against which Wash- ington admonished his countrymen, and we may say that his admonition against such entangling alliances it were well for us to heed, if necessity should arise, even now. But since Washington's "Farewell Ad- dress " the world has moved, and America has moved most rapidly of all the world. It takes us little, if any, longer to cross from our eastern seaboard to Europe's western seaboard than from our eastern to our western boundary. The cable enables us to converse with Liverpool as readily as with Chicago or San Francisco. The. prices of wheat in Liverpool determine the prices in our produce exchanges. Com- merce, though unfortunately under foreign flags, is carrying the produce of our coun- try into all the markets of the world. Our manufacturers compete with those of the oldest civilizations. The question whether we can establish a currency of our own, disregardful of the financial standards of the civilized world, has been" raised and answered emphatically in the negative. Our territory has extended un- til it nearly equals in dimensions that of the old Roman Empire in its palmiest days. Our population has not only in- creased in numbers, but become hetero- geneous in character. We are no longer an Anglo-Saxon colony, emerging into statehood. We are Scandinavian, Ger- man, Hungarian, Pole, Austrian, Italian, French, and Spanish; all the nations of the earth are represented, not only in our population, but in our suffrages. What- ever interests Norway and Sweden, Hol- land and Belgium, Germany, Italy, France, or England, interests our people, because from these countries respectively multi- tudes of our people have come. Mean- while, our growth, and still more the test to which we have been subjected by foreign war and by civil war, have done much to demonstrate the stability of institutions which, a hundred years ago, were purely experimental and largely theoretical. Other lands have caught inspiration from our life; the whole progress of Europe has been progress towards democracy — whether in England, Spain, Italy, Austria-Hungary, Germany, France, or Scandinavia. The difference in the history of these national- ities, during the nineteenth century, has been a difference not in the direction in which their life has tended, but in the rapidity with which it has moved. The yoke of Bourbonism is broken forever ; the Holy Alliance will never be reformed. Politically, socially, industrially, and even physically, the United States and Europe have been drawn together by the irresist- ible course of events. We are identified with the civilized world, interested in its problems, con- cerned in its progress, injured in its dis- asters, helped by its prosperities. The time has therefore passed when the United States can say, "We are sufficient unto ourselves ; we will go our way ; the rest of ABBOTT, LYMAN the world may go its way." The question is not, " Shall we avoid entangling al- liances?" We are entangled with all the nations of the globe; by commerce, by manufactures, by race and religious affilia- tions, by popular and political sympathies. The question for us to determine is not whether we shall live and work in fellow- ship with European nations, but whether we shall choose our fellowship with wise judgment and definite purpose, or whether we shall allow ourselves to drift into such fellowships as political accident or the changing incidents of human history may direct. I am glad of the opportunity to urge on American citizens the former course. I believe that the time has come when we ought, as a nation, to recognize the fact that we are not merely an American na- tion, but a world nation; when we ought to take our place, with clear and definite understanding that we are doing so, among the nations of the world; when we ought to form clearly to ourselves our national purpose, and seek such affiliations as will promote that purpose. It is for this rea- son that, though I am, on principle and after much consideration, a bimetallist, I believe that the nation did wisely in re- jecting the free coinage of silver, and is doing wisely in attempting to conform its currency to the currency of the other com- mercial nations of the globe. It is for this reason that I think Mr. Blaine proved himself statesmanlike in his organization of a Pan-American Congress, although its immediate results appear to have been comparatively insignificant. It is for this reason I think the nation should foster by appropriate measures every attempt to unite the New World with the Old, whether by cable, for the transmission of intelligence, or by commercial lines for the transmission of the products of our industry and our mails. It is for this reason I think we ought to seize the op- portunity offered to us to constitute a per- manent tribunal to which international questions might be referred, as of course, for settlement, and especially ought to have seized the opportunity for the or- ganization of such a tribunal for the de- termination of national questions between Great Britain and the United States. It is for this reason I urge the establishment of a good understanding between the United States and England, in the hope that in time it will grow to a more formal alliance — civic, commercial, and industrial, rather than naval or military — and yet an alliance that will make us, for the pur- poses of our international life, one people, though not politically one nation. There are three reasons which suggest the wis- dom of the establishment and maintenance of such good understanding and the hope of such possibly more formal alliance with our kin beyond the sea. 1. Though our commercial interests are not identical with those of Great Britain, our commercial principles are. England and the United States are competitors and rivals in the markets of the world; but commerce is full of demonstration of the fact that men may be competitors and rivals and yet friends and allies. What is true of men is true of nations. All that the people, either of England or the United States, ask, is a free field and no favors. We have proved ourselves quite competent to compete with any nation, if only the chance for competition is offered us. The great amorphous, ill-organized empire of China is dropping to pieces; Germany, France, England, and Japan, are all seek- ing ports of entry through which to push, by commercial enterprises, the products of their industry upon people hitherto so lit- tle civilized as to want but little. In this competition between foreign nations, Eng- land and Japan have stood, apparently alone, for a free and untrammelled com- merce. If the official statements in Par- liament may be trusted, England has won by diplomacy this commercial freedom, which perhaps Germany, and almost cer- tainly Russia, would have been disinclined to grant. It is impossible that there is no need for us to join formally in a com- mercial alliance with Japan and Great Britain to insist upon this principle of un- trammelled commerce; but if we need not do so, it is only because there is force enough in England to secure it without our aid. In the endeavor to secure it, Eng- land is entitled not only to our sympathy, but to the expression of our sympathy. She is entitled not only to our good wishes, but to our moral support. The United States is quite as much interested as Eng- land in the opening of trade with China, ABBOTT, LYMAN if not even ,piore interested. Our western sea-coast is as yet undeveloped ; our eastern trade is yet in its infancy. When the un- numbered millions of China shall wake up, when they shall begin to feel the vivifying influence of civilization, when they begin to demand railroads and telegraphs, bicy- cles and buggies, elevators and electric lights, cars for their streets, mills for their water-courses, agricultural implements for their farms, carpets for their floors, pianos and cabinet organs for their boys and girls, —in short, the conveniences and comforts of modern civilization for their awakening population, it will be alike our interest, our right, and our duty to have a free op- portunity to share in the work of provid- ing them with this equipment of a higher life. What is so evident respecting China that the dullest of vision may see it, is equally, though as yet less evidently, true of other great unreached populations. The United States is only less interested than Great Britain in the larger life of India; and in the civilization of Africa, which still seems remote, but not so remote as it did before the travels of Livingstone and Stanley, and which, when it comes, will add a new incentive to the fruitful industry of our mills, as well as of English mills, if we are wise in our statesmanship to forecast the future and to provide for it. If England and America join hands in a generous rivalry, they can lead the world commercially. On that road lies our highway to national prosperity. 2. Political advantages as well as com- mercial advantages call on us to establish and maintain a good understanding with Great Britain, and to be ready to formu- late that good understanding in a more definite alliance whenever the occasion shall arise which necessitates it. The Cuban revolution and the consequent era- broglio with Spain, threatening as I write to break out any hour into war, illustrate the difficulty of avoiding altogether col- lisions with foreign powers. This is the most pressing and immediate illustration, but not the only one. We have interests in Turkey which have been strangely dis- regarded, though not overlooked. Ameri- can property has been destroyed, the peace of American citizens disturbed and their lives threatened. Turkey is far away, and it has been difficult, perhaps impossible. G so to press our claims upon the Porte as to secure satisfaction for the outrages per- petrated with its connivance, if not by its authority. The injuries to our commerce inflicted by Algerine pirates, our long en- durance of those injuries, and our final naval warfare against the marine maraud- ers, are matters of familiar American history. With Americans not only travel- ling everywhere on the globe, but settling and engaging in business wherever there is business to be done, no one can foresee when an international complication may arise, involving strained relations between ourselves and some other nationality. It would be no small advantage under such circumstances to have established such re- lations with Great Britain that she would be our natural friend, would give to us her moral support, and would, perhaps, in case of exigency, lend support that would be more than moral. I am not considering in this article the practicability of such a relationship. I do not stop to discuss the question whether Great Britain would be likely to enter into it with us, or whether we should be likely to enter into it with Great Britain. Writing for American, not for English, readers, I do not attempt to point out the advantages to Great Britain as well as to ourselves. My object is simply to show that there would be a real, a tangible, a practical advantage, one that can be measured in dollars and cents, in the establishment of such relationship be- tween these two great Anglo-Saxon com- munities, that they would be recognized by the civilized world as standing together in amity, making a common cause, not against the rest of the world, but in favor of one principle to which they are alike committed, and in which they are alike interested — the principle expressed by the one word, liberty. It may be assumed that the United States will never desire to encroach upon the territory of any European power ; that, if it comes into the peril of war, it will be not through its desire to colonize on uncivilized territory, nor its desire to seize upon some fragment of civilized territory belonging to another nation, but from its passion for liberty; a passion sometimes exhibited in strong national sympathy for a struggling people such as the Cubans, sometimes in the strong determination to ABBOTT, LYMAN preserve the liberty of our own people, as in our war against the Algerine pirates. If England and America were thus to stand together for liberty it would be diffi- cult to form a combination which could withstand them so long as they were moderate, just, and rational in their de- mands. 3. Both the commercial and the political advantages of such a good understanding, growing into a formal alliance as is here suggested, are dependent upon the moral advantage to the world which would grow out of it. It is true that in a sense the United States is neither a Christian nor an Anglo-Saxon nation. It is not officially Christian, if thereby is meant a nation which gives political or financial advan- tage to one religion or another. It is not Anglo-Saxon, if thereby is meant a nation which sets itself to confer political power upon one race over another. But though it is officially neither Christian nor Anglo- Saxon, it is practically both. Its ethical standards are not those of Mohammedan- ism or Confucianism, but those of Chris- tianity. Its ruling force in the country, educational, political, and, on the whole, commercial, is not Celtic, nor Sclavic, nor Semitic, nor African, nor Mongolian, but Anglo-Saxon. Thus in its religious spirit, though not altogether in its religious in- stitutions, in its practical leadership, though not in the constituent elements of its population, and in its national history and the genesis of its political institu- tions, the United States is of kin to Great Britain. The two represent the same es- sential political ideals; they are both democratic; they both represent the same ethical ideals; they are Christian; and they both represent the same race leader- ship; they are Anglo-Saxon. In so far as their conjoint influence dominates the world, it will carry with it a tendency towards liberty in the political institutions organized, a tendency towards Christianity in the ethical spirit of the society created, and a tendency towards that energy, that intelligence, and that thrift which are the characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon race in the life promoted. It is from the combina- tion of these three elements in society — political liberty, Christian ethics, Anglo- Saxon energy — that what we call civiliza- tion proceeds. And it is out of this civ- ilization thus inspired by Anglo-Saxon energy, thus controlled by Christian ethics, and thus given opportunity for growth by political liberty that industrial prosper- ity, commercial wealth, and human earthly well-being are founded. Thus the moral ad- vantages of such a good understanding be- tween Great Britain and the United States as is here suggested are more important than the commercial and political advan- tages, because the commercial and politi- cal advantages are dependent upon the moral. It is indeed impossible to separate them, except in statements and for the convenience of clear thinking. Great Britain and the United States cannot com- bine to promote the commercial prosperity of either nation, or the political protection of the citizens of either in communities less free than their own, except as they combine to promote that world civilization which is founded on political liberty, Christian ethics, and Anglo-Saxon energy. Let Great Britain and the United States work together for the world's civilization, and, on the one hand, no reactionary forces can withstand their combined influence; and on the other, no imagination can esti- mate the pecuniary and the political ad- vantages, first to these two nations, and next to the whole world, which would come from such a combination. Whoever in either country sows discord between the two is, whether he knows it or not, the political and commercial enemy of both countries, and the enemy of the world's civilization. Thus far I have suggested only " a good understanding," because this is immedi- ately practicable, yet I have in my imagi- nation an ideal towards which such a good understanding might tend, but which would far transcend anything suggested by that somewhat vague phrase. Let us suppose, then, that Great Britain and the United States were to enter into an alli- ance involving these three elements: first, absolute reciprocity of trade; second, a tribunal to which should be referred for settlement, as a matter of course, all questions arising between the two na- tions, as now all questions arising between the various States of this Union are referred to the Supreme Court of the United States; third, a mutual pledge that an assault on one ABENAKES— ABERT should be regarded as an assault on both, so that as towards other nations these two would be united as the various States of this Union stand united towards all other States. Such an alliance would include not only our own country and the British Isles, but all the colonies and dependencies of Great Britain — Canada, Australasia, and in time such provinces in Asia and Africa as are under British domination and administration. It would unite in the furtherance of a Christian civilization all the Anglo-Saxon peoples, and all the peo- ples acting under the guidance and con- trolling influence of Anglo-Saxon leaders. It would gradually draw into itself other peoples of like minds though of foreign race, such as, in the far East, the people of Japan. It would create a new con- federation based on principles and ideas, not on tradition, and bounded by the pos- sibilities of human development, not by geographical lines. It would give a new significance to the motto " E Pluribus Unum," and would create a new United States of the World, of which the United States of America would be a component part. Who can measure the advantage to liberty, to democracy, to popular rights and popular intelligence, to human progress, to a free and practical Christian- ity, which such an alliance would bring with it? Invincible against enemies, il- limitable in influence, at once inspiring and restraining each other, these two na- tions, embodying the energy, the enter- prise, and the conscience of the Anglo- Saxon race, would by the mere fact of their co-operation produce a result in human history which would suppress all that present imagination can conceive or present hope anticipate. See Anglo- American League. Abenakes, or Abnakis ("Men of the Eastern Land " ) , a group of Algonqtjian (q. v.) tribes of Indians, originally occu- pying the territory now included within the State of Maine. They included the Penobscot, Norridgewock, and Arosgunta- cook families, and in the disturbances of the day adhered to the French, whose mis- sionaries converted most of them to Christianity. Abercrombie, James, military officer; born at Glassaugh, Scotland, in 1706. In 1746 he became a colonel in the British 8 army; was made major-general in 1756, lieutenant-general in 1759, and general in 1772. He came to America in 1756, where he held the chief military command until the arrival of Lord Loudoun. After the departure of that officer, Abercrombie re- sumed the command. In July, 1758, he attacked Ticonderoga (q. v.) with a large force, but was repulsed with a loss of about 2,000 men. He was succeeded by General Amherst in September following; returned to England in 1759, and became a member of Parliament, wherein he ad- vocated the obnoxious measures that led to the War of the Revolution in 1775. He died April 28, 1781, while Governor of Stirling Castle. Abercrombie, James, military officer; son of Gen. James Abercrombie. He had served on the staff of General Am- herst, in America, and was commissioned a lieutenant in the British army in March, 1770. While leading the British Grena- diers in the battle of Bunker (Breed) Hill, June 17, 1775, he was mortally wounded, dying in Boston on the 24th. See Bunker Hill. Abercrombie, John Joseph, military officer; born in Tennessee in 1802; was graduated at the United States Mili- tary Academy in 1822. Entering the 1st Infantry, he was its adjutant from 1825 to 1833. Serving in Florida and Mexi- co, he was promoted to brevet lieu- tenant-colonel for gallantry in the battle of Monterey, where he was severely wound- ed. He was commissioned lieutenant- colonel in May, 1852, and colonel in Feb- ruary, 1861, and was brevetted brigadier- general, U. S. A., March 13, 1865. In June following he retired. He was a brig- adier-general of volunteers in the Civil War, and commanded a brigade in Patter- son's division on the Upper Potomac in 1861. He was transferred to Bank's divi- sion in July. Early in 1862 he joined the Army of the Potomac, and was slightly wounded in the battle of Fair Oaks ( q. v. ) . He died in Roslyn, N. Y., Jan. 3, 1877. Abert, John James, military engi- neer; born in Shepherd stown, Va., Sept. 27, 1778: was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1811; soon afterwards resigned; studied law, and was admitted to the bar; served as a private soldier in the defence of the national capi- ABINGDON— ABOLITIONISTS tal in the War of 1812, and in 1814 was re-appointed to the army as a topographi- cal engineer, becoming chief of the corps in 1838. He was associated with the con- struction of many of the early national works of engineering, and was one of the organizers of the National Institute of Science, which was merged into the Smithsonian Institution (q. v.). He died in Washington, D. C, Dec. 27, 1863. Abingdon, a town in Washington county, Va., 315 miles southwest of Rich- mond. It has valuable deposits of salt, iron, and gypsum, and is noted as being the place from which the greater part of the salt used in the Southern States and the Confederate army during the Civil War was obtained. Burbridge's division of Stoneman's cavalry defeated the Con- federates under Echols, and captured the town. Dec. 15, 1864. Abolition. During the early years of our national history, abolition was a de- sire rather than a purpose, and most humane and thinking men, North and South, were abolitionists. Previous to the meeting of the first Continental Con- gress, ii) 1774, many of the colonies had made protests against the further impor- tation of slaves, and at least two of them, Virginia and Massachusetts, had passed resolutions abolishing the traffic. The Quakers, or Society of Friends, had, since 1760, made slave-holding and slave-trading a matter of church discipline. The War for Independence, and the adoption of the Constitution, in 1787, which included the compromise resolution that provided for the continuation of the slave-trade, by per- mission, until 1808, caused very little change in the sentiment of the people, and all hoped that in some way, not yet imagined, the gradual and peaceful aboli- tion of slavery would be accomplished. In 1777, Vermont, not yet admitted to the Union, formed a State constitution abolishing slavery. Like constitutions were adopted by Massachusetts, including Maine, in 1780, and by New Hampshire in 1783. Gradual abolition was secured by statute in Pennsylvania in 1780, in Rhode Island and Connecticut in 1784, in New York in 1799, and in New Jersey in 1804. Abolition of slavery in the Northwest Ter- ritory, north of the Ohio and east of the Mississippi, including the present States of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wis- consin, and part of Minnesota, was secured by the Ordinance of 1787. In 1807, Con- gress passed an act for the abolition of the slave-trade on Jan. 1, 1808. Slavery in part of the Louisiana Purchase, including the present States of Iowa, Oregon, Kan- sas, Nebraska, part of Colorado, and part of Minnesota, was abolished by the Mis- souri Compromise (q. v.), whose validity was rejected by the Supreme Court (see Dred Scott Decision) ; but the provision for abolition was embodied in the consti tutions of these States as they were severally admitted. In course of time gradual abolition took effect in the States which had adopted it by statute, and in 1850 slavery as an institution had practi- cally disappeared from them. Slavery was finally abolished from all the territory of the United States by the Emancipation Proclamation of President Lincoln and the adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to the national Constitution, in 1863-65. See Constitution, National; Emancipa- tion Proclamations. Abolitionists. The first society estab- lished for promoting public sentiment in favor of the abolition of slavery was formed in Philadelphia on April 14, 1775, with Benjamin Franklin as president and Benjamin Rush as secretary. John Jay was the first president of a society for the same purpose formed in New York, Jan. 25, 1785, and called the " New York Manumission Society." The Society of Friends, or Quakers, always opposed sla- very, and were a perpetual and active abo- lition society, presenting to the national Congress the first petition on the subject. Other abolition societies followed — in Rhode Island in 1786, in Maryland in 1789, in Connecticut in 1790, in Virginia in 1791, and in New Jersey in 1792. These societies held annual conventions, and their opera- tions were viewed by the more humane slave-holders with some favor, since they aimed at nothing practical or troublesome, except petitions to Congress, and served as a moral palliative to the continuance of the practice. The abolition of the African slave-trade by Great Britain in 1807, and by the United States in 1808, came as a great relief to the abolition societies, which had grown discouraged by the evi- dent impossibility of effecting anything in 9 ABOLITIONISTS the South, and were now ready to accept this success as the limit of possibility for the present. In 1801, Thomas Jefferson and Gov. James Monroe, of Virginia, had considerable correspondence on the subject of colonizing free blacks outside of the country. In the autumn of 1816, a society for this purpose was organized in Princeton, N. J. The Virginia Legislat- ure commended the matter to the govern- ment, and in December, 1816, the " Na- tional Colonization Society " met in Wash- ington. Its object was to encourage eman- cipation by procuring a place outside of the United States, preferably in Africa, to which free negroes could be aided in emi- grating. Its indirect object was to rid the South of the free black population, which had already become a nuisance. Its branches spread into almost every State, and for fourteen years its organization was warmly furthered by every philan- thropist in the South as well as in the North. It is noteworthy that, though the society made no real attack upon slavery, as an institution, nearly every person, noted after 1831 as an abolitionist, was be- fore that year a colonizationist. At first free negroes were sent to the British col- ony of Sierra Leone. In 1820, the society tried' and became dissatisfied with Sher- brook Island, and on Dec. 15, 1821, a per- manent location was purchased at Cape Mesurado. In 1847, the colony declared it- self an independent republic under the name of Liberia (q. v.), its capital being Monrovia. It was in 1830 that the abolitionist move- ment proper began. In 1829-30, William Lloyd Garrison engaged with Benjamin Lundy in publishing The Genius of Uni- versal Emancipation, in Baltimore. Gar- rison's first efforts were directed against the Colonization Society and gradual abo- lition. He insisted on the use of every means at all times towards abolition with- out regard to the wishes of slave-owners. The effects were almost immediately ap- parent. Abolition, with its new elements of effort and intention, was no longer a doctrine to be quietly and benignantly dis- cussed by slave-owners. On Jan. 1, 1831, Garrison began publishing The Liberator, in Boston; the New England Anti-Slavery Society was formed Jan. 1, 1832; in 1833 Garrison visited England, and secured 10 from Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Dan- iel O'Connell, and other English abolition- ists, a condemnation of the colonizationists. In December, 1833, the American Anti- Sla- very Society was organized, in Philadel- phia, by an abolition convention of which Beriah Green was president and Lewis Tappan and John G. Whittier secretaries. From this time the question became of national importance. Able and earnest men, such as Weld, May, and Phillips, journeyed through the Northern States as the agents of the National Society, founding State branches and everywhere lecturing on abolition, and were often met by mob violence. In Connecticut, in 1833, Miss Prudence Crandall, of Canterbury, opened her school for negro girls. The Legislature, by act of May 24, 1833, for- bade the establishment of such schools, and imprisoned Miss Crandall. Being set at liberty, she was ostracized by her neigh- bors and her school broken up. For a year George Thomson, who had done much to secure British emancipation in the West Indies, lectured throughout the North. He was mobbed in Boston, and escaped from the country in disguise, in November, 1835. On Nov. 7, 1837, Elijah P. Love joy (q. v.), a Presbyterian minis- ter, who had established an abolition news- paper in Alton, 111., was mobbed and shot to death. These occurrences did not cease entirely until the beginning of the Civil War, in 1861. In the South rewards were offered for the capture of prominent abo- litionists, and a suspension of commercial intercourse was threatened. The Southern States objected to the use of the mails for the circulation of anti-slavery litera- ture. A bill forbidding such use was voted on in Congress, but lost, and in its stead the care of abolition documents was left, with final success, to the postmasters and the States. The Garrisonian aboli- tionists were always radical. They criti- cised the Church, condemned the Consti- tution, refused to vote, and woman's rights, free love, community of property, and all sorts of novel social ideas were espoused by them. In 1838 the political abolitionists, including Birney, the Tap- pans, Gerrit Smith, Whittier, Judge Jay, Edward Beecher, Thomas Morris, and others seceded, and in 1840 organized the American and Foreign Anti-Slavery ABOVILLE— ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Society, and under this name prosecuted ford. After the committee had exonerated their work with more success than the the Secretary, Mr. Edwards was recalled original society. In 1839-40 the Liberty to substantiate his charges, but failed to Party (q. v.) was formed, and in the do so. This episode became known as the Presidential election of 1844 Birney and A. B. Plot. Morris received 62,300 votes, most of which Abraham, Heights or Plains of, near would have gone to Clay, and thus made Quebec, named from Abraham Martin, possible the election of Polk, the annexation who owned a piece of land there in the of Texas, and the addition of an immense early times of the colony. On this plateau amount of slave territory to the United was fought a battle between French and States. In the next two Presidential elec- English, Sept. 13, 1759, gaining Canada tions the abolitionists voted with the Free- for the English. Both commanders, Mont- soil Party (q. v.), and after 1856 with the calm and Wolfe, were killed, the latter at Republicans, though rather as an auxiliary the moment of victory. See Canada; than as an integral part of the party. Montcalm de St. Veran; Wolfe, James. During the period 1850-60 the most active Academy of Arts and Sciences, exertions of the abolitionists were cen- American, an organization founded in tred in assisting fugitive slaves to reach Boston in 1778 for the encouragement of places of safety in Canada (see Fugitive arts and sciences; has published Me- Slave Law and Underground Railway), moirs since 1785, and Proceedings since The result of the Civil War (1861-65) 1846. was the total abolition of slavery in all Academy of Design, National, an art the States. Soon after the adoption of the institution founded in New York City in Thirteenth Amendment, the publication of 1826; originally occupying a building on The Liberator ceased and the Anti-Slavery the corner of Fourth Avenue and Twenty- Society dissolved, as natural results. third Street, which was sold in 1895, and Aboville, Francois Marie, Count d', a new structure was begun on Amsterdam military officer; born in Brest, France, in Avenue and One Hundred and Ninth January, 1730; came to America with the Street. The academy conducts schools in rank of colonel during the Revolutionary various branches of the fine arts, and War, and at the siege of Yorktown com- holds semi-annual exhibitions at which a manded Rochambeau's artillery. In 1788 number of valuable prizes are awarded, he was commissioned a brigadier-general; The members consist of academicians and in 1792 was commander of the French associates, each of whom must be an artist Army of the North; and in 1807 became of recognized merit. The associates, who governor of Brest with the rank of lieu- are entitled to use the letters A.N.A. after tenant-general. He supported the cause their names, are chosen from the general of the Bourbons and after the Restoration body of the artists, and the academicians, was made a peer. He died Nov. 1, 1817. who may use N.A., are elected from the A. B. Plot. On April 19, 1824, Ninian associates. Approved laymen may become Edwards, a former United States Senator fellows on payment of a fee. The schools from Illinois, presented an address to the are open to both sexes, are free, and open Congress, preferring charges against Will- from the first Monday in October in each bum H. Crawford, then Secretary of the year till the 1st of June following. Treasury and a candidate for the Presi- Academy of Natural Sciences, an in- dency. The address was accompanied by stitution in Philadelphia, Pa.; founded in letters, reflecting on the integrity of Sec- 1812; has published Journals since 1817, retary Crawford, signed A. B. The House and Proceedings since 1841; and is noted appointed a committee of seven to inves- for its very large collection of specimens tigate the charges, and on May 25 the in natural history. committee submitted a report exonerating Academy of Sciences, National, an Secretary Crawford. While on his way to institution incorporated by act of Con- Mexico, to which he had been sent on a gress March 3, 1863; comprising active public mission, Mr. Edwards acknowledged and honorary members and foreign asso- the authorship of the letters and also made ciates. Under the act of incorporation it new accusations against Secretary Craw- is the duty of the academy to investigate, 11 ACADEMY— ACADIA examine, experiment, and report upon any Great Britain. " Better," said the Jesuits, subject of science or art submitted to it " surrender your meadows to the sea and by any department of the national gov- your treasures to the flames than, at the ernment, the expense of such investigations peril of your souls, to take the oath of al- being paid from appropriations for the legiance to the British government." So purpose. Academy, United States Military. See Military Academy. the priests, with which Canada furnished them, and on whom they implicitly relied, disturbed the peace and led them on to Academy, United States Naval. See their ruinous troubles. At one time they Naval Academy. would resolve to flee to Canada; at another Acadia, or Acadie, the ancient name of the love of their homes would make them Nova Scotia (q. v.) and adjacent regions, resolve to remain. The haughtiness of It is supposed to have been visited by Se- British officers aided the priests in foment- bastian Cabot in 1498, but the first at- ing disaffection. The English despised the tempt to plant a settlement there was by Acadians because they were helpless in De Monts, in 1604, who obtained a charter their lack of knowledge of English laws, from the King of France for making set- and they were continually robbed of their tlements and carrying on trade. In that rights and property by English officials, charter it is called Cadig, and by the early Was any of their property demanded for settlers it was known as L'AcadiS. A set- the public service, they were " not to be tlement was made at a place named Port bargained with for payment " ; so the Royal (now Annapolis), by Poutrincourt, orders ran. Under various pretences they a bosom friend of De Monts, but it was were continually shorn, yet they meekly broken up in 1613, by Argall, from Vir- submitted to the tyranny of their masters, ginia. These French emigrants built cot- The English officers were authorized to tages sixteen years before the Pilgrims punish Acadians for what they might deem landed on the shores of New England, misbehavior, at their discretion, and, if When English people came, antagonisms British troops should be annoyed by them, arising from difference of religion and they might inflict vengeance on the nearest nationality appeared, and, after repeated Acadians " whether guilty or not." Final- struggles between the English and French ly, persuaded by the French government for the possession of Acadia, it was ceded and their priests, the Acadians abandoned to Great Britain by the treaty of Utrecht nearly all the peninsula, and settled them- in 1713. But for many years not a dozen selves in a fertile region on the isthmus be- English families were seen there. The de- tween the northern extremity of the Bay of scendants of the early French settlers oc- Fundy and Northumberland Strait. The cupied the land, and were a peaceable, object of the movement was to make them pastoral people, who never engaged in the form a barrier against the encroachments forays of the French and Indians along of the English. There the French built the New England frontiers. They were two forts, the principal of which was Beau attached to their fatherland and their S£jour, on the Bay of Fundy, where the religion, and they refused to fight against isthmus is only 15 miles wide. In June, the former or abjure the latter. This at- 1755, a land and naval armament came titude was accorded to them by solemn from Boston, landed at the head of the agreements, and they were known as Bay of Fundy, captured the forts, and " French Neutrals." They were happy in took military possession of the country of their neutrality, and in their isolation the French Neutrals. The French soldiers they formed one great and loving family, were sent to Louisburg, and the Acadians Pure in morals, pious without bigotry, who had been forced into the French ser- honest, industrious, and frugal, they pre- vice were granted an amnesty. They read- Se ^rl d a xr ° Utline picture ° f Ut °P ia - i] y took an oath of allegiance, expected When New-Englanders began to colonize forbearance, and went on quietly cultivat- iSova Scotia vigorously, their priests, fired ing their land. But the exasperation of with zeal for the Church, disturbed their the people of New England, because of the repose by dread of « heretics "and warn- horrible forays of the French and Indians ings not to take the oath of allegiance to on their frontiers, had to be appeased, and 12 ACADIA vengeance was inflicted upon these inno- ing hymns, while on each side of the sad cent people. It was resolved to banish the procession was a row of women and chil- French Neutrals from their country, dren on their knees, imploring blessings Governor Shirley had proposed it years upon the heads of dear ones. They were before, in order to supply their place with all finally distributed in the various Eng- Protestants; and the British government lish colonies. Many families, separated had promoted emigration thither, that a at the outset by the cruel arrangements strong admixture of Protestants might for their transportation, were never re- neutralize the efforts of the priests to united; and for a long time the colonial make the Acadians disloyal. Now Shir- newspapers contained advertisements seek- ley's scheme was adopted, and General ing information about fragments of dis- Winslow, who commanded the invaders, membered families. They were dropped was made the executor of it. along the shores of the English colonies, It was believed by the English that if from the Penobscot to the Savannah, with- the Acadians were permitted to go to out resources, and ignorant of the Ian- Canada or Cape Breton, they would thus guage of the people among whom they were strengthen the enemies of the English; thrust, excepting in South Carolina, where to distribute them would destroy their the Huguenot families treated them with strength and prevent attempts to return, great kindness. They abhorred the alms- To accomplish this, a disgraceful artifice house and dreaded service in English was employed. The English authorities families. They yearned intensely for their issued a proclamation, ordering " both old native land and kindred in language and and young men, as well as all the lads of religion. Many wandered through the ten years of age," to assemble on Sept. 5, forests to Canada and Louisiana — men, 1755, at designated places. They obeyed, women, and children — sheltered in bush- The proceedings at one place afford a fair camps and kindly cared for by the Indians, picture of those at all others. At Grand- that they might rest under French do- Pr§, 418 unarmed men and youths were minion. Some families went to sea in assembled, and marched into the church, open boats, to find their way back to There General Winslow told them they Acadia; and, coasting along the shores of had been called together to hear the de- New England, were there met by orders cision of the King of England in regard to from Nova Scotia to stop all returning the French inhabitants of the province, fugitives. Many touching stories of par " Your lands and tenements," he said, ents seeking their children, husbands, their " cattle of all kinds, and live-stock of all wives, and lovers their affianced have been sorts, are forfeited to the crown, and you, related. It is a sad, sad story of man's yourselves, are to* be removed from this inhumanity to man. his province. I am, through his Majesty's Even in their -bitter exile the Acadians goodness, directed to allow you liberty to were .subjected k to the hatred and cruelty carry off your money and household good's, of English officials. When Lord Loudoun as many as you can, without discommod-^ (qs v.) was commander-in-chief in Amer- ing the vessels you ero in. You are' not» ica, some of the Acadians settled in Penn- the King's prisoners." sylvania ventured to address a respectful Every household in Grand-Pre" was filled petition to him. Offended because the with consternation. At *Grand-Pre" alone document was in the French language, the 1,923 men, women, and children were driv- Earl seized five of the leading men who en on board British vessels at the point signed the petition, and who had been per- of the bayonet. Fully 2.000 were thus SO ns of wealth and distinction in Acadia, expelled from their homes in Acadia. The and sent them to England, with a request men and boys assembled at the church that, to prevent their being troublesome went first; the sisters, wives, and in the future, they should be consigned to daughters had to wait for other trans- hard service as common sailors in the ports. They marched from the church to royal navy. The King seems to have ap- the water's edge, some in sullen despair, proved the measure; and the Lords of others with hands clasped and eyes uplift- Trade, when the desolation of Acadia was ed, praying and weeping, and others sing- made complete, congratulated the profligate 13 ACCAULT— ACLAND monarch that the zeal of the governor of Hennepin (q. v.), in the summer of 1679, Nova Scotia, who had driven them away, he was sent by La Salle to explore the had been " crowned with entire success." sources of the Mississippi. They went Exquisitely cruel was the treatment these up the river as far the Falls of St. poor people received at the hands of their Anthony, where they were captured by conquerors. The method employed to le- Indians, but were rescued by Daniel gaily dispossess the Acadians of their cov- Duluth, a French officer. In a few months eted lands was most disgraceful. They had they succeeded in reaching the trading- taken the oath of allegiance, but refused to station at Green Bay. take an oath that they would bear arms against the French if required, and prac- tically abjure their religion. Exemption from this had been solemnly promised them. The governor of Nova Scotia re- Acerraderos, a town in the province of Santiago, Cuba, on the Caribbean Sea, a few miles west of the entrance to the har- bor of Santiago. It was here that General Garcia, the commander of the Cuban ferred the matter to the chief-justice of army, established his camp just before the province as a technical question in the opening of the Santiago campaign in law, whether one who refuses to take all 1898. The United States fleet arrived off required oaths could hold lands in the Santiago on June 21, and as soon as pos- British dominions. The chief-justice de- sible General Shafter and Admiral Samp- cided against the Acadians, and it was son went ashore and arranged with Gen- determined to take their lands away from eral Garcia for the co-operation of the them and distribute them among the Eng- Cubans under his command. The land- lish colonists. The French government ing of the United States troops and the asked leave for the Acadians to take with operations of the American army from them their effects and to settle where they that time till the surrender of Santiago chose. " No," replied their masters, " they were greatly facilitated by General Garcia are too useful subjects to be lost; we must and his army. See Daiquiri. enrich our colonies with them." Unfort- unately for the poor people, some of their best men presented a petition to the gov- ernor at Halifax. He would not receive it, and demanded that they should imme- diately take the oaths required before the council. " We will do as our people may determine," they meekly replied, and asked permission to return home and consult them. The next day, perceiving the peril- ous position of their people, they offered to take the oaths. " By a law of the realm," said the governor, " Roman Cath- olics who have once refused to take the oaths cannot be permitted to do so after- wards, and are considered Popish recu- sants." They were cast into prison, and the chief-justice decided that all the French inhabitants — hundreds of innocent families who were ignorant of all these proceedings— were "rebels and Popish re- cusants," and stood in the way of " Eng- lish interests" in the country, and that they had forfeited all their possessions to the crown. So their doom was sealed. See Longfellow's Evangeline. Accault, Michael, explorer; was with La Salle when the latter discovered the Acland, John Dyke, military officer; MAJ. JOHN DYKE ACLAND. was with Burgoyne in his invasion of Mississippi River. Later, with Louis northern New York in 1777, and' at the 14 ACQUIA CREEK— ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY CHRISTINA HARRIET ACLAND. same time he was a member of Parlia- ment. In the battle of Saratoga (Oct. 7, 1777) he was severely wounded — shot through the legs — and made a prisoner. Taken to the American headquarters on Bemis's Heights, his devoted wife, Lady Harriet, was permitted to pass through the lines and attend him. She was kindly received and treated by the American officers, and their bearing towards their wounded prisoners excited the major's gratitude and warm esteem. After his return to England he was provoked to give the lie direct to Lieutenant Lloyd, at a dinner-party, because the latter cast as- persions upon the Americans. A duel en- sued on Bampton Downs. The major was unhurt, but a severe cold, which he con- tracted at the time of the duel, culmi- nated in a fever which caused his death at his seat at Pixton, Somersetshire, Oct. 31, 1778. His wife, Christina Harriet Caroline Fox, was a daughter of the first Earl of Ilchester; was born in 1750; mar- ried John Dyke Acland in 1770; and died near Taunton, England, July 21, 1815. Acquia Creek. See Aquia Creek. ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY Acquisition of Territory. The origi- a great part of Alabama and Mississippi, rial territory of the United States as ac- Vermont was admitted as a separate State knowledged by the treaty with Great in 1791; Kentucky, then a part of Vir- Britain, in 1783, consisted of the follow- ginia, in 1792; and Maine, till that time ing thirteen States: New Hampshire, Mas- claimed by Massachusetts, in 1820. sachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Provi- Louisiana Purchase. — Spain's restric- dence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, tion of the navigation of the Mississippi, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, the great natural commercial artery of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South the American continent, was a great an- Carolina, and Georgia. The boundaries noyance to the settlers on the western of many of these States, as constituted by slopes of the Alleghanies. It was not un- their charters, extended to the Pacific til Oct. 17, 1795, and after many attempts, Ocean; but in practice they ceased at the that Thomas Pinckney succeeded in nego- Mississippi. Beyond that river the tiating a treaty of friendship, boundaries, territory belonged, by discovery and and navigation. On Oct. 1, 1800, by the settlement, to the King of Spain, treaty of St. Ildefonso, Spain retroceded All the territory west of the present to France the vast province of Louisiana, boundaries of the States was ceded by Bonaparte's design to revive, in New Or- them to the United States in the order leans, the former colonial glories of the named: Virginia, 1784; Massachusetts, French monarchy more and more menaced 1785; Connecticut, 1786 and 1800; South the United States; navigation was again Carolina, 1787; North Carolina, 1790; closed; and in Congress, James Ross, Sen- Georgia, 1802. This ceded territory com- ator from Pennsylvania, introduced reso- prised part of Minnesota, all of Wiscon- lutions authorizing the President to call sin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio (see out 50,000 militia and to take possession Northwest Territory), Tennessee, and of New Orleans. Instead of this, Con- 15 ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY gress appropriated $2,000,000 for the pur- chase of the city, and sent James Monroe, as minister extraordinary, to co-operate with Livingston, minister to France, in the proposed purchase. April 11, 1803, Livingston, who had already begun nego- tiations for the purchase of New Orleans, was suddenly invited by Napoleon to make an offer for the whole of Louisiana. On the following day Monroe arrived in Paris, and the two ministers decided to offer $10,000,000. The price was finally fixed at $15,000,000, one-fourth of it to consist in the assumption by the United States of $3,750,000 worth of claims of American citizens against France. The treaty was in three conventions — to se- cure the cession, to ascertain the price, to stipulate for the assumption of the claims — all signed the same day, April 30, 1803, by Livingston and Monroe on one part, and Barbe-Marbois on the other. This vast purchase added 1,171,931 square miles to the territory of the United States, including Alabama and Mississippi south of the parallel of 31°; all of Lou- isiana, Arkansas, Oklahoma, Indian Terri- tory, Missouri, Nebraska, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana; Minnesota, west of the Mississippi; Colo- rado and Wyoming, east of the Rocky Mountains; and Kansas, with the excep- tion of the southwestern corner. The western boundary was not finally settled until after the purchase of Florida, in 1819. Florida Purchase. — The boundary be- tween Louisiana and Florida had been long in dispute, Spain claiming all that territory south of the parallel of 31° and east of the Mississippi River, and the United States fixing it at the Perdido River, the present boundary between Flor- ida and Alabama. In 1810, the people of west Florida met at Baton Rouge and de- clared themselves independent, and Gov- ernor Claiborne, of the Territory of Or- leans, was sent by the President to take possession; in 1812 the Pearl River was made the eastern boundary of Louisiana, and the remainder of west Florida was annexed to Mississippi Territory; in 1813 the fort and city of Mobile were taken by General Wilkinson. During this period a determination of gaining east Florida had been growing rapidly, and Congress, by acts passed in secret, in January and March, 1811, had authorized the President to take temporary possession. In 1818, during the Seminole W T ar, be- ing annoyed by Spanish assistance given to the Indians, Jackson raided east Florida, captured St. Marks and Pen- sacola, and hanged Arbuthnot and Am- brister, two British subjects who had given aid and comfort to the Indians. This demonstrated so completely that Florida was at the mercy of the United States that the Spanish minister at Washington signed a treaty, on Feb. 22, 1819, by which Spain ceded Florida, in return for the payment of claims of American citizens against Spain, amounting to $5,000,000. The ratification by Spain was not secured till 1821, Spain attempting to obtain the refusal of the United States to recognize the independence of the revolted Spanish- American colonies. The territory pur- chased comprised 59,268 square miles. Oregon. — The treaty with Spain in 1821 settled the western boundary of the Louisiana purchase as follows : " Begin- ning at the mouth of the Sabine, in the Gulf of Mexico; up the west bank of the Sabine to the thirty-second degree of north latitude; thence north to the Red River; along the south bank of the Red River to the one-hundredth degree of longitude east from Greenwich; thence north to the Ar- kansas ; thence along the south bank of the Arkansas to its source; thence south or north, as the case may be, to the forty- second degree north latitude, and along that parallel to the Pacific Ocean." This put out of dispute the territory comprising the present States of Washington, Oregon, Idaho, and the western part of Wyoming, claimed by the United States on the grounds of discovery (1792), exploration (1805), and settlement (1811). The boundary between the States of Washing- ton and Idaho, on one side, and Canada, on the other, was finally determined in 1848. Texas. — In 1833, Texas, then a part of the Mexican Republic, refused to remain a part of Coahuila, and on April 1 formed a Mexican State constitution of its own. The greater part of its popula- tion had emigrated from the southwestern part of the United States, and, on the abolishment of the State constitutions, in 10 Lll OF THf UNIVERSITY 87° tf c V Sup. W WlSte-**?* ,t.Raul M / 7 AlacUiuav VlS-CO ^7\ «/ f ■r Bay City .Lansing Madisoh ^ G l n d° %r Milwaukee^ I Rii'ids Detroit M1W —A k I d Kalamazoo fl-^V VI V __.- I h I d Kalamazoo A-^~" M ^ /" > - r' /JT-VW ' I ^V Sw pvA v i^ q iv£an» »^ ^Toledo * i -^- r vW^^r • /w4 j - to»nr BurTmstOD > Peoria "Danville' .doiVo 1 ^^ _ teOfZ JloberiKi tf»Wn«ael4 x pb to -gj City III.. . y. - m. .-.„, * f- i hita 4/r/ n\? Kansas- V r^^l'7 ^ f y ^""Tfranklp^ V . W» *~GT .G*S ^l^ , jo -^J&Jneld^ Memphis k/ Little Rock loalgate | o ^ [Hot Springs R. fexarkana I Dal la % Shrevepor r O Tennessee •Binning Lakfe Charles o *p VicVsburg Jackson j r< j/^^omery j J /^ Baton ^ Mtfnllel/^~s=>, ^X-ee***! Rouge \ -1-4- ^-v rorleaus - GlO 1st. *»t'\J; 2aa^ sonNlU THE SHADED AR?A ALONQ THE COAST INDICATES THE t^ SETTLED PART AT THE CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTION- ARY WAR. GULF ROSE ISLANC WAKE ID. Annexed MAP OF THE UNITED STATES showing ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY Scale of Miles 50 100 200 300 400 safe, pTsE LIB^ OF THE UNIVERSITY **>. OF > ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY 1835, and the appointment of a dictator, River on the west. Gen. James Gads- declared itself independent of Mexico, den (q. v.) was at that time minister to March 2, 1836. After a brief war, dis- Mexico and negotiated the transfer, and tinguished by two brutal massacres on the this territory, 45,535 square miles in ex- part of the Mexicans at Goliad and the tent, has always borne his name. Alamo (q. v.), Houston, the Texan com- Alaska. — This valuable fur and mineral mander, with 700 men, met Santa Ana, the producing country was first claimed by Mexican President, with 5,000 men, at San Russia by right of discovery. By treaty Jacinto, and totally defeated him. Santa of March 30, 1867, ratified by the Senate Ana, to gain his liberty, signed a treaty in special session, June 20, 1867, Russia recognizing the independence of the Repub- ceded the whole of the territory, 557,390 lie of Texas. This treaty was never rati- square miles in extent, to the United fied by Mexico; but the United States, and States for $7,200,000. See Alaska. afterwards England, France, and Belgium, Hawaii. — In January, 1896, a joint recognizing the new republic, its indepen- resolution was introduced into the Lower dence was practically secured. From this House of the United States Congress pro- time the annexation of Texas to the viding for the annexation of the Hawaiian United States became a great political Islands, and was referred to the commit- issue, both by the Southern politicians, tee on foreign affairs. On June 16, 1897, who were anxious to add more slave terri- a treaty was signed in Washington by tory to the United States, and by Texas representatives of both governments and herself, whose finances had fallen into transmitted to the Senate. The commit- fearful disorder through careless and tee on foreign relations reported favor- extravagant expenditures. This was not ably upon it, but the Senate adjourned made possible until the election of Polk without action. In Hawaii, the treaty was to the Presidency, when the campaign cry ratified by both Houses of the Congress by of the South was, " Texas or Disunion." unanimous vote, Sept. 10. Many attempts The first resolutions were introduced into were' made in later sessions of Congress, Congress in the House, Jan. 25, 1845;- hut it was not till June 6, 1898, when the by joint resolution, in the House, Dec. United States Senate adopted a direct an- 16; and in the Senate, Dec. 22. Texas nexation resolution, that anything was was admitted as a State without the for- accomplished towards the acquisition of mality of a treaty. It added 376,133 the islands. The President signed the square miles to the territory of the United resolution on the following day, and or- States. dered the cruiser Philadelphia to proceed Mexico and California. — This terri- to Honolulu and raise the American flag, tory, comprising 545,783 square miles, Commissioners were appointed to prepare and including the present States of Cali- a plan for the future government of the fornia, Nevada, and Utah, and a large islands, and formal possession was taken part of Arizona and New Mexico, and part on Aug. 12, 1898. See Blount, James H.; of Colorado, came to the United States as Hawaii. a result of the Mexican War (q. v.), Wake Island.— This low-lying atoll in through conquest and purchase. The the midst of the Pacific Ocean, half-way treaty, known as the treaty of Guada- between the Hawaiian Islands and the loupe Hidalgo, was signed Feb. 2, 1848, Philippines, was taken possession of, in and was ratified by the Senate March 10, the name of the United States, by a land- the United States paying $15,000,000 in ing-party under the command of Corn- addition to assuming the payment of mander Edward D. Taussig, of the U. S. S. claims of American citizens against Mex- Bennington, Jan. 17, 1899. Wake Island ico amounting to $3,250,000. is said to have been by rights already Uadsden Purchase.— In 1853 the United American territory, since, in 1851, Ad- States bought from Mexico a strip of miral Wilkes surveyed the place and as- land, now forming that part of Arizona serted title. As a cable station, in view and New Mexico lying south of the Gila of the laying of a Pacific cable, it will be River and extending from the Rio Grande, invaluable. See Wake Island. near El Paso, on the east, to the Colorado Porto Rico.— This large and fertile isl- I.— b 17 ACQUISITION OF TERBITOHY— ACRELItfS and, together with its outlying smaller stored negotiations were entered into islands, came into the possession of the which resulted in the partitioning of the United States at the close of the Spanish- islands and the surrendering by Germany American War, by the ratification of the and Great Britain of all rights to the treaty of peace (1899). At the time of island of Tutuila, containing the magnif- the suspension of hostilities General Miles icent harbor of Pago Pago, and all other was conducting a campaign in the island, islands of the Samoan group east of long. He had met with very little resistance, 171° W. of Greenwich. The treaty was and had been treated by the natives on ratified in the Senate, Jan. 16, 1900, and every hand more as a liberator than a con- formal possession of the islands was taken queror. The island has valuable natural by the President on March 16. See resources and possesses a delightful cli- Samoa; Tutuila. mate. See Porto Rico. Cibitu and Cagayan. — The Peace Com- Philippine Islands. — After his great missioners in Paris (1899) who nego- victory in Manila Bay, May 1, 1898, Dew- tiated the transfer of the Philippine Isl- ey refrained from attacking the city until ands from Spain to the United States he could receive co-operation from the drew a geographical boundary-line fixed land forces. General Merritt, as first mil- by meridians of longitude and parallels itary governor of the Philippines, was of latitude. The lines described a paral- despatched immediately with a large mil- lelogram with the exception that there itary force, which was landed during the was an inset in the southwestern corner months of June and July. The first land to exclude some islands off the coast of engagement took place on Aug. 9, near Borneo. A year after the signing of the Malate, and the city was stormed and capt- treaty of Paris (1899), the fact was dis- ured on Aug. 13, one day after the sign- covered that in laying down these boun- ing of the protocol, a fact of which the daries the commissioners had excluded American generals were in ignorance. The the islands of Cibitu and Cagayan of final treaty of peace (1899) ceded the en- the Philippine group. After negotiations tire group of islands to the United States lasting for several months, in which Spain upon the consideration of a payment of refused to recede from her position of $20,000,000. See Philippine Islands. ownership, the United States, in July, Guam. — The principal island of the 1900, in order to remove cause of possible Ladrone group, in the Pacific Ocean, was irritation as well as to protect herself seized by the United States naval authori- from their future purchase by other Eu- ties on June 21, 1898, and was ceded by ropean powers, bought the islands from Spain to the United States by the treaty Spain for $100,000. The islands are small of peace following the Spanish-American and thinly populated, but are valuable War. Formal American possession was for their pearl and shell fisheries. Rati- taken Feb. 1, 1899. On Oct. 4, 1900, by fixations of the treaty of cession were order of the Navy Department, Guam was exchanged in Washington on March 23, made a separate naval and government 1901. station. The harbor of San Luis d'Apra See also Annexed Territory, Status is said to be one of the finest in the of; Anti-Expansionists ; Atkinson, Ed- world. See Agana; Guam. ward; Bryan, William Jennings; Im- Samoa. — The independence and neutral- perialtsm. * ity of the Samoan Islands were guaran- Acre, one of the principal land meas- teed in 1890 by tripartite agreement be- ures in the United States. The English tween Great Britain, Germany, and the imperial or standard acre, by statute United States. The political situation re- (George IV., 1824) contains 4,840 square mained very peaceable until 1899, when yards, and this is the accepted standard some of the followers of Mataafa, the for- in the United States. mer king, then in exile, instigated a revo- Acrelius, Israel, clergvman ; born in lution. This was quickly suppressed by Osteraker, Sweden, Dec." 25, 1714; was the interference of the above powers, who ordained in 1743; came to America to landed marines and put the insurgents to preside over the Swedish congregations in flight. Soon after quiet had been re- New Sweden in 1749. His work was 18 ACROPOLIS— ADAIR marked with success, but after seven of this you shall one day have proof, for years' toil he was forced to resign by ill- I have sworn to maintain an unsparing health, and returned to Sweden. His pub- conflict while one white man remains in lications include The Swedish Colonies in my borders; not openly in the battle-field America (1759, translated into English in though even thus we fear not to meet you' 1874), and articles on America. He died but by stratagem, ambush, and midnight in Fellingsbro, April 25, 1800. See New surprisal." De Soto then demanded that Sweden, Founding of. Acuera should yield obedience to the Span- Acropolis, a citadel, usually on the ish monarch. " I am a king in my own summit of a rock or hill. The most cele- land," said the cacique, " and will never brated was the one at Athens. become the vassal of a mortal like my- Acta Diurna, the Roman gazette con- self. Vile and pusillanimous is he who taining an authorized account of daily submits to the yoke of another when he transactions. This was exposed daily in may be free! As for me and my people, the Forum. we prefer death to the loss of liberty and Acuera, a Creek Indian cacique, the the subjugation of our country." De Soto territory of whose people in Florida was could never pacify Acuera, and during early invaded by De Soto. The cruel- the twenty days that he remained in ties of Narvaez and De Soto in Florida the cacique's dominions his command suf- aroused among the native tribes feel- fered dreadfully. A Spaniard could not ings of the bitterest hatred. Narvaez go 100 paces from his camp without be- caused a captive cacique, or chief, to be ing slain and his severed head carried in mutilated after the first engagement with triumph to Acuera. Fourteen Castilians the hostile Indians. His nose was cut so perished, and many were severely off, and he was otherwise disfigured ; and wounded. " Keep on ! robbers and trai- the invader caused fierce blood-hounds to tors!" said the cacique. "In my province tear the chief's mother in pieces in the and in Apalacha you will be treated as presence of her children. Narvaez sup- you deserve. We will quarter and hang posed this would strike terror, and make every captive on the highest tree." And conquest easy; but he was mistaken. De they did so. See De Soto and Narvaez. Soto had blood-hounds, iron neck-collars, Adair, James, author; lived among the handcuffs, chains, and instruments of tort- Chickasaw and Cherokee Indians in 1735- ure, wherewith to subdue the barbarians, 75. He held the opinion and attempted to who were really less barbarous than he. show that the American Indians were de- He loaded his captives with chains, and scended from the Jews. He was the author made beasts of burden of them, regardless of a History of the American Indians (in of age or sex. After some acts of this which he elaborated his opinion), and of kind, he sought to conciliate Acuera, whose vocabularies of Indian dialects, territory he had invaded, for he was pow- Adair, John, military officer; born in erful, and commanded many warriors. De Chester county, S. C, in 1759. He served Soto invited the dusky sovereign to a in the Continental army during the friendly interview, when he received from Revolution, and in the wars against the Acuera this haughty reply: "Others of frontier Indians in 1791-93. He was your accursed race [Narvaez and his United States Senator in Congress in men] have, in years past, disturbed our 1805-6; and as volunteer aide to Gen- peaceful shores. They have taught me eral Shelby at the battle of the Thames, what you are. What is your employment? in 1813, he showed much bravery To wander about like vagabonds from land and skill. He distinguished himself as to land; to rob the poor and weak; to be- commander of the Kentucky troops in tray the confiding; to murder the defence- the battle of New Orleans, in January, loss in cold blood. No! with such a peo- 1815. From 1820 to 1824 he was govern- ple I want neither peace nor friendship, or of Kentucky, having served in the legis- War — never-ending, exterminating war — lature of that State; and from 1831 to is all I ask. You boast yourself to be 1833 was a Representative in Congress, valiant— and so you may be; but my He died in Harrodsburg, Ky., May 19, faithful warriors are not less brave, and 1840. 19 ADAIR— ADAMS Adair, William P., born in 1828. He was one of the chiefs of the Cherokee na- tion, and commanded a brigade of Indians organized by Gen. Albert Pike on behalf of the Confederacy. This brigade took part in the battle of Pea Ridge, Ark., in 1862. He died in 1880. Adams and Liberty. See Paine, R. T. Adams, Abigail ( Smith ), wife of Pres- ident John Adams; born in Weymouth, Mass., Nov. 23, 1744; daughter of the Rev. William Smith; was married Aug. 25, 1764, when Mr. Adams was a rising young law- yer in Boston. In 1784 she joined her hus- band in France, and in the following year went with him to London, where neither her husband nor herself received the cour- tesies due their position. In 1789-1810 she resided at the seat of the national government, and passed the remainder of her life in the Quincy part of Braintree, dying Oct. 28, 1818. Her correspondence, preserved in Familiar Letters of John Adams and His Wife, Abigail Adams, dur- ing the Revolution, throws important light upon the life of the times which it covers. Adams, Brooks, author; born in Quin- cy, Mass., June 24, 1848; son of Charles Francis; was graduated at Harvard Col- lege in 1870; spent a year in the law school there; was secretary to his father while the latter was serving as an arbi- trator on the Alabama Claims, under the Treaty of Washington; and after his re- turn from Geneva he was admitted to the bar and practised till 1881, when he be- gan applying himself chiefly to literature. Besides numerous articles in magazines and other periodicals, he has published The Emancipation of Massachusetts, The Law of Civilization and Decay, etc. Adams, Charles, lawyer; born in Ar- lington Vt., March 12, 1785; educated himself for college, and was graduated at the University of Vermont in 1804. Dur- ing the Canadian difficulties of 1838 he was the friend and legal adviser of Gen- eral Wool, and subsequently wrote a his- tory of the events of that uprising under the title of The Patriot War. He attain- ed a large practice in his profession, and was a voluminous contributor to period- ical literature on the public events of his day. He died in Burlington, Vt., Feb. 13, 1861. Adams, Charles Follen, humorous writer; born in Dorchester, Mass., April 21, 1842; received a common-school edu- cation; and was wounded and taken pris- oner at Gettysburg while serving in the Union army. Since 1872 he has become widely known by his humorous poems in German dialect, of which Leedle Yawcob Strauss and other Poems and Dialect Ballads are the most popular. Adams, Charles Francis, statesman; born in Boston, Mass., Aug. 18, 1807; CHARLES FRANCIS ADAMS. son of John Quincy Adams; was gradu- ated at Harvard College in 1825. He ac- companied his father to St. Petersburg and England, where he passed much of his childhood until the return of his family to America in 1817. Mr. Adams studied law in the office of Daniel Webster, and was admitted to the bar in 1828, but never practised it as a vocation. In 1829 he married a daughter of Peter C. Brooks, of Boston. For five years he was a member of the legislature of Massachusetts. Hav- ing left the Whig Party, he was a candi- date of the Free-soil Party (q. v.) in 1848 for the Vice-Presidency of the United States, Mr. Van Buren being the candidate for the Presidency. They were defeated. In 1850-56 Mr. Adams published the Life and Works of John Adams (his grand- father), in 10 volumes. In 1859 he was elected to Congress from the district which his father long represented. He was then a Republican in politics. In March, 1861, he w T as appointed minister to Great Brit- ain, where he managed his diplomatic 20 ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS duties with much skill during one of the you and our whole country — were drawing most trying times in our history — that of breath after the struggle of Gettysburg, the Civil War. He remained as American For three long days we had stood the minister in London until 1868, when, in strain of conflict, and now, at last, when February, he resigned. In 1872 Mr. Adams the nation's birthday dawned, the shat- was first a Liberal Republican, and then tered rebel columns had sullenly with- a Democrat, in politics. His labors in the drawn from our front, and we drew that field of literature were various. From long breath of deep relief which none have 1845 to 1848 he edited a daily newspaper ever drawn who have not passed in safety in Boston, and was long either a regular through the shock of doubtful battle. Nor or an occasional contributor to the North was our country gladdened then by news American Revieio. His principal task was from Gettysburg alone. The army that the preparation of the Life and Works of day twined noble laurel garlands round John Adams, and a Life of John Adams, the proud brow of the mother-land. Vicks- in 2 volumes. He also issued the Life burg was, thereafter, to be forever asso- and Works of John Quincy Adams, in ciated with the Declaration of Indepen- 12 volumes. He died in Boston, Nov. dence, and the glad anniversary rejoicings, 21, 1886. When the spirit of secession as they rose from every town and village was rampant in Congress late in Decern- and city of the loyal North, mingled with ber, 1860, he tried to soothe the passions the last sullen echoes that died away from of the Southern politicians by offering in our cannon over the Cemetery Ridge, and the House Committee of Thirty- three a res- were answered by glad shouts of victory olution, " That it is expedient to propose from the far Southwest. To all of us an amendment to the Constitution, to the of this generation — and especially to such effect that no future amendments of it in of us as were ourselves part of those great regard to slavery shall be made unless pro- events — this celebration, therefore, now posed by a slave State and ratified by all has and must ever retain a special signif- the States." It was passed by only three icance. It belongs to us, as well as to dissenting voices in the committee. our fathers. As upon this day, ninety- Adams, Charles Francis, lawyer and three years ago, this nation was brought historian; born in Boston, Mass., May 27, into existence through the efforts of oth- 1835; second son of Charles Francis, 1st; ers, so, upon this day, six years ago, I am was graduated at Harvard College in disposed to believe through our own ef- 1856, and admitted to the bar two years forts, it dramatically touched the climax afterwards. During the Civil War he of its great argument, served in the Union army, attaining the The time that has since elapsed enables rank of brevet brigadier-general. us now to look back and to see things in He was appointed a member of the their true proportions. We begin to real- Board of Railway Commissioners of Mas- ize that the years we have so recently sachusetts in 1869; and was president of passed through, though we did not appre- the Union Pacific Railway Company in ciate it at the time, were the heroic years 1884-91. In 1895 he was elected presi- of American history. Now that their pas- dent of the Massachusetts Historical So- sionate excitement is over, it is pleasant ciety. His publications include, Railroads, to dwell upon them — to recall the rising their Origin and Problems; Massachusetts, of a great people — the call to arms as it its Historians and its History; Three boomed from our hill-tops and clashed Episodes of Massachusetts History; Life from our steeples — the eager patriotism of Charles Francis Adams; Richard Henry of that fierce April which kindled new Dana, a Biography, etc. sympathies in every bosom, which caused The Double Anniversary, '76 and '63. — the miser to give freely of his wealth, the On July 4, 1869, he delivered the follow- wife with eager hands to pack the knap- ing historical address at Quincy, Mass.: sack of her husband, and mothers, with eyes glistening with tears of pride, to Six years ago, on this anniversary, we look out upon the glistening bayonets of — and not only we who stood upon the their boys; then came the frenzy of impa- scarred and furrowed field of battle, but tience and the defeat entailed upon us by 21 ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS rashness and inexperience, before our na- tion settled down, solidly and patiently, to its work, determined to save itself from destruction; and then followed the long, weary years of fear and hope, until at last that day came six years ago which we now celebrate — the day which saw the flood-tide of rebellion reach high-water mark, whence it never after ceased to re- cede. At the moment, probably, none of us, either at home or at the seat of war, realized the grandeur of the situation — the dramatic power of the incidents, or the Titanic nature of the conflict. To you who were at home — mothers, fathers, wives, sisters, brothers, citizens of the common country, if nothing else — the agony of sus- pense, the anxiety, the joy, and, too often, the grief which was to know no end, which marked the passage of those days, left little either of time or inclination to dwell upon aught save the horrid reality of the drama. To others, who more im- mediately participated in those great events, the daily vexations and annoy- ances — the hot and dusty day — the sleep- less, anxious night — the rain upon the unsheltered bivouac — the deep lassitude which succeeded the excitement of action — the cruel orders which recognized no fatigue and made no allowance for labors undergone — all these small trials of the soldier's life made it possible to but few to realize the grandeur of the drama in which they were playing a part. Yet we were not wholly oblivious of it. Now and then I come across strange evidences of this in turning over the leaves of the few weather-stained, dog-eared volumes which were the companions of my life in camp. The title-page of one bears witness to the fact that it was my companion at Gettys- burg, and in it I recently found some lines of Browning's noble poem of Saul marked and altered to express my sense of our situation, and bearing date upon this very 5th of July. The poet had described in them the fall of snow in the spring-time from a mountain, under which nestled a valley; the altering of a few words made them well describe the approach of our army to Gettysburg. " Fold on fold, all at once, we crowd thun- drously down to your feet, And there fronts you, stark, black but alive yet, your army of old, With its rents, the successive bequeathing of conflicts untold; Yea ! — each harm got in fighting your bat- tles, each furrow and scar Of its head thrust 'twixt you and the tem- pest — all hail ! here we are !" And there we were, indeed, and then and there was enacted such a celebration as I hope may never again be witnessed there or elsewhere on another 4th of July. Even as I stand here before you, through the lapse of years and the shifting expe- riences of the recent past visions and memories of those days rise thick and fast before me. We did, indeed, crowd thun- drously down to their feet ! Of the events of those three terrible days I may speak with feeling and yet with modesty, for small indeed was the part which those with whom I served were called upon to play. When those great bodies of infan- try drove together in the crash of battle, the clouds of cavalry which had hitherto covered up their movements were swept aside to the flanks. Our work for that time was done, nor had it been an easy or a pleasant work. The road to Gettysburg had been paved with our bodies and water- ed with our blood. Three weeks before, in the middle days of June, I, a captain of cavalry, had taken the field at the head of 100 mounted men, the joy and pride of my life. Through twenty days of almost incessant conflict the hand of death had been heavy upon us, and now, upon the eve of Gettysburg, thirty-four of the hun- dred only remained, and our comrades were dead upon the field of battle, or languish- ing in hospitals, or prisoners in the hands of the enemy. Six brave young fellows we had buried in one grave where they fell on the heights of Aldie. It was late on the evening of the 1st of July that there came to us rumors of heavy fighting at Gettysburg, near 40 miles away. The regiment happened then to be detached, and its orders for the 2d were to move in the rear of Sedgwick's Corps and see that no man left the column. All that day we marched to the sound of the can- non; Sedgwick, very grim and stern, was pressing forward his tired men, and we soon saw that for once there would be no stragglers from the ranks. As the day grew old, and as we passed rapidly up from the rear to the head of the col- 22 ADAMS, CHARLES FRANCIS limn, the roar of battle grew more dis- go abroad for examples of endurance and tinct, until at last we crowned a hill, and soldierly bearing. The achievement of the contest broke upon us. Across the Sedgwick and the brave 6th Corps, as they deep valley, some 2 miles away, we could marched upon the field of Gettysburg on see the white smoke of the bursting that second day of July, far excels the shells, while below the sharp, incessant vaunted efforts of the French Zouaves, rattle of the musketry told of the fierce Twenty-four hours later we stood upon struggle that was going on. Before us ran that same ground ; many dear friends had the straight, white, dusty road, choked yielded up their young lives during the with artillery, ambulances, caissons, am- hours which had elapsed, but, though munition trains, all pressing forward to 20,000 fellow-creatures were wounded or the field of battle, while mixed among dead around us, though the flood-gates of them, their bayonets gleaming through the heaven seemed open and the torrents fell dustlike waveletb on a river of steel, tired, upon the quick and the dead, yet the ele- footsore hungry, thirsty, begrimed with ments seemed electrified with a certain sweat and dust, the gallant infantry of magnetic influence of victory, and, as the Sedgwick's Corps hurried to the sound great army sank down overwearied in its of the cannon as men might have flocked tracks, it felt that the crisis and danger to a feast. Moving rapidly forward, we was passed — that Gettysburg was im- crossed the brook which runs so promi- mortal. nently across the map of the field of bat- May I not, then, well express the hope tie. and halted on its farther side to await that never again may we or ours be called our orders. Hardly had I dismounted upon so to celebrate this anniversary? from my horse when, looking back, I saw And yet now that the passionate hopes that the head of the column had reached and fears of those days are all over — now the brook and deployed and halted on its that the distracting doubts and untold anx- other bank, and already the stream was ieties are buried and almost forgotten, filled with naked men shouting with pleas- we love to remember the gathering of the ure as they washed off the sweat of their hosts, to hear again in memory the shock long day's march. Even as I looked, the of the battle, and to wonder at the mag- noise of the battle grew louder, and soon nificence of the drama. The passion and the symptoms of movement were evident, the excitement is gone, and we can look The rap pel was heard, the bathers hur- at the work we have done and pronounce riedly clad themselves, the ranks were upon it. I do not fear the sober second formed, and the sharp, quick snap of the judgment. Our work was a good work ; it percussion-caps told us the men were pre- was well done, and it was done thoroughly, paring their weapons for action. Almost Some one has said, ' Happy is the people immediately a general officer rode rapidly which has no history.' Not so! As it is to the front of the line, addressed to it a better to have loved and lost than never few brief, energetic words, the short, sharp to have loved at all, so it is better to have order to move by the flank was given, lived greatly, even though we have suffered followed immediately by the ' double greatly, than to have passed a long life of quick,' the officer placed himself at the inglorious ease. Our generation — yes, we head of the column, and that brave infan- ourselves — have been a part of great things, try, which had marched almost 40 miles We have suffered greatly and greatly re- si nee the setting of yesterday's sun — which joiced; we have drunk deep of the cup during that day had hardly known either of joy and of sorrow; we have tasted the sleep or food or rest or shelter from the agony of defeat; and we have supped full July heat — now, as the shadows grew with the pleasures of victory. We have long, hurried forward on the run to take proved ourselves equal to great deeds, and its place in the front of battle, and to bear have learned what qualities were in us, up the reeling fortunes of the day. which, in more peaceful times, we our- It is said that, at the crisis of Solfe- selves did not suspect, rino, Marshal MacMahon appeared with And, indeed, I would here, in closing, his corps upon the field of battle, his men fain address a few words to such of you. having run for 7 miles. We need not if any such are here, who, like myself, 23 ADAMS may have been soldiers during the War country and not to the exigencies of party of the Rebellion. We should never more politics; it is for us ever to bear in mind be partisans. We have been a part of the higher allegiance we have sworn, and great events in the service of the common to remember that he who has once been a country, we have worn her uniforms, we soldier of the mother-land degrades him- have received her pay, and devoted our- self forever when he becomes the slave of selves, to the death if need be, in her ser- faction. Then, at last, if through life we vice. When we were blackened by the ever bear these lessons freshly in mind, smoke of Antietam, we did not ask or will it be well for us, will it be well for care whether those who stood shoulder our country, will it be well for those to shoulder beside us, whether he who led whose name we bear, that our bones also us, whether those who sustained us, were do not moulder with those of our brave Democrats or Republicans, Conservatives comrades beneath the sods of Gettysburg, or Radicals; we asked only that they or that our graves do not look down on might prove as true as was the steel we the swift - flowing Mississippi from the grasped, and as brave as we ourselves historic heights of Vicksburg. would fain have been. When we stood Adams, Charles Kendall, educator like a wall of stone vomiting fire from the and historian; born in Derby, Vt., Jan. heights of Gettysburg, nailed to our po- 24, 1835; was graduated at the University sition through three long days of mortal of Michigan, and continued his studies in hell, did we ask each other whether that Germany, France, and Italy. In 1867-85 brave officer who fell while gallantly lead- he was Professor of History in the Uni- ing the counter-charge, whether that cool versity of Michigan; in 1885-92 was pres- gunner steadily serving his piece before ident of Cornell University; in 1892-1901 us midst the storm of shot and shell, was president of the University of Wis- whether the poor, wounded, mangled, gasp- consin; and from 1892 till 1895 was ing comrades, crushed and torn, and dying editor-in-chief of the revised edition of in agony around us, had voted for Lin- Johnson's Universal Cyclopcedia. He was coin or Douglas, for Breckenridge or Bell ? author of Democracy and Monarchy in We then were full of other thoughts. We France; Manual of Historical Literature ; prized men for what they were worth to British Orations; Christopher Columbus, the common country of us all, and recked his Life and Work, etc. He died in Red- not of empty words. Was the man true, lands, Cal., July 26, 1902. was he brave, was he earnest, was all we Adams, Cyrus Cornelius, geographer; thought of then, not did he vote or think born in Naperville, 111., Jan. 7, 1849; with us, or label himself with our party was educated at the University of Chi- name. This lesson let us try to remember, cago, in 1876. On the founding of the We cannot give to party all that we once Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, offered to country, but our duty is not yet was chosen president of its department done. We are no longer, what we have of geography. He is widely known as a been, the young guard of the republic; writer and lecturer on geographical we have earned an exemption from the topics; has travelled extensively; and dangers of the field and camp, and the old was a delegate to the International musket or the crossed sabres hang harm- Geographical Congress, in London, Eng- less over our winter fires, never more to be land, in 1895, and a speaker at the Afri- grasped in these hands henceforth devoted can Congress, in Atlanta, Ga., the same to more peaceful labors; but the duties of year. He has made a special study of the citizen, and of the citizen who has re- the geography of Africa, and has collected ceived his baptism in fire, are still incum- for the Brooklyn Institute over 2,500 bent upon us. Though young in years, we specimens of appliances used in the ten should remember that henceforth, and as principal countries of the world in geo- long as we live in the land, we are the graphical education. ancients, the veterans of the republic. As Adams, Fort, one of the largest and such, it is for us to protect in peace what strongest defensive works in the United we preserved in war; it is for us to look States; near Brenton Cove, 3% miles at all things with a view to the common from the city of Newport, R. I. For 24 ADAMS several years the War Department has was published in 1832. Miss Adams was been engaged in providing for the most small in stature, very deaf in her old age, thorough fortification of Newport Har- fond of strong tea, and an inveterate bor. In 1894 preliminary plans were snuff-taker. She derived very little pe- completed calling for batteries of six- cuniary gains from her writings; but her teen mortars each, to be grouped in sec- friends established a comfortable annuity tions of four mortars, and provided with for her. She was one of the pioneer a casemate for the gunners, and a wall literary women of the United States, pos- of sufficient strength to resist hostile at- sessing rare modesty and great purity of tack. Two of these batteries were planned character. She died in Brookline, Mass., to be erected at Dutch Island and Fort Nov. 15, 1831. Her remains were the Adams. At both of these points there first interred in Mount Auburn Cemetery, were already torpedo casements. The new Adams, Henry, historian; born in battery at Fort Adams was designed to Boston, Mass., Feb. 16, 1838; third son assist in fortifying the main entrance to of Charles Francis, 1st; was graduated at Narraganset Bay, while the one at Harvard College in 1858; acted as pri- Dutch Island would aid in resisting the vate secretary to his father while the approach of an enemy through what is latter was American minister to Great called West Passage. Fort Adams Britain, in 1861-68; was Associate Pro- mounts 460 guns, and besides being a fessor of History at Harvard in 1870-77; work of protection for the city and har- and editor of the North American Review bor of Newport, it also protects the in 1870-76. His principal works are, United States torpedo station on Goat Historical Essays; Documents Relating Island, and the training station for naval to New England Federalism ; History of apprentices and the Naval War College, the United States from 1801 to 1817 (9 both on Coasters Harbor Island. volumes). Adams, George Burton, educator and Adams, Henry A., Jr.; born in Penn- historian; born in Vermont in 1851; Pro- sylvania in 1833. Graduated at Annapo- fessor of History in Yale University. His lis in 1851. Took part in the engagement late works include: Civilization during with the forts at the mouth of Canton the Middle Ages; Why Americans Dislike River, China, in 1854. Was on the England; The Growth of the French Na- Brooklyn at the passage of Forts St. Hon; and European History, an Outline Philip and Jackson in 1862, and also of its Development. participated in the attack on Fort Fisher. Adams, Hannah, historian; born in Was highly praised by Admiral Porter Medfield, Mass., in 1755. By an early in his official despatches, fondness for study, which was promoted Adams, Henry C; born in Davenport, by her father, a man of literary tastes, she la., 1861. Graduated from Iowa Col- obtained a knowledge of Latin and Greek lege, 1874. Professor of Political Econo- from some divinity students broading at my in the University of Michigan since her father's house before she had arrived 1887. Director of the division of trans- at full womanhood. Her father, a shop- portation of the eleventh census; statis- keeper, failed in business when she was tician to Interstate Commerce Commission seventeen years of age, and his children since 1887; president American Economic were compelled to help themselves. Dur- Association from 1895-97. He has writ- ing the war for independence she sup- ten Lectures on Political Economy; State ported herself by teaching and lace-mak- in Relation to Industrial Action; Public ing. Miss Adams wrote a History of the Debts; The Science of Finance. Jews, in which she was assisted by the Adams, Herbert Baxter, historian Abbe Grggoire, witn whom she corre- and editor; born in Shutesbury, Mass., sponded. She also wrote a History of April 16, 1850; was graduated at Am- New England, published in 1799. She herst College in 1872 and at Heidelberg also wrote books on religious subjects; University in 1876; and in 1878-81 was and, in 1814, published a Controversy with successively Associate Professor and Pro- Dr. Morse (Rev. Jedidiah). Her auto- fessor of History in Johns Hopkins Uni- biography, continued by Mrs. G. G. Lee, versity; also in 1878-81 lecturer in Smith 25 ADAMS College, Northampton, Mass. He had been for many years secretary of the American Historical Association and edi- tor of its Reports, editor of the Johns Hopkins Studies in Historical and Politi- cal Science, and editor of Contributions to American Educational History, pub- lished by the United States board of edu- cation. He wrote a large number of edu- cational and historical monographs. He died in Amherst, Mass., July 30, 1901. Adams, Isaac, inventor; born in Rochester, N. H., in 1803; learned the cabinet-maker's trade; in 1824 settled in Boston and worked in a machine shop. He invented the printing-press to which his name was given in 1828, and two years later it was perfected and soon came to be generally used. In 1840 he was elected to the Massachusetts Senate. He died in Sandwich, N. H., July 19, 1883. ADAMS, JOHN Adams, John, second President of the speaker and most useful committee-man United States; from 1797 to 1801; Fed- eralist; born in Braintree Quincy), Mass., Oct. 30, 1735. He was graduated at Harvard College in 1755, and immediately afterwards taught school in the Continental Congress until he was (near appointed commissioner to France late in 1777, to supersede Deane. He advo- cated, helped to frame, voted for, and signed the Declaration of Independence, at Worcester, where he began the study of and he was a most efficient member of law. His father was in moderate cir- cumstances — a selectman and a farmer. Beginning the profession of law in Brain- tree in 1758, he soon acquired a good the Board of War from June, 1776, until December, 1777. He reached Paris April 8, 1778, where he found a feud between Franklin and Lee, two practice; and, when he was twenty-nine other commissioners. He advised in- years of age, he married Abigail Smith, trusting that mission to one commis- an accomplished woman possessed of great sioner, and Franklin was made sole common-sense. His first appearance in ambassador. He was appointed minister the political arena was as author of In- (1779) to treat with Great Britain for structions of the Town of Braintree to peace, and sailed for France in November. its Representatives on the Subject of the He did not serve as commissioner there, Stamp Act, which was adopted by over but, in July, 1780, he went to Holland to forty towns. Associated with Gridley negotiate a loan. He was also received and Otis in supporting a memorial ad- by the States-General as United States dressed to the governor and council, pray- minister, April 19, 1782. He obtained a ing that the courts might proceed with- loan for Congress of $2,000,000, and made out the use of stamps, Adams opened the a treaty of amity and commerce. He re- case by declaring that the Stamp Act turned to Paris in October, and assisted was void, as Parliament had no right to in negotiating the preliminary treaty of make such a law. He began early to peace. With Franklin and Jay, he nego- write political essays for the newspapers; and, in 1768, he went to Boston, when the town was greatly excited by political dis- turbances. There he was counsel for Cap- tiated a treaty of commerce with Great Britain; and, in the following winter, he negotiated for another Dutch loan. In 1785 Adams went as minister to the tain Preston in the case of the " Boston English Court, and there he prepared his Massacre" ( see Boston ), and in the same Defence of the American Constitution. year (1770) he was elected to a seat in Being coldly received, he returned home, the General Court. From that time John and, in 1788, was elected Vice-President of Adams was a leader among the patriots the United States under the national Con- in Massachusetts. He was a delegate to stitution. He sustained the policy of the first Continental Congress (1774), Washington through the eight years of his where he took a leading part. Return- administration, opposed the French Revo- ing, he was elected a member of the Pro- lution, and was a strong advocate for the vincial Congress. He was an efficient neutrality of the United States. In 1796 26 ADAMS, JOHN he was chosen President by a small ma- Spain, and the Papal States, whose rulers jority over Jefferson, and his administra- were enemies of republican government, tion was vehemently opposed by the new Lord Kanes uttered a similar prophecy in party known as Republicans, led by the 1765. latter, its real founder. He had much On June 1, 1785, he was introduced by trouble with the French Directory the Marquis of Carmarthen to the King throughout his entire administration, and of Great Britain as ambassador extraor- drew upon himself great blame for favor- dinary from the United States of America iv.g the Alien and Sedition Law. In his to the Court of London. The inexecution eagerness for re-election Adams offended a of the treaty of peace on the part of Great powerful faction of his party, and was Britain had threatened an open rupture beaten by Jefferson at the election in between the two nations. Adams was sent 1800. Then he retired to private life, with full powers to arrange all matters in where he watched the course of events dispute. His mission was almost fruit- with great interest for twenty-five years less. He found the temper of the British longer, dying July 4, 1826. His death oc- people, from the peasant up to the mon- curred on the same day, and at almost the arch, very unfriendly to the United States, same hour, as that of Jefferson, his col- He was never insulted, but the chilliness league on the drafting committee and in of the social atmosphere and the studied signing of the Declaration of Indepen- neglect of his official representations often dence, fifty years before. His biography, excited hot indignation in his bosom. But diary, essays, and correspondence were his government, under the old confedera- edited and published, in 10 octavo vol- tion, was so weak and powerless that he umes, by his grandson, Charles Francis was compelled to endure the hauteur of Adams. Though courteous in his manner British officials in silence. They gave him usually, he was, at times, irritable and to understand that they would make no imperious. See Cabinet, President's. arrangements about commercial relations While he was teaching school at Worces- between the two governments; and when ter, in 1755, he wrote a letter to Nathan he proposed to his own government to pass Webb, in which he remarked : " Mighty countervailing navigation laws for the states and kingdoms are not exempted benefit of American commerce, he was met from change. . . . Soon after the Reforma- by the stern fact that it possessed no pow- tion, a few people came over into this new er to do so. At length, believing his mis- world for conscience' sake. This appar- sion to be useless, and the British govern- ently trivial incident may transfer the ment sturdily refusing to send a minister great seat of empire to America. ... If to the United States, Mr. Adams asked we can remove the turbulent Gallics, our and obtained permission to return home, people, according to the exactest calcula- Mr. Adams saw with alarm the con- tions, will, in another century, become tagion of revolution that went out from more numerous than in England itself. Paris, in 1789, affecting England, and, in The united force of Europe will not be a degree, his own country. It was differ- able to subdue us. The only way to keep ent, in form and substance, from that us from setting up for ourselves is to dis- which had made his own people free. With unite us." Less than thirty years after- a view to avert its evil tendencies, he wards the prophet stood before the mon- wrote a series of articles for a newspaper, arch of England as the representative of entitled Discourses on Davila. These an American republic, where, only ten contained an analysis of Davila's History years before, were flourishing English col- of the Civil War in France, in the six- onies. And just a century after that teenth century. In those essays he main- prophecy was uttered the number and tained that, as self-esteem was the great strength of the people here exceeded the spring of human activity, it was impor- calculation of young Adams. The popula- tant in a popular government to provide tion then was more than double that of for the moderate gratification of a desire England; and, while his country was for distinction, applause, and admiration. fiercely torn by civil war, its government He therefore advocated a liberal use of defied the power of Great Britain, France, titles and ceremonial honors for those in 27 ADAMS, JOHN office, and an aristocratic Senate. He pro- posed a popular Assembly on the broadest democratic basis to counteract any undue influence; and to keep in check encroach- ments upon each other, he recommended a powerful executive. The publication of these essays at that time was unfortunate, when jealousy was rife in the public mind concerning the national Constitution. His ideas were so cloudily expressed that his meaning was misunderstood by many and misinterpreted by a few. He was charged with advocating a monarchy and a hered- itary Senate. The essays disgusted Jeffer- son, who for a time cherished the idea that Hamilton, Adams, Jay, and others were at the head of a conspiracy to overthrow the republican institutions of the United States. The Threatening Attitude of France. — On May 16, 1797, President Adams com- municated the following message to the Congress on the serious relations which had sprung up between the United States and France : Gentlemen of the Senate and Gentlemen of the House of Representatives, — The per- sonal inconveniences to the members of the Senate and of the House of Rep- resentatives in leaving their families and private affairs at this season of the year are so obvious that I the more regret the extraordinary occasion which has rendered the convention of Congress indispensable. It would have afforded me the highest satisfaction to have been able to con- gratulate you on the restoration of peace to the nations of Europe whose animosities have endangered our tranquillity; but we have still abundant cause of gratitude to the Supreme Dispenser of national blessings for general health and prom- ising seasons, for domestic and social hap- piness, for the rapid progress and ample acquisitions of industry through extensive territories, for civil, political, and religious liberty. While other states are desolated with foreign war or convulsed with intes- tine divisions, the United States present the pleasing prospect of a nation governed by mild and equal laws, generally satisfied with the possession of their rights, neither envying the advantages nor fearing the power of other nations, solicitous only for the maintenance of order and justice and the preservation of liberty, increasing daily in their attachment to a system of government in proportion to their experi- ence of its utility, yielding a ready and general obedience to laws flowing from the reason and resting on the only solid foun- dation — the affections of the people. It is with extreme regret that I shall be obliged to turn your thoughts to other circumstances, which admonish us that some of these felicities may not be lasting. But if the tide of our prosperity is full and a reflux commencing, a vigilant circumspec- tion becomes us, that we may meet our re- verses with fortitude and extricate ourselves from their consequences with all the skill we possess and all the efforts in our power. In giving to Congress information of the state of the Union and recommending to their consideration such measures as ap- pear to me to be necessary or expedient, according to my constitutional duty, the causes und the objects of the present ex- traordinary session will be explained. After the President of the United States received information that the French gov- ernment had expressed serious discontents at some proceedings of the government of these States said to affect the interests of France, he thought it expedient to send to that country a new minister, fully instructed to enter on such amicable dis- cussions and to give such candid explana- tions as might happily remove the dis- contents and suspicions of the French government and vindicate the conduct of the United States. For this purpose he selected from among his fellow-citizens a character whose integrity, talents, experi- ence, and services had placed him in the rank of the most esteemed and respected in the nation. The direct object of his mission was expressed in his letter of cre- dence to the French Republic, being " to maintain that good understanding which from the commencement of the alliance had subsisted between the two nations, and to efface unfavorable impressions, banish suspicions, and restore that cordiality which was at once the evidence and pledge of a friendly union." And his instruc- tions were to the same effect, "faithfully to represent the disposition of the gov- ernment and people of the United States (their disposition being one), to remove jealousies and obviate complaints by show- ing that they were groundless, to restore that 28 ADAMS, JOHN mutual confidence which had been so unfort- unately and injuriously impaired, and to explain the relative interests of both coun- tries and the real sentiments of his own." A minister thus specially commissioned it was expected would have proved the in- strument of restoring mutual confidence between the two republics. The first step of the French government corresponded with that expectation. A few days before his arrival at Paris the French minister of foreign relations informed the Amer- ican minister then resident at Paris of the formalities to be observed by himself in taking leave, and by his successor pre- paratory to his reception. These formalities they observed, and on December 9 presented officially to the minister of foreign relations, the one a copy of his letters of recall, the other a copy of his letters of credence. These were laid before the Executive Directory. Two days afterwards the min- ister of foreign relations informed the re- called American minister that the Execu- tive Directory had determined not to re- ceive another minister plenipotentiary from the United States until after the re- dress of grievances demanded of the Amer- ican government, and which the French Republic had a right to expect from it. The American minister immediately en- deavored to ascertain whether by refusing to receive him it was intended that he should retire from the territories of the French Republic, and verbal answers were given that such was the intention of the Directory. For his own justification he desired a written answer, but obtained none until towards the last of January, when, receiving notice in writing to quit the territories of the republic, he pro- ceeded to Amsterdam, where he proposed to wait for instruction from this gov- ernment. During his residence at Paris cards of hospitality were refused him, and he was threatened with being subjected to the jurisdiction of the minister of police; but with becoming firmness he insisted on the protection of the law of nations due to him as the known minister of a foreign power. You will derive further informa- tion from his despatches, which will be laid before you. As it is often necessary that nations should treat for the mutual advantage of their affairs, and especially to accommo- date and terminate differences, and as they can treat only by ministers, the right of embassy is well known and established by the law and usage of nations. The re- fusal on the part of France to receive our minister is, then, the denial of a right; but the refusal to receive him until we have acceded to their demands without dis- cussion and without investigation is to treat us neither as allies nor as friends, nor as a sovereign state. With this conduct of the French gov- ernment it will be proper to take into view the public audience given to the late minister of the United States on his taking leave of the Executive Directory. The speech of the President discloses senti- ments more alarming than the refusal of a minister, because more dangerous to our independence and union, and at the same time studiously marked with indignities towards the government of the United States. It evinces a disposition to sepa- rate the people of the United States from the government, to persuade them that they have different affections, principles, and interests from those of their fellow- citizens whom they themselves have chosen to manage their common concerns, and thus to produce divisions fatal to our peace. Such attempts ought to be repelled with a decision which shall convince France and the world that we are not a degraded people, humiliated under a colo- nial spirit of fear and sense of inferiority, fitted to be the miserable instruments of foreign influence, and regardless of na- tional honor, character, and interest. I should have been happy to have thrown a veil over these transactions if it had been possible to conceal them; but they have passed on the great theatre of the world, in the face of all Europe and America, and with such circumstances of publicity and solemnity that they cannot be disguised and will not soon be forgotten. They have inflicted a wound in the Ameri- can breast. It is my sincere desire, how- ever, that it may be healed. It is my sincere desire, and in this I presume I concur with you and with your constituents, to preserve peace and friend; ship with all nations; and believing that neither the honor nor the interest of the United States absolutely forbid the repe- tition of advances for securing these de- ADAMS, JOHN sirable objects with France, I shall in- stitute a fresh attempt at negotiation, and shall not fail to promote and accelerate an accommodation on terms compatible with the rights, duties, interests, and honor of the nation. If we have com- mitted errors, and these can be demon- strated, we shall be willing to correct them; if we have done injuries, we shall be willing on conviction to redress them; and equal measures of justice we have a right to expect from France and every other nation. The diplomatic intercourse between the United States and France being at present suspended, the government has no means of obtaining official information from that country. Nevertheless, there is reason to believe that the Executive Directory passed a decree on the 2d of March last contravening in part the treaty of amity and commerce of 1778, injurious to our lawful commerce and endangering the lives of our citizens. A copy of this decree will be laid before you. While we are endeavoring to adjust all our differences with France by amicable negotiation, the progress of the war in Europe, the depredations on our com- merce, the personal injuries to our citi- zens, and the general complexion of affairs render it my indispensable duty to recom- mend to your consideration effectual meas- ures of defence. The commerce of the United States has become an interesting object of attention, whether we consider it in relation to the wealth and finances or the strength and resources of the nation. With a sea-coast of near 2,000 miles in extent, opening a field for fisheries, navigation, and com- merce, a great portion of our citizens naturally apply their industry and enter- prise to these objects. Any serious and permanent injury to commerce would not fail to produce the most embarrassing dis- orders. To prevent it from being under- mined and destroyed it is essential that it receive an adequate protection. The naval establishment must occur to every man who considers the injuries committed on our commerce, the insults offered to our citizens, and the description of vessels by which these abuses have been practised. As the sufferings of our mer- cantile and seafaring citizens cannot be ascribed to the omission of duties demand- able, considering the neutral situation of our country, they are to be attributed to the hope of impunity arising from a sup- posed inability on our part to afford pro- tection. To resist the consequences of such impressions on the minds of foreign nations and to guard against the degrada- tion and servility which they must finally stamp on the American character is an im- portant duty of government. A naval power, next to the militia, is the natural defence of the United States. The experience of the last war would be sufficient to show that a moderate naval force, such as would easily be within the present abilities of the Union, would have been sufficient to have baffled many for- midable transportations of troops from one State to another, which were then practised. Our sea-coasts, from their great extent, are more easily annoyed and more easily defended by a naval force than any other. With all the materials our country abounds; in skill our naval architects and navigators are equal to any; and commanders and seamen will not be wanting. But although the establishment of "a. permanent system of naval defence appears to be requisite, I am sensible it cannot be formed so speedily and extensively as the present crisis demands. Hitherto I have thought proper to prevent the sailing of armed vessels except on voyages to the East Indies, wheflft general usage and the danger from pirates appeared to render the permission proper. Yet the restriction has originated solely from a wish to pre- vent collisions with the powers at war, contravening the act of Congress of June^ 1794, and not from any doubt entertained by me of the policy and propriety of per- mitting our vessels to employ means of defence while engaged in a lawful foreign commerce. It remains for Congress to prescribe such regulations as will enable our seafaring citizens to defend them- selves against violations of the law of nations, and at the same time restrain them from committing acts of hostility against the powers at war. In addition to this voluntary provision for defence by individual citizens, it appears to me neces- sary to equip the frigates, and provide other vessels of inferior force, to take un- 30 ADAMS, JOHtf der convoy such merchant vessels as shall remain unarmed. The greater part of the cruisers whose depredations have been most injurious have been built and some of them partially equipped in the United States. Although an effectual remedy may be attended with difficulty, yet 1 have thought it my duty to present the subject generally to your consideration. If a mode can be devised by the wisdom of Congress to prevent the resources of the United States from being converted into the means of annoying our trade, a great evil will be prevented. With the same view, I think it proper to men- tion that some of our citizens resident abroad have fitted out privateers, and others have voluntarily taken the com- mand, or entered on board of them, and committed spoliations on the commerce of the United States. Such unnatural and iniquitous practices can be restrained only by severe punishment. But besides a protection of our com- merce on the seas, I think it highly neces- sary to protect it at home, where it is collected in our most important ports. The distance of the United States from Europe, and the well-known promptitude, ardor, and courage of the people in de- fence of their country, happily diminish the probability of invasion. Nevertheless, to guard against sudden and predatory in- cursions the situation of some of our prin- cipal seaports demands your consideration. And as our country is vulnerable in other interests besides those of its commerce, you will seriously deliberate whether the means of general defence ought not to be increased by an addition to the regular artillery and cavalry, and by arrange- ments for forming a provisional army. With the same view, and as a measure which, even in a time of universal peace, ought not to be neglected, I recommend to your consideration a revision of the laws for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, to render that natural and safe defence of the country efficacious. Although it is very true that we ought not to involve ourselves in the political system of Europe, but to keep ourselves always distinct and separate from it if we can, yet to effect this separation early, punctual, and continual information of the current chain of events and of the political projects in contemplation is no less necessary than if we were directly concerned in them. It is necessary, in order to the discovery of the efforts made to draw us into the vortex, in season to make preparations against them. How- ever we may consider ourselves, the mari- time and commercial powers of the world will consider the United States of Amer- ica as forming a weight in that balance of power in Europe which never can be for- gotten or neglected. It would not only be against our interest, but it would be doing wrong to one-half of Europe, at least, if we should voluntarily throw our- selves into either scale. It is a natural policy for a nation that studies to be neu- tral to consult with other nations en- gaged in the same studies and pursuits. At the same time that measures might be pursued with this view, our treaties with Prussia and Sweden, one of which is ex- pired and the other near expiring, might be renewed. Gentlemen of the House of Representa- tives, — It is particularly your province to consider the state of the public finances, and to adopt such measures respecting them as exigencies shall be found to require. The preservation of public credit, the regular extinguishment of the public debt, and a provision of funds to defray any extraor- dinary expenses will, of course, call for your serious attention. Although the im- position of new burthens cannot be in itself agreeable, yet there is no ground to doubt that the American people will ex- pect from you such measures as their actual engagements, their present security, and future interests demand. Gentlemen of the Senate and Gentlemen of the House of Representatives, — The present situation of our country imposes an obligation on all the departments of government to adopt an explicit and decided conduct. In my situation an ex- position of the principles by which my administration will be governed ought not to be omitted. It is impossible to conceal from our- selves or the world what has been before observed, that endeavors have been em- ployed to foster and establish a division between the government and people of the United States. To investigate the causes which have encouraged this attempt is not 31 ADAMS, JOHN necessary, but to repel, by decided and affairs in Canada; but, if I could write united councils, insinuations so derogatory with freedom, I could easily convince you to the honor and aggressions so dangerous that it would, and explain to you the man- to the Constitution, Union, and even inde- ner how. Many gentlemen in high sta- pendence of the nation is an indispensable tions and of great influence have been duty. duped, by the ministerial bubble of corn- It must not be permitted to be doubted missioners, to treat; and in real, sincere whether the people of the United States expectation of this event, which they so will support the government established fondly wished, they have been slow and by their voluntary consent and ap- languid in promoting measures for the re- pointed by their free choice, or whether, duction of that province. Others there by surrendering themselves to the direc- are in the colonies who really wished that tion of foreign and domestic factions, in our enterprise in Canada would be defeat- opposition to their own government, they ed; that the colonies might be brought will forfeit the honorable station they into danger and distress between two fires, have hitherto maintained. and be thus induced to submit. Others For myself, having never been indiffer- really wished to defeat the expedition to ent to what concerned the interests of my Canada, lest the conquest of it should ele- country, devoted the best part of my life vate the minds of the people too much to to obtain and support its independence, and harken to those terms of reconciliation constantly witnessed the patriotism, fidel- which they believed would be offered us. ity, and perseverance of my fellow-citizens These jarring views, wishes, and designs on the most trying occasions, it is not for occasioned an opposition to many salutary me to hesitate or abandon a cause in which measures which were proposed for the sup- my heart has been so long engaged. port of that expedition, and caused ob- Convinced that the conduct of the gov- structions, embarrassments, and studied ernment has been just and impartial to delays, which have finally lost us the foreign nations, that those internal regula- province. tions which have been established by law for the preservation of peace are in their All these causes, however, in conjunc- tion, would not have disappointed us, if it nature proper, and that they have been had not been for a misfortune which could fairly executed, nothing will ever be done not have been foreseen, and perhaps could by me to impair the national engage- not have been prevented — I mean the prev- ments, to innovate upon principles which alence of the small-pox among our troops, have been so deliberately and uprightly This fatal pestilence completed our de- established, or to surrender in any manner struction. It is a frown of Providence the rights of the government. To enable upon us, which we ought to lay to heart, me to maintain this declaration I rely, But, on the other hand, the delay of under God, with entire confidence on the this declaration to this time has many firm and enlightened support of the na- great advantages attending it. The hopes tional legislature and upon the virtue and of reconciliation which were fondly enter- patriotism of my fellow-citizens. tained by multitudes of honest and well- John Adams. meaning, though short-sighted and mis- The Fourth of July. — In a letter to his taken, people have been gradually, and at wife, dated Philadelphia, July 3, 1776, last totally, extinguished. Time has been Mr. Adams made the following predictions: given for the whole people maturely to consider the great question of indepen- Had a declaration of independence been dence, and to ripen their judgment, dis- made seven months ago, it would have been sipate their fears, and allure their hopes, attended with many great and glorious by discussing it in newspapers and pam- effects. We might, before this hour, have phlets, by debating it in assemblies, con- formed alliance with foreign states. We ventions, committees of safety and inspec- should have mastered Quebec and been tion, in town and county meetings, as well in possession of Canada. as in private conversations, so that the You will, perhaps, wonder how much whole people, in every colony, have now a declaration would have influenced our adopted it as their own act. This will 32 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY cement the union, and avoid those heats, and perhaps convulsions, which might have been occasioned by such a declara- tion six months ago. But the day is past. The second day of July, 1776, will be a memorable epoch in the history of America. I am apt to believe that it will be celebrated by suc- ceeding generations as the great Anni- versary Festival. It ought to be com- memorated, as the day of deliverance, by solemn acts of devotion to God Almighty. It ought to be solemnized with pomp, shows, games, sports, guns, bells, bonfires, and illuminations, from one end of the continent to the other, from this time for- ward forever. You may think me transported with enthusiasm; but I am not. I am well aware of the toil and blood and treasure that it will cost us to maintain this dec- laration and support and defend these States. Yet, through all the gloom, I can see the rays of light and glory; I can see that the end is more than worth all the means, and that posterity will triumph, although you and I may rue, which I hope we shall not. ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY Adams, John Quincy, sixth President of the United States; from 1825 to 1829; Republican; born in Braintree, Mass., July 11, 1767; was a son of President John Adams; and was graduated at Har- vard College in 1787. In February, 1778, he accompanied his father to France, where he studied the French and Latin languages for nearly two years. After an interval, he returned to France and resumed his studies, which were subse- quently pursued at Amsterdam and at the University of Leyden. At the age of fourteen years, he accompanied Mr. Dana to Russia as his private secretary. The next year he spent some time at Stock- holm, Copenhagen, and Hamburg. He afterwards accompanied his father (who was American minister) to England and France and returned home with him early in 1785. After his graduation at Har- vard, he studied law with the eminent Theophilus Parsons, practised at Boston, and soon became distinguished as a po- litical writer. In 1791 he published a series of articles in favor of neutrality with France over the signature of " Publius." He was en- gaged in the diplomatic service of his country as minister, successively, to Hol- land, England, and Prussia from 1794 to 1801. He received a commission, in 1798, to negotiate a treaty with Sweden. At Berlin he wrote a series of Letters from Silesia. Mr. Adams married Louisa, daughter of Joshua Johnson, American consul at London, in 1797. He took a seat in the Senate of Massachusetts in 1802, and he occupied one in that of the United States from 1803 until 1808, when disagreeing with the legislature of Massa- chusetts on the embargo question, he re- signed. From 1806 to 1809 he was Pro- fessor of Rhetoric in Harvard College. In the latter year he was appointed by President Madison minister to Russia; and in 1814, while serving in that office, he was chosen one of the United States commissioners to negotiate a treaty of peace at Ghent. After that, he and Henry Clay and Albert Gallatin negotiated a commercial treaty with Great Britain, which was signed July 13, 1815. Mr. Adams remained in London as minister until 1817, when he was recalled to take the office of Secretary of State. This was at the beginning of what was popularly known as the " era of good feeling," the settlement of questions growing out of the war with Great Britain (1812-15) having freed the government from foreign polit- ical embarrassments and enabled it to give fuller attention to domestic concerns. During his occupation of this office Mr. Adams was identified with the negotia- tion of the treaty with Spain by which Florida was ceded to the United States for $5,000,000, and by which also the boundary between Louisiana and Mexico was established. He is credited with hav- ing been the author of the declaration known as the " Monroe Doctrine " ( see Monroe, James). The closing part of his term as Secretary was marked by the legislation of the " Missouri Compromise " (see Missouri). When President Monroe i. — c 3:? ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY submitted to his cabinet the two ques- to be represented at the congress of Amer- tions concerning the interpretation of the ican nations to be assembled at Panama act as passed by the Congress, Mr. Adams to deliberate upon objects of peculiar stood alone in the opinion that the word concernment to this hemisphere, and that " forever " meant forever. this invitation had been accepted. When Monroe's administration was Although this measure was deemed to drawing to a close, several prominent be within the constitutional competency men were spoken of as candidates for the of the executive, I have not thought Presidency — William H. Crawford, John proper to take any step in it before as- Quiney Adams, Henry Clay, John C. Cal- certaining that my opinion of its expe- houn, and Andrew Jackson. The votes in diency will concur with that of both the autumn of 1824 showed that the people branches of the legislature, first, by the had not elected either of the candidates; decision of the Senate upon the nomina- and when the votes of the Electoral Col- tions to be laid before them, and, second- lege were counted, it was found that the ly, by the sanction of both Houses to the choice of President devolved upon the appropriations, without which it cannot House of Representatives, in accordance be carried into effect. with the 12th Amendment. In February, A report from the Secretary of State, 1825, that body chose John Quincy Adams and copies of the correspondence with President. Mr. Adams received the votes the South American governments on this of 13 States on the first ballot, Gen- subject since the invitation given by them, eral Jackson 7 States, and Mr. Craw- are herewith transmitted to the Senate. ford 4 States. Mr. Calhoun received They will disclose the objects of impor- the votes of 182 of the electors, against 78 tance which are expected to form a sub- for all others. The Electoral College had ject of discussion at this meeting, in given Jackson the largest vote of any can- which interests of high importance to didate — 99 — and Adams 84. See Cabinet, this Union are involved. It will be seen President's. that the United States neither intend nor In 1831 Mr. Adams was elected to Con- are expected to take part in any delibera- gress, and was continued in it by succes- tions of a belligerent character ; that the sive elections until his death, which occur- motive of their attendance is neither to red suddenly in the Capitol, on Feb. 23, contract alliances nor to engage in any 1848. His last words were, " This is the undertaking or project importing hostility last of earth ; I am content." Mr. Adams to any other nation. was a ripe scholar, an able diplomatist, a But the Southern American nations, in life-long opponent of human slavery, a bold the infancy of their independence, often and unflinching advocate for its abolition, find themselves in positions with refer- When he was eighty years of age he ence to other countries with the prin- was called " The old man eloquent." He ciples applicable to which, derivable from wrote prose and poetry with almost equal the state of independence itself, they have facility and purity of diction. See La- not been familiarized by experience. The fayette. result of this has been that sometimes in Pan-American Union. — On Dec. 26, their intercourse with the United States, 1825, President Adams sent the following they have manifested dispositions to re- message to the Senate, in which he ampli- serve a right of granting special favors fied the views concerning a Pan - Ameri- and privileges to the Spanish nation as can union which he had expressed in a the price of their recognition. At others previous message : they have actually established duties and impositions operating unfavorably to the To the Senate of the United States, — United States, to the advantage of other In the messages to both Houses of Con- European powers, and sometimes they gress at the commencement of the session, have appeared to consider that they might it was mentioned that the governments interchange among themselves mutual of the republics of Colombia, of Mexico, concessions of exclusive favor, to which and of Central America had severally in- neither European powers nor the United vited the government of the United States States should be admitted. In most of 34 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY these cases their regulations unfavorable of a minister to any one of the separate to us have yielded to friendly expostula- governments. tion and remonstrance. But it is believed The indirect influence which the United to be of infinite moment that the prin- States may exercise upon any projects or ciples of a liberal commercial intercourse purposes originating in the war in which should be exhibited to them, and urged the southern republics are still engaged, with disinterested and friendly persua- which might seriously affect the interests sion upon them when all assembled for of this Union, and the good offices by the avowed purpose of consulting together which the United States may ultimately upon the establishment of such prin- contribute to bring that war to a speedier ciples as may have an important bearing termination, though among the motives upon their future welfare. which have convinced me of the propriety The consentaneous adoption of princi- of complying with this invitation, are so pies of maritime neutrality, and favorable far contingent and eventual that it would to the navigation of peace, and commerce be improper to dwell upon them more at in time of war, will also form a subject large. of consideration to this congress. The In fine, a decisive inducement with me doctrine that free ships make free goods for acceding to the measure is to show and the restrictions of reason upon the by this token of respect to the southern extent of blockades may be established by republics the interest tlfat we take in their general agreement with far more ease, and welfare and our disposition to comply perhaps with less danger, by the general with their wishes. Having been the first engagement to adhere to them concerted at to recognize their independence, and sym- such a meeting, than by partial treaties or pathize with them so far as was compat- conventions with each of the nations ible with our natural duties in all their separately. An agreement between all the struggles and sufferings to acquire it, we parties represented at the meeting that have laid the foundation of our future each will guard by its own means against intercourse with them in the broadest prin- the establishment of any future European ciples of reciprocity and the most cordial colony within its borders may be found feelings of fraternal friendship. To ex- advisable. This was more than two years, tend those principles to all our commercial since announced by my predecessor to the relations with them and to hand down world as a principle resulting from the that friendship to future ages is congenial emancipation of both the American con- to the highest policy of the Union, as it tinents. It may be so developed to the will be to that of all those nations and new southern nations that they will all their posterity. In the confidence that feel it as an essential appendage to their these sentiments will meet the approba- independence. tion of the Senate, I nominate Richard C. There is yet another subject upon which, Anderson, of Kentucky, and John Ser- without entering into any treaty, the geant, of Pennsylvania, to be envoys ex- moral influence of the United States may traordinary and ministers plenipotentiary perhaps be exerted with beneficial conse- to the assembly of American nations at quences at such a meeting — the advance- Panama, and William B. Rochester, of ment of religious liberty. Some of the New York, to be secretary to the mission, southern nations are even so far under the John Quincy Adams. dominion of prejudice that they have in- On March 15, 1826, he sent the follow- corporated with their political constitu- ing reply to a House resolution: tions an exclusive church, without tolera- ' tion of anv other than the dominant sect. To the House of Representatives of the The abandonment of this last badge of re- United States— In compliance with the ligious bigotry and oppression may be resolution of the House of the 5th pressed more effectually by the united ex- ultimo, requesting me to cause to be ertions of those who concur in the prin- laid before the House so much of the ciples of freedom of conscience upon those correspondence between the government who are yet to be convinced of their jus- of the United States and the new ticeand wisdom than by the solitary efforts states of America, or their ministers, 35 ADAMS, JOHN QTTINCY respecting the proposed congress or meet- had of late found it necessary in a great ing of diplomatic agents at Panama, and measure to discard, he despatched these such information respecting the general ministers to Colombia, Buenos Ayres, and character of that expected congress as may Chile without exacting from those repub- be in my possession and as may, in my lies, as by the ancient principles of politi- opinion, be communicated without preju- cal primogeniture he might have done, dice to the public interest, and also to in- that the compliment of a plenipotentiary form the House, so far as in my opinion mission should have been paid first by the public interest may allow, in regard them to the United States. The instruc- to what objects the agents of the United tions, prepared under his direction, to States are expected to take part in the Mr. Anderson, the first of our ministers deliberations of that congress, I now trans- to the Southern continent, contain at mit to the House a report from the Secre- much length the general principles upon tary of State, with the correspondence which he thought it desirable that our and information requested by the resolu- relations, political and commercial, with tion. these our new neighbors should be estab- With regard to the objects in which the lished for their benefit and ours and that agents of the United States are expected of the future ages of our posterity. A to take part in the deliberations of that copy of so much of these instructions as congress, I deem it* proper to premise that relates to these general subjects is among these objects did not form the only, nor the papers now transmitted to the House, even the principal, motive for my accept- Similar instructions were furnished to the ance of the invitation. My first and great- ministers appointed to Buenos Ayres, est inducement was to meet in the spirit Chile, and Mexico, and the system of social of kindness and friendship an overture intercourse which it was the purpose of made in that spirit by three sister repub- those missions to establish from the first lies of this hemisphere. opening of our diplomatic relations with The great revolution in human affairs those rising nations is the most effective which has brought into existence, nearly exposition of the principles upon which at the same time, eight sovereign and in- the invitation to the congress at Panama dependent nations in our own quarter of .has been accepted by me, as well as of the the globe has placed the United States in objects of negotiation at that meeting, in a situation not less novel and scarcely less which it was expected that our plenipo- interesting than that in which they had tentiaries should take part, found themselves by their own transition The House will perceive that even at the from a cluster of colonies to a nation of date of these instructions the first treaties sovereign States. The deliverance of the between some of the Southern republics South American republics from the op- had been concluded by which they had pression under which they had been so stipulated among themselves this diplo- long afflicted was hailed with great una- mafic assembly at Panama. And it will nimity by the people of this Union as be seen with what caution, so far as it among the most auspicious events of the might concern the policy of the United age. On the 4th of May, 1822, an act of States, and at the same time with what Congress made an appropriation of $100,- frankness and good will towards those na- 000 " for such missions to the independent tions, he gave countenance to their design nations on the American continent as the of inviting the United States to this high President of the United States might deem assembly for consultation upon American proper." In exercising the authority interests. It was not considered a con- recognized by this act my predecessor, by elusive reason for declining this invitation and with the advice and consent of the that the proposal for assembling such a Senate, appointed successively ministers congress had not first been made by our- plenipotentiary to the republics of Colom- selves. It had sprung from the urgent, bia, Buenos Ayres, Chile, and Mexico. Un- immediate, and momentous common in- willing to raise among the fraternity of terests of the great communities strug- freedom questions of precedency and eti- gling for independence, and, as it were, quette, which even the European monarchs quickening into life. From them the 36 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY proposition to us appeared respectful and talent. Nothing was ever lost by kind friendly; from us to them it could scarce- treatment. Nothing can be gained by ly have been made without exposing our- sullen repulses and aspiring pretensions, selves to suspicions of purposes of am- But objects of the highest importance, bition, if not of domination, more suited not only to the future welfare of the to rouse resistance and excite distrust whole human race, but bearing directly than to conciliate favor and friendship, upon the special interests of this Union, The first and paramount principle upon will engage the deliberations of the con- which it was deemed wise and just to lay gress at Panama, whether we are repre- the corner-stone of all our future rela- sented there or not. Others, if we are tions with them was disinterestedness; the represented, may be offered by our pleni- next was cordial good will to them; the potentiaries for consideration having in third was a claim of fair and equal rec- view both these great results — our own iprocity. Under these impressions when interests and the improvement of the the invitation was formally and earnestly condition of man upon earth. It may given, had it even been doubtful whether be that, in the lapse of many centuries, any of the objects proposed for consider- no other opportunity so favorable will ation and discussion at the congress were be presented to the government of the such as that immediate and important in- United States to subserve the benevolent terests of the United States would be af- purposes of divine Providence; to dis- fected by the issue, I should, nevertheless, pense the promised blessings of the Re- have determined, so far as it depended upon deemer of Mankind ; to promote the me, to have accepted the invitation and to prevalence in future ages of peace on have appointed ministers to attend the earth and good - will to man, as will meeting. The proposal itself implied that now be placed in their power by partici- the republics by whom it was made be- pating in the deliberations of this con- lieved that important interests of ours or gress. of theirs rendered our attendance there de- Among the topics enumerated in offi- sirable. They had given us notice that in cial papers published by the republic of the novelty of their situation and in the Colombia, and adverted to in the corre- spirit of deference to our experience they spondence now communicated to the would be pleased to have the benefit of our House, as intended to be presented for friendly counsel. To meet the temper with discussion at Panama, there is scarcely which this proposal was made with a cold one in which the result of the meeting repulse was not thought congenial to that will not deeply affect the interests of the warm interest in their welfare with which United States. Even those in which the the people and government of the Union belligerent states alone will take an active had hitherto gone hand in hand through part will have a powerful effect upon the the whole progress of their revolution. To state of our relations with the American, insult them by a refusal of their overture, and probably with the principal Euro- and then invite them to a similar assembly pean, states. Were it merely that we to be called by ourselves, was an expe- might be correctly and speedily informed dient which never presented itself to the ol the proceedings of the congress, and mind. I would have sent ministers to the the progress and issue of their nego- meeting had it been merely to give them tiations, I should hold it advisable that such advice as they might have desired, we should have an accredited agency with even with reference to their own interests, them, placed in such confidential rela- not involving ours. I would have sent tions with the other members as would them had it been merely to explain and insure the authenticity and the safe and set forth to them our reasons for declining early transmission of its reports. Of the any proposal of specific measures to which same enumerated topics are the prepara- they might desire our concurrence, but tion of a manifesto setting forth to the which we might deem incompatible with world the justice of their cause and the our interests or our duties. In the inter- relations they desire to hold with other course between nations temper is a mis- Christian powers, and to form a conven- sionary perhaps more powerful than tion of navigation and commerce appli- 37 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY cable both to the confederated states and has gone over three-fourths of the civi- to their allies. lized portions of the earth, the desola- lt will be within the recollection of the tion of which it may with confidence be House that, immediately after the close expected is passing away, leaving at least of the war of our independence, a meas- the American atmosphere purified and ure closely analogous to this congress of refreshed. And now at this propitious Panama was adopted by the Congress of moment the new-born nations of this hemi- our Confederation, and for purposes of sphere, assembling by their representa- precisely the same character. Three com- lives at the isthmus between its two con- missioners, with plenipotentiary powers, tinents to settle the principles of their were appointed to negotiate treaties of future international intercourse with other amity, navigation, and commerce with all nations and with us, ask in this great ex- the principal powers of Europe. They igency for our advice upon those very met and resided, for that purpose, about fundamental maxims which we from our one year at Paris, and the only result of cradle at first proclaimed and partially their negotiations at that time was the succeeded to introduce into the code of first treaty between the United States national law. and Prussia — memorable in the diplomatic Without recurring to that total pros- annals of the world, and precious as a tration of all neutral and commercial monument of the principles, in relation rights which marked the progress of the to commerce and maritime warfare, with late European wars, and which finally in- which our country entered upon her volved the United States in them, and ad- career as a member of the great family verting only to our political relations of independent nations. This treaty, pre- with these American nations, it is ob- pared in conformity with the instructions servable that while in all other respects of the American plenipotentiaries, conse- those relations have been uniformly and crated three fundamental principles of without exception of the most friendly the foreign intercourse which the Con- and mutually satisfactory character, the gress of that period were desirous of es- only causes of difference and dissension tablishing: first, equal reciprocity and between us and them which ever have the mutual stipulation of the privileges arisen originated in those never-failing of the most favored nation in the com- fountains of discord and irritation — dis- mercial exchanges of peace; secondly, the criminations of commercial favor to abolition of private war upon the ocean; other nations, licentious privateers, and and, thirdly, restrictions favorable to paper blockades. I cannot without doing neutral commerce upon belligerent prac- injustice to the republics of Buenos Ayres tices with regard to contraband of war and Colombia forbear to acknowledge the and blockades. A painful, it may be said candid and conciliatory spirit with which a calamitous, experience of more than they have repeatedly yielded to our friend- forty years has demonstrated the deep ly representations and remonstrances on importance of these same principles to these subjects— in repealing discriir.ina- the peace and prosperity of this nation, five laws which operated to our disadvan- and to the welfare of all maritime states, tage and in revoking the commissions and has illustrated the profound wisdom of their privateers, to which Colombia with which they were assumed as car- has added the magnanimity of making dinal points of the policy of the Union. reparation for unlawful captures by some At that time in the infancy of their of her cruisers and of assenting in the political existence, under the influence of midst of war to treatv stipulations favor- those principles of liberty and of right so able to neutral navigation. But the re- congenial to the cause in which they had currence of these occasions of complaint just fought and triumphed, they were able has rendered the renewal of the discussion but to obtain the sanction of one great which resulted in the removal of them and philosophical, though absolute, sov- necessary, while in the mean time injuries ereign in Europe to their liberal and en- are sustained by merchants and other in- Iightened principles. They could obtain dividuals of the United States which can- no more. Since then a political hurricane not be repaired, and the remedy lingers 38 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY in overtaking the pernicious operation of several sovereign and independent nations, the mischief. The settlement of general whose territories covered their whole sur- principles pervading with equal efficacy face. By this their independent condition all the American states can alone put the United States enjoyed the right of an end to these evils, and can alone be commercial intercourse with every part accomplished at the proposed assembly. of their possessions. To attempt the es- If it be true that the noblest treaty of tablishment of a colony in those posses- peace ever mentioned in history is that sions would be to usurp to the exclusion of by which the Carthagenians were bound others a commercial intercourse which to abolish the practice of sacrificing their was the common possession of all. It own children because it was stipulated in could not be done without encroaching favor of human nature, I cannot exagger- upon existing rights of the United States, ate to myself the unfading glory with The government of Russia has never dis- which these United States will go forth in puted these positions nor manifested the the memory of future ages if, by their slightest dissatisfaction at their having friendly counsel, by their moral influence, been taken. Most of the new American by the power of argument and persuasion republics have declared their entire assent alone, they can prevail upon the American to them, and they now propose, among the nations at Panama to stipulate by general subjects of consultation at Panama, to agreement among themselves, and so far take into consideration the means of mak- as any of them may be concerned, the per- ing effectual the assertion of that principle petual abolition of private war upon the a3 well as the means of resisting inter- ocean. And if we cannot yet flatter our- ference from abroad with the domestic con- selves that this may be accomplished, as cerns of the American governments, advances towards it the establishment of In alluding to these means it would the principle that the friendly flag shall obviously be premature at this time to cover the cargo, the curtailment of con- anticipate that which is offered merely as traband of war, and the proscription of matter for consultation, or to pronounce fictitious paper blockades — engagements upon those measures which have been or which we may reasonably hope will not may be suggested. The purpose of this prove impracticable — will, if successfully government is to concur in none which inculcated, redound proportionally to our would import hostility to Europe or justly honor and drain the fountain of many a excite resentment in any of her states, future sanguinary war. Should it be deemed advisable to contract The late President of the United States, any conventional engagement on this in his message to Congress of Dec. 2, topic, our views would extend no further 1823, while announcing the negotiation than to a mutual pledge of the parties to then pending with Russia, relating to the- the compact to maintain the principle in northwest coast of this continent, ob- application to its own territory, and to served that the occasion of the discus- permit no colonial lodgments or establish- sions to which that incident had given ment of European jurisdiction upon its rise had been taken for asserting as a own soil; and with respect to the obtru- principle in which the rights and inter- sive interference from abroad — if its fut- ests of the United States were involved ure character may be inferred from that that the American continents, by the free which has been and perhaps still is exer- and independent condition which they had cised in more than one of the new states — assumed and maintained, were thencefor- a joint declaration of its character and ward not to be considered as subjects for exposure of it to the world may be proba- future colonization by any European bly all that the occasion would require, power. The principle had first been as- Whether the United States should or sumed in that negotiation with Russia, should not be parties to such a declaration It rested upon a course of reasoning may justly form a part of the deliberation, equally simple and conclusive. With the That there is an evil to be remedied needs exception of the existing European colo- little insight into the secret history of late nies, which it was in no wise intended to years to know, and that this remedy may disturb, the two continents consisted of best be concerted at the Panama meeting 39 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY deserves at least the experiment of con- sideration. A concert of measures having reference to the more effectual abolition of the African slave-trade and the consider- ation of the light in which the political condition of the island of Hayti is to be regarded are also among the subjects men- tioned by the minister from the republic of Colombia as believed to be suitable for deliberation at the congress. The failure of the negotiations with that republic undertaken during the late administration for the suppression of that trade, in com- pliance with a resolution of the House of Representatives, indicates the expediency of listening with respectful attention to propositions which may contribute to the accomplishment of the great end which was the purpose of that resolution, while the result of those negotiations will serve as admonition to abstain from pledging this government to any arrangement which might be expected to fail of obtain- ing the advice and consent of the Senate by a constitutional majority to its ratifi- cation. Whether the political condition of the island of Hayti shall be brought at all into discussion at the meeting may be a question for preliminary advisement. There are in the political constitution of government of that people circumstances which have hitherto forbidden the ac- knowledgment of them by the government of the United States as sovereign and in- dependent. Additional reasons for with- holding that acknowledgment have recent- ly been seen in their acceptance of a nomi- nal sovereignty by the grant of a foreign prince under conditions equivalent to the concession by them of exclusive commer- cial advantages to one nation, adapted al- together to the state of colonial vassalage and retaining little of independence but the name. Our plenipotentiaries will be instructed to present these views to the assembly at Panama, and, should they not be concurred in, to decline acceding to any arrangement which may be proposed upon different principles. The condition of the islands of Cuba and Porto Rico is of deeper import and more immediate bearing upon the present interests and future prospects of our Union. The correspondence herewith transmitted will show how earnestly it has engaged the attention of this govern- ment. The invasion of both those islands by the united forces of Mexico and Co- lombia is avowedly among the objects to be matured by the belligerent states at Panama. The convulsions to which, from the peculiar composition of their popula- tion, they would be liable in the event of such an invasion, and the danger there- from resulting of their falling ultimately into the hands of some European power other than Spain, will not admit of our looking at the consequences to which the congress at Panama may lead with indif- ference. It is unnecessary to enlarge upon this topic or to say more than that all our efforts in reference to this interest will be to preserve the existing state of things, the tranquillity of the islands, and the peace and security of their inhabitants. And, lastly, the congress of Panama is believed to present a fair occasion for urging upon all the new nations of the South the just and liberal principles of religious liberty; not by any interference whatever in their internal concerns, but by claiming for our citizens whose occupa- tions or interests may call them to occa- sional residence in their territories the inestimable privilege of worshipping their Creator according to the dictates of their own consciences. This privilege, sanc- tioned by the customary law of nations and secured by treaty stipulations in numerous national compacts — secured even to our own citizens in the treaties with Colombia and with the Federation of Cen- tral America — is yet to be obtained in the other South American states and Mexico. Existing prejudices are still struggling against it, which may, perhaps, be more successfully combated at this general meet- ing than at the separate seats of govern- ment of each republic. I can scarcely deem it otherwise than superfluous to observe that the assembly will be in its nature diplomatic and not legislative; that nothing can be transacted there obligatory upon any one of the states to be represented at the meeting, unless with the express concurrence of its own representatives, nor even then, but subject to the ratification of its con- stitutional authority at home. The faith of the United States to foreign powers cannot otherwise be pledged. I shall, in- 40 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY deed, in the first instance, consider the upon the circumstances in which our coun- assembly as merely consultative; and al- try and the world around us were situ- though the plenipotentiaries of the United ated at the time when it was given; that States will be empowered to receive and the reasons assigned by him for his ad- refer to the consideration of their govern- vice were that Europe had a set of pri- ment any proposition from the other par- mary interests which to us had none or a ties to the meeting, they will be author- very remote relation; that hence she must ized to conclude nothing unless subject to be engaged in frequent controversies, the the definitive sanction of this government causes of which were essentially foreign in all its constitutional forms. It has to our concern, that our detached and therefore seemed to me unnecessary to distant situation invited and enabled us insist that every object to be discussed at to pursue a different course; that by our the meeting should be specified with the union and rapid growth, with an efficient precision of a judicial sentence, or enumer- government, the period was not far distant ated with the exactness of a mathematical when we might defy material injury from demonstration. The purpose of the meet- external annoyance, when we might take ing itself is to deliberate upon the great such an attitude as would cause our neu- and common interests of several new trality to be respected, and, with refer- and neighboring nations. If the measure ence to belligerent nations, might choose is new and without precedent, so is the peace or war, as our interests, guided by situation of the parties to it. That the justice, should counsel, purposes of the meeting are somewhat in- Compare our situation and the circum- definite, far from being an objection to it, stances of that time with those of the is among the cogent reasons for its adop- present day, and what, from the very tion. It is not the establishment of prin- words of Washington then, would be his ciples of intercourse with one, but with counsels to his countrymen now? Europe seven or eight nations at once. That be- has still her set of primary interests with fore they have had the means of exchang- which we have little or a remote relation, ing ideas and communicating with one Our distant and detached situation with another in common upon these topics reference to Europe remains the same, they should have definitely settled and ar- But we were then the only independent ranged them in concert is to require that nation of this hemisphere, and we were the effect should precede the cause; it is surrounded by European colonies, with the to exact as a preliminary to the meeting greater part of which we had no more that for the accomplishment of which the intercourse than with the inhabitants of meeting itself is designed. another planet. Those colonies have now Among the inquiries which were thought been transformed into eight independent entitled to consideration before the de- nations, extending to our very borders, termination was taken to accept the in- seven of them republics like ourselves, vitation was that whether the measure with whom we have an immensely growing might not have a tendency to change the commercial, and must have and have al- policy, hitherto invariably pursued by the ready important political, connections, United States, of avoiding all entangling with reference to whom our situation is alliances and all unnecessary foreign con- neither distant nor detached; whose po- nections. litical principles and systems of govern- Mindful of the advice given by the ment, congenial with our own, must and Father of our Country in his Farewell will have an action and counteraction Address, that the great rule of conduct upon us and ours to which we cannot be for us in regard to foreign nations is, in indifferent if we would, extending our commercial relations, to The rapidity of our growth, and the con- have with them as little political connec- sequent increase of our strength, has more tion as possible, and, faithfully adhering than realized the anticipations of this to the spirit of that admonition, I can- admirable political legacy. Thirty years not overlook the reflection that the coun- have nearly elapsed since it was written, sel of Washington in that instance, like and in the interval our population, our all the counsels of wisdom, was founded wealth, our territorial extension, our 41 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY p 0W er— physical and moral— have nearly voted. We owe it, therefore, to candor ■- ■ ■ !<.'• _a_j._ _£ „„J 4-y-> 4-Vi.rv nminoKlo rola + ifiTia Cllhcti tilt- trebled. Reasoning upon this state of things from the sound and judicious prin- ciples of Washington, must we not say that the period which he predicted as then not far off has arrived, that America has a set of primary interests which have none or a remote relation to Europe; that the interference of Europe, therefore, in those concerns should be spontaneously withheld by her upon the same principles that we have never interfered with hers, and that if she should interfere, as she may, by measures which may have a great and and to the amicable relations substitut- ing between the United States and those powers to declare that we should consider any attempt on their part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not in- terfered and shall not interfere; but with the governments who have declared their independence and maintained it, and whose independence we have on great consideration and on just principles ac- langerous recoil upon ourselves, we might knowledged, we could not view any inter- be called in defence of our own altars and firesides to take an attitude which would cause our neutrality to be respected and choose peace or war, as our interest, guided by justice, should counsel. The acceptance of this invitation, there- fore, far from conflicting with the coun- sel or the policy of Washington, is di- position for the purposes of oppressing them or controlling in any other manner their destiny by any European power in any other light than as the manifestation of an unfriendly dispositon towards the United States. In the war between those new governments and Spain we de- clared our neutrality at the time of rectly deducible from and conformable to their recognition, and to this we have it. Nor is it less conformable to the views adhered, and shall continue to adhere, of my immediate predecessors as declared provided no change shall occur which in in his annual message to Congress of Dec. 2, 1823, to which I have already adverted, and to an important passage of which I invite the attention of the House: "The citizens of the United States," said he, " cherish sentiments the most friendly in favor of the liberty and happi- ness of their fellow-men on that [the Euro- pean] side of the Atlantic. In the wars of the European powers in matters relating the judgment of the competent authorities of this government shall make a corre- sponding change on the part of the United States indispensable to their security." To the question which may be asked, whether this meeting and the principles which may be adjusted and settled by it as rules of intercourse between the American nations may not give umbrage to the holy league of European powers to themselves we have never taken any or offence to Spain, it is deemed a suffi- part, nor does it comport with our policy so to do. It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that we re- sent injuries or make preparation for our defence. With the movements in this hemisphere we are of necessity more im- mediately connected, and by causes which must be obvious to all enlightened and impartial observers. The political system cient answer that our attendance at Pana- ma can give no just cause of umbrage or offence to either, and that the United States will stipulate nothing there which can give such cause. Here the right of inquiry into our purposes and measures must stop. The holy league of Europe itself was formed without inquiring of the United States whether it would or of the allied powers is essentially differ- would not give umbrage to them. The ent in this respect from that of America. This difference proceeds from that which exists in their respective governments. And to the defence of our own, which has been achieved by the loss of so much blood and treasure, and matured by the wisdom of their most enlightened citizens, and under which we have enjoyed unex- ampled felicity, this whole nation is de- fear of giving umbrage to the holy league of Europe was urged as a motive for de- nying to the American nations the ac- knowledgment of their independence.. That it would be viewed by Spain as hos- tility to her was not only urged, but directly declared by herself. The Con- gress and administration of that day con- sulted their rights and duties, and not 42 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY their fears. Fully determined to give no the motives by which I have been gov- needless displeasure to any foreign power, erned in this transaction, as well as of the United States can estimate the proba- the objects to be discussed and of the bility of their giving it only by the right ends, if possible, to be attained by our which any foreign state could have to representation at the proposed congress, take it from their measures. Neither the 1 submit the propriety of an appropria- representation of the United States at tion to the candid consideration and en- Panama nor any measure to which their lightened patriotism of the legislature, assent may be yielded there will give to John Quincy Adams. •the holy league or any of its members, Jubilee of the Constitution.— The follow- nor to Spain, the right to take offence ; ing is the address of Mr. Adams before the for the rest, the United States must still, New York Historical Society, April 30, as heretofore, take counsel from their 1830: duties rather than their fears. Such are the objects in which it is ex- Would it be an unlicensed trespass of pected that the plenipotentiaries of the the imagination to conceive that, on the United States, when commissioned to at- night preceding the day of which vou tend the meeting at the Isthmus, will now commemorate the fiftieth anniversary take part, and such are the motives and —on the night preceding the 30th of purposes with which the invitation of the April, 1789, when from the balcony of your republics was accepted. It was, how- city hall the Chancellor of the State of ever, as the House will perceive from the New York administered to George Wash- correspondence, accepted only upon condi- ington the solemn oath faithfully to exe- tion that the nomination of commissioners cute the office of President of the United for the mission should receive the advice States, and to the best of his ability to and consent of the Senate. preserve, protect, and defend the Constitu- The concurrence of the House to the tion of the United States — that in the measure, by the appropriations necessary visions of the night the guardian angel of for carrying it into effect, is alike subject the Father of our Country had appeared to its free determination and indispen- before him, in the venerated form of his sable to the fulfilment of the intention. mother, and, to cheer and encourage him That the congress at Panama will ac- in the performance of the momentous and complish all, or even any, of the tran- solemn duties that he was about to assume, scendent benefits to the human race which had delivered to him a suit of celestial warmed the conception of its first pro- armor — a helmet, consisting of the prin- poser, it were, perhaps, indulging too ciples of piety, of justice, of honor, of sanguine a forecast of events to promise, benevolence, with which from his earliest It is in its nature a measure speculative infancy he had hitherto walked through and experimental. The blessing of Heaven life, in the presence of all his brethren — a may turn it to the account of human spear, studded with the self-evident truths improvement; accidents unforeseen and of the Declaration of Independence — a mischances not to be anticipated may sword, the same with which he had led baffle all its high purposes and disap- the armies of his country through the war point its fairest expectations. But the de- of freedom, to the summit of the tri- sign is great, is benevolent, is humane. umphal arch of independence — a corslet It looks to the melioration of the con- and cuishes of long experience and ha- dition of man. It is congenial with that bitual intercourse in peace and war with spirit which prompted the declaration of the world of mankind, his contemporaries our independence, which inspired the pre- of the human race, in all their stages of amble of our first treaty with France, civilization — and, last of all, the Consti- which dictated our first treaty with Prus- tution of the United States, a shield, em- sia, and the instructions under which it bossed by heavenly hands with the future was negotiated, which filled the hearts history of his country, and fired the souls of the immortal found- Yes, gentlemen ! on that shield, the ers of our Revolution. Constitution of the United States, was With this unrestricted exposition of sculptured (by forms unseen, and in char- 43 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY acters then invisible to mortal eye), the predestined and prophetic history of the one confederated people of the North American Union. They have been the settlers of thirteen separate and distinct English colonies, along the margin of the shore of the North American continent; contiguously situ- ated, but chartered by adventurers of char- acters variously diversified, including sec- tarians, religious and political, of all the classes which for the two preceding cen- turies had agitated and divided the people of the British islands, and with them were intermingled the descendants of Hol- landers, Swedes, Germans, and French fugitives from the persecution of the re- voker of the Edict of Nantes. In the bosoms of this people, thus het- erogeneously composed, there was burn- ing, kindled at different furnaces, but all furnaces of affliction, one clear, steady flame of liberty. Bold and daring enter- prise, stubborn endurance of privation, un- flinching intrepidity in facing danger, and inflexible adherence to conscientious prin- ciple had steeled to energetic and unyield- ing hardihood the characters of the primi- tive settlers of all these colonies. Since that time two or three generations of men had passed away, but they have increased and multiplied with unexampled rapidity; and the land itself had been the recent theatre of a ferocious and bloody seven years' war between the two most powerful and most civilized nations of Europe, con- tending for the possession of this conti- nent. Of that strife the victorious comba- tant had been Britain. She had con- quered the provinces of France. She had expelled her rival totally from the conti- nent, over which, bounding herself by the Mississippi, she was thenceforth to hold divided empire only with Spain. She had acquired undisputed control over the Ind- ian tribes, still tenanting the forests unex- plored by the European man. She had established an uncontested monopoly of the commerce of all her colonies. But for- getting all the warnings of preceding ages — forgetting the lessons written in the blood of her own children, through cen- turies of departed time, she undertook to tax the people of the colonies without their consent. Resistance, instantaneous, unconcerted, sympathetic, inflexible . resistance, like an electric shock startled and roused the peo- ple of all the English colonies on this con- tinent. This was the first signal for the North American Union. The struggle was for chartered rights, for English liberties, for the cause of Algernon Sidney and John Hampden, for trial by jury, the habeas corpus and Magna Charta. But the English lawyers had decided that Parliament was omnipotent; and Parliament, in their omnipotence, instead of trial by jury and the habeas corpus, enacted admiralty courts in England to try Americans for offences charged against them as committed in America; instead of the privileges of Magna Charta, nulli- fied the charter itself of Massachusetts Bay, shut up the port of Boston, sent armies and navies to keep the peace and teach the colonies that John Hampden was a rebel and Algernon Sidney a traitor. English liberties had failed them. From the omnipotence of Parliament the colo- nists appealed to the rights of man and the omnipotence of the god of battles. Union! Union! was the instinctive and simultaneous cry throughout the land. Their Congress, assembled at Philadelphia, once — twice — had petitioned the King, had remonstrated to Parliament, had ad- dressed the people of Britain for the rights of Englishmen — in vain. Fleets and armies, the blood of Lexington, and the fires of Charlestown and Falmouth, had been the answer to petition, re- monstrance, and address. Independence was declared. The colo- nies were transformed into States. Their inhabitants were proclaimed to be one people, renouncing all allegiance to the British crown, all co-patriotism with the British nation, all claims to chartered rights as Englishmen. Thenceforth their charter was the Declaration of Indepen- dence. Their rights, the natural rights of mankind. Their government, such as should be instituted by themselves, under the solemn mutual pledges of perpetual union, founded on the self-evident truths proclaimed in the Declaration. The Declaration of Independence was issued, in the excruciating agonies of a 44 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY civil war, and by that war independence was to be maintained. Six long years it raged with unabated fury, and the Union was yet no more than a mutual pledge of faith and a mutual participation of com- mon suiferings and common dangers. The omnipotence of the British Parlia- ment was vanquished. The independence of the United States of America was not granted, but recognized. The nation had " assumed among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitled it n — but the one, united people had yet no government. In the enthusiasm of their first spon- taneous, unstipulated, unpremeditated union, they have flattered themselves that no general government would be required. As separate States they were all agreed that they should constitute and govern themselves. The revolution under which they were gasping for life, the war which was carrying desolation into all their dwellings, and mourning into every fam- ily, had been kindled by the abuse of power — the power of government. An in- vincible repugnance to the delegation of power had thus been generated by the very course of events which had rendered it necessary; and the more indispensable it became, the more awakened was the jeal- ousy and the more intense was the distrust by which it was to be circumscribed. They relaxed their union into a league of friendship between sovereign and inde- pendent States. They constituted a Con- gress, with powers co-extensive with the nation, but so hedged and hemmed in with restrictions that the limitation seemed to be the general rule and the grant the oc- casional exception. The Articles of Confed- eration, subjected to philosophical analy- sis, seem to be little more than an enumer- ation of the functions of a national gov- ernment which the Congress constituted by the instrument was not authorized to perform. There was avowedly no execu- tive power. The nation fell into an atrophy. The Union languished to the point of death. A torpid numbness seized upon all its faculties. A chilling, cold indifference crept from its extremities to the centre. The system was about to dissolve in its own imbecility — impotence in negotiation abroad, domestic insurrection at home, were on the point of bearing to a dishon- orable grave the proclamation of a govern- ment founded on the rights of man — when a convention of delegates from eleven of the thirteen States, with George Washing- ton at their head, sent forth to the people an act to be made their own, speaking in their name and in the first person, thus: " We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, estab- lish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the bless- ings of liberty to ourselves and our pos- terity, do ordain and establish this Con- stitution for the United States of Amer- ica." This act was the complement to the Declaration of Independence, founded upon the same principles, carrying them out into practical execution, and forming with it one entire system of national gov- ernment. The Declaration was a mani- festo to the world of mankind, to justify the one, confederated people for the vio- lent and voluntary severance of the ties of their allegiance, for the renunciation of their country, and for assuming a sta- tion themselves among the potentates of the world — a self -constituted sovereign, a self-constituted country. In the history of the human race this had never been done before. Monarchs had been dethroned for tyranny, king- doms converted into republics, and revolt- ed provinces had assumed the attributes of sovereign power. In the history of Eng- land itself, within one century and a half before the day of the Declaration of Inde- pendence, one lawful king had been brought to the block, and another expelled, with all his posterity, from his king- dom, and a collateral dynasty had ascend- ed his throne. But the former of these revolutions had, by the deliberate and final sentence of the nation itself, been pronounced a rebellion, and the rightful heir of the executed king had been re- stored to the crown. In the latter, at the first onset, the royal recreant had fled — he was held to have abdicated the crown, and it was placed upon the heads of his daugh- ter and of her husband, the prime leader of the conspiracy against him. In these events there had been much controversy 45 ADAMS, JOHN QTJINCY upon the platform of English liberties— upon the customs of the ancient Britons, the laws of Alfred, the witenagemote of the Anglo-Saxons, and the Great Charter of Runnymede with all its numberless con- firmations. But the actors of those times had never ascended to the first foundation of civil society among men, nor had any revolutionary system of government been rested upon them. The motive for the Declaration of In- dependence was on its face avowed to be u a decent respect for the opinions of man- kind"; its purpose, to declare the causes which impelled the people of the English colonies on the continent of North Amer- ica to separate themselves from the politi- cal community of the British nation. They declare only the causes of their separa- tion, but they announce at the same time their assumption of the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them among the powers of the earth. Thus their first movement is to recog- nize and appeal to the laws of nature and to nature's God, for their right to assume the attributes of sovereign power as an in- dependent nation. The causes of their necessary separa- tion, for they begin and end by declaring it necessary, alleged in the Declaration, are all founded on the same laws of nature and of nature's God; and hence, as prelim- inary to the enumeration of the causes of separation, they set forth as self-evident truths the rights of individual man, by the laws of nature and of nature's God, to life, to liberty, to the pursuit of happiness ; that all men are created equal; that to secure the rights of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, governments are in- stituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. All this is by the laws of nature and of nature's God, and of course presupposes the existence of a God, the moral ruler of the universe, and a rule of right and wrong, of just and unjust, binding upon man, preceding all institutions of human society and of government. It avers, also, that governments are instituted to secure these rights of nature and of nature's God, and that whenever any form of govern- ment becomes destructive of those ends it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new govern- ment — to throw off a government degen- erating into despotism, and to provide new guards for their future security. They proceed then to say that such was then the situation of the colonies, and such the necessity which constrained them to alter their former systems of govern- ment. Then follows the enumeration of the acts of tyranny by which the King, Parlia- ment, and people of Great Britain had per- verted the powers to the destruction of the ends of government over the colonies, and the consequent necessity constraining the colonies to the separation. In conclusion, the Representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Su- preme Judge of the world for the rectitude of their intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown; and that all polit- ical connection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, total- ly dissolved; and that, as free and inde- pendent States, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alli- ances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent States may of right do. The appeal to the Supreme Judge of the world, and the rule of right and wrong as paramount events to the power of independent States, are here again repeated in the very act of constituting a new sovereign commu- nity. It is not immaterial to remark that the signers of the Declaration, though qualifying themselves as the Representa- tives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, yet issuq the Declaration in the name and by thq authority of the good people of the colo- nies, and that they declare, not each of th< separate colonies, but the United Colo- nies, free and independent States. Tin whole people declared the colonies in then united condition, of right, free and inde- pendent States. The dissolution of allegiance to tht British crown, the severance of the colo- nies from the British empire, and theii 46 ADAMS, JOHN" QUINCY actual existence as independent States, tween the colonies. This draft was pre- thus declared of right, were definitely es- pared by John Dickinson, then a delegate tablished in fact, by war and peace. The from Pennsylvania, who voted against independence of each separate State had the Declaration of Independence, and never never been declared of right. It never ex- signed it, having been superseded by a isted in fact. Upon the principles of the new election of delegates from the State Declaration of Independence, the dissolu- eight days after this draught was re- tion of the ties of allegiance, the assump- ported. tion of sovereign power, and the institu- There was thus no congeniality of tion of civil government are all acts of principle between the Declaration of In- transcendent authority, which the people dependence and the Articles of Confeder- alone are competent to perform; and, ac- ation. The foundation of the former were cordingly, it is in the name and by the au- a superintending Providence, the rights thority of the people that two of these of man and the constituent revolutionary acts — the dissolution of allegiance, with power of the people; that of the latter the severance from the British empire, and was the sovereignty of organized power the declaration of the United Colonies, as and the independence of the separate or free and independent States — were per- dis-united States. The fabric of the Dec- formed by that instrument. laration and that of the Confederation But there still remained the last and were each consistent with its own founda- crowning act, which the people of the tion, but they could not form one con- Union alone were competent to perform — sistent symmetrical edifice. They were the institution of civil government for the productions of different minds and of that compound nation, the United States adverse passions — one, ascending for the of America. foundation of human government to the At this day it cannot but strike us as laws of nature and of God, written upon extraordinary that it does not appear to the heart of man; the other, resting upon have occurred to any one member of that the basis of human institutions and pre- assembly, which had laid down in terms so scriptive law and colonial charter. The clear, so explicit, so unequivocal, the foun- corner-stone of the one was right, that of dation of all just government, in the im- the other was power. prescriptible rights of man and the trans- The work of the founders of our inde- cendent sovereignty of the people, and who pendence was thus but half done. Absorb- in those principles had set forth their only ed in that more than herculean task of personal vindication from the charges of maintaining that independence and its rebellion against their King and of treason principles by one of the most cruel wars to their country, that their last crowning that ever glutted the furies with human act was still to be performed upon the woe, they marched undaunted and stead- same principles — that is, the institution, fast through that fiery ordeal, and, con- by the people of the United States, of a sistent in their principles to the end, civil government to guard and protect and concluded, as an acknowledged sover- defend them all. On the contrary, that eignty of the United States, proclaimed same assembly which issued the Declara- by their people in 1776, a peace with tion of Independence, instead of continu- that same monarch whose sovereignty ing to act in the name and by the author- over them they had abjured in obedi- ity of the good people of the United States, enoe to the laws of nature and of nature's had, immediately after the appointment of God. the committee to prepare the Declaration, But for these United States they had appointed another committee, of one mem- formed no Constitution. Instead of re- ber from each colony, to prepare and digest sorting to the source of all constituted the form of confederation to be entered power, they had wasted their time, their into between the colonies. talents, and their persevering, untiring That committee reported on the 12th toils in erecting and roofing and buttress- of July, eight days after the Declaration ing a frail and temporary shed to shelter of Independence had been issued, a the nation from the storm, or rather a draft of Articles of Confederation be- mere baseless scaffolding on which to 47 ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY stand when they should raise the marble palace of the people, to stand the test of time. Five years were consumed by Congress and the State legislatures in debating and altering and adjusting these Articles of Confederation, the first of which was: " Each State retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every pow- er, jurisdiction, and right which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States in Congress assem- bled." Observe the departure from the lan- guage, and the consequent contrast of principles, with those of the Declaration of Independence. " Each State retains its sovereignty," etc. Where did each State get the sovereign- ty which it retains ? In the Declaration of Independence the delegates of the colonies in Congress assembled, in the name and by the authority of the good people of the colonies, declare, not each colony, but the United Colonies, in fact, and of right, not sovereign, but free and independent States. And why did they make this declaration in the name and by the authority of the one people of all the colonies ? Because by the principles before laid down in the Declaration, the people, and the people alone, as the rightful source of all le- gitimate government, were competent to dissolve the bands of subjection of all the colonies to the nation of Great Britain, and to constitute them free and indepen- dent States. Now the people of the colo- nies, speaking by their delegates in Con- gress, had not declared each colony a sovereign, free, and independent State, nor had the people of each colony so de- clared the colony itself, nor could they so declare it, because each was already bound in union with all the rest — a union formed de facto, by the spontaneous revolutionary movement of the whole people, and organ- ized by the meeting of the first Congress, in 1774, a year and ten months before the Declaration of Independence. Where, then, did each State get the sovereignty, freedom, and independence which the Articles of Confederation de- clare it retains? Not from the whole peo- ple of the whole Union ; not from the Declaration of Independence — not from the people of the State itself. It was assumed by agreement between the legislatures of the several States and their delegates in Congress, without authority from or con- sultation of the people at all. In the Declaration of Independence the enacting and constituent party dis- pensing and delegating sovereign power is the whole people of the United Colonies. The recipient party, invested with power, is the United Colonies, declared United States. In the Articles of Confederation this order of agency is averted. Each State is the constituent and enacting party, and the United States in Congress assembled the recipient of delegated power, and that power delegated with such a penurious and carking hand that it had more the aspect of a revocation of the Declaration of Independence than an instrument to carry it into effect. None of these indispensably necessary powers were ever conferred by the State legislatures upon the Congress of the con- federation; and well was it that they never were. The system itself was radi- cally defective. Its incurable disease was an apostasy from the principles of the Declaration of Independence — a substi- tution of separate State sovereignties, in the place of the constituent sovereignty of the people as the basis of the confederate Union. In the Congress of the confederation the master minds of James Madison and Alexander Hamilton were constantly en- gaged through the closing years of the Revolutionary War and those of peace which immediately succeeded. That of John Jay was associated with them short- ly after the peace, in the capacity of Sec- retary to the Congress for Foreign Affairs. The incompetency of the Articles of Con- federation for the management of the affairs of the Union at home and abroad was demonstrated to them by the painful and mortifying experience of every day. Washington, though in retirement, was brooding over the cruel injustice suffered by his associates in arms, the warriors of the Revolution ; over the prostration of the public credit and the faith of the nation in the neglect to provide for the payment even of the interest upon the public debt; over the disappointed hopes of the friends of freedom ; in the language of the address 48 .3, .2 , jLlajinryA ADAMS, JOHN QUINCY from Congress to the States of the 18th of April, 1783, " The pride and boast of America, that the rights for which she contended were the rights of human nature." At his residence in Mount Vernon, in March, 1785, the first idea was started of a revisal of the Articles of Confederation by an organization of means differing from that of a compact between the State legislatures and their own delegates in Congress. A convention of delegates from the State legislatures, independent of the Congress itself, was the expedient which presented itself for effecting the purpose, and an augmentation of the powers of Congress for the regulation of commerce as the object for which this assembly was to be convened. In January, 1786, the proposal was made and adopted in the legislature of Virginia and communicated to the other State legislatures. The convention was held at Annapolis in September of that year. It was attend- ed by delegates from only five of the cen- tral States, who, on comparing their re- stricted powers with the glaring and uni- versally acknowledged defects of the con- federation, reported only a recommenda- tion for the assemblage of another con- vention of delegates to meet at Philadel- phia in May, 1787, from all the States and with enlarged powers. The Constitution of the United States was the work of this convention. But in its construction the convention immediate- ly perceived that they must retrace their steps, and fall back from a league of friendship between sovereign States to the constituent sovereignty of the people ; from power to right — from the irresponsible despotism of State sovereignty to the self- evident truths of the Declaration of Inde- pendence. In that instrument the right to institute and to alter governments among men was ascribed exclusively to the people; the ends of government were declared to be to secure the natural rights of man ; and that when the government de- generates from the promotion to the de- struction of that end, the right and the duty accrued to the people to dissolve this degenerate government and to institute another. The signers of the Declaration further averred that the one people of the United Colonies were then precisely in that situation, with a government degen- erated into tyranny, and called upon by the laws of nature and of nature's God to dissolve that government and institute another. Then, in the name and by the authority of the good people of the colo- nies, they pronounced the dissolution of their allegiance to the King and their eternal separation from the nation of Great Britain, and declared the United Colonies independent States. And here, as the representatives of the one people, they had stopped. They did not require the confirmation of this act, for the power to make the declaration had already been conferred upon them by the people; dele- gating the power, indeed, separately in the separate colonies, not by colonial au- thority, but by the spontaneous revolu- tionary movement of the people in them all. From the day of that declaration the constituent power of the people had never been called into action. A confederacy had been substituted in the place of a government, and State sovereignty had usurped the constituent sovereignty of the people. The convention assembled at Phila- delphia had themselves no direct authority from the people. Their authority was all derived from the State legislatures. But they had the Articles of Confederation be- fore them, and they saw and felt the wretched condition into which they had brought the whole people, and that the Union itself was in the agonies of death. They soon perceived that the indispensa- bly needed powers were such as no State government, no combination of them, was by the principles of the Declaration of In- dependence competent to bestow. They could emanate only from the people. A highly respectable portion of the assembly, still clinging to the confederacy of States, proposed as a substitute for the Consti- tution a mere revival of the Articles of Confederation, with a grant of additional powers to the Congress. Their plan was respectfully and thoroughly discussed, but the want of a government and of the sanc- tion of the people to the delegation of powers happily prevailed. A Constitu- tion for the people, with the distribution of legislative, executive, and judicial powers, was prepared. It announced itself 49 ADAMS as the work of the people themselves; and people, and distorts the Constitution of the as this was unquestionably a power as- United States into a league of friendship sunied by the convention, not delegated to between confederate corporations. 1 speak them by the people, they religiously con- to matters of fact. There is the Declara- fined it to a simple power to propose, and tion of Independence, and there is the carefully provided that it should be no Constitution of the United States — let more than a proposal until sanctioned by them speak for themselves. The gross- the confederation Congress, by the State ly immoral and dishonest doctrine of legislatures, and by the people of the sev- despotic State sovereignty, the exclusive eral States, in conventions specially as- judge of its own obligations, and respon- sembled, by authority of their legislatures, sible to no power on earth or in heaven for the single purpose of examining and for the violation of them, is not there, passing upon it. The Declaration says, " It is not in me." And thus was consummated the work The Constitution says, " It is not in me." commenced by the Declaration of Inde- Adams, John Quincy (son of Charles pendence, a work in which the people F. ) ; born in Boston, Mass., Sept. 22, of the North American Union, acting 1833; graduated at Harvard in 1853; was under the deepest sense of responsibility the unsuccessful candidate for the gov- to the Supreme Ruler of the universe, had ernorship in 1868-69-70, and for the Unit- achieved the most transcendent act of ed States Vice-Presidency on the ticket power that social man in his mortal con- with Charles O'Conor in 1872. He died in dition can perform, even that of dis- Quincy, Mass., Aug. 14, 1894. solving the ties of allegiance by which he Adams, Julius Walker, engineer; born is bound to his country, of renouncing in Boston, Mass., Oct. 18, 1812. He was that country itself, of demolishing its the pioneer engineer of the East River government, of instituting another gov- Bridge. He died in Brooklyn, N. Y., Dec. ernment, and of making for himself an- 13, 1899. other country in its stead. Adams, Robert, Jr., legislator; born in ' The Revolution itself was a work of Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 26, 1849; was thirteen years, and had never been com- graduated at the University of Pennsyl- pleted until that day. The Declaration vania in 1869. He entered Congress in of Independence and the Constitution of 1893 as representative from the 2d Penn- the United States are parts of one con- syl vania District, and in 1898 was acting sistent whole, founded upon one and the chairman of the committee on foreign same theory of government, then new, not affairs which reported the Cuban resolu- as a theory, for it had been working itself tions and the declaration of war against into the mind of man for many ages, and Spain. been especially expounded in the writ- Adams, Samuel, patriot; born in Bos- ings of Locke, but had never before been ton, Sept. 27, 1722; was graduated at adopted by a great nation in practice. Harvard College in 1742, and was honored There are yet, even at this day, many with the degree of LL.D. by it in 1792, speculative objections to this theory. The tendency of his mind was shown when, Even in our own country there are still at the age of twenty-one, receiving the de- philosophers who deny the principles as- gree of A.M., he proposed, and took the serted in the Declaration as self-evident affirmative on, the question " Whether it truths, who deny the natural equality and he lawful to resist the supreme magis- inalienable rights of man, who deny that trate if the commonwealth cannot other- the people are the only legitimate source wise be preserved?" He published a pam- of power, who deny that all just powers phlet at about the same time entitled of government are derived from the con- Englishmen's Rights. He became an un- sent of the governed. Neither your time successful merchant, but a successful nor, perhaps, the cheerful nature of this writer; and gained great popularity by occasion permit me here to enter upon his political essays against the adminis- the examination of this anti-revolutionary tration of Governor Shirley. Stern in theory, which arrays State sovereignty morals, a born republican, and with cour- against the constituent sovereignty of the age equal to his convictions, Samuel 50 ADAMS, SAMUEL Adams was a natural leader of the op- posers of the Stamp Act and kindred meas- ures of Parliament, and from that period (1765) until the independence of the colonies was achieved he was a foremost leader of the patriot host. He suggested SAMUEL ADAMS. the Stamp Act Congress, and was a con- tinual object of dread and hatred to the colonial governors. He proposed the first Committee of Correspondence in Massa- chusetts in 1772; and, when General Gage besought him to make his peace with the King, he replied, " I trust I have made my peace with the King of kings. No per- sonal considerations shall induce me to abandon the righteous cause of my coun- try." In 1774 he was the chief in maturing the plan for a Continental Congress; was a member of it; and served in that body most efficiently from that time until 1781. As early as 1769 Mr. Adams advocated the independence of the colonies, and was one of the warmest supporters of it in the Congress. When debating on the Declara- tion of Independence, Adams said : " I should advise persisting in our struggle for liberty though it were revealed from heaven that 999 were to perish, and one of 1,000 were to survive and retain his liberty. One such freeman must possess more virtue, and enjoy more happiness, 51 than 1,000 slaves; and let him propagate his like, and transmit to them what he has so nobly preserved." Mr. Adams assisted in drafting the State constitution of Mas- sachusetts (1779), was president of his State Senate (1781), member of his State Convention that ratified the national Con- stitution, lieutenant-governor (1789-94), and governor (1794-97). He sympathized with the French Revolutionists, and was a Jeffersonian Democrat in politics in his latter days. The purity of his life and his inflexible integrity were attested by friends and foes. Hutchinson, in a letter to his government, said he was of " such an obstinate and inflexible disposition that no gift nor office would ever conciliate him." His piety was sincere, and he was a thoroughbred Puritan. Without fort- une, without a profession, he depended on moderate salaries and emoluments of office; and for almost fifty years a daily maintenance, frugal in the extreme, was eked out by the industry and prudence of his second wife, whom he married in 1757. He died in Boston, Oct. 2, 1803. Samuel Adams and John Hancock were regarded as arch-rebels by General Gage, and he resolved to arrest them and send them to England to be tried for treason. A capital part of his scheme, in sending out the expedition to Lexington and Concord (April 18-19, 1775), was the seizure of these patriots, who, members of the Pro- vincial Congress, had tarried at Lexing- ton on being informed of Gage's intention to arrest them on their return to Boston. They were at the house of Rev. Jonas Clarke, and Gage thought to surprise and capture them at midnight. The vigilant Warren, learning the secret of the expe- dition, sent Paul Revere to warn the pa- triots of their danger. Revere waited at Charlestown for a signal-light from the sexton of the North Church, to warn him of the forward movement of the troops. It was given, and on Deacon Larkin's swift horse Revere sped to Lexington. At a little past midnight he rode up to Clarke's house, which he found guarded by Sergeant Monroe and his men. In hur- ried words he asked for Hancock. " The family have retired," said the sergeant, " and I am directed not to allow them to be disturbed by any noise." " Noise!" ex- claimed Revere; "you'll have noise enough ADAMS, SAMUEL before long; the regulars are coming out!" He was then allowed to knock at the door. Mr. Clarke appeared at a window, when Revere said, " I wish to see Mr. Hancock." " I do not like to admit strangers into my house so late at night," answered Mr. Clarke. Hancock, who was not asleep, recognized Revere's voice, and called out, " Come in, Revere, we are not afraid of you." The warning was given; the whole household was soon astir, and the two patriots awaited the coming of the enemy. When they approached, the " arch-rebels " were persuaded to retire to a more secure retreat, followed by Dorothy Quincy, to whom Hancock was affianced (and whom he married in September following), who was on a visit at Mr. Clarke's. When Adams, from a wooded hill near Clarke's house, saw the beginning of the skirmish at Lexington, he exclaimed, with prophetic prescience, " What a glorious morning for America is this!" In a proclamation (June 12) in which he denounced those in arms and their abettors to be " rebels and parricides of the Constitution," and offered a free pardon to all who should forthwith return to their allegi- ance, General Gage ex- cepted Adams and Han- cock, who were out- lawed, and for whom he offered a reward as -J " arch-traitors." : - Immediately after . vV " the " Boston Massa- cre " a monster meeting of citi- zens of Boston i OLD SOUTH MEETING-HOUSE. was held in the Old South Meeting- house, and appointed a committee, consist- ing of Samuel Adams, John Hancock, William Molineaux, William Phillips, Joseph Warren, Joshua Henshaw, and Samuel Pemberton, to call on Lieutenant- Governor Hutchinson and demand the re- moval of the British troops from Boston, by presenting resolutions to that effect adopted by the meeting. Adams submit- ted the resolutions. The lieutenant - gov- ernor and Colonel Dalrymple were dis- posed to temporize. Hutchinson said he had no power to remove all the troops. Adams proved that he had, by the terms of the charter. Still the crown officers hesitated. Adams resolved that there should be no more trifling with the will of the people. Stretching forth his hand towards Hutchinson, and in a voice not loud but clear, he said : " If you have power to remove one regiment, you have power to remove both. It is at your peril if you do not. The meeting is composed of 3,000 people. They are become very im- patient. A thousand men are already ar- rived from the neighborhood, and the coun- try is in general motion. Night is ap- proaching; an immediate answer is ex- pected." This was the voice of the province — of the continent. Hutchinson grew pale ; his knees trembled ; and Adams afterwards said, " I enjoyed the sight." After conferring together in a whisper, Hutchinson and Dalrymple promised to send all the troops to Castle William, in Boston Harbor. Mr. Adams was early marked as an in- flexible patriot and most earnest promoter of the cause of freedom. When Governor Gage sought to bribe him to desist from his opposition to the acts of Parliament concerning taxation in America, he sent Colonel Fenton on this errand. The latter said to Adams that he was authorized by Gage to assure him that he ( the governor ) had been empowered to confer upon him such benefits as would be satisfactory, upon the condition that he would engage to cease his opposition to the measures of government. He also observed that it was the advice of Governor Gage to him not to incur the further displeasure of his Majesty; that his conduct had been such as made him liable to the penalties of the Act of Henry VIII., by which persons could be sent to England for trial for trea- son or misprision of treason, at the dis- cretion of the governor of a province; but by changing his political course he would 52 ADAMS, SAMUEL not only receive great personal advantages, but would thereby make his peace with his King. Adams listened attentively, and at the conclusion of the colonel's remarks he asked him if he would deliver a reply exactly as it should be given. He assent- ed, when Adams, rising from his chair and assuming a determined manner, said, after repeating the historical words al- ready quoted, " No personal considera- tion shall induce me to abandon the right- eous cause of my country. Tell Governor Gage it is the advice of Samuel Adams to him no longer to insult the feelings of an exasperated people." Protest against Taxation. — On May 24, 1764, Samuel Adams addressed the fol- lowing protest to Royal Tyler, James Otis, Thomas Cushing, and Oxenbridge Thacher : Gentlemen, — Your being chosen by the freeholders and inhabitants of the town of Boston to represent them in the General Assembly the ensuing year affords you the strongest testimony of that confidence which they place in your integrity and capacity. By this choice they have dele- gated to you the power of acting in their public concerns in general as your own prudence shall direct you, always reserv- ing to themselves the constitutional right of expressing their mind and giving you such instructions upon particular matters as they at any time shall judge proper. We therefore, your constituents, take this opportunity to declare our just ex- pectations from you, that you will con- stantly use your power and influence in maintaining the valuable rights and privi- leges of the province, of which this town is so great a part, as well those rights which are derived to us by the royal charter as those which, being prior to and independent of it, we hold essentially as free-born subjects of Great Britain. That you will endeavor, as far as you shall be able, to preserve that indepen- dence in the House of Representa- tives which characterizes a free people, and the want of which may in a great measure prevent the happy efforts of a free government, cultivating as you shall have opportunity that harmony and union there which is ever desirable to good men, which is founded on principles of virtue and public spirit, and guarding against any undue weight which may tend to disad- just that critical balance upon which our Constitution and the blessings of it do de- pend. And for this purpose we particu- larly recommend it to you to use your en- deavors to have a law passed whereby the seats of such gentlemen as shall ac- cept of posts of profit from the crown or the governor, while they are members of the House, shall be vacated agreeably to an act of the British Parliament, till their constituents shall have the opportunity of re-electing them, if they please, or of re- turning others in their room. Being members of the legislative body, you will have a special regard to the mor- als of this people, which are the basis of public happiness, and endeavor to have such laws made, if any are still wanting, as shall be best adapted to secure them; and we particularly desire you carefully to look into the laws of excise, that if the virtue of the people is endangered by the multiplicity of oaths therein enjoined, or their trade and business is unreasonably impeded or embarrassed thereby, the griev- ance may be redressed. As the preservation of morals, as well as of property and right, so much depends upon the impartial distribution of justice, agreeable to good and wholesome law; and as the judges of the land do depend upon the free grants of the General As- sembly for support, it is incumbent upon you at all times to give your voice for their honorable maintenance, so long as they, having in their minds an indiffer- ence to all other affairs, shall devote themselves wholly to the duties of their own department and the further study of the law, by which their customs, prece- dents, proceedings, and determinations are adjusted and limited. You will remember that this province hath been at a very great expense in carry- ing on the war, and that it still lies under a very grievous burden of debt; you will therefore use your utmost endeavor to promote public frugality as one means to lessen the public debt. You will join in any proposals which may be made for the better cultivating the lands and improving the husbandry of the province; and as you represent a town which lives by its trade, we expect 53 ADAMS, SAMUEL in a very particular manner, though you ceedings may be preparatory to new tax- make it the object of your attention to ations upon us; for if our trade may be support our commerce in all its just taxed, why not our lands? Why not the rights, to vindicate it from all unreasona- produce of our lands and everything we ble impositions and promote its prosperity, possess or make use of? This we apprehend Our trade has for a long time labored annihilates our charter right to govern under great dicouragements, and it is with and tax ourselves. It strikes at our British the deepest concern that we see such fur- privileges, which, as we have never for- ther difficulties coming upon it as will re- feited them, we hold in common with our duce it to the low ebb, if not totally ob- fellow-subjects who are natives of Britain, struct and ruin it. We cannot help ex- If taxes are laid upon us in any shape pressing our surprise that when so early without our having a legal representation notice was given by the agent of the inten- where they are laid, are we not reduced tions of the ministry to burden us with from the character of free subjects to the new taxes, so little regard was had to this miserable state of tributary slaves? most interesting matter that the Court We therefore earnestly recommend it was not even called together to consult to you to use your utmost endeavors to about it till the latter end of the year ; the obtain in the General Assembly all neces- consequence of which was that instruc- sary instruction and advice to our agent tions could not be sent to the agent, though at this critical juncture; that while he is solicited by him, till the evil had gone be- setting forth the unshaken loyalty of this yond an easy remedy. province and this town — its unrivalled ex- There is no room for further delay; we ertion in supporting his Majesty's gov- therefore expect that you will use your ernment and rights in this part of his earliest endeavors in the General Assem- dominions — its acknowledged dependence bly that such methods may be taken as upon and subordination to Great Britain, will effectually prevent these proceedings and the ready submission of its merchants against us. By a proper representation to all just and necessary regulations of we apprehend it may easily be made to trade, he may be able in the most humble appear that such severities will prove det- and pressing manner to remonstrate for rimental to Great Britain itself; upon us all those rights and privileges which which account we have reason to hope that justly belong to us either by charter or an application, even for a repeal of the birth. act, should it be already passed, will be As his Majesty's other Northern Amer- successful. It is the trade of the colonies ican colonies are embarked with us in this that renders them beneficial to the mother most important bottom, we further desire country; our trade, as it is now and al- you to use your endeavors that their ways has been conducted, centres in Great weight may be added to that of this prov- Britain, and, in return for her manufact- ince, that by the united application of all ures, affords her more ready cash beyond who are aggrieved, all may happily obtain any comparison than can possibly be ex- redress. pected by the most sanguinary promoter Rights of the Colonists. — On Nov. 20, of these extraordinary methods. We are, 1772, he made the following report: in short, ultimately yielding large supplies to the revenues of the mother country, as men. while we are laboring for a very moderate Among the natural rights of the colo- subsistence for ourselves. But if our trade nists are these: First, a right to life, is to be curtailed in its most profitable Second, to liberty. Thirdly, to property; branches, and burdens beyond all possible together with the right to support and de- bearing laid upon that which is suffered fend them in the best manner they can. to remain, we shall be so far from being These are evident branches of, rather than able to take off the manufactures of Great deductions from, the duty of self-preser- Britain, though it will be scarce possi- vation, commonly called the first law of ble for us to earn our bread. nature. But what still heightens our appre- All men have a right to remain in a hensions is that these unexpected pro- state of nature as long as they please, and 54 ADAMS, SAMUEL in case of intolerable oppression, civil or far as possible into the states under whose religious, to leave the society they belong protection they enjoy life, liberty, and to and enter into another. property, that solecism in politics, impe- When men enter into society it is by Hum in imperio, leading directly to the voluntary consent, and they have a right worst anarchy and confusion, civil dis- to demand and insist upon the perform- cord, war, and bloodshed, ance of such conditions and previous lim- The natural liberty of man by entering itations as form an equitable original com- into society is abridged or restrained, so pact. -far only as is necessary for the great end Every natural right not expressly giv- of society — the best good of the whole, en up, or from the nature of a social com- In the state of nature every man is, pact necessarily ceded, remains. under God, judge and sole judge of his All positive and civil laws should con- own rights and of the injuries done him. form, as far as possible, to the law of nat- By entering into society he agrees to an ural reason and equity. arbiter or indifferent judge between him As neither reason requires nor religion and his neighbors; but he no more re- permits the contrary, every man living in nounces his original right, thereby taking or out of a state of civil society has a a cause out of the ordinary course of law, right peaceably and quietly to worship and leaving the decision to referees or in- God according to the dictates of his con- different arbitrators. In the last case, he science. must pay the referee for time and trouble. " Just and true liberty, equal and im- He should also be willing to pay his just partial liberty," in matters spiritual and quota for the support of the government, temporal is a thing that all men are clear- the law, and the Constitution, the end ly entitled to by the eternal and immuta- of which is to furnish indifferent and im- ble laws of God and nature, as well as by partial judges in all cases that may hap- the laws of nations and all well-grounded pen, whether civil, ecclesiastical, marine, and municipal laws, which must have or military, their foundation in the former. The natural liberty of man is to be In regard to religion, mutual toleration free from any superior power on earth, in the different professions thereof is what and not to be under the will or legisla- all good and candid minds in all ages tive authority of man, but only to have have ever practised, and both by precept the law of nature for his rule, and example inculcated on mankind. It In the state of nature men may, as the is now generally agreed among Christians patriarchs did, employ hired servants for that this spirit of toleration, in the fullest the defence of their lives, liberties, and extent consistent with the being of civil property, and they shall pay them reason- society, is the chief character istical mark able wages. Government was instituted of the true Church. In so much that Mr. for the purpose of common defence, and Locke has asserted and proved, beyond the those who hold the reins of government possibility of contradiction on any solid have an equitable, natural right to an hon- ground, that such toleration ought to be orable support from the same principle that extended to all whose doctrines are not " the laborer is worthy of his hire." But subversive of society. The only sects then the same community which they which he thinks ought to be, and which by serve ought to be the assessors of their all wise laws are, excluded from such tol- pay. Governors have a right to seek and eration are those who teach doctrines sub- take what they please ; by this, instead of versive of the civil government under being content with the station assigned which they live. The Roman Catholics, or them, that of honorable servants of the Papists, are excluded by reason of such society, they would soon become absolute doctrines as these: That princes excom- masters, despots, and tyrants. Hence, as municated may be deposed, and those that a private man has a right to say what they call heretics may be destroyed with- wages he will give in his private affairs, out mercy; besides their recognizing the so has a community to determine what Pope in so absolute a manner, in sub- they will give and grant of their substance version on government, by introducing, as for the administration of public affairs, 55 ADAMS, SAMUEL And in both cases more are ready to offer their service at the proposed and stipu- lated price than are able and willing to perform their duty. In short, it is the greatest absurdity to suppose it in the power of one, or of any number of men, at the entering into so- ciety to renounce their essential natural rights, or the means of preserving those rights, when the grand end of civil govern- ment, from the very nature of its institu- tion, is for the support, protection, and defence of those very rights; the principal of which, as is before observed, are life, liberty, and property. If men, through fear, fraud, or mistake, should in terms re- nounce or give up any essential natural right, the eternal law of reason and the grand end of society would absolutely va- cate such renunciation. The right of free- dom being the gift of God Almighty, it is not in the power of man to alienate this gift and voluntarily become a slave. AS CHRISTIANS. These may be best understood by read- ing and carefully studying the institutes of the great Law-giver and head of the Christian Church, which are to be found clearly written and promulgated in the New Testament. By an act of the British Parliament commonly called the Toleration Act, every subject in England, except Papists, etc., were restored to, and re-established in, his natural right to worship God according to the dictates of his own conscience. And by the charter of this province it is grant- ed, ordained, and established (that is, de- clared as an original right) that there shall be liberty of conscience allowed in the worship of God to all Christians, ex- cept Papists, inhabiting, or which shall inhabit or be resident within, such prov- ince or territory. Magna Charta itself is in substance but a constrained declaration or proclamation and promulgation in the name of King, Lords, and Commons, of the sense the latter had their original, inher- ent, indefeasible, natural rights, as also those of free citizens equally perdurable with the other. That great author, that great jurist, and even that court writer, Mr. Justice Blackstone, holds that this recognition was justly obtained of King John, sword in hand. And peradventure it must be one day, sword in hand, again 56 rescued and preserved from total destruc- tion and oblivion. AS SUBJECTS. A commonwealth or state is a body politic, or civil society of men united to- gether to promote their mutual safety and prosperity by means of their union. The absolute right of Englishmen and all freemen, in or out of civil society, are principally personal security, personal liberty, and private property. All persons born in the British Ameri- can Colonies are by the laws of God and nature, and by the common law of Eng- land, exclusive of all charters from the Crown, well entitled, and by acts of the British Parliament are declared to be en- titled, to all the natural, essential, in- herent, and inseparable rights, liberties, and privileges of subjects born in Great Britain or within the realm. Among these rights are the following, which no man, or body of men, consistently with their own rights as men and citizens, or mem- bers of society, can for themselves give up or take away from others: First. The first fundamental positive law of all commonwealths or states is the establishing the legislative power. As the first fundamental natural law, also, which is to govern even the legislative power itself is the preservation of the so- ciety. Secondly. The legislative has no right to absolute arbitrary power over the lives and fortunes of the people; nor can mor- tals assume a prerogative not only too high for men, but for angels, and there- fore reserved for the Deity alone. The legislative cannot justly assume to itself a power to rule by extempore arbi- trary decrees; but it is bound to see that justice is dispensed, and that the rights of the subjects be decided by promulgated standing, and known laws, and authorized independent judges; that is, independent, as far as possible, of prince and people. There should be one rule of justice for rich and poor, for the favorite at court, and the countryman at the plough. Thirdly. The supreme power cannot justly take from any man any part of his property without his consent in person or by his representative. These are some of the first principles of natural law and justice, and the great ADAMS— ADEE barriers of all free states, and of the Brit- Ireland together; yet it is absurdly ex- ish constitution in particular. It is ut- pected by the promoters of the present terly irreconcilable to these principles, and measure that these, with their posterity to any other fundamental maxims of the to all generations, should be easy while common law, common-sense, and reason, their property shall be disposed of by a that a British House of Commons should House of Commons at 3,000 miles dis- have a right at pleasure to give and grant tant from them, and who cannot be the property of the colonists. (That the supposed to have the least care or con- colonists are well entitled to all the es- cern for their real interest, but must sential rights, liberties, and privileges of be in effect bribed against it, as every men and freemen born in Britain is mani- burden they lay on the colonists is so fest not only from the colony charters in much saved or gained to themselves, general, but acts of the British Parlia- Hitherto many of the colonists have been ment.) The statute of the 13th of Geo. free from quit rents; but if the breath II., c. 7, naturalizes every foreigner after of a British -House of Commons, can seven years' residence. The words of the originate an act for taking away all our Massachusetts charter are these: "And money, our lands will go next, or be sub- further, our will and pleasure is, and we ject to rack rents from haughty and re- do hereby, for us, our heirs and successors, lentless landlords, who will ride at ease grant, establish, and ordain that all and while we are trodden in the dirt. The every of the subjects of us, our heirs and colonists have been branded with the successors, which shall go to and inhabit odious names of traitors and rebels only within our said Province or Territory, and for complaining of their grievances. How every of their children which shall happen long such treatment will or ought to be to be born there or on the seas in going borne is submitted. thither or returning from thence, shall Addams, J aj^l, smi al reformer ; born in have and enjoy all liberties and immunities Cedarville, 111., Sept. 6, 1860; was gradu- of free and natural subjects within any of ated at Rockford College in 1881, and, the dominions of us, our heirs and sue- after spending some time in study in cessors, to all intents, constructions, and Europe, established the Social Settlement purposes whatsoever, as if they and every of Hull House in Chicago, of which she be- one of them were born within this, our came head resident. She is widely es- realm of England." teemed for her writings and lectures on Now what liberty can there be where Social Settlement work, property is taken away without consent? Addicks, John Edward, capitalist; Can it be said with any color of truth born in Philadelphia, Nov. 21, 1841. In- and justice that this continent of 3,000 terested in gas companies. He was a can- miles in length, and of a breadth as didate for United States Senator from yet unexplored, in which, however, it is Delaware for several years, but failed of supposed there are 5,000,000 of people, election. His adherents prevented the has the least voice, vote, or influence in election of any one, and as a consequence the British Parliament? Have they alto- Delaware was unrepresented in the United gether any more weight or power to return States Senate for several years. a single member to that House of Com- Adee, Alvey Augustus, diplomatist; mons who have not inadvertently, but de- born in Astoria, N. Y., Nov. 27, 1842; was liberately, assumed a power to dispose of educated privately. On Sept. 9, 1870, he their lives, liberties, and properties, than was appointed secretary of the American to choose an emperor of China? Had the legation in Madrid, where he also served colonists a right to return members to at different times as charge d'affaires; the British Parliament, it would only be July 9, 1877, was transferred to the De- hurtful, as, from their local situation and partment of State in Washington, D. C. ; circumstances it is impossible they should June 11, 1878, became chief of the Diplo- ever be truly and properly represented matic Bureau; July 18, 1882, third assist- there. The inhabitants of this country, in ant Secretary of State; and Aug. 3, 1886, all probability, in a few years, will be more second assistant Secretary of State. He numerous than those of Great Britain and was present when the peace protocols were 57 ADET— ADLER signed between the United States and ment, in this respect, violated the obliga- Spain, in Washington. tions of treaties." This was followed by Adet, Pierre Augustus, French diplo- a summary of these alleged violations, in- matist; born in Nevers in 1763. He was eluding the circular of 1793, restraining ambassador to the United States in 1795- the fitting-out of privateers in American 97. Here he interfered too much in local waters; the law of 1794, prohibiting hos- politics, and became unpopular with the tile enterprises or preparations against government party. He issued an inflam- nations with whom the United States were matory address to the American people, in at peace; the cognizance of these matters which he accused the administration of taken by the American courts of law; and Washington with violations of the friend- the admission of armed British vessels ship which once existed between the Unit- into American waters. He complained of ed States and France. On Nov. 5, 1796, the "British treaty" as inimical to the he issued the famous " cockade " procla- interests of France. This paper, published mation, or order, calling upon all French- in the Aurora, was intended more for the men in the United States, in the name of American people than for the American the French Directory, to mount and wear government. While in the United States the tricolored cockade, " the symbol of a he was a busy partisan of the Repub- liberty the fruit of eight years' toil and licans. In 1796 he presented to Con- five years' victories." Adet declared in gress, in behalf of the French nation, the his proclamation that any Frenchman who tricolored flag of France; and just before might hesitate to give this indication of he left, in 1797, he sent to the Secre- adherence to the republic should not be tary of State the famous note in which the allowed the aid of the French consular Directory, contrary to the spirit of the chanceries or the national protection. The treaty of 1778, declared that the flag of tricolored cockade was at once mounted, the republic would treat all neutral flags not only by the French residents, but by as they permitted themselves to be treated many American citizens who wished to by the English. Soon afterwards Adet signify in this marked manner their at- suspended his diplomatic functions and tachment to the French Republic. This returned to France, where he died in 1832. " cockade proclamation," as the Federal- Adirondack Park, a tract in the ists called it in derision, was the origin Adirondack Mountain region covering of the practice, for several years, of Hamilton county and parts of Essex, wearing a cockade as a badge of party Franklin, Herkimer, and St. Lawrence distinction. counties; containing numerous mountains, Ten days after the issuance of this peaks, lakes, and woodlands. It was set proclamation he sent a note simultaneous- apart by the State of New York in 1892 ly to the State Department and to the for the protection of the watershed of the Aurora — the opposition newspaper — de- Hudson and other rivers, for the practical manding, " in the name of the faith of study of forestry, and for public recrea- treaties and of American honor, the exe- tion. The tract has an area of 4,387 cntion of that contract [treaty of 1778] square miles. The study of forestry is which assured to the United States their here carried on under the direction of existence, and which France regarded as a the newly established State School of pledge of the most sacred union between Forestry, a department of Cornell Uni- two people, the freest upon earth." He versity (q. v.). announced, at the same time, " the resolu- Adler, Felix, educator ; born in Alzey, tion of a government terrible to its ene- Germany, Aug. 13, 1851; was graduated mies, but generous to its allies." With at Columbia University in 1870 and then grandiloquent sentences he portrayed the studied in Germany. In 1874-76 he was disappointment of the French nation in Professor of Hebrew and Oriental Litera- not finding a warm friend in the American ture at Cornell University; and in 1876 government. "So far from offering the he founded the New York Society of French the succor which friendship might Ethical Culture, before which he has since have given/' he said, "without com- lectured on Sundays. On May 5, 1901, at promitting itself, the American govern- its twenty-fifth anniversary, in recognition 58 ADMINISTRATIONS— AGAMENTICUS of Dr. Adler's services, the society pre- Adventists were divided into six bodies: sented him with $10,000 as a nucleus of a Evangelical, Advent Christians, Seventh- larger fund the income of which is to Day, Church of God, Life and Advent be employed in developing the natural gifts Union, and Churches of God in Jesus of worthy young men and women. Dr. Christ, and together reported 1,491 min- Adler is a member of the editorial board isters, 2,267 churches, and 89,482 com- of the International Journal of Ethics, municants. See Miller, William. His publications include Creed and Deed; African Methodist Episcopal Church, The Moral Instruction of Children, etc. a religious sect established in Philadel- Administrations. See Presidential phia in 1816, by colored members of the Administrations; Cabinet, President's; Methodist Episcopal Church. The first also the titles of the several Presidents. bishop chosen by the convention that Admiral, several times the title of the founded the Church was the Rev. Richard highest rank in the United States naval Allen. In 1794, under his direction, the service. Prior to the Civil War the high- first church for colored Methodists in the est rank was that of commodore. In 1862 United States was built in Philadelphia. Congress established the rank of rear-ad- The government and doctrine of the Church miral; in 1864 that of vice-admiral; and is substantially the same as that of the in 1866 that of admiral, in each case the body from which it withdrew. Its terri- office being bestowed on David G. Farra- tory is divided into two annual confer- gut. On the death of David D. Porter ences, and it has a general conference (1891), who by law had succeeded to the which meets once every four years. In titles of vice-admiral and admiral, both 1900 it reported as follows: Ministers, these grades were abolished, and the grade 5,659; churches, 5,775; and members, of rear-admiral remained the highest till 673,504. 1899, when that of admiral was again African Methodist Episcopal Church, created by Congress and conferred on Zion, a religious sect, founded in New George Dewey. Further legislation by York City in 1796. This organization Congress in that year increased the num- sprang from a desire of colored members ber of rear-admirals from six, to which it of the Methodist Episcopal Church to have had been reduced in 1882, to eighteen, and a separate spiritual fellowship that they divided these officers into two classes of might be more helpful to each other. The nine each, the first nine corresponding in first annual conference, however, was not rank to major-generals in the army, and held until 1821. James Varich was elect- the second to brigadier-generals. The ed bishop in the following year. Until same act abolished the grade of commo- 1880 bishops held office for four years dore, and advanced the holders of that only, but in that year an act was passed grade to rear-admirals. In 1902 the num- making the bishopric a life office. The ber of rear-admirals was 22; in 1903, 24. territory of this Church is divided into Admiralty Courts. The governor of seven districts, over each of which there each colony was vice-admiral, with the is a bishop. In 1900 it reported as fol- right of deciding maritime cases person- lows: Ministers, 3,155; churches, 2,906; ally, or by a judge appointed by him. By and members, 536,271. the Constitution this jurisdiction is now Agamenticus, the name given in 1636 vested in the federal courts, with original to the region lying between the mountain jurisdiction in the district courts. and the sea, now comprising York county, Adventists, also known as Millerites, Me. It was within the grant given to a sect in the United States founded by Gorges and Mason. There a city was William Miller, who believed that the sec- formed, and incorporated in 1641, in imi- ond coming of Christ would occur in Oc- tation of English municipalities, with a tober, 1843. As the expected event did not mayor and aldermen. The city was called occur on the first nor succeeding days set Gorgeana. The occupants of the land in for it, the number of believers decreased Agamenticus were tenants at will of the very largely. The Adventists of to-day proprietor. There English apple-seeds still look for the coming of Christ, but do were planted and thrived, and one of the not fix a definite time for it. In 1900 the trees that sprang up lived and bore fruit 59 AGANA— AGASSIZ annually so late as 1875, when it was cut tory; published Louis Agassis: His Life down. See Maine ; York. and Correspondence ; and was president Agana, the principal town and district of the Harvard " Annex," now Radcliffe of the island of Guam, the largest of the College, from its organization till 1899, Ladrone Islands, in the Pacific Ocean, about 1,500 miles east of Luzon, in the Philippines. As a result of the war when she resigned. Agassiz, Louis John Rudolph, nat- uralist; born in Motier parish, near between the United States and Spain, the Neuchatel, Switzerland, May 28, 1807. He former took possession of this island, and was of Huguenot descent, was thorough- in the following year established a seat of ly educated at Heidelberg and Munich, government in this town with Capt. Rich- ard P. Leary, U. S. N., as the first gov- ernor. The population of the island is between eight and nine thousand; three- and received the honorary degree of Ph.D. ire prosecuted his studies in natural his- tory in Paris, where Cuvier offered him his collection for the purpose. The liber- fourths of the people live in the district of ality of Humboldt enabled him to publish .Agana, and four-fifths of this number, or his great work (1834-44) on Fossil Fish- 5,249, in the town. Under American con- es, in 5 volumes, with an atlas. He ar- trol the town and its vicinity speedily took rived in Boston in 1846, and lectured there the appearance of greater activity and prosperity than was ever before seen there ; and the process of Americanizing con- tinued with excellent results till Nov. 13, 1900, when both the town and the island were swept by a typhoon, in which the United States auxiliary cruiser Yo- semite was wrecked on a coral reef, after drifting 60 miles from her anchorage. The navy department promptly sent relief in the form of food, clothing, and building materials to the people, who had become greatly attached to their new national connection. See Guam. Agassiz, Alexander, naturalist; born in Neuchatel, Switzerland, Dec. 17, 1835; son of Prof. Louis Agassiz; came to the United States in 1849 ; and was graduated at Harvard College in 1855, and at Law- rence Scientific School in 1857. He was curator of the Natural History Muse- on the Animal Kingdom and on Glaciers, um, in Cambridge, in 1874-85; has since In the summer of 1847 the superintendent been engaged in important zoological in- of the Coast Survey tendered him the fa- vestigations ; and became widely known by his connection with the famous Calumet and Hecla copper-mines. The University of St. Andrews conferred the honorary degree of LL.D. upon him, April 2, 1901. Agassiz, Elizabeth Cabot, naturalist and educator; born in Boston, Mass., in Lons AGASSIZ. cilities of that service for a continuance of his scientific investigations. Professor Agassiz settled in Cambridge, and was made Professor of Zoology and Geology of the Lawrence Scientific School at its foun- dation in 1848. That year he made, with some of his pupils, a scientific exploration 1823; daughter of Thomas G. Cary; was of the shores of Lake Superior. He after- married to Prof. Louis Agassiz in 1850. In 1865 she accompanied her husband on his expedition to Brazil, and in 1871-72 was on the Hassler expedition. She wards explored the southern coasts of the United States, of Brazil, and the waters of the Pacific Ocean. An account of his explorations on the Brazilian coast was greatly aided her husband in his studies given in A Journey to Brazil, by Mrs. and writings; was joint author with her Agassiz, in 1867. He received the Copley son of Seaside Studies in Natural His- Medal from the Royal Society of London; 60 AGAWAM— AGRARIAN PARTY from the Academy of Sciences of Paris, known as a daring and successful operator the Monthyon Prize and the Cuvier Prize; in cases of gunshot wounds. After the the Wollaston Medal from the Geological war he was elected Professor of Operative Society of London ; and the Medal of Surgery and of the Principles and Practice Merit from the King of Prussia. He was of Surgery at the University of Pennsyl- a member of many scientific societies, and vania. Dr. Agnew was the consulting and the universities of Dublin and Edinburgh operating surgeon in the case of President conferred on him the honorary degree of Garfield in 1881. Among his numerous LL.D. Professor Agassiz published valu- publications are Practical Anatomy; able scientific works in Europe and in the Anatomy and Its Relation to Medicine and United States. He died in Cambridge, Surgery; and The Principles and Practice Mass., Dec. 14, 1873. of Surgery. He died in Philadelphia, Agawam, the Indian name of Ipswich, March 22, 1892. Mass.; settled in 1633; incorporated under Agnew, James, a British general; came the present name in 1634. See Boston; to America late in 1775; participated in Massachusetts. the military movements in and about Bos- Age of Reason, the title of a work ton; and was engaged in the battle of written by Thomas Paine (q. v.), and Long Island, where, and in subsequent noted in its day for its extreme freedom campaigns, he commanded the 4th Brigade of thought. See Ingersoll, Robert of the royal army. He accompanied ex- Green. Governor Tryon in his marauding expedi- Agnew, Cornelius Rea, physician and tion to Danbury, Conn., in the spring of surgeon; born in New York City, Aug. 1777. He was slightly wounded in the bat- 8, 1830; was graduated at Columbia Col- tie of Brandy wine (Sept. 11), and in the lege in 1849, and at the College of Phy- battle of Germantown (Oct. 4, 1777) he sicians and Surgeons in 1852, subsequently was killed. continuing his studies in Europe. He be- Agnus, Felix, journalist; born in came surgeon-general of the State of New Lyons, France, July 4, 1839; was edu- York in 1858, and at the beginning of the cated in the College of Jolie Clair, near Civil War was appointed medical director Paris; came to the United States in 1860, of the New York State Volunteer Hospital, and in the following year entered the During the war he was also one of the Union army in Duryea's Zouaves (5th most influential members of the United New York Volunteers). At Big Bethel he States Sanitary Commission (q. v.). saved the life of Gen. Judson Kilpatrick, Dr. Agnew was one of the founders of the He aided in recruiting the 165th New Columbia College School of Mines. He York Volunteers, of which he was made died in New York, April 8, 1888. captain; in 1862 he participated in the Agnew, Daniel, jurist; born in Tren- siege of Port Hudson, La.; afterwards ton, N. J., Jan. 5, 1809; removed to Pitts- was promoted major and lieutenant-eolo- burg, Pa.; district judge in 1851; Su- nel. He next served in the 19th Corps preme Court judge in 1863; and chief- under Sheridan and in the Department justice of the State in 1873; resigned in of the South. On March 13, 1865, he was 1879. He wrote Our National Constitu- brevetted brigadier-general of volunteers, Hon, History of Pennsylvania, etc. He and in August of the same year was died in Beaver, Pa., March 9, 1902. mustered out of the service. After the Agnew, David Hayes, anatomist and war he became the editor and publisher author; born in Lancaster county, Pa., Nov. of the Baltimore American. 24, 1818; was graduated at the Medical Agrarian Party, a political organiza- Department of the University of Penn- tion in Germany inspired in 1869, and sylvania in 1838; became professor in the practically founded in 1876. The mem- Philadelphia School of Anatomy; demon- bers in recent years have become widely strator of anatomy in the Medical Depart- noted for their opposition to German com- ment of the University of Pennsylvania, mercial relations with the United States, and surgeon at the Pennsylvania and the especially in the matters of all kinds of Orthopaedic hospitals, all in Philadelphia, food-stuffs. In 1898 and 1899 this oppo- During the Civil War he became widely sition assumed a phase that was exceed- 61 AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE ingly annoying to the German govern- direct influence of high German officials, ment, and the defeat of many Agrarians who feared a disturbance of commercial for the Reichstag was attributed to the relations with the United States. AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE Agreement of the People, a document tributed by counties, cities, and boroughs, drawn up in October, 1647, and presented for the election of their Representatives) in the British House of Commons on Jan. be indifferently proportioned; and, to this 20, 1648. The document, which follows, end, that the Representatives of the whole should be read in connection with the nation shall consist of 400 persons, or Magna Charta, the Bill of Rights, the not above; and in each county, and the Articles of Confederation, and the Decla- places thereto subjoined, there shall be ration of Independence, all of which are chosen, to make up the said Representa- reflected in our national Constitution. tives at all times, the several numbers Having, by our late labours and haz- here mentioned, viz.: ards, made it appear to the world at how high a rate we value our just freedom, and Kent * with tne Boroughs, Towns, and Parish- God having so far owned our canse as to -„«&■«& ^^0; &SrtST«S deliver the enemies thereof into our hands, the Suburbs adjoining and Liberties there- we do now hold ourselves bound, in mu- of, 2 ; Rochester, with the Parishes of tual duty to each other, to take the best Chatham and Stroud, 1 ; The Cinque Ports , ,, -. , ., , ., in Kent and Sussex, viz., Dover, Romney, care we can for the future, to avoid both H ythe, Sandwich, Hastings, with the the danger of returning into a slavish Towns of Rye and Winchelsea, 3. condition and the chargeable remedy of Sussex, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Par- another war: for as it cannot be imagined X^J^Ih ll^l ^h^T M 2?* ,, . . , & , , Chester, with the Suburbs and Liberties that so many of our countrymen would thereof, 1. have opposed us in this quarrel if they Southampton County, with the Boroughs, had understood their own good, so may we Towns, and Parishes therein, except such hoDefullv nromise to ourselves that wh^n as are nereund er named, 8 ; Winchester, nopeiuny promise to ourselves, that when with the Suburbs and Liber ties thereof, 1 ; our common rights and liberties shall be Southampton Town and the County there- cleared, their endeavours will be disap- of » 1. pointed that seek to make themselves d °R se tshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and our masters. Since therefore our former lllltZe^T^ ^^ Dorcbester ' 7; oppressions and not-yet-ended troubles, Devonshire/ with the Boroughs, Towns, and have been occasioned either by want of Parishes therein, except such as are here- frequent national meetings in council, or l^Z^o"^ n , am 7 e V 2; Exeter > ^ u„ 4.1. j i ,., ,. Plymouth, 2; Barnstaple, 1. by the undue or unequal constitution Cornwall, with the Boroughs, Towns, and thereof, or by rendering those meetings Parishes therein, 8. ineffectual, we are fully agreed and re- Somersbt shire, with the Boroughs, Towns, solved, God willing, to provide, that here- after our Representatives be neither left to an uncertainty for times nor be un- equally constituted, nor made useless to and Parishes therein, except such as are hereunder named, 8 ; Bristol, 3 ; Taunton- Dean, 1. Wiltshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Salisbury, 7 ; Sal- isbury, 1. the end* for^ which they are intended. Berkshire; with the Boroughs, Towns, and declare and Parishes therein, except Reading, 5 ; Read- ing, 1. In order whereunto agree, First, that, to prevent the many incon- veniences apparently arising from the Surrey, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Southwark, 5 ; Southwark, 2. long continuance of the same persons in Middlesex, with the Boroughs, Towns, and supreme authority, this present Parlia- ment end and dissolve upon, or before, the last day of April, 1649. Secondly, that the people of England (being at this day very unequally dis- 62 Parishes therein, except such as are here- under named, 4 • London, 8 ; Westminster and the Duchy, 2. Hertfordshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, 6. Buckinghamshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, 6. AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE Oxfordshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except such as are hereunder named, 4 ; Oxford City, 2 ; Ox- ford University, 2. Gloucestershire, with the Botoughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Gloucester, 7 ; Gloucester, 2. Herefordshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Hereford, 4 ; Hereford, 1. Worcestershire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Worcester, 4 ; Worcester, 2. Warwickshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Coventry, 5 ; Coventry, 2. Northamptonshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except North- ampton, 5 ; Northampton, 1. Bedfordshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, 4. Cambridgeshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except such as are hereunder particularly named, 4 ; Cam- bridge University, 2 ; Cambridge Town, 2. Essex, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Par- ishes therein, except Colchester, 11 ; Col- chester, 2. Suffolk, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except such as are here- after named, 10 ; Ipswich, 2 ; St. Edmund's Bury, 1. Norfolk, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except such as are here- under named, 9 ; Norwich, 3 ; Lynn, 1 ; Yarmouth, 1. Lincolnshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except the City of Lincoln and the Town of Boston, 11 ; Lin- coln, 1 ; Boston, 1. Rutlandshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, 1. Huntingdonshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, 3. Leicestershire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Leicester, 5 ; Leicester, 1. Nottinghamshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Not- tingham, 4 ; Nottingham, 1. Derbyshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Derby, 5 ; Der- by, 1. Staffordshire, with the City of Lichfield, the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes there- in, 6. Shropshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Shrewsbury, 6 ; Shrewsbury, 1. Cheshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Chester, 5 ; Ches- ter, 2. Lancashire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Manchester, 6 ; Manchester and the Parish, 1. Yorkshire, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except such as are here- after named, 15 ; York City and the County thereof, 3 ; Kingston upon Hull and the County thereof, 1 ; Leeds Town and Par- ish, I. Durham County Palatine, with the Bor- 63 oughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except Durham and Gateside, 3 ; Durham City, 1. Northumberland, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, except such as are hereunder named, 3 ; Newcastle upon Tyne and the County thereof, with Gateside, 2 ; Berwick, 1. Cumberland, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, 3. Westmoreland, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein, 2. Wales Anglesea, with the Parishes therein 2 Brecknock, with the Boroughs and Par- ishes therein 3 Cardigan, with the Boroughs and Par- ishes therein 3 Carmarthen, with the Boroughs and Par- ishes therein 3 Carnarvon, with the Boroughs and Par- ishes therein 2 Denbigh, with the Boroughs and Par- ishes therein 2 Flint, with the Boroughs and Parishes therein 1 Monmouth, with the Boroughs and Par- ishes therein 4 Glamorgan, with the Boroughs and Par- ishes therein 4 Merioneth, with the Boroughs and Par- ishes therein 2 Montgomery, with the Boroughs and Parishes therein 3 Radnor, with the Boroughs and Parishes therein 2 Pembroke, with the Boroughs, Towns, and Parishes therein 4 Provided, that the first or second Rep- resentative may, if they see cause, assign the remainder of the 400 representers, not hereby assigned, or so many of them as they shall see cause for, unto such counties as shall appear in this present distribu- tion to have less than their due propor- tion. Provided also, that where any city or borough, to which one representer or more is assigned, shall be found in a due proportion, not competent alone to elect a representer, or the number of representers assigned thereto, it is left to future Rep- resentatives to assign such a number of parishes or villages near adjoining to such city or borough, to be joined therewith in the elections, or may make the same pro- portionable. Thirdly. That the people do, of course, choose themselves a Representative once in two years, and shall meet for that purpose upon the first Thursday in every second May, by eleven in the morning; and the Representatives so chosen to meet upon the second Thursday in the June follow- ing, at the usual place in Westminster, or AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE such other place as, by the foregoing Rep- resentative, or the Council of State in the interval, shall be, from time to time, ap- pointed and published to the people, at the least twenty days before the time of elec- tion: and to continue their sessions there, or elsewhere, until the second Thursday in December following, unless they shall ad- journ or dissolve themselves sooner; but not to continue longer. The election of the first Representative to be on the first Thursday in May, 1649; and that, and all future elections, to be according to the rules prescribed for the same purpose in this Agreement, viz. 1. That the electors in every division shall be natives or denizens of England; not persons receiving alms, but such as are assessed ordinarily tow- ards the relief of the poor; no servants to, and receiving wages from, any partic- ular person; and in all elections, except for the Universities, they shall be men of twenty-one years of age, or upwards, and housekeepers, dwelling within the division for which the election is: provided, that (until the end of seven years next ensuing the time herein limited for the end of this present Parliament) no person shall be ad- mitted to, or have any hand or voice in, such elections, who hath adhered unto or assisted the King against the Parliament in any of the late wars or insurrections; or who shall make or join in, or abet, any forcible opposition against this Agree- ment. 2. That such persons, and such only, may be elected to be of the Repre- sentative, who, by the rule aforesaid, are to have voice in elections in one place or other. Provided, that of those none shall be eligible for the first or second Repre- sentative, who have not voluntarily assist- ed the Parliament against the King, either in person before the 14th of June, 1645, or else in money, plate, horse, or arms, lent upon the Propositions, before the end of May, 1643; or who have joined in, or abbetted, the treasonable engagement in London, in 1647; or who declared or en- gaged themselves for a cessation of arms with the Scots that invaded this nation the last summer; or for compliance with the actors in any insurrections of the same summer; or with the Prince of Wales, or his accomplices, in the revolted fleet. Provided also, that such persons as, by the rules in the preceding Article, are 64 not capable of electing until the end of seven years, shall not be capable to be elected until the end of fourteen years next ensuing. And we desire and recom- mend it to all men, that, in all times, the persons to be chosen for this great trust may be men of courage, fearing God and hating covetousness ; and that our Rep- resentatives would make the best provi- sions for that end. 3. That whoever, by the rules in the two preceding Articles, are incapable of electing, or to be elected, shall presume to vote in, or be present at, such election for the first or second Rep- resentative; or, being elected, shall pre- sume to sit or vote in either of the said Representatives, shall incur the pain of confiscation of the moiety of his estate, to the use of the public, in case he have any visible estate to the value of £50, and if he has not such an estate, then shall in- cur the pain of imprisonment for three months. And if any person shall forcibly oppose, molest or hinder the people, capa- ble of electing as aforesaid, in their quiet and free election of representers, for the first Representative, then each person so offending shall incur the penalty of confis- cation of his whole estate, both real and personal; and, if he has not an estate to the value of £50, shall suffer imprison- ment during one whole year without bail or mainprize. Provided, that the offender in each case be convicted within three months next after the committing of his offence, and the first Representative is to make further provision for the avoiding of these evils in future elections. 4. That to the end all officers of state may be cer- tainly accountable, and no faction made to maintain corrupt interests, no member of a Council of State, nor any officer of any salary-forces in army or garrison, nor any treasurer or receiver of public money, shall, while such, be elected to be of a Representative; and in case any such election shall be, the same to be void. And in case any lawyer shall be chosen into any Representative or Council of State, then he shall be incapable of prac- tice as a lawyer during that trust. 5. For the more convenient election of Represent- atives, each county, wherein more than three representers are to be chosen, with the town corporate and cities, if there be any, lying within the compass thereof, to AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE which no representers are herein assigned, shall be divided by a due proportion into so many, and such parts, as each part may elect two, and no part above three rep- resenters. For the setting forth of which divisions, and the ascertaining of other circumstances hereafter expressed, so as to make the elections less subject to confu- sion or mistake, in order to the next Rep- resentative, Thomas Lord Grey of Groby, Sir John Danvers, Sir Henry Holcroft, knights; Moses Wall, gentleman; Samuel Moyer, John Langley, Wm. Hawkins, Abraham Babington, Daniel Taylor, Mark Hilsley, Rd. Price, and Col. John White, citizens of London, or any five or more of them, are intrusted to nominate and ap- point, under their hands and seals, three or more fit persons in each county, and in each city and borough, to which one rep- resenter or more is assigned, to be as Commissioners for the ends aforesaid, in the respective counties, cities and bor- oughs; and, by like writing under their hands and seals, shall certify into the Par- liament Records, before the 11th of Feb- ruary next, the names of the Commission- ers so appointed for the respective coun- ties, cities and boroughs, which Commis- sioners, or any three or more of them, for the respective counties, cities and bor- oughs, shall before the end of February next, by writing under their hands and seals, appoint two fit and faithful persons, or more, in each hundred, lathe or wapen- take, within the respective counties, and in each ward within the City of London, to take care for the orderly taking of all voluntary subscriptions to this Agreement, by fit persons to be employed for that pur- pose in every parish; who are to return the subscription so taken to the persons that employed them, keeping a transcript thereof to themselves; and those persons, keeping like transcripts, to return the original subscriptions to the respective Commissioners by whom they were ap- pointed, at, or before, the 14th day of April next, to be registered and kept in the chief court within the respective cities and boroughs. And the said Commission- ers, or any three or more of them, for the several counties, cities and boroughs, re- spectively, shall, where more than three representers are to be chosen, divide such counties, as also the City of London, into so many, and such parts as are afore- mentioned, and shall set forth the bounds of such divisions; and shall, in every county, city and borough, where any rep- resenters are to be chosen, and in every such division as aforesaid within the City of London, and within the several coun- ties so divided, respectively, appoint one place certain wherein the people shall meet for the choice of the representers; and some one fit person, or more, inhabit- ing within each borough, city, county or division, respectively, to be present at the time and place of election, in the nature of Sheriffs, to regulate the elections; and by poll, or otherwise, clearly to distin- guish and judge thereof, and to make re- turn of the person or persons elected, as is hereafter expressed; and shall likewise, in writing under their hands and seals, make certificates of the several divisions, with the bounds thereof, by them set forth, and of the certain places of meeting, and persons, in the nature of Sheriff, appointed in them respectively as aforesaid; and cause such certificates to be returned into the Parlia- ment Records before the end of April next ; and before that time shall also cause the same to be published in every parish within the counties, cities and boroughs respectively; and shall in every such parish likewise nominate and appoint, by warrant under their hands and seals, one trusty person, or more, inhabiting there- in, to make a true list of all the persons within their respective parishes, who, ac- cording to the rules aforegoing, are to have voice in the elections; and expressing who amongst them are, by the same rules, capable of being elected; and such list, with the said warrant, to bring in and re- turn, at the time and place of election, unto the person appointed in the nature of Sheriff, as aforesaid, for that borough, city, county or division respectively; which person so appointed as Sheriff, be- ing present at the time and place of elec- tion; or, in case of his absence, by the space of one hour after the time limited for the peoples' meeting, then any person present that is eligible, as aforesaid, whom the people then and there assembled shall choose for that end, shall receive and keep the said lists and admit the persons there- in contained, or so many of them as are present, unto a free vote in the said elec- l. — E 05 AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE tion; and, having first caused this Agree- ment to be publicly read in the audience of the people, shall proceed unto, and reg- ulate and keep peace and order in the elec- tions; and, by poll or otherwise, openly distinguish and judge of the same; and thereof, by certificate or writing under the hands and seals of himself, and six or more of the electors, nominating the person or persons duly elected, shall make a true return into the Parliament Records within twenty-one days after the election, under pain for default thereof, or, for making any false return, to forfeit £100 to the public use; and also cause indent- ures to be made, and unchangeably sealed and delivered, between himself and six or more of the said electors, on the one part, and the persons, or each person, elected severally, on the other part, expressing their election of him as a representer of them according to this Agreement, and his acceptance of that trust, and his prom- ise accordingly to perform the same with faithfulness, to the best of his understand- ing and ability, for the glory of God and good of the people. This course is to hold for the first Representative, which is to provide for the ascertaining of these circumstances in order to future Repre- sentatives. Fourthly. That 150 members at least be always present in each sitting of the Representative, at the passing of any law or doing of any act whereby the people are to be bound; saving, that the num- ber of sixty may take a House for debates or resolutions that are preparatory there- unto. Fifthly. That the Representative shall, within twenty days after their first meet- ing, appoint a Council of State for the managing of public affairs, until the tenth day after the meeting of the next Repre- sentative, unless that next Representative think fit to put an end to that trust soon- er. And the same Council to act and pro- ceed therein, according to such instruc- tions and limitations as the Representa- tive shall give, and not otherwise. Sixthly. That in each interval between biennial Representatives, the Council of State, in case of imminent danger or ex- treme necessity, may summon a Represent- ative to be forthwith chosen, and to meet ; so as the Session thereof continue not above eighty days; and so as it dissolve at least fifty days before the appointed time for the next biennial Representa- tive; and upon the fiftieth day so preced- ing it shall dissolve of course, if not oth- erwise dissolved sooner. Seventhly. That no member of any Rep- resentative be made either receiver, treas- urer, or other officer during that employ- ment, saving to be a member of the Coun- cil of State. Eighthly. That the Representatives have, and shall be understood to have, the supreme trust in order to the preservation and government of the whole; and that their power extend, without the consent or concurrence of any other person or per- sons, to the erecting and abolishing of Courts of Justice and public offices, and to the enacting, altering, repealing and declaring of laws, and the highest and final judgment, concerning all natural or civil things, but not concerning things spiritual or evangelical. Provided that, even in things natural and civil, these six particulars next following are, and shall be, understood to be excepted and reserved from our Representatives, viz. 1. We do not empower them to impress or constrain any person to serve in foreign war, either by sea or land, nor for any military ser- vice within the kingdom; save that they may take order for the forming, training, and exercising of the people in a military way, to be in readiness for resisting of foreign invasions, suppressing of sudden insurrections, or for assisting in execu- tion of the laws; and may take order for the employing and conducting of them for those ends; provided, that, even in such cases, none be compellable to go out of the county he lives in, if he procure an- other to serve in his room. 2. That, after the time herein limited for the commence- ment of the first Representative, none of the people may be at any time questioned for anything said or done in relation to the late wars or public differences, other- wise than in execution or pursuance of the determinations of the present House of Commons, against such as have adhered to the King, or his interest, against the peo- ple; and saving that accomptants for pub- lic moneys received, shall remain account- able for the same. 3. That no securities given, or to be given, by the public faith 66 AGREEMENT OF THE PEOPLE of the nation, nor any engagements of the conversation. 3. That such as profess faith public faith for satisfaction of debts and in God by Jesus Christ, however differing damages, shall be made void or invalid by in judgment from the doctrine, worship or the next or any future Representative; discipline publicly held forth, as afore- except to such creditors as have, or shall said, shall not be restrained from, but have, justly forfeited the same: and sav- shall be protected in, the profession of ing, that the next Representative may con- their faith and exercise of religion, ac- firm or make null, in part or in whole, all cording to their consciences, in any place gifts of lands, moneys, offices, or other- except such as shall be set apart for the wise, made by the present Parliament to public worship; where we provide not for any member or attendant of either House, them, unless they have leave, so as they 4. That, in any laws hereafter to be made, abuse not this liberty to the civil in- no person, by virtue of any tenure, grant, jury of others, or to actual disturbance of charter, patent, degree or birth, shall be the public peace on their parts. Neverthe- privileged from subjection thereto, or from less, it is not intended to be hereby pro- being bound thereby, as well as others. 5. vided, that this liberty shall necessarily That the Representative may not give extend to Popery or Prelacy. 4. That all judgment upon any man's person or estate, laws, ordinances, statutes, and clauses in where no law hath before provided; some any law, statute, or ordinance to the con- only in calling to account and punishing trary of the liberty herein provided for, in public officers for abusing or failing in the two particulars next preceding con- their trust. 6. That no Representative cerning religion, be, and are hereby, re- may in any wise render up, or give, or pealed and made void, take away, any of the foundations of com- Tenthly. It is agreed that whosoever mon right, liberty, and safety contained shall, by force of arms, resist the orders in this Agreement, nor level men's estates, of the next or any future Representa- destroy property, or make all things com- tive (except in case where such Repre- mon; and that, in all matters of such sentative shall evidently render up, or fundamental concernment, there shall be give, or take away the foundations of com- a liberty to particular members of the said mon right, liberty, and safety, contained Representatives to enter their dissents in this Agreement), he shall forthwith, from the major vote. after his or their such resistance, lose the Ninthly. Concerning religion, we agree benefit and protection of the laws, and as followeth: — 1. It is intended that the shall be punishable with death, as an ene- Christian Religion be held forth and rec- m y and traitor to the nation. Of the ommended as the public profession in things expressed in this Agreement: the this nation, which we desire may, by the certain ending of this Parliament, as in grace of God, be reformed to the greatest the first Article; the equal or proportion- purity in doctrine, worship and discipline, able distribution of the number of the rep- according to the Word of God; the in- resenters to be elected, as in the second; structing the people thereunto in a public the certainty of the people's meeting to way, so it be not compulsive; as also the elect for Representatives biennial, and maintaining of able teachers for that end, their freedom in elections; with the cer- and for the confutation or discovering tainty of meeting, sitting and ending of of heresy, error, and whatsoever is con- Representatives so elected, which are pro- trary to sound doctrine, is allowed to be vided for in the third Article; as also the provided for by our Representatives; the qualifications of persons to elect or be maintenance of which teachers may be out elected, as in the first and second particu- of a public treasury, and, we desire, not lars under the third Article; also the by tithes: provided, that Popery or Prel- certainty of a number for passing a law acy be not held forth as the public way or or preparatory debates, provided for in the profession in this nation. 2. That, to the fourth Article; the matter of the fifth public profession so held forth none be Article, concerning the Council of State, compelled by penalties or otherwise; but and of the sixth, concerning the calling, only may be endeavoured to be won by sitting and ending of Representatives ex- sound doctrine, and the example of a good traordinary; also the power of Represent- 67 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES— AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS atives to be, as in the eighth Article, and established one or more of these industrial limited, as in the six reserves next follow- colleges, with ample equipments, in which ing the same: likewise the second and persons of both sexes may equally enjoy third Particulars under the ninth Article the benefits of the institution. Each concerning religion, and the whole matter student is paid a stipulated sum of money of the tenth Article; all these we do ac- for every hour of labor given to the in- count and declare to be fundamental to stitution; and by this means students our common right, liberty, and safety: and are materially aided in defraying the ex- therefore do both agree thereunto, and re- penses of their education, solve to maintain the same, as God shall At the close of the school year 1898-99, enable us. The rest of the matters in this there were in the several States and Terri- Agreement we account to be useful and tories a total of fifty agricultural and me- good* for the public; and the particular chanical colleges for white students, and circumstances of numbers, times, and fourteen for the colored race. The receipts places, expressed in the several Articles, of the year were: From the federal gov- we account not fundamental; but we find ernment under the original and subse- them necessary to be here determined, for quent acts of Congress, $1,769,716, from the making the Agreement certain and State and Territorial treasuries, $2,570,- practicable, and do hold these most con- 427; and from other sources, $1,852,873 — venient that are here set down ; and there- a total of $6,193,016. There were 2,655 fore do positively agree thereunto. By men and 312 women teachers, 26,121 men the appointment of his Excellency the and 9,337 women students, 4,390 students Lord-General and his General Council of in the purely agricultural course, and Officers. 6,730 students in the four engineering Agricultural Colleges. In 1857, the courses. The expenditures were $4,544,- late Justin S. Morrill, then Chairman of 376. the Committee on Agriculture of the na- Agricultural Experiment Stations, tional House of Representatives, intro- The United States appropriates about duced a bill appropriating to the several $15,000 yearly to each of the States and States a portion of the public lands for Territories which have established such the purpose of encouraging institutions for stations. The first was that of Middle- the advancement of agriculture and the town, Conn., in 1875. There are now sixty mechanic arts. The bill lingered in Con- such stations, of which fifty-four receive gress (having been vetoed by President financial aid from the United States. Buchanan) until July, 1862, when it be- Agricultural Implements. The United came a law. The act provided that each States for many years has led the world in State should receive a quantity of land the invention and use of appliances for equal in value to $30,000 for each of its tilling the soil. The extension of farming Senators and Representatives in Congress to large areas, as in Minnesota, Nebraska, under the census of 1860, to establish at and the Dakotas, where farms of 50,000 least one college in each State where " all acres are not unusual, has called for quick- the needful sciences for the practical avo- er means of ploughing, sowing, and reaping cations of life " should be taught, and than is possible by hand. Hence inventive " where agriculture, the foundation of all genius has recognized the new conditions present and future prosperity, may look and provided ploughs, seeding-machines, for troops of earnest friends studying its cultivators, reapers, binders, and other ap- familiar and recondite economies." It pro- paratus operated by horse and steam-pow- vided that all expenses of location, man- er. The invention of the mowing-ma- agement, taxation, etc., should be paid by chine is coeval, in our country, with the the respective State treasurers, that the reaping-machine. The " Manning " mower entire proceeds of the sales of the land was invented in 1831. That and the may forever remain undiminished, and "Ketcham" (1844) held the place of su- that every State receiving the grant must perior excellence until about 1850, when provide an institution within five years other inventors had made improvements, from the date of filing its acceptance of In 1850 less than 5,000 mowing-machines the grant. Every State in the Union has had been made in our country. Within 68 AGRICULTURAL IMPLEMENTS a quarter of a century afterwards a mow- volved on a pivot. It did not prove very ing-inachine was considered indispensable successful. Two or three other like ma- to every farm. The American machines chines were patented in the following twen- are the best in the world, and are sold all ty-five years. In 1831 the Manney mower over Europe and South America. was patented, which was the first success- The plough used in this country during ful machine of the kind, the colonial period was made of wood, In 1833, Mr. Obed Hussey, of Cincinnati, covered with sheet-iron, the share being of 0., patented a reaper, with saw-toothed wrought-iron. In 1793, Thomas Jefferson, cutters and guards, which was immediate- who had been experimenting on his Vir- ly put into practical operation, and proved ginia farm, invented an improved mould- thoroughly satisfactory. In 1834, Cyrus board, which would turn a furrow with- H. McCormick, then of Virginia, and late out breaking it. In 1797, Charles New- of Chicago, took out the first patent on bold, of Burlington, N. J., invented a cast- his reaper, which has since come into such iron plough, and spent about $30,000 in general use. This reaper, with improve- perfecting it. It proved a great loss and ments patented in 1845 and 1847, received failure to him, however, for the report the first prize at the World's Fair of 1851, spread among the farmers that the new where American reapers were first intro- plough " poisoned the soil, ruined the crops, duced to the notice of Europeans. At the and promoted the growth of rocks " ; and, International Exhibition at Paris, in 1855, as they refused to use it, the manufacture American reapers were brought into com- of the new invention ceased. About 1804 petition with others, each machine being Daniel Peacock patented a plough having allowed to cut an acre of standing oats its mould-board and landside of cast-iron near Paris. The American reaper did its and separate, while its share was of work in twenty-two minutes, the English wrought-iron, edged with steel. Jethro in sixty, and an Algerian in seventy-two. Wood, of Scipio, N. Y., patented improve- It used a cutter similar to that of Hus- ments on this in 1819, and the prejudice sey^s machine, its main features being the against new inventions among farmers reel, the divider, the receiving platform having somewhat abated, he did a very for the grain, and the stand for the raker, successful business as a maker of these American reaping-machines are now used implements, and his plans have been the all over Europe where cereals abound, basis of most all those of modern construe- The automatic rake was patented by a tion. The first steam-plough in the Unit- Mr. Seymour, of Brockport, N. Y., in 1851, ed States was patented by E. C. Bellin- and in 1856 Mr. Dorsey, of Maryland, ger, of South Carolina, in 1833, but did patented the revolving rake, which was not come into practical use until much improved upon by Samuel Johnston, of later. Brockport, in 1865. The first self-binder Perhaps the "Great Plough," invented by was patented by C. W. and W. W. Marsh Daniel Webster, which was twelve feet in 1858. long, drawn by four yoke of oxen, and The first threshing-machine used here turned a furrow two feet wide and one was largely modelled after the invention of foot deep, may be regarded as the un- Andrew Meikle, a Scotchman, patented in wieldy precursor of the admirable and Great Britain in 1788, but this has since efficient sulky ploughs of later times. The been changed in detail, till scarcely more value of inventive genius to the farmer, than the outline of the original plan is however, is not shown as much in the im- left. The fanning-machine was originally provements of the plough as in the mowers invented in Holland, though largely inl- and reaping-machines which to-day take proved and altered by American inven- the places of sickle, scythe, and cradle, tions. An agricultural implement of great laboriously wielded by our forefathers, importance to one part of the country, at The first reaping-machine in America was least, is the cotton-gin. The first machine patented in 1803 by Richard French and of this kind was invented by M. De- John J. Hankins. One wheel of the ma- breuil, a French planter of Louisiana, but chine ran in the grain, and the cutting did not prove successful. Whitney's cot- was done by a number of scythes which re- ton-gin, which did succeed, and increased AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES— AGRICULTURE the production of cotton tenfold in two years, was invented in 1793. The census of 1900 reported 715 es- tablishments engaged in the manufacture of agricultural implements. These had a mind that they represent the surplus of production over domestic requirements. The total domestic exports aggregated in value, in 1903, $1,392,231,302; in 1904, $1,435,171,251; and of these totals capital investment of $157,707,951, em- the share of agricultural products was ployed 46,582 persons, paid $22,450,880 for $873,322,882 in 1903 and $853,685,367 wages, and $43,944,628 for materials used in 1904, or 62.73 and 59.48 per cent, of in construction, and turned out imple- the entire value. In the fiscal year 1899- ments valued at $101,207,428. In the fiscal 1900 the exports aggregated in value $1,- year ending June 30, 1900, the exporta- 370,476,158, and of this total the share of tion of American-made agricultural imple- agricultural products was $835,912,952, or ments aggregated in value $16,094,886. 60.99 per cent, of the entire value. In the Agricultural Societies. The first so- preceding year the percentage was 65.19; ciety in the United States was formed by but in 1899-1900 the exports of domestic planters of South Carolina in 1784, and it manufactures increased to an unprecedent- is yet in existence. The next year the ed extent, and caused a lowering of the "Philadelphia Society for Promoting Ag- agricultural percentage. In the fiscal riculture" was formed, and in 1791 citi- year 1903-04 the export of agricultural zens of New York organized a similar so- implements rose in value to $22,749,635. ciety. In 1792 the " Massachusetts Soci- The following details, covering the cal- ety for Promoting Agriculture " was or- endar year 1903, show still more striking- ganized. These were city institutions, and ly the great value of this industry and its not composed of practical farmers. They most productive crops: Wheat, acreage dealt with facts and theories. The ma- under cultivation, 49,464,967; production, jority of husbandmen then did not hear in bushels, 637,821,835; value, $443,024,- nor heed their appeals for improvements. 826 — corn, acreage, 88,081,993; produc- But finally the more intelligent of that tion, 2,244,176,926; value, $952,868,801— class of citizens became interested, and a oats, acreage, 27,638,126; production, 784,- convention of practical farmers in the 094,199; value, $267,661,665 — rye, acreage, District of Columbia, held in 1809, result- 1,906,894; production, 29,363,416; value, ed in the formation of the "Columbian $15,993:871 — buckwheat, acreage, 804,393; Agricultural Society for the Promotion of production, 14,243,644; value, $8,650,733 Rural and Domestic Economy." They of- — barley, acreage, 4,993,137; production, fered premiums; and their fair, held in May, 1810, is believed to be the first 131,861,391; value, $60,166,313— potatoes, acreage, 2,916,855; production, 247,127,- exhibition of its kind in this country. 880; value, $151,638,094 — hay, acreage, Elkanah Watson (q. v.) founded the 39,933,759; production, in tons, 61,305,940; "Berkshire (Mass.) Agricultural Society" value, $556,376,880 — cotton (1902-03), in 1810, and there was a grand "Agri- cultural Fair and Cattle Show" at Pitts- production, in bales, 10,630,945; value, $501,897,135. Nine branches of this in- field in September, 1811. It was the first dustry yielded $2,958,278,318. of the county fairs held in this country. The extent of agricultural operations is From that time until now there has been, shown by the census of 1900. The number at first a gradual, and then a rapid, in- of farms exceeding three acres in extent crease in such institutions; and now they was 5,737,372, aggregating 838,591,774 exist in every State and Territory of the acres, of which 414,498,487 acres were Union. improved; and the number of farms culti- Agriculture. Nothing can more ade- vated by owners was 3,712,408. Farm quately demonstrate the remarkable devel- valuations included land, fences, and opment of the agricultural industry in the buildings, $16,614,647,491, and implements United States than the statement of the and machinery, $749,775,970. The esti- value of the exports of the products of mated value of all farm products in the agriculture during the fiscal years ending preceding year was $4,717,069,973. June 30, 1903 and 1904. Impressive as In the matter of farm and ranch ani- these figures are, it should be borne in mals it is difficult to distinguish clearly 70 AGRICULTURE— AGUINALDO between those used in strict farming op- erations and those that would more nat- urally be included under stock-raising. In its official reports the Department of Agri- culture aggregates all such stock. On Jan. 1, 1904, the number and value of these animals were as follows: Horses, 16,736,059; value, $1,136,940,298— mules, 2,757,916; value, $217,532,832 — milch cows, 17,419,817; value, $508,841,489— other cattle, 90,638,865 ; value, $1,00 1,402,- 761— and sheep, 51,630,144; value, $133,- 530,099— a total value of $2,998,247,479. It is curious to note here that for several years past the values of the chief crop pro- ductions and of the farm and ranch ani- mals have closely approximated each other. Agriculture, Department of. See Cabinet, President's. Aguadilla, the name of a district and of its principal town and port in the ex- treme northwestern part of the island of Porto Rico. The district is bounded on the north and west by the Atlantic Ocean, on the east by the district of Arecibo, and on the south by the district of Mayaguez. The town is on a bay of the same name, and has a population of about 5,000. Industries in the town and vicinity con- sist of the cultivation of sugar-cane, cof- fee, tobacco, and cocoa-nuts, and the dis- tillation of rum from molasses. Three establishments in the town prepare coffee for exportation. The climate is hot but healthful, and yellow fever rarely occurs. Aguadores, a port in the province of Santiago, Cuba, a few miles east of the entrance to Santiago harbor. On June 6, 1898, the defences at this place, as well as the shore batteries off Santiago, were bom- barded by Admiral Sampson, ten vessels of all grades being engaged and operating in a double line. This movement was exe- cuted for the purpose of concentrating the attention of the Spaniards to this point in order to secure the success of operations at Caimanera, in the Bay of Guantanamo, 40 miles east of Santiago, which were carried out on the following day. Aguinaldo, Emilio, leader of the Phil- ippine insurgents in their insurrection against Spanish authority, in 1896, and organizer and president of the so-called Filipino Republic; was born in Imus, in the province of Cavity, in Luzon, in 1870. He is a Chinese mestizo (of Chinese and Tagalog parentage ) , and received his early education at the College of St. Jean de Lateran and the University of St. Tomas, in Manila. Later he became the protege 1 of a Jesuit priest, and was for a time a student in the medical department of the Pontifical University of Manila. In 1883 he went to Hong-Kong, became interested in military affairs, learned something of EMILIO AGUINALDO. the English, French, and Chinese lan- guages, and through his reputation for ability, shrewdness, and diplomacy, and his personal magnetism, gained great in- fluence with his countrymen. In the re- bellion of 1896 he was a commanding fig- ure, and was at the head of the diplomatic party, which succeeded in making terms with the Spanish government, the latter paying a large sum to the Philippine leaders. In Hong-Kong he quarrelled with his associates over the division of this money, and went to Singapore, where he remained until the outbreak of the Spanish-American War. Aguinaldo presented himself to Admiral Dewey at Cavit6 shortly after the battle of Manila Bay, and was given an oppor- tunity to organize the Filipinos against the Spanish authority; but no promises were made to him, and the insurgents were never officially recognized by the Ameri- n AGUINALDO cans. The cruel treatment of the Spanish prisoners by the Filipinos, and their claim to the right of sacking the city, after the capture of Manila, soon caused serious relations between the natives and the United States officers. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo organized his so-called Filipino Republic, with himself as president, and soon proclaimed himself dictator. He or- ganized an extensive conspiracy among the native population of Manila, with the in- tention of massacring the entire American and foreign population of the city; but the plot was discovered and failed. He protested against the Spanish-American treaty of peace, which ceded the Philippine Islands to the United States, and on the evening of Feb. 4, 1899, his troops at- tacked the American lines in the suburbs of Manila. This caused the immediate ratification of the treaty by the United States Senate. The Filipinos, under Aguinaldo, made a strong resistance to the Americans, and it was not till after the close of the rainy season that they could be followed up in the open field. Early in 1900 the organ- ized insurrection, which was chiefly con- fined to the Tagalog nationality, was broken up. Aguinaldo was driven into hiding, and reports of his death had persistent circulation. Later in the year, the insurgents, encouraged by the possible change of administration in the United States, actively renewed hostilities; but, discouraged by their repeated failures in their attacks on the American troops, and the news of the re-election of President McKinley, they began giving up the strug- gle and surrendering in large bodies to the American officers. Aguinaldo himself was captured by Gen. Frederick Funston (q. v.) on March 23, 1901, at his hiding- place in Palanan, Isabella Province, Luzon, and was immediately taken to Manila. He had been located by means of the capture of his secret cipher code in a drug-store in Manila, from which the in- surgents had been furnished with medical supplies. As soon as his hiding-place was known, General Funston planned the scheme for his capture. He chose a num- ber of native troops, informing them that they were to pass themselves off as Agui- naldo's expected reinforcements. Four Tagalogs who had been officers in the in- surgent army were first selected, and then seventy - eight trustworthy Maccabebe scouts were picked out. Besides General Funston this expedition was accompanied by Captain Hazzard, of the 1st United States Cavalry* and Lieutenant Mitchell and Captain Newton, of the 34th Infantry. On March 6, at 4 p.m., the expedition em- barked on the gunboat Vicksburg at Ca- vite. At 2 a.m. on the 14th General Fun- ston and his party were landed within a short distance of Baler, about 20 miles south of Casiguran, the place nearest the reported headquarters of Aguinaldo, suit- able for a base of operations. As the Vicksburg had displayed no lights and had used extreme precaution, not the slightest suspicion was excited by the landing. An ex-colonel of the insurgent army was the nominal commander of the expedition. About twenty Maccabebes were dressed in the insurgent uniform, the rest being at- tired in the ordinary dress of the country. The American officers, who were dressed as privates, posed as prisoners. When the party arrived at Casiguran a message was forwarded to Auginaldo that the re-en- forcements he had ordered were on their way to Palanan, and a further statement was enclosed that there had been an en- gagement with Americans, five of whom, with Krag rifles, had been captured. In six days the expedition marched 90 miles over a most difficult country. When within 8 miles of Aguinaldo's camp the fact that he sent provisions proved the ruse had thus far worked admirably. On March 23 the party reached the camp, where Aguinaldo received the supposed of- ficers at his house, located on the Palanan River. After a brief conversation with him the party quietly excused themselves, and at once orders were given to fire upon Aguinaldo's body-guard, who fled in con- sternation. Two of them, however, were killed and eighteen wounded. During this engagement the American officers rushed into Aguinaldo's house, and succeeded in taking him, Colonel Villa, his chief of staff, and Santiago Barcelona, the insur- gent treasurer. After remaining two days in the camp the party returned to the coast, where the Vicksburg, which was in waiting, received them, and conveyed the entire party to Manila. On April 2 he subscribed and swore to 72 AGUINALDO the following declaration which had been prepared by the American military au- thorities for use in the Philippines: M I, , hereby renounce all allegi- ance to any and all so-called revolutionary governments in the Philippine Islands, and recognize and accept the supreme au- thority of the United States of America therein; I do solemnly swear that I will bear true faith and allegiance to that government; that I will at all times con- duct myself as a faithful and law-abiding citizen of the said islands, and will not, either directly or indirectly, hold corre- spondence with or give intelligence to an enemy of the United States, nor will I abet, harbor, or protect such enemy; that 1 impose upon myself these voluntary ob- ligations without any mental reservations or purpose of evasion, so help me God." His Last Proclamation. — Copies of what was probably the full text of the last proclamation issued by Aguinaldo previ- ous to his capture by General Funston were received at the War Department in Washington in March, 1901. The procla- mation was contained in the Filipinos' Anti-Europa, the organ of the Filipino in- surgents, published at Madrid, Spain, and appears in the issue of that paper of March 10, 1901. A translation of the article is here given: The following proc- lamation has been recently received by this paper, which will probably satisfy the clamor of all Filipinos: Don Emilio Aguinaldo y Pamy, President of the Philippine Republic, Captain-General, and General-in-Chief of her army : Heart-broken groans of the oppressed and of their unfortunate families, and energetic protests from the entire people of the Philip- pines, come to my far-off camp on account of the unheard-of cruelties and scornful vio- lations of the most elementary laws of war committed by the imperialists who, under pre- text of some American having been killed, hang their prisoners of war by means which are both repugnant and inhuman, the agony lasting about fifteen minutes, according to the press of Manila, or otherwise submitting them to unheard-of tortures, according to the official communications from my various com- manding generals ; and if this were not sufficient, the military governor of the in- vading army has proclaimed martial law, placing beyond the protection of law not only Filipinos under arms, but also all peace- ful residents, whom they arrest and deport without giving them a hearing, almost al- ways for no other purpose than to loot their houses and treasures, or to await a ransom or bribe for their liberty. According to the censored press of Manila during the month of October only thirty-six Filipinos in various provinces were hanged ; the totals for the month of November and December were the same, and during the first ten days of this month the United States courts-martial have condemned to the same inhuman death the following: Fifteen in San Isidro (Doroteo Noul and his fellow-martyrs), nine in Tayabas, one in Baler, one in Bolinao, one in Pangasinan, one in Donsol, and three in Tayaba, a total of twenty-eight death sentences in ten days, according to information given the Manila press by the staff of the enemy. In addition to all this the invaders have committed another violation of the Geneva international treaty by employing against us our own countrymen, who have sold them- selves to them, sowing by this atrocious meas- ure the seeds of a civil war, which could very well occur after this war, which is desolating this poor country, if those now counted as traitors should form a regular group, thus making more and more remote the coming of the long-sought-for peace. I protest, therefore, before God and the honorable men of the whole world, in the name of the Philippine people, against such iniquitous measures, and for our own de- fence : I order and command — Article I. All guerilla chiefs as soon as they capture any armed American citizen, shall take him into the interior at once, and shall communicate with the chief of the near- est American detachment, urgently request- ing the exchange of prisoners at the rate of one American for every three Filipinos of the # many who are condemned to death by them,* and who expect to be led to execution at any moment, and informing him that he would be responsible for the reprisals which we would see ourselves obliged to take in our just de- fence. If said American chief should refuse to make the exchange requested, the Ameri- can prisoners shall be shot, whatever be their number, which punishment is .fixed in the Spanish penal code, which we have adopted for those who attack our national integrity, if in four days after the exchange requested the execution of some Filipino sentenced by the Americans should be announced. Article II. Preference should also be given in exchange of prisoners to deported Filipinos, and to those who have rendered signal service to the cause of our independence. Article III. The promoters of the so-called Federal party shall be submitted as traitors to a most summary court-martial, and those who stimulate the invaders to pursue and prosecute our fellow-countrymen who do not wish to Identify themselves therewith shall be punished with special severity, and after those who are guilty have been sentenced, they shall be captured and punished wherever they may be, and by any means which may be possible. "Article IV. The commanding generals and all guerilla chiefs in their respective dis- tricts are entrusted with and responsible for a speedy execution of this general order. 73 AGUINALDO— ALABAMA Given In the capital of the republic on See Atkinson, Edward; Luzon; Ma- Jan. 17, 1901. E. Aguinaldo. n]LA; Philippine Islands. m , , . . . . . ,. Ainsworth, Frederick Crayton, mili- There is a seal m purple ink consisting t offi born in Woodstock vt g t of a sun and three stars and the words, „ lg52 wag inted a firgt lieut enant ^Philippine Republic, Office of the Presi- and ^^ gm , geon [n the United gtates *, , „ , • . »,., ,. army in 1874; promoted major and sur- Address o Submission. -Aitev his capt- fa co}onel and ^ of Rec _ ure Aguinaldo was fully informed of the Qrd and Pengion Qffice ^ tfae Wm actual situation in all parts of the archi- ^ , . 1QOO „ , , . ,. v ■ i i u ±u It -a j cu t ment in 1892; and brigadier-general in pelago, not only by the United States mm- lcmn „„ . „ , , ? . . °. , ,-• & ' . , • -i -i .-• ,, . v, 1899. He invented and introduced the tary, naval, and civil authorities, but by index . record card gtem b the uge of many of his former generals and support- wMch the fuU ^.J ^J of gol _ ers who had surrendered. He was thus ,. , . ,. J , , , * , r. led to issue the following address to the dier may be immediately traced. About «™ „ MW _^ — ..g r*rr~ -7 r, 50,000,000 of these cards have been placed Filipinos, which was published in Manila '' -\. . . , •• , ., , r .. , on April 19: I believe I am not in error in presuming on file, and their introduction has resulted in a yearly saving of more than $400,000. In 1898 he succeeded Gen. George W. fortune has led me is not a surprise to those who have been familiar with the progress of the war. The lessons taught with a full that the unhappy fate to which my adverse Davis as supervisor of the publication of the official records of the Civil War. Aitken, Robert, publisher; born in meaning, and which have recently come to Scotland in 1734; arrived in Philadelphia my knowledge, suggest with irresistible force . 17fi „. practical nrintpr and nnh- that a complete termination of hostilities in i 7b J, was a practical printer, ana pub- and lasting peace are not only desirable, but lished the Pennsylvania Magazine, or Amer- absolutely essential to the welfare of the ican Monthly Museum, 1775-76. He was l'hilippine Islands. a warm Whig, and was thrown into prison "The Filipinos have never been dismayed b the British in m7> He issued the first at their weakness, nor have they faltered in J . following the path pointed out by their forth American edition of the Bible m 1782. tude and courage. The time has come, how- He died in Philadelphia in July, 1802. ever, in which they find their advance along Aix-la-Chapelle Treaty. See Louis- this path to be impeded by an irresistible force which, while it restrains them, yet en- BL **"* lightens their minds and opens to them an- Akerman, Amos Tappan, statesman; other course presenting them the cause of born in New Hampshire in 1823. Served peace. This cause has been joyfully em- in th Confe derate army. He was United braced by the majority of my fellow-coun- * . trymen, who have already united around the States district attorney for Georgia, 18bb- glorious sovereign banner of the United 70; Attorney-General of the United States st f tes - . fc , 1870-72. He died Dec. 21, 1880. "In this banner they repose their trust, Alj% -u rp^ „^;i „t +v,; «+«+« woa and believe that under its protection the Alabama. The soil of this State was Filipino people will attain all those promised first trodden by Europeans in 1540. These liberties which they are beginning to enjoy. were the followers of De Soto (q. v.). In The country has declared unmistakably in no2 Bienvi ] le) the French governor of favor of peace. So be it. There has been enough blood, enough tears, and enough desolation. This wish cannot be ignored by the men still in arms if they are animated by a desire to serve our noble people, which has thus clearly manifested its will. So do I respect this will, now that it is known to me. " After mature deliberation, I resolutely proclaim to the world that I cannot refuse to heed the voice of a people longing for peace nor the lamentations of thousands of families yearning to see their dear ones en- joying the liberty and the promised gen- erosity of the great American nation. "By acknowledging and accepting the on y prospered sovereignty of the United States throughout the Philippine Archipelago, as I now do, and without any reservation whatsoever, I be- , lieve that I am serving thee, my beloved first nr0l *£ n t lnto this colony by three country. May happiness be thine." French ships of war in 1721. By the 74 Louisiana, enter- ed Mobile Bay, and built a fort and trading- house at the mouth of Dog River. In 1711 the French founded Mobile, and there a col- for a while. Ne- gro slaves were STATE SEAL OP ALABAMA. ALABAMA treaty of 1763 this region was transferred the State was represented. William by France to Great Britain. Alabama Brooks was chosen president. There was formed a portion of the State of Georgia, a powerful infusion of Union sentiment but in 1798 the country now included in in the convention, which endeavored to the States of Alabama and Mississippi postpone a decision, under the plea of the was organized as a Territory called Mis- desirableness of co-operation. A commit- sissippi. After the Creeks disappeared tee of thirteen was appointed to report an (see Creek Indians) the region of Ala- Ordinance of Secession. It was submitted bama was rapidly settled by white people, on the 10th. It was longer than any oth- and in 1819 it entered the Union as a er already adopted, but similar in tenor. State. The slave population increased They assumed that the commonwealth, more rapidly than the white. In the Dem- which had been created by the national ocratic National Convention that was held government first a Territory, and then a at Charleston in I860 the delegates of Ala- State (1819), had "delegated sovereign bama took the lead in seceding from the powers " to that government, which were convention. now " resumed and vested in the people of In October of that year, Herschell V. the State of Alabama." The convention Johnson, the candidate for Vice-President favored the formation of a confederacy on the Douglas ticket, declared, in a speech of slave-labor States, and formally invited at the Cooper Institute, New York, that the others to send delegates to meet those Alabama was ripe for revolt in case Mr. of Alabama, in general convention, on Lincoln should be elected; that it was Feb. 4, at Montgomery, for consulta- pledged to withdraw from the Union, and tion on the subject. The convention was had appropriated $200,000 for military not harmonious. Union men were not to contingencies. The governor suggested se- be put down without a struggle. There cession at the beginning of November ; and was a minority report on Secession ; and in December, 1860, the conference of the some were for postponing the act until Methodist Church, South, sitting at Mont- March 4, with a hope of preserving gomery, declared " African slavery as it the Union. Nicholas Davis, from north- existed in the Southern States of the ern Alabama, declared his belief that the republic, a wise, beneficent, humane, and people of his section would not submit to righteous institution, approved of God, any disunion scheme, when Yancey and calculated to promote, to the highest (q. v.) denounced him and his fellow-citi- possible degree, the welfare of the slave; zens of that region as " tories, traitors, that the election of a sectional President and rebels," and said they " ought to be of the United States was evidence of the coerced into submission." Davis was not hostility of the majority to the people of moved by these menaces, but assured the the South, and which in fact, if not in Confederates that the people of his section form, dissolves the compact of union be- would be ready to meet their enemies on tween the States." Northern Alabama the line and decide the issue at the point was opposed to the movement. of the bayonet. The final vote on the Elections for members of a State con- Ordinance of Secession was taken at vention in Alabama were held Dec. 24, 2 p.m. on Jan. 11, and resulted in sixty- 1860, and as in some of the other States, one yeas to thirty -nine nays. An im- the politicians were divided into " Seces- mense mass-meeting was immediately held sionists " and " Co-operationists." The in front of the State - house, and timid latter were also divided; one party wish- "co-operationists" assured the multitude ing the co-operation of all the slave-labor that their constituents would support the States, and the other caring only for the ordinance. A Secession flag, which the co-operation of the cotton-producing women of Montgomery had presented to States. The vote for all but ten counties the convention, was raised over the capi- was, for secession, 24,445 ; and for co-oper- lal. In Mobile, when the news reached ation, 33,685. In the ten counties, some that city, 101 guns were fired in honor of were for secession and some for co-opera- Alabama, and fifteen for Florida. At tion. In the convention assembled at night the city blazed with fireworks, the Montgomery, Jan. 7, 1861, every county in favorite pieces being the Southern Cross ALABAMA and the Lone Star. The convention had tuted remained in force until superseded voted against the reopening of the slave- by military rule in 1867. In November of trade, and adjourned on Jan. 30, 1861. that year a convention formed a new con- A week before the Secession Ordinance stitution for the State, which was ratified was adopted, volunteer troops, in accord- Feb. 4, 1868. State officers and members ance with an arrangement made with the of Congress having been duly chosen, and governors of Louisiana and Georgia, and all requirements complied with, Alabama by order of the governor of Alabama, had became entitled to representation in Con- seized the arsenal at Mount Vernon, about gress; and on July 14, 1868, the military 30 miles above Mobile, and Fort Mor- relinquished to the civil authorities all gan, at the entrance to Mobile Har- legal control. The Fourteenth and Fif- bor, about 30 miles below the city. The teenth Amendments to the national Con- Mount Vernon arsenal was captured by stitution were ratified by Alabama, the four Confederate companies commanded by latter Nov. 16, 1870. Population in 1890, Captain Leadbetter, of the United States 1,508,073; in 1900, 1,828,697. See United Engineer Corps, and a native of Maine. States — Alabama, in vol. ix. At dawn (Jan. 4, 1861) they surprised Captain Reno, who was in command of the arsenal, and the Alabama Confederates thus obtained 15,000 stands of arms, 150,- 000 pounds of gunpowder, some cannon, GOVERNORS OF THE MISSISSIPPI TERRITORY. Including the present States of Alabama and Mississippi. and a large quantity of munitions of ^ iuth j; o P s ^ g f t - ° * * Wm. C. C. Claibon Term of Office. 1799 to 1801 1801 " 1805 1805 " 1809 1809 " 1817 GOVERNOR OF THE TERRITORY OF ALABAMA. Claiborne. war - Robt. Williams The Alabama Senators and Representa- David Holmes tives withdrew from Congress Jan. 21, 1861. On March 13, a State convention ratified the constitution adopted by the Wm.WyattBibb | Mar. 1817 to Nov. 1819 Confederate Congress. The authorities of governors OF the state of Alabama. Nov., 1819 to July, 1820 July, 1820 " Nov., 1821 the State seized the national property Wm. Wyatt Bibb within its borders, and sent troops to Flor- Thomas Bibb ida to assist in capturing Fort Pickens ^J^MmS? ' and other public works there. Alabama Gabriel Moore... sent a commissioner to Washington as an Sami. B. Moore..., ambassador, but he was hot received. Dur- John Gayle ing the war that ensued, Alabama bore her ^nT McVa '* 7 share of the burden, and her cities and Arthur p. Bngby. . plantations suffered from the ravages of Benj. Fitzpatrick the conflict. Wilson's cavalry raid through Joshua L. Martin the State caused great destruction of Reuben chapman. , -^ . ,? ., . - Henry Watkins Collier. property. During the war Alabama fur- Jo hn a. Winston nished 122,000 troops to the Confederate Andrew b. Moore. army, of whom 35,000 were killed or John cm shorter. wounded. Montgomery, in the interior of Thomas H - Watts - the State, was the Confederate capital un- Nov.,1821 " 1825 " 1829 Mar., 1831 Nov., 1831 " 1835 July, 1837 Nov., 1837 " 1841 " 1845 " 1847 " 1849 " 1853 " 1857 " 1861 " 1863 Interregnum of two months. Mar., 1831 Nov., 1831 " 1835 July, 1837 Nov., 1837 " 1841 " 1845 " 1847 " 1849 " 1853 " 1857 " 1861 " 1863 Apr., 1865 til July, 1861, when the seat ot govern- ™ £™ s ;; ment was removed to Richmond. At the wm. H. Smith close of the war a provisional governor Robt. b. Lindsay . . for Alabama was appointed (June 21, David b. Lewis.... 1865), and in September a convention re- Geo. S.Houston... , . , . , . ., , . . , , Rufus W. Cobb ordained the civil and criminal laws, ex- Edward N. O'Neal. cepting such as related to slavery; de- Thomas Seay clared the Ordinance of Secession and the Thomas G. Jones. . State war-debt null; passed an ordinance William c.Oates , , I * "»*■ m m i Joseph F. Johnston against slavery; and provided for an elec- w j samford*.... tion of State officers, who were chosen in w. D. Jelks June, 1865 to Dec, 1865 Dec, 1865 " July, 1868 July, 1868 Nov. , 1870 " 1872 " 1874 " 1878 " 1882 " 1886 " 1890 " 1894 Nov., 1870 " 1872 " 1874 " 1878 " 1882 " 1886 " 1890 " 1894 November. The government thus consti- " 1896 " " 1900 " 1900 " June, 1901 June, 1901 " Jan., 1907 W. J. Samford died June 12, 1901. 70 ALABAMA— ALABAMA CLAIMS UNITED STATES SENATORS FROM THE STATE OP ALABAMA. Namks. No. of Congress. Date. William R. King 16th to 28th 1819 to 1844 John W. Walker. 16th " 17th 1819 " 1822 William Kelley 17th " 19th 1823 " 1825 Henry Chambers 19th 1825 " 1826 Israel Pickens 19th to 20th 1826 John McKiuley 19th " 22d 1826 to 1831 22d " 25th 25th " 27th 1831 " 1837 Clement C. Clay 1837 " 1841 Arthur P. Bagby 27th " 30th 1841 " 1848 Dixon H. Lewis 28th li 30th 1844 " 1848 William R. King 30th " 32d 1848 " 1852 Benj. Fitzpatrick 30th " 30th 1848 " 1861 Jeremiah Clemens. ... 31st " 33d 1849 " 1853 Clement C. Clay, Jr 33d " 36th 1853 " 1861 37th, 38th, and 39th Congresses vacant. 40th to 46th 1868 to 1879 40th " 42d 1868 " 1871 42d " 45th 1872 " 1877 45th " 1877 " 47th " 55th 1880 " 1897 55th " 1897 M George E. Spencer Williard Warner George Goldthwaite John T. Morgan. ...... James L. Pugh Edmund W. Pettus Alabama, The, Confederate man-of- war; a British vessel, manned chiefly by British subjects at a British port; armed with British cannon, and provided with coal and other supplies from British soil. She had no. acknowledged flag, nor recog- nized nationality, nor any accessible port to which she might send her prizes, nor any legal tribunal to adjudge her captures. She was commanded by Raphael Semmes, a native of Maryland, and roamed the seas, plundering and destroying vessels belong- ing to American citizens. Her command- er avoided contact with American armed vessels, but finally encountered the Kear- THE ALABAMA. sarge, Capt. John A. Winslow, off Cher- bourg, France, in the summer of 1864. On June 19 Semmes went out of the harbor For losses from increased war premiums, of Cherbourg to fight the Kearsarge. The Alabama was accompanied by a French frigate to a point beyond the territorial waters of France. At a distance of 7 miles from the Cherbourg breakwater, the Kearsarge turned and made for the Con- federate cruiser, when, within 1,200 yards of her, the latter opened fire. After re- ceiving two or three broadsides, the Kear- sarge responded with telling effect. They fought for an hour, the steamers moving in a circle. At the end of the hour the Alabama was at the mercy of her antag- onist, her flag down, and. a white flag displayed over her stern. Respecting this, Winslow ceased firing. Two minutes af- terwards the Alabama fired two guns at the Kearsarge, and attempted to run to the protection of the French neutral waters, not more than 3 miles distant. Winslow opened fire again, and very soon a boat came to his vessel from the Ala- bama, saying she had surrendered and was fast sinking. Just then the Deerhound passed by, when Winslow humanely asked her owner to assist him in saving the crew of the Alabama, which, in twenty minutes, went to the bottom of the sea. The Kear- sarge rescued sixty-five of the crew; the Deerhound picked up Semmes, his officers, and a few mariners, and carried them away from the lawful custody of Winslow, to England. There Semmes was received with great honor. The Kearsarge had three men badly wounded — one of them mortally. The Alabama had nine men killed and twenty-one w r ounded. See Ar- bitration, Tribunal of; Joint High Commission. Alabama Claims, The, a series of claims against Great Britain for losses sustained by the United States through depredations on her commerce by Con- federate vessels fitted out or supplied in English ports. As finally presented they were as follows: No. of Vessels T ... Destroyed. 1Am ' 58 $6,547,609.86 1 400.00 3 95,654 85 38 3,698.609.34 383,976.50 69,536.70 20,334.52 5,540.00 6,488,320.31 10,695.83 579,955.55 1,120,795.15 Alabama Boston 1 Chickamauga 3 Florida 38 Georgia 5 Nashville 1 Retribution 2 Sallie 1 Shenandoah 40 Sumter 3 Tallahassee 17 $19,021,428.61 77 ALABAMA LETTER— ALASKA See Arbitration, Tribunal of; Joint High Commission. Alabama Letter, The. Henry Clay, Whig candidate for President in 1844, had a fair prospect for election when his letter to a friend in Alabama, on the an- nexation of Texas, appeared in the North Alabamian, on Aug. 16. It was repre- sented by his adversaries as a complete change of policy on his part. The Whig campaign became " defensive " from this time, and resulted in defeat. See Clay, Henry. Alamo, Fort, a structure in San An- tonio, Tex.; erected for a mission build- ing in 1744; used for religious purposes till 1793, when, on account of the great strength of its walls, it was converted into a fort. In the struggle by Texas for independence, the most sanguinary and heroic conflict of the border warfare, which merged into the Mexican War, oc- curred there — a conflict which for years was familiar to Americans as the Ther- mopylae of Texas. The fort was about an acre in extent, oblong, and surrounded by a wall 8 or 10 feet in height by 3 feet in thickness. A body of Tex- ans, under the command of Col. William Barrett Travis, retired into the fort early in 1836, upon the dismantling of San An- tonio by Sam Houston, and then Santa Ana, with a large force, invested the fort Feb. 23. The Texans numbered only 140 men, while the Mexican army was 4,000 strong. The enemy took possession of the town, then erected batteries on both sides of the river, and for twenty-four hours bombarded the fort, during which, it is stated, over 200 shells were discharged into it, but without injuring a man. The attacking forces made several vigorous assaults on the fort, but were repulsed in each case. The commander of the be- leaguered garrison sent many couriers to San Felipe for assistance, but only a hand- ful of men succeeded in reaching the fort. As the siege' progressed provisions grew scarce, and the defenders of Alamo, worn by the labors of the defence and broken in health, although not in spirits, were hourly becoming less able, to hold their posts. March 6 a combined attack was made by the entire forces of the besiegers ; twice they assaulted the posts, and were as often driven back with heavy loss by the Texan troops. A hand-to-hand en- counter ensued, which the Texans, few and feeble, were unable to sustain, and but six of their devoted band remained. Among this number was the famous Davy Crockett, who, with the others, surren- dered, under promise of protection; but when they were taken before Santa Ana were, upon his command, instantly cut to pieces, Crockett having been stabbed by a dozen swords. Other barbarities were committed, such as collecting the bodies of the slain in the centre of the Alamo, and, after horribly mutilating the re- mains, burning them. Only three persons, a woman, a child, and a servant, were spared. A few weeks after Santa Ana was routed with immense loss, and him- self captured in the battle of San Jacinto, where the Texans raised the war cry, "Remember the Alamo!" It is estimated that during the siege of Fort Alamo the Mexican losses aggregated over 1,600 men. For many years, indeed until the close of the Mexican War, the Texans only needed to be roused to deeds of valor by the recollection of the massacre at the Alamo, and dearly did the neighboring republic pay for the butchery by Santa Ana and his forces. ALASKA Alaska, an unorganized Territory of the United States, formerly known as " Russian America "; occupying the region of the extreme northwestern portion of North America; lying north of the paral- lel of lat. 50° 40' N.,and west of the merid- ian of long. 140° W. ; also including many islands lying off the coast; area, land and water surface, 1900, 590,884 square miles; population, according to revised census re- port of 1890, 32,052; population, according to 1900 census, 63,592; seat of admin- istration, Sitka. The Russians acquired possession of this Territory by right of discovery by Vitus Bering, in 1741. He discovered the crowning peak of the Alas- ka mountains, Mount St. Elias, on July 18. That mountain rises to a height of 78 7%^ / / use ' ,, /A'. v *: •^w, &*,! **^i, - t 2^**ifti«*ffi o ..**■ r /gJBfitatis lT?an ae 'if ^&ss>?i' ^^^ im^^^kX w^^ \ xs *** ~*s& ^s>* "%> (f1KaWf£i^ •jit*' ' 0u *ekXt J ^7i^^ Sf^W^ jj v«"f.' GULF ° r AFOGNAK I. ALASKA i A ■ K V* Paul C. Gr.Ulfl. Scale of Miles 50 100 200 V RAT l .^ U - S ',/ m RAT ISLANDS S~N AMEHITKA lNN< \s^: n ^^ ALASKA 18,024 feet above the sea. Other notable able discoveries of gold in the neighbor- altitudes, as ascertained by the United hood of the Klondike and Yukon rivers, States Meteorological Survey and an- in 1897, attracted thousands of miners to nounced in 1900, are: Blackburn Moun- those regions, and soon made necessary tain, 12,500 feet; Black Mountain, 12,500 larger means of communication. A num- feet; Cook Mountain, 13,750 feet; Crillon ber of bills were introduced into Congress Mountain, 15,900 feet; Drum Mountain, for the purpose of providing the Territory 13,300 feet; Fairweather Mountain, 15,292 with the form of government prescribed feet; Hayes Mountain, 14,500 feet; Iliam- for the other Territories; but up to the na Peak, 12,066 feet; Kimball Mountain, time of writing the only movements in this 10,000 feet; Laperouse Mountain, 10,750 direction were the extension of a number feet; Lituya Mountain, 11,852 feet; Mount of laws of Oregon to the Territory; a McKinley, 20,464 feet; Sanford Mountain, gradual increase in the number of execu- 14,000 feet; Seattle Mountain, 10,000 feet; Tillman Mountain, 13,300 feet; Vancouver Mountain, 15,666 feet; and Wrangel Moun- tain, 17,500 feet. The entire coast - line measures over 4,000 miles, taking into account the tive officers; and the creation by the Presi- dent, in 1900, of a new military depart- ment comprising the entire Territory. While it was long believed that the Ter- ritory possessed vast riches in minerals, the chief industries were those connected smaller indentations. The climate in some with sealing and salmon-fisheries till parts is most agreeable. In the interior are numerous lakes. Its valleys are fertile; its streams abound with fish and its for- about 1895. In that year the United States government organized the first ex- pedition to make a thorough investigation ests with game; and its islands have af- of the mineral properties. The geological forded the most extensive and richest fur- survey has since been continued with most seal fishing in the world. Sitka, or New fruitful results, and early in 1900 the Archangel, the capital of Alaska, is the old- Director of the Survey completed plans for est settlement. It was founded by Russian thorough surveys and explorations by both fur-traders in the nineteenth century. The geological and topographical experts, es- country was a sort of independent prov- pecially to supplement the important work ince, under the rule of the Russian-Amer- of his bureau in 1898, and to acquire a ican Fur Company, to whom it was grant- ed by the Emperor Paul in 1799. It was invested with the exclusive right of hunt- ing and fishing in the American waters of the Czar. The charter of the company expired in 1867, when the government de- clined to renew it. In 1865-67 the coun- fuller knowledge of the remarkable Cape Nome district and its extension in the Seward Peninsula. This work was expect- ed to occupy several years. As a result of explorations prior to 1900, mining operations on a large scale were undertaken, first in the neighborhood try was explored by a scientific corps sent of the boundary-line between the United out by the United States to select a route States and the British possessions, and for the Russo-American telegraph line — a then, as other fields were disclosed, along project which was abandoned in conse- the coast section and on some of the near- quence of the successful laying of the At- by islands. During the season of 1899 lantic cable. Early in 1867 negotiations the last-mentioned region gave indications were begun for the purchase of the Terri- of outrivalling the famous Klondike and tory, and a treaty to that effect was com- Yukon fields. The rush of miners to the pleted by the exchange of ratifications at interior fields, and the indiscriminate Washington, D. C, on June 20, 1867. staking of claims, soon led to a conflict The price paid was $7,200,000. In October between the American and Canadian min- Gen. Lovell H. Rousseau, a commissioner ers concerning the boundary-line. Both for the purpose, formally took possession parties claimed territorial rights to the of the region. The Territory remained richest fields then known, and to avoid a under military government till 1884, when state of anarchy that seemed imminent, a district government was established and the United States and the Canadian au- a land office opened. This form of admin- thorities undertook, first, a separate, and istration proved adequate till the remark- then a joint, survey of the region in dis- 79 ALASKA pute. Each party naturally claimed more lations for the protection of the revenue territory than the other was willing to as the Canadian government may pre- concede, and, as a result, the delimitation scribe, to carry with them over such part of the boundary was made one of the sub- or parts of the trail between the said jects for determination by the Anglo- points as may lie on the Canadian side American Commission (q. v.) appointed of the temporary line such goods and in 1898 for the purpose of negotiating a articles as they desire, without being plan for the settlement of all matters required to pay any customs duties on in controversy between the United States such goods and articles; and from said and Canada. The commission, after sev- junction to the summit of the peak east eral sessions in Canada and the United of the Chilkat River, marked on the afore- States, failed to reach an agreement on said map No. 10 of the United States the matters submitted to it, and in 1899 Commission with the number 5,410 and a modus vivendi was signed by the on the map No. 17 of the aforesaid Brit- representatives of both governments, ish Commission with the number 5,490. This agreement fixed the boundary provi- On the Dyea and Skagway trails, the sionally, and went into operation on Oct. summits of the Chilkoot and White 20. Under the agreement no part of its passes. territory was surrendered by the United It is understood, as formerly set forth States, and none of the rights of either in communications of the Department of government were prejudiced by it. State of the United States, that the citi- Modus Vivendi of 1899. — The following zens or subjects of either power found by is the text of the agreement: this arrangement within the temporary jurisdiction of the other shall suffer no It is hereby agreed between the gov- diminution of the rights and privileges ernments of the United States and Great which they now enjoy. Britain that the boundary-line between The government of the United States Canada and the Territory of Alaska, in will at once appoint an officer or officers, the region about the head of Lynn Canal, in conjunction with an officer or officers to shall be provisionally fixed, without preju- be named by the government of her Bri- dice to the claims of either party in the tannic Majesty, to mark the temporary permanent adjustment of the interna- line agreed upon by erection of posts, tional boundary, as follows: stakes, or other appropriate temporary In the region of i;he Dalton Trail, a marks, line beginning at the peak west of Porcu- Alaska in Transition. — After the United pine Creek, marked on the map No. 10 of States obtained possession of the Terri- the United States Commission, Dec. 31, tory the sealing industry was for several 1895, and on sheet No. 18 of the British years prosecuted with a vigor that led to Commission, Dec. 31, 1895, with the num- such a decrease in the number of seals ber 6,500; thence running to the Klehini that the government was obliged to enact (or Klaheela) River in the direction of stringent laws for the conservation of the the peak north of that river, marked 5,020 seals, in order to check the indiscriminate on the aforesaid United States map and slaughter and prevent the total destruc- 5,025 on the aforesaid British map; tion of the industry. These laws, how- thence following the high or right bank ever, have been constantly violated, with of the said Klehini River to the junction the result that the fur - seal has been thereof with the Chilkat River, a mile nearly exterminated in these waters, and a half, more or less, north of Klu- Some compensation for this loss has been kwan — provided that persons proceeding found in a remarkable increase in the to or from Porcupine Creek shall be freely supply of food fishes, permitted to follow the trail between Large as was the knowledge of Alaska the said creek and the said junction of and its manifold interests and resources the rivers, into and across the Territory that had been acquired up to 1900, much on the Canadian side of the temporary of its vast expanse remained practically line wherever the trail crosses to such an unknown region, depending upon the side, and subject to such reasonable regu- government surveys then in progress and 80 ALASKA— ALASKAN BOUNDARY the resistless pushing forward of gold- Alaskan Boundary, The. Prof. J. hunters for the disclosure of new wonders B. Moore (q. v.) contributes the follow- and material attractions. The entire ing discussion of the conflicting claims region on both sides of the boundary-line of the United States and Canada in re- was in a transition state, and both the lation to the boundary-line. United States and the Canadian govern- meats, aided by commercial and religious In his message of Dec. 2, 1872, Presi- organizations, were pushing forward, as dent Grant, referring to the settlement of rapidly as the face of the country would the San Juan Water Boundary, remarked permit, the advantages of civilization that this award left us, " for the first hitherto unknown in that bleak region, time in the history of the United States Early in 1898 an aerial railway was con- as a nation, without a question of dis- structed over the Chilkoot Pass to Lake puted boundary between our territory Linderman, a unique enterprise that short- and the possessions of Great Britain on ened the time between tidewater and the this continent." In making this state- headwaters of the Yukon River from a ment, President Grant was not unmindful month to a day, and removed the perils of the fact that the boundary between the and hardships of former travels. At the British possessions and Alaska, as defined end of that year the first section of the in the treaty between Great Britain and first railroad built in Alaska was com- Russia of 1825, had not been surveyed and pleted. This was the White Pass and marked. No dispute in regard to this Yukon Railroad, projected to extend from line had then arisen; and, with a view to Skagway to Fort Selkirk. The section prevent the occurrence of any, he made ended at Summit, the highest point of the the following recommendation: divide. The road was completed through to Lake Bennett in 1899. At the same "Experience of the difficulties attend- time the Canadian government had se-, ing the determination of our admitted line lected five routes for railways in the of boundary, after the occupation of the Yukon region, which it was thought might Territory and its settlement by those owing be provided with sea-coast outlets in the allegiance to the respective governments, territory of the United States. points to the importance of establishing, After the failure of the Anglo-Amer- by natural objects or other monuments, ican Commission (q. v.) to settle the the actual line between the territory ac- boundary contention, a special commis- quired by purchase from Russia and the sion was appointed under a treaty signed adjoining possessions of her Britannic in Washington, D. C, Jan. 24, 1903. This Majesty. The region is now so sparsely body assembled in London on Sept. 3, fol- occupied that no conflicting interests of lowing, heard final arguments on October individuals or of jurisdiction are likely to 9, reached a decision on Oct. 17, and made interfere to the delay or embarrassment its award Oct. 20, granting to the United of the actual location of the line. If de- States all of its contentions excepting that ferred until population shall enter and for the Portland Canal, which was given occupy the Territory, some trivial contest to Canada. The award deprived Canada of neighbors may again array the two of access to the sea over a long stretch of governments in antagonism. I therefore coast-line, and of a free passage up the recommend the appointment of a commis- Lynn Canal to the Yukon. See United sion, to act jointly with one that may be States — Alaska, in vol. ix. appointed on the part of Great Britain, GOVERNORS OF THE TERRITORY. *° determine the line between our Terri- tory of Alaska and the coterminous pos- military governor. sessions of Great Britain." Gen. Lovell H. Rousseau 1867— By correspondence published in the civil governors. Canadian Sessional Papers, this recom- John H. Kinkead 1884-85 mendation appears to have been inspired ^ lfred £ S 7 ineford J22 5 " 89 ^ representations, originating with the Lyman E. Knapp 1889-93 J F i j n-ia -«j • a a James Sheakley 1893-97 g° vernment of Canada, and communicated John G. Brady 1897-1904 through the British minister at Wash- I— F 81 ALASKAN BOUNDARY ington, as to the desirableness of definitely marking the boundary. No action upon the recommendation was taken; but an estimate then made by United States offi- cials as to the probable cost and duration of the task of surveying and marking the line as laid down in the treaty placed the cost at about $1,500,000 and the time at nine years for field operations and at least an additional year for office work. In January, 1886, the minister of the United States in London, aeting under instructions, proposed the appointment of a joint commission, which should designate and establish the boundary-line, or else report such data as might afford a basis for its establishment by a new treaty. The Dominion government, to whom this pro- posal was referred, expressed the opinion that a preliminary survey was " preferable to a formally constituted joint commis- sion," and suggested that such a. survey " would enable the two governments to establish a satisfactory basis for the de- limitation of the boundary, and demon- strate whether the conditions of the con- vention of 1825 are applicable to the now more or less known features of the coun- try." Early in 1888 several informal con- ferences were held in Washington between Prof. W. H. Dall, of the United States Geological Survey, and Dr. George M. Dawson, of Canada, for the purpose of dis- cussing the boundary and elucidating, so far as the information then in existence enabled them to do, the questions which might be involved in it. The result of these conferences was communicated to Congress. , A further step was taken in the con- vention between the United States and Great Britain of July 22, 1892, by which it was agreed that a coincident or joint survey should be made " with a view to ascertainment of the facts and data neces- sary to the permanent delimitation of the said boundary-line in accordance with the spirit and intent of the existing treaties in regard to it between Great Britain and Russia and between the United States and Russia." The time for the report of the commissioners under this stipulation was extended by the supplemental convention of Feb. 3, 1894, to Dec. 31, 1895. Joint surveys and a joint report were made, but no recommendations as to the boun- dary. By the protocol of May, 1898, it was agreed that the joint international com- mission to be organized thereunder should endeavor to adopt " provisions for the de- limitation and establishment of the Alaska-Canadian boundary by legal and scientific experts if the commission shall so decide, or otherwise." Under this clause, it is understood that the commis- sion has failed to reach an agreement, and the question still remains open. It is our purpose to disclose, in general outlines, in what the dispute consists. By a ukase dated July 8, 1799, the Em- peror Paul I. of Russia, having in view the benefits resulting to his empire from the hunting and trading carried on by Russian subjects " in the northeastern seas and along the coasts of America," conceded to the Russian-American Com- pany the right to "have the use of all hunting-grounds and establishments now [then] existing on the northeastern {sic) coast of America, from the . . . 55th degree [of north latitude] to Bering Strait," as well as the right " to make new discoveries not only north of the fifty- fifth degree," but farther to the south, and " to occupy the new lands discovered, as Russian possessions," if they were not previously occupied by or dependent upon another nation. Still further privileges were granted to the Russian-American Company by the famous ukase issued by the Emperor Alexander, Sept. 7, 1821, by which the pur- suit of commerce, whaling and fishing, and of all other industry, on all islands, ports, and gulfs, " including the whole of the northwest coast of America, beginning from Bering Strait to the 51st degree of northern latitude," was exclusively granted to Russian subjects, and foreign vessels, except in case of distress, were forbidden " not only to land on the coasts and islands belonging to Russia, as stated above, but also to approach them within less than 100 Italian miles." This extension by Russia of her claim of dominion on the northwest coast of America from the 55th parallel of north latitude down to the 51st, coupled with the new claim of exclusive ma- rine jurisdiction of 100 Italian miles 82 ALASKAN BOUNDARY along the coast, called forth protests both from the United States and from Great Britain. Both these powers claimed ter- ritory north of the 51st parallel, as well as the right freely to navigate the ocean and to fish and trade with the natives on unoccupied coasts. Russia met their protests with an offer of negotiation. This offer was accepted. In the negotia- tions which ensued, Russia was represent- ed by Count Nesselrode, minister for for- eign affairs, and M. Poletica. Great Brit- ain was represented first by Sir Charles Bagot, and then by Stratford Canning; the United States by Henry Middleton. The United States and Great Britain at one time entertained the intention of act- ing jointly, but, finding that their terri- torial claims were to some extent conflict- ing, they carried on their negotiations with Russia separately. The negotiations between the United States and Russia ended in a convention, signed at St. Petersburg, April 17, 1824, which will hereafter be referred to as the convention of 1824. As to the territorial question, it was agreed that no establish- ment should be formed by the United States on the northwest coast north of lat. 54° 40' N., nor by Russia south of that parallel. As to navigation, fishing, and trading, the right of navigation and of fishing in the Pacific Ocean was acknowl- edged unqualifiedly and in perpetuity ; and it was agreed that during a term of ten years the ships of both powers might fre- quent " the interior Seas, Gulfs, Harbors, and Creeks upon the coast " in question, for the purpose of fishing and trading with the natives. No resort, however, was to be made by citizens of the United States to any point where there was a Russian establishment, without the permission of the governor; and a reciprocal rule was to be observed by Russian subjects as to United States establishments. From the commerce permitted by the convention, fire-arms and liquors were excluded. So far as dominion was concerned, the practical effect of this treaty was to leave it to Great Britain and Russia to divide the territory north of lat. 54° 40' N., and to the United States and Great Brit- ain to divide that to the south. Great Britain and Russia settled their maritime and territorial differences by a convention signed at St. Petersburg on Feb. 28, 1825, which will hereafter be re- ferred to as the convention of 1825. This convention defines, in Articles III. and IV., the boundary between Alaska and the British possessions as it exists to-day. The treaty of 1867, ceding Alaska to the United States, describes the eastern limits of the cession by incorporating the defini- tion given in the convention of 1825. This convention was signed only in French, which is therefore the official text; but there accompanies it, in the British pub- lications, an English " translation," which in the main fairly reproduces the original. These texts, so far as they relate to the boundary, are as follows: "III. La ligne de demarcation entre les Possessions des Hautes Parties Contractantes sur la C6te du Conti- nent et les lies de VAm6riqueNord Ouest, sera tracee ainsi qu'il suit: — *' A partir du Point le plus meridional de Vile dite Prince of Wales, lequel Point se trouve sous la paral- lele du 54me de- gre 40 minutes de latitude Nord, et en- tre le 131me et le 133me degre de longitude Ouest (M6- ridien de Greenwich), la dite ligne remon- tera au Nord le long de la passe dite Port- land Channel, jusqu'au Point de la terre ferme ou elle atteint le 56me degre de lati- tude Nord: de ce der- nier point la ligne de demarcation suivra la cr^te des montagnes situe.es parallelement & la C6te, jusqu'au point d' intersection du 141 me degre de longitude Ouest {mtme Meridien) ; et flnale- ment du dit point d'in- tersection, la meme ligne meridienne du 141me degre formera, dans son prolonge- ment jusqu'a la mer Olaciale, la limit e entre les Possessions Russes et Britan- "III. The line of demarcation between the Possessions of the High Contracting Parties upon the Coast of the Conti- nent and the Islands of America to the North-West, shall be drawn in the follow- ing manner : " Commencing from the southernmost point of the Island called Prince of Wales Island, which point lies in the par- allel of 54 degrees 40 minutes, North Latitude, and between the 131st and 133d Degree of West Longi- tude (Meridian of Greenwich), the said line shall ascend to the North along the Channel called Port- land Channel, as far as the Point of the Continent where it strikes the 56th De- gree of. North Lati- tude ; from this last mentioned Point the line of demarcation shall follow the sum- mit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast, as far as the point of intersec- tion of the 141st De- gree of West Longi- tude (of the same Me- ridian) ; and, finally, from the said point of intersection, the said Meridian Line of the 141st Degree, In its prolongation as far as 83 ALASKAN BOUNDARY niques sHir le Conti- nent de VAme'rique Nord Quest. " IV. II est en- tendu, par rapport d la ligne de demarca- tion determinee dans V Article precedent: "1. Que Vile dite Prince of Wales ap- partiendra toute en- tiere a la Russie: " 2. Que partout oil la crSte des montagnes qui s'etendent dans une direction paral- lele a Cote depuis le 56me degrS de latitude Nord au point d' inter section du 141 me degrt de longi- tude Ouest, se trouve- rait d la distance de plus de dix lieues ma- rines de I'Ocean, la limite entre les Pos- sessions Britanniques et la lisiere de Cote mentionnee ci-dessus comme devant appar- tenir d la Russie, sera formie par une ligne parallele aux sinuosites de la C6te, et qui ne pourra ja- mais en itre e'loigne'e que de dix lieues ma- rines." the Frozen Ocean, shall form the limit between the Russian and British Posses- sions on the Conti- nent of America to the North-West. " IV. With refer- ence to the line of demarcation laid down in the preceding Arti- cle, it is understood : "1st. That the Isl- and called Prince of Wales Island shall he- long wholly to Rus- sia. " 2d. That wherever the summit of the mountains which ex- tend in a direction parallel to the Coast, from the 56th degree of North Latitude to the point of intersec- tion of the 141st de- gree of West Longi- tude, shall prove to be at the distance of more than ten marine leagues from the Ocean, the limit be- tween the British Possessions and the line of Coast which is to belong to Rus- sia, as above men- tioned, shall be form- ed by a line parallel to the windings of the Coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of ten ma- rine leagues there- from." It was further provided (Art. V.) that neither party should form establishments within the limits thus assigned to the other, and, specifically, that British sub- jects should not form any establishment, " either upon the coast, or upon the border of the continent (soit sur la cote, soit sur la lisiere de terre ferme) comprised with- in the limits of the Russian possessions." As to navigation, fishing, and trading, the convention of 1825 included sub- stantially the same provisions as that of 1824. The right of navigation and fishing in the Pacific Ocean was acknowledged. For the space of ten years the ships of the two powers were to be at liberty to frequent " the inland Seas, the Gulfs, Havens, and Creeks on the Coast " in ques- tion. Permission to land at points where there were establishments was to be ob- tained from the governor. Trade with the natives in fire-arms and liquors was pro- hibited. Besides these stipulations, it was agreed (Art.- VI.) that British subjects, whether arriving from the ocean or from the interior of the continent, should " for- ever enjoy the right of navigating freely . . . all the rivers and streams which, in their course towards the Pacific Ocean, may cross the line of demarcation upon the line of coast described in Article III. of the present convention " ; and that, for the space of ten years, the port of Sitka, or Novo Archangelsk, should be " open to the Commerce and Vessels of British sub- jects." An examination of the boundary defined in Articles III. and IV. of the convention of 1825 shows that it is scientifically di- visible into two distinct sections, first, the line from the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island, through Portland Chan- nel and along the summit of the moun- tains parallel to the coast, to the point of intersection of the 141st meridian of longi- tude; and, second, the line from this point to the Arctic Ocean. With the latter sec- tion, which is merely a meridian line, and as to which the United States and Cana- dian surveys exhibit no considerable dif- ference, we are not now concerned. The section as to which material differences have arisen is the first. The principal differences in this quarter are two in number, first, as to what chan- nel is meant by Portland Channel (some- times called Portland Canal) ; and, sec- ond, as to what is the extent of the line or strip of coast (le lisiere de cote) which was assigned to Russia. The latter differ- ence, since it is the more complicated, we will consider first. As has been seen, the easterly limit of the lisidre, from the point where the line strikes the fifty-sixth degree of north lati- tude, was to follow " the summit of the mountains situated parallel to the coast," except that, where this summit should prove to be more than ten marine leagues, or thirty miles, from the ocean, the limit was to be formed " by a line parallel to the windings of the coast, and which shall never exceed the distance of ten marine leagues therefrom." On the part of Canada two theories as to thisjine have been advanced: (1) that it should follow, 84 ALASKAN BOUNDARY not the actual windings {sinuosites) but the general trend of the coast, so as to intersect or cross the headlands of some of the bays and inlets, especially in the Lynn Canal, and give Great Britain one or more ports on tide-water; and (2) that the coast whose windings are to be fol- lowed is not the shore of the mainland, but that of the adjacent islands, border- ing on the ocean.* The United States, on the other hand, has maintained that the coast whose windings were to be followed was the coast of the mainland, the design of the convention being to give to Russia the control of the whole of the shore of the mainland, and of the islands, bays, gulfs, and inlets adjacent thereto. In other * On the sketch-map accompanying this ar- ticle, the Canadian claim is given as shown on the " Map of the Province of British Co- lumbia, compiled by direction of Hon. G. B. Martin, Chief Commissioner of Lands and Works, Victoria, B. C, 1895." This claim would give Dyea, Skagway, Pyramid Harbor, and various other points, and a long stretch of tide-water, to Canada. Canada offered to give up her claims on Dyea and Skagway if the United States would give Pyramid Harbor to her. The United States refused to consider the question. words, Russia was to have exclusive do- minion of tide-water and of a continuous strip of territory bordering upon it, while Great Britain was to have the interior country, with a right of free navigation of streams crossing the Russian territory on their way to the sea. That this was the design of the conven- tion may be shown, first, by the record of its negotiation. The principal object on the part of Great Britain was to obtain the withdraw- al by Russia of the claim made in the ukase of 1828 to exclusive jurisdiction over the Pacific Ocean — a claim which in- volved the right to navigate a vast extent of ocean and, incidentally, the right of passage from the Pacific to the Arctic Ocean through Bering Straits. " It is not on our part," declared George Canning, British Secretary of State for Foreign Af- fairs, " essentially a negotiation of limits. It is a demand of the repeal of an offen- sive and unjustifiable arrogation of ex- elusive jurisdiction over an ocean of un- measured extent." With a view to facili- tate the withdrawal of this pretension, Great Britain proposed a settlement of limits.* The actual geographical features of the territory were to a great extent unknown. Vancouver had navigated and charted the coast, but the interior was un- explored. Back from the shore high moun- tains were visible, and, after the manner of the early geographers, he drew artistic ranges which follow the windings of the coast, making a continuous barrier be- tween the coast of the mainland and the interior country. It is well known, how- ever, to the negotiators of the convention of 1825 that the mountain ranges might be broken, or that, instead of following closely the windings of the coast, they might extend far inland. Instead, there- fore, of attending to geographical details, they adopted general rules, which should be applied whenever the line came to be actually marked. In settling the limits along the coast the two governments were largely guided by the interests and the representations of certain commercial companies — on the part of Russia, the Russian - American Company, and, on the part of Great Brit- * G. Canning to Stratford Canning, Dec. 8, 1824. 85 ALASKAN BOUNDARY ain, the Northwest and Hudson's Bay companies — which hunted and traded with natives for furs. The fur trade was then the principal object of value in the esti- mation of the worth of the regions in question. The British companies, how- ever, had no establishment on the coast now under consideration. Their opera- tions in that quarter were conducted in the interior, and their furs were sent to England through their own territories, and not across the coast involved in the negotiation. The first definite proposition as to lim- its was made by Great Britain to Russia in the autumn of 1823. Sir Charles Bagot, then British ambassador at St. Peters- burg, was instructed to propose a line drawn east and west along the 57th parallel of north latitude. He went somewhat further, and suggested that Great Britain would " be satisfied to take Cross Sound, lying about the latitude of 57° 30', as the boundary between the two pow- ers on the coast; and a meridian line drawn from the head of Lynn Canal, as it is laid down in Arrowsmith's last map, ... as the boundary in the interior of the continent." This suggestion was not ac- cepted, and subsequently, acting under in- structions, he proposed " a line drawn through Chatham Straits to the head of Lynn Canal, thence northwest to the 140th degree of longitude west of Greenwich, and thence along that degree of longitude to the Polar Sea." The Russian plenipotentiaries rejected this proposal and submitted a counter- project. By the ukase of 1799, the Rus- sian dominion was assumed to extend to the southward as far as the 55th de- gree of north latitude. The Russian plen- ipotentiaries therefore offered to adhere to this limit, with a deflection at the south- ern extremity of Prince of Wales Island so as to avoid a division of territory, and, for the rest, proposed that the line should " follow Portland Channel up to the moun- tains which border the coast," thence " as- cend along these mountains, parallel to the sinuosities of the coast, as far as the 139th degree of longitude (meridian of Lon- don)," and then pursue that meridian in- definitely to the north. The reasons of the two governments for their respective proposals were fully ex- plained by them. In the early stages of the negotiation the Russian plenipoten- tiaries intimated that they would require the 55th degree of latitude as their southern boundary. In his instructions to Sir C. Bagot, of Jan. 15, 1824, Mr. George Canning, adverting to the fact that no limit was suggested by the Russian plenipotentiaries to the eastern extension of the parallel, declared that it was es- sential to guard against the " unfounded pretensions " of Russia in that direction, and for that purpose, whatever the degree of latitude assumed, to assign a definite meridian of longitude as a limit. The 135th meridian northward from the head of " Lynn's Harbor " might suffice. As to " the mainland southward of that point," it would be expedient to assign " a limit, say of 50 or 100 miles from the coast, beyond which the Russian posts should not be extended to the eastward. We must not," he continued, " on any ac- count, admit the Russian territory to ex- tend at any point to the Rocky Mountains. By such an admission we should estab- lish a direct and complete interruption between our territory to the southward of that point and that of which we are in possession to the eastward of long. 135° along the course of the Mackenzie River." The Russian plenipotentiaries explained their object with equal clearness. In a memorandum accompanying their counter- proposal they said : " The principal motive which constrains Russia to insist upon sovereignty over the above-indicated strip of territory (lisiere) upon the mainland (terre ferme) from the Portland Channel to the point of intersection of the 60th degree (latitude) with the 139th degree of longitude, is that, deprived of this terri- tory, the Russian - American Company would have no means of sustaining its es- tablishments, which would then be with- out any support (point d'appui) , and could have no solidity." If Great Britain would accept the line proposed by them, the Russian plenipotentiaries declared that their government would grant to British subjects " the free navigation of all the rivers which empty into the ocean through the said lisiere, 1 " and open the port of Novo Archangelsk to their trade and vessels. 8V ALASKAN BOUNDARY To this counter-proposal Sir C. Bagot objected that it " would deprive his Bri- tannic Majesty of sovereignty over all the inlets and small bays lying between lat. 56° and 54° 45', whereof several (as there is every reason to believe) communicated directly with the establishments of the Hudson Bay Company, and are conse- quently of essential importance to its com- merce." He offered, however, to accept a line traced from the west towards the east " along the middle of the channel which separates Prince of Wales and Duke of York islands from all the islands situated to the north of the said islands until it touches the mainland." Subsequently he modified this offer by proposing that the line be drawn " from the southern ex- tremity of the strait called * Duke of Clarence's Sound,' through the middle of this strait to the middle of the strait which separates Prince of Wales and Duke of York islands " from the islands to the north, and thence eastwardly to the main- land, thus giving Prince of Wales Island to Russia. These proposals the Russian plenipo- tentiaries declined. They declared that " the possession of Prince of Wales Island without a slice (portion) of territory upon the coast situated in front of that island could be of no utility whatever to Russia," since any establishment founded upon it would then " find itself, as it were, flanked by the English establishments on the mainland and completely at the mercy of the latter." They adhered to Portland Channel; but, as to the eastern boundary of the lisidre, they offered to extend it " along the mountains which follow the sinuosities of the coast as far as Mount Elias," and then to run the line along the 140th meridian of longitude instead of the 139th. Said Count Nesselrode, in an instruction to Count Lieven, Russian am- bassador at London, April 17, 1824: " This proposal will assure to us merely a narrow strip of territory {lisidre) upon the coast itself, and will leave the English establishments all needful room for in- crease and extension .... We limit our de- mands to a mere strip of the continent, and ... we guarantee the free navigation of the rivers and announce the opening of the port of Novo Archangel sk. Russia cannot stretch her concessions farther. She will make no others It cannot be reiterated with sufficient positiveness that, according to the most recent charts, Eng- land possesses no establishment either up to the latitude of Portland Channel or on the shore of the ocean itself; and Russia, when she insists on preserving a moderate expanse of the mainland (terre ferme) only insists in reality upon the means of utilizing — we might better say of not los- ing — the surrounding islands." The British cabinet, with the concur- rence of the Hudson Bay Company, de- cided to accept the Russian proposal, with a limitation of the distance from the coast at which the line along the mountains should run, and the selection of a me- ridian of longitude north of Mount St. Elias farther to the west than the 140th. In this way Russia would secure her strip of territory on the mainland and Great Britain prevent the intersection of her in- terior possessions and communications. Great Britain accordingly proposed that the line should ascend northerly along Portland Channel " till it strikes the coast of the continent lying in the 56th degree of north latitude," and that it should thence be carried " along the coast, in a direction parallel to its windings, and at or within the seaward base of the mountains by which it is bounded," pro- vided that it should not extend more than a certain number of marine leagues in- land, whatever the distance of the moun- tains might be. Experience had shown, said the British government, that moun- tains which were assumed as lines of boundary were sometimes incorrectly laid down, and that it was " therefore neces- sary that some other security should be taken that the line of demarcation to be drawn parallel with the coast, as far as Mount St. Elias, is not carried too far in- land." It might be limited to 10 leagues or less.* * G. Canning to Sir C. Bagot, July 12, 1824. Were there room for doubt as to what these proposals and counter-proposals meant, it might be worth while specially to note the phrase " seaward base of the mountains." as well as the suggestion made by the British government that no forts should be estab- lished or fortifications erected by either party " on the summit or in the passes of the mountains " in case the boundary should fol- low their summit and not their seaward base. (G. Canning to Sir C. Bagot, July 24, 1824.) 87 ALASKAN" BOUNDARY The Russian government, in response to the last British proposition, proposed that the lisiere, instead of being bounded by the summit of the mountains, except where it exceeded a certain distance from the coast, should " not be wider on the continent than 10 marine leagues from the shore of the sea." In other words, Russia wanted either the crest of the mountains, or else a line 10 leagues from the coast, as the boundary all the way. Great Britain objected to this as a with- drawal of the limits of the lisidre which the Russians were themselves the first to propose, viz., " the summit of the moun- tains, which run parallel to the coast, and which appear, according to the map, to follow all its sinuosities, and to substi- tute generally that which we only sug- gested as a connection of their first prop- osition."* Accordingly, Mr. Stratford Canning, who had lately been appointed a plenipotentiary to conclude the conven- tion, proposed that the line should fol- low " the crest of the mountains in a direction parallel to the coast," but that, if the crest should be found anywhere to be more than 10 leagues from the sea, the boundary should there be " a line par- allel to the sinuosities of the coast, so that the line of demarcation shall not be anywhere more than 10 leagues from the coast." This proposal was accepted as a compro- mise, and the treaty was drawn up and signed in conformity with it. Until a re- cent period the line, as it was then under- stood by both governments, remained un- questioned. It appeared on all the maps, including those published in England, as the United States now maintains it, fol- lowing the sinuosities of the coast and running along the heads of the inlets, in- cluding the Lynn Canal, and giving to Russia an unbroken strip of the mainland up to Mount St. Elias. But more significant, perhaps, than any map, is the fact that the greater portion of the strip of mainland in question was for many years after 1839 leased, at an annual rental, by the Hudson Bay Com- pany. The lease embraced the coast (ex- elusive of islands) and the interior coun- Both these phrases obviously referred to mountains on the mainland. * G. Canning to S. Canning, Dec. 8, 1824. try belonging to Russia, situated between Cape Spencer, on Cross Sound, and lat. 54° 40', or thereabout, including " the whole mainland coast and interior coun- try belonging to Russia," eastward and southward of an imaginary line drawn from Cape Spencer to Mount Fairweather. By an agreement between the Hudson Bay and Russian-American companies, which received the sanction of both gov- ernments, this strip of territory was ex- empted from molestation during the Cri- mean War.* As to the southern limit of the strip in question, a line through Portland Channel, as now maintained by the United States, continued to be the uncontested boundary till about 1873, when Canadian writers be- gan to suggest that the line should run through Behm Canal, or by some other way than Portland Channel, (1) because, while the line is required by the treaty to " ascend to the north " from the southern- most point of Prince of Wales Island, it must first run to the east in order to enter Portland Channel, and (2) because the head of Portland Channel does not reach the 56th degree of north latitude. These suggestions, besides disregarding the his- torical and geographical evidence, in- cluding that of the British Admiralty charts, presuppose a minuteness and ac- curacy of description which the negotiators did not essay. When the line, commencing at the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island, was required to " ascend to the north" till it should strike the 56th degree on the continent, the general direction and objective of the boundary obviously was intended to be given. This has not been uncommon in descriptions of boundary. An actual due north line from the point in question would have cut the island. Nor is the argument from a hiatus between the head of Portland Channel and * Sir George Simpson, Governor of Hud- son Bay Territory and a director of Hud- son Bay Company, in his account of a trip around the world (Lea & Blanchard, Phila- delphia, 1847, Part 1, p. 124), referring to the lease, said : " Russia, as the reader is of course aware, possesses on the mainland be- tween lat. 54° 40' and lat. 60° only a strip, never exceeding 30 miles in depth ; and this strip, in the absence of such an arrangement as has just been mentioned (the aforesaid lease), renders the interior comparatively use- less to England." 88 ALASKAN BOUNDARY— ALBANY the 56th degree any stronger. The " line," after ascending " Portland Chan- nel, as far as the point of the continent where it strikes the 56th degree of north latitude," is required from " this last-mentioned point" to follow "the summit of the mountains." If this were intended as a complete description, cover- ing every foot or mile of the boundary, and if the " it " of the treaty were intend- ed to refer to the channel and not to the line, then Portland Channel evidently was supposed to have performed the remark- able feat of climbing to the summit of the mountains. But, obviously, it , was the *'• line " which was to " strike " the 56th parallel and reach the summit of the mountains. The drawing of the line through Port- land Channel, whose outlet into the sea appeared on the map in the same latitude as the southernmost point of Prince of Wales Island, was part of the plan of al- lowing to Russia, in return for her aban- donment of abnormal jurisdictional claims and her concessions in respect of trade, a strip of territory on the mainland as a barrier between her islands and the Brit- ish possessions in the interior. We have seen how the representatives of Great Britain successively proposed as the southern boundary the line of 57° 30', then a line through " Chatham Straits to the head of Lynn Canal," then a line drawn from west to east " through the middle of the channel which sepa- rates the islands of Prince of Wales and Duke of York from all the isl- ands to the north " till it should touch the mainland, and then a line drawn north- ward through Clarence Strait and thence eastward to the mainland through the strait separating Prince of Wales and Duke of York islands from the islands to the north, and how they finally accepted the line through Portland Channel, on which Russia, for the purpose of preserv- ing for her islands a protective barrier on the coast of the mainland, had firmly and finally insisted. But, while we have shown how the gen- eral principles of the boundary were set- tled, it yet remains to adjust the line and mark it. For this purpose it is conceded that something more than the general de- scriptions of the treaty is requisite. To 89 meet this defect, various plans have been suggested, and there may be room for the adjustment of common interests. The dis- covery of gold in the Klondike region has intensified the desire of Canada for an out- let on Lynn Canal. This desire, if con- sidered upon grounds of mutual interest and convenience, rather than of treaty right, is worthy of attention, since the coast must profit by the development of the interior. It has been suggested that a lease be granted of a narrow strip of land in that quarter, as an outlet on the sea. The same object might, perhaps, be attained by assimilating one or more of the portages, for instance, that by way of the Chilkoot Pass, the principal Klondike route, to a stream of water and treating it as an international highway. By Arti- cle II. of the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, it was stipulated that " all the water com- munications and all the usual portages along the line [of boundary] from Lake Superior to the Lake of the Woods, and also Grand Portage, from the shore of Lake Superior to the Pigeon River, as now actually used, shall be free and open to the use of the citizens and subjects of both countries." But whatever plan may be adopted, it is obvious that, if the end can be attained without the sacrifice of clear national rights, the boundary should not be left unsettled, but should, in the interest of trade and industry, of the administra- tion of justice, and of international amity, be finally adjusted and marked. Albans, St. See St. Albans ; Vermont. Albany, city and capital of the State of New York; the oldest existing town within the domain of the original thirteen States; was first settled by Dutch traders in 1614, who built a trading-house on Castle Island, a little below the site of Albany, and eight years afterwards Fort Orange was built on that site. The set- tlement was called Fort Orange at first, then Beverswyck; and after the Province of New Netherland passed into the posses- sion of the English it was called Albany, the second title of Duke James, afterwards James II. of England. Alban/ is yet full of the descendants of its early settlers, and has a large present importance by reason of its trade relations with the Western and Southern States, promoted by its ex- ceptional shipping facilities by river, rail- ALBANY road, and canal. In 1890 the population was 94,923; in 1900, 94,151. Albany is especially noted in history be- cause of the colonial conventions held there. The following is a synopsis of their most important transactions: First Colonial Convention. — Thoroughly alarmed by the opening hostilities of the French and Indians on the frontiers, the colonies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, and Connecticut sent commissioners to Albany to hold a conference with the chiefs of the Five Nations, all of whom, excepting the Mohawks, had renewed their covenant of friendship with the English. This cove- nant was renewed June 27, 1689, previous to the arrival of Count Frontenae in Canada. The commissioners held the con- ference in September following. They tried to persuade the Five Nations to en- gage in the war against the Eastern Ind- ians. They would not agree to do so, but ratified the existing friendship with the English colonies. " We promise," they said, " to preserve the chain inviolably, and wish that the sun may always shine in peace over all our heads that are com- prehended in the chain." Second Colonial Convention. — In the summer of 1748, when news of the pre- liminary treaty of peace reached the col- onies, a convention or congress of colonial governors was called at Albany for a two- fold purpose: (1) to secure a colonial revenue, and (2) to strengthen the bond of friendship between the Six Nations and their neighbors in the West, and the Eng- lish. Only Governors Clinton and Shirley, two able commissioners from Massachu- setts, and one (William Bull) from South Carolina, were present. With the latter came the grand sachem and some chiefs of the Catawbas, a nation which had long waged war with the Iroquois. There was an immense number of the Six Nations present. The royal governors failed to gain anything for themselves in the way of a- revenue, but satisfactory arrange- ments with the Indians, including the tribes along the southern borders of Lake Erie, were made. At that conference the commissioners from Massachusetts (An- drew Oliver and Thomas Hutchinson) pre- sented a memorial for adoption, praying the King so far to interpose as that, while the French remained in Canada, the more 90 southern colonies, which were not immedi- ately exposed to hostilities, might be obliged to contribute in a just proportion towards the expense of protecting the in- land portions of New York and New Eng- land. Clinton and Shirley signed and ap- proved of the memorial, which was sent with it to the Board of Trade and Plan- tations. Third Colonial Convention. — The kindly attitude manifested towards the French by the Six Nations excited the jealousy and alarm of the English, especially of Govern- or Clinton, of New York. As yet, the Iroquois had never recognized the claim of the English to dominion over their land, and they were free to act as they pleased. Clinton called a convention of representatives of the several English- American colonies at Albany, and invited the Six Nations to send representatives to meet with them. Only Massachusetts, Connecticut, and South Carolina chose to incur the expense. Delegates from these colonies met the chiefs of the Six Nations (July 5, 1751) and made a treaty of friendship. The " King " of the Catawbas and several chiefs accompanied the South Carolina delegate (William Bull), and a peace between that Southern nation and the Iroquois was settled at the same time. Fourth Colonial Convention. — There were indications that the Six Nations, in- fluenced by French emissaries, were becom- ing alienated from the English. The colonists were uneasy, and the British government, acting upon the advice of the royal governors in America, sent a circular letter to all the colonial assemblies, pro- posing the holding of a convention at Albany, to be composed of committees from the several legislatures and repre- sentatives of the Six Nations. Seven of the assemblies responded, and on June 19, 1754, twenty-five delegates assembled in the old City Hall at Albany. James De Lancey, acting governor of New York, pre- sided, and he was authorized by the Vir- ginia legislature to represent that colony in the convention. The chiefs of the Six Nations were there in great numbers, of whom " King Hendrick," of the Mohawks, was leader. To the Indians De Lancey first spoke, and Hendrick responded in words of bitter reproof of the English for their neglect of preparations for danger. ALBANY— ALBEMARLE SOUND " Look at the French,'' he said ; " they are men; they are fortifying everywhere; but, we are ashamed to say it, you are like women, bare and open, without any forti- fications. It is but one step from Canada hither, and the French may easily come and turn you out-of-doors." But the busi- ness with the Six Nations was closed amicably and satisfactorily by a treaty of Friendship. The Massachusetts delegation was authorized to propose a measure quite as important as a treaty with the Indians. It was an invitation for the convention to consider the question whether a union of the colonies for mutual defence was not desirable; and they were empowered to agree to articles of union or confederation. The proposition was favorably received, and a committee, composed of one dele- gate from each colony, was appointed to draw up a plan. The fertile brain of Dr. Benjamin Franklin, a delegate from Penn- sylvania, had conceived a plan before he went to the convention. It was reported by the committee and adopted by the con- vention, the Connecticut delegates alone dissenting. It proposed a grand council of forty-eight members, to be chosen by the several assemblies, the representatives of each colony to be, in number, in propor- tion to the contribution of each to the general treasury. No colony was to have more than seven or less than two members. This congress was to choose its own speaker and have the general management of all civil and military affairs, and to enact general laws in conformity to the British Constitution. It proposed to have a president-general, appointed and paid by the crown, who should have a negative or veto power on all acts of the congress, and to have, with the advice and consent of the congress, the appointment of all mili- tary officers, and the entire management of Indian affairs; the civil officers to be appointed by the congress with the ap- proval of the president-general. This plan of government bore a strong resemblance to our national Constitution, which Frank- lin assisted in framing more than thirty years afterwards. This plan was sub- mitted to the Lords of Trade and Planta- tions. They did not approve of it, nor recommend it to the King for considera- tion. They thought there was too much democracy in it. The assemblies did not favor it, because they thought there was too much prerogative in it. So it was rejected. Albany Plan of Union, 1754. See Albany (Fourth Colonial Convention). Albany Regency, a name popularly given to a few active and able New York men of the Democratic party, between 1820 and 1854, who, in a great degree, con- trolled the action of their party in the State and in the Union. Among the lead- ing members were Martin Van Buren, William L. Marcy, Silas Wright, Edwin Croswell, Benjamin F. Butler, Azariah C. Flagg, and Dean Richmond. See Hunkers. Albay, the name of a province in the extreme southeastern part of the island of Luzon, Philippines; noted as being the richest hemp-growing district on the isl- and. In January, 1900, in order to put a stop to the surreptitious shipping of the products of the hemp-growing sections of the archipelago, a new military district was created by the United States authori- ties, comprising both this province and Catanduanes Island, situated directly north of Logonoy Bay. Brig.-Gen. William A. Kobbe, U. S. V., was appointed gov- ernor of this district and given tentative authority also over Samar and Leyte islands. He had several encounters with the Filipino insurgents before he secured control of his new district, and immedi- ately after establishing his authority he formally occupied and opened to trade the various hemp ports under his jurisdiction, which was subsequently extended over the entire hemp-growing district. Albay is also the principal town and port of the province. Albemarle Sound, Battle in. In the Civil War, the Confederate general Hoke, after capturing Plymouth, proceeded to Newbern and demanded its surrender. The commander of the Albemarle, a powerful " ram," started out on Albemarle Sound to assist Hoke, when his vessel encoun- tered (May 5, 1864) the Sassacus, Lieut.- Com. F. A. Rose, one of Capt. Melancton Smith's blockading squadron in the sound. The Albemarle was heavily arm- ed with Brooks and Whitworth guns. After a brief cannonade the Sassacus struck the monster a blow which pushed it partly under water and nearly sank it. When the " ram " recovered, the two ves- 91 ALBEMARLE— ALCOTT sels hurled 100-lb. shot at each other at a distance of a few paces. Most of those from the Sassacus glanced off from the Albemarle like hail from granite. Three of the shots from the Sassacus entered a part of the " ram " with destructive effect, and at the same moment the Albemarle sent a 100-lb. Brooks bolt through one of the boilers of the Sassacus, killing three men and wounding six. The vessel was filled with scalding steam and was un- manageable for a few minutes. When the smoke and vapor passed away, the Albe- marle was seen moving towards Plymouth, firing as she fled. The Sassacus slowly followed, but finally desisted for want of steam. Hoke fell back from Newbern. Albemarle, The, a powerful Confed- erate iron-clad vessel that patrolled the waters off the coast of North Carolina dur- RAM ALBKMARLK. ing a part of the Civil War. Late in Oc- tober, 1864, Lieut. W. B. Cushing, a daring young officer of the United States navy, undertook to destroy it. It was lying at Plymouth, behind a barricade of logs 30 feet in width. With a small steam- launch equipped as a torpedo-boat, Cush- ing moved in towards Plymouth on a dark night (Oct. 27), with a crew of thirteen officers and men, part of whom had volun- teered for this service. The launch had a cutter in tow. They were within 20 yards of the " ram " before they were dis- covered, when its pickets began firing. In the face of a severe discharge of musketry, Cushing pressed to the attack. He drove his launch far into the log barricade, low- ered his torpedo boom, and drove it direct- ly under the overhang of the " ram." The mine was exploded, and at the same mo- ment one of the guns of the Albemarle hurled a heavy bolt that went crashing through and destroying the launch. Cush- ing and his companions leaped into the water, but only one besides the commander escaped drowning or capture. Cushing swam ashore, crept into a swamp, and was found and cared for by some negroes. The torpedo had destroyed the Albemarle, and she settled down in the mud in Plymouth Harbor. Plymouth was recaptured (Oct. 31) by a squadron under Commodore Ma- comb, with some prisoners and valuable stores. See Cushing, William Barker. Albert Edward, Prince of Wales. See Edward VII. Albion, New. The name given by Sir Francis Drake (q. v.) to California (q. v.) when he took possession in 1577. Albright, Jacob, clergyman; born near Pottstown, Pa., May 1, 1759. In youth he was a tile-burner, but entered the Methodist ministry in 1790. He made many converts, almost exclusively among the Germans, and in 1800 a separate Church organization was formed for them, Albright becoming their first presiding elder. He was appointed bishop in 1807. His denomination is known as the Evan- gelical Association (q. v.). He died in 1808. Alcott, Amos Bronson, educator; born in Wolcott, Conn., Nov. 29, 1799. He became a successful teacher of an infant school in his native State. Removing to Boston, he soon became conspicuous as a teacher of the very young. He finally set- tled in Concord, Mass., where he studied natural theology and the best methods for producing reforms in diet, education, and civil and social institutions. By invita- tion, he went to England in 1842, to teach at " Alcott House," a name given to a school at Ham, near London. Returning to America, with two English friends, he attempted the founding of a new com- munity, calling the farm " Fruit Lands." It was a failure, and in 1840 he again went to Concord, where he afterwards re- sided, living the life of a peripatetic phi- losopher, conversing in cities and in vil- lages, wherever invited, on divinity, hu- man nature, ethics, as well as on a great variety of practical questions. He was one of the founders of the school of transcen- dentalists in New England, and after re- turning to Concord became dean of the famous Concord School of Philosophy. He died March 4, 1888. 92 ALCOTT— ALDEN Alcott, Louisa May, author; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Nov. 29, 1832; daughter of Amos Bronson Alcott. In 1862 she volunteered as a nurse, and for months labored in the military hospitals. In 1868 she published Little Women, which almost immediately made her famous. Her other works are, Flower Fables, or Fairy Tales; Hospital Sketches; An Old-Fashioned Girl; a series called Aunt Jo's Scrap Bag, con- taining My Boys, Shawl Straps, Cupid and Chow-Chow, My Girls, Jimmy's Cruise in the Pinafore, and An Old-Fashioned Thanksgiving ; Work, a Story of Experi- ence; Eight Cousins; Rose in Bloom; Sil- ver Pitchers; Under the Lilacs; Jack and Gill; Moods; Proverb Stories; Spinning- Wheel Stories; Lulu's Library, etc. She died in Boston, Mass., March 6, 1888. Alden, Henry Mills, editor; born in Mount Tabor, Vt., Nov. 11, 1836; was graduated at Williams College in 1857, and at Andover Theological Seminary in 1860. In the winter of 1863-64 he de- livered before the Lowell Institute of Bos- ton a series of twelve lectures on The Structure of Paganism; 1863-69 he was managing editor of Harper's Weekly, and in 1869 became editor of Harper's Maga- zine. He is the author of The Ancient Lady of Sorrow, a poem; God in His World; A Study of Death; and (with A. H. Guernsey) of Harper's Pictorial His- tory of the Great Rebellion. Alden, James, naval officer; born in Portland, Me., March 31, 1810; became a midshipman in 1828; lieutenant in 1841; commander in 1855; captain, Jan. 2, 1863; commodore, July 25, 1866; and rear-ad- miral, June 19, 1871. He was a partici- pant in the South Sea Exploring Expedi- tion under Lieutenant Wilkes, and served under Commodore Conner on the Gulf coast of Mexico during the war with that country. He was active in the reinforce- ment of Fort Pickens; in the expedition against Galveston •" as commander of the Richmond in the passage of Forts Jackson and St. Philip; in the capture of New Or- leans; and at Vicksburg, Port Hudson, Mobile Bay, and Fort Fisher. He was ap- pointed chief of the Bureau of Navigation and Detail in 1869, and, after his promo- tion to rear-admiral, commander of the European squadron. He died in San Fran- cisco, Cal., Feb. 6, 1877. Alden, John, a " Pilgrim Father " ; born in England in 1599; was employed as a cooper in Southampton, and, having been engaged to repair the Mayflower while awaiting the embarkation of the Pilgrims, concluded to join the company. It has been stated that he was the first of the Pilgrim party to step on Plymouth Rock, but other authorities give this honor to Mary Chilton. Alden settled in Duxbury, and in 1621 was married to Priscilla Mul- lins. For more than fifty years he was a magistrate in the colony, and outlived all the signers of the Mayflower compact. He died in Duxbury, Sept. 12, 1687. The circumstances of his courtship inspired Longfellow to write The Courtship of Miles Standish. They were as follows: The dreadful famine and fever which de- stroyed one-half of the Pilgrims at New Plymouth during the winter and spring of 1621 made a victim of Rose Standish, wife of Capt. Miles Standish. Her hus- band was then thirty-seven years of age. Not long after this event the brave little captain was smitten by the charms of Priscilla Mullins, daughter of William Mullins, who was a passenger on the May- flower. Priscilla had then just bloomed into young womanhood, and Standish sent young John Alden to ask the hand of the maiden in marriage. The ambassador went to her father and discreetly and mod. estly performed the duties of his mission The father readily gave his consent, and added, " But Priscilla must be consulted." She was summoned to the room, where sat young, graceful, almost courtly, ruddy- faced John Alden, whom she knew well. The ambassador of love repeated his mes- sage, and when Priscilla asked, " Why does he not come himself?" and was an- swered, " He is too busy," the indignant maiden declared that she would never marry a man who was "too busy" to court her. She said ( in the words of Longfellow) : " ' Had he waited awhile, had only showed that he loved me, Even this captain of yours — who knows? — at last might have won me, Old and rough as he is ; but now it never can happen.' " John Alden pressed the suit of Standish, when 93 ALDRICH— ALEXANDER "Archly the maiden smiled, and, with eyes The population is estimated at nearly overrunning with laughter, 6,000. Russian missionaries have con- Sa sp^ *oTZ™?X™' d ° n,t "" ™ Signet in 1627, a short time he exercised the privileges Commissioner of the Exchequer in 1628, of an earl, and he even claimed vast pos- also Lord of Canada. In 1630 he was sessions in Nova Scotia; but after a legal created Viscount Stirling, and in 1633 investigation he was stripped of his titles Earl of Stirling and Viscount of Canada, and pretensions, and in 1839 he sank into In 1628 the Council for New England gave oblivion. Many of the original surveys in him a grant of territory, which included New Jersey made by William Alexander a part of Long Island, opposite Connecti- and his father are now in the possession cut; but he was not able to manage his of the New Jersey Historical Society, and colonization schemes in Nova Scotia, and are frequently consulted by lawyers to he sold his domain to the French. He quiet titles to real estate. William Alex- died in London, Sept. 12, 1640. Lord Stir- ander died in Albany, N. Y., Jan. 15, 1783. ling's title expired with the fifth earl Alexander, Sib William, patentee of (1739), but other claimants appeared Nova Scotia, and a poet and court favor- afterwards. See Acadia. ite, to whom James I. and Charles I. were Alexander VI., Pope. Rodrigo Len- rauch attached. He was born at Menstrie, zuolo; son of Isabelle Borgia and nephew Scotland, in 1580. He became the author of Pope Calixtus III.; was born in Valen- of verses when he was fourteen years old, cia, Spain, Jan. 1, 1431; studied law; was and was cherished by Scotchmen as a appointed a cardinal by his uncle before descendant of the Macdonalds. His Au- he was twenty- five years old; made arch- rora contained more than one hundred bishop of Valencia in 1458; elected Pope, sonnets, songs, and elegies which dis- after the death of Pope Innocent VIIL, played the effects of ill - requited love. Aug. 11, 1492; was crowned under the title When the Council for New England per- of Alexander VI., with great pomp and ceived the intention of the French beyond solemnity, Aug. 26, 1492; and died Aug. the St. Croix to push their settlements 18, 1503. He issued the bull dividing the westward, they granted to Sir William New World between Spain and Portugal, (who had been knighted in 1614) all of On the return of Columbus from his the territory now known as New Bruns- first voyage of discovery, the Portuguese, 96 ALEXANDRIA who had previously explored the Azores and other Atlantic islands, instantly claimed a title to the newly discovered lands, to the exclusion of the Spaniards. Simultaneous with the order given to Columbus at Barcelona to return to His- paniola, an ambassador was sent to Rome to obtain the Pope's sanction of their claims to the regions discovered, and to make a conquest of the West Indies. Alex- ander assented without much hesitation to the proposal, and, on May 3, 1493, he issued a bull, in which he directed that a line supposed to be drawn from pole to pole, at a distance of 100 leagues westward of the Azores, should serve as a boundary. All the coun- tries to the east of this imaginary line, not in possession of a Christian prince, he gave to the Portuguese, and all west- ward of it to the Spaniards. On account of the dissatisfaction with the Pope's par- tition, the line was fixed 270 leagues farther west. Other nations of Europe subsequently paid no attention to it, but sent colonies to the Western Con- tinent without the leave of the sover- eigns of Spain or the Pope. A little more than a century afterwards the Eng- lish Parliament insisted that occupancy confers a good title, by the law of na- tions and nature. This remains a law of nations. Portugal soon disregarded the institutions, and has important manu- facturing industries. In 1890 the popula- tion was 14,339; in 1900, 14,528. In August, 1814, while the British were making their way across Maryland tow- ards Washington, a portion of the British fleet, consisting of two frigates of thirty- six guns and thirty-eight guns, two rock- et-ships of eighteen guns, two bomb-ves- sels of eight guns, and one schooner of two guns, sailed up the Potomac under the charge of Commodore Gordon, of the Sea Horse, and easily passed the guns of Fort Washington, the defences of which the government had neglected. The British squadron appeared before the fort (Aug. 27 ) , when the commander blew up the magazine and fled. The squadron passed and anchored in front of Alexandria, prepared to lay the city in ashes with bombs and rockets if demands were not complied with. There was no effective force at Alexandria to oppose the in- vaders, for the able-bodied men and heavy guns had been called to the defence of Washington. They were powerless, and were compelled to submit. The invader contented himself with burning one vessel and loading several others with plunder, for he became in too great a hurry to depart to wait for the hidden merchandise and the raising of the scut- tled vessels. The squadron sailed down FORT WASHINGTON'. Pope's donation to Spain, and sent an ex- pedition to North America in 1500. Alexandria, city, port of entry; on the Potomac River, here a mile wide and providing an excellent harbor, and 6 miles below Washington, D. C. The city con- tains a number of high-grade educational the Potomac, annoyed all the way by bat- teries and the militia on the shore, the former quickly constructed and armed with heavy guns from vessels sent by Com- modore Rogers from Baltimore, and also others sent down from Washington. The British squadron, having an aggregate of I. — G 97 ALEXANDRIA, LA.— ALGER 173 guns, passed out safely into Chesa- Alger, Horatio, author; born in Re- peake Bay on Sept. 5. V e ie , Mass., Jan. 13, 1834; graduated at In the Civil War the city was occupied Harvard in 1852. After spending several by National troops on May 25, 1861, and years in teaching and journalism he was the same day Col. Ephraim Elmer Ells- ordained as a Unitarian minister in 1864. worth (q.v.), commanding the 11th New He removed to New York City in 1866. York Volunteers (Fire Zouaves), was He published Bertha's Christmas Vision; killed as he was descending from the roof Nothing to Do, a poem; Frank's Cam- of the Marshall House, where he had paign, or, What a Boy Can Do; Helen hauled down a Confederate flag, by James Ford, a novel ; a volume of poems ; Ragged T. Jackson, the keeper of the hotel. Dick; Luck and Pluck; Tattered Tom; Alexandria, La. See Red River Frank and Fearless; His Young Bank Expedition. Messenger, etc. He died in Natick, Mass., Alexandria Conference. George Mason July, 18, 1899. and Alexander Henderson, of Virginia, Alger, Russell Alexander, ex-Secre- and Daniel Jenifer, Thomas Stone, and taryofWar- born in Lafayette, O., Feb. 27, Samuel Chase, of Maryland, were com- 1836; worked on a farm for years earning missioned in 1785 to treat concerning the jurisdiction of the waters between the two States. Their report led to the Annap- olis Convention of 1786 (q. v.). Alexandria Government. See Vir- ginia. 1867. Alfonso XIII., King of Spain ; born in Madrid, May 17, 1886, after his father's death; son of the late King Alfonso XII. and Maria Christina, daughter of the late Carl Ferdinand, Archduke of Austria. His mother became Queen Regent during his minority, and after the destruction of the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay she made strenuous though unavailing efforts to in- duce both the Pope and the principal countries of Europe to intervene in the hope of speedily closing the war between the United States and Spain. Alger, Cyrus, inventor; born in West Bridgewater, Mass., Nov. 11, 1781 ; became an iron-founder early in life. In 1809 he founded in Boston the works which cation. He was admitted to the bar in since 1817 have been known as the South 1859, but was forced by ill health to give Boston Iron Company. During the War up practice. When the Civil War broke of 1812 he supplied the government with out he entered the Union army as a oar» a large number of cannon-balls. He de- tain, and became brevet major-general vised many improvements in the construe- of volunteers. After the war he entered tion of time-fuses for bomb-shells and the lumber business, in which he acquired grenades. In 1811 he invented a method a large fortune. He was governor of Michi- of making cast-iron chilled rolls, and in gan in 1885-87; was a candidate for the 1822 designed the cylinder stove. The Republican Presidential nomination in first perfect bronze cannon, the first gun 1888; was commander-in-chief of the Grand ever rifled in the United States, and the Army in 1889-90; and became Secretary Jil SSKI.L A. ALCiER. money to defray the expenses of his edu- largest gun of cast-iron, the " Columbiad mortar, that had been cast in the country, of War in 1897. During the American- Spanish War in 1898 he was subjected to were turned out at his foundry under his public censure on account of alleged short- personal supervision. He died in Boston, comings in the War Department. He re- Feb. 4, 1856. signed in 1899; was appointed United 98 ALGER— ALGIERS States Senator in 1902, and elected in 1903; and published The American- Spanish War (1901). Alger, William Rounseville, clergy- man and author; born in Freetown, Mass., Dec. 30, 1822; graduated at Harvard Theological School in 1847 ; held charges in Boston, New York, Denver, Chicago, and Portland, Me., subsequently making his home in Boston. His publications in- clude: Symbolic History of the*. Gross; History of the Doctrine of a Future Life; The Genius of Solitude; The Friendships of Women; Poetry of the Orient ; Life of Edwin Forrest; Sounds of Gonsolation in Human Life, etc. Algiers, one of the former Barbary States on the northern coast of Africa, stretching west from Egypt to the Atlan- tic Ocean; bombarded and captured by the French in 1830, and held under French military control till 1871, when a French civil administration was established. All of Algeria is now considered a part of France rather than a colony. The city of Algiers, under French domination, is the capital of the department and colony, is well equipped with educational institu- tions, and has become as orderly as any place in France. The population in 1891 was 82,585. The Barbary States derived their name from the Berbers, the ancient inhabitants. From their ports, especially from Algiers, went out piratical vessels to depredate upon the commerce of other peoples. So early as 1785 two American vessels had been captured by these corsairs, and their crews (twenty-one persons) had been held in slavery for ransom. The Dey, or ruler, of Algiers demanded $60,000 for their re- demption. As this sum would be a prec- edent, other means were sought to obtain the release of the captives. In a message, in 1790, President Washington called the attention of Congress to the matter, but the United States were without a navy to protect their commerce. For what pro- tection American vessels enjoyed they were indebted to Portugal, then at war with Al- giers. In 1793 the British government made a secret arrangement with that of Portugal, whereby peace with Algiers was obtained. In that arrangement it was stipulated that for the space of a year Portugal should not afford protection to the vessels of any nation against Algerine corsairs. This was for the purpose of in- juring France. The pirates were imme- diately let loose upon commerce. David Humphreys, who had been sent to Algiers by the government of the United States to make arrangements for the release of American commerce from danger, was in- sulted by the Dey. Humphreys wrote, " If we mean to have commerce, we must have a navy." Meanwhile the United States were compelled to pay tribute to the Dey to keep his corsairs from Ameri- can commerce. From 1785 until the autumn of 1793, when Washington called the attention of Congress to the necessity of a navy, the Algerine pirates had captured fifteen American vessels and made 180 officers and seamen slaves of the most revolting kind. To redeem the survivors of these captives, and others taken more recently, the United States government paid about $1,000,000 in ransom - money. In the autumn of 1795 the government was com- pelled to agree, by treaty, to pay to the Dey of Algiers an annual tribute for the relief of captured seamen, according to long usage among European nations. It was humiliating, but nothing better could then be done, and humanity demand- ed it. In 1812 the Dey, offended because he had not received from the American government the annual tribute in precise- ly such articles as he wanted, dismissed the American consul, declared war, and his corsairs captured American vessels and reduced the crews to slavery. The Amer- ican consul — Mr. Lear— was compelled to pay the Dey $27,000 for the security of himself and family and a few other Amer- icans there from horrid slavery. Deter- mined to pay tribute no longer to the in- solent semi-barbarian, the American gov- ernment accepted the Dey's challenge for war, and in May, 1815, sent Commodore Decatur to the Mediterranean with a squadron to humble the Dey. Decatur found the Algerine pirate-fleet cruising for American vessels. He played havoc with the corsairs, entered the Bay of Algiers (June 28), demanded the instant sur- render of all American prisoners, full in- demnification for all property destroyed, and absolute relinquishment of all claims to tribute from the United States there- 99 ALGONQUIAN INDIANS after. The terrified Dey complied with Miami or Maumee, on Lake Erie, and the the demand. See Decatur, Stephen. Algonquian, or Algonkian, Indians, the most powerful of the eight distinct Ind- watershed between the Wabash and Kas- kia rivers. The English and the Five Na- tions called them the Twightwees. The ian nations found in North America by the Kickapoos were on the Wisconsin River Europeans in the seventeenth century. It when discovered by the French. The Illi- was composed of several tribes, the most nois formed a numerous tribe, 12,000 important of which were the Ottawas, Chippewas, Sacs and Foxes, Menomonees, Miamis, Pottawattomies, Kickapoos, Illi- nois, Shawnees, Powhatans, Corees, Nan- ticokes, Lenni-Lenapes or Delawares, Mo- strong, when discovered by the French. They were seated on the Illinois River, and composed a confederation of five families — namely, Kaskaskias, Cahokias, Tamaronas, Michigamies, and Peorias. The hegans, the New England Indians, the Shawnees occupied a vast region west of Abenakes, and Micmacs. There were the Alleghany Mountains, and their great smaller independent tribes, the principal of which were the Susquehannas in Penn- sylvania; the Mannahoacs in the hill- council-house was in the basin of the Cum- berland River. . The Powhatans consti- tuted a confederacy of more than twen- country between the York and Potomac ty tribes, including the Accohannocks and rivers; and the Monacans, on the head- Accomacs, on the eastern shore of Chesa- waters of the James River, Virginia. All peake Bay. The confederacy occupied the of these tribes were divided into cantons region in Virginia consisting of the navi- or clans, sometimes so small as to afford gable portion of the James and York a war-party of only forty men. The do- rivers, with their tributaries. The Corees main of the Algonkians covered a vast re- were south of the Powhatans, on the At- gion, bounded on the north and northeast lantic coast, in northern North Carolina, by the Eskimos; on the northwest by the The Cheraws and other small tribes occu- Knistenaux and Athabascas; on the west pied the land of the once powerful Hat- by the Dakotas; on the south by the teras family, below the Corees. The Nan- Catawbas, Cherokees, Mobilians, and Nat- ticokes were upon the peninsula between chez; and on the east by Nova Scotia, the Chesapeake and Delaware bays. The West of the Mississippi, the Blackfeet and Lenni-Lenapes, or Delawares, comprised Cheyennes are regarded as a family of the powerful families — namely, the Minsis and Algonkians. The original land of the Delawares proper. The former occupied Ottawas was on the west side of Lake the northern part of New Jersey and a Huron; but they were seated upon the portion of Pennsylvania, and the latter Ottawa River, in Canada, when the French inhabited lower New Jersey, the banks discovered them, and claimed sovereignty of the Delaware River below Trenton, and over that region. The Chippewas and the whole valley of the Schuylkill. The Pottawattomies were closely allied by Ian- Mohegans were a distinct tribe on the east guage and friendship. The former were side of the Hudson River, and under that on the southern shores of Lake Superior; name were included several independent the latter occupied the islands and main- families on Long Island and the country land on the western shores of Green Bay between the Lenni-Lenapes and the New when first discovered by the French. In England Indians. The New England Ind- 1701 they seated themselves on the south- ians inhabited the country from the Con- ern shores of Lake Michigan. necticut River eastward to the Saco, in The Sacs and Foxes are really one tribe. Maine. The principal tribes were the They were found by the French, in 1680, Narragansets on Rhode Island; the Poka- at the southern extremity of Green Bay. nokets and Wampanoags on the eastern The Menomonees are among the few Ind- shore of Narraganset Bay and in a portion ian tribes who occupy the same domain as of Massachusetts; the Massachusetts in when they were discovered by Europeans the vicinity of Boston and the shores in 1699. That domain is upon the shores southward; and the Pawtuckets in the of Green Bay, and there the tribe remains, northeastern part of Massachusetts, em- The Miamis and Piankeshaws inhabited bracing the Pennacooks of New Hamp- that portion of Ohio lying between the shire. The Abenakes (q. v.) were east- 100 ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS-^Aii^tJ2PPA: ^ ward of the Saco. Their chief tribes were the Penobseots, Norridgewocks, Androscog- gins, and Passamaquoddies. For further details of the principal tribes, see their respective titles. Alien and Sedition Laws, Up to 1798 the greater part of the emigrants to the United States since the adoption of the national Constitution had been either Frenchmen, driven into exile by political troubles at home, or Englishmen, Scotch- men, and Irishmen, who had espoused ultra-republican principles, and who, fly- ing from the severe measures of repres- sion adopted against them at home, brought to America a fierce hatred of the government of Great Britain, and warm admiration of republican France. Among these were some men of pure lives and noble aims, but many were desperate po- litical intriguers, ready to engage in any scheme of mischief. It was estimated that at the beginning of 1798 there were 30,000 Frenchmen in the United States organized in clubs, and at least fifty thou- sand who had been subjects of Great Britain. These were regarded as danger- ous to the commonwealth, and in 1798, when war with France seemed inevitable, Congress passed acts for the security of the government against internal foes. By an act (June 18, 1798), the naturaliza- tion laws were made more stringent, and alien enemies could not become citizens at all. By a second act (June 25), which was limited to two years, the President was authorized to order out of the country all aliens whom he might judge to be dan- gerous to the peace and safety of the United States. By a third act (July 6), in case of war declared against the United States, or an actual invasion, all resident aliens, natives or citizens of the hostile nation, might, upon proclamation of the President, issued according to his discre- tion, be apprehended and secured or re- moved. These were known as Alien Laws. The President never had occasion to put them in force, but several prominent Frenchmen, who felt that the laws were aimed at them, speedily left the United States. Among these was M. Volney, who, in the preface of his work, A View of the Soil and Climate of the United States, complained bitterly of " the public and violent attacks made upon his character, with the connivance or instigation of a certain eminent personage," meaning Pres- ident Adams. On July 14, 1798, an act was passed for the punishment of sedition. It made it a high misdemeanor, punishable by a fine not to exceed $5,000, imprisonment from six months to five years, and binding to good behavior at the discretion of the court, for any person unlawfully to com- bine in opposing measures of the govern- ment properly directed by authority, or attempting to prevent government officers executing their trusts, or inciting to riot and insurrection. It also provided for the fining and imprisoning of any person guilty of printing or publishing " any false, scandalous, and malicious writings against the government of the United States, or either House of Congress, or the President, with intent to defame them, or to bring them into contempt or disre- pute." This was called the Sedition Law. These laws were assailed with great vigor by the Opposition, and were deplored by some of the best friends of the adminis- tration. Hamilton deprecated them. He wrote a hurried note of warning against the Sedition Act (June 29, 1798) to Wol- cott, while the bill was pending, saying: " Let us not establish a tyranny. Energy is a very different thing from violence. If we take no false step, we shall be es- sentially united; but if we push things to the extreme, we shall then give to par- ties body and solidity." Nothing contrib- uted more to the Federalist defeat two years later than these extreme measures. See Kentucky; Naturalization. Aliens. See Naturalization. Aliquippa, an Indian queen who dwelt at the confluence of the Monongahela and Youghiogheny rivers at the time of Washington's expedition to Fort Le Boeuf (1753). She had complained of his neg- lect in not calling on her on his outward journey, so he visited her in returning. With an apology, he gave the queen a coat and a bottle of rum. "The latter," Washington wrote, "was thought the much better present of the two," and har- mony of feeling was soon restored. Ali- quippa was a woman of great muscular and mental strength, and had performed such brave deeds that she was held in reverence by the Indians of western Pennsylvania, 101 ^ ALISON^-A^tATOONA PASS Alison, Francis, patriot and educator; born in Donegal county, Ireland, in 1705; came to America in 1735; and in 1752 he took charge of an academy in Philadelphia. From 1755 until his death he was Vice- provost and Professor of Moral Philosophy of the College of Pennsylvania. His chief claim to honor among men is that he was the tutor of a large number of Americans who were conspicuous actors in the events of the Revolution that accomplished the in- dependence of the United States of America. He died in Philadelphia, Nov. 28, 1779. Allatoona Pass, a locality in Bartow county, Ga., about 40 miles northwest of Atlanta, having large historical in- terest because of the important military operations in 1864. The Confederates, re- treating from Resaca, took a position at Allatoona Pass. Sherman, after resting his army, proceeded to flank them out of their new position. J. C. Davis's division of Thomas's army had moved down the Oostenaula to Rome, where he destroyed important mills and foundries, and capt- ured nearly a dozen guns. He left a garrison there. Meanwhile Sherman had destroyed the Georgia State Arsenal near he made a bold push, by Sherman's or- der, to secure possession of a point near New Hope Church, where roads from Ack- worth, Marietta, and Dallas met. A stormy night ensued, and Hooker could not drive the Confederates from their position. On the following morning Sher- man found the Confederates strongly in- trenched, with lines extending from Dallas to Marietta. The approach to their in- trenchments must be made over rough, wooded, and broken ground. For several days, constantly skirmish- ing, Sherman tried to break through their lines to the railway east of the Allatoona Pass. McPherson's troops moved to Dal- las, and Thomas's deployed against New Hope Church, in the vicinity of which there were many severe encounters, while Schofield was directed to turn and strike Johnston's right. On May 28 the Con- federates struck McPherson a severe blow at Dallas; but the assailants were re- pulsed with heavy loss. At the same time, Howard, nearer the centre, was re- pulsed. Sherman, by skilful movements, compelled Johnston to evacuate his strong position at Allatoona Pass (June 1, 1864). ALLATOONA PASS. Adairsville. The Nationals proceeded to gather in force at and near Dallas. John- ston was on the alert, and tried to prevent this formidable flank movement. Hook- er's corps met Confederate cavalry near Pumpkinvine Creek, whom he pushed across that stream and saved a bridge they had fired. Following them eastward 2 miles, he (Hooker) found the Confeder- ates in strong force and in battle order. A sharp conflict ensued, and at 4 p.m. The National cavalry, under Garrard and Stoneman, were pushed on to occupy it, and there Sherman, planting a garrison, made a secondary base of supplies for his army. Johnston made a stand at the Kenesaw Mountains, near Marietta; but Sherman, who had been reinforced by two divisions under Gen. Frank P. Blair (June 8), very soon caused him to abandon that position, cross the Chattahoochee River, and finally to rest at Atlanta. 102 ALLATOONA PASS— ALLEN After the evacuation of Atlanta (Sept. ers, with about 800 small-arms. The 2, 1864), Sherman and Hood reorganized Nationals lost 707 men. The famous their armies in preparation for a vigorous signal of General Sherman was subse- fall campaign. Satisfied that Hood in- quently made the title of one of Ira D. tended to assume the offensive and prob- Sankey's most thrilling hymns, which has ably attempt the seizure of Tennessee, been sung the world over. Sherman sent Thomas, his second in com- Allegiance, Oath of. See Oaths. mand, to Nashville, to organize the new Allen, Charles Herbert, adminis- troops expected to gather there, and to trator; born in Lowell, Mass., April 15, make arrangements to meet such an 1848; was graduated at Amherst College emergency. Thomas arrived there Oct. 3. in 1869; and became a lumber merchant Meanwhile the Confederates had crossed at Lowell. He served in both Houses of the Chattahoochee, and by a rapid move- the Massachusetts legislature; was a Re- ment had struck the railway at Big publican member of Congress in 1885-89; Shanty, north of Marietta, and destroyed defeated as Republican candidate for gov- it for several miles. A division of in- ernor of Massachusetts in 1891; became fantry pushed northward and appeared Assistant Secretary of the Navy in May, before Allatoona, where Colonel Tourtel- 1898; was appointed the first American lotte was guarding 1,000,000 National ra- governor of Porto Rico in April, 1900; tions with only three thin regiments, and resigned in July, 1901. Sherman made efforts at once for the de- Allen, Ethan, military officer; born in fence of these and his communications. Litchfield, Conn., Jan. 10, 1737. In 1762 Leaving Slocum to hold Atlanta and the he was one of the proprietors of the iron- railway bridge across the Chattahoochee, works at Salisbury, Conn. In 1766 he he started on a swift pursuit of Hood went to the then almost unsettled domain with five army corps and two divisions of between the Green Mountains and Lake cavalry. He established a signal station Champlain, where he was a bold leader of on the summit of Great Kenesaw Moun- the settlers on the New Hampshire grants tain, and telegraphed to General Corse, at in their controversy with the authorities Rome, to hasten to the assistance of of New York. (See New Hampshire.) Tourtellotte. Corse instantly obeyed ; and During this period several pamphlets were when the Confederates appeared before written by Allen, in his peculiar style, Allatoona, at dawn (Oct. 5), he was there which forcibly illustrated the injustice of with reinforcements, and in command. The the action of the New York authorities. Confederates were vastly superior in num- The latter declared Allen an outlaw, and bers, and invested the place. After can- offered a reward of £150 for his arrest, nonading the fort two hours, their leader He defied his enemies, and persisted in (General French) demanded its surrender, his course. Early in May, 1775, he led a Then he assailed it furiously, but his few men and took the fortress of Ticon- columns were continually driven back, deroga. His followers were called " Green The conflict raged with great fierceness; Mountain Boys." His success as a par- and Sherman, from the top of Kenesaw, tisan caused him to be sent twice into heard the roar of cannon and saw the Canada, during the latter half of 1775, smoke of battle, though 18 miles dis- to win the people over to the republican tant. He had pushed forward a corps cause. In the last of these expeditions he (23d) to menace the Confederate rear, attempted to capture Montreal, and by signal - flags on Kenesaw he said With less than 100 recruits, mostly to General Corse at Allatoona, " Hold Canadians, Colonel Allen crossed the St. the fort, for I am coming." And when Lawrence, Sept. 25, 1775. This was done Sherman was assured that Corse was at the suggestion of Col. John Brown, there, he said, "He will hold out; I know who was also recruiting in the vicinity, the man." And so he did. He repulsed and who agreed to cross the river at the the Confederates several times; and when same time a little above the city, the at- they heard of the approach of the 23d tack to be made simultaneously by both Corps, they hastily withdrew, leaving parties. For causes never satisfactorily behind them 230 dead and 400 prison- explained, Brown did not cross, and dis- 103 ALLEN aster ensued. Gen. Robert Prescott was she sailed from Quebec the humane cap- in command in the city. He sallied out tain struck off his irons. He was con- with a considerable force of regulars, lined seven weeks in Pendennis Castle in Canadians and Indians, and after a short England, when he was sent to Halifax, skirmish made Allen and his followers and thence to New York, where he was prisoners. When Prescott learned that exchanged in the spring of 1778, and re- turned home, where he was received with joy and honors. He was invested with the chief command of the State militia. Congress immediately gave him the com- mission of lieutenant-colonel in the Con- tinental army. When, in the course of the war, Vermont assumed and main- tained an independent position, a fruitless attempt was made by Beverly Robinson to bribe Allen to lend his support to a union of that province with Canada. He was supposed to be disaffected towards the re- volted colonies, and he fostered that im- pression in order to secure the neutrality of the British towards his mountain State until the close of the war. As a member of the legislature of Vermont, and as a delegate in Congress, he secured the great object of his efforts — namely, the ultimate recognition of Vermont as an independent State. He removed to Burlington before the close of the war, and died there Feb. 13, 1789. In 1894 the United States gov- ernment established a new military post 5 miles from Burlington and named it after him. See Ethan Allen, Fort. Allen, Ethan, lawyer; born in Mon- mouth county, N. J., May 12, 1832; was graduated at Brown University in 1860. At the beginning of the Civil War he raised a brigade of troops, but did not enter the service. In 1861-69 he was deputy United States attorney for the Southern District of New York; in 1870- 90 practised law in New York City; and in the Presidential campaign of 1872 was chairman of the National Liberal Repub- lican Committee. Subsequently he was president of the Cuban League of the United States. He is the author of Washington, or the Revolution, a history of the American Revolution in dramatic Allen was the man who captured Ticon- form. deroga, he treated him very harshly. He Allen, Henry Watktns, military offi- was bound hand and foot with irons, and cer; born in Prince Edward county, Va., these shackles were fastened to a bar of April 29, 1820; became a lawyer in Mis- iron 8 feet in length. In this plight sissippi; and in 1842 raised a company to he was thrust into the hold of a vessel to fight in Texas. He settled at West Baton be sent to England, and in that condi- Rouge, La., in 1850; served in the State tion he was kept five weeks; but when legislature; was in the Law School at 104 ALLEN Cambridge in 1854; and visited Europe in 1859. He took an active part with the Confederates in the Civil War, and was at one time military governor at Jackson, Miss. In the battle of Shiloh and at Baton Rouge he was wounded. He was commissioned a brigadier-general in 1864, but was almost immediately elected gov- ernor of Louisiana, the duties of which he performed with great ability and wis- dom. At the close of the war he made his residence in the city of Mexico, where he established the Mexican Times, which he edited until his death, April 22, 1866. Allen, Ira, military officer; a younger brother of Ethan; born in Cornwall, Conn., April 21, 1751. He was an active patriot, and took a distinguished part in public affairs in Vermont, his adopted State, where he served in the legislature, and was secretary of state, surveyor-gen- eral, and a member of the council. He was a military leader in the war for inde- pendence, and was one of the commission- ers sent to Congress to oppose the claims of neighboring provinces to jurisdiction in Vermont. He effected an armistice with the British in Canada in 1781, and by so doing brought about a settlement of the controversy with New York. As senior major-general of the State militia in 1795, he went to Europe to purchase arms for his commonwealth, and on his way homeward with muskets and cannon lie was captured, taken to England, and charged with being an emissary of the French, and intending to supply the Irish malcontents with arms. After long liti- gation the matter was settled in Allen's favor. He wrote a National and Political History of Vermont, published in London in 1798, and died in Philadelphia, Jan. 7, 1814. Allen, James Lane, author; born in Kentucky in 1849; was graduated at Transylvania University; taught in the Kentucky University, and later became Professor of Latin and Higher English in Bethany College, West Virginia. Since 1886 he has been engaged in authorship. His publications include Flute and Vio- lin; The Blue Grass Region, and Other Sketches of Kentucky; John Gray, a novel; The Kentucky Cardinal; After- math; A Summer in Arcady; The Choir Invisible, etc. Allen, Joel Asaph, zoologist; born in Springfield, Mass., July 19, 1838; studied zoology at the Lawrence Scientific School. In 1865-71 he was a member of scientific expeditions to Brazil, the Rocky Moun- tains, and Florida; in 1870-85 was as- sistant in ornithology at the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge. He was president of the American Ornitholo- gists' Union in 1883-90, and since 1885 has been curator of the department of vertebrate zoology in the American Muse- um of Natural History in New York. Professor Allen edited the Bulletin of the Nuttall Ornithological Club, and was au- thor of Monographs of North American Rodents (with Elliott Coues) ; History of North American Pinnipeds, etc. Allen, Robert, military officer; born in Ohio, about 1815; was graduated at West Point in 1836, and served with distinction in the war with Mexico. He was a very useful officer in the Civil War, and at- tained the rank of brigadier-general, and brevet major - general of volunteers. He was stationed at St. Louis, where his ser- vices were of great value during the war. At its close he was made assistant quar- termaster-general (1866), and afterwards chief-quartermaster of the division of the Pacific. He died in Switzerland, Aug. 6, 1886. Allen, William, jurist; born in Phila- delphia about 1710; married a daughter of Andrew Hamilton, a distinguished law- yer of Pennsylvania, whom he succeeded as recorder of Philadelphia in 1741. He assisted Benjamin West, the painter, in his early struggles, and co-operated with Benjamin Franklin in establishing the College of Pennsylvania. Judge Allen was chief -justice of that State from 1750 to 1774. A strong loyalist, he withdrew to England in 1774. In London he published a pamphlet entitled The American Crisis, containing a plan for restoring American dependence upon Great Britain. He died in England in September, 1780. Allen, William, educator and author; born in Pittsfield, Mass., Jan. 2, 1784; graduated at Harvard College in 1802. After entering the ministry and preaching for some time in western New York, he was elected a regent and assistant libra- rian of Harvard College. He was presi- dent of Dartmouth College in 1817-20, and 105 ALLEN— ALLIBONE of Bowdoin College in 1820-39. He was the author of Junius Unmasked ; a supple- ment to Webster's Dictionary ; Psalms and Hymns; Memoirs of Dr. Eleazer Wheelock and of Dr. John Codmand; A Discourse at the Close of the Second Century of the Settlement at Northampton, Mass.; Wun- nissoo, or the Vale of Eousatonnuck, a poem; Christian Sonnets; Poems of Naza- reth and the C?'oss; Sacred Songs; and nu- merous pamphlets, and contributed bi- ographical articles to Sprague's Annals of the American Pulpit. He also prepared the first edition of the American Biograph- ical and Historical Dictionary. He died in Northampton, Mass., July 16, 1868. Allen, William Henry, naval officer; born in Providence, K. I., Oct. 21, 1784; entered the navy as a midshipman in April, 1800, and sailed in the frigate George Washington to Algiers. He after- WILLIAM HENRY ALLEN. wards went to the Mediterranean in the Philadelphia, under Barron; then in the John Adams, under Rodgers; and in 1804 as sailing-master to the Congress. He was in the frigate Constitution in 1805; and in 1807 he was third lieutenant of the Chesapeake when she was attacked by the Leopard. It was Lieutenant Allen who drew up the memorial of the officers of the Chesapeake to the Secretary of the Navy, urging the arrest and trial of Bar- ron for neglect of duty. In 1809 he was made first lieutenant of the frigate United States, under Decatur. He behaved brave- ly in the conflict with the Macedonian; and after her capture took her safely into New York Harbor, Jan. 1, 1813. In July, 1813, he was promoted to master- commandant while he was on his voyage in the brig Argus, that took W. H. Craw- ford, American minister, to France. That voyage ended in a remarkable and suc- cessful cruise among the British shipping in British waters. After capturing and destroying more than twenty British mer- chantmen, his own vessel was captured; and he was mortally wounded by a round shot (Aug. 14), and died the next day at Plymouth, England, whither he was con- veyed as a prisoner. Allen, William Vincent, politician; born in Midway, O., Jan. 28, 1847; was educated in the common schools and Up- per Iowa University; served as a private soldier in the Union army during the Civil War. In 1869 he was admitted to the bar. In 1891 he was elected judge of the Ninth Judicial District Court of Ne- braska, and in 1892, United States Sena- tor from Nebraska, as a Populist. In the special session of Congress in 1893 he held the floor with a speech for fifteen consecu- tive hours, and in 1896 was chairman of the Populist National Convention. See People's Party; Populists. Allerton, Isaac, a Pilgrim Father; born in England about 1583; was the fifth man who appended his name to the con- stitution of government signed in the cabin of the Mayflower. He survived the terrors of the first winter at Plymouth, and afterwards became the active agent of the settlers in negotiating the purchase of the domain from the Indians for the London merchants who furnished money for the enterprise. He was a successful trader, and became one of the founders of the commerce of New England. He finally made New Amsterdam (now New York) his chief place of residence, and traded principally in tobacco. He was chosen one of the Council of Eight Men. He died in New Haven in 1659. Alliance, Farmers'. See Farmers' Alliance. Allibone, Samuel Austin, bibliogra- pher; born in Philadelphia, April 17, 1816. He was the author of A Critical 106 ALLISON— ALMAGRO Dictionary of English Literature and Marquette at Kaskaskia, 111., Allouez British and American Authors, Living sought to make his permanent field of la- and Deceased, from the Earliest Ac- counts to the Latter Half of the 'Nine- teenth Century. This work is in 3 volumes royal octavo, and exhibits evi- dence of great care, industry, good judg- ment, most extensive research, and im- mense labor in its preparation. Dr. Alli- bor; but when La Salle, the bitter oppo- nent of the Jesuits, approached in 1679, he retired. Returning to the Miamis on the St. Joseph's River, he labored for a while, and died, Aug. 27, 1689. The contribu- tions of Father Allouez to the Jesuit Re- lations are most valuable records of the bone spent many years in gathering and ideas and manners of the Indians, arranging his materials. The volumes Allston, Washington, a distinguished were published in 1859, 1870, and 1871. painter; born in Waccamaw, S. C, Nov. 5, The work contains notices of 47,000 au- 1779; was graduated at Harvard College thors, with forty classified indexes of sub- jects. Dr. Allibone contributed articles to the North American Review, the Evangelical Review, and other periodicals, and was the author of some religious con- troversial essays. He also privately print- ed and circulated a number of tracts. He was librarian of the Lenox Library in New York City at the time of his death, Sept. 2, 1889. Allison, William Boyd, statesman; born in Perry, O., March 2, 1829; was edu- cated at Alleghany and Western Reserve Colleges; admitted to the bar and prac- tised in Ohio until 1857, when he removed to Dubuque, la. In 1860 he was a dele- gate to the Chicago Convention. During the Civil War he was active in raising troops for the Union army. In 1862 he was elected to Congress as a Republican, and was re-elected three times. In 1873 he was elected to the United States Sen- ate, and has since held the seat by re- elections. He has been a conspicuous can- didate for the Republican Presidential in 1800; went to Europe the next year to nomination several times, and his name is study art, and remained eight years abroad, associated with that of the late Richard His numerous works of art exhibit great P. Bland (q. v.) in the history of the power in delineating the pictures of a Silver Act of 1877-78. See Bland Silver fertile imagination. His skill as a color- Bill. ist earned him the title of " The Ameri- Allouez, Claude Jean, one of the earli- can Titian." He died in Cambridge, Mass., est French missionaries and explorers of July 9, 1843. the country near the Great Lakes; born Almagro, Diego de, a Spanish con- in 1620. After laboring among the Ind- queror of Peru, and principal associate of ians on the St. Lawrence several years, Pizarro; born about 1464. Almagro, Pi- he penetrated the Western wilds and es- zarro, and a priest named Luque under- tablished a mission on the western shores took the conquest of Peru, and effected it, of Lake Michigan, where he heard much with a small force, in 1533. Almagro was about the Mississippi River, and made appointed governor of what is now Chile notes of what he learned concerning it. in 1534, extending his conquests into that He explored Green Bay, and founded a region in 1535. He and Pizarro became mission among the Foxes, Miamis, and bitter enemies. He conquered Cuzco, the other tribes there. A mission begun by ancient capital of Peru. In a decisive 107 WASHINGTON ALLSTON. ALMANACS— AMBASSADOR battle near that place, in 1538, Almagro superior court of that city; and in 1893- was defeated, made prisoner, and put to 97 was governor of Illinois. His action death by order of Pizarro, in July, 1538. in pardoning (June 27, 1893) Fielden, Almagro was profligate, perfidious, and Schwab, and Neebe, who had been im- cruel. His barbarous treatment of the prisoned for complicity in the Haymarket inca Atahualpa covered his name and atrocity by alleged anarchists, excited fame with infamy. The inca's son rallied strong and general criticism (see Anar- men, who assassinated Pizarro, July 26, chists; Socialism). His publications 1541, and these were excuted by order of include Our Penal Machinery and its Vic- the Viceroy of Peru in 1542. tints; Live Questions; Oratory, etc. He Almanacs, American. No copy is died in Joliet, 111., March 12, 1902. known to exist of the almanac of 1639, Alvarado, Pedro de, a Spanish conquer- the first published in America, calculated or in America; born in Badajos, Spain, for New England by William Pierce, about 1485. Sailing from Spain to Cuba, mariner; another, the Boston Almanac, in 1518, he accompanied Grijalva on his by John Poster, 1676. William Bradford exploring expedition along the Gulf coasts, at Philadelphia published an almanac of Alvarado made explorations and discov- twenty pages, 1685, commonly received as eries on the coast of California, and was the first almanac published in the colo- killed in a skirmish with the natives in nies; a copy from the Brinley library sold New Galicia, June 4, 1541. in New York, March, 1882, for $555. Alvey, Richard Henry, jurist; born in Alsop, Richard, a witty poet and essay- St. Mary's county, Md., in March, ist; born in Middletown, Conn., Jan. 23, 1826; was educated in St. Mary's 1761. He is best known in literature as College; admitted to the bar in 1849. the principal author of a series of bur- He was elected a Pierce Presidential lesque pieces, begun in 1791 and ended in elector in 1852, and a member of the 1805, entitled, in collective form, The Echo. Michigan State Constitutional Conven- They were thus published in 1807. Dwight, tion in 1867. He served as chief judge Hopkins,, and Trumbull were associated of the Fourth Judicial Circuit, and as with Alsop in the production of The Echo, a justice of the Michigan Court of Ap- which, from a work provocative of mirth, peals in 1867-83, and as chief-justice of became a bitter political satirist of the that court in 1883-93. On Jan. 1, 1896, Democratic party. He wrote a Monody President Cleveland appointed him a mem- on the Death of Washington, in heroic ber of the Venezuelan Boundary Com- verse, which was published in 1800. Al- mission (q. v.). sop ranked among the " Hartford Wits * Ambassador, the title of the highest at the close of the eighteenth century. He diplomatic officer. In the days immedi- died in Flatbush, L. I., Aug. 20, 1815. ately preceding the establishment of the Alta California, the name formerly ap- American Republic the officers who were plied to Upper, or New, California, now sent to Europe on diplomatic missions a State in the American Union, to dis- were officially termed commissioners. On tinguish it from Lower, or Old, Califor- June 1, 1785, when Marquis Carmarthen nia, now a territory of Mexico. The name introduced John Adams to the King of California was first applied solely to what Great Britain, he designated the Ameri- is now known as Lower California. can representative as " Ambassador Ex- Altgeld, John Peter, lawyer; born in traordinary from the United States of Germany, Dec. 30, 1847; was brought America to the Court of London." When to the United States in infancy by his the American diplomatic service was per- parents, who settled near Mansfield, O. ; manently organized, the title of the high- received a public school education ; en- est representative was made " Envoy Ex- tered the Union army in 1863, and served traordinary and Minister Plenipotenti- till the close of the war. In 1869 he was ary," subordinate representatives being admitted to the Missouri bar; in 1874 given the title of " Ministers " or " Minis- was elected State attorney of Andrew ters Resident." In 1893 Congress passed county, Mo. ; in the following year removed an act providing that whenever a foreign to Chicago; in 1886-91 was judge of the government elevated its representative at 108 AMBRISTER— AMENDMENTS OE THE CONSTITUTION Washington to the rank of an ambassador, Amelia Island, an island at the mouth the United States government would raise of the St. Mary River, near the boundary its representative to that foreign govern- between Georgia and Florida. In the sum- ment to the same rank. Under this law mer of 1817 Gregor McGregor, styling the American representatives to France, himself " Brigadier-general of the armies Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, and Russia of New Granada and Venezuela, and gen- have been raised to the higher rank, and eral-in-chief employed to liberate the prov- are known officially as Ambassadors Ex- inces of both the Floridas," commissioned traordinary and Plenipotentiary. Ambas- by the supreme councils of Mexico and sadors, in addition to the usual privileges South America, took possession of this accorded representatives of foreign govern- island. His followers were a band of ad- ments, have the special one of personal venturers which he had collected in audience with the head of the State to Charleston and Savannah; and when he which they are accredited. took possession he proclaimed a blockade Ambrister. See Arbuthnot. of St. Augustine. In the hands of these Ambulance Service. The benevolent desperadoes the island was soon converted work of the Volunteer Refreshment Sa- into a resort of buccaneering privateers loons of Philadelphia during 1861-65 was under the Spanish- American flag, and a depot for smuggling slaves into the United States. Another similar establishment had been set up on Galveston Island, off the coast of Texas, under a leader named Aury. This establishment was more im- portant than that on Amelia Island, as well on account of numbers as for the greater facilities afforded for smuggling. It was a second Barataria, and to it some of the old privateers and smugglers of Lafitte's band of Baratarians resorted, supplemented by a good work carried on Under a secret act, passed in 1811, and wholly by the firemen of that city. When first made public in 1817, the President sick and wounded soldiers began to be took the responsibility of suppressing brought to the hospitals in Philadel- both these establishments. Aury had phia, the medical department found it joined McGregor with the Galveston des- difficult to procure proper vehicles to con- peradoes, and their force was formida- vey them from the wharves to their des- ble. The President sent Captain Henly, tination. The distress caused by delays in the ship John Adams, with smaller and inconvenient conveyances the sympa- vessels, and a battalion of Charleston thetic firemen attempted to alleviate. An artillery under Major Bankhead, to arrangement was made for the chief of take possession of Amelia Island, the department to announce the arrival McGregor was then at sea, leaving of a transport by a given signal, when the Aury in command of the island. He was firemen would hasten to the landing-place summoned to evacuate it; and on Dec. with spring- wagons. Finally, the " North- 23 the naval and military commanders, ern Liberties Engine Company " had a fine with their forces, entered the place and ambulance constructed. More than thirty took quiet possession. Aury left it in other engine and hose companies followed February, and so both nests of pirates their example, and the suffering soldiers and smugglers were broken up. At were conveyed from ship to hospital with the same time there was much sympa- the greatest tenderness. These ambu- thy felt in the United States for the lances cost in the aggregate over $30,000, revolted Spanish - American colonies, and, all of which was contributed by the fire- in spite of the neutrality laws, a num- men. The number of disabled soldiers ber of cruisers were fitted out in American who were conveyed on these ambulances ports under their flags, during the war was estimated at more Amendments of the Constitution. See than 120,000. Constitution of the United States. 109 PHILADELPHIA FIREMEN'S AMBULANCE. AMERICA, DISCOVERERS OF America, Discoverers of. About the and found the treasures of codfishes in year 860 Noddodr, an illustrious sea- rover, driven by a storm, discovered Ice- land, and named it Snowland. Not many years afterwards Earl Ingolf, of Norway, sought Iceland as a refuge from tyranny, and planted a colony there. Greenland was discovered by accident. One of the early settlers in Iceland was driven west- ward on the sea by a storm, and discovered Greenland. To that retreat Eric the Red was compelled to fly from Iceland, and, finding it more fertile than the latter, named it Greenland, made it his place of abode, and attracted other Northmen thither. Among Eric's followers was a Norwegian, whose son Bjarni, or Biarne, a promising young man, trading between Norway and Iceland, and finding his fa- ther gone with Eric, proposed to his crew to go to his parent in Greenland. They were driven westward, and, it is believed, they saw the American continent in the year 986. The sons of Eric heard the stories of Bjarni, and one of them, Lief, sailed in search of the newly discovered land, and found it. See United States. While there continues to be much doubt concerning the authenticity of claims put forth in behalf of extremely early dis- coverers, there are unquestioned histori- cal records of America for the space of over 500 years. It was undoubtedly dis- covered by Northern navigators early in the eleventh century, and the colony of the son of a Welsh prince, Madoc (q. v.), probably landed on the North American continent about the year 1170. There is no evidence that the Northmen saw more than the coasts of Labrador and New England — possibly Newfoundland ; and the landing-place of Madoc is wholly conjectural. On Oct. 11, 1492, Christo- pher Columbus discovered one of the Ba- hama Islands, east of Florida, but not the continent. In the summer of 1498 Sebas- tian Cabot (commissioned by King Henry VII. of England), who sailed from Bristol in May with two caravels, discovered the North American continent at Labrador. He was seeking a northwest passage to "Cathay," and, being barred from the Polar Sea by pack-ice, sailed southward, discovered Labrador, and possibly went along the coast as far as the Carolinas. He discovered and named Newfoundland, the waters near it. On Aug. 1 the same summer Columbus discovered the con- tinent of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco River. Americus Vespucius, a Florentine, and an agent of the de' Medici family of Flor- ence, was in Spain when the great discov- ery of Columbus was made. In May, 1499, Vespucius sailed from Spain with Alonzo de Ojeda as an' adventurer and self-consti- tuted geographer for the new-found world. They followed the southern track of Co- lumbus in his third voyage, and off the coast of Surinam, South America, they saw the mountains of the continent. That was a year after Columbus first saw the continent of America. On his return, in 1500, Vespucius gave /an account of the voyage in a letter to Lorenzo de' Medici (for text of letter, see Americus Vespu- cius). He made other voyages, and in a letter to RenS, Duke of Lorraine, written in 1504, he gave an account of his four voyages, in which he erroneously dated the time of his departure on his first voyage May 29, 1497, or a year or more before Columbus and Cabot severally discovered the continent of North and South Amer- ica. In 1505 a narrative of his voyages to America was published at Strasburg, entitled Americus Vesputius de Orbe Ant- arctico per Regum Portugalliae Pridem Juventa. From that publication, bearing the untrue date of his first voyage, Vespu- cius acquired the reputation of being the first discoverer of America. Alluding to that false date and the statements under it, the learned and conscientious Charle- voix wrote that " Ojeda, when judicially interrogated, gave the lie direct to the statement." And Herrera, an early Span- ish historian, accuses Vespucius of pur- posely falsifying the date of two of his voyages, and of confounding one with the other, " in order that he might arrogate to himself the glory of having discovered the continent." Finally, when Columbus was dead, and no voice of accusation or denial could escape his lips, the narra- tives of Vespucius were published at St. Diey, in Lorraine, then, as now, a German frontier province. At that time Vespucius was in correspondence with a learned Ger- man school -master named Waldseemuller (Wood-lake-miller), who was a corre- 110 AMERICA, DISCOVERERS OF spondent of the Academy of Cosmography search of a passage to India, and discov- at Strasburg, founded by the Duke of Lorraine. Waldseemiiller suggested to the members of that institution, under whose auspices the narrative of Vespucius had been published, the name of " America " for the Western Continent, in compliment to the reputed discoverer. This proposi- tion was published, with approval, in a work entitled Cosmo graphice Rudimenta, in 1507. It is believed that this action was taken at the request or suggestion of Vespucius; at any rate, he is respon- sible for the fraud, for it was published seven years before the death of the Flor- entine, and he never repudiated it. " Con- sidering the intimacy of the two parties," says the learned Viscount Santerem, " there is no doubt that the geographer was guided by the navigator in what he did." The name of America was given in honor of Americus Vespucius, for whom a fraudulent claim to be the first dis- coverer of the Western Hemisphere was made, and it was done at the suggestion of a German school-master. Both Colum- bus and Cabot were deprived of the right- ful honor. See America, Discovery of. In 1499, Vincent Yanez Pinzon sailed from Palos with his brother and four caravels, and, reaching the coast of South America, discovered the great river Amazon in the spring of 1500. Before Pinzon's return, Pedro Alvarez Cabral, sent by Emanuel, King of Portugal, while on an exploring expedition discovered Bra- zil, and took possession of it in the name of the crown of Portugal. It was within the territory donated by the Pope to the Spanish monarchs. (See Alexander VI.) A friendly arrangement was made, and it was ultimately agreed that the King of Portugal should hold all the country he had discovered from the river Amazon to the river Platte. On the announcement of the discoveries of Cabot in the Northwest, King Emanuel of Portugal sent Gaspard Cortereal, a skilful navigator, with two caravels on a voyage of discovery towards the same region. He saw Labrador, and possibly Newfoundland, and went up the coast almost to Hudson Bay; and it is be- lieved that he discovered the Gulf of St. Lawrence. In 1504 Columbus, in a fourth voyage to America, sailed with four caravels through the Gulf of Mexico, in ered Central America. In 1506 John Denys, of Honfleur, explored the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Two years later Thomas Aubert, a pilot of Dieppe, visited, it is believed, the island of Cape Breton, and gave it its name. He carried some of the natives with him to France. In 1518 the Baron de Leri, preparatory to the settle- ment of a colony on Sable Island, left some cattle there, whose progeny, four- score years afterwards, gave food to un- fortunate persons left on the island by the Marquis de la Roche. Six years later, Juan Ponce de Leon, an old Spanish noble- man, sailed from Porto Rico, in the West Indies, of which he was governor, in search of an island containing a fabled fountain of youth. He did not find the spring, but discovered a beautiful land covered with exquisite flowers, and named it Florida. In 1520 Lucas Vasquez de Allyon, a wealthy Spaniard, who owned mines in Santo Domingo, voyaged northwesterly from that island, and discovered the coast of South Carolina. Meanwhile the Span- iards had been pushing discoveries west- ward from Hispaniola, or Santo Domingo. Ojeda also discovered Central America. In 1513 Vasco Nunez de Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean from a mountain sum- mit on the Isthmus of Darien. Francisco Fernandez de Cordova discovered Mexico in 1517. Pamphila de Narvaez and Fer* dinand de Soto traversed the country bor- dering on the Gulf of Mexico, the former in 1528, and the latter in 1539-41. In the latter year De Soto discovered and crossed the Mississippi, and penetrated the coun- try beyond. This was the last attempt of the Spaniards to make discoveries in North America before the English ap- peared upon the same field. «. It is claimed for Giovanni da Ver- razano, a Florentine navigator, that he sailed from France with four ships, in 1524, on a voyage of discovery, and that he traversed the shores of America from Florida to Nova Scotia. He is supposed to have entered Delaware Bay and the har- bors of New York, Newport, and Boston, and named the country he had discovered New France. Jacques Cartier discovered the gulf and river St. Lawrence in 1534, and, revisiting them the next year, gave them that name, because the day when he 111 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OE entered their waters was dedicated to St. and explored by French traders and Jesuit Lawrence. In 1576 Sir Martin Frobisher missionaries in the seventeenth century. went to Greenland and Labrador, and So early as 1G40 the former penetrated the coasting northward discovered the bay that western wilds from Quebec. Father Al- bears his name. Huguenot adventurers louez set up a cross and the arms of from South Carolina, floating on the France westward of the lakes in 1G65. ocean helplessly, were picked up, taken to Father Marquette, another Jesuit mis- England, and by the stories which they sionary, pushed farther in 1673, and dis- told of the beautiful land they had left, covered the upper waters of the Missis- caused Queen Elizabeth to encourage voy- sippi. Father Hennepin, who accom- ages of discovery in that direction. Sir panied La Salle, explored the Mississippi Walter Raleigh, favored by the Queen, sent in a canoe from the mouth of the Illinois two ships, commanded by Philip Amidas River, northward, in 1680, and discovered and Arthur Barlow, to the middle regions and named the Falls of St. Anthony. A of the North American coast. They dis- little later Robert Cavelier de la Salle, covered Roanoke Island and the main an enterprising young trader, penetrated near, and in honor of the unmarried Queen to the Mississippi, and afterwards visited the whole country was named Virginia, the coast of Texas from the sea and plant- In 1602 Bartholomew Gosnold, sailing ed the germ of a colony in Louisiana. See from England directly aeross the Atlantic, Americus Vespucius; Cabeza de Vaca; discovered the continent on May 14, near Cabot, Sebastian; Colonies; Columbus, Nahant, Mass., and sailing southward also Christopher; Verrazano, Giovanni da; discovered a long, sandy point, which he Hui Shen; Vasquez de Allyon. named Cape Cod, because of the great America, Discovery of. Ferdinand number of that fish found there. He also Columbus was an illegitimate son of the discovered Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, great admiral by Dona Beatrix Hen- and the Elizabeth Islands. In 1604 Mar- riques; was born in Cordova Aug. 15, tin Pring discovered the coast of Maine. 1488; became a page to Queen Isabella Again the French had turned their at- in 1498; accompanied his father on the tention to North America. M. de Chastes, fourth voyage, in 1502-4; passed the lat- governor of Dieppe, having received a ter part of his life principally in literary charter from the King of France to form pursuits and in accumulating a large li- a settlement in New France, he employed brary; and died in Seville July 12, 1539. Samuel Champlain, an eminent navigator, Among his writings was a biography of to explore that region. He sailed from his father, which was published in Italian, Honfleur in March, 1603, went up the St. in Venice, in 1571. The original of this Lawrence in May to Quebec, and, return- work, in Spanish, together with that of ing to France, found De Chastes dead, and his history of the Indies, is lost, although the concession granted to him trans- a considerable portion of his collection of ferred by the King to Pierre du Gast, volumes in print and manuscript is still Sieur de Monts, a wealthy Huguenot, who preserved in the Seville Cathedral. Be- accompanied Champlain on another voy- cause of the loss of the original manu- age to the St. Lawrence the next year, script of the biography, its authenticity In 1608 he went up the St. Lawrence has been called into question, and has again; and the following summer, while formed the basis for quite a spirited con- engaged in war with some Hurons and troversy by historians, with the result that Algonquins against the Iroquois, he dis- the general belief in the genuineness of covered the lake that bears his name in the biography has not been seriously northern New York. At the same time, shaken. If it did not settle the doubt, Henry Hudson, a navigator in the employ the controversy had the effect of call- of the Dutch East India Company, en- ing a larger degree of attention to the tered the harbor of New York (Septem- biography than it would have had other- ber, 1609) and ascended the river that wise. bears his name as far as Albany. The In this biography Ferdinand gave a nar- region of the Great Lakes and the upper rative of the discovery of America by his valley of the Mississippi were discovered father, which is herewith reproduced: 112 All the conditions which the admiral ever, being an experienced seaman, soon demanded being conceded by their Catholic made a temporary repair by means of majesties, he set out from Granada on the ropes, and they proceeded on their voyage. 21st May 1492, for Palos, where he was But on the following Tuesday, the weather to- fit out the ships for his intended ex- becoming rough and boisterous, the fast- pedition. That town was bound to serve enings gave way, and the squadron was the crown for three months with two cara- obliged to lay to for some time to renew vels, which were ordered to be given to the repairs. From this misfortune of Columbus; and he fitted out these and a twice breaking the rudder, a superstitious third vessel with all care and diligence, person might have foreboded the future The ship in which he personally embarked disobedience of Pinzon to the admiral; as was called the St. Mary; the second vessel through his malice the Pinta twice sep- named the Pinta, was commanded by arated from the squadron, as shall be Martin Alonzo Pinzon; and the third afterwards related. Having applied the named the Nina, which had square sails, best remedy they could to the disabled was under the command of Vincent Yanez state of the rudder, the squadron contin- Pinzon, the brother of Alonzo, both of ued its voyage, and came in sight of the whom were inhabitants of Palos. Being Canaries at day-break of Thursday the 9th furnished with all necessaries, and having of August; but owing to contrary winds, 90 men to navigate the three vessels, Co- they were unable to come to anchor at lumbus set sail from Palos on the 3d of Gran Canaria until the 12th. The ad- August 1492, shaping his course directly miral left Pinzon at Gran Canaria to en- for the Canaries. deavour to procure another vessel instead During this voyage, and indeed in all of that which was disabled, and went him- the four voyages which he made from self with the Nina on the same errand to Spain to the West Indies, the admiral Gomera. was very careful to keep an exact journal The admiral arrived at Gomera on of every occurrence which took place; al- Sunday the 12th of August, and sent a ways specifying what winds blew, how fa* boat on shore to inquire if any vessel he sailed with each particular wind, what could be procured there for his purpose, currents were found, and every thing that The boat returned next morning, and was seen by the way, whether birds, fishes, brought intelligence that no vessel was or any other thing. Although to note all then at that island, but that Dona Beatrix these particulars with a minute relation of de Bobadilla, the propriatrix of the island, every thing that happened, shewing what was then at Gran Canaria in a hired ves- impressions and effects answered to the sel of 40 tons belonging to one Gradeuna course and aspect of the stars, and the of Seville, which would probably suit his differences between the seas which he sail- purpose and might perhaps be got. He ed and those of our countries, might all therefore determined to await the arrival be useful; yet as I conceive that the rela- of that vessel at Gomera, believing that tion of these particulars might now be Pinzon might have secured a vessel for tiresome to the reader, I shall only give himself at Gran Canaria, if he had not an account of what appears to me neces- been able to repair his own. After wait- sary and convenient to be known. ing two days, he dispatched one of his peo- On Saturday the 4th of August, the pie in a bark which was bound from Go- next day after sailing from Palos, the mera to Gran Canaria, to acquaint Pinzon rudder of the Pinta broke loose. The where he lay, and to assist him in repair- admiral strongly suspected that this was ing and fixing the rudder. Having wait- occasioned by the contrivance of the ed a considerable time for an answer to his master on purpose to avoid proceeding on letter, he sailed with the two vessels from the voyage, which he had endeavoured to Gomera on the 23d of August for Gran do before they left Spain, and he therefore Canaria, and fell in with the bark on the ranged up along side of the disabled ves- following day, which had been detained sel to give every assistance in his power, all that time on its voyage by contrary but the wind blew so hard that he was winds. He now took his man from the unable to afford any aid. Pinzon, how- bark, and sailing in the night past the isl- I.— H 113 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF and of Teneriffe, the people were much as- tonished at observing flames bursting out of the lofty mountain called El Pico, or the Peak of Teneriffe. On this occasion the admiral was at great pains to explain the nature of this phenomenon to the people, by instancing the example of Etna and several other known volcanoes. Passing by Teneriffe, they arrived at Gran Canaria on Saturday the 25th Au- gust; and found that Pinzon had only got in there the day before. From him the admiral was informed that Dona Beatrix had sailed for Gomera on the 20th with the vessel which he was so anxious to ob- tain. His officers were much troubled at the disappointment; but he, who always endeavoured to make the best of every oc- currence, observed to them that since it had not pleased God that they should get this vessel it was perhaps better for them ; as they might have encountered much op- position in pressing it into the service, and might have lost a great deal of time in shipping and unshipping the goods. Wherefore, lest he might again miss it if he returned to Gomera, he resolved to make a new rudder for the Pinta at Gran Canaria, and ordered the square sails of the Nina to be changed to round ones, like those of the other two vessels, that she might be able to accompany them with less danger and agitation. The vessels being all refitted, the ad- miral weighed anchor from Gran Canaria on Saturday the first of September, and arrived next day at Gomera, where four days were employed in completing their stores of provisions and of wood and wa- iter. On the morning of Thursday the sixth of September, 1492, the admiral took his departure from Gomera, and com- menced his great undertaking by standing directly westwards, but made very slow progress at first on account of calms. On Sunday the ninth of September, about day-break, they were nine leagues west of the island of Ferro. Now losing sight of land and stretching out into utterly unknown seas, many of the people express- ed their anxiety and fear that it might be long before they should see land again ; but the admiral used every endeavour to comfort them with the assurance of soon finding the land he was in search of, and raised their hopes of acquiring wealth and honour by the discovery. To lessen the fear which they entertained of the length of way they had to sail, he gave out that they had only proceeded fifteen leagues that day, when the actual distance sailed was eighteen; and to induce the people to believe that they were not so far from Spain as they really were, he resolved to keep considerably short in his reckoning during the whole voyage, though he care- fully recorded the true reckoning every day in private. On Wednesday the twelfth September, having got to about 150 leagues west of Ferro, they discovered a large trunk of a tree, sufficient to have been the mast of a vessel of 120 tons, and which seemed to have been a long time in the water. At this distance from Ferro, and for some- what farther on, the current was found to set strongly to the north-east. Next day, when they had run fifty leagues farther westwards, the needle was observed to vary half a point to the eastward of north, and next morning the variation was a whole point east. This variation of the compass had never been before ob- served, and therefore the admiral was much surprised at the phenomenon, and concluded that the needle did not actually point towards the polar star, but to some other fixed point. Three days afterwards, when almost 100 leagues farther west, he was still more astonished at the irregu- larity of the variation; for having ob- served the needle to vary a whole point to the eastwards at night, it pointed di- rectly northwards in the morning. On the night of Saturday the fifteenth of Sep- tember, being then almost 300 leagues west of Ferro, they saw a prodigious flash of light, or fire ball, drop from the sky into the sea, at four or five leagues distance from the ships towards the south-west. The weather was then quite fair and se- rene like April, the sea perfectly calm, the wind favourable from the north-east, and the current setting to the north-east. The people in the Nina told the ad- miral that they had seen the day before a heron, and another bird which they called Rabo-de-junco. These were the first birds which had been seen during the voyage, and were considered as indications of ap- proaching land. But they were more agreeably surprised next day, Sunday six- 114 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OE teenth September, by seeing great abun- torn. The current was now found to set dance of yellowish green sea weeds, which to the south-west. appeared as if newly washed away from On Thursday the twentieth of Septem- some rock or island. Next day the sea ber, two alcatrazes came near the ship weed was seen in much greater quantity, about two hours before noon, and soon and a small live lobster was observed afterwards a third. On this day likewise among the weeds: from this circumstance they took a bird resembling a heron, of a many affirmed that they were certainly black colour with a white tuft on its head, near the land. The sea water was after- and having webbed feet like a duck, wards noticed to be only half so salt as Abundance of weeds were seen floating in before; and great numbers of tunny fish the sea, and one small fish was taken, were seen swimming about, some of which About evening three land birds settled on came so near the vessel, that one was kill- the rigging of the ship and began to ed by a bearded iron. Being now 360 sing. These flew away at day-break, leagues west from Ferro, another of the which was considered a strong indication birds called rabo-de-junco was seen. On of approaching the land, as these little Tuesday the eighteenth September, Mar- birds could not have come from any far tin Alonzo Pinzon, who had gone a-head distant country; whereas the other large of the admiral in the Pinta, which was fowls, being used to water, might much an excellent sailer, lay to for the admiral better go far from land. The same day an to come up, and told him that he had alcatraz was seen. seen a great number of birds fly away Friday the twenty-first another alca- westwards, for which reason he was in traz and a rabo-de-junco were seen, and great hopes to see land that night; Pin- vast quantities of weeds as far as the eye zon even thought that he saw land that could carry towards the north. These ap- night about fifteen leagues distant to the pearances were sometimes a comfort to northwards, which appeared very black the people, giving them hopes of nearing and covered with clouds. All the people the wished-for land; while at other times would have persuaded the admiral to try the weeds were so thick as in some meas- for land in that direction; but, being ure to impede the progress of the vessels, certainly assured that it was not land, and and to occasion terror lest what is fabu- having not yet reached the distance at lously reported of St. Amaro in the frozen which he expected to find the land, he sea, might happen to them, that they would not consent to lose time in alter- might be so enveloped in the weeds as ing his course in that direction. But to be unable to move backwards or for- as the wind now freshened, he gave or- wards; wherefore they steered away from ders to take in the top-sails at night, those shoals of weeds as much as they having now sailed eleven days before could. the wind due westwards with all their Next day, being Saturday the twenty- sails up. second September, they saw a whale and All the people in the squadron being several small birds. The wind now veered utterly unacquainted with the seas they to the south-west, sometimes more and now traversed, fearful of their danger at sometimes less to the westwards; and such unusual distance from any relief, though this was adverse to the direction and seeing nothing around but sky and of their proposed voyage, the admiral to water, began to mutter among themselves, comfort the people alleged that this was and anxiously observed every appearance, a favourable circumstance; because among On the nineteenth September, a kind of other causes of fear, they had formerly sea-gull called Alcatraz flew over the ad- said they should never have a wind to miral's ship, and several others were seen carry them back to Spain, as it had always in the afternoon of that day, and as the blown from the east ever since they left admiral conceived that these birds would Ferro. They still continued, however, to not fly far from land, he entertained hopes murmur, alleging that this southwest of soon seeing what he was in quest of. wind was by no means a settled one, and He therefore ordered a line of 200 fathoms as it never blew strong enough to swell to be tried, but without finding any bot- the sea, it would not serve to carry them 115 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF back again through so great an extent of for himself against them. Some even pro- sea as they had now passed over. In spite ceeded so far as to propose, in case the of every argument used by the admiral, admiral should refuse to acquiesce in their assuring them that the alterations in the proposals, that they might make a short wind were occasioned by the vicinity of end of all disputes by throwing him over- the land, by which likewise the waves were board; after which they could give out prevented from rising to any height, they that he had fallen over while making his were still dissatisfied and terrified. observations, and no one would ever think On Sunday the twenty-third of Septem- of inquiring into the truth. They thus ber, a brisk gale sprung up W. N. W. with went on day after day, muttering, com- a rolling sea, such as the people had plaining, and consulting together; and wished for. Three hours before noon a though the admiral was not fully aware tui tie-dove was observed to fly over the of the extent of their cabals, he was not ship; towards evening an alcatraz, a river entirely without apprehensions of their in- fowl, and several white birds were seen constancy in the present trying situa- Uying about, and some crabs were ob- tion, and of their evil intentions towards served among the weeds. Next day an- him. He therefore exerted himself to the other alcatraz was seen and several small utmost to quiet their apprehensions and birds which came from the west. Num- to suppress their evil design, sometimes bers of small fishes were seen swimming using fair words, and at other times fully about, some of which were struck with resolved to expose his life rather than harpoons, as they would not bite at the abandon the enterprize; he put them in hook. ' mind of the due punishment they would The more that the tokens mentioned subject themselves to if they obstructed above were observed, and found not to be the voyage. To confirm their hopes, he re- followed by the so anxiously looked-for capitulated all the favourable signs and land, the more the people became fearful indications which had been lately ob- of the event, and entered into cabals served, assuring them that they might against the admiral, who they said was soon expect to see the land. But they, desirous to make himself a great lord at who were ever attentive to these tokens, the expense of their danger. They repre- thought every hour a year in their anxiety sented that they had already sufficiently to see the wished-for land, performed their duty in adventuring far- On Tuesday the twenty-fifth of Septem- ther from land and all possibility of sue- ber near sun-set, as the admiral was dis- cour than had ever been done before, and coursing with Pinzon, whose ship was then that they ought not to proceed on the very near, Pinzon suddenly called out, voyage to their manifest destruction. If " Land ! land, Sir ! let not my good news they did they would soon have reason to miscarry;" and pointed out a large mass repent their temerity, as provisions would in the S. W. about twenty-five leagues dis- soon fall short, the ships were already tant, which seemed very like an island, faulty and would soon fail, and it would This was so pleasing to the people, that be extremely difficult to get back so far they returned thanks to God for the pleas- as they had already gone. None could ing discovery; and, although the admiral condemn them in their own opinion for was by no means satisfied of the truth now turning back, but all must consider of Pinzon's observation, yet to please the them as brave men for having gone upon men, and that they might not obstruct the such an enterprize and venturing so far, voyage, he altered his course and stood in That the admiral was a foreigner who had that direction a great part of the night, no favour at court; and as so many wise Next morning, the twenty-sixth, they had and learned men had already condemned the mortification to find the supposed land his opinions and enterprize as visionary was only composed of clouds, which often and impossible, there would be none to put on the appearance of distant land; favour or defend him, and they were sure and, to their great dissatisfaction, the to find more credit if they accused him of stems of the ships were again turned di- ignorance and mismanagement than he rectly westwards, as they always were un- would do, whatsoever he might now say less when hindered by the wind. Con- 116 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF tinuing their course, and still attentively watching for signs of land, they saw this day an alcatraz, a rabo-de-junco, and other birds as formerly mentioned. On Thursday the twenty-seventh of Sep- tember, they saw another alcatraz coming from the westwards and flying towards the east, and great numbers of fish were seen with gilt backs, one of which they struck with a harpoon. A rabo-de-junco likewise flew past; the currents for some of the last days were not so regular as before, but changed with the tide, and the weeds were not nearly so abundant. On Friday the twenty-eighth all the vessels took some of the fishes with gilt backs; and on Saturday the twenty-ninth they saw a rabo-de-junco, which, although a sea-fowl, never rests on the waves, but always flies in the air, pursuing the alca- trazes. Many of these birds are said to frequent the Cape de Verd islands. They soon afterwards saw two other alcatrazes, and great numbers of flying-fishes. These last are about a span long, and have two little membranous wings like those of a bat, by means of which they fly about a pike-length high from the water and a musket-shot in length, and sometimes drop upon the ships. In the afternoon of this day they saw abundance of weeds lying in length north and south, and three alcatrazes pursued by a rabo-de-junco. On the morning of Sunday the thirtieth of September four rabo-de-j uncos came to the ship; and from so many of them com- ing together it was thought the land could not be far distant, especially as four alcatrazes followed soon afterwards. Great quantities of weeds were seen in a line stretching from W. N. W. to E. N. E. and a great number of the fishes which are called Emperadores, which have a very hard skin and are not fit to eat. Though the admiral paid every attention to these indications, he never neglected those in the heavens, and carefully observed the course of the stars. He was now greatly surprised to notice at this time that the Charles wain or Ursa Major constellation appeared at night in the west, and was N. E. in the morning: He thence conclud- ed that their whole night's course was only nine hours, or so many parts in twenty- four of a great circle; and this he ob- served to be the case regularly every night. It was likewise noticed that the compass varied a whole point to the N. W. at nightfall, and came due north every morning at day-break. As this unheard-of circumstance confounded and perplexed the pilots, who apprehended danger in these strange regions and at such an un- usual distance from home, the admiral en- deavoured to calm their fears by assign- ing a cause for this wonderful phenome- non: He alleged that it was occasioned by the polar star making a circuit round the pole, by which they were not a little satisfied. Soon after sunrise on Monday the first of October, an alcatraz came to the ship, and two more about ten in the morning, and long streams of weeds floated from east to west. That morning the pilot of the admiral's ship said that they were now 578 leagues west from the island of Ferro. In his public account the admiral said they were 584 leagues to the west; but in his private journal he made the real dis- tance 707 leagues, or 129 more than was reckoned by the pilot. The other two ships differed much in their computation from each other and from the admiral's pilot. The pilot of Nina in the afternoon of the Wednesday following said they had only sailed 540 leagues, and the pilot of the Pinta reckoned 634. Thus they were all much short of the truth; but the admiral winked at the gross mistake, that the men, not thinking themselves so far from home, might be the less dejected. The next day, being Tuesday the second of October, they saw abundance of fish, caught one small tunny, and saw a white bird with many other small birds, and the weeds appeared much withered and almost fallen to powder. Next day, seeing no birds, they suspected that they had passed between some islands on both hands, and had slipped through without seeing them, as they guessed that the many birds which they had seen might have been passing from one island to another. On this ac- count they were very earnest to have the course altered one way or the other, in quest of these imaginary lands. But the admiral, unwilling to lose the advantage of the fair wind which carried him due west, which he accounted his surest course, and afraid to lessen his reputation by deviating from course to course in search 117 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF of land, which he always affirmed that he well knew where to find, refused his con- sent to any change. On this the people were again ready to mutiny, and resumed their murmurs and cabals against him. But it pleased God to aid his authority by fresh indications of land. On Thursday the fourth of October, in the afternoon, above forty sparrows to- gether and two alcatrazes flew so near the ship that a seaman killed one of them with a stone. Several other birds were seen at this time, and many flying-fish fell into the ships. Next day there came a rabo-de-junco and an alcatraz from the westwards, and many sparrows were seen. About sunrise on Sunday the seventh of October, some signs of land appeared to the westwards, but being imperfect no person would mention the circumstance. This was owing to fear of losing the re- ward of thirty crowns yearly for life which had been promised by their Catho- lic majesties to whoever should first dis- cover land; and to prevent them from calling out land, land, at every turn with- out just cause, it was made a condition that whoever said he saw land should lose the reward if it were not made out in three days, even if he should afterwards actually prove the first discoverer. All on board the admiral's ship being thus fore- warned, were exceedingly careful not to cry out land upon uncertain tokens; but those in the Nina, which sailed better and always kept ahead, believing that they certainly saw land, fired a gun and hung out their colours in token of the discov- ery; but the farther they sailed the more the joyful appearance lessened, till at last it vanished away. But they soon after- wards derived much comfort by observing great flights of large fowl and others of small birds going from the west towards the south-west. Being now at a vast distance from Spain, and well assured that such small birds would not go far from land, the admiral now altered his course from due west which had been hitherto, and steered to the south-west. He assigned as a rea- son for now changing his course, although deviating little from his original design, that he followed the example of the Portu- guese, who had discovered most of their islands by attending to the flight of birds, 1 and because these they now saw flew al- most uniformly in one direction. He said likewise that he had always expected to discover land about the situation in which they now were, having often told them that he must not look to find land until they should get 750 leagues to the west- wards of the Canaries; about which dis- tance he expected to fall in with Hispani- ola which he then called Cipango; and there is no doubt that he would have found this island by his direct course, if it had not been that it was reported to extend from north to south. Owing there- fore to his not having inclined more to the south he had missed that and others of the Caribbee islands whither those birds were now bending their flight, and which had been for some time upon his larboard hand. It was from being so near the land that they continually saw such great num- bers of birds; and on Monday the eighth of October twelve singing birds of various colours came to the ship, and after flying round it for a short time held on their way. Many other birds were seen from the ship flying towards the south-west, and that same night great numbers of large fowl were seen, and flocks of small birds proceeding from the northwards, and all going to the south-west. In the morn- ing a jay was seen, with an alcatraz, sev- eral ducks, and many small birds, all fly- ing the same way with the others, and the air was perceived to be fresh and odor- iferous a« it is at Seville in the month of April. But the people were now so eager to see land and had been so often dis- appointed, that they ceased to give faith to these continual indications; insomuch that on Wednesday the tenth, although abundance of birds were continually pass- ing both by day and night, they never ceased to complain. The admiral upraided their want of resolution, and declared that they must perish in their endeavours to discover the Indies, for which he and they had been sent out by their Catholic maj- esties. It- would have been impossible for the admiral to have much longer withstood the numbers which now opposed him; but it pleased God that, in the afternoon of Thursday the eleventh of October, such manifest tokens of being near the land appeared, that the men took courage and 18 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF rejoiced at their good fortune as much as torch belonging to some fisherman or they had been before distressed. From the traveller, who lifted it up occasionally admiral's ships a green rush was seen to and lowered it again, or perhaps from float past, and one of those green fish people going from one house to another, which never go far from the rocks. The because it appeared and vanished again so people in the Pinta saw a cane and a staff suddenly. Being now very much on their in the water, and took up another staff guard, they still held on their course until very curiously carved, and a small board, about two in the morning of Friday the and great plenty of weeds were seen which twelfth of October, when the Pinta which seemed to have been recently torn from was always far a-head, owing to her su- the rocks. Those of the Nina, besides perior sailing, made the signal of seeing similar signs of land, saw a branch of a land, which was first discovered by Rod- thorn full of red berries, which seemed erick de Triana at about two leagues from to have been newly torn from the tree, the ship. But the thirty crowns a-year From all these indications the admiral were afterwards granted to the admiral, was convinced that he now drew near to who had seen the light in the midst of the land, and after the evening prayers darkness, a type of the spiritual light he made a speech to the men, in which he which he was the happy means of spread- reminded them of the mercy of God in hav- ing in these dark regions of error. Being ing brought them so long a voyage with now so near land, all the ships lay to; such favourable weather, and in comfort- every one thinking it long till daylight, ing them with so many tokens of a sue- that they might enjoy the sight they had cessful issue to their enterprize, which so long and anxiously desired, were now every day becoming plainer and When daylight appeared, the newly dis- less equivocal. He besought them to be covered land was perceived to consist of a exceedingly watchful during the night, as flat island fifteen leagues in length, with- they well knew that in the first article out any hills, all covered with trees, and of the instructions which he had given having a great lake in the middle. The to all the three ships before leaving the island was inhabited by great abundance Canaries, they were enjoined, when they of people, who ran down to the shore should have sailed 700 leagues west with- filled with wonder and admiration at the out discovering land, to lay to every night, sight of the ships, which they conceived from midnight till daybreak. And, as he to be some unknown animals. The Chris- had very confident hopes of discovering tians were not less curious to know what land that night, he required every one to kind of people they had fallen in with, and keep watch at their quarters; and, be- the curiosity on both sides was soon satis- sides the gratuity of thirty crowns a-year kfied, as the ships soon came to anchor. The for life, which had been graciously prom- admiral went on shore with his boat well ised by their sovereigns to him that first armed, and having the royal standard of saw the land, he engaged to give the fort- Castile and Leon displayed, accompanied unate discoverer a velvet doublet from t>y the commanders of the other two ves- himself. sels, each in his own boat, carrying the After this, as the admiral was in the particular colours which had been allotted cabin about ten o'clock at night, he saw for the enterprize, which were white with a light on the shore; but it was so un- a green cross and the letter F. on one steady that he could not certainly affirm side and on the other the names of Ferdi- that it came from land. He called to one nand and Isabella crowned. Peter Gutierres and desired him to try if The whole company kneeled on the shore he could perceive the same light, who said and kissed the ground for joy, returning he did; but one Roderick Sanchez of God thanks for the great mercy they had Segovia, on being desired to look the same experienced during their long voyage way could not see it, because he was not through seas hitherto unpassed, and their up time enough, as neither the admiral now happy discovery of an unknown land, nor Gutierres could see it again above once The admiral then stood up, and took or twice for a short space, which made formal possession in the usual words for them judge it to proceed from a candle or their Catholic majesties of this island, to 119 AMERICA, DISCOVERY OF which he gave the name of St. Salvador. All the Christians present admitted Co- lumbus to the authority and dignity of admiral and viceroy, pursuant to the com- mission which he had received to that effect, and all made oath to obey him as the legitimate representative of their Catholic majesties, with such expressions of joy and acknowledgement as became their mighty success; and they all im- plored his forgiveness of the many af- fronts he had received from them through their fears and want of confidence. Num- bers of the Indians or natives of the isl- and were present at these ceremonies; and perceiving them to be peaceable, quiet, and simple people, the admiral distributed several presents among them. To some he gave red caps, and to others strings of glass beads, which they hung about their necks, and various other things of small value, which they valued as if they had been jewels of high price. After the ceremonies, the admiral went off in his boat, and the Indians followed him even to the ships, some by swim- ming and others in their canoes, car- rying parrots, clews of spun cotton yarn, javelins, and other such trifling articles, to barter for glass beads, bells, and other things of small value. Like people in the original simplicity of nature, they were all naked, and even a woman who was among them was entirely destitute of clothing. Most of them were young, seemingly not above thirty years of age; of a good stature, with very thick black lank hair, mostly cut short above their ears, though some had it down to their shoulders, tied up with a string about their head like women's tresses. Their countenances were mild and agreeable and their features good; but their foreheads were too high, which gave them rather a wild appear- ance. They were of a middle stature, plump, and well shaped, but of an olive complexion, like the inhabitants of the Canaries, or sunburnt peasants. Some were painted with black, others with white, and others again with red; in some the whole body was painted, in others only the face, and some only the nose and eyes. They had no weapons like those of Europe, neither had they any knowledge of such; for when our people shewed them a naked sword, they ignorantly grasped it by the edge. Neither had they any knowledge of iron; as their javelins were merely constructed of wood, having their points hardened in the fire, and armed with a piece of fish-bone. Some of them had scars of wounds on different parts, and being asked by signs how these had been got, they answered by signs that people from other islands came to take them away, and that they had been wounded in their own defence. They seemed inge- nious and of a voluble tongue; as they readily repeated such words as they once heard. There were no kind of animals among them excepting parrots, which they carried to barter with the Christians among the articles already mentioned, and in this trade they continued on board the ships till night, when they all returned to the shore. In the morning of the next day, being the 13th of October, many of the natives returned on board the ships in their boats or canoes, which were all of one piece hol- lowed like a tray from the trunk of a tree ; some of these were so large as to contain forty or forty-five men, while others were so small as only to hold one person, with many intermediate sizes between these extremes. These they worked along with paddles formed like a baker's peel or the implement which is used in dressing hemp. These oars or paddles were not fixed by pins to the sides of the canoes like ours; but were dipped into the water and pulled backwards as if digging. Their canoes are so light and artfully constructed, that if overset they soon turn them right again by swimming; and they empty out the water by throwing them from side to side like a weaver's shuttle, and when half emptied they lade out the rest with dried calabashes cut in two, which they carry for that purpose. This second day the natives, as said before, brought various articles to barter Tor such small things as they could pro- cure in exchange. Jewels or metals of any kind were not seen among them, except some small plates of gold which hung from their nostrils; and on being ques- tioned from whence they procured the gold, they answered by signs that they had it from the south, where there was a king who possessed abundance of pieces and vessels of gold; and they made our people 120 AMERICAN ARCHIVES— AMERICAN LEARNED SOCIETIES to understand that there were many other tion. They also resolved that they would islands and large countries to the south hold no commercial intercourse with any and south-west. They were very covetous to colony in North America that did not get possession of any thing which belonged accede to these terms, or that should to the Christians, and being themselves thereafter violate them, but hold such very poor, with nothing of value to give recusants as enemies to their common in exchange, as soon as they got on board, country. The several articles of the asso- if they could lay hold of any thing which ciation were adopted unanimously, except struck their fancy, though it were only a the one concerning exportations. The piece of a broken glazed earthen dish or South Carolinians objected to it, because porringer, they leaped with it into the sea it would operate unequally, and insisted and swam on shore with their prize. If upon rice being exempted from the re- they brought any thing on board they quirement concerning non - exportation, would barter it for any thing whatever When the article was adopted, all but two belonging to our people, even for a piece of the South Carolina delegation seceded, of broken glass; insomuch that some gave Gadsden and another, in the spirit of sixteen large clews of well spun cotton Henry, declared that they were not " South yarn, weighing twenty - five pounds, for Carolinians," but " Americans." The se- three small pieces of Portuguese brass ceders were brought back, and signed the coin not worth a farthing. Their liber- articles of association after a compromise ality in dealing did not proceed from their was agreed to, which allowed their colony putting any great value on the things to bear no part of the burden of sacrifice themselves which they received from our imposed by the association. Short letters people in return, but because they valued were addressed to the colonies of St. John them as belonging to the Christians, whom (now Prince Edward's), Nova Scotia, they believed certainly to have come down Georgia, and the two Floridas, asking from Heaven, and they therefore earnestly them to join the association. Measures desired to have something from them as a were taken in various colonies for en- memorial. In this manner all this day forcing the observance of the American was spent, and the islanders as before Association. Philadelphia set the exam- went all on shore at night. pie (Nov. 22). New York followed (Nov. American Archives. See Force, 23 ) . Other provinces took measures to the Peter. same effect. American Association, The. On Oct. American Bible Society. See Bible 20, 1774, the first Continental Congress Society. adopted a " non-importation, non-consump- American Colonization Society. See tion, and non-exportation agreement," ap- Colonization Society, American. plied to Great Britain, Ireland, the West American Learned Societies, most of Indies, and Madeira, by which the inhabi- which are located or have branches in tants of all the colonies were bound to New York City: act in good faith as those of certain cities actuarial Society of America.— Organized and towns had already done, under the In 1889 for the purpose of promoting actu- ponalty of the displeasure of faithful ones. arial science. Membership, 130. £,, , r i.j-j'.r a Alaska Geographical Society. — Organized The agreement was embodied in fourteen 189g Membership, 1,200. articles, and was to go into effect on the American Academy op Medicine. — Present 1st of December next ensuing. In the sec- membership, 834. ond article, the Congress struck a blow at American Academy of Political and Social . . ' ,, B . .. , ... Science. — Founded 1889. Members, 2,100. slavery, in the name of their constitu- American Antiquarian Society.— Domestic ents, declaring that, after the 1st day of membership restricted to 140. December next ensuing, they would neither American Asiatic Association. — To pro- , , i 4.^a mote the trade and commercial interests import nor purchase any slave imported of the cit , zens of the United states in Agia after that date, and they would in no and oceanica. Membership, 260. way be concerned in or abet the slave- American Association for the Advance- trade. Committees were to be appointed ^nt of Science.— Chartered in 1874 be- , , , c ing a continuation of the American Asso- m every county, city, and town to enforce clation of GeologIsts and Naturalists, or- compliance with the terms of the associa- ganized in 1840. Membership, 3,000. 121 AMERICAN LEARNED SOCIETIES American Bar Association. — Each State is American Physical Society. represented by one vice-president. Mem- bership about 1,700. Organized in 1878. American Chemical Society. — The society was organized in 1876. Membership, 1,897. American Climatological Association. American Dermatological Association. American Psychological Association. — Organized in 1892 for " the advancement of psychology." Membership, 120. American Public Health Association. American Social Science Association. — New York City. Founded in 1865. American Dialect Society. — Organized in American Society of Civil Engineers. — 1889. Membership about 325. American Economic Association. — The ob- jects are the study of economic sciences. American Electro-Therapeutic Society. American Entomological Society. — Organ- ized 1859 ; incorporated 1862. Member- ship, 140. New York City. Has 2,500 members. In- stituted in 1852. American Society of Curio Collectors. — Membership, 300. American Society of Mechanical Engi- neers. — Total membership, 2,064. The so- ciety was chartered in 1881. American Fisheries Society. — Organized American Society of Naturalists. December, 1870. Membership about 275. American Folk-lore Society. — Organized in 1888. Publishes American Folk-lore. American Forestry Association. American Genealogical Society. — Object — American Statistical Association. — Mem- bership, 556. Organized 1839. American Surgical Association. Archaeological Institute of America (New York Society). The promotion of the study of American Association of American Anatomists. Member- genealogy. American Geographical York City. Organized in 1852. ship, 1,200. American Gynecological Society. American Historical Association. — Found- ed 1884 ; incorporated by Congress 1889. Membership, 1,600. American Institute of Architects. — The institute has 26 chapters, 399 fellows, 300 associates, 58 corresponding and 69 hon- orary members. Organized in 1857. American Institute of Electrical Engi- neers. — New York. Membership, 1,350. OF Association of American Physicians. Society. — New Astronomical and Physical Society America. "Botanical Society of America. Geological Society of America. — Society founded in 1888. Has 245 fellows. Pub- lishes Bulletin of the Geological Society of America. National Academy of Design. — New York City. Founded in 1826. 92 National Academicians ; 70 associates. National Academy of Sciences. — The acad- emy, incorporated by act of Congress, March 3, 1863. There are at present 89 members and 28 foreign associates. Or- American Institute of Homoeopathy. — Organized in 1844, and is the oldest med- National Arts Club. — New York City. ical organization in the United States. ganized in 1899. Membership, 2,000. American Institute of Mining Engineers. — Membership, 2,897. Organized in 1871. American Laryngological Association. National Dental Association. National Educational Association. — Wash- ington, D. C. 2,800 active members and about 10,000 associates. American Library Association. — Organized National Geographic Society. — Washing- in 1876. Incorporated in 1879. Member- ship over 1,000. ton, D. C. It publishes a monthly maga- zine. There are 2,500 members. American Mathematical Society. — New National Sculpture Society. — New York York City. Membership, 375. The society publishes two journals. American Medical Association. — Publishes a weekly journal. Membership over 11,000. American Microscopical Society. — Organ- ized 1878 ; incorporated 1891. Membership, 300. American Neurological Association. — New York City. American Numismatic and Archaeological Society. — Membership, 300. American Opthalmological Society. City. Incorporated in 1896. New York Zoological Society. — The Zoo- logical Park is under the management of the society. Scientific Alliance of New York. — The Council of the Scientific Alliance is com- posed of three delegates from each of eight scientific societies. Society for the Promotion of Agricult- ural Science. Society of American Artists. — New York City. Annual exhibition. Members, 110. American Oriental Society. — Organized Society of American Authors. — Object- Sept. 7, 1842, for the cultivation of learn- ing in the Asiatic, African, and Polynesian languages. Membership, 380. American Ornithologists' Union. — Mem- bership, 734. American Orthopedic Association. American Philological Association. — Membership about 550. American Philosophical Society. — Phila- delphia. Object — For promoting useful The advancement of the interests and the protection of the rights of authors. Mem- bership over 400. Society of Chemical Industry (New York Section). — Membership, 871. Society op Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. — Object — The promotion of the art of ship-building, commercial and naval. Incorporated. Headquarters, New York City. Membership, 775. knowledge. Founded in 1743. Has 200 University Extension Society. — Philadel- resident and 300 non-resident members. phia. Incorporated in 1892. AMERICAN NATIONAL ARBITRATION BOARD American National Arbitration States; Cornelius N. Bliss, former Secre- Board. The industrial department of tary of the Interior; Charles Francis the National Civic Federation called a Adams, president of the Union Pacific conference of the leading capitalists and Railroad; Bishop Henry C. Potter, of labor representatives to meet in New New York; Archbishop John Ireland, of York City Dec. 16, 1901. On Dec. 17 St. Paul; Charles W. Eliot, president of the meeting appointed thirty-six repre- Harvard University; Franklin Macveagh, sentative men to form a permanent board wholesale grocer, of Chicago; James H. of arbitration. The men selected were: Eckels, bank president, Chicago; John J. To Represent Capital. — Marcus A. McCook, lawyer; John G. Milburn, law- Hanna, United States Senator; Charles yer, of Buffalo; Charles J. Bonaparte, M. Schwab, president of the United States of Baltimore; Oscar S. Strauss, mer- Steel Corporation; S. R. Callaway, presi- chant, and former minister to Turkey; dent of the American Locomotive Com- secretary of the commission, Ralph M. pany; Charles A. Moore, president of the Easley, of the National Civic Federa- American Tool Company; John D. Rocke- tion. feller, Jr., Standard Oil Company; H. H. The committee met Dec. 18 and passed Vreeland, president of the Metropolitan the following resolutions: Street Railway; Lewis Nixon, owner of That this committee shall be known the Crescent Ship-yard, Elizabethport, N. as the Industrial Department of the Na- J. ; James A. Chambers, president of the tional Civic Federation. American Glass Company, Pittsburg; That the scope and province of this William H. Pfahler, president of the Na- department shall be to do what may seem tional Stove Manufacturers' Association, best to promote industrial peace; to be Philadelphia; Julius Kruttschnitt, as- helpful in establishing rightful relations sistant to the president of the Southern between employers and workers; by its Pacific Railroad; E. P. Ripley, president good offices to endeavor to obviate and of the Atchison, Topeka, and Santa Fe prevent strikes and lockouts ; to aid in re- Railroad; Marcus M. Marks, president of newing industrial relations where a rupt- the National Association of Clothing Man- ure has occurred, ufacturers. That at all times representatives of To Represent Labor. — Samuel Gompers, employers and workers, organized or un- president of the American Federation of organized, should confer for the adjust-. Labor; John Mitchell, president of the ment of difficulties or disputes before an United Mine Workers of America; Frank acute stage is reached, and thus avoid P. Sargent, grand-master of the Brother- or minimize the number of strikes and hood of Locomotive Firemen; Theodore P. lockouts. Shaffer, president of the Amalgamated That mutual agreements as to condi- Association of Iron, Steel, and Tin Work- tions under which labor shall be perform- ers; James J. Duncan, first vice-presi- ed should be encouraged, and that when dent of the American Federation of La- agreements are made the terms thereof bor; Daniel J. Keefe, president of the should be faithfully adhered to, both in International Association of Longshore- letter and spirit, by both parties, men; Martin Fox, president of the Iron That this department, either as a Moulders of America; James E. Lynch, whole or a subcommittee by it appointed, president of the International Typograph- shall, when required, act as a forum to ical Union; E. E. Clark, grand conductor adjust and decide upon questions at issue of the Association of Railway Conductors; between workers and their employers, pro- Henry White, secretary of the Garment vided in its opinion the subject is one Workers of America; Walter Macarthur, of sufficient importance, editor of the Coast Seamen's Journal of That this department will not consider San Francisco; James O'Connell, presi- abstract industrial problems, dent of the International Association of That this department assumes no Machinists. power of arbitration unless such powers To Represent the Public. — Grover be conferred by both parties to a dis- Cleveland, former President of the United pute. 123 AMERICAN PARTY— AMERICA'S CUP That this department shall adopt a set a site given by the Greek government, and of by-laws for its government. is valued, together with its grounds, at Senator Hanna was chosen chairman. $46,000. The endowment is about $50,000. The other officers are: Samuel Gompers Aside from the study of known remains of and Oscar Strauss, vice-chairmen; Charles Greek art and civilization, the school has A. Moore, treasurer, and Ralph M. Easley, engaged in independent excavations at secretary. Eretria and Argos, with valuable results. American Party, a political organi- Associated with it are similar institu- zation, founded in 1854, the members of tions supported by the German, English, which became known as " Know-nothings," French, and Greek governments, because in their endeavors to preserve the American System, a phrase used to secrecy of their movements they were in- express the policy of protection to home structed to reply " I don't know " to any industries by means of duties on imports ; question asked in reference to the party, applied by Henry Clay to his scheme for It was at first a secret political organi- protective duties and internal improve- zation, the chief object of which was the ments, which resulted in the enactment of proscription of foreigners by the repeal the tariff bill of 1824. See Free Trade; of the naturalization laws of the United Protection. States, and the exclusive choice of Ameri- America's Cup, the popular name of a cans for office. The more radical members yachting trophy originally called the of the party advocated a purely American Queen's Cup, which was offered by the school system, and uncompromising oppo- Royal Yacht Squadron of England in a sition to the Roman Catholics. Such nar- row views were incompatible with the gen- erosity and catholic spirit of enlightened American citizens. In 1856 they nomi- nated ex-President Fillmore for the Presi- dency, who received 874,534 popular and eight electoral votes ; made no nominations in 1860, but united with the Constitu- tional Union party, whose candidates, Bell and Everett, received 590,631 popular and thirty-nine elctoral votes ; reappeared with a ticket in 1880, which received 707 popular votes; and again in 1888, when 1,591 votes were cast for the party candi- dates in California; and have made no nominations since. See Know-nothing Party. American Protective Association, a secret organization which acquired noto- riety first in 1890-95, and according to popular belief was opposed to the Catho- lic Church. According to W. J. H. Tray- nor, its president, " it is neither a religious body nor an institution adverse to the re- ligion, per se, of any person, sect, or faith." American School of Classical Stud- ies, an institution founded in Athens, Greece, in 1882. It is a branch of the Archaeological Institute of America, and is supported through an independent com- mittee of representatives from a number competition open to the yachts of all na- of American colleges, each of which con- tions in 1851. The cup was won by the tributes $250 a year for this purpose. It Boston - built schooner - yacht America. was erected by private subscriptions, upon Since then there were challenge contests 124 AMERICA'S CUP. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS in 1870, 1871, 1876, 1881, 1885, 1886, 1887, 1893, 1895, 1899, 1901, and 1903, and in each instance the cup was defended with success. In 1895, Lord Dunraven's yacht, Valkyrie, after having been de- feated in one race, won the second, but was deprived of the victory because of a foul. The Englishman claimed that he had been cheated, and refused to race again. He charged the American yachts- men with unsportsmanlike conduct, and visited this country to press his charges. His complaints were dismissed and he was dropped from the list of members of the New York Yacht Club, under whose auspices the races had been held. One of the most notable of the several contests was that in 1903, when Sir Thomas Lipton sailed the Shamrock III. against the American de- fender Reliance. The contest was charac- terized by the highest type of international courtesy and good feeling, although the Shamrock III. had a series of mishaps and in the third race was unable to finish. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS Americus Vespucius, navigator; born year before), passed along the coast of in Florence, March 9, 1451. When Colum- Venezuela, crossed the Caribbean Sea to bus was in Seville preparing for his second Santo Domingo, kidnapped some natives voyage, Vespucius was there as a commer- of the Antilles, and returned to Spain in cial agent of the Medici family of Flor- June, 1500, and sold his victims for slaves ence, and he became personally acquainted to Spanish grandees. In May, 1501, Ves- with the discoverer. That acquaintance pucius, then in the service of the King of Portugal, sailed on his second voyage to America, exploring the coast of Brazil. In 1503 he commanded a caravel in a squad- ron destined for America, but parted com- pany with the other vessels, and off the coast of Brazil discovered the Bay of All- Saints. He then ran along the coast 260 leagues, and, taking in a cargo of Brazil wood, returned to Lisbon in 1504. He entered the Spanish service again in 1505, was made chief pilot of the realm, and again voyaged to America. In 1504 Ves- pucius, in a letter to the Duke of Lor- raine, gave an account of his four voy- ages to the New World, in which was given the date of May 29, 1497, as the time when he sailed on his first voyage. That was a year earlier than the discovery of the continent of South America by Co- lumbus and of North America by Cabot, and made it appear that Vespucius was inspired the Florentine with an ardent de- the first discoverer. After the death of sire to make a voyage to the newly found Columbus, in 1506, a friend of Vespucius continent, and he was gratified when, in proposed to the Academy of Cosmography 1499, he sailed from Spain with Alonzo at Strasburg, upon the authority of the de Ojeda as an adventurer and self-con- falsely dated letter, to give the name stituted geographer of the expedition. " America " to the Western Continent in Ojeda followed the track of Columbus in compliment to its "first discoverer." It his third voyage, and discovered moun- was done, and so Columbus and Cabot were tains in South America when off the coast both deprived of the honor of having their of Surinam. He ran up the coast to the names associated with the title of this mouth of the Orinoco River (where Co- continent by fraud. Vespucius died in lumbus had discovered the continent the Seville, Feb. 22, 1512. 125 AMEKICUS VESPUCIUS. AMERICUS VESPUCIUS His First Voyage. — He started from Cadiz on May 10, 1497, and returned to that city on Oct. 15, 1498. His letter to Pier Soderini, gonfalonier of the repub- lic of Florence, is as follows: Magnificent Lord. After humble rever- ence and due commendations, etc. It may be that your Magnificence will be sur- prised by (this conjunction of) my rash- ness and your customary wisdom, in that I should so absurdly bestir myself to write to your Magnificence, the present so-prolix letter; knowing (as I do) that your Magnificence is continually employed in high councils and affairs concerning the good government of this sublime Re- public. And will hold me not only pre- sumptuous, but also idly-meddlesome in setting myself to write things, neither suitable to your station, nor entertaining, and written in barbarous style, and out- side of every canon of polite literature: but my confidence which I have in your virtues and in the truth of my writing, which are things (that) are not found written neither by the ancients nor by modern writers, as your Magnificence will in the sequel perceive, make me bold. The chief cause which moved (me) to write to you, was at the request of the present bearer, who is named Benvenuto Ben- venuti our Florentine (fellow-citizen), very much, as it is proven, your Magnifi- cence's servant, and my very good friend: who happening to be here in this city of Lisbon, begged that I should make com- munication to your Magnificence of the things seen by me in divers regions of the world, by virtue of four voyages which I have made in discovery of new lands; two by order of the king of Castile, King Don Ferrando VI., across the great gulf of the Ocean-sea, towards the west: and the other two by command of the puissant King Don Manuel King of Portugal, towards the south: Telling me that your Magnificence would take pleasure thereof, and that herein he hoped to do you ser- vice: wherefore I set me to do it: because I am assured that your Magnificence holds me in the number of your servants, remem- bering that in the time of our youth I was your friend, and now (am your) ser- vant: and (remembering our) going to hear the rudiments of grammar under the fair example and instruction of the ven- erable monk friar of Saint Mark Fra Giorgio Antonio Vespucci: whose counsels and teaching would to God that I had fol- lowed: for as saith Petrarch, I should be another man than what I am. Howbeit soever, I grieve not: because I have ever taken delight in worthy matters: and al- though these trifles of mine may not be suitable to your virtues, I will say to you as said Pliny to Maecenas, you were some- time wont to take pleasure in my prat- tlings: even though your Magnificence be continuously busied in public affairs, you will take some hour of relaxation to con- sume a little time in frivolous or amusing things: and as fennel is customarily given atop of delicious viands to fit them for better digestion, so may you, for a relief from your so heavy occupations, order this letter of mine to be read: so that they may withdraw you somewhat from the continual anxiety and assiduous re- flection upon public affairs: and if I shall be prolix, I crave pardon, my Magnificent Lord. Your Magnificence shall know that the motive of my coming into this realm of Spain was to traffic in merchandise: and that I pursued this intent about four years: during which I saw and knew the inconstant shiftings of Fortune: and how she kept changing those frail and transi- tory benefits; and how at one time she holds man on the summit of the wheel, and at another time drives him back from her, and despoils him of what may be called his borrowed riches: so that, know- ing the continuous toil which man under- goes to win them, submitting himself to so many anxieties and risks, I resolved to abandon trade, and to fix my aim upon something more praiseworthy and stable: whence it was that I made preparation for going to see part of the world and its wonders: and herefor the time and place presented themselves most opportunely to me: which was that the King Don Fer- rando of Castile being about to despatch four ships to discover new lands towards the west, I was chosen by his Highness to go in that fleet to aid in making discov- ery: and we set out from the port of Cadiz on the 10 day of May 1497, and took our route through the great gulph of the Ocean-sea: in which voyage we were eighteen months (engaged) : and disco v- 126 AMEBICtTS VESPUCItrS ered much continental land and innumer- to parley with us: so that, as the night able islands, and great part of them in- was now coming on, and as the ships were habited; whereas there is no mention made anchored in a dangerous place, being on a by the ancient writers of them: I believe, rough and shelterless coast, we decided to because they had no knowledge thereof: remove from there the next day, and to for, if I remember well, I have read in go in search of some harbour or bay, some one (of those writers) that he con- where we might place our ships in safety: sidered that this Ocean-sea was an un- and we sailed with the maestrale wind, peopled sea: and of this opinion was thus running along the coast with the Dante our poet in the xxvi. chapter of land ever in sight, continually in our the Inferno, where he feigns the death course observing people along the shore: of Ulysses: in which voyage I beheld till after having navigated for two days, things of great wondrousness as your we found a place sufficiently secure for Magnificence shall understand. As I said the ships, and anchored half a league from above, we left the port of Cadiz four con- land, on which we saw a very great num- sort ships: and began our voyage in direct ber of people: and this same day we put course to the Fortunate Isles, which are to land with the boats, and sprang on called to-day la gran Canaria, which are shore full 40 men in good trim: and still situated in the Ocean-sea at the extremity the land's people appeared shy of converse of the inhabited west, (and) set in the with us, and we were unable to encourage third climate: over which the North Pole them so much as to make them come to has an elevation of 27 and a half degrees speak with us: and this day we laboured beyond their horizon: and they are 280 so greatly in giving them of our wares, leagues distant from this city of Lisbon, such as rattles and mirrors, beads, by the wind between mezzo di and libeecio : spalline, and other trifles, that some of where we remained eight days, taking in them took confidence and came to discourse provision of water, and wood and other with us: and after having made good necessary things: and from here, having friends with them, the night coming on, said our prayers, we weighed anchor, and we took our leave of them and returned to gave the sails to the wind, beginning our the ships: and the next day when the course to westward, taking one quarter dawn appeared we saw that there were by south-west: and so we sailed on till at infinite numbers of people upon the beach, the end of 37 days we reached a land and they had their women and children which we deemed to be a continent: which with them: we went ashore, and found is distant westwardly from the isles of that they were all laden with their worldly Canary about a thousand leagues beyond goods which are suchlike as, in its the inhabited region within the torrid (proper) place, shall be related: and be- zone : for we found the North Pole at an ele- fore we reached the land, many of them vation of 16 degrees above its horizon, and jumped into the sea and came swimming (it was) westward, according to the shew- to receive us at a bowshot's length (from ing of our instruments, 75 degrees from the shore), for they are very great swim- the isles of Canary: whereat we anchored mers, with as much confidence as if they with our ships a league and a half from had for a long time been acquainted with land: and we put out our boats freighted us: and we were pleased with this their with men and arms: we made towards the confidence. For so much as we learned of land, and before we reached it, had sight their manner of life and customs, it was of a great number of people who were that they go entirely naked, as well the going along the shore: by which we were men as the women. . . . They are of much rejoiced: and we observed that they medium stature, very well proportioned: were a naked race: they shewed them- their flesh is of a colour that verges into selves to stand in fear of us: I believe red like a lion's mane: and I believe that (it was) because they saw us clothed and if they were clothed, they would be as of other appearance (than their own): white as we: they have not any hair upon they all withdrew to a hill, and for what- the body, except the hair of the head soever signals we made to them of peace which is long and black, and especially in and of friendliness, tbey would not come the women, whom it renders handsome; in 127 AMERICUS VESPITCIUS aspect they are not very good-looking, be- cause they have broad faces, so that they seem Tartar-like: they let no hair grow on their eyebrows, nor on their eyelids, nor elsewhere except the hair . of the head : for they hold hairness to be a filthy thing: they are very light-footed in walk- ing and in running, as well the men as the women : so that a woman recks nothing of running a league or two, as many times we saw them do: and herein they have a very great advantage over us Christians: they swim ( with an expertness ) beyond all belief, and the women better than the men: for we have many times found and seen them swimming two leagues out at sea without anything to rest upon. Their arms are bows and arrows very well made, save that (the arrows) are not (tipped) with iron or any other kind of hard metal: and instead of iron they put animals' or fishes' teeth, or a spike of tough wood, with the point hardened by fire: they are sure marksmen for they hit whatever they aim at: and in some places the women use these bows : they have other weapons, such as fire-hardened spears, and also clubs with knobs, beautifully carved. Warfare is used amongst them, which they carry on against people not of their own language, very cruelly, without grant- ing life to any one, except (to reserve him) for greater suffering. When they go to war, they take their women with them, not that these may fight, but because they carry behind them their worldly goods, for a woman carries on her back for thirty or forty leagues a load which no man could bear: as we have many times seen them do. They are not accustomed to have any Captain, nor do they go in any ordered array, for everyone is lord of himself: and the cause of their wars is not for lust of dominion, nor of extend- ing their frontiers, nor for inordinate covetousness, but for some ancient enmity which in by-gone times arose amongst them: and when asked why they made war, they knew not any other reason to give than that they did so to avenge the death of their ancestors, or of their par- ents: these people have neither King, nor Lord, nor do they yield obedience to any one, for they live in their own liberty: and how they be stirred up to go to war is (this) that when the enemies have slain or captured any of them, his oldest kins- man rises up and goes about the highways haranguing them to go with him and avenge the death of such his kinsman: and so are they stirred up by fellow-feel- ing: they have no judicial system, nor do they punish the ill-doer: nor does the father, nor the mother chastise the chil- dren: and marvellously (seldom) or never did we see any dispute among them: in their conversation they appear simple, and they are very cunning and acute in that which concerns them: they speak little and in a low tone: they use the same articulations as we, since they form their utterances either with the palate, or with the teeth, or on the lips: except that they give different names to things. Many are the varieties of tongues: for in every 100 leagues we found a change of language, so that they are not understandable each to the other. The manner of their living is very barbarous, for they do not eat at certain hours, and as oftentimes as they will: and it is not much of a boon to them that the will may come more at midnight than by day, for they eat at all hours: and they eat upon the ground without a table-cloth or any other cover, for they have their meats either in earthen basins which they make themselves, or in the halves of pumpkins: they sleep in certain very large nettings made of cotton, suspended in the air: and although this their (fashion of) sleeping may seem un- comfortable, I say that it is sweet to sleep in those (nettings) : and we slept better in them than in the counterpanes. They are a people smooth and clean of body, because of so continually washing themselves as they do. . . . Amongst those people we did not learn that they had any law, nor can they be called Moors nor Jews, and (they are) worse than pagans: because we did not observe that they offered any sacrifice: nor even had they a house of prayer: their manner of living I judge to be Epicurean: their dwellings are in common: and their houses (are) made in the style of huts, but strongly made, and constructed with very large trees, and covered over with palm-leaves, secure against storms and winds: and in some places (they are) of so great breadth and length, that in one single house we found there were 600 128 AMERICTJS VESPUCIUS souls: and we saw a village of only thir- teen houses, where there were four thou- sand souls: every eight or ten days they change their habitations: and when asked why they did so: (they said it was) be- cause of the soil which, from its filthiness, was already unhealthy and corrupted, and that it bred aches in their bodies, which seemed to us a good reason; their riches consist of birds' plumes of many colours, or of rosaries which they make from fish- bones, or of white or green stones which they put in their cheeks and in their lips and ears, and of many other things which we in no wise value: they use no trade, they neither buy nor sell. In fine, they live and are contented with that which nature gives them. The wealth that we enjoy in this our Europe and elsewhere, such as gold, jewels, pearls, and other riches, they hold as nothing: and although they have them in their own lands, they do not labour to obtain them, nor do they value them. They are liberal in giving, for it is rarely they deny you any- thing: and on the other hand, liberal in asking, when they shew themselves your friends. . . . When they die, they use divers manners of obsequies, and some they bury with water and victuals at their heads: thinking that they shall have (whereof) to eat: they have not nor do they use ceremonies of torches nor of lam- entation. In some other places, they use the most barbarous and inhuman burial which is that when a suffering or infirm (person) is as it were at the last pass of death, his kinsmen carry him into a large forest, and attach one of those nets of theirs, in which they sleep, to two trees, and then put him in it, and dance around him for a whole day: and when the night comes on they place at his bolster, water with other victuals, so that he may be able to subsist for four or six days: and then they leave him alone and return to the village: and if the sick man helps himself, and eats, and drinks, and survives, he returns to the village, and (friends) receive him with ceremony: but few are they who escape: without receiv- ing any further visit they die, and that is their sepulture: and they have many other customs which for prolixity are not related. They use in their sicknesses va- rious forms of medicines, so different from ours that we marvelled how any one es- caped: for many times I saw that with a man sick of fever, when it heightened upon him, they bathed him from head to foot with a large quantity of cold water: then they lit a great fire around him, making him turn and turn again every two hours, until they tired him and left him to sleep, and many were (thus) cured: with this they make use of dieting, for they remain three days without eat- ing, and also of blood-letting, but not from the arm, only from the thighs and the loins and the calf of the leg: also they provoke vomiting with their herbs which are put into the mouth: and they use many other remedies which it would be long to relate: they are much vitiated in the phlegm and in the blood because of their food which consists chiefly of roots of herbs, and fruits and fish: they have no seed of wheat nor other grain : and for their ordinary use and feeding, they have a root of a tree, from which they make flour, tolerably good, and they call it Iuca, and another which they call Cazabi, and another Ignami: they eat lit- tle flesh except human flesh: for your Magnificence must know that herein they are so inhuman that they outdo every custom (even) of beasts; for they eat all their enemies whom they kill or capture, as well females as males with so much savagery, that (merely) to relate it ap- pears a horrible thing: how much more so to see it, as, infinite times and in many places, it was my hap to see it: and they wondered to hear us say that we did not eat our enemies: and this your Magnifi- cence may take for certain, that their other barbarous customs are such that ex- pression is too weak for the reality: and as in these four voyages I have seen so many things diverse from our customs, I prepared to write a common-place-book which I name Le quattro Giornate: in which I have set down the greater part of the things which I saw, sufficiently in detail, so far as my feeble wit has allowed me: which I have not yet published, be- cause I have so ill a taste for my own things that I do not relish those which I have written, notwithstanding that many encourage me to publish it: therein every- thing will be seen in detail: so that I shall not enlarge further in this chapter: 129 AMERICUS VESPUCItTS as in the course of the letter we shall come to many other things which are particu- lar: let this suffice for the general. At this beginning, we saw nothing in the land of much profit, except some show of gold: I believe the cause of it was that we did not know the language: but in so far as concerns the situation and condition of the land, it could not be better: we de- cided to leave that place, and to go fur- ther on, continuously coasting the shore: upon which we made frequent descents, and held converse with a great number of people: and at the end of some days we went into a harbour where we underwent very great danger: and it pleased the Holy Ghost to save us: and it was in this wise. We landed rh a harbour, where we found a village built like Venice upon the water: there were about 44 large dwell- ings in the form of huts erected upon very thick piles, and they had their doors or entrances in the style of drawbridges: and from each house one could pass through all, by means of the drawbridges which stretched from house to house: and when the people thereof had. seen us, they appeared to be afraid of us, and immedi- ately drew up all the bridges: and while we were looking at this strange action, we saw coming across the sea about 22 canoes, which are a kind of boat of theirs, constructed from a single tree: which came towards our boats, as they had been surprised by our appearance and clothes, and kept wide of us: and thus remaining, we made signals to them that they should approach us, encouraging them with every token of friendliness; and seeing that they did not come we went to them, and they did not stay for us, but made to the land, and, by signs, told us to wait, and they should soon return: and they went to a hill in the background, and did not delay long: when they returned they led with them 16 of their girls, and en- tered with these into their canoes, and came to the boats: and in each boat they put 4 of the girls. That we marvelled at this behaviour your Magnificence can imagine how much, and they placed them- selves with their canoes among our boats, coming to speak with us: insomuch that we deemed it a mark of friendliness: and while thus engaged, we beheld a great number of people advance swimming towards us across the sea, who came from the houses: and as they were drawing near to us without any apprehension; just then there appeared at the doors of the houses certain old women uttering very loud cries and tearing their hair to ex- hibit grief: whereby they made us suspi- cious, and we each betook ourselves to arms: and instantly the girls whom we had in the boats, threw themselves into the sea, and the men of the canoes drew away from us, and began with their bows to shoot arrows at us: and those who were swimming each carried a lance held, as covertly as they could, beneath the water: so that, recognizing the treachery, we engaged with them, not merely to de- fend ourselves, but to attack them vigor- ously, and we overturned with our boats many of their almadie or canoes, for so they call them, we made a slaughter (of them), and they all flung themselves into the water to swim, leaving their canoes abandoned, with considerable loss on their side, they went swimming away to the shore: there died of them about 15 or 20, and many were left wounded: and of ours 5 were wounded, and all, by the grace of God, escaped (death) : we captured two of the girls and two men: and we pro- ceeded to their houses, and entered there- in, and in them all we found nothing else than two old women and a sick man: we took away from them many things, but of small value: and we would not burn their houses, because it seemed to us (as though that would be) a burden upon our conscience: and we returned to our boats with five prisoners: and betook ourselves to the ships, and put a pair of irons on the feet of each of the captives, except the little girls: and when the night came on, the two girls and one of the men fled away in the most subtle manner possible: and the next day we decided to quit that harbour and go further onwards: we pro- ceeded continuously skirting the coast, (until) we had sight of another tribe dis- tant perhaps some 80 leagues from the former tribe: and we found them very different in speech and customs: we re- solved to cast anchor, and went ashore with the boats, and we saw on the beach a great number of people amounting prob- ably to 4,000 souls: and when we had reached the shore, they did not stay for us, 130 AMERJCUS VESPUCIUS but betook themselves to flight through the forests, abandoning their things: we jumped on land, and took a pathway that led to the forest: and at the distance of a bow-shot we found their tents, where they had made very large fires, and two (of them) were cooking their victuals, and roasting several animals and fish of many kinds: where we saw that they were roast- ing a certain animal which seemed to be a serpent, save that it had no wings, and was in its appearance so loathsome that we marvelled much at its savageness: Thus went we on through their houses, or rather tents, and found many of those ser- pents alive, and they were tied by the feet and had a cord around their snouts, so that they could not open their mouths, as is done (in Europe) with mastiff-dogs so that they may not bite: they were of such savage aspect that none of us dared to take one away, thinking that they were poisonous : they are of the bigness of a kid, and in length an ell and a half: their feet are long and thick, and armed with big claws: they have a hard skin, and are of various colours: they have the muzzle and face of a serpent: and from their snouts there rises a crest like a saw which ex- tends along the middle of the back as far as the tip of the tail: in fine we deemed them to be serpents and venomous, and (nevertheless, those people) ate them: we found that they made bread out of little fishes which they took from the sea, first boiling them (then) pounding them, and making thereof a paste, or bread, and they baked them on the embers: thus did they eat them : we tried >it and found that it was good: they had so many other kinds of eatables, and especially of fruits and roots, that it would be a large matter to describe them in detail: and seeing that the people did not return, we decided not to touch nor take away anything of their, so as better to reassure them: and we left in the tents for them many of our things, placed where they should see them, and returned by night to our ships: and the next day, when it was light we saw on the beach an infinite number of people: and we landed: and although they ap- peared timorous towards us, they took courage nevertheless to hold converse with us, giving us whatever we asked of them: and shewing themselves very friendly towards us, they told us that those were their dwellings, and that they had come hither for the purpose of fishing: and they begged that we would visit their dwellings and villages, because they desired to receive us as friends: and they engaged in such friendship because of the two captured men whom we had with us, as these were their enemies: insomuch that, in view of such importunity on their part, holding a council, we determined that 28 of us Christians in good array should go with them, and in the firm re- solve to die if it should be necessary: and after we had been here some three days, we went with them inland: and at three leagues from the coast we came to a vil- lage of many people and few houses, for there were no more than nine (of these) : where we were received with such and so many barbarous ceremonies that the pen suffices not to write them down: for there were dances, and songs, and lamentations mingled with rejoicing, and great quanti- ties of food: and here we remained the night: . . . and after having been here that night and half the next day, so great was the number of people who came wondering to behold us that they were beyond counting: and the most aged begged us to go with them to other vil- lages which were further inland, making display of doing us the greatest honour: wherefore we decided to go: and it would be impossible to tell you how much honour they did us: and we went to sev- eral villages, so that we were nine days journeying, so that our Christians who had remained with the ships were already apprehensive concerning us: and when we were about 18 leagues in the interior of the land, we resolved to return to the ships: and on our way back, such was the number of people, as well men as women, that came with us as far as the sea, that it was a wondrous thing: and if any of us became weary of the march, they car- ried us in their nets very refreshingly: and in crossing the rivers, which are many and very large, they passed us over by skilful means so securely that we ran no danger whatever, and many of them came laden with the things which they had given us, which consisted in their sleeping-nets, and very rich feathers, many bows and arrows, innumerable 131 AMERICTJS VESPUCIUS popin-jays of divers colours: and others brought with them loads of their house- hold goods, and of animals: but a greater marvel which I tell you, that, when we had to cross a river, he deemed himself lucky who was able to carry us on his back: and when we reached the sea, our boats having arrived, we entered into them: and so great was the struggle which they made to get into our boats, and to come to see our ships, that we marvelled (thereat): and in our boats we took as many of them as we could, and made our way to the ships, and so many (others) came swimming that we found ourselves embarrassed in seeing so many people in the ships, for there were over a. thousand persons all naked and unarmed: they were amazed by our (nautical) gear and con- trivances, and the size of the ships: and with them there occurred to us a very laughable affair, which was that we de- cided to fire off some of our great guns, and when the explosion took place, most of them through fear cast themselves (into the sea) to swim, not otherwise than frogs on the margins of a pond, when they see something that frightens them, will jump into the water, just so did those people: and those who remained in the ships were so terrified that we regretted our action: however we reassured them by telling them that with those arms we slew our enemies: and when they had amused themselves in the ships the whole day, we told them to go away because we desired to depart that night, and so sepa- rating from us with much friendship and love, they went away to land. Amongst that people and in their land, I knew and beheld so many of their customs and ways of living, that I do not care to enlarge upon them: for Your Magnificence must know that in each of my voyages I have noted the most wonderful things, and I have indited it all in a volume after the manner of a geography: and I entitle it * Le quattro Giornate" : in which work the things are comprised in detail, and as yet there is no copy of it given out, as it is necessary for me to revise it. This land is very populous, and full of inhabi- tants, and of numberless rivers, (and) animals: few (of which) resemble ours, excepting lions, panthers, stags, pigs, goats, and deer: and even these have some dissimilarities of form: they have no horses nor mules, nor, saving your rever- ence, asses nor dogs, nor any kind of sheep or oxen: but so numerous are the other animals which they have, and all are savage, and of none do they make use for their service, that they could not be count- ed. What shall we say of others (such as) birds? which are so numerous, and of so many kinds, and of such various-col- oured plumages, that it is a marvel to be- hold them. The soil is very pleasant and fruitful, full of immense woods and forests: and it is always green, for the foliage never drops off. The fruits are so many that they are numberless and en- tirely different from ours. This land is within the torrid zone, close to or just under the parallel described by the Tropic of Cancer: where the pole of the horizon has an elevation of 23 degrees, at the ex- tremity of the second climate. Many tribes came to see us, and wondered at our faces and our whiteness : and they asked us whence we came : and we gave them to un- derstand that we had come from heaven, and that we were going to see the world, and they believed it. In this land we placed baptismal fonts, and an infinite (number of) people were baptised, and they called us in their language Carabi, which means men of great wisdom. We took our de- parture from that port: and the province is called Lariab: and we navigated along the coast, always in sight of land, until we had run 870 leagues of it, still going in the direction of the maestrale (north- west) making in our course many halts, and holding intercourse with many peo- ples: and in several places we obtained gold by barter but not much in quantity, for we had done enough in discovering the land and learning that they had gold. We had now been thirteen months on the voyage: and the vessels and the tackling were already much damaged, and the men worn out by fatigue: we decided by gen- eral council to haul our ships on land and examine them for the purpose of stanch- ing leaks, as they made much water, and of caulking and tarring them afresh, and (then) returning towards Spain: and when we came to this determination, we were close to a harbour the best in the world: into which we entered with our vessels: where we found an immense num- 132 AMERICUS VESPUCIUS ber of people: who received us with much friendliness: and on the shore we made a bastion with our boats and with barrels and casks, and our artillery, which com- manded every point: and our ships hav- ing been unloaded and lightened, we drew them upon land, and repaired them in everything that was needful: and the land's people gave us very great assist- ance: and continually furnished us with their victuals: so that in this port we tasted little of our own, which suited our game well: for the stock of provisions which we had for our return-passage was little and of sorry kind: where (i.e., there) we remained 37 days: and went many times to their villages where they paid us the greatest honour: and (now) de- siring to depart upon our voyage, they made complaint to us how at certain times of the year there came from over the sea to this their land, a race of people very cruel, and enemies of theirs: and (who) by means of treachery or of violence slew many of them, and ate them: and some they made captives, and carried them away to their houses, or country: and how they could scarcely contrive to defend them- selves from them, making signs to us that (those) were an island-people and lived out in the sea about a hundred leagues away: and so piteously did they tell us this that we believed them: and we prom- ised to avenge them of so much wrong: and they remained overjoyed herewith: and many of them offered to come along with us, but we did not wish to take them for many reasons, save that we took seven of them, on condition that they should come (i. e., return home) afterwards in ( their own ) canoes because we did not de- sire to be obliged to take them back to their country: and they were contented: and so we departed from those people, leaving them very friendly towards us: and having repaired our ships, and sailing for seven days out to sea between north- east and east: and at the end of the seven days we came upon the islands, which were many, some (of them) in- habited, and others deserted: and we anchored at one of them: where we saw a numerous people who called it Iti: and having manned our boats with strong crews, and (taken ammunition for) three cannon-shots in each, we made for land: where we found (assembled) about 400 men, and many women, and all naked like the former (peoples). They were of good bodily presence, and seemed right warlike men: for they were armed with their weapons, which are bows, arrows, and lances: and most of them had square wooden targets and bore them in such wise that they did not impede the drawing of the bow: and when we had come with our boats to about a bowshot of the land, they all sprang into the water to shoot their arrows at us and to prevent us from leap- ing upon shore: and they had all their bodies painted of various colours, and (were) plumed with feathers: and the in- terpreters who were with us told us that when (those) displayed themselves so painted and plumed, it was to betoken that they wanted to fight: and so much did they persist in preventing us from land- ing, that we were compelled to play with our artillery: and when they heard the ex- plosion, and saw one of them fall dead, they all drew back to the land: wherefore, forming our council, we resolved that 42 of our men should spring on shore, and, if they waited for us, fight them: thus having leaped to land, with our weapons, they advanced towards us, and we fought for about an hour, for we had but little ad- vantage of them, except that our arbalas- ters and gunners killed some of them, and they wounded certain of our men: and this was because they did not stand to re- ceive us within reach of lance-thrust for sword-blow: and so much vigour did we put forth at last, that we came to sword- play, and when they tasted our weapons, they betook themselves to flight through the mountains and the forests, and left us conquerors of the field with many of them dead and a good number wounded: and for that day we took no other pains to pursue them, because we were very weary, and we returned to our ships, with so much gladness on the part of the seven men who had come with us that they could not contain themselves (for joy) : and when the next day arrived, we beheld coming across the land a great number of people, with signals of battle, continu- ally sounding horns, and various other instruments which they use in their wars: and all (of them) painted and feathered, so that it was a very strange sight to be- 133 AMERICUS VESPUCIUS hold them: wherefore all the ships held was asked to come to Lisbon, to confer council, and it was resolved that since with his Highness, who promised to show this people desired hostility with us, we me favor. I was not inclined to go, and should proceed to encounter them and try I despatched the messenger with a reply by every means to make them friends: in that I was not well, but that, when I had case they would not have our friendship, recovered, if his Highness still wished for that we should treat them as foes, and so my services, I would come as soon as he many of them as we might be able to capt- might send for me. Seeing that he could ure should all be our slaves: and having not have me, he arranged to send Giuliano armed ourselves as best we could, we ad- di Bartholomeo di Giocondo for me, he vanced towards the shore, and they sought being in Lisbon, with instructions that, not to hinder us from landing, I believe come what might, he should bring me. from fear of the cannons: and we jumped The said Giuliano came to Seville, and on land, 57 men in four squadrons, each prayed so hard that I was forced to go. one (consisting of) a captain and his My departure was taken ill by many who company: and we came to blows with knew me, for I left Castile where honor them: and after a long battle (in which) was done me, and where the King held many of them (were) slain, we put them me in good esteem. It was worse that I to flight, and pursued them to a village, went without bidding farewell to my having made about 250 of them captives, host. and we burnt the village, and returned to When I was presented to that King, our ships with victory and 250 prisoners, he showed his satisfaction that I had leaving many of them dead and wounded, come, and asked me to go in company and of ours there were no more than one with three of his ships that were ready killed, and 22 wounded, who all escaped to depart for the discovery of new lands. (i. e., recovered), God be thanked. We As the request of a king is a command, I arranged our departure, and seven men, of had to consent to whatever he asked; and whom five were wounded, took an island- we sailed from this port of Lisbon with canoe, and with seven prisoners that we three ships on the 10th of March, 1501, gave them, four women and three men, re- shaping our course direct for the island turned to their (oion) country full of of Grand Canary. We passed without gladness, wondering at our strength: and sighting it, and continued along the west we thereon made sail for Spain with 222 coast of Africa. On this coast we made captive slaves: and reached the port of our fishery of a sort of fish called parchi. Calis (Cadiz) on the 15th day of October, We remained three days, and then came 1498, where we were well received and sold to a port on the coast of Ethiopia called our slaves. Such is what befell me, most Besechiece, which is within the Torrid noteworthy, in this my first voyage. Zone, the North Pole rising above it 14° His Third Voyage. — The following is his 30', situated in the first climate. Here account of his third voyage, as detailed in we remained two days, taking in wood and letters to (1) Pier Soderini, and (2) Lo- water; for my intention was to shape a renzo Pietro Francesco de' Medici. course towards the south in the Atlantic Gulf. We departed from this port of *« Ethiopia, and steered to the south-west, Being afterwards in Seville, resting taking a quarter point to the south until, from so many labors that I had endured after sixty-seven days, we came in sight of during these two voyages, and intending land, which was 700 leagues from the to return to the land of pearls, Fortune said port to the south-west. In those showed that she was not content with sixty-seven days we had the worst time these my labors. I know not how there that man ever endured who navigated came into the thoughts of the Most Se- the seas, owing to the rains, perturba- rene King Don Manuel of Portugal the tions, and storms that we encountered, wish to have my services. But being at The season was very contrary to us, by Seville, without any thought of going to reason of the course of our navigation Portugal, a messenger came to me with a being continually in contact with the equi- letter from the Royal Crown, in which I noctial line, where, in the month of June, 134 AMERICUS VESPUCIUS it is winter. We found that the day and the night were equal, and that the shadow was always towards the south. It pleased God to show us a new land on the 17th of August, and we anchored at a distance of half a league, and got our boats out. We then went to see the land, whether it was inhabited, and what it was like. We found that it was inhab- ited by people who were worse than ani- mals. But your Magnificence must under- stand that we did not see them at first, though we were convinced that the coun- try was inhabited, by many signs observed by us. We took possession for that Most Serene King, and found the land to be very pleasant and fertile, and of good appear- ance. It was 5° to the south of the equi- noctial line. We went back to the ships; and, as we were in great want of wood and water, we determined, next day, to return to the shore, with the object of obtaining what we wanted. Being on shore, we saw some people at the top of a hill, who were looking at us, but without showing any in- tention of coming down. They were naked, and of the same color and form as the others we had seen. We tried to induce them to come and speak with us, but did not succeed, as they would not trust us. Seeing their obstinacy, and it being late, we returned on board, leaving many bells and mirrors on shore, and other things in their sight. As soon as we were at some distance on the sea, they came down from the hill, and showed themselves to be much astonished at the things. On that day we were only able to obtain water. Next morning we saw from the ship that the people on shore had made a great smoke; and, thinking it was the signal to us, we went on shore, where we found that many people had come, but they still kept at a distance from us. They made signs to us that we should come inland with them. Two of our Christians were, there- fore, sent to ask their captain for leave to go with them a short distance inland, to see what kind of people they were, and if they had any riches, spices, or drugs. The captain was contented, so they got together many things for barter, and part- ed from us, with instructions that they should not be more than five days absent as we would wait that time for them. So they set out on their road inland, and we returned to the ships to wait for them. Nearly every day people came to the beach, but they would not speak with us. On the seventh day we went on shore, and found that they had arranged with their women ; for, as we jumped on shore, the men of the land sent many of their women to speak with us. Seeing that they were not re- assured, we arranged to send to them one of our people, who was a very agile and valiant youth. To give them more confi- dence, the rest of us went back into the boats. He went among the women, and they all began to touch and feel him, won- dering at him exceedingly. Things being so, we saw a woman come from the hill, carrying a great stick in her hand. When she came to where our Christian stood, she raised it, and gave him such a blow that he was felled to the ground. The other women immediately took him by the feet, and dragged him towards the hill. The men rushed down to the beach, and shot at us with their bows and arrows. Our peo- ple, in great fear, hauled the boats towards their anchors, which were on shore; but, owing to the quantites of arrows that came into the boats, no one thought of taking up their arms. At last four rounds from the bombard were fired at them; and they no sooner heard the report than they all ran away towards the hill, where the women were still tearing the Christian to pieces. At a great fire they had made they roasted him before our eyes, showing us many pieces, and then eating them. The men made signs how they had killed the other two Christians and eaten them. What shocked us much was seeing with our eyes the cruelty with which they treated the dead, which was an intolerable insult to all of us. Having arranged that more than forty of us should land and avenge such cruel murder and so bestial and inhuman an act, the principal captain would not give his consent. We departed from them un- willingly, and with much shame caused by the decision of our captain. We left this place, and commenced our navigation by shaping a course be- tween east and south. Thus we sailed along the land, making many landings, seeing natives, but having no intercourse with them. We sailed on until we found that the coast made a turn to the west 135 AMERICTJS VESPUCIUS when we had doubled a cape, to which we the voyage, and having seen that there gave the name of the Cape of St. Angus- was no mining wealth whatever in that tine. We then began to shape a course land, we decided upon taking leave of it, to the south-west. The cape is distant and upon sailing across the sea for some from the place where the Christians were other part. Having held a consultation, murdered 150 leagues towards the east, it was decided that the course should be and this cape is 8° from the equinoctial taken which seemed good to me; and the line to the south. In navigating, we saw command of the fleet was intrusted to me. one day a great multitude of people on the beach, gazing at the wonderful sight I gave orders that the fleet should be sup- plied with wood and water for six months, of our ships. As we sailed, we turned such being the decision of the officers of the ship towards them, anchored in a good place, and went on shore with the boats. We found the people to be better condi- the ships. Having made our departure from this land, we began our navigation with a southerly course on the 15th of tioned than those we had met with be- February, when already the sun moved fore; and, responding to our overtures, towards the equinoctial, and turned tow- they soon made friends, and treated with ards our Hemisphere of the North. We us. We were five days in this place, and sailed so far on this course that we found found carina fistola very thick and green, ourselves where the South Pole had a height above our horizon of 52°, and we could no longer see the stars of Ursa Minor or of Ursa Major. We were then 500 leagues to the south of the port whence we had departed, and this was on the 3rd of April. On this day such a tem- pest arose on the sea that all our sails were blown away, and we ran under bare poles, with a heavy southerly gale and a tremendous sea, the air being very tem- pestuous. The gale was such that all the people in the fleet were much alarmed. The nights were very long, for the night we had on the 7th of April lasted fifteen hours, the sun being at the end of Aries, and in that region it was winter, as your Magnificence will be well aware. Sailing in this storm, on the 7th of April we came in sight of new land, along which we ran for nearly 20 leagues, and found it all a rocky coast, without any port or inhabi- tants. I believe this was because the cold was so great that no one in the fleet could endure it. Finding ourselves in such per- il, and in such a storm that we could scarcely see one ship from another, owing to the greatness of the waves and the blinding mist, it was agreed with the prin- cipal captain that a signal should be made to the ships that they should make for land, and then shape a course for Por- tugal. This was very good counsel, for it is certain that, if we had delayed another night, all would have been lost ; for, as we wore round on the next day, we were met by such a storm that we expected to be swamped. We had to undertake pilgrim- and dry on the tops of the trees. We de- termined to take a pair of men from this place, that they might teach us their language, and three of them came volun- tarily to go to Portugal. Lest your Magnificence should be tired of so much writing, you must know that, on leaving this port, we sailed along on a westerly course, always in sight of land, continually making many landings, and speaking with an infinite number of peo- ple. We were so far south that we were outside the Tropic of Capricorn, where the South Pole rises above the horizon 32°. We had lost sight altogether of Ursa Mi- nor and Ursa Major, which were far below and scarcely seen on the horizon. We guided ourselves by the stars of the South Pole, which are numerous and much larger and brighter than those of our Pole. I traced the figure of the greater part of those of the first magnitude, with a dec- laration of their orbits round the South Pole, and of their diameters and semi- diameters, as may be seen in my Four Voyages. We sailed along that coast for 750 leagues, 150 from the cape called St. Augustine to the west, and GOO to the south. Desiring to recount the things I saw on that coast, and what happened to us, as many more leaves would not suffice me. On the coast we saw an infinite number of trees, brazil wood and cassia, and those trees which yield myrrh, as well as other marvels of nature which I am unable to recount. Having now been ten months on 136 AMERICUS VESPUCIUS ages and perform other ceremonies, as is the custom of sailors at such times. We ran for five days, always coming towards the equinoctial line, where the air and sea became more temperate. It pleased God to deliver us from such peril. Our course was now between the north and north-east, for our intention was to reach the coast of Ethiopia, our distance from it being 300 leagues, in the Gulf of the Atlantic Sea. By the grace of God, on the 10th day of May, we came in sight of land, where we were able to refresh ourselves, the land being called La Serra Liona. We were there fifteen days, and thence shaped a course to the islands of the Azores, which are distant nearly 750 leagues from that Serra. We reached the islands in the end of July, where we remained fifteen days, taking some recreation. Thence we departed for Lisbon, distant 300 leagues to the west, and arrived at that port of Lisbon on the 7th of September, 1502, may God be thanked for our salvation, with only two ships. We burnt the other at Serra Liona, because she was no longer seaworthy. We were employed on this voyage nearly fifteen months; and for eleven days we navigated without seeing the North Star, nor the Great or Little Bears, which they call el corno, and we were guided by the stars of the other Pole. This is what I saw on this voyage. 2. March {or April), 1503. Alberico Vesputio to Lorenzo Pietro de' Medici, salutation. In past days I wrote very fully to you of my return from the new countries, which have been found and explored with the ships, at the cost, and by the command, of this Most Serene King of Portugal; and it is lawful to call it a new world, because none of these countries were known to our ancestors, and to all who hear about them they will be entirely new. For the opinion of the ancients was that the greater part of the world beyond the equinoctial line to the south was not land, but only sea, which they have called the Atlantic; and, if they have affirmed that any continent is there, they have given many reasons for denying that it is inhabited. But this their opinion is false, and entirely opposed to the truth. My last voyage has proved it, for I have found a continent in that southern part, more populous and more full of animals than our Europe or Asia or Africa, and even more temperate and pleasant than any other region known to us, as will be ex- plained further on. I shall write succinct- ly of the principal things only, and the things most worthy of notice and of being remembered, which I either saw or heard of in this new world, as presently will be- come manifest. We set out, on a prosperous voyage, on the 14th of May, 1501, sailing from Lisbon, by order of the aforesaid King, with three ships, to discover new countries towards the west; and we sailed towards the south continuously for twenty months. Of this navigation the order is as follows: Our course was for the Fortunate Islands, so called formerly, but now we called them the Grand Canary Islands, which are in the third climate, and on the confines of the inhabited west. Thence we sailed rapidly over the ocean along the coast of Africa and part of Ethiopia to the Ethi- opic Promontory, so called by Ptolemy, which is now called Cape Verde, and by the Ethiopians Biseghier, and that coun- try Mandraga, 13° within the Torrid Zone, on the north side of the equinoctial line. The country is inhabited by a black race. Having taken on board what we required, we weighed our anchors and made sail, taking our way across the vast ocean tow- ards the Antarctic Pole, with some west- ing. From the day when we left the be- fore-mentioned promontory, we sailed for the space of two months and three days. Hitherto no land had appeared to us in that vast sea. In truth, how much we had suffered, what dangers of shipwreck, I leave to the judgment of those to whom the experience of such things is very well known. What a thing it is to seek un- known lands, and how difficult, being ig- norant, to narrate briefly what happened! It should be known that, of the sixty- seven days of our voyage, we were navi- gating continuously forty-four. We had co- pious thunderstorms and perturbations, and it was so dark that we never could see either the sun in the day or the moon at night. This caused us great fear, so that we lost all hope of life. In these most terrible dangers of the sea it pleased the Most High to show us the continent 137 AMERICUS VESPUCIUS and the new countries, being another un- known world. These things being in sight, we were as much rejoiced as any one may imagine who, after calamity and ill- fortune, has obtained safety. It was on the 7th of August, 1501, that we reached those countries, thanking our Lord God with solemn prayers, and celebrating a choral Mass. We knew that land to be a continent, and not an island, from its long beaches extending without trending round, the infinite number of in- habitants, the numerous tribes and peo- ples, the numerous kinds of wild animals unknown in our country, and many others never seen before by us, touching which it would take long to make reference. The clemency of God was shown forth to us by being brought to these regions; for the ships were in a leaking state, and in a few days our lives might have been lost in the sea. To Him be the honor and glory, and the grace of the action. We took counsel, and resolved to navi- gate along the coast of this continent tow- ards the east, and never to lose sight of the land. We sailed along until we came to a point where the coast turned to the south. The distance from the landfall to this point was nearly 300 leagues. In this stretch of coast we often landed, and had friendly relations with the natives, as I shall presently relate. I had forgotten to tell you that from Cape Verde to the first land of this continent the distance is near- ly 700 leagues; although I estimate that we went over more than 1,800, partly owing to ignorance of the route, and part- ly owing to the tempests and foul winds which drove us off our course, and sent us in various directions. If my companions had not trusted in me, to whom cosmog- raphy was known, no one, not the leader of our navigation, would have known where we were after running 500 leagues. We were wandering and full of errors, and only the instruments for taking the alti- tudes of heavenly bodies showed us our position. These were the quadrant and astrolabe, as known to all. These have been much used by me with much honor; for I showed them that a knowledge of the marine chart, and the rules taught by it, are more worth than all the pilots in the world. For these pilots have no knowledge beyond those places to which they have often sailed. Where the said point of land showed us the trend of the coast to the south, we agreed to continue our voyage, and to ascertain what there might be in those regions. We sailed along the coast for nearly 500 leagues, often going on shore and having inter- course with the natives, who received us in a brotherly manner. We sometimes stay- ed with them for fifteen or twenty days continuously, as friends and guests, as I shall relate presently. Part of this conti- nent is in the Torrid Zone, beyond the equinoctial line towards the South Pole. But it begins at 8° beyond the equinoctial. We sailed along the coast so far that we crossed the Tropic of Capricorn, and found ourselves where the Antarctic Pole was 50° above our horizon. W T e went towards the Antarctic Circle until we were 17° 30' from it, .all of which I have seen, and I have known the nature of those people, their customs, the resources and fertility of the land, the salubrity of the air, the positions of the celestial bodies in the heavens, and, above all, the fixed stars, over an eighth of the sphere, never seen by our ancestors, as I shall explain below. As regards the people: we have found such a multitude in those countries that no one could enumerate them, as we read in the Apocalypse. They are people gen- tle and tractable, and all of both sexes go naked, not covering any part of their bodies, . . . and so they go until their deaths. They have large, square-built bodies, and well proportioned. Their col- or reddish, which, I think, is caused by their going naked and exposed to the sun. Their hair is plentiful and black. They are agile in walking, and of quick sight. They are of a free and good-looking ex- pression of countenance, which they them- selves destroy by boring the nostrils and lips, the nose and ears; nor must you be- lieve that the borings are small, nor that they only have one, for I have seen those who had no less than seven borings in the face, each one the size of a plum. They stop up these perforations with blue stones, bits of marble, of crystal, or very fine alabaster, also with very white bones and other things artificially prepared ac- cording to their customs, which, if you could see, it would appear a strange and monstrous thing. One had in the nostrils 138 AMERICUS VESPUCIUS and lips alone seven stones, of which some air. Unless they meet with violent deaths, were half a palm in length. It will as- their lives are long. I believe this is be- tonish you to hear that I considered that cause a southerly wind is always blowing, (lie weight of seven such stones was as a south wind to them being what a north much as sixteen ounces. In each ear they wind is to us. They are expert fisher- had three perforations bored, whence they men, and the sea is full of all kinds of had other stones and rings suspended, fish. They are not hunters. I think because This custom is only for the men, as the here there are many kinds of wild animals, women do not perforate their faces, but principally lions and bears, innumerable only their ears. . . . serpents, and other horrible creatures and They have no cloth, either of wool, deformed beasts, also because there are flax, or cotton, because they have no need vast forests and trees of immense size, of it; nor have they any private prop- They have not the courage to face such erty, everything being in common. They dangers naked and without any defence, live amongst themselves without a king or The land is very fertile, abounding in ruler, each man being his own master, and many hills and valleys and in large rivers, having as many wives as they please. . . . and is irrigated by very refreshing springs. They have no temples and no laws, nor are It is covered with extensive and dense they idolaters. What more can I say? forests, which are almost impenetrable, They live according to nature, and are and full of every kind of -wild beast, more inclined to be Epicurean than Stoic. Great trees grow without cultivation, of They have no commerce among each other, which many yield fruits pleasant to the and they wage war without art or order, taste and nourishing to the human body; The old men make the youths do what and a great many have an opposite effect, they please, and incite them to fights, in The fruits are unlike those in our coun- which they mutually kill with great cruel- try; and there are innumerable different ty. They slaughter those who are capt- kinds of fruits and herbs, of which they ured, and the victors eat the vanquished; make bread and excellent food. They also for human flesh is an ordinary article of have many seeds unlike ours. No kind food among them. You may be the more of metal has been found except gold, in certain of this, because I have seen a man which the country abounds, though we eat his children and wife; and I knew a have brought none back in this our first man who was popularly credited to navigation. The natives, however, assur- have eaten 300 human bodies. I was ed us that there was an immense quantity once in a certain city for twenty-seven of gold underground, and nothing was to days, where human flesh was hung up be had from them for a price. Pearls near the houses, in the same way as we abound, as I wrote to you. expose butcher's meat. I say further that If I was to attempt to write of all the they were surprised that we did not eat species of animals, it would be a long and our enemies, and use their flesh as food; tedious task. I believe certainly that our for they say it is excellent. Their arms Pliny did not touch upon a thousandth are bows and arrows; and, when they go part of the animals and. birds that exist to war, they cover no part of their bodies, in this region; nor could an artist such as being in this like beasts. We did all we Policletus succeed in painting them. All could to persuade them to desist from the trees are odoriferous, and some of their evil habits, and they promised us to them emit gums, oils, or other liquors. If leave off. ... they were our property, I do not doubt They live for 150 years, and are rarely but that they would be useful to man. sick. If they are attacked by a disease, If the terrestrial paradise is in some part they cure themselves with the roots of of this land, it cannot be very far from some herbs. These are the most note- the coast we visited. It is, as I have told worthy things I know about them. you, in a climate where the air is tem- The air in this country is temperate perate at noon, being neither cold in win- and good, as we were able to learn from ter nor hot in summer, their accounts that there are never any The sky and air are serene during a pestilences or epidemics caused by bad great part of the year. Thick vapors, 139 AMERICUS VESPTXCITJS with fine rain falling, last for three or four hours, and then disappear like smoke. The sky is adorned with most beautiful signs and figures, in which I have noted as many as twenty stars as bright as we sometimes see Venus and Jupiter. I have considered the orbits and motions of these stars; and I have measured the circum- ference and diameters of the stars by a geometrical method, ascertaining which were the largest. I saw in the heaven three Canopi, two certainly bright and the other obscure. The Antarctic Pole is not figured with a Great Bear and a Little Bear, like our Arctic Pole, nor is any bright star seen near it, and of those which go round in the shortest circuit there are three which have the figure of the orthog- onous triangle, of which the smallest has a diameter of 9 half-degrees. To the east of these is seen a Canopus of great size, and white, which, when in mid-heaven, has this figure: — * s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s s canopus » * After these come two others, of which the half-circumference, the diameter, has 12 half-degrees; and with them is seen another Canopus. To these succeed six other most beautiful and very bright stars, beyond all the others of the eighth sphere, which, in the superficies of the heaven, have half the circumference, the diameter 32°, and with them is one black Canopus of immense size, seen in the Milky Way, and they have this shape when they are on the meridian: — s s s s s s s s s s s s s s restore it to me. In that hemisphere I have seen things not compatible with the opinions of philosophers. Twice I have seen a white rainbow towards the middle of the night, which was not only observed by me, but also by all the sailors. Like- wise we often saw the new moon on the day on which it is in conjunction with the sun. Every night, in that part of the heavens of which we speak, there were in- numerable vapors and burning meteors. I have told you, a little way back, that, in the hemisphere of which we are speak- ing, it is not a complete hemisphere in re- spect to ours, because it does not take that form so that it may be properly call- ed so. Therefore, as I have said, from Lisbon, whence we started, the distance from the equinoctial line is 39°; and we navigated beyond the equinoctial line to 50°, which together make 90°, which is one quarter of a great circle, according to the true measurement handed down to us by the an- cients, so that it is manifest that we must have navigated over a fourth part of the earth. By this reasoning, we who inhabit Lisbon, at a distance of 39° from the equi- noctial line in north latitude, are to those who live under 50° beyond the same line, in meridional length, angularly 5° on a transverse line. I will explain this more clearly: a perpendicular line, while we stand upright, if suspended from a point of the heavens exactly vertical, hangs over our heads; but it hangs over them side- ways. Thus, while we are on a right line, they are on a transverse line. An or- thogonal triangle is thus formed, of which we have the right line; but the base and hypothenuse to them seems the vertical line, as in this figure it will appear. This will suffice as regards cosmography. I have known many other very beautiful stars, which I have diligently noted down, vertex and have described very well in a certain of thei r little book describing this my navigation, heads * Them - which at present is in the possession of These are the most notable things that that Most Serene King ; and I hope he will I have seen in this my last navigation, or, 140 AMES as I call it, the third voyage. For the served in the campaigns on the Peninsula other two voyages were made by order of in 1862. At Chancellorsville he led a the Most Serene King of Spain to the brigade, also at Gettysburg, in 1863, and west, in which I noted many wonderful before Petersburg, in 1864, he command- works of God, our Creator ; and, if I ed a division. In the expedition against should have time, I intend to collect all Fort Fisher, near the close of that year, he these singular and wonderful things into commanded a division of colored troops, a geographical or cosmographical book, and afterwards led the same in North that my record may live with future gen- Carolina. In the spring of 1865 he was erations; and the immense work of the brevetted major-general of volunteers and omnipotent God will be known, in parts brigadier-general, U. S. A. In 1871 he still unknown, but known to us. I also was a representative of Mississippi in the pray that the most merciful God will United States Senate; was governor in prolong my life that, with His good 1874; and was appointed a brigadier-gen- grace, I may be able to make the best dis- eral of volunteers June 20, 1898, serving position of this my wish. I keep the through the war with Spain, other two journeys in my sanctuary; and, Ames, Fisher, orator and statesman; the Most Serene King restoring to me the born in Dedham, Mass., April 9, 1758; was third journey, I intend to return to peace graduated at Harvard College in 1774; and my country. There, in consultation taught school until 1781; then began the with learned persons, and comforted and practice of law; and soon displayed rare aided by friends, I shall be able to com- oratorical powers. He wrote political plete my work. essays for Boston newspapers, over the I ask your pardon for not having signatures of "Brutus" and " Camillus." sooner been able to send you this my last In Congress from 1789 until 1797 he was navigation, as I had promised in my for- always distinguished for his great business mer letters. I believe that you will under- talent, exalted patriotism, and brilliant stand the cause, which was that I could oratory. Ardently devoted to Washing- not get the books from this Most Serene ton, personally and politically, he was King. I think of undertaking a fourth chosen by his colleagues to write the ad- voyage in the same direction, and promise dress to the first President on his retiring is already made of two ships with their armaments, in which I may seek new re- gions of the East on a coast called Africus. In which journey I hope much to do God honor, to be of service to this kingdom, to secure repute for my old age; and I ex- pect no other result with the permission of this Most Serene King. May God permit what is for the best, and you shall be in- formed of what happens. This letter was translated from the Italian into the Latin language by Jo- cundus, interpreter, as every one under- stands Latin who desires to learn about these voyages, and to search into the things of heaven, and to know all that is proper to be known; for, from the time the world began, so much has not been discovered touching the greatness of the earth and what is contained in it. from office in 1797. After leaving Congress Ames, Adelbert, military officer; born he devoted himself to the practice of his in Rockland, Me., Oct. 31, 1835; was grad- profession; but finally, on account of de- uated at West Point in 1861; and for his dining health, gave it up to engage exclu- gallant conduct in the Battle of Bull sively in agricultural pursuits. In 1804 Run (1861) was brevetted major. He he was chosen president of Harvard Col- 141 FISHER AMKS. AMES lege, but declined the honor. He received the degree of LL.D. from that institution. His orations, essays, and letters were col- lected and published in 1 volume, with a biographical sketch by Rev. Dr. Kirk- land, in 1809. So powerful was his great speech in Congress in favor of Jay's Treaty, on April 28, 1795, that an oppo- sition member moved to postpone the deci- sion of the question that they might not " vote under the influence of a sensibility which their calm judgment might con- demn." He died in Dedham, July 4, 1808. Speech on Jay's Treaty. — The following are extracts from his speech made on April 28, 179G: The treaty is bad, fatally bad, is the cry. It sacrifices the interest, the honor, the independence of the United States, and the faith of our engagements to France. If we listen to the clamor of party intem- perance, the evils are of a number not to be counted, and of a nature not to be borne, even in idea. The language of passion and exaggeration may silence that of sober reason in other places; it has not done it here. The question here is whether the treaty be really so very fatal as to oblige the nation to break its faith. I ad- mit that such a treaty ought not to be executed. I admit that self-preservation is the first law of society, as well as of individuals. It would, perhaps, be deemed an abuse of terms to call that a treaty which violates such a principle. I waive, also, for the present, any inquiry, what departments shall represent the nation, and annul the stipulations of a treaty. I content myself with pursuing the inquiry, whether the nature of this compact be such as to justify our refusal to carry it into effect. A treaty is the promise of a na- tion. Now, promises do not always bind him that makes them. But I lay down two rules, which ought to guide us in this case. The treaty must appear to be bad, not merely in the petty details, but in its character, principle, and mass. And in the next place, this ought to be ascertain- ed by the decided and general concurrence of the enlightened public. I confess there seems to be something very like ridicule thrown over the debate by the discussion of the articles in detail. The undecided point is, shall we break our faith? And while our country and en- lightened Europe await the issue with more than curiosity, we are employed to gather piecemeal, and article by article, from the instrument a justification for the deed by trivial calculations of com- mercial profit and loss. This is little worthy of the subject, of this body, or of the, nation. If the treaty is bad, it will appear to be so in its mass. Evil, to a fatal extreme, if that be its tendency, re- quires no proof; it brings it. Extremes speak for themselves and make their own law. What if the direct voyage of Amer- ican ships to Jamaica, with horses or lum- ber, might net 1 or 2 per centum more than the present trade to Surinam — would the proof of the fact avail anything in so grave a question as the violation of the public engagements? . . . Why do they complain that the West Indies are not laid open? Why do they lament that any restriction is stipulated on the commerce of the East Indies? Why do they pretend that, if they reject this and insist upon more, more will be accomplished? Let us be explicit — > more would not satisfy. If all was grant- ed, would not a treaty of amity with Great Britain still be obnoxious? Have we not this instant heard it urged against our envoy that he was not ardent enough in his hatred of Great Britain? A treaty of amity is condemned because it was not made by a foe and in the spirit of one. The same gentleman, at the same instant, repeats a very prevailing objection, that no treaty should be made with the enemy of France. No treaty, exclaim others, should be made with a monarch or a des- pot; there will be no naval security while those sea-robbers domineer on the ocean; their den must be destroyed; that nation must be extirpated. I like this, sir, because it is sincerity. With feelings such as these we do not pant for treaties. Such passions seek nothing, and will be content with nothing, but the destruction of their object. If a treaty left King George his island, it would not answer; not if he stipulated to pay rent for it. It has been said the world ought to rejoice if Britain was sunk in the sea; if where there are now men and wealth and laws and liberty, there was no 142 AMES more than a sand-bank for sea monsters would, however loath, soon find themselves to fatten on, a space for the storms of the obliged to make justice, that justice under ocean to mingle in conflict, . . . which they fell, the fundamental law of What is patriotism? Is it a narrow their state. They would perceive it was affection for the spot where a man was their interest to make others respect — born? Are the very clods where we tread and they would, therefore, soon pay some entitled to this ardent preference because respect themselves to — the obligations of they are greener? No, sir, this is not the good faith. character of the virtue, and it soars It is painful — I hope it is superfluous higher for its object. It is an extended — to make even the supposition that self-love, mingled with all the enjoyments America should furnish the occasion of of life, and twisting itself with the mi- this opprobrium. No, let me not even nutest filaments of the heart. It is thus imagine that a republican government, we obey the laws of society, because they sprung, as our own is, from a people en- are the laws of virtue. In their authority lightened and uncorrupted, a government we see not the array of force and terror, whose origin is right, and whose daily but the venerable image of our country's discipline is duty, can, upon solemn de- honor. Every good citizen makes that bate, make its option to be faithless — ■ honor his own, and cherishes it not only can dare to act what despots dare not as precious, but as sacred. He is will- avow, what our own example evinces, the ing to risk his life in its defence, and is states of Barbary are unsuspected of. No, conscious that he gains protection while let me rather make the supposition that he gives it. For, what rights of a citizen Great Britain refuses to execute the will be deemed inviolable when a state treaty after we have done everything to renounces the principles that constitute carry it into effect. Is there any lan- their security? Or if his life should not guage of reproach pungent enough to ex- be invaded, what would its enjoyments be press your commentary on the fact ? What in a country odious in the eyes of would you say, or, rather, what would strangers and dishonored in his own? you not say? Would you not tell them, Could he look with affection and venera- wherever an Englishman might travel, tion to such a country as his parent? The shame would stick to him — he would dis- sense of having one would die within him ; own his country? You would exclaim: he would blush for his patriotism, if he " England, proud of your wealth and ar- retained any, and justly, for it would be rogant in the possession of power, blush a vice. He would be a banished man in for these distinctions, which become the his native land. I see no exception to the vehicles of your dishonor." Such a na- respect that is paid among nations to tion might truly say to corruption, " Thou the laws of good faith. If there are cases art my father " ; and to the worm, " Thou in this enlightened period when it is vio- art my mother and my sister." We should lated, there are none when it is decried, say of such a race of men, their name is a It is the philosophy of politics, the re- heavier burden than their debt. . . . ligion of governments. It is observed by Ames, Herman Vandenbtjrg, his- barbarians — a whiff of tobacco smoke or torian; born in Lancaster, Mass., Aug. a string of beads gives not merely a bind- 7, 1865; was graduated at Amherst Col- ing force but sanctity to treaties. Even lege in 1888 and later studied in Ger- in Algiers a truce may be bought for many. In 1891-94 he was an instructor money, but, when ratified, even Algiers in History at the University of Michigan; is too wise or too just to disown and an- in 1896-97 occupied a similar post in nul its obligation. Thus we see neither Ohio State University; and in the latter the ignorance of savages nor the principles year accepted the chair of American Con- of an association for piracy and rapine stitutional History in the University of permit a nation to despise its engage- Pennsylvania. He is author of The Pro- ments. If, sir, there could be a resur- posed Amendments to the Constitution rection from the foot of the gallows, if of the United States, for which he was the victims of justice could live again, awarded the prize of the American His collect together and form a society, they torical Association in 1897. 143 AMES— AMIDAS Ames, Oakes, manufacturer; born in Eastern, Mass., Jan. 10, 1804; received a public school education; became thor- oughly familiar with the manufacture of shovels, etc. Subsequently he became a member of the firm of Oliver Ames & Sons. When the Union Pacific Railroad was being built the firm held large con- tracts which afterwards were transferred to a corporation known as the Credit Mobil ier of America, of which Oakes Ames became one of the largest stockhold- ers. In 1862-73 he was a member of Con- gress from Massachusetts. His connection with the Cr6dit Mobilier, including an al- legation of having improperly given stock to several members of Congress, was in- vestigated by a committee of the House of Representatives and he was censured by that body. He died in North Easton, Mass., May 8, 1873. See Credit Mo- BITJER. Ames, Oliver, statesman; born in Easton, Mass., Feb. 4, 1831; educated at Brown University; member of the State Senate, 1880-81; lieutenant-governor, 1882-84. He died in North Easton, Mass., Oct. 22, 1895. Amherst, Sir Jeffrey, military offi- cer; born in Kent, England, Jan. 29, 1717; became an ensign in the army in 1731, and was aide to Lord Ligonier and the Duke of Cumber land. In 1756 he was promoted to major - gener- al and given the command of the expedi- tion against Louisburg in 1758, which re- sulted in its capture, with other French strongholds in that vicinity. In Septem- ber, that year, he was appointed command- er-in-chief in America, and led the troops SIR JEFFREY AMHERST. in person, in 1759, that drove the French from Lake Champlain. The next year he captured Montreal and completed the conquest of Canada. For these acts he was rewarded with the thanks of Parliament and the Order of the Bath. In 1763 he was appointed governor of Vir- ginia. The atrocities of the Indians in May and June of that year aroused the anger and the energies of Sir Jeffrey, and he contemplated hurling swift destruction upon the barbarians. He denounced Pon- tiac as the " chief ringleader of mis- chief"; and, in a proclamation, said, " Whoever kills Pontiac shall receive from me a reward of £100" ($500). He bade the commander at Detroit to make public proclamation for an assassin to pursue him. He regarded the Indians as " the vilest race of creatures on the face of the earth; and whose riddance from it must be esteemed a meritorious act, for the good of mankind." He instructed his officers engaged in war against them to *' take no prisoners, but to put to death all that should fall into their hands." Sir Jeffrey was made governor of the island of Guernsey in 1771; created a baron in 1776; was commander-in-chief of the forces from 1778 to 1795; and became field-marshal in July, 1796. He died Aug. 3, 1797. Amherst College, an educational insti- tution in Amherst, Mass., founded in J 821; incorporated in 1825. The funds for the construction of its buildings and for its endowments have been furnished by gifts of individuals, with the exception of $50,000 given by the State. The Chris- tian men and women of Massachusetts have built it up and chiefly sustain it. The declared object of its founders was " the education of young men for minis- terial and missionary labor." In 1899 it had thirty-six professors and instructors, 380 students, buildings that cost over $400,000, and valuable art and scientific collections. The Rev. George Harris D.D., was elected its president in that year. AMIDAS, PHILIP Amidas, Philip, navigator; was of a sent two ships to America in 1584, the Breton family in France, but was born chief command was given to Arthur Bar- in Hull, England, in 1550. When Raleigh low, who commanded one of the vessels, 144 AMIDAS, PHILIP and Philip Amidas the other. They were directed to explore the coasts within the parallels of lat. 32° and 38° N. They touched at the Canary Islands, the West Indies, and Florida, and made their way northward along the coast. On July 13, 1584, they entered Ocrakoke Inlet, and landed on Wocoken Island. There Bar- low set up a small column with the Brit- ish arms rudely carved upon it, and took formal possession of the whole region in the name of Queen Elizabeth, as he waved the English banner over it in the presence of the wondering natives. They spent several weeks in exploring Roanoke Island and Pamlico and Albemarle sounds. On Roanoke Island the Englishmen were en- tertained by the mother of King Wingini, who was absent, and were hospitably re- ceived everywhere. After getting what in- formation they could about the neighbor- ing main, and inspired by the beauties of nature around them, the navigators re- turned to England, attended by Manteo and Wanchese, two Indian chiefs. The former was afterwards created " Lord of Roanoke," and was the first and last American peer of England created. The glowing accounts given by Amidas and Barlow of the country they had discov- ered captivated the Queen, and she named the region, as some say, in allusion to her unmarried state, Virginia; others say it was in allusion to the virgin country. Amidas was in the maritime service of England long afterwards; and a few years after his voyage to Vir- ginia he commanded an expedition to Newfoundland. He died in England in 1618. First Voyage to Roanoke. — The follow- ing is the narrative of the first voyage to Roanoke by Amidas (or Amadas) and Barlow, written by the latter: The 27 day of Aprill, in the yeere of our redemption, 1584, we departed the West of England, with two barkes well furnished with men and victuals, having received our last and perfect directions by your letters, confirming the former in- structions, and commandments delivered by your selfe at our leaving the river of Thames. And I think it is a matter both unnecessary, for the manifest discoverie of the Countrey, as also for tediousnesse sake, remember unto you the diurnall of our course, sayling thither and return- ing; onely I have presumed to present unto you this briefe discourse, by which you may judge how profitable this land is likely to succeede, as well to your selfe, by whose direction and charge, and by whose servantes this our discoverie hath beene performed, as also to her Highnesse, and the Commonwealth, in which we hope your wisdome wilbe satisfied, considering that as much by us hath bene brought to light, as by those smal meanes, and number of men we had, could any way have bene ex- pected, or hoped for. The tenth of May we arrived at the Canaries, and the tenth of June in this present yeere, we were fallen with the Islands of the West Indies, keeping a more Southeasterly course then was needefull, because wee doubted that the current of the Bay of Mexico, disbogging betweene the Cape of Florida and Havana, had bene of greater force than afterwards we found it to bee. At which Islands we found the ay re very unwholesome, and our men grew for the most part ill disposed: so that having refreshed our selves with sweet water, & fresh victuall, we departed the twelfth day of our arrivall there. These islands, with the rest adjoining, are so well knowen to your selfe, and to many others, as I will not trouble you with the rememberance of them. The second of July we found shole water, wher we smelt so sweet, and so strong a smel, as if we had bene in the midst of some delicate garden abounding with all kinde of odoriferous flowers, by which we were assured, that the land could not be farre distant: and keeping good watch, and bearing but slacke saile, the fourth of the same moneth we arrived upon the coast, which we supposed to be a continent and firme lande, and we sayled along the same a hundred and twentie English miles before we could finde any entrance, or river issuing into the Sea. The first that appeared unto us, we entred, though not without some difficultie, & cast anker about three harquebuz-shot within the havens mouth on the left hand of the same; and after thanks given to God for our safe arrivall thither, we man- ned our boats, and went to view the land next adjoyning, and to take possession of i. — K. 145 AMIDAS, PHILIP the same, in the right of the Queenes most excellent Majestie, and rightfull Queene, and Princess of the same, and after de- livered the same over to your use, accord- ing to her Majesties grant, and letters patents, under her Highnesse great seale. Which being performed, according to the ceremonies used in such enterprises, we viewed the land about us, being, whereas we first landed, very sandie and low tow- ards the waters side, but so full of grapes, as the very beating and surge of the Sea overflowed them, of which we found such plentie, as well there as in all places else, both on the sand and on the greene soile on the hils, as in the plaines, as well on every little shrubbe, as also climing towardes the tope of high Cedars, that I thinke in all the world the like abundance is not to be found; and my selfe having seene those parts of Europe that most abound, find such difference as were in- credible to be written. We passed from the Sea side towardes the toppes of those hilles next adjoyning, being but of meane higth, and from thence wee behelde the Sea on both sides to the North, and to the South, finding no ende any of both wayes. This lande laye stretching it selfe to the West, which after wee found to bee but an Island of twentie miles long, and not above sixe miles broade. Under the banke or hill whereon we stoode, we behelde the valleys replenish- ed with goodly Cedar trees, and having dis- charged our harquebuz-shot, such a flocke of Cranes (the most part white), arose under us, with such a cry redoubled by many ecchoes, as if an armie of men had showted all together. This Island had many goodly woodes full of Deere, Conies, Hares, and Fowle, even in the middest of Summer in incredi- ble abundance. The woodes are not such as you finde in Bohemia, Moscouia, or Hercynia, barren and fruitless, but the highest and reddest Cedars of the world, farre bettering the Cedars of the Acores, of the Indies, or Lybanus, Pynes, Cypres, Sassaphras, the Lentisk, or the tree that beareth the Masticke, the tree that beareth the rine of blacke Sinamon, of which Mas- ter Winter brought from the streights of Magellan, and many other of excellent smell and qualitie. We remained by the side of this Island two whole dayes before we saw any people of the Countrey: the third day we espied one small boate row- ing towardes us having in it three per- sons: this boat came to the Island side, foure harquebuz-shot from our shippes, and there two of the people remaining, the third came along the shoreside towards us, and wee being then all within boord, he walked up and downe upon the point of the land next unto us: then the Master and the Pilot of the Admirall, Simon Fer- dinando, and the Captaine Philip Amadas, my selfe, and others rowed to the land, whose comming this fellow attended, never making any shewe of fear or doubt. And after he had spoken of many things not understood by us, we brought him with his owne good liking, aboord the ships, and gave him a shirt, a hat & some other things, and made him taste of our wine, and our meat, which he liked very wel: and after having viewed both barks, he departed, and went to his owne boat againe, which hee had left in a little Cove or Creeke adjoyning: assoone as hee was two bow shoot into the water, hee fell to fishing, and in lesse than halfe an houre, he had laden his boate as deepe as it could swimme, with which hee came againe to the point of the lande, and there he divided his fish into two parts, point- ing one part to the ship, and the other to the pinnesse: which, after he had, as much as he might, requited the former benefites received, departed out of our sight. The next day there came unto us di- vers boates, and in one of them the Kings brother, accompanied with fortie or fiftie men, very handsome and goodly people, and in their behaviour as mannerly and civill as any of Europe. His name was Granganimeo, and the king is called Win- gina, the countrey Wingandacoa, and now by her Majestie Virginia. The manner of his comming was in this sort: hee left his boates altogether as the first man did a little from the shippes by the shore, and came along to the place over against the shipes, followed with fortie men. When he came to the place, his servants spread a long matte upon the ground, on which he sate downe, and at the other ende of the matte foure others of his companie did the like, the rest of his men stood round about him, somewhat a farre off: when we 146 AMIDAS, PHILIP came to the shore to him ivith our weap- a copper kettle for fiftie skins woorth fifty ons, hee never mooved from his place, nor Crownes. They offered us good exchange any of the other foure, nor never mis- for our hatchets, and axes, and for knives, trusted any harme to be offered from us, and would have given any thing for but sitting still he beckoned us to come swordes: but wee would not depart with and sit by him, which we performed: and any. After two or three dayes the Kings being set hee made all signes of joy and brother came aboord the shippes, and welcome, striking on his head and his dranke wine, and eat of our meat and of breast and afterwardes on ours to shew our bread, and liked exceedingly thereof: wee were all one, smiling and making and after a few days overpassed, he shewe the best he could of al love, and brought his wife with him to the ships, familiaritie. After hee had made a long his daughter and two or three children: speech unto us, wee presented him with his wife was very well favoured, of meane divers things, which hee received very joy- stature, and very bashfull: shee had on fully, and thankefully. None of the com- her backe a long cloake of leather, with pany, durst speake one worde all the time : the f urre side next to her body, and before only the foure which were at the other her a piece of the same: about her fore- ende, spake one in the others eare very head she had a bande of white Corall, and softly. so had her husband many times: in her The King is greatly obeyed, and his eares shee had bracelets of pearles hanging brothers and children reverenced: the down to her middle, whereof wee delivered King himself in person was at our being your worship a little bracelet, and those there, sore wounded in a fight which hee were of the bignes of good pease. The rest had with the King of the next countrey, of her women of the better sort had pen- called Wingina, and was shot in two dants of copper hanging in either eare, and places through the body, and once cleane some of the children of the Kings brother through the thigh, but yet he recovered: and other noble men, have five or sixe in by reason whereof and for that hee lay at either eare: he himselfe had upon his head the chief towne of the countrey, being a broad plate of golde, or copper, for being sixe dayes journey off, we saw him not at unpolished we knew not what mettal it all. should be, neither would he by any means After we had presented this his brother suffer us to take it off his head, but feeling with such things as we thought he liked, it, it would bow very easily. His apparell wee likewise gave somewhat to the other was as his wives, onely the women weare that sat with him on the matte: but pres- their haire long on both sides, and the ently he arose and tooke all from them men but on one. They are of colour yel- and put it into his owne basket, making lowish, and their haire black for the most signes and tokens, that all things ought part, and yet we saw children that had to bee delivered unto him, and the rest very fine auburne and chestnut coloured were but his servants, and followers. A haire. day or two after this, we fell to trading After that these women had bene there, with them, exchanging some things that there came downe from all parts great we had, for Chamoys, Buffe, and Deere store of people, bringing with them skinnes: when we shewed him all our leather, corall, divers kindes of dies, very packet of merchandize, of all things that excellent, and exchanged with us: but he sawe, a bright tinne dish most pleased when Granganimeo the kings brother was him, which hee presently tooke up and present, none durst trade but himselfe : ex- clapt it before his breast, and after made cept such as weare red pieces of copper a hole in the brimme thereof and hung it on their heads like himselfe: for that is about his necke, making signes that it the difference betweene the noble men, and would defende him against his enemies the gouvernours of countreys, and the arrowes: for those people maintaine a meaner sort. And we both noted there, deadly and terrible warre, with the people and you have understood since by these and King adjoyning. We exchanged our men, which we brought home, that no tinne dish for twentie skinnes, woorth people in the worlde cary more respect to twentie Crownes, or twentie Nobles: and their King, Nobilitie, and Governours, 147 AMIDAS, PHILIP than these do. The Kings brothers wife, the day and performed his promise. He when she came to us, as she did many sent us every day a brase or two of fat times, was followed with forty or fifty Bucks, Conies, Hares, Fish and best of the women alwayes : and when she came into world. He sent us divers kindes of f ruites, the shippe, she left them all on land, sav- Melons, Walnuts, Cucumbers, Gourdes, ing her two daughters, her nurse and one Pease, and divers rootes, and fruites very or two more. The kings brother alwayes excellent good, and of their Countrey kept this order, as many boates as he corne, which is very white, faire and well would come withall to the shippes, so tasted, and groweth three times in five many fires would he make on the shore moneths: in May they sow, in July they a f arre off, to the end we might understand reape ; in June they sow, in August they with what strength and company he ap- reape; in July they sow, in September proached. Their boates are made of one they reape: onely they caste the corne tree, either of Pine or of Pitch trees: a into the ground, breaking a little of the wood not commonly knowen to our people, soft turfe with a wodden mattock, or pick- nor found growing in England. They have axe; our selves prooved the soile, and put no edge-tooles to make them withall: if some of our Pease in the ground, and in they have any they are very fewe, and tenne dayes they were of fourteene ynches those it seemes they had twentie yeres high: they have also Beanes very faire of since, which, as those two men declared, divers colours and wonderfull plentie: was out of a wrake which happened upon some growing naturally, and some in their their coast of some Christian ship, being gardens, and so have they both wheat and beaten that -way by some storme and out- oates. ragious weather, whereof none of the The soile is the most plentifull, sweete, people were saved, but only the ship, f ruitf ull and wholesome of all the worlde : or some part of her being cast upon the there are above fourteene severall sweete sand, out of whose sides they drew the smelling timber trees, and the most part nayles and the spikes, and with those of their underwoods are Bayes and such they made their best instruments. The like: they have those Okes that we have, manner of making their boates is thus: but farre greater and better. After they they burne down some great tree, or take had bene divers times aboord our shippes, such as are winde fallen, and putting my selfe, and seven more went twentie gumme and rosen upon one side thereof, mile into the River, that runneth towarde they set fire into it, and when it hath the Citie of Skicoak, which River they call burnt it hollow, they cut out the coale Occam: and the evening following wee with their shels, and ever where they came to an Island which they call Roa- would burne it deeper or wider they lay noak, distant from the harbour by which we on gummes, which burne away the timber, entred, seven leagues: and at the North and by this means they fashion very fine end thereof was a village of nine houses, boates, and such as will transport twentie built of Cedar, and fortified round about men. Their oares are like scoopes, and with sharpe trees, to keepe out their ene- many times they set with long poles, as mies, and the entrance into it made like the depth serveth. a turnepike very artificially; when wee The Kings brother had great liking came towardes it, standing neere unto the of our armour, a sword, and divers other waters side, the wife of Granganimo thp things which we had: and offered to lay a Kings brother came running out to meete great boxe of pearls in gage for them: but us very cheerfully and friendly, her hus- we refused it for this time, because we band was not then in the village; some of would not make them knowe, that we es- her people shee commanded to drawe our teemed thereof, untill we had understoode boate on shore for the beating of the in what places of the countrey the pearle billoe : others she appointed to carry us on grew: which now your Worshippe doeth their backes to the dry ground, and others very well understand. to bring our oares into the house for feare He was very just of his promise: for of stealing. When we were come into the many times we delivered him merchandize utter roome, having five roomes in her upon his worde, but ever he came within house, she caused us to sit downe by a 148 AMIDAS, PHILIP great fire, and after tooke off our clothes and washed them, and dryed them againe: some of the women plucked off our stock- ings and washed them, some washed our feete in warme water, and she herselfe tooke great paines to see all things ordered ill the best maner shee could, making great haste to dresse some meate for us to eate. After we had thus dryed ourselves, she brought us into the inner roome, where shee set on the boord standing along the house, some wheate like furmentie, sodden Venison, and roasted, fish sodden, boyled and roasted, Melons rawe, and sodden, rootes of divers kindes and divers fruites: their drinke is commonly water, but while the grape lasteth, they drinke wine, and for want of caskes to keepe it, all the yere after they drink water, but it is sodden with Ginger in it and blacke Sinamon, and sometimes Sassaphras, and divers other wholesome, and medicinable hearbes and trees. We were entertained with all love and kindnesse, and with much bountie, after their maner, as they could possibly devise. We found the people most gentle, loving and faithfull, voide of all guile and treason, and such as live after the manner of the golden age. The people onely care howe to defend themselves from the cold in their short winter, and to feed themselves with such meat as the soile affoordeth : there meat is very well sodden and they make broth very sweet and sa- vorie: their vessels are earthen pots, very large, white and sweete, their dishes are wooden platters of sweet timber: within the place where they feede was their lodging, and within that their Idoll, which they worship, of whome they speake in- credible things. While we were at meate, there came in at the gates two or three men with their bowes and arrowes from hunting, whom when wee espied, we be- ganne to looke one towardes another, and offered to reach our weapons: but as soone as shee espied our mistrust, shee was very much mooved, and caused some of her men to runne out, and take away their bowes and arrowes and breake them, and withall beate the poore fellowes out of the gate againe. When we departed in the evening and would not tary all night she was very sorry, and gave us into our boate our supper halfe dressed, pottes and all, and brought us to our boate side, in which wee lay all night, remooving the same a prettie distance from the shoare: shee perceiving our jealousie, was much grieved, and sent divers men and thirtie women, to sit all night on the banke side by us, and sent us into our boates five mattes to cover us from the raine, using very many wordes, to entreate us to rest in their houses: but because wee were fewe men, and if wee had miscarried, the voyage had bene in very great danger, wee durst not adventure any thing, although there was no cause of doubt: for a more kinde and loving people there can not be found in the worlde, as farre as we have hitherto had triall. Beyond this Island there is the maine lande, and over against this Island falleth into this spacious water the great river called Occam by the inhabitants, on which standeth a towne called Pomeiock, & sixe days journey from the same is situate their greatest eitie, called Skicoak, which this people affirme to be very great: but the Savages were never at it, only they speake of it by the report of their fathers and other men, whom they have heard affirme it to bee above one houres journey about. Into this river falleth another great river, called Cipo, in which there is found great store of Huskies in which there are pearles: likewise there descendeth into this Occam, another river, called Nomo- pana, on the one side whereof standeth a great towne called Chawanook, and the Lord of that towne and countrey is called Pooneno: this Pooneno is not subject to the King of Wingandacoa, but is a free Lord : beyond this country is there another king, whom they cal Menatonon, and these three kings are in league with each other. Towards the Southwest, foure dayes journey is situate a towne called Sequotan, which is the Southermost towne of Wingandacoa, neere unto which, sixe and twentie yeres past there was a ship cast away, whereof some of the people were saved, and those were white people whom the countrey people preserved. And after ten days remaining in an out Island unhabited, called Wocokon, they with the help of some of the dwell- ers of Sequotan fastened two boates of the countrey together & made mastes unto 149 AMIDAS, PHILIP them and sailcs of their shirtes, and hav- ing taken into them such victuals as the countrey yeelded, they departed after they had remained in this out Island 3 weekes: but shortly after it seemed they were cast away, for the boates were found upon the coast cast a land in another Island adjoyning: other than these, there was never any people apparelled, or white of colour, either seene or heard of amongst these people, and these aforesaid were seene onely of the inhabitantes of Secotan, which appeared to be very true, for they wondred marvelously when we were amongst them at the whitenes of our skins, ever coveting to touch our breasts, and to view the same. Besides they had our ships in marvelous admiration, & all things els were so strange unto them, as it appeared that none of them had ever seene the like. When we discharged any piece, were it but an hargubuz, they would trem- ble thereat for very feare and for the strangenesse of the same: for the weapons which themselves use are bowes and ar- rowes : the arrowes are but of small canes, headed with a sharpe shell or tooth of a fish sufficient ynough to kill a naked man. Their swordes be of wood hardened: like- wise they use wooden breastplates for their defence. They have beside a kinde of club, in the end whereof they fasten the sharpe horns of a stagge, or other beast. When they goe to warres they cary about with them their idol, of whom they aske counsel, as the Romans were woont of the Oracle of Apollo. They sing songs as they march towardes the battell in stead of drummes and trumpets: their warres are very cruel 1 and bloody, by rea- son whereof, and of their civill dissen- tions which have happened of late yeeres amongst them, the people are marvelously wasted, and in some places the countrey left desolate. Adjoyning to this countrey aforesaid called Secotan beginneth a countrey called Pomouik, belonging to another king whom they call Piamacum, and this king is in league with the next king adjoyning towards the setting of the Sunne, and the countrey Newsiok, situate upon a goodly •river called Neus: these kings have mor- tall warre with Wingina king of Wingan- dacoa: but about two yeeres past there was a peace made betweene the King Piemacum, and the Lord of Secotan, as these men which we have brought with us to England, have given us to understand: but there remaineth a mortall malice in the Secotanes, for many injuries & slaugh- ters done upon them by this Piema- cum. They invited divers men, and thirtie women of the best of his countrey to their towne to a feast: and when they were al- together merry, & praying before their Idoll, which is nothing els but a meer il- lusion of the devill, the captaine or Lord of the town came suddenly upon the, and slewe them every one, reserving the women and children: and these two have often- times since perswaded us to surprise Pie- macum in his towne, having promised and assured us, that there will be found in it great store of commodities. But whether their perswasion be to the ende they may be revenged of their enemies, or for the love they beare to us, we leave that to the tryall hereafter. Beyond this Island called Roanoak, are maine Islands, very plentifull of fruits and other naturall increases, together with many townes, and villages, along the side of the continent, some bounding upon the Islands, and some stretching up further into the land. When we first had sight of this coun- trey, some thought the first land we saw to bee the continent: but after we entred into the Haven, we saw before us another mighty long Sea: for there lyeth along the coast a tracte of Islands, two hundreth miles in length, adjoyning to the Ocean sea, and betweene the Islands, two or three entrances: when you are entred be- tweene them, these Islands being very narrow for the most part, as in most places sixe miles broad, in some places lesse, in few more, then there appeareth another great sea, containing in bredth in some places, forty, and in some fifty, in some twenty miles over, before you come unto the continent: and in this inclosed Sea there are above an hundreth Islands of divers bignesses, whereof one is sixteene miles long, at which we were, finding it a most pleasant and fertile ground; replen- ished with goodly Cedars, and divers oth- er sweete woods, full of Corrants, of flaxe, and many other notable commodities,which we at that time had no leasure to view Besides this island there are many, as I 150 AMISTAD— AMMIDOWN have sayd, some of two, or three, or foure, of S. S. Jocelyn, Joshua Leavitt, and of five miles, some more, some lesse, most Lewis Tappan, was appointed in New York beautifull and pleasant to behold, replen- to solicit funds and employ counsel to ished with Deere, Conies, Hares and divers protect the rights of the negroes. After a beasts, and about them the goodliest and great struggle the court, through Justice best fish in the world, and in greatest abundance. Thus, Sir, we have acquainted you sion. with the particulars of our discovery made Ammen, Daniel this present voyage, as farre foorth as the shortnesse of the time we there continued would affoord us to take viewe of: and so Story, pronounced them free. Their re- turn to Africa founded the Mendi mis- naval officer ; born in Brown county, O., May 15, 1820; en- tered the navy as a midshipman in 1836. In 1861-62 he commanded the gunboat contenting our selves with this service at Seneca in the South Atlantic blockading this time, which wee hope here after to fleet. His bravery was conspicuous in the inlarge, as occasion and assistance shalbe battle of Port Royal, Nov. 7, 1861. Later, given, we resolved to leave the countrey, under Dupont's command, he took part in and to apply ourselves to returne for Eng- all the operations on the coasts of Georgia land, which we did accordingly, and ar- and Florida. In the engagements with rived safely in the West of England about Fort McAllister, March 3, 1863, and with the middest of September. Fort Sumter, April 7, 1863, he commanded And whereas wee have above certified the monitor Patapsco. In the attacks on you of the countrey taken in possession by us to her Majesties use, and so to yours by her Majesties grant, wee thought good for the better assurance thereof to record some of the particular Gentlemen & men of accompt, who then were present, as wit- Fort Fisher, in December, 1864, and Janu- ary, 1865, he commanded the Mohican. He was promoted to rear-admiral in 1877, and was retired June 4, 1878. Afterwards he was a member of the board to locate the new Naval Observatory, and a repre- nesses of the same, that thereby all occa- sentative of the United States at the Inten- sion of cavill to the title of the countrey, in her Majesties behalfe may be prevented, which otherwise, such as like not the ac- tion may use and pretend, whose names are: Master Philip Amadas, ) Master Arthur Barlow, j <*%*<**»**• William Greenvile, John Wood, James Browewich, Henry Greene, Benjamin Wood, Simon Ferdinando, Nicholas Pet- man, John Hewes, of the companie. oceanic Ship Canal Congress in Paris. He designed a cask balsa to facilitate the landing of troops and field artil- lery; a life-raft for steamers; and the steel ram Katahdin. His publications in- clude The Atlantic Coast in The Navy in the Civil War Series; Recollections of Grant; and The Old Navy and the New. He died in Washington, D. C, July 11, 1898. Ammidown, Edward Holmes, mer- We brought home also two of the Sav- chant; born in Southbridge, Mass., Oct. ages, being lustie men, whose names were 28, 1820; was graduated at Harvard Col- Wanchese and Manteo. lege in 1853. After travelling for several Amistad, Case of the. A Portuguese years in the United States and Europe he slaver landed a cargo of kidnapped Afri- engaged in mercantile business in New cans near Havana; a few days afterwards York City in 1860; later became a direc- they were placed on board the Amistad tor in several banks, insurance companies, to be taken to Principe. On the voyage etc. In 1881 he was elected president of the negroes, led by Cinque, captured the the American Protective Tariff League; vessel, but killed only the captain and and in 1882 chairman of the Metropolitan the cook. They then ordered the white Industrial League. In 1890 President crew to take the ship to Africa; but the sailors brought her into American waters, where she was seized by Lieutenant Ged- ing, of the United States brig Washington, and brought into New London, Conn., Aug. 29, 1.839. A committee, consisting etc. 151 Harrison appointed him a commissioner for the World's Columbian Exposition, but he declined the post. He is the author of numerous political articles, including National Illiteracy; Capital and Labor; AMNESTY PROCLAMATIONS Amnesty Proclamations. As a conse- quence of the secession of the Southern States and the war that ensued, four very important amnesty proclamations were is- sued by Presidents of the United States. The first one was by President Lincoln, Dec. 8, 1863. The text of the proclama- tion is as follows: President Lincoln in 1863. — Whereas, in and by the Constitution of the United States, it is provided that the President " shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment " ; and whereas a rebellion now exists where- by the loyal State governments of several States have for a long time been subvert- ed, and many persons have committed and are now guilty of treason against the United States; and whereas, with refer- ence to said rebellion and treason, laws have been enacted by Congress declaring forfeitures and confiscation of property and liberation of slaves, all upon terms and conditions therein stated; and also declaring that the President was thereby authorized at any time thereafter, by proc- lamation, to extend to persons who may excepting as to slaves, and in property cases where rights of third parties shall have intervened, and upon the condition that every such person shall take and subscribe an oath, and thenceforward keep and maintain such oath inviolate; and which oath shall be registered for permanent preservation, and shall be of the tenor and effect following, to wit: " I, , do solemnly swear, in pres- ence of Almighty God, that I will henceforth faithfully support, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States, and the union of the States thereunder ; and that I will in like manner abide by and faithfully support all acts of Congress passed during the existing rebellion with reference to slaves, so long and so far as not repealed, modified, or held void by Congress, or by de- cision of the Supreme Court ; and that I will, in like manner, abide by and faithfully sup- port all proclamations of the President made during the existing rebellion having reference to slaves, so long and so far as not modified or declared void by decision of the Supreme Court. So help me God." The persons excepted from the benefits of the foregoing provisions are: all who are, or shall have been, civil or diplomatic officers or agents of the so-called Confed- erate government; all who have left ju- dicial stations under the United States to have participated in the existing rebellion, aid the rebellion; all who are, or shall in any State or part thereof, pardon and have been, military or naval officers of amnesty, with such exceptions and at such said so-called Confederate government, times and on such conditions as he may above the rank of colonel in the army, or deem expedient for the public welfare; of lieutenant in the navy; all who left and whereas the congressional declaration seats in the United States Congress to aid for limited and conditional pardon accords the rebellion; all who resigned commis- with well-established judicial exposition of sions in the army or navy of the United the pardoning power; and whereas, with States, and afterwards aided the rebel- reference to said rebellion, the President lion; and all who have engaged in any of the United States has issued several way in treating colored persons, or white proclamations with provisions in regard to persons in charge of such, otherwise than the liberation of slaves; and whereas it is lawfully as prisoners of war, and which now desired by some persons heretofore persons may have been found in the engaged in said rebellion to resume their United States service as soldiers, seamen, allegiance to the United States, and to re- or in any other capacity. inaugurate loyal State governments with- in and for their respective States. There- fore, And I do further proclaim, declare, and make known, that whenever, in any of the States of Arkansas, Texas, Louisiana, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the Mississippi, Tennessee, Alabama, Georgia, United States, do proclaim, declare, and Florida, South Carolina, and North Caro- make known to all persons who have, di- rectly or by implication, participated in the existing rebellion, except as herein- after excepted, that a full pardon is here- by granted to them, and each of them, with restoration of all rights of property, lina, a number of persons, not less than one-tenth in number of the votes cast in such State at the Presidential election of the year of our Lord 1860, each having taken the oath aforesaid, and not having since violated it, and being a qualified 152 AMNESTY PROCLAMATIONS voter by the election law of the State ex- isting immediately before the so-called act of secession, and. excluding all others, shall re-establish a State government which* shall be republican, and in nowise contravening said oath, such shall be rec- ognized as the true government of the State, and the State shall receive there- under the benefits of the constitutional provision which declares that the " United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of govern- ment, and shall protect each of them against invasion; and, on application of the legislature, or the executive (when the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence." And I do further proclaim, declare, and make known that any provision which may be adopted by such State government in relation to the freed people of such State, which shall recognize and declare their permanent freedmen, provide for their education, and which may yet be consistent, as a temporary arrangement, with their present condition as a labor- ing, landless, and homeless class, will not be objected to by the national executive. And it is suggested as not improper that, in constructing a loyal State government in any State, the name of the State, the boundary, the subdivisions, the constitu- tion, and the general code of laws, as be- fore the rebellion, be maintained, subject only to the modifications made necessary by the conditions hereinbefore stated, and such others, if any, not contravening said conditions, and which may be deemed ex- pedient by those framing the new State government. To avoid misunderstanding, it may be proper to say that this proclamation, so far as it relates to State governments, has no reference to States wherein loyal State governments have all the while been maintained. And for the same reason, it may be proper to further say that whether members sent to Congress from any State shall be admitted to seats, con- stitutionally rests exclusive with the respective Houses, and not to any extent with the executive. And still further, that this proclamation is intended to present to the people of the States wherein the national authority has been suspended, and loyal State governments have been subverted, a mode in and by which the national authority and loyal State gov- ernments may be re-established within said States, or in any of them; and, while the mode presented is the best the execu- tive can suggest, with his present impres- sions, it must not be understood that no other possible mode would be acceptable. Given under my hand, at the city of Washington, the 8th day of December, a.d. 1863, and of the independence of the United States of America the eighty- eighth. Abraham Lincoln. President Johnson in 1865. — The second one was issued by President Johnson, under date of May 29, 18G5, and was the begin- ning of the reconstruction measures. The following is the text: Whereas, the President of the United States, on the 8th day of December, 1863, did, with the object of suppressing the ex- isting rebellion, to induce all persons to lay down their arms, to return to their loyalty, and to restore the authority of the United States, issue proclamations of- fering amnesty and pardon to certain per- sons who had directly or by implication, engaged in said rebellion; and Whereas, many persons who had so engaged in the late rebellion have, since the issuance of said proclamation, failed or neglected to take the benefits offered thereby ; and Whereas, many persons who have been justly deprived of all claims to amnesty and pardon thereunder, by reason of their participation directly or by implication in said rebellion, and continued in hos- tility to the government of the United States since the date of said proclamation, now desire to apply for and obtain am- nesty and pardon: To the end, therefore, that the author- ity of the government of the United States may be restored, and that peace, and order, and freedom may be estab- lished, I, Andrew Johnson, President of the United States, do proclaim and de- clare, that I hereby grant to all persons who have directly or indirectly partici- pated in the existing rebellion, except as hereafter excepted, amnesty and pardon, with restoration of all rights of property, except as to slaves, except in cases where legal proceedings under the laws of the 153 AMNESTY PROCLAMATIONS United States, providing for the confisca- the United States, and passed beyond the tion of property of persons engaged in Federal military lines into the so-called rebellion, have been instituted, but on the Confederate States for the purpose of condition, nevertheless, that every such aiding the rebellion. person shall take and subscribe to the 11. All persons who have engaged in following oath, which shall be registered, the destruction of the commerce of the for permanent preservation, and shall be United States upon the high seas, and all of the tenor and effect following, to wit: persons who have made raids into the United States from Canada, or been en- "j« — ' d ? s ° le * nl J s ^ e ^ r T or J? l m > in gaged in destroying the commerce of the presence of Almighty God, that I will hence- ?,.,-, Q+ . ; ,, 6 , , , . ... forth support, protect, and faithfully defend United States on the lakes and rivers that the Constitution of the United States, and separate the British provinces from the will, in like manner, abide by and faithfully United States. support all laws and proclamations which 10 An _ ' _;:» . . ,. , have been made during the existing re- a 12 ' Al } P ersons who > at a time when bellion with reference to the emancipation they seek to obtain the benefits hereof by of slaves. So help me God." taking the oath herein prescribed, are in military, naval, or civil confinement or The following classes of persons are custody, or under bond of the military or excepted from the benefits of this procla- naval authorities or agents of the United mation: States as prisoners of any kind, either be- 1. All who are or have been pretended fore or after their conviction, diplomatic officers, or otherwise domestic 13. All persons who have voluntarily or foreign agents of the pretended Con- participated in said rebellion, the esti- federate States. mated value of whose taxable property is 2. All who left judicial stations under over $20,000. the United States to aid in the rebellion. 14. All persons who have taken the 3. All who have been military or naval oath of amnesty as prescribed in the Presi- officers of the pretended Confederate gov- dent's proclamation of Dec. 8, 1863, or crnment above the rank of colonel in the the oath of allegiance to the United States army, and lieutenant in the navy. since the date of said proclamation, and 4. All who have left their seats in the who have not thenceforward kept the Congress of the United States to aid in same inviolate; provided, that special ap- the rebellion. plication may be made to the President 5. All who have resigned or tendered for pardon by any person belonging to the resignation of their commissions in the excepted classes, and such clemency the army and navy of the United States to will be extended as may be consistent with evade their duty in resisting the rebel- the facts of the case and the peace and lion. dignity of the United States. The Sec- 6. All who have engaged in any way in retary of State will establish rules and treating otherwise than lawfully as pris- regulations for administering and record- oners of war persons found in the United ing the said amnesty oath, so as to insure States service as officers, soldiers, sea- its benefits to the people, and guard the men, or in other capacities. government against fraud. 7. All persons who have been or are In testimony whereof, I have hereunto absentees from the United States for the set my hand, and caused the seal of the purpose of aiding the rebellion. United States to be affixed. 8. All military or naval officers in the Done at the city of Washington, this rebel service who were educated by the the 29th day of May, 1865, and of the in- government in the Military Academy at dependence of America the 89th. West Point, or at the United States Naval Andrew Johnson. Academy. President Johnson in 1868. — In this 9. All persons who held the pretended year President Johnson issued two such offices of governors of the States in in- proclamations. The first dated July 4, surrection against the United States. pardoning all persons engaged in the Civil 10. All persons who left their homes War except those under presentment or within the jurisdiction and protection of indictment in any court of the United 154 AMNESTY PROCLAMATIONS States having competent jurisdiction, was as follows: Whereas, in the month of July, A.D. 1861, in accepting the conditions of civil war, which was brought about by insur- rection and rebellion in several of the States which constitute the United States, the national resources ; the two Houses of Congress did solemnly And whereas, it is believed that am- declare that the war was not waged on the nesty and pardon will tend to secure a corpus, and the right of trial by jury — such encroachments upon our free institu- tions in time of peace being dangerous to public liberty, incompatible with the indi- vidual rights of the citizens, contrary to the genius and spirits of our republican form of government, and exhaustive of part of the government in any spirit of op- pression, nor for any purpose of conquest or subjugation, nor for any purpose of overthrowing or interfering with the complete and universal establishment and prevalence of municipal law and order, in conformity with the Constitution of the United States, and to remove all appear- rights or established institutions of the ances or presumptions of a retaliatory States, but only to defend and maintain °r vindictive policy on the part of the the supremacy of the Constitution of the government, attended by unnecessary dis- united States, and to preserve the Union qualifications, pains, penalties, confisca- with all the dignity, equality, and rights tions, and disfranchisements; and on the of the several States unimpaired; and contrary, to promote and procure complete that, so soon as these objects should be fraternal reconciliation among the whole accomplished, the war on the part of the people, with due submission to the Con- government should cease; stitution and laws; And whereas, the President of the Now, therefore, be it known that I, United States has heretofore, in the spirit Andrew Johnson, President of the United of that declaration, and with the view of States, do, by virtue of the Constitution securing for its ultimate and complete and in the name of the people of the effect, set forth several proclamations, United States, hereby proclaim and de- offering amnesty and pardon to persons c-lare, unconditionally and without reser- who had been or were concerned in the vation, to all and to every person who di- aforesaid rebellion, which proclamations, rectly or indirectly participated in the however, were attended with prudential late insurrection or rebellion, excepting reservations and exceptions then deemed such person or persons as may be under necessary and proper, and which proclama- presentment or indictment in any court of tions were respectively issued on the 8th the United States having competent juris- day of December, 1863, on the 26th day of diction, upon a charge of treason or other March, 1864, on the 29th day of May, 1865, felony, a full pardon and amnesty for the and on the 7th day of September, 1867; offence of treason against the United And whereas, the said lamentable States, or of adhering to their enemies Civil War has long since altogether ceased, during the late Civil War, with restora- with an acknowledged guarantee to all the tion of all rights of property, except as to States of the supremacy of the federal slaves, and except also as to any property Constitution and the government there- of which any person may have been legal- under; and there no longer exists any ly divested under the laws of the United reasonable ground to apprehend a re- States. newal of the said Civil War, or any In testimony whereof I have signed foreign interference, or any unlawful re- these presents with my hand, and have sistance by any portion of the people of caused the seal of the United States to be any of the States to the Constitution and hereunto fixed. laws of the United States; And whereas, it is desirable to reduce Done at the city of Washington, the fourth day of July, in the year of our the standing army, and to bring to a Lord one thousand eight hundred and six- speedy termination military occupation, martial law, military tribunals, abridg- ment of freedom of speech and of the press, and suspension of the privilege of habeas 155 ty-eight, and of the Independence of the United States of America the ninety- third. Andrew Johnson. The second, issued Dec. 25, proclaimed AMNESTY PROCLAMATIONS— ANARCHISTS unconditionally a full pardon and am- nesty. It was as follows: Done at the city of Washington, the twenty-fifth day of December, in the year of our Lord, one thousand eight hundred Whereas, the President of the United and sixty-eight, and of the Independence States has heretofore set forth several proclamations offering amnesty and par- don to persons who had been or were con- of the United States of America the nine- ty-third. Andrew Johnson. Anaesthesia. See Morton, William cerned in the late rebellion against the Thomas Green. lawful authority of the government of the Anarchists. The battle on the part of United States, which proclamations were society against the anarchists in the severally issued on the 8th day of De- United States may be said to have been cember, 1863, on the 6th day of March, fought and won. From the close of the 1864, on the 29th day of May, 1865, on Civil War up to 1886, the number of anar- the 7th day of September, 1867, and on thists in the country constantly increased, the 4th day of July in the present year; The organization is supposed to have had and, its origin in Russia, the object of its exist- Whereas, the authority of the fed- ence being apparently to secure greater eral government having been re-established in all the States and Territories within freedom for the people through the as- sassination of those government officers, the jurisdiction of the United States, it is most notably the Czar, who to the popular belieyed that such prudential reservations notion embodied tyranny. The members and exceptions, as at the dates of said of anarchist bands knew but five of several proclamations were deemed neces- their fellows, though the society at one sary and proper, may now be wisely and time is said to have had over 40,000 justly relinquished, and that a universal members. The members were divided amnesty and pardon, for participation in into groups of six, one member of each said rebellion, extended to all who have group communicating with one of another, borne any part therein, will tend to secure thus forming a great chain, but diminish- permanent peace, order, and prosperity ing the fear of traitors. The oaths of the throughout the land, and to renew and fully restore confidence and fraternal feel- ing among the whole people, and their respect for and attachment to the national members are said to be of a most terrible character. From its original inception anarchism soon changed until the members of the society in all lands were regarded government, designed by its patriotic as standing solely for the overthrow of founders for the general good: Now, therefore, be it known that I, existing institutions. The growth of the society in this country began to alarm Andrew Johnson, President of the United police officials. The agitators kept busy States, by virtue of the power and author- among the unemployed masses in all the ity in me vested by the Constitution, and large cities. Dire predictions were made in the name of the sovereign people of the when on May 4, 1886, an anarchistic meet- United States, do hereby proclaim and de- ing in Chicago resulted in such a disturb- clare unconditionally and without reser- ance that the people became aroused and vation, to all and to every person who di- anarchy received a death-blow. On the rectly or indirectly participated in the night of May 4, a great number of an- late insurrection or rebellion, a full par- archists held a meeting in Haymarket don and amnesty for the offences of trea- Square, Chicago. The city was in a rest- son against the United States, or of ad- less state at the time because of frequent hering to* their enemies during the late labor troubles. One of the speakers waved Civil War, with restoration of all rights, a red flag and shouted to the people to get privileges, and immunities under the Con- dynamite and blow up the houses of the stitution and the laws which have been rich. At these words a small body of police made in pursuance thereof. In testimony whereof I have signed charged the anarchists. Suddenly a dy- namite bomb was thrown at the officers, these presents with my hand, and have and five officers and four civilians in the caused the seal of the United States to be hereunto affixed. crowd were killed. Seven of the leading anarchists were arrested, and after a trial 156 ANDERSON were condemned to death. The sentences graduated at Wabash College in 1883; of two of them were afterwards commuted appointed librarian-in-chief of the Car- to life imprisonment, but in 1894 they negie Library, Pittsburg, Pa., in 1895. were pardoned by Governor Altgeld. One Anderson, Fort, North Carolina. At- of the anarchists committed suicide while tacked simultaneously on Feb. 18, 1865, in prison and four were hanged. On Dec. by Admiral Porter with fifteen vessels 9, 1893, Auguste Vaillant attempted to and by the army under Schofield and throw a bomb at M. Dupuy during a ses- Terry. The garrison of 6,000 Confederates sion of the French Chamber of Deputies, under Hoke fled late in the day. but it struck the gallery, and, exploding, Anderson, Larz, diplomatist; born in wounded four deputies and many spec- Paris, France, Aug. 15, 1866; gradu- tators. On April 4, 1900, an unsuccessful atcd at Harvard College in 1888; spent attempt was made to kill the Prince of two years in foreign travel; was appoint- Wales, now King Edward VII., at Brus- ed second secretary of the United States sels. The following is a list of recent legation and embassy in London in 1891- assassinations by anarchists: Sadi Carnot, 93, and first secretary of the embassy president of France, by Sante Ironimo in Rome in 1893-97. During the war Caserio, an Italian, at Lyons, June 24, with Spain he served as a captain and 1894; Canovas del Castillo, prime minister adjutant - general of United States vol- of Spain, by Golli, an Italian, at Santa unteers. Agtieda, April 22, 1897; Elizabeth, em- Anderson, Martin Brewer, educator; press of Austria, by Luchini, an Italian, born in Brunswick, Me., Feb. 12, 1815; at Geneva, Sept. 10, 1898; Humbert, king was of Scotch descent on his father's side; of Italy, by Angelo Bresci, an Italian, at was graduated at Waterville (now Colby) Monza, Italy, July ,29, 1900; William College in 1840; and in 1850 became editor McKinley, president of the United States, and part proprietor of the New York Re- by Leon Czolgosz, at Buffalo, N. Y., shot corder, a Baptist publication. A univer- Sept. 6, died Sept. 14, 1901; General sity having been established at Rochester Bobrikoff, governor-general of Finland, by by the Baptists, he was called to the presi- Schaumann, a Finn, June 17, 1904; dency of it in 1853, and held the office till Wenceslas K. de Plehve, Russian minister 1889. In 1868 he was offered the presi- of the interior, by Leglo, a supposed Finn, dency of Brown University, but declined at St. Petersburg, July 28, 1904. See it. He was one of the most efficient incor- Altgeld, John Peter; Socialism. porators and earlier trustees of Vassar Anderson, Alexander, the first en- College. He died Feb. 26, 1890. graver on wood in America; born in New Anderson, Rasmus Bjorn, author and York, April 21, 1775. His father was a diplomatist; born in Albion, Wis., of Nor- Scotchman, who printed a Whig newspaper wegian parentage, Jan. 12, 1846; was in New York, called The Constitutional graduated at the Norwegian Lutheran Col- Gazette, until he was driven from the city lege in Decorah, la., in 1866; was Profes- by the British in 1776. After the yellow sor of Scandinavian Languages and Litera- fever in 1798, he abandoned the practice ture at the University of Wisconsin in of medicine and made engraving his life 1875-84, and United States minister to profession. Having seen an edition of Denmark in 1885-89. He is author of Bewick's History of Quadrupeds, illus- Norse Mythology; Viking Tales of the trated with wood-engravings by that mas- North; America Not Discovered by Colum- ter, Anderson first learned that wood was bus; The Younger Edda; First Chapter of used for such a purpose. From that time Norwegian Immigration; several works in he used it almost continuously until a few Norwegian ; and also many translations of months before his death, in Jersey City, Norse writings. N. J., Jan. 17, 1870. A vast number of Anderson, Richard Herron, military American books illustrated by Anderson at- officer ; born in South Carolina, Oct. 7, test the skill and industry of this pioneer 1821 ; was graduated at West Point in of the art of wood-engraving in America. 1842. He served in the war with Mexico; Anderson, Edwin Hatfield, librarian; and in March, 1861, he left the army and born in Zionsville, Ind., Sept. 27, 1861; became a brigadier-general in the Confed- 157 ANDERSON erate service. He was wounded at Antie- tam; commanded a division at Gettys- burg; and was made lieutenant-general in 1864. He died in Beaufort, S. C, June 26, 1879. Anderson, Robert, defender of Fort Sumter in 1861; born near Louisville, Ky., June 14, 1805. He was a graduate of West Point Military Academy, and entered the artillery. He was instructor for a while at West Point. He served in the Black Hawk War (q. v.), and in Flori- da. In May, 1838, he became assistant ad- jutant-general on the staff of General Scott, and accompanied that officer in his campaign in Mexico, where he was severely wounded in the battle of El Molino del Key (q. v.\. In 1857 he was commission- ed major of artillery. In October, 1860, Secretary Floyd removed Colonel Gardiner from the command of the defences of Charleston Harbor, because he attempted to increase his supply of ammunition, and Major Anderson was appointed to succeed him. He arrived there on the 20th, and was satisfied, by the tone of conversation and feeling in Charleston, and by the military drills going on, that a revolution was to be inaugurated there. He commu- nicated his suspicions to Adjutant-Gen- eral Cooper. In that letter Anderson an- KOBERT ANDERSON. nounced to the government the weakness of the forts in Charleston Harbor, and urged the necessity of immediately strengthening them. He told the Secre- tary of War that Fort Moultrie, his head- quarters, was so weak as to invite attack. " Fort Sumter and Castle Pinckney," he said, " must be garrisoned immediately, if the government determines to keep com- mand of this harbor." Fort Sumter, he said, had 40,000 lb. of cannon powder and other ammunition, but was lying com- pletely at the mercy of an enemy. He in- formed the Secretary of evident prepara- tions for a speedy seizure of the defences of the harbor by South Carolinians. Gen- eral Scott, aware of the weakness of the Southern forts, urged the government, from October until the close of December, to reinforce those on the coasts of the slave States. But nothing was done, and Anderson, left to his own resources, was compelled to assume grave responsibilities. He began to strengthen Castle Pinck- ney, near the city, and Fort Moultrie. When the South Carolina ordinance of secession had passed, menaces became more frequent and alarming. He knew that the convention had appointed commissioners to repair to Washington and demand the surrender of the forts in Charleston Har- bor, and he was conscious that the latter were liable to be attacked at any moment. He knew, too, that if he should remain in Fort Moultrie, their efforts would be successful. Watch-boats were out contin- ually spying his movements. He had ap- plied to the government for instructions, but received none, and he determined to leave Fort Moultrie with his garrison and take post in stronger Fort Sumter. This he did on the evening of Dec. 26. The vigilance of the Confederates had been eluded. They, amazed, telegraphed to Floyd. The latter, by telegraph, ordered Anderson to explain his conduct in acting without orders. Anderson calmly replied that it was done to save the government works. In Sumter, he was a thorn in the flesh of the Confederates. Finally they attacked him, and after a siege and furi- ous bombardment, the fort was evacuated in April, 1861. In May, 1861, he was ap- pointed a brigadier-general in the regu- lar army, and commander of the Depart- ment of the Cumberland, but failing health, caused him to retire from the service in 1863, when he was brevetted a major-gen- eral. In 1868 he went to Europe for the benefit of his health, and died in Nice, France, Oct. 27, 1871. See Pickens, Fort; Sumter, Fort. Anderson, Thomas McArthur, sol- 158 ANDERSONVILLE— ANDBi] dier; born in Chillicothe, 0.,Jan. 22, 1836; by Montgomery, at St. Johns (Nov. 2, entered the army as a private during the 1775), and was sent to Lancaster, Pa. Civil War, and rose to be brigadier-gen- In December, 1776, he was exchanged, and eral, March, 1899. He commanded the promoted to captain in the British army. 1st division, 8th army corps, in the first lie was appointed aide to General Grey expedition to the Philippines. in the summer of 1777, and on the depart- Andersonville. See Confederate lire of that officer he was placed on the Prisons. staff of Sir Henry Clinton, by whom he Andrade, Jose, diplomatist; born in was promoted (1780) to the rank of ma- Merida, Venezuela, in 1838; studied law jor, and appointed adjutant-general of the in Columbia College; was successively British forces in America. His talents treasurer, secretary, and governor of the were appreciated, and wherever taste was state of Zulia in 1880-84; representative to be displayed in any arrangements, the for the same state in the National House matter was left to Andre\ He was the of Representatives in 1884-88; and was chief actor in promoting and arranging appointed plenipotentiary to settle the the Mischianza, and took a principal part claims of France against Venezuela in in all private theatrical performances. 1888. In 1889-90 he represented Venez- Sir Henry employed him to carry on the uela in Washington, D. C, as a mem- correspondence with Arnold respecting the ber of the Venezuelan and Marine Com- missions; was also a delegate to the In- ternational Maritime Conference, and to the Pan-American Congress; in 1893 served in the National Assembly which framed the new constitution of Venez- uela; and in the same year was appoint- ed minister to the United States. In 1895 he was a member of the United States and Venezuela Claims Commission in Wash- ington. On Feb. 2, 1897, he signed the treaty of arbitration between Venezuela and England to arrange the boundary dis- pute; the same year was a delegate to the Universal Postal Congress in Wash- ington; and in 1899 was appointed envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotenti- ary to Great Britain. Andre, John, British military officer; born in London in 1751; was the son of a Genevan, who was a merchant in London, betrayal of his country. Having held a After receiving an education at Geneva, personal interview with the traitor, he young Andre returned, and entered a mer- was returning to New York on horseback, cantile house in London when he was when he was arrested, near Tarrytown, eighteen years of age. He was a youth conveyed to Tappan, in Rockland county, of great genius — painted well and wrote nearly opposite, tried as a spy, and was poetry with fluency. His literary tastes condemned and executed, Oct. 2, 1780. brought to him the acquaintance of lit- In March, 1901, Lord Grey, in examin- erary people. Among these was the poet- ing a lot of family papers that had not ess, Anna Seward, of Lichfield, to whose been disturbed since the close of the Revo- cousin, Honora Sneyd, Andre became lutionary War, discovered what was be- warmly attached. They were betrothed, lieved to be the original diary of Major but their youth caused a postponement of Andr£, in which is given a narrative of their nuptials, and Andre" entered the the campaign of 1777-78 day by day. army and came to America, in 1774, as The story of Major Andrews career, in lieutenant of the Royal Fusileers. With connection with the complot of Sir Henry them, in Canada, he was taken prisoner Clinton and Gen. Benedict Arnold 159 JOHN ANDKE. ANDRE, JOHN Washington's headquarters at tappan. (qq. v.), occupies a conspicuous place in with us, and afterwards joined the enemy, our history, and sympathy for the offend- shall be immediately hanged." This in- er, not unmixed with denunciations of the eluded all officers and men, even those, court of inquiry that condemned him, have as in South Carolina, where this subal- been abundant, and not always wise or tern was serving, who had been forced into the royal service. This order Clinton approved, and sent it to Secretary Germain. That sec- retary answered Clinton's letter, saying, " The most disaffected will now be convinced that we are not afraid to punish." The order was rigorously executed. Men of great worth and purity were hanged, without the forms of a trial, for bearing arms in defence of their liberty; Andre was hanged, after an impartial trial, for the crime of plotting and abetting a scheme for the enslavement of 3,000,000 people. He deserved his fate according to the laws of war. It was just towards him and merciful to a nation. Cicero justly said, in just. The court that condemned him saw regard to Catiline, "Mercy towards a clearly, by his own confession, that he de- traitor is an injury to the state." Andre served the fate of a spy; and if they had was treated with great consideration by been swayed by other motives than those Washington, whose headquarters at Tap- of justice and the promotion of the public pan were near the place of his trial. The good, they had full justification in the commander-in-chief supplied the former course of the British officers in pursuit of the British policy tow- ards the Americans. Scores of good men, not guilty of any offence but love of country and defence of their rights, had been hanged by the positive orders of Corn- wallis in the South; and Sir Henry Clinton himself, who ungener- ously attributed the act of the board of inquiry in condemning Andr§, and of Washington in approving the sentence, to " personal rancor," for which no cause ex- isted, had approved of ten-fold more " in- with all needed refreshments for his table, humanity " in the acts of his suborni- Washington did not have a personal in- nates. One of them wrote to Clinton, " I terview with Andr6, but treated him as have ordered, in the most positive manner, leniently as the rules of war would allow. that every militiaman who has borne arms The captors of Major Andre were John 1G0 THE CAPTORS' MEDAL. ANDBJfi— ANDREWS Paulding, David Williams, and Isaac Van Wart. Washington recommended Con- gress to reward them for their fidelity. They were each presented with a silver medal, and they were voted a pension of $200 a year each in silver or its equiva- lent. Monuments have been erected to the memory of the captors — to Paulding, in St. Peter's church-yard, near Peekskill; to Van Wart, by the citizens of Westchester county, in 1829, in the Presbyterian church-yard at Greenburg,of which church the captor was an active officer and chor- ister for many years; and to Williams, in Schoharie county, N. Y. The King caused a monument to be placed in Westminster Abbey to the mem- ory of Andre\ It seems to be quite out of place among the " worthies " of England, for he was hanged as a spy, and was a plotter for the ruin of a people struggling for justice. But his monarch honored him for an attempted state service, knighted his brother, and pensioned his family. His Andrew, John Albion, war governor of Massachusetts: was born in Windham, ANDRE'S MONUMENT IN WESTMINSTER ABBEY. remains were at first interred at the place of his execution, and in 1821 were ex- humed and conveyed to England. A mon- ument was erected at the place of his exe- cution to commemorate the event by the late Cyrus W. Field, but it was soon after- wards blown up by unknown persons. JOHN A. ANDREW. Me., May 31, 1818; was graduated at Bow- doin College in 1837, and became conspic- uous as an anti-slavery advocate. He was chosen governor of Massachusetts, in 1860, by the largest popular vote ever cast for any candidate for that office. Foreseeing a conflict with the Confederates, he took means to make the State militia efficient; and, within a week after the President's call for troops, he sent five regiments of infantry, a battalion of riflemen, and a battery of artillery to the assistance of the government. He was active in raising troops during the war and providing for their comfort. An eloquent orator, his voice was very efficacious. He was re- elected in 1862, and declined to be a can- didate in 1864. He died in Boston, Mass., Oct. 30, 1867. Andrews, Charles McLean, historian; born at Wethersfield, Conn., Feb. 22, 1863; was graduated at Trinity College, Hart- ford, in 1884; and was called to the Chair of History in Bryn Mawr College in 1889. His publications include The River Towns of Connecticut ; The Old English Manor; The Historical Development of Modern Europe; and articles in reviews and his- torical periodicals. Andrews, Christopher Columbus, law- yer and diplomatist; born in Hillsboro, N. H., Oct. 27, 1829; was educated at the Harvard Law School; admitted to the Massachusetts bar in 1850, and later set- I. — L. 161 ANDREWS— ANDROS tied in St. Cloud, Minn. In the Civil War Andrews, Lorrin, missionary ; born in he rose from the ranks to brevet major- East Windsor, Conn., April 29, 1795; was general in the Union army. In 1869-77 educated at Jefferson College and Prince- he was United States minister to Norway ton Theological Seminary. In 1827 he and Sweden, and in 1882-85 consul-gen- went to the Hawaiian Islands as a mis- eral to Rio de Janeiro. He has published sionary, and founded there, in 1831, the a History of the Campaign of Mobile; Lahainaluna Seminary, which subsequent- Brazil, Its Conditions and Prospects; Ad- ly became the Hawaii University, where ministrative Reform, etc. he passed ten years as a professor. In Andrews, Elisha Benjamin, educa- 1845 he was appointed a judge and secre- tor; born in Hinsdale, N. H., Jan. 10, tary of the privy council. His writings 1844; graduated at Brown University in include a translation of a portion of the 1870, and at Newton Theological Institute Bible into the Hawaiian language; several in 1874; was president of Brown Univer- works on the literature and antiquities of sity in 1889-98; superintendent of the Chi- Hawaii, and a Hawaiian dictionary. He cago Public Schools in 1898-1900; and in died Sept. 29, 1868. the last year became chancellor of the Andrews, Stephen Pearl, author; University of Nebraska. He is author of born in Templeton, Mass., March 22, 1812. History of the United States; An Honest After practising law in the South, he Dollar, a Plea for Bimetallism, etc. settled in New York in 1847, and be- Andrews, Ethan Allen, educator; came a prominent abolitionist. He gave born in New Britain, Conn., April 7, 1787; much attention to phonographic reporting, was Professor of Ancient Languages at the and to the development of a universal University of North Carolina in 1822-28; philosophy which he named " Integralism," and editor (with Jacob Abbott) of the Re- and to a universal language named " Al- ligious Magazine, but was chiefly engaged wato." He was author of numerous works in compiling classical text-books. In 1850 relating to these subjects, besides Compari- he edited the well-known Latin-English son of the Common Law with the Roman, Lexicon, based on Freund; and Andrews* French, or Spanish Civil Laic on Entails, and Stoddard's Latin Grammar. He died etc.; Love, Marriage and Divorce; The March 4, 1858. Labor Dollar; Transactions of the Collo- Andrews, George Leonard, military quium (an organization established by officer; born in Bridgewater, Mass., Aug. himself and friends for philosophical dis- 31, 1828; was graduated at West Point in cussion), etc. He died in New York, May 1851, entering the engineer corps. He re- 21, 1886. signed in 1855. In 1861 he became first Andros, Sir Edmund, born in London, lieutenant-colonel and then colonel of the Dec. 6, 1637. In 1674 he succeeded his 2d Massachusetts Regiment. He was made father as bailiff of Guernsey Island. In brigadier - general in 1862, and led a bri- the same year he was appointed govern- gade in Banks's expedition in Louisiana or of the province of New York. He and against Port Hudson in 1863. He administered public affairs wholly in the assisted in the capture of Mobile, and interest of his master, the Duke of York, was appointed Professor of French at His private life was unblemished; but West Point Feb. 27, 1871; was retired such was his public career that he ac- Aug. 31, 1892; and died April 4, 1899. quired the title of "tyrant." Andros Andrews, John Newman, military became involved in serious disputes with officer; born in Wilmington, Del., Sept. the colonists. In 1680 he deposed Philip 16, 1838; was graduated at the United Carteret, and seized the government of States Military Academy in 1860; pro- East Jersey. The next year he was re- moted first lieutenant in 1861; colonel, called, and retired to Guernsey, after in 1895; and was retired April 1, 1899. having cleared himself of several charges From June 3, 1898, to Feb. 24, 1899, he that had been preferred against him. The was a brigadier - general of volunteers. New England governments were consoli- After the Civil War he served in a num- dated in 1686, and Andros was appointed ber of Indian campaigns, and in 1898 governor - general. Under instructions, through the war with Spain. he forbade all printing in those colonies. 162 ANDROS— ANGLICAN - CHXTBCH He was authorized to appoint and remove sent from the Rose to take off the gov- his own council, and with their consent ernor and his council was intercepted and to enact laws, levy taxes, and control the captured. Andros yielded, and, with the militia. These privileges were exercised royal ex-President Dudley, Randolph, and in a despotic manner, and his government his other chief partisans, was imprisoned became odious. He attempted to seize the (April 18, 1689). Andros, by the conniv- charter of Connecticut, but failed. New ance of a sentinel, escaped to Rhode Isl- York and New Jersey were added to his and, but was brought back. In July fol- jurisdiction in 1G88. lowing he was sent to England, by royal In the former he succeeded the clear- order, with a committee of his accusers, headed and right-minded Governor Don- but was acquitted without a formal trial, gan. He entered New York City early in Andros was appointed governor of Vir- August, with a viceregal commission to ginia in 1692, where he became popular; rule that province in connection with all but, through the influence of Commissary New England. He had journeyed from Blair, he was removed in 1698. In 1704-6 Boston, and was received by Colonel Bay- he was governor of Guernsey. He died in ard's regiment of foot and horse. He was London, Feb. 24, 1714. entertained by the loyal aristocracy. In Angell, James Burrill, educator and the midst of the rejoicings, news came diplomatist; born in Scituate, R. I., Jan. that the Queen, the second wife of James 7, 1829; was graduated at Brown Univer- II., had given birth to a son, who became sity in 1849; Professor of Modern Lan- heir to the throne. The event was cele- guages and Literature at Brown Univer- brated, on the evening of the day of the sity in 1853-60; president of the Univer- arrival of the intelligence, by bonfires in sity of Vermont* in 1866-71; and since the streets and a feast at the City Hall. 1871 president of the University of Michi- At the latter, Mayor Van Cortlandt be- gan. In 1880-81 he was United States came so hilarious that he made a notable minister to China; in 1887 a member of display of his loyalty to the Stuarts by the Anglo-American Commission on Cana- setting fire to his hat and periwig, and dian Fisheries; in 1896 chairman of the waving the burning coverings of his head Canadian-American Commission on Deep over the banquet on the point of his Waterways, from the Great Lakes to the straight-sword. When news came to Bos- Sea; and in 1897-98 United States min- ton of the revolution in England, Gov- ister to Turkey. He is author of numer- ernor Andros affected to disbelieve it, and ous addresses and magazine articles, imprisoned those who brought it. With Anglican Church. The earliest Angli- the people the * wish was father to the can congregation in New England was or- thought," and they gave credence to the ganized in 1630, when about 1,000 emi- rumor and arranged a popular insurrec- grants arrived in Massachusetts from tion. A mob gathered in the streets of England, under the leadership of John Boston. The sheriff who attempted to dis- Winthrop, who had been appointed gov- perse them was made a prisoner; so also ernor under the royal charter. Winthrop was the commander of the frigate Rose brought the charter with him. On the day as he landed from his boat. The militia before they sailed from the Isle of Wight assembled in arms at the • town-house the leaders sent an address to " the rest under their old officers. Andros and his of the brethren in and of the Church of council withdrew in alarm to a fort which England," and spoke of that Church with crowned an eminence still known as Fort affection as their " dear mother." This Hill. Simon Bradstreet, a former govern- was to correct a " misreport " that the or, then eighty-seven years of age, was emigrants intended to separate from the seen in the crowd by the militia, and im- Church. Notwithstanding this dutiful ad- mediately proclaimed the chief magistrate dress, when they set foot on American of the redeemed colony. The magistrates soil a sense of freedom overcame their al- and other citizens formed themselves into legiance, and, following the example a council of safety. The ready pen of Cot- of the " Plymouthians *' and Endicott, they ton Mather wrote a proclamation, and An- established separate churches and chose dros was summoned to surrender. A barge their own officers. Without any express 163 ANGLO-AMERICAN COMMISSION— ANNAPOLIS renunciation of the authority of the off Atlantic and Pacific coasts; Alaska- Church of England, the Plymouth people Canadian boundary; transportation of had laid aside its liturgy and rituals. En- merchandise by land and water between dicott followed this example at Salem, and the countries; transit of merchandise from had the sympathy of three " godly min- one country to be delivered in the other isters " there — Higginson, Skelton, and beyond the frontier ; alien labor laws ; Bright; also of Smith, a sort of interloper, mining rights of citizens or subjects of A church was organized there — the first each country within the territory of the in New England, for that at Plymouth other; readjustment and concession of cus- was really in a formative state yet. All toms duties; revision of agreement of of the congregation were not prepared 1817 respecting naval vessels on the lakes; to lay aside the liturgy of the Church definition and marking of frontier; con- of England, and two of them (John veyance of prisoners through each other's and Samuel Browne) protested, and set territory; reciprocity in wrecking and up a separate worship. The energetic salvage rights. Several sessions were held Endicott promptly arrested the " malcon- in Canada and in Washington without tents " and sent them to England. Fol- practical results. lowing up the system adopted at Salem, Anglo-American League, The, a soci- the emigrants, under the charter of 1630, ety founded at Stafford House, London, established Nonconformist churches wher- England, July 13, 1898, for purposes in- ever settlements were planted — Charles- dicated in the following resolution : " Con- town, Watertown, Boston, Dorchester, etc. sidering that the peoples of the British At Salem the choice of minister and teach- Empire and of the United States of Amer- er was made as follows : " Every fit mem- ica are closely allied in blood, inherit the ber wrote in a note the name whom the same literature and laws, hold the same Lord moved him to think was fit for pas- principles of self-government, recognize the tor," and so likewise for teacher. Skelton same ideas of freedom and humanity in was chosen for the first office, Higginson for the guidance of their national policy, and the second. When they accepted, three or are drawn together by strong common in- four of the gravest members of the church terests in many parts of the world, this laid their hands upon Mr. Skelton and meeting is of opinion that every effort Mr. Higginson, using prayer therewith, should be made, in the interest of civiliza- Such was the first New England ordina- tion and peace, to secure the most cordial tion. See Protestant Episcopal Church ; and constant co-operation between the two Reformed Episcopal Church. nations." British subjects and citizens of Anglo-American Commission, a joint the United States are eligible to member- commission appointed by the United States ship. A representative committee was ap- and the British governments in 1898 for pointed with the Right Hon. James Bryce, the purpose of preparing a plan by which M. P., as chairman. the controversial questions pending be- Anglo-American Understanding, Ba- tween the United States and Canada sis of an. See Abbott, Lyman. might be definitely settled. As originally Annapolis, city, county seat of Anne constituted the American members were: Arundel county, and capital of the State United States Senators Fairbanks and of Maryland; on the Severn River, 20 Gray, Congressman Dingley, ex-Secretary miles south by east of Baltimore; is the of State Foster, and Reciprocity Commis- seat of the United States Naval Academy sioner Kasson; and the British members: and of St. John's College; population in Lord Herschell, Sir Wilfred Laurier, Sir 1890, 7,604; 1900, 8,402. Puritan refugees Richard Cartwright, Sir Louis H. Davies, from Massachusetts, led by Durand, a and Mr. J. Charlton, a member of the ruling elder, settled on the site of Annap- Dominion Parliament. Of these commis- olis in 1649, and, in imitation of Roger sioners, Congressman Dingley died Jan. Williams, called the place Providence. 13, 1899, and Lord Herschell, March 1, The next year a commissioner of Lord 1899. The questions assigned to the com- Baltimore organized there the county of mission for consideration were as follows: Anne Arundel, so named in compliment to b'eal-fisheries of Bering Sea; fisheries Lady Baltimore, and Providence was call- 164 ANNAPOLIS ed Anne Arundel Town. A few years later tablished in the colonies without the aid it again bore the name of Providence, and of Parliament. The Congress then re- became the seat of Protestant influence solved unanimously that it was the opin- and of a Protestant government, disputing ion of its members that it should be pro- the legislative authority with the Roman posed to his Majesty's ministers to "find Catholic government at the ancient capital, out some method of compelling " the colo- St. Mary's. In 1694 the latter was aban- nists to establish such a public fund, and doned as the capital of the province, and for assessing the several governments in the seat of government was established proportion to their respective abilities. At on the Severn. The village was finally once all the crown officers in America sent incorporated a city, and named Annapolis, voluminous letters to England, urging in honor of Queen Anne. It has remained such a measure upon the government, the permanent political capital of Mary- On July 2G, 1775, a convention assem- land. It was distinguished for the re- bled at Annapolis, and formed a tempo- finement and wealth of its inhabitants and rary government, which, recognizing the extensive commerce, being a port of entry Continental Congress as invested with a long before the foundations of Baltimore general supervision of public affairs, man- were laid. aged its own internal affairs through a On the morning of Oct. 15, 1774, a vessel provincial Committee of Safety and sub- owned by Anthony Stewart, of Annapolis, ordinate executive committees, appointed entered the port with seventeen packages in every county, parish, or hundred. It of tea among her cargo, assigned to Stew- directed the enrolment of forty companies art. When this became known, and that of minute-men, authorized the emission of Stewart had paid the duty on the tea, the over $500,000 in bills of credit, and ex- people gathered, and resolved that the tended the franchise to all freemen having plant- should not be landed. Another a visible estate of £210, without any dis- meeting was appointed, and the people tinction as to religious belief. The con- declared that ship and her cargo should vention fully resolved to sustain Massa* be burned. Stewart disclaimed all inten- chusetts, and meet force by force if neces- tion to violate non-importation agree- sary. ments, but the people were inexorable. Gen. B. F. Butler was in Philadelphia They had gathered in large numbers from on April 19, 18G1, when he first heard of the surrounding country. Charles Carroll the assault on Massachusetts troops in and others, fearing mob violence, advised Baltimore. He had orders to go to Wash- Stewart to burn the vessel and cargo with ington through Baltimore. It was evident his own hands, which he did. The vessel that he could not do so without trouble, was run ashore and destroyed, when the and he took counsel with Gen. Robert people cheered and dispersed. This was Patterson, the commander of the Depart- the last attempt at importation of tea ment of Washington. He also consulted into the English-American colonies. Commodore Dupont, commander of the On April 14, 1755, General Braddock navy-yard there, and it was agreed that and Commodore Keppel, with Governors the troops under General Butler should go Shirley, of Massachusetts; De Lancey, of from Perryville, on the Susquehanna, to New York; Morris, of Pennsylvania; Annapolis, by water, and thence across Sharpe, of Maryland, and Dinwiddie, of Vir- Maryland, seizing and holding Annapolis ginia, held a congress at Annapolis. Brad- Junction by the way. Butler laid before dock had lately arrived as commander-in- his officers a plan which contemplated chief of the British forces in America. Un- seizing and holding Annapolis as a means der his instructions, he first of all directed of communication, and to make a forced the attention of the government to the ne- march with a part of his troops from that cessity of raising a revenue in America, port to Washington. He wrote to the He expressed astonishment that no such governor of Massachusetts to send the fund was already established. The gov- Boston Light Artillery to Annapolis, and ernors told him of their strifes with their the next morning he proceeded with his respective assemblies, and assured Brad- troops to Perryville, embarked in the dock that no such fund could ever be es- powerful steam ferry-boat Maryland, and 1G5 ANNAPOLIS— ANNE at a little past midnight reached Annap- to the front ! " or, " Painters, present olis. The town and Naval Academy were arms!" or, "Sculptors, charge bayonets!" in the hands of the Confederates, and were there would be ample responses. The all lighted up in expectation of the arrival hidden rails were hunted up and found of a body of Confederates, by water, from in thickets, ravines, and bottoms of Baltimore, to assist them in seizing the streams, and the road was soon in such venerable and venerated frigate Constitu- a condition that the troops moved on, on tion, lying there, and adding her to the the morning of the 24th, at the rate of Confederate navy. The arrival of these about one mile an hour, laying the track troops was just in time to save her. anew and building bridges. Skirmishers Many of Butler's troops were seamen at went ahead and scouts on the flanks. The home, and these assisted in getting the distance to the Junction from Annapolis Constitution to a place of safety beyond was 20 miles. They saw none of the the bar. Governor Hicks was at Annapo- terrible Marylanders they had been warned lis, and advised Butler not to land North- against. The troops reached Annapolis ern troops. " They are not Northern Junction on the morning of the 25th, when troops," said Butler. " They are a part the 7th Regiment went on to Wash- of the whole militia of the United States, ington and the Massachusetts regiment obeying the call of the President." This remained to hold the railroads. Other was the root of the matter — the idea of troops arrived at Annapolis, and General nationality as opposed to State supremacy. Scott ordered Butler to remain there, hold He called on the governor and the mayor the town and road, and superintend the of Annapolis. To their remonstrances forwarding of troops to Washington. The against his landing and marching through " Department of Annapolis " was created, Maryland, Butler replied that the orders which embraced the country 20 miles and demands of his government were im- on each side of the railway to within 4 perative, and that he should land and miles of the capital. See Baltimore. march on the capital as speedily as possi- Annapolis Convention, 1786. See ble. He assured them that peaceable citi- Alexandria; Constitution of the Unit- zens should be unmolested and the laws of ed States. Maryland be respected. Anne, Queen, second daughter of On the 22d the New. York 7th Regi- James II. of England; born at Twicken- ment, Colonel Lefferts, arrived at Annapo- ham, near London, Feb. 6, 1G64. Her lis on a steamer. All the troops were parents became Roman Catholics; but she, landed and quartered at the Naval Acad- educated in the principles of the Church of emy. The Confederates, meanwhile, had England, remained a Protestant. In 1683 torn up the railway, taken the locomotives she was married to Prince George of Den- to pieces, and hidden them. Terrible mark. She took the side of her sister stories reached Butler of a great force of Mary and her husband in the revolution Confederates at Annapolis Junction. He that drove her father from the throne, did not believe them, and moved on, after She had intended to accompany her father taking formal military possession of An- in his exile to France, but was dissuaded napolis and the railway to Annapolis by Sarah Churchill, chief lady of the bed- Junction. Two Massachusetts companies chamber (afterwards the imperious Duch- seized the railway station, in which they ess of Marlborough ) , for whom she always found a disabled locomotive concealed, had a romantic attachment. By the act " Does any one know anything about this of settlement at the accession of William machine ?" inquired Butler. " Our shop and Mary, the crown was guaranteed to made that engine, general," said Charles her in default of issue to these sovereigns. Homans, of the Beverly Light Guard. " I This exigency happening, Anne was pro- guess I can put her in order and run her." claimed queen (March 8, 1702) on the ''Do it," said the general; and it was death of William. Of her seventeen chil- soon done, for that regiment was full of dren, only one lived beyond infancy — engineers and mechanics. It was a re- Duke of Gloucester — who died at the age markable regiment. Theodore Winthrop of eleven' years. Feeble in character, but said that if the words were given, " Poets, very amiable, Anne's reign became a con- 16G ANNE spicuous one in English history, for she was governed by some able ministers, and she was surrounded by eminent literary men. Her reign has been called the " Au- gustan Age of English Literature." The Duke of Marlborough, the husband of her bosom friend, was one of her greatest QUEEN AXNE. military leaders. A greater part of her reign was occupied in the prosecution of the War of the Spanish Succession, known in America as " Queen Anne's War." She died Aug. 1, 1714. The treaty of Ryswick produced only a lull in the inter-colonial war in America. It was very brief. James II. died in France in September, 1701, and Louis XIV., who had sheltered him, acknowl- edged his son, Prince James (commonly known as The Pretender ) , to be the lawful heir to the English throne. This natural- ly offended the English, for Louis had ac- knowledged William as king in the Rys- wick treaty. The British Parliament had also settled the crown on Anne, so as to secure a Protestant succession. The Eng- lish were also offended because Louis had placed his grandson, Philip of Aragon, on the Spanish throne, and thus extended the influence of France among the dynas- ties of Europe. On the death of William III. (March 8, 1702) Anne ascended the throne, and on the same day the triple alliance between England, Holland, and the German Empire against France was renewed. Soon afterwards, chiefly because of the movements of Louis above mention- ed, England declared war against France, and their respective colonies in America took up arms against each other. The war lasted eleven years. Fortunately, the Five Nations had made a treaty of neu- trality (Aug. 4, 1701) with the French in Canada, and thus became an impassable barrier against the savages from the St. Lawrence. The tribes from the Merrimac to the Penobscot had made a treaty of peace with New England (July, 1703) ; but the French induced them to violate it; and before the close of that summer a furi- ous Indian raid occurred along the whole frontier from Casco to Wells. So indis- criminate was the slaughter that even Quakers were massacred. The immediate cause of this outbreak seems to have been an attack upon and plunder of the trading-post of the young Baron de Castine, at the mouth of the Penobscot. In March, 1704, a party of French and Indians attacked Deerfield, on the Connecticut River, killed forty of the inhabitants, burned the village, and car- ried away 112 captives. Similar scenes occurred elsewhere. Remote settlements were abandoned, and fields were cultivated only by armed parties united for common defence. This state of things became in- supportable, and in the spring of 1707 Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire prepared to chastise the Ind- ians in the east. Rhode Island had not suffered, for Massachusetts sheltered that colony, but the inhabitants humanely helped their afflicted neighbors. Connec- ticut, though threatened from the north, refused to join in the enterprise. Early in June (1707), 1,000 men under Colonel Marsh sailed from Nantucket for Port Royal, Acadia, convoyed by an English man-of-war. The French were prepared for them, and only the destruction of prop- erty outside the fort there was accomplish- ed. The war continued, with occasional distressing episodes. In September, 1710, an armament of ships and troops left Bos- ton and sailed for Port Royal, in connec- tion with a fleet from England with troops under Colonel Nicholson. They captured Port Royal and altered the name to An- napolis, in compliment to the Queen. 1G7 ANNE— ANNEXED TERRITORY Acadia (q. v.) was annexed to England, eastern Indians sued for peace, and at under the old title of Nova Scotia, or New Portsmouth the governors of Massachu- Scotland. setts and New Hampshire made a cove- The following year an expedition moved nant of peace (July 24) with the chiefs against Quebec. Sir Hovenden Walker ar- of the hostile tribes. A peace of thirty rived at Boston (June 25, 1711) with an years ensued. English fleet and army, which were joined Anne, Fort, a military post in New by New England forces; and on Aug. 15 York in the Revolutionary War. When fifteen men-of-war and forty transports, the British took possession of Ticonderoga bearing about 7,000 men, departed for the (July 6, 1777), Burgoyne ordered gun- St. Lawrence. Meanwhile, Nicholson had boats to pursue the bateaux laden with proceeded to Albany, where a force of stores, etc., from the fort. The boom- about 4,000 men were gathered, a por- bridge barrier across the lake there was tion of them Iroquois Indians. These soon broken, and the pursuing vessels forces commenced their march towards overtook the fugitive boats near Skenes- Canada Aug. 28. Walker, like Braddock borough, and destroyed them and their nearly fifty years later, haughtily refused contents. Colonel Long, in command of to listen to experienced subordinates, and the men in them, escaped with his people lost eight ships and about 1,000 men on and the invalids, and, after setting fire to the rocks at the mouth of the St. Law- everything combustible at Skenesborough rence on the night of Sept. 2. Disheart- (now Whitehall), they hastened to Fort ened by this calamity, Walker returned to Anne, a few miles in the interior, followed England with the remainder of the fleet, by a British regiment. When near the fort, and the colonial troops went back to Long turned on his pursuers and routed Boston. On hearing of this failure, the them ; but the latter being reinforced, Long land force marching to attack Montreal was driven back. He burned Fort Anne, retraced their steps. Hostilities were now and fled to Fort Edward, on the Hudson, suspended, and peace was concluded by the Annexations. See Acquisition of treaty of Utrecht, April 11, 1713. The Territory. ANNEXED TERRITORY Annexed Territory, Status of. The were further, by their situation, climate, following is a consideration of the rela- and soil, adapted to the use of an increas- tions to the United States of the several ing American population. We have now Territories that were annexed to it, writ- acquired insular regions, situated in the ten by ex-President Benjamin Harrison: tropics and in another hemisphere, and hence unsuitable for American settlers, A legal argument upon this subject is even if they were not, as they are, already quite outside of my purpose, which is to populated and their lands already largely consider in a popular rather than a pro- taken up. fessional way some of the questions that We have taken over peoples rather arise, some of the answers that have been than lands, and these chiefly of other race proposed, and some of the objections to stocks — for there are " diversities of these answers. tongues." The native labor is cheap and We have done something out of line with threatens competition, and there is a total American history, not in the matter of ter- absence of American ideas and methods of ritorial expansion, but in the character life and government among the eight or of it. Heretofore the regions we have more millions of inhabitants in the Philip- taken over have been contiguous to us, pines. We have said that the Chinese will save in the case of Alaska — and, indeed, not "homologate"; and the Filipinos will Alaska is contiguous, in the sense of being certainly be slow. Out of the too-late near. These annexed regions were also, at contemplation of these very real and se- the time of annexation, either unpeopled or rious problems has arisen the proposition very sparsely peopled by civilized men, and to solve them, as many think, by wresting 168 ANNEXED TERRITORY our government from its constitutional basis; or at least, as all must agree, by the introduction of wholly new views of the status of the people of the Territories, and of some startlingly new methods of deal- ing with them. It is not open to question, I think, that, if we had taken over only the Sandwich Islands and Porto Rico, these new views of the status of the people of our Territories, and these new methods of dealing with them, would never have been suggested or used. The question of the constitutional right of the United States to acquire territory, as these new regions have been acquired, must, I suppose, be taken by every one to have been finally adjudged in favor of that right. The Supreme Court is not likely to review the decision announced by Chief- Justice Marshall. It is important to note, however, that the great chief-justice derives the power to acquire territory by treaty and con- quest, from the Constitution itself. He says: " The Constitution confers absolutely on the government of the Union the powers of making war and of making treaties; consequently that government possesses the power of acquiring territory either by conquest or by treaty." While this decision stands, there is no room for the suggestion that the power of the United States to acquire territory, either by a conquest confirmed by treaty, or by a treaty of purchase from a nation with which we are at peace, is doubtful, and as little for the suggestion that this power is an extra-constitutional power. The people, then, have delegated to the President and Congress the power to ac- quire territory by the methods we have used in the cases of Porto Rico and the Hawaiian and Philippine Islands. But some have suggested that this power to ac- quire new territory is limited to certain ends; that it can only be used to acquire territory that is to be, or is capable of being, erected into States of the Union. If this view were allowed, the attitude of the courts to the question would not be much changed ; for they could not inquire as to the purpose of Congress, nor, I sup- pose, overrule the judgment of Congress as to the adaptability of territory for the creation of States. The appeal would be to Congress to limit the use of the power. The islands of Hawaii, of Porto Rico, and of the Philippine Archipelago have been taken over, not for a temporary pur- pose, as in the case of Cuba, but to have and to hold forever as a part of the region over which the sovereignty of the United States extends. We have not put our- selves under any pledge as to them — at least, not of a written sort. Indeed, we have not, it is said, made up our minds as to anything affecting the Philippines, save this — that they are a part of our national domain, and that the inhabitants must yield obedience to the sovereignty of the United States so long as we choose to hold them. Our title to the Philippines has been impeached by some upon the ground that Spain was not in possession when she con- veyed them to us. It is a principle of private law that a deed of property ad- versely held is not good. If I have been ejected from a farm to which I claim title, and another is in possession under a claim of title, I must recover the posses- sion before I can make a good convey- ance; otherwise I sell a lawsuit and not a farm, and that the law counts to be immoral. It has not been shown, how- ever, that this principle has been incor- porated into international law; and, if that could be shown, there would still be need to show that Spain has been ef- fectively ousted. It is very certain, I suppose, that if Great Britain had, during our Revolution* ary struggle, concluded a treaty of cession of the Golonies to France, we would have treated the cession as a nullity, and con- tinued to fight for liberty against the French. No promises of liberal treatment by France would have appeased us. But what has that to do with the Philip- pine situation? There are so many points of difference. . We were Anglo-Saxons! We were capable of self-government. And, after all, what we would have done under the conditions supposed has no bearing upon the law of the case. It is not to be doubted that any international tribunal would affirm the completeness of our legal title to the Philippines. The questions that perplex us relate to the status of these new possessions, and 169 ANNEXED TERRITORY to the rights of their civilized inhabitants who have elected to renounce their alle- giance to the Spanish crown, and either by choice or operation of law have become American — somethings. What? Subjects or citizens? There is no other status, since they are not aliens any longer, unless a newspaper heading that recently attract- ed my attention offers another. It ran thus: "Porto Ricans not citizens of the United States proper." Are they citizens of the United States improper, or improp- er citizens of the United States ? It seems clear that there is something improper. To call them " citizens of Porto Rico " is to leave their relations to the United States wholly undefined. Now, in studying the questions whether the new possessions are part of the United States, and their free civilized inhabitants citizens of the United States, the Consti- tution should, naturally, be examined first. Whatever is said there is final — any treaty or act of Congress to the contrary notwithstanding. The fact that a treaty must be constitutional, as well as an act of Congress, seems to have been overlooked by those who refer to the treaty of cession as giving to Congress the right to gov- ern the people of Porto Rico, who do not retain their Spanish allegiance, according to its pleasure. Has the Queen Re- gent, with the island, decorated Congress with one of the jewels from the Spanish crown ? In Pollard vs. Hogan, 3 Howard, the court says: " It cannot be admitted that the King if Spain could by treaty, or otherwise, impart to the United States any of his royal prerogatives; and much less can it be admitted that they have capacity to re- ceive or power to exercise them." A treaty is a part of the supreme law of the land in the same sense that an act of Congress is, not in the same sense that the Constitution is. The Constitution of the United States cannot be abrogated or impaired by a treaty. Acts of Congress and treaties are only a part of the " su- preme law of the land " when they pur- sue the Constitution. The Supreme Court has decided that a treaty may be abro- gated by a later statute, on the ground that the statute is the later expression of the sovereign's will. Whether a statute 17 may be abrogated by a later treaty, we do not know; but we do know that neither a statute nor a treaty can abrogate the Constitution. If the Constitution leaves the question open whether the inhabitants of Porto Rico shall or shall not upon annexation become citizens, then the President and the Senate may exercise that discretion by a treaty stipulation that they shall or shall not be admitted as citizens; but if, on the other hand, the Constitution gives no such discretion, but itself con- fers citizenship, any treaty stipulation to the contrary is void. To ref«r to the treaty in this connection is to beg the* question. If we seek to justify the holding of slaves in a territory acquired by treaty, or the holding of its civilized inhabitants 'in a condition less favored than that of citizenship, by virtue of the provisions of a treaty, it would seem to be necessary to show that the Constitution, in the one case, allows slavery, and, in the other, a relation of civilized people to the govern- ment that is not citizenship. Now the Constitution declares (Four- teenth Amendment) that " all persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States." This dis- poses of the question, unless it can be maintained that Porto Rico is not a part of the United States. > But the theory that any part of the Constitution, of itself, embraces the Terri- tories and their people is contested by many. Congress seems to have assumed the negative, though among the members there was not entire harmony as to the argument by which the conclusion was reached. It is contended, by most of those who defend the Porto-Rican bill, that the Constitution expends itself wholly upon that part of the national domain that has been organized into States, and has no ref- erence to, or authority in, the Territories, save as it has constituted a government to rule over them. No one contends that every provision of the Constitution applies to the Terri- tories. Some of them explicitly relate to the States only. The contention of those who opposed the Porto-Rican legislation is that all of those general provisions of ANNEXED TERRITORY the Constitution which impose limitation upon the powers of the legislative, execu- tive, and judicial departments must ap- ply to all regions and people where or upon whom those powers are exercised. And, on the other hand, those who deny most broadly that the Constitution applies to the Territories seem practically to al- low that much of it does. The power of appointment and pardon in the Terri- tories, the confirmation of Territorial of- ficers, the methods of passing laws to gov- ern the Territories, the keeping and dis- bursement of Federal taxes derived from the Territories, the veto power, and many other things, are pursued as if the Con- stitution applied to the cases. But, in theory, it is claimed by these that no part of the Constitution applies except the Thirteenth Amendment, which prohibits slavery, and that only because the prohibition expressly includes " any place subject to their jurisdiction." This amendment was proposed by Congress on Feb. 1, 1865 — the day on which Sherman's army left Savannah on its northern march ; and the words " any place sub- ject to their jurisdiction " were probably added because of the uncertainty as to the legal status of the States in rebellion, and not because of any doubt as to whether Nebraska, then a Territory, was a part of the United States. The view that some other general limita- tions of the Constitution upon the powers of Congress must relate to all regions and all persons was, however, adopted by some members of the Senate Committee in the report upon the Porto-Rican bill, where it is said: " Yet, as to all prohibitions of the Con- stitution laid upon Congress while legis- lating, they operate for the benefit of all for whom Congress may legislate, no mat- ter where they may be situated, and with- out regard to whether or not the provisions of the Constitution have been extended to them ; but this is so because the Congress, in all that it does, is subject to and gov- erned by those restraints and prohibitions. As, for instance, Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of relig- ion, or prohibiting the free exercise there- of; no title of nobility shall be granted; no bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed; neither shall the validity of contracts be impaired, nor shall prop- erty be taken without due process of law; nor shall the freedom of speech or of the press be abridged; nor shall slavery exist in any place subject to the jurisdiction of the United States. These limitations are placed upon the exercise of the legis- lative power without regard to the place or the people for whom the legislation in a given case may be intended." That is to say, every general constitu- tional limitation of the powers of Congress applies to the Territories. The brief schedule of these limitations given by the committee are all put in the negative form, "Congress shall not"; but surely it was not meant that there may not be quite as effective a limitation by the use of the affirmative form. If a power is given to be used in one way only, all other uses of it are negatived by necessary implication. When it is said, " All duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States," is not that the equivalent of " No duty or excise that is not uniform shall be levied in the United States "? And is not the first form quite as effective a limitation of the legis- lative power over the subject of indirect taxation as that contained in the fourth clause of the section is upon the power to lay direct taxes? In the latter the negative form is used, thus: " No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census of enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken." This discrimination between express and implied limitations, benevolently attempt- ed to save for the people of the Terri- tories the bill of rights provision of the Constitution, will not, I think, endure discussion. There are only three views that may be offered, with some show of consistency in themselves. First. That Congress, the executive, and the judiciary are all created by the Con- stitution as governing agencies of the nation called the United States ; that their powers are defined by the Constitution and run throughout the nation; that all the limitations of their powers attach to every region and to all civilized people under the sovereignty of the United States, 171 ANNEXED TERRITORY unless their inapplicability appears from the national government are severely re- the Constitution itself ; that every guaran- strained. We read that Congress shall have tee of liberty, including that most essen- power, and again that Congress shall not tial one, uniform taxation, is to be allowed have power. But neither these grants nor to every free civilized man and woman these inhibitions have, it is said, any rela- who owes allegiance to the United States; tion to the Territories. Against the laws that the use of the term " throughout the enacted by the Congress, or the acts done United States " does not limit the scope by the executive, there is no appeal, on be- of any constitutional provision of the half of the people of the Territories, to any States that would otherwise be applicable written constitution, or bill of rights, or to the Territories as well; but that these charter of liberty. We offer them only words include the widest sweep of the na- this highly consolatory thought: a nation tion's sovereignty, and so the widest limit of free Americans can be trusted to deal of congressional action. benevolently with you. Secondly. That the term "The United How obstinately wrong we were in our States " defines an inner circle of the na- old answer to the Southern slave-holder ! tional sovereignty composed of the States It is not a question of kind or unkind alone; that, whenever these words are used treatment, but of human rights; not of the in the Constitution, they must be taken good or bad use of power, but of the to have reference only to the region and to power, we said. And so our fathers said, the people within this inner circle; but in answer to the claim of absolute power that, when these words of limitation are made on behalf of the British Parliament, omitted, the constitutional provision must, As to the States, the legislative power of unless otherwise limited, be taken to in- Congress is "all legislative powers herein elude all land« and people in the outer granted." (Art. 1, sec. 1.) As to the circle of the national sovereignty. Territories, it is said to be all legislative Thirdly. That the Constitution has rela- power — all that any parliament ever had tion only to the States and their people; or ever claimed to have, and as much that all constitutional limitations of the more as we may claim — for there can be powers of Congress and the executive are no excess of pretension where power is ab- to be taken to apply only to the States and solute. No law relating to the Territories, their citizens; that the power to acquire passed by Congress, can, it is said, be de- territory is neither derived from the Con- clared by the Supreme Court to be in- stitution nor limited by it, but is an in- operative, though every section o_ it herent power of national life; that the should contravene a provision of the Con- government we exercise in the Territories stitution. is not a constitutional government, but an An outline of a possible law may aid absolute government, and that all or any us to see more clearly what is involved: of the things prohibited by the Constitu- Sec. 1. Suspends permanently the writ tion as to the States, in the interest of of habeas corpus in Porto Rico, liberty, justice, and equality, may be done Sec. 2. Declares an attainder against all in the Territories; that, as to the Terri- Porto Ricans who have displayed the tories, we are under no restraints save Spanish flag since the treaty of peace, such as our own interests or our benevo- Sec. 3. Grants to the native mayors of lence may impose. Ponce and San Juan the titles of Lord I say " benevolence " ; but must not that Dukes of Porto Rico, with appropriate quality be submerged before this view of crests. the Constitution is promulgated? It seems Sec. 4. Any Porto Rican who shall speak to have had its origin in a supposed com- disrespectfully of the Congress shall be mercial necessity, and we may fairly con- deemed guilty of treason. One witness elude that other recurring necessities will shall be sufficient to prove the offence, and guide its exercise. Is it too much to say on conviction the offender shall have his that this view of the Constitution is tongue cut out; and the conviction shall shocking? work corruption of blood. Within the States, it is agreed that Sec. 5. The Presbyterian Church shall be the powers of the several departments of the established Church of the island, and 172 ANNEXED TERRITORY no one shall be permitted to worship God after any other form. Sec. 6. All proposed publications shall be submitted to a censor, and shall be printed only after he has approved the same. Public meetings for the discussion of public affairs are prohibited, and no petitions shall be presented to the govern- ment. Sec. 7. No inhabitant of Porto Rico shall keep or bear arms. Sec. 8. The soldiers of the island garri- son shall be quartered in the houses of the people. Sec. 9. The commanding officer of the United States forces in the island shall have the right, without any warrant, to search the person, house, papers, and ef- fects of any one suspected by him. Sec. 10. Any person in Porto Rico, in civil life, may be put upon trial for capital or other infamous crimes upon the infor- mation of the public prosecutor, without the presentment or indictment of a grand jury; may be twice put in jeopardy for the same offence; may be compelled to be a witness against himself, and may be deprived of life, liberty, or property with- out due process of law, and his property may be taken for public uses without com- pensation. Sec. 11. Criminal trials may, in the dis- cretion of the presiding judge, be held in secret, without a jury, in a district pre- scribed by law after the commission of the offence, and the accused shall, or not, be advised before arraignment of the nat- ure or cause of the accusation, and shall, or not, be confronted with the witnesses against him, and have compulsory process to secure his own witnesses, as the presid- ing judge may in his discretion order. Sec. 12. There shall be no right in any suit at common law to demand a jury. Sec. 13. A direct tax is imposed upon Porto Rico for Federal uses without regard to its relative population; the tariff rates at San Juan are fixed at 50 per cent., and those at Ponce at 15 per cent, of those levied at New York. New Mexico, or Arizona, or Oklahoma might be substituted for Porto Rico in the bill ; for, I think, those who affirm that the Constitution has no relation to Porto Rico do so upon grounds that equally apply to all other Territories. Now, no one supposes that Congress will ever assemble in a law such shocking pro- visions. But, for themselves, our fathers were not content with an assurance of these great rights that rested wholly upon the sense of justice and benevolence of the Congress. The man whose protection from wrong rests wholly upon the benevo- lence of another man or of a congress, is a slave — a man without rights. Our fathers took security of the governing departments they organized ; and that, notwithstanding the fact that the choice of all public officers rested with the people. When a man strictly limits the powers of an agent of his own choice, and exacts a bond from him, to secure his faithfulness, he does not occupy strong ground when he insists that another person, who had no part in the selection, shall give the agent full powers without a bond. If there is anything that is character- istic in American constitutions, State and national, it is the plan of limiting the powers of all public officers and agencies. " You shall do this ; you may do this ; you shall not do this " — is the form that the schedule of powers always takes. This grew out of our experience as English colonies. A government of unlimited legislative or executive powers is an un- American government. And, for one, I do not like to believe that the framers of the national Constitution ' and of our first State constitutions were careful only for their own liberties. This is the more improbable when we remember that the territory then most likely to be acquired would naturally be peopled by their sons. They cherished very broad views as to the rights of men. Their philosophy of liberty derived it from God. Liberty was a Divine gift to be claimed for ourselves only upon the condi- tion of allowing it to " all men." They would write the law of liberty truly, and suffer for a time the just reproach of a de- parture from its precepts that could not be presently amended. It is a brave thing to proclaim a law that condemns your own practices. You assume the fault and strive to attain. The fathers left to a baser generation the attempt to limit God's law of liberty to white men. It is not a right use of the fault of slavery to say that, because of it, 173 ANNEXED TERRITORY our fathers did not mean "all men." It was one thing to tolerate an existing con- dition that the law of liberty condemned, in order to accomplish the union of the States, and it is quite another thing to create a condition contrary to liberty for a commercial profit. In a recent discussion of these questions, sent me by the author, I find these con- solatory reflections: "And yet the inalien- able rights of the Filipinos, even if not guaranteed by the Constitution, are amply secured by the fundamental, unwritten laws of our civilization." Does this mean that the specific guarantees of individual liberty found in our Constitution have be- come a part of " our civilization," and that they apply in Porto Rico and the Philippines in such a sense that, if there is any denial of them by Congress or the executive, the courts can enforce them and nullify the law that infringes them? If that is meant, then as to all such rights this discussion is tweedledum and tweedle- dee — the Constitution does not apply, but all these provisions of it are in full force, notwithstanding. Perhaps, however, it should be asked further, whether the rule of the uniform- ity of taxation is a part of the " law of our civilization"; for, without it, all property rights are unprotected. The man whose property may be taxed arbitrarily, without regard to uniformity within the tax district, and without any limitation as to the purposes for which taxes may be levied, does not own anything; he is a tenant at will. But if these supposed " laws of our civ- ilization " are not enforcible by the courts, and rest wholly for their sanction upon the consciences of presidents and congresses, then there is a very wide difference. The one is ownership, the other is charity. The one is freedom, the other slavery — however just and kind the master may be. The instructions of the President to the Taft Philippine Commission seem to allow that any civil government under the au- thority of the United States that does not offer to the people affected by it the guarantees of liberty contained in the Bill of Rights sections of the Constitution is abhorrent. Speaking of these, he said: " Until Congress shall take action, I di- rected that, upon every division and branch of the government of the Philip- pines, must be imposed these inviolable rules : " * That no person shall be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due proc- ess of law; that private property shall not be taken for public use without just compensation; that in all criminal prose- cutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, to be in- formed of the nature and cause of the accu- sation, to be confronted with the witnesses against him, to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence; that excessive bail shall not be re- quired, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishment inflicted; that no person shall be put twice in jeop- ardy for the same offence, or be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself; that the right to be se- cure against unreasonable searches and seizures shall not be violated ; that neither slavery nor involuntary servitude shall exist except as a punishment for crime; that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law shall be passed; that no law shall be passed abridging the freedom of speech or of the press, or of the rights of the people to peaceably assemble and petition the government for a redress of griev- ances; that no law shall be made respect- ing the establishment of religion, or pro- hibiting the free exercise thereof, and that the free exercise and enjoyment of relig- ious profession and worship without dis- crimination or preference shall forever be allowed.' " The benevolent disposition of the Presi- dent is well illustrated in these instruc- tions. He conferred freely — " until Con- gress shall take action " — upon the Fili- pinos, who accepted the sovereignty of the United States and submitted themselves to the government established by the Com- mission, privileges that our fathers only secured after eight years of desperate war. There is this, however, to be noted, that our fathers were not content to hold these priceless gifts under a revocable license. They accounted that to hold these things upon the tenure of another man's benevo- lence was not to hold them at all. Their battle was for rights, not privileges — for a Constitution, not a letter of instructions. 174 ANNEXED TERRITORY The President's instructions apparently not a synonyme of " absolute." When the proceed upon the theory that the Filipinos, Constitution says that " treason against after civil government has superseded the the United States shall consist only in military control, are not endowed under levying war against them, or in adhering our Constitution, or otherwise, with any to their enemies, giving them aid and of the rights scheduled by him; that, if he comfort," there is a limitation of the does nothing, is silent, some or all of the legislative power; and it necessarily ex- things prohibited in his schedule may be tends to every venue where the crime of lawfully done upon, and all the things treason against the United States may be allowed may be denied to, a people who laid, and to every person upon whom its owe allegiance to that free constitutional penalties may be imposed, government we call the United States of This constitutional provision defining America. the crime of treason and prescribing the It is clear that those Porto Ricans who necessary proofs is a Bill of Rights pro- have not, under the treaty, declared a vision. In England, under Edward II., purpose to remain Spanish subjects, have " there was," it was said, " no man who become American citizens or American knew how to behave himself, to do, speak subjects. Have you ever read one of our or say, for doubt of the pains of such commercial treaties with Great Britain or treasons." The famous statute of Edward Germany, or any other of the kingdoms III., defining treasons, James Wilson de- of the world ? These treaties provide for clares, " may well be styled the legal Gib- trade intercourse, and define and guaran- raltar of England." (Wilson's Works tee the rights of the people of the respec- [Andrews] vol. ii., p. 413.) tive nations when domiciled in the terri- Mr. Madison, speaking of this section of tory of the other. The descriptive terms run the Constitution, says in the Federalist : like this: "The subjects of her Britannic "But as new-fangled and artificial trea- Majesty " on the one part, and " the citi- sons have been the great engines by which zens of the United States " on the other, violent factions, the natural offspring of Now, if the commercial privileges guaran- free government, have usually wreaked teed by these treaties do not, in their their malignity on each other, the conven- present form, include the Porto Ricans tion have with great judgment opposed a who strewed flowers before our troops barrier to this peculiar danger, by insert- when they entered the island, we ought ing a constitutional definition of the at once to propose to our "Great and crime," etc. Good Friends," the kings and queens of Mr. Madison believed that there was a the earth, a modification of our conven- real danger that statutes of treason might tions in their behalf. be oppressively used by Congress. What Who will claim the distinction of pro- have we been doing, or what have we a posing that the words " and subjects " be purpose to do, that we find it necessary introduced after the word "citizens"? to limit the safeguards of liberty found in There will be no objection on the part of our Constitution, to the people of the the king, you may be sure; the modifica- States? Is it that we now propose to tion will be allowed smilingly. acquire territory for colonization, and not, We have never before found it necessary as heretofore, for full incorporation ? Is to treat the free civilized inhabitants of it that we propose to have crown colonies, the Territories otherwise than as citizens and must have crown law? Is it that we of the United States. mean to be a world power, and must be It is true, as Mr. Justice Miller said, free from the restraints of a Bill of that the exclusive sovereignty over the Rights? We shall owe deliverance a sec- Territories is in the national government; ond time to these principles of human but it does not follow that the nation pos- liberty, if they are now the means of sesses the power to govern the Territories delivering us from un - American proj- independently of the Constitution. The ects. Constitution gives to Congress the right The particular provision of the Consti- to exercise " exclusive legislation " in the tution upon which Congress seems to have District of Columbia ; but " exclusive " is balked, in the Porto Rican legislation, was 175 ANNEXED TERBITORY a revenue clause — viz., the first paragraph of sec. 8 of art. 1, which reads: " The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and ex- cises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States." There was only one door of escape from allowing the application of this clause to Porto Rico. It was to deny that the Territories are part of the United States. It will be noticed that the descriptive term " The United States " is twice used in the one sentence — once in the clause defining the purposes for which only du- ties and imposts may be levied, and once in the clause requiring uniformity in the use of the power. Is there any canon of construction that authorizes us to give to the words "The United States" one meaning in the first use of them and an- other in the second? If in the second use the Territories are excluded, must they not also be excluded in the first? If the rule of uniformity does not apply to the Ter- ritories, how can the power to tax be used in the United States, to pay the debts and provide for the defence and general wel- fare of the Territories? Can duties be levied in New York and other ports of the States, to be expended for local purposes in Porto Rico, if the island is not a part of the United States? Are the debts that may be contracted by what the law calls the body politic of " The People of Porto Rico " for local pur- poses, part of the debt of the United States — notwithstanding that the island is no part of the United States and the people are not citizens of the United States? But some one will say that the island is one of our outlying defences, and that fortifications and naval stations and public highways there are necessary to the " common defence." Well, is it also true that education and poor relief, and fire and police and health protection, and all other agencies of local order and better- ment in Porto Rico, are included in the words " the general welfare of the United States"? It would seem that a region of which it can be said that its general welfare is the general welfare of the United States, must be a part of the United States, and its people citizens of the United States. For the first time Congress has laid tariff duties upon goods passing from a Territory into the States. The necessity for this radical departure from the estab- lished practice of the government seems to have been to find a safe basis for the holding and governing of regions, the free introduction of whose products might af- fect the home industries unfavorably, and the admission of whose people to citizen- ship might imply future Statehood — or at least the right of migration and settlement in the States of an undesirable population. That the diversity of tongues in the Phil- ippines, and the utter lack of the Ameri- can likeness in everything there, presented strong reasons against the acquisition of the islands, I freely admit. It must also be conceded that when, as we are told, Providence laid upon us the heavy duty of taking over and govern- ing these islands, it was very natural that we should seek to find a way of governing them that would save us from some of the unpleasant consequences which a discharge of the duty in the old way involved. But do we not incur a greater loss and peril from that new doctrine, that our Congress and executive have powers not derived from the Constitution, and are subject to no restraint or limitations in the Ter- ritories, save such as they may impose upon themselves? Are the civil rights of the dwellers on the mainland well secured against the in- sidious under-wear of greed and ambition, while we deny to the island dwellers, who are held to a strict allegiance, the only sure defence that civil rights can have — the guarantees of constitutional law? Burke saw in the absolute powers claimed for Parliament, in the American colonies, danger to the liberties of Parliament it- self. As so often quoted, he said: " For we are convinced, beyond a doubt, that a system of dependence which leaves no security to the people for any part of their freedom in their own hands, cannot be established in any inferior member of the British Empire without consequently destroying the freedom of that very body in favor of whose boundless pretensions such a scheme is adopted. We know and feel that arbitrary power over distant re- 176 ANNEXED TERRITORY gions is not within the competence, nor the Constitution into a Territory, I can to be exercised agreeably to the forms or think of nothing that will, save the act of consistently with the spirit, of great popu- admitting the Territory as a State. lar assemblies." The situation of the Porto Rican peo- Are we, in this day of commercial car- pie is scarcely less mortifying to us than nival, incapable of being touched by such to them; they owe allegiance but have considerations, either in our fears or in no citizenship. Have we not spoiled our our sense of justice? Is it not likely to career as a delivering nation? And for be true that the moral tone of the repub- what? A gentleman connected with the lie — our estimation of constitutional lib- beet-sugar industry, seeing my objections erty — will be lessened by the creation of a to the constitutionality of the law, and body of civilized people over whom our having a friendly purpose to help me over flag waves as an emblem of power only? them, wrote to say that the duty was ab- The flag cannot stand for the benevolent solutely needed to protect the beet-sugar policies of an administration. It stands industry. While appreciating his friendli- for more permanent things — for things ness, I felt compelled to say to him that that changing administrations have no there was a time for considering the ad- power to change. Is it not in the nature vantages and disadvantages of a commer- of a mockery to raise the flag in Porto cial sort involved in taking over Porto Rico and bid its hopeful people hail it as Rico, but that that time had passed, and an emblem of emancipation, while the to intimate to him that the needs of the governor we have sent them reads a proc- beet-sugar industry seemed to me to be ir- lamation, from the foot of the staff, an- relevant in a constitutional discussion, nouncing the absolute power of Congress The wise man did not say there was over them? a future time for everything; he al- How would the pioneers of the West lowed that the time for dancing might be have regarded a declaration that they altogether behind us, and a less pleasant were not citizens of the United States, or exercise before us. We are hardly likely a duty laid upon the furs then sent to the to acquire any territory that will not come States, or upon the salt and gunpowder at some cost. sent from the States in exchange, even if That we give back to Porto Rico all of a preference of eighty-five per cent, had the revenue derived from the customs we been given them over the people of Canada ? levy does not seem to me to soften our It is safe to say that no such interpre- dealings with her people. Our fathers tation of the Constitution, or of the rights were not mollified by the suggestion that of the people of a Territory, will ever be the tea and stamp taxes would be ex- offered to men of American descent. pended wholly for the benefit of the colo- If the Constitution, so far as it is ap- nies. It is to say : " We do not need this plicable, attaches itself, whether Congress money; it is only levied to show that your will or no, to all territory taken over as a country is no part of the United States, part of the permanent territory of the and that you are not citizens of the United United States, it is there to stay as funda- States, save at our pleasure." When trib- rnental law. But if it is not so, an act of ute is levied and immediately returned as Congress declaring that the Constitution a benefaction, its only purpose is to de- is " extended " is not fundamental law, clare and maintain a state of vassalage, but statute law, and may be repealed ; and But I am not sure that the beet-sugar is repealed by implication, pro £an£o,when- objection is not more tenable than another, ever Congress passes a law in conflict with and probably more controlling considera- the provisions of the "extended" Consti- tion, which ran in this wise: "We see no tution. If the Constitution as such, as serious commercial disadvantages, and no fundamental law, is extended over new ter- threat of disorder, in accepting Porto Rico ritory, it must be the result of an act tc be a part of the United States — in that done — an act the effect of which is in it- ease it seems to be our duty; but we have self, not in any accompanying declara- acquired other islands in the Orient, of tion. large area, populated by a turbulent and If the act of annexation does not carry rebellious people; and, if we do by the I.— m 177 ANNEXED TERRITORY Porto Ricans what our sense of justice and of their friendliness prompts us to do, some illogical person will say that we must deal in the same way with the Phil- ippines. And some other person will say that the free intercourse was not given by the law but by the Constitution." I will not give a license to a friend to cut a tree upon my land to feed his winter fire, because my enemy may find in the license a support for his claim that the wood is a common! If we have confidence that the Constitu- tion does not apply to the Territories, surely we ought to use our absolute power there with a view to the circumstances at- tending each call for its exercise. Not to do this shows a misgiving as to the power. The questions raised by the Porto Rican legislation have been discussed chiefly from the stand - point of the people of the Territories; but there is another view. If, in its tariff legislation relative to merchandise imported into the Terri- tories and to merchandise passed from the Territories into the States, Congress is not subject to the law of uniformity pre- scribed by the Constitution, it would seem to follow that it is within the power of Congress to allow the admission to Porto Rico of all raw materials coming from other countries free of duty, and to admit to all ports of the " United States proper," free of duty, the products manufactured from these raw materials. As the people of the " United States proper " choose the Congressmen, there may be no great alarm felt over this possibility; but it is worth while to note that a construction of the Constitution adopted to save us from a competition with the Territories on equal grounds is capable of being turned against us and to their advantage. The courts may not refuse to give to the explicit words of a law their natural meaning, by reason of the ill consequences that may follow; but they may well take account of consequences in construing doubtful phrases, and resolve the doubts so as to save the purpose of the law- makers, where, as in the case of the consti- tutional provision we are considering, that purpose is well known. They will not construe a doubtful phrase so as to allow the very thing that the law was intended to prevent. These constitutional questions will soon be decided by the Supreme Court. If the absolute power of Congress is affirmed, we shall probably use the power with dis- crimination by " extending " the Consti- tution to Porto Rico, and by giving to its people a full territorial form of govern- ment, and such protection in their civil rights as an act of Congress can give. If the court shall hold that the Constitution, in the parts not in themselves inapplicable, covers all territory made a permanent part of our domain, from the moment of annex- ation and as a necessary part of the United States, then we will conform our legislation, with deep regret that we as- sumed a construction contrary to liberty, and with some serious embarrassments that might have been avoided. There has been with many a mistaken apprehension that, if the Constitution, of its own force, extends to Porto Rico and the Philippines, and gives American citi- zenship to their free civilized people, they become endowed with full political rights; that their consent is necessary to the va- lidity and rightfulness of all civil adminis- trations. But no such deduction follows. The power of Congress to legislate for the Territories is full. That is, there is no legislative power elsewhere than in Con- gress, but it is not absolute. The conten- tion is that all the powers of Congress are derived from the Constitution — including the power to legislate for the Territories — and that such legislation must necessarily, always and everywhere, be subject to the limitations of the Constitution. When this rule is observed, the consent of the people of the Territories is not nec- essary to the validity of the legislation. The new Territory having become a part of the national domain, the people dwell- ing therein have no reserved legal right to sever that relation, or to set up therein a hostile government. The question whether the United States can take over or continue to hold and govern a Territory whose people are hostile, is not a question of constitutional or international law, but of conscience and historical consistency. Some one must determine when and how far the people of a Territory, part of our national domain, can be entrusted with governing powers of a local nature, and when the broader powers of statehood 178 ANNEXED TERRITORY shall be conferred. We have no right to judge the capacity for self-government of the people of another nation, or to make an alleged lack of that faculty an excuse for aggression; but we must judge of this matter for our Territories. The interests to be affected by the decision are not all local; many of them are national. These questions are to be judged liberal- ly and with strong leanings to the side of popular liberty, but we cannot give over the decision to the people who may at any particular time be settled in a Territory. We have, for the most part, in our history given promptly to the people of the Terri- tories a large measure of local government, and have, when the admission of a State was proposed, thought only of boundaries and population. But this was because our Territories have been contiguous and chiefly populated from the States. We are not only at liberty, however, but under a duty, to take account also of the quality and disposition of the people, and we have in one or two instances done so. The written Constitution prescribes no rule for these cases. The question whether the United States shall hold conquered territory, or territory acquired by cession, without the consent of the people to be affected, is quite apart from the question whether, having acquired and incorporated such territory, we can govern it otherwise than under the limitations of the Consti- tution. The Constitution may be aided in things doubtful by the Declaration of Indepen- dence. It may be assumed that the frame of civil government adopted was intend- ed to harmonize with the Declaration. It is the preamble of the Constitution. It goes before the enacting clause and de- clares the purpose of the law; but the pur- pose so expressed is not the law unless it finds renewed expression after the enacting clause. We shall be plainly recreant to the spirit and purpose of the Constitu- tion if we arbitrarily deny to the people of a Territory as large a measure of popu- lar government as their good disposition and intelligence will warrant. Neces- sarily, the judgment of this question, how- ever, is with Congress. The Constitution prescribes no rule — could not do so — and the courts cannot review the discretion of Congress. But we are now having it dinned into our ears that expansion is the law of life, and that expansion is not practicable if the Constitution is to go with the flag. Lord Salisbury, some years ago, stated this supposed law of national life. In a recent address, Mr. James Bryce says, by way of comment: " He thinks it like a bicycle, which must fall when it comes to a stand-still. It is an awkward result of this doctrine that when there is no more room for expan- sion — and a time must come, perhaps soon, when there will be no more room — the Empire will begin to decline." If Great Britain, with her accepted methods of territorial growth, finds the problem of growth by expansion increas- ingly hard, it will be harder for us, for we are fettered by our traditions as to popu- lar rights, at least — if not by our Consti- tution. But expansion is not necessarily of a healthy sort; it may be dropsical. If judgment is passed now, the attempted conquest of the Boer republics has not strengthened Great Britain. She has not gained esteem. She has not increased her loyal population. She has created a need for more outlying garrisons — already too numerous. She has strained her military and financial resources, and has had a revelation of the need of larger armies and stronger coast defences at home. The re- cent appeal of Lord Salisbury at the Lord Mayor's banquet for more complete island defences is most significant. Did the South African war furnish a truer measure of the Empire's land strength than the famil- iar campaigning against half-savage peo- ples had done? The old coach, with its power to stand as well as to move, may, after all, be a safer carriage, for the hopes and interests of a great people, than the bicycle. Some one will say, increasing years and retirement and introspection have broken your touch with practical affairs and left you out of sympathy with the glowing prospects of territorial expansion that now opens before us; that it has always been so; the Louisiana and the Alaskan pur- chases were opposed by some fearful souls. But I have been making no argument against expansion. The recent acquisi- tions from Spain must present widely dif- 179 ANTHON— ANTIETAM ferent conditions from all previous acqui- sitions of territory, since it seems to be admitted that they cannot be allowed to become a part of the United States without a loss that overbalances the gain; that we can only safely acquire them upon the con- dition that we can govern them without any constitutional restraint. One who has retired from the service, but not from the love of his country, must be pardoned if he finds himself unable to rejoice in the acquisition of lands and forests and mines and commerce, at the cost of the abandonment of the old Ameri- can idea that a government of absolute powers is an intolerable thing, and, under the Constitution of the United States, an impossible thing. The view of the Con- stitution I have suggested will not limit the power of territorial expansion; but it will lead us to limit the use of that power to regions that may safely become a part of the United States, and to peoples whose American citizenship may be allow- ed. It has been said that the flash of Dewey's -guns in Manila Bay revealed to the American people a new mission. 1 like rather to think of them as revealing the same old mission that we read in the flash of Washington's guns at York- town. God forbid that the day should ever come when, in the American mind, the thought of man as a " consumer " shall submerge the old American thought of man as a creature of God, endowed with " inalienable rights." Anthon, Charles, scholar and edu- cator; born in New York, Nov. 19, 1797. His father, a surgeon-general in the Brit- ish army, settled in New York soon after the Revolution. Charles graduated at Co- lumbia College in 1815, was admitted to the bar, and in 1820 was made professor of languages in his alma mater. Pro' fessor Anthon was the author of many books connected with classical studies. He was made the head of the classical de- partment of the college as successor of Professor Moore in 1835, having served as rector of the grammar-school of the college for five years. Professor Anthon was very methodical in his habits. He retired at ten o'clock and rose at four, and per- formed much of his appointed day's work before breakfast. By industry he pro- duced about fifty volumes, consisting chief- ly of the Latin classics and aids to clas- sical study. All of his works were repub- lished in England. His larger works are a Classical Dictionary and a Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. When he was made rector of the grammar-school he conferred on the public schools of his native city six free scholarships. He died in New York, July 29, 1867. Anthony, Henry Bowen, statesman born in Coventry, R. I., April 1, 1815 graduated at Brown University in 1833 editor of the Providence Journal, 1838- 63; elected governor of Rhode Island in 1849 and in 1850; United States Sen- ator from Rhode Island, 1859-84; thrice elected president pro tern, of the Senate. He died in Providence, R. I., Sept. 2, 1884. Anthony, Susan Brownell, American reformer; born in South Adams, Mass., Feb. 15, 1820. She was of Quaker parent- age, and received her education at a Friends' school in Philadelphia. From 1835 to 1850 she taught school in New York. In 1847 she began her efforts in behalf of the temperance movement; in 1852 she assisted in organizing the Woman's New York State Temperance Society. In 1854-55 she held meetings in behalf of female suffrage. She was a leader in the anti - slavery movement, and an early advocate of the coeducation of women. Greatly through her influence, the New York legislature, in 1860, passed the act giving married women the possession of their earnings and the guardianship of their children. In 1868, with Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pillsbury, she began the publication of the Revolutionist, a paper devoted to the emancipation of wom- en. In 1872 she cast test ballots at the State and congressional elections in Roch- ester, N. Y., and was indicted and fined for illegal voting, but the fine was never exacted. Antietam, Battle of. After the sur- render of Harper's Ferry, Sept. 15, 1862, Lee felt himself in a perilous position, for General Franklin had entered Pleasant Valley that very morning and threatened the severance of his army. Lee at once took measures to concentrate his forces. He withdrew his troops from South Moun- tain and took position in the Antietam valley, near Sharpsburg, Md. Jackson, by 180 ANTIETAM swift marches, had recrossed the Potomac and joined Lee on Antietam Creek. When the Confederates left South Mountain, Mc- Clellan's troops followed them. Lee's plans were thwarted, and he found himself compelled to fight. McClellan was very- cautious, for he believed the Confederates were on his front in overwhelming num- bers. It was ascertained that Lee's army- did not number more than 60,000. MeClel- lan's effective force was 87,000. McClel- lan's army was well in hand (Sept. 18), and Lee's was well posted on the heights near Sharpsburg, on the west- ern side of Antietam Creek, a sluggish stream with few fords, spanned by four stone bridges. On the right of the National line were the corps of Hook- er and Sumner. In the advance, and near the Antietam, General Richardson's division of Sumner's corps was posted. On a line with this was Sykes's (reg- ular) division of Porter's corps. Farther down the stream was Burnside's corps. In front of Sumner and Hooker were bat- teries of 24-pounder Parrott guns. Frank- lin's corps and Couch's division were far- ther down the valley, and the divisions of Morrell and Humphrey, of Porter's corps, were approaching from Frederick. A de- tachment of the signal corps, under Major Myer, was on a spur of South Mountain. As McClellan prudently hesitated to at- tack, the Confederates put him on the de- fensive by opening an artillery fire upon the Nationals at dawn (Sept. 16, 1862). He was ready for response in the course of the afternoon, when Hooker crossed the Antietam with a part of his corps, com- manded by Generals Ricketts, Meade, and Doubleday. Hooker at once attacked the Confederate left, commanded by " Stone- wall Jackson," who was soon reinforced by General Hood. Sumner was directed to send over Mansfield's corps during the night, and to hold his own in readiness to pass over the next morning. Hooker's first movement was successful. He drove back the Confederates, and his army rest- ed on their arms that night on the ground they had won. Mansfield's corps crossed in the evening, and at dawn (Sept. 17) the contest was renewed by Hooker. It was obstinate and severe. The National bat- teries on the east side of the creek greatly assisted in driving the Confederates away, 18 with heavy loss, beyond a line of woods. It was at this time, when Hooker ad- vanced, that Jackson was reinforced. The Confederates swarmed out of the works and fell heavily upon Meade, when Hooker called upon Doubleday for help. A bri- gade under General Hartsuff pressed for- ward against a heavy storm of missiles, and its leader was severely wounded. Meanwhile Mansfield's corps had been or- dered up, and before it became engaged the veteran leader was mortally wounded. The command then devolved on General Williams, who left his division in the care of General Crawford, and the latter seized a piece of woods near by. Hooker had lost heavily; Doubleday's guns had si- lenced a Confederate battery; Ricketts was struggling against constantly increasing numbers on his front; and the National line began to waver, when Hooker, in the van, was wounded and taken from the field. Sumner sent Sedgwick to the sup- port of Crawford, and Gordon and Rich- ardson and French bore down upon the Confederates more to the left. The Nationals now held position at the Dunker Church, and seemed about to grasp the palm of victory ( for Jackson and Hood were falling back), when fresh Confeder- ate troops, under McLaws and Walker, supported by Early, came up. They pene- trated the National line and drove it back, when the unflinching Doubleday gave them such a storm of artillery that they, in turn, fell back to their original position. Sedgwick, twice wounded, was carried from the field, and the command of his division devolved on Gen. O. O. Howard. Generals Crawford and Dana were also wounded. Franklin was sent over to as- sist the hard-pressed Nationals. Forming on Howard's left, he sent Slocum with his division towards the centre. At the same time General Smith was ordered to retake the ground on which there had been so much fighting, and it was done within fifteen minutes. The Confederates were driven far back. Meanwhile the divisions of French and Richardson had been busy. The former received orders from Sumner to press on and make a diversion in favor of the right. Richardson's division, com- posed of the brigades of Meagher, Cald- well, and Brooks (who had crossed the Antietam at ten o'clock), gained a good 1 ANTIETAM— ANTI-EXPANSIONISTS position. The Confederates, reinforced by fresh troops, fought desperately. Finally, Richardson was mortally wounded, and Gen. W. S. Hancock succeeded him in command, when a charge was made that drove the Confederates in great confusion. Night soon closed the action on the Na- tional right and centre. General Meagher had been wounded and carried from the field, when the command of his troops de- volved on Colonel Burke. During the fierce strifes of the day Porter's corps, with artil- lery and Pleasonton's cav- alry, had remained on the east side of the stream, as a reserve, until late in the afternoon, when McClellan sent over some brigades. On the morning of the 17th the left, under Burn- side, engaged in a desper- ate struggle for the pos- session of a bridge just be- low Sharpsburg. That commander had been or- dered to cross it and at* tack the Confederates. It was a difficult task, and Burnside, exposed to a raking fire from the Con- federate batteries and an enfilading fire from sharp- shooters, was several times repulsed. Finally, at a little past noon, two regiments charged across the bridge and drove its defenders away. The divi- sions of Sturgis, Wilcox, and Rodman, and Scammon's brigade, with four batteries, passed the bridge and drove the Confeder- ates almost to Sharpsburg. A. P. Hill, with fresh troops, fell upon Burnside's left, mortally wounding General Rodman, and driving the Nationals nearly back to the bridge. Gen. O'B. Branch, of North Carolina, was also killed in this encounter. The Confederates were checked by Nation- al artillery on the eastern side of the stream, and, reserves advancing under Sturgis, there was no further attempt to retake " the Burnside Bridge," as it was called. Hill came up just in time to save Lee's army from destruction. Darkness ended the memorable struggle known as the Battle of Antietam. The losses were very severe. McClellan report- ed his losses at 12,4G0 men, of whom 2,010 were killed. He estimated Lee's loss as much greater. The losses fell heavily upon certain brigades. That of Duryee retired from the field with not more than twenty men and four colors. Of the bri- gades of Lawton and Hays, on the Con- federate side, more than one-half were lost. On the morning of the 18th both parties seemed more willing to rest than to fight; and that night Lee and his BURXSIDK BRIDGE, " ANTIKTAM CREKK. shattered army stole away in the darkness, recrossed the Potomac at Williamsport, and planted eight batteries on the high Virginia bank that menaced pursuers. There had been a very tardy pursuit. At dark on the evening of the 19th, Porter, who was on the left bank of the river, ordered Griffin to cross the stream with two brigades and carry Lee's batteries. He captured four of the guns. On the next morning (Sept. 20) a part of Por- ter's division made a reconnoissance in force on the Virginia side, and were as- sailed by Hill in ambush, who drove them across the Potomac and captured 200 of the Nationals. Maryland Heights and Harper's Ferry were retaken by the Union troops. Anti-Expansionists, an old phrase in American political history which was res- urrected during the Presidential cam- paign of 1900, and applied to those who 182 ANTI-EXPANSIONISTS were opposed to the extension of American the Union, and whose people are willing territory which had been brought about and fit to become American citizens. We during the first administration of Presi- favor expansion by every peaceful and le- dent McKinley, principally as a result of gitimate means. But we are unalterably the war with Spain in 1898. The adminis- opposed to the seizing or purchasing of tration was charged not only by its Demo- distant islands, to be governed outside the cratic opponents, but by many able men Constitution, and whose people can never in the Republican party, with expansionist become citizens. We are in favor of ex- or imperialist tendencies considered for- tending the Republic's influence among the eign to the national policy of the country, nations, but believe that influence should While those who opposed the territorial be extended, not by force and violence, but expansion which had been accomplished, through the persuasive power of a high and also was pending, in the matter of the and honorable example. The importance future of the Philippine Islands, were not of other questions now pending before the sufficiently strong to organize an indepen- American people is in nowise diminished, dent political party, the large number of and the Democratic party takes no back- them within and without the Republican ward step from its position on them, but party created a sharp complication in the the burning issue of imperialism growing Presidential campaign. The position of out of the Spanish War involves the very the two great parties on this issue is existence of the republic, and the destruc- shown in the following extracts from the tion of our free institutions. We regard platforms adopted at their respective na- it as the paramount issue of the cam- tional conventions. paign." In the Republican platform the Philip- In the matter of the Philippine problem, pine problem was treated as follows: the platform made the following declara- " In accepting by the treaty of Paris tion : the just responsibility of our victories in " We condemn and denounce the Philip- the Spanish War, the President and the pine policy of the present administration. Senate won the undoubted approval of the It has involved the republic in unneces- American people. No other course was sary war, sacrificed the lives of many of possible than to destroy Spain's sover- our noblest sons, and placed the United eignty throughout the Western Indies and States, previously known and applauded in the Philippine Islands. That course throughout the world as the champion created our responsibility before the of freedom, in the false and un-American world, and with the unorganized popula- position of crushing with military force tion whom our intervention had freed from the efforts of our former allies to achieve Spain, to provide for the maintenance of liberty and self-government. The Filipi- law and order, and for the establishment nos cannot be citizens without endangering of good government and for the perform- our civilization; they cannot be subjects ance of international obligations. Our au- without imperilling our form of govern- thority could not be less than our responsi- ment, and as we are not willing to sur- bility, and wherever sovereign rights were render our civilization or to convert the extended, it became the high duty of the republic into an empire, we favor an im- government to maintain its authority, to mediate declaration of the nation's pur- put down armed insurrection, and to con- pose to give to the Filipinos, first, a stable fer the blessings of liberty and civilization form of government; secondly, indepen- upon all the rescued peoples. The largest dence; and third, protection from outside measure of self-government consistent interference, such as has been given for with, their welfare and our duties shall be nearly a century to the republics of Cen- secured to them by law." tral and South America. The greedy com- The Democratic platform contained two mercialism which dictated the Philippine declarations on the subject, the first favor- policy of the Republican administration ing a qualified expansion as follows: attempts to justify it with the plea that it " We are not opposed to territorial ex- will pay, but even this sordid and un- pnnsion when it takes in desirable terri- worthy plea fails when brought to the tory which can be erected into States in test of facts. The war of criminal aggres- 183 ANTI-FEDERAL PARTY— ANTI-MASONIC PARTY sion against the Filipinos, entailing an saw in the adoption of the Constitution annual expense of many millions, has al- the only salvation for the young Repub- ready cost more than any possible profit lie, and voted with the Federalists in this that could accrue from the entire Philip- contest; but, after the Constitution had pine trade for years to come. Further- been adopted, it was natural that these more, when trade is extended at the ex- men should aim at a construction of its pense of liberty, the price is always too terms which should not give the new gov- liigh." See also Acquisition of Tebri- ernment extensive power. These tempo- tory; Annexed Territory, Status of; rary Federalists, in about 1791-93, united Atkinson, Edward; Bryan, William with the old Anti-Federalists, and the Jennings; Imperialism. party that had absolutely opposed the Anti-Federal Party. At the close of Constitution, through fear of a strong the war for independence the mass of the central government, now became, through population was agricultural and demo- the same fear, the champions of the exact cra^ic, and devoted to the advancement of and literal language of the Constitution, their separate commonwealths, the legislat- and the opponents of every attempt to ex- ures of which, under the Articles of Con- tend its meaning by ingenious interpre- federation (see Confederation, Articles tations of its terms. The former party o^), had seized upon the powers which the name was no longer applicable, and in King had abandoned, and which the na- 1792, through the influence of Jefferson, lional popular will was not yet sufficiently it began to be called a " Republican " /educated to assume. In the years from party, in opposition to the " Monarchical " / 1780 to 1787, in spite of lawlessness and Federalists. It soon adopted this name, / bad government, great development had in 1793, which was afterwards lengthened / taken place in the United States. The into the Democratic - Republican party, commercial and creditor classes, and the See Democratic Party. Southern property owners, who had learn- Anti-Masonic Party. In 1826 William ed their weaknesses and their needs, united Morgan, a citizen of western New York, for the control of the convention, in 1787, announced his intention to publish a book under the leadership of Hamilton, and a in which the secrets of freemasonry were few other of the advanced thinkers, and to be disclosed. It was printed at Bata- formed the nucleus of what was soon to be via, N. Y. On Sept. 11 Morgan was called the Federal party. As the old gov- seized at Batavia, upon a criminal charge, ernment had been strictly federal, or by a company of men who came from league, in its nature, it would seem nat- Canandaigua. He was taken to that place, ural that its supporters should be called tried and acquitted on the criminal charge, federalist, and Gerry, of Massachusetts, but was immediately arrested on a civil and a few others made some effort to secure process for a trifling debt. He was cast this party title, and give their opponents into jail there, and the next night was dis- that of anti-federalists or nationalists, charged by those who procured his arrest, But the object of the Constitution was to taken from prison at nine o'clock at night, secure a strong federal government; and and at the door was seized and thrust into all who were opposed to this new feature a carriage in waiting, which was driven of American politics at once accepted rapidly towards Rochester. He was taken the name of Anti-Federalists, and opposed by relays of horses, by the agency of several the ratification of the Constitution, inside individuals, to Fort Niagara, at the mouth and outside of the conventions. In Rhode of the Niagara River, and deposited in the Island and North Carolina this opposition powder magazine there. It was known was for a time successful, but in all the that the freemasons had made violent at- other States it was overcome, though in tempts to suppress Morgan's announced Pennsylvania there were strong protests book, and this outrage was charged upon of unfair treatment on the part of the the fraternity. A committee was appoint- Federalists. Many prominent men, such ed, at a public meeting held at Batavia, as Edmund Randolph, Robert R. Living- to endeavor to ferret out the perpetrators ston, Madison, and Jeff erson, while opposed of the outrage. They found evidences of by nature to a strong federal government, the existence of what they believed to be 184 ANTI-MISSION BAPTISTS— ANTIQUITIES STONE IDOL AT COPAN, 13 FEET IN HEIGHT. an extended conspiracy, with many agents and powerful motives. Similar meetings were held elsewhere. Public excitement became very great and wide-spread ; and a strong feeling soon pervaded the public mind that the masonic institution was re- sponsible for the crime. The profound mystery in which the affair was involved gave wings to a thousand absurd rumors. Mutual criminations and recriminations became very violent, and entered into all the religious, social, and political rela- tions. A very strong anti-masonic party was soon created, at first only social in its character, but soon it became political. This feature of the party first appeared at town-meetings in the spring of 1827, where it was resolved that no mason was worthy to receive the votes of freemen. A polit- ical party for the exclusion of masons from public offices was soon spread over the State of New York and into several other States, and ran its course for several years. In 1832 a National Anti-Masonic Convention was held at Philadelphia, in which several States were represented, and William Wirt, of Virginia, was nominated for the office of President of the United States. Although the party polled a con- siderable vote, it soon afterwards disap- peared. The fate of Morgan after he reached the magazine at Fort Niagara was never positively revealed. Anti - Mission Baptists, variously known as Primitive, Old School, and Reg- ular Baptists; called Anti-Mission Bap- tists because of their opposition, begun about 1840, to the establishment of Sun- day-schools, missions, colleges, or theolog- ical schools. They hold that these institu- tions make the salvation of men dependent upon human effort rather than upon Divine grace. In 1899 they reported 2,130 ministers, 3,530 churches, and 126,000 members. Anti-Poverty Society. See George, Henry; Single Tax. Antiquities, American. A greater portion of objects which constitute Ameri- can antiquities consist of the architectural and other remains of the handiwork of the aborigines who inhabited the continent be- fore any of the present races appeared here and subjugated or displaced them; also the ruins occasioned by the Spanish 185 ANTI-RENT PARTY— APACHE INDIANS conquest. These are chiefly, in Central the operation of law and the payment of and South America, ruined temples, and, rent in the entire district. The attempt in North America, rude earthworks, now to serve process by military aid, the so- overgrown with venerable forest trees called Helderberg War, was unsuccessful, which attest their antiquity. In connec- In 1847 and 1849 the anti-renters showed tion with those in the more southern re- a voting strength of 5,000, adopting a gions, there are remains of elaborate carv- part of each party ticket. In 1850 the ings and ornamental pottery. There are legislature directed the attorney-general many features in common between the to bring suit against Harmon Livingston temples and other works of art in Mexico, to try title. The suit was decided in Liv- Central America, and Peru. The explora- ingston's favor, November, 1850, but a tions of Stephens and Catherwood (1840- compromise was effected, the owners sell- 43) revealed to the world vast remains of ing the farms at fair rates, and the ten- cities in Central America, which were ants paying for them. Most of Rensse- doubtless inhabited at the period of the laerswyck was sold, and of Livingston conquest, 350 years ago. There they found Manor, which at one time contained carved monoliths and the remains of high- 162,000 acres of choice farms, only a small ly ornamented temples. The monoliths at portion now remains in the possession of Copan some antiquaries are disposed to the family. rank, as to use, with those ruder ones at Anti-Slavery Party. See Free-soil Stonehenge, in England, and older ones in Party; Republican Party. Arabia. The remains of Aztec art in Anti-Slavery Society, American, an Mexico attest the existence of a high de- organization founded in Philadelphia, Pa., gree of civilization there at the period of in 1833, by delegates from several State their structure. So, also, the ruins of the and city societies in the Northern and Temple of the Sun, at Cuzco, in Peru, tell Eastern States, the first local one hav- of great advancement in the arts under ing been established in Boston, Jan. 16, the empire of the Incas. These remains 1832, under the leadership of William occupy a living place on the borders of the Lloyd Garrison. The presidents of the historic period, but the mounds in North national society were Arthur Tappan, America, showing much mathematical Lindley Coates, William Lloyd Garri- skill in their construction and ingenuity son, and Wendell Phillips, and in its in their contents, have hitherto eluded the membership were the leading abolitionists keen skill of antiquaries, who have sought of the day. The members, individually, in vain among prehistoric mysteries for a were subjected for many years to mob clew to the origin of the people who made violence, and the feeling in the South them. See Hui Shen; Mound-Builders, against the society was exceedingly bitter. Anti-Rent Party. The greater part of The members heroically kept together, Columbia, Rensselaer, Greene, Delaware, in spite of persecution and personal as- and Albany counties in the State of New sault, till April 9, 1870, when, on the York belonged to manors, the grants of adoption of the Thirteenth Amendment to which had been made to " patroons " by the national Constitution, the main so- the Dutch West India Company, and re- ciety was disbanded. See Colonization newed by James II., the principal ones Society, American; Liberia. being Rensselaerswyck and Livingston Apache Indians, a branch of the Manor. The tenants had deeds for their Athabascan stock. They are mostly wan- farms, but paid an annual rental instead derers, and have roamed as marauders of a principal sum. Dissatisfaction with over portions of Texas, New Mexico, and this state of affairs had begun to show it- Arizona, in the United States, and several self as early as 1790, and when, in 1839, of the northern provinces of Mexico. Stephen Van Rensselaer, who had allowed Wanderers, they do not cultivate the soil, much of his rent to remain in arrears, and have only temporary chiefs to lead died, the tenants refused to pay rents to them. Civil government they have none, his successor, disguised themselves as Divided into many roving bands, they re- '* Injuns," and for ten years carried on a sisted all attempts by the Spanish to civ- reign of terror that practically suspended ilize and Christianize them, but constant- 186 APALACHE— APPOMATTOX COURT-HOUSE ]y attacked these Europeans. So early as United States ships Trenton (flag-ship) 1762, it was estimated that the Apaches and Vandalia, and the German men- had desolated and depopulated 174 min- of -war Eber, Adler, and Qlga, and drove ing towns, stations, and missions in the ashore the United States steamer Nipsic. province of Sonora alone. For fifty years The Calliope (British) was the only man- a bold chief — Mangas Colorado — led pow- of- war in the harbor that succeeded in erf ul bands to war ; and since the annexa- escaping to sea. The town and its vicinity tion of their territory to the United were the scene, in 1899, of a series of fatal States, they have given its government riots, growing out of the claims of Ma- more trouble than any of the Western taafa and Malietoa. Tanus to the king- Indians. Colorado was killed in 1863. ship. Several American and British naval Though fierce in war, they never scalp or officers were killed or wounded, April 1, torture their enemies. A Great Spirit in subduing the native mob. is the central figure in their simple sys- Appleton, Nathan and Samuel, mer- tem of theology, and they reverence as chants and philanthropists; brothers; sacred certain animals, especially a pure born in New Ipswich, N. H., in 1779 and white bird. In 1900 the members of the 1766 respectively; engaged in the cotton tribe in the United States were classified manufacturing business, as partners; were as Coyotera, Jicarilla, Mescalero, San Car- founders of the city of Lowell, Mass., los, Tonto, and White Mountain Apaches, which grew up around their many mills, and were located in Arizona, New Mexico, Both were widely known for their benevo- and Oklahoma. They numbered 6,113. lence. Nathan set up the first power loom Apalache, Apalacha, Apalachi, or in the United States, in his Waltham mill. Appalachee, various forms of the name Nathan died in 1861; Samuel, in 1853. of a tribe of North American Indians who Appomattox Court - House, the seat dwelt in the vicinity of St. Mark's River, of government of Appomattox county, Va., Florida, with branches extending north- about 25 miles east of Lynchburg; famous ward to the Appalachian range. They as the scene of the surrender of General were known, his- torically, as far back as 1526. The m ^= settlements of the tribe were men- tioned in a peti- tion to King Charles II., of Spain, in 1688, and it is believed that the tribe became broken up and scattered about 1702, the members becoming absorbed in other tribes. Apia, the prin- cipal town and commercial port of the Samoan Isl- ands, in the South Pacific Ocean, situ- ated on the north coast of the island of Upolu. The harbor is small, but, Lee to General Grant. The Army of ordinarily, a safe one. In March, 1889, Northern Virginia was reduced by famine, the island and harbor were swept by disease, death, wounds, and capture to a a terrific hurricane, which wrecked the feeble few. These struggled against 1ST m'lean's house, the place of lee s surrender. APPOMATTOX COURT-HOUSE— APPROPRIATIONS BY CONGRESS enormous odds with almost unexampled fortitude, but were compelled to yield to overwhelming numbers and strength. On April 8, a portion of Sheridan's cavalry, under General Custer, supported by De- vine, captured four Confederate supply- trains at Appomattox Station, on the Lynchburg Railroad. Lee's vanguard ap- proaching, were pushed back to Appomat- tox Court-House, 5 miles northward — near which was Lee's main army — losing twen- ty-five guns and many wagons and prison- ers. Sheridan hurried forward the remain- der of his command, and on that evening he stood directly across Lee's pathway of retreat. Lee's last avenue of escape was closed, and on the following day he met General Grant at the residence of Wilmer McLean, at Appomattox Court-House, to consummate an act of surrender. The two commanders met, with courteous recogni- tion, at 2 p.m., on Palm Sunday (April 9). Grant was accompanied by his chief of staff, Colonel Parker; Lee was attend- ed by Colonel Marshall, his adjutant-gen- eral. The terms of surrender were discussed and settled, in the form of a written proposition by Grant, and a written ac- ceptance by Lee, and at 3.30 p.m. they were signed. The terms prescribed by the suggestion of Lee, agreed to allow such cavalrymen of the Confederate army as owned their own horses to retain them, as they would, he said, need them for tilling their farms. Lee now returned to Richmond, where his family resided. He had started on that campaign with 65,000 men, and he returned alone; and for a month afterwards he and -his family were kindly furnished with daily rations from the national commissariat at Richmond. Lee had lost, during the movements of his army from March 26 to April 9, about 14,000 men killed and wounded, and 25,- 000 made prisoners. The number of men paroled was about 26,000, of whom not more than 9,000 had arms in their hands. About 16,000 small-arms were surrendered, 150 cannon, 71 colors, about 1,100 wagons and caissons, and 4,000 horses and mules. See Lee, Robert Edward. Apportionment, Congressional, the popular name of a bill enacted by Congress after every enumeration of the inhabitants of the republic or the decennial census, determining the total number of members to be sent to the House of Representa- tives from each State of the Union. The ratio of representation, since the founda- tion of the government, has been as fol- lows: •om 1789 to 1793 " 1793 " 1803 " 1803 " 1813 " 1813 " 1823 a 1823 " 1833 " 1833 " 1843 " 1843 " 1853 " 1853 " 1863 " 18G3 " 1873 " 1873 " 1883 " 1883 V 1893 " 1*93 " li>03 " 1903 " 1913 as provided by the United States Constitution 30,000 based on the United States Census of 1790 33,000 1800 33,000 1810 35,000 1820 40,000 1830 47,700 1840 70,680 1850 93,423 1860 127,381 1870 131,425 " " 1880 151,91 1 1890 173,901 1900 194,182 Grant were extraordinary, under the cir- cumstances, in their leniency and mag- nanimity, and Lee was much touched by them. They simply required Lee and his men to give their parole of honor that they would not take up arms against the government of the United States until regularly exchanged; gave to the officers their side-arms, baggage, and private horses; and pledged the faith of the government that they should not be punished for their treason and re- bellion so long eut they should respect that parole and be obedient to law. Grant, at Appropriations by Congress. The Congress of the United States makes ap- propriations for the expenses of the gov- ernment for each fiscal year ending June 30. The following is a list of the different objects for which the appropriations are made: Deficiencies. Legislative, executive, and judicial. Sundry civil. Army. Navy. Indian. River and harbor. Forts and fortifications. Military Academy. Post-office Department. Pensions. Consular and Diplomatic. Agricultural Department. District ot Columbia. Miscellaneous. 188 AQUEDUCTS— AQTJIA CREEK The accompanying table will show that called out the militia of that State, ap- the total amount of appropriation in- pointing no fewer than twenty places as creases with each Congress. points of rendezvous, one-fourth of which APPROPRIATIONS BY CONGRESS, 1897-1904. 1897 1898 1899 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 $13,900,106 21,519,751 29,812,113 23,278,403 30,562,661 7,390,497 15,944,147 7,377,888 449,562 Indefinite. 141,328,580 1,643,559 3,255,532 5,900,319 423,304 ■ $8,594,447 21,690,766 34,344,970 23,129,344 33,003,234 7,674,120 19,266,412 9,517,141 479,572 Indefinite. 141,263,880 1,695,308 3,182,902 6,186,991 1,150,464 $347,165,001 21,625,846 33.997,752 23,193,392 56,098,783 7,673,854 14,492,459 9,377,494 458,689 Indefinite. 141,233,830 1,752,208 3,509,202 6,426,880 6,044,898 $46,882,724 23,394,051 39,381,733 80,430,204 48,099,969 7,504,775 25,100,038 4,909,902 575,774 Indefinite. 145,233,830 1,714,533 3,726,022 6,834,535 28,721,653 $13,767,008 24,175,652 49,594,309 114,220,095 61,140,916 8,197,989 16,175,605 7,383,628 674,306 Indefinite. 145,245,230 1,771,168 4,023,500 7,577,369 3,205,362 $13,289,314 24,594,968 54,574,285 115,784,049 78,101,791 9,747,471 7,046,623 7,364,011 772,653 Indefinite. 145,245,230 1,849,428 4,582,420 8,502,269 7,961,140 $24,944,124 25,396,683 64,394,601 91,730,136 78,856,263 8,986,028 32,540,199 7,298,955 2,627,324 Indefinite. 139,842,230 1,987,483 5,208,960 8,644,469 4,081,747 $19,651,968 27,598,653 61,763,709 77,888,752 81,876,791 8,640,406 20,228,150 7,188,416 652,748 Indefinite. 139,847,600 1,968,250 5,978,160 8,638,097 3,025,064 Legislative, Executive, and Forts and Fortifications Post-Office Department Consular and Diplomatic Agricultural Department Totals $302,786,386 $311,179,557 $673,050,293 $462,509,750 $457,152,142 $479,365,657 $486,439,306 $464,846,770 Aqueducts. Artificial channels or con- were west of the mountains, for the Con- duits for conveying water, especially for federates were threatened by Ohio and Indi- supplying large cities. The Greeks and ana volunteers. His proclamation was is- Romans constructed enormous works of sued May 3, 1861. Batteries were erected this kind, some of which are still in ex- on the Virginia branch of the Potomac, be- istence after continuous use of over 2,000 low Washington, for the purpose of ob- years. The best preserved Greek aqueduct structing the navigation of that stream is the one still in use at Syracuse. The and preventing supplies reaching Wash- most famous Roman aqueducts were the ington that way. At the middle of May, Aqua Apia, 10 miles in length; the Aqua Capt. J. H. Ward, a veteran officer of Martia, 60 miles; the Aqua Julia, 15 the navy, was placed in command of a miles, and the Aqua Claudia, 46 miles, flotilla on the Potomac, which he had With the exception of the Claudia, all organized, composed of four armed pro- these were constructed before the birth of pellers. On his way to Washington Christ. Among the most important aque- from Hampton Roads, he had captured ducts in the United States are the fol- two schooners filled with armed Confed- lowing: The old Croton, New York City, erates. He then patrolled that river, built 1837-42, length, 38 14 miles, capacity, reconnoitring the banks in search of bat- 100 million gallons daily. The new Cro- teries which the Virginians had con- ton, built 1884-90, length 30% miles, ca- structed. On the heights at Aquia Creek pacity, 250 million gallons daily. Wash- (the terminus of a railway from Rich- ington Aqueduct, built 1852-59, two 4- mond), 55 miles below Washington, he foot pipes. Boston, from Sudbury River, found formidable works, and attacked built 1875-78, length, 16 miles. Balti- them, May 31, with his flag-ship, Thomas more, from Gunpowder River, built 1875- Freeborn, and the gunboats Anacosta and 81, length, 7 miles. The Sutro tunnel, 4 Resolute. For two hours a sharp conflict miles long, constructed to drain the Com- was kept up, and the batteries were si- stock Lode, Nevada, at a depth of 1,600 lenced. Ward's ammunition for long feet. It was chartered February 4, 1865, range was exhausted, and on the slacking and completed June 30, 1879. Many im- of his fire the batteries opened again, portant works for the purpose of irriga- Unable to reply at that distance, Ward tion are now under construction in the withdrew, but resumed the conflict the fol- Western States of the Union. lowing day, in company with the Paumee, Aquia Creek, Engagement at. Alarm- Capt. S. C. Rowan. The struggle last- ed by the gathering of troops at Wash- ed more than five hours. Twice the bat- ington, Governor Letcher, of Virginia, by teries on shore were silenced, but their command of the Confederate government, fire was renewed each time. The Pawnee 189 AQUIDAY— ARBITRATION was badly bruised, but no person on board of her nor on Ward's flotilla was killed. Aquiday, or Aquetnet. The native name of Rhode Island. Arapahoe Indians, one of the five tribes constituting the Blackfeet confed- the Arkansas and Platte rivers. They were great hunters, and fifty years ago numbered 10,000 souls. With the disap- pearance of the buffalo they have rapid- ly decreased. In 1900 one branch, num- bering 1,011, was located in Oklahoma, eracy, residing near the headwaters of and a second, numbering 829, in Wyoming. ARBITRATION Arbitration, International. In 1897 land or the United States could demand the friends of arbitration the world over a review of the award. In that case a were exceedingly depressed over a defeat tribunal of five members was to be formed which the principle sustained at the hands in the same manner as the smaller one, of the United States Senate. By a close and King Oscar was still to be referee, vote on April 13, the Senate rejected in Boundary questions were to be submitted toto a measure providing for the arbitra- to a tribunal of six members, and the tion of all disputes that may arise be- tween the United States and Great Brit- award must be unanimous. In case this could not be secured, the countries were ain. This general arbitration measure to agree to adopt no hostile measures un- arose from the Venezuela trouble. On til the mediation of two or more friendly March 5, 1896, Lord Salisbury submitted powers had been invoked. The treaty was to Secretary Olney a suggested treaty in to remain in force five years. The failure regard to the Venezuelan matter. On of the treaty does not mean that the April 11, Secretary Olney proposed a few United States is averse to arbitration as amendments to the treaty, and also sug- a means of settling national difficulties, gested that a general treaty for the arbi- This country has always been foremost tration of all difficulties might be con- in that line. But circumstances were eluded along the same lines. The draft of against the measure at that time. At the this general treaty was made public Jan. very moment Great Britain was negotiat- 13, 1897, and at once the project became ing the treaty with the United States, her the subject of debate here and abroad. In war-ships were firing upon the patriots of England the proposed treaty was cordially Crete. One of the great forces in the received and promptly ratified and sent United States in favor of arbitration is to this country. In the United States there the International Peace Society, originally was a great conflict of ideas concern- formed in England. Its first great con- ing the measure. The treaty provided vention was held in London in 1851. The for the arbitration of all matters in dif- submission of the Venezuelan question to ference between the countries which could arbitration marked the eighteenth question not be adjusted by diplomatic correspond- that had thus been disposed of by the ence. Matters involving pecuniary claims United States and the twenty-sixth that to the maximum extent of $500,000 were England had thus submitted. See Bering to be settled by a board of three arbi- Sea Arbitration ; Arbitration, Tribunal trators, composed of a juror of repute se- of, for "Alabama Claims"; "Vene- lected one by each country, these two to zuela" and "Cleveland, Grover" for agree upon a third. If the two arbitrators Venezuela Arbitration, etc. failed to agree upon a third, he was to Arbitration, International Court of, be selected by King Oscar of Sweden. In a court for the arbitration of disputes respect to matters involving a larger sum, between nations, provided by the Uni- or in respect to territorial claims, the versal Peace Conference at The Hague in matter was first to go before a board con- 1899, and made operative by the adhe- stituted as above described, and if the sion of the signatory nations and the three arbitrators came to a unanimous appointment by them of members of the decision their report was to be final. But court. if they were not unanimous, either Eng- The Arbitration Treaty consists of six.* 190 ARBITRATION ty-one articles, divided into four titles: First, On the Maintenance of General Peace, consisting of one declaratory arti- cle; secondly, On Good Offices and Media- tion; thirdly, On International Commis- sions of Inquiry; fourthly, On Inter- national Arbitration. The following is a summary of the treaty : Article 1. With the object of preventing, as far as possible, recourse to force in inter- national relations, the signatory powers agree to use all endeavors to effect by pacific means a settlement of the differences which may arise among them. Article 2. The signatory powers decide that in cases of serious differences or conflict they will, before appealing to arms, have recourse, so far as circumstances permit, to the good offices or mediation of one or several friendly powersi. Article 3. Independently of this, the sig- natory powers deem it useful that several of the powers not committed to the arbitra- tion scheme shall, on their own initiative, offer, as far as circumstances permit, their good offices or mediation to the contending states. The right of offering their good offices belongs to powers not connected with the conflict, even during the course of hos- tilities, which act can never be regarded as an unfriendly act. Article 4. The part of mediator consists in reconciling conflicting claims and appeas- ing resentment which may have arisen be- tween contending states. Article 5. The functions of mediator cease from the moment it may be stated by one of the contending parties, or by the mediator himself, that the compromise or basis of an amicable understanding proposed by him has not been accepted. Article 6. Good offices and mediation have the exclusive character of counsel, and are devoid of obligatory force. Article 7. The acceptance of mediation unless otherwise stipulated, may have the effect of interrupting the obligation of pre- paring for war. If the acceptance super- venes after the opening of hostilities it shall not interrupt, unless by a convention of a con- trary tenor, military operations that may be proceeding. Article 8. The signatory powers agree in commending the application of special media- tion in the event of threatened interruption of peace between members. Contending states may each choose a power to which they will intrust the mission of entering into a negoti- ation with a power chosen by the other side with the object of preventing a rupture of pa- cific relations, or, in the event of hostilities, of restoring peace. Articles 9 to 14 provide for the institu- tion of a'n international commission of inquiry for the verification of facts in cases of minor disputes not affecting the vital interest or honor of states, but im- possible of settlement by ordinary diplo- macy. The report of an inquiry commis- sion will not force an arbitral judgment, leaving the contending parties full liberty to either conclude an amicable arrange- ment on the basis of the report or have recourse ulteriorly to mediation or arbi- tration. Articles 15 to 19 set forth the general object of and benefits it is hoped to derive from the arbitration court, and declare that signing the convention implies an un- dertaking to submit in good faith to ar- bitral judgment. The summary of the proposed treaty continues: Article 20. With the object of facilitating an immediate recourse to arbitration for in- ternational differences not regulated by dip- lomatic means the signatory powers undertake to organize in the following manner a per- manent court of arbitration, accessible at all times and exercising its functions, unless oth- erwise stipulated, between the contending parties in conformity with the rules of pro- cedure inserted in the present convention. Article 21. This court is to have compe- tency in all arbitration cases, unless the con- tending parties come to an understanding for the establishment of special arbitration jurisdiction. Article 22. An international bureau estab- lished at The Hague and placed under the di- rection of a permanent secretary-general will serve as the office of the court. It will be the intermediary for communications concern- ing meetings. The court is to have the cus- tody of archives and the management of all administrative affairs. Article 23. Each of the signatory powers shall appoint within three months of the ratification of the present article not more than four persons of recognized competence in questions of international law, enjoying the highest moral consideration, and prepared to accept the functions of arbitrator. The per- sons thus nominated will be entered as mem- bers of the court on a list, which will be com- municated by the bureau to all the signatory powers. Any modification of the list will be brought by the bureau to the knowledge of the signatory powers. Two or more powers may agree together regarding the nomination of one or more members, and the same person may be chosen by different powers. Members of the court are to be appointed for the term of six years. The appointments are renew- able. In case of the death or resignation of a member of the court, the vacancy is to be filled in accordance with the regulations made for the original nomination. Article 24. The signatory powers who de- sire to apply to the court for a settlement of differences shall select from the general list a number of arbitrators, to be fixed by agree- ment. They will notify the bureau of their intention of applying to the court, and give 191 ARBITRATION the names of the arbitrators they may tration will sign a special act, clearly denning have selected. In the absence of a conven- the object of the dispute, as well as the scope tion to the contrary an arbitral tribunal is to of the arbitrators. The powers' act confirms be constituted in accordance with the rules of the undertaking of the parties to submit in Article 1. Arbitrators thus nominated to form good faith to the arbitration judgment, an arbitral tribunal for a matter or question Article 31. Arbitration functions may be will meet on the date fixed by the contending conferred upon a single arbitrator, or on sev- parties. eral arbitrators designated by the parties at Article 25. The tribunal will usually sit their discretion, or chosen from among the at The Hague, but may sit elsewhere by con- members of the permanent court established sent of the contending parties. by the present act. Unless otherwise decided, Article 26. The powers not signing the the formation of the arbitration tribunal is to convention may apply to the court under the be effected as follows : Each party will ap- conditions prescribed by the present conven- point two arbitrators, who will choose a chief tion. arbitrator. In case of a division, the selection Article 27. The signatory powers may is to be intrusted to a third power, whom the consider It their duty to call attention to the parties will designate. If an agreement is existence of the permanent court to any of not effected in this manner, each party is to their friends between whom a conflict is designate a different power, and the choice of threatening, which must always be regarded a chief arbitrator is to devolve upon them. as a tender of good oflices. Article 32. When an arbitrator is a sover- TTip TTnitPfl StatP* HpWatpq atrarhprl in ^ ign ' or head of a state ' the antral proce- ±ne united btates delegates attached to dure dep ends exclusively on his august deci- their acceptance of Article 27 the follow- sion. ing declaration : " Nothing contained in Article 33. The chief arbitrator Is presi- this convention shall be so construed as to *SLj? j ur t „ W 5 en 3* t ribuna J does not n'nu'joi * a contain a chief of arbitration, the tribunal require the United States of America to may appoint its own president. He may be depart from its traditional policy of not designated by the contending parties, or, intruding upon, interfering with, or en- filing this, by the arbitration tribunal, tangling itself in the political questions Articles 34 to 50 provide for the ap- or internal administration of any foreign pointment of councillors, the selection of state; nor shall anything contained in the languages to be employed, and the said convention be so construed as to re- rules of procedure in the court, whose 1 quire the relinquishment by the United sittings are to be behind closed doors. States of America of its traditional atti- Article 51 provides that a judgment tude towards purely American questions." agreed to by a majority vote is to be Article 28. A permanent council, composed set forth in writing, giving the full rea- of the diplomatic representatives of the slg- sons, and is to be signed by each member, natory powers residing at The Hague and the the m i nor ity recording its dissent and Netherlands Foreign Minister, who will ex- . . ., \ ,. , _ ° , _ ,. ercise the functions of president, will be con- signing it. Articles 52 and 53 direct that stituted at The Hague as soon as possible the decision of the court shall be read after the ratification of the present act. The at a public sitting in the presence of the raX^ W n' l \n b t : r ?a?£Vb\reTu! >11 ^4 na w .Ii ««»*»« ™2 * *| T^ V ^ remain under Its direction and control. The ties, who shall finally decide the matter council will notify the powers of the consti- at issue and close the arbitration proceed- tution of the court and arrange Its Installa- j n w S# tion, draw up the standing orders and other ^LV . ,. . . . ., necessary regulations, will decide questions The concluding clauses relate to the re- likely to arise in regard to the working of vision of proceedings in the case of the the tribunal, have absolute powers concern- discovery of a new fact, and provide that ^^^^TZT^Z^mTSl «* P-er shall bear its own expenses emoluments and salaries, and control the gen- and agreed share of the cost of the tri- eral expenditure. The presence of five mem- bunal without reference to the penalties bers at duly convened meetings will consti- i mposed . See Peace Conference. tute a quorum. Decisions are to be taken by i, - ., TT ., , ~, . , a majority of the votes. The council will ad- The Senate of the United States having dress annually to the signatory powers a re- ratified the arbitration treaty, President port of the labors of the court, the working of McKinley appointed the American mem- it^administrative services, and of its expend!- bers of ^ court fa mQ (gee below)> Article 29. The expenses of the bureau are On Feb. 1, 1901, fifteen nations, em- to be borne by the signatory powers In the bracing all the maritime powers, had ap- proportion fixed for the International Bureau pointed their mem bers. The official roster of the Universal Postal Union. [. ... Article 30. The powers who accept arbl- then was as follows: 192 ARBITRATION AUSTRIA-HUNGARY. Count Frederic Schonborn, LL.D., president of the Imperial Royal Court of Adminis- trative Justice. Mr. D. de Szilagyi, ex-Minister of Justice. Count Albert Apponyi, member of the Cham- ber of Magnates. Mr. Henri Lammasch, member of the House of Lords. BELGIUM. Mr. Beernaert, Minister of State. Baron Lambermont, Minister of State. The Chevalier Descamps, Senator. Mr. Rolin Jacquemyns, ex-Minister of the In- terior. DENMARK. Prof. H. Matzen, LL.D., Professor of the Copenhagen University. FRANCE. Mr. Leon Bourgeois, ex-President of the Cabinet Council. Mr. de Laboulaye, ex-Ambassador. Baron Destournelles de Constant, Minister Plenipotentiary, Deputy. Mr. Louis Renault, Professor in the Faculty of Law at Paris. GERMANY. Mr. Bingner, President of the Imperial High Court at Leipsic. Mr. von Frantzius, Solicitor of the Depart- ment of Foreign Affairs. Jonkheer A. F. de Savornin Lohman, ex- Miniater of the Interior, ex-Professor of the Free University of Amsterdam. Jonkheer G. L. M. H. Ruis de Beerenbrouck, ex-Minister of Justice, Commissioner of the Queen in the Province of Limbourg. PORTUGAL. Count de Macedo, Peer of the Realm, ex- Minister of Marine and Colonies, Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary at Madrid. RUMANIA. Mr. Theodore Rosetti, Senator, ex-President of the High Court of Cassation and Jus- tice. Mr. Jean Kalindero, Administrator of the Crown Domain, ex-Judge of the High Court of Cassation and Justice. Mr. Eugene Statsco, ex-President of the Sen- ate, ex-Minister of Justice and Foreign Af- fairs. Mr. Jean N. Lahovari, Deputy, ex-Envoy Ex- traordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary, ex-Minister of Foreign Affairs. RUSSIA. Mr. N. V. Mouravieff, Minister of Justice, Ac- tive Privy Councillor, Secretary of State. Mr. C. P. Pobiedonostzeff, Attorney-General of the Most Holy Synod, Secretary of State. Mr. E. V. Frisch, President of the Department of Legislation of the Imperial Council, Secretary of State. Mr. von Martitz, Associate Justice of the Mr. de Martens, Privy Councillor, permanent member of the Council of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. SPAIN. The Duke of Tetuan, ex-Minister of Foreign Affairs, Senator of the Kingdom, Grandee of Spain. The Right Honorable Lord Pauncefote of Mr. Bienvenido Oliver, Director-General of Preston, Ambassador at Washington. the Ministry of Justice, ex-Delegate of The Right Honorable Sir Edward Baldwin Spain to the Conference on Private Inter- Superior Court of Administrative Justice in Prussia. Mr. von Bar, Professor of Law at the Gottingen University. GREAT BRITAIN. Malet, ex-Ambassador. The Right Honorable Sir Edward Fry, mem- ber of the Privy Council. Professor John Westlake. ITALY. Count Constantin Nigra, Senator of the Kingdom. Jean Baptiste Pagano Guarnaschelli, First President of the Court of Cassation at Rome. Count Tornielli Brusati di Vergano, Ambas- sador to Paris. Commander Joseph Zanardelli, Attorney at Law, Deputy to the National Parliament. national Law at The Hague. Dr. Manuel Torres Campos, Professor of In- ternational Law at the University of Grenada, associate member of the Institute of International Law. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. Mr. S. R. D. K. d'Olivecrona, member of the International Law Institute, ex-Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the King- dom of Sweden, Doctor of Laws and Let- ters at Stockholm. Mr. G. Gram, ex-Minister of State of Norway, Governor of the Province of Hamar, Nor- way. UNITED STATES. Mr. Benjamin Harrison, ex-President of the United States. Mr. Melville W. Fuller, Chief-Justice of the United States. Mr. John W. Griggs, Attorney-General of the United States. Mr. George Gray, United States Circuit Judge. of State, ex-Professor of the University of First Secretary of the Co«rt — J. J. Rochus- Amsterdam. sen. Mr. F. B. Coninck Liefsting, President of the Second Secretary of the Court — Jonkheer W. Court of Cassation. Roell. I.— N 193 JAPAN. Mr. I. Motono, Envoy Extraordinary and Min- ister Plenipotentiary at Brussels. Mr. H. Willard Denison, Law Officer of the Minister for Foreign Affairs at Tokio. NETHERLANDS. Mr. T. M. C. Asser, member of the Council ABBITRATION— ABBUTHNOT AND AMBRISTER dent of the Swiss Confederation each to THE ADMINISTRATIVE COUNCIL. ^ ^ arbitrator> The Emperor ap . The Administrative Council consists of pointed Baron dTtazuba, the King chose the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Count Frederick Sclopis, and the President Netherlands and the diplomatic represen- f the Swiss Confederation appointed tatives at The Hague of the ratifying James Staempfli. J. C. Bancroft Davis powers. was appointed agent of the United States, and Lord Tenterden that of Great Britain. Secretary-General— Mr R. MekH, Baron van } seyeral gentlemen formed the " Tri- Leyden, Judge of the District Court of ' • Utrecht and a member of the First Cham- bunal of Arbitration." They assembled at ber of the States-General. Geneva, Switzerland, Dec. 15, 1871, when Count Sclopis was chosen to preside. After The Permanent Court was organized two meetings they adjourned to the mid- Jan. 30, 1901, and on April 14 following Q i e of January, 1872. A final meeting was notified the signatories that it was duly ] ie ]d j n September the same year, and on constituted. It will ultimately be housed the 14th of that month they announced in a Temple of Peace to be erected at the their decision on the Alabama claims, expense of Andrew Carnegie, who (1903) That decision was a decree that the gov- tendered $1,500,000 for the building and eminent of Great Britain should pay to $250,000 for a library of international the government of the United States the law. Since its opening the court has de- sum f $15,500,000 in gold, to be given to cided three claims in which the United citizens of the United States in payment States had an interest, viz., the claim of f losses incurred by the depredations of the United States against Mexico for the the Alabama and other Anglo-Confederate custody of the old Church or Pious Fund, cruisers. That amount was paid into the decided in favor of the United States, treasury of the United States a year af- Oct. 21, 1902; the claim of the United terwards. The question of boundary on States against Russia for seizure of Amer- the Pacific coast was referred to the Era- ican vessels by Russian war-ships in Be- peror of Germany, who decided in favor ring Sea in 1891, decided in favor of the f the claims of the United States to United States, with damage exceeding the possession of the island of San Juan. $100,000, Nov. 29, 1902; and the claims Arbor Day, a day set apart to encour- of Great Britain, Germany, and Italy age the voluntary planting of trees by the against Venezuela for settlement of debts, people; inaugurated by Nebraska State decided that the three powers had the Board of Agriculture, in 1874, who so right to a preference of 30 per cent, of designated the second Wednesday in April, the customs duties at La Guayra and and recommended that all public school Porto Cabello, and commissioned the children should be urged to observe it by United States to carry out the decision setting out young trees; and now ob- within three months, Feb. 22, 1904. served as either a legal holiday or a school Arbitration. See American National holiday by nearly every State and Ter- Arbitration Board. ritory in the country. Arbitration, Tribunal of, in the his- Arbuthnot and Ambrister, Case of. tory of the United States and Great Brit- Alexander Arbuthnot, a Scotchman, then ain, the name of that body of arbitrators nearly seventy years of age, went to Flori- appointed under the treaty negotiated by da from New Providence in his own the Joint High Commission (q. v.) prin- schooner in 1817, to trade with the Ind- cipally to settle the claims of the United ians. Ambrister, born in London in 1785, States against Great Britain, growing out was a lieutenant in the English marine of the depredations of the Confederate service, and was present at the battle of man-of-war A labama (see Alabama, The). Waterloo. For fighting a duel with a For arbitrators, the United States ap- brother officer he was suspended for one pointed Charles Francis Adams, and Great year. W T hile with his uncle, the governor Britain Sir Alexander Cockburn. The two of New Providence, he met Arbuthnot, governments jointly invited the Emperor with whom he visited Florida. Here it of Brazil, the King of Italy, and the Presi- was alleged they became implicated in 194 ARBUTHNOT— ARCTIC EXPLORATION Indian difficulties that General Jackson was sent to quell in 1818. By order of General Jackson, Arbuthnot and Ambris- ter were seized and tried by a military court, convened April 26, 1818, at Fort St. Marks, Fla., Gen. Ed. P. Gaines, presi- ernor; born in Buckinghamshire of Quaker parents. He had taken great interest in colonial schemes, and was one of the Caro- lina proprietors. In their scheme he had been a great helper. His eldest sister, Mary, had married Ferdinando Gorges, dent, for inciting the Creek Indians to war' grandson of Sir Ferdinando, who was gov- against the United States. Ambrister made no defence, but threw himself on the mercy of the court. Arbuthnot was sen- tenced to be hanged. Ambrister was first sentenced to be shot, but his sentence was commuted to fifty stripes on the bare back, and confinement at hard labor, with ball and chain, for one year. General Jack- son disapproved the commutation, and ordered the original sentence in both cases to be carried out, which was done April 30, 1818. This arbitrary act of Jackson created great excitement at the time, and the attention of Congress was called to it. See Jackson, Andrew. Arbuthnot, Marriott, British naval officer; born about 1711; became a post- captain in 1747. From 1775 to 1778 he was naval commissioner resident at Hali- MARRIOTT ARBUTHNOT. fax, Nova Scotia. Having been raised to the rank of vice-admiral in 1779, he ob- tained the chief command on the American station, and was blockaded by the Count d'Estaing in the harbor of New York. In the spring of 1780 he co-operated with Sir Henry Clinton in the siege of Charles- ton, S. C. In February, 1793, he became admiral of the blue. He died in London, Jan. 31, 1794. Archdale, John, English colonial gov- ernor of Maine, and in 1659 published America Painted from Life. Archdale had been in Maine as Gorges's agent in 1664, was in North Carolina in 1686, and was commissioner for Gorges in Maine in 1687-88. On his arrival in South Carolina as governor, in 1694, Archdale formed a commission of sensible and moderate men, to whom he said, at their first meeting, " I believe I may appeal to your serious and rational observations whether I have not already so allayed your heats as that the distinguishing titles thereof are so much withered away; and I hope this meeting with you will wholly extinguish them, so that a solid settlement of this hopeful colony may ensue; and by so do- ing, your posterity will bless God for so happy a conjunction." He told them why he had been sent, and said, " And now you have heard of the proprietors' inten- tions of sending me hither, I doubt not but the proprietors' intentions of choosing you were much of the same nature; I ad- vise you, therefore, to proceed soberly and mildly in this weighty concern; and I question not but we shall answer you in all things that are reasonable and honor- able for us to do. And now, friends, I have given you the reasons of my calling you so soon, which was the consideration of my own mortality [he was then nearly seventy years of age], and that such a considerable trust might not expire use- less to you; and I hope the God of peace will prosper your counsels herein." Arch- dale was one of the proprietors of North Carolina, and, arriving there in the sum- mer of 1695, had a very successful though brief administration. Elected to Parlia- ment in 1698, he would only affirm, in- stead of taking the required oath, and was not allowed to take his seat in con- sequence. Arctic Exploration. During almost four hundred years efforts have been made by European navigators to discover a passage for vessels through the Arctic seas to India, The stories of Marco Polo 195 ARCTIC EXPLORATION of the magnificent countries in Eastern was instructed to attempt to penetrate Asia and adjacent islands — Cathay and the polar sea by Bering Strait. He went Zipangi, China and Japan — stimulated only as far as 70° 45'. In 1817 Captain desires to accomplish such a passage. The Ross and Lieutenant Parry sailed for the Cabots (q. v.) went in the direction of polar sea from England; and the same the pole, northwestward, at or near the year Captain Buchan and Lieutenant (Sir close of the fifteenth century, and pene- John) Franklin went in an easterly direc- trated as far north as 67° 30', or half-way tion on a similar errand, namely, to reach up to (present) Davis Strait. The next the north pole. At this time the chief ob- explorers were the brothers Cortereal, who ject of these explorations was scientific, made three voyages in that direction, and not commercial. Buchan and Frank- 1500-02. In 1553 Sir Hugh Willoughby lin went by way of Spitzbergen; but they set out to find a northwest passage to In- only penetrated to 80° 34/. Ross and dia, but was driven back from Nova Zem- Parry entered Lancaster Sound, explored bla, and perished on the shore of Lapland, its coasts, and Ross returned with the In 1576-78 Martin Frobisher made three impression that it was a bay. Parry did voyages to find a northwest passage into not agree with him in this opinion, and the Pacific Ocean, and discovered the en- he sailed on a further exploration in 1819. trance to Hudson Bay. Between 1585 and He advanced farther in that direction than 1587 John Davis discovered the strait that any mariner before him, and approached bears his name. The Dutch made strenu- the magnetic pole, finding the compass of ous efforts to discover a northeast pas- little use. On Sept. 4, 1819, Parry an- sage. William Barentz (q. v.) made nounced to his crew that they were en- three voyages in that direction in 1594- titled to $20,000 offered by Parliament for 96, and perished on his third voyage, reaching so westerly a point in that Henry Hudson tried to round the north region, for they had passed the 110th of Europe and Asia in 1607-08, but failed, meridian. There they were frozen in for and, pushing for the lower latitudes of the about a year. Parry sailed again in American coast, discovered the river that 1821. bears his name. While on an expedition Meanwhile an overland expedition, led to discover a northwest passage, he found by Franklin, had gone to co-operate with Hudson Bay, and perished (1610) on its Parry. They were absent from home about bosom. In 1616 Baffin explored the bay three years, travelled over 5,000 miles, and called by his name, and entered the mouth accomplished nothing. They had endured of Lancaster Sound. After that, for fifty great suffering. Parry, also, accomplished years, no navigator went so far north in nothing, and returned in October, 1823. that direction. Other English expeditions followed in the In 1720 the Hudson Bay Company sent same direction, by land and water. Sir Captains Knight and Barlow to search for John Franklin and others went overland, a northwest passage to India. They sailed and Parry by sea, on a joint expedition, with a ship and sloop, and were never and Captain Beechey was sent around heard of afterwards. In 1741 Vitus Be- Cape Horn to enter Bering Strait and ring discovered the strait that bears his push eastward to meet Parry. Franklin name, having set sail from a port in Kam- explored the North American coast, but tchatka. In that region Bering perished, nothing else was accomplished by these Russian navigators tried in vain to solve expeditions. Mr. Scoresby, a whaleman, the problem. Between 1769 and 1772 and his son, had penetrated to 81° N. Samuel Hearne made three overland jour- lat. in 1806. His experience led him neys in America to the Arctic Ocean. The to advise an expedition with boats fixed British government having, in 1743, of- on sledges, to be easily dragged on the ice. fered $100,000 to the crew who should ac- With an expedition so fitted out, Cap- complish a northwest passage, stimulated tain Parry sailed for the polar waters in efforts in that direction. Captain Phipps 1827. This expedition was a failure. Cap- (Lord Mulgrave) attempted to reach the tain Ross was in the polar waters again north pole in 1773; and before setting out from May, 1829, until the midsummer of on his last voyage (1776), Captain Cook 1833. The party had been given up as 196 ARCTIC EXPLORATION lost. Another party had started in search tions were sent out from the continent of of Ross, explored the north coast of Amer- ica, and discovered Victoria Land. Other land expeditions followed; and one, under Europe. Finally, by the help of Congress, Captain Hall was enabled to sail, with a well-furnished company, in the ship Dr. .John Rae, completed a survey of the Polaris, for the polar seas, in June, 1871. north coast of the American continent in the spring of 1847. Sir John Franklin yet believed a north- In October Hall left the vessel, and start- ed northward on a sledge expedition. On his return he suddenly sickened and died, west passage possible. With two vessels and the Polaris returned without accom- — the Erebus and Terror — each fitted with a small steam-engine and screw-pro- peller, he sailed from England May 19, plishing much. The passage from the coast of western Europe, around the north of that continent and of Asia, into the 1845. They were seen by a whale-ship, in Pacific Ocean, was first accomplished in July, about to enter Lancaster Sound, and the summer of 1879, by Professor Nor- were never heard of afterwards. The Brit- denskjold, an accomplished Swedish ex- ish government despatched three expedi- plorer, in the steamship Vega. She passed tions in search of them in 1848. One of through Bering Strait into the Pacific them was an overland expedition under Ocean, and reached Japan in the first Sir John Richardson, who traversed the week in September. Thus the great prob- northern coast of America 800 miles, in lem has been solved. The Jeannette, 1848, without finding Franklin. The sea Lieutenant De Long, an American explor- expedition was equally unfortunate. Dr. ing vessel, was lost on the coast of Si- Rae failed in an overland search in 1850. beria, in 1881. Three more expeditions were sent out by The most important of the recent expe- the British government in search in 1850; ditions into Arctic regions by Americans and from Great Britain five others were are those of Lieut, (now Brig. -Gen.) fitted out by private means. One was also Adolphus W. Greely and of Lieut. Rob- sent by the United States government, ert E. Peary ( qq. v. ) , who has made sev- chiefly at the cost of Henry Grinnell, New York merchant. It was commanded by Lieutenant De Haven, of the navy. eral voyages into northern waters, and in 1900 was still there. Lieutenant Greely was sent from the United States in 1881, There were two ships, the Advance and by the government, charged with estab- Rescue. Dr. E. K. Kane was surgeon lishing a series of stations about the pole and naturalist of the expedition. It was for the purpose of observation. Lieuten- unsuccessful, and returned in 1851. Lady ants Lockwood and Brainard, of his force, Franklin, meanwhile, had been sending succeeded in establishing a station on a out expeditions in search of her husband, and the British government and British small island in 83° 24' N., and until 1896 this was the most northern point ever navigators made untiring efforts to find reached by an explorer. Greely's vessel the lost explorers, but in vain. Another became icebound, and for two years the American expedition, under Dr. Kane, members of the expedition passed a miser- made an unsuccessful search. able existence. Many died. The survivors In a scientific point of view, Dr. Kane's were rescued just as the last six of the expedition obtained the most important expedition were dying of hunger, by Lieu- results. It is believed that he saw an tenant Peary, in charge of two government open polar sea; and to find that sea other vessels, sent by the United States to the American expeditions sailed under Dr. I. relief of Greely in 1882. Lieutenant I. Hayes, a member of Kane's expedition, Peary made other voyages to the Arctic and Capt. Chas. F. Hall. The latter re- waters in 1895 and 1897. Dr. Fridtjof turned to the United States in 1860, and Nansen, of Norway, in 1896, succeeded in Dr. Hayes in 1861. Hall sailed again in getting within 200 miles of the north pole, 1864, and returned in 1869. The Germans and returned in safety with all of his and Swedes now sent expeditions in that companions. He sailed from Christiania direction. In 1869 Dr. Hayes again vis- in 1893, and his plan differed much from ited the polar waters. The same year, and that of others. He thought that if he for some time afterwards, several expedi- could get his vessel caught in the ice the 197 AltEClBO— A&GtfS Current would carry him to the pole. He They would not trust him, and the maid- reached lat.. 86° 15' N. In 1896 a Swed- en was taken to Jamestown and detained ish explorer, Major AndrSe, planned to several months, always treated with great reach the pole in a balloon, but after respect as a princess. There she became making elaborate plans gave up the vent- the object of a young Englishman's affec- ure. On July 12, 1897, however, he em- tions; and the crime of Argall led to barked again on his enterprise, all con- peace and happiness. The next year ditions being favorable for his success; (1613) Argall went, with the sanction of but up to the end of 1900 nothing reli- the governor of Virginia, to expel the able had been heard of the expedition, French from Acadia as intruders upon the and it was generally believed that the domain of the North and South Virginia bold voyager had been lost. In 1899- Company. He stopped on his way at 1900 the Duke of Abruzzi reached lat. Mount Desert Island, and broke up the 86° 33' N. Jesuit settlement there. The priests, it is Arecibo, the name of a district and of said, feeling an enmity towards the au- its port, in the north of the island of thorities at Port Royal, in Acadia, will- Porto Rico. The district is bounded on ingly accompanied Argall as pilots thither the north by the Atlantic Ocean ; on the in order to be revenged. Argall plundered east by the District of Bayamon; on the the settlement, and laid the village in south by those of Mayaguez and Ponce; ashes, driving the people to the woods, and and on the west by that of Aguadilla. breaking up the colony. In 1617 Argall The town is about 50 miles west of San became deputy governor of Virginia. On Juan; has a population of between 6,000 going to Jamestown he found it fallen and 7,000; and its harbor is so full of into decay, the storehouse used as a dangerous reefs that goods are transferred church; the market-place, streets, and from shore to shipping by means of flat- other spots in the town planted with to- boats and lighters. The town has a plaza, bacco; the people dispersed according to surrounded by a church and various pub- every man's convenience for planting; and lie buildings, in the centre, and streets the number of the settlers there reduced, running from it in right angles, forming ArgalFs rule was so despotic that, in 1619, regular squares. The buildings are con- he was recalled, and Sir George Yeardly structed of wood and brick. was put in his place. He returned to Eng- Argall, Sir Samuel, English advent- land with much wealth. After the death urer; born in Bristol, England, in 1572. of Lord Delaware, Captain Argall took He was in Virginia at a time when Pow- charge of his estate, and Lady Delaware hatan was particularly hostile to the charged him with gross fraud and pecula- English settlers. He and his nearest tion. He died in 1626. neighbors would not allow the people to Argus, Capture of the. The American carry food to the English at Jamestown, brig Argus, Capt. W. H. Allen, bore to and provisions became very scarce. Argall France William H. Crawford, United was sent with a vessel on a foraging ex- States minister to that government. She pedition up the York River. Being near afterwards cruised in British waters, and the dwelling of Powhatan, he bribed a by the celerity of her movements and de- savage by a gift of a copper kettle to en- structive energy she spread consternation tice Pocahontas on board his vessel, where throughout commercial England. She car- he detained her a prisoner, hoping to get ried 32-pound carronades and two bow- a large quantity of corn from her father guns; and her commander, who had as a ransom, and to recover some arms served under Decatur, was one of the most and implements of labor which the Ind- gallant men of the navy. He roamed the ians had stolen. Powhatan rejected Ar- " chops of the Channel " successfully ; and, gall's proposal for a ransom with scorn, sailing around Land's End, in the space of and would not hold intercourse with the thirty days he captured no less than pirate; but he sent word to the authori- twenty valuable British merchantmen, ties at Jamestown that, if his daughter with cargoes valued at $2,000,000. Too should be released, he would forget the in- far away from friendly ports into which jury and be the friend of the English, he might send his prizes, he burned all the 198 ARID REGIONS— ARIZONA vessels. Every non-combatant captive he insurgents. Though only a military corn- allowed to remove his private property, mander, he was for some time the real and for this generosity he was thanked by ruler of Mexico when Herrera was Presi- them. The British government, alarmed dent in 1844. Commanding at the battles by the exploits of the Argus, sent out sev- of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma eral cruisers after her. Just before the (q. v.) in May, 1848, he was appointed dawn of Aug. 14, 1813, the British brig Minister of War a month later. Within Pelican, 18, Capt. J. F. Maples, appeared; two years he suppressed seventeen revolts and at six o'clock the Argus wore round in Mexico; and in 1850 he was elected and delivered a broadside upon her at grape- President of his native country. He re- shot distance. The fire was immediately signed the government in July, 1853. returned, and a round shot carried away Banished from his country by his enemies, Allen's leg. He refused to be taken from he made a voyage to Europe; and died the deck; but soon becoming unconscious there on the day when Santa Ana, who from loss of blood, he was taken to the had usurped his seat, was compelled to cockpit, and died the next day. The men fly from the city of Mexico, Aug. 7, 1855. of the Argus, weakened by too free use of Aristocracy, in a political sense, a gov- captured wine the night before, did not ernment exercised by the best citizens in fight with their usual vigor, yet they the community, which in olden times handled the vessel admirably. Lieut. W. meant the nobles. The word in time came Howard Allen was left in chief command, to be applied to those people in a country "Very soon the Argus became so badly in- who were superior to the rest of the com- jured that she began to reel. All her munity in any marked respect; hence, braces were shot away, and she could not there were the aristocracies of rank, of be kept in position. The Pelican at intellect, of knowledge, and of high moral length crossed her stern, and raked her feeling. An aristocrat was a member of dreadfully; and at the end of twenty-five such a governing class in a nation, or one minutes from the beginning of the action of especially high rank who was not con- the Argus became unmanageable. Yet nected with actual administration. In she fought on feebly twenty minutes the United States there is no recognition longer, when she was compelled to sur- of an aristocracy of birth; yet in the render, the Sea-Horse, the Pelican's con- early days of the country the social and sort, having hove in sight. The Argus official lines were naturally very closely lost, in killed and wounded, twenty-three drawn, and for a time the public men of men; the Pelican lost seven men. the day were divided into the classes of Arid Regions. See Irrigation. aristocracy and democracy, using the lat- Arista, Mariano, a Mexican military ter word in the sense of representing all officer; born at San Luis Potosi, July 26, the people. The word oligarchy was also 1802. Receiving a military education, he applied to the aristocracy, and originally served in the Spanish army until June, meant both a form of government in 1821, when he joined the Mexican revolu- which the supreme power was ^vested in tionists. He rose rapidly to the rank of the hands of a small exclusive class, and brigadier-general; and in June, 1833, he also the members of such a class. In lat- was made, by Santa Ana (q. v.), second ter years the word oligarchy came to be in command of the Mexican army. Join- applied to a body of people outside of ing another leader in an unsuccessful re- political life who aspired to or had con- volt, he was expelled from Mexico, and trol of the management of a large inter- came to the United States. In 1835 he est, such, for instance, as certain leaders returned, and was restored to his rank in in the Congregational Church in the early the army, and made Judge of the Supreme history of Connecticut. Tribunal of War. He was taken prisoner Arizona, a Territory in the extreme by the French at Vera Cruz (Dec. 5, southwestern portion of the republic, lying 1838), but was soon released on parole, on the border of Mexico. The region was In 1839 he became general-in-chief of the early known to Spanish explorers. As northern division of the army, and re- early as 1526, Don Jose de Vasconcellos, a ceived the " Cross of Honor " for defeating follower of Cortez ? crossed the centre of 109 ARIZONA—ARKANSAS this Territory towards the Great Canon, the only pure, original stock. See United and the region was afterwards visited by States — Arizona, in vol. ix. other Spanish explorers. They then, as «a«-« m «— TT - r , ,, . , , . GOVERNORS OF THE TERRITORY. we do now, found on the river-banks ruins Termofosce of cities which seemed to have existed r. c. McCormick 1867-69 for centuries. These, with regular fortifi- A. P. K. Safford 1870-77 cations, reservoirs, and canals, show that T °^ n ?* **oyt. • • 187 f ,, ' . , ... ' , John C. Fremont 1879-82 the country was once inhabited by an en- Frederick Tuttle. 188°-85 terprising and cultivated people. There C. Meyer Zulick .1885-89 are found walls of solid masonry, usually Lewis Wolfley 1889-91 two stories in height. It is estimated that S^^S^:^::'. '. ^ '. \ iuSfrM fully 100,000 people must have inhabited Lewis C. Hughes 1894-96 the valley of the Gila alone. Arizona was Benj. J. Franklin 1896-97 settled by Spanish missionaries from Mex- Myron H McCord 1897-99 ico as early as 1687. These missions were ^de?' O^B^die ! \ '. ! ' ] \ '. '. .' ' ^.ItoTol principally seated on the Lower Colorado and Gila rivers. The Territory formed a part of Mexico until its purchase by the Arkansas, one of the Southwestern United States in 1850. It was organized States; discovered by De Soto in 1541, who into a Territory by act of Congress, Feb. crossed the Mississippi near the site of 24, 1863, with its area described as com- Helena. It was next visited by Father prising all the "United States lands west Marquette (q. v.) in 1673. It was origi- of longitude 109° to the California line." nal] y a P art of Louisiana, purchased from Since then the northwest corner has been the French in 1803, and so remained un- ceded to Nevada. It is a mountainous *& 1812 > when Jt formed a part of Mis- region, and some of the northern portion souri Territory. It was erected into a remains unexplored. Population in 1890, Territory in 1819, with its present name, 59,691 ; in 1900 122 212. an d remained under a territorial govern- To one of the pioneer explorers of the m ent until 1836. Its first territorial Arizona region the Zuni Indians gave the legislature met at Arkansas Post in 1820. following account of their origin as pre- On June 15, 1836, Arkansas was admitted served in their traditions. Their legend into the Union as a State, relates that in the beginning a race of In 1861 the people of Arkansas were at- men sprang up out of the earth, as plants tached to the Union, but, unfortunately, arise and come forth in the spring. This the governor and most of the leading poli- race increased until they spread over the ticians of the State were disloyal, and no whole earth, and, after continuing through effort was spared by them to obtain the countless ages, passed away. The earth passage of an ordinance of secession. For then remained without people a great this purpose a State convention of dele- length of time, until at length the sun gates assembled at the capital (Little had compassion on the earth, and sent a Rock) on March 4, 1861. It was composed celestial maiden to repeople the globe, of seventy-five members, of whom forty This young goddess was called Arizonia, were such stanch Unionists that it was the name signifying " Maiden Queen." evident that no ordinance of secession This Arizonia dwelt upon the earth a great could be passed. The friends of seces- length of time in lonely solitude, until at sion then proposed a plan that seemed a certain time, while basking in the sun- fair. A self-constituted committee re- beams, a drop of dew from heaven rested ported to the convention an ordinance pro- upon Arizonia, who in due time blessed the viding for an election to be held on the world with twins, a son and a daughter, first Monday in August, at which the and these became the father and mother legal voters of the State should decide, by of the Zuni Indians, and from this tribe ballot, for " secession " or " co-operation." arose all other races of men, the black, If a majority should appear for " seces- white, olive, and all other clay-colored sion," that fact would be considered in the men being merely apostate offshoots from light of instructions to the convention to this original tribe, and the Zunis being pass an ordinance to that effect; if for 200 ARKANSAS "co-operation," then measures were to be on its soil (see Pea Ridge). On Oct. used, in conjunction with the border 30, 1863, a meeting of loyal citizens, rep- slave States "yet in the Union," for the resenting about settlement of existing difficulties. The twenty coun- s^^fPfif^^s. next session of the convention was fixed ties, was held y^^J^rT^wI^^ for Aug. 17. The proposition seemed so at Fort Smith, j^^^Za^^\\ fair that it was adopted by unanimous to take meas- ff ^^^*f^^Si&^i^\ vote, and the convention adjourned, sub- ures for reor- (l^ia^^^^^^^^ |f|\\ ject to the call of its president, who was ganizing the II |P^^S^^^^^^|0 known as a Union man. State govern- \<^jf-\f -T%^ ' 'V/ /<^/ Taking advantage of the excitement in- ment. In Janu- ^r^j' \- • '/w^/ cident to the attack on Fort Sumter and ary following, a ^^^^^^^0^ *%/ the President's call for troops, the gov- convention, com- ^^^*z 30j 1793 Names. William S. Fulton Ambrose H. Sevier... Chester Ashley Solon Borland Win. K. Sebastian Robert W. Johnston.. No. of Congress. 24th to 28th 24th " 30th 28th " 30th 30th " 33d 30th " 36th 33d " 36th Date. Armenians, a Christian people occu- 1836 to 1844 Py in S the hi S h plains and valleys of a 1836 " 1848 country east of Asia Minor and northeast 1848 " 1853 of S y ria > estimated as numbering from 1848 " 1861 3,000,000 to 5,000,000 people. In the 1868 " 1861 S p r i n g f 1894 the Turks c i aimed that vacant. the Armenians were preparing to revolt 1868 " 1873 a S ainst th e Kurds, and, in fact, several 1871 " 1877 conflicts did take place between these S P eo P le ' Turkisn troops were sent to aid 1885 tne Kurds and suppress the Armenians, 1903 and then began a long list of massacres which aroused the whole world. On Feb. 20, 1896, Clara Barton (q. v.), of the Red Cross Society, sailed from New Alexander McDonald. . Benj. F. Rice Powell Clayton Stephen W. Dorsey... Augustus H. Garland. James D. Walker James K.Jones James H. Berry James P. Clarke Arkansas Post. 40th to 42d 40th " 43d 42d " 45th 44th " 46th 45th " 49th 46th " 49th 49th « 57th 49th " 58th " 1873 1877 1879 1885 1885 1903 Arkansas See Hindman, Fort. The, a Confederate " ram,' employed chiefly on the Yazoo River, above York for Armenia, and took charge of the Vicksburg. Farragut sent three armored relief work of this country. While the vessels about the middle of July, 1862, governments seemed powerless to aid the to attack her. Six miles up the stream Armenians, the citizens of this country they found and assailed her; but she re- made generous subscriptions for the suf- pulsed the attack, and took shelter under ferers. Three ship - loads of goods were the batteries at Vicksburg. Another at- sent from this country and over $600,- tempt to capture her was made on July 000 in money. The inaction of the 22 by the Essex (Captain Porter) and the European powers during these outrages Queen of the West. Again the attempt must always be regarded with amaze- was unsuccessful. After the repulse of ment. As to the total number of Ar- the Confederates at Baton Rouge, early menians butchered, only a conjecture in August, Porter, with the Essex and two can be formed. Not until the beginning of other gunboats, went in search of the 1897 did the massacre cease. The total Arkansas, and found her 5 miles above number of victims is generally conceded that city. A sharp engagement ensued, to have been over 50,000. Out of 3,300 The Arkansas became unmanageable, when Armenian villages, it is estimated that her crew ran her against the river-bank, 2,500 were destroyed. Besides the people set her on fire, and she was blown up. killed in massacres, it is estimated that Armand, Charles Teffin, Marquis de the ravages committed by the Turks la Rouarie, French military officer; born caused 75,000 Armenians to die of star- near Rennes, in 1756; came to America vation. Jan. 27, 1896, Congress passed in 1777, and entered the Continental army concurrent resolutions calling upon the as a volunteer. He received the commis- European powers to stop the massacres, sion of colonel, and commanded a small and to secure the Christians the rights corps, to which was attached a company to which they were entitled. The Sultan of cavalry who acted as the police of of Turkey, under great pressure, promised camps. He was an exceedingly active offi- reforms. A vast amount of mission prop- cer, and was highly esteemed by Wash- erty was destroyed, and claims for in- ington. In February, 1780, his corps was demnity were presented by all the powers, incorporated with that of Pulaski, who few of which have been paid. That of the was killed at Savannah a few months be- United States, after uncompromising press- fore. In March, 1783, his services through- ure on the part of its ambassadors, was out the war from 1777 were recognized, settled in December, 1900, by the placing and he was created a brigadier-general, of the order for a war-ship in this country, Returning to France, he took part in the and including the amount of the indemnity Revolution there, and was for a time a in the contract price, prisoner in the Bastile. The execution Armistead, George, military officer; of Louis XVI. gave such a shock to his born in New Market, Caroline co., Va., 203 ARMISTEAD— ARMSTRONG THE ARMISTEAD VASE. April 10, 1780; entered the army as second Maximilian Godefroy, in memory of all lieutenant in 1799. In 1813 he held the the defenders of Baltimore, rank of major in the 3d Artillery, and was distinguished at the capture of Fort George. His gallant defence of Fort McHenry in Sep- tember, 1814, won for him immortal honors. He had five brothers in the military service in the second war for in- dependence — three in the regular army and two in the militia ser- vice. Because of his bravery in defending Baltimore, he was bre- vetted a lieutenant- colonel ; and the citi- zens presented him with an elegant silver service in the form of a vase fashioned like a bombshell, with gob- lets and salver. After his death at Armistead, Lewis Addison, military Baltimore, April 25, 1818, a fine marble officer; born in Newbern, N. C, Feb. 18, monument was erected there to his 1817; entered the United States army as lieutenant in 1839; served throughout the Mexican War; resigned in 1861 to join the Confederate army. He was mortally wounded while leading his brigade in Pickett's charge at Gettysburg, and died in the Federal hospital, July 3, 1863. Armour, Philip Danforth, philan- thropist; born in Stockbridge, N. Y., May 16, 1832; received a public school educa- tion. In 1852-56 he was a miner in Cali- fornia; in 1856-63 engaged in the commis- sion business in Milwaukee, Wis. In 1892 he built the Armour Institute of Technol- ogy in Chicago at a cost of $1,500,000, and in the same year endowed it with $1,400,- 000; in 1898 he increased this endowment by $500,000; and in 1899 made another addition of $750,000. He died in Chicago, Jan. 6, 1901. Armstrong", John, military officer; born in Carlisle, Pa., Nov. 25, 1758. While a student at Princeton, in 1775, he became a volunteer in Potter's Pennsylvania regi- ment, and was soon afterwards made an aide-de-camp to General Mercer. He was memory, and the grateful citizens also afterwards placed on the staff of General erected a large monument, designed by Gates,, and remained so from the begin- 203 GEORGE ARMISTEAD. ARMSTRONG— ARMY ning of that officer's campaign against Burgoyne until the end of the war, hav- ing the rank of major. Holding a facile pen, he was employed to write the famous JOHN ARMSTRONG. Newburgh Addresses. They were power- fully and eloquently written. After the war he was successively Secretary of State and Adjutant-General of Pennsylvania; and in 1784 he conducted operations against the settlers in the Wyoming Val- ley. The Continental Congress in 1787 appointed him one of the judges for the Korth western Territory, but he declined. Two years later he married a sister of Chancellor Livingston, removed to New \ork, purchased a farm within the pre- cincts of the old Livingston Manor on the Hudson, and devoted himself to agricult- ure. He was a member of the national Senate from 1800 to 1804, and became United States minister at the French Court in the latter year, succeeding his brother- in-law, Chancellor Livingston. He was commissioned a brigadier-general in July, 1812, and in January, 1813, became Secre- tary of War in the cabinet of President Madison. His lack of success in the opera- tions against Canada, and at the attack upon and capture of Washington in 1814, made him so unpopular that he resigned and retired to private life. He died at Red Hook, N. Y., April 1, 1843. General Armstrong wrote Notes on the War of 1812, and Lives of Generals Montgomery and Wayne for Sparks's American Biog- raphy; also a Review of Wilkinson's Memoirs, and treatises on agriculture and gardening. Armstrong, Samuel Chapman, founder of the Hampton Normal and Industrial In- stitute; born in Wailuku, Hawaii, in 1839. He was educated in Oahu College, Hono- lulu, and Williams College (U. S.), where he was graduated in 1862; fought with dis- tinction in the Civil War, and afterwards became interested in the education of poor colored people; and founded Hampton Institute in 1868. After ten years of successful administration, the government arranged to have Indian children admitted 111 1878, and since that time the school has successfully taught members of both races. He died in 1893. ARMY Army. The military system of the infantry, cavalry, and artillery. An act United States is based upon volunteer was passed early in 1795 which empow- armies, raised as occasion may require, ered the President, in case of invasion, or A small standing army is kept up for the imminent danger thereof, to call forth support of good order and for safety the militia of the State or States most against incursions of barbarians on the convenient to the place of danger. He borders of expanding settlements; and a was also empowered, in case of insurrec- well-regulated militia, under the control tion, or when the laws of the United of the respective States, forms an ample States should be opposed by a combina- body of citizen soldiery. The first act for tion too powerful to be suppressed by the the enrolment in the militia of all able- ordinary course of judicial proceedings, bodied white men of eighteen and under to call out the militia. The Civil War forty - five years of age was passed by gave full examples of the working of our Congress in 1792. This act provided military system. W T hen combinations in that in the organization there should be the slave States became too powerful for 204 ARMY the civil authorities to oppose, the Presi- Division of the Philippines. — Consisting dent of the United States called for 75,000 of the Departments of Northern Luzon, toilitia (designating the number required ^^g^".^!^.^^^^ from each State) to suppress chem. As States by Spain; headquarters, Manila, P. I. soon as the various regiments from the Commander, Ma j. -Gen. Arthur Mac Arthur. States were mustered into the service of . 5 EPA ?™?* °» N°ethbbn Luzon.— In- ,, TT ., , „, 21 . eludes all that part of the Island of Luzon the United States they were no longer norta f Laguna de Bay and the province of under the control of their respective State Laguna, the same being the provinces of governments, but of that of the national Abra ' Bontoc, Benguet, Bataan, Bulacan, Ca- govern m en t> and were assigned to brigades, IZ^lX^tTLTlZinTli Zlt divisions, corps, and armies, according to Nueva Vizcaya, Nueva Ecija, all that portion the requirements of the service. They of Manila north of the Pasig River, Principe, were then entirely supported by the na- ^asinan, Pampanga Tarlac and Zam- ,. , / ..v,. J bales, and all the islands in the Philippine tional government. All their general and Archipelago north of Manila Bay and the staff officers were commissioned by the provinces above named ; headquarters, Manila, President, and no officers, after having p - L Commander, Maj.-Gen. Lloyd Wheaton. been mustered into the serviee of the Unit- ^^^otT^^r^- ed States, could be dismissed by the State maining part of the Island of Luzon, the same authorities. During the Civil War, from including the following provinces : Albay, Ba- first to last, 2,690,401 men, including re- t »?* a J» Camarlnes Norte, Camarines Sur, Ca- . , '' „' . j, vite, La Laguna, Manila south of the Pasig, inforcements, were enrolled, equipped, and and Tayabas, and all islands of the Philip- organized into armies. The regular army pine Archipelago which lie south of the south during that war was raised to some- line of tne Department of Northern Luzon, as J.U- en Ann v .j. j j above described, including the Island of thing over 50,000 men, but was reduced, PollUo> and nort ^ of a lin / passing soutnea st- at its close, to 30,000 men. The standing wardly through the West Pass of Apo to the army in 1890 numbered 25,220- men, twelfth parallel of north latitude; thence and was mainly used in garrisoning the easterly along said parallel to 124° io' east of . J ._ ,. 6 ,. 6 .. Greenwich, but including the entire Island of permanent fortifications, protecting the Masbate ; thence northerly through San Ber- routes of commerce across the conti- nardino Straits ; headquarters, Manila, P. I. nent, and preserving order among the Commander, Maj.-Gen. John C. Bates. TnHinn trihp* wpst of tho Mi^i««inni Department of the Visayas.— Includes Indian tribes west ot the Mississippi al , islands (eX cept Island of Samar) south of River. the southern line of the Department of South- The Army in 1901. — The organization era Luzon and east of long. 121° 45' east of of the regular army on the permanent Greenwich and north of the ninth parallel of . . . J ,,. r , , nnn latitude, excepting the Island of Mindanao and peace basis of one soldier to each 1,000 all i s]a nds east of the Straits of Surigao ; of population, under the act of Congress headquarters, Iloilo, P. I. Commander, Brig.- of Feb. 2, 1901, was announced in the Gen - Robert P. Hughes. general order of May 13, 1901: Department op Mindanao and Jolo.— In- & ,~ . ,_ . *. ' _ , , n - eludes all the remaining islands of the Philip- Cavalry, 15 regiments ( 12 troops of 85 pine Archipelago ; headquarters, Zamboanga, men), with band, etc.; total, 15,840. P. I. Commander, Brig.-Gen. William A. Kobbe. Artillery, 126 companies of 109 men Department op Alaska.— Territory of ,>.. a, on u i-i.~ e inn « »,, Alaska; headquarters, Fort St. Michael, Alas- each; 30 batteries of 160 men each; with Ua Coffiman J der) Brig-Gen. George M. Ran- bands, etc.; total, 18,862. dall. Infantry, 30 regiments (12 companies Department op California. — States of of 104 men), with bands, etc.; total, 38,- Ca l ifo ^ ni , a a ° d Ne 7 ada ' the Hawaiian Islands ; ' ' ' ' ' and their dependencies ; headquarters, San 520. Francisco, Cal. Commander, Maj.-Gen. Will- Engineers, 3 battalions (4 companies of iam R. Shaftei 104 men), with bands, etc.; total, 1,282. Department of the Colorado.— States of a+ofl? ^^^o^+w,^+ ~;,™„i „ ~4-„ Wyoming (except so much thereof as is em- Staff department, signal corps, etc., braced f n the Yellowstone National Park), 2,783. Colorado, and Utah, and the Territories of Total number of enlisted men, 77,287. Arizona and New Mexico ; headquarters, Den- Under the act of March 4, 1899, mili- J^,™' Commande r, Brig.-Gen. Henry C. tary divisions and departments were re- department op the Columbia.— States of organized as follows: Washington, Oregon, Idaho (except so much of the latter as is embraced in the Yellow- IlEADQrARTERS of the Armt. — Commander, stone National Park) ; headquarters, Van- Lieut.-Gen. Nelson A. Miles, Washington, D. C. couver Barracks, Wash. Commander. . 205 ARMY Department of Cuba. — Consisting of the provinces of the Island of Cuba ; headquar- ters, Havana, Cuba. Commander, Brig.-Gen. Leonard Wood. Department op Dakota. — States of Minne- sota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and so much of Wyoming and Idaho as is embraced in the Yellowstone National Park ; headquarters, St. Paul, Minn. Commander, Brig.-Gen. James F. Wade. Department op the East. — New England States, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylva- nia, Delaware, Maryland, District of Co- lumbia, West Virginia, Virginia, North Caro- lina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Ala- bama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, and District of Porto Rico, embracing Porto Rico and ad- jacent islands ; headquarters, Governor's Isl- and, N. Y. Commander, Maj.-Gen. John R. Brooke. Department op the Lakes. — States of Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indian^, Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee ; headquarters, Chicago, 111. Commander, Maj.-Gen. Elwell S. Otis. Department of the Missouri. — States of Iowa, Nebraska, Missouri, Kansas, and Ar- kansas, the Indian Territory, and the Terri- tory of Oklahoma ; headquarters, Omaha, Neb. Commander, Brig.-Gen. Fitzhugh Lee. Department of Texas. — State of Texas ; headquarters, San Antonio, Tex. Command- er, Col. Chambers McKibbin, 12th Infantry. An act of Congress of June 6, 1900, re- organized the regular army and re-estab- lished the grade of lieutenant-general by the following provision: "That the senior major-general of the line commanding the army shall have the rank, pay, and allow- ances of a lieutenant-general." In his annual message to Congress, Dec. 3, 1900, President McKinley urged a provision for increasing the army in order to maintain its strength after June 30, 1901, when it would be reduced according to the act of March 4, 1899. He detailed the employ- ment of the various branches of the army, and asked for authority to increase the total force to 100,000 men, as was pro- vided in the temporary act of 1899. A bill to carry out the President's recom- mendation was introduced in Congress; was adopted by the Senate, where it origi- nated, Jan. 18, 1901 ; and the House adopt- ed the conference report on the bill Jan. 25, following. Under this bill the Presi- dent, on Feb. 5, sent to the Senate the fol- lowing nominations for the reorganized army: to be lieutenant-general. Maj.-Gen. Nelson A. Miles. TO BE MAJOR-GENERALS. Brig.-Gen. Samuel B. M. Young, TJ. S. A. Col. Adna R. Chaffee, 8th Cavalry, U. S. A. ( Major-General, U. S. V.). Brig.-Gen. Arthur MacArthur, U. S. A. (Major-General, U. S. V.). TO BE BRIGADIER-GENERALS. Col. John C. Bates, 2d Infantry, U. S. A. (Major-General U. S. V.). Col. Lloyd Wheaton, 7th Infantry, U. S. A. (Major-General, U. S. V.). Col. George W. Davis, 23d Infantry (Brig- adier-General, U. S. V.). Col. Theodore Schwan, Assistant Adjutant- General, U. S. A. (Brigadier -General, TJ. S. V.). Col. Samuel S. Sumner, 6th Cavalry, U. S. A. Capt. Leonard Wood, Assistant Surgeon, U. S. A. (Major-General, U. S. V.). Col. Robert H. Hall, 4th Infantry, U. S. A. (Brigadier-General, TJ. S. V.). Col. Robert P. Hughes, Inspector-General, U. S. A. (Brigadier-General, U. S. V.). Col. George M. Randall, 8th Infantry, U. S. A. (Brigadier-General, U. S. V.). Maj. William A. Kobbe, 3d Artillery, TJ. S. A. (Brigadier-General, U. S. V.). Brig.-Gen. Frederick D. Grant, TJ. S. V. Capt. J. Franklin Bell, 7th Cavalry, TJ. S. A. (Brigadier-General, U. S. V.). Continental Army. — On the morning after the affair at Lexington and Con- cord (April 20, 1775), the Massachusetts Committee of Safety sent a circular letter to all the towns in the province, saying: " We conjure you, by all that is dear, by all that is sacred; we beg and entreat you, as you will answer it to your country, to your consciences, and, above all, to God himself, that you will hasten and arrange, by all possible means, the enlistment of men to form the army, and send them forward to headquarters at Cambridge with that expedition which the vast im- portance and instant urgency of the affair demands." This call was answered by many people before it reached them. It arose spontaneously out of the depths of their own patriotic hearts. The field, the workshop, the counter, the desk, and even the pulpit, yielded their tenants, who hur- ried towards Boston. Many did not wait to change their clothes. They took with them neither money nor food, intent only upon having their firelocks in order. The women on the way opened wide their doors and hearts for the refreshment and en- couragement of the patriotic volunteers, and very soon all New England was rep- resented at Cambridge in a motley host of full 20,000 men. On the afternoon of the 20th (April) Gen. Artemas Ward as- sumed the chief command of the gathering 206 ARMY volunteers. The Provincial Congress Washington was then a little past forty- labored night and day to provide for their three years of age. He left Philadelphia organization and support. The second for Cambridge a week later, where he ar- Continental Congress convened at Phila- rived on July 2 ; and at about nine o'clock delphia (May 10), and on June 7, in a on the morning of the 3d, standing in the resolution for a general fast, had spoken shade of an elm-tree in Cambridge, he for the first time of " the twelve united formally assumed the command of the colonies." Gen. Artemas Ward, of Massa- army, then numbering about 16,000 men, chusetts, the senior in command of the all New-Englanders. The following were provincial militia, assumed the chief com- appointed his assistants: Artemas Ward, mand of the volunteers who gathered near Charles Lee, Philip Schuyler, and Israel Boston after the skirmishes at Lexington Putnam, major-generals; and Seth Pome- and Concord. He was good, but aged, and roy, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, not possessed of sufficient military ability William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John or personal activity to make an energetic Thomas, John Sullivan, and Nathaniel commander of a large army. The Provin- Greene, brigadier-generals. Horatio Gates cial Congress of Massachusetts appre- was appointed as adjutant-general. The hended the melting-away of the army pay of a major-general was fixed at $166 gathered at Cambridge unless a more effi- a month; of a brigadier-general, $125; of cient leader might be found, and, to avoid the adjutant-general, $125; commissary- giving offence, they asked the Continental general of stores and provisions, $80; Congress to assume the regulation and di- quartermaster-general, $80; deputy quar- rection of that army. Joseph Warren, in termaster-general, $40; paymaster-general, a private letter to Samuel Adams, wrote $100; deputy paymaster-general, $50; that the request was to be interpreted as chief - engineer, $60; assistant engineer, a desire for the appointment of a new $20; aide-de-camp, $33; secretary to the chief commander of all the troops that general, $66; secretary to a major-general, might be raised. Just then the news ar- $33; commissary of musters, $40. Wash- rived of the approach of reinforcements ington found an undisciplined force, and for Gage, under Generals Clinton, Howe, immediately took measures to bring order and Burgoyne, and Congress felt the im- out of confusion. Congress had provided portance of acting promptly. At the sug- for one adjutant-general, one quartermas- gestion of John Adams, the army was ter-general and a deputy, one commissary- adopted as a continental one; and, at the general, one paymaster-general and a suggestion of the New England delegation, deputy, one chief-engineer and two assist- Thomas Johnson, of Maryland, nominated ants of the grand army, and an engineer George Washington, of Virginia, for com- and two assistants for the army in a mander-in-chief of the armies of the in- separate department; three aides-de-camp, choate republic. He was elected (June 15, a secretary to the general and to the ma- 1775) by unanimous vote, and on the jor-generals, and a commissary of musters, following morning John Hancock, presi- Joseph Trumbull, son of the governor of dent of Congress, officially announced to Connecticut, was appointed commissary- Washington his appointment. The Vir- general; Thomas Mifflin, quartermaster- ginia colonel arose and, in a brief and general ; and Joseph Reed, of Philadelphia, modest speech, formally accepted the was chosen by Washington to the impor- office. After expressing doubts of his tant post of secretary to the commander- ability to perform the duties satisfac- in-chief. torily, he said, " As to pay, sir, I beg * Soon after Washington took command leave to assure the Congress that, as no of the army the legislature of Massa- pecuniary consideration could have tempt- chusetts and the governor of Connecticut ed me to accept the arduous employment at applied to him for detachments from the the expense of my domestic ease and hap- army for the protection of points on their piness, I do not wish to make any profit respective sea-coasts exposed to predatory from it. I will keep an exact account of attacks from British cruisers. Wash- my expenses. Those, I doubt not, they ington, in a letter dated July 31, 1775, an- will discharge, and that is all I desire." swered these appeals with a refusal, after 207 ARMY giving satisfactory reasons for his de- cision. He pointed out the danger to be apprehended by scattering the army in de- tachments. He said the matter had been debated in Congress, and that they had come to the wise conclusion that each province should defend itself from small and particular depredations. It was then established as a rule, that attacks of the enemy at isolated points along the coast '" must be repelled by the militia in the vicinity," except when the Continental army was in a condition to make detach- ments without jeoparding the common cause. In October, 1775, a committee of Con- gress visited the camp at Cambridge, and, in consultation with Washington and committees of the New England colonies, agreed upon a plan for the reorganization of the besieging army. It was to consist of twenty-six regiments, besides riflemen and artillery. Massachusetts was to fur- nish sixteen; Connecticut, five; New Hampshire, three; and Rhode Island, two — in all about 20,000 men; the officers to be selected out of those already in the service. It was easier to plan an army than to create one. According to a return submitted to Congress, the Continental army, on the day when the Declaration of Independence was adopted, consisted of 7,754 men present fit for duty, including one regiment of artillery. Their arms were in a wretched condition. Of nearly 1,400 muskets, the firelocks were bad; more than 800 had none at all; and 3,827 — more than half the whole number of infantry — had no bayonets. Of the militia who had been called for, only 800 had joined the camp. With this force Wash- ington was expected to defend an extended line of territory against an army of about 30,000 men. During the encampment at Valley Forge a committee of Congress spent some time with Washington in arranging a plan for the reorganization of the army. By it each battalion of foot, officers included, was to consist of 582 men, arranged in nine companies ; the battalion of horse and artillery to be one-third smaller. This would have given the army 60,000 men; but, in reality, it never counted more than half that number. General Greene was appointed quartermaster - general ; Jere- miah Wadsworth, of Connecticut, com- missary-general ; Colonel Scammel, of New Hampshire, adjutant-general; and Baron de Steuben, a Prussian officer, inspector- general. To allay discontents in the army because of the great arrearages of the soldiers' pay, auditors were appointed to adjust all accounts; and each soldier who should serve until the end of the war was promised a gratuity of $80. The officers were promised half-pay for seven years from the conclusion of peace. In the spring of 1779, on the report of a committee of Congress, that body pro- ceeded to a new organization of the army. Four regiments of cavalry and artillery, hitherto independent establishments raised at large, were now credited towards the quota of the States in which they had been enlisted. The State quotas were reduced to eighty battalions: Massachusetts to furnish fifteen; Virginia and Pennsyl- vania, eleven each; Connecticut and Mary- land, eight each; the two Carolinas, six each; New York, five; New Hampshire and New Jersey, three each; Rhode Island, two; and Delaware and Georgia, one each. Congress allowed $200 bounty for each recruit, and the States made large addi- tional offers; but the real amount was small, for at that time the Continental paper money had greatly depreciated. It was found necessary to replenish the reg- iments by drafts from the militia. The whole force of the American army, ex- clusive of a few troops in the Southern de- partment, consisted, late in the spring of 1779, of only about 8,600 effective men. At that time the British had 11,000 at New York and 4,000 or 5,000 at Newport, besides a considerable force in the South. In 1780 a committee of Congress, of which General Schuyler was chairman, were long in camp, maturing, with Washing- ton, a plan for another reorganization of the army. Congress agreed to the plan. The remains of sixteen additional battal- ions were to be disbanded, and the men distributed to the State lines. The army was to consist of fifty regiments of foot, including Hazen's, four regiments of ar- tillery, and one of artificers, with two partisan corps under Annard and Lee. There were to be four other legionary corps, two-thirds horse and one-third foot. All new enlistments were to be " for the AUMY war." The officers thrown out by this On the recommendation of Washington new arrangement were to be entitled to orders were issued for granting furloughs half-pay for life. The same was promised or discharges at the discretion of the com- to all officers who should serve to the end mander-in-chief. Greene was authorized of the war. The army, as so arranged, to grant furloughs for North Carolina would consist of 36.000 men; never half troops; and the lines of Maryland and that number were in the field. Pennsylvania serving under him were or- At the beginning of 1781 the sufferings dered to march for their respective States. of the Continental soldiers for want of Three months' pay was to be furnished food and clothing was almost unbearable, the furloughed soldiers. They were also and there were signs of a prevailing to keep their arms and accoutrements as mutinous spirit. Washington knew well an extra allowance. The furloughs amount- their intense suffering and equally intense ed to discharges. Few of the recipients patriotism, and deeply commiserated their ever returned, and so a great portion of condition. He knew they could be trusted the army was gradually disbanded before to the last moment, and deprecated the the definitive treaty was concluded in Sep- conduct of those who suspected a muti- tember. A remnant of the Continental nous spirit in the whole army, and mani- army remained at West Point under Knox fested their distrust. When General until the British evacuated New York Heath, with his suspicions alert, employed (Nov. 25, 1783). After that event they spies to watch for and report mutinous all received their discharge, expressions, Washington wrote to him: The following shows the number oi "To seem to draw into question the troops furnished by each State for the fidelity and firmness of the soldiers, or Continental army: even to express a doubt of their obedience, rmv option mioh a rplaxatirm of dis- New Hampshire 12,947 may occasion such a relaxation oi ais Massachusetts 67,907 cipline as would not otherwise exist. The Rhode Island 5,908 condition of the army was most wretched. Connecticut 31,939 A committee of Congress reported that it ?J ew York 1 7,781 had been " unpaid for five months ; that it Pennsylvania . . 25678 seldom had more than six days' provisions Delaware 2^386 in advance, and was on several occasions, Maryland 13,912 for sundry successive days, without meat; North 1 Carolina ! '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. ^[tll that the medical department had neither South Carolina ............ 6^417 sugar, coffee, tea, chocolate, wine, nor Georgia 2,679 spirituous liquors of any kind; and that e\ery department of the army was with- out money, and had not even the shadow The Army in 1808-15. — Jefferson's of credit left." The clothing of the sol- policy had always been to keep the army diers was in tatters, and distress of mind and navy as small and inexpensive as pos- and body prevailed everywhere in the ser- sible. The army was reduced to a mere vice. No wonder that some of the soldiers, frontier guard against the Indians. In who believed that their term of service had 1808 the aspect of international affairs expired, mutinied, and marched towards was such as to demand an increase of the Philadelphia to demand redress from the military strength of the republic, and the Congress. President asked Congress to augment the It was expected that the immediate dis- number and efficiency of the regular army, banding of the army would follow the They did so, though the measure was proclamation of peace. A definitive treaty strongly opposed by the Federalists. There had not yet been negotiated, and British was a rising war-spirit in the land. A troops still held New York City. It would bill to raise seven new regiments was not be safe, under such circumstances, to passed by a vote in the House of ninety- actually disband the army. The Congress eight to sixteen. Other provisions for war therefore decided that the engagements of followed. The sum of $1,000,000 was men enlisted for the war were binding till placed at the disposal of the President the treaty of peace was definitely ratified, for the erection of coast and harbor de- i.— o 209 ARMY fences. Another sum of $300,000 was ap- termaster-general (April 3), and Alexan- propriated for the purchase of arms, and der Smyth, of Virginia, was made in- $150,000 for saltpetre to make gunpowder, spector-general (March 30) — each bearing The President was also authorized to call the commission of a brigadier-general, upon the governors of the several States Thomas Cushing, of Massachusetts, was to form an army, in the aggregate, of appointed adjutant-general with the rank 100,000 militia, to be immediately organ- of brigadier-general. James Wilkinson, of ized, equipped, and " held in readiness to Maryland, the senior brigadier-general in march at a moment's warning " when the army, was sent to New Orleans to re- called for by the chief magistrate — in lieve Wade Hampton (then a brigadier- ether words, 100,000 minute-men. The general ), who was a meritorious subaltern President was authorized to construct ar- officer in South Carolina during the Revo- senals and armories at his discretion; and lution. Alexander Macomb of the en- $200,000 were placed at his disposal for gineers — one of the first graduates of the providing equipments for the whole body of United States Military Academy — was pro- the militia of the republic. About $1,000,- moted to colonel, and Winfield Scott, Ed- 000 were appropriated to pay the first ward Pendleton Gaines, and Eleazer W. year's expenses of the seven new regiments. Ripley were commissioned colonels. Altogether the government appropriated in In the summer of 1812, Gen. Joseph 1808 about $5,000,000 for war purposes. Bloomfield was sent to Lake Champlain Efforts to increase the navy failed. Men with several regiments, and on September were needed for the additional 188 gun- 1 he had gathered at Plattsburg about boats, the construction of which was au- 8,000 men — regulars, volunteers, and thorized in December, 1807. Nothing was militia — besides small advanced parties at done until January, 1809, when the Presi- Chazy and Champlain. General Dearborn dent was authorized to equip three frigates took direct command of this army soon and a sloop-of-war. afterwards, and about the middle of No- In organizing the military forces for vember he made an unsuccessful attempt war in 1812 the following appointments to invade Canada. No other special mili- were made: Henry Dearborn, a soldier tary movements occurred in that quarter of the Revolution, collector of the port until the next year. Gen. Wade Hampton of Boston, late Secretary of War, and then succeeded Bloomfield in command on Lake sixty years of age, was appointed (Febru- Champlain, and in the summer of 1813 ary, 1812) first major-general, or acting he was at the head of 4,000 men, with his commander-in-chief of the armies in the headquarters at Burlington, Vt. This field, having the Northern Department force composed the right wing of the under his immediate control. Thomas Army of the North, of which General Pinckney, of South Carolina, also a soldier Wilkinson was commander-in-chief. There of the Revolution, was appointed (March, was such personal enmity between these 1812) second major-general, and placed in two commanders that the public service command of the Southern Department, was greatly injured thereby. The Secre- Joseph Bloomfield (governor of New Jer- tary of War (Armstrong) was preparing sey), James Winchester (of Tennessee), to invade Canada by way of the St. Law- John P. Boyd (of Massachusetts), and rence, and, fearing the effects of this en- William Hull (then governor of the Ter- mity, transferred the headquarters of the ritory of Michigan) were commissioned War Department to Sackett's Harbor, at (April 8, 1812) brigadier-generals. The the east end of Lake Ontario, that he might same commission was given (June) to promote harmony between these testy old Thomas Flournoy, of Georgia. John Arm- generals. In arranging for the expedition strong, of New York, was also commis- down the St. Lawrence, Armstrong direct- sioned (July 4) a brigadier-general to ed Hampton to penetrate Canada tow- fill a vacancy caused by the recent death ards Montreal by way of the Sorel River, of Gen. Peter Gansevoort. This was soon Instead of obeying the order, Hampton followed (July 8) by a like commission marched his troops to the Chateaugay for John Chandler, of Maine. Morgan River, and at Chateaugay Four Corners Lewis, of New York, was appointed quar- he tarried twenty-six days awaiting orders. 210 ARMY Finally he was ordered to descend the fused to meet Wilkinson at St. Regis, as Chateaugay and meet Wilkinson at its the latter had requested after the battle mouth. He moved forward late in Oc- at Chrysler's Field. Wilkinson directed tober, when he was confronted by Lieu- Hampton to join the camp at French tenant-Colonel De Salaberry, near the Mills. This order, also, he disobeyed, and junction of Outard Creek and the Cha- retired to Plattsburg with his army of teaugay, where Hampton encamped and 4,000 men. was overtaken by his artillery. De Sala- Army of Occupation, 1845-46. — When berry was encamped with a force about the annexation of Texas caused warlike ],000 strong, and Sir George Prevost and preparations in Mexico, Gen. Zachary General De Watteville were within bugle- Taylor was ordered to proceed to a point call. Hampton resolved to dislodge De near the frontier between the two coun- Salaberry, and sent a force under Col. tries to defend Texas from invasion. Tay- Robert Purdy on the evening of Oct. 25 to lor was then in command of the Depart- force a ford and fall upon the British rear, ment of the Southwest. In a letter of in- Purdy lost his way in a hemlock swamp, structions from the War Department, he Meanwhile Hampton put 3,500 of his was told, " Texas must be protected from men in motion under Gen. George Izard, hostile invasion; and for that purpose who moved to the attack at two o'clock in you will, of course, employ to the utmost the afternoon. De Salaberry came out extent all the means you possess or can with a few Canadians and Indians, but command." He at once repaired to New finding overwhelming numbers in front of Orleans with 1,500 men (July, 1845), him he fell back to his intrenched camp, where he embarked, and early in August Firing was now heard on the other side of arrived at the island of St. Josephs on the river. Purdy, who had neglected to the Texan coast, whence he sailed for post pickets, had been surprised, his Corpus Christi, near the mouth of the troops flying to the river. Several of his Nueces, where he established his head- officers and men swam across, and bore quarters. There he was soon afterwards alarming news of a heavy force approach- reinforced by seven companies of infan- ing. Instead of such a force approach- try under Major Brown and two volunteer ing, those who had attacked Purdy had companies under Major Gaily. With these fled at the first fire ; and so the belligerents forces he remained at Corpus Christi un- were in the ridiculous, predicament of til the next spring, when the camp at that running away from each other. De Sala- place was broken up (March 8, 1846), and berry now tried a clever trick. He posted the Army of Occupation proceeded to buglers at some distance from each other, Point Isabel, nearer the Rio Grande, and when some concealed provincial mi- When approaching Point Isabel, Taylor litia opened fire almost upon Hampton's was met by a deputation of citizens, flanks, the buglers sounded a charge, and presented with a protest, signed Hampton was alarmed, for the position by the Prefect of the Northern Dis- of the buglers indicated an extensive trict of the Department of Tamau- Eritish line, and he supposed a heavy force lipas, against the presence of his army, was about to fall upon his front and flank." But he pressed forward to Point Isa- He immediately sounded a retreat and bel, whence, with a larger portion of withdrew to his old quarters at Chateau- his army, he proceeded to the Rio Grande gay Four Corners, annoyed all the way by opposite Matamoras, arriving there on the fire of Canadian militia. There this March 29. There he began the erection inglorious campaign ended. The Ameri- of defensive works; and so the Army of cans lost in the affair fifteen killed and Occupation in Texas assumed a hostile twenty-three wounded. The British lost attitude towards the Mexicans. See in killed, wounded, and missing, twenty- Mexico, War with. five. " No officer,-" said a distinguished Army in the Civil War. — When Mr. general of the United States army, " who Lincoln entered upon the duties of Presi- had any regard for his reputation, would dent (March 4, 1861) the total regular voluntarily acknowledge himself as hav- force of the army was 16,000 men, and ing been engaged in it." Hampton re- these were principally in the Western 211 ARMY States and Territories, guarding the fron- 152,000 soldiers. By March 1, 1862, that tier settlers against the Indians. The number was so increased that when, at forts and arsenals on the seaboard, espe- tiiat time, the forces were put in motion, daily within the slave States, were so having been thoroughly drilled and dis- weakly manned, or not manned at all, ciplined, the grand total of the army was that they became an easy prey to the 222,000, of which number about 30,000 Confederates. The consequence was that were sick or absent. It was called the they were seized, and when the new ad- " Grand Army of the Potomac." ministration came into power, of all the General McClellan left Washington for fortifications within the slave States only Fort Monroe, April 1, 1862, with the Fort Monroe, in Virginia, and Forts Jeffer- greater part of the Army of the Potomac, son, Taylor, and Pickens, on the Gulf coast, leaving for the defence of the capital and remained in possession of the government, other service more remote 75,000. Very The seized forts were sixteen in number, soon there were 120,000 men at FortMon- They had cost the government about roe, exclusive of the forces of General $6,000,000, and had an aggregate of 1,226 Wool, the commander there. A large por- guns. All the arsenals in the cotton-grow* tion of these moved up the Peninsula in ing States had been seized. Twiggs had two columns, one, under Gen. S. P. Heint- surrendered a portion of the National zelman, marching near the York River; army in Texas. The army had been put so the other, under General Keyes, near the far out of reach, and the forts and ar- James River. A comparatively small Con- scnals in the North had been so stripped federate force, under Gen. J. B. Magruder, of defenders, by Floyd, Buchanan's Secre- formed a fortified line across the Penin- tary of War, that the government was sula in the pathway of the Nationals. The threatened with sudden paralysis. left of this line was at Yorktown, and the On the day after the battle of Bull Run right on the Warwick River, that falls ( q. v.), General McClellan, then in western into the James. In front of this line Virginia, was summoned to Washington McClellan's continually augmenting army and placed in charge of the shattered army remained a month, engaged in the tedious there. The Departments of Washington operations of a regular siege, under the and of Northeastern Virginia were ere- direction of Gen. Fitz-John Porter, skir- ated and placed under the command of mishing frequently, and, on one occasion, McClellan. The Department of. the Shen- making a reconnoissance in force that was andoah was also created, and Gen. N. P. disastrous to the Nationals. On May 3, Banks was placed in command of it, re- Magruder, who had resorted to all sorts lieving Major-General Patterson. Mc- of tricks to deceive and mislead the Na- Clellan turned over the command of the tionals, wrote to Cooper, of the Confeder- troops in western Virginia to General ate War Department: " Thus, with 5,000 Rosecrans, and on July 27 he entered with men, exclusive of the garrison, we stopped zeal upon the duty of reorganizing the and held in check over 100,000 of the army in the vicinity of the national capi- enemy." McClellan now began those ap- tal. He brought to the service youth, a proaches towards Richmond which result- spotless moral character, robust health, ed in the Seven Days' battles near that untiring industry, a good theoretical city. military education, the prestige of recent When the battle of Fredericksburg success, and the unlimited confidence of (q. v.) had ended, there was much feeling the loyal people. Having laid a broad against General Burnside on the part of moral foundation for an efficient army or- the officers of the Army of the Potomac ganization, he proceeded with skill and who had participated in it. An order re- vigor to mould his material into perfect ceived by Burnside, just as he was pre- symmetry. So energetically was this done paring for other active operations, from that at the end of fifty days an army of at the President (Dec. 30, 1862), directing least 100,000 men, well organized, officered, him not to enter upon further operations equipped, and disciplined, were in and without his (the President's) knowledge, around Washington. At that time the satisfied him that enemies in his own army entire force in his department included were at work against him. Burnside hast- 212 ARMY ened to Washington for an explanation, when he learned that general officers of his army had declared that such was the feeling among the troops against him that the safety of the army would be imperilled by a movement under his direction. He believed there was a secret conspiracy among the officers for his removal. He re- turned to the army, determined to do what he might to retrieve the disaster at Fredericksburg, but was soon induced to return to Washington, bearing a general order for the instant dismissal or relief from duty of several of the generals of the Army of the Potomac, whom he charged with " fomenting discontent in the army." Generals Hooker, Brooks, and Newton were designated for instant dis- missal; and Generals Franklin, W. F. Smith, Cochran, and Ferrero, and Lieut.- Col. J. H. Taylor were to be relieved from duty in that army. Generals Franklin and Smith had written a joint letter to the President (Dec. 21) expressing their opinion that Burnside's plan of opera- tions could not succeed, and substantially recommending that McClellan should be reinstated in command. Burnside was competent to issue the order for such dis- missal and relief on his own responsibility, but he submitted it to the President. The latter was perplexed. He talked with Burnside as a friend and brother, and it was finally arranged that the general should be relieved of the command of the Army of the Potomac and await orders for further service. Ma j. -Gen. Joseph Hooker was appointed Burnside's successor. In making this ap- pointment the President wrote a fatherly letter to Hooker, in which, after speaking of his many excellent qualities as a sol- dier, he referred to his (Hooker) having been, with others, to blame for too freely criticising the military conduct of Burn- side, and so doing a great wrong to him. He reminded Hooker that he would now be open to such criticism, but that he (Lincoln) would do what he might to suppress it, for little good could be got out of an army in which such a spirit pre- vailed. The army was then lying, weak and demoralized, at Falmouth, opposite Fredericksburg. From January until April (1863) Hooker was engaged in pre- paring for a vigorous summer campaign. His forces remained in comparative quiet for about three months, during which time they were reorganized and disciplined, and at the close of April his army numbered 100,000 effective men. General Lee's army, on the other side of the river, had been divided, a large force, under General Long- si reet, having been required to watch the movements of the Nationals under Gen- eral Peck in the vicinity of Norfolk. Lee had in hand about 60,000 well-drilled troops, lying behind strong intrenchments extending 25 miles along the line of the Rappahannock River. Hooker had made important changes in the organiza- tion of the army, and in the various staff departments; and the cavalry, hitherto scattered among the three grand divisions into which the six corps of the army had been consolidated — two corps in each — and without organization as a corps, were now consolidated and soon placed in a state of greater efficiency. To improve them he had sent them out upon raids within the Confederate lines, and for several weeks the region between Bull Run and the Rapidan was the theatre of many daring cavalry exploits. To give more efficiency to the troops covering Washington in 1862, they were formed into an organization called the " Army of Virginia," and placed under the command of Ma j. -Gen. John Pope. Gen- eral Hal leek was then general-in-chief of all the armies, with his headquarters at Washington. The corps of the new army were commanded, respectively, by Generals McDowell, Banks, and Sigel. When Mc- Clellan had retreated to Harrison's Land- ing and the Confederate leaders were satis- fied that no further attempts would then be made to take Richmond, they ordered Lee to make a dash on Washington. Hear- ing of this, Halleck ordered Pope, in the middle of July, to meet the intended in- vaders at the outset of their raid. General Rufus King led a troop of cavalry that destroyed railroads and bridges to within 30 or 40 miles of Richmond. Pope's troops were posted along a line from Fredericksburg to Winchester and Har- per's Ferry, and were charged with the threefold duty of covering the national capital, guarding the valley entrance into Maryland in the rear of Washing- ton, and threatening Richmond from 213 ARMY the north as a diversion in favor of McClellan. When General Grant began his march against Richmond (May, 1864), Gen. Benjamin F. Butler was in command of the Army of the James, and was directed to co-operate with the Army of the Po- tomac. Butler prepared to make a vig- orous movement against Richmond from the south, while Grant moved from the north. Butler's effective force was about 40,000 men when he was ordered to ad- vance. It was composed chiefly of the 18th Army Corps, commanded by Gen. W. F. Smith, and the 10th Corps, under Gen. Q. A. Gillmore, who arrived at Fort Monroe May 3. Butler successfully de- ceived the Confederates as to his real in- tentions by making a demonstration tow- ards Richmond by way of the York River and the Peninsula, along McClellan's line of march. On the night of May 4, Butler's army was embarked on transports and conveyed around to Hampton Roads; and at dawn the next morning 35,000 troops, accompanied by a squadron of war vessels under Admiral Lee, were rapidly ascend- ing the James towards City Point, at the mouth of the Appomattox. At the same time, Gen. A. V. Kautz, with 3,000 cav- alry, moving swiftly from Suffolk, south of the James, struck the Weldon Railway south of Petersburg, and burned a bridge over Stony Creek, while Col. R. M. West, with 1,800 cavalry (mostly colored men), moved from Williamsburg up the north bank of the James, keeping abreast of the grand flotilla. The bewildered Con- federates made no serious opposition to these movements. A division of National troops took quiet possession of City Point (May 5) and the war vessels took a posi- tion above the mouth of the Appomattox. At the same time a heavy force landed on a triangular piece of land between the James and Appomattox, called Bermuda Hundred, and there established an in- trenched camp. In the space of twenty- four hours, Butler gained an important foothold within 15 miles of Richmond in a straight line, and only about 8 miles from Petersburg. The movement produced great consternation at Rich- mond; but before Petersburg could be se- riously threatened by Butler, Beauregard was there with troops from Charleston. TROOrS FURNISHED THE GOVERNMENT DURING THE CIVIL WAR FROM 1861 TO 1865. Under call of April 15, 1861, for 75,000 men for three months... 91,816 Under call of May 3, 1861, for 500,000 men for six months, one year, two years, three years. 700,680 Under call of July 2, 1862, for 300,- 000 men for three years 421,465 Under call of Aug. 4, 1862, for 300,- 000 men for nine months 87,588 Under proclamation, June 15, 1863, men for six months 16,361 Under call of Oct. 17, 1863 (in- cluding drafted men of 1863), and call of Feb. 1, 1864, for 500,000 for three years 317,092 Under call of March 14, 1864, for 200,000 for three years 259,515 Militia for 100 days, mustered in between April 23 and July 18, 1864 83,612 Under call of July 18, 1864, for 500,000 (reduced by excess credits of previous calls) for one year, two years, three years, and four years 385,163 Under call of Dec. 19, 1864, for 300,000 men for one year, two years, three years, four years. . . 211,752 Other troops furnished by States and Territories which, after first call, had not been called upon for quotas when general call for troops was made 182,357 By special authority granted May and June, 1862, New York, Il- linois, and Indiana furnished for three months 15,007 Total 2,772,408 Number of men who paid commuta- tion 86,724 Grand total 2,859,132 Aggregate reduced to a three years' standard 2,320,272 ACTUAL STRENGTH OF THE ARMY BETWEEN JAN. 1, 1860, AND MAY 1, 1865. Date Regulars. Volunteers. Total. Jan. 1, 1860. ..16,435 16,435 Jan. 1, 1861. ..16,367 16,367 July 1, 1861. ..16,422 170,329 186.751 Jan. 1, 1862. ..22,425 553,492 575,917 March 31, 1862. . .23,308 613,818 637,126 Jan. 1, 1863. ..25,463 892,728 918,191 Jan. 1, 1864. ..24,636 836,101 860,737 Jan. 1, 1865. ..22,019 937,441 959.460 Marcl i 31, 1865. ..21,669 958,417 980,086 May 1, 1865.. 1,000,516 Disbanding of the Union Armies. — The soldiers of the great armies that con- fronted Lee and Johnston in Virginia and North Carolina, and concfuered them, were marched to the vicinity of the national capital, and during two memorable days 214 ARMY— ARNOLD (May 22 and 23, 1865), moved through that city, with tens of thousands of moist- ened eyes gazing upon them, and passed in review before the chief magistrate of the nation and his ministers. Then began the work of disbanding the armies by mus- tering out of service officers and men. On June 2 Lieutenant-General Grant, the gen- eral-in-chief of the National armies, issued the following address to them : " Soldiers of the Armies of the United States, — By your patriotic devotion to your country in the hour of danger and alarm, your mag- nificent fighting, bravery, and endurance, you have maintained the supremacy of the Union and the Constitution, over- thrown all armed opposition to the en- forcement of the laws and of the procla- mation forever abolishing slavery — the cause and pretext of the rebellion — and opened the way to the rightful authorities to restore order and inaugurate peace on a permanent and enduring basis on every foot of American soil. Your marches, sieges, and battles, in distance, duration, resolution, and brilliancy of results, dim the lustre of the world's past military achievements, and will be the patriot's precedent in defence of liberty and right in all time to come. In obedience to your country's call, you left your homes and families, and volunteered in her defence. Victory has crowned your valor and se- cured the purpose of your patriotic hearts ; and with the gratitude of your countrymen and the highest honors a great and free nation can accord, you will soon be per- mitted to return to your homes and fami- lies, conscious of having discharged the highest duty of American citizens. To achieve these glorious triumphs and se- cure to yourselves, your fellow-country- men and posterity the blessings of free institutions, tens of thousands of your gallant comrades have fallen, and sealed the priceless legacy with their blood. The graves of these a grateful nation bedews with tears, honors their memory, and will ever cherish and sup- port their stricken families." The dis- banding of this army went steadily on from June 1, and by the middle of autumn 786,000 officers and men were mustered out of the service. The wonder- ful spectacle was exhibited of vast armies of men, surrounded by all the parapher- nalia- of war, transformed in the space of 150 days into a vast army of citizens, en- gaged in the pursuits of peace. See Civil War, The; Lee, Robert Edward. Army War College. A department of the United States military educational establishment, authorized by Congress in 1900, Brig.-Gen. William Ludlow being the chief of the board that drafted the regulations. The object is to unify the systems of instruction at the four exist- ing service institutions; to develop these systems; and to give opportunity for the most advanced professional study of mili- tary problems. The officers of the college exercise supervision over the course of study in each of the service schools, and over all civil institutions to which the government details an officer for military instruction. The faculty of the college study the military organizations of the United States, with regard to a complete understanding of its efficiency, and con- stitute an advisory board to which the Secretary of War can turn at any time for recommendations as to any point in the mechanism of the whole military service. Arnold, Abraham Kerns, military offi- cer; born in Bedford, Pa., March 24, 1837; graduated at the United States Mili- tary Academy and brevetted a second lieutenant in 1859 ; colonel of the 8th Cav- alry in 1891. He served through the Civil War with distinction, and was awarded a congressional medal of honor for excep- tional bravery in the engagement at Davenport Bridge, North Anna River, Va., May 18, 1864. After the Civil War he served in the Indian country. ^On May 4, 1898, he was commissioned a brigadier- general of volunteers, and served through the American-Spanish War. He was dis- charged from the volunteer service May 12, 1899. He died Nov. 23, 1901. Arnold, Benedict, pioneer; born in England, Dec. 21, 1615; emigrated to Providence, R. I., about 1635; president of the colony, 1657; assistant in 1660; again president in 1662. Under the royal charter he was elected governor of Rhode Island five times. He died June 20, 1678. Arnold, Benedict, military officer; born in Norwich, Conn., Jan. 14, 1741. As a boy he was bold, mischievous, and quar- relsome. Apprenticed to an apothecary, he ran away, enlisted as a soldier, but de- 15 ARNOLD, BENEDICT serted. For four years (1763-67) he was a bookseller and druggist in New Haven, Conn., and was afterwards master and supercargo of a vessel trading to the West BIRTHPLACE OF BENEDICT ARNOLD. Indies. Immediately after the affair at Lexington, he raised a company of volun- teers and marched to Cambridge. There he proposed to the Massachusetts Com- mittee of Safety an expedition against Port Ticonderoga, and was commissioned a colonel. Finding a small force, under Colonels Easton, Brown, and Allen, on the same errand when he reached western Massachusetts, he joined them without command. Returning to Cambridge, he was placed at the head of an expedition for the capt- ure of Quebec. He left Cambridge with a little more than 1,000 men, composed of New England musketeers and riflemen from Virginia and Pennsylvania, the latter under Capt. Daniel Morgan. He sailed from Newburyport for the Kennebec in the middle of September, 1775. They rendez- voused at Fort Western, on the Kennebec River, opposite the site of the present city of Augusta, Me., and on the verge of a wilderness uninhabited except by a few Indian hunters. At Norridgewock Falls their severe labors began. Their bateaux were drawn by oxen, and their provisions were carried on their backs around the falls — a wearisome task often repeated as they pressed towards the head-waters of the Kennebec, often wading and pushing their bateaux against swift currents. At length they left that stream and traversed tangled ravines, craggy knolls, and deep morasses, until they reached the Dead River. The stream flowed placidly on the summit of the water-shed between the St. Lawrence and the Atlantic, and they moved pleasantly over its bosom until they encamped at the foot of a high moun- tain capped with snow. Sickness and de- sertion now began to reduce the number of effective men. October was passing away. Keen blasts came from the north. A heavy rain fell, and the water, rushing from the hills, suddenly filled the Dead River to its brim and overflowed its banks. Some of the boats were over- turned and much provision was lost or spoiled. Food for only twelve days re- mained. A detachment was sent to get a supply, but did not return. The floods began to freeze and the morasses became almost impassable. Through ice-cold wa- ter they were frequently compelled to wade; even two women, wives of soldiers, endured this hardship. At length they reached the Chaudiere River, that empties into the St. Lawrence. Starvation threat- ened. Seventy miles lay between them and Sertigan, the nearest French set- tlement. Leaving his troops on the banks of the upper Chaudiere, Arnold and fifty-five men started down the river for Sertigan to obtain food. Two or three boats had been wrecked just before their depart- ure, and much of their scanty supply of food was lost. Ar- nold and his party reached the settle- ment. Indians were sent back with pro- visions and as guides for the rest of the troops to the settlement. When the forces were join- ed they moved towards the St. Lawrence; and on Nov. 9, in a heavy snow - storm, they suddenly appeared at Point Levi, op- posite Quebec, only 750 in number. It ARNOLD'S ROUTE THROUGH THE WILDERNESS. 216 ARNOLD, BENEDICT was almost two months after they left Cambridge before they reached the St. Lawrence. Their sufferings from cold and hunger had been extreme. At one time they had attempted to make broth of boiled deer - skin moccasins to sustain life, and a dog belonging to Henry (afterwards General) Dearborn made savory food for them. In this expe- dition were men who afterwards became famous in American history — Aaron Burr, R. J. Meigs, Henry Dearborn, Daniel Mor- gan, and others. Arnold assisted Montgomery in the siege of Quebec, and was there severely wounded in the leg. Montgomery was killed, and Arnold was promoted to briga- dier-general (Jan. 10, 1776), and took command of the remnant of the Ameri- can troops in the vicinity of Quebec. Suc- ceeded by Wooster, he went up Lake Cham- plain to Ticonderoga, where he was placed in command of an armed flotilla on the lake. With these vessels he had disas- trous battles (Oct. 11 and 13, 1776) with British vessels built at St. Johns. Arnold was deeply offended by the appointment, by Congress, early in 1777, of five of his juniors to the rank of major-general. He received the same appointment soon after- wards (Feb. 7, 1777), but the affront left an irritating thorn in his bosom, and he was continually in trouble with his fellow- officers, for his temper was violent and he was not upright in pecuniary transac- tions. General Schuyler admired him for his bravery, and was his . abiding friend until his treason. He successfully went to the relief of Fort Schuyler on the up- per Mohawk (August, 1777) > with 800 volunteers; and in September and October following he was chiefly instrumental in the defeat of Burgoyne, in spite of Gen- eral Gates. There he was again severely wounded in the same leg, and was dis- abled several months. When the Brit- ish evacuated Philadelphia (June, 1778) Arnold was appointed commander at Phil- adelphia, where he married the daughter of a leading Tory (Edward Shippen), lived extravagantly, became involved in debt, was accused of dishonest official conduct, and plotted his treason against his coun- try. To meet the demands of importu- nate creditors, he engaged in fraudulent transactions, for which his official posi- tion gave him facilities, and charges of dishonesty and malpractice in office were preferred against him before the Continen- tal Congress. A tribunal before which he was tried convicted him, but sentenced him to a reprimand only by the commander-in- chief. Washington performed the duty with great delicacy, but the disgrace aroused in the bosom of Arnold a fierce spirit of revenge. He resolved to betray his country, and, making treasonable over- tures to Sir Henry Clinton, kept up a correspondence on the subject for a long time with Maj. John Andre (q. v.), the adjutant-general of the British army. This correspondence was carried on mutually under assumed names, and on the part of Arnold in a disguised hand. Feigning great patriotism and a desire to serve his country better, he asked for, and, through the recommendation of General Schuyler and others, obtained the command of the important post of West Point and its de- pendencies in the Hudson Highlands. He arranged with Major Andre to surrender that post into the hands of a British force which Sir Henry might send up the Hud- son. For this service he was to receive the commission of a brigadier-general in the British army and nearly $50,000 in gold. He made his headquarters at the house of Beverly Robinson, a Tory, op- posite West Point, and the time chosen for the consummation of the treason was when Washington should be absent at a conference with Rochambeau at Hartford. Arnold and Andre had negotiated in writing; the former wished a personal interview, and arrangements were made for it. Andre went up the Hudson in the British sloop - of - war Vulture to Teller's (afterwards Croton) Point, from which he was taken in the night in a small boat to a secluded spot near Haverstraw, on the west side of the river, where, in bushes, he met Arnold for the first time. Before they parted (Sept. 22, 1780) the whole matter was arranged: Clinton was to sail up the river with a strong force, and, after a show of resistance, Arnold was to sur- render West Point and its dependencies into his hands. But all did not work well. The Vulture was driven from her anchor- age by some Americans with a cannon on Teller's Point, and when Andre, with Arnold, at Joshua H. Smith's house, above 217 ARNOLD, BENEDICT Haverstraw, looked for her in the early mander (Colonel Jameson) did not seem morning she had disappeared from sight, to comprehend the matter, and unwisely He had expected to return to the Vulture allowed Andre (who bore a pass from after the conference was over ; now he was Arnold in which he was called " John compelled to cross the river at King's Anderson") to send a letter to Arnold Ferry and return to New York by land, telling him of his detention. Washington FAC-S1MILE OP ARNOLD'S DISGUISED HANDWRITING. ^4*^s>U: ^^^^^ FAC-SIMILK OP A PORTION OP ONE OP ANDRE'S LETTERS. He left his uniform, and, disguised in returned from Hartford sooner than he citizen's dress, he crossed the river tow- ards evening with a single attendant, passed through the American works at Verplanck's Point without suspicion, spent the night not far from the Croton River, and the next morning journeyed over the Neutral Ground on horseback, with a full expectation of entering New York before night. Arnold had furnished him with papers revealing the condition of the high- land stronghold. At Tarrytown, 27 miles from the city, he was stopped (Sept. 23) and searched by three young militiamen, who, finding those papers concealed under the feet of Andre* in his boot, took him to the nearest American post. The com- 2X8 expected. He rode over "from Fishkill towards Arnold's quarters early in the morning. Two of his military family (Hamilton and Lafayette) went forward to breakfast with Arnold, while Washing- ton tarried to inspect a battery. Wliile they were at breakfast Andre's letter was handed to Arnold. With perfect self-pos- session he asked to be excused, went to his wife's room, bade her farewell, and, mounting the horse of one of his aides that stood saddled at the door, rode swift- ly to the river shore. There he entered his barge, and, promising the oarsmen a handsome reward if they would row the boat swiftly, escaped to the Vulture, ARNOLD, BENEDICT Soon after his flight to the British array, Arnold published an Address to the In- habitants of America, in which he at- tempted to gloss over his treason by abus- ing the Congress and the French alliance. He also published a Proclamation to the Officers and, Soldiers of the Continental Army, in which as an inducement to desert he offered $15 to every private, and to the officers commissions in the British BENEDICT ARNOLD. « army according to their rank and the number of men they might bring with them. Virginia had generously sent her best troops to assist the Carolinians in their attempt to throw off the yoke laid upon their necks by Cornwallis. To call these troops back from Greene's army, the British, at the close of 1780, sent Ar- nold into Virginia with a marauding party of British and Tories, about 1,600 in num- ber, with seven armed vessels, to plunder, distress, and alarm the people of that State. In no other way could Arnold be employed by his master, for respectable British officers refused to serve with him in the army. He arrived at Hampton Roads on Dec. 30, 1780. Anxious to dis- tinguish himself, he immediately pushed up the James River as far as Richmond, when, after destroying a large quantity of public and private stores there and in the vicinity (Jan. 5, 1781), he withdrew to Portsmouth, opposite Norfolk, and made that place his headquarters for a while. Earnest efforts were made to capt- ure the marauder, but in vain. Jefferson 'offered $25,000 for his arrest, and Wash- ington detached Lafayette, with 1,200 men, drawn from the New England and New Jersey levies, who marched to Virginia for that purpose and to protect the State. A portion of the French fleet went from Rhode Island (March 8) to shut Arnold up in the Elizabeth River and assist in capturing him. Steuben, who was recruit- ing for Greene's army in Virginia, also watched him. The effort failed, for Arnold was vigilant and extremely cautious. He knew what would be his fate if caught. " What would the Americans do with me, if they should catch me?" Arnold in- quired of a young prisoner. " They would cut off and bury with military honors your leg that was wounded at Saratoga, and hang the rest of you," replied the young American soldier. General Phil- lips joined Arnold (March 26) with more than 2,000 men, and took the chief com- mand. The traitor accompanied him on another expedition up the James River, in April, and then returned to New York, for Cornwallis, who came into Virginia from North Carolina, refused to serve with him. When Sir Henry Clinton found that the allied armies were actually going to Vir- ginia, he tried to alarm Washington by threats of marauding expeditions. He sent Arnold, with a band of regulars and Tories, to commit atrocities in Connecti- cut. Arnold crossed the Sound, from Long Island, and on Sept. 6, 1781, landed his troops on each side of the Thames, below New London. He plundered and burned that town, and a part of his force took Fort Griswold, opposite, by storm. It was gallantly defended by Colonel Led- yard and a garrison of 150 poorly armed militiamen. Only six of the garrison were killed in the conflict, but after the sur- render the British officer in command (Colonel Eyre) murdered Ledyard with his sword, and, refusing to give quarter to the garrison, seventy-three were massacred. 19 ARNOLD— ART Then the wounded were placed in a bag- gage-wagon and sent down the slope towards the river, with the intention of drowning them in the stream at its foot, but the vehicle was caught by an apple- tree. The cries of the sufferers could be heard above the crackling of the burning town by persons across the river. With this atrocious expedition the name of Benedict Arnold disappears from the records of our history. Arnold went to England at the close of the war, where he was despised and shunned by all honorable men. He was afterwards a resident of St. John, New Brunswick, engaged chiefly in trade and navigation, but was very unpopular. He was there hung in effigy. His son, James Robertson (an infant at the time of his father's treason), became a lieutenant- general in the British army. Arnold's second wife, whom he married when she was not quite eighteen years of age, sur- vived him just three years. Arnold died in obscurity, but in comfortable pecuniary circumstances, in Gloucester Place, Lon- don, June 14, 1801. Arnold, Franz. See Lieber, Francis. Arnold, Richard, military officer; born in Providence, R. I., April 12, 1828; was graduated at West Point in 1850. He served in Florida, California,- at the bat- tle of Bull Run, on the Peninsula, and was made chief of artillery of Banks's expedition in November, 1862. At Port Hudson and in the Red River campaign he rendered important service; also in the capture of Fort Fisher, and of Fort Mor- gan, near Mobile. He was brevetted ma- jor-general United States army in 1866. He died on Governor's Island, New York, Nov. 8, 1882. Arnold, Samuel Greene, legislator and author; born in Providence, R. I., April 12, 1821. He was graduated at Brown University in 1841. After exten- sive travel in Europe, the East, and South America, he became, in 1852, lieutenant- governor of Rhode Island. In 1861 he took the field in command of a battery of artillery. He was lieutenant-governor, 1861-62, and United States Senator in 1863. He was the author of a History of Rhode Island. He died in Providence, Feb. 12, 1880. Aroostook Disturbance. In 1837-39 the unsettled boundary between Maine and New Brunswick nearly led to active hos- tilities on the Aroostook River. Maine sent armed men to erect fortifications, and Congress authorized the President to re- sist the encroachments of the British. General Scott arranged a truce and joint occupation. The boundaries were finally adjusted by treaty, Aug. 9, 1842. See Ashburton, Lord; Maine; Webster, Daniel. Arroyo, a seaport in the district of Guayama, in the southeastern part of the island of Porto Rico. It is on a bay of the same name, and has a population of about 1,200. Its trade with the United States prior to the war with Spain was annually from 7,000 to 10,000 hogsheads of sugar, 2,000 to 5,000 casks of molasses, and 50 to 150 casks and barrels of bay-rum. Arsenals. In 1901, arsenals, armories, and ordnance depots were established at the following places: Arsenals — Alle- gheny, Pa.; Augusta, Ga. ; Benicia, Cal.; Columbia, Tenn. ; Fort Monroe, Va. ; Frankford, Pa.; Indianapolis, Ind. ; Ken- nebec (Augusta), Me.; New York (Gov- ernor's Island), N. Y. ; Rock Island, 111.; San Antonio, Tex.; Watertown, Mass.; and Watervliet, N. Y. Armory — Spring- field, Mass. Powder Depots — St. Louis, Mo., and Dover, N. J. Ordnance Proving Ground — Sandy Hook (Fort Hancock), N. J. Art, Metropolitan Museum of, New York City, founded by the action of a public meeting held at the Academy of Music in November, 1869. In April, 1870, a charter was obtained from the legislat- ure " for the purpose of establishing a museum and library of art; of encourag- ing and developing the study of the fine arts; of the application of art to manu- facture and to practical life; of advancing the general knowledge of kindred subjects; and to that end of furnishing popular in- struction and recreation." Later the leg- islature authorized the Park Department to erect a two-story fire-proof building for its use in Central Park, the cost not to exceed $500,000, and also to set apart a tract of eighteen and a half acres in the eastern part of the Park between Eightieth and Eighty-fifth streets. The Museum was formally opened by the President of the United States, March 30, 1880. An addi- 220 ARTESIAN WELLS— ARTHUR tion on the south side and one on the north were made in 1894, increasing the total ground area from 233 by 104 feet to 233 by 344 feet. In 1897 a further ex- sion was authorized, for which an ap- propriation' of $1,000,000 was made. Artesian Wells, wells formed by bor- ing through upper soil to strata contain- ing water which has percolated from a higher level, and which rises to that level through the boring- tube. The following are some of the deepest wells in the United States: River, from 800 to 1,600 feet deep, afford- ing a bountiful supply of pure water. The water from great depths is always warmer than at the surface. One of the most remarkable attempts to sink an artesian well in the United States was made in Galveston, Tex. A depth of 3,070 feet and 9 inches was reached, without penetrating any rock or finding water. After the contractors had reached a depth of 3,000 feet, which was the limit stipulated in their contract, they were paid $76,000, and the work was Location. Depth. Bored. Remarks. St. Louis, Mo 2,197 ft. 3,843 2,086 2,775% " 1,250 1849-52 1866-70 1856-57 1848 108,000 gallons daily. Salty. Does not rise to the surface. Salty. 330,000 gallons daily. Mineral. Charleston, S. C 28,800 gallons daily. Saline. South Dakota, sometimes called the officially abandoned in 1892, the contrac- " Artesian State," has many powerful ar- tors carrying the work a few feet further tesian wells in the valley of the James as a matter of curiosity. See Irrigation. ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN Arthur, Chester Alan, twenty-first President of the United States, from Sept. 19, 1881, to March 4, 1885; Republican; born in Fairfield, Vt., Oct. 5, 1830; was graduated at Union College in 1848; studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1854; and became a successful prac- titioner. He gained much celebrity in a suit which involved the freedom of some slaves, known as the " Lemmon case." He procured the admission of colored persons to the street-cars of New York City by gaining a suit against a railway company in 1856. Mr. Arthur did efficient service during the Civil War as quartermaster- general of the State of New York. In 1872 he was appointed collector of the port of New York, and was removed in 1878. In 1880, he was elected Vice-Presi- dent, and on the death of President Gar- field, Sept. 19, 1881, he became Presi- dent. He died in New York City, Nov. 18, 1886. Veto of Chinese Immigration Bill. — On April 4, 1882, President Arthur sent the following veto message to the Senate: To the Senate, — After a careful consid- eration of Senate Bill No. 71, entitled "An act to execute certain treaty stipu- lations relating to Chinese," I herewith return it to the Senate, in which it origin- ated, with my objections to its passage. A nation is justified in repudiating its treaty obligations only when they are in conflict with great paramount inter- ests. Even then all possible reasonable means for modifying or changing these obligations by mutual agreement should be exhausted before resorting to the su- preme right of refusal to comply with them. These rules have governed the United States in their past intercourse with other powers, as one of the family of na- tions. I am persuaded that if Congress can feel that this act violates the faith of the nation as pledged to China, it will concur with me in rejecting this particu- lar mode of regulating Chinese immigra- tion, and will endeavor to find another which shall meet the expectations of the people of the United States without coming in conflict with the rights of China. The present treaty relations between that power and the United States spring from an antagonism which arose between 221 ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN our paramount domestic interests and our tempt to exercise the more enlarged pow« previous relations. The treaty commonly ers which it relinquishes to the United known as the Burlingame treaty conferred States. In its first article, the United upon Chinese subjects the right of volun- States is empowered to decide whether tary emigration to the United States for the coming of Chinese laborers to the the purposes of curiosity or trade, or as United States, or their residence therein, permanent residents, and was in all re- affects or threatens to affect our inter- spects reciprocal as to citizens of the ests, or to endanger good order, either United States in China. It gave to the within the whole country or in any part voluntary emigrant coming to the United of it. The act recites that " in the opin- States the right to travel there or reside ion of the government of the United there, with all the privileges, immuni- States the coming of Chinese laborers to ties, or exemptions enjoyed by the citi- this country endangers the good order of zens or subjects of the most favored na- certain localities thereof." But the act tion. itself is much broader than the recital. Under the operation of this treaty it It acts upon residence as well as immigra- was found that the institutions of the tion, and its provisions are effective United States and the character of its peo- throughout the United States. I think it pie and their means of obtaining a live- may fairly be accepted as an expression of lihood might be seriously affected by the the opinion of Congress that the coming unrestricted introduction of Chinese labor, of such laborers to the United States, or Congress attempted to alleviate this con- their residence here, affects our interests dition by legislation, but the act which and endangers good order through the it passed proved to be in violation of our country. On this point I should feel it treaty obligations, and, being returned by my duty to accept the views of Congress, the President with his objections, failed The first article further confers the to become a law. power upon this government to regulate, Diplomatic relief was then sought. A limit, or suspend, but not actually to pro- new treaty was concluded with China, hibit, the coming of such laborers to or Without abrogating the Burlingame their residence in the United States. The treaty, it was agreed to modify it so far negotiators of the treaty have recorded that the government of the United States with unusual fulness their understanding might regulate, limit, or suspend the com- of the sense and meaning with which ing of Chinese laborers to the United these words were used. States, or their residence therein, but As to the class of persons to be affected that it should not absolutely prohibit by the treaty, the Americans inserted in them, and that the limitation or suspen- their draft a provision that the words sion should be reasonable, and should " Chinese laborers " signify all immigra- apply only to Chinese who might go to tion other than that for " teaching, trade, the United States as laborers, other travel, study, and curiosity." The Chi- classes not being included in the limita- nese objected to this that it operated to tions. This treaty is unilateral, not re- include artisans in the class of laborers ciprocal. It is a concession from China whose immigration might be forbidden. to the United States in limitation of the The Americans replied that they could rights which she was enjoying under the not consent that artisans shall be excluded Burlingame treaty. It leaves us by our from the class of Chinese laborers, for it own act to determine when and how we is this very competition of skilled labor in will enforce those limitations. China the cities, where the Chinese labor immi- may, therefore, fairly have a right to ex- gration concentrates, which has caused pect that in enforcing them we will take the embarrassment and popular discon- good care not to overstep the grant, and tent. In the subsequent negotiations this to take more than has been conceded to us. definition dropped out, and does not ap- It is but a year since this new treaty pear in the treaty. Article II. of the treaty under the operation of the Constitution, confers the rights, privileges, immunities, became part of the supreme law of the and exemptions which are accorded to land; and the present act is the first at- citizens and subjects of the most favored 222 ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN nation upon Chinese subjects proceeding cellencies to the end that a limitation to the United States as teachers, students, either in point of time or numbers may merchants, or from curiosity. The Amer- be fixed upon the emigration of Chinese ican Commissioners report that the Chi- laborers to the United States." At a sub- nese government claimed that in this sequent interview they said that " by limi- ai tide they did, by exclusion, provide that tations in number they meant, for example, nobody should be entitled to claim the that the United States, having, as they benefit of the general provisions of the supposed, a record of the number of im- Burlingame treaty but those who might migrants in each year, as well as the total go to the United States in those capaci- number of Chinese now there, that no more ties or for those purposes. I acecpt this should be allowed to go in any one year as the definition of the word " laborers " in future than either the greatest number as used in the treaty. which had gone in any year in the past, As to the power of legislating respect- or that the total number should never be ing this class of persons the new treaty allowed to exceed the number now there, provides that we " may not absolutely pro- As to limitation of time, they meant, for hibit" their coming or their residence, example, that Chinese should be allowed The Chinese commissioners gave notice in to go in alternate years, or every third the outset that they would never agree to year, or for example, that they should a prohibition of voluntary emigration, not be allowed to go for two, three, or Notwithstanding this, the United States five years." At a subsequent conference commissioners submitted a draft in which the Americans, said : " The Chinese corn- it was provided that the United States missioners have in their project explicitly might " regulate, limit, suspend, or pro- recognized the right of the United States hibit " it. The Chinese refused to accept to use some discretion, and have proposed this. The Americans replied that they a limitation as to time and number. This were willing to consult the wishes of the is the right to regulate, limit, or suspend." Chinese government in preserving the In one of the conferences the Chinese principle of free intercourse between the asked the Americans whether they could people of the two countries as established give them any idea of the laws which by existing treaties, provided that the right would be passed to carry the powers into of the United States government to use execution. The Americans answered that its discretion in guarding against any this could hardly be done; that the possible evils of immigration of Chinese United States government might never laborers is distinctly recognized. There- deem it necessary to exercise this power, fore, if such concession removes all diffi- It would depend upon circumstances. If culty on the part of the Chinese com- Chinese immigration concentrated in cities, missioners (but only in that case), the where it threatened public order, or if it United States commissioners will agree confined itself to localities where it was to remove the word " prohibit " from their an injury to the interests of the American article and to use the words " regulate, people, the government of the United limit, or suspend." The Chinese reply to States would undoubtedly take steps to this can only be inferred from the fact that prevent such accumulations of Chinese, in the place of an agreement, as proposed If, on the contrary, there was no large by our commissioners, that we might pro- immigration, or if there were sections of hibit the coming or residence of Chinese the country where such immigration was laborers, there was inserted in the treaty clearly beneficial, then the legislation of an agreement that we might not do it. the United States under this power would The remaining words, "regulate, limit, be adapted to such circumstances. For and suspend," first appear in the Ameri- example, there might be a demand for can draft. When it was submitted to Chinese labor in the South and a surplus the Chinese they said : " We infer that of such labor in California, and Congress of the phrases regulate, limit, suspend, might legislate in accordance with these or prohibit, the first is a general expres- facts. In general, the legislation would sion referring to the others. . . . We are be in view of and depend upon circum- entirely ready to negotiate with your Ex- stances of the situation at the moment 223 \ Iv* Y Y- ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN such legislation became necessary. The Chinese commissioners said this explana- tion was satisfactory; but they had not intended to ask for a draft of any special act, but for some general idea of how the power would be exercised. What had just been said gave them the explanation which they wanted. With this entire accord as to the mean- ing of the words they were about to em- ploy, and the object of the legislation which might be had in consequence, the parties signed the treaty, in Article I. of which " the government of China agrees that the government of the United States may regulate, limit, or suspend such com- ing or residence, but may not absolutely prohibit it. The limitation or suspension shall be reasonable, and shall apply only to Chinese who may go to the United States as laborers, other classes not being included in the limitations. Legislation taken in regard to Chinese laborers will be of such a character only as is necessary to enforce the regulation, limitation, or suspension of immigration." The first section of the act provides that " from and after the expiration of sixty days next after the passage of this act, and until the expiration of twenty years next after the passage of this act, the coming of Chinese laborers be, and the same is hereby, suspended; and during such suspension it shall not be lawful for any Chinese laborer to come, or hav- ing so come after the expiration of said sixty days, to remain within the United States." The examination which I have made of the treaty and of the declarations which its negotiators have left on record of the meaning of its language leaves no doubt in my mind that neither contracting party in concluding the treaty of 1880 contem- plated the passage of an act prohibiting immigration for twenty years, which is nearly a generation, or thought that such a period would be a reasonable suspension or limitation, or intended to change the provisions of the Burlingame treaty to that extent. I regard this provision of the act as a breach of our national faith, and being unable to bring myself in harmony with the views of Congress on this vital point, the honor of the country constrains me to return the act with this objection to its passage. Deeply convinced of the necessity of some legislation on this subject, and con- curring fully with Congress in many of the objects which are sought to be accom- plished, I avail myself of the opportunity to point out some other features of the present act which, in my opinion, can be modified to advantage. The classes of Chinese who still enjoy the protection of the Burlingame treaty are entitled to the privileges, immuni- ties, and exemptions accorded to citizens and subjects of the most favored nation. We have treaties with many powers which permit their citizens and subjects to reside within the United States and carry on business under the same laws and regulations which are enforced against citizens of the United States. I think it may be doubted whether pro- visions requiring personal registration and the taking out of passports which are not imposed upon natives can be required of Chinese. Without expressing an opin- ion on that point, I may invite the atten- tion of Congress to the fact that the sys- tem of personal registration and passports is undemocratic and hostile to the spirit of our institutions. I doubt the wisdom of putting an entering wedge of this kind into our laws. A nation like the United States, jealous of the liberties of its citizens, may well hesitate before it incorporates into its polity a system which is fast disappearing in Europe be- fore the progress of liberal institutions. A wide experience has shown how futile such precautions are, and how easily pass- ports may be borrowed, exchanged, or even forged by persons interested to do so. If it is, nevertheless, thought that a passport is the most convenient way for identifying the Chinese entitled to the protection of the Burlingame treaty, it may still be doubted whether they ought to be required to register. It is certain- ly our duty, under the Burlingame treaty, to make their stay in the United States, in the operation of general laws upon them, as nearly like that of our own citizens as we can consistently with our right to shut out the laborers. No good purpose is served in requiring them to register. 224 V- v OF THE T r UNIVERSITY ARTHUR, CHESTER ALAN My attention has been called by the Blessed with an exceptional climate, en- Chinese minister to the fact that the joying an unrivalled harbor, with the bill as it stands makes no provision for riches of a great agricultural and mining the transit across the United States of State in its rear, and the wealth of the Chinese subjects now residing in foreign whole Union pouring into it over its lines countries. I think that this point may of railroad, San Francisco has before it well claim the attention of Congress in an incalculable future if our friendly and legislating on this subject. amicable relations with Asia remain un- I have said that good faith requires us disturbed. It needs no argument to show to suspend the immigration of Chinese that the policy which we now propose to laborers for a less period than twenty adopt must have a direct tendency to re- years. T now add that good policy points pel Oriental nations from us, and to drive in the same direction. their trade and commerce into more friend- Our intercourse with China is of recent ly hands. It may be that the great and date. Our first treaty with that power paramount interest of protecting our is not yet forty years old. It is only labor from Asiatic competition may jus- since we acquired California and estab- tify us in a permanent adoption of this lished a great seat of commerce on the policy; but it is wiser in the first place Pacific that we may be said to have to make a shorter experiment with a view broken down the barriers which fenced hereafter of maintaining permanently only in that ancient monarchy. The Bur- such features as time and experience may lingame treaty naturally followed. Under commend. the spirit which inspired it, many thou- I transmit herewith copies of the papers sand Chinese laborers came to the Unit- relating to the recent treaty with China ed States. No one can say that the coun- which accompanied the confidential mes- try has not profited by their work. They sage of President Hayes to the Senate of were largely instrumental in constructing Jan. 10, 1881, and also a copy of the the railroads which connect the Atlantic memorandum respecting the act herewith with the Pacific. The States of the Pa- returned, which was handed to the Secre- cific slope are full of evidences of their. 'tary of State by the Chinese minister in industry. Enterprises profitable alike to Washington. Chester A. Arthur. the capitalist and the laborer of Cau- Executive Mansion, Washington, casian origin would have been dormant April 4, but for them. A time has now come when it is supposed they are not needed, and when it is thought by Congress, and by 1. The time fixed in the bill, namely, those most acquainted with the subject, twenty years, is unreasonable. The lan- that it is best to try to get along without guage of Article I. that " laborers " shall them. There may, however, be other sec- not be absolutely prohibited from coming tions of the country where this species of to the United States and that the " sus- labor may be advantageously employed pension shall be reasonable," as well as without interfering with the laborers of the negotiations, indicate that a brief our own race. In making the proposed period was intended. experiment it may be the part of wis- The total prohibition of the immigra- dom, as well as of good faith, to fix the tion of Chinese laborers into the United length of the experimental period with States for twenty years would, in my reference to this fact. opinion, be unreasonable, and a violation Experience has shown that the trade of of the meaning and intent of the treaty, the East is the key to national wealth 2. The inclusion of " skilled labor " in and influence. The opening of China to the bill is an addition to the words and in- the commerce of the whole world has bene- tent of the treaty. It will operate with fited no section of it more than the harshness upon a class of Chinese mer- States of our own Pacific slope. The chants entitled to admission to the United State of California and its great mari- States under the terms of the treaty, time ports especially have reaped enor- The shoe merchants and cigar merchants mous advantages from this source, of China manufacture the goods they sell I.— P 225 THE MEMORANDUM. ARTHTJIU-ASGILL at their places of business, and to shut 30, 1775, and extended March 20, 177(5; -mit the " skilled labor " they need would enacted again, with little alteration, April practically shut them out as well, since it 10, 1806. Some additions were made from would prevent them from carrying on 1861-65, and in 1874 they were codified as their business in this country. The laun- section 1,342 of the Revised Statutes of dryman, who keeps his shop and has a the United States. small capital with which to prosecute his Artillery. See Explosives for Large trade, cannot in any sense be included in Guns; Ordnance. the class of " laborers," and the merchant Arts. See Fine Arts ; Mechanic tailor comes in the same category. Arts; Technology, Institutes of. 3. The clauses of the bill relating to Asboth, Alexander Sandor, military registration and passports are a vexatious officer; born in Hungary, Dec. 18, 1811. discrimination against Chinese residents He had served in the Austrian army, and and immigrants, when Article II. provides at the outbreak of the revolution of 1848 explicitly that they shall be entitled to all he entered the insurgent army of Hungary, the privileges conceded to the subjects of He accompanied Kossuth in exile in Tur- the most favored nation. The execution key. In the autumn of 1851 he came to of these provisions of the bill will cause the United States in the frigate Missis- irritation, and in case of the loss of the sippi, and became a citizen. When the passport or certificate of registration, Chi- Civil War broke out in 1861 he offered his nese residents entitled to remain may be services to the government, and in July forcibly expelled from the country. he went as chief of Fremont's staff to Mis- 4. If the bill becomes a law it will leave souri, where he was soon promoted to the impression in China that its govern- brigadier-general. He performed faith- ment strangely misunderstood the char- ful services until wounded in the face and acter of the treaty, or that the Congress one arm, in Florida, in a battle on Sept. has violated some of its provisions, and 27, 1864. For his services there he was fthis will tend to prejudice the intelligent brevetted a major-general in the spring of classes against the United States govern- 1865, and in August following he resigned, ment and people, whom they now greatly and was appointed minister to the Ar- admire and respect. gentine Republic. The wound in his face 5. There is no provision in the bill for caused his death in Buenos Ayres, Jan. the transit across the United States of 21, 1868. Chinese subjects now residing in foreign Asbury, Francis, first bishop of the countries. Large numbers of Chinese live Methodist Episcopal Church in America; in Cuba, Peru, and other countries, who born at Handsworth, Staffordshire, Eng- cannot return home without crossing the land, Aug. 26, 1745. In his twenty-third territory of the United States or touching year he became an itinerant preacher un- at San Francisco. To deny this privi- der the guidance of John Wesley, and lege, it seems to me, is in violation of in- came to the United States in 1771. The ternational law and the comity of na- next year Wesley appointed him general tions, and if the bill becomes a law it will superintendent of the Methodist churches in this respect result in great hardship in America, and he held that office until to many thousands of innocent Cfhinese in the close of the Revolution, when the foreign countries. Methodists here organized as a body sepa- Arthur, Peter M., labor leader; born rate from the Church in England. Mr. As- in Scotland about 1831; emigrated as a bury was consecrated bishop by Dr. Coke boy to Ameriea; elected chief of the in 1784. After that, for thirty-two years, locomotive engineers in 1876. he travelled yearly through the United Articles of Confederation. See Con- States, ordaining not less than 3,000 min- federation, Articles of. isters, and preaching not less than 17,000 Articles of War. In the United States, sermons. He died in Spottsylvania, Va., Congress only can make articles of war. March 31, 1816. These have been leased on the English Asgill, Sir Charles, British military articles and mutiny act. They were first officer; born in England, April 7, 1762. adopted by the Continental Congress, July He was among the troops under Corn- '226 ASGILL— ASHBURTON wallis surrendered at Yorktown, where he held the position of captain. Late in 1781, Capt. Joseph Huddy, serving in the New- Jersey line, was in charge of a block-house on Toms River, Monmouth co., N. J. There he and his little garrison were capt- ured in March, 1782, by a band of refu- gee loyalists sent by the " Board of As- sociated Loyalists " of New York, of which ex-Governor Franklin, of New Jer- sey, was president, and taken to that city. On April 8, these prisoners were put in charge of Capt. Richard Lippincott, a New Jersey loyalist, who took them in a sloop to the British guard-ship at Sandy Hook. There Huddy was falsely charged with be- ing concerned in the death of Philip CAPT. CHARLES ASGILL. White, a desperate Tory, who was killed while trying to escape from his guard. While a prisoner, Huddy was taken by Lippincott to a point at the foot of the Navesink Hills, near the present light- houses, and there hanged. Lippincott af- fixed a label to the breast of the murdered Huddy, on which retaliation was threat- ened, and ending with the words, " Up goes Huddy for Philip White!" This murder created intense excitement at Freehold, N. J., where Huddy was buried, and the leading citizens petitioned Washington to retaliate. A council of his officers decided in favor of retaliation, and that Lippincott, the leader, ought to suf- fer. He was demanded of Sir Henry Clin- ton. Congress authorized retaliation, and from among several British officers, prisoners of war, Capt. Charles Asgill was chosen by lot, to be executed immediately. Washington postponed the execution until he should hear from Clinton about the surrender of Lippincott. Clinton at once condemned the action of Lippincott, and ordered (April 26) the Board of Asso- ciated Loyalists not to remove or ex- change any prisoners of war without the authority of the commander-in-chief. He caused the arrest of Lippincott for trial, who claimed that he acted under orders of the Board of Associated Loyalists. Franklin tried to get him to sign a paper that he had acted without their orders or approbation, but he stoutly refused, and was acquitted. Sir Guy Carleton succeed- ed Clinton, and he promised that further inquiry in the matter should be had. Meanwhile months elapsed and the execu- tion was postponed. Lady Asgill appealed to the king in behalf of her only son. She also wrote to the King and Queen of France asking them to intercede with Washington. She also wrote a touching letter to Washington, who was disposed to save the young officer, if possible. The King and Queen of France did intercede, and on Nov. 5, 1782, Congress resolved, " That the commander-in-chief be, and hereby is, directed to set Captain Asgill at liberty." It was done. The case of young Asgill had created an intense in- terest in Europe, and, on the arrival of every ship from America at any European port, the first inquiry was about the fate of Asgill. In 1836, Congress granted to Martha Piatt, only surviving child of Captain Huddy, then seventy years of age, $1,200 in money and 600 acres of land, the " amount due Captain Huddy for seven years' service as captain of artillery." As- gill succeeded to the title and estate of his father, and rose to the rank of general in the British army. He died in London, July 23, 1823. Madame de Sevinge" made the story of Captain Asgill the ground- work of a tragic drama. Ashburton, Alexander Baring, Lord, English diplomatist; born in England, Oct. 27, 1774; son of Sir Francis Baring, an eminent merchant; was employed, in his youth, in mercantile affairs, in the 227 ASHBY— ASIA United States, and married an American wife. In 1810 he became the head of his father's business house; in 1812-35 sat in Parliament, and in 1835 was raised to the peerage under the title of Baron Ash- burton. The unsettled condition of the Northeastern boundary question led Sir Robert Peel to send Baron Ashburton to the United States, as being widely ac- quainted with American affairs. Here he concluded, Aug. 9, 1842, with Daniel Web- ster, the ^Webster-Ashburton Treaty," which settled the northeastern boundary between the United States and the Brit- ish dominions. For this achievement he was accorded, in both Houses of Parlia- ment, a complimentary vote of thanks, and an earldom was offered him, which he declined. He was privy councillor, a trustee of the British Museum, and re- ceived the D.C.L. degree from Oxford. He died in Longleat, England, May 13, 1848. See Webster, Daniel. Ashby, Turner, military officer; born in Rose Hill, Fauquier co., Va., in 1824. When the Civil War began he raised a regiment of Confederate cavalry, which soon became celebrated. He covered the retreat of " Stonewall " Jackson from at- tacks by General Banks and General Fre- mont, skirmishing with tue vanguard of each; and he was made a brigadier-gen- eral in the Confederate army in 1862. He was killed in an encounter preced- ing the battle of Cross Keys, June 6, 1862. Ashe, John, military officer; born in Grovely, Brunswick co., N. C, in 1720; was in the North Carolina legislature for several years, and was speaker in 1762- 65. He warmly opposed the Stamp Act; assisted Governor Tryon in suppressing the Regulator movement in 1771, but soon af- terwards became a zealous Whig. He was an active patriot, and because he led 500 men to destroy Fort Johnson he was de- nounced as a rebel. Raising and equip- ping a regiment at his own expense, he was appointed brigadier-general of the Wilmington District in April, 1776. He .ioined Lincoln in South Carolina in 1778; and after he was defeated at Brier Creek, in March, 1779, he returned home. General Ashe suffered much at the hands of the British at Wilmington after the battle at Guilford, and died of small- pox, which he had contracted in prison, in Sampson county, N. C, Oct. 24, 1781. Ashmun, George, statesman; born in Blandford, Mass., Dec. 25, 1804; grad- uated at Yale in 1823; elected member of the State legislature 1833 to 1841 ; member of Congress 1845 to 1851; president of the Chicago convention which nominated Lin- coln for President in 1860. He died in Springfield, Mass., July 17, 1870. Ashmun, Jehudi, missionary; born in Champlain, N. Y., in April, 1794; grad- uated at Bowdoin College in 1816. He was sent with a reinforcement to Li- beria in 1822, where he acted as legislator, soldier, and engineer in constructing for- tifications. He died in Boston, Mass., Aug. 25, 1828. Asia, The, the name of the British man-of-war which brought Governor Try- on to New York (June, 1775), and anchor- ed off the Battery, foot of Broadway. A party led by John Lamb, a captain of ar- tillery, proceeded, on the evening of Aug. 23, to remove the cannons from that bat- tery and the fort (for war seemed inevi- table) and take them to a place of safety. There was, also, an independent corps, un- der Colonel Lasher, and a body of citizens, guided by Isaac Sears. The captain of the Asia, informed of the intended move- ment, sent a barge filled with armed men to watch the patriots. The latter, in- discreetly, sent a musket-ball among the men in the barge, killing and wounding several. It was answered by a volley. The Asia hurled three round shot ashore in quick succession. Lamb ordered the drums to beat to arms; the church-bells in the city were rung, and, while all was confusion and alarm, the war-ship fired a broadside. Others rapidly followed. Several houses were injured by the grape and round shot, and three of Sears's party were killed. Terror seized the inhabitants as the rumor spread that the city was to be sacked and burned. Hundreds of men, women, and children were seen, at mid- night, hurrying from the town to places of safety. The exasperation of the citi- zens was intense; and Tryon, taking coun- sel of his fears, took refuge on another vessel of war in the harbor, whence, like Dunmore, he attempted to exercise au- thority as governor. Among the citizens led by Sears was Alexander Hamilton, 228 ASSAY OFFICES— ASTORIA JOHN JACOB ASTOR. then a student in King's College, eighteen years of age. The cannon were removed from the battery and fort, and did good service in the patriot cause afterwards. Assay Offices in the United States are government establishments where the precious metals are officially tested to determine their purity. In 1901 these offices were located in New York City; Boise City, Idaho; Helena, Mont.; Den- ver, Col.; Seattle, Wash.; San Francisco, Cal.; Charlotte, N. C; and St. Louis, Mo. See Coinage. Assessment of Taxes. See George, Henry; Single Tax. Assignment. See Bankruptcy Law. Assiniboine Indians, a branch of the Dakota family, inhabiting each side of the boundary-line between the United States and British America in Montana and Manitoba. In 1871 their number in the United States was estimated at 4,850, and in 1900 there were 1,316, nearly equally divided at the Fort Peck and Fort Bel- knap agencies in Montana. Assumption. In 1790 Hamilton pro- posed that the general government as- Sept. 19, 1792; educated at the universities sume the debts of the thirteen colonies, of Heidelberg and Gottingen. He added to Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York, the endowment of the Astor Library, and New Jersey, and South Carolina opposed gave largely tc public charities. He died the plan, while New Hampshire, Pennsyl- Nov. 24, 1875. vania, Virginia, Maryland, Georgia, and John Jacob, son of William B.; born North Carolina favored it. Southern June 10, 1822; served on the staff of Gen- support was secured by agreeing to fix eral McClellan during the Civil War; the national capital on the Potomac. By promoted brigadier-general for meritorious the act passed Aug. 4, 1790 the State services during the Peninsular campaign, debts, amounting to $21,500,000, were as- 1865; declined the post of United States sumed by the general government. minister to England, 1876; added largely Astor Family. John Jacob, the found- to the Astor Library and other public er, was born in Waldorf, Germany, July purposes. He died Feb. 22, 1890. 17, 1763. He remained in London until William, son of William B.; born July he was twenty, when he began the fur 12, 1830; bequeathed $50,000 to the Astor business in New York. He built up a Library, and $150,000 to other public in- vast fur-trade with the Indians, extending stitutions. He died April 25, 1892. his business to the mouth of Columbia William Waldorf, grandson of Will- River, on the Pacific coast, where he found- iam B.; born March 31, 1848; United ed the trading station of Astoria in 1811. States minister to Italy, 1882-85; removed By this and other operations in trade, and to England in 1891, and became a British by investments in real estate, he accumu- subject. lated vast wealth. He bequeathed $400,- John Jacob, son of William; born July 000 for establishing a library in the city 13, 1864; served on the staff of General of New York, which for many years was Shatter during the war with Spain, known by his name, and now forms a part Astoria, a city in Oregon, at the mouth of the New York Public Library. He died of the Columbia River, founded in 1810 by in New York City, March 29, 1848. John Jacob Astor (q. v.). In 1900 the His son William Backhouse; born population was 8,381. See Oregon. 229 ASTOR LIBRARY— ATLANTA Astor Library. See New York Public cookery, mechanic arts, the tariff, insur- Library. Astor Place Riot. See Forrest, Edwin; Macready, William Charles. Asylums. See Soldiers' Homes. Athabasca Indians, a nation of North American Indians divided into two great families, one bordering on the Eskimos in the Northwest, and the other stretching along the Mexican frontier from Texas to the Gulf of California. The domain of the Northern family extends across the continent from Hudson Bay to the Pacific Ocean. There are some smaller bands of the same nation, scattered along the Pa- cific coast from Cook's Inlet to Umpqua River, in Oregon. The Northern family is divided into a large number of tribes, none of them particularly distinguished. The population of the Northern family is esti- mated at 32,000, that of the scattered bands at 25,000, and the Southern family at 17,000. The latter includes the Navajos and those fierce rovers, the Apaches, with which the government of the United States has had much to do. The Southern family also includes the Lipans on the borders of Texas. The Athabascans are distinguished for their heavy beards, short hands and feet, and square, massive heads. They de- rive their name from Lake Athabasca, in British North America, in lat. 59° N., and half - way between Hudson Bay and the Rocky Mountains. They claim to have come from the West, over a series of isl- ands, and from a land covered with snow. Some observers trace in their language and features a resemblance to the Tartar race. Atherton Gag, The, the name applied to a resolution introduced into the na- tional House of Representatives by Charles G. Atherton, of New Hampshire, provid- ing that all petitions and papers relating to the subject of slavery should be " laid on the table without being debated, print- ed, or referred." The resolution, which was designed to prevent discussion of the slavery question, was passed Dec. 11, 1838, and was rescinded in 1845. Atkinson, Edward, economist; born in Brookline, Mass., Feb. 10, 1827; was edu- cated in private schools and at Dartmouth College; and is most widely known by his numerous publications on economic sub- jects, treating of banking, competition, ance, etc. He invented an improved cook- ing - stove called the " Aladdin Cooker." Soon after Dewey's victory in Manila Bay, Mr. Atkinson became vice-president of the Anti-Imperialist League, and when it was evident that the United States would retain the Philippine Islands, the League produced three tracts, entitled Criminal Aggression by Whom? The Hell of War and Its Penalties; and The Cost of the National Crime. Gen. Elwell S. Otis, commander of the United States troops in the Philippines, early in 1899 notified the War Department that several seditious tracts, mailed in the United States, had been received by many officers and men in his command. After investigation in- structions were given to the Postmaster- General to inform Mr. Atkinson and all postmasters in the United States that the mails would be closed to further trans- mission of the publications. In justifica- tion of his action, Mr. Atkinson declared that the tracts referred to were reprints from government publications and as such were rightfully entitled to circulation through the mails. Mr. Atkinson's pub- lications include The Distribution of Prod- ucts (1885) ; Industrial Progress of the Nation (1889); The Science of Nutrition (1892); Taxation and Work (1892); Every Boy His Oum Book (1893), etc. See Acquisition of Territory; Annex- ed Territory, Status of ; Anti - Expan- sion; Imperialism. Atlanta, city, county - seat of Fulton county, and capital of the State of Georgia; 171 miles north by west of Au- gusta ; popularly known as " The Gate City " ; is noted for the historical events of which it was the centre, for its exten- sive commercial and manufacturing inter- ests, and for its educational institutions. In its suburbs is Fort McPherson, one of the most complete of the modern military posts in the country. Cotton expositions were held here in 1881 and 1895. The population in 1890 was 65,533; in 1900, 89,872. In the Civil War the main National and Confederate armies remained quiet in their camps after their arrival at the Chatta- hoochee until the middle of July, 1864. Sherman was 8 miles from the city. On the 17th he resumed offensive and active 230 ATLANTA operations, by throwing Thomas's army troops in front of Sherman to hold them, across the Chattahoochee, close to Scho- and, by a night march to the flank and field's right, with directions to move for- rear of the Nationals, struck them a, severe ward. McPherson moved against the rail- and unexpected blow. It fell with heavi- way east of Decatur, and destroyed (July est force on the division of Gen. G. A. 18) 4 miles of the track. Schofield seized Smith, of Blair's corps. McPherson had Decatur. At the same time Thomas crossed ridden from Sherman to Dodge's moving Peach-tree Creek, on the 19th, in the face column, and had entered a wood almost of the Confederate intrenchments, skir- alone, for observation, in the rear of mishing heavily at every step. At this Smith's column. At that moment Hardee juncture, General Eousseau, who had charged upon the Nationals, and his men swept through Alabama and northern Georgia, joined Sherman with 2,000 cavalry. On the 20th the National armies had all closed in, converging towards Atlanta, and at 4 p.m. the Confederates, under Hood, made a sor- tie, and struck Hooker's corps with great strength. The Confederates were re- pulsed and driven back to their intrenchments. The entire National loss in this conflict was 1,500 men; Sherman estimated that of the Confederates at not less than 5,000 men. Hood left on the field 500 dead, 1,000 severely wounded, and many prisoners. On the morning of the 21st the Confederates had abandoned their position on the south side of Peach- tree Creek, and Sherman believed they were evacu- ating Atlanta. He pressed on towards the town in a narrow semicircle, when, at the average distance of 2 miles from it, the Nationals were were pouring into a gap between Blair and confronted by an inner line of intrench- Dodge. McPherson had just given an or- ments much stronger than the one just der from his place in the wood for a bri- abandoned. Behind these swarmed a Con- gade to fill that gap, when the bullet of a federate host. On the 22d, McPherson sharp-shooter killed him. His body was re- moved from Decatur to assail this strong covered during the heat of the battle that line ; Logan's corps formed his centre, ensued. Logan immediately took command Dodge's his right, and Blair's his left. The of the Army of the Tennessee. At that latter had driven the Confederates from moment the battle was general all along a commanding eminence the evening be- the line, and raged fiercely .for several fore, and the Nationals proceeded to plant hours. At 4 p.m. there was a brief lull in a battery upon it. . the contest. Then a charge of the Con- Hood had left a sufficient number of federates broke Logan's line, pushed back 231 TUE FORTIFICATIONS AROUND ATLANTA. ATLANTA— ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH a brigade in much disorder, and took pos- On the 25th all of Sherman's munitions session of two important batteries. Sher- of war, supplies, and sick and wounded man ordered up reinforcements, and Lo- men were sent to his intrenched position gan soon recovered the ground lost. Very on the Chattahoochee, the siege of At- soon the Confederates gave way and fell lanta was raised, and the Nationals began back to their defences. a grand flanking movement, which events The losses on both sides were heavy, had delayed, and which finally caused That of the Nationals was 3,722, of whom Hood to abandon the coveted post, cross about 1,000 were prisoners. Generals the Chattahoochee, and make a formidable Thomas and Schofield having well closed raid upon Sherman's communications, up, Hood was firmly held behind his inner The Nationals entered Atlanta as victors line of intrenchments. Sherman concluded on Sept. 2, 1864, and the national flag was to make a flank movement, and sent Stone- unfurled over the court-house. Two days man with about 5,000 cavalry, and Mc- afterwards, Sherman issued an order for Cook with another mounted force, includ- the inhabitants to leave the town within ing Rousseau's cavalry, to destroy the five days, that the place might be appropri- railways in Hood's rear. McCook per- ated to military purposes. He deemed the formed his part well, but Stoneman, de- measure humane, under the circum- parting from Sherman's instructions, did stances, for he expected the Confeder- not accomplish much. Simultaneously ates to attack him there. To a remon- with these raids, Slocum began (July 27) strance by Hood, he replied, "God will a flanking movement from Atlanta. Hood judge me in good time, and He will pro- had penetrated Sherman's design, knew nounce whether it be more humane to of changes in his army, and acted prompt- fight with a town full of women and the ly. Under cover of an artillery fire, he families of a brave people at our backs, or moved out with the larger part of his to remove them in time to places of safety army (July 28), with the expectation of among their own friends." In a few days finding Howard's forces in confusion. He Atlanta was thoroughly evacuated by the was mistaken, and disastrous consequences civilians. followed. He threw heavy masses of his Atlantic Ocean. See Coast and Geo- troops upon Logan's corps on Howard's detic Survey, United States. right, and was met by a fire that made Atlantic Telegraph. In 1843 (Aug. fearful havoc in their ranks. They re- 10), Prof. Samuel F. B. Morse, who had coiled, but returned to the attack again endowed the electro-magnetic telegraph and again. The battle raged fearfully with intellectual power, in a letter to the from noon until about 4 p.m., when the Secretary of the Treasury of the United Confederates retired to their intrench- States, remarked, after alluding to recent ments, leaving several hundred of their experiments, " The practical inference dead on the field. Hood's entire loss in from this law is, that a telegraphic com- this struggle was about 5,000 men; that munication on my plan may, with cer- of the Nationals did not exceed 600. Lo- tainty, be established across the Atlantic, gan captured 2,000 muskets, and took 233 Startling as this may now seem, the time prisoners. Sherman extended his right will come when this project will be real- along an intrenched line to the junction ized." Almost eleven years afterwards an of two railways at East Point, over which attempt was made to establish telegraphic came the supplies for Atlanta and Hood's communication between America and Eu- army; and the latter, extending a parallel rope by means of an insulated metallic line of works, stood on the defensive, cable under the sea. Cyrus W. Field, a Sherman's long - range guns kindled de- New York merchant, was applied to for structive fires in Atlanta. At length Hood, aid in completing a land line of telegraph who had lost half his infantry in rash en- on the Morse plan, then in the course of counters, in sheer desperation sent out construction across Newfoundland — about Wheeler with his cavalry to break up 400 miles. The question occurred to him, Sherman's communications and capture "Why not carry the line across the supplies. Kilpatrick made a successful ocean?" and with his usual pluck and en- counter-movement, ergy he proceeded to the accomplishment 232 ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH of such an enterprise. On March 10, 1854, the success of the enterprise by which the five gentlemen met at the house of Mr. two countries were connected by such a Field, on Gramercy Park, New York, and mysterious tie. The Queen hoped that it signed an agreement for an association would " prove an additional link between called " The New York, Newfoundland, and the nations, whose friendship is founded London Telegraph Company." They ob- upon their common interest and reciprocal tained from the legislature of Newfound- esteem." To this the President cordially land a charter guaranteeing an exclusive responded, and asked: "Will not all na- right, for fifty years, to establish a tele- tions of Christendom spontaneously unite graph from the American continent to that in the declaration that it shall be for- island, and thence to Europe. These gen- ever neutral, and that its communications tlemen were Peter Cooper, Moses Taylor, shall be held sacred in passing to their Marshall 0. Roberts, Chandler White, and places of destination even in the midst of Cyrus W. Field. Twenty-five years after- hostilities?" Bonfires and illuminations wards, all but one (Mr. White) were liv- throughout the Union followed these com- ing, and again met in the same room, and munications. The London Times said around the same table whereon that asso- (Aug. 6, 1858), "Since the discovery of ciation was signed, with the same attor- Columbus, nothing has been done in any ney of the association then engaged, degree comparable to the vast enlargement David Dudley Field. which has thus been given to the sphere Mr. Cooper was chosen president of the of human activity." In a very short time company. Mr. Field procured a cable in the cable ceased to work, and it was pro- England to span the waters between Cape nounced a failure. It was even intimated Ray and Cape Breton Island. It was sent that the reputed despatches were only part out in 1855, and was lost in an attempt of a huge fraud. Mr. Field's faith never to lay it. It was recovered, and was sue- faltered, though discouragements that cessfully laid in 1856. The same year Mr. would have paralyzed the energies of most Field organized in London the " Atlantic men were encountered. He crossed the At- Telegraph Company " to carry the line lantic several times to resuscitate the com- across the ocean. Mr. Field subscribed pany. The cable had cost $1,256,250, and for one-fourth of the stock of the com- the expenses of the company up to Dec. pany. The American and British govern- 1, 1858, amounted to $1,834,500. The ments gave them aid in ships, and during Civil War broke out in 1861, and it was 1857 and 1858 expeditions were at sea, not until 1865 that another expedition to laying a cable across the ocean to lay a cable was fitted out. The Great Valentia on the western coast of Ire- Eastern then carried an improved cable, land. Twice, in 1857, the attempt While laying it, a sudden lurch of the ship failed, but was successful the follow- snapped the line, and it was lost. The ing year. Two vessels, with portions of company was discouraged. Mr. Field the cable, met in mid-ocean, July 28, 1858. went to Thomas Brassey, a great and The portions were spliced, and they sailed liberal English capitalist, and told him for Ireland and Newfoundland respective- that the Atlantic Telegraph Company had ly, and succeeded in laying a continuous suddenly come to a stand-still. " Mr. line across the Atlantic. It was 1,950 Field," said Mr. Brassey, " don't be dis- miles in length, and traversed water two- couraged; go down to the company and thirds of the distance over 2 miles in tell them to go ahead, and, whatever the depth. These wonderful facts were com- cost, I will bear one-tenth of the whole." municated by Mr. Field, by telegram, That company and the "Telegraph Con- front Trinity Bay, Newfoundland, on Aug. struction and Maintenance Company " 5, 1858, and created intense interest all joined in forming a new association known over the country. as the " Anglo-American Telegraph Com- The first public messages across the At- pany," with a capital of $3,000,000. An- lantic were transmitted, Aug. 16, 1858, by other cable was laid, and permanent elec- Queen Victoria to President Buchanan, trie communication between Europe and and by him in an immediate reply, in America was established July 27, 1866. which they congratulated each other on After twelve years of hard and anxious 233 AT LEE— AUCHMUTY labor, during which time Mr. Field crossed the ocean nearly fifty times, he saw the great work accomplished. He had been nobly aided by men in Europe and Amer- ica. Congress voted him the thanks of the nation and a gold medal, while the Prime Minister of England declared that it was only the fact that he was a citizen of an- other country that prevented his receiving high honors from the British government. The glory of his achievement transcends all that man could bestow. See Cables, Ocean; Field, Cyrus W. At Lee, Samuel John, military offi- cer; born in Pennsylvania, in 1738. He commanded a company of Pennsylvanians in the French and Indian War. Entering the Continental army, Pennsylvania line, he commanded a battalion in the battle of Long Island, Aug. 27, 1776, where he was made prisoner and remained some time in the hands of the British. After- wards he was appointed a commissioner to treat with the Indians. He was a mem- ber of the Continental Congress from 1778 to 1782. He died in Philadelphia, Novem- ber, 1786. Atlixco, Battle at. General Lee marched from Puebla (Mexico) in Oc- tober, 1847, to attack the Mexican Gen- eral Rea, of Santa Ana's army, at Atlixco, 30 miles from that place. Lane's cavalry first encountered Rea's advanced guard, and skirmished until the arrival of his infantry, when the Mexicans fell back tow- ards Atlixco, keeping up a running fight. Less than 2 miles from that place their main body was discovered (Oct. 18, 1847). Lane's cavalry dashed in among them and drove them into a thick chaparral, which the horses could not enter. The cavalry dismounted, entered the thicket, and there a long and fierce hand-to-hand encounter ensued. The rest of the Americans com- ing up, the Mexicans were forced into the town, when Lane's artillery, posted on a hill, cannonaded the place most severely by the light of the moon. The Mexicans were driven away with much loss. At Atlixco Santa Ana's troops finally deserted him, and he fled alone towards the coast. So ended the active hostilities of the Mexi- can War. Attainder, Acts of, in English law, punishing a person by declaring his " blood attainted," and involving forfeiture of 234 property, have been numerous. Two wit- nesses in cases of high treason were neces- sary where corruption of blood was in- curred, unless the party accused confess or stand mute. In the United States the Constitution explicitly says : " No bill of attainder shall be passed, and no attainder of treason, in consequence of a judicial sentence, shall work corruption of blood or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted." Attakappa Indians, a tribe found on the borders of the Gulf of Mexico, west of the Mississippi River, in southern Lou- isiana and eastern Texas. The Choctaws named them Attakappas, or Man-eaters. The French were the first Europeans who discovered them; and the Attakappas aid- ed the latter in a war with the Natchez and Chickasaws. When Louisiana, was ceded to the United States in 1803, there were only about 100 of this nation on their ancient domain, near Vermilion Bay- ou, and they had almost wholly disap- peared by 1825. What their real name was, or whence they came, may never be known. Their language was peculiar, com- posed of harsh monosyllables. Attiwandaronk Indians, members of the family of the Hurons and Iroquois, named by the French the Neutral Nation. In early times they inhabited both banks of the Niagara River, but were mostly in Canada. They were first visited in 1627 by the Recollet Father Daillon, and by Br6beuf and Chaumonot in 1642. The Iroquois attacked them in 1651-53, when a part of them submitted and joined the Senecas, and the remainder fled westward and joined the remnant of the fallen Hu- rons on the borders of Lake Superior. Attorney-General of the United States. See Cabinet, President's. Attu, one of the Aleutian Islands, the most westerly point of the United States. It lies 400 miles from Kamchatka. Call- ing Attu the western extremity of the United States, the city of San Francisco, Cal., is near the middle of its geographical extent east and west, the territories of the United States stretching through 120 de- grees of longitude. Auchmuty, Richard Tylden, philan- thropist; born in New York City, in 1831 ; became an architect, and for many years was associated in practice with James AUDENRIED— AUGUSTA Renwick. He served in the Union army he went down the Ohio River with his during the war, and after its close he re- wife and child in an open boat, to a con- fused several public offices, retired from genial spot for a forest home. He visited business and applied himself to works almost every region of the United States, of benevolence. In 1881 he and his wife In some of his Western excursions, Wil- established the New York Trade Schools, son, the ornithologist, was his companion, on a plan entirely original, at a cost of In 1826 he went to Europe to secure sub- $250,000. J. Pierpont Morgan made the scriptions to his great work, The Birds of success of this institution permanent by America. It was issued in numbers, each giving it an endowment of $500,000 in containing five plates, the subjects drawn 1892. He died in Lenox, Mass., July 18, and colored the size and tints of life. It 1893. • was completed in 4 volumes, in 1838. Audenried, Joseph Crain, military Of the 170 subscribers to the work, at officer; born in Pottsville, Pa., Nov. 6, $1,000 each, nearly one-half came from 1839; graduated at West Point in 1861; England and France. He also prepared served throughout the Civil War; lieuten- a work entitled Ornithological Biogra- ant-colonel for gallant conduct in the At- phies, and had partly completed a work lanta campaign, 1865; colonel of staff in entitled Quadrupeds of America, when he 1869. He died in Washington, June 3, died. His two sons, who inherited his 1880. tastes and much of his genius, finished Auditor, under the United States gov- this work, which was published in 1850. eminent, the title of an officer having His residence, in the latter years of his charge of various branches of public ac- life, was on the banks of the Hudson, not counts. Each of the departments has one far from Washington Heights. He died in such officer, with a deputy. See Cabinet, New York City, Jan. 27, 1851. President's. Auger, Christopher Colon, military Audubon, John James, ornithologist; officer; born in New York July 10, 1821; born in New Orleans, May 4, 1780; was was graduated at West Point in 1843. the son of a French admiral. Educated at He served as aide-de-camp to Generals Paris, he acquired much skill as an artist Hopping and Cushing in the war with Mexico, and in 1861 was made a brigadier- general of volunteers, after serving under McDowell. He took command of a division under Banks, and was wounded at the battle of Cedar Mountain, Aug. 9, 1862; the same month he was made major-gen- eral of volunteers. In November, 1862, he reported to General Banks for ser- vice in a Southern expedition, and was very active in the siege and capture of Port Hudson. From October, 1863, to Au- gust, 1866, he had command of the Depart- ment of Washington, and in 1867 he was assigned to the Department of the Platte. In 1869 he was made brigadier-general U. S. A., and in 1885 was retired. He died in Washington, D. C, Jan. 16, 1898. Augusta, city and county-seat of Rich- john jamks acditbon. mond county, Ga. ; on the Savannah River (From an aid print.) ftt the head of steamboat navigation; 120 under the instruction of the celebrated miles northwest of Savannah. It is one David. At the age of seventeen years he of the largest and most progressive manu- began to make a collection of drawings facturing cities in the South. It was of the birds of America, and became a founded by English settlers under Ogle- most devoted student of the feathered thorpe, and received the name of an Eng- tribes of our country. So early as 1810 lish princess. In 1817 it was incorporated 235 AUSTIN— AUTOMATIC GUN a city, and was for many years the most which he called San Felipe de Austin, important inland place in the State. The Austin was given almost absolute power population in 1890 was 33,300; in 1900, over his colony; but his government was 39,441. When Cornwallis proceeded to subju- wise and, on the whole, quite successful. In 1833 the people of Texas framed a gate South Carolina, he sent Lieutenant- State constitution, which Austin took to Colonel Brown, a Tory leader, to hold Au- the city of Mexico for ratification by the gusta. Over this garrison Pickens and National government. While there he Clarke had kept watch, and when, on May wrote a letter to the municipal authorities 20, 1781, they were joined by Lee and his of Bexar, advising the Texans to organize legion, they proceeded to invest the fort a government of their own. For this there. They took Fort Galphin, 12 miles Austin was arrested while on his way below, on the 21st, and then an officer was home, taken back to Mexico, and detained sent to demand the surrender of Augusta, from early in 1834 till the summer of Lieutenant-Colonel Brown was one of the 1835. On his return to Texas he joined most cruel of the Tories in that region, the revolution ; became commander-in-chief and the partisans were anxious to make of the Texas army; and was appointed him a prisoner. He refused to surrender, commissioner to the United States. As A regular siege began May 23, and con- commissioner he did Texas good service, tinued until June 4, when a general as- In the fall of 1836 he was a candidate for sault was agreed upon. Hearing of this, President of the new republic, but was de- Brown proposed to surrender, and the feated by Sam Houston. He was ap- town was given up the next day. In this pointed Secretary of State by Houston, siege the Americans lost fifty - one men and was engaged in negotiations to obtain killed, and wounded; and the British lost official recognition of the independence of fifty-t\yo killed, and 334, including the Texas by the United States, when he died, wounded, were made prisoners. For sev- Dec. 27, 1836. eral years after the war it was the capital Australian Ballot. See Ballot Re- of Georgia. It was garrisoned by Con- form. federate troops during the Civil War, and Automatic Gun, a light mounted was twice threatened by Sherman in his breech-loading gun, so constructed that marches from Atlanta to the sea and the power in the recoil of each shot dis- through South Carolina. charges the empty cartridge case, reloads, Austin, Oscar Phelps, statistician; and returns the gun to its firing position, born in Illinois; engaged from early life In the Maxim gun, invented by Hiram S. as a contributor, reporter, editor, and Maxim, the constant pressure upon the Washington correspondent for metropoli- trigger keeps it in firing action till all tan newspapers. In 1892 and 1896 he of its ammunition is discharged. A hun- edited the campaign documents for the dred or more cartridges, the number de- Republican National Committee, and in pending upon the size of the gun, are May, 1898, was appointed chief of the strung on a belt and are directly fed into Bureau of Statistics of the United States the ammunition box. There are two calibres Treasury Department. He is author of of the Maxim gun: the first being the Uncle Sam's Secrets; Uncle Sam's Sol- size of an ordinary rifle and easily held diers; Colonial Systems of the World; out at arm's length; the second fires a Submarine Telegraphs of the World, etc. one-pound ball. LBoth of these guns can See Commerce, A Century of. fire several hundred shots a minute, the Austin, Stephen Fuller, colonist; first about 700. The Colt gun is also born in Austinville, Va., Nov. 3, 1793, son fully automatic. It has but a single of Moses Austin of Connecticut, who in barrel, which, owing to its thickness, does 1820 received from Mexico permission to not heat quickly, and consequently does colonize 300 families in the province of not need a water-jacket. The barrel is at- Texas. Moses Austin died June 10, 1821 ; tached to a breech casing, and the belts but his son Stephen was recognized as heir are either contained in boxes or may rest to the grant. In December, 1821, he estab- on the ground. When fastened to the lished on the Brazos River a settlement casing, the boxes move with it. 236 AUTTOSE— AVERELL Auttose, Battle of. Late in Novem- man utterly destroyed the arsenal, with ber, 1813, the Creek country was invaded all the valuable public property of the by troops from Georgia. A cry for Confederates there. Moving on, Sherman help from the settlers among the Creeks in accordance with his usual plan, made had come to the ears of the Geor- movements to distract his adversary. He gians, when Gen. John Floyd, at the head sent Slocurn with four divisions of the of 950 militia of that State and 450 friend- left wing, preceded by cavalry, towards ly Indians, guided by Mordecai, a Jew Averasboro and the main road to Raleigh; trader, entered the region of the hostiles while two divisions of that wing, with the from the east. Crossing the Chattahoo- train, took the direct road to Goldsboro. chee, he pushed on towards the Tallapoosa, Howard moved with four divisions on the where he was informed that a large num- right, ready to assist the left if necessary, ber of hostile Indians had gathered at the It was a terrible march over quagmire village of Auttose, on the " Holy Ground/' roads, made so by incessant rain. They on which the prophets had made the bar- had to be corduroyed continually. Slocum barians believe no white man could set found Hardee intrenched near Averasboro foot and live. It was on the left bank with about 20,000 men. General Williams, of the Tallapoosa, about 20 miles above with the 20th Corps, took the lead in mak- its confluence with the Coosa. Floyd en- ing an attack, and very soon he broke the camped unobserved near the town on the Confederate left wing into fragments and evening of Nov. 28, and at dawn he ap- drove it back upon a second and stronger peared before the village with his troops line. Ward's division pushed the fugitives arrayed for battle in three columns. He and captured three guns and 217 men; also had two or three field-pieces. There and the Confederates left 108 of their dead were two towns, one below the other. The on the field. Kilpatrick was just securing towns were simultaneously attacked, and a footing on the road to Bentonville a general battle ensued. After a brief when he was furiously attacked by contest, the roar of artillery and a furious McLaw's division, and, after a hard fight, bayonet charge made the Indians fall back was pushed back. Then 1 the whole of in terror to whatever shelter they could Slocum's line advanced, drove Hardee find. Their dwellings, about 400 in num- within his intrenchments, and pressed him ber, were burned, and the smitten and so heavily that on the dark and stormy dismayed barbarians were hunted and night of March 16, 1865, he retreated butchered with fiendish cruelty. It was to Smithfield. Slocum lost in the bat- estimated that fully 200 of the Indians tie seventy-seven killed and 477 wounded, were murdered. Floyd lost eleven men Hardee's loss was estimated at about the killed and fifty-four wounded. He had same. Ward pursued the fugitives through marched 120 miles, laid waste the town, Averasboro, but soon gave up the chase, and destroyed the inhabitants in the space Averell, William Woods, military offi- of seven days. cer; born in Cameron, N. Y., Nov. 5, Averasboro, Battle of. On his march 1832; graduated at West Point in 1855. from Fayetteville to Goldsboro, Sherman's Entering the Mounted Rifles, he distin- forces were menaced by the Confederates, guished himself in New Mexico by the and Kilpatrick had several skirmishes with surprise and capture of a body of Ind- Wheeler and Hampton. He had struck ians. In that warfare he was severely the rear of Hardee's column (March 8, wounded. Soon after the breaking out of 1865) in its retreat towards Fayetteville. the Civil War he was chosen colonel of a He had fought Hampton, and was defeat- regiment of Pennsylvania cavalry, and ed, losing many men (who were made became brigadier-general of volunteers in prisoners) and guns. Kilpatrick barely September, 1862. He had taken an active escaped on foot in a swamp, where he part in the battles on the Peninsula and rallied his men. They fell upon Hampton, in Pope's campaign in July and August, who was plundering their camp, routed 1862. He reinforced Pleasonton in the ad- him, and retook the guns. Hampton had vance after the battle of Antietam, and was captured 103 Nationals and killed or afterwards very active in Virginia, espe- wounded eighty. At Fayetteville, Sher- cially in the mountain regions, in 1863. 237 AVERELL— AVERY WILLIAM WOODS AVERKLL. There had been comparative quiet in of all arms, and moved southward, driving that region after the close of 1861 until Confederates under Gen. " Mudwall " (W. the summer and fall of 1863, when Gen- S.) Jackson to a post on the top of Droop eral Averell, with a cavalry force, made Mountain, in Greenbrier county ; stormed extensive raids in that mountainous coun- them (Nov. 6, 1863), and drove them into try. Before the close of that year he Monroe county, with a loss of over 300 had nearly purged western Virginia of men, three guns, and 700 small-arms, armed Confederates, and seriously inter- Averell's loss was about 100 men. rupted railway communication between the West Virginia was now nearly free of armed Confederates, and Averell started, in December, with a strong force of Vir- ginia mounted infantry, Pennsylvania cav- alry, and Ewing's battery, to destroy rail- way communications between the armies of Lee in Virginia and Bragg in Tennessee. He crossed the mountains amid ice and snow, and first struck the Virginia and Tennessee Railway at Salem, on the head- waters of the Roanoke River, where he de- stroyed the station-house, rolling-stock, and Confederate supplies. Also, in the course of six hours his troops tore up the track, heated and ruined the rails, burned five bridges, and destroyed several cul- verts over the space of 15 miles. This raid aroused all the Confederates of the mountain region, and seven separate com- mands were arranged in a line extending from Staunton to Newport to intercept armies of Lee and Bragg. Col. John Tol- the raider. He dashed through this line land had led a cavalry raid in these moun- at Covington in the face of some oppo- tain regions in July, 1863. He made a sition, destroyed the bridges behind him, descent upon Wytheville, on the Virginia and one of his regiments, which had been and Tennessee Railway, where his force cut off from the rest, swam the stream was roughly handled by Confederates, and joined the others, with the loss of Tolland was killed, and his command re- four men drowned. Averell captured turned to the Kanawha. In a ride of during the raid about 200 men. " My about 400 miles, during eight days, they command," he said in his report (Dec. had suffered much, and lost eighty-two 21, 1863), "has marched, climbed, slid, men and 300 horses. A little later General and swam 340 miles since the 8th inst." Averell started from Tygart's Valley ; pass- He reported a loss of six men drowned, ed through several counties southward; five wounded, and ninety missing, drove Confederates over Warm Spring He performed gallant service under Mountains ; destroyed saltpetre - works ; Hunter, Sigel, and Sheridan in the Shen- menaced Staunton, and was confronted andoah Valley in 1864; and was brevetted by a large force of Gen. S. Jones's com- major-general of volunteers in March, mand near White Sulphur Springs, where 1865. The same year he resigned his cora- a conflict for Rock Gap occurred, and last- mission of captain in the regular army, ed the greater part of Aug. 26 and 27. He was consul-general at Montreal in Averell was repulsed, and made his way 1866-69. In 1888, by special act of Con- back to Tygart's Valley, having lost 207 gress, he was reappointed a captain in men and a Parrott gun, which burst dur- the army, and soon afterwards was ing the fight. The Confederates lost 156 retired. He died in Bath, N. Y., Feb. 3, men. Much later in the year Averell made 1900. another aggressive movement. He left Avery, Samuel Putnam, benefactor; Beverly early in November with 5,000 men born in New York City, March 17, 1822; 238 AVERY— AZTECS began his business career as a copper- active in civil affairs; and in 1779 was plate and wood engraver; in 1865 became colonel of the county militia, serving with an art publisher and dealer; and retired great zeal during the British invasion of in 1888. He was a founder of the Metro- North Carolina. He removed to Burke politan Museum of Art, and is a life county in 1781, which he represented in member of the American Geographical the State legislature many years. He Society, American Historical Society, was the first State attorney-general of American Zoological Society, and Ameri- North Carolina. He died in Burke county, can Museum of Natural History. He has N. C, March 15, 1821. also been president of the Grolier Club, Ayres, Romeyn Beck, military officer; and of the Sculpture Society. In 1891 he born in East Creek, N. Y., Dec. 20, 1825; and his wife established the Avery Ar- was graduated at West Point in 1847. He chitectural Library in Columbia Univer- served in the artillery in the war with sity, in memory of their deceased son. Mexico, and commanded a battery in the In 1900 he gave to the New York Public battle of Bull Run. In October, 1861, he Library (q. v. ) a collection of photo- became chief of artillery of Gen. W. F. graphs, lithographs, and etchings, amount- Smith's division, and soon afterwards of ing in all to over 17,500 pieces, and, with the 6th Corps. He was in the campaign this collection, a large number of art on the Peninsula, and the chief battles volumes. He died Aug. 12, 1904. afterwards in Virginia and Maryland. He Avery, Waightstill, lawyer; born in served with distinction through the Rich- Groton, Conn., May 3, 1745; studied law mond campaign of 1864-65; was brevettcd in Maryland, and began its practice in major-general of volunteers in March, Mecklenburg county, N. C, in 1769. He 1865; promoted to colonel of the 3d Ar- was prominent there among the opposers tillery, July 18, 1879; and died in Fort of the obnoxious measures of the British Hamilton, N. Y., Dec. 4, 1888. Parliament bearing on the colonies, and Aztecs. The most probable — that is, was one of the promoters and signers of the least unlikely — traditions represent the famous " Mecklenburg Declaration of that the Nahuatlecas, the great family of Independence." He was a delegate to which the Aztecs were a tribe or nation, the Provincial Congress at Hillsborough displaced a people of much higher culture, in 1775 which organized the military and of whose civilization that of the forces of the State; and in the sum- Aztecs was only a rude reflection. Tradi- mer of 1776 he joined the army, under tion represents the seven tribes of the General Rutherford, in the Cherokee coun- Nahuatlecas as emerging from seven cav- try. He was a commissioner in framing eras in the region called Aztlan, possibly the treaty of Holston, which effected peace Arizona and New Mexico. See Cortez; on the Western frontier. Mr. Avery was Montezuma; Velasquez. B. Babbitt, Isaac, inventor ; born in Taun- lege, and he was very efficient in the or- ton, Mass., July 26, 1799. About 1831 he ganization of that institution. He visited made, in Taunton, the first Britannia-ware Europe to study various institutions of manufactured in the United States, and in learning there; and in 1839 he published 1839 he invented the anti-friction metal a Report on the European System of Edu- which bears his name. Congress gave him cation. In 1841 he became the first prin- $20,000 for his invention; and he took cipal of the Philadelphia High School; out patents in England (1844) and Rus- and in 1843 he was appointed superintend- sia (1847). He died in Somerville, Mass., ent of the United States Coast Survey. May 26, 1862. His services in this field were of the high- Babcock, Kendric Charles, educator; est importance. Various universities con- born in South Brookfield, N. Y., Sept. 8, 1864; was graduated at the University of Minnesota in 1889; and became professor of history in the University of California in 1894. Babuyan Islands, a group of small islands in the Balintang Channel, between Formosa and the northern extremity of the island of Luzon in the Philippines. The principal one is Claro Babuyan. These islands are also known as Madjicosima Islands, and administratively were con- nected in the past with the Loo-Choo Isl- ands. The population in 1898 was sup- posed to be about 12,000. See Luzon; Philippine Islands. Bache, Alexander Dallas, physicist; born in Philadelphia, Pa., July 19, 1806; was a great-grandson of Dr. Franklin, and was graduated at the United States Mili- tary Academy with high honor in 1825, receiving the appointment of lieutenant of engineers, and remaining in the acad- emy awhile as assistant professor. Two years he was under Colonel Totten in the construction of military works in New- port, where he married Miss Fowler, who, LL.D. He published several scientific es- as his wife, was his great assistant in as- says; was a member of the Light-house tronomical observations. He resigned from Board ; a regent of the Smithsonian Insti- the army in 1827, and from that time until tution, and active in various public la- 1832 he was a professor in the Univer- bors. Dr. Bache bequeathed $42,000 to sity of Pennsylvania. Ardently devoted to the Academy of Natural Science in Phila- scientific pursuits, he made important dis- delphia, for the promotion of researches coveries. In 1836 he was chosen president in physical and natural science, by assist- of the board of trustees of Girard Col- ing experimenters and observers. He died 240 ALEXANDER DALLAS BACHE. f erred upon him the honorary degree of BACHE— BACON in Newport, R. I., Feb. 17, 1867. See Bachman, John, naturalist; born in Coast and Geodetic Survey. Dutchess county, N. Y., Feb. 4, 1790. He Bache, Franklin, chemist; born in was pastor of a Lutheran church at Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 25, 1792; became Charleston, S. C, in 1815-74; but is best Professor of Chemistry at the Philadel- known from his association with Audu- phia College of Pharmacy and at the Phil- bon in the preparation of his great work adelphia Medical College; published Sys- on ornithology. He contributed the most tern of Chemistry for Students of Medi- of the text on the quadrupeds of North cine, and was associated with Professor America, which Audubon and his sons il- Wood in compiling Dispensatory of the lustrated. He died in Charleston, S. C, United States. He died in Philadelphia, Feb. 25, 1874. Pa., March 19, 1864. Bacolor, a town in Luzon, Philippine Bache, George M., naval officer; born Islands, on the road from Manila to Tar- in the District of Columbia, Nov. 12, lac; about 30 miles northwest of the 1840; was graduated at the Naval Acad- former city. During the British invasion emy in 1860. He became lieutenant in of the Philippines, in 1762, it was for 1862; lieutenant-commmander in 1866; some time the capital of the group, the and commander in 1875; and was retired Spaniards, under fear lest the city of April 5, 1875. He commanded an iron- Manila should be bombarded, hastily re- clad gunboat on the Mississippi early in moving their seat of government. The the Civil War, and behaved with great town attracted considerable attention in bravery before Vicksburg. He was after- 1899 because of the United States mili- wards in command of a little squadron of tary operations against the Filipino in- gunboats in a spirited action near Claren- surgents and the remarkable chase after don, Ark., in June, 1864. He died in Aguinaldo through that section of Luzon. Washington, D. C, Feb. 11, 1896. See Aguinaldo, Emilio; Luzon. Bache, Hartman, engineer; born in Bacon, Delia, author; born in Tall- Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 3, 1798; was madge, O., Feb. 2, 1811; a sister of Dr. graduated at West Point in 1818, and Leonard Bacon (q. v.). She published while in the army served continuously as in 1857 The Philosophy of Shakespeare's a topographical engineer, on surveys for Plays, in which she put forth the hy- harbor and river improvements, coast de- pothesis that these plays were not writ- fence, roads, and canals. On March 3, ten by Shakespeare, but by Sir Francis 1865, he was promoted to brigadier-gen- Bacon. She died in Hartford, Conn., oral, the highest rank in the engineer Sept. 2, 1859. corps, and in 1867 was retired. His most Bacon, John Mosby, military officer; important engineering works were the born in Kentucky, April 17, 1844; en- construction of the Delaware breakwater listed as a private Sept. 22, 1862; was and the successful application of iron commissioned a brigadier-general of vol- screw-piles in the building of foundations unteers May 4, 1898; subdued the Chip- of light-houses upon coral-reefs and sandy pewas during the outbreak of 1898; and shoals. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. served in Cuba during the American- 8, 1872. Spanish War. Bache, Sarah, philanthropist; born in Bacon, Leonard, clergyman; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 11, 1744; daugh- Detroit, Mich., Feb. 19, 1802; gradu- ter of Benjamin Franklin and wife of ated at Yale in 1820, and at Andover Richard Bache; was distinguished Theological Seminary in 1824, and con- throughout the Revolutionary War for nected with Yale Divinity School for her efforts to relieve the condition of many years, and lecturer on American the American troops, collecting money, Church History. He was one of the ed- purchasing medicines and other supplies, itors of the Independent for several years, and directing nearly 3,000 women in the and author of Select Practical Writings work of making clothing and other neces- of Richard Baxter; Thirteen Dicourses sities for the army. She also performed on the Two Hundredth Anniversary of the valuable service in the hospitals as a First Church in New Haven; Slavery Dis- burse. She died Oct. 5, 1808. cussed; Genesis of the New England I.— Q 241 BACON Churches, etc. He died in New Haven, republicans were very indignant. Rebel- Conn., Dec. 24. 1881. lious murmurs were heard everywhere in Bacon, Nathaniel, patriot; born in the colony; and the toiling people were Suffolk, England, Jan. 2, 1642. He was taught to regard the aristocracy as their educated at the Inns of Court, London; enemies, and so the majority of them came to America with a considerable fort- were. Having a majority in the legis- jne in 1670; settled in Gloucester county, lature of the colony, they ruled without Va., and owned a large estate high up on any regard for the happiness of the people, the James River. A lawyer by profession Everything for the public good was neg- md eloquent in speech, he easily exercised lected. There were no roads or bridges great influence over the people. He became in Virginia ; and the people were com- a member of the council in 1672. He was pel led to travel along bridle-paths on a republican in sentiment; and, strongly land, and to ford or swim the streams, opposing the views and public conduct of They journeyed on the water in canoes or Governor Berkeley, the stanch loyalist, he boats, and endured many hardships. The stirred up the people to rebellion. Berke- working-people lived in log-cabins with un- ley, who was very popular at first, had be- glazed windows. There were no villages, come tyrannical and oppressive as an un- At the time, Jamestown, the capital, con- compromising royalist and rigorous exec- sisted of only a church, a State-house, and utor of his royal master's will. At the eighteen dwellings; and, until lately, the same time republicanism had begun a Assembly had met in the hall of an ale- vigorous growth among the people of Vir- house. This was about seventy years after ginia; but it was repressed somewhat by a the founding of the colony, when it con- majority of royalists in the House of Bur- tained 50,000 inhabitants. The large land- gesses; and the council were as pliant owners — the aristocracy — meanwhile were tools of Berkeley as any courtiers who living in luxury in fine mansions, in paid homage to the King. The governor sight of some beautiful river, surrounded rigidly enforced navigation laws oppres- by negro slaves and other dependants, and give to colonial commerce; and the mar- enjoying a sort of patriarchal life. The riage laws, and the elective and other governor was clamoring for an increase franchises, were modified, abridged, or of his salary, while his stables and fields abolished. The Church of England was had seventy horses in them, and flocks of made supreme, and was an instrument of sheep were on his great plantation, called persecution in the hands of the dominant " Green Spring." The tendency of such party, in attempts to drive Baptists, a state of society was obvious to every re- Quakers, and Puritans out of Virginia, fleeting mind. Stimulated by these oppressions, repub- It was at this juncture that Bacon licanism grew vigorously in Virginia, and arrived in Virginia, and espoused the the toilers and righteous men of the aris- cause of the republicans. In the summer tocracy soon formed a powerful republican of 1675 the Indians, seeing their domain party that threatened ere long to fill the gradually absorbed by the encroaching House of Burgesses with men of their white people, in their despair struck a creed. Berkeley, having a pliant majority heavy blow. As they swept from the of the cavalier class in the Assembly, sane- North through Maryland, John Washing- tioned unjust and arbitrary decrees of the ton, grandfather of the first President of King, who gave to profligate court favor- the United States, opposed them with a ites, first large tracts of land, some of it force of Virginians, and a fierce border war cultivated, in Virginia; and, finally, in ensued. Berkeley, who had the monopoly 1673, he gave to two of them (Lord Cul- of the fur - trade with the barbarians, pepper and Earl of Arlington) "all the treated the latter leniently. Six chiefs, dominion of land and water called Vir^, who had come to camp to treat for peace, ginia " for thirty years. V were treacherously slain by Englishmen. The best men in the colony of both The wrathful savages strewed their path- parties, alarmed by this proceeding, sent way, in the country between the Rappa- a committee with a remonstrance to the hannock and James rivers, with the dead King, but the mission was fruitless. The bodies of ten Englishmen for every chief 242 BACON that was treacherously murdered, and fore the insurgent chief, and baring his blackened its face with fire. The supine- bosom, exclaimed, "Shoot! shoot! it is a ness of the governor increased the sense fair mark!" Bacon said, respectfully, of insecurity among the people, and a " Not a hair of your head shall be hurt ; deputation headed by Bacon petitioned we have come for our commissions to him for leave to arm and protect them- save our lives from the Indians." The selves. Berkeley, having reason, as he governor, influenced by his judgment when thought, to suspect Bacon of ambitious his anger had cooled, or by his fears, not rather than patriotic motives (for he had only signed the commission, but joined been engaged in an insurrection before), his council in commending Bacon to the refused to grant this prayer. King as a zealous, loyal, and patriotic At this Bacon took fire. He knew the citizen. That was done on July 4, 1676, hidden cause of the refusal, and he at just 100 years before the famous Declara- once proclaimed that he was ready to lead tion of Independence, written by a Vir- the people against the approaching in- ginia " rebel," Thomas Jefferson ( q. v.) , vaders without permission, if another proclaimed the English-American colonies white person should be murdered by them. " free and independent States." Very soon news reached him that some on Bacon, so encouraged, immediately his own plantation, near (present) Rich- marched against the Indians. The faith- mond, had been slain. He summoned the less governor, relieved of his presence, people to a consultation. Mounting a crossed the York River, called a conven- stump, he addressed them with impas- tion of the inhabitants of Gloucester sioned eloquence, denounced the governor, county, and proposed to proclaim Bacon and advised his hearers to take up arms a traitor. The convention refused to in their own defence. They were soon em- do so, when the haughty baronet issued bodied in military force, and chose Bacon such a proclamation on his own respon- as their general. He asked the governor sibility, in spite of their remonstrances, to give him a commission as such, but The news of this perfidy reached Bacon was refused; and Bacon marched against at his camp on the Pamunky River. He the Indians without it. Before he had addressed his followers with much reached York River, the governor pro- warmth, saying, " It vexes me to the heart claimed him a rebel, and ordered his fol- that, while I am hunting the wolves and lowers to disperse. A greater portion of tigers that destroy our lands, I should them followed Bacon's standard, and the myself be pursued as a savage. Shall per- expedition pushed forward; while the sons wholly devoted to their King and lower settlements arose in insurrection, country — men who hazard their lives and demanded an immediate dissolution against the public enemy — deserve the ap- of the aristocratic Assembly. The Ind- pellation of ' rebels ' and ' traitors ' ? The ians were driven back to the Rappahan- whole country is witness to our peaceable nock, a new Assembly was chosen, and behavior. But those in authority, how Bacon was elected to a seat in the House have they obtained their estates? Have of Burgesses from Henrico county. they not devoured the common treasury? The new House represented the popular What arts, what sciences, what learning will. They gave Bacon a commission as have they promoted? I appeal to the general, but Berkeley refused to sign it. King and Parliament, where the cause of Some of the Assembly supported the gov- the people will be heard impartially." ernor in the matter, when Bacon, fearing Under the circumstances, Bacon felt him- treachery, retired to the " Middle Planta- self compelled to lead in a revolution. He tion" (now Williamsburg), where 500 invited the Virginians to meet in conven- followers proclaimed him commander- tion at the Middle Plantation. The best in-chief of the Virginia forces. With men in the colony were there. They de- these he appeared at Jamestown, and bated and deliberated on a warm August demanded his commission. Regarding day from noon until midnight. Bacon's the movement as revolutionary, the gov- eloquence and logic led them to take an ernor again refused to sign it. The sturdy oath to support their leader in subduing old cavalier went out in great anger be- the Indians and in preventing civil war; 243 BACON" and again he went against the barbarians. The governor, alarmed by the proceedings at the Middle Plantation, fled, with his council, to the eastern shore of Chesa- peake Bay, where, by promises of booty, he tried to raise an army among the in- habitants and the seamen of English ves- sels there. William Drummond, who had been the first governor of North Carolina, with his brave and patriotic wife, Sarah, was then with Bacon. Mrs. Drummond did much to incite the Virginians to go on in the path of revolution, and she was denounced as " a notorious, wicked rebel." Her husband proposed to Bacon to pro- claim government in the colony abdicated by Berkeley on account of his act. It was suggested that a power would come from England that would ruin the republicans in the colony. Sarah snatched up a small stick from the ground, and exclaimed, " I fear the power of England no more than a broken straw. The child that is unborn m^W^^WW^r^ THE OLD CHURCH TOWER AT JAMESTOWN, IN 1850. shall have cause to rejoice for the good that will come by the rising of the coun- try." The proclamation of abdication was made, on the ground that the governor was fomenting civil war; and writs were issued for a representative convention. Meanwhile Berkeley had gathered a motley host of followers incited by prom- ises of plunder; proclaimed the freedom of the slaves of "rebels"; was joined by some Indians from the eastern shore, and the English ships were placed at his ser- vice. With this army, commanded by Major Beverly, the governor sailed with five ships and ten sloops, and landed at Jamestown early in September, 1676, where, after piously offering thanksgiving in the church, he proclaimed Bacon a traitor. Bacon was surprised, for he had then few followers in camp; but his ranks swelled rapidly as the news went from plantation to plantation. At the head of a consider- able host of patriotic Virginians, he marched towards Jamestown, seizing by the way as hostages the wives of loyalists who were with Berkeley. The republicans appeared before the capital on a moonlit evening, and cast up intrenchments. In vain the governor urged his motley troops to attack them; they were not made of stuff for soldiers. Finally, the royalists stole away in the night, and com- pelled the indignant governor to follow them, when Bacon entered Jamestown, and as- sumed the reins of civil power. Very soon he was startled by a rumor that the royalists of the upper counties were com- ing down upon him. In a council of war it was agreed to burn the capital. The torch was applied at the twilight of a soft September day, and the next morning nothing was left but the brick tower of the church and a few chimneys ( see Jamestown ) . Then Bacon hastened to meet the approaching royalists, who, not disposed to fight, desert- ed their leader and joined the " rebels." At the same time the royalists of Glouces- ter yielded their allegiance to Bacon, and he resolved to cross the Chesapeake and drive the royalists and Berkeley from Virginia. His plans were suddenly frustrated by a foe deadlier than the malignity of the royalists who opposed him. The malaria from the 244 BACON'S REBELLION— BAD LANDS marshes around Jamestown in Septem- ber had poisoned his blood, and on Oct. 11, 1076, he died of malignant fever. His followers made but feeble resistance there- after; and before November Berkeley re- turned to the Peninsula and resumed the functions of government at the Middle Plantation, which was made the capital of Virginia (see Williamsburg). Bacon had failed; yet those " do not fail who die in a good cause." His name is embalmed in history as a rebel; had he succeeded, he would have been immortalized as a pa- triot. His principal followers were very harshly treated by the soured governor, and for a while terror reigned in Virginia. The rebellion cost the colony $500,000. See Berkeley, Sir William. Bacon's Rebellion. See Bacon, Na- thaniel. Bad Axe, Battle at. See Black Hawk. Badeau, Adam, military officer; born in New York, Dec. 29, 1831; served on the staff of General Sherman early in the Civil War; was severely wounded at Port Hudson; became General Grant's mil- itary secretary in January, 1864; aide-de- camp to the general of the army in March, 1865; retired in 1869, holding the rank of brevet brigadier-general, U. S. V. He was consul-general in London in 1870-81, and was consul-general in Havana in 1882- 84. He published Military History of U. 8. Grant; Grant in Peace, etc. He died in Ridgewood, N. J., March, 19, 1895. Badgar, Oscar Charles, naval officer; born in Windham, Conn., Aug. 12, 1823; served throughout the Mexican and Civil wars; retired as commodore in 1885; died June 20, 1899. Badger, George Edmund, statesman; born in Newbern, N. C, April 13, 1795; member of the State legislature, 1816-20; judge of the North Carolina Superior Court, 1820-25; appointed Secretary of the Navy by President Harrison, 1841 ; United States Senator, 1846-55; opposed secession of North Carolina in 1861. He died in Raleigh, N. C, May 11, 1866. Badger State, a name popularly given to the State of Wisconsin on account of the number of badgers found there by the early settlers. Bad Lands, The, "Mauvaises Terres," of the old French fur-traders' dialect, are an extensive tract in the Dakotas, Wyo- ming, and northwestern Nebraska, between the North Fork of the Platte and the South Fork of the Cheyenne rivers, west, south, and southeast of the Black Hills. It lies mostly between long. 103° and 105° N., with an area as yet not perfectly de- fined, but estimated to cover about 60,000 square miles. There are similar lands in the Green River region, of which Fort Bridger is the centre, and in southeastern Oregon. They belong to the Miocene period, geologically speaking. The surface materials are for the most part white and yellowish indurated clays, sands, marls, and occasional thin beds of lime and sand- stone. The locality is fitly described as one of the most wonderful regions of the globe. It is held by geologists that dur- ing the geological period named a vast fresh-water lake system covered this por- tion of our continent, when the compara- tively soft materials which compose the present surface were deposited. As these lakes drained off, after the subsidence of the plains farther east, resulting in the formation of the Missouri Valley, the orig- inal lake beds were worn into canyons that wind in every conceivable direction. Here and there abrupt, almost perpendicular portions of the ancient beds remain in all imaginable forms, some resembling the ruins of abandoned cities. " Towers, spires, cathedrals, obelisks, pyramids, and monu- ments " of various shapes appear on every side, as far as the eye can range. Dr. Hayden, the earliest explorer of this re- gion, said : " Not unf requently the rising or setting sun will light up these grand old ruins with a wild, strange beauty, re- minding one of a city illuminated in the night, as seen from some high point. The harder layers project from the sides of the canyons with such regularity that they appear like seats of some vast weird amphitheatre." Through all this country rainfall is very light; the earth absorbs the most of what rain does fall, and water and grass are very scanty. The surface- rock is so soft that it disintegrates rap- idly, covering the lower grounds in many places to a depth of several feet with a soft, powdery soil into which animals sink as in snow, while when wet it becomes a stiff mud of impassable depth. These lands are plainly unsuited for agriculture, 245 BAFFIN— BAILEY and with rare exceptions, here and there, Bahama Islands, The, were granted by are of little value for grazing purposes. Charles II. (1667) to the eight courtier? They are, however, one of the most aston- to whom he granted the Carolinas. They ishing treasuries of fossil remains to be had sent William Sayle to bring them found anywhere. The soft clayey deposits some account of the Carolina coast. His are in some places literally filled with the vessel was driven by a storm among the bones of extinct species of the horse, rhi- Bahama Islands. There he gained much noceros, elephant, hog, camel, a deer that knowledge of them, especially of New strongly resembled a hog, sabre-toothed Providence, which had a good harbor. On lions, and other marvellous creatures, his return to England, King Charles gave which have rendered this section of the a patent for the Bahamas to the proprie- earth a study of the highest interest to tors of Carolina. At that time these isl- geologists of all lands. ands were uninhabited, and the group was Baffin, William, navigator; said to a favorite resort for buccaneers. In have been born in London about 1584. He 1776 Commodore Hopkins captured New made voyages to West Greenland in 1612- Providence, but soon abandoned it as un< 15, and to Spitzbergen in 1614. In 161(5 tenable. During our Civil War the isl< he commanded a vessel which reached, it ands were the headquarters of the block* is said, lat. 81° 30' N., and is supposed to ade-runners, which were chiefly British have ascertained the limits of the great ships. See Blockade-Runners. bay that bears his name. He was the Bailey, Guildford Dudley, military author of two books, in the first of which officer; born at Martinsburg, Lewis co., he gave a new method of discovering the N. Y., June 4, 1834; was graduated at longitude at sea by an observation of the West Point in 1856, and entered, as stars. He was killed by the Portuguese lieutenant, the 2d Artillery, then sta- at the siege of Ormuz, May 23, 1622. tioned at Fort Ontario, Oswego, N. Y., Bagley, Worth, naval officer; born in where, in 1858, he married a daughter Raleigh, N. C, April 6, 1874; was gradu- of Col. G. W. Patten, U. S. A. He was ated at the United States Naval Academy afterwards stationed at Fort Leavenworth, in 1895. After serving two years on the Kan., and when the Civil War began he Montgomery, Texas, and the Maine, he was was acting adjutant of the post at Fort made ensign July 1, 1897. He was a short Brown, Texas, whose commander, Captain time on the Indiana, and then became the Stoneman, refused to surrender to the executive clerk of Capt. Charles D. Sigs- Confederates of Texas in obedience to the bee on the Maine. In November, 1897, orders of General Twiggs. Captain Stone- he was appointed inspector of the new tor- man chartered a steamboat, and, after pedo-boat Winsloiv, and when she went securing the most valuable public prop- into commission on Dec. 28, he was made erty there, evacuated the fort and sailed her executive officer, under Lieut. J. B. for New York, where he arrived March Bernadou, her commander. In April, 1898, 15, 1861. Soon afterwards Lieutenant the Winslow was with the fleet mobilized Bailey was sent with reinforcements for for operations in Cuban waters. On the Fort Pickens. His mission was success- morning of May 11 she prepared, with ful. Sickness finally compelled him to the Hudson and Wilmington, to force an return to New York to recruit his entrance to the harbor .of Cardenas. She strength. Soon afterwards he was re- was fired upon by one of several Spanish quested by Governor Morgan to organize gunboats, and immediately there was a a State regiment of light artillery, of general engagement. The Winslow was which he was made colonel. With these soon disabled, and was with difficulty troops, which he had well disciplined at hauled out of range of the Spanish guns. Elmira, he went to Washington, and in Just as the engagement ended, Ensign the spring of 1862 he joined the Army Bagley and four sailors were killed by a of the Potomac at Fort Monroe. At shell, he being the first American naval the battle of Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines officer to fall in the war with Spain. (q. v.), Colonel Bailey was in General Bagot - Rush Treaty. See Rush- Casey's division. When the sudden and Bagot. furious attack was made, the infantry 246 BAILEY— BAINBRIDGE fell back, leaving Colonel Bailey's battery Bailey, Theodortjs, naval officer; born exposed. Instead of retreating and leav- in Chateaugay, Franklin co., N. Y., April ing his guns in the hands of the Confed- 12, 1805; entered the navy as midship- erates, he determined to make their spoils man in January, 1818, and was captain in useless to them. Leaping from his horse, 1855. In July, 1862, he was made corn- he was in the act of spiking one of the modore, and in July, 1866, rear-admiral guns with his own hand, when the bullet on the retired list. In 1861 Captain of a sharp-shooter penetrated his brain, Bailey was in command of the Colorado, and he fell dead, May 31, 1862. in the Western Gulf squadron, and was Bailey, Joseph, military officer ; born second in command of the expedition under in Salem, O., April 28, 1827; entered the Butler and Farragut up the Mississippi Union army as a private in 1861; acquired to capture New Orleans, in the spring of great fame by his skill in damming the Red 1862. His vessel was too large to pass River at Alexandria (May, 1864), by the bar, and taking what men and guns which the squadron of iron-clad gunboats, he could spare, he went up the river in his under Admiral Porter, was enabled to boats as a volunteer, and assumed the com- pass down the rapids there when the water mand of the first division. He led in the was low. He had been a lumberman in desperate attack on Fort St. Philip, Fort Wisconsin, and in that business had Jackson, and the Confederate flotilla. It learned the practical part which he used was one of the most gallant naval opera- in his engineering at Alexandria, where tions of the war; and Admiral Farragut he was acting chief-engineer of the 19th specially commended Captain Bailey as Army Corps. Other engineers said his the leader in that attack. In 1862 he was proposition to dam the river was absurd, in command of the Eastern Gulf squad- but in eleven days the boats, by his ron, and was successful in breaking up method, passed safely down. For this blockade-running on the Florida coast. He achievement he was promoted to colonel, captured about 150 of those vessels in the brevetted brigadier-general, voted the space of a year and a half. In 1865-67 he thanks of Congress, and presented with was in command of the navy-yard at a sword and $3,000 by the officers of the Portsmouth. He died in Washington, D. fleet. He settled in Missouri after the war, C, Feb. 10, 1877. where he was a formidable enemy of the Bailey, William Henry, lawyer; born " bushwhackers," and was shot by them in in Pasquatauk county, N. C, Jan. 22, Nevada, in that State, on March 21, 1867. 1831; was elected and appointed to many Bailey, Joseph Welden, legislator; offices in his native State; removed to born in Copiah county, Miss., Oct. 6, 1863; Texas in 1891; is the author of The Ef- was admitted to the bar in 1883; became feet of Civil War Upon the Rights of a Democratic district elector in 1884; re- Persons and Property; Conflict of Ju- moved to Gainesville, Tex., and there dicial Decisions, etc. engaged in general practice in 1885; and Bainbridge, William, naval officer; was Presidential elector at large in 1888. born in Princeton, N. J., May 7, 1774. At He was elected representative in Congress the age of sixteen years he went to sea, from the 5th Texas District in 1891, and and at nineteen commanded a ship. On by re-elections held his seat till March 4, the reorganization of the navy in 1798 he 1901, when he entered the United States was appointed a lieutenant. He and his Senate as successor to Horace Chilton, vessel and crew were captured in the West having been elected on Jan. 23, preceding. Indies by a French cruiser in September In 1897, on the organization of the 55th of that year, but were released in- Decem- Congress, he was the Democratic nominee ber > when, returning home, he was pro- for Speaker of the House, and a minority moted to the command of a brig. In May, member of the Committee on Rules. In 18 00, he was commissioned a captain, and the Senate he was a member of the com- in the ship Washington he carried tribute mittees on Fisheries, Foreign Relations, from the United States to the Dey of Al- Privileges and Elections, Relations with giers, by whom he was treated with much Canada, Revision of the Laws, Territories, insolence. By threats of capture and a and the Census. declaration of war by the Algerine ruler, 247 BAINBRIDGE— BAIRD he was compelled to take an embassy to Constantinople for that petty despot. On his return, with power given him by the WILLIAM BAIXBKIDGE. Sultan, Bainbridge frightened the insolent Dey, compelling him to release all Chris- tian prisoners then in his possession. He returned to the United States in 1801, and command of the Philadelphia, one of Preble's squadron. On Oct. 11 the Phila- delphia struck on a rock near Tripoli, and was captured, with her commander and crew. At Tripoli Bainbridge and 315 of his men remained prisoners about nine- teen months. On his return to the United States, he was received with great respect, and in the reorganization of the navy, in 1806, he became the seventh in the list of captains. Having obtained the rank of commodore, Bainbridge was appointed to the command of a squadron (September, 1812) composed of the Constitution- (flag- ship), Essex, and Hornet, and sailed from Boston in October. Off the coast of Brazil the Constitution captured the British frig- ate Java (Dec. 26) ; and for this exploit the commodore received the thanks of Con- gress and a gold medal. Other honors were bestowed upon him. In 1815 he was appointed to the command of a squadron of twenty sail, destined for Algiers ( q. v.) , but peace was concluded before it reached the Mediterranean. He settled disputes with the Barbary States; and he again commanded in the Mediterranean in 1819- 21. From that time he was almost con- stantly employed in service on shore, be- ing at one time president of the Board of Navy Commissioners. He died in Phila- BAINBRIDGE MEDAL. he was again sent to the Mediterranean with the frigate Essex. Upon the declara- tion of war against the United States by Tripoli, in 1803, Bainbridge was put in delphia, Pa., July 28, 1833, and in that city was buried in Christ church-yard. Baird, Absalom, military officer; born in Washington, Pa., Aug. 20, 1824; was 248 BAIRD— BAKER graduated at West Point in 1849, having studied law before he entered the military academy. He was ordered to Washington, BAIXBRI DGE S MON UM EXT. D. C, in March, 1861, and in May was made assistant adjutant-general. He be- came aide to General Tyler in the battle of Bull Run, and in November was made assistant inspector-general, with the rank of major. In March, 1862, he became General Keys's chief of staff; and in April he was made brigadier-general of volunteers, and sent to Kentucky. He commanded a division under General Granger in April, 1863, and was after- wards active in northern Georgia and in the Atlanta campaign. In Sherman's inarch to the sea he commanded a division of the 14th Army Corps, and also in the advance through the Carolinas. He was brevetted major - general, U. S. A., in March, 1865; promoted brigadier-general and inspector-general in 1885; and re- tired in 1888. Baird, Henry Martyn, educator; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 17, 1832; be- came Professor of Greek in the New York University in 1859; wrote a number of books upon the Huguenots in France and in America. Baird, Spencer Fullerton, scientist; born in Reading, Pa., Feb. 3, 1823; was graduated at Dickinson College in 1840. In 1850 he was appoint- ed assistant secretary to the Smith- sonian Institution. He held that office until the death of Prof. Jo- l SEPii Henry (q. v.) in 1878, when he succeeded to the office of secre- tary, which he held until his death, on Aug. 19, 1887. Professor Baird published several works on natural history. In 1871 he was placed at the head of the United States Fish Commission. He died in Wood's Holl, Mass., Aug. 19, 1887. Baker, Edward Dickinson, mil- itary officer; born in London, Eng- land, Feb. 24, 1811. His family came to the United States when he was a young child, and settled first in Philadelphia and afterwards (1825) in Illinois. Young Baker chose the law for a vocation, and entered upon its practice in Green county, 111. In 1837, while residing in Springfield, he was elected to the legislature. He was a State Sena- tor in 1840-44, and then a member of Congress until the beginning of the war with Mexico. In that war (1846-47) he served as colonel of Illinois EDWARD DICK1NSOX BAKER. volunteers, and was again elected to Con- gress in 1848. He settled in California in 249 BAKER— BALBOA 1852, where he became distinguished in in Woodbury, Conn., about 1740. He his profession, and as an orator in the went to the New Hampshire Grants in ranks of the Republican Party (q. v.). 1764, before the Aliens took up their In 1859 he removed to Oregon, where abode there. He was a soldier in the he was elected United States Senator French and Indian War, and was in the in 1860. He was in that service at the fierce battle at Ticonderoga in 1758. He outbreak of the Civil War, when he settled at Arlington, on " the Grants," raised a body of troops in New York and and was very active with Ethan Allen in Philadelphia. Those of Pennsylvania resisting the claims of New York to Ver- were called the " 1st California Regi- mont territory. Baker was arrested, and ment." Declining to be appointed gen- was cruelly treated while a prisoner, by eral, he went into the field as colonel at the New - Yorkers. The government of the head of his regiment. While fighting that province had outlawed him and set at Ball's Bluff, in Virginia, he was shot a price upon his head. Captain Baker dead, Oct. 21, 1861. See Ball's Bluff, was with Allen when he took Ticonde- Battle of. roga, in May, 1775. He was killed, while Baker, Lafayette C, detective; born on a scout in the Continental service, by in Stafford, N. Y., Oct. 13, 1826; was a the Indians on the Sorel, the outlet of member of the vigilance committee in Lake Champlain, in August, 1775. San Francisco in 1856; offered his ser- Balance of Trade, a phrase employed vices to the federal government in 1861; in commerce to express the difference be- and was sent to Richmond, where he sue- tween the value of a country's exports ceeded in collecting much information, and its imports. When the exports of a and returned to Washington within a country exceed its imports the balance of month. While in Richmond he was ar- trade is popularly said to be in favor of rested and imprisoned as a spy, and had that country. Leaving to others the dis- several interviews with the President of cussion of the controversial questions as the Confederacy. When the secret-service to whether free-trade or protection is best bureau was transferred to the War De- for a country, and whether a decrease in partment, he was appointed its chief, importations indicates an increase in the with the rank of colonel, and subsequent- prosperity of a country through larger ly was promoted brigadier-general. When local productions, attention is here President Lincoln was shot by Booth, called to the fact that in recent years General Baker organized pursuit, and the United States has exported much was present at Booth's capture and death, more than it imported. For the fiscal He published History of the United States year ending June 30, 1900, the official Secret Service. He died in Philadelphia, statistics of the United States Treasury Pa., July 2, 1868. Department showed for these two move- Baker, Marcus, cartographer; born in ments of merchandise the following: Ex- Kalamazoo, Mich., Sept. 23, 1849; was ports, domestic, $1,370,476,158; foreign, graduated at the University of Michigan $23,710,213; a total of $1,394,186,371; in 1870. He became connected with the total imports, $849,714,670; showing a United States Coast and Geodetic Survey balance in merchandise of $544,471,651. in 1873; and with the United States Geo- During the same period the trade in logical Survey in 18S6. He has made ex- gold and silver coin and bullion was: Ex- tended explorations in Alaska and on the ports, $106,978,504; imports, $78,066,154; Pacific coast, and was the cartographer showing a balance in this trade in favor of the Venezuelan Boundary Commission, of the United States of $28,912,350; mak- In 1900 he was secretary of the United ing the balance of all trade, or the excess States Board on Geographic Names. He of exports over imports, during that fiscal has published many geographical and year, $573,384,001. See Commerce; Free mathematical monographs, and, with Trade; Protection. Prof. William H. Dall, brought out the Balboa, Vasco Nunez de, discoverer Alaska Coast Pilot. of the Pacific Ocean; born in Xeres de Baker, Remember, a captain of los Caballeros, Spain, in 1475; went to "Green Mountain Boys" (q. v.); born Santo Domingo in 1501; and thence to 250 BALBOA—BALDWIN the Isthmus of Darien in 1510. Pope of bloodhounds, set out for the tops of the Alexander VI. (q. v.) gave to the Span- mountains. On Nov. 26, 1513, Nunez and ish crown, as God's vicegerent on the his men were near the bold rocky summit earth, all lands that lay 300 leagues of a mountain. The leader ascended it westward of the Azores — in fact, all of alone, when he beheld a mighty sea. It America. Ferdinand of Spain divided was the Pacific Ocean. On that summit Central America, whose shores Colum- he and his followers set up a huge cross, bus had discovered, into two provinces, and then descended to the shore of the over one of which he placed as governor sea. Wading into its waters, Nunez took Ojeda, the navigator, and over the other formal possession of the great ocean in Diego de Nicuessa, with Bachelor Enciso the name of his sovereign. After that he as lieutenant. Nunez, deeply in debt in made voyages along its coast, and heard Santo Domingo, escaped from his cred- tidings of Peru, where the Incas, or rulers, itors by being carried in a provision-cask drank out of golden vessels. After Davila on board Enciso's ship. When she had came, Nunez was falsely accused of weighed anchor Nunez came from his traitorous intentions by his jealous suc- cask. Enciso, angered by the deception, cessor and rival, and he was beheaded at threatened him, but became reconciled. Acla, near Darien, in 1517. So perished At Darien, where the seat of government the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean, was to be established, Nunez, taking ad- Balcarres, Alexander Lindsay, Earl, vantage of the discontent of the Span- British military officer; born in Scotland iards, headed a revolt. When Nicuessa in 1752; served three years in America came, they defied him and sent him adrift under Carleton and Burgoyne, and was in a crazy vessel; and Enciso, seeing no captured with the latter at Saratoga. At chance for subduing the insurgents, went the battle of Hubbardton, where he was back to Spain with loud complaints wounded, thirteen balls passed through against Nunez, and the Spanish govern- his clothes. He was made major-general ment sent out Davila, with a fleet and in 1793; lieutenant-governor of Jamaica troops, as governor of Darien. in 1794; general in 1803; and subsequent- Meanwhile Nunez had become a great 1.7 one of the representative peers from discoverer. The cacique, or Indian ruler, Scotland. He died in London, March 27, of a neighboring district, named Caveta, 1825. had treated two Spaniards with great Balch, George Beall, naval officer ; kindness, who requited his hospitality by born in Tennessee, Jan. 3, 1821. He en- advising Nunez to attack and plunder him, tered the navy in 1837; engaged in the for he had much gold. While the people war against Mexico, and was wounded of Caveta's village were slumbering, in a naval engagement at Shanghai, China. Nunez and his followers entered it and He was engaged actively and successfully carried off the cacique and his whole in the South Atlantic blockading squad- family and others, and, with considerable rons and in other naval operations. He booty, returned to Darien. Caveta and became rear-admiral in 1878, and retired Nunez soon became friends. The former in 1883. gave his young and beautiful daughter to Baldwin, Abraham, legislator; born in the Spanish adventurer as his wife, and Guilford, Conn., Nov. 6, 1754; originated she acquired great influence over her hus- the University of Georgia, and was its band. While visiting a powerful cacique, president for several years; was a dele- a friendly neighbor of Caveta, Nunez was gate to the Continental Congress in 1785- told that beyond the mountains was a 88, and a member of the Constitutional mighty sea that could be seen from their Convention in 1787. In 1789-99 he was summits, and that the rivers that flowed a Representative in Congress, and was down the slopes of the mountains on the then elected to the United States Senate, other side abounded with gold; also that of which he was president pro tern, in along the coast of that sea was a country 1801-02. He died in Washington, D. C, where gold was as plentiful as iron. This March 4, 1807. story was confirmed by others, and finally Baldwin, Charles H., naval officer; Nunez, with nearly 200 men and a number born in New York City, Sept. 3, 1822; en- 251 BALDWIN— BALLOONS IN WAR tered the navy in 1839; served through the capture of New York in 1776, and was Mexican War on the frigate Congress; brevetted major in November following, commanded the steamer Clifton of the Served under Lord Cornwallis in Pennsyl- mortar flotilla at the passage of Forts A^ania and the Carolinas; and was in com- Jackson and St. Philip below New Orleans, mand at Charleston in 1781, when he re- and in the first attack on Vicksburg, both luctantly obeyed the command of Lord in 1862; was promoted rear-admiral in Rawdon to execute Isaac Hayne (q. v.). 1883; and was the official representative He was then lieutenant-colonel. He was of the United States at the coronation of made colonel and aide - de - camp to his the Emperor of Russia. He died in New king in 1782, a major-general in 1793, York City, Nov. 17, 1888. lieutenant - general in 1798, and general Baldwin, Henry, historian; born in in 1803. He died in Dunbog, Oct. 10, New York City, Feb. 1, 1832; was elected 1823. by the convention of Patriotic Organ- izations in Chicago in 1891 to verify " all Ball, Thomas, sculptor; born in Charlestown, Mass., June 3, 1819; edu- the facts of American history" and to cated at Mayhew School, Boston. In collect a Library Americana to be de- 1840-52 he applied himself to painting, posited at Washington. He has devoted but in 1851 undertook sculpture. He de- his entire time to this work. signed and executed the equestrian statue Baldwin, Theodore A., military officer ; of Washington in Boston, the statue of born in New Jersey, Dec. 31, 1839; en- Daniel Webster in Central Park, New tered the army in 1862; served through York, and other similar works. In 1891- the Civil War; became lieutenant-colonel, 98 he was engaged on a monument of 10th United States Cavalry, in 1896; was Washington for Methuen, Mass. He be- a brigadier-general of volunteers in the came an honorary fellow of the National American-Spanish War; and was pro- Sculptors' Society in 1896. He is the moted to colonel of the 7th United States author of My Three-Score Years and Ten: Cavalry, May 6, 1899. an Autobiography, which attracted much Baler, a town in the eastern part of attention. Luzon, Philippine Islands, nearly midway Balloons in War. At the beginning between Balintang Channel and Bernar- of the Civil War the telegraphic oper- dino Strait, and directly north of a notable ations of the army were intrusted to mountain of the same name. In 1898-99 Maj. Thomas T. Eckert. In this connec- the Filipino insurgents besieged a Span- tion T. S. C. Lowe, a distinguished aero- ish garrison here for nearly a year, the naut, was employed, and for some time Spanish commander declining to surrender balloons were used with great efficiency the place even when directed to do so by in reconnoitring, but later in the progress orders from Madrid. The garrison took of the war they fell into disuse. At the possession of the native church, fortified height of 500 feet above Arlington House, it, and held possession till their supplies opposite Washington, D. C, Mr. Lowe gave out, when they surrendered, and, in telegraphed to President Lincoln as fol- recognition of their exceptional heroism, lows, in June, 1861 : " Sir, from this point were alhrwed to march out of the place of observation we command an extent of with all the honors of war, July 2, 1899. country nearly 50 miles in diameter. I The town was occupied and garrison- ed by United States troops in March, 1900. Balfour, Nisbet, British military offi- have pleasure in sending you the first telegram ever despatched from an aerial station, and acknowledging indebtedness to your encouragement for the opportu- cer; born in Dunbog, Scotland, in 1743. He nity of demonstrating the availability of was a son of an auctioneer and bookseller the science of aeronautics in the service in Edinburgh; entered the British army of the country." After sending the above as an ensign in 1761 ; commanded a com- despatch, Mr. Lowe was invited to the pany in 1770; was wounded at the battle Executive Mansion and introduced to Gen- of Bunker Hill in June, 1775, and again eral Scott; and he was soon afterwards in the battle of Long Island. He was employed in the military service. When sent home with despatches after the in use, the balloon was kept under control 252 BALLOT REFORM— BALL'S BLUFF by strong cords in the hands of men on enacted laws providing for ballot reform, the ground, who, when the reconnoissance The method of voting prescribed by most was ended, drew it down to the place of departure. During the Franco-Prus- sian War (1870-71) bal- loons were freely used by both parties, Gambetta and other French authorities passed successfully over the investing lines of Germans; and captive or observa- tion as well as floating balloons were frequent Jj targets for ambitious sharp-shooters. In the Santiago campaign in Cuba, in 1898, much was expected of an observation balloon, put together and operated by men of the United States of these enactments was essentially that known as the Australian system, from the fact of its having originated in South Australia some thirty-five years previous- ly. It was adopted in England in 1872. Its primary object is to secure absolute se- crecy in voting. Its peculiar and essential features are, first, an official ballot, and, second, privacy in voting. By an official ballot is meant a ticket which has been printed and furnished by State or local authorities, and is given to the voter by a special official. Privacy in voting is secured by different means, such as vot- ing booths, enclosed stalls, and other de- vices for concealing the voter from view. The good effects of this system were im- mediately apparent in the States where it was adopted, promoting good order and decency at the polls, and greatly dimin- ishing the opportunities for fraud and in- timidation. In the system in vogue in most States the names of all candidates are on a single ticket, and the voter in- dicates his choice by a cross (X). This system in the Presidential election of 1896 was used in thirty-six States, and seems likely to be universally adopted. Various voting machines have been tried since 1890, but none have as yet proven sufficiently satisfactory to warrant their general use. Ballou, Mattjrin Murray, journalist; born in Boston, Mass., April 14, 1820; was educated in the Boston High School. In 1838 he entered journalism on the Olive Branch, a weekly. Later he became pro- prietor and editor of Ballou's Monthly and Signal Service. Several successful ascen- Gleason's Pictorial. He became one of sions were made, and messages describing the founders of the Boston Daily Globe the situation of the Spaniards were trans- in 1872, and for many years was its mitted to General Shatter's headquarters, chief editor. He also had a part or It was found that there were large possi- whole interest in Ballou's Pictorial; bilities in the use of balloons for military The Flag of Our Union, and the Bos- purposes, but that there were ever-present ton Sunday Budget. His works include elements of danger. The Santiago balloon Due West; Due South; Due North; rendered good service at a critical time, Under the Southern Gross; The New El but was destroyed by a Spanish shot. Dorado; Aztec Land; The Story of Malta; Ballot Reform. The agitation in Equatorial America; Biography of the favor of a system of election laws which Rev. Hosea Ballou. He died in Cairo, should prevent corruption, bribery, and Egypt, March 27, 1895. intimidation at the polls began in the Ball's Bluff, Battle at. In October, United States in 1887. Four years there- 1861, a National force, commanded by after twenty-eight out of the forty-eight Gen. Charles P. Stone, was encamped be- State and Territorial legislatures had tween Edward's and Conrad's ferries, on 253 WAR BALLOON. BALL'S BLUFF the Maryland side of the upper Potomac, while the left wing of the Confederate army, under General Evans, lay at Lees- burg, in Virginia. Misinformation had caused a belief that the Confederates had left Leesburg at a little past the middle of October, when General McClellan or- dered General McCall, who commanded the advance of the right of the National forces in Virginia, to move forward and occupy Drainesville. At the same time he ordered General Stone to co-operate with General McCall, which he did by MAP OF BALL'S BLUFF. making a feint of crossing the river at the two ferries above named on the afternoon of Sunday, Oct. 20. At the same time part of a Massachusetts regiment, under Colo- nel Devens (see Devens, Charles), was ordered to take post upon Harrison's Isl- and, in the Potomac, abreast of Ball's Bluff. Devens went to the island with four companies in flat-boats taken from the Chesapeake and Ohio canal. About 3,000 men, under Col. Edward D. Baker (q. v.), of the national Senate, acting as brigadier-general, were held in readiness as a reserve in case of a battle. With that reserve was a fine body of Pennsyl- vanians known as the " 1st California Regiment." These movements of the Na- tionals caused an opposing one on the part of the Confederates, who had watched their antagonists with keen vigilance at a point of concealment not far off Misin- formed as to the position of the Confeder- ates and supposing McCall to be near enough to give aid if necessary, Stone, on the morning of the 21st, ordered some Massachusetts troops under Colonels Lee and Devens to cross to the Virginia shore from Harrison's Island to reconnoitre. They did not find the foe in the neighbor- hood. General Evans, unperceived, lay not far off; and riflemen and cavalry were hover- ing near and waiting a favorable oppor- tunity to strike Devens, who, leaving a part of Lee's command near the Bluff, had advanced to near Leesburg. After a skir- mish, in w r hich he lost one man killed and nine wounded, he fell back towards the Bluff. While halting in an open field, he received orders from Stone to remain there until support could be sent him. His en- tire force consisted of only 600 men. They were very soon attacked by the Confeder- ates. It was a little past noon. Pressed by overwhelming numbers, Devens fell back to avoid being flanked. Meanwhile Colonel Baker had been pressing forward from Conrad's Ferry to the relief of the assailed troops. Ranking Devens, he had been ordered to Harrison's Island, with discretionary powers to reinforce the party on the Virginia main or to withdraw all the troops to the Maryland side of the river. He concluded to go forward, sup- posing the forces of McCall and others to be near. He was ignorant of the fact that General McClellan had ordered Mc- Call to fall back from Drainesville. On reaching the field of conflict, Baker took the chief command of all the forces on the Bluff, about 1,700 strong. Very soon afterwards, while he was in the thick- est of the fight encouraging his men, a bullet pierced his brain and he fell dead. The battle had lasted two hours. His troops, unsupported by others, were crushed by superior numbers. Pressed back to the verge of the Bluff, which there rises more than 100 feet above the river, they fought desperately for a while at twi- light, for they had no means for crossing the swollen flood. They were soon over- powered. Some had been pushed down the declivity. Many were made prisoners, and many perished in trying to escape by swimming in the dark. Some were shot in the water, and others were drowned. A flat-boat laden with the wounded was riddled with bullets and sank. In this affair the Nationals lost, in killed, wound- ed, and prisoners, fully 1,000 men. The Confederates lost 153 killed. The num- ber of their wounded is unknown. 254 Baltimore Baltimore, city, port of entry, commer- wholesale drygoods store on German cial metropolis of Maryland, and sixth Street, Hopkins Place, and Liberty Street, city in the United States in population ac- Although firemen were working on the cording to the census of 1900; on the building within ten minutes of the alarm, I'atapsco River; 38 miles northeast of the flames spread with such rapidity that Washington, D.C. The city covers an area within half an hour the entire city fire of 28 square miles; has an admirable har- department found itself powerless to bor, defended by Forts McHenry, Armis- check them. Appeals for aid were tele- tead, Howard, Smallwood, and Carroll, graphed to various cities, including New and is popularly known as " The Monu- York, and by evening of the following day mental City." Its history dates back to the fire burned itself out at the water's 1662, when its site was included in a pat- edge, after leaving in smoky ruin an area ent for a tract of land granted to Charles equal to twelve by nine full city blocks in Gorsuch. David Jones, the first settler the business section. The total gross loss on the site of Baltimore, in 1682, gave his of the fire-insurance companies was ofli- name to a small stream that runs through daily reported at about $30,500,000. the city. In January, 1730, a town was laid out on the west of this stream, con- In the Revolutionary War. — When the British army approached the Delaware tained in a plot of sixty acres, and was River (December, 1776), and it was called Baltimore, in honor of Cecil, Lord feared that they would cross into Penn- Baltimore. In the same year William sylvania and march on Philadelphia, Fell, a ship-carpenter, purchased a tract there was much anxiety among the patri- east of the stream and called it Fell's ots. The Continental Congress, of the Point. Fort McHenry stands opposite, on courage and patriotism of which there was Locust Point. In 1732 a new town of ten a growing distrust, were uneasy. Leading acres was laid out on the east side of the republicans hesitated to go further, and stream, and called Jonestown. It was only Washington and a few other choice united to Baltimore in 1745, dropping its spirits were hopeful. When the com- own name. In 1767 Baltimore became the mander-in-chief was asked what he would county town. The population in 1890 was do if Philadelphia should be taken, he re- 434,439; in 1900, 508,957. plied, "We will retreat beyond the Sus- Baltimore has become a seaport and port quehanna River, and thence, if necessary, of entry of large importance. In the to the Alleghany Mountains." Qua- fiscal year ending June 30, 1904, the im- kers and loyalists abounded everywhere, ports of foreign merchandise were valued Mifflin, who was a disowned member of the at $20,345,788, and the exports of domes- tic merchandise at $82,835,164. The ton- nage movement in the foreign trade was : entrances — sail, 60,118; steam, 1,186,595; clearances — sail, 28,362; steam, 1,251,912. Society of Friends, and had witnessed the sudden growing lukewarmness of the Congress, fearing the effect of Howe's proclamation upon both, strongly recom- mended the removal of Congress from The city has also a correspondingly large Philadelphia. General Putnam, who had trade with the principal Atlantic coast been sent to that city to fortify it, earn- ports, and by rail with the leading cities estly seconded Mifflin's proposition; and of the north, east, south, and west. Balti- the Congress, trembling for their personal more is also widely noted for the variety safety, gladly complied, and adjourned and extent of her manufacturing indus- (Dec. 12), to meet at Baltimore, Dec. tries, which, according to the census of 20. Putnam was invested with almost 1900, comprised 6,359 plants, employing absolute control of military affairs $117,062,459 capital and 78,738 wage- in Philadelphia, and the Congress dele- earners, paying $29,220,4CO for wages and gated their executive powers to a resident $87,175,154 for materials used, and hav- committee composed of Robert Morris, ing products of a combined value of George Clymer, and George Walton, to $161,249,240. Great Fire of 1904- — The worst confla- gration in the history of the city broke out on the morning of Feb. 7, 1904, in a 255 act in their behalf during their absence. In Baltimore, the Congress reassembled (Dec. 20, 1776) in a spacious brick build- ing that stood until within a few years. BALTIMORE with fronts on Baltimore, Sharpe, and Liberty streets, and where, on the 23d, expression of opinion, and the reopening of the slave trade was advocated. Finally, Rev. Patrick Allison, first minister of the on Friday, the 22d, the majority report Presbyterian Church in Baltimore, and Rev. William White, of the Episcopal was adopted, and the places of most of the seceders, who were unseated, were filled Church in Philadelphia, were appointed by Douglas men. Then there was another chaplains. secession of delegates from the slave-labor On June 18, 1860, the adjourned con- States, and on the following morning Mr. vention of Democratic delegates who had Gushing and a majority of the Massachu- assembled in Charleston met at Baltimore, setts delegation also withdrew. " We put with Mr. Gushing in the chair. The our withdrawal before you," said Mr. But- ler (Benjamin F.) of that delegation, the simple j among others, upon MEETING-PLACE OF CONGRESS IN BALTIMORE IN 1776. that there has been a with- drawal, in part, of a majority of the States, and, further (and that, perhaps, more personal to myself ) , upon the ground that I will not sit in a convention where the African slave trade — which is piracy by the laws of my coun- try — is approvingly advocated." Gov. David Tod, of Ohio, was then called to the chair in place of dishing, re- tired, and the conven- tion proceeded to bal- seceders from the Charleston Convention, tot for a Presidential candidate. Some who had been in session at Richmond, had of the Southern members remained in adjourned to Baltimore, and claimed the the convention; and the speech of a right to sit in the convention from which delegate from Arkansas (Mr. Flour- they had withdrawn. Mr. Cushing der noy), a slave-holder and friend of the clined to decide the delicate question system, was so liberal that it had a which arose, and referred the whole matter powerful effect upon delegates from the to the convention. It was debated for free-labor States in favor of Mr. Douglas, some time, when it was proposed that no Of 194 votes cast on the second ballot, Mr. delegate should be admitted unless he Douglas received 181, and he was declared would pledge himself to abide by the ac- duly nominated. Mr. Fitzpatrick, of Ala- tion of a majority of the convention and bama, nominated for Vice-President, de- support its nominees. The debates were clined two days afterwards, and Herschel hot and acrimonious, and at evening V. Johnson, of Georgia, was substituted, there were two mass-meetings of the De- The convention adjourned June 23, 1860. mocracy in Baltimore, attended by tens Early in January, 1861, Gov. John A. of thousands of citizens and strangers. On Andrew (q. v.), of Massachusetts, ten- the morning of June 19 the subject of con- dered troops to the government for its testing delegates was referred to the com- protection. Fort Sumter was attacked, mittee on credentials, and on the 21st, the committee not agreeing, two reports were submitted. Then a very warm debate was had, in which free rein was given to the and on the day when the President's call for troops was issued, Senator Wilson telegraphed to Governor Andrew to de- spatch twenty companies to Washington 256 BALTIMORE immediately. The formal requisition of March! was given to the troops, when the the Secretary of War arrived an hour mob began hurling bricks and stones. The later, calling for two regiments from missiles filled the air like hail, while the Massachusetts, and before sunset the same troops advanced at a " double-quick." day an order went out for four regiments Very soon the attack became more furious, to muster forthwith on Boston Common, and several of the soldiers were knocked Benjamin F. Butler was commissioned down by stones and their muskets taken brigadier-general, and these regiments from them. Presently some shots were formed his brigade. On the 16th Senator fired by the infuriated populace. Up to Wilson telegraphed for four regiments, this time the troops had made no resist- They were ready, and the 6th Regiment, ance. Now, finding the mob intent upon Colonel Jones, was sent forward immedi- murder, the troops were ordered to cap ately, to go by way of New York, Phila- their muskets (already loaded) and de- delphia, and Baltimore. The regiment fend themselves. They had now reached consisted of eleven companies, and to Gay Street, and the mob was full 10,000 these were added two more. News had strong, hurling stones and bricks. Heavy reached Baltimore of the approach of pieces of iron were thrown upon them these troops, and there was much excite- from windows. One of them crushed a ment there on the morning of April 19, for man to the earth. Now the troops turned they had heard of the destruction of the and fired at random at the mob. Shouts, armory and arsenal at Harper's Ferry the stones, musketry, shrieks of women, and night before. At near noon the Massa- the carrying of wounded men into stores chusetts troops arrived, and the excitement made an appalling tragedy. The severest was intensified. When the train reached of the fight was in Pratt Street, between the President Street station, between Gay and Bowley's wharf, near Calvert which and Camden Street station the cars Street. The mayor of Baltimore tried to were drawn by horses, a mob of about 500 quell the storm of passion, but in vain, men were waiting to receive them. The and the New - Englanders were left to number rapidly increased, until, when the fight their way through to the Camden cars started, at least 2,000 men followed Street station. They were furiously as- them, with yells, to the Camden Street sta- sailed at Howard Street, where about tion, where another mob, which had been twenty shots were fired. At a little past gathering all the morning, met them. A noon the troops entered the cars for mob in Pratt Street became more and more Washington. Three of their number had unruly, shouting lustily for "Jeff Davis been killed outright, one mortally wound- and the Southern Confederacy," and at ed, and eight were seriously hurt and sev- near the corner of Gay Street, where lay eral slightly. Nine citizens of Baltimore a heap of stones, they broke loose from were killed and many — how many is not all restraint, and hurled these missiles known — were wounded. The mob followed upon the cars loaded with soldiers as tbey the cars as they went off for Washington, were passing. Every window was de- more than a mile, impeding the progress molished, and several soldiers were hurt, of the train with stones, logs, an* I tele- Then the cry was raised, "Tear up the graph-poles, which the accompanying po- track!" That could not easily be done, lice removed. The train was fire^ into and the mob barricaded the street by drag- from the hills on the way. The troops ging anchors upon it from a store near reached the Capitol that evening, and by. The troops back of the barricade were quartered in the Senate Chamber, alighted for the purpose of marching to On the night of this fearful riot Mar- the station. They consisted of four com- shal Kane and ex-Governor Lowe went panies. As they began a march in close to the mayor and Governor Hicks for au- order,the mob fell upon them. The rioters thority to destroy railroad bridges. Kane were led by a man with a Confederate flag said he had information that other Union on a pole, who told the troops they should troops were on the way by railroad from never go through the city — that "every Harrisburg and Philadelphia, and he want- nigger of 'em " would be killed before they ed authority to destroy the bridges on could reach the other station. The word those roads. The mayor cheerfully gave I.— R 257 BALTIMORE them power so far as his authority ex- from the loyal people every hour. The tended, but the governor refused. So, excitement in Washington was now be- without his sanction, Kane and the mayor coming fearful, and at three o'clock on went to the office of Charles Howard, pres- Sunday morning (April 21) the Presi- ident of the board of police, and received dent sent for Governor Hicks and Mayor orders for the destruction of bridges on . Brown. The former, with two others, roads entering Baltimore. A gang of hastened to Washington. At an inter- men was sent out who destroyed the Can- view with the President and General Scott, ton bridge, a short distance from the city, the latter proposed to bring troops by When a train from the north approached, water to Annapolis, and march them it was stopped, the passengers were turned across Maryland to the capital, a distance out, the cars were filled by the mob, and of about 40 miles. The Baltimore Confed- the engineer was compelled to run his erates were not satisfied. The " soil of train back to the long bridges over the Maryland must not be polluted by the feet Gunpowder and Bush creeks, arms of of National troops anywhere." On the Chesapeake Bay. These bridges were 22d, Governor Hicks was induced to send fired and a large portion of them con- a message to the President, advising him sumed. Another party went up the North- not to order any more troops across the era Central Railway from Baltimore to soil of Maryland, and to send away some Cockeysville, 15 miles north, and destroy- who were already at Annapolis. The ed two wooden bridges there, and smaller President replied kindly but firmly. He structures on the road. The telegraph- reminded his Excellency that the route wires on all the leading lines out of Bal- of the troops across that State chosen timore, excepting the one that kept up a by the general-in-chief was farthest re- communication with the Confederates at moved from populous towns, and said: Harper's Ferry, were destroyed, and thus " The President cannot but remember that all communication by telegraph and rail- there has been a time in the history of our way between Washington and the loyal country [1814] when a general [Winder, States was cut off. of Maryland] of the American Union, with Governor Hicks passed the night of April forces designed for the defence of the cap- 19 at the house of Mayor Brown in Bal- ital, was not unwelcome anywhere in the timore. It was the night after the attack State of Maryland, and certainly not at on the Massachusetts troops there. At Annapolis, then, as now, the capital of eleven o'clock the mayor, with the con- that patriotic State; and then, also, one currence of the governor, sent a commit- of the capitals of the Union/' Governor tee of three persons to President Lincoln Hicks had also unwisely recommended the with a letter in which he assured the chief President to refer the matter in dispute magistrate that the people of Baltimore between the national government and were exasperated to the highest degree Maryland to Lord Lyons, the British min- bythe passage of troops through that city, ister at Washington. To this proposition and that the citizens were " universally Mr. Lincoln replied : " If eighty years decided in the opinion that no more should could have obliterated all other noble sen- be ordered to come." He gave notice of timents of that age from Maryland, the the fearful riot the day before, and he President would be hopeful, nevertheless, requested the President not to order or that there is one that would ever remain permit any more troops to pass through there, as elsewhere. That sentiment is, the city, adding, " If they should attempt that no domestic contention whatever that it the responsibility for the bloodshed will may arise among the parties of this re- not rest on me." The committee saw the public ought, in any case, to be referred President early in the morning (April to any foreign arbitrament, least of all 20). The President told them that no to the arbitrament of a European mon- more should come through the city if they archy." This rebuke was keenly felt, could pass peaceably around it. This an- Yet still another embassy in the interest swer did not satisfy the Confederates, and of the Baltimore Confederates visited the they pushed forward military prepara- President. Five members of the Young tions, making the capital more isolated Men's Christian Association of Baltimore, 258 BALTIMORE with Rev. Dr. Fulton, of the Baptist 12,000 men would be needed for the enter- Church, at their head, waited on the Pres- prise. They were not at hand, for 10,000 ident, and assured him that if he would troops were yet needed at the capital for let the country know that he was disposed its perfect security. The time for the '" to recognize the independence of the execution of the plan seemed somewhat Southern States, that they had formed remote. Gen. B. F. Butler conceived a a government of their own, and that they more expeditious and less cumbersome would never again unite with the North," plan. He was satisfied that the Confed- he could produce peace. When Dr. Ful- erates in Baltimore were numerically ton expressed a hope that no more troops weak, and that the Unionists, with a would be allowed to cross Maryland, the little help, could easily reverse the order President replied, substantially : " I must of things there. He hastened to Wash- have troops for the defence of the capital, ington to consult with General Scott, and The Carolinians are now marching across simply asked permission to take a regi- Virginia to seize the capital and hang ment or two from Annapolis, march them me. What am I to do? I must have to the relay house on the Baltimore and troops, I say; and, as they can neither Ohio Railway (9 miles from Baltimore) crawl under Maryland nor fly over it, they and hold it, so as to cut the Confederates must come across it." With this signifi- off from facile communication with Har- cant intimation of the President that he per's Ferry. The permission was grant- should take measures to defend the re- ed. " What are the powers of a general public without asking the consent of the commanding a department?" asked But- authorities or inhabitants of any State, ler. " Absolute," responded Scott. But- the deputation retired, and none other ler ascertained that Baltimore was in his was afterwards sent by the enemies of * department," and he went back to An- the Union in Baltimore. napolis to execute a bold plan which he The authorities of Baltimore, civil and had conceived. At the close of April, military, took measures, however, to pre- 1861, he had fully 10,000 men under his vent any more National troops from pass- command, and an equal number were ing through .the city. Armed men flocked guarding the seat of government. The into the town from the country with all Unionists of Maryland were already as- sorts of weapons. Cannons were exercised serting their rights openly. Governor openly in the streets. Marshal Kane, un- Hicks had just cast a damper on the der the direction of the city authorities, Confederates by recommending, in a mes- forbade the display of the national flag sage to the legislature, a neutral policy for thirty days, that it might not " dis- for Maryland. On the evening of May 4 turb the public peace." The exasperated an immense Union meeting was held in people of the free-labor States could hard- Baltimore. These proofs of the latent ly be restrained from marching on Balti- force of the Unionists of Maryland gave more and laying it in ashes. Measures Butler every encouragement. He had pro- were soon used to subdue that city by posed to do himself, with a few men, at force. Steps were taken to repair the once, what Scott proposed to do with 12,- burned railway bridges, and a singular 000 men in an indefinite time. On the railway battery was constructed in Phila- afternoon of May 4 he issued orders for delphia for the protection of the men the 8th New York and 6th Massachusetts engaged in the work — a car made of boiler- regiments, with a battery of the Boston iron, musket-proof, with a 24-pound can- Light Artillery, to proceed from Washing- non mounted at one end to fire grape ton, D. C, to the relay house on the and chain shot. General Scott planned a morning of the 5th. They did so, in thirty grand campaign against Baltimore. He cars. They seized the railway station at proposed to move simultaneously upon the the relay house. Butler accompanied them, city four columns of troops of 3,000 men and remained there a little more than a each— one from Washington, a second week. From Unionists of Baltimore he from New York, a third from Perrysville, obtained all desired information. Through or Elkton, by land or water, or both, and Col. Schuyler Hamilton, on Scott's staff, a fourth from Annapolis. It was thought he received permission to arrest Confed- 259 BALTIMORE erates in and out of Baltimore, to prevent armed bodies from joining those at Har- per's Ferry, and to look after a quantity of gunpowder said to be stored in a church in Baltimore. Towards the evening of the 13th the entire 6th Massachusetts Regi- ment, a part of the New York 8th, with the Boston Light Artillery with two can- nons — about 1,000 men in all — were put on cars headed towards Harper's Ferry. The train moved up the Patapsco Valley about 2 miles, and then backed slowly to the relay house and past it. At dark it was in the Camden Street station in Baltimore. A heavy thunder-storm was about to burst upon the city, and, few per- sons being about, little was known of this portentous arrival. Butler marched his troops from the station to Federal Hill in a drenching shower. He sat down in his wet garments at past midnight and wrote a proclamation, dated " Federal Hill, Baltimore, May 14, 1861," in which it was announced that troops under his command occupied the city for the pur- pose of enforcing respect and obedience to the laws, as well of the State as of the United States, which were being " violated within its limits by some malignant and traitorous men." This proclamation, pub- lished in the Baltimore Clipper in the morning, was the first intimation to the citizens that National troops were in pos- session of their town. The conquest was complete, and the hold thus taken on Bal- timore was never relinquished. General Scott was offended because of Butler's unauthorized act, and requested President Lincoln to remove him from the depart- ment. The President did so, but gave Butler the commission of a major-general and the command of a much more extend- ed military district — the Department of Virginia, which included Fort Monroe. The chief of police in Baltimore at this exciting period was George P. Kane, with the title of "marshal." He was a lead- ing Confederate in that city and an active opposer of the government in Maryland. In Baltimore he was the head of the Con- federate movements in Maryland ; and early in June, 1861, the national government was satisfied that a powerful combination was forming there, whose purpose was to assist the army of Confederates at Ma- nassas, under Beauregard, to seize the na- tional capital, by preventing loyal sol- diers passing through that State, and aid- ing Marylanders to cross into Virginia and swell the ranks of the Confederate forces. The government took energetic steps to avert this threatened danger. N. P. Banks (q. v.), ex-governor of Massa- chusetts, lately commissioned major-gen- eral of volunteers, was assigned to the command of the Department of Annapolis, as Butler's successor, with his headquar- ters at Baltimore. It was evident to Banks that the board of police and Marshal Kane were in active sympathy, if not in actual league, with the leading Confederates of Maryland. After satisfying himself of the complicity of certain officials in the movement, he ordered a large body of sol- diers, armed and equipped with ball car- tridges, to march into Baltimore from Fort McHenry before daybreak on June 2, and to arrest Marshal Kane and place him a prisoner in that fort. At the same time Banks issued a proclamation, giving his reasons for the act. He did not in- tend to interfere with the lawful acts of the civil authority, he said, but as it was well known that a disloyal combination ex- isted in his department, and that the chief of police, " in contravention of his duty and in violation of law," was "by direc- tion or indirection both witness and pro- tector in the transactions of armed par- ties engaged therein," the government could not " regard him otherwise than as the head of an armed force hostile to its authority, and acting in concert with its avowed enemies." He appointed Brig.- Gen. John R. Kenly, a citizen of Balti- more, provost-marshal in and for that city, to " superintend and cause to be exe- cuted the police laws " of Baltimore, " with the aid and assistance of the subordinate officers of the police department," assuring the citizens that when a loyal man should be appointed chief of police the military would at once yield to the civil authority. The police commissioners met and protest- ed against this act as illegal, and dis- banded the police. Banks soon regulated the matter so as to quiet the citizens, and Kenly, organizing a police force of loyal men, whom he could trust, 250 strong, took possession of the quarters of the late marshal and police commissioners. There he found ample evidence of treacherous 260 BALTIMORE designs. Concealed beneath the floors in several rooms he found a large number of small-arms, of every description; and in a wood-yard in the rear, in a position to command an alley, were four iron can- non with suitable cartridges and balls. The old police commissioners continuing to hold meetings, they were arrested and sent to Fort Warren, in Boston Harbor. At the suggestion of many Union citizens of Baltimore, George R. Dodge, a civilian and citizen, was appointed chief of police, and Colonel Kenly joined his regiment — the 1st Maryland Volunteers. See North Point, Battle of. Baltimore, Lords. I. George Calvert, born about 1580, at Kipling, Yorkshire, Eng. ; was graduated at Oxford; travelled on the Continent; became secretary of Robert Cecil; married Anne Minne in 1604; was a clerk of the privy council; was knighted in 1617; became a secretary of state soon afterwards, and in 1620 was granted a pension of $5,000 a year. When, in 1624, he publicly avowed himself a Roman Catholic, he resigned his office, but King James retained him in the privy council; and a few days before that mon- arch's death he was created Baron of Bal- timore in the Irish peerage. Calvert had already entered upon a colonizing scheme. In 1620 he purchased a part of Newfound- land, and was invested with the privileges and honors of a count - palatine. He called his new domain Avalon, and, after spending about $100,000 in building ware- houses there, and a mansion for himself, he went thither in 1627. He returned to England the following spring. In the spring of 1629 he went again to Avalon, taking with him his wife and unmarried children. The following winter was a severe one, and he began to contemplate a desertion of the domain on account of the rigorous climate. He sent his children home. In the autumn he actually aban- doned Newfoundland, and with his wife and retainers sailed to Virginia, where, because he refused to take the oath of al- legiance, he was ordered away by Governor Harvey. His wife and retainers remained there during the winter. Going from there in the spring, it is supposed he ex- plored the shores of Chesapeake Bay, and chose that region for a settlement. In 1632, Lord Baltimore obtained a charter from Charles I. of the territory on the Chesapeake now forming the State of Maryland. " What will you call the coun- try?" asked the King. Baltimore referred the matter to his Majesty. " Then let us name it after the Queen" (Henrietta Maria), said Charles, "and call it Mari- ana." The expert courtier dissented, be- cause that was the name of a Spanish his- torian who taught that " the will of the people is higher than the law of tyrants." Still disposed to compliment the Queen, the King said, " Let it be Terra Marice — Mary's Land." And it was named Mary- land. Before the great seal of England was affixed to the charter, Lord Baltimore died, April 15, 1632, and was succeeded by his son Cecil. II. Cecilius or Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, was born about 1605. Very little is known of his early life. When he was about twenty years of age CECIL CALVERT, LORD BALTIMORE. he married Anne, the beautiful daughter of the Earl of Arundel, who was one of the most influential Roman Catholics in the realm. On the death of his father, the charter for Maryland was issued to Ce- cilius, his eldest son and heir, June, 1632; and he immediately prepared to sail for the Chesapeake with a colony. When he was about ready to depart, he changed his mind, and sent his brother Leonard, as 261 BALTIMORE governor, with his brother George, and prietor of Maryland in 1675. He was born two assistants and counsellors, Jeremy Hawley and Thomas Cornwallis, both Protestants. The whole company, who sailed in two vessels — the Ark and Dove — numbered over 300, according to Lord Baltimore, who wrote to his friend Went- worth (afterwards the unfortunate Earl of Strafford: "By the help of some of your lordship's good friends and mine, I have sent a hopeful colony into Maryland, with a fair and favorable expectation of good success, without any great prejudice to my- self, in respect that many others are joined with me in the adventure. There are two of my brothers, with very near twenty other gentlemen of very good fashion, and 300 laboring men." As most of the latter took the oath of allegiance before sailing, they were probably Protestants. Father Andrew White, a Jesuit priest, accom- panied the expedition. They sailed from the Isle of Wight, and took the tedious southern route by way of the Canaries. The vessels were separated by a furious gale, but met at Bermuda, whence the emigrants went to the Chesapeake, found- ed a settlement, and established a govern- ment under the charter, which was near- ly the same in form as all charters then granted (see Maryland). It conferred on the proprietor absolute ownership of the territory, and also the civil and ec- clesiastical power of a feudal nature. En- tire exemption from taxation was con- ceded to the colonists. As an acknowledg- ment that the original title to the land was still in the possession of the crown, the proprietor was required to pay to the King the tribute of two Indian arrows. Cecil was a member of Parliament in 1634, but mingled very little in public affairs afterwards. He never came to America, but managed his province by deputies forty-three years. His course towards the colonists was generally wise and concilia- tory, because it was profitable to be so. In religion and politics he was very flexible, being quite indifferent to either, and he did very little for the religious and intel- lectual cultivation of the colonists. Nega- tively good, he was regarded with great re- spect by all parties, even by the Indians. He died in London, Nov. 30, 1675. III. Charles Calvert, third Lord Bal- timore, succeeded his father as lord pro- in London in 1629; appointed governor of Maryland in 1661; and married the daughter of Hon. Henry Sewall, whose seat was on the Patuxent river. After the death of his father he visited England, but soon returned. In 1684 he again went to England, and never came back. He was suspected of favoring King James II. after the Revolution, and was outlawed for treason in Ireland, although he was never in that country. The outlawry was re- versed by William and Mary in 1691. Charles Lord Baltimore was thrice mar- ried, and died in London, Feb. 24, 1714. IV. Benedict Leonard Calvert, fourth Lord Baltimore, succeeded his father, Charles, in 1714. In 1698 he married Lady Charlotte Lee, daughter of the Earl of Lichfield (granddaughter of the notori- ous Duchess of Cleveland, the favorite mistress of Charles II.), from whom he was divorced in 1705. Benedict publicly abjured the Roman Catholic faith in 1713, and died in 1715, only thirteen months after the death of his father. V. Charles Calvert II., son of Bene- dict, and the fifth Lord Baltimore, was born Sept. 29, 1699, and was an infant in law when he succeeded to his father's title. In July, 1730, he married the widow Mary Janssen, youngest daughter of Gen. Theodore Janssen. His life was spent chiefly in England. In 1731 he was ap- pointed gentjeman of the bedchamber to the Prince of Wales, and soon afterwards was elected Fellow of the Royal Society. He was in Parliament in 1734, and in 1741 was appointed Junior Lord of the Admiralty. In the spring of 1741 he was appointed cofferer to the Prince of Wales and surveyor-general of the Duchy lands in Cornwall. After having ruled Mary- land in person and by deputy more than thirty years, he died April 24, 1751, at his home in London. VI. Frederick Calvert, sixth and last Lord Baltimore, was born in 1731, and succeeded to the title of his father, Charles Calvert II., in 1751. He married Lady Di- iana Egerton, youngest daughter of the Duke of Bridgewater, in 1753. He led a disreputable life, and died at the age of forty, at Naples, Sept. 14, 1771. Yet he was a patron of literature and a friend and companion of the Earl of Chatham 262 BANCROFT (Pitt). In 1767 he published an account of his Tour in the East. He was a pre- tentious author of several other works, mostly of a weak character. Lord Fred- erick bequeathed the province of Mary- land, in tail male, to Henry Harford, then a child, and the remainder, in fee, to his sister, the Hon. Mrs. Norton. He left an estate valued at $5,000. The last representative of the Baltimore family was found in a debtors' prison in England, in 1860, by Col. Angus McDon- ald, of Virginia, where he had been con- fined for twenty years. Henry Harford was the last proprietor of Maryland. See Calvert, Leonard. Bancroft, Edward, naturalist; born in Westfield, Mass., Jan. 9, 1744; was a pupil of Silas Deane (q. v.) when the latter was a school-master. His early education was not extensive. Apprenticed to a me- chanic, he ran away, in debt to his master, and went to sea; but returning with means, he compensated his employer. Again he went to sea; settled in Guiana, South America, as a physician, in 1763, and afterwards made his residence in Lon- don, where, in 1769, he published a Nat- ural History of Guiana. He became a Fellow of the Royal College of Physicians, and Fellow of the Royal Society. While Franklin was in England on a diplomatic mission, Dr. Bancroft became intimate with him; and through the influence of the philosopher became a contributor to the Monthly Review. He was suspected by the British government of participa- tion in the attempt to burn the Ports- mouth dock-yards, and he fled to Passy, France. Soon afterwards he met Silas Deane, his old teacher, in Paris, and of- fered to assist him in his labors as agent of the Continental Congress. His ways were sometimes devious, and Mr. Bancroft, the historian, accuses him of being a spy in the pay of the British government, and of making a dupe of Deane. After the peace, Dr. Bancroft obtained, in France, a patent for the exclusive importation of the bark of the yellow oak, for the dyers, and afterwards he obtained a similar pat- ent in England. Dr. Bancroft never re- turned to America. He died in England, Sept. 8, 1820. Bancroft, Frederic, historian; born in Galesburg, 111., Oct. 30, 1860; was gradu- ated at Amherst College in 1882; ap- pointed chief of the Bureau of Rolls and Library, Department of State, Washing- ton, D. C, in 1888; has lectured on histor- ical and diplomatic subjects ; contributed many articles to the press; and published Life of William H. Seward; The Negro in Politics, etc. BANCROFT, GEORGE Bancroft, George, historian; born in Worcester, Mass., Oct. 3, 1800; son of Rev. Aaron Bancroft, a distinguished Uni- tarian clergyman and pioneer in . " liberal Christianity." He graduated at Harvard in 1817; studied at the German univer- sities, and received, at Gottingen, the honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy when he was only twenty years of age. He resided some time in Berlin in the society of distinguished scholars, and on his re- turn home, in 1822, he became a tutor of Greek in Harvard University. He pub- lished a volume of poems in 1823, and in 1824 a translation of Heeren's Politics of Ancient Greece. In 1823, in conjunction with J. G. Cogswell, he established the celebrated " Round Hill School," at North- ampton, Mass. While in the German uni- versities, Mr. Bancroft studied with avidity whatever was taught in them, but made history a specialty. His chief tutors there were Heeren, Eichhorn, and Blumenbach. At Berlin he became inti- mate with Wilhelm von Humboldt and other eminent scholars and philosophers. At Heidelberg he spent some time in the study of history with Schlosser; and in Paris he made the acquaintance of Alex- ander von Humboldt, Cousin, and others. At Rome he formed a friendship with Chevalier Biinsen; he also knew Niebuhr. While engaged in the Round Hill School, Mr. Bancroft completed the first volume of his History of the United States, which was published in 1834. Ten volumes of this great work were completed and pub- lished in 1874, or forty years from the commencement of the work. The tenth volume brings the narrative down to the 263 BANCROFT, GEORGE conclusion of the preliminary treaty of peace in 1782. In 1838 President Van Buren appointed Mr. Bancroft collector of the port of Boston. He was then en- gaged in delivering frequent political ad- dresses, and took a deep interest in the philosophical movement now known as " transcendentalism." He was a Demo- crat in politics, and in 1840 received the nomination for governor of Massachusetts, but was not elected. In 1845 President Polk called Mr. Bancroft to his cabinet as Secretary of the Navy, and he sig- GEORGE BANCROFT, LL.D. nalized his administration by the estab- lishment of the Naval Academy at An- napolis. While Secretary of the Navy he gave the order to take possession of Cali- fornia, which was done by the navy; and while acting temporarily as Secretary of War he gave the order for General Tay- lor to cross the Rio Grande and invade the territory of Mexico. In 1846 Mr. Bancroft was sent as United States min- ister plenipotentiary to England, and in 1849 the University of Oxford conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of Civil Law. During this residence in Europe he perfected his collection of ma- terials for his history, visiting the public archives and libraries at Paris. Return- ing to the United States in 1849, he made his residence in New York City, where he prosecuted his historical labors. He was engaged in this work until 1867, when he was appointed, by President Johnson (May 14), minister to Prussia, and ac- cepted the office. In 1868 he was accred- ited to the North German Confederation, and in 1871 to the German Empire. In August, 1868, Mr. Bancroft received from the University of Bonn the honorary de- gree of "Doctor Juris"; and in 1870 he celebrated the fiftieth anniversary of the reception of his first degree at Got- tingen. Mr. Bancroft was a contributor of numerous essays to the North Amer- ican Review. In 1889 he published Mar- tin Van Buren to the End of his Public Career, which he had written many years before. His History of the United States has been translated into several lan- guages. In 1882 he published a History of the Formation of the Constitution in 2 volumes. This completed his great work, in accordance with his original plan. He died Jan. 17, 1891. The Death of Lincoln. — On April 25, 1865, Mr. Bancroft delivered the following oration on the death of President Lincoln, in New York City, at a great gathering in Union Square, after the remains of the murdered President had started for Chi- cago: Our grief and horror at the crime which has clothed the continent in mourn- ing find no adequate expression in words, and no relief in tears. The President of the United States of America has fallen by the hands of an assassin. Neither the office with which he was invested- by the approved choice of a mighty people, nor the most simple-hearted kindliness of nat- ure, could save him from the fiendish passions of relentless fanaticism. The wailings of the millions attend his remains as they are borne in solemn procession over our great rivers, along the seaside, beyond the mountains, across the prairie, to their resting-place in the valley of the Mississippi. His funeral knell vibrates through the world, and the friends of free- dom of every tongue and in every clime are his mourners. Too few days have passed away since Abraham Lincoln stood in the flush of vigorous manhood to permit any attempt 264 BANCROFT, GEORGE at an analysis of his character or an phere is purer than ever before, and the exposition of his career. We find it hard insurrection is vanishing away; the coun- to believe that his large eyes, which in try is cast into another mould, and the their softness and beauty expressed noth- gigantic system of wrong, which has been ing but benevolence and gentleness, are the work of more than two centuries, is closed in death; we almost look for the dashed down, we hope, forever. And as pleasant smile that brought out more to himself personally, he was then scoffed vividly the earnest cast of his features, at by the proud as unfit for his station, which were serious even to sadness. A and now against usage of later years, few years ago he was a village attorney, and in spite of numerous competitors, he engaged in the support of a rising family, was the unbiased and undoubted choice unknown to fame, scarcely named beyond of the American people for a second term his neighborhood; his administration of service. Through all the mad business made him the most conspicuous man in of treason he retained the sweetness of a his country, and drew on him first the most placable disposition; and the slaugh- astonished gaze, and then the respect and ter of myriads of the best on the battle- admiration of the world. field, and the more terrible destruction of Those who come after us will decide our men in captivity by the slow torture how much of the wonderful results of his of exposure and starvation, had never been public career is due to his own good com- able to provoke him into harboring one mon-sense, his shrewd sagacity, readiness vengeful feeling or one purpose of cruelty, of wit, quick interpretation of the public How shall the nation most completely mind, his rare combination of fixedness show its sorrow at Mr. Lincoln's death? and pliancy, his steady tendency of pur- How shall it best honor his memory? pose; how much to the American people, There can be but one answer. He was who, as he walked with them side by side, struck down when he was highest in its inspired him with their own wisdom and service, and in strict conformity with duty energy; and how much to the overruling was engaged in carrying out principles af- laws of the moral world, by which the self- fecting its life, its good name, and its re- ishness of evil is made to defeat itself, lations to the cause of freedom and the But after every allowance, it will remain progress of mankind. Grief must take the that members of the government which character of action, and breathe itself preceded his administration opened the forth in the assertion of the policy to gates to treason, and he closed them; which he fell a victim. The standard that when he went to Washington the which he held in his hand must be uplift- ground on which he trod shook under ed again higher and more firmly than be- his feet, and he left the republic on a fore, and must be carried on to triumph, solid foundation; that traitors had seized Above everything eb£, his proclamation public forts and arsenals, and he recovered of the first day orTanuary, 1863, declar- them for the United States, to whom they ing, throughout the parts of the country belonged; that the capital, which he found in rebellion, the freedom of all persons the abode of slaves, is now the home only who had been held as slaves, must be of the free; that the boundless public do- affirmed and maintained, main which was grasped at, and, in a Events, as they rolled onward, have re- great measure, held, for the diffusion of moved every doubt of the legality and slavery, is now irrevocably devoted to free- binding force of that proclamation. The dom; that then men talked a jargon of a country and the rebel government have balance of power in a republic between each laid claim to the public service slave States and free States, and now the of the slave, and yet but one of the two foolish words are blown away forever by can have a rightful claim to such service, the breath of Maryland, Missouri, and That rightful claim belongs to the United Tennessee; that a terrible cloud of politi- States, because every one born on their cal heresy rose from the abyss, threaten- soil, with the few exceptions of the chil- ing to hide the light of the sun, and under dren of travellers and transient residents, its darkness a rebellion was growing into owes them a primary allegiance. Every indefinable proportions; now the atmos- one so born has been counted among those 265 BANCROFT, GEORGE represented in Congress; every slave has old government is restored, and its courts ever been represented in Congress; im- resume their jurisdiction. So it is with perfectly and wrongly it may be — but still us ; the United States have courts of their has been counted and represented. The own, that must punish the guilt of trea- slave born on our soil always owed al- son and vindicate the freedom of persons legiance to the general government. It whom the fact of rebellion has set free, may in time past have been a qualified Nor may it be said that, because sla- allegiance, manifested through his master, very existed in most of the States when as the allegiance of a ward through his the Union was formed, it cannot rightfully guardian, or of an infant through its be interfered with now. A change has parent. But when the master became taken place, such as Madison foresaw, and false to his allegiance, the slave stood face for which he pointed out the remedy. The to face with his country; and his allegi- constitutions of States had been trans- ance, which may before have been a quali- formed before the plotters of treason car- fied one, became direct and immediate. His ried them away into rebellion. When the chains fell off, and he rose at once in the federal Constitution was framed, general presence of the nation, bound, like the emancipation was thought to be near ; and rest of us, to its defence. Mr. Lincoln's everywhere the respective legislatures had proclamation did but take notice of the authority, in the exercise of their or- already existing right of the bondman to dinary functions, to do away with slavery, freedom. The treason of the master made Since that time the attempt has been it a public crime for the slave to continue made, in what are called slave States, to his obedience; the treason of a State set render the condition of slavery perpetual; free the collective bondmen of that State, and events have proved, with the clear- This doctrine is supported by the ness of demonstration, that a constitution analogy of precedents. In the times of which seeks to continue a caste of heredi- feudalism the treason of the lord of the tary bondmen through endless generations manor deprived him of his serfs; the is inconsistent with the existence of re- spurious feudalism that existed among us publican institutions. differs in many respects from the feudal- So, then, the new President and the ism of the Middle Ages, but so far the people of the United States must insist precedent runs parallel with the present that the proclamation of freedom shall case ; for treason the master then, for stand , as a reality. And, moreover, the treason the master now, loses his slaves. people must never cease to insist that the In the Middle Ages the sovereign ap- Constitution shall be so amended as ut- pointed another lord over the serfs and terly to prohibit slavery on any part of the land which they cultivated ; in our day our soil forevermore. the sovereign makes them masters of their Alas! that a State in our vicinity own persons, lords over themselves. should withhold its assent to this last It has been said that we are at war, beneficent measure; its refusal was an en- and that emancipation is not a belligerent couragement to our enemies equal to the right. The objection disappears before gain of a pitched battle, and delays the analysis. In a war between independent only hopeful method of pacification. The powers the invading foreigner invites to removal of the cause of the rebellion is his standard all who will give him aid, not only demanded by justice; it is the whether bond or free, and he rewards policy of mercy making room for a wider them according to his ability and his clemency; it is the part of order against pleasure, with gifts or freedom; but when, a chaos of controversy; its success brings at peace, he withdraws from the invaded with it true reconcilement, a lasting country, he must take his aiders and com- peace, a continuous growth of confidence forters with him; or if he leaves them through an assimilation of the social con- behind, where he. has no court to enforce dition. his decrees, he can give them no security, Here is the fitting expression of the unless it be the stipulations of a treaty, mourning of to-day. In a civil war it is altogether differ- And let no lover of his country say ent. There, when rebellion is crushed, the that this warning is uncalled for. The cry 266 BANCROFT, GEORGE is delusive that slavery is dead. Even Heaven has willed it that the United now it is nerving itself for a fresh strug- States shall live. The nations of the gle for continuance. The last winds from earth cannot spare them. All the worn- the South waft to us the sad intelligence out aristocracies of Europe saw in the that a man who had surrounded himself spurious feudalism of slave-holding their with the glory of the most brilliant and strongest outpost, and banded them- most varied achievements, who but a selves together with the deadly enemies week ago was counted with affectionate of our national life. If the Old World pride among the greatest benefactors of his will discuss the respective advantages of country and the ablest generals of all oligarchy or equality; of the union of time, has initiated the exercise of more Church and State, or the rightful free- than the whole power of the executive, dom of religion; of land accessible to the and under the name of peace has, perhaps many, or land monopolized by an ever- unconsciously, revived slavery, and given decreasing number of the few, the United the hope of security and political power States must live to control the decision to traitors, from the Chesapeake to the by their quiet and unobtrusive example. Rio Grande. Why could he not remember It has often and truly been observed the dying advice of Washington, never to that the truth and affection of the masses draw the sword but for self-defence or gather naturally round an individual; the rights of his country, and when if the inquiry is made, whether the man drawn, never to sheathe it till its work so trusted and beloved shall elicit from should be accomplished? And yet, from the reason of the people, enduring in- this ill-considered act, which the people stitutions of their own, or shall sequester with one united voice condemn, no great political power for a superintending dy- evil will follow save the shadow on his nasty, the United States must live to own fame, and that, also, we hope, will solve the problem. If a question is raised pass away. The individual, even in the on the respective merits of Timoleon, or greatness of military glory, sinks into Julius Caesar, or Washington, or Napo- insignificance before the resistless move- leon, the United States must be there to ments of ideas in the history of man. call to mind that there were twelve No one can turn back or stay the march Caesars, most of them the opprobrium of of Providence. the human race, and to contrast with No sentiment of despair may mix with them the line of American Presidents, our sorrow. We owe it to the memory of The duty of the hour is incomplete, the dead, we owe it to the cause of popu- our mourning is insincere, if, while we lar liberty throughout the world, that the express unwavering trust in the great sudden crime which has taken the life of principles that underlie our government, the President of the United States shall we do not also give our support to the not produce the least impediment in the man to whom the people have intrusted smooth surface of public affairs. This its administration. great city, in the midst of unexampled Andrew Johnson is now, by the Con- emblems of deeply seated grief, has sus- stitution, the President of the United tained itself with composure and mag- States, and he stands before the world as nanimity. It has nobly done its part in the most conspicuous representative of guarding against the derangement of the industrial classes. Left an orphan business or the slightest shock to public at four years old, poverty and toil were credit. The enemies of the republic put his steps to honor. His youth was not it to the severest trial; but the voice of passed in the halls of colleges; neverthe- faction has not been heard; doubt and less he has received a thorough political despondency have been unknown. In education in statesmanship, in the school serene majesty the country rises in the of the people, and by long experience of beauty and strength and hope of youth, public life. A village functionary; mem- and proves to the world the quiet energy ber successively of each branch of the Ten- and the durability of institutions grow- nessee legislature, hearing with a thrill ing out of the reason and affections of of joy the words, " the Union, it must the people. be preserved " ; a representative in Con- 267 BANCROFT— BANK OF THE UNITED STATES gress for successive years; governor of Bancroft, Hubert Howe, historian; the great State of Tennessee, approved born in Granville, O., May 5, 1832. He en- as its governor by re-election; he was gaged in the book business in California, at the opening of the rebellion a Senator and, after retiring, continued to develop from that State in Congress. Then at his large and valuable library. He made the Capitol, when Senators, unrebuked a specialty of the Pacific coast of North by the government, sent word by tele- America. Books, manuscripts, maps, nar- gram to seize forts and arsenals, he ratives personally related by Californian alone from that Southern region told pioneers, all formed the sources of his them what the government did not vast series of histories of the Pacific re- dare to tell them, that they were trai- gions. In the labor of indexing, collect- tors, and deserved the punishment of ing, and writing, Mr. Bancroft employed treason. Undismayed by a perpetual collaborators to a greater extent than is purpose of public enemies to take his usual. Up to 1900 he had published 39 life, bearing up against the still greater volumes in his historical series, covering trial of the persecution of his wife the western part of North America. His and children, in due time he went back working library comprised 60,000 volumes, to his State, determined to restore it to Bandelier, Adolph Francis Alphonse, the Union, or die with the American flag archaeologist; born in Berne, Switzerland, for his winding sheet. And now, at the Aug. 6, 1840; came to the United States call of the United States, he has returned in youth; and became noted for ethnologi- to Washington as a conqueror, with Ten- cal and historical researches in Central nessee as a free State for his trophy. It America, Mexico, New Mexico, Arizona, remains for him to consummate the vin- Ecuador, Peru, Chile, etc., for the Archseo- dication of the Union. logical Institute of America and the Amer- To that Union Abraham Lincoln has ican Museum of Natural History, fallen a martyr. His death, which was Bangor. See Hampden, Action at. meant to sever it beyond repair, binds Bank of North America. It was soon it more closely and more firmly than ever, perceived that under the new government, The blow aimed at him was aimed, not at based on the Articles of Confederation the native of Kentucky, not at the citizen (see Confederation, Articles of), the of Illinois, but at the man who, as Presi- Congress had no power, independent of the dent, in the executive branch of the gov- several States, to enforce taxation. Rob- ernment, stood as the representative of ert Morris, then Superintendent of Fi- every man in the United States. The nance (Secretary of the Treasury), pro- object of the crime was the life of the posed the establishment of a bank at Phil- whole people, and it wounds the affec- adelphia, to supply the government with tions of the whole people. From Maine to money, with a capital of $400,000. The the southwest boundary of the Pacific, it promissory notes of the bank were to be makes us one. The country may have a legal-tender currency, to be received in needed an imperishable grief to touch its payment of all taxes, duties, and debts inmost feeling. The grave that receives due the United States. The plan was ap- the remains of Lincoln receives the cost- proved by the Congress (May 26, 1781), ly sacrifice to the Union; the monument and this financial agent of the government which will rise over his body will bear was chartered by the Congress Dec. 31. witness to the Union; his enduring mem- The capital stock was divided into shares ory will assist during countless ages to of $400 each, in money of gold or silver, bind the States together, and to incite to be procured by subscriptions. Twelve to the love of our one undivided, indivis- directors were appointed to manage the ible country. Peace to the ashes of our affairs of the bank, which was entitled departed friend, the ' friend of his coun- by the Congress " The President, Direc- try and of his race. He was happy in tors, and Company of the Bank of North his life, for he was the restorer of the re- America." That corporation furnished ade- public; he was happy in his death, for his quate means for saving the Continental martyrdom will plead forever for the union army from disbanding, of the States and the freedom of man. Bank of the United States. Alexander 268 BANK OF THE UNITED STATES Hamilton, observing the prosperity and usefulness to the commercial community and the financial operations of the govern- ment, of the Bank of North America, Bank of New York, and Bank of Massa- chusetts, which held the entire banking capital of the country before 1791, recom- mended the establishment of a govern- ment bank in his famous report on the finances (1790), as Secretary of the Treas- ury. His suggestion was speedily acted upon, and an act for the purpose was adopted Feb. 8, 1791. President Wash- ington asked the written opinion of his cabinet concerning its constitutionality. They were equally divided. The Presi- dent, believing it to be legal, signed the bill, and so made it a law. The bank re- ceived a charter, the existence of which was limited to twenty years. It soon went into operation, with a capital of $10,000,000, of which amount the govern- ment subscribed $2,000,000 in specie and $6,000,000 in stocks of the United States. The measure was very popular. The shares of the bank rose to 25 and 45 per cent, premium, and it paid an av- erage dividend of 8% per cent, on its capital. The shares were $400 each. The bank was established at Philadelphia, with branches at different points. In 1808 — or three years before the char- ter would expire — application was made to Congress for its renewal. A sort of bank mania had succeeded the original establishment of the institution, and local banks rapidly increased. They became favorites of the people, for they furnished business facilities that were of great im- portance to the whole commercial com- munity. This local bank interest combined to prevent a renewal of the charter of the United States Bank, on the grounds, first, that it was unconstitutional; second, that too much of the stock was owned by for- eigners; and, third, that the local banks better accommodated the public. Though the Secretary of the Treasury (Gallatin) reported in favor of a renewal of the char- ter, nothing was done by Congress until within a few weeks before the time when the bank would cease to exist. The bill for its recharter was defeated by the casting vote of the Vice-President (George Clinton) in the Senate, and the bank closed its affairs, giving to the stockhold- ers Sy 2 per cent, premium over the par value. The finances of the country were in a wretched state at the close of the war, in 1815. The local banks had all suspend- ed specie payments, and there was very little of other currency than depreciated bank-notes. There was universal dissatis- faction, and the people elamoi ed for an- other United States Bank as a cure for financial evils. One was chartered in the spring of 1816 (April 3). A bill to that effect had been vetoed by President Madi- son in January, 1815; now it received his willing signature. Its charter was for twenty years, and its capital was $35,000,000, of which amount the United States subscribed $7,000,000, and the re- maining $28,000,000 by individuals. The creation of this bank compelled the State banks to resume specie payments or wind up. Many of them were aided in resump- tion by the great bank, but many, after a struggle more or less prolonged, closed their doors. Of the 246 State banks, with an aggregate capital of about $90,000,000 in 1816, a very large number were com- pelled to go into liquidation. From 1811 to 1830 165 banks, with a capital of $30,000,000, closed their business, and the loss of the government and of individ- uals by these banks was estimated at $5,000,000, or one-sixth of their capital. The second United States Bank went into operation in Philadelphia, in 1817, to con- tinue until March, 1836. In it were de- posited the funds of the government, the use of which gave the bank great facilities for discounting, and so aiding the commer- cial community. It soon controlled the monetary affairs of the country ; and when General Jackson became President of the United States, in 1829, he expressed his decided hostility to the government bank, as a dangerous institution. He began a war upon it, which ended in its destruc- tion. In his first annual message to Con- gress (December, 1829), he took strong ground against a renewal of the charter, which would expire in 1836. His reasons were that it had failed in the fulfilment of the promises of its creation — namely, to establish a uniform and sound cur- rency for the whole nation; and, also, that such an institution was not author- ized by the national Constitution. Again, 269 BANKRUPTCY LAWS in his annual messages in 1830 and 1831, them in certain State banks. The Sec- he attacked the bank, and renewed his ob- retary would only consent to appoint an jections. At the close of 1831 the proper agent to inquire upon what terms the local officers of the bank petitioned, for the first banks would receive the funds on deposit, time, for the renewal of its charter. The Then the President gave him a peremp- petition was presented in the Senate Jan. tory order to remove them from the bank. 9, 1832, and on March 13 a select com- Duane refused compliance, and was dis- mittee, to whom it was referred, reported missed from office. His successor, Roger in favor of renewing the charter for fifteen B. Taney (afterwards Chief- Justice of the years. Long debates ensued, and finally United States), obeyed the President, and a bill for rechartering the bank passed in October, 1833, the removal was accom- both Houses of Congress — the Senate on plished. The effect produced was wide- June 11, by 28 against 20, and the House spread commercial embarrassments and of Representatives, July 3, by a vote of distress. The business of the country was 107 against 85. The President vetoed it, plunged from a height of prosperity to and as it failed to receive the constitution- the depths of adversity, because its in- al vote of two-thirds of both Houses, the timate connection with the national bank bank charter expired by limitation in rendered any paralysis of the operations 1836. of that institution fatal to commercial The commercial community, regarding activity. The vital connection of the such an institution as essential to their bank with the business of the country, prosperity, were alarmed, and prophecies evidenced by the confusion, confirmed the of panics and business revulsions, every- President's conviction of the danger to where uttered, helped to accomplish their be apprehended from such an enormous own speedy fulfilment. Again, in his an- moneyed institution. nual message (December, 1832), Jack- Failing to have its charter renewed, the son's hostility to the bank was manifested operations of the bank expired by limita- by a recommendation to remove the public tion in March, 1836. It was rechartered funds in its custody, and a sale of the the same year by the legislature of Penn- stock of the bank belonging to the United sylvania, with the same capital. It was States. Congress, by a decided vote, re- compelled to suspend specie payments, fused to authorize the measure; but after with all the local banks, in 1837, and the adjournment of that body the Presi- again in 1839; and in February, 1840, it dent assumed the responsibility of per- made a final suspension, and closed up its forming the act. He directed the Secre- affairs. There remained nothing for the tary of the Treasury (William Duane) stockholders. The entire capital had been to withdraw the government funds — about spent, and widespread distress was the $10,000,000 — from the bank, and deposit consequence. BANKRUPTCY LAWS, PAST AND PRESENT Bankruptcy Laws, Past and Present, held the boards for a goodly season in —William H. Hotchkiss (q. v.) con- Congress in 1897-98. The voluntaries had tributes the following article on the sub- rather the best of it. But the law as a ject of bankruptcy: whole must be accepted as a reasonable ex- pression of the sentiments of the en- The passage of the bankruptcy law, ap- tire people. It surely is a proclamation, proved July 1, 1898, was effected by a vote as vigorous as it is emphatic, that in this of 43 to 13 in the Senate, and 134 to 53 day and generation it is not only the in the House. It was, necessarily, a com- debtor that dies who is relieved of all promise, since it was the result of agita- debts, but that the unfortunate and the tion which had been continuous since the unwise may win surcease of their busi- repcal, twenty years before, of its discredit- ness sorrows and begin again on this side ed and unpopular predecessor. The " in- of the grave. It calls to mind that human- voluntaries " against the " voluntaries " itarian provision of the Mosaic law which 270 BANKRUPTCY LAWS commanded a release of debtors every seventh year. For more than twenty-five centuries the law-makers of the world have been legis- lating on bankruptcy. Draco, the pioneer, made it, with laziness and murder, pun- ishable by death. Quite naturally there followed an age of the absconding debtor. Solon, not wishing to depopulate Athens, mollified these ancient blue laws, and even abolished enslavement for debt; but the bankrupt and the bankrupt's heirs for- feited their rights of citizenship. The noble Roman and his Twelve Tables were more draconic than Draco. Gibbon tells us that: " At the expiration of sixty days the debt was discharged by the loss of liberty or life; the insolvent debtor was either put to death, or sold in foreign slavery beyond the Tiber; but if several credit- ors were alike obstinate and unrelenting, they might legally dismember his body, and satiate their revenge by this horrid partition." In the time of Caesar Roman juris- prudence and civilization had so develop- ed that the debtor, by the famous cessio bonorum, might at least escape slavery, and in most cases retain his civil rights; and about a century later our modern idea of a discharge to the honest debtor who gives up his all was graven on their laws. Shylock's savage rights may well speak for the laws of the Middle Ages, whose statutes were little better than a trans- parent palimpsest of the Twelve Tables of Rome. French laws have followed the Latin model, and, while somewhat modern- ized, even yet visit a degree of disgrace upon the unfortunate trader which would not long be tolerated by an Anglo-Saxon legislature. Since 1542 about forty bankruptcy laws and a number of insolvent debtor acts have been passed in England. In the United States the statute of 1898 is the fourth of a series of national laws, the others being named from the years 1800, 1841, and 1867; while, in many of the States, and from their very beginning, insolvency statutes of local application and vastly divergent provisions have been on the books. In view of the interest in the subject, 27 the following chronology may be valu- able. We take the English statutes first : 1. The statute of 1542 was aimed at absconding or concealed debtors only. It made them criminals, deprived them of their property without giving them a dis- charge, and left them to the tender mer- cies of their creditors. It was followed by a number of similar laws, enlarging its scope and changing its procedure. 2. The statute of 1706, in the fifth year of Queen Anne, marks the next great step in advance. Debt was no longer treat- ed as a crime, and provision was for the first time made for a discharge. 3. The statute of 1825, in the reign of George IV., for the first time recog- nized voluntary bankruptcies. 4. The statute of 1830 abolished com- missioners in bankruptcy, put the admin- istration of estates into the hands of the court, and created the official assignee or receiver. 5. The statute of 1861 made it pos- sible for the non-trader, who had been protected by the insolvent debtor acts for about fifty years, to take advantage of or to be proceeded against under the general bankruptcy laws. 6. The statute of 1869 introduced in England the now well-understood prin- ciple of fraudulent preferences; but, the law being easily evaded, it proved a fail- ure. 7. The statute of 1883, as amended by that of 1890, carries the pendulum backward again, and while for the first time distinguishing between a fraudulent bankruptcy and one due solely to mis- fortune, is drastic in its penalties and intolerable, at least from an American stand-point, in its limitations on the grant- ing of a discharge. Turning to the United States, we find that: 1. The statute of 1800 was copied from the English law of that time, and did not provide either for voluntary bank- ruptcy or for non-traders coming within its terms. It was repealed in December, 1803. 2. The statute of 1841, said to have been largely the work of Daniel Webster, introduced the idea of voluntary bank- ruptcy into our national jurisprudence. 1 BANKRUPTCY LAWS It was in force but eighteen months, being whether an act of Congress subjecting repealed by the Congress that passed to such a law every description of per- it. sons within the United States would be 3. The statute of 1867 was framed constitutional. Yet our law of 1841 ex- largely on the Massachusetts insolvency tended the meaning of the term " trader " law of 1838. It provided for both volun- so that, in involuntary bankruptcies, it tary and involuntary bankruptcy, and included bankers, brokers, factors, under- went almost to the extreme in its enu- writers and marine insurers. All classes meration of acts of bankruptcy and in its of persons could become bankrupts in Eng- restrictions on the granting of discharges, land after 1861 ; and the like broad rule This law permitted tedious delays and ex- received expression in our law of 1867, cessive fees. It remained in force until with the single exception that, when the September, 1878. act of bankruptcy consisted in failure to 4. The statute of 1898 swings back pay commercial paper, it applied only to towards mercy again. It will be remem- merchants, bankers, and the business com- bered as the first of our statutes to omit munity. The new law of 1898, however, that anciently all-important act of bank- goes backward to the time of George II., ruptcy, " the suddenly fleeing to parts and prohibits, as did one of the laws unknown," and as establishing a new passed in his reign, involuntary proceed- meaning for " insolvency." ings against farmers and wage-earners. The animated and often acrimonious Its provisions relative to corporations discussion of bankruptcy legislation has are equally indicative of prevailing con- turned on a half-dozen disputed principles ditions. For some decades English cor- and matters of detail. Nowhere, save in porations have been liable to proceedings the United States, where local insolvency in bankruptcy. Our law of 1841 was lim- laws have temporarily filled the gap, has ited to natural persons. That of 1867 the necessity of such legislation been de- was made expressly applicable to all nied. All civilized and many semi-civil- moneyed, business, and commercial corpo- ized countries enforce such laws. France has rations. Yet the lawmakers of 1898, fear- not been without a bankruptcy law for ful lest, by collusion with stockholders, 400 years, nor England for a period nearly the controlling officers might force such as long. It is settled, too, that such semi-public corporations as railroads and laws should have three purposes: 1. transportation companies into bankrupt- The surrender of the debtor's estate with- cy, limited the operation of the law to out preferences; 2. Its cheap and expe- corporations engaged principally in manu- ditious distribution pro rata among all facturing, trading, printing, publishing, creditors; and 3. The discharge of the or mercantile pursuits. Pending politi- debtor from liability to pay provable debts cal passions have swung us backward in with property which he may afterwards these two particulars. These provisions, acquire. however, can prove of little or no prac- Each statute has sought the common tical importance, and to the future his- goal by different ways, but always by or torian they will seem as curious as do near definite landmarks. It will assist to to us those ancient acts of bankruptcy, a better understanding of the law of 1898, " keeping his house " and the " fleeing if we note these landmarks. 1. Who to the Abbey." may become a bankrupt? 2. What are What Are Acts of Bankruptcy? — In the acts of bankruptcy? 3. What is a pref- United States this has been the kernel of erence? 4. When may a discharge be the controversy. Our laws have answered refused? 5. What is the procedure the question in widely different ways. Not which will prove least expensive and most so in England. That original act of bank- expeditious? This classification includes ruptcy, absconding the realm, is in every two elements born since Blackstone's time. English statute for 350 years, and ap- Who May Become a Bankrupt?' — The pears in the last law in almost the very limitation to traders has already been words used in the first. Our laws, down mentioned. Indeed, so late as 1817, in to and including that of 1867, have been this country, Judge Livingston doubted equally mindful of the commercial run- 272 BANKRUPTCY LAWS away. The new law, however, omits this of leniency again. It enumerates five acts cause entirely. The welcher in business of bankruptcy, two of them involving can be punished in other ways; our chief fraud on the part of the bankrupt (fraud- concern is — indeed, should be — with the ulent conveyances and voluntary prefer- stay-at-home cheat. ences), one constructive fraud, and two The English catalogue of interdicted which are expressed by the paradox that acts in business has grown long. Two by them a debtor may go into involuntary hundred years ago involuntary bankrupt- bankruptcy voluntarily. The Torrey bill cy was even worse than imprisonment for enumerated nine acts of bankruptcy, going debt, for it involved that; and, prior to further even than the English law and in- the evolution of the idea of a discharge, eluding default for thirty days in the it practically was civil death. The con- payment of commercial paper, a rule dition of the English law at that time which would have upset our entire credit may be imagined from this decision of a system. The Nelson bill went to the court of the period: other extreme and made fraudulent trans- " If a man is taken in execution and lies fers and voluntary preferences while in- in prison for debt, neither the plaintiff solvent the only acts of bankruptcy. The at whose suit he is arrested, nor the law as passed is perhaps a fair compro- sheriff who took him, is bound to find mise, though in extreme cases we may him meat, drink, or clothes; but he must wish for the more complete and far- live on his own or on the charity of others, reaching definition of the English statute, and if no one will relieve him, let him But, whatever the effect, lawyers and die in the name of God, says the law; and laymen alike will quickly understand so say I." that insolvency has a new meaning. The Freedom from imprisonment for debt English statute defines it as inability on has, of course changed this; but in the the debtor's part to pay from his own latest English statutes there are relics moneys his debts as they become due. of this old-time savagery towards debt- The American law declares that he only ors, happily not included in our laws. is insolvent the aggregate of whose prop- The present bankruptcy law of England erty shall not, at a fair valuation, be gives eight acts of bankruptcy, three predi- sufficient in amount to pay his debts. In cated on fraud coupled with insolvency, short, in the United States hereafter, he three of a voluntary character showing in- who has uncontrovertible property in solvency, and two others which are relics plenty but little cash on hand — as, for of the old rules against fleeing the realm example, he who is land poor — may yet or concealing property. A debtor who does be solvent and entitled to the time to re- not lift a levy on his goods within twenty- alize and pay his creditors, one days, or who does not within seven At first blush this seems broadly equi- days after judgment comply with a credit- table, but what will be the result in actual or's demand that he pay, compound, or practice? Perhaps, had it been in force, secure the debt, commits an act of bank- the author of Waverley, with his vast ruptcy. The older laws put default in genius as his property, would not have payment of demand obligations in the been insolvent, and that other Scotchman, same category, thus extending a rule Anderson by name, who possessed, yet rightfully enforced against banks and would not surrender, the secret formula bankers to the entire business commu- for a popular nostrum, might have nity. proved it overworth his debts, and escaped Our law of 1841 defined but five acts the penalties of the law. On the other of bankruptcy, all predicated on fraud, hand, into what dangerous controversies The law of 1867 went much further and, will it lead us! Hitherto the proof of in- in addition to the customary grounds, solvency has been simple and easy. Now specified as one of its ten acts of bank- it never can be. The expert on values has ruptcy, fraudulent default in payment a new field open to him, as creditors and of commercial paper by merchants, trad- debtors, not to speak of lawyers and ers, and manufacturers. The law just courts, may quickly learn, passed, however, goes back to the side In practice, the law will, therefore, i.— s 273 BANKRUPTCY LAWS prove little more than a voluntary law. Its sponsors claim that it will accomplish all that it was intended to do by the mere threat of possible procedure. Therein is its chief merit to the business world. Ex- perience will prove whether it is a boon or bane. But our hysterical Congressmen shall be able now to sleep o' nights; for under this law there can be by the rich no " grinding the face of the poor." What Is a Preference? — This is a com- paratively recent development of the law of bankruptcy. The earliest regulation is that of 1690, in Scotland, which annulled preferences made within two months of bankruptcy. The common law permitted preferences, and debts in favor of wives and female relatives in general were a refuge frequently found by the failing debtor. It is not likely that the chattel mortgage method of preference was then understood; that is the product of our higher civilization. But, for centuries, scandals without number and frauds on creditors by the multitude have flowed from the too gentle policy of the law in this regard. Our State insolvency laws, most of them sanctioning limited prefer- ences, have proved but invitations to de- fraud. The preferring debtor has become one of the evils of our civilization, as was the absconding debtor of that of two cen- turies ago. Beginning in 1849, in England, and in 1841, in the United States, preferences have been interdicted by law. The Eng- lish statute made them void if intended to defeat or delay creditors. The present law of England provides that, to consti- tute a preference, it must be made within three months of the commencement of pro- ceedings in bankruptcy; while, if made when the debtor is insolvent and with a view of giving the creditor a preference over other creditors, it declares them abso- lutely void. Our statutes, again, evidence the swing- ing of the pendulum. That of 1800 did not inhibit such transactions; that of 1841 made the giving of preferences ground for refusing a discharge. The law of 1867, copying the Massachusetts insolvency act of 1838, compelled creditors to prove, in addition to the facts required by the pres- ent English law, knowledge on the part of the person preferred that the act was in fraud of the bankruptcy law; in short, it practically required proof of collusion by the creditor. Under the new law, a preference seems to be one thing if assert- ed in a voluntary proceeding, and another if alleged as an act of bankruptcy on which an involuntary proceeding is to stand. In both cases, the preference must have been made within four months of the filing of the bankrupt's petition. But, in the former, the proof need not go further, in any but exceptional cases, than to show that the act will result in giving one creditor more than others, and that such creditor had reasonable cause to believe that by the act the debtor intended to prefer him; while, in the latter, not only insolvency — which, as we have seen, is difficult of proof — but intent to prefer, must be shown. Therein lies the weakness of the new law, as a permanent relief to creditors. Family reunions at creditors' meetings in courts of bankruptcy are still both pos- sible and probable. The cheat and the cozener, unless checked by the vigilance of judges and referees, may become as notori- ous as they were in other days, and a con- venient relative or willing friend may still continue to be the ready safe-deposit for the plunder of the mercantile rogue. When May a Discharge Be Refused? — In nothing else does the English bank- ruptcy system differ from our own as much as in this. No discharge was grant- ed a debtor until the reign of Anne. A little later, not only a discharge, but al- lowances on dividends, varying from 3 to 10 per cent., were granted to the bank- rupt in order that he might get a fresh start; a provision which also appears in our bankruptcy law of 1800. Until a comparatively recent period, the discharge was of no value unless signed by a speci- fied number of creditors, which rule seems still to prevail in France. Since 1832 discharges in England have been in the discretion of the court, subject to some rather drastic limitations of a punitive character. This discretion has been abused; and yet the present English law permits discharges to be refused for nu- merous reasons, such as the debtor's con- tinuance in business after knowing him- self to be insolvent, failure to pay divi- dends of at least 50 per cent., rash and 274 BANKRUPTCY LAWS hazardous speculations, unjustifiable ex- travagance in living, culpable neglect of business affairs, and failure to account satisfactorily for losses. Englishmen, too, have been prone to classify discharges. By the laws of 1849, there were three kinds, with correspond- ing effects: those given when the bank- ruptcy was wholly unavoidable, those when it was partly unavoidable, and those belonging to neither of the latter classes. The present English law permits the court to refuse a. discharge outright, to with- hold it for not less than two years, to withhold it until the estate shall pay 50 per cent., or to require the bankrupt to al- low judgment against himself for the dif- ference between the required 50 per cent, and the amount of dividends actually paid. It seems curious that this latter is the usual method, and yet that the present law of England is far and away the most successful and the fairest bankruptcy law yet enforced in that country. While the list of objections to discharges in England is on the increase, here it is growing smaller and smaller. In 1800, among other restrictions, the bankrupt was not entitled to a discharge unless he paid 75 cents on a dollar. In 1841 a majority of creditors in number and value might prevent the discharge by filing a written dissent thereto. The law of 1867, as amended in 1874, refused a discharge to voluntary bankrupts who did not pay 30 per cent, on claims proved, except with the assent of one-fourth of their creditors in number and one - third in value; and, copying the English model, it enumerated ten acts, the commission of which might deprive him of his dis- charge. The new law goes to the antipodes of the present English statute and not only wipes out the necessity of paying any per- centage in dividends, a very poor change, but abolishes the semi-control of creditors over discharges, and allows a certificate to be withheld only when the debtor has committed one of the felonies enumerated in the law, or when he has fraudulently failed to keep, or in contemplation of bankruptcy has destroyed or concealed, his books of account. Not even a fraudulent preference is objection to a discharge. " Life tenure " and " government by in- junction " have thus their legitimate off- spring in this sugar-coated section of our law. The Delilah of Populism has shorn the federal judiciary of its power. The buzzards, to use Senator Stewart's pict- uresque designation for creditors, have been deprived of their prey. What mat- ter, then, if the commercial rascal and the business pickpocket be free again! What Is the Least Expensive and Most Expeditious Procedure? — Probably nine- tenths of the criticism of bankruptcy leg- islation has been directed to details of procedure. In England, for more than half a century, the lines were drawn for or against officialism. Prior to 1831 bankrupt estates were administered by three commissioners, largely controlled by the creditors. From that time down to 1869 the courts administered through their assignees. Then, for a decade or more, creditors took hold again and made a mess of it. The present law is a com- promise, an official of the Board of Trade being in charge until the creditors get to- gether and determine on action. It seems to have made little difference which sys- tem prevailed, as, so it is said, in the one the lawyers preyed on the estates and in the other the courts and their ap- pointees did so. The English procedure has always been complicated. It has provided elaborately for compositions and arrangements, with the result that, until the present law, debtors have more often compounded and compromised than gone through the courts and obtained their discharge. From 1870 to 1877 there were but 8,275 bankruptcies, these nearly all involuntary, to 31,651 liquidations and 20,270 compositions. Even under the present English law, the actual official bankruptcies are in number hardly more than the so-called deeds of arrange- ment. On the other hand, the rigid public examination which is now required oper- ates both as a threat to the fraudulent bankrupt and as a protection and vindica- tion to the honest or unfortunate debtor. It stimulates the co-operation of negligent creditors and prevents much fraud. In the United States the administration of bankruptcy laws has too often been odorous from nepotism and onerous with costs. In the lurid rhetoric of the con- gressional debates, it was " the rodents 275 BANKRUPTCY LAWS who burrow around the places of justice " " Bankrupts, hold fast ; and " pillage by the fee-fiend " which dis- Eath £i lv *s an render ba ° k ' ° Ut WUh y ° Uf credited the law of 1867 and led to its re- And OTt yoor trusters' throats." peal. The present law is intended to avoid these criticisms. Rapidity in administra- We might have gone further and enact- tion is commanded in words and compelled ed a law which would prove valuable in in practice, by making the payment of times of prosperity, as well as in times of fees contemporaneous with the winding depression. Just now the law-giver can up of the estate. The fees themselves are well be a philanthropist. Year in and small, so small indeed as, in the minds of year out he must be a policeman, too. some, to jeopardize the proper administra- Our law of 1898 is philanthropic to a de- tion of the law; while but one reasonable gree; but as a discourager of commercial bill of costs can be allowed the bankrupt's dishonesty, it is like a peace-officer without lawyers, no matter how many are em- a warrant, or a policeman with unloaded ployed, and any payments made to them revolver. The majesty and the threat of by way of advances for legal services are the law are there, but, unless its officer subject to scrutiny. Bankruptcy courts, is keen-eyed and a good runner, the fraud- presided over by referees having broad ulent bankrupt will usually escape. It judicial powers, a-re established in every may be that in practice creditors will county. Indeed, bankrupts and creditors boldly risk defeat and damages to force could not well have a procedure which is the mercantile fraud into the hands of the simpler, less expensive, or more favorable court; but it is not likely. At any rate, to themselves. the bankrupt need no longer fear the dili- Such is the latest product of bank- gent creditor, but rather the daring one. ruptcy legislation, genealogically ex- There is, of course, in many quarters amined. Starting with the Torrey bill, another view of the law and its purpose, notable for its too harsh provisions, pro- It is thought typical of man's increasing ceeding through the Nelson bill, as inade- humanity to man. The bankrupt will al- quate in procedure as it was lacking in a ways be with us ; so will the creditor. The broad grasp of the dangers to commer- former needs protection against the lat- cial morality, which had to be avoided, ter; the creditor can take care of himself, and finally developing into a compromise Thus many a good citizen may find comfort between the latter and the Henderson sub- in the reflection that, if we have gone far stitute, a measure which seemed to find towards preventing involuntary bank- the golden mean, it goes on the books as ruptcy, it has been that our laws might be a law for temporary relief, not for per- just rather than severe, and expressive of manent control. Many assert that this the principle that a score of rascals had is as it should be. The crying need for better go unpunished rather than that one its passage was that the unfortunates, who honest man should suffer oppression. This have been in bondage to debts and judg- is the spirit of the age. ments born of the late period of depres- Nearly a century and a half ago Black- sion, might be free again ; and the country stone declared that the bankruptcy laws of will quickly feel the effects of the restored his time were " founded on principles of energy of the tens of thousands who have humanity as well as justice." Modern gone down in recent wrecks. So far the jurists would not now assure us that such law is expressive, not only of our human- was the case; else to what purpose did ity, but of our commercial common-sense. John Howard live, or how came it that The honest bankrupt is needed back in the Dickens moved a sympathetic world with ranks of business. There are, however, his story of Little Dorrit and the debt- others who " will pay you some, and, as deadened prisoners of Marshalsea. Now, most debtors do, promise you infinitely." even the day seems passing when, in the And there are.yet others who, in spirit, if words of the gentle Autocrat. not in deed, would in these times of preju- dice and passion listen willingly to ancient " Jlje gojtty ^nnrtall wor^his^sleep, Iimons exhortation to his brother debt- And he sh all creep from the wood-hole deep ors within the walls of Athens : When their spectre eyes have found him." 276 BANKS, NATIONAL Old things are passing away. Sympathy sits where sternness sat. The nimble debtor is no longer part of a tragedy. He belongs to a serio-comic drama in- stead. Bankruptcy is not a crime, but a condition; not always a disgrace, but rather a disease; and present laws, while providing relief for him who owes, seem but negatively valuable to him who owns. Banks, National. The plan of the national banks is believed to have orig- inated with Salmon P. Chase, when Secre- tary of the Treasury. In his report for December, 1861, he recommended the gradual issue of national bank-notes, se- cured by the pledge of United States bonds, in preference to the further issue of United States notes, $50,000,000 of which had been issued during the previous year. A bill was soon after prepared in accordance with the Secretary's views, and printed for the use of the committee of ways and means, but it was not reported, and on July 8 following, Thaddeus Ste- vens, the chairmen of the committee, sub- mitted the bill with an adverse report. The immediate necessities of the govern- ment compelled the further issue of legal- tender notes, and the consideration of the bank act was deferred. In his report for 1862, Mr. Chase again urged the passage of the national bank bill, and President Lincoln also recommended it in his mes- sage. The principal reason why Mr. Chase advocated this system was because he thought it would greatly facilitate the negotiation of the United States bonds; in other words, make it much easier for the government to borrow money. It was also claimed that it would secure for the people in all parts of the country a cur- rency of uniform security and value, and protect them from loss in discounts and exchanges — advantages which were regard- ed as of much importance then, after the experience people had had with State banks whose issue was good in Pittsburg and worthless in Cleveland, and vice versa, and might be stable in either place one day and worthless the next, to say nothing of the annoyance of carrying $100 as many miles and finding it only rated at $40. Still, there was much opposition to the national bank bill. Early in 1863 it was introduced into the Senate by Mr. Sherman, and referred to the finance committee, from which it was reported by him Feb. 2, and ten days later passed by a vote of 23 to 21. On the 20th of the same month it also passed the House of Representatives by a vote of 78 to 64. When the bill was revised and again brought before Congress for passage, in June, 1864, the vote in the Senate was 30 in favor and 9 against the bill. It was claimed at the time this bill was under discussion, and has been even more strong- ly urged since by certain classes, that all the advantages of stability and uniformity of currency could be even better secured through a government issue of notes, with- out the danger of the creation of a great money monopoly. There was a strong ob- jection, however, on the part of many whose opinions had great influence against thus making the government, as it were, the one bank of issue for the country. Secretary Chase issued legal-tender notes, it is true, and thus saved the govern- ment at a most critical time from seri- ous financial embarrassment. He de- fended the act as one required by the grave exigency existing rather than as the inauguration of a sound financial policy. In January, 1875, Congress passed an act providing for the resumption of spe- cie payments on Jan. 1, 1879. As that time approached there were preliminary movements towards that end, such as re- deeming the fractional curency with silver (1876), by which a large amount of the latter coin was put into circulation. There was a very strong opposition to re- sumption at that time, and prophets of evil foretold infinite disasters to the busi- ness of the country. It was declared that the demand for gold would be greater than the supply; but when the day came, and the clerical force of the Sub-Treasury in New York was increased in order to fa- cilitate the paying out of gold for " green- backs " presented, they had nothing to do. There was actually more gold paid in than was paid out. From that hour the busi- ness of the country permanently revived for the first time since the great revulsion of 1873. By act of Congress, March 3, 1883, the taxes on capital and deposits of banks, bankers, and national banking associa- 277 BANKS, SAVINGS— BANKS, N. P. tions, excepting such as were already due, jngs banks elsewhere, and building and were repealed, and also the stamp tax on loan associations, as well as loan and bank-checks, drafts, orders, and vouchers, trust companies, also act practically as the latter provision to take effect on savings banks. July 1, 1883. The act of Feb. 25, 1863, Banks, State. Official reports cover- limited the period of existence of the ing the various banks organized under national banks to twenty years; but an State and Territorial charters for the act of July 10, 1882, provided for the ex- banking year ending at various periods in tension of the charters of all national 1903, gave the following summaries: Num- banks under prescribed conditions for ber of banks, 5,962; capital, $302,264,497; twenty years more, and under this act deposits, $1,814,570,163; surplus, $129,647,- many banks reorganized for the longer 875; and resources, $2,491,428,760. Sec- period. In the war revenue act of 1898 tionally, the largest number of such banks a stamp tax of two cents was imposed were in the Middle States, 2,120; the on every bank-check, and in March, 1900, Western States ranked second, with 1,661; the President approved a new currency the Southern States third, with 1,442; the act which established the gold dollar as Eastern States fourth, with 355; the the standard unit of value, permitted Pacific States fifth, with 341; and the national banks to be organized in places New England States sixth, with 21. of 3,000 population or less with a capital Banks, Wild-Cat, a designation of a of $25,000, instead of $50,000, the previous class of banks in various parts of the coun- minimum, and provided that banks might try, and especially in the Western States, issue circulation on all classes of bonds founded prior to the enactment of the na- deposited up to the par value of the bonds, tional banking law. This peculiar desig- instead of to 90 per cent, of their face nation was originally applied to a number value as before. of banks organized under State charters National banking statistics for the year in Michigan, because their notes of cir- ending Oct. 31, 1903, as officially reported, culation contained upon their face the contained returns from 5,147 such banks, picture of a panther. Many of these banks These reported an aggregate capital of very soon became unsound, and when it $764,420,314; loans and discounts, $3,481,- was found that their notes were worthless 446,772; outstanding circulation, $419,- these banks became the type of a worth- 610,683; individual deposits, $3,305,900,- less currency, and all money and banks 000; and combined resources exceeding of doubtful value became known as wild- $6,000,000,000, the largest amount ever cats. This designation in time was ex- reported. See Circulation, Monetary; tended to a large number of insurance Coinage; Currency; U. S. Banks. companies, especially in Illinois. See Banks, Savings. The savings banks in Bank of the United States; Grave- the United States are divided into two yard Insurance. classes — the mutual and the stock. In Banks, Nathaniel Prentiss, military 1903 the mutual savings banks numbered officer; born in Waltham, Mass., Jan. 30, 657, and had 6,116,594 depositors, and 1816. His early education was obtained $2,720,106,754 in resources, and held sav- at a common school. He became a lawyer ings deposits aggregating $2,512,468,458. and Democratic orator; edited a newspa- The stock savings banks numbered 421, per in Waltham and Lowell; and during and had an aggregate capital of $20,116,- the administration of President Polk held 660, 557,643 depositors, and $337,042,450 office in the Boston Custom-house. In in resources, and held $303,014,648 in de- 1849 he was a member of the Massachu- posits. The aggregate of the two kinds setts legislature, and speaker of the of savings banks was: Total number, Lower House in 1851-52. He was presi- 1,078; depositors, 6,674,237; resources, dent of the State Constitutional Conven- $3,057,149,204; and combined deposits, tion in 1853, and a member of Congress $2,815,483,106. In several of the States, in 1853-57, separating from the Demo- particularly in Massachusetts, organiza- cratic party on the question of slavery; tions called co-operative banks to a large and, after a long contest, was elected extent take the place of the ordinary sav- speaker of the House of Representatives 278 BANNEKER— BAPTIST CHURCH NATHANIEL PRENTISS BANKS. was president of the Illinois Central Rail- in 1855. Mr. Banks was chosen governor Bannock Indians, a tribe of North of Massachusetts in 1858, and served until American Indians, sometimes called the 1861. When the Civil War broke out he " Robber Indians." It was divided into two distinct branches: the first inhabited the region between lat. 42° and 45° and reaching from long. 113° to the Rocky Mountains; the second claimed all of the southwestern part of Montana. The first branch was the more numerous. In 1869 the Bannocks of the Salmon River num- bered only 350, having been reduced by small-pox and invasions of the Blackfeet. In that year about 600 of the Southern tribe were settled on the Wind River reser- vation, and in the same year 600 more were sent to the Fort Hall reservation. Most of the latter afterwards left the res- ervation, but returned with the Shoshones and the scattered Bannocks of the south- ern part of Idaho in 1874. In 1900 the Bannocks were reduced to 430 at the Fort Hall agency, and eighty-five at the Lemhi agency, both in Idaho. Baptist Church, a flourishing denomi- road. Offering his services to President nation of evangelical Christians who differ Lincoln, he was made a major-general of from others in respect to the mode of volunteers May 16, 1861, and appointed to administering the rite of baptism. They command the Annapolis military district, reject sprinkling, and hold that immersion General Banks was an active and skilful of the whole body is the only valid mode leader in various battles during the war of baptism, and essential to its specific in Virginia and in the region of the lower spiritual purpose; a mode, they claim, Mississippi and Red rivers. In 1865-73, that was universally practised through- 1875-77, and 1889-91 he was a Represent- out Christendom for 1,300 years. Their ative in Congress, and subsequently he was Church government is democratic. Their United States marshal. He died in Wal- writers trace their origin to the third Cham, Sept. 1, 1894. century; and they have ever been the Banneker, Benjamin, a negro mathe- champions of civil and religious liberty, matician; born in Maryland, Nov. 9, 1731. Until the Quakers arose, at the middle of He taught himself mathematics; and for the seventeenth century, they stood alone many years, while engaged in daily labor, in the advocacy of " soul-liberty." There made the necessary calculations for and were none in America when Roger Will- published an almanac for Maryland and iams founded Providence. Before he left the adjoining States. Mr. Jefferson pre- England he had been under the teachings sented one of his almanacs to the French of Baptists there, some of whom had been Academy of Sciences, where it excited refugees from persecution in Holland, wonder and admiration, and the African These^ had instituted baptism among them- Almanac became well known to the scien- selves by authorizing certain of their mem- tific circles of Europe. In 1790 he was bers to be administrators of the rite. Cast employed by the commissioners in the sur- out from the Congregational churches in vey of the boundaries of the District of Massachusetts, Williams conceived the Columbia. His grandmother was an Eng- idea of forming a Baptist Church in his lish woman, who purchased a small plan- new home in Providence, after the man- tation in Maryland, bought two slaves ner of the refugees in Holland, but in a from a ship just from Africa, and married more simple form. In March, 1639, Eze- one of them. He died in Baltimore, in kiel Holliman, a layman, first baptized October, 1806, Williams, and then Williams baptized 279 BARAGA— BARCLAY Holliman and " some ten more." These books, hymn-books, catechisms, etc., into men then formed a Baptist Church there, the Indian language, he wrote in German But Williams did not remain a Baptist the History, Character, Manners, and long. He very early doubted the validity Customs of the North American Indians. of Holliman's baptism, and consequently He died in Marquette, Mich., Jan. 19, of his own. He believed " a visible sue- 1868. cession of authorized administrators of Barbary States. See Algiers. baptism " to be necessary to insure its # Barber, Francis, military officer ; born validity, and in the course of two months in Princeton, N. J., in 1751 ; was gradu- he withdrew from the Church, and never ated at the College of New Jersey in 1767, rejoined it. But the Church and its prin- and became rector of an academy at Eliza- ciples remained, and the colony embodied beth, N. J., and pastor of the Presbyterian in its first code of laws (1637) a provision Church there in 1769. Leaving these posts, for perfect toleration in matters of re- he joined the New Jersey line in the Con- ligion. In 1764, when numbering only tinental army as major, in February, about 5,000 members in all America, the 1776. In November he was made a lieu- Baptists established their first college in tenant-colonel, and was afterwards assist- Rhode Island (see Brown University), ant inspector-general under Baron Steu- With one exception, the Baptists are the ben. He was active in several battles, and largest denomination of evangelical Chris- wa s wounded in the battle of Newtown, tians in the United States. It is said In 1781 he was successful in quelling the that the first article of the amendments to mutiny of Pennsylvania and New Jersey the national Constitute, guaranteeing troops. He was with the army at New- religious liberty (offered in 1789), was in- burg in 1783, where he died, Feb. 11, the troduced chiefly through the influence of same year, the Baptist denomination. Barber, John Warner, historian; born The Baptist Church in 1900 was divided in Windsor, Conn., Feb. 2, 1798; wrote into the Regular Baptist, North; Regular many books, including Historical Collec- Baptist, South; and Regular Baptist, tions of Connecticut, New York, New Jer- Colored. Besides these there were ten sey, Virginia, and Ohio; History and other Church organizations so closely al- Antiquities of New England, New York, lied with the Regular Baptist Church as and New Jersey, etc. Much of his work to be officially grouped with the Regular was done in co-operation with Henry Church. Reports for 1899 gave the fol- Howe (q. v.). He died in New Haven, lowing summaries for the thirteen Bap- in June, 1885. tist bodies: Ministers, 33,088; churches, Barbour, James, statesman; born in 49,721; and members, 4,443,628. The Orange county, Va., June 10, 1775; mem- Northern and Southern branches of the ber of the Virginia board of delegates, Regular Baptist Church had 14,409 min- 1796-1812; governor, 1812; United States isters, 27,893 churches, and 2,586,671 Senator, 1815; Secretary of War, 1825; members; and the Regular Baptist minister to England, 1828. He died in Church, Colored, had 14,000 ministers, 15,- Orange county, Va., June 8, 1842. 000 churches, and 1,555,324 members. The Barbour, Philip Pendleton, jurist; largest of the other bodies was the Primi- born in Orange county, Va., May 25, 1783; tive Baptist Church, which reported 2,130 member of Congress from 1814 to 1825 ministers, 3,530 churches, and 126,000 and 1827 to 1830; speaker of the House, members. The Freewill Baptist Church 1821; judge of the United States circuit followed, with 1,312 ministers, 1,517 court of the eastern district of Virginia, churches, and 85,242 members. 1830 to 1836; justice of the United States Baraga, Frederick, clergyman; born in Supreme Court, 1836-41. He died in Carniola, Austria, June 29, 1797; in 1830 Washington, D. C, Feb. 24, 1841. determined to devote his life to the con- Barclay, Robert, author; born in Gor- version of Indians in the United States; donston, Scotland, Dec. 23, 1648. Barclay settled among the Ottawas in Michigan, made journeys in England, Holland, and In 1856 he was appointed Bishop of Mar- Germany with William Penn. He was one quette. In addition to translating prayer- of the proprietors of east Jersey, and in 280 BARD— BARKER 1682 he was appointed its governor (see Captain Carlsen, after a lapse of 274 New Jersey) ; but he exercised the office years, found Barentz's winter quarters by a deputy. He died in Ury, Oct. 13, undisturbed in 1871; and some of the 1690. navigator's journals were recovered in Bard, John, physician; born in Bur- 1876. lington, N. J., Feb. 1, 1716; was of a Barker, Albert Smith, naval officer; Huguenot family, and was for seven years born in Massachusetts; entered the navy a surgeon's apprentice in Philadelphia, in 1859; served under Farragut in the Establishing himself in New York, he soon bombardment and passage of Forts Jack- ranked among the first physicians and son and St. Philip; and in an attempted surgeons in America. In 1750 he assisted passage of Port Hudson his vessel was Dr. Middleton in the first recorded dissec- blown up, after which he took part in tion in America. In 1788 he became the the siege of that post on the Mononga- first president of the New York Medical hela. He was actively employed through- Society; and when, in 1795, the yellow out the Civil War; was promoted to fever raged in New York, he remained at captain in 1892; commanded the cruiser his post, though then nearly eighty years Neivark in the American-Spanish War of age. He died in Hyde Park, N. Y., (1898); succeeded Capt. Charles Edgar March 30, 1799. Clark (q. v.) as commander of the fa- Bard, Samuel, physician; born in mous battle-ship Oregon after the close of Philadelphia, April 1, 1742; son of Dr. the war; and became a rear-admiral in John Bard; studied at the University of 1899. Edinburgh, where he passed about three Barker, Jacob, financier; born on Swan years, and was an inmate of the family Island, Kennebec co., Me., Dec. 7, 1779; of Dr. Robertson, the historian. Having was of a Quaker family, and related by graduated as M.D. in 1765, he returned blood to the mother of Dr. Franklin. He home, and began the practice of medicine began trade in New York when quite in New York City with his father. He organized a medical school, which was connected with King's (Columbia) Col- lege, in which he took the chair of physic in 1769. In 1772 he purchased his father's business. He caused the estab- lishment of a public hospital in the city of New York in 1791, and, while the seat of the national government was at New York, he was the physician of President Washington. He was also appointed president of the College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1813. While combating yellow fever in New York in 1798, he took the disease, but by the faithful nurs- ing of his wife he recovered. Dr. Bard was a skilful horticulturist as well as an eminent physician. He died May 24, 1821. Barentz, Willem, navigator; born in Holland; commanded exploring expedi- tions to Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen in 1594-97. His first expedition was an attempt to find a passage through the Arctic Ocean to China, in which he reached lat. 78° N. On his third and last young, and at twenty-one he owned four expedition, in 1596-97, he reached lat. ships and a brig, and was largely engaged 80° 11' N., and discovered Spitzbergen. in commercial transactions. As a State He died near Nova Zembla, June 20, 1597. Senator, and while sitting in the Court 281 JACOB BARKER. BARKER— BARLOW of Errors, he gave an opinion in an in- the Peninsula in 1862. In the battle of surance case in opposition to Judge Kent, Antietam he captured two stands of and was sustained by the court. During colors and 300 men, and was soon the War of 1812 his ships were all capt- afterwards wounded and carried off the ured. Being in Washington, D. C, dur- field for dead. He was made brigadier- ing its sack by the British (August, general in September, and he commanded 1814), he assisted Mrs. Madison in sav- a division in the battle of Chancellors- ing Stuart's portrait of Washington, then ville in May, 1863. He was wounded at hanging in the President's house, which Gettysburg, and was also distinguished was set on fire a few hours later. Barker in the Richmond campaign in 1864. He was a banker, a dealer in stocks, and a rendered essential service in the final general and shrewd financier for many struggle that ended with the surrender of years. He finally established himself in Lee; was mustered out of the service New Orleans in 1834, where he was ad- in 1865 with the rank of major-general ; mitted to the bar as a lawyer, and soon was secretary of state of New York in became a political and business leader 1865-68; United States marshal in 1868- there. He made and lost several fortunes 69; and attorney-general of New York in during his long life. The Civil War 1871-73. He died in New York City, Jan. wrought his financial ruin, and late in 11, 1896. 1867 he was again in bankruptcy, at the Barlow, Joel, poet; born in Reading, age of eighty-eight years. He died in Conn., March 24, 1754; was graduated at Philadelphia, Dec. 26,* 1871. Yale College in 1778; studied theology and Barker, Josiah, shipbuilder; born in was licensed a Congregational minister; Marshfield, Mass., Nov. 16, 1763; served and from 1778 to 1783 was a chaplain in at intervals throughout the Revolution in the army, writing patriotic songs and ad- both the army and the navy. He estab- dresses to keep up the spirits of the sol- lished a ship-yard in 1795 in Charles- diers. When the army was disbanded town, Mass., where he built, as United (1783) he settled at Hartford, where he States naval constructor, the Virginia, began to study law, and was admitted to Warren, Cumberland, and other men-of- the bar in 1785. He had tried book-sell- war, and rebuilt the Constitution. He died in Charlestown, Mass., Sept. 23, 1843. Barker, Wharton, banker; born in Philadelphia, Pa., May 1, 1846; was graduated at the University of Pennsyl- vania in 1866, after having served in the Union army in the Civil War; founded the banking-'firm of Barker Brothers & Co., which in 1878 was appointed finan- cial agent in the United States of the Russian government, and supervisor of the building of four cruisers for its navy; and was the Presidential nominee of the Middle-of-the-Road or Anti-Fusion Peo- ple's party, in 1900. Barlow, Arthur, navigator; born about 1550; died about 1620. See AMIDAS. JOEL BARLOW. Barlow, Francis Channing, military officer; born in Brooklyn, N. Y., Oct. 19, ing; and, in 1792, he established a weekly 1834; was graduated at Harvard Univer- newspaper, entitled the American Mercury, sity in 1855. After serving as a three published at Westford. His poetic talents months' man, at the beginning of the becoming widely known, he was requested Civil War, he became a lieutenant-colonel by several Congregational ministers to re- of a New York regiment, and as colonel vise the phraseology of Watts's hymns, distinguished himself in the campaign on He also attempted to revise the Bible in 282 BARLOW— BARNARD the same way. A cousin of Benedict Ar- nold, who would talk in doggerel rhyme, was asked by Barlow to give him a speci- men of his poetic talent. Arnold looked the poet sharply in the face, and said, in- stantly: " You've proved yourself a sinful cretur, You've murdered Watts and spiled the metre, You've tried the Word of God to alter, And for your pains deserve a halter." With Trumbull, Dwight, Humphreys, and by the war party that some arrangements would be made by which French ships, manned by Americans, might be employed against Great Britain. But such hopes were soon extinguished. Barlow set out from Paris immediately, and, as the call was urgent, he travelled day and night, without rest. The fatigue and exposure brought on a disease of the lungs, and, in the cottage of a Polish Jew at Zarno- wice, near Cracow, he suddenly expired, Dec. 24, 1812, from the effects of a violent others, Barlow published a satirical poem congestion of the pulmonary organs. What entitled The Anarchiad. In 1787 he pub- lished his Vision of Columbus, a poem which obtained great popularity. Visiting Europe in 1788 as agent for the Scioto Land Company, he published, in aid of the French Revolution, Advice to the Privileged Orders. To this he added, in 1791, a Letter to the National Convention, and the Conspiracy of Kings. As deputy of the London Constitutional Society, he presented an address to the French Na- tional Convention, and took up his abode in Paris, where he became a French citi- zen. Barlow was given employment in Savoy, where he wrote his mock-heroic poem, Hasty Pudding. He was United States consul at Algiers in 1795-97, where he negotiated treaties with the ruler of that state, and also with the Bey of Tunis. He took sides with the French Directory in their controversy with the American envoys. (See Directory, The French.) Having made a large fortune by specula- tions in France, Mr. Barlow returned to the United States in 1805, and built him- self an elegant mansion in the vicinity of Washington, and called his seat there "Kalorama." In 1807 he published the Columbiad, an epic poem. It was illus- trated with engravings, some of them from designs by Robert Fulton, and pub- lished in a quarto volume in a style more sumptuous than any book that had then been issued in the United States. It was an enlargement of his Vision of Columbus. In 1811 he commenced the preparation of a History of the United States, when President Madison appointed him minister plenipotentiary to the French Court. The next year he was invited to a conference with Napoleon at Wilna, for the nominal object of completing a commercial treaty with the United States. It was believed the real object of Napoleon's call was may never be known. Barnard, Frederick Augustus Por- ter, educator; born in Sheffield, Mass., May 5, 1809; was graduated at Yale Col- lege in 1828; president of the University of Mississippi in 1856-58, and chancellor in 1858-61. In 1861, on account of the Civil War, he resigned his offices in the university. He was president of Colum- F. A. P. BARNARD. 283 bia College, New York City, in 1864-88. At various times he held responsible ap- pointments under the United States gov- ernment, and was a member of many scien- tific and literary societies. He was a strong advocate of the higher education of women, and was instrumental in found- ing the women's " Annex " to Columbia College, which afterwards was given his name, and in 1900 was made a part of Columbia University. Among his works are Letters on College Government; Re- port on Collegiate Education; Art Cult- ure; History of the American Coast Sur- vey; University Education; Undulatory BARNARD— BARNES Theory of Light; Machinery and Process- es of the Industrial Arts, and Apparatus of the Exact Sciences; Metric System of Weights and Measures. He died in New York, April 27, 1889. Barnard, Henry, educator; born in Hartford, Conn., Jan. 24, 1811; was grad- uated at Yale College in 1830; admitted to the bar in 1835, and elected to a seat in the State legislature in 1837. He was twice re-elected. In that body he effect- ed a reorganization of the Connecticut State school system, and was for four years secretary of the board of school commissioners, during which he wrote a number of able reports on the public schools. His first report (1839) was pro- nounced by Chancellor Kent a " bold and startling document, founded on the most painstaking and critical inquiry." He edited and published the Connecticut School Journal. From 1843 to 1849 he had charge of the public schools of Rhode Island, where he established a model sys- tem of popular education. Dr. Barnard took great interest in the subject of school-house architecture; and from 1850 to 1854 he was State superintendent of public schools of Connecticut. In 1855 he began the publication of the Ameri- can Journal of Education. The same year he became president of the American Association for the Advancement of Edu- cation, and was offered the presidency of two State universities. When the Bu- reau of Education was established at Washington, he was appointed the first commissioner (March, 1867). He resign- ed this office in 1870. Dr. Barnard wrote much and well on the subject of popular education. A London review, speaking of his work on National Education in fiurope (1854), said: "He has collected and arranged more valuable information and statistics than can be found in any one volume in the English language." Dr. Barnard received the degree of LL.D. from Harvard, Yale, and Union colleges. He died in Hartford, July 5, 1900. Barnard, John Gross, military engi- neer; born in Sheffield, Mass., May 19, 1815; was graduated at the United States Military Academy in 1833, and entered the engineer corps. He was made captain in 1838; major in 1858; brevet brigadier- general of volunteers in 1861; lieutenant- colonel of regulars in 1863; brevet major- general of volunteers in 1864; brevet brig- adier-general and brevet major-general of regulars, March, 1865; and colonel of the corps of engineers, regular army, Dec. 28, the same year. During the war with Mexico he fortified Tampico, and made surveys of the battle-fields around the capital. In 1850-51 he was chief engineer of the projected Tehuantepec Railroad; and in 1855-56 he was superintendent of the United States Military Academy. He was chief engineer of the Army of the Potomac, 1861-62; also chief engineer of the construction of the defences of the na- tional capital from September, 1862, to May, 1864. He was chief engineer of the armies in the field on General Grant's staff, from May, 1864, until Lee's surren- der at Appomattox in April, 1865. At the close of the war he was brevetted ma- jor - general, U. S. A. He published The Gyroscope and Problems in Rotary Mo- tions, which evince profound mathemati- cal investigation; also other works con- cerning the Civil War and its operations. The degree of LL.D. was conferred upon him by Yale College. He died in Detroit, Mich., May 14, 1882. Barnburners, a name given to radical or progressive politicians in the United States, and opposed to Hunkers {q. v.). It was given to the anti-slavery section of the Democratic party, especially in New York, which separated from the rest of the Democratic National Convention in 1846. They were opposed to certain cor- porations, and they desired to do away with all corporations. They received their name from the story of the man whose house was infested with rats, and who burned it to the ground to get rid of the vermin. At about that time anti-rent out- rages were committed, such as burning barns, etc. The radical Democrats sym- pathized with the Anti-Renters, and the Hunkers called them " barnburners." See Anti - Rent Party ; Free - Soil Party ; Hunkers. Barnes, James, author; born in An- napolis, Md., Sept. 19, 1866; was gradu- ated at Princeton College in 1891; author of Naval Actions of 1812; For King or Country; A Loyal Traitor; Midshipman Farragut, etc. 284 BARNES— BARNEY Barnes, James, military officer; born prison, from which he escaped in May, in Boston, Mass., about 1809; was gradu- 1781. He was retaken, and again escaped, ated at West Point in 1829, and resigned and arrived in Philadelphia in March, in 1836. He became colonel of a Massa- 1782, where he took command of the Hyder chusetts volunteer regiment in 1861, and All, 16, in which he captured the General in November of that year was made briga- Monk, of heavier force and metal. For dier-general in the Army of the Potomac, this exploit the legislature of Maryland participating in its most exciting opera- presented him with a sword. At the close tions. He commanded a division at the of the war he engaged in business on battle of Gettysburg, and was severely shore, but very soon took to the sea again, wounded. He was brevetted major-general At Cape Francois, W. I., he received on of volunteers in March, 1865, and was his ship (1792) a large number of worn- mustered out of the service Jan. 15, 1866. en and children who had escaped mas- He died in Springfield, Mass., Feb. 12, sacre by the blacks. His vessel was capt- 1869. ured by an English cruiser, but Barney Barnes, Joseph K., medical officer ; born recaptured her from the prize crew. He in Philadelphia, Pa., July 21, 1817; was was again captured by an English cruiser appointed an assistant surgeon in the army (1793), and imprisoned as a pirate. His in 1840; assigned to duty in the office of ship and cargo were condemned. In 1794 the surgeon-general in 1861; became sur- he went with Monroe to France, and bore geon-general in 1863; attended Presidents Lincoln and Garfield; brevetted major- general in 1865. At his suggestion the Army Medical Museum and the Surgeon- General's Library were established. He died in Washington, D. C, April 5, 1883. Barney, Joshua, naval officer; born in Baltimore, Md., July 6, 1759. Inclined to a seafaring life, he went to sea in his early youth; and when he was only six- teen years of age, an accident caused the care of his ship to devolve upon him. He met the exigency with courage and skill. He entered the Continental navy, at its first organization in 1775, as master's mate, in the sloop Hornet, and joined Commodore Hopkins. In an action be- tween the Continental schooner Wasp and British brig Tender, in Delaware Bay, be- fore he was seventeen years of age, his conduct was so gallant that he was made a lieutenant. In that capacity he served in the Sachem (Capt. I. Robinson), and after a severe action with a British brig, in which his commander was wounded, young Barney brought her into port. Soon afterwards he was made a prisoner, but was' speedily released, and in the Andrea the American flag to the National Con- Doria he was engaged in the defence of vention (see Monroe, James). He was the Delaware River in 1777. He was again a warm partisan of the French, and en- made prisoner, and was exchanged in Au- tered their navy as commander of a squad- gust, 1778. A third time he was made ron, but resigned his commission in captive (1779), and after his exchange 1802. When the War of 1812-15 broke was a fourth time made a prisoner, while out, he engaged in privateering with much serving in the Saratoga, 16, was sent to success. He was appointed captain in England, and confined in the famous Mill the United States navy in April, 1814, 285 JOSHUA BARNKY. BARNUM— BARRE and placed in command of a flotilla of small vessels for the defence of the coasts of the Chesapeake. Driven up the Patux- ent by a British fleet, he destroyed his vessels, and with over 500 men he joined General Winder in the defence of Wash- ington (see Bladensburg, Battle at). Barney was severely wounded (Aug. 24, 1814) near Bladensburg, and made a pris- oner. Too much hurt to be removed as a prisoner, he was paroled and sent to Bladensburg, near by, on a litter. There he was joined by his wife and son and his own surgeon, and was conveyed to his farm at Elkridge, Md. The bullet that gave him the wound, from which he never fairly recovered, is preserved in the Navy Department. The corporation of Washing- ton voted him a sword, and the legislat- ure of Georgia their thanks. In May, 1815, Barney was sent on a mission to Europe, but suffering from his wound caused him to return in the fall. Just as he was about to depart from Pitts- 'burg, Pa., with his family, to Kentucky, where he had bought land, he died, Dec. 1, 1818. * Barnum, Phineas Taylor, showman; born in Bethel, Conn., July 5, 1810. In 1834 he began his career as a showman by exhibiting an old negress called Joyce Heth as the nurse of George Washington. He brought Jenny Lind to America in 1849, exhibited Tom Thumb, etc. He died in Bridgeport, Conn., April 7, 1891. Barnum, William H., statesman; born in Boston Corners, N. Y., Sept. 17, 1818; elected to the State legislature in 1852; member of Congress, 1866-76; United States Senator, 1876-79; chairman of the national Democratic executive committee, 1880 and 1884. He died in Lime Rock, Conn., April 30, 1889. Barnwell, John, military officer; born in Ireland, about 1671; in 1712, with a regiment of 600 Carolinians and several hundred friendly Indians, killed 300 of the warring Tuscaroras in the first engage- ment and drove the survivors into their fortified town, where they were finally re- duced to submission. Over 1,000 of them were killed or captured, and the remnant joined the Five Nations of New York. He died in Beaufort, S. C, in 1724. Barnwell, Robert Woodward, states- man; born in Beaufort, S. C, Aug. 10, 1801; member of Congress, 1829-33; United States Senator, 1850-51 ; commis- sioner from South Carolina to Washing- ton, December, 1860; gave the casting vote that elected Jefferson Davis President of the Confederate States. He died in Colum- bia, S. C, Nov. 25, 1882. Barras, Count Louis de, naval officer; born in Provence, France; was one of the chief officers of the Marquis de Ternay, commander of the French squadron sent to aid the Americans in 1781. He was designated to represent the navy in the conference between Washington and Ro- chambeau in Wethersfield, Conn., May 23, 1781, but was unable to be present on account of the sudden appearance of the British squadron off Block Island. In September following he effected a junction with the squadron of De Grasse in Chesa- peake Bay, and the enlarged French fleet prevented the British fleet from going to the rescue of Lord Cornwallis, and so made certain the surrender of the British at Yorktown. He died about 1800. Barre, Antoine le Fevre de la, French general and author; born about 1605; was appointed lieutenant-general of the army in 1667, and sent against the English in the West Indies. After a suc- cessful campaign he was appointed gov- ernor of Canada in 1682, and held the office for three years. In 1684 he pre- pared for an expedition from Canada to the country of the Five Nations (q. v.). His forces consisted of 700 Canadians, 130 regular soldiers, and 200 Indians. De- tained by an epidemic disease among the French soldiers at Fort Frontenac for six weeks, he was compelled to conclude the campaign with a treaty. He crossed Lake Ontario for that purpose, and at a desig- nated place was met by Oneidas, Onon- dagas, and Cayugas, the Mohawks and Senecas refusing to attend. Barre as- sumed much dignity. Seated on a chair of state, with his French and Indian officers forming a circle around him, he addressed himself to Garangula, the Onondaga chief, in a very haughty speech, which he concluded with a threat of burn- ing the castles of the Five Nations and destroying the Indians themselves unless the satisfaction which he demanded was given. To this address Garangula made a cool but bold and decisive speech in 86 BARRE— BARRON reply. It made the haughty Barre very favor. Barre was one of the supposed angry, and he retired to his tent, where, authors of the Letters of Junius. Strong after deliberation, he prudently suspend- in person, vigorous in mind, independent ed his menaces. A treaty of peace was in thought and action, he was a dreaded concluded; and two days afterwards opponent. During the last twenty years Barre and his retinue departed for of his life he was blind. He died in Lon- Canada. He died in Paris, May 4, 1688. don, July 20, 1802. Barre, Isaac, military officer; born in Barren Hill, near Valley Forge, Pa. Dublin, Ireland, in 1726. His parents General Washington detached General were French, his father being a small Lafayette, May 18, 1778, with about 2,100 tradesman in Dublin. Isaac entered the men, to watch the British. He occupied British army at the age of twenty-one, Barren Hill, where he was approached by and participated in the expedition against about 5,000 British troops on May 20, intending a surprise. Lafayette, assuming to be preparing to meet the attack, skil- fully passed the enemy, retreated across the Schuylkill, and occupied a strong posi- tion, whereupon the British retired. Barrett, John, diplomatist; born in Grafton, Vt., Nov. 28, 1866; graduated at Dartmouth College in 1889, and en- gaged in journalism. He was minister to Siam in 1894-98, and represented sev- eral United States newspapers during the Philippine campaign in 1898. Barriger, John Walker, military of- ficer; born in Shelby county, Ky., July 9, 1832; graduate at West Point in 1856; brevet captain for services at Bull Run; served in the commissary department. He wrote the legislative history of the subsistence department of the United States army, 1876. Barron, James, naval officer; born in Virginia in 1769. On the formation of the United States navy in 1798, Barron (who had begun his naval career under his father, commander of the Virginia Louisburg in 1758. Wolfe was his friend, navy during the Revolutionary War) and appointed him major of brigade; and was made a lieutenant, and served under in May, 1759, he was made adjutant-gen- Barry in the brief naval war with France, eral of Wolfe's army that assailed Que- In 1799 he was made a captain and sent bee. He was severely wounded in the bat- to the Mediterranean, under the command tie on the Plains of Abraham, by which he of his elder brother, Com. Samuel Barron, lost the sight of one eye. Barre served one of the best disciplinarians in the ser- under Amherst in 1760; and was the offi- vice. James was in command of the cial bearer of the news of the surrender frigate Chesapeake in 1807, and surren- of Montreal to England. In 1761 he was dered her to the Leopard, a British ship- promoted to lieutenant-colonel, and the of-war, for which he was court-martialled same year he obtained a seat in Parlia- and sentenced to be suspended from ser- ment, where he found himself in opposi- vice for five years without pay or emolu- tion to the ministry. For this offence he ments. During that suspension he en- was deprived of his offices, given him as tered the merchant service, and remained a reward for his services in America. He abroad until 1818, when an attempt was w r as the warm friend of the colonies, and made to restore him to duty in the naval made able speeches in Parliament in their service. Commodore Decatur and other 287 ISAAC BARRE. (From, an old print.) BARRON— BARRY officers resisted this, and a bitter corre- born in Medina, Mich., July 11, 1847; spondence between Barron and Decatur en- was graduated at Olivet College, Mich., in 1867, and studied at Yale, Union, and Andover theological seminaries, and at Gottingen, Germany. After two short pastorates in Lawrence and Boston, Mass., he became pastor of the First Presbyterian Church, Chicago, and remained there more than fourteen years. In 1893 he organized and was the president of the World's Par- liament of Religions. In 1896 he resigned his Chicago pastorate and went to India, where he lectured in an institution en- dowed by Mrs. Caroline E. Haskell. Re- turning to the United States, he lectured in the Union Theological Seminary in 1898, and in November of that year be- came president of Oberlin College. He published History of the Parliament of Religions; Life of Henry Ward Beecher; Christianity the World Religion, etc. He died in Oberlin, O., June 3, 1902. Barry, John, naval officer; born in Tacumshane, Wexford co., Ireland, in 1745. He went to sea while he was very young, became the commander of a ship, and gained considerable wealth. In Feb- ruary, 1776, he was appointed by Con- gress to command the Lexington, fourteen sued. Barron challenged his antagonist guns, which, after a sharp action, captured to fight a duel. They met near Bladens- the tender Edward. This was the first burg (March 22, 1820), and Decatur was mortally wounded. Barron was severely hurt, but recovered after several months of suffering. During the latter years of his long life Barron held several im- portant commands on shore. He became senior officer of the navy in 1839, and died in Norfolk, Va., April 21, 1851. Barron, Samuel, naval officer; was born in Hampton, Va., about 1763; broth- er of James. He, like his brother, had a training in the navy under his father. In 1798 he commanded the Augusta, pre- pared by the citizens of Norfolk to resist the aggressions of the French. He took a conspicuous part in the war with Tripoli, and in 1805 he commanded a squadron of ten vessels, with the President as the flag-ship. He assisted in the capture of the Tripolitan town of Derne, April 27, 1805. Barron soon afterwards relinquished his command to Capt. John Rodgers, and on account of ill - health returned to the United States. He died Oct. 29, 1810. vessel captured by a commissioned offi- JAMKS BARRON. JOHN BARRY. Barrows, John Henry, clergyman; cer of the United States navy. 288 Barry BARRY— BARTHOLDI was transferred to the frigate Effingham ; for another article of the same relative and in the Delaware, at the head of four value. In primitive American days the boats, he captured an English schooner, most common articles were food animals, in 1777, without the loss of a man. He food products, skins, and weapons of de- was publicly thanked by Washington, fence When Howe took Philadelphia, late in after and the hunt. For many years the introduction of tobacco that 1777, Barry took the Effingham up the product was the chief commodity for Delaware with the hope of saving her, but bartering, while among the Indians warn- she was burned by the British. Howe had pum was used the same as money tokens offered him a large bribe if he would in later times. deliver the ship to him at Philadelphia, Bartholdi, Frederic Auguste, French but it was scornfully rejected. Barry sculptor; born in Colmar, Alsace, April took command of the Raleigh, 32, in Sep- 2, 1834; received the Cross of the Legion tember, 1778, but British cruisers com- of Honor in 18G5, and is best known in the pelled him to run her ashore in Penobscot United States by his colossal statue in Bay. In the frigate Alliance, in 1781, he New York Harbor, entitled Liberty En- sailed for France with Col. John Laurens, lightening the World. His other works in- who was sent on a special mission; and elude a statue of Lafayette in Union afterwards he cruised successfully with that ship. At the close of May he capt- Square> New York, and a bronze group of Lafayette and Washington, presented by ured the Atlanta and Trespass, after a American citizens to the city of Paris, severe fight. Returning in October, the and unveiled Dec. 1, 1895. Alliance was refitted, and, after taking In 1870 a movement was inaugurated Lafayette and the Count de Noailles to in France to present to the United States France, Barry cruised in the West Indies a suitable memorial to testify to the fra- very successfully until May, 1782. After ternal feeling existing between the two the reorganization of the United States navy in 1794, Barry was named the sen- ior officer. He superintend- ed the building of the frig- ate United States, to the command of which he was assigned, but never entered upon the duty. He died in Philadelphia, Sept. 13, 1803. Barry, William Taylor, statesman; born in Lunen- burg, Va., Feb. 5, 1785; was a member of the Ken- tucky legislature; member of Congress, 1810-11; Unit- ed States Senator, 1815-16; Postmaster - General, 1829- 35; appointed minister to Spain, 1835, and on his way to his post died in Liver- pool, England, Aug. 20, 1835. Barter, the exchange of one commodity for another, and also the commodity so exchanged. Bartering is traceable to the days of savage races, countries. In 1874 the French- American when one article, usually the product of Union was formed for the furtherance of agriculture or the hunt, was exchanged this object. I.— T 289 FREDERIC AUGUSTE BARTHOLDI. It was decided to present BARTHOLDI to the United States a colossal statue of Liberty Enlightening the World, and more than 1,000,000 francs were raised by popu- lar subscription for that purpose. Of the various models submitted to the committee having the mat- ter in charge, that of M. Bar- tholdi was selected as the best, and the statue was construct- ed by him. It is the largest statue ever made, and the most conspicu- ous exaniple of repousse" work — that is, thin sheets of ham- mered brass laid over a frame- in sections, over a wooden frame-work. The most accurate measurements were necessary in making these statues in order to preserve accurate proportions. Then came the work of copying the full-size statue in wooden mod- els. These were all carefully made by hand, each piece ex- actly fitting every curve or ir- regularity of surface in some part of the figure. Into these moulds the sheets of brass were laid and beaten down until they exactly fitted them. There were 300 sheets of brass used, each irk. t a w*e BARTHOLDl'S STATUE OF LIBERTY IN NEW TORK HARBOR. work of iron. First, a life - size clay statue after the design was made, then three plaster statues, the first one-six- teenth, the second one - fourth the size of the complete work, and the third its full size, the last-named being made from one to three yards square, and weighing in all 88 tons. These form the outside of the statue. When this was complete, the iron frame - work or skel- eton was formed on which the outer copper shell could be fastened. The right 290 BARTLETT hand and torch of this remarkable statue elaborate scientific observations; but, were shown at the Centennial Exhibition owing to a failure of Congress to make at Philadelphia in 1876. The head was the necessary appropriations, he did not shown at the Paris Exposition in 1879. complete his work. He published a per- On July 4, 1880, the statue was formal- sonal narrative of his experience in that ly delivered to the United States through region in 1854. In May, 1855, he was its representative, the American minis- chosen secretary of state of Rhode Isl- ter at Paris. Bedloe's Island, in New and, which post he held until 1872, a York Harbor, but lying within the boun- period of seventeen years. He edited and daries of New Jersey, was selected by published the Records of the Colony of the government as a suitable place for Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, its erection, and money was raised in 10 volumes; also an Index to the Acts by means of subscriptions, concerts, etc., and Resolves of the General Assembly of to build a pedestal for it to rest upon. Rhode Island from 1758 to 1862. In 1847 On Oct. 28, 1886, the statue was unveiled Mr. Bartlett published a little volume on in the presence of distinguished represent- the Progress of Ethnology; and in 1848 a atives of France and the United States, Dictionary of Americanisms, since revised and was formally dedicated with imposing and enlarged. He also published a Bibli- ceremonies. The statue represents the ography of Rhode Island; Literature of Goddess of Liberty holding aloft a torch the Rebellion; Memoirs of Rhode Island with which she enlightens the world. Men; Primeval Man, and several other The height of the statue from the base works. He died in Providence, R. I., May to the torch is 151 feet 1 inch. From the 28, 1886. foundation of the pedestal to the torch Bartlett, Josiah, a signer of the Dec- it is 305 feet 6 inches. The figure weighs laration of Independence; born in Ames- 450,000 pounds, or 225 tons, and con- bury, Mass., Nov. 21, 1729; educated in tains 100 tons of bronze. Forty persons a common school and taught the science can stand comfortably in the head, and of medicine by a practitioner in his native the torch will hold twelve people. town, he began practice in Kingston, N. H., Bartlett, John, author; born in Plym- in 1750, and soon became eminent. He outh, Mass., June 14, 1820; became a pub- was a member of the New Hampshire lisher in Cambridge. In 1862-63 he was legislature from 1765 until the break- a volunteer paymaster in the United ing out of the War of the Revolution. In States navy. He is best known for his 1770 he was appointed by the royal gov- Familiar Quotations ; The Shakspeare In- ernor lieutenant-colonel of the militia, dex ; and The Complete Concordance to but on account of his patriotic tendencies Shakspeare. he was deprived of the office in 1775. He Bartlett, John Russell, author; born was a member of the committee of in Providence, R. I., Oct. 23, 1805. He safety, upon whom for a time devolved was for six years cashier of the Globe the whole executive power of the govern- Bank in Providence, and an active mem- ment of the State. A delegate to Congress ber of the Franklin Society for the Cul- in 1775-76, he was the first to give his tivation of Science. He was also one vote for the Declaration of Independence, of the projectors of the Athenaeum in and its first signer after the President Providence, and for some time correspond- of Congress. He was with Stark in the ing secretary of the New York Historical Bennington campaign (see Bennington, Society. Mr. Bartlett was associated with Battle of), in 1777, as agent of the Albert Gallatin as a projector and founder State to provide medicine and other neces- of the American Ethnological Society. In saries for the New Hampshire troops. In 1850 he was appointed by President Tay- Congress again in 1778, he was active in lor a commissioner, under the treaty of committee duties; and in 1779 he was peace with Mexico in 1848, to settle the appointed chief-justice of the Common boundary - line between that country and Pleas in his State. In 1782 he was a the United States. He was engaged in judge of the Superior Court of New that service until Jan. 7, 1853, making Hampshire, and chief-justice in 1788 extensive surveys and explorations, with Judge Bartlett retired from public life 291 BARTLETT— BABTON in 1794, on account of feeble health, hav- charge by President Lincoln of the search ing been president of the State from 1790 organized to find missing Union soldiers, to 1793, and, under the new constitution, and in 1865 went to Andersonville to governor in 1793. He was the chief mark the graves of Northern soldiers who founder and the president of the New had died there. When the Franco-Prus- Hampshire Medical Society, and received sian War broke out (1870), she assisted the honorary degree of M.D. from Dart- in preparing military hospitals, and also mouth College. He died May 19, 1795. aided the Red Cross Society. In 1871, Bartlett, William Francis, military after the siege of Strasburg, she superin- officer; born in Haverhill, Mass., Jan. 6, tended, by request of the authorities, the 1840; was graduated at Harvard in 1862. distribution of work to the poor, and in He entered the volunteer army as cap- 1872 performed a similar work in Paris, tain in the summer of 1861; was engaged For her services she was decorated with in the battle of Ball's Bluff (q. v.), the Golden Cross of Baden and the Iron and lost a leg in the siege of Yorktown in Cross of Germany. In 1881, when the 1862. He was made colonel of a Massa- American Red Cross Society was formed, chusetts regiment in November, 1862, and she was made its president, and as such took part in the capture of Port Hudson in 1884 directed the measures to aid the in 1863. In the siege of Petersburg sufferers by the Mississippi and Ohio (1864) he commanded a division of the floods. In 1883 she was made the super- 9th Corps, and at the explosion of the intendent, steward, and treasurer of the mine there he was made prisoner, but Reformatory Prison for Women, at Sher- exchanged in September. In 1865 he was born, Mass., and in the same year was brevetted major-general of volunteers, special commissioner of foreign exhibits He died in Pittsfield, Mass., Dec. 17, at the New Orleans Exposition. In 1884 1876. she was a delegate of the United States Barton, Clara, philanthropist ; born to the Red Cross Conference, and also to in Oxford, Mass., in 1830; was educated the International Peace Conference, both in Clinton, N. Y. Her early life was de- held in Geneva, Switzerland. In 1889 she voted to teaching. In 1854 she became a directed the movements for the relief of clerk in the Patent Office in Washington, the sufferers by the flood at Johnstown, resigning in 1861, and undertaking the p a>j and" in 1896 went • to Armenia and personally managed the relief measures. Prior to the war with Spain she carried supplies to the reconcentrados of Cuba, at the request of President Mc- Kinley, and was also active during the war in army relief work. In 1900, after the Galveston disaster, she directed the movement for the relief of the suf- ferers, till her health failed. She is au- thor of History of the Red Cross; and History of the Red Cross in Peace and War. —barton, William, military officer ; born in Warren, R. I., May 26, 1748. Holding the rank of lieutenant-colonel in the Rhode Island militia, he, with a small party, crossed Narraganset Bay in the night (July 10, 1777) and seized and carried away the British General Prescott (see Prescott, Richard). For this service nursing of sick and wounded soldiers of Congress gave him a sword and a com- the army. In 1864 General Butler made mission of colonel in the Continental her head nurse of the hospitals in the army. He was wounded at Bristol Ferry Army of the James. Later she was given in August, 1778, and was disabled from 292 CLARA BARTON. BARTRAM— BATANGAS further service in the war. He was a member of the Rhode Island convention WILLIAM BARTON. which finally adopted the national Con- stitution. He died in Providence, R. I., Oct. 22, 1831.%. Bartram, William, naturalist; born in Kingsessing, Pa., Feb. 9, 1739. He en- gaged in business in North Carolina in 1761, and became a devoted student of nat- ural history. Son of John Bartram, a dis- tinguished botanist, and the founder of the first botanical garden in the United States, William accompanied his father, when the latter was seventy years of age, in a botanical excursion and exploration of east Florida, and resided some time on the banks of the St. John River, returning home in 1771. He was employed by Dr. Fothergill, of London, in 1773-78, in bo- tanical explorations and collections in Florida, Georgia, and "South Carolina. Mr. Bartram was a member of the American Philosophical Society and other scientific associations in the United States and Europe. In 1790 he published an account of his travels in the Gulf region, in which he gave an account of the Creek, Choctaw, and Cherokee Indians. Mr. Bartram made the most complete table of American ornithology previous to the work of Wil- son, and to him we are indebted for a knowledge of many curious and beautiful plants peculiar to North America. He died in Kingsessing, Pa., July 22, 1823. Bassett, John Spencer, educator; born in Tarboro; N. C, Sept. 10, 1807; gradu- ated at Trinity College, N. C, in 1888, and was Professor of History in Trinity Col- lege in 1900. He is author of Constitutional Beginnings of North Carolina; Slavery and Servitude in Colony of North Carolina; Anti - Slavery Leaders of North Caro- lina; Slavery in the State of North Caro- lina; The War of the Regulation, etc. Bastidas, Rodriguez de, explorer; born about 1460. With Juan de la Cosa, he sailed towards the Western Continent with two ships in 1502, and discovered the coast of South America from Cape de Vela to the Gulf of Darien. Ojeda, with Amer- icus Vespucius, went in the same course soon afterwards, ignorant of this expedi- tion of Bastidas, touched at the same places, and proceeded to Hispaniola, or Santo Domingo. He founded the city of St. Martha, in New Grenada; was wound- ed in an uprising of his people; and died soon afterwards in Santo Domingo, whither he had fled. Batane, or Bashi, Islands, a group of islands directly north of the Philippine Archipelago, midway between the Bashi and Balintang channels and a little to the southeast of the island of Formosa. They have an estimated area of 125 square miles and a population of about 9,500. The principal islands in the group are Mabudis, Ibayat, Batan, Saptan, and Balintang, and the principal towns are Santo Domingo de Basco, San Bartolome de Calayan, San Carlos de Marigatao, San Jose de Ibana, Santa Maria de Mayan, and San Vincente de Saptan. In March, 1900, the United States authorities estab- lished a government over these islands, and the neighboring Calayan Islands, un- der the direction of Teofilo Costillejo, a Filipino, who had aided the American au- thorities in their operations on Luzon. Batangas, a province of Luzon, Philip- pine Islands, bordering on San Bernardino Strait, and north of the island of Min- doro; also the name of its capital city. The province is naturally one of the rich- est sugar-growing districts in the Philip- pines, and has also a large production of cocoanut oil. Prior to the war between the United States and Spain, in 1898, the 293 BATCHELDER— BATTLES city was the seat of large commerce, and and afterwards became the senior partner had a population of over 35,000. The of the firm of Baring Brothers & Co. region gives promise of large economic In 1854 he was appointed umpire between returns on the application of modern the British and American commissioners methods of cultivation. in the adjustment of claims between citi- Batchelder, Richard N., military offi- zens of Great Britain and the United cer; born in Lake Village, N. H., July 27, States growing out of the War of 1812. 1832; entered the volunteer army in 1861; In 1852 Mr. Bates offered $50,000 to the served through the Civil War, and was city of Boston for the establishment of a awarded a Congressional medal of honor free public library, and afterwards gave for distinguished gallantry in action; en- the library some 30,000 volumes. He died tered the regular army at the close of the in London, England, Sept. 24, 1864. war; became brigadier-general in 1890, Bates, Samuel Penniman, historian; and was retired in 1896. He died in born in Meriden, Mass., Jan. 29, 1827; Washington, D. C, Jan. 4, 1901. was State historian of Pennsylvania in Bates, Edward, statesman; born in Bel- 1866-73; and published Lives of the Gov- mont, Va., Sept. 4, 1793; served in the ernors of Pennsylvania, and several works Virginia militia in 1813; removed to Mis- on the Civil War. souri in 1814; and began practising law in Baton Rouge, Battle at. See Port 1816. He was a prominent anti - slavery Hudson; Williams, Thomas. man, and during the National Republican Battle, Kemp Plummer, educator; born Convention of 1860 he received 48 votes on in Franklin county, N. C, Dec. 19, 1831 ; the first ballot for President. Mr. Lincoln graduated at the University of North after his election appointed Mr. Bates Carolina in 1849; member of the Confed- Attorney-General. He resigned in 1864, erate Convention of that State in 1861 ; and returned to his home in St. Louis, State treasurer in 1866-68; was president where he died, March 25, 1869. of the University of North Carolina in Bates, John Coalter, military officer; 1876-91; then resigned to become Pro- born in St. Charles county, Mo., Aug. 26, fessor of History in the same institution. 1842; educated at Washington University He is author of History of the Supreme (St. Louis). He entered the army in Court of North Carolina; History of Ra- 1861, and served on the staff of Gen. leigh, North Carolina; Trials and Judicial George G. Meade from the battle of Proceedings of the New Testament; Life Gettysburg to the close of the war. In of General Jethro Sumner, etc. 1863-82 he held the rank of captain; Battle Above the Clouds. See Look- in 1882-86 that of lieutenant - colonel ; out Mountain, Battle of. in 1886-92 that of colonel. He was presi- Battle Hymn of the Republic. See dent of the board which devised the pres- Howe, Julia Ward. ent drill and firing regulations, and a Battle of the Kegs. See Hopkinson, member of the board which adopted the Francis. Krag - Jorgensen rifle. At the outbreak Battles. The principal battles in which of the Sp'anish- American War he was com- the people of the United States have been missioned a brigadier-general of volun- engaged, as colonists and as a nation, are teers, and for the Santiago campaign was as follows: promoted major-general. In 1899 he was appointed military governor of Cienfuegos, French and Indian war. Cuba. On the reorganization of the regu- great Meadows May 28, 1754 , -~ , fe ,„, . & Fort Necessity July 4, lar army in February, 1901, he was ap- port Beau Sejour June 16, 1755 pointed one of the new brigadier-generals. Port Gaspereaux June 17, " Bates, Joshua, financier; born in Wey- Monongahela July 9, " mouth, Mass., in 1788; went to England B Q°jJj l? e) P ???. \ { ™™ . .^Sept. 8, « as the agent of William Gray & Son, Bos- Head of Lake George. .... . . . !sept. 8, " ton, and was thrown into intimate rela- ©swego Aug. 14, 1756 tions with the Hopes. Barings, and other £ ort ^| ,1Ia ™ Henry l ul / % JJK . . , *T T ,««- t. Near Tlconderoga July 6, 1758 great commercial firms. In 1826 he en- Ticonderoga July 8, " tered into partnership with John Baring, Louisburg July 26, " 294 BATTLES Fort Frontenac Aug. 27, Alleghany Mountains Sept. 21, Fort Niagara July 25, Montmorenci July 31, Plains of Abraham Sept. 13, Sillery April 28, REVOLUTIONARY WAR. Lexington April 19, Bunker (Breed's) Hill June 17, Near Montreal (Ethan Allen captured) Sept. 25, St. John's (Siege and Capture of) Oct. and Nov. Great Bridge Dec. 9, Quebec Dec. 31, Moore's Creek Bridge Feb. 27, Boston (Evacuation of) Mar. 17, Cedar Rapids May 9, Three Rivers June 8, Fort Sullivan (Charleston Har- bor) June 28, Long Island Aug. 27, Harlem Plains Sept. 16, White Plains Oct. 28, Fort Washington Nov. 16, Trenton Dec. 26, Princeton Jan. 3, Hubbardton July 7, Oriskany Aug. 6, Bennington Aug. 16, Brandy wine Sept. 11, Bemis's Heights (first), Sept. 19; (second) Oct. 7, Paoli Sept. 20, Germantown Oct. 4, Forts Clinton and Montgomery. Oct. 6, Fort Mercer Oct. 22, Fort Mifflin Nov. 16, Monmouth June 28, Wyoming July 4, Quaker Hill (R. I.) Aug. 29, Savannah Dec. 29, Kettle Creek Feb. 14, Brier Creek Mar. 3, Stono Ferry June 20, Stony Point July 16, Paulus's Hook Aug. 19, Chemung (near Elmira, N. Y.).Aug. 29, Savannah Oct. 9, Charleston (Siege and Sur- render ©f ) May 12, Springfield (N. J.) June 23, Rocky Mount (N. C.) July 30, Hanging Rock (N. C.) Aug. 6, Sander's Creek (.near Camden, S. C.) Aug. 16, King's Mountain (S. C.) Oct. 7, Fish Dam Ford Nov. 18, Blackstocks Nov. 20, Cowpens Jan. 17, Guilford Mar. 15, Hobkirk's Hill April 25, Ninety-six (Siege of) May and June Augusta (Siege of) May and June Jamestown July 9, Eutaw Springs Sept. 8, Yorktown (Siege of ) . . . .Sept. and Oct. NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS. Hampton, Va. (British fleet repulsed ) , . , . Oct. 24, 1758 Fort Sullivan, Charleston Har- bor (British fleet repulsed) .June 28, 1776 1759 Fort Stony Point, on the Hud- " son (captured by British fleet) May 31, 1779 1760 Verplanck's Point, on the Hud- son (captured by British fleet) June 1, " 1775 British fleet and American flotilla of thirty-seven ves- sels on Penobscot River (lat- ter destroyed) Aug. 13, " Bon Homme Richard and the Alliance against the Serapis (off coast of England) Sept. 23 " American fleet captured the 1776 Scarborough (off coast of England) Sept. 23 " French fleet attacked Savan- nah (forced by the British to withdraw) Oct. 9, " «< WAR WITH THE INDIANS. Miami River Oct. 19 and 22, 1790 St. Clair's Defeat Nov. 4, 1791 Fort St. Clair Nov. 6,1792 1777 Near Fort St. Clair Oct. 17, 1793 Fort Recovery June 30, 1794 „ Maumee Rapids (Fallen Tim- tt ber) Aug. 20, " „ Tippecanoe Nov. 7, 1811 war of 1812-15. Fort Mackinaw July 17,1812 " Brownstown Aug. 4, " " Maguaga Aug. 9, " " Chicago (Massacre at) Aug. 16, " " Detroit (Surrendered) Aug. 16, " 1778 Fort Harrison Sept. 4 and 5, " Fort Madison Sept. 4-6, " " Gananoqui Sept. 21, " " Queenstown Heights Oct. 13, " 1779 St. Regis Oct. 23, " " Fort Niagara Nov. 21, " " Black Rock Nov. 28, " French Town (River Raisin). Jan. 18-22, 1813 " Elizabethtown (Canada) Feb. 7, " " Ogdensburg Feb. 22, " York (Toronto) April 27, " Fort Meigs May 5, " 1780 Fort George May 27, " Sackett's Harbor May 29, " " Stony Creek June 6, " " Hampton (Defence of) June 13, " Craney Island June 22, " " Beaver Dams June 23, " " Near Fort George July 8, " Black Rock July 11, •* Fort George (Defence of Out- 1781 works) July 17, " " Fort Stephenson Aug. 2, " " Stonington (Bombardment of) Aug. 9-11, " " Fort Mims Aug. 30, " Thames Oct. 5 " " French Creek Nov. 1 and 2, " " Tallasehatche Nov. 3, " Talladega Nov. 9, " Chrysler's Field Nov. 11, " Hillabee Town Nov. 18, " 1775 Auttose Nov. 29, ** 295 BATTLES Fort Niagara Dec. 19, Econochaca Dec. 23, Black Rock Dec. 30, Emucfau (Ala.) Jan. 22, Enotochopco (Ala.) Jan. 24, Camp Defiance Jan. 27, Longwoods Mar. 4, Horseshoe Bend Mar. 27, La Colle Mills Mar. 30, Fort Oswego May 4 and 5, Sandy Creek May 30, Odell Town June 28, Fort Erie July 3, Chippewa July 5, Champlain July 18 and 19, Lundy's Lane (Niagara Falls). July 25, Fort Mackinack (Mackinaw) . .Aug. 4, Fort Erie Aug. 13-15, Bladensburg Aug. 24, Plattsburg Sept. 11, North Point Sept. 12, Fort Mcllenry (Bombardment of) Sept. 13, Fort Bower Sept. 15, Fort Erie (Sortie from) Sept. 17, Chippewa Oct. 15, Lyon's Creek Oct. 19, Pensacola Nov. 7, Villere's Plantation (New Or- leans) Dec. 23, Rodriguez's Canal (New Or- leans) Jan. 1, New Orleans Jan. 8, Fort St. Philip Jan. 9, Point Petre (Ga.) Jan. 13, NAVAL ENGAGEMENTS. Chesapeake and Leopard (im- pressment, former defeat- ed) June President and Little Belt (lat- ter defeated) May President and Belvidera (former escaped) June Essex and Alert (latter de- feated) Aug. Constitution and Gucrridre (latter defeated) Aug. Wasp and Frolic (latter de- feated) Oct. Wasp and Poictiers (former surrendered) Oct. United States and Macedonian (latter defeated) Oct.. Constitution and Java (latter defeated) Dec. Chesapeake and Shannon (former defeated) June Enterprise and Boxer (latter defeated) Sept. Argus and Pelican (former de- feated) Aug. Hornet and Peacock (latter defeated) Aug. American fleet of nine ves- sels and British fleet of six vessels on Lake Erie (latter defeated) Sept. Essex and the Phoebe and Cherub (former surrender- ed) Mar. 1813 Wasp and Reindeer (latter defeated) June 28, 1814 " Wasp and Avon (latter de- 1814 feated) Sept. 1, " " American fleet of sixteen ves- " sels and the British fleet " on Lake Champlain (latter defeated) Sept. 11, " " President and the Endymion, " Majestic, and two other " British ships (former de- feated) Sept. 16, " " Hornet and Penguin (latter defeated) Jan. 22, 1815 ii BLACK HAWK WAR. (See BLACK HAWK). May to August, 1832. " t SEMINOLE WAR 1835-42. Micanopy June 9, 1836 «« Fort Drane Aug. 21, " Wahoo Swamp. .. .Nov. 17, 18, and 21, " m Okeechobee Lake Dec. 25, 1837 Carloosahatchee July 23, 1839 Fort King April 28, 1840 m Near Fort Brooke Mar. 2, 1841 a Big Hammock April 19, 1842 WAR AGAINST MEXICO. «. Fort Brown May 3, 1846 Palo Alto May 8, " 1815 Resaca de la Palma May 9, " »« Sonoma and Sonoma Pass... June 15, " Monterey Sept. 21-23, " m Braceta Dec. 25, " San Gabriel Jan. S, 1847 The Mesa Jan. 9, " Encarnacion Jan. 23, " Buena Vista Feb. 22 and 23, " Chihuahua Feb. 28, " Vera Cruz (Surrendered) Mar. 20, " Alvarado April 2, " Cerro Gordo April 18, " Contreras Aug. 20, " Churubusco Aug. 20, " El Molino del Rey Sept. 8, " Chapultepec Sept. 12-14, " Puebla Sept. and Oct., " Huamantla Oct. 9, " Atlixco Oct. 18, " CIVIL WAR. Fort Sumter (Evacuated) April 14, 1861 1811 1812 22, 1807 16, 23, 13, 19, 18, 18, 25, 29, 1, 5, 14, 24, 10, 1813 28, 1814 Big Bethel (Va.) June 10, " Booneville (Mo.) June 17, " Carthage (Mo.) July 6, " Rich Mountain (Va.) July 10, " Bull Run (Va.) (first) July 21, " Wilson's Creek (Mo.) Aug. 10, " Hatteras Forts Captured. . . .Aug. 26-30, " Carnifex Ferry (Va.) Sept. 10, " Lexington (Mo.) Sept. 20, " Santa Rosa Island Oct. 9, " Ball's Bluff (Va.) Oct. 21, " Port Royal Expedition (S. C.) Oct. to Nov., " Belmont (Mo.) Nov. 7, " Middle Creek (Ky.) Jan. 10, 1862 Fort Henry (Tenn.) Feb. 6, " Roanoke Island (N. C.)..Feb. 7 and 8, " Fort Donelson Feb. 16, " Valvend (New Mexico) Feb. 21, " 206 BATTLES Pea Ridge (Ark.) Mar. 7 and 8, 1862 Hampton Roads (Monitor and Hcrrimac) Mar. 9, " Shiloh (Tenn.) April 6 and 7, ■ Island Number Ten (Surren- dered) April 7, " Forts Jackson and St. Philip April 18-27, " New Orleans (Captured). April 25 to May 1, " Yorktown (Siege of).... April and May, " Williamsburg May 5, " Winchester May 25, " Hanover Court-House May 27, " Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks May 31 and June 1, " Memphis (Tenn.) June 6, " Cross Keys and Port Repub- lic June 8 and 9, " Seven Days before Rich- mond June and July, " Baton Rouge (La.) Aug. 5, " Cedar Mountain (Va.) Aug. 9, " Bull Run (second) Aug. 30, " South Mountain (Md.) ..Sept. 14, " Harper's Ferry (10,000 Nation- als surrendered) Sept. 15, " Antietam (Md.) Sept. 17, " Iuka (Miss.) Sept. 19 and 20, " Corinth (Miss.) Oct. 3, " Perry ville ( Ky. ) Oct. 8, " Prairie Grove (Ark.) Dec. 7, " Fredericksburg (Va.) Dec. 13, " Holly Springs (Miss.) Dec. 20, " Chickasaw Bayou (Miss.) .. .Dec. 27-29, " Stone River (Murfreesboro, Tenn.) Dec. 31, " and Jan. 3, 1863 Arkansas Post (Ark.) Jan. 11, " Grierson's Raid April 11 to May 5, " Port Gibson (Miss.) May 1, " Chancellorsville (Va.) May 1-4, " Raymond (Miss.) May 12, " Jackson (Miss.) May 14, " Champion Hill (Miss) May 16, " Big Black River (Miss.) May 17, " Vicksburg (Miss.) May 19-22, " Tort Hudson (La.) May 27, " Hanover Junction (Pa.) June 30, " Gettysburg (Pa.) July 1-3, " Vicksburg (Surrendered) July 4, " Helena (Ark.) July 4, " Port Hudson (Surrendered) .. .July 9, " Jackson (Miss.) July 16, " Fort Wagner (S. C.) July 10-18, " Morgan's Great Raid (Ind. and O.) June 24 to July 26, " Chickamauga Sept. 19 and 20, " Campbell's Station (Tenn.) .. .Nov. 16, " Knoxville (Tenn. ; Besieged) Nov. 17 to Dec. 4, " Lookout Mountain (Tenn.) ... .Nov. 24, " Missionary Ridge (Tenn.) Nov. 25, " Olustee (Fla.) Feb. 20, 1864 Sabine Cross Roads (La.) April 8, " Pleasant Hill (La.) April 9, " Fort Pillow (Tenn.; Massacre at) April 12, " Wilderness (Va.) May 5 and 6, " Spottsylvania Court - House (Va.) May 7-12, " 22, 28, 30, 5, 15, 5, 16, 18, Resaca (Ga.) May 14 and 15, 1864 Bermuda Hundred May 10, " New Hope Church (Ga.) May 25, " Cold Harbor (Va.) June 1-3, " Petersburg (Va. ; Smith's At- tack) June 16, " Weldon Road (Va.) June 21 and 22, " Kenesaw (Ga.) June 27, " Peach-tree Creek (Ga.) July 20, " Decatur (Ga.) July Atlanta (Ga.) July Petersburg (Va. ; Mine Explo- sion) July Mobile Bay Aug. Jonesboro (Ga.)..Aug. 31 and Sept. 1, " Atlanta (Ga. ; Captured) Sept. 2, " Winchester (Va.) Sept. 19, " Fisher's Hill (Va.) Sept. 22, " Allatoona Pass (Ga.) Oct. 6, " Hatcher's Run (Va.) Oct. 27, " Franklin (Tenn.) Nov. 30, " Fort McAllister (Ga.) Dec. 14, " Nashville (Tenn.) Dec. 15 and 16, " Fort Fisher (N. C. ; First At- tack on) Dec. 24 and 25, " Fort Fisher (N. C. ; Capture of ) Jan. 15, 1865 Hatcher's Run (Va.) Feb. Averasboro (N. C.) Mar. Bentonville (N. C.) Mar! Five Forks (Va.) . .Mar. 31 and April 1, Petersburg (Carried by As- sault) April 2, Appomattox Court - House (near) April 9, Mobile (Capture of) April 8-12 WAR WITH SPAIN. Destruction of Spanish fleet in Manila Bay May 1, 1898 Bombardment of San Juan, Porto Rico May 12, " Bombardments of forts, San- tiago de Cuba May 31, Daiquiri, Cuba June 21-22, Juragua, Cuba (Capture) June 24, Las Guasimas, Cuba June 24, El Caney, Cuba July 1, San Juan Hill, Cuba July 2, Destruction of Spanish fleet oft 5 Santiago July 3, Santiago (Military and Naval Bombardment) July 10-17, Nipe Harbor, Cuba July 21, Guanica, Porto Rico July 25, Ponce, Porto Rico July 28, Malate, Philippine Islands July 31, Manila (Occupied) Aug. 13, Filipinos begin war on Ameri- cans Feb. 4, 1899 Capture of Aguinaldo ends in- surrection Mar. 23, 1901 There has been, from colonial times, des- ultory warfare quite frequently between the English-American colonists and the Indian tribes. The most formidable of these encounters were the Pequod War, the Esopus War, King Philip's War, Pontiac's 297 BATTLE-SHIPS— BAXTER War, the Creek and Seminole War, and wars with the Sioux. There should also be included in the list of wars of the Unit- ed States the long series of operations against the Filipino insurgents following the ratification of peace in 1899. Details of the most important of all of the above events will be found under their respective titles. Battle-ships, the highest and heaviest class of war vessels, designed for sea- fighting in line of battle, and provided with the most invulnerable armor and the heaviest guns, differing in this respect from the armored and unarmored class of cruisers, in which the qualities of pro- tection and armament do not so largely sachusetts, Oregon, and Texas, the first seven being rated as first-class battle- ships, the last as second-class. At the same period there were under construction, or authorized to be constructed, the following vessels, all of the first class : Illinois, Wis' consin, Maine, Missouri, Ohio, Georgia, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Rhode Island. During the summer of 1899 the Kearsarge and Kentucky were put in commission, the former being made the flag-ship of the new European squad- ron, and the latter being sent to impress the Sultan of Turkey with the desirability of paying some American claims. What was denominated by the Secretary of the Navy the " greatest industrial event. U. S. BATTLK SHIP KKAK8AKG1 preponderate. In a fleet of modern war- ships the battle-ship is the unit of strength and is expected to give and re- ceive the hardest blows. In the reconstruction of the United States navy, large attention has been given to this class of vessels, and the results of the remarkable triumph off Santiago de Cuba have been used as a justification for giving the navy the most thorough possible equipment in this line of fighting ships. At the beginning of 1901 the following battle-ships were in service: Alabama, Kearsarge, Kentucky, Iowa, Indiana, Mas- this or any other country had ever seen " occurred in Washington, Dec. 7, 1900, when bids were opened for the construction of eleven new armored fighting ships, to cost an aggregate of about $50,000,000. The vessels authorized were sheathed bat- tle-ships, for which Congress limited the cost to $4,250,000 each; unsheathed bat- tle-ships, limit of cost, $4,000,000 each; and armored cruisers, limit of cost, $3,- 600,000. See Navy of the United States. Baxter, James Phinney, author; born in Gorham, Me., March 23, 1831; has been mayor of Portland, Me., several 298 BAYAMON— BAYARD times; and Is the author of British In- the Senate when war was declared against vasion from the North; Sir Ferdinando Great Britain in 1812. In May, 1813, he Gorges and His Province of Maine, etc. left the United States on a mission to St. Bayamon, a province on the north Petersburg, to treat for peace with Great coast of Porto Rico; bounded on the east by that of Humacao, on the south by those of Ponce and Guayama, and on the west by that of Arecibo (q. v.). The chief city and seaport is San Juan (q. v.) , the fortifications of which were several times bombarded by a portion of the fleet under Admiral Sampson in 1898. The city was also the objective point of the military expedition under Gen. N. A. Miles (q. v.), which was stopped on its triumphal march by the signing of the protocol of peace. The formal transfer of the island to the United States also took place in this city. Bayard, George Dashiell, military officer; born in Seneca Falls, N. Y., Dec. 18, 1835; was graduated at West Point in 1856, and entered the cavalry corps. Early in April, 1861, he was made brig- adier-general of volunteer cavalry, and was attached to the Pennsylvania Re- serves. He participated in the battles fought by that body; served under Mc- Dowell and Pope in Virginia; and, after the battle of Antietam Creek, commanded a cavalry brigade. He was chief of cav- Britain under Russian mediation. The airy of the 3d Army Corps, and was en- mission was fruitless. In January, 1814, gaged in the battles of Cedar Mountain, he went to Holland, and thence to Eng- Manassas, and in the defence of Washing- land. At Ghent, during that year, he, ton, D. C. In the battle of Fredericks- with J. Q. Adams, Clay, Gallatin, and burg, where he fell, Dec. 14, 1862, he was Russell, negotiated a treaty of peace with attached to Franklin's corps. England. He was preparing to go to Bayard, James Ashton, statesman; England as a commissioner under the born in Philadelphia, July 28, 1767; of treaty, when an alarming illness seized Huguenot descent; was graduated at him, and he returned home early in 1815. Princeton in 1784; studied law under He died soon after his arrival, Aug. 6. Gen. Joseph Reed; was admitted to the Bayard, Nicholas, colonial executive; bar in 1787, and, settling in Delaware, born in Alphen, Holland, in 1644. His soon acquired a high reputation as a law- mother was a sister of Governor Stuy- yer. Mr. Bayard was a member of Con- vesant, the last Dutch governor of New gress from 1797 to 1803, and a conspicu- Netherland, whom she accompanied to ous leader of the Federal party. In 1804 America in 1647, with her three sons and he was elected to the United States Sen- a daughter. The old Bayard mansion in ate, in which he distinguished himself in New York City, on the Bowery, was con- conducting the impeachment of Senator verted into a pleasure garden in 1798. Blount. He was chiefly instrumental in The Astor Library is built on a part of securing the election of Jefferson over the estate. Under the second English Burr in 1800; and made, in the House of regime, in 1685, Bayard was mayor of Representatives, in 1802, a powerful de- New York, and a member of Governor fence of the existing judiciary system, Dongan's council. In 1698 Col. Bayard which was soon overthrown. He was in went to England to clear himself of the 299 JAMES ASHTON BAYAKU. BAYARD— BEACH imputation of complicity in the piracy The Confederates soon rallied and drove of Captain Kidd, having been accused by him back. Another part of the attacking the Leisler faction of both piracy and a force was driven back, and the attempt scheme to introduce slavery. He was failed. tried before Chief -Justice Atwood and Baylor, George, military officer; born sentenced to death. The proceedings, in Newmarket, Va., Jan. 12, 1752. Soon however, were annulled by an order-in- after Washington's arrival at Cambridge council, and he was reinstated in his prop- in 1778, he appointed (Aug. 15) young erty and honors. He died in New York Baylor as his aide. He was a participant City, in 1707. in the battle at Trenton, and carried the Bayard, Thomas Francis, diploma- news of the victory to Congress, when tist; born in Wilmington, Del., Oct. 29, that body presented him with a horse ca- 1828 j grandson of James A. Bayard; was parisoned for service, and made him admitted to the bar at Wilmington in colonel of dragoons (Jan. 8, 1777). On 1851, and served as United States Dis- the night of Sept. 27, 1778, his troop of trict Attorney. From 1869 to 1885 he was horse, lying in barns, unarmed, near old United States Senator from Delaware, Tappan, were surprised by the British, who and foremost among the leaders of the fell suddenly upon the sleeping troopers. Democratic side. He was a member of The latter, without arms and powerless, the Electoral Commission in 1877, and asked for quarter. General Grey had given was for a while president pro tern, of special orders not to grant quarter, and the Senate. In 1880 and 1884 Senator out of 104 prisoners sixty-seven were Bayard's prominence in the party brought killed or wounded. Baylor was wounded his name before the National Democratic and made prisoner. He died in Bridge- Convention, but he failed of securing the town, Barbadoes, in March, 1784. prize, though receiving many votes. Pres- Bayonne Decree. See Embargo. ident Cleveland called him in 1885 to the Bayou Teche Expedition. See Red office of Secretary of State, where he re- River Expedition. mained until 1889, and in President Bay State, the popular name of Massa- Cleveland's second administration he was chusetts, the colonial corporate title of first minister and then Ambassador which was " The Massachusetts Bay." (q. v.) to Great Britain. He died in This name it bore until the adoption of Dedham, Mass., Sept. 28, 1898. the national Constitution in 1788. Baylis's Creek, Battle at. Gen. W. Beach, Alfred Ely, inventor; born in S. Hancock proceeded to attack the Con- Springfield, Mass., in 1826; was educated federates in front of Deep Bottom on the at Monson Academy, Mass., and under his James River, Aug. 12, 1864. His whole father (Moses, an early proprietor of the force was placed on transports at City New York Sun) acquired a practical Point, and its destination reported to be knowledge of newspaper work. In 1846 Washington. This was to deceive the (with Orson D. Munn) he established the Confederates. That night it went up the Scientific American, and for nearly fifty James River ; but so tardy was the de- years was its editor. In 1852 he perfected barkation that the intended surprise of a typewriting machine which was award- the Confederates was not effected. Han- ed a gold medal by the American Insti- cock pushed some of his troops by Mai- tute. Later he invented the system of vera Hill to flank the Confederates' de- underground pneumatic tubes, through fence behind Baylis's Creek, while 10,000 which letters were carried from street men were sent, under Gen. F. C. Barlow, lamp-posts to the central post-office. In to assail their flank and rear. There were 1867 he placed on exhibition in the Ameri- other dispositions for attack; but the de- can Institute the working model of a por- lay had allowed Lee to send reinforce- tion of an elevated railway, which met ments, for the movement seemed to with so much favor that he planned a threaten Richmond. On the morning of similar system of underground railways the 16th, General Birney, with General for New York. In 1869, under the author- Terry's division, attacked and carried the ity of the legislature, he began the con- Confederate lines, and captured 300 men. struction of a railway under Broadway 300 BEAKMAN— BEAUMONT between Murray and Warren streets, the and held the rank of commodore in the excavation of the tunnel being made by a French navy, and lieutenant-general of the hydraulic shield of his own invention, naval army. On the breaking out of war This shield was subsequently used in bor- with England (1745), he built the fortress ing several well-known tunnels in the of Crown Point, which was afterwards eiL- United States, Canada, and Europe. He larged and strengthened by Amherst. He died in New York City, Jan. 1, 1896. died June 12, 1749. Beakman, Daniel Frederick, soldier; Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Ca- born in New Jersey about 1760; enlisted eon de, author; born in Paris, Jan. 24, in 1778, and served throughout the Revo- 1732; the son of a watch-maker. In 1761 lutionary War; was the last surviving he purchased a commission as secretary pensioner of that war. In 1867 Congress to the King, a sinecure which conferred granted him a pension of $500 for life, noble rank on its possessor, and the name He died in Sandusky, N. Y., April 5, of Beaumarchais, which he had assumed, 1869. was legally confirmed. Entering into mer- Beall, John Young, naval officer; born cantile speculations, he soon acquired a in Virginia, Jan. 1, 1835; received a com- large fortune. He was the author of the mission in the Confederate navy, and on famous play, the Barber of Seville. In Sept. 19, 1864, he, in company with two September, 1775, he submitted a memorial others, in the dress of civilians, captured to the French monarch, in which he in- the Lake Erie steamer Philo Parsons, sisted upon the necessity of the French Subsequently they captured another steam- government's secretly aiding the English- er, Island Queen, and also attempted to American colonies; and as agent of his wreck a railroad train near Buffalo on government he passed some time in Eng- the night of his arrest, Dec. 16, 1864. He land, where he became acquainted with was tried by court martial, condemned, Arthur Lee, which acquaintance led to dip- and hanged on Governor's Island, New lomatic and commercial relations with the York Harbor, Feb. 24, 1865. Continental Congress. He conducted the Beardslee, Lester Anthony, naval offi- business of supplying the Americans with cer; born in Little Falls, N. Y., Feb. 1, munitions of war with great ability, and 1836; was graduated at the Naval Acad- afterwards became involved in a lawsuit emy in 1856; brought the Confederate with them. In 1784 he produced his Mar- steam-sloop Florida, captured off Bahia, riage of Figaro, which was violently op- Brazil, to the United States as prize posed by the Court. His political tenden- master in 1864; and while in command of cies were republican, and he sympathized the Jamestown in 1879, discovered, sur- with the French Revolutionists, but did veyed, and named Glacier Bay, Alaska; not enter with his usual enthusiasm into promoted rear-admiral in 1895. He died their measures. Suspected by the Jacobins, in Augusta, Ga., Nov. 10, 1903. he was compelled to leave the country, Bear Flag War. See Fremont, John C. and his property was confiscated. He was Beatty, John, physician; born in Bucks finally permitted to return to France, but county, Pa., Dec. 19, 1749; was graduated could not recover his wealth. Beaumar- at Princeton in 1769; studied medicine; chais lived in comparative poverty until became a colonel in the Pennsylvania line; May 18, 1799, when he was found dead and in 1778-80 he was commissary- in his bed, having died of apoplexy. A general of prisoners. He was a delegate suit which he had commenced against the in the Congress of the Confederation, United States for payment for supplies 1783-85, and of the national Congress, furnished to the Continental Congress, be- 1793-95. He was secretary of state for tween 1776 and 1779, under the mercantile New Jersey for ten years — 1795-1805. He firm name of Roderique Hortales & Co., died at Trenton, N. J., April 30, 1826. continued about fifty years, and resulted Beaufort, S. C. See Port Royal Sound, in 1835 in the payment to his heirs by the Beauharnais, Charles, Marquis de, United States of the sum of about military officer and a natural son of Louis $200,000. XIV.; born about 1670; was governor of Beaumont, William, physician; born New France (Canada) from 1726 to 1746, in Lebanon, Conn., in 1796. In 1812 he 301 BEAUREGARD— BEAVER was made assistant surgeon in the United beginning of June, 1861, and issued a States army, and served until 1837. While proclamation which was calculated and stationed at Michilimackinac (Mackinaw) intended to "fire the Southern heart." in 1822, he treated Alexis St. Martin, a He said: "A reckless and unprincipled Canadian, who had a gunshot wound in tyrant has invaded your soil. Abraham his side; the wound healed without clos- Lincoln, regardless of all moral, legal, ing up, exposing to view the operations and constitutional restraints, has thrown of the stomach in its digestive functions, his abolition hosts among us, who are Dr. Beaumont made careful experiments murdering and imprisoning your citizens, with this man, for several years, upon confiscating and destroying your property, the process of digestion, and published and committing other acts of violence and the result of his researches. St. Martin outrage too shocking and revolting to hu- lived for more than fifty years after the manity to be enumerated. All rules of accident. The orifice exposing the stom- civilized warfare are abandoned, and they ach never closed. Dr. Beaumont died in proclaim by their acts, if not on their St. Louis, Mo., April 25, 1853. banners, that their war-cry is ' Beauty Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant, and Booty.' All that is dear to man — military officer; born on a plantation near your honor, and that of your wives and New Orleans, May 28, 1818; was gradu- daughters, your fortunes, and your lives ated at the United States Military Acad- — are involved in this monstrous contest." emy in 1838, and entered the artiliery He then, as "General of the Confederate service, but was transferred to the engi- States, commanding at Camp Pickens, neer corps. He won the brevets of captain Manassas Junction," invited the people of Virginia to a vindication of their pa- triotism, " by the name and memory of their Revolutionary fathers, and by the purity and sanctity of their domestic firesides, to rally to the standard of their State and country," and by every means in their power " compatible with honor- able warfare, to drive back and expel the invaders from the land." The speech of President Davis at Richmond and this proclamation of Beauregard were lauded by the Confederates at Washington and Baltimore as having the ring of true metal. After the battle of Bull Run (q. v.), in July, he was promoted to major-general. He took command of the Army of the Mississippi, under Gen. A. S. Johnston, and directed the battle of Shiloh in April, 1862, after the death of John- and major in the war with Mexico, and ston. He successfully defended Charles- was wounded at Chapultepec; also at the ton in 1862-63, and in May, 1864, he taking of the city of Mexico. He left joined Lee in the defence of Petersburg the service of the United States in 1861, and Richmond. As commander of the and joined the Confederates in February, forces in the Carolinas in 1865, he joined He conducted the siege of Fort Sumter, them with those of Gen. J. E. Johnston, and was afterwards active as a leader in and surrendered them to Sherman. At the Virginia and other parts of the slave- close of the war, with the full rank of gen- labor States. Beauregard was made brig- eral in the Confederate service, he settled adier-general in the Confederate army, Feb. in New Orleans, where he died, Feb. 20, 20, 1861, and was placed in command of 1893. the gathering army of Confederates at Ma- Beaver, James Addams, military offi- nassas Junction — the Department of Alex- cer; born in Millerstown, Pa., Oct. 21, andria. He took the command at the 1837; was graduated at Jefferson College 302 ^pp* GEN. PIERRE G. T. BEAUREGARD. BEAVER DAMS— BEEBE in 1856; entered the army in 1861; was ian ambush, and, displaying his men to shot through the body at Chancellorsville, the best advantage after Boerstler had in the side at Petersburg, and lost a leg crossed the creek, he boldly demanded the at Ream's Station; brevetted brigadier- surrender of the Americans to Major De general of volunteers; was elected govern- Haven, commander of the district. For or of Pennsylvania as a Republican in this purpose Fitzgibbon bore a flag him- 1887; and was a member of President Mc- self. He falsely assured Bcerstler that his Kinley's commission to investigate the party was only the advance of 1,500 Brit- conduct of the War Department during ish troops and 700 Indians, under Lieu- the American-Spanish War. tenant-Colonel Bisshopp, and that the bar- Beaver Dams, Affair at the. After barians were so exasperated that it would leaving Fort George the British establish- be difficult to restrain them from massa- ed a strong post and depot of supplies cring the Americans. Boerstler, deceived at the Beaver Dams, among the hills 18 and alarmed, agreed to surrender on cer- miles west of Queenstown. Dearborn tain conditions. De Haven, whom Fitz- determined to attempt the capture of this gibbon had sent for, came up with 200 post and its stores, and for that purpose men, and Boerstler and 500 soldiers were he detached 570 infantry, some cavalry made prisoners. It had been agreed that under Major Chapin, a few artillerymen, the captives should be protected and sent and two field-pieces, all under the com- back on parole. This promise was broken, mand of Lieut.-Col. Charles G. Boerstler. The Indians plundered the captive troops, They marched up the Niagara River to and the latter were sent to Burlington Queenstown (June 23, 1813), and the next Heights and kept prisoners of war. When morning pushed off westward. Their Boerstler was first attacked by the Indians, march appears to have been discovered he sent a courier back to Dearborn for by the British, for while Chapin's mounted aid, and that commander sent Colonel men were in the advance and marching Christie with 300 men to reinforce him. among the hills, Boerstler's rear was at- When they reached Queenstown, they tacked by John Brant, at the head of heard of the surrender, and hastened back 450 Mohawk and Caughnawaga Indians, to camp with the sad intelligence. The who lay in ambush. Chapin was instant- British advanced upon Queenstown, and, ly called back, and the Americans in a occupying that place, soon invested Fort body charged upon the Indians and drove George. them almost a mile. Then Boerstler hesi- Bedel, Timothy, military officer; born tated, and the Indians, rallying, bore upon in Salem, N. H., about 1740; was a brave his flank and rear, and kept up a galling and faithful officer in the war for inde- fire at every exposed situation. The pendence. He was attached to the North- Americans pushed forward over the Beaver ern army, and had the full confidence Dam Creek, fighting the dusky foe at a and esteem of General Schuyler, its corn- great disadvantage, and made conscious mander. He was captain of rangers in that they were almost surrounded by 1775, and early in 1776 was made colonel them. After keeping up this contest for of a New Hampshire regiment. He was about three hours, Boerstler determined with Montgomery at the capture of St. to abandon the expedition, when he found John's on the Sorel, and was afterwards himself confronted by an unexpected force, in command at the Cedars, not far from Mrs. Laura Secord, a slight and delicate Montreal, where a cowardly surrender by woman, living at Queenstown, became ac- a subordinate, in Bedel's absence, caused quainted with Dearborn's plans, and at the latter to be tried by a court-martial, the time when Boerstler and his forces on a false charge, made by General Ar- left Fort George — a hot summer even- nold. He was deprived of command for ing — she made a circuitous journey of a while, but was reinstated. He died at 19 miles on foot to the quarters of Lieu- Haverhill, N. H., in February, 1787. tenant - Colonel Fitzgibbon (who was in Beebe, Bezaleel, military officer; command of some regulars at the Beaver born in Litchfield, Conn., April 28, 1741; Dams) and warned him of his danger, was one of the Rogers Rangers, and was Thus forewarned, he had ordered the Ind- engaged in the fight in which Putnam was 303 BEECHER'S BIBLES— BEECHER taken, also in the capture of Montreal in 1760. In July, 1775, he was commis- sioned lieutenant and sent to Boston. In 177C he saw active service in New York and New Jersey, and was taken prisoner at the capture of Fort Washington and confined in New York nearly a year. Tow- ards the end of the Revolution he was appointed brigadier-general and com- mander of all the Connecticut troops for sea-coast defence. He died in Litchfield, May 29, 1824. Beecher's Bibles. During the Kansas trouble, in 1854-60, Henry Ward Beecher declared that for the slave-holder of Kan- sas the Sharpe rifle was a greater moral agency than the Bible, and so those rifles became known as " Beecher's Bibles." BEECHER, HENRY WARD Beecher, Henry Ward, clergyman; ure. He had an abiding love of music, born in Litchfield, Conn., June 24, 1813; the fine arts, flowers, and animals; and son of Lyman Beecher; was graduated at believing Christianity to be, not a philo- Amherst College in 1834. He afterwards sophical system, but an exalted rule of studied theology in Lane Seminary. For conduct, he never hesitated to discuss in a few years he was pastor of a Presby- the pulpit the great problems of the times terian church in Indiana, first at Law- in politics and social life — temperance, renceburg and then at Indianapolis. In social evils, and the lust for power and gain. His persistent and forceful denun- ciation of the evils of slavery brought him into the greatest prominence during the Civil War period, while his speeches made during his visit to England in 1863 did much to disabuse public opinion there as to the merits of the struggle. Mr. Beecher led a most active life as preacher, editor, lyceum lecturer, and au- thor of numerous books. He began edi- torial labors before he began to preach, conducting for a year (1836) The Cin- cinnati Journal; and for nearly twenty years he was an editorial contributor to the N ew York Independent, a weekly news- paper. From 1870 he was editor several years of the Christian Union, a weekly paper published in New York, and was 1847 he was called to the pastorate of a a constant contributor to other publica- new Congregational organization in tions. In 1874 Mr. Beecher was accused Brooklyn, called Plymouth Church, over of criminal conduct with Mrs. Theodore which he presided as pastor till his death, Tilton. He was exonerated by the corn- March 8, 1887. From the beginning of mittee of Plymouth Church, but in the his ministry, Mr. Beecher held a high civil suit instituted by Mr. Tilton, which rank as a public teacher and pulpit ora- lasted more than six months, the jury tor, with a constantly increasing reputa- failed to agree. The case attracted the tion. Laying aside the conventionalities attention of the entire world, of his sacred profession, and regarding The System of Slavery. — The follow- the Gospel minister as peculiarly a lead- ing is Mr. Beecher's address in Liverpool, er in social life, his sermons were always England, Oct. 16, 1863, the feeling of his marked by practical good-sense, and em- auditors towards his subject and himself braced in their topics the whole field of being clearly indicated parenthetically: human society. They were largely made For more than twenty-five years I have up of illustrations drawn from every been made perfectly familiar with popular phase of life and the instructions of nat- assemblies in all parts of my country, ex- 304 HENRY WARD BKKCHER. J3EEC TT ri.tv cept the extreme South. There has not, for the whole of that time, been a single day of my life when it would have been safe for me to go south of Mason and Dixon's line in my own country, and all for one reason: my solemn, earnest, per- sistent testimony against that which I consider to be the most atrocious thing under the sun — the system of American slavery in a great, free republic. (Cheers.) I have passed through that early period when right of free speech was denied to me. Again and again I have attempted to address audiences that, for no other crime than that of free speech, visited me with all manner of contumelious epi- thets; and now, since I have been in England, although I have met with great- er kindness and courtesy on the part of most than I deserved, yet, on the other hand, I perceive that the Southern in- fluence prevails to some extent in Eng- land. (Applause and uproar.) It is my old acquaintance; I understand it perfect- ly (laughter), and I have always held it to be an unfailing truth that where a man had a cause that would bear exami- nation he was perfectly willing to have it spoken about. (Applause.) And when in Manchester I saw those huge placards: " Who is Henry Ward Beecher ?" ( Laugh- ter, cries of " Quite right," and applause.) And when in Liverpool I was told that there were those blood-red placards, pur- porting to say what Henry Ward Beecher had said, and calling upon Englishmen to suppress free speech — I tell you what I thought. I thought simply this : " I am glad of it." (Laughter.) Why? Because if they had felt perfectly secure, that you are the minions of the South and the slaves of slavery, they would have been perfectly still. (Applause and uproar.) And, therefore, when I saw so much ner- vous apprehension that, if I were permit- ted to speak — (hisses and applause) — when I found they were afraid to have me speak — (hisses and applause, and "No, no!") — when I found that they considered my speaking damaging to their cause — (applause) — when I found that they ap- pealed from facts and reasonings to mob law — (applause and uproar) — I said, no man need tell me what the heart and se- cret counsel of these men are. They trem- ble and are afraid. (Applause, laughter, hisses, "No, no!" and a voice: "New York mob.") Now, personally, it is a matter of very little consequence to me whether I speak here to-night or not. (Laughter and cheers.) But one thing is very certain, if you do permit me to speak here to-night you will hear very plain talking. (Applause and hisses.) You will not find a man — (interruption) — you will not find me to be a man that dared to speak about Great Britain 3,000 miles off, and then is afraid to speak to Great Britain when he stands on her shores. (Immense applause and hisses. ) And if I do not mistake the tone and temper of Englishmen, they would rather have a man who opposes them in a manly way — (applause from all parts of the hall) — than a sneak that agrees with them in an unmanly way. (Applause and " Bravo ! " ) Now, if I can carry you with me by sound convictions, I shall be im- mensely glad — (applause) — but if I can- not carry you with me by facts and sound arguments, I do not wish you to go with me at all; and all that I ask is simply fair play. (Applause, and a voice: "You shall have it, too.") Those of you who are kind enough to wish to favor my speaking — and you will observe that my voice is slightly husky, from having spoken almost every night in succession for some time past— those who wish to hear me will do me the kindness simply to sit still and to keep still; and I and my friends the Secession- ists will make all the noise. (Laughter.) There are two dominant races in mod- ern history — the Germanic and the Ro- manic races. The Germanic races tend to personal liberty, to a sturdy individual- ism, to civil and to political liberty. The Roman race tends to absolutism in gov- ernment; it is clannish; it loves chief- tains; it develops a people that crave strong and showy governments to support and plan for them. The Anglo-Saxon race belongs to the great German family, and is a fair exponent of its peculiari- ties. The Anglo-Saxon carries self-govern- ment and self - development with him wherever he goes. He has popular gov- ernment and popular industry; for the effects of a generous civil liberty are not seen a whit more plain in the good order, in the intelligence, and in the virtue of i. — u 305 BEECHER a self - governing people, than in their amazing enterprise, and the scope and power of their creative industry. The power to create riches is just as much a part of the Anglo-Saxon virtues as the power to create good order and social safety. The things required for prosperous labor, prosperous manufactures, and pros- perous commerce are three: First, liberty; second, liberty ; third, liberty — ( " Hear, hear!") — though these are not merely the same liberty, as I shall show you. First, there must be liberty to follow those laws of business which experience has develop- ed, without imposts or restrictions or gov- ernmental intrusions. Business simply wants to be let alone. ( " Hear, hear ! " ) Then, secondly, there must be liberty to distribute and exchange products of in- dustry in any market without burden- some tariffs, without imposts, and without vexatious regulations. There must be these two liberties — liberty to create wealth, as the makers of it think best, according to the light and experience which business has given them; and then liberty to distribute what they have cre- ated without unnecessary vexatious bur- dens. The comprehensive law of the ideal industrial condition of the world is free manufacture and free trade. ( " Hear, hear ! " A voice : " The Morrill tariff." Another voice: "Monroe.") I have said there were three elements of liberty. The third is the necessity of an intelligent and free race of customers. There must be freedom among producers; there must be freedom among the distributers; there must be freedom among the customers. It may not have occurred to you that it makes any difference what one's cus- tomers are, but it does in all regular and prolonged business. The condition of the customer determines how much he will buy. Poor and ignorant people buy little, and that of the poorest kind. The rich- est and the intelligent, having the more means to buy, buy the most and always buy the best. Here, then, are the three liberties: liberty of the producer, liberty of the distributer, and liberty of the con- sumer. The first two need no discussion; they have been long thoroughly and brill- iantly illustrated by the political econo- mists of Great Britain and by her eminent statesmen'; but it seems to me that enough attention has not been directed to the third; and, with your patience, I will dwell upon that for a moment, before proceeding to other topics. It is a necessity of every manufacturing and commercial people that their cus- tomers should be very wealthy and intelli- gent. Let us put the subject before you in the familiar light of your own local experience. To whom do the tradesmen of Liverpool sell the most goods at the highest profit? To the ignorant and poor or to the educated and prosperous? (A voice : " To the Southerners." Laughter. ) The poor man buys simply for his body; he buys food, he buys clothing, he buys fuel, he buys lodging. . . . On the other hand, a man well off — how is it with him? He buys in far great- er quantity. He can afford to do it; he has the money to pay for it. He buys in far greater variety, because he seeks to gratify not merely physical wants, but also mental wants. He buys for the satis- faction of sentiment and taste, as well as of sense. He buys silk, wool, flax, cot- ton; he buys all metals — iron, silver, gold, platinum; in short, he buys for all ne- cessities and all substances. But that is not all. He buys a better quality of goods. He buys richer silks, finer cottons, high- er-grained wools. Now a rich silk means so much skill and care of somebody's, that has been expended upon it to make it finer and richer; and so of cotton and so of wool. That is, the price of the finer goods runs back to the very begin- ning and remunerates the workman as well as the merchant. Now, the whole laboring community is as much interest- ed and profited as the mere merchant, in this buying and selling of the higher grades in the greater varieties and quan- tities. . . . Both the workman and the merchant are profited by having purchas- ers that demand quality, variety, and quantity. Now, if this be so in the town or the city, it can only be so because it is a law. This is the specific development of a general or universal law, and, there- fore, we should expect to find it as true of a nation as of a city like Liverpool. I know that it is so, and you know that it is true of all the world; and it is just as important to have customers educated, intelligent, moral, and rich out of Liver- 306 BEECHExv pool as it is in Liverpool. (Applause.) great deal more important to Great Brit- They are able to buy; they want variety; ain than the doctrine how to raise cot- they want the very best, and those are ton. It is to that doctrine I ask from you, the customers you want. That nation business men, practical men, men of fact, is the best customer that is freest, because sagacious Englishmen, to that point I freedom works prosperity, industry, and ask a moment's attention. (Shouts of wealth. Great Britain, then, aside from "Oh, oh!" hisses and applause.) There moral considerations, has a direct com- are no more continents to be discovered, mercial and pecuniary interest in the lib- ("Hear, hear!") The market of the future erty, civilization, and wealth of every must be found — how? There is very lit- nation on the globe. ( Loud applause. ) tie hope of any more demand being created You also have an interest in this, because by new fields. If you are to have a better you are a moral and religious people, market there must be some kind of proc- ("Oh, oh!" laughter and applause.) You ess invented to make the old fields bet- desire it from the highest motives ; and ter. ( A voice : " Tell us something new," godliness is profitable in all things, hav- shouts of "Order!" and interruption.) ing the promise of the life that now is Let us look at it, then. You must civilize as well as of that which is to come; but the world in order to make a better class if there were no hereafter, and if man of purchasers. (Interruption.) If you had no progress in this life, and if there were to press Italy down again, under the were no question of civilization at all, it feet of despotism, Italy, discouraged, could would be worth your while to protect draw but very few supplies from you. . . . civilization and liberty merely as a com- A savage is a man of one story, and mercial speculation. . . . that one story a cellar. When a man be- They have said that your chief want gins to be civilized, he raises another is cotton. I deny it. Your chief want story. When you Christianize and civil- is consumers. (Applause and hisses.) You ize the man, you put story upon story, have got skill, you have got capital, and for you develop faculty after faculty; and you have got machinery enough to manu- you have to supply every story with your facture goods for the whole population productions. The savage is a man one of the globe. You could turn out four- story deep; the civilized man is thirty fold as much as you do, if you only had stories high. (Applause.) Now, if you the market to sell in. It is not so much go to a lodging-house, where there are the want, therefore, of fabric, though three or four men, your sales to them there may be a temporary obstruction of may, no doubt, be worth something; but it; but the principal and increasing want if you go to a lodging-house like some — increasing from year to year — is, where of those which I saw in Edinburgh, which shall we find men to buy what we can seemed to contain about twenty stories manufacture so fast? (Interruption and — ("Oh, oh!" and interruption) — every a voice, " The Morrill tariff," and ap- story of which is full, and all who occupy plause.) Before the American war broke buy of you — which is the better customer, out, your warehouses were loaded with the man who is drawn out or the man goods that you could not sell. (Applause who is pinched up? (Laughter.) Now, and hisses.) You had over-manufactured; there is in this a great and sound prin- what is the meaning of over - manuf act- ciple of economy. (" Yah, yah! v from the uring but this: that you had skill, capi- passage outside the hall and loud laugh- tal, machinery, to create faster than you ter.) If the South should be rendered had customers to take goods off your independent — (at this juncture mingled hands? And you know that rich as Great cheering and hissing became immense; Britain is, vast as are her manufactures, half the audience rose to their feet, wav- if she could have fourfold the present de- ing hats and handkerchiefs, and in every mand, she could have fourfold riches to- part of the hall there was the greatest morrow; and every political economist commotion and uproar). You have had will tell you that your want is not cotton your turn now; now let me have mine primarily, but customers. Therefore, the again. (Loud applause and laughter.) doctrine how to make customers is a It is a little inconvenient to talk against 307 BExiCH-Exv the wind; but, after all, if you will just for them. (Hisses, "Oh!" "No.") You keep good-natured — I am not going to lose have not got machinery coarse enough, my temper; will you watch yours? (Ap- (Laughter and "No!") Your labor is too plause.) Besides all that, it rests me, skilled by far to manufacture bagging and gives me a chance, you know, to get and linsey-woolsey. (A Southerner: "We my breath. ( Applause and hisses. ) And are going to free them, every one." ) Then I think that the bark of those men is you and I agree exactly. (Laughter.) worse than their bite. They do not mean One other third consists of a poor, un- any harm — they don't know any better, skilled, degraded white population, and the (Loud laughter, applause, hisses, and con- remaining one-third, which is a large al- tinued uproar. ) I was saying, when these lowance, we will say intelligent and rich, responses broke in, that it was worth Now here are 12,000,000 of people, and our while to consider both alternatives, only one-third of them are customers that What will be the result if this present can afford to buy the kind of goods that struggle shall eventuate in the separation you bring to market. (Interruption and of America and making the South — (loud uproar.) My friends, I saw a man once, applause, hisses, hooting, and cries of who was a little late at a railway station, " Bravo ! " ) — a slave territory exclusive- chase an express train. He did not catch ly — (cries of "No, no!" and laughter) — it. (Laughter.) If you are going to stop and the North a free territory — what will this meeting, you have got to stop it be- be the final result? You will lay the fore I speak; for after I have got the foundation for carrying the slave popu- things out, you may chase as long as you lation clear through to the Pacific Ocean, please — you would not catch them. This is the first step. There is not a man (Laughter and interruption.) But there who has been a leader of the South any is luck in leisure; I'm going to take it time within these twenty years that has easy. (Laughter.) Two - thirds of the not had this for a plan. It was for this population of the Southern States to-day that Texas was invaded, first by colo- are non-purchasers of English goods. (A nists, next by marauders, until it was voice: " No, they are not;" " No, no!" and wrested from Mexico. It was for this uproar.) Now, you must recollect another that they engaged in the Mexican War fact — namely, that this is going on clear itself, by which the vast territory reach- through to the Pacific Ocean; and if by ing to the Pacific was added to the Union, sympathy or help you establish a slave Never for a moment have they given up empire, you sagacious Britons — ( " Oh, the plan of spreading the American in- oh!" and hooting) — if you like it better, stitutions, as they call them, straight then, I will leave the adjective out — through towards the West ; until the slave, ( laughter, " Hear ! " and applause ) — are who has washed his feet in the Atlantic, busy in favoring the establishment of an shall be carried to wash them in the empire from ocean to ocean that should Pacific. ( Cries of " Question ?" and up- have fewest customers and the largest non- roar.) There! I have got that statement buying population. (Applause, "No, no!" out and you cannot put it back. ( Laugh- A voice : " I thought it was the happy peo- ter and applause.) Now, let us consider pie that populated fastest.") ... It is the prospect. If the South becomes a said that the North is fighting for union, slave empire, what relation will it have and not for emancipation. The North is to you as a customer? (A voice: "Or fighting for union, for that insures eman- any other man." Laughter. ) It would be cipation. ( Loud cheers, " Oh, oh ! " " No, an empire of 12,000,000 of people. Now, no!" and cheers.) A great many men say of these 8,000,000 are white and 4,000,000 to ministers of the Gospel : " You pretend black. ( A voice : " How many have you to be preaching and working for the love got?" Applause and laughter. Another of the people. Why, you are all the time voice : " Free your own slaves." ) Con- preaching for the sake of the Church." sider that one- third of the whole are the What does the minister say? "It is by miserably poor, unbuying blacks. (Cries means of the Church that we help the peo- of "No, no!" "Yes, yes!" and interrupt pie," and when men say that we are fight- tion. ) You do not manufacture much ing for the Union, I too say we are fighting 308 BEECHER for the Union. ("Hear, hear!" and a voice : " That's right." ) But the motive determines the value; and why are we fighting for the Union ? Because we never shall forget the testimony of our enemies. They have gone off declaring that the Union in the hands of the North was fatal to slavery. (Loud applause.) There is testimony in court for you. (A voice: " See that," and laughter. ) . . . In the first place, I am ashamed to con- fess that such was the thoughtlessness — (interruption) — such was the stupor of the North — (renewed interruption) — you will get a word at a time ; to-morrow will let folks see what it is you don't want to hear — that for a period of twenty-five years she went to sleep, and permitted herself to be drugged and poisoned with the Southern prejudice against black men. (Applause and uproar.) The evil was made worse because, when any object whatever has caused anger between po- litical parties, a political animosity arises against that object, no matter how inno- cent in itself; no matter what were the original influences which excited the quar- rel. Thus the colored man has been the football between the two parties in the North, and has suffered accordingly. I confess it to my shame. But I am speak- ing now on my own ground, for I began twenty-five years ago, with a small party, to combat the unjust dislike of the colored men. (Loud applause, dissension, and up- roar. The interruption at this point be- came so violent that the friends of Mr. Beecher throughout the hall rose to their feet, waving hats and handkerchiefs, and renewing their shouts of applause. The interruption lasted some minutes.) Well, I have lived to see a total revolution in the Northern feeling — I stand here to bear solemn witness of that. It is my opinion ; it is my knowledge. (Great uproar.) Those men who undertook to stand up for the rights of all men — black as well as white — have increased in number; and now what party in the North represents those men that resist the evil prejudices of past years? The Republicans are that party. (Loud applause.) And who are those men in the North that have oppress- ed the negro? They are the Peace Demo- crats; and the prejudice for which in England you are attempting to punish me, is a prejudice raised by the men who have opposed me all my life. These pro-slavery Democrats abused the negro. I defended him, and they mobbed me for doing it. Oh, justice! (Loud laughter, applause, and hisses.) . . . There is another fact that I wish to al- lude to — not for the sake of reproach or blame, but by way of claiming your more lenient consideration — and that is, that slavery was entailed upon us by your action. ( " Hear, hear ! " ) Against the earnest protests of the colonists the then government of Great Britain — I will con- cede not knowing what were the mischiefs — ignorantly, but in point of fact, forced slave traffic on the unwilling colonists. (Great uproar, in the midst of which one individual was lifted up and carried out of the room amid hisses and cheers.) The Chairman : " If you would only sit down no disturbance would take place." (The disturbance having subsided, Mr. Beecher continued.) I was going to ask you, suppose each child is born with hereditary disease; sup- pose this disease was entailed upon him by parents who had contracted it by their own misconduct, would it be fair that those parents that had brought into the world the diseased child, should rail at that child because it was diseased ? ( " No, no!") Would not the child have the right to turn round and say : " Father, it was your fault that I had it, and you ought to be pleased to be patient with my deficien- cies "? (Applause and hisses, and cries of "Order!" great interruption and great disturbance here took place on the right of the platform; and the chairman said that if the persons around the unfortunate individual who had caused the disturb- ance would allow him to speak alone, but not assist him in making the disturbance, it might soon be put an end to. The in- terruption continued until another person was carried out of the hall. Mr. Beecher continued. ) I do not ask that you should justify slavery in us, because it was wrong in you 200 years ago; but having ig- norantly been the means of fixing it upon us, now that we are struggling with mor- tal struggles to free ourselves from it, we have a right to your tolerance, your pa- tience, and charitable constructions. No man can unveil the future; no man 309 BEECHER— BEEKMAN can tell what revolutions are about to break upon the world; no man can tell what destiny belongs to France, nor to any of the European powers; but one thing is certain, that in the exigencies of the future there will be combinations and recombinations, and that those nations that are of the same faith, the same blood, and the same substantial interests ought not to be alienated from each other, but ought to stand together. (Immense cheering and hisses.) I do not say that you ought not to be in the most friendly alliance with France or with Germany; but I do say that your own children, the offspring of England, ought to be nearer to you than any people of strange tongue. (A voice: "Degenerate sons," applause and hisses ; another voice : " What about the Trent?") If there had been any feel- ings of bitterness in America, let me tell you that they had been excited, rightly or wrongly, under the impression that Great Britain was going to intervene be- tween us and our own lawful struggle. (A voice: "No!" and applause.) With the evidence that there is no such inten- tion, all bitter feelings will pass away. (Applause.) We do not agree with the recent doctrine of neutrality as a question of law. But it is past, and we are not dis- posed to raise that question. We accept it as a fact, and we say that the utter- ance of Lord Russell at Blairgowrie — (ap- plause, hisses, and a voice : " What about Lord Brougham?") — together with the declaration of the government in stopping war-steamers here — (great uproar and ap- plause) — has gone far towards quieting every fear, and removing every apprehen- sion from our minds. (Uproar and shouts of applause.) And now in the future it is the work of every good man and patriot not to create divisions, but to do things that will make for peace. ("Oh, oh," and laughter.) On our part it shall be done. (Applause and hisses, and "No, no.") On your part it ought to be done; and when in any of the convulsions that come upon the world, Great Britain finds her- self struggling single-handed against the gigantic powers that spread oppression and darkness — (applause, hisses, and up- roar) — there ought to be such cordiality that she can turn and say to her first-born and most illustrious child, " Come ! " ( " Hear, hear ! " applause, tremendous cheers, and uproar.) I will not say that England cannot again, as hitherto, single- handed manage any power — (applause and uproar — but I will say that England and America together for religion and liberty — ( a voice : " Soap, soap ! " uproar, and great applause) — are a match for the world. ( Applause ; a voice : " They don't want any more soft soap.") Now, gentle- men and ladies — (a voice: "Sam Slick"; and another voice : " Ladies and gentle- men, if you please " ) — when I came I was asked whether I would answer questions, and I very readily consented to do so, as I had in other places; but I will tell you it was because I expected to have the op- portunity of speaking with some sort of ease and quiet. (A voice: "So you have.") I have for an hour and a half spoken against a storm — ("Hear, hear!") — and you yourselves are witnesses that, by the interruption, I have been obliged to strive with my voice so that I no longer have the power to control this as- sembly. (Applause.) And although I am in spirit perfectly willing to answer any question, and more than glad of the chance, yet I am by this very unnecessary opposition to-night incapacitated physical- ly from doing it. Ladies and gentlemen, I bid you good-evening. Beecher, Lyman, clergyman; born in New Haven, Conn., Oct. 2, 1775; was graduated at Yale in 1797, and ordained in 1799. In 1832 he accepted the pres- idency of Lane Seminary, Cincinnati, and served the seminary in that capacity twenty years. He had seven sons, all of whom became Congregational clergymen — William, Edward, George, Henry Ward, Charles, Thomas, and James. His daugh- ters were Catharine Beecher, Harriet Beecher Stowe, Mary Beecher Perkins, and Isabella Beecher Hooker. He died in Brooklyn, Jan. 10, 1863. Beekman, Geeardus, colonial govern- or; was a member of Leisler's council in 1688 and was condemned with Leisler, but subsequently pardoned. In 1700 he became lieutenant-colonel of a militia reg- iment under Governor Bellomont. After the removal of Governor Ingoldsby, Beek- man was president of the council and act- ing governor of New York until the ar- rival of Governor Hunter, in whose coun- 10 BEET SUGAR— BELCHER cil he also served. He died in New York in the United States in the season of City about 1728. 1899-1900: Beet Sugar. This substitute for the California 37,938 product of sugar-cane was first made in Nebraska 4,591 1747 in Germany by Marggraf, who dis- ™ah ^.^. .............. 8,574 covered that excellent sugar could be ob- j^ew York 1,607 tained from the common beet. In 1830 Michigan 16,699 efforts were made in the United States Minnesota 2,053 to establish the beet-sugar industry, but infnois '. ', 804 it was not until 1876 that an adequately Colorado 804 equipped factory was erected for the pur- Washington 446 pose, in Alvarado, Cal. Since that year ^^ ^ Unite(J gtateg "^J many similar ones have been built, mostly in the Western States, and the industry Behring. See Bering. may now be said to be firmly established. Beissel, Johann Conrad, reformer ; born Federal and State governments have great- in Eberbach, Germany, in 1690; becoming ly aided in bringing about this result a Dunker he was forced to leave his native through the offer of bounties on produc- country and emigrated to Pennsylvania, tion. Beet - roots yield an average of where in 1733 he established at the village about 10 per cent, of saccharine matter, of Ephrata a monastic society, which at and sugar-cane about .18 per cent. The one time numbered nearly 300. The Capu- white Slevig beet is the richest among chin habit was adopted by both sexes and the varieties. In manufacturing, the celibacy was considered a virtue, though roots are compressed into a pulp by ma- not an obligation. Soon after the death chinery; the pulp is put into bags, and the of Beissel, in 1768, the society at Ephrata juice forced out by presses. After the began to decline. A history of the Ephra- juice has been clarified by the use of lime ta society was published in 1901. or sulphuric acid, it is filtered till no de- Belcher, Jonathan, colonial governor; posit is apparent, and then boiled for the born in Cambridge, Mass., Jan. 8, 1681 ; purpose of concentrating it. When the was graduated at Harvard College in 1699. density of 25 Beaume has been reached, He visited Europe, where he became ac- the juice is strained through flannel, be- quainted with the Princess Sophia and her coming a dark-colored syrup, which in son (afterwards George I. of England), turn is filtered through animal charcoal, which led to his future honors. After a or bone-black, to free it of its mucilage six years' sojourn he returned to America, and coloring matter. The filtered juice engaged in mercantile business in Boston, is then treated with lime - water and the became a member of the Provincial Assem- whites of eggs, and stirred till it is bly, and in 1729 was sent as agent of the slightly alkaline. It is then placed in provinces to England. In 1730 he was ap- copper pans, and while boiling is constant- pointed governor of Massachusetts and ly stirred and scummed. After sufficient New Hampshire, which office he held concentration the substance is placed in a eleven years. He was authorized to ac- warm room for several days till it crystal- cept from the legislature of Massachu- lizes. The juice or molasses which re- setts a standing salary of $5,000 a year, mains is drained off, and the solid part is to be paid first out of the annual grants, raw sugar. This may be further refined When he first met the legislature (Sep- by dissolving again and using albumen and tember, 1730), he tried to bring about a blood. settlement for a standing salary, but could Experiments in beet sugar production not, and the Assembly was dissolved. To were stimulated by the United States secure a majority in the next House, the bounty law, in operation from July 1, governor tried to gain the influence of cer- 1891, to Aug. 27, 1894. tain leaders by gifts of office; but their In the period 1890-1900 the output in acceptance diminished their popularity, the United States was increased from and he gained nothing. The people had been 2,800 tons to 74,944 tons. The following encouraged by the English press, which table shows the production, in long tons, had commended the Bostonians for their 311 BELKNAP— BELL " noble stand " against the demands of thence to Boston in 1872, and became Pro- Burnet, which had Ci endeared them to all fessor of Vocal Physiology in the Boston lovers and asserters of liberty." The new University. He invented the telephone, court was unmanageable by the governor, which was first exhibited at the Centennial and he accepted a grant of a salary for Exposition in 1876. He also invented the one year. In consequence of a clamor photophone. against him, he was superseded in 1741, Bell, Charles H., naval officer; born but succeeded in vindicating himself be- in New York, Aug. 15, 1798; entered the fore the British Court. Belcher was made naval service in June, 1812; served with governor of New Jersey, and arrived in Decatur in 1813-14; with Chauncey, on 1747, where he passed the remainder of Lake Ontario, in 1814; and with Decatur his life. He extended the charter of the again, in the Mediterranean, in 1815. He College of New Jersey, and was its chief was with the squadron in the West Indies patron and benefactor. He died in Eliza- (1824-29) operating against the pirates bethtown, N. J., Aug. 31, 1757. there. In 1860 he was in command of the Belknap, George Eugene, naval officer ; Norfolk navy-yard ; commanded the Pa- born in Newport, N. H., Jan. 22, 1832; cine squadron in 1862-64, and the navy- entered the navy as midshipman in 1855, yard at Brooklyn 1865-68. In July, 1866, and in 1862 became lieutenant - com- he was made a rear-admiral. He died in mander. He became executive officer of New Brunswick, N. J., Feb. 19, 1875. the iron-clad New Ironsides in 1862, Bell, James Franklin, military officer; and was with her in her contests with born in Lexington, Ky., in 1857; was the forts in Charleston Harbor in 1863, graduated at the United States Military receiving commendation from Rear-Ad- Academy in 1878; promoted to second miral Dahlgren. In the attacks on lieutenant in the 9th Cavalry the same Fort Fisher (q. v.) he commanded the year, first lieutenant in the 7th Cavalry iron-clad Canonicus. He was promoted in 1890, and captain in 1899. In the vol- to rear-admiral in 1889, and retired in unteer army he was commissioned major 1894. He died in Key West, Fla., April 7, of engineers May 17, 1898; major and 1903. assistant adjutant-general, April 17, 1899, Belknap, Jeremy, clergyman; born in and colonel of the 36th United States Boston, June 4, 1744; graduated at Har- Infantry, July 5, 1899. In May, 1898, he vard College in 1762. He founded the was ordered to duty to Manila, where Massachusetts Historical Society; was an he was placed in charge of the Bureau of overseer of Harvard College; was a pa- Information (or secret-service department triot during the war for independence, of the army in the Philippines). In Feb- and an opponent of African slavery. He ruary, 1899, when operations were begun published a History of New Hampshire; against the Filipino insurgents, he at- American Biography, etc. He died in tached himself to the staff of General Mac- Boston, Mass., June 20, 1798. Arthur, and rendered important service in Belknap, William Worth, military scouting. On Sept. 9, for " most distin- officer; born in Newburg, N. Y., Sept. 22, guished gallantry in action" near Porac, 1829; removed to Iowa in 1851; elected Luzon, President McKinley directed that to the legislature in 1857 ; entered the a congressional medal of honor should be army as major of an Iowa regiment, and presented to him. On Nov. 12, Colonel reached the grade of major-general, March Bell took possession of Tarlac, where 13, 1865. He was appointed Secretary of Aguinaldo had established his headquar- War, Oct. 13, 1869; impeached March 7, ters. The following month he was pro- 1876, but acquitted for want of jurisdic- moted to brigadier-general of volunteers, tion. He died in Washington, D. C, Oct. On the reorganization of the regular army 12, 1890. in February, 1901, President McKinley ap- Bell, Alexander Graham, inventor ; pointed Colonel Bell one of the new briga- born in Edinburgh, Scotland, March 3, dier-generals — an act that caused consider- 1847; son of Alexander Melville; was able surprise, as this officer was only a educated in Edinburgh and London univer- captain in the regular army, and was ad- sities. In 1870 he went to Canada, and vanced over the heads of more than 1,000 312 BELL— BELLOMONT officers who, according to the rules of lawyer, he came to America in 1634, and seniority, would have been entitled to pre- was chosen deputy governor of Massachu- cede him in promotion. General Bell is setts the next year. He was elected gov- widely known in the army as a dashing ernor, in opposition to Winthrop, in 1641. cavalry officer, and when General Otis recommended the presentation of the medal of honor, he said that it was a won- He was rechosen in 1654, and in 1666, after the death of Governor Endicott, con- tinuing in office the rest of his life. His der that Colonel Bell still lived, because administration was a somewhat stormy one. Bellingham was so opposed to all in- novations in religious matters that he was severe in his conduct towards the Friends, or Quakers. He died Dec. 7, 1672. Bellomont, Richard Coote, Earl of, colonial governor; born in 1636; was of the Irish peerage, and among the first to espouse the cause of the Prince of Orange After abandoning his when he invaded England. He was cre- he became one of the ated earl in 1689, and made treasurer and of his recklessness in action. Bell, John, statesman; born near Nashville, Tenn., Feb. 15, 1797; was grad- uated at Cumberland College (now the University of Nashville) in 1814, and studied law in Franklin, Tenn. In 1817 he was elected to the State Senate. He was elected to Congress in 1827, and served till 1841. free-trade views, founders of the Whig Party (q. v.), and receiver-general of Queen Mary. In May, was elected Speaker of the House in 1695, he was appointed governor of New 1834. Harrison appointed him Secretary York, but did not arrive there until May, of War in 1841, but he resigned when President Tyler left the Whig party. In 1847-59 he was a member of the United States Senate, and in 1860 he was the un- successful candidate of the Constitu- tional Union Party (q. v.) for Presi- dent, with Edward Everett for Vice- President. He died in Cumberland, Tenn., Sept. 10, 1869. 1698. Meanwhile he had been commis- sioned governor of Massachusetts, includ- ing New Hampshire ; and on going to Bos- ton, in 1699, he was well received, and his administration was popular. Bellomont had been one of the parliamentary com- mittee appointed to investigate the affair of Leisler's trial and execution, and had taken a warm interest in the reversal of Belle Isle. See Confederate Prisons, the attainder of that unfortunate leader. Belligerency, the recognition, on the On his arrival in New York, he naturally part of other nations, that an actual state connected himself with the Leisler party, of war exists, and the right of both par- whom Governor Fletcher had strongly op- ties to the exercise of belligerent rights posed. Bellomont came with power to in- on the ocean. Neutrality implies belliger- quire into the conduct of Governor Fletch- ency. Great Britain, France, and other er, and he was so well satisfied of his European powers, and Brazil, accorded malfeasance in office that he sent him to belligerent rights to the Confederate States during the civil war. Belligerents, parties, in the sense of England under arrest. The remains of Leisler and Milborne were taken up, and after lying in state several days were re- nations or confederations, actually at buried in the Dutch Church. Bellomont war with each other. Sovereign States chose for his council a majority of " Leis- at war are always belligerents, but not lerians " ; and that party soon obtained a every armed contest is a war, and com- majority in the Assembly also. One of batants, to gain the status of belligerents, their first acts was to vote an indemnity must be recognized as such by other to the heirs of Leisler. Bellomont used sovereign States. The character of belligerents has never been accorded to every means to gain the good-will of the people in both provinces, and succeeded. pirates, filibusters, brigands, nor to any The earl was a shareholder in the privateer of those who commit violence in their ship commanded by Captain Kidd; and own private interest, nor even to those when that seaman was accused of piracy who, guilty of violence, have not been duly Bellomont procured his arrest in Boston, authorized by the head of their State. and sent him to England for trial. Bello- Bellingham, Richard, colonial govern- mont died in New York, March 5, 1701, or; born in England in 1592. Bred a and the earldom expired in 1800. 313 BELLOWS— BEMIS'S HEIGHTS HENRY WHITNEY BELLOWS, D.D. Bellows, Henry Whitney, clergyman; marched from Paducah to menace Colum- born in Boston, June 11, 1814. Educated bus in the rear. Grant went with Me- at Harvard and the Divinity School at demand. The troops landed 3 miles Cambridge, he was ordained pastor of the above Belmont, Nov. 7, 1861, and while first Unitarian Church in New York City they were pushing on the gunboats opened in January, 1838- He remained its pastor fire upon Columbus. General (Bishop) Polk, the commander, sent General Pil- low over the river to reinforce the little garrison at Belmont. A sharp battle en- sued, and the Nationals were victorious; but, exposed to the heavy artillery at Columbus, the post was untenable. Giv- ing three cheers for the Union, the Na- tionals set fire to the Confederate camp, and hastened back towards their boats with the captured men, horses, and artil- lery. Polk opened seven of his heaviest guns upon them, and at the same time sent over some fresh troops under Gen- eral Cheatham. Then he crossed over himself, with two regiments, making the whole Confederate force about 5,000 men. They fell upon Grant, and a desperate struggle ensued. Grant fought his way back to the transports under cover of a until his death, Jan. 30, 1882. He was fire from the gunboats, and escaped. The the projector of the Christian Inquirer, in Nationals lost about 500 men, and the 1843, and he occupied from the beginning Confederates over 600, killed, wounded, a conspicuous place in the pulpit, in let- and missing. ters, and in social life, wielding great in- Bemis's Heights, Battles of. Gen- fluence for good. Dr. Bellows was one of eral Schuyler, with his feeble army, had the originators of the United States San- so successfully opposed the march of Bur- itaky Commission ( q. v.), which per- goyne down the valley of the Hudson that formed such prodigious benevolent work he had not passed Saratoga the first week during the late Civil War. He was presi- in August, 1777. When the expedition of dent of the commission from the beginning. St. Leger from the Mohawk and the de- Belmont, August, financier; born in feat of the Germans at Hoosick, near Germany, Dec. 6, 1816; removed to New Bennington, had crippled and discouraged York, 1837; consul-general of Austria in the invaders, and Schuyler was about New York City, 1844-50; United States to turn upon them, and strike for the minister to Holland, 1854-58; chairman victory for which he had so well pre- of the Democratic national committee, pared, he was superseded by General 1860-72. He died in New York City, Gates in the command of the Northern Nov. 24, 1890. army. Yet his patriotism was not cooled Belmont, Battle at. Just before Fr6- by the ungenerous act, the result of in- mont was deprived of his command (see trigue, and he offered Gates every assist- Fremont, John C.) he ordered General ance in his power. Had the latter acted Grant to move a co-operative force along promptly, he might have gained a vic- the line of the Mississippi River. It was tory at once; but he did not. At the promptly done. A column about 3,000 end of twenty days he moved the army to strong, chiefly Illinois volunteers, under a strong position on Bemis's Heights, Gen. John A. McClernand, went down where his camp was fortified by Kosci- from Cairo in transports and wooden gun- usko, the Polish patriot and engineer, boats to menace Columbus by attacking Burgoyne called in his outposts, and with Belmont, opposite. At the same time his shattered forces and splendid train of another column, under Gen. C. F. Smith, artillery he crossed the Hudson on a 314 SEMIS'S HEIGHTS bridge of boats (Sept. 13, 1777), and en- camped on the Heights of Saratoga, after- wards Schuylerville. New courage had been infused into the hearts of the Ameri- cans by the events near Bennington and on the upper Mohawk, and Gates's army was rapidly increasing in numbers. Bur- goyne felt compelled to move forward speedily. Some American troops, under Col. John Brown, had got in his rear, and surprised a British post at the foot of Lake George (Sept. 18). They also at- tempted to capture Ticonderoga. Bur- act on the defensive. Gen. Benedict Ar- nold and others, who observed the move- ments of the British, urged Gates to at- tack them, but he refused to fight. Even at 11 a.m., when the booming of a can- non gave the signal for the general ad- vance of Burgoyne's army, he remained in his tent, apparently indifferent. Arnold, as well as others, became extremely im- patient as peril drew near. He was finally permitted to order Col. Daniel Morgan with his riflemen, and Dearborn with in- fantry, to attack the Canadians and Ind- NEILSON HOUSE ON BEMIS'S HEIGHTS.* goyne had moved slowly southward, and ians, who were swarming on the hills in on the morning of Sept. 19 he offered bat- advance of Burgoyne's right. These were tie to Gates. driven back and pursued. Morgan's troops, First Battle. — His left wing, with the becoming scattered, were recalled, and immense artillery train, commanded by with New England troops, under Dearborn, Generals Phillips and Riedesel, kept upon Scammel, and Cilley, another furious the plain near the river. The centre, com- charge was made. After a sharp engage- posed largely of German troops, led by ment, in which Morgan's horse was shot Burgoyne in person, extended to a range under him, the combatants withdrew to of hills that were touched by the American their respective lines. Meanwhile Bur- left, and upon these hills General Fraser goyne had moved rapidly upon the Ameri- and Lieutenant-Colonel Breyman, with can centre and left. At the same time grenadiers and infantry, were posted. The the vigilant Arnold attempted to turn the front and flank of Burgoyne's army were British right. Gates denied him rein- covered by the Canadians, Tories, and Ind- forcements, and restrained him in every ians who yet remained in camp. General way in his power, and he failed. Masked Gates, who lacked personal courage and by thick woods, neither party was now the skill of a good commander, resolved to certain of the movements of the other, and they suddenly and unexpectedly met in a * The mansion of Mr. Neilson, an active ravine at Freeman's farm, at which Bur- Whig at the time of the battle. It was the goyne had halted. There they fought des- headquarters of General Poor and Colonel _ «.±o,. * i -i A u j Morgan. To it the wounded Major Acland perately for a while. Arnold was pressed was conveyed, and there was joined by his back, when Fraser, by a quick movement, wife. called up some German troops from the 315 BEMIS'S HEIGHTS British centre to his aid. Arnold rallied his men, and with New England troops, led by Colonels Brooks, Dearborn, Scam- mel, Cilley, and Major Hull, he struck the enemy such heavy blows that his line be- gan to waver and fall into confusion. Gen- eral Phillips, below the heights, heard through the woods the din of battle, and hurried over the hills with fresh English troops and some artillery, followed by a portion of the Germans under Riedesel, and appeared on the battle-field just as victory seemed about to be yielded to the Americans. The battle continued. The British ranks were becoming fearfully thinned, when Riedesel fell heavily upon the American flank with infantry and ar- tillery, and they gave way. The Germans saved the British army from ruin. A lull in the battle succeeded, but at the middle of the afternoon the contest was renewed with greater fury. At length the British, fearfully assailed by bullet and bayonet, recoiled and fell back. At that moment Arnold was at headquarters, seated upon a powerful black horse, and in vain urging Gates to give him reinforcements. Hear- ing the roar of the renewed battle, he could no longer brook delay, and turning his horse's head towards the field of strife, and exclaiming, " I'll soon put an end to it! " went off on a full gallop, followed by one of Gates's staff, with directions to or- der him back. The subaltern could not overtake the general, who, by words and acts, animated the Americans. For three hours the battle raged. Like an ocean tide the warriors surged backward and for- ward, winning and losing victory alter- nately. When it was too late, Gates sent out the New York regiments of Livingston and Van Cortlandt and the whole brigade of General Learned. Had Gates complied with Arnold's wishes, the capture of Bur- goyne's army might have been easily ac- complished. Night closed the contest, and both parties slept on their arms until morning. But for Arnold and Morgan, no doubt Burgoyne would have been march- ing triumphantly on Albany before noon that day. So jealous was Gates because the army praised those gallant leaders, that he omitted their names in his official report. The number of Americans killed and wounded in this action was about 300 ; of the British about 600. Second Battle. — Burgoyne found his broken army utterly dispirited on the morning after the first battle, and he withdrew to a point 2 miles from the American lines. Arnold urged Gates to attack him at dawn, but that officer would not consent. Burgoyne was hoping to re- ceive good news from Sir Henry Clinton, who was preparing to ascend the Hudson with a strong force. So he intrenched his camp, put his troops in better spirits by a cheerful harangue, and resolved to wait for Clinton. The next morning he was himself cheered by a message from Clin- ton, who promised to make a diversion in his favor immediately; also by a de- spatch from Howe, announcing a victory over Washington on the Brandywine (see Brandywine, Battle of). Bur- goyne gave the glad tidings to his army, and wrote to Clinton that he could sus- tain his position until Oct. 12. But his condition rapidly grew worse. The Amer- ican army hourly increased in numbers, and the militia were swarming on his flanks and rear. His foraging parties could get very little food for the starving horses, the militia so annoyed them. In his hospitals were 800 sick and wounded men, and his effective soldiers were fed on diminished rations. His Indian allies deserted him, while, through the exer- tions of Schuyler, Oneida warriors joined the forces of Gates. Lincoln, with 2,000 men, also joined him on the 22d; still Gates remained inactive. His officers were impatient, and Arnold plainly told him that the army was clamorous for action, and the militia were threatening to go home. He told him that he had reason to think that if they had improved the 20th of September it might have ruined the enemy. " That is past," he said ; " let me entreat you to improve the present time." Gates was offended, and, treating the brave Arnold with silent contempt, sat still. A long time Burgoyne waited for further tidings from Clinton. On Oct. 4, he called a council of officers. It was de- cided to fight their way through the American lines, and, on the morning of Oct. 7, 1777, the whole army moved. Towards the American left wing Burgoyne pressed with 1,500 picked men, eight brass cannon, and two howitzers, leaving the main army, on the heights in command 316 BEMIS'S HEIGHTS of Brigadiers Specht and Hamilton, and British grenadiers was severely wounded, the redoubts near the river with Briga- and Major Williams, of the artillery, was dier-General Gall. Phillips, Fraser, and made prisoner. Five times one of the Riedesel were with Burgoyne. Canadian cannon was taken and retaken. When rangers, loyalists, and Indians were sent the British fell back, and the gun re- to hang on the American rear, while Bur- mained with the Americans, Colonel Cil- goyne should attack their front. This ley leaped upon it, waved his sword over movement was discerned before the Brit- his head, dedicated the piece to the ish were ready for battle. The drums of " American cause," and, turning it upon the American advanced guard beat to the foe, he opened its destructive energies arms. The alarm ran all along the lines, upon them with their own ammunition. Gates had 10,000 troops — enough to have Sir Francis Clarke, Burgoyne's chief aide, crushed the weakened foe if properly who was sent to secure the cannon, was handled. He inquired the cause of the mortally wounded, made a prisoner, and disturbance, and then permitted Colonel sent to Gates's tent. The whole eight can- Morgan to " begin the game." Morgan soon gained a good position on the British right, while General Poor, with his New Hampshire brigade, fol- lowed by General Ten Broeck, with New - Yorkers advanced against their left. Mean- while, the Canadian rangers and their companions had gained the American rear, and attacked their pickets. They were soon joined by grenadiers. The Americans were driven back to their lines, when a sharp fight en- sued. By this time the whole British line was in battle or- der, the grenadiers under Ma- jor Acland, with artillery un- der Major Williams, forming the left; the centre composed of British and grenadiers under Philips and Riedesel, and the right of infantry under Earl Balcarras. Gen- eral Fraser, with 500 pick- ed men, was in advance of the British right, ready to fall upon the left flank of the Americans non and the possession of the field re- when the action should begin on the front, mained with the Americans. Meanwhile It was now between three and four o'clock Colonel Morgan had assailed Fraser's in the afternoon. As Burgoyne was about flanking corps so furiously that they to advance, he was astonished by the were driven back to their lines. There thunder of cannon on his left, and the Morgan fell upon the British right so crack of rifles on his right. Poor had fiercely that it was thrown into confu- pressed up the thick-wooded slope on which sion. A panic prevailed. It was followed Majors Acland and Williams were posted, by an onslaught in front by Dearborn, unobserved, until he was near the bat- with fresh troops, when the British teries, which were captured after a des- broke and fled in terror. Balcarras soon perate struggle, in which the leader of the rallied them, while the centre, composed 317 PLAN OF BATTLES ON BEMIS'S HEIGHTS. BEMIS'S HEIGHTS— BENEZET chiefly of Germans, though convulsed, and spread such terror among the Ger- stood firm. Now Arnold came upon the scene. Gates, offended by what he called Arnold's " impertinence," had deprived him of all command, and he was an im- patient spectator of the battle. When he mans that they fled, giving a parting volley of bullets, one of which gave Arnold a severe wound in the same leg that was badly hurt at Quebec. At that moment he was overtaken by the subaltern, who had could no longer restrain himself, he been sent by Gates to recall him, " lest sprang upon his charger and started on full he should do some rash thing." He had gallop for the field of action, pursued done it. He had achieved a victory for by a subaltern to call him back. He which Gates received the honor. The Ger- dashed into the vortex of danger, where mans had thrown down their weapons, the pursuer dared not follow. He was re- Breyman was mortally wounded. The ceived with cheers by his old troops, and fight ended at twilight, and before the he led them against the British centre, dawn, Burgoyne, who had resolved to re- With the desperation of a madman he rushed into the thickest of the fight. When, at the head of his men, he dashed treat, removed his whole army a mile or two north of his intrenchments. In this remarkable battle — won by an officer who into the firm German lines, they broke had been deprived of his command — the and fled in dismay. The battle was now Americans lost, in killed and wounded, general. Arnold and Morgan were the ruling spirits on the American side. 150 men; that of the British, including prisoners, was about 700. Arnold was the Eraser was the soul that directed the only American commanding officer who most potent energies of the British. One of Morgan's riflemen singled him out by his brilliant uniform, and shot him through the body, wounding him mor- tally. Then a panic ran along the Brit- received a wound. Burgoyne was defeated at Stillwater, Oct. 7, and ten days later surrendered his army of 6,000 men at Saratoga. See Burgoyne. Benedict, George Grenville, military ish line. At the sight of 3,000 fresh New officer; born in Burlington, Vt., Dec. 10, York militia, under General Ten Broeck, approaching, the wavering line gave way, and the troops retreated to their in- trenchments, leaving their artillery be- hind. Up to their intrenchments, the Americans, with Arnold at their head, eagerly pressed, in the face of a terrible 1826; graduated at the University of Ver- mont in 1847; served in the 12th Vermont Volunteers in 1862-63; and was author of Vermont at Gettysburg; Vermont in the Civil War; Army Life in Virginia, etc. Benedict, Lewis, military officer; born storm of grape-shot and bullets. The in Albany, N. Y., Sept. 2, 1817; was a works were assailed with small arms, graduate of Williams College; was ad- Balcarras defended them bravely until he mitted to the bar in 1841; was surrogate could resist no longer. The voice of Ar- of Albany county in 1848, and member of nold was heard above the din of battle, and his form was seen, in the midst of the smoke, dashing from point to point. With the troops first of Generals Pater- son and Glover, and then of Learned, he assailed the enemy's right, which Assembly in 1861. He entered the mili- tary service as lieutenant-colonel of vol- unteers in 1861 ; served in the campaign on the Peninsula in 1862; was captured, and confined in Libby and Salisbury pris- ons several months, and when exchanged was defended by Canadians and loyal- was sent to the Department of the Gulf, ists. The English gave way, leaving where he was distinguished for his wis- the Germans exposed. Then Arnold dom and bravery. He served as brigadier- ordered up the troops of Livingston general in the Red River campaign, till and Wesson, with Morgan's riflemen, killed in the battle of Pleasant Hill, La., to make a general assault, while Colonel April 0, 1864. Brooks, with his Massachusetts regi- Benezet, Anthony, philanthropist; ment, accompanied by Arnold, attacked born in France, Jan. 31, 1713; emigrated the troops commanded by Lieutenant- to Philadelphia in 1731, and taught school Colonel Breyman. Arnold rushed into the there nearly all his life. He became a sally-port on his powerful black horse, member of the Society of Friends; and 318 BENHAM— BENNETT his life was conspicuous for acts of benev- 1811; was of Jewish parentage, and in olence. He wrote much against war and 1816 his family settled in Savannah, Ga. African slavery, and bequeathed his es- Judah entered Yale College, but left it, tate, on the death of his wife, to the in 1827, without graduating, and became African school in Philadelphia. He died a lawyer in New Orleans. He taught in Philadelphia, May 3, 1784. school for a while, married one of his Benham, Andrew Ellicott Kennedy, pupils, and became a leader of his pro- naval officer; born in New York, April 10, fession in Louisiana. From 1853 to 1861 1832; entered the navy Nov. 24, 1847. he was United States Senator. He was During the Civil War he served in the regarded for several years as leader of South Atlantic and Western Gulf squad- the Southern wing of the Democratic rons, and took part in the battle of Port party; and, when the question of seces- Royal and other engagements. In 1894 sion divided the people, he withdrew from he commanded a squadron at Rio de the Senate, and, with his coadjutor, John Janeiro, Brazil, and forced the commander Slidell, he promoted the great insurrec- of the insurgent squadron to raise the tion. He became Attorney-General of the blockade of the city and to discontinue Southern Confederacy, acting Secretary of firing upon American merchant vessels. War, and Secretary of State. After the Rear-admiral in 1890; retired in 1894. war he went to London, where he prac- Benham, Henry W., military officer; tised his profession with success. He died born in Cheshire, Conn., in 1817; was in Paris, May 8, 1884. graduated at West Point, first in his class, Bennet, or Bennett, Richard, colonial in 1837. He served under General Tay- governor; was appointed one of the Vir- lor in the war with Mexico, and was ginia commissioners to reconcile Virginia wounded in the battle of Buena Vista, to the administration of Oliver Cromwell Early in the Civil War he was active in in 1651. In 1654 the Maryland royalists, western Virginia, and afterwards on the under the instigation of Lord Baltimore, South Carolina coast. He assisted in the revolted, and intercolonial hostilities fol- capture of Fort Pulaski; and in 1863-64 lowed, resulting in a victory for the Vir- he commanded an engineer brigade in the ginians under Governor Bennet. During Army of the Potomac. He was brevetted the night of March 25, 1655, many pris- brigadier-general for services in the cam- oners were taken, including the royalist paign ending with the surrender of Lee, Governor Stone. Some of these were after- and major-general (March, 1865) for wards executed. " meritorious services in the rebellion." Bennett, James Gordon, founder of the He died in New York, June 1, 1884. New York Herald; born in New Mill, Benjamin, Judah Philip, lawyer; was Scotland, Sept. 1, 1795; died in New York, born in St. Croix, West Indies, Aug. 11, June 1, 1872. Intending to enter upon the ministry in the Roman Catholic Church, he studied theology in Aberdeen some time, but, abandoning the intention, he went to British America, arriving at Halifax, N. S., in 1819, where he taught school. He made his way to Boston, where he became a proof-reader, and in 1822 he went to New York, and thence to Charleston, where he made translations from the Spanish for the Charleston Courier. Returning to New York, he be- came proprietor (1825) of the New York Courier, but did not succeed. After vari- ous editorial and journalistic adventures in New York and Pennsylvania, Mr. Ben- nett, in May, 1835, began the publication of the New York Herald. His method was a " new departure " in journalism. 319 JUDAH PHILIP BENJAMIN. BENNINGTON The Herald obtained an immense circu- lation and advertising patronage. The profits of the establishment, at the time JAMES GOKDON BENNETT. of Mr. Bennett's death, were estimated at from $500,000 to $700,000 a year. He died in the Roman Catholic faith, and be- queathed the Herald to his only son, James Gordon Bennett, Jr., who was born in New York City, May 10, 1841; fitted out the Jeannette polar expedition; sent Henry M. Stanley in search of Dr. Livingstone in Africa; constructed, with John W. Mackay, a new cable between America and Europe; and greatly pro- moted international yachting. Bennington, Battle near. Falling short of provisions, Burgoyne sent out an expedition from his camp on the Hudson River to procure cattle, horses to mount Riedesel's dragoons, to " try the affections of the country," and to complete a corps of loyalists. Colonel Baum led the expe- dition, which consisted of 800 men, com- prising German dragoons and British marksmen, a body of Canadians and Ind- ians, some loyalists as guides, and two pieces of artillery. They penetrated the country eastward of the Hudson towards Bennington, Vt., where the Americans had gathered a considerable quantity of sup- plies. At that time (August, 1777), Gen- eral Stark, disgusted because he had not been made a Continental brigadier-gen- eral, had resigned his colonelcy, taken the leadership of the New Hampshire mili- tia, with the stipulation that he was to have an independent command, and was at Bennington with part of a brigade. He had lately refused to obey a command of General Lincoln to join the main army opposing Burgoyne. It was a fortunate circumstance, for he did better service when Baum approached and began to cast up intrenchments (Aug. 14, 1777) in the township of Hoosick, N. Y., within about 5 miles of Bennington. Informed of that approach, Stark had sent expresses for Warner's shattered regiment, and for militia, and he soon gathered many fugi- tives from the disaster at Hubbardton. The 15th was rainy. Baum had sent back to Burgoyne for reinforcements, and Stark was waiting for the arrival of more ex- pected troops from Berkshire. Warner joined Stark on the morning of the 15th — he and his men drenched during a night march in the rain. The 16th dawned bright and hot, and Stark proceeded to execute a plan of attack on Baum's in- trenched position by dividing his force and making a simultaneous attack at dif- ferent points. The frightened Indians with Baum dashed through the encir- cling lines of the Americans, and fled to the shelter of the woods. After a severe contest of two hours' duration, the ammu- nition of the Germans failed, and they at- tempted to break through the line of be- siegers with bayonets and sabres. In that attempt Baum was slain and his veterans were made prisoners. At that moment Lieutenant - Colonel Breyman appeared with the jaded reinforcements which Bur- goyne had sent, and Stark was joined by some fresh troops furnished by Warner. The cannon which had been taken from the Germans, were immediately turned upon Breyman's men. A fierce battle continued until sunset, when Breyman retreated, leaving all his artillery, and nearly all his wounded, behind. The Germans lost, in killed, wounded, and prisoners, nearly 1,000 men. The Americans lost less than 100. On Aug. 19, 1891, a monument com- memorating the victory was dedicated at Bennington. It is a shaft of magnesian limestone, 308 feet high — the highest bat- tle-monument in the world; and near the city the national government has since established a military post. See Ethan Allen, Fort. 320 BENSON— BENTON Benson, Egbert, jurist; born in New son at Nashville (1813), when a quarrel York City, June 21, 1746; was graduated ensued, and in a personal encounter in that at King's College (now Columbia Uni- town with deadly weapons both parties gave versity) in 1765; took an active part in and received severe wounds. He was colo- political events preliminary to the war nel of a Tennessee regiment from Decem- for independence; was a member of the ber, 1812, to April, 1813, and lieutenant- Committee of Safety, and, in 1777, was colonel in the regular army from 1813 to appointed the first attorney-general of 1815. Removing to St. Louis in 1813, he the State of New York. He was also a established the Missouri Inquirer there, member of the first State legislature. He and practised his profession. He took an was a member of the Continental Congress from 1784 to 1789, and of the new Con- gress from 1789 to 1793, also from 1813 to 1815. From 1789 to 1802, he was a regent of the New York University, judge of the Supreme Court of New York ( 1794- 1801), and of the United States Circuit Court. He was the first president of the New York Historical Society. Judge Benson was the author of a Vindication of the Captors of Major Andre, and a Me- moir on Dutch Names of Places. He died in Jamaica, Long Island, Aug. 24, 1833. Bentley, Charles Eugene, clergyman; born in Warner's, N. Y., April 30 1841 ; became a Baptist minister, chairman of the State Prohibition Convention in 1864, and subsequently candidate for various of- fices. In 1896 he was the Presidential candidate of the Liberty party. Benton, James Gilchrist, military Missouri as a State of the Union, and was officer; born in Lebanon, N. H., Sept. 15, one of its first representatives in the 1820; was graduated at West Point Acad- United States Senate, which post he held emy in 1842; served continuously in the for thirty consecutive years, where he was ordnance department of the army, and as ever the peculiar exponent and guardian a result of his experiments made many of " The West." He was an early and un- inventions, for none of which did he take tiring advocate of a railway from the out a patent, as he held that having been Mississippi to the Pacific Ocean. He educated by the government it was en- warmly opposed the repeal of the Mis- titled to benefit in every way by his time souri Compromise (q. v.) in 1854. His and talent. He published A Course of free-labor sentiments caused his defeat as Instruction in Ordnance and Gunnery. He a candidate for the Senate by the ultra- died in Springfield, Mass., Aug. 23, 1881. slavery men of his party in 1850, and in Benton, Thomas Hart, statesman; 1852 he was elected to the House of Rep- born near Hillsboro, N. C, March 14, 1782. resentatives. By a combination of his old Before finishing his studies at Chapel Hill opponents with the American Party University, North Carolina, he removed (q. v.), he was defeated in 1854, and failed to Tennessee, studied law, and obtained of an election for governor in 1856. He great eminence in his profession. In the had then begun to devote himself to lit- legislature of that State he procured the erary pursuits; and he completed his enactment of a law giving to slaves the Thirty Years' View of the United States benefit of a jury trial, and also succeeded Senate in 1854. He prepared an Abridg- in having a law passed which reformed ment of the Debates of Congress, from the judicial system of the State. He had 1789 to 1856, in 16 volumes 8vo. They been on intimate terms with General Jack- contain a complete political history of the I.— x 321 THOMAS HART BENTON. active part in favoring the admission of BENTON country during that period, so far as the Orleans, in lat. 26°. It is a "grand and national legislature is concerned. He solitary river," almost without affluents died in Washington, D. C, April 10, 1858. or tributaries. Its source is in the region The Annexation of Texas. — On May 16, of eternal snow; its outlet in the clime of 17, and 20, 1844, Senator Benton delivered eternal flowers. Its direct course is 1,200 a remarkable and characteristic speech in miles; its actual run about 2,000 miles, the debate, while the Senate was in secret This immense river, second on our conti- session, on the ratification of the treaty nent to the Mississippi only, and but lit- for the annexation of Texas. He had vigor- tie inferior to it in length, is proposed to ously opposed the measure, and on the 13th be added in the whole extent of its left offered the following resolutions, in support bank to the American Union ; and that by of which his great speech was delivered: virtue of a treaty for the reannexation of 1. That the ratification of the treaty Texas. Now, the real Texas, which we ac- would be the adoption of the Texan war quired by the treaty of 1803, and flung with Mexico, and would devolve its con- away by the treaty of 1819, never ap- clusion upon the United States. proached the Rio Grande except near its 2. That the treaty-making power does mouth; while the whole upper part was not extend to the power of making war, settled by the Spaniards, and a great part and that the President and Senate have no of it in the year 1694 — nearly 100 years right to make war, either by declaration before La Salle first saw Texas. All this or adoption. upper part was then formed into provinces, 3. That Texas ought to be reunited to on both sides of the river, and has re- the American Union, as soon as it can be done with the consent of a majority of the people of the United States and of Texas, and when Mexico shall either con- sent to the same, or acknowledge the in- mained under Spanish or Mexican author- ity ever since. These former provinces of the Mexican viceroyalty, now de- partments of the Mexican Republic, lying on both sides of the Rio Grande from dependence of Texas, or cease to prosecute its head to its mouth, we now propose the war against her (the armistice having to incorporate, so far as they lie on the expired) on a scale commensurate to the left bank of the river, into our Union, conquest of the country. by virtue of a treaty of reannexation The following is an abstract of the with Texas. Let us pause and look at speech: our new and important proposed acquisi- tions in this quarter. First, there is the The President upon our call sends us a department, formerly the province, of New map to show the Senate the boundaries Mexico, lying on both sides of the river of the country he proposes to annex. This from its headspring to near the Paso del memoir is explicit in presenting the Rio Norte — that is to say, half down the river. Grande del Norte in its whole extent as a This department is studded with towns boundary of the Republic of Texas, and and villages — is populated — well culti- that in conformity to the law of the Texan vated and covered with flocks and herds. Congress establishing its boundaries. The On its left bank (for I only speak of the boundaries on the map conform to those part which we propose to reannex) is, in the memoir; each takes for the western first, the frontier village Taos, 3,000 souls, limit the Rio Grande from head to mouth ; and where the custom-house is kept at and a law of the Texan Congress is copied which the Missouri caravans enter their into the margin of the map, to show the goods. Then comes Santa Fe, the capital, legal, and the actual, boundaries at the 4,000 souls; then Albuquerque, 6,000 same time. From all this it results that souls; then some scores of other towns and the treaty before us, besides the incorpo- villages, all more or less populated, and ration of Texas proper, also incorporates surrounded by flocks and fields. Then into our Union the left bank of the Rio come the departments of Chihuahua, Grande, in its whole extent, from its head Coahuila, and Tamaulipas, without set- spring in the Sierra Verde, near the South tlements on the left bank of the river, Pass in the Rocky Mountains, to its mouth but occupying the right bank, and eom- in the Gulf of Mexico, 4° south of New manding the left. All this — being parts 322 - BENTON of four Mexican departments — now under Mexican governors and governments, is permanently reannexed to this Union, if this treaty is ratified; and is actually re- annexed from the moment of the signature ol the treaty, according to the President's last message, to remain so until the ac- quisition is rejected by rejecting the treaty. The one-half of the department of New Mexico, with its capital, becomes a territory of the United States; an angle of Chihuahua, at the Paso del Norte, fam- ous for its wine, also becomes ours; a part of the department of Coahuila, not populated on the left bank, which we take, but commanded from the right bank by Mexican authorities; the same of Tamau- lipas, the ancient Nuevo San Tander (New St. Andrew), and which covers both sides of Mexico, 2,000 miles long and some hun- dred miles up, and all the left bank of which is in the power and possession of Mexico. These, in addition to the old Texas, these parts of four states, these towns and vil- lages, these people and territory, these flocks and herds, this slice of the Republic of Mexico, 2,000 miles long and some hun- dred broad, all this our President has cut off from its mother empire, and presents to us, and declares it is ours till the Sen- ate rejects it. He calls it Texas; and the cutting off he calls reannexation. Hum- boldt calls it New Mexico, Chihuahua, Coahuila, and Nuevo San Tander (now Tamaulipas) ; and the civilized world may qualify this reannexation by the applica- tion of some odious and terrible epithet. Demosthenes advised the people of Athens not to take, but to retake a certain city; and in that re lay the virtue which saved that act from the character of spoliation and robbery. Will it be equally potent with us? And will the re prefixed to the annexation legitimate the seizure of 2,000 miles of a neighbor's dominion, with whom we have treaties of peace, and friendship, and commerce? Will it legitimate this seizure, made by virtue of a treaty with Texas, when no Texan force — witness the disastrous expeditions to Mier and to Santa Fe" — have been seen near it without being killed or taken, to the last man? The treaty, in all that relates to the boundary of the Rio Grande, is an act of unparalleled outrage on Mexico. It is the seizure of 2,000 miles of her territory without a word of explanation with her, and by virtue of a treaty with Texas, to which she is no party. Our Secretary of State (Mr. Calhoun), in his letter to the United States charge in Mexico, and seven days after the treaty was signed, and after the Mexican minister had withdrawn from our seat of government, shows full well that he was conscious of the enormity of ihe outrage, knew it was war, and prof- fered volunteer apologies to avert the con- sequences which he knew he had provoked. The President, in his special message of Wednesday last, informs us that we have acquired a title to the ceded territories by his signatures to the treaty, wanting only the action of the Senate to perfect it; and that, in the mean time, he will protect it from invasion, and for that purpose has detached all the disposable portions of the army and navy to the scene of action. This is a caper about equal to the mad freaks with which the unfortunate Em- peror Paul of Russia was accustomed to astonish Europe about forty years ago. By this declaration the 30,000 Mexicans in the left half of the valley of the Rio del Norte are our citizens, and standing, in the language of the President's message, in a hostile attitude towards us, and sub- ject to be repelled as invaders. Taos, the seat of the custom-house, where our cara- vans enter their goods, is ours; Santa Fe, the capital of New Mexico, is ours; Gov- ernor Armijo is our governor, and sub- ject to be tried for treason if he does not submit to us; twenty Mexican towns and villages are ours; and their peaceful in- habitants, cultivating their fields and tending their flocks, are suddenly convert- ed, by a stroke of the President's pen, into American citizens, or American rebels. This is too bad; and, instead of making themselves party to its enormities, as the President invites them to do, I think rather that it is the duty of the Senate to wash its hands of all this part of the transaction, by a special disapprobation. The Senate is the constitutional adviser of the President, and has the right, if not the duty, to give him advice when the oc- casion requires it. I, therefore, propose, as an additional resolution, applicable to the Rio del Norte boundary only, the one which I will read and send to the secre- tary's table — stamping as a spoliation this 323 BENTONVILLE seizure of Mexican territory, and on which, at the proper time, I shall ask the vote of the Senate: " Resolved, that the incorporation of the left bank of the Rio del Norte into the American Union, by virtue of a treaty with Texas, comprehending, as the said incor- poration would do, a part of the Mexican departments of New Mexico, Chihuahua, Ccahuila, and Tamaulipas, would be an act of direct aggression on Mexico; for all the consequences of which the United States would stand responsible." Bentonville, Battle of. After the de- feat of Hardee at Averasboro, Sherman be- lieved he would meet with no more serious opposition in his march to Goldsboro. He issued orders accordingly. This sense of security proved almost fatal to Sherman's army, for at that moment, Johnston, who had come down from Smithfield, N. C, on a rapid but stealthy march, under cover of night, was hovering near in full force. He found the Nationals in a favor- able position for hirfi to attack them. Gen. J. C. Davis's corps was encamped (March 18, 1865) on the Goldsboro road, at a point where it was crossed by one from Clinton to Smithfield. Two divisions of Williams's were encamped 10 or 12 miles in the rear of this, in charge of Slocum's wagon-trains. The remainder of the forces were scattered to the south and east, in fancied security. On the morning of the 16th, Sherman left Slocum, nearest the Confederates, to join How- ard's troops, which were scattered and moving on over the wretched, muddy road. On March 19, Sherman, while on his way to Howard, heard cannonading on his # left wing, but did not think there was any- thing serious in it. It proved, however, to be a complete surprise. The Confeder- ates, in overwhelming numbers, were found pressing Slocum. A very severe battle ensued, in a densely wooded swamp, dark and wet and dismal. In this encoun- ter, Gen. J. C. Davis conducted much of the battle with great skill and courage, continually cheering his men with as- surances of victory. Johnston had as- sured his men that he was confident of vic- tory, and the troops on both sides fought desperately. Davis had formed General Fearing's brigade to the left and hurled them upon the flank of the Confederates. The latter were staggered and paralyzed by this unexpected and stunning blow from a force hitherto unseen by them, for Fearing's troops were in reserve. They reeled and fell back in amazement, and the attack was not renewed on that part of the field for more than an hour after- wards. The army was saved. The young general (Fearing) was disabled by a bul- let, and hundreds of his brigade, dead and wounded, strewed the field of conflict. Davis re-formed the disordered left and centre of his line in open fields half a mile in the rear of the old line. The artillery was moved to a commanding knoll, and Kilpatrick massed his cavalry on the left. Meanwhile an attack upon Morgan's di- vision of the 14th Corps had been very severe and unceasing. The National forces received six distinct assaults by the com- bined troops of Hardee, Hoke, and Cheat- ham, under the immediate command of General Johnston, without yielding an inch of ground, and all the while doing much execution on the Confederate ranks, especially with the artillery. With dark- ness this conflict, known as the battle of Bentonville, ended. It was one of the most notable battles of the Civil War. The main forces of the Union and of its enemies were then concentrating at one point for a desperate last struggle — Sher- man and Johnston in North Carolina, and Grant and Lee in Virginia. Had John- ston won at that time the consequence probably would have been the loss of the whole of Sherman's army and the quick and fatal dispersion or capture of Grant's before Petersburg and Richmond. On the night after the battle reinforcements came to the left of the Nationals. The Con- federates prepared for another onset, but when Johnston heard of the actual con- nection of three National armies in the vicinity of Goldsboro, he perceived that all chance for success against Sherman had vanished. There had been hard fighting all day (March 20, 1865), and that night, after having his only line of retreat se- verely menaced by a flank movement under General Mower, Johnston withdrew and went towards Smithfield in such haste that he left his pickets, wounded in hospi- tals, and dead behind. The aggregate loss of the Nationals near Bentonville was 1,648. The loss of the Confederates was never re- 324 BERGH— BERING SEA ported. The Nationals captured 1,625 of their men, and buried 267 of their dead. Bergh, Henry, founder of the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals; was born in New York City, May 8, 1820; was educated at Columbia College, and in- dulged in literary labors for a while, writ- ing a drama and some poems. In 1863 he was secretary of legation to Kussia, and acting vice-consul there. He acquired lasting fame over the civilized world for his untiring and brave labors in behalf of abused dumb creatures. These phil- anthropic efforts absorbed his attention for many years, and elicited the praise of all good men and women. A society for carrying out his benevolent plan was incorporated by the legislature of New York in 1866, and this example was fol- lowed in nearly all of the States and Territories of the Union and in Canada. He died in New York, March 12, 1888. Bering (now preferred to the form Beh- ring), Vitus, Danish navigator; born at Horsen, in Jutland, in 1680. In his youth he made several voyages to the East and West Indies; entered the Russian navy, and served with distinction against the Swedes; and in 1725 commanded a scien- tific expedition to the Sea of Kamtchatka. He ascertained that Asia and America were separated by water — a strait which now bears his name. This problem Peter the Great had been very desirous of hav- ing solved. Bering was appointed captain commandant in 1732, and in 1741 set out on a second voyage to the same region, when he discovered a part of the North American continent supposed to have been New Norfolk. He and his crew, being disabled by sickness, attempted to return to Kamtchatka, but were wrecked on an island that now bears his name, where Bering died Dec. 8, 1741. His discoveries were the foundation of the claim of Russia to a large region in the far northwest of the American continent. See Alaska. Bering Sea. In 1725 Capt. Vitus Be- ring, a Danish navigator in the service of Peter the Great, discovered the sea which bears his name, and in 1741 he made an imperfect exploration of a por- tion of the Alaskan coast. By virtue of these discoveries, the Emperor Paul of Russia, in 1799, assumed the sovereign- ty over the American coast as far south as lat. 55°, and formally annexed that part of the continent to the Russian do- mains. In 1867 Russian America was purchased by the United States govern- ment for $7,200,000. The only wealth of the country known at that time was its fur-producing animals, particularly the fur-seals of the coasts and islands, and it was for this mainly that the purchase was made. The officials who conducted the transaction were not mistaken in their estimates of the revenue to be derived from this source, for during the twenty years which followed the seal - fisheries paid into the national treasury a rental which exceeded the purchase-price of the territory by $6,350,000. That Bering Sea, with its islands, was the exclusive prop- erty of Russia for the sixty-eight years of her domination in Alaska had never been questioned, and that the United States, by purchase, succeeded to the same rights of possession no one could, it would be supposed, deny. About 1886, however, some ship-owners in British Columbia be- gan to encroach upon these rights by send- ing vessels into the sea to intercept the seals as they made their annual migra- tion to their breeding-grounds on the Pribyloff Islands. This unlawful poaching and the unregulated pelagic sealing were carried on to such an extent that in 1890 the Canadian intruders secured 20,000 skins. As very many of the seals thus taken were females, and their young were left to perish for want of sustenance, the actual number destroyed was far in ex- cess of the number of skins, and the extinction of the entire species was threat- ened. At this juncture a United States revenue-cutter captured one of the poach- ing vessels. The seizure became at once the subject of correspondence between the British government and the State De- partment at Washington. Secretary Blaine urged that illicit sealing was a pursuit contra oonos mores, against international comity; and he argued against the claim of Lord Salisbury, who had asserted that Bering Sea could not be mare clausum under any circumstances. The British premier declined to recognize the claims of the United States, although he ex- pressed regret at the " wanton destruc- tion of a valuable industry," and asked that the right of the United States to 325 BERING SEA seize the Canadian vessels be submitted government to visit the localities under to a court of arbitration. While this cor- dispute, and make a thorough investi- respondence was going on the poachers gation of the material facts. A treaty continued their depredations, and the was signed at Washington, Feb. 29, 1892, number of seals was so materially re- providing for the settlement by arbitra- duced that in 1891 not more than one- tion of the vexed seal question. The fourth of the usual number of pelts were treaty was ratified in London, and the ar- taken by the legally authorized sealers, bitrators met in Paris; they were Lord An agreement was finally entered into Hannen, Sir John Thompson, Justice Har- to submit the matter to a court of arbi- Ian, United States Senator Morgan, Baron tration, composed of commissioners se- de Courcelles, M. Gregero Gram, and Mar- keted by the two governments. The ques- quis Visconti Venosta. The decision of tions at issue to be decided by this court the tribunal was rendered Aug. 15, 1893. were as follows: The findings of the arbitrators were: Rus- 1. What exclusive jurisdiction in Bering sia never claimed exclusive rights; Great Sea did Russia exercise prior to the ces- Britain had not conceded any claim of sion of Alaska? Russia to exclusive jurisdiction; Bering 2. To what extent was this jurisdiction, Sea was included in the Pacific Ocean in especially as regarded the seal fisheries, the treaty of 1825; all Russian rights recognized by Great Britain? passed to the United States; the United 3. Was the Bering Sea included in the States have no rights when seals are out- phrase " Pacific Ocean " in the Anglo- side the 3-mile limit. Restrictive regula- Russian treaty of 1825; and what rights tions were also adopted: proclaiming a did Russia exercise in the Bering Sea closed season from May 1 to July 31 in after the treaty? Bering Sea and the North Pacific; estab- 4. Did not all the Russian rights in the lishing a protected zone within 60 miles fisheries east of the water boundary pass of the Pribyloff Islands; forbidding to the United States when the treaty was steam- vessels, use of nets, fire-arms, and ratified by which she acquired possession explosives. The award was regarded as a of the territory of Alaska? compromise, in which the United States 5. What right of protection of prop- was technically defeated, but acquired erty has the United States in the seals substantial advantages in the regulations, frequenting United States islands, when The complaints came mainly from Can- found outside the ordinary 3-mile limit? ada. See Bering Sea Arbitration. Pending the decision of the case by ar- In 1894, the year following the sign- bitration, an agreement was entered into ing of this treaty, more seals were slaugh- between the two governments, June 15, tered by poachers than ever before. The 1891, providing: United States again asked England to in- 1. That Great Britain shall use her terfere against the Canadian poachers, best efforts to prohibit sealing by her but that country refused to act unless the subjects in Bering Sea until May, 1892. United States should pay Great Britain 2. That the United States shall limit the $500,000 in discharge of all claims for number of seals to be taken by the North damages resulting from alleged illegal American Commercial Company to 7,500 seizures of British vessels in Bering Sea. per year, and shall not permit more to be The United States denied the justice of taken previous to the date above given. this claim, but after another year of 3. That offending vessels outside the seal slaughter, agreed to submit the claim territorial limits of the United States to arbitration. In July, 1896, Judge may be seized by either of the contract- G. E. King, of Canada, and Judge ing parties; and, W. E. Putnam, of the United States, were 4. That British agents may visit or chosen commissioners to settle the matter, remain on the islands during the pres- On Jan. 14, 1898, President McKinley ent season to make such observations as submitted to Congress the report and may be necessary for the proper presenta- awards of the commission, the last aggre- tion of the case to the court of arbitration, gating $473,151 in favor of Great Britain, Expert agents were appointed by each and on June 14 Congress appropriated 326 BERING SEA ARBITRATION that amount. In the mean time (June, 1896) President Cleveland appointed a commission to make an exhaustive study of the fur-seal question, and on its re- port (1897) President McKinley appoint- ed a new commission to devise protection for the seals. Then efforts were made to induce Great Britain to consent to an in- ternational conference, but Canada ob- jected to the representation of Russia and Japan, whom the United States had in- vited, and on this objection Great Britain declined. Subsequently the United States invited all interested nations to a con- ference separately. See Anglo-American Commission. BERING SEA ARBITRATION Bering Sea Arbitration. The United cruise in the vicinity of the passes of the States stands distinguished among the Aleutian chain, through which the herd nations as the foremost champion of in- travelled on its way to and from the seal ternational arbitration. Our ablest and islands, with a view of preventing such wisest statesmen have recognized it as the hunting. But Mr. Boutwell, Secretary of best way of adjusting most questions of the Treasury, declined to act upon the difference arising between governments, suggestion, stating : "I do not see that when the ordinary diplomatic methods the United States would have the juris- fail. Such being the settled policy of the diction or power to drive off parties going country, it would be unfortunate for the up there for that purpose, unless they cause of peace and civilization in the made the attempt within a marine league world if that policy should be prejudiced of the shore." With the progress of time in the United States for want of correct pelagic hunting increased along the Cana- information or through partisan bias. dian and American coasts, with greater In 1893 John Watson Foster (q. v.) slaughter of the herd, and with occasional was appointed United States agent to the incursions into Bering Sea. There was Bering Sea arbitration tribunal which gradually developed a contention that the met in Paris. After the conclusion of the principle laid down by Secretary Bout- arbitration he wrote the following paper: well did not apply to Bering Sea, because Russia had claimed and enforced exclu- The impression seems to prevail with sive jurisdiction over all its waters, that many of our people that the Bering Sea it had been acquiesced in by the maritime arbitration was unwisely entered upon, nations, including Great Britain, and that that it was fruitless in its results to us, all the rights of Russia therein passed to and that the responsibility for the failure the United States by the cession. The act is chargeable to the administration which of Congress of 1868 (Section 1,956) made agreed to it. Every one of these conclu- it unlawful to kill seals " within the lim- sions is incorrect, and in the interest of its of Alaska Territory or in the waters the great cause of international arbitra- thereof," and it was claimed that the wa- tion their fallacy should be exposed. ters of Alaska embraced all that portion Jt is well, in the first place, to examine of Bering Sea east of the line designated 4he origin of the controversy. Alaska in the Russian treaty of cession. Under was ceded by Russia to the United States the foregoing construction of the treaty in 1867, and in 1870 the seal islands in and the statute, the first seizure of Brit- Bering Sea were leased by the government ish vessels in Bering Sea took place under to a private company, with the privilege instructions of the Secretary of the Treas- of taking on the land a certain number ury by the revenue vessels in 1886, and of seals annually. Soon thereafter it be- other seizures followed in 1887. Suits came apparent that the seal herd was ex- were instituted in the federal court at posed to serious diminution by means of Sitka under the act cited, and the vessels pelagic or open-sea hunting. As early were condemned. The judge, whose ten- as 1872 the attention of the government lire of office under the practice in vogue was called to this danger, and it was sug- ' as to that Territory was limited to the gested that a revenue-cutter be sent to political administration which appointed 327 BERING SEA ARBITRATION him, following the line of argument sub- mitted by the district attorney in a brief prepared in the office of the Attorney- General, held that " all the waters within the boundary set forth in the treaty . . . are to be considered as comprised within the waters of Alaska, and all the penal- ties prescribed by law . . . must there- fore attach within those limits." He further held that " as a matter of inter- national law, it makes no difference that the accused parties may be subjects of Great Britain. Russia had claimed and ex- ercised jurisdiction over all that portion of Bering Sea . . . and that claim had been tacitly recognized and acquiesced in by the other maritime powers of the world." The seizure and condemnation of the British vessels were followed by an at- tempt to secure a more precise and strict definition of " the waters of Alaska " by congressional legislation. A lengthy in- vestigation was had by a committee of the House of Representatives in 1888; and in January, 1889, a report was made by Mr. Dunn, of Arkansas, chairman of the committee, fully sustaining the view taken by the Attorney-General and the federal judge in Alaska, and submitting a bill which declared " that Section 1,956 of the Revised Statutes of the United States was intended to include and apply to, and is hereby declared to include and apply to, all waters of Bering Sea in Alaska em- braced within the boundary lines " of the treaty with Russia. This bill was passed by the House, but in the Senate it was sent to the committee on foreign rela- tions, and that committee recommended that the clause above quoted be disagreed to; and the chairman, Mr. Sherman, in support of the recommendation, stated that the proposed legislation " involved serious matters of international law . . . and ought to be disagreed to and aban- doned, and considered more carefully hereafter." Subsequently, by virtue of a conference report, an act was passed de- claring Section 1,956 to include and ap- ply M to all the dominion of the United Slates in the waters of Bering Sea." The seizure and condemnation of ves- sels, as stated, constitute the origin and foundation of the complaint of the British government, and of the lengthy corre- spondence and negotiations which resulted in the arbitration at Paris. These seizures were the act of the administration of President Cleveland, and had the endorse- ment of the executive, politico-judicial, and legislative departments of that ad- ministration. In so far as the views of the opposing political party may be inferred from the attitude of Secretary Boutwell and Senator Sherman, they were against the legality or wisdom of the policy. The complaint of Great Britain in 1887 was followed by a diplomatic correspond- ence, in which Secretary Bayard, without discussing or yielding the grounds upon which the seizures had been made, pro- posed an international arrangement for the protection of the seals from exter- mination. With this proposition pend- ing, and with all the questions arising out of the seizures unsettled, the executive government of the United States passed into the hands of President Harrison. Mr. Blaine, on assuming the duties of Secre- tary of State, sought to carry into effect the proposition of his predecessor for an international agreement. He found that few of the governments approached had shown any interest in the proposition, but early in the administration he pressed the subject upon the attention of Great Brit- ain, and as soon as possible secured a joint conference at Washington with the Brit- ish and Russian ministers. After pro- longed interviews the conference proved a failure, as Great Britain was unwilling to enter into any international agreement which the two other interested powers felt was at all adequate to protect the seals from extermination. The measure which Secretary Bayard had initiated for the settlement of the questions arising out of the seizure of British vessels having proved impossible of realization, there seemed no other al- ternative but to defend the action of the previous administration; and thereupon followed the notable diplomatic corre- spondence between Mr. Blaine and Lord Salisbury, in which the former sought with all his recognized forensic skill to defend the action of the Secretary of the Treasury in ordering the seizures and, as far as he felt it possible to do so, to sus- tain the correctness in international law of the attitude of the Attorney-General and the judge of the federal court of 328 BERING SEA ARBITRATION Alaska. In no part of that statesman's career did his devotion to his country more conspicuously rise above partisan- ship than in that correspondence. It is doubtful if any living American could have made a more brilliant or effective defence of the action of his government, and whatever fallacies exist in his argu- ment are chargeable to the previous ad- ministration which had occasioned the con- troversy and marked out the line of defence. The correspondence showed the two gov- ernments in hopeless disagreement. Three courses were open to President Harrison, and one of them must be chosen without further delay: First, he could abandon the claim of exclusive jurisdiction over Bering Sea or protection of the seals be- yond the 3-mile limit, recede from the ac- tion of his predecessor as to seizure of British vessels., and pay the damages claimed therefor. Such a course would have met with the general disapproval of the nation, and would have been de- nounced by his political opponents as a base betrayal of the country's interests. Second, he could have rejected the ar- guments 'and protests of the British gov- ernment, and continued the policy initi- ated by his predecessor in the seizure of all British vessels engaged in pelagic sealing in Bering Sea. But this course had already been proposed to President Cleveland, and decided to be improper. The Hon. E. J. Phelps who, as minister to Great Britain, had conducted the ne- gotiations with Lord Salisbury growing out of the seizures of 1886 and 1887, in a lengthy despatch to Secretary Bayard, re- viewing the conduct of Canada which had prevented an adjustment once accepted by Lord Salisbury, made the following recom- mendation : " Under these circumstances, the government of the United States must, in my opinion, either submit to have these valuable fisheries destroyed, or must take measures to prevent their destruction by capturing the vessels employed in it. Between these two alternatives it does not appear to me there should be the slight- est hesitation. ... I earnestly recommend, therefore, that the vessels that have been seized while engaged in this business be firmly held, and that measures be taken to capture and hold every one hereafter found concerned in it. . . . There need be no fear that a resolute stand on this sub- ject will at once put an end to the mis- chief complained of." But this recom- mendation of Mr. Phelps was not ap- proved by Mr. Bayard, who was unwill- ing to adopt a course which might bring about a rupture with Great Britain, the probable outcome of which would have been an armed conflict. In view of this decision and the state of public sentiment, with a prevailing opinion in a large part of the press and with public men that the attitude of the government was legally un- sound, and that the interests involved did not, under the circumstances stated, justi- fy the hazard of a great war between these two English-speaking nations, the adop- tion of this second alternative by Presi- dent Harrison would have been the height of madness. The only remaining alterna- tive was arbitration. President Harrison felt that if we could commit to an inter- national tribunal the far greater interests and principles involved in the Alabama claims, it would be the part of wisdom to adopt the same course as to the pend- ing questions of difference, and there can be no doubt that the sober judgment of the country confirms his action. If, therefore, the Paris arbitration was unwise in any of its features, it must have been in the manner of submission of the questions to the tribunal. But in this re- spect, also, the conduct of President Har- rison was greatly restricted by the action of his predecessor. He was required to formulate for the decision of the tribunal the contentions upon which the seizures were made, and the first four points em- braced in Article VI. of the treaty will be found to cover accurately the grounds upon which the Attorney-General in 1887 asked for, and the federal judge based, the condemnation of the British vessels. It is a singular incident that when the case of the United States came to be prepared and the Russian archives were examined, what had been assumed in the legal proceedings to be historical facts could scarcely be substantiated by a sin- gle official document. It is also notable that the only additional question intro- duced in the treaty provision for submis- sion to the tribunal — that embraced in the fifth point, to wit, the right of protection or property in the seals, and which in 329 BERING SEA ARBITRATION the judgment of the counsel of the United With them was joined a single party States became the leading, if not the only, friend of President Harrison, H. W. defence of the seizures — was not advanced Blodgett, for many years a distinguished in the legal proceedings of 1887, and was judge of the Federal Court. Senator Mor- not mooted until a late stage of Mr. gan, in a subsequent letter, wrote : " Our Blaine's controversy with Lord Salisbury, party was and is responsible for using the The chief credit for the development of means that were employed both for the this point is due to Mr. Tracy, Secretary raising and the settlement of these ques- of the Navy, who submitted a paper of tions,and it was a just measure of respon- rare legal ability on the subject to the sibility that Mr. Harrison devolved upon President. The treaty after having under- us when, out of a body of arbitrators and gone the careful scrutiny of the President counsel, and Mr. Secretary Foster, the and Hon. E. J. Phelps, whose advice had agent, selected by him — seven in all — he been sought by the President, was sub- selected four Democrats and three Re- mitted to the Senate and approved by that publicans." As to the manner in which body without a single dissenting voice, so these gentlemen discharged their trust, we far as is known. If the conduct of the have the following testimony of Mr. Jus- President, in the management of the con- tice Harlan, in a public address : " I may t rover sy created by his predecessor, had say that no government was ever repre- not been in the judgment of the country sented upon any occasion where its inter- wise and patriotic, or if the provisions of ests were involved with more fidelity, the treaty had not been properly framed, with more industry, and with greater abil- it would scarcely have escaped the attention ity than was the United States by its of his political opponents in the Senate. agent and counsel. ... If more was not Hence, the only remaining criticism obtained is was solely because a majority which might be advanced against the ar- of that tribunal ... did not see their bitration must relate to the management way to grant more." of the case before the tribunal. But in On five points submitted to the tribunal, this respect also it must be recognized embracing the historical and legal ques- that the President's action was circum- tions, the decision was unfavorable to the spect and free from all partisanship. In United States. While the action of the gov- naming the arbitrators on the part of the ernment in making the seizures was based United States, he chose, with the cordial on the weakest ground of our defence, approval of the Chief-Justice and^his as- which proved untenable, it cannot be sociates, Mr. Justice Harlan, of the Su- doubted that the motives which actuated preme Court, as senior American member its conduct were patriotic and praise- of the tribunal. In filling the second worthy. But had our effort to save the place he selected Senator Morgan, the rec- seals from destruction been from the out- ognized leader of all international ques- set based upon a right of protection and tions in the Senate of the party whose property in them, our case before the officials had originated the subject-matter tribunal would have been much stronger of arbitration. Hon. E. J. Phelps, Presi- and the decision might have been different, dent Cleveland's minister in London, an Nevertheless, it cannot be justly claimed experienced diplomatist, and a lawyer of that the arbitration was fruitless in its national repute, had been consulted by the results for us. It is no small matter President several months before the treaty that a question which threatened a rupt- had been agreed upon, and when the case ure of our peaceful relations with Great came to be prepared he was named as Britain was adjusted by a resort to the senior counsel. With him was associated arbitrament of reason and not of force. James C. Carter, of New York, the recog- The Alaskan seal herd is of great value nized leader of the American bar; and be- to us and to the world, and it is the duty fore the tribunal was organized Frederic of our government to be vigilant in pro- R. Coudert, an accomplished French tecting it from destruction; but the legal scholar and a prominent jurist, was added issues involved in our controversy with to the list. These three gentlemen were Great Britain regarding them did not the political friends of Mr. Cleveland, seem to justify the hazard of an armed 330 BERING SEA ARBITRATION conflict, and it was a great gain to us wisely entered upon, that it was not alto- that the controversy was peacefully set- gether fruitless in its results for us, and tied without national dishonor. that the administration which agreed to it The decision of the tribunal was ad- cannot be held culpable for the manner of verse to the United States on the legal its submission or management. But it points in dispute, but the award contain- will naturally be expected that something ed an important provision for interna- be said concerning the question of dam- tional regulations, which were intended ages, a subject which was not settled by by the tribunal to be a protection to the the award. In Article VIII. of the treaty seals, and which in the judgment of the it was expressly stipulated that " the ques- majority of that body would in practice tion of liability of each for the injuries prove an adequate protection. The agent alleged to have been sustained by the and counsel of the United States contend- other " should not be embraced in the arbi- ed that no regulations would be a certain tration, but should " be the subject of protection of the herd which did not pro- future negotiation." In the discussion hibit all pelagic sealing, and the American following the adjournment of the tribunal, arbitrators voted for such prohibition, and the fact seems to have been lost sight sustained their votes by very able and of that the United States preferred seri- cogent opinions; but the majority of the ous claims for damages against Great tribunal took a different view of the sub- Britain on account of the injuries done ject. The regulations adopted were op- by British pelagic sealers to the Alaskan posed both by the American and Canadian seal herd, and that President Harrison arbitrators. When first published they proposed that this question of damages were accepted by all the Americans who should, together with the British claims participated in the arbitration as a de- for seizure of vessels, be submitted to the cided triumph for the United States, and tribunal. It was because Great Britain were regarded by the Canadian sealers as refused to consent to arbitrate this claim a serious menace, if not a death-blow, to that the whole subject was omitted. The their interests. If they are carefully ex- award of the tribunal was in effect that amined they will be found to be more in certain waters, and at certain times, favorable to the United States than the pelagic sealing is improper and should regulations which Mr. Bayard proposed not be permitted. How far the claim of to Lord Salisbury as a settlement of the the United States subsists for injuries in question, or which Mr. Blaine offered to the past sustained by the seal herd in Sir Julian Pauncefote. If, therefore, we those times and waters is one of the ques- obtained more from the tribunal than tions to be determined by the " future ne- our government proposed to accept from gotiations " contemplated in the treaty ; Great Britain, the arbitration cannot and prominent persons well informed as justly be characterized as fruitless in its to the controversy contend that it is still results for us. The adequacy of the reg- a vital question. ulations cannot be properly judged, be- While the liability for damages was cause they have not yet been put in force not within the jurisdiction of the tri- in their true spirit and intent. This will bunal, it is generally admitted that the not be done until they are also made to effect of its decision was to fix upon the apply to the Russian waters, and until United States a certain measure of re- more stringent rules for their enforcement sponsibility for damages on account of are adopted. It has been a source of dis- the seizures, which would have to be met appointment to many who have taken an through the "future negotiations." With- interest in the preservation of the seals out further investigation than the docu- that these rules have been so lax and so mentary evidence before the Paris tri- imperfectly observed. The obstruction in bunal, the sum of $425,000 was agreed these respects is now, as it has been from upon between the Secretary of State and the beginning, the selfish and inhuman the British ambassador as a full satis- conduct of Canada. faction of the claims for the seizure of As it has been shown by the foregoing re- the British vessels, and the Congress of view that the Paris arbitration was not un- the United States was asked to make an 331 BERING SEA ARBITRATION— BERKELEY appropriation for that purpose. In the discussion which arose in the House of Representatives when the subject came be- fore that body, it was most unfortunate that it should have assumed a partisan aspect. When certain members argued that the sum asked for was greatly in ex- cess of the just and legal claims of the Canadian sealers, and that it was in di- rect conflict with the views of the agent and counsel of the United States before the tribunal, they were taunted with the charge that this obligation had been contracted by the administration of which they were supporters. The member of the committee on appropriations who had the measure in charge said : " This is not our foreign policy. We are paying a debt which you gentlemen gave us." Mr. McCreary, chairman of the committee on foreign affairs, in advocacy of the ap- propriation, used this language: "I re- gret that we have been placed in an atti- tude where we have to pay this amount; but the gentlemen on the other side of this House cannot claim that we caused the existing situation." How unwarranted were these assertions is shown in the fore- going review. It may have been the wisest policy to vote the appropriation, but it was no breach of our international obligations not to approve of that sum; and it is not to the discredit of Congress that it exercised its judgment as to the action of the execu- tive in agreeing to a settlement with Great Britain which altogether ignored the claim of the United States for dam- ages to the seals by improper pelagic hunting, and the views of its own repre- sentatives before the tribunal as to the British claims. While a difference of views may properly exist between the executive and legislative departments upon these subordinate questions, no disposi- tion has been entertained or shown by any portion of our government or people to evade our just obligations under the treaty. And the fact that the spirit of the award leads us to pay out of the na- tional treasury a sum by way of damages, which at the most must be regarded as insignificant for a great nation, should certainly have no tendency to modify in the slightest degree our devotion to the great policy of international arbitration. Berkeley, George, Bishop of Cloyne; born in Kilcrin, Kilkenny, Ireland, March 12, 1684; was educated at Trinity College, Dublin; became a Fellow there; and at an early age wrote on scientific subjects. Between 1710 and 1713 his two famous works appeared, in which he denies the existence of matter, and argues that it is not without the mind, but within it, and that that which is called matter is only an impression produced by divine power on the mind by the invariable laws of nat- ure. On a tour in France he visited the French philosopher Malebranche, who be- came so excited by a discussion with Berkeley on the non-existence of matter that, being ill at the time, he died a few days afterwards. Miss Vanhomrigh ( Swift's " Vanessa " ) bequeathed to Berkeley $20,000; and in 1728 his income was increased $5,500 a year by being made Dean of Derry. Berkeley conceived a plan for establishing a college in the Bermudas for the instruction of pastors for the colonial churches and missionaries for the Indians. He resigned his offices to become rector of the projected college at a salary of $500 a year. The House of Commons authorized the appropriation of a por- tion of the money to be obtained from the sale of lands in St. Kitt's (St. Chris- topher's), which had been ceded to Eng- land for the establishment of the institu- tion. With these assurances Berkeley went to Newport, R. I. (1729), bought a farm and built a house, intending to in- vest the college funds, when received, in American lands, and then to make ar- rangements for a supply of pupils. He had just married, and brought his bride with him. The scheme for the college failed for lack of government co-opera- tion after the death of the King, who fa- vored it. In 1734 Berkeley was made Bishop of Cloyne, which place he held for almost twenty years. He gave to Yale College his estate in Rhode Island, known as "White Hall," and also 880 volumes for its library. He died in Oxford, Jan. 14, 1753. Pope ascribed to him " ev- ery virtue under the sun." It was in view of the establishment of the college that he wrote his famous lines On the Prospect of Planting Arts and Learning in America, in which occur these often- quoted lines, 332 BERKELEY " Westward the course of empire takes its way; In religious matters there was soon per- The first four acts already pa>t, ceived the spirit of persecution in the char- A fifth shall close the drama with the day; a cter of the governor. The Puritans were Time's noblest offspring is the last." then not on i y tolerated in Virginia, but Berkeley, Sir John, a proprietor of had been invited to settle there. The civil New Jersey; born in 1607; was in the war drew a line of clear demarcation be- military service of Charles I. when the tween churchmen and non-conformists. A King knighted him at Berwick on the large majority of the people of Virginia Tweed. In the civil war that afterwards were attached to the Church of England; ensued, he bore a conspicuous part, and so was the governor. In England the he remained in exile with the royal Puritans were identified with the republi- family many years. In 1653 Berkeley cans, and Berkeley thought it to be his was placed at the head of the Duke of duty to suppress them in his colony as York's establishment; and two years be- enemies to royalty. So he first decreed fore the Restoration (1660), of that of that no Puritan minister should preach the Prince of Wales, who, when crowned except in conformity to the rules of the king ( Charles II. ) , raised Berkeley to the Church of England ; and, finally, all non- peerage as Baron Berkeley of Stratton, in conformists were banished from Virginia, the county of Somerset. On the Restora- In the war with the Indians in 1644, in tion he became one of the privy council, which Opechancanough (q. v.) led the and late in 1699 he was appointed lord- savages, the governor behaved with lieutenant of Ireland. He was then one promptness and efficiency, and soon crush- of the proprietors of New Jersey, and was ed the invaders. Then the colonists had not above suspicion of engaging in the ■ eace and prosperity for some years. In corrupt practice of selling offices. Samuel 1648 they numbered 20,000. " The cot- Pepys, who was secretary of the Admi- tages were filled with children, as the ralty (1664), speaks of him in his Diary ports with ships and emigrants." The as "the most hot, fiery man in his dis- people were loyal to the King; and when course, without any cause," he ever saw. the latter lost his head, and royalty was Lord Berkeley was appointed ambassador abolished in England, they opened wide extraordinary to the Court of Versailles their arms to receive the cavaliers (many in 1675, and died Aug. 28, 1678. See of them of the gentry, nobility, and cler- Carteret, Sir George. gy of the realm) who fled in horror from Berkeley, Sir William, colonial gov- the wrath of republicans. They brought ernor; born near London about 1610; was refinement in manners and intellectual brother of Lord John Berkeley, one of the culture to Virginia, and strengthened the early English proprietors of New Jersey, loyalty of the colonists. When the King Appointed governor of Virginia, he ar- was slain they recognized his exiled son rived there in February, 1642. Berkeley as their sovereign, and Berkeley pro- was a fine specimen of a young English claimed him King of Virginia. Sir Will- courtier. He was then thirty-two years iam administered the government under a of age, well educated at Oxford, handsome commission sent by Charles from his in person, polished by foreign travel, and place of exile (Breda, in Flanders), possessing exquisite taste in dress. He Virginia was the last territory belonging was one of the most accomplished cavaliers to England that submitted to the govern- of the day. He adopted some salutary ment of the republicans on the downfall measures in Virginia which made him of monarchy. This persistent attach- popular; and at his mansion at dreen ment to the Stuarts offended the republi- Spring, not far from Jamestown, he dis- can Parliament, and they sent Sir George pensed generous hospitality for many Ayscue with a strong fleet, early in the years. Berkeley was a stanch but not a spring of 1652, to reduce the Virginians bigoted royalist at first; and during the to submission. The fleet bore commis- civil war in England he managed public sioners authorized to use harsh or con- affairs in Virginia with so much pru- ciliatory measures — to make a compro- dence that a greater proportion of the colo- mise, or to declare the freedom of the nists were in sympathy with him. slaves of the royalists, put arms in their 333 BERKELEY hands, and make war. The commissioners troops were sent to America to suppress were met with firmness by Berkeley, the aspirations of the people for freedom. Astonished by the boldness of the governor Feeling strong, Berkeley pursued the ad- and his adherents, they deemed it more herents of Bacon with malignant severity prudent to compromise than to attempt until twenty-two of them were hanged, coercion. The result was, the political The first martyr was Thomas Hanford, a freedom of the colonists was guaranteed, gallant young native of Virginia. Stand- Berkeley regarding those whom the com- ing before the governor, he boldly avowed missioners represented as usurpers, he his republicanism; and when sentenced would make no stipulations with them to be hanged, he said, " I ask no favor for himself, and he withdrew from the but that I may be shot like a soldier, and governorship and lived in retirement on not hanged like a dog." At the gallows his plantation at Green Spring until the 'lie said, " Take notice that I die a loyal restoration of monarchy in England in subject and a lover of my country." Ed- 1660, when the loyalty of the Virginians mund Cheeseman, when arraigned before was not forgotten by the new monarch. the governor, was asked why he engaged The people elected Richard Bennett gov- in the wicked rebellion, and before he ernor ; and he was succeeded by two others could answer his young wife stepped f or- — Edward Diggs (1655) and Samuel Mat- ward and said, "My provocations made thews (1656), the latter appointed by my husband join in the cause for which Oliver Cromwell. At his death (1660) the Bacon contended; but for me, he had people elected Berkeley, but he refused never done what he has done. Since what to serve excepting under a royal commis- is done," she said, as she knelt before the sion, and he went to England to con- governor, with her bowed head covered gratulate Charles II. on his restoration with her hands, " was done by my means, to the throne. Charles gave Berkeley a I am most guilty; let me bear the punish- commission, and he returned to Virginia ment; let me be hanged; let my husband to execute his master's will with vigor, be pardoned." The governor cried out, He enforced various oppressive laws, for angrily, "Away with you!" The poor he was less tolerant than when he was young wife swooned, and her husband younger and politically weaker, and, with was led to the gallows. When the brave the cavaliers around him, he hated every- Drummond was brought before the govern- thing that marked the character of the or, Berkeley, with wicked satire, made a Puritans. These cavaliers despised the low bow and said, " You are very welcome ; " common people " of New England, and I am more glad to see you than any man opposed the ideas of popular education, in Virginia; you shall be hanged in half Berkeley wrote to his government in 1665, an hour." Drummond replied, with dig- " 1 thank God there are no free schools nity, " I expect no mercy from you. I have nor printing in Virginia, and I hope we followed the lead of my conscience, and shall not have them these hundred years; done what I might to free my country for learning has brought heresy and dis- from oppression." He was condemned at obedience and sects into the world, and one o'clock and hanged at four; and his printing hath divulged them, and libels brave wife, Sarah, was denounced as a against the best government; God keep us "traitor" and banished, with her chil- from both!" Oppression of the people dren, to the wilderness, there to subsist finally produced civil war in 1676, the on the bounty of friends. When these events of which soured Berkeley, who had things were brought to the notice of the then grown old (see Bacon, Nathaniel) ; profligate monarch, even he was disgusted and after it was over, and he was firmly with Berkeley's cruelties, and said, " The seated in power, he treated the principal old fool has taken more lives in that abettors of the insurrection with harsh- naked country than I have taken for the ness and cruelty. His King had proclaim- murder of my father;" and Berkeley was ed Bacon (the leader of the insurrection) a ordered to desist. But he continued to traitor, and sent an armament under Sir fine and imprison the followers of Bacon John Berry to assist in crushing the re- until he was recalled in the spring of bellion, Tfcis was the first time royal 1677, and went to England with the re- 334 BERLIN ARBITRATION— BERLIN DECREE turning fleet of Sir John Berry. The neutral trade with France or her allies, un- colonists fired great guns and lighted less through Great Britain. In retaliation bonfires in token of their joy at his de- for these orders Napoleon promulgated, parture. In England his cruelties were Dec. 17, 1807, from his " Palace at Milan," severely censured, and he died (July 13, a decree which extended and made more 1677) of grief and mortified pride. vigorous that issued at Berlin. It declared Berlin Arbitration. See San Juan. every vessel which should submit to be Berlin Decree, The. In 1803 England searched by British cruisers, or should pay joined the Continental powers against Na- any tax, duty, or license money to the poleon. England, offended because of the British government, or should be found on seizure of Hanover by the Prussians, at the the high seas or elsewhere bound to or instigation of Napoleon, made the act a from any British port, denationalized and pretext, in 1806, for employing against forfeit. With their usual servility to the France a measure calculated to starve the dictates of the conqueror, Spain and Hol« empire. By Orders in Council (May 16) land issued similar decrees, the whole coast of Europe from the Elbe, In March, 1810, information reached the in Germany, to Brest, in France, a distance President of the United States that the of about 800 miles, was declared to be in a French minister for Foreign Affairs, in a state of blockade, when, at the same time, letter to Minister Armstrong, had said the British navy could not spare vessels that if England would revoke her blockade enough from other fields of service to en- against France, the latter would revoke force the blockade over a third of the pre- her " Berlin Decree." Minister Pinkney, in scribed coast. It was essentially a " paper London, approached the British minister blockade." The almost entire destruction on the subject, and, to aid in the peaceful of the French and Spanish fleets at Trafal- negotiations, Congress repealed the non- gar, a few months before, had annihilated intercourse and non-importation laws on her rivals in the contest for the sovereignty May 1, 1810. For these they substituted of the seas, and she now resolved to con- a law excluding both British and French trol the trade of the world. Napoleon had armed vessels from the waters of the dissolved the German Empire, prostrated United States. The law provided that, in Prussia at his feet, and, from the " Im- case either Great Britain or France should perial Camp at Berlin," he issued (Nov. revoke or so modify their acts before 21, 1806) the famous decree in which he March 3, 1811, as not to violate the neutral declared the British Islands in a state of commerce of the United States, and if the blockade; forbade all correspondence or other nation should not, within three trade with England; defined all articles months thereafter, in like manner revoke of English manufacture or produce as con- or modify its edicts, the provisions of the traband, and the property of all British non-intercourse and non-importation acts subjects as lawful prize of war. He had should, at the expiration of the three scarcely a ship afloat when he made this months^ be revived against the nation so decree. This was the beginning of what neglecting or refusing to comply. The was afterwards called " the Continental French minister thereupon, on Aug. 5 fol- System," commenced avowedly as a re- lowing, officially declared that the Berlin taliatory measure, and designed, primarily, and Milan decrees had been revoked, and to injure, and, if possible, to destroy, the would be inoperative after Nov. 1, it being property of England. By another Order in understood that, in consequence of that Council (January, 1807) Great Britain re- revocation, the English should revoke the strained neutrals from engaging in the Orders in Council. Having faith in these coasting-trade between one hostile port and declarations, the President issued a proc- another, a commerce hitherto allowed, lamation on Nov. 2, announcing this revo- with some slight exceptions. This was but cation of the French decrees and declaring the extension to all hostile ports of the the discontinuance, on the part of the blockade of the coast from the Elbe to United States, of all commercial restric- Brest established by a former order. On tions in relation to France. But the Nov. 17, 1807, another British Order in French were playing false, and England Council was issued, which prohibited all suspected it, for she had many reasons for 335 BERMUDA HUNDRED— BERRY doubting Gallic faith. So had the Ameri- ing from a voyage to the West Indies in a cans, but still they were willing to trust French ship, was wrecked (Dec. 17, 1593) France once again. They were deceived; on one of the islands. He and his com- the decrees were not revoked, and a later panions in distress remained there five cne, issued at Rambouillet, was only sus- months, when they rigged a small vessel pended. The English refused to rescind on of 18 tons from the material of the ship, the faith of only a letter by the French put in thirteen live turtles for provisions, minister; and this attempt on the part of sailed to Newfoundland, and thence re- the Americans to secure peace and justice turned to England. These islands were was futile. See Embargo Act, First; Or- named in honor of Juan Bermudez, a ders in Council. Spaniard, who was wrecked there in 1522. Bermuda Hundred, Operations near. May was the first Englishman who set General Butler had intrenched a greater foot upon them. See Somers's Islands. portion of the Army of the James at Ber- Bernard, Sir Francis, colonial govern- muda Hundred, at the junction of the or; born in Nettleham, Lincoln co., Eng- James and Appomattox rivers, early in land, in 1714. In 1758 he was appointed May, 1864, to co-operate with the Army governor of New Jersey; and in 1760 he of the Potomac, approaching from the was transferred to Massachusetts, where north. His chief care was at first to pre- he supported all measures obnoxious to vent reinforcements being sent to Lee from the colonists. After a stormy adminis- Petersburg and the South. For this pur- tration of nearly nine years Bernard was pose Butler proceeded to destroy the rail- recalled, and created a baronet. Bernard way between Petersburg and Richmond, was a friend of learning, and gave a part and so to cut off direct communication be- of his library to Harvard College. He tween the Confederate capital and the had become so thoroughly unpopular that South. When it was known that General when he left Boston the bells were rung, Gillmore had withdrawn his troops from cannon were fired, and " Liberty-tree " before Charleston to join Butler, Beaure- was hung with flags, in token of the joy gard was ordered to hasten northward to of the people. He died in Aylesbury, confront the Army of the James. He had England, June 16, 1779. arrived at Petersburg, and was hourly re- Bernard, Simon, military officer; born inforced. Some of these troops he massed in Dole, France, April 28, 1779; entered in front of Butler, under Gen. D. H. Hill; the French army during the Napoleonic and finally, on the morning of May 16, un- wars; and came to the United States with der cover of a dense fog, they attempted to Lafayette in 1824. While chief-engineer turn Butler's right flank. A sharp con- of the United States army he built Fort flict ensued between about 4,000 Nationals Monroe. He returned to France in 1830, and 3,000 Confederates, which resulted in and died in Paris, Nov. 5, 1836. the retirement of Butler's forces within Berry, Hiram George, military officer; their intrenchments. For several days born in Thomaston (now Rockland), Me., afterwards there was much skirmishing in Aug. 27, 1824; was first a carpenter, then front of Butler's lines, when he received a navigator, and finally became a State orders to send nearly two-thirds of his ef- legislator and mayor of Rockland. He fective force to the north side of the James was colonel of Maine volunteers in the to assist the Army of the Potomac, then battle of Bull Run; became brigadier- contending with Lee's Army of Northern general in May, 1862; and was active in Virginia. Butler complied with the the Army of the Potomac throughout the requisition, which deprived him of all campaign on the Peninsula in 1862 and power to make any further offensive move- until the battle of Chancellorsville (May ments. "The necessities of the Army of 2, 1863), where he was killed. His bri- the Potomac," he said, " have bottled me gade was especially distinguished in the up at Bermuda Hundred." This expression battle of Fredericksburg, in December, was afterwards used to his disadvantage. 1862. In March, 1863, he was made major- See Butler, Benjamin Franklin. general of volunteers, and was command- Bermudas, First English in the. ing a division in the 3d Corps when he Henry May, an English mariner, return- fell. 336 BERTILLON— BIBLE Bertillon, Alphonse, anthropologist; exported, exclusive of ores, an increase born in Paris, France, in 1853; founded over the preceding year of $15,300,119. a new system of identification of crimi- Beveridge, Albert Jeremiah, lawyer; nals, by a series of measurements which born in Highland county, O., Oct. 6, 1802; gave marvellous results, while chief of was graduated at De Pauw University, the Bureau of Identification in the Pre- and began the practice of law in Indi- fecture of Police. The system is based anapolis. In 1883 he entered political on the assumption that the bones of the life. He was elected to the United States human body undergo no further change Senate as a Republican from Indiana, when an adult age is reached. In apply- Jan. 17, 1899. After his election he ing the system to a supposed criminal, went to the Philippine Islands, Japan, accurate measurements are made of the and Siberia, to study their material head, ears, feet, middle fingers, extended and political conditions. Returning, he forearms, height, breadth, and the trunk, delivered in the Senate a most thrill- These measurements, when placed upon ing address in favor of the adminis- a card, accompanied by a photograph of tration's policy towards the Philip- the subject, provide means said to be un- pines. He published The Russian Ad- failing for recognizing the subject after vance, in 1903, etc. several years have elapsed. This system Beverly, Robert, historian ; born in has been introduced in the principal cities Virginia about 1075. During Sir Ed- of the United States. mund Andros's administration he was Bessemer Steel. During the last few clerk of the council, an office his father years the United States has made a re- had held before him. He wrote History markable advance in the production and of the Present State of Virginia (4 vol- manufacture of iron and steel, and in no umes, published in London in 1705). This line has this progress been so marked as included an account of the first settlement in the yield of Bessemer steel, that form of Virginia, and the history of the gov- made from pig-iron from which all the ernment until that time. Mr. Beverly is carbon has been removed. The process said to have been the first American was invented by Sir Henry Bessemer citizen in whose behalf the habeas corpus (born in Charlton, England, Jan. 13, act was brought into requisition. He 1813; died in London, March 14, 1898), died in 1716. and consists of forcing a current of air Biard, Peter, missionary; born in through the molten mass of iron. Dur- Grenoble, France, in 1565; came to Amer- ing the calendar year 1902, the produc- ica as a missionary priest of the Jesuits tion of this form of steel in the United in 1611; ascended the Kennebec River, States amounted to 9,138,363 long tons and made friends with the natives in in ingots and castings, the largest pro- 1612; went up the Penobscot River and duction in the history of this industry started a mission among the natives there in the United States. In 1902 the in the following year; and soon afterwards maximum production of Bessemer steel founded a colony on Mount Desert Isl- rails was reached, when the output was and, which was destroyed by Samuel 2,870,293 long tons. In the production of Argall (q. v.). In this attack by the ingots Pennsylvania ranked first, with English Biard was taken prisoner, and 4,209,326 tons; Ohio second, with 2,528,- the act was one of the earliest causes of 802; and Illinois third, with 1,443,614; the hostilities between the colonists in and in the production of Bessemer steel America from France and England. Fa- rails Pennsylvania ranked first, with 1,148,- ther Biard was author of Relations de 425 tons, the remainder being divided la nouvelle France, which was the first among the other States. A further evi- work in the historical series known as dence of the remarkable growth of the the Jesuit Relations. He died in France allied iron and steel industry is found in in 1622. the commercial returns of the United Bible. The first Bible printed in States Treasury Department for the year America was Eliot's Indian translation, ending June 30, 1904, which show that issued at Cambridge, Mass., in 1663. A $111,948,586 worth of iron and steel was German edition of the Bible, in quarto, I.— Y 337 BIBLE SOCIETY— BIDDLE was printed at Germantown, near Phila- delphia, in 1743, by Christopher Sauer. In 1782 Robert Aitkin, printer and book- seller in Philadelphia, published the first American edition of the Bible in Eng- lish, also in quarto form; and in 1791 Isaiah Thomas printed the Bible in Eng- lish, in folio form, at Worcester, Mass. This was the first in that form issued from the press in the United States. The same year Isaac Collins printed the Eng- lish version, in quarto form, at Trenton, N. J. Bible Society, American. The first Bible Society in the United States was formed in Philadelphia in 1802. When, in 1816, the American Bible Society was organized, there were between fifty and sixty societies in the Union. Delegates from these met in New York in May, 1816, and founded the "American Bible Society." Elias Boudinot (q. v.) was chosen president, and thirty-six man- agers were appointed, all of whom were laymen of seven different denominations. The avowed object of the society was to " encourage a wider circulation of the Holy Scriptures without note or com- ment." In the first year of its exist- ence it issued 6,410 copies of the Script- ures. In 1898-99 the issues aggregated 1,380,892 copies, and, in the eighty- three years of its existence then closed, 65,962,505 copies. In 1836 the Baptists seceded from the American Bible Society, and founded the " American and For- eign Bible Society," conducted entirely by that denomination. A secession from this Baptist Bible Society occurred in 1850, when the " American Bible Union " was formed. Bickmore, Albert Smith, educator; born in St. George, Me., March 1, 1839; graduated at Dartmouth College in 1860, and studied under Professor Agassiz at the Lawrence Scientific School in Cam- bridge, Mass. In 1865-69 he travelled in the Malay Archipelago and in eastern Asia. Returning, he was appointed Pro- fessor of Natural History at Madison University. In 1885 he became professor in charge of the Department of Public In- struction in the American Museum of Natural History in New York. He is the author of Travels in the East Indian Archipelago; The Ainos, or Hairy Men of Jesso; Sketch of a Journey from Canton to Hangkoui, etc. Bicknell, Thomas William, educator; born in Barrington, R. I., Sept. 6, 1834; was graduated at Brown University in 1860; teacher and principal of schools in 1860-69; and Commissioner of Education in Rhode Island in 1869-75. He was the founder, editor, and proprietor of the New England Journal of Education; Edu- cation, and Primary Teacher, and a found- er of the National Council of Education. In 1860 he was a member of the Rhode Island legislature, and in 1888-90 of the Massachusetts legislature. He is author of State Educational Reports; John Myles and Religious Toleration ; Life of W. L. Noyes; Brief Histor-y of Barrington; Bar- rington in the Revolution; The Bicknells, etc. Biddle, Clement, military officer; born in Philadelphia, Pa., May 10, 1740; was descended from one of the early Quaker settlers in western New Jersey, and when the war for independence broke out he assisted in raising a company of soldiers in Philadelphia. He was deputy quarter- master-general of Pennsylvania militia in 1776, and commissary of forage under General Greene. On the organization of the national government he was appointed United States marshal for Pennsylvania. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., July 14,1814. Biddle, James, naval officer; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 29, 1783; was ed- ucated at the University of Pennsylvania, and entered the navy, as midshipman, Feb. 12, 1800. He was wrecked in the frigate Philadelphia, off Tripoli, in October, 1803. and was a prisoner nineteen months. As first lieutenant of the Wasp, he led the boarders in the action with the Frolic, Oct. 18, 1812. Captured by the Poictiers, he was exchanged in March, 1813; and was made master commander in charge of a flotilla of gunboats in the Delaware River soon afterwards. In command of the Hornet he captured the Penguin, March 23, 1813. For this victory Con- gress voted him a gold medal. Made captain in February, 1815, he held im- portant commands in different parts of the world. While in command of a squad- ron in the Mediterranean (1830-32), he was given a commission to negotiate a commercial treaty with the Turkish gov- 338 BIDDLE— BIENVILLE ernment. In 1845 he performed diplo- matic service in China, and visited Japan. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 1, 1848. JAMES BIDDLE. Biddle, Nicholas, banker; born in Philadelphia, Jan. 8, 1786; graduated at Biddle, Nicholas, naval officer; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 10, 1750; made a voyage to Quebec before he was fourteen years of age. He entered the British navy in 1770. While a midshipman, he abscond- ed, and became a sailor before the mast in the Carcass, in the exploring expedi- tion of Captain Phipps in which Horatio Nelson served. Returning to Philadelphia, he commanded the brig Andrea Doria, un- der Commodore Hopkins. In 1776 he capt- ured two transports from Scotland, with 400 Highland troops bound for America. In February, 1777, he sailed from Phila- delphia in the frigate Randolph, and soon carried four valuable prizes into Charles- ton. Then he cruised in the West India waters. In an action with a British 64- gun ship, March 7, 1778, he was wounded. A few minutes afterwards the Randolph was blown up ; and of the entire crew, con- sisting of 315 men, only four escaped. Bienville, Jean Baptiste Le Moyne, pioneer; brother of Le Moyne Iberville, who founded" a French settlement at Biloxi, near the mouth of the Mississippi, in 1698 ; born in Montreal, Feb. 23, 1680. For sev- eral years he was in the French naval ser- vice with Iberville, and accompanied him with his brother Sauville to Louisiana. In 1699 Bienville explored the country MEDAL PRESENTED TO JAMES BIDDLE BY CONGRESS. Princeton in 1801; appointed president of around Biloxi. Sauville was appointed the United States Bank in 1822; resigned governor of Louisiana in 1699, and the in 1839. He died in Philadelphia, Feb. 27, next year Bienville constructed a fort 54 1844. miles above the mouth of the river, Sau- 339 BIG BETHEL i *>*(-- 3C0RNFIEUD-- */£&& . / ZOUAVES* ?*i ^ V- / >V f>£fo TOWNSEND ISm/'** BENDIX ^ft MAP OF THE BATTLE AT BIG BETHEL. ville died in 1701, when Bienville took News. He sent (May 27, 1861) Colonel charge of the colony, transferring the seat Phelps thither in a steamer with a de- of government to Mobile. In 1704 he was tachment to fortify that place. He was joined by his brother Chateaugay, who accompanied by Lieut. John Trout Greble, brought seventeen settlers from France. Soon afterwards a ship brought twenty young women as wives for settlers at Mo- bile. Iberville soon afterwards died, and Bienville, charged with misconduct, was dismissed from office in 1707. His succes- sor dying on his way from France, Bien- ville retained the office. Having tried unsuccessfully to cultivate the land by Indian labor, Bienville proposed to the government to exchange Indians for ne- groes in the West Indies, at the rate of three Indians for one negro. Bienville remained at the head of the colony until 1713, when Cadillac arrived, as governor, with a commission for the former as lieutenant-governor. Quarrels between them ensued. Cadillac was superseded in 1717 by Epinay, and Bienville received the decoration of the Cross of St. Louis. In 1718 he founded the city of New Or- leans; and war breaking out between France and Spain, he seized Pensacola and an accomplished young graduate of West put his brother Chateaugay in command Point, whom he appointed master of ord- there. He was summoned to France in nance, to superintend the construction 1724 to answer charges, where he remain- of fortifications there which commanded ed until 1733, when he was sent back to the ship-channel of the James River and Louisiana as governor. Having made un- the mouth of the Nansemond. The forced successful expeditions against the Chicka- inaction of the National troops at Fort saws, he was superseded in 1743, and re- Monroe, and the threatening aspect of turned to France, where he died in 1765. affairs at Newport News, made the armed See Celoron. Confederates under Col. J. B. Magruder Big Bethel, Battle at. When Gen- bold, active, and vigilant. Their principal eral Butler arrived at his headquarters at rendezvous was at Yorktown, on the York Fort Monroe (May, 1861), he first estab- River, which they were fortifying. They lished Camp Hamilton, near the fort, as pushed down the peninsula to impress a rendezvous for troops gathering there, slaves into their service, and to force There were gathered Phelps's Vermont Union men into their ranks. At Big and regiment, and another from Troy, N. Y.; Little Bethel (two churches on the road and soon afterwards they were joined by between Yorktown and Hampton) they a well-disciplined regiment of Zouaves, un- made fortified outposts. It was evident der Col. Abraham Duryee, of New York that Magruder was preparing to seize City. Duryee was assigned to the com- Newport News and Hampton, and confine mand of the camp as acting brigadier- Butler to Fort Monroe. The latter deter- general. Butler conceived a plan of taking mined on a countervailing movement by possession of the country between Suffolk an attack on these outposts. Gen. E. W. and Petersburg and Norfolk, and so threat- Pearce, of Massachusetts, was placed in ening the Weldon Railroad, the great high- command of an expedition for that pur- way between Virginia and the Carolinas. pose, composed of Duryee's Zouaves and But, lacking troops, he contented himself the Troy troops at Camp Hamilton, Ver- with taking possession of and fortifying mont and Massachusetts troops, some Ger- the important strategic point of Newport man New York troops, under Colonel Ben- 340 BIG BETHEL— BIG BLACK RIVER dix, and two 6-pounders (field-pieces), under Lieutenant Greble, from Newport News. The latter had under him eleven regular artillerymen. The troops from the two points of departure were to be joined, in the night, near Little Bethel. The soldiers wore on their left arms a white rag or handkerchief, so that they /night recognize each other in the dark. Their watchword was " Boston." Lieuten- ant-Colonel Washburne led the column from Newport News, followed by Bendix with his Germans. Duryee pushed for- ward, followed by Colonel Townsend with the Troy troops. The latter and Bendix approached each other in the gloom, near Little Bethel, the appointed place of junc- tion. Bendix and his men, ignorant of the order to wear a white badge, were without it, and the two columns mistook each other for enemies. The Germans opened fire on Townsend's column. After a short skirmish, in which two men were killed and several wounded, the mistake was dis- covered. Duryee and Washburne, hearing the firing, hastened their march, and soon joined the confused regiments. The Con- federates had been warned of the ap- proaching troops by the firing, and Brig- adier-General Pearce, in chief command, sent back for reinforcements, as a surprise was then out of the question. The Con- federates at Little Bethel fell back to Big Bethel, 4 or 5 miles distant, and all of them at the latter place were on the alert. There were about 1,800 Confederates be- hind works, with several pieces of cannon in battery. The Nationals, about 2,500 strong, attacked them between nine and ten o'clock on the morning of June 10, 1801. Troops under Captains Kilpatrick, Bartlett, and Winslow (all of which were under Lieut.-Col. G. K. Warren, of the Zouaves) were thrown out on each side of the road, while Lieutenant Greble, with his two little field-pieces, kept the road. The troops on each side of the road were finally driven to the shelter of the woods by a storm of shot and shell; but Greble continued advancing, and poured a rapid and effective storm of grape and canister shot from his battery. He held his posi- tion while the rest of the army was pre- paring for a general assault. At about noon a charge was sounded, with instruc- tions to dash across a morass, flank the works of the Confederates, and drive out the occupants at the point of the bayonet. The Nationals were nearly successful, when a portion of them were driven back by a murderous fire from the Confeder^ ates. This and other adverse circum- stances caused Pearce to order a retreat. All of Greble's men had been disabled but five, and he could only work one gun. He was just limbering them up, when a shot from the Confederates struck a glancing blow on his head, and he fell dead. Maj. Theodore Winthrop, one of General Butler's aides, was also instantly killed by a bullet from a North Caro- lina drummer - boy. Greble's body was taken to Philadelphia, where it lay in state in Independence Hall; was the first officer of the regular army of the United States who fell in the Civil War. The result of the expedition to Big Bethel was national exasperation and mor- tification. The Unionists lost sixteen killed, thirty-four wounded, and five miss- ing. The Confederate loss was trifling. Big Black River, Battle at. From Champion Hills, the Confederates were pursued, and bivouacked during the night of May 16, 1863, on the hill overlooking Edward's Station and the fertile plain between it and the Big Black River. The pursuit was renewed in the morning, but the Confederates were soon found well posted on both sides of the river, near the railway bridge, and were strongly forti- fied. Behind their defences on the eastern side of the river were several brigades; and above the bridge Pemberton had con- structed a passage-way for troops, com- posed of the hulks of steamboats. Gen- eral Carr's division led the Nationals, and first engaged in battle; and soon there was a fierce struggle between the two ar- mies in the forest for three hours, when General Lawler, commanding Carr's right, gave an order for his brigade, composed of Iowa and Wisconsin troops, to charge. They sprang forward and drove the Con- federates to their intrenchments, but suf- fered fearfully from an enfilading fire from a curtain of the Confederates' breast- works, which prostrated 150 of their num- ber. The assailants waded a shallow bayou, and charged on the works before the Confederates had time to reload. Meanwhile, many of those within fled 341 BIG BLACK RIVER— BIG BLUE LICK across the river, and communicated their the river covered the retreat of the Con- own panic to the troops there. They ex- federates, and for hours kept the Nation- pected the Nationals would immediately als from constructing floating bridges. L. S OT^Ji wmm^m -st BATTLE AT BIG BLACK RIVER. cross the stream; so they burned both bridges — cutting off the retreat of their comrades, who were yet fighting. They lied pell-mell towards the defences around Vicksburg. The assailed garrison, about 1,500 strong, was captured, with seventeen guns, several thousand small-arms, and, a large quantity of stores. They lost, in killed and wounded, 262' men. General Osterhaus, of the Nationals, was wounded, Grant's pontoon train was with Sherman, who had been making his way from Jack- son to another point (above) on the Big Black River. The Confederates at the bridge fled to Vicksburg. A floating bridge was constructed, and at the same time (May 18, 1803) the three corps cross- ed the river, and began the siege of Vicks- burg. Big Blue Lick, Battle at. Parties VIEW ON THE BIG BLACK RIVER. and the command of his troops devolved of Indians and Tories, from north of the upon Brig.-Gen. A. L. Lee. Sharp-shoot- Ohio, greatly harassed the settlements in ers in the works on the high banks across Kentucky in 1782. A large body of these, 342 BIGELOW— BILLINGS headed by Simon Girty, a cruel white mis- den, Ulster co., N. Y., Nov. 25, 1817; was creant, entered these settlements in Au- graduated at Union College in 1835; and gust. They were pursued by about 180 became a lawyer. In 1849-61 he was one men, under Colonels Todd, Trigg, and of the editors of the New York Evening Boone, who rashly attacked them (Aug. Post. He was United States consul at 19) at the Big Blue Lick, where the road Paris in 1861-64; minister to France in from Maysville to Lexington crosses the 1864-67, and secretary of state of New Licking River in Nicholas county. One York in 1875-77. He was the biographer of the most sanguinary battles ever fought and trustee of the late Samuel J. Tilden : in Kentucky then and there occurred. The and in 1900 was president of the board Kentuckians lost sixty-seven men, killed, of trustees of the New York Public Li- wounded, and prisoners; and, after a se- brary (q. v.). He is author of Moli- vere struggle, the rest escaped. The nos the Quietist; France and the Con- slaughter in the river was great, the ford federate Navy; Life of William Gullen being crowded with white people and Ind- Bryant; Life of Samuel J. Tilden; Some ians, all fighting in horrid confusion. The Recollections of Edouard Laboulaye ; The fugitives were keenly pursued for 20 miles. Mystery of Sleep, and editor of A Life of This was the last incursion south of the Franklin; Writings and Speeches of Sam- Ohio by any large body of barbarians. uel J. Tilden, etc. Bigelow, Erastus Brigham, inventor; Bigelow, Timothy, military officer; born in West Boyleston, Mass., April 2, born in Worcester, Mass., Aug. 12, 1739; 1814. His father was a cotton manufact- was a blacksmith and a zealous patriot; urer; and this son, before he was eighteen member of the Provincial Congress; led years of age, had invented a hand-loom minute-men to Cambridge; and accom- for weaving suspender webbing. In 1838 panied Arnold in his notable expedition he obtained a patent for an automatic to Quebec in 1775, where he was made a loom for weaving knotted counterpanes, prisoner. As colonel, he assisted in the but soon made great improvements. In capture of Burgoyne, and was active in 1839 he entered into a contract with a some of the stirring scenes of the war af- Lowell manufacturing company to con- terwards. Colonel Bigelow was in charge struct a power-loom for weaving two-ply of the Springfield Arsenal after the war, ingrain carpets (that were before woven and was one of the original grantees of exclusively by the hand-loom, which could Montpelier, Vt. He died in Worcester, produce only 8 yards a day). He died Mass., March 31, 1790. in Boston, Mass., Dec. 6, 1879. Billings, John Shaw, surgeon and li- Bigelow, John, author; born in Mai- brarian; born in Switzerland county, Ind., April 12, 1839; was graduated at Miami University in 1857; was Demonstrator of Anatomy at the Medical College of Ohio in 1860-61 ; served in the medical depart- ment during the Civil War, rising to the rank of deputy surgeon-general in 1864. After the war he was on duty in the office of the surgeon-general in Washington till his retirement from the service in 1895. He was Professor of Hygiene in the Uni- versity of Pennsylvania in 1893-96, and in the last year became director of the New York Public Library. He is a mem- ber of numerous scientific societies, both in the United States and in Europe. He has published Principles of Ventilation and Heating; Index Catalogue of the Li- brary of the Surgeon-GeneraVs Office; Na- tional Medical Dictionary, etc. See New York Public Library. 343 JOHN BIGELOW. BILLINGS— BILL OF RIGHTS Billings, Josh. See Shaw, Henry Wheeler. Bill of Rights. The title of an act of Parliament declaring the rights and lib- erties of the people and denning the power of the King, passed in 1689. Whereas the Lords Spiritual and Tem- poral, and Commons, assembled at West- minster, lawfully, fully, and freely repre- senting all the estates of the people of this realm, did upon the Thirteenth day of February, in the year of our Lord One Thousand Six Hundred Eighty-eight [o. s.], present unto their Majesties, then called and known by the names and style of William and Mary, Prince and Princess of Orange, being present in their proper persons, a certain Declaration in writing, made by the said Lords and Commons, in the words following, viz.: Whereas the late King James II., by the assistance of divers evil counsellors, judges, and ministers employed by him, did endeavour to subvert and extirpate the Protestant religion, and the laws and liberties of this kingdom: 1. By assuming and exercising a power of dispensing with and suspending of laws, and the execution of laws, without con- sent of Parliament. 2. By committing and prosecuting di- vers worthy prelates for humbly petition- ing to be excused from concurring to the said assumed power. 3. By issuing and causing to be exe- cuted a commission under the Great Seal for erecting a court, called the Court of Commissioners for Ecclesiastical Causes. 4. By levying money for and to the use of the Crown by pretence of prerog- ative, for other time and in other man- ner than the same was granted by Parlia- ment. 5. By raising and keeping a standing army within this kingdom in time of peace, without consent of Parliament, and employed contrary to law. 6. By causing several good subjects, be- ing Protestants, to be disarmed, at the same time when Papists were both armed and employed contrary to law. 7. By violating the freedom of election of members to serve in Parliament. 8. By prosecutions in the Court of King's Bench for matters and causes cog- nisable only in Parliament, and by divers other arbitrary and illegal causes. 9. And whereas of late years, partial, corrupt, and unqualified persons have been returned, and served on juries in trials, and particularly divers jurors in trials for high treason, which were not free- holders. 10. And excessive bail hath been re- quired of persons committed in criminal cases, to elude the benefit of the laws made for the liberty of the subjects. 11. And excessive fines have been im- posed; and illegal and cruel punishments inflicted. 12. And several grants and promises made of fines and forfeitures before any conviction or judgment against the per- sons upon whom the same were to be levied. All which are utterly and directly con- trary to the known laws and statutes, and freedom of this realm. And whereas the said late King James II. having abdicated the government, and the throne being thereby vacant, his High- ness the Prince of Orange (whom it hath pleased Almighty God to make the glori- ous instrument of delivering this kingdom from Popery and arbitrary power) did (by the advice of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and divers principal persons of the Commons) cause letters to be written to the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, being Protestants, and other letters to the several counties, cities, universities, boroughs, and cinque ports, for the choos- ing of such persons to represent them as were of right to be sent to Parliament, to meet and sit at Westminster upon the two-and-twentieth day of January, in this year One Thousand Six Hundred Eighty and Eight, in order to such an establish- ment, as that their religion, laws, and lib- erties might not again be in danger of be- ing subverted; upon which letters elec- tions have been accordingly made. And thereupon the said Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, pursuant to their respective letters and elections, being now assembled in a full and free representation of this nation, taking into their most serious consideration the best means for attaining the ends aforesaid, do in the first place (as their ancestors in like cases have usually done) for the 344 BILL OF RIGHTS vindicating and asserting their ancient rights and liberties, declare: ■1. That the pretended power of suspend- ing of laws, or the execution of laws, by regal authority, without consent of Par- liament, is illegal. 2. That the pretended power of dispens- ing with laws, or the execution of laws by regal authority, as it hath been as- sumed and exercised of late, is illegal. 3. That the commission for erecting the late Court of Commissioners for Ecclesias- tical Causes, and all other commissions and courts of like nature, are illegal and pernicious. 4. That levying money for or to the use of the Crown by pretence and prerogative, without grant of Parliament, for longer time or in other manner than the same is or shall be granted, is illegal. 5. That it is the right of the subjects to petition the King, and all commitments and prosecutions for such petitioning are illegal. 6. That the raising or keeping a stand- ing army within the kingdom in time of peace, unless it be with consent of Parlia- ment, is against law. 7. That the subjects which are Protes- tants may have arms for their defence suitable to their conditions, and as al- lowed by law. 8. That election of members of Parlia- ment ought to be free. 9. That the freedom of speech, and de- bates or proceedings in Parliament, ought not to be impeached or questioned in any court or place out of Parliament. 10. That excessive bail ought not to be required, nor excessive fines imposed; nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 11. That jurors ought to be duly im- panelled and returned, and jurors which pass upon men in trials for high treason ought to be freeholders. 12. That all grants and promises of fines and forfeitures of particular persons before conviction are illegal and void. 13. And that for redress of all griev- ances, and for the amending, strengthen- ing, and preserving of the laws, Parlia- ment ought to be held frequently. And they do claim, demand, and insist upon all and singular the premises, as their undoubted rights and liberties; and that no declarations, judgments, doings or 34 proceedings, to the prejudice of the people in any of the said premises, ought in any wise to be drawn hereafter into conse- quence or example. To which demand of their rights they are particularly encouraged by the declara- tion of his Highness the Prince of Or- ange, as being the only means for obtain- ing a full repress and remedy therein. Having therefore an entire confidence that his said Highness the Prince of Or- ange will perfect the deliverance so far ad- vanced by him, and will still preserve them from the violation of their rights, which they have here asserted, and from all other attempts upon their religion, rights, and liberties: II. The said Lords Spiritual and Tem- poral, and Commons, assembled at West- minster, do resolve, that William and Mary, Prince and Princess of Orange, be, and be declared, King and Queen of Eng- land, France, and Ireland, and the do- minions thereunto belonging, to hold the crown and royal dignity of the said king- doms and dominions to them the said Prince and Princess during their lives, and the life of the survivor of them; and that the sole and full exercise of the regal power be only in, and executed by, the said Prince of Orange, in the names of the said Prince and Princess, during their joint lives; and after their deceases, the said crown and royal dignity of the said kingdoms and dominions to be to the heirs of the body of the said Princess; and for default of such issue to the Princess Anne of Denmark, and the heirs of her body; and for default of such issue to the heirs of the body of the said Prince of Orange. And the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, do pray the said Prince and Princess to accept the same accord- ingly. III. And that the oaths hereafter men- tioned be taken by all persons of whom the oaths of allegiance and supremacy might be required by law instead of them ; and that the said oaths of allegiance and supremacy be abrogated. " I, A. B., do sincerely promise and swear, That I will be faithful and bear true allegiance to their Majesties King William and Queen Mary: " So help me God." " I, A. B., do swear, That I do from my BILL OF RIGHTS heart abhor, detest, and abjure as impious Temporal, and Commons, seriously con- and heretical that damnable doctrine and sidering how it hath pleased Almighty position, that princes excommunicated or God, in his marvellous providence, and deprived by the Pope, or any authority of merciful goodness to this nation, to pro- the See of Rome, may be deposed or mur- vide and preserve their said Majesties' dered by their subjects, or any other what- royal persons most happily to reign over soever. And I do declare, that no foreign us upon the throne of their ancestors, for prince, person, prelate, state, or potentate which they render unto Him from the hath, or ought to have, any jurisdiction, bottom of their hearts their humblest power, superiority, pre-eminence, or au- thanks and praises, do truly, firmly, as- thority, ecclesiastical or spiritual, within suredly, and in the sincerity of their this realm: hearts, think, and do hereby recognise, " So help me God." acknowledge, and declare, that King IV. Upon which their said Majesties did James II. having abdicated the Govern- accept the crown and royal dignity of the ment, and their Majesties having accepted kingdoms of England, France, and Ire- the Crown and royal dignity as afore- land, and the dominions thereunto belong- said, their said Majesties did become, were, ing, according to the resolution and de- are, and of right ought to be, by the laws sire of the said Lords and Commons con- of this realm, our sovereign liege Lord tained in the said declaration. and Lady, King and Queen of England, V. And thereupon their Majesties were France, and Ireland, and the dominions pleased, that the said Lords Spiritual and thereunto belonging, in and to whose Temporal, and Commons, being the two princely persons the royal state, crown, Houses of Parliament, should continue to and dignity of the said realms, with all sit, and with their Majesties' royal con- honours, styles, titles, regalities, preroga- currence make effectual provision for the tives, powers, jurisdictions, and authori- settlement of the religion, laws, and lib- ties to the same belonging and appertain- eities of this kingdom, so that the same ing, are most fully, rightfully, and entire- for the future might not be in danger ly invested and incorporated, united, and again of being subverted; to which the annexed. said Lords Suiritual and Temporal, and VIII. And for preventing all questions Commons, did agree and proceed to act and divisions in this realm, by reason of accordingly. any pretended titles to the Crown, and VI. Now in pursuance of the premises, for preserving a certainty in the succes- the said Lords Spiritual and Temporal, sion thereof, in and upon which the unity, and Commons, in Parliament assembled, peace, tranquillity, and safety of this na- for the ratifying, confirming, and estab- tion doth, under God, wholly consist and lishing the said declaration, and the arti- depend, the said Lords Spiritual and Tem- cles, clauses, matters, and things therein poral, and Commons, do beseech their contained, by the force of a law made in Majesties that it may be enacted, estab- due form by authority of Parliament, do lished, and declared, that the Crown and pray that it may be declared and enacted, regal government of the said kingdoms That all and singular the rights and liber- and dominions, with all and singular the ties asserted and claimed in the said decla- premises thereunto belonging and apper- ration are the true, ancient, and indubi- taining, shall be and continue to their Maj- table rights and liberties of the people of esties, and the survivor of them, during this kingdom, and so shall be esteemed, al- their lives, and the life of the survivor of lowed, adjudged, deemed, and taken to be, them. And that the entire, perfect, and full and that all and every the particulars exercise of the regal power and govern- aforesaid shall be firmly and strictly hold- ment be only in, and executed by, his en and observed, as they are expressed in Majesty, in the names of both their Maj- the said declaration; and all officers and esties, during their joint lives; and after ministers whatsoever shall serve their their deceases the said Crown and prem- Majesties and their successors according ises shall be and remain to the heirs of to the same in all times to come. the body of her Majesty: and for default VII. And the said Lords Spiritual and of such issue, to her Royal Highness the 346 BILL OF RIGHTS— BILLS OF CREDIT Princess Anne of Denmark, and the heirs of her body; and for default of such issue, to the heirs of the body of his said Majes- ty: And thereunto the said Lords Spirit- ual and Temporal, and Commons, do, in the name of all the people aforesaid, most humbly and faithfully submit themselves, their heirs and posterities, for ever: and do faithfully promise, that they will stand to, maintain, and defend their said Majes- ties, and also the limitation and succes- sion of the Crown herein specified and contained, to the utmost of their powers, with their lives and estates, against all persons whatsoever that shall attempt anything to the contrary. IX. And whereas it hath been found by experience, that it is inconsistent with the safety and welfare of this Protestant king- dom to be governed by a Popish prince, or by any king or queen marrying a Pap- ist, the said Lords Spiritual and Tempo- ral, and Commons, do further pray that it may be enacted, That all and every person and persons that is, are, or shall be reconciled to, or shall hold communion with, the See or Church of Rome, or shall profess the Popish religion, or shall marry a Papist, shall be excluded, and be for ever incapable to inherit, possess, or en- joy the Crown and Government of this realm, and Ireland, and the dominions thereunto belonging, or any part of the same, or to have, use, or exercise, any regal power, authority, or jurisdiction within the same; and in all and every such case or cases the people of these realms shall be and are hereby absolved of their allegiance, and the said Crown and Government shall from time to time descend to, and be enjoyed by, such per- son or persons, being Protestants, as should have inherited and enjoyed the same, in case the said person or persons so recon- ciled, holding communion, or professing, or marrying, as aforesaid, were naturally dead. X. And that every King and Queen of this realm, who at any time hereafter shall come to and succeed in the Imperial Crown of this kingdom, shall, on the first day of the meeting of the first Parliament, next after his or her coming to the Crown, sitting in his or her throne in the House of Peers, in the presence of the Lords and Commons therein assembled, or at his or her coronation, before such person or per- sons who shall administer the coronation oath to him or her, at the time of his or her taking the said oath (which shall first happen), make, subscribe, and audi- bly repeat the declaration mentioned in the statute made in the thirteenth year of the reign of King Charles II., intituled " An Act for the more effectual preserving the King's person and Government, by dis- abling Papists from sitting in either House of Parliament." But if it shall happen that such King or Queen, upon his or her succession to the Crown of this realm, shall be under the age of twelve years, then every such King or Queen shall make, subscribe, and audibly repeat the said declaration at his or her corona- tion, or the first day of meeting of the first Parliament as aforesaid, which shall first happen after such King or Queen shall have attained the said age of twelve years. XL All which their Majesties are con- tented and pleased shall be declared, en- acted, and established by authority of this present Parliament, and shall stand, re- main, and be the law of this realm for ever; and the same are by their said Maj- esties, by and with the advice and consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in Parliament assembled, and by the authority of the same, declared, enacted, or established accordingly. XII. And be it further declared and enacted by the authority aforesaid, That from and after this present session of Parliament, no dispensation by non ob- stante of or to any statute, or any part thereof, shall be allowed, but that the same shall be held void and of no effect, except a dispensation be allowed of in such statute, and except in such cases as shall be specially provided for by one or more bill or bills to be passed during this present session of Parliament. XIII. Provided that no charter, or grant, or pardon granted before the three- and-twentieth day of October, in the year of our Lord One" thousand six hundred eighty-nine, shall be any ways impeached or invalidated by this Act, but that the same shall be and remain of the same force and effect in law, and no other, than as if this Act had never been made. Bills of Credit. The first bills of credit, or paper money, issued in the Eng- 347 BILLS OF CREDIT lish- American colonies were put forth by or treasury notes, varying from five shil- Massachusetts, in 1690, to pay the troops lings to five pounds, receivable in payment who went on an expedition against Quebec, of taxes, and redeemable out of any money e5V°<:*//') 20 ^J>~> THf5 Indented Bull of Iv/cmt/ Sh'dLU/n ax due from, the Maflackafetr^ Co lemy to tk e^ToflelTo r JJiall h e- j*i va lue^o aqualto ruoney &lkaUte-^cconrcl\ngly^ acce/ptedby tke. Ireafu/rer a/n,aKeceLver.r [ah ordinate- to kino, iru a 11 Pub lick p ayrn : a/rLciJ-or arvy *Stock at a/n.ytwrL£. t/rutke~Q?© Trea/lvry- Boitorutru. iVew^t ugla/ftoU Fetruary tae tTiircUlOQOcoBy OrcLerof tke^ (ie/ne/ralG>>oti/r~ Camifce FACSIMILE OF THE FIRST AMERICAN PAPER MONEY. under Sir William Phipps. The expedi- tion was unsuccessful. The men had suf- fered from sickness; had not gained ex- pected plunder; and when they arrived at Boston, disgusted and out of temper, the treasury of the colony had become ex- hausted, and there was no money to pay them. They threatened a riot. The Gen- eral Court resolved to issue bills of credit, in the treasury. The total amount of this paper currency issued was a little more than $133,000; but long before that limit was reached the bills depreciated one- half. The General Court revived their credit in 1091, by making them a legal tender in all payments. The first issue was in February, 1001, though the bills were dated 1090 — the year, according to 348 BILLS OF CREDIT ihe calendar then in use, not beginning until March. When an expedition for the conquest of Canada was determined on in 1711, the credit of the English treas- ury, exhausted by costly wars, was so low at Boston that nobody would purchase bills upon it without an en- dorsement, which Massachu- setts furnished in the form of bills of credit to the amount of about $200,000, advanced to the merchants who supplied the fleet with provisions. The province is- sued paper money to the amount of about $50,000 to meet its share of the expenses of the proposed expedition. After the affair at Lexington and Concord, the patriots of Massachusetts made vigorous preparations for war. On May 5, 1775, the Provincial Congress formally renounced allegiance to the British power, and prepared for the payment of an army to re- sist all encroachments upon their liberties. They also au- thorized (in August) the issue of bills graving. The literal translation of the of credit, or paper money, in the form of words is, " He seeks by the sword calm treasury notes, to the amount of $375,- repose under the auspices of freedom." 000, making them a legal tender, the back In 1755 the Virginia Assembly voted of which is shown in the above en- $100,000 towards the support of the colo- ■ TWENTY FOUR. SHILLINGS ^•*" : f x ■*/ f fr \ v # Ji i < h If 1-1 \ m S & jpy %fv T* Hi 1 >f "V u % bL =^TH -^ \ Jb Au$* \t 1. 177^. REVERSE OF A MASSACHUSETTS TREASURY NOTE. I To the Conuu finer or Commcfionerr of tbe> 'United iuta of America, at Em>. C 'ounterfigned, ^Y^Jt^, Commiflioner of the 6W Commiflioner of the CWtwribTCW*/* State of O^i^^^UJ^-t^J CONTINENTAL DRAFT. 349 BILLS OF EXCHANGE— BIMETALLISM nial service in the impending French and lief of this uncertainty was that an agree- Indian War. In anticipation of the taxes ment should be established on a broad in- imposed to meet this amount, the Assem- ternational basis to again open the mints bly authorized the issue of treasury notes of the great countries of the world for the — the first paper money put forth in Vir- free and unlimited coinage of both gold ginia. and silver. An International Monetary During the war in 1763 Pontiac estab- Congress was convened at Paris in Sep- lished a commissary department with a tember, 1889, and a similar one, called by careful head; and during the siege of the United States "to consider by what Detroit (1763-64) he issued promissory means, if any, the use of silver can be in- notes, or bills of credit, to purchase food creased in the currency system of the na- for his warriors. These bills were writ- tions," met in Brussels in November, 1892, ten upon birch bark, and signed with his and separated without practical results, totem — the figure of an otter; and so On March 17, 1896, a resolution was highly was that chief esteemed by the passed by the British House of Corn- French inhabitants for his integrity that mons, urging upon the English govern- these bills were received by them without ment the necessity of securing by inter- hesitation. Unlike our Continental bills national agreement a solid monetary par of credit, these Indian notes were all re- of exchange between gold and silver. In deemed. April, 1896, a Bimetallic Congress con- Bills of Exchange. On Oct. 3, 1776, vened at Brussels, made up of representa- the Continental Congress resolved to bor- tives from the United States, Great Brit- row $5,000,000 for the use of the United ain, France, Germany, Austria - Hungary, States, at the annual interest of 4 per Belgium, Denmark, Holland, Rumania, cent., and directed certificates to be is- and Russia, and organized a permanent sued accordingly by the manager of a loan committee, under the belief that there office which was established at the same could be an immediate agreement if the time. When foreign loans were made, United States would re-establish bimetal- drafts or bills of exchange were used for lism, if the Indian mints were reopened the payment of interest. On the pre- for the coinage of silver, if the Bank of ceding page is shown fac-simile of one England would turn into silver a part of of these drafts, reduced in size. It is its metallic reserve, and if the various drawn on the commissioner of Congress, European countries would absorb a suffi- then in Paris, signed by Francis Hopkin- cient amount of silver. The agitation of son, the Treasurer of Loans, and counter- the silver question in the United States signed by Nathaniel Appleton, commis- largely influenced the Presidential cam- sioner of the Continental Loan Office in paign of 1896. It became evident in the Massachusetts. first half of the year that the free-silver Bimetallism, a term currently employ- doctrine had won a large part of the ed to designate a double monetary stand- Democratic party, which adopted at the ard of value. The contention of the bi- Chicago Convention (July 7) a platform, metallists, as defined by Mr. Balfour, him- the most important plank in which con- self a strong bimetallist, is that " if they tained a declaration for " the immediate could by international agreement fix restoration of the free and unlimited coin- some ratio of exchange between gold age of gold and silver at the present legal and silver coin they would create an auto- ratio of 16 to 1, without waiting for matic system by which the demand and the aid or consent of any other nation," and supply of gold and silver respectively that " the standard silver dollar shall be would maintain that ratio at the point full legal tender equally with gold for all they fixed it." Bimetallists affirmed that debts, public or private." The Democratic the condition of commerce generally was party nominated William Jennings most unsatisfactory, and that this con- Bryan (q. v.) for President, and he was dition was due largely to the great un- defeated by William McKinley, the Re- certainty of exchange between the gold- publican nominee. An era of unexampled standard and silver-standard countries, prosperity set in immediately after Mr. The remedy that they proposed for the re- McKinley's election, and steadily increased 350 during his first administration. In the party conventions of 1900 the Republicans gave a stanch support to the policy of the administration, especially on the compli- cated questions growing out of the war BINNEY— BIRNEY the W OFTHE^ UNIVERSITY quarterhTa^cr^general's of- mg fice. Bird's Point, opposite Cairo, was forti- fied early in 1861 by the National troops. It was on the west side of the Mississippi with Spain, and particularly on the one River, a few feet higher than Cairo, so involving the future of the Philippine Isl- ands; and the Democrats based their cam- paign chiefly on opposition to trusts and territorial expansion. The disposition of the Democratic leaders was to ignore en- tirely the silver question. The Repub- that a battery upon it would completely command that place. The Confederates were anxious to secure this point, and to that end General Pillow, who was collect- ing Confederate troops in western Ten- nessee, worked with great energy. When licans renominated President McKinley, Governor Jackson, of Missouri, raised the and the Democrats Mr. Bryan, and the standard of revolt at Jefferson City, with latter, in a remarkable tour of political Sterling Price as military commander, speech-making, while dealing with the General Lyon, in command of the depart- anti-trust and imperialist features of the ment, moved more vigorously in the work platform on which he was renominated, already begun in the fortification of Bird's continued an earnest advocacy of the 16- Point. His attention had been called to to-1 silver policy. The result of this elec- the importance of the spot by Captain tion, in which unquestionably many sound- Benham, of the engineers, who constructed money Democrats gave their support to the works. They were made so strong that the Republican candidates, was the sec- they could defy any force the Confederates ond defeat of Mr. Bryan. See Bryan, might bring against them. With these William J.; Evarts, William Maxwell; opposite points so fortified, the Nationals Monetary Reform; Morrill, J. S. controlled a great portion of the naviga- Binney, Horace, lawyer; born in Phil- tion of the Mississippi River. See Mis- adelphia, Pa., Jan. 4, 1780; was graduated souri. at Harvard College in 1797, and was ad- Birge, Henry Warner, military officer; mitted to the bar in 1800. He practised born in Hartford, Conn., Aug. 25, 1825; law with great success until 1830, when was one of Governor Buckingham's aides his health became impaired and led to his when the Civil War began. He entered retirement. Soon afterwards he was elect- the service in June, 1861, as major, and ed to Congress as a Republican. He de- early in 1862 was made colonel. For ser- clined a renomination, and for many years vices on the lower Mississippi he was devoted himself to writing opinions on made brigadier-general, Sept. 19, 1863. He legal questions. In 1844, by a masterly ar- was in the Red River campaign and in gument before the Supreme Court of the Sheridan's campaign in the Shenandoah United States, on the case of Bidal vs. Valley in 1864. In June, 1865, he was ap- Girard's executors, he raised the laws gov- pointed to command the military district erning charities out of the confusion and of Savannah. For his services in the army obscurity which previously existed. He he was brevetted major-general of volun- was author of The Life and Character of teers and voted the thanks of the Con- Justice Bushrod Washington; An Inquiry necticut legislature. He died in New into the Formation of Washington's Fare- York City, June 1, 1888. well Address, and three pamphlets in sup- Birney, James Gillespie, statesman; port of the power claimed by President born in Danville, Ky., Feb. 4, 1792; gradu- Lincoln to suspend the writ of habeas ated at the College of New Jersey in 1812; corpus. He died in Philadelphia, Pa., Aug. 12, 1875. Bird, Charles, military officer; born in Delaware, June 17, 1838; entered the vol- unteer service in 1861 ; appointed to the regular army in 1866; promoted major in 1895; colonel of volunteers through- out the war with Spain, in 1898, serv- studied law with A. J. Dallas, of Phila- delphia; and began its practice in Ken- tucky in 1814. He was a member of the State legislature at the age of twenty- two; became a planter in Alabama; served in the Alabama legislature; and practised law in Huntsville. Returning to Kentucky in 1834, he emancipated his slaves, and 351 BISHOP— BLACK HAWK proposed to print there an anti-slavery paper. He could not find a printer to un- dertake it; so he went to Ohio and estab- lished one, at great personal risk, the op- position to " abolitionists " then being very vehement everywhere. About 1836 he was in New York as secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society, and tried to build up a political party upon that sole issue. He went to England in 1840, and took part in the anti-slavery movements there. In 1844 he was the candidate of the Liberty Party (q. v.) for the Presidency, the re- sult of which was not only his own defeat, but that of Henry Clay, the candidate of the Whig party for the same office. Mr. Birney was the father of the meritorious Gen. David Bell Birney, who did excellent service for the Union in the Civil War, and died in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 18, 1864. James G. Birney died in Perth Am- boy, N. J., Nov. 25, 1857. Bishop, the title of an office in a num- ber of religious denominations, corre- sponding to Presbyter in others. In the United States the Roman Catholic; Prot- estant Episcopal; Reformed Episcopal; Methodist Episcopal; Methodist Episco- pal, South; African Methodist Episcopal; Old Catholic; and a few other bodies of lesser numerical strength have bishops. Bissell, William H., legislator; born near Cooperstown, N. Y., April 25, 1811; elected to the Illinois legislature in 1840, and became prosecuting attorney for St. Clair county in 1844. During the Mexican War he served as captain of the 2d Illi- nois Volunteers, and distinguished him- self at Buena , Vista. In 1839-45 he was a representative in Congress from Illinois; was separated from the Democratic party on the Kansas-Nebraska bill; and was chosen governor on the Republican ticket in 1856, and afterwards re-elected. While in Congress he engaged in . a controversy with Jefferson Davis, who challenged Mr. Bissell. Mr. Bissell chose muskets, dis- tance 30 paces, which was unsatisfactory to the friends of Mr. Davis. He died in Springfield, 111., March 18, 1860. Bissell, Wilson Shannon, lawyer; born in New London, N. Y., Dec. 31, 1847; was graduated at Yale College in 1869; be- came a law partner of Grover Cleveland; and was Postmaster-General in 1893-95. He died Oct. 6, 1903. Bituminous Coal. See Coal. Black, Frank Swett, lawyer; born in Limington, Me., March 8, 1853; was grad- uated at Dartmouth College in 1875; Re- publican member of Congress in 1895-97, and governor of New York in 1897-99. Black, James, lawyer; born in Lewis- burg, Pa., Sept. 23, 1823; was the Presi- dential nominee of the Prohibition party at its first convention held in Colum- bus, O., Feb. 22, 1872, with the Rev. John Russell, of Michigan, for Vice- President. Black, Jeremiah Sullivan, jurist; born in Somerset county, Pa., Jan. 10, 1810; was Attorney-General of the United States in 1857-60; Secretary of State in 1860-61; retired from political life after President Lincoln's inauguration ; and was afterwards engaged in many notable law cases. He died in York, Pa., Aug. 19, 1883. Black, John Charles, lawyer; born in Lexington, Mass., Jan. 27, 1839; enlisted in the federal army as a private in 1861 ; retired as brevet brigadier-general in 1865; commissioner of pensions in 1885- 89; and member of Congress in 1893-95. Black Friday, the designation of Fri- day, Sept. 24, 1869. Jay Gould and James Fisk, Jr., had attempted to gain control of the gold market of the country by pur- chasing the entire stock of $15,000,000 then held by the banks of New York City. The value of gold had been going up for several days, and the speculators attempt- ed to raise it from 144 to 200. By Fri- day the whole metropolis was in a state of tumult, and gold had risen to 162%. The wildest excitement prevailed, and it seemed as if hundreds of strong business houses would be forced to suspend. In the midst of this panic Secretary Bout- well, of the United States Treasury, placed $4,000,000 in gold on the New York mar- ket, and as soon as the fact was known the speculative price of gold fell and the excitement abated. It was said that this speculation yielded Gould and Fisk a profit of $11,000,000. Black Hawk (Ma-ka-tae-mish-kia- kiak), a famous Indian; born in Kaskas- kia, 111., in 1767. He was a Pottawattomie by birth, but became a noted chief of the Sacs and Foxes. He was accounted a brave when he was fifteen years of age, and soon 352 BLACK HAWK— BLACK REPUBLICAN afterwards led expeditions of war parties between Black Hawk and troops led by against the Osage Indians in Missouri General Atkinson, when the Indians were and the Cherokees in Georgia. He became defeated and dispersed, with a consider- head chief of the Sacs when he was twen- able loss in killed and wounded, and ty-one years old (1788). Inflamed by Te- thirty-six of their women and children cumseh and presents from the British made prisoners. There were eight of the agents, he joined the British in the War troops killed and seventy-seven wounded, of 1812-15, with the commission of briga- Black Hawk was pursued over the Wiscon- dier-general, leading about 500 warriors, sin River, and at a strong position the He again reappeared in history in hostili- fugitive chief made a stand with about ties against the white people on the North- 300 men. After a severe battle for three western frontier settlements in 1832. In hours he fled, and barely escaped, with that year eight of a party of Chippewas, the loss of 150 of his bravest warriors and on a visit to Fort Snelling, on the west his second in command. The chief him- banks of the upper Mississippi, were killed self was finally captured by a party of or wounded by a party of Sioux. Four friendly Winnebagoes and given up to of the latter were afterwards captured by General Steele at Prairie du Chien. the commander of the garrison at Fort Treaties were then made with the hostile Snelling and delivered up to the Chippe- tribes by which the United States acquired was, who immediately shot them. valuable lands on favorable terms. Black The chief of the Sioux (Red Bird) re- Hawk, his two sons, and six principal solved to be revenged, and he and some chiefs were retained as hostages. The companions killed several white people, chief and his sons were taken to Wash- General Atkinson, in command in the ington to visit the President; and then Northwest, finally captured Red Bird and they ~were shown some *of the principal a party of Winnebagoes. Red Bird died in cities of the North and East to impress prison soon afterwards, when Black Hawk, them with the greatness of the American having been released from confinement, people. The hostages, after confinement at once began hostilities against the white in Fort Monroe, were liberated at Fort people on the frontier. General Gaines Armstrong, Rock Island, 111., in August, marched to the village of the Sacs, when 1833. Black Hawk being deposed, Keo- they humbly sued for peace. At the same kuk was made chief of the Sacs and Foxes, time Black Hawk and a band of follow- when the former settled on the Des Moines ers were murdering the Menomonees, who River. Black Hawk died Oct. 3, 1838. were friendly to the white inhabitants. Black Hills, a group of mountains Black Hawk crossed the Mississippi, and situated chiefly in South Dakota and the General Atkinson took the field against northwestern part of Wyoming. Several him; but in July the cholera broke out of the peaks reach an altitude of from among the troops, and whole companies 2,000 to 3,000 feet above the surround- were almost destroyed. In one instance ing plain, and the highest summit of all only nine survived out of a corps of 208. is Mount Harney, which is 7,400 feet. In Atkinson was reinforced, and, with a 1875 the Dakota Indians ceded the region command greatly superior to that of Black to the United States, and immediately a Hawk, pressed him so closely that the valuable mining industry sprang up. In latter sent the women and children of 1875-91 the district yielded gold to the his band down the Mississippi in canoes value of $45,000,000, and silver to the and prepared for a final struggle. value of more than $2,000,000. Valuable A severe fight occurred (Aug. 1, 1832) deposits of tin have also been found on on Bad Axe River, in which twenty-three Mount Harney. For later productions Indians were killed without loss to the in this region see Gold; South Dakota. troops. The contest was between 400 Ind- Black Republican, the name applied ians and some United States troops on in derision to the Republican Party board the steamboat Warrior, which had (q. v.) formed in 1856, because of their been sent up the river. After the fight friendship for the black bondsmen in the the Warrior returned to Prairie du Chien. Southern States and their efforts for the The contest was renewed the next morning restriction of the slave system of labor. I.— z 353 BLACK ROCK— BLACKBURN Black Rock, Surprise of. On July Lane, where he died five days after he 11, 1813, Lieut.-Col. Cecil Bisshopp, with a motley party of regulars, Canadians, and Indians, about 400 in number, crossed the Niagara River and landed a little be- low Black Rock (which was a naval sta- tion, two miles below Buffalo), just be- fore daylight. His object was to surprise and capture the garrison, and especially the large quantity of stores collected there by the Americans; also the ship- yard. These were defended by only about 200 militia and a dozen men in a block- house. There were some infantry and ' W J^^PK^ bisshopp's monument. dragoon recruits from the South on their way to Fort George, besides a little more than 100 Indians under the young Corn- planter, who had been educated at Phila- delphia, and had gone back to his blanket and feather head-dress. The former were under the command of Gen. Peter B. Por- ter, then at his home near Black Rock. Bisshopp surprised the camp at Black Rock, when the militia fled to Buffalo, leaving their artillery behind. Porter narrowly escaped capture in his own house. He hastened towards Buffalo, rallied a part of the militia, and, with fifty volunteer citizens, proceeded to at- tack the invaders. At the same time forty Indians rose from an ambush in a ravine and rushed upon the invaders with the appalling war-whoop. The fright- ened British, after a very brief contest, fled in confusion to their boats, and, with their commander, hastily departed for the Canada shore, followed by volleys from American muskets. In the flight Bisshopp was mortally wounded. He was a gallant young man, only thirty years of age. He was taken to his quarters at Lundy's received his wound. Over his remains, in a small cemetery on the south side of Lundy's Lane, more than thirty years af- terwards, the sister of the young soldier erected a handsome monument. Black Warrior Seizure. Prior to Feb- ruary, 1854, there had been several causes for irritation between the Spanish au- thorities of Cuba and the United States, on account of invasions of the territory of the former from that of the latter. Under cover of a shallow pretence, the steamship Black Warrior, belonging to citizens of the United States, was seized Feb. 28, at Havana, by order of the Spanish authori- ties in Cuba, and the vessel and cargo were declared confiscated. This flagrant out- rage aroused a bitter feeling against those authorities; and a motion was made in the House of Representatives to suspend the neutrality laws and compel those officials to act more justly. A better measure was adopted. A special messenger was sent to Madrid, with instructions to the American minister there, Mr. Soule, to demand from the Spanish government immediate redress in the form of indemnification to the own- ers of the vessel in the amount of $300,000. The Spanish government justified the out- rage, and this justification, operating with other causes for irritation, led to the famous consultation of American ministers in Europe known as the " Ostend Con- ference." (See Ostend Manifesto.) Meanwhile the perpetrators of the outrage became alarmed, and the captain-general of Cuba, with pretended generosity, offered to give up the vessel and cargo on the pay- ment, by the owners, of a fine of $6,000. They complied, but under protest. The governments of the United States and Spain finally made an amicable settle- ment. Blackburn, Joseph Clay Styles, law- yer; born in Woodford county, Ky., Oct. 1, 1838; was graduated at Centre College, Danville, in 1857; served in the Confeder- ate army during the Civil War; was elected to the legislature in 1871, to Congress in 1874, and to the United States Senate in 1885, 1891, and 1901. He was a leader in the free-coinage move- ment. Blackburn, Luke Pryor, physician; born in Fayette county, Ky., June 16, 354 BLACKBURN'S FORD— BLACKSTOCK'S 1816; was graduated at Transylvania Confederates called this the "Battle of University, Lexington, Ky., in 1834, and Bull Run," and that which the Nationals settled in that city. He removed to Nat- designate by that name they called the chez, Miss., in 1846, and when yellow fever " Battle of Manassas." The loss of the broke out in New Orleans in 1848, as combatants at Blackburn's Ford was health-officer of Natchez he ordered the nearly equal — that of the Nationals first quarantine against New Orleans that seventy - three and of the Confederates had ever been established in the Missis- seventy. sippi Valley. He was a surgeon on the Blackfeet Indians, a confederacy of staff of the Confederate General Price North American Indians, also called the during the Civil War. When yellow fever Siksika. It is one of the most important appeared in Memphis, he hastened to that tribes in the Northwest, and is composed city, and organized corps of physicians and of three divisions : the Blackfeet proper ; nurses, and later went to Hickman, Ky., the Kino, or Blood; and the Piegan. They and gave aid to the yellow fever sufferers occupy northern Montana and the adja- there. In 1879 he was elected governor of cent part of Canada, a region extending Kentucky. Dr. Blackburn established the from the Rocky Mountains to the Milk Blackburn Sanitarium for Nervous and River at its junction with the Missouri, Mental Diseases in 1884. He died in and from the Belly and Saskatchewan Frankfort, Ky., Sept. 14, 1887. rivers in Canada to the Mussel Shell Blackburn's Ford, Battle at. Pre- River in Montana. In 1900 they were be- liminary to the severe conflict at Bull lieved to number about 7,000. There were Run (July 21, 1861) was a sharp fight on 2,022 Bloods and Piegans at the Black- the same stream, at Blackburn's Ford, feet agency in Montana, a number of This ford was guarded by a Confederate Blackfeet Sioux at the Cheyenne River force under Gen. James Longstreet. Some agency in South Dakota and the Standing National troops under Gen. D. Tyler, a Rock agency in North Dakota, and the part of McDowell's advancing army, went Siksika and the remainder of the Bloods, out towards this ford on a reconnoissance or Kinos, were in Canada, on the 18th. The troops consisted of Rich- Blackmar, Frank Wilson, historian; ardson's brigade, a squadron of cavalry, born in West Springfield, Pa., Nov. 3, and Ayres's battery. Sherman's brigade 1854; was graduated at the University of was held in reserve. He found the Con- the Pacific in 1881; became Professor of federates there in strong force, partly History and Sociology in the University concealed by woods. Hoping to draw their of Kansas in 1889. He is the author of fire and discover their exact position, a Spanish Institutions in the Southwest; 20-pound gun of Ayres's battery fired a Federal and State Aid to Higher Educa- shot at random among them. A battery tion; The Story of Human Progress, etc. in view only responded with grape-shot. Blackstock's, Battle at. In 1780 Richardson sent forward the 2d Michigan General Sumter collected a small force Regiment as skirmishers, who were soon near Charlotte, N. C, and with these re- engaged in a hot contest on low ground, turned to South Carolina. (See Fishing The 3d Michigan, 1st Massachusetts, and Creek.) For many weeks he annoyed the 12th New York pushed forward, and were British and Tories very much. Cornwal- scon fighting severely. Cavalry and two lis, who called him the " Carolina Game- howitzers were fiercely assailed by mus- cock," tried hard to catch him. Tarle- ketry and a concealed battery, when the ton, Wemyss, and others were sent out Nationals, greatly outnumbered, recoiled for the purpose. On the night of Nov. and withdrew behind Ayres's battery on a 12 Major Wemyss, at the head of a Brit- hill. Just then Sherman came up with his ish detachment, fell upon him near the brigade, when Ayres's battery again opened Broad River, but was repulsed. Eight fire, and for an hour an artillery duel was days afterwards he was encamped at kept up, the Confederates responding, gun Blackstock's plantation, on the Tyger for gun. Satisfied that he could not flank River, in Union District, where he was the Confederates, McDowell ordered the joined by some Georgians under Colonels whole body to fall back to Centreville. The Clarke and Twiggs. There he was attack- 355 BLACKSTONE— BLADENSBUBG ige, ammunition, and supplies of every kind. In a brief space of time the power of the Confederates in that quarter was paralyzed, and Halleck complimented Pope on his " brilliant campaign." Blackwell, Antoinette Louisa Brown, minister; born in Henrietta, N. Y., May 20, 1825; was graduated at Oberlin Col- lege, O., in 1847, and at the Theological School at Oberlin in 1850; began public ed by Tarleton, when a severe battle en- over seventy wagons loaded with tents, sued ( Nov. 20 ) . The British were re- pulsed with a loss in killed and wounded of about 300, while the Americans lost only three killed and five wounded. Gen- eral Sumter was among the latter, and was detained from the field several months. Blackstone, William, pioneer, sup- posed to have been graduated at Emman- uel College, Cambridge, in 1617, and to have become a minister in the Church of speaking in 1846 and preaching in 1848. England. In 1623 he removed from She settled as pastor of an orthodox Con- Plymouth to the peninsula of Shawmut, gregational church at South Butler and where Boston now stands, and was living Savannah, N. Y., in 1852, but resigned there in 1630, when Governor Winthrop the next year, and later became a Unita- arrived at Charlestown. On April 1, rian. She has been prominent in woman 1633, he was given a grant of fifty acres, suffrage and other movements. Her pub- but not liking his Puritan neighbors he lications include Studies in General sold his estate in 1634. He then moved to Science; The Island Neighbors; The Sexes a place a few miles north of Providence, Throughout Nature; The Physical Basis locating on the river which now bears his of Immortality ; The Philosophy of Indi name. He is said to have planted the viduality, etc. first orchard in Rhode Island, and also the Bladensburg, Battle at. In 1814 first one in Massachusetts. He was the General Winder warned the President and first white settler in Rhode Island, but his cabinet of the danger to the national took no part in the founding of the colony, capital from a contemplated invasion by The cellar of the house where he lived is the British. The obstinate and opinion- still shown, and a little hill near by where ated Secretary of War (Armstrong) would he was accustomed to read is known as not listen; but when Admiral Cochrane " Study Hill." He died in Rehoboth, appeared in Chesapeake Bay with a power- Mass., May 26, 1675. ful land and naval force, the alarmed Blackwater, Battle at the. Late in Secretary gave Winder a carte blanche, 1861 the Department of Missouri was en- almost, to do as he pleased in defending larged, and Gen. Henry W. Halleck was the capital. Com. Joshua Barney was in placed in command of it. General Price command of a flotilla in the bay, composed had been rapidly gathering Confeder- of an armed schooner and thirteen barges, ate forces in Missouri; and Gen. John These were driven into the Patuxent River, Pope was placed in command of a con- siderable body of troops to oppose him. Pope acted with great vigor and skill. He made a short, sharp, and decisive cam- up which the flotilla was taken to a point beyond the reach of the British vessels, and where it might assist in the defence of either Washington or Baltimore, which- paign. Detachments from his camp struck ever city the British might attack. To telling blows here and there. One was destroy this flotilla, more than 5,000 regu- inflicted by Gen. Jefferson C. Davis on the lars, marines, and negroes were landed Blackwater, near Milford, which much dis- at Benedict, with three cannon; and the heartened the Confederates of that State. British commander, Gen. Robert Ross, Davis found the Confederates in a wooded boasted that he would wipe out Barney's bottom opposite his own forces. He car- fleet and dine in Washington the next ried a well-guarded hridge by storm, and Sunday. The boast being known, great fell upon the Confederates with such vigor exertions were made for the defence of that they retreated in confusion, and were the capital. General Winder, relieved so closely pursued that they surrendered, from restraint, called upon the veteran in number about 1,300, cavalry and in- Gen. Samuel Smith, of Baltimore, to bring fantry. The spoils of victory were 800 out his division of militia, and General horses and mules, 1,000 stand of arms, and Van Ness, of Washington, was requested 356 BLADENSBUBG to station two brigades of the militia of the intended destination of the invaders, the District of Columbia at Alexandria. Winder left a force near Bladensburg, Winder also called for volunteers from all and with other troops closely watched the militia districts of Maryland. Gen- the highways leading in other directions, eral Smith promptly responded, but the The anxious President and his cabinet call for volunteers was not very effectual, were awake that night, and at dawn the Meanwhile the British, who had pursued next morning (Aug. 24), while Winder Barney up the Patuxent in barges, were was in consultation with them at his head- disappointed. Seeing no chance for escape, quarters, a courier came in hot haste to the commodore blew up his flotilla at tell them that the British were marching Pig Point (Aug. 22, 1814), and with his on Bladensburg. Winder sent troops im- men hastened to join Winder at his head- mediately to reinforce those already there, quarters. When General Ross arrived, and soon followed in person. The over- perceiving Barney's flotilla to be a smok- whelming number of the invaders put his ing ruin, he passed on to upper Marl- little army in great peril. He was com- boro, where a road led directly to Wash- pelled to fight or surrender; he chose to ington, D. C., leaving Admiral Cockburn fight, and at a little past noon a severe in charge of the British flotilla of barges, contest began. The troops under General To oppose this formidable force, Winder Winder, including those from Baltimore had less than 3,000 effective men, most of (about 2,200) and detachments at vari- them undisciplined; and he prudently re- ous points watching the movements of the treated towards Washington, followed by British, with the men of Barney's flotilla, Ross, who had been joined by Cockburn were about 7,000 strong, of whom 900 were and his sailors ready for plunder. That enlisted men. But many of these were at distant points of observation. The cavalry did not exceed 400. The little army had twenty-six pieces of cannon, of which twenty were only 6- pounders. With these troops and weapons Winder might have driv- en back the in- vaders, had he been untrammel- led by the Secre- tary of War and the rest of the seemingly bewil- dered cabinet. As the British de- scended the hills and pressed tow- ards the bridge at Bladensburg, night (April 23) the British encamped they commenced hurling rockets at the ex- within 10 miles of the capital. At the posed Americans. They were repulsed latter place there was great excitement, at first by the American artillery, but and there were sleepless vigils kept by Deing continually reinforced, they push- soldiers and civilians. Uncertain whether ed across the stream (east branch of Washington City or Fort Washington was the Potomac) in the face of a deadly 357 Till; liklDGE AT BLADENSBURG IN 1861. BLADENSBURG DUELLING FIELD fire. A terrible conflict ensued, when personal abuse that the latter was pro- another shower of rockets made the voked to a challenge. In the encounter regiments of militia break and flee in the member from New York was danger- the wildest disorder. Winder tried in vain ously wounded, but subsequently recov- to rally them. Another corps held its ered, and, being a great favorite with his position gallantly for a while, when it, too, constituents, was re-elected to Congress, fled in disorder, covered by riflemen. The Campbell was elected to the Senate in first and second lines of the Americans 1811, and in 1814 was appointed Secretary were now dispersed. The British still of the Treasury, a position which he re- pressed on and encountered Commodore signed, however, after holding it about Barney and his gallant flotilla-men. After a year. Bladensburg from that time be- a desperate struggle, in which the commo- came a favorite resort for those whose dore was severely wounded, Winder or- wounded honor could find no balm save dered a general retreat. Barney was too through the bloody code of the duello, badly hurt to be removed, and was taken In 1814 Ensign Edward Hopkins, of the prisoner. He was immediately paroled. army, whose parents resided at Bladens- The great body of the Americans who burg, was shot on this field within sight were not dispersed retreated towards of his home. Feb. 6, 1819, a most pain- Montgomery Court-House, Md., leaving the ful and desperate encounter occurred there battle-field in full possession of the Brit- between Gen. Armistead T. Mason and ish. The Americans lost twenty-six kill- Col. John M. McCarty, who were cousins, ed and fifty wounded. The British loss and both of Virginia. Mason was at the was more than 500 killed and wounded, time a United States Senator. The two among them several officers of rank and gentlemen had quarrelled at an election, distinction. The battle lasted about four and McCarty was the challenger. It hours. The principal troops engaged were was arranged that they should fight militia and volunteers of the District of with muskets, each loaded with a single Columbia; militia from Baltimore, under ball, at 4 paces. When in position the command of General Stansbury; vari- the muzzle of their pieces nearly touched, ous detachments of Maryland militia; and at the word both fired together, and a regiment of Virginia militia, under Mason fell dead, and McCarty was serious- Col. George Minor, 600 strong, with ly wounded. The famous Decatur-Barron 100 cavalry. The regular army contrib- duel occurred at Bladensburg, March 22, uted 300 men; Barney's flotilla, 400. There 1820. Stephen Decatur and James Barron were 120 marines from the Washington had both been captains in the United navy-yard, with two 18-pound and three States navy. Barron had been found 12-pound cannon. There were also vari- guilty of the charge of neglecting his duty ous companies of volunteer cavalry from while in command of the Chesapeake, and the District, Maryland, and Virginia, 300 had been suspended from the service. De- in number, under Lieutenant-Colonel Tilgh- catur had served on both the court of in- man and Majors O. H. Williams and C. quiry and the court-martial trying the Sterett. There was also a squadron of case. Barron had subsequently applied United States dragoons, commanded by ^ for restoration of his rank, and had been Major Laval. opposed by Decatur, not from personal Bladensburg Duelling Field. The reasons, but from principles of honor, first notable meeting on this spot was in This was the cause of the enmity between 1808, between Barent Gardenier, member the two officers, and a long and bitter of Congress from New York, and George correspondence, which finally culminated W. Campbell, member from Tennessee, in a duel. They fought with pistols at The quarrel was a political one. Garden- 8 paces, and Decatur was fatally and ier was much opposed to the embargo and his antagonist dangerously wounded at the attacked it fiercely on the floor of Con- first fire. They held a brief conversation gress. Campbell, as one of the leaders as they lay on the ground, exchanging of the administration party, was greatly full forgiveness of each other. Before the incensed at this speech. In his reply he fatal shots were fired it is said that Bar- assailed Gardenier with such a torrent of ron remarked to Decatur that he hoped 358 BLAINE on meeting in another world they would tionists, and the fatal "Rum, Romanism, be better friends than in this, to which and Rebellion" utterance of Dr. Bur- Decatur replied, " I have never been your chard, have all been assigned as causes of enemy, sir." A number of other duels his defeat. Mr. Blaine then resumed his have been fought at Bladensburg, among which may be mentioned that between a Treasury clerk named Randall and a Mr. Fox, of Washington, in 1821, in which the latter was killed at the first fire; and that between two members of Congress, Bynum, of North Carolina, and Jenifer, of Mary- land, in 1836, which was the last meeting on this famous field. This last was fortu- nately bloodless; it was brought about by a political quarrel, and after six shots had been exchanged without damage to either party the affair was amicably settled. Blaine, James Gillespie, statesman; born in West Brownsville, Pa., Jan. 31, 1830; was graduated at Washington Col- lege in 1847; and passed several years in teaching. In 1854 he removed to Augusta, Me., and with that State he was thereafter identified. He edited the Kennebec Jour- nal and the Portland Advertiser, and was a member of the legislature from 1859 to 1862; in the last two years he was speaker of the House, and about the same time he became powerful in the Republican or- literary work and published his Twenty Years of Congress, in 2 volumes, and in JAMES GILLKSPIE BLAINE. 1888 positively declined the use of his ganization of the State. His service in the name for a renomination, but received national House of Representatives extend- ed from 1863 to 1876, and in the United some votes nevertheless. President Har- rison in 1889 called him to his old port- States Senate from 1876 to 1881. Blaine folio in the Department of State. The was among the most aggressive of the salient points in his administration were party leaders, was a ready debater, and the Pan-American schemes and the doc- an expert in parliamentary law. From trine of reciprocity. Secretary Blaine 1869 to 1875 he was speaker. In 1876 he suddenly resigned in 1892, and was an un- was one of the chief candidates for the successful candidate for the nomination Presidential nomination, but he and Bris- tow, the leaders, were set aside for Hayes. In 1880 Grant and Blaine were the can- didates respectively of the two great wings of the party, and again a " dark horse," Garfield, was selected. President Garfield for President lhat year, being defeated by Harrison. He died in .Washington, D. C, Jan. 27, 1893. Blaine was celebrat- ed for his personal " magnetism," and af- ter 1876 was universally known as the '"' Plumed Knight," a phrase applied to appointed Senator Blaine Secretary of him by Robert G. Ingersoll in nominating State, which post he resigned in December, him for the Presidency. See Protection. 1881, soon after the accession of President Arthur. In 1884 Mr. Blaine received the Presidential nomination on the fourth ballot. An extraordinary campaign fol- lowed between his adherents and those of Gov. Grover Cleveland, the Democratic candidate, and the election turned on the result in New York, which was lost to Mr. Oration on President Garfield. — The fol- lowing is the concluding portion of Mr. Blaine's oration, delivered before both Houses of Congress on Feb. 27, 1882: Garfield's ambition for the success of his administration was high. With strong caution and conservatism in his nature, Blaine by 1,047 votes. The defection of he was in no danger of attempting rash the Mugwumps, the vote of the Prohibi- experiments or of resorting to the empiri- 359 BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE cism of statesmanship. But he believed that renewed and closer attention should be given to questions affecting the ma- terial interests and commercial prospects of 50,000,000 people. He believed that our continental relations, extensive and undeveloped as they are, involved respon- sibility, and could be cultivated into profitable friendship or be abandoned to harmful indifference or lasting enmity. He believed with equal confidence that an essential forerunner to a new era of na- tional progress must be a feeling of con- tentment in every section of the Union, and a generous belief that the benefits and burdens of government would be common to all. Himself a conspicuous illustration of what ability and ambition may do under republican institutions, he loved his coun- try with a passion of patriotic devotion, and every waking thought was given to her advancement. He was an American in all his aspirations, and he looked to the des- tiny and influence of the United States with the philosophic composure of Jeffer- son and the demonstrative confidence of John Adams. The political events which disturbed the •President's serenity for many weeks before that fateful day in July form an impor- tant chapter in his career, and, in his own judgment, involved questions of principle and of right which are vitally essential to the constitutional administration of the federal government. It would be out of place here and now to speak the language of controversy; but the events referred to, however they may continue to be a source of contention with others, have become, so far as Garfield is concerned, as much a matter of history as his heroism at Chickamauga, or his illustrious service in the House. Detail is not needful, "and per- sonal antagonism shall not be rekindled by any word uttered to-day. The motives of those opposing him are not to be here adversely interpreted nor their course harshly characterized. But of the dead President this is to be said, and said be- cause his own speech is forever silenced and he can be no more heard except through the fidelity and love of surviving friends: from the beginning to the end of the controversy he so- much deplored, the President was never for one moment actu- ated by any motive of gain to himself or of loss to others. Least of all men did he harbor revenge, rarely did he even show resentment, and malice was not in his nature. He was congenially employed only in the exchange of good offices and the doing of kindly deeds. There was not an hour, from the begin- ning of the trouble till the fatal shot en- tered his body, when the President would not gladly, for the sake of restoring har- mony, have retraced any step he had taken if such retracing had merely involved con- sequences personal to himself. . . . The religious element in Garfield's char- acter was deep and earnest. In his early youth he espoused the faith of the Dis- ciples, a sect of that great Baptist com- munion which in different ecclesiastical establishments is so numerous and so influential throughout all 'parts of the United States. . . . The liberal tendency which he antici- pated as the result of wider culture was fully realized. He was emancipated from mere sectarian belief, and with eager in- terest pushed his investigations in the di- rection of modern progressive thought. He followed with quickening step in the paths of exploration and speculation so fearless- ly trodden by Darwin, by Huxley, by Tyn- dall, and by other living scientists of the radical and advanced type. His own Church, binding its disciples by no formu- lated creed, but accepting the Old and New Testaments as the word of God, with unbiased liberality of private interpreta- tion, favored, if it did not stimulate, the spirit of investigation. . . . The crowning characteristic of General Garfield's religious opinions, as, indeed, of all his opinions, was his liberality. In all things he had charity. Tolerance was of his nature. He respected in others the qualities which he possessed himself — sin- cerity of conviction and frankness of ex- pression. With him the inquiry was not so much what a man believes, but does he believe it? The lines of his friendship and his confidence encircled men of every creed, and men of no creed, and to the end of his life, on his ever - lengthening list of friends, were to be found the names of a pious Catholic priest and of an honest- minded and generous-hearted free-thinker. On the morning of Saturday, July 2, the President was a contented and happy man 3G0 BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE — not in an ordinary degree, but joyfully, almost boyishly happy. On his way to the railroad station, to which he drove slowly, in conscious enjoyment of the beau- tiful morning, with an unwonted sense of leisure and a keen anticipation of pleas- ure, his talk was all in the grateful and gratulatory vein. He felt that after four months of trial his administration was strong in its grasp of affairs, strong in popular favor, and destined to grow stronger; that grave difficulties confronting him at his inauguration had been safely passed; that trouble lay behind him and not before him; that he was soon to meet the wife whom he loved, now recovering from an illness which had but lately dis- quieted and at times almost unnerved him ; that he was going to his Alma Mater to renew the most cherished associations of his young manhood, and to exchange greetings with those whose deepening in- terest had followed every step of his up- ward progress from the day he entered upon his college course until he had at- tained the loftiest elevation in the gift of his countrymen. Surely, if happiness can ever come from the honors or triumphs of this world, on that quiet July morning, James A. Gar- field may well have been a happy man. No foreboding of evil haunted him: nor slightest premonition of danger clouded his sky. His terrible fate was upon him in an instant. One moment he stood erect, strong, confident in the years stretching peacefully out before him. The next he lay wounded, bleeding, helpless, doomed to weary weeks of torture, to silence, and the grave. Great in life, he was surpassingly great in death. For no cause, in the very frenzy of wantonness and wickedness, by the red hand of murder, he was thrust from the full tide of this world's interest, from its hopes, its aspirations, its victories, into the visible presence of death — and he did not quail. Not albne for the one short moment in which, stunned and dazed, he could give up life, hardly aware of its re- linquishment, but through days of deadly languor, through weeks of agony, that was not less agony because silently borne, with clear sight and calm courage, he looked into his open grave. What blight and ruin met his anguished eyes, whose lips may tell — what brilliant broken plans, what baffled high ambitions, what sunder- ing of strong, warm manhood's friend- ships, what bitter rending of sweet house- hold ties! Behind him a proud, expectant nation, a great host of sustaining friends, a cherished and happy mother, wearing the full, rich honors of her early toil and tears; the wife of his youth, whose whole life lay in his; the little boys not yet emerged from childhood's day of frolic ; the fair young daughter; the sturdy sons just springing into closest companionship, claiming every day and every day reward- ing a father's love and care; and in his heart the eager, rejoicing power to meet all demand. Before him, desolation and great darkness! And his soul was not shaken. His countrymen were thrilled with instant, profound, and universal sym- pathy. Masterful in his mortal weakness, he became the centre of a nation's love, en- shrined in the prayers of a world. But all the love and all the sympathy could not share with him his suffering. He trod the wine-press alone. With unfaltering front he faced death. With unfailing tenderness he took leave of life. Above the demoniac hiss of the assassin's bullet he heard the voice of God. With simple resignation he bowed to the divine decree. As the end drew near, his early craving for the sea returned. The stately mansion of power had been to him ,the wearisome hospital of pain, and he begged to be taken from its prison walls, from its oppressive, stifling air, from its homelessness and its helplessness. Gently, silently, the love of a great people bore the pale sufferer to the longed-for healing of the sea, to live or to die, as God should will, within sight Of its heaving billows, within sound of its manifold voices. With wan, fevered face tenderly lifted to the cooling breeze, he looked out wistfully upon the ocean's changing wonders; on its far sails, whiten- ing in the morning light; on its restless waves, rolling shoreward to break and die beneath the noonday sun; on the red clouds of evening, arching low to the horizon; on the serene and shining path- way of the stars. Let us think that his dying eyes read a mystic meaning which only the rapt and parting soul may know. Let us believe that in the silence of the receding world he heard the great waves 361 BLAIR breaking on a farther shore, and felt al- land in 1656; was sent to Virginia as a ready on his wasted brow the breath of missionary in 1685; and in 1692 obtained the eternal morning. the charter of William and Mary College, Blair, Francis Preston, statesman; of which he was the first president. He born in Abingdon, Va., April 12, 1791; published The State of His Majesty's was originally a supporter of Henry Clay, Colony in Virginia, in 1727. He died in but became an ardent Jackson man in Williamsburg, Va., Aug. 1, 1743. consequence of the agitation over the Blair, John, jurist; born in Williams- Bank of the United States (q. v.), and burg, Va., in 1732; was educated at the at the suggestion of the President estab- College of William and Mary; studied law lished The Globe in Washington, D. C, at the Temple, London; soon rose to the which was the recognized organ of the first rank as a lawyer; was a member Democratic party until 1845, when Presi- of the House of Burgesses as early as 1765, dent Polk displaced him. The Spanish and was one of the dissolved Virginia As- mission was offered to Mr. Blair by the sembly who met at the Raleigh Tavern, in President, but refused. In 1864 his efforts the summer of 1774, and drafted the Vir- led to the unsatisfactory peace conference ginia non-importation agreement. He was of Feb. 3, 1865. He died in Silver Spring, one of the committee who, in June, 1776, Md., Oct. 18, 1876. drew up the plan for the Virginia State Blair, Francis Preston, Jr., military government, and in 1777 was elected a officer; born in Lexington, Ky., Feb. 19, judge of the Court of Appeals; then chief- 1821; was educated at the College of New justice, and, in 1780, a judge of the High Jersey, and took an active part in politics Court of Chancery. He was one of the early in life. The Free-soil Party ( q. v.) f ramers of the national Constitution ; and, at St. Louis elected him to a seat in Con- in 1789, Washington appointed him a gress in 1856, and he acted and voted with judge of the United States Supreme Court, the Republicans several years. He joined He resigned his seat on the bench of that the Union army in 1861, and rose to the court in 1796, and died in Williamsburg, rank of major-general of volunteers. In Va., Aug. 31, 1800. 1864 he commanded a corps of Sherman's Blair, John Insley, philanthropist; army in the campaign against Atlanta, born near Belvidere, N. J., Aug. 22, 1802; and in his march to the sea. Having became a merchant and banker early in joined the Democratic party, he was its life, and in his latter years was the in- unsuccessful candidate for the Vice-Presi- dividual owner of a greater amount of dency in 1868. In January, 1871, he was railroad property than any other man in chosen United States Senator. He died in the world. He loaned more than $1,000,- St. Louis, Mo., July 8, 1875. 000 to the federal government in the Blair, Henry William, legislator; early part of the Civil War; built and born in Campton, N. H., Dec. 6, 1834; en- endowed the Presbyterian Academy at listed in the 15th New Ham^hire Volun- Blairstown, N. J., at a cost of more than teers at the opening of the Civil War, and $600,000; rebuilt Grinnell College, in became lieutenant-colonel; was wounded Iowa; and erected Blair Hall for Prince- at Fort Hudson. He was a member of ton University. He was equally liberal Congress in 1875-79, and of the United to Lafayette College. He is said to have States Senate in 1879-91. He was the built more than 100 churches in various author of the famous illiteracy bill which parts of the West, and founded many vil- proposed to distribute $77,000,000 to the lages and towns along the lines of his States in proportion to their illiteracy, many railroads. He died in Blairstown, This bill was passed by the Senate three N. J., Dec. 2, 1899. times, but failed to become a law. Sen- Blair, Montgomery, statesman ; born ator Blair was appointed United States in Franklin county, Ky., May 10, 1813; minister to China, but resigned, as the was graduated at the United States Mili- Chinese government objected to him be- tary Academy in 1835, and served a while cause of his opposition to Chinese im- in the 2d Artillery in Florida, against the migration to the United States. Seminole Indians. He resigned in 1836; Blair, James, educator; born in Scot- became a practising lawyer in St. Louis, 362 BLAKE— BLAKELY Mo., in 1837 ; from 1839 to 1843 was national expositions since 1853. He is the United States district attorney for the author of Geological Reconnoissance of district of Missouri, and was judge of the California; Silver-Ores and Silver-Mines; St. Louis Court of Common Pleas from Ceramic Art and Glass; Life of Captain 1843 to 1849. In 1842 he was mayor of Jonathan Mix, etc. St. Louis. President Pierce appointed Blakeley, Johnston, naval officer; him solicitor to the United States Court born at Seaford, Down, Ireland, in Oc- of Claims in 1855, but, becoming a Repub- tober, 1771; was educated at the Univer- lican, President Buchanan removed him. sity of North Carolina, and entered the Mr. Blair was counsel for the plaintiffs navy, as midshipman, Feb. 5, 1800. He in the famous Dred Scott case (q. v.). was made lieutenant in 1807, master-com- He was appointed Postmaster-General in mander in 1813, and captain in 1814. March, 1861, and served about three years. He commanded the brig Enterprise in He died in Silver Spring, Md., July 27, protecting the American coast-trade. In 1883. August, 1814, he was appointed to the Blake, Homer Crane, naval officer; command of the Wasp, which captured born in Cleveland, O., Feb. 1, 1822; en- tered the navy as a midshipman in 1840; was promoted lieutenant-commander in 1862, and in 1863, while in command of the Hatteras, off Galveston, Tex., was or- dered to chase a suspicious vessel, which proved to be the Confederate cruiser Alabama. The Hatteras was no match for the cruiser, and Blake was obliged to surrender. Within ten minutes of his surrender the Hatteras went down. He died Jan. 21, 1880. Blake, Lillie Deveretjx Umstead, re- former; born in Raleigh, N. C, in 1835. In 1869 she became active in the woman suffrage movement, and was president of the New York State Woman Suffrage As- sociation for many years. She first mar- ried Frank G. Quay Umstead (died in 1859), and then in 1866 Grenfill Blake (died in 1896). Her writings include Southwold; Rockford; Fettered for Life; Woman's Place To-day, a reply to Dr. Morgan Dix's Lenten Lectures on Women, etc. In 1901 she was president of the Civic and Equality Union. Blake, William Phipps, mineralogist; voted him a gold medal. Capturing the born in New York, June 1, 1826; was brig Atlanta on Sept. 21, that vessel graduated at Yale Scientific School in was sent to Savannah, and brought 1852. He was the geologist and mineral- the last intelligence of the Wasp. It ogist for the United States Pacific Rail- is supposed she foundered in a gale, road expedition in 1853; edited the Mining as no tidings were ever heard of her after- Magazine in 1859-60; and afterwards en- wards. gaged in mining, engineering, and explora- Blakely, Battle of. Ever since tion. In 1864 he became Professor of Steele's arrival from Pensacola Blakely Mineralogy and Geology in the College of had been held in a state of siege. By the California. In 1901 he was director of fall of Spanish Fort, water communica- the School of Mines in the University of tion between Blakely and Mobile had been Arizona, and also Territorial geologist. He cut off. It was defended by abatis, chev- has been identified with the great inter- aux-de-frise, and torpedoes, and had a 363 JOHNSTON BLAKELKY. the Reindeer. For this exploit Congress BLANCO— BLAND ditch in the rear of these. In front of these Canby formed a strong line of bat- tle, Hawkins's negro troops being on the right, the divisions of Veatch and An- drews in the centre, and Garrard's division on the left. On Sunday afternoon, April 8, 1865, when the assault began, a heavy thunder-storm was gathering. There was a fierce struggle with obstacles in front of the fort. The whole National line partici- pated in the assault. Great guns were making fearful lanes through their ranks. Tempests of grape and canister from the armament of the fort made dreadful havoc. At length the colored brigade were ordered to carry the works. They sprang forward with the shout, " Remember Fort Pillow ! " They went over the Confederate embank- ments, scattering everything before them. The victory for the Nationals was com- plete. The struggle had been brief but very severe. The Nationals lost about 1,000 men; the Confederates, 500. The spoils were nearly forty pieces of artillery, 4.000 small-arms, sixteen battle-flags, and a vast quantity of ammunition. Blanco, Ramon y Arenas, military officer; born in San Sebastian, Spain, in 1833; entered the army as a lieutenant in 1855; was made a captain in 1858; and in the war with San Domingo gained pro- motion to lieutenant-colonel. In 1894 he was sent to the Philippines as governor- general of the province of Mindanao. His career in the Philippines was characterized by acts of extreme cruelty. For his ser- vice there he was appointed a marshal in 1895. Unable to quell the rebellion in the islands, he resigned his office, and, return- ing to Spain, was assigned to the com- mand of the Army of the North. He there made a brilliant record against the Carl- ists, and carried by storm Peiia Plata. For this achievement he was created Mar- quis de Pena Plata. In October, 1897, he succeeded Gen. Valeriano Weyler (q. v.) as governor-general of Cuba. One of his earliest acts after assuming authority there was a reluctant acquiescence in the desire of the people of the United States, as expressed by their Congress, to provide the reconcentrados with food, clothing, and medical supplies. President McKin- ley appointed a Central Cuban Relief Com- mittee to raise funds for purchasing the various articles needed, and these were forwarded to the island and distributed under the direction of Clara Barton. When the Maine was blown up in the harbor of Havana, Blanco summoned the troops and firemen of the city to aid in the rescue of the survivors, and expressed RAMON Y ARENAS BLANCO. strong regrets on the appalling disaster. After the United States made the declara- tion of war, he assumed command of all troops and military operations on the island. It has been stated that it was by his imperative commands, supported by orders from Madrid, of a similar tenor, that Admiral Cervera (q. v.) made the unsuccessful attempt to escape from San- tiago Harbor with his fleet. After the surrender of the Spanish army at Santi- ago, Blanco asked to be relieved of his command, on the ground that having urged the Cubans to maintain the war, it would be difficult for him to prepare them for the conditions involved in the protocol of peace. His resignation was accepted, and the duty of formally transferring Cuba to the protection of the United States was devolved upon a subordinate officer, Blanco returning to Spain. See Cuba. Bland, Richard, statesman; born in Virginia,May 6,1710; was educated at the College of William and Mary; became a fine classical scholar, and was an oracle touching the rights of the colonies. He was a member of the House of Burgesses from 1745 until his death — a period of thirty-one years ; and he was one of the most active of its patriotic members. In 1774 he was a delegate in the Continental Congress, but declined to serve the next year. In 1766 he published one of the 364 D— ELEDSC BLAND— BLEDSOE ablest tracts of the time, entitled An In- passed by the House of Representatives in quiry into the Rights of the British Colo- 1877. It was the culmination of a long nies. He died in Williamsburg, Va., Oct. agitation in and out of Congress for the 26, 1776. free and unlimited coinage of silver by all Bland, Richard Parks, lawyer; born the mints in the United States, and the near Hartford, Ky., Aug. 19, 1835; re- bill originally provided simply for such ceived an academic education, and later coinage. The coinage of the silver dol- settled in Nevada, beginning the practice lar had been abandoned since its demon- of law in Virginia City. Removing to etization by an act of Congress in 1873, Missouri, he practised law in Rolla in and the leading bimetallists were anxious 1865-69, and then at Lebanon. He was a to have it restored and placed on an equal- member of Congress in 1873-95, and from ity with the gold dollar as a standard of 1897 till his death; and was the recog- value. Under the provisions of the Bland nized leader in the House of the free-silver bill these objects were expected to be ac- movement. At the National Democratic complished. When, however, the bill was Convention in 1896 he received many votes sent to the Senate, it received a treatment for the Presidential nomination, which was directly opposite to its original purpose, ultimately given to William J. Bryan because the clause providing for the free ( q. v. ) . Mr. Bland was the author of the and unlimited coinage of silver was strick- free-silver coinage bill, which afterwards en out; but the bimetallists in the Senate became known as the Bland-Allison act. succeeded in amending the bill to the ex- He died in Lebanon, Mo., June 15, 1899. tent that the Secretary of the Treasury See Bland Silver Bill. should be directed to purchase monthly Bland, Theodoric, military officer; not less than $2,000,000 and not more born in Prince George county, Va., in than $4,000,000 worth of silver bullion. 1742; was, by his maternal side, fourth The quantity purchased should be paid for in descent from Pocahontas (g. v.), his at the market price of the metal; should mother being Jane Rolfe. John Randolph be coined into standard silver dollars; and was his nephew. He received the degree these should be recognized as unlimited of M.D. at' Edinburgh, returned home in legal tender for all debts. The measure was 1764, and practised medicine. Bland led adopted by both Houses; was vetoed by volunteers in opposing Governor Dunmore, President Hayes, and on Feb. 28, 1878, was and published some bitter letters against passed over his veto by a vote of 196 to that officer over the signature of " Cas- 73 in the House, and of 46 to 19 in the si us." He became captain of the 1st Senate. The act remained in force till Troop of Virginia cavalry, and joined the 1890, when the obligation to purchase and jiain Continental army as lieutenant- coin the silver metal was repealed by what colonel in 1777. Brave, vigilant, and judi- is known as the Sherman act. See Al- cious, he was intrusted with the command lison, William Boyd; Sherman, John. of Burgoyne's captive troops at Albemarle Blatchford, Samuel, jurist; born in Barracks in Virginia; and was member of New York City, March 9, 1820; justice of the Continental Congress in 1780-83. In the United States Supreme Court, 1882- the legislature and in the convention of 95. He died in Newport, R. I., July 7, his State he opposed the adoption of the 1893. national Constitution; but represented Bledsoe, Albert Taylor, educator; Virginia in the first Congress held under born in Frankfort, Ky., Nov. 9, 1809; it, dying while it was in session. Colonel graduated at West Point in 1830, and Bland was a poet as well as a soldier and served in the army about two years, when patriot. The Bland Papers, containing he resigned; appointed a colonel in the many valuable memorials of the Revolu- Confederate army in 1861, and soon made tion, were edited and published by Charles Assistant Secretary of War. In 1863 Campbell in 1840-43. He died in New he went to England and did not re- York City, June 1, 1790. turn until 1866. Among his writings Bland Silver Bill, the original title of are Is Davis a Traitor? Liberty and Sla- a notable financial measure drawn up by very, etc. He died in Alexandria, Va., Representative Richard P. Bland, and Dec. 8, 1877. 365 BLENKER— BLIND Blenker, Louis, military officer; born in Worms, Hesse-Darmstadt, Germany, July 31, 1812; was one of the Bavarian Legion, raised to accompany King Otho to Greece. In 1848-49, he became a leader of the revolutionists, and finally fled to Switzerland. Ordered to leave that coun- try (September, 1849), he came to the United States. At the beginning of the Civil War he raised a regiment, and, early in July, 1861, was put at the head of a brigade, chiefly of Germans. In the Army of the Potomac he commanded a division for a while, which was sent to western Virginia, and participated in the battle of Cross Keys (q. v.). He died in Rock- land county, N. Y., Oct. 31, 1863. Blennerhassett, Harman, scholar ; born in Hampshire, England, Oct. 8, 1764 or 1765; was of Irish descent; educated at the University of Dublin ; studied law and practised there; and in 1796 married Mar- garet Agnew, granddaughter of General Agnew, who was killed in the battle at Germantown, 1777. He was a republican in principle, although his family connec- tions were all royalists. He sold his sett and his wife became fugitives in 1807. He was prosecuted as an accomplice of Burr, but was discharged. Then he be- came a cotton-planter near Port Gibson, Miss., but finally lost his fortune, and, in 1819, went to Montreal, and there began the practice of law. In 1822, he and his wife went to the West Indies. Thence they returned to England, where Blen- nerhassett died, on the island of Guern- sey, Feb. 1, 1831. His widow came back to the United States to seek, from Congress, remuneration for their losses; but, while the matter was pending, she died (1842) in the city of New York, and was buried in the family plot of Thomas Addis Emmett. See Burr, Aaron. Blind, Education of the. Prior to 1784 there were no institutions in the world where the blind could be educated. In that year the first school was found- ed in Paris, by Valentine Hatiy, and soon after similar institutions were organ- ized in England and other European coun- tries. The first school for the blind in the United States was established in Boston in 1829, by an act of the State legislature. HLENXERUASSETT'S ISLAND RESIDKNCE. estates in England in 1796, and came to America with an ample fortune. He purchased an island in the Ohio River, nearly opposite Marietta, built an elegant mansion, furnished it luxuriantly, and there he and his accomplished wife were living in happiness and contentment, sur- rounded by books, philosophical apparatus, pictures, and other means for intellect- ual culture, when Aaron Burr entered that paradise, and tempted and ruined its dwellers. A mob of militiamen laid the island waste, in a degree, and Blennerhas- Since then schools of the same character have been instituted in nearly every State. The pioneer workers in this field were Howe, Chapin, Williams, Wait, Little, Lord, Huntoon, Morrison, and Anagnos. The United States government has ex- tended large aid to promote the educa- tion of the blind. In March, 1876, Con- gress passed an act appropriating $250,000 for a perpetual fund, the in- terest of which was to be used to purchase suitable books and apparatus for distribu- tion among the various schools for the 366 BLISS— BLOCK ISLAND blind. The following is an official summary of the statistics of schools for the blind at the close of the school year 1898-99: The total number of schools reported was 36. The total number of instructors was 393 — male, 137; female, 256; in music, 127; and in the industrial departments, 122. The total number of pupils reported was 3,665— male, 1,898; female, 1,767; in kin- dergarten departments, 417; in vocal mu- sic, 1,738; in instrumental music, 1,797. In the industrial department the total number of pupils was 1,924. The total number of volumes in the libraries was 93,262. The value of scientific apparatus was $100,610; and the value of grounds and buildings was $6,334,307. The total expenditure for support was $1,065,437. Bliss, Zenas Randall, military offi- cer; born in, Johnston, R. I., April 17, 1835; graduated at West Point in 1854; reached the rank of major-general in 1897; and was retired in the same year. He commanded the northern defences of Washington in 1862; took part in the battle of Fredericksburg, the siege of Vicksburg, the capture of Jackson, Miss., the Wilderness campaign, and after the war was Assistant Commissioner of Freed- men and Abandoned Lands. He died in Washington, D. C, Jan. 2, 1900. Blizzard, a storm noted for its high wind, extreme cold, and hard, sharp, fine crystals of snow. It appears first east of the Rocky Mountains on the plains of Canada, and sweeps into the United States through Wyoming, North Dakota, and Minnesota, but seldom prevails east of the Great Lakes, excepting when the ground has had a long covering of snow. It is a very dangerous storm, as the fine snow fills the air and prevents any one exposed to it from seeing his way. In the blizzard that occurred in January, 1888, extending from Dakota to Texas, 235 persons per- ished. On March 11-14, 1888, a blizzard raged throughout the Eastern States that will long be remembered. New York and Philadelphia suffered the most severely of all the cities in its path. At one time the snow-laden wind blew at the rate of 46 miles an hour. Streets and railroads were blocked, telegraph-wires were blown down, and many lives were lost. Block, or Blok, Adriaen, navigator; born in Amsterdam, Holland. In 1610 he made a successful voyage to Manhat- tan (now New York) Bay, taking back to Amsterdam a cargo of rich furs. In 1614 he bought a merchant ship, the Tiger, and again visited Manhattan. The Tiger was accidentally destroyed by fire, but with his crew he made a yacht, named the Unrest, and with this explored ad- jacent waters. He was the first European to sail through Hell Gate, and he discov- ered the rivers now known by the names of Housatonic and Connecticut. The lat- ter he explored as far as the site of Hart- ford, and still pushing east discovered Block Island, which was named for him. After reaching Cape Cod he left the Un- rest, and returned to Holland on one of the ships which had sailed with him on his westward cruise. Block Island, Events at. In 1636, John Oldham (q. v.) was trading in a vessel of his own along the shores of Connecticut, and near Block Island he was attacked by Indians of that island, and he and his crew were murdered. Filled with the barbarians, who did not know how to manage rudder or sail, the vessel was found drifting by John Gallop, a Mas- sachusetts fisherman, who had only a man and two boys with him. They gallantly attacked the Indians, killed or drove them into the sea, and recaptured the vessel — the first naval fight on the New Eng- land coast. They found the dead body of Oldham on the deck, yet bleeding. The Block Island Indians were allies of the Pequods, and were protected by the latter. The murder of Oldham was a sig- nal for war. In August five small vessels, carrying about 100 men, under John En- dicott, sailed from Boston to punish the Block Island savages. His orders from the magistrates were to kill all the men, but to spare the women and children. There were four captains in the company, because the Indians in fight- ing usually divided into small squads, and it was necessary to attack them in like detachments. One of these captains was the famous John Underhill. (See Pequod Indians.) Endicott's party landed in a heavy surf, and in the face of a shower of arrows, but only one Englishman was wounded. The Indians fled into the in- terior of the island. Everything — dwell- ings, crops, and the simple furniture of 367 BLOCKADE the Indians — was destroyed. The island vessels began depredations on the coast was completely desolated. Endicott could of Massachusetts, under an order issued not find the Indians to kill them, but he left by Admiral Cochrane to " destroy the them in a condition to starve to death. seaport towns and devastate the country." Blockade. In May, 1813, the British At Wareham, on Buzzard's Bay, they de- proclaimed a formal blockade of New stroyed vessels and other property valued York, the Delaware, Chesapeake Bay, at $40,000. In the same month fifty Charleston, Savannah, and the mouth of armed men in five large barges entered the Mississippi. On June 11, the United the Saco River, Maine, and destroyed prop- States, Macedonian, and Hornet, under erty to the amount of about $20,000. New the command of Decatur, blockaded in the Bedford, and Fair Haven opposite, were harbor of New York, attempted to get to threatened by British cruisers. Eastport sea through the East River and Long Isl- and Castine, in Maine, were captured by and Sound, but off the Connecticut shore the British. In July, 1814, Sir Thomas they were intercepted by a British squad- M. Hardy sailed from Halifax with a con- ron and driven into the harbor of New siderable land and naval force, to execute London. The militia were called out to the order of Cochrane. The country from protect these vessels, and the neighbor- Passamaquoddy Bay to the Penobscot hood was kept in constant alarm. The River speedily passed under British rule, British blockading squadron, commanded and remained so until the close of the by Sir Thomas Hardy, consisted of the war. After capturing Eastport, Hardy flag-ship Ramillies, of the Orpheus, Val- sailed westward, and threatened Ports- iant, Acasta, and smaller vessels. The mouth and other places. An attack on commander-in-chief had won the respect Boston was confidently expected. It was of the inhabitants along the coast because almost defenceless, and offered a rich prize of his honorable treatment of them. The for plunder. There ships were built for blockade of New London Harbor continued the war; but when real danger appeared, twenty months, or during the remainder the inhabitants were aroused to intense of the war. In the spring of 1814, all action in preparing defences. All classes hopes of their being able to escape having of citizens might be seen with implements faded, the United States and Macedonian of labor working daily in casting up for- were dismantled, and laid up just below tifications on Noddle's Island. Informed Norwich, while the Hornet, after remaining of these preparations and the enthusiasm in the Thames about a year, slipped out of the people, Hardy passed by and took of the harbor and escaped to New York. a position off the coast of Connecticut, On April 25, 1814, Admiral Cochrane where he proceeded, with reluctance, to declared the whole coast of the United execute Cochrane's cruel order. He bom- States in a state of blockade. On June barded Stonington {q. v.), but was re- 29 the President of the United States pulsed. His squadron lay off the mouth issued a proclamation declaring the block- of the Thames when the news of peace ade proclaimed by the British of the came. See New London. whole coast of the United States, nearly In the opening months of the Civil 2,000 miles in extent, to be incapable War, the Confederates planted cannon on of being carried into effect by any ade- the Virginia shores of the Potomac River, quate force actually stationed for the at various points, to interrupt the navi- purpose. It declared that it formed no gation. One of these redoubts was at lawful prohibition or obstacle to such Matthias Point, a bold promontory in neutral or friendly vessels as might de- King George county, Va., and commanded sire to visit and trade with the United the river a short time. The point was States; and all pirates, armed vessels, heavily wooded. Capt. J. H. Ward, with or letters - of - marque and reprisal were his flag-ship Freeborn, of the Potomac flo- warned not to interfere with or molest tilla, was below this point when he heard any vessels, belonging to neutral powers, of the Confederates being busy in erecting bound to any port or place within the a battery there. He procured from Com- jurisdietion of the United States. modore Rowan, of the Pawnee, then lying Early in June, 1814, British blockading off Aquia Creek, two companies of ina- 368 BLOCKADE-RUNNERS rines, in charge of Lieutenant Chaplin, the Civil War in the United States broke Ward had determined to land there, de- out, but the Confederates were permitted nude the point of trees, and leave no shel- to have privateer vessels built and sup- ter for the Confederates. On the morning plied in Great Britain, while swift-sailing of June 27, 1861, Chaplin and the ma- British merchant steam-vessels, built for rines, under cover of a fire from the ves- the purpose, were permitted to carry on sels, landed, and soon encountered the an extensive trade with the Confederates pickets of the Confederates. Captain Ward accompanied Chaplin. A body of about 400 Confederates was seen approaching, when Ward hastened back to the Free- horn, and the marines took to their boats. They return- ed, but were called off be- cause the number of the Confederates was over- whelming. A spirited skir- mish ensued between the Confederates on shore and the Nationals on their ves- sels. White Captain Ward was managing one of his cannon, he was mortally the abdomen by a Minie the shore, utes wounded in bullet from He lived only forty-five min- His was the only life lost on the Union side on that occasion. Captain Ward was the first naval officer killed dur- ing the war. His body was conveyed to the navy-yard at Brooklyn, where, on the North Carolina, it lay in state, and was then taken to Hartford, where imposing funeral ceremonies were performed in the Roman Catholic cathedral. In September, 1861, General McClellan was ordered to co-operate with the naval A CONFEDERATE BLOCKADE- RUNNER. by running the blockade of Southern ports. These vessels carried arms, ammunition, and other supplies to the Confederates, and received in exchange cotton and to- bacco. Enormous profits were made for the owners of these vessels when a suc- cessful voyage was accomplished; but so many of them were captured by the block- ading fleets, destroyed, or wrecked, that it is believed their losses were greater in amount than their gains. The number of blockade-runners captured or destroyed during the war by the National navy was 1,504. The gross proceeds of the force on the Potomac River in removing property captured and condemned as law- the blockade, but he failed to do so; and it was kept up until the Confederates voluntarily abandoned their position in front of Washington in 1862. See Charleston, S. C. ; Mobile, Ala. ; Savan- nah, Ga.; Wilmington, N. C. On April 22, 1898, President McKinley proclaimed a blockade of all ports on the north coast of Cuba, between Cardenas and Bahia Honda (Havana being about midway between the two), and of the port of Cienfuegos, on the south coast, and kept a strong naval force there to enforce it. See Berlin Decree, The; Cuba; Orders in Council. Blockade-Runners. The British gov- ernment professed to be neutral when ful prize, before Nov. 1 following the close of the war, amounted to nearly $22,- 000,000. This sum was subsequently in- creased by new decisions. The value of the vessels captured and destroyed (1,149 captured and 355 destroyed) was not less than $7,000,000, making a total loss, chiefly to British owners, of at least $30,- 000,000. Besides, in consequence of the remissness in duty of the British govern- ment in permitting piratical vessels to be built and furnished in the realm for the Confederates, that government was com- pelled to pay, in the form of damages to American property on the seas, $15,500,- 000 in gold. See Arbitration, Tribunal of. I.-2A 369 BLOCKS OP FIVE— BLOUNT Blocks of Five, a political phrase Falls, N. Y., in 1840; and began the which originated in the United States publication of The Lily, devoted to in the Presidential campaign of 1888. It woman's rights, prohibition, etc., in 1849. was alleged that the treasurer of the Mr. and Mrs. Bloomer moved to Council Republican National Committee had writ- Bluffs, la., in 1855, and she then lect- ten a letter to the chairman of the Indi- ured in the principal cities of the coun- ana State Committee, with the recom- try. She recommended and wore a sani- mendation that he secure " floaters in tary dress for women which became known blocks of five." This was interpreted as the Bloomer costume, although it was to mean the bribing of voters at whole- originated by Mrs. Elizabeth Smith Miller, sale rates. The managers of the Demo- It consisted of skirts reaching just below cratic party widely circulated the letter the knee and Turkish trousers. She died before the election. A suit for libel was in Council Bluffs, la., Dec. 30, 1894. afterwards instituted, but was never Bloomfield, Joseph, military officer; pressed. born in Woodbridge, N. J. ; was a law stu- Blodget, Lorin, physicist; born in dent when the war for independence broke Jamestown, N. Y., May 25, 1823; was out, when he was made a captain, and educated at Hobart College; appointed entered the service of the patriots, serv- assistant in the Smithsonian Institution ing until the end of the war. Then he in charge of researches on climatology, in had attained the rank of major. After 1851; and published The Climatology of the war he was attorney-general of New the United States, in 1857, the most valu- Jersey; governor in 1801-12; brigadier- able contribution on that subject ever general during the War of 1812-15; mem- issued in this country. He was United ber of Congress 1817-21; and was always States appraiser-at-large in 1865-77. esteemed a sound legislator and a judi- His Commercial and Financial Resources cious leader. He died in Burlington, N. J., of the United States, issued during the Oct. 3, 1823. Civil War, was of' great service to the Blooming Gap, Skirmish at. Gen. F. government in sustaining the credit of W. Lander was sent, early in January, the United States in Europe. He died 1862, to protect the Baltimore and Ohio in Philadelphia, Pa., March 24, 1901. Railway. He had a wily and energetic Blodgett, Henry Williams, jurist; opponent in " Stonewall " Jackson, who born in Amherst, Mass., July 21, 1821; was endeavoring to gain what the Con- educated at Amherst Academy; admitted federates had lost in western Virginia, to the bar in 1844. He was a mem- and to hold possession of the Shenandoah ber of the Illinois legislature in 1852-54; Valley. With about 4,000 men Lander a State Senator in 1859-65, and United struck Jackson at Blooming Gap (Feb. States district judge in 1869-93. In 1892 14), captured seventeen of his commission- he was appointed one of the United States ed officers, nearly sixty of his rank and counsel to the Bering Sea arbitration file, and compelled him to retire, tribunal. He retired from the bench Blount, James H., legislator; born in in 1893. Macon, Ga., Sept. 12, 1837. He was elect- Blood Indians. See Blackfeet. ed to Congress as a Democrat in 1872, and Bloody Angle. See Gettysburg. held his seat till 1893, when he declined Bloody Bill. Passed by Congress, March a renomination. At the conclusion of his 2, 1833, to enforce the tariff of 1832, which last term the House suspended its proceed- South Carolina had declared null and void, ings that his associates might formally Bloody Bridge. See Pontiac's War. testify their appreciation of his worth. In Bloody Marsh, Battle of. See Geor- his last term he was chairman of the gia. committee on foreign affairs, a post Bloody Shirt. A term used after the that gave him a wide knowledge of Ameri- Civil War to describe attempts to arouse can relations with other countries. In Northern passions against the South. March, 1893, President Cleveland appoint- Bloomer, Amelia Jenks, reformer; ed him a special commissioner to visit born in Homer, N. Y., May 27, 1818; Honolulu and report on the conditions married Dexter C. Bloomer, of Seneca which led to the overthrow of the king- 370 3L0UNT— BLUE LAWS dom of Hawaii and the establishment of an American protectorate over the islands. The first result of his investigations was an order to remove the American flag from the government house, and for the with- drawal of American marines from Hono- lulu. These actions led to the resigna- tion of Minister Stevens, the appointment of Mr. Blount to succeed him, and to a renewed agitation for the annexation of Hawaii, both in Washington and in Hono- lulu. When his mission was accom- plished, Minister Blount returned to his home and resumed the practice of law. He died in Macon, Ga., March 8, 1903. See Hawaii. Blount, William, statesman; born in North Carolina, in 1744; was a delegate to the Continental Congress in 1782-83, 1786, and 1787; and was a member of the convention that framed the national Con- stitution. In 1790 he was appointed gov- ernor of the territory south of the Ohio. ( See Northwestern Territory. ) He was president of the convention that formed the State of Tennessee in 1796, and was chosen the first United States Senator from the new State. Blount was impeach- ed in 1797 by the House of Representa- tives, charged with having intrigued, while territorial governor, to transfer New Or- leans and neighboring districts (then be- longing to Spain) to Great Britain by means of a joint expedition of Englishmen and Creek and Cherokee Indians. He was expelled from the Senate, and the process was discontinued in the House. His popu- larity in Tennessee was increased by these proceedings, and he became, by the voice of the people, a State Senator and presi- dent of that body. He died in Knoxville, Tenn., March 21, 1800. Blue, Victor, naval officer; born in Marion, S. C, Dec. 6, 1865; entered the United States Naval Academy, Sept. 6, 1883; was an assistant engineer in 1889- 92; then promoted to ensign; served on the Alliance and Thetis; and was as- signed to duty at the Naval Academy, Sept. 28, 1896. When the war with Spain broke out he was promoted to lieutenant, and ordered to the gunboat Suwanee. On June 11, 1898, he was landed at Acerra- deros, Cuba, made his way to the top of a hill overlooking Santiago Harbor, and definitely located Admiral Cervera's Span- ish fleet in the harbor. This journey was one of 72 miles in extent, and was wholly within the enemy's lines. For this suc- cessful achievement he was commended by Rear-Admiral Sampson and the Secre- tary of the Navy. Blue-Books, the popular designation of a collection of reports and other papers printed by order of the British Parlia- ment from time to time. In the United States the blue-book, issued by the gov- ernment, contains lists of all persons in the employment of the government in the civil, legal, military, and naval depart- ments. These books are so called because of the color of their cover. Blue Hen, a cant or popular name for the State of Delaware. Captain Caldwell, of the 1st Delaware Regiment in the Revo- lution, was a brave and very popular offi- cer, and noted for his fondness for cock- fighting. When officers were sent to his State to get recruits for the regiment, it was a common remark that they had gone for more of Captain Caldwell's game- cocks. The captain insisted that no cock could be truly game unless the mother was a blue hen ; and the expression " Blue Hen's Chickens " was substituted for game-cocks, and finally applied to the whole Delaware line. Blue Laws, the name given to the first collection of laws framed for the govern- ment of the Connecticut colony. They were published, in collected form, in 1650, and issued in blue-paper covers. From this fact they. derived the name of blue laws. They contained rigid enactments against every social vice, as well as for social regulations, and revealed the stern- ness of the Puritan character and morals. Copies of these laws found their way to England, where they first received the name of " blue laws." After the restora- tion of Charles II. the word blue was ap- plied to rigid moralists of every kind, es- pecially to the Presbyterians. Butler, in Hudibras, says: " For his religion it was writ, To match his learning and his wit, 'Twas Presbyterian true blue." To ridicule the Puritans of New England, a series of ridiculous enactments, falsely purporting to be a selection from the blue laws, were promulgated, and gained gen- eral belief. 371 BLUE LICK— BOARD OF STRATEGY Blue Lick. See Big Blue Lick. airy, supported by a small force of in- Blue Lights. In December, 1813, the fantry, was then at Bull's Gap. The cav- Macedonian and Hornet were blockaded in airy pressed forward to Blue Springs, New London Harbor. Decatur was anx- where the Confederates were commanded ious to run the blockade, and might have by Gen. S. Jones. After a desultory fight accomplished it but for the mischievous, for about twenty-four hours (Oct. 10 and if not treasonable, conduct of a section 11, 1863) the Confederates broke and fled, of the ultra-Federalists known as the leaving their dead on the field. They Peace Party (q. v.). He had fixed on were pursued and struck from time to Sunday evening, Dec. 12, for making an time by General Shackleford and his cav- attempt to run the blockade. The night airy, and driven out of the State. The was very dark, the wind was favorable, pursuers penetrated Virginia 10 miles be- and the tide served at a convenient hour, yond Bristol. In the battle of Blue When all things were in readiness and he Springs the Nationals lost about 100 men was about to weigh anchor, word came in killed and wounded. The Confederate from the " row-guard " of the blockaded loss was a little greater, vessels that signal-lights were burning on Board of Ordnance and Fortification, both sides of the river, near its mouth, a body of officers under the jurisdiction of The lights were blue, and placed in po- the Secretary of War and associated with sition by treasonable men to warn the the ordnance department, charged with British blockaders of Decatur's final move- the execution of duties indicated in the ments. There were Peace-men in almost title. every place in New England, who did all Board of Strategy, in the United they could to embarrass their government States, a body of expert officers in the in its prosecution of the war. So betray- army and navy who, in co-operation with ed, Decatur gave up the design, and tried the bureaus of information of those every means to discover the betrayers, but branches of the public service, planned the without success. The Federalists denied operations on land and sea during the the fact, but the blue signal-lights had American-Spanish War of 1898. These been seen by too many to make the denial boards were especially appointed as ad- of any effect. In a letter to the Secretary visors of the President, and the duties of the Navy, Decatur wrote: " Notwith- they performed were similar to those de- standing these signals have been repeated, volving upon what is known as the gen- and have been seen by at least twenty eral staff in Europe. With large, de- persons in this squadron, there are many tailed maps covering every inch of land in New London who have the hardihood to or water likely to be involved in any way affect to disbelieve it and the effron- in the war, the boards first located with tery to deny it." The whole Federal markers the initial positions of armies, party, traditionally opposed to the war, squadrons, and minor forces, both Ameri- were often compelled to bear the odium can and Spanish, and the moment the of the bad conduct of the Peace faction, slightest change in any of these locations They had to do so in this case and for was made the change was indicated by more than a generation; and long after the shifting of the markers. Hence the that organization was dissolved members boards could determine at any time the of that party were stigmatized with the positive or approximate location of any epithet of " Blue Light Federalists." force. If the change by the enemy was Blue Ridge Mountains, a portion of one of vital moment, warnings or fresh the Appalachian range. instructions were sent to the command- Blue Springs, Battle at. While ing officer directly concerned. The strat- Burnside's forces in east Tennessee were egy board could thus see at a glance the concentrating at Knoxville (q. v.), they condition of the entire field of operations; had many encounters with the Confeder- while the local admiral or general was ates. One of these occurred at Blue restricted to his immediate environment. Springs, not far from Bull's Gap. There A close touch between the boards and a the Confederates had gathered in consid- distant army or fleet enabled the latter to erable force. A brigade of National cav- operate more intelligently and to grasp 372 BOARD OF WAR AND ORDNANCE— BOER quickly the meaning of sudden changes in instructions. Board of "War and Ordnance, a com- mittee appointed by Congress, June 12, 1776, consisting of John Adams, Roger Sherman, Benjamin Harrison, James Wil- son, and Edward Rutledge, with Richard Peters as secretary. This board contin- ued, with changes, until October, 1781, when Benjamin Lincoln was appointed Secretary of War. Board on Geographic Names, a board organized by the United States govern- ment in 1890 for the purpose of securing uniform usage in regard to geographic nomenclature and orthography throughout the executive departments of the govern- ment and particularly on maps and charts issued by the various departments and bureaus. To it are referred all unsettled or disputed questions concerning the spell- ing of geographic names which arise in the different departments, and the deci- sions of the board are accepted by the de- partments as the standard authority in such matters. The decisions of the board cover the spelling of foreign place-names as well as those in the United States. In the, present work the forms adopted by this board have been followed. Bobadilla, Francisco, a Spanish mag- istrate; was sent to Santo Domingo by Queen Isabella in 1500 to ascertain the condition of the Spanish colony there, so many complaints of the administration of Columbus having reached her. Covet- ing the place of Columbus, Bobadilla made many unjust charges against him. He ar- rested the illustrious man and sent him to Spain in chains. But the sovereigns, satisfied that he was innocent* reinstated Columbus, recalled Bobadilla, and sent Ovando (q. v.) to take his place. On his return homeward, Bobadilla was lost at sea in a furious tempest with many others of the enemies of Columbus, together with the immense wealth which they were car- rying away with them, in June, 1502. Boehler, Peter, clergyman; born in Frankfort, Germany, Dec. 31, 1712; was graduated at Jena in 173G; ordained a Moravian minister in 1737; and was sent as an evangelist to Carolina and Georgia in 1738. On his way he became acquaint- ed with John and Charles Wesley, upon whom he exercised great influence. In- deed, John Wesley records in his diary that Boehler was the person through whom he was brought to believe in Christ. The Moravian colony in Georgia was broken up and removed to Pennsylvania in 1740. He was consecrated bishop in 1748 and superintended the Moravian churches in America in 1753-64, when he was recalled to Germany. He died in London, England, April 27, 1775. Boer, a Dutch term meaning " farmer," given to the descendants of the Holland emigrants to the Cape of Good Hope in 1652. They gradually extended civiliza- tion over a wide territory. The British acquired the settlement in 1796 as a fruit of war. In 1803 it was restored to the Dutch, but in 1806 was again seized by the British. In the Congress of Vienna (1814) Holland formally ceded it to Great Britain. This settlement became known as Cape Colony. A large majority of the Boers moved north in 1835-36, a number settling in the region which afterwards became known as the Orange Free State, and the remainder in the present colony of Natal. The settlers in the latter re- gion stayed there until Great Britain took possession of it in 1843, when they re- moved farther north, and organized the South African, or, as it has been generally called, the Transvaal, Republic. In 1877 the South African Republic was annexed by the British government; in 1880 the Boers there rose in revolt; in 1881 a peace w r as signed giving the Boers limited self- government; and in 1884 another conven- tion recognized the independence of the republic, subject to a British suzerainty restricted to the control of foreign affairs. The war of 1899-1901 between the South African Republic and the Orange Free State on the one hand, and Great Britain on the other, resulted from the refusal of the Boers to accede to a number of British claims which the Boers held to be without justification. In this war the Boer mili- tary leaders, Joubert, Cronje, Botha, and De Wet displayed a skill in manoeu- vring that won the admiration even of their opponents. The death of Joubert and the surrender of Cronje were the severest shocks to the Boer cause up to the close of 1900. During the summer of 1900, General Lord Roberts, British commander- in-chief in South Africa, formally declared 373 BOGARDUS the annexation of the two republics, giving them the names of the Vaal River and Orange River colonies. About the same time a joint commission was appointed by the presidents of the two republics to visit the countries of Europe and also the Unit- ed States for the purpose of securing in- tervention. In the United States they were received by President McKinley, wholly in the capacity of private visitors; were given a hearty welcome in several large cities; and had a subscription start- ed to aid their cause. Bogardus, Everardus, one of the first clergymen in New Netherland; born in Holland. He and Adam Roelandson, school-master, came to America with Gov- ernor Van Twiller in 1633. Bogardus was a bold, outspoken man, and did not shrink from giving " a piece of his mind " to men in authority. Provoked by what he con- sidered maladministration of public affairs, he wrote a letter to Governor Van Twiller, in which he called him " a child of the devil," and threatened to give him " such a shake from the pulpit " the next Sunday as would " make him shudder." About 1638 Bogardus married Annetje, widow of Roeloff Jansen, to whose hus- band Van Twiller had granted 62 acres of land on Manhattan Island, now in posses- sion of Trinity Church, New York. This is the estate which the " heirs of Annetje Jansen Bogardus " have been seeking for many years to recover. Being charged before the Classis of Amsterdam with con- duct unbecoming a clergyman, Bogardus was about to go thither to defend himself on the arrival of Kieft, but the governor and council determined to retain him for the " good of souls." A daughter of Mr. Bogardus by his first wife was married in 1642; and it was on that occasion that Governor Kieft procured generous sub- scriptions for building a new church. At the wedding feast, " after the fourth or fifth round of drinking," he made a liberal subscription himself to the church fund, and requested the other guests to do the same. All the company, with " light heads and glad hearts," vied with each other in " subscribing richly " ; and some of them, after they returned home, " well re- pented it," but were not excused. John and Richard Ogden, of Stamford, Conn., were employed to build the church, in 37 which Bogardus .. officiated about four years. When Kieft, in 1643, was about to make war on the Indians, Bogardus, who had been invited to the council, warned him in warm words against his rashness. Two years later he shared with the peo- ple in disgust of the governor; and he bold- ly denounced him, as he had Van Twiller, from the pulpit, charging him with drunk- enness and rapacity, and said, " What are the great men of the country but vessels of wrath and fountains of woe and trouble? They think of nothing but to plunder the property of others, to dismiss, to banish, to transport to Holland." Kieft and some of the provincial officers ab- sented themselves from church to avoid further clerical lashings. Kieft encour- aged unruly fellows to keep up a noise around the church during the preaching. On one occasion a drum was beaten, a cannon was fired several times during the service, and the communicants were in- sulted. The plucky dominie denounced the authorities more fiercely than ever, and the governor brought the contumacious clergyman to trial. The excitement ran high, but mutual friends finally brought about a cessation of hostilities, if not peace. There were then two other clergy- men in the province — Samuel Megapolen- sis and Francis Doughty — the latter preaching to the English residents there. The conduct of Bogardus had become a subject of remark in the Classis of Am- sterdam, and after the arrival of Stuy- vesant (1647) he resigned, and sailed for Holland in the same vessel with Kieft. He, too, was drowned when the vessel was wrecked in Bristol Channel, Sept. 27, 1647. Bogardus, James, inventor; born in Catskill, N. Y., March 14, 1800; was ap- prenticed to a watch-maker in 1814, and became skilled as a die-sinker and en- graver. His genius as an inventor was first seen when he made an eight-day, three- wheeled chronometer clock, which was awarded the highest premium at the first fair of the American Institute. In 1828 he produced the " ring flier " for cotton spinning; in 1831 devised an en- graving machine. He also made the trans- fer machine for the production of bank- note plates from separate dies. In 1832 he devised the first dry gas-meter, and in 4 BOGGS— BOXLAN 1836 made it applicable to all current iluids by giving a rotary motion to the machinery. In 1839 the British govern- ment offered a prize to any one who should submit the best plan of manufacturing postage-stamps, and from 2,600 designs that of Mr. Bogardus was selected. In 1847 he built a five-story factory in New York City entirely of cast-iron, which was the first of its kind in the United States, and probably in the world. This under- taking was so successful that it led him to engage in the business of building iron warehouses throughout the United States. He died in New York City, April 13, 1874. Boggs, Charles Stewart, naval offi- cer; born in New Brunswick, N. J., Jan. 28, 1811; entered the navy in 1826; served on stations in the Mediterranean, West Indies, the coast of Africa, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Pacific Ocean. He was made lieutenant in 1837; promoted to com- mander in 1855; and in 1858 was appoint- CAPTAIN CHARLES STEWART BOGGS. ed light-house inspector on the Pacific coast. Placed in command of the gun- boat Varuna, when the Civil War broke out, he was with Admiral Farragut in the desperate fight on the Mississippi, near Forts Jackson and St. Philip. In that contest his conduct was admirable for bravery and fortitude. He was subse- quently, in command of various vessels on American and European stations, and was promoted to rear-admiral in July, 1870. He died in New Brunswick, April 22, 1888. Bogus Presidential Proclamation. See Howard, Joseph. Bohol, an island in the Philippine Ar- chipelago belonging to what is known as the Visayas, or Bisayas, group; between the larger islands of Luzon and Min- danao; east of Zebu, and a short distance southwest of Leyte; area about 1,300 square miles; estimated population, 245,- 000. The island is believed to be rich in several minerals, especially gold, and the principal industry has been the growing of sugar-cane. The island has several im- portant towns and ports which were de- clared open to commerce by the American authorities, Dec. 11, 1899. Boker, George Henry, poet and dram- atist; born in Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 6, 1823; was graduated at Princeton Col- lege in 1842; studied law, but did not en- gage in practice. After a tour in Europe he applied himself to literary work. In 1871 President Grant appointed him Unit- ed States minister to Turkey, and in 1875 he was transferred to Russia. He re- turned home in 1879. His poetical works include The Lesson of Life; Plays and Poems; Poems of the War; Street Lyrics; and The Book of the Dead; and chief among his dramatic works are Calaynos; Anne Boleyn; Francesca da Rimini; The Widow's Marriage; and The Betrothal. He died in Philadelphia, Jan. 2, 1890. Bollan, William, lawyer; born in Eng- land; came to America about 1740, and settled in Boston. He married a daughter of Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, and was appointed collector of customs at Salem and Marblehead. In 1745 he was sent to England to solicit the reimburse- ment of more than $800,000 advanced by Massachusetts for the expedition against Cape Breton. He was successful; and be- came agent for Massachusetts in 1762, but was dismissed. Being in England in 1769, he obtained copies of thirty-three letters written by Governor Bernard and General Gage, calumniating the colonists, and sent them to Boston. For this act he was denounced in Parliament. He strongly recommended the British govern- ment to pursue conciliatory measures tow- ards the colonists in 1775; and in various ways, in person and in writing, he showed his warm friendship for the Americans. Mr. Bollan wrote several political pam- 375 BOMFORD— BOONE phlets relating to American affairs ; and in but escaped, and returned home in 1771. 1774 he presented, as colonial agent, a pe- In 1773 he led a party of settlers to the tition to the King in council. He died in wilds he had explored; and in 1774 1776. conducted a party of surveyors to the Bomford, George, military officer; born in New York, in 1780; graduated at West Point in 1805; introduced bomb cannon after a pattern of his own, which were called columbiads. These cannon were afterwards developed by John A. Dahl- gken ( q. v. ) . He became chief of ord- nance May 30, 1832, and from Feb. 1, 1842, till his death was inspector of arsenals, ordnance, arms and munitions of war. He died in Boston, Mass., March 25, 1848. Bomford, James V., military officer; born on Governor's Island, N. Y., Oct. 5, 1811; son of George Bomford; was gradu- ated at West Point in 1832; brevetted major for gallantry at Contreras and lieu- tenant-colonel for meritorious conduct at the battle of Molino del Rey. While on frontier duty in Texas, at the beginning of the Civil War, he was made a prisoner and was not exchanged until 1862, when he was promoted lieutenant-colonel. He was brevetted colonel for gallantry at Falls of the Ohio (now Louisville). He Perryville, and was retired in 1872. He had taken his family with the other fam- died in Elizabeth, N. J., Jan. 6, 1892. ilies to Kentucky in 1773, where they were Bonaparte. See Napoleon. Bon Homme Richard. Paul. Boniface, Francis. SIONS. Bonneville, Benjamin L. E., explorer; born in France about 1795; was gradu- They were repulsed, but in February, 1778, ated at West Point in 1815; engaged in Boone was captured by them, and taken to explorations in the Rocky Mountains in Chillicothe, beyond the Ohio, and thence 1831-36. Washington Irving edited his to Detroit. Adopted as a son in an Ind- journal entitled Adventures of Captain ian family, he became a favorite, but Bonneville, U. S. A., in the Rocky Moun- managed to escape in June following, and tains and the Far West. He served returned to his fort and kindred. In Au- throughout the Mexican War, and was gust, about 450 Indians attacked his fort, wounded at the battle of Churubusco. In which he bravely defended with about fifty 1865 he was brevetted brigadier-general for men. At different times two of his sons long and faithful service. He died at were killed by the Indians. Boone accom- Fort Smith, Ark., June 12, 1878. panied General Clarke on his expedition Book of Mormon. See Mormons. against the Indians on the Scioto, in Ohio, Boone, Daniel, explorer; born in Bucks in 1782, soon after a battle at the Blue county, Pa., Feb. 11, 1735. From his Licks. Having lost his lands in Kentucky youth he was a famous hunter, and, while in consequence of a defective title, he yet a minor, he emigrated, with his fa- went to the Missouri country in 1795, and ther, to North Carolina, where he mar- settled on the Osage Woman River, where ried. In May, 1759, Boone and five others he continued the occupations of hunter went to explore the forests of Kentucky, and trapper. Again he was deprived of There he was captured by some Indians, a large tract of land in Missouri, obtained 376 DANIEL BOONE. in perpetual danger from the barbarians See Jones, of the forest. He had several fights with the Indians; and in 1775 he built a fort See Jesuit Mis- on the Kentucky River on the present site of Boonesboro. In 1777 several attacks were made on this fort by the Indians. BOONE— BOOTH BOONE'S FORT. under the Spanish authority, by the title in Harford county, Md., in 1839; son of being declared invalid. He died in Cha- Junius Brutus Booth, and brother of Ed- win T. Booth; made his appearance as an actor in early manhood. When the Civil War broke out he took sides with the South. Brooding over the " lost cause " of the Confederacy he formed a conspir- acy with Powell, Surratt, and others, to assassinate President Lincoln. On the evening of April 14, 1865, the President, Mrs. Lincoln, and a party of friends went to Ford's Theatre, in Washington, to witness a performance of Our American Cousin. While the play was in progress Booth entered the President's box, and shot the President in the back of the head. Then, shouting " Sic semper tyrannis /" the as- sassin leaped upon the stage and made his escape on a horse in waiting. He was pursued and overtaken, concealed in a rette, Mo., Sept. 26, 1820. Boone's remains, barn near Bowling Green, Va., and, re- with those of his wife, rest in the cemetery near Frankfort, Ky. Boone, Thomas, colonial governor; ap- pointed governor of New Jersey in 1760, and of South Carolina in 1762. He quar- relled with the legislature of South Car- olina, which refused to hold any in- tercourse with him, and in 1763 was succeeded as governor by William Bull. Booneville, Battle of. Governor Jackson, of Missouri, a Confederate sym- pathizer, had abandoned Jefferson City, which was immediately occupied by Gen- eral Lyon. Before the Confederate forces could concentrate about Booneville, 50 miles above Jefferson City, Lyon moved upon Booneville, and, with 2,000 men, de- feated Marmaduke, who offered little re- sistance, in twenty minutes, on June 17, 1861. This compelled the Confederate de- tachments to move to the southern border of the State. Booth, Ballington, reformer; born in fusing to surrender, was shot dead, April Brighouse, England, July 28, 1859; son of 26, 1865. See Lincoln, Abraham. Gen. William Booth, the founder of the Booth, William, clergyman; born in Salvation Army (q. v.). In 1885-87 he Nottingham, England, April 10, 1829; was was the commander of the Salvation Army educated in Nottingham, and in 1850-61 in Australia, and from 1887 till 1896 in served as a minister of the Methodist New the United States, when he withdrew and Connection. In 1865 he organized the founded the Volunteers of America Christian Mission to reach the lower class- ( the storm . c]oud flies> Here we rub our hands. A fine body The threatening billow on the deep of precedents for the authority of Parlia- Obedient lies.) 471 BURKE, EDMUND The very same year the county palatine of Chester received the same relief from its oppression, and the same remedy to its disorders. Before this time Chester was little less distempered than Wales. The inhabitants, without rights themselves, were the fittest to destroy the rights of others; and from thence Richard II. drew the standing army of archers, with which for a time he oppressed England. The people of Chester applied to Parlia- ment in a petition penned as I shall read to you: " To the king our sovereign lord, in most humble wise shown unto your ex- cellent Majesty, the inhabitants of your Grace's county palatine of Chester; That where the said county palatine of Chester is and hath been always hitherto exempt, excluded and separated out and from your high court of Parliament, to have any knights and burgesses within the said court; by reason whereof the said inhabi- tants have hitherto sustained manifold disherisons, losses, and damages, as well in their lands, goods, and bodies, as in the good, civil, and politic governance and maintenance of the commonwealth of their said country: (2) And forasmuch as the said inhabitants have always hith- erto been found by the acts and statutes made and ordained by your said High- ness, and your most noble progenitors, by authority of the said court, as far forth as other countries, cities, and boroughs have been, that have had their knights and burgesses within your said court of Par- liament, and yet have had neither knight nor burgess there for the said county palatine; the said inhabitants, for lack thereof, have been oftentimes touched and grieved with acts and statutes made with- in the said court, as well derogatory unto the most ancient jurisdictions, liberties, and privileges of your said county pala- tine, as prejudicial unto the common- wealth, quietness, rest, and peace of your Grace's most bounden subjects inhabiting within the same." What did Parliament with this auda- cious address? Reject it as a libel? Treat it as an affront to government? Spurn it as a derogation from the rights of leg- islation? Did they toss it over the table? Did they burn it by the hands of the com- mon hangman? They took the petition of grievance, all rugged as it was, with- out softening or temperament, unpurged of the original bitterness and indignation of complaint; they made it the very pre- amble of their act of redress; and con- secrated its principle to all ages in the sanctuary of legislation. Here is my third example. It was at- tended with the success of the two former. Chester, civilized as well as Wales, has demonstrated that freedom, and not servi- tude, is the cure of anarchy; as religion, and not atheism, is the true remedy for superstition. Sir, this pattern of Chester was followed in the reign of Charles II. with regard to the county palatine of Dur- ham, which is my fourth example. This county had long lain out of the pale of free legislation. So scrupulously was the example of Chester followed, that the style of the preamble is nearly the same with that of the Chester act; and, without affecting the abstract extent of the authority of Parliament, it recognizes the equity of not suffering any considerable district, in which the British subjects may act as a body, to be taxed without their own v<#ce in the grant. Now if the doctrines of policy contained in these preambles, and the force of these examples in the acts of Parliament, avail anything, what can be said against apply- ing them with regard to America? Are not the people of America as much Eng- lishmen as the Welsh? The preamble of the act of Henry VIII. says, the Welsh speak a language no way resembling that of his Majesty's English subjects. Are the Americans not as numerous? If we may trust the learned and accurate Judge Harrington's account of North Wales, and take that as a standard to measure the rest, there is no comparison. The people cannot amount to above 200,000; not a tenth part of the number in the colonies. Is America in rebellion? Wales was hard- ly ever free from it. Have you attempted to govern America by penal statutes? You made fifteen to Wales. But your legislative authority is perfect with re- gard to America; was it less perfect in Wales, Chester, and Durham? But Amer- ica is virtually represented. What! does the electric force of virtual representation more easily pass over the Atlantic, than 472 BURKE, EDMUND pervade Wales, which lies in your neigh- My resolutions, therefore, mean to estab- borhood; or than Chester and Durham, lish the equity and justice of a taxation surrounded by abundance of representa- of America, by grant, and not by imposi- tion that is actual and palpable? But, tion. To mark the legal competency of sir, your ancestors thought this sort of the colony assemblies for the support of virtual representation, however ample, to their government in peace, and for public be tota-lly insufficient for the freedom of aids in time of war. To acknowledge that the inhabitants of territories that are so this legal competency has had a dutiful near, and comparatively so inconsiderable, and beneficial exercise; and that experi- Ifow then can I think it sufficient for ence has shown the benefit of their grants, those which are infinitely greater, and and the futility of parliamentary taxation infinitely more remote? as a method of supply. You will now, sir, perhaps imagine, These solid truths compose six funda- tliat I am on the point of proposing to mental propositions. There are three you a scheme for a representation of the more resolutions corollary to these. If colonies in Parliament. Perhaps I might you admit the first set, you can hardly re- be inclined to entertain some such ject the others. But if you admit the thought ; but a great flood stops me in my first, I shall be far from solicitous whether course. Opposuit natura (Nature has you accept or refuse the last. I think barred the way). I cannot remove the these six massive pillars will be of eternal barriers of the creation. The strength sufficient to support the temple thing, in that mode, I do not know to be of British concord. I have no more doubt possible. As I meddle with no theory, I than I entertain of my existence, that, do not absolutely assert the impractica- if you admitted these, you would com- bility of such a representation. But I do mand an immediate peace; and, with but not see my way to do it; and those who tolerable future management, a lasting have been more confident have not been obedience in America. I am not arrogant more successful. However, the arm of in this confident assurance. The proposi- public benevolence is not shortened; and tions are all mere matters of fact; and if there are often several means to the same they are such facts as draw irresistible end. What nature has disjoined in one conclusions even in the stating, this is the way, wisdom may unite in another. When power of truth, and not any mismanage- we cannot give the benefit as we would ment of mine. wish, let us not refuse it altogether. If Sir, I shall open the whole plan to we cannot give the principle, let us find a you, together with such observations on substitute. But how? Where? What the motions as may tend to illustrate substitute? them where they may want explanation. Fortunately, I am not obliged for the The first is a resolution "That the colo- wayc and means of this substitute to tax nies and plantations of Great Britain in my own unproductive invention. I am not North America, consisting of fourteen sep- even obliged to go to the rich treasury arate governments, and containing 2,000,- of the fertile framers of imaginary com- 000 and upwards of free inhabitants, have monwealths ; not to the Republic of Plato ; not had the liberty and privilege of not to the Utopia of More; not to the electing and sending any knights and bur- Oceana of Harrington. It is before me, gesses, or others, to represent them in the it is at my feet, and the rude swain high court of Parliament." This is a treads daily on it with his clouted shoon. plain matter of fact, necessary to be laid I only wish you to recognize, for the down, and (excepting the description) it theory, the ancient constitutional policy is laid down in the language of the consti- of this kingdom with regard to representa- tution; it is taken nearly verbatim from tion, as that policy has been declared in acts of Parliament. acts of Parliament; and, as to the practice, The second is like unto the first — to return to that mode which an uniform " That the said colonies and plantations experience has marked out to you, as best ; have been liable to, and bounden by, sev- and in which you walked with security, eral subsidies, payments, rates, and taxes, advantage, and honour, until the year 1763. given and granted by Parliament, though 473 BURKE, EDMUND the said colonies and plantations have not their knights and burgesses, in the said high court of Parliament, of their own election, to represent the condition of their country; by lack whereof they have been oftentimes touched and grieved by subsi- dies given, granted, and assented to, in the said court, in a manner prejudicial to the commonwealth, quietness, rest, and peace of the subjects inhabiting within the same." Is this description too hot, or too cold, too strong, or too weak? Does it arrogate too much to the supreme legislature? Does it lean too much to the claims of the people? If it runs into any of these er- rors, the fault is not mine. It is the lan- guage of your own ancient acts of Parlia- ment. Non mens hie ■ sermo, sed quae praecepit Ofellus, Rusticw, abnormis sapiens. [Ofellus shall set forth ('Twas he that taught me.it, a shrewd clear wit, Though country-spun, and for the schools unfit).] It is the genuine produce of the an- cient, rustic, manly, home-bred sense of this country. I did not care to rub off a particle of the venerable rust that rather adorns and preserves, than destroys, the metal. It would be a profanation to touch with a tool the stones which con- struct the sacred altar of peace. I would not violate with modern polish the in- genuous and noble roughness of these truly constitutional materials. Above all things, I was resolved not to be guilty of tampering, the odious vice of restless and unstable minds. I put my foot in the tracks of our forefathers, where I can neither wander nor stumble. Determining to fix articles of peace, I was resolved not to be wise beyond what was written; I was resolved to use nothing else than the form of sound words ; to let others abound in their own sense; and carefully to ab- stain from all expressions of our own. What the law has said, I say. In all things else I am silent. I have no organ but for her words. This, if it be not in- genious, I am sure is safe. There are, indeed, words expressive of grievance in this second resolution, which 47 those who are resolved always to be in the right will deny to contain matter of fact, as applied to the present case; although Parliament thought them true, with re- gard to the counties of Chester and Dur- ham. They will deny that the Americans were ever " touched and grieved " with the taxes. If they consider nothing in taxes but their weight as pecuniary imposi- tions, there might be some pretence for this denial. But men may be sorely touched and deeply grieved in their priv- ileges, as well as in their purses. Men may lose little in property by the act which takes away all their freedom. When a man is robbed of a trifle on the highway, it is not the twopence lost that constitutes the capital outrage. This is not confined to privileges. Even ancient indulgences withdrawn, without offence on the part of those who enjoyed such fa- vours, operate as grievances. But were the Americans then not touched and grieved by the taxes, in some measures, merely a3 taxes? If so, why were they almost all either wholly repealed or exceedingly re- duced? Were they not touched and grieved even by the regulating duties of the sixth of George II.? Else why were the du- ties first reduced to one-third in 1764, and afterwards to a third of that third in the year 1766? Were they not touched and grieved by the stamp act? I shall say they were, until that tax is revived. Were they not touched and grieved by the duties of 1767, which were likewise re- pealed, and which Lord Hillsborough tells you (for the ministry) were laid contrary to the true principle of commerce? Is not the assurance given by that noble per- son to the colonies of a resolution to lay no more taxes on them, an admission that taxes would touch and grieve them? Is not the resolution of the noble lord in the blue riband, now standing on your jour- nals, the strongest of all proofs that par- liamentary subsidies really touched and grieved them? Else why all these changes, modifications, repeals, assurances, and res- olutions ? The next proposition is — "That, from the distance of the said colonies, and from other circumstances, no method hath hitherto been devised for procuring a rep- resentation in Parliament for the said colonies." This is an assertion of a fact. 4 BURKE, EDMUND I go no further on the paper; though, in my private judgment, an useful rep- resentation is impossible; I am sure it is not desired by them; nor ought it per- haps by us; but I abstain from opinions. The fourth resolution is this — " That each of the said colonies hath within itself a body, chosen in part, or in the whole, by the freemen, freeholders, or other free inhabitants thereof, commonly called the General Assembly, or General Court; with powers legally to raise, levy, and assess, according to the several usages of such colonies, duties and taxes towards defraying all sorts of public services." * This competence in the colony assemblies is certain. It is proved by the whole tenor of their acts of supply in all the assem- blies, in which the constant style of grant- ing is, "an aid to his Majesty"; and acts - granting to the crown have regularly for nearly a century passed the public offices without dispute. Those who have been pleased paradoxically to deny this right, holding that none but the British Parlia- ment can grant to the crown, are wished to look to what is done, not only in the colonies, but in Ireland, in one uniform, unbroken tenor every session. Sir, I am surprised that this doctrine should come from some of the law servants of the crown. I say, that if the crown could be responsible, his Majesty — but certainly the ministers, and even these law officers themselves, through whose hands the acts pass biennially in Ireland, or annually in the colonies, are in an habitual course of committing impeachable offences. What habitual offenders have been lords of the council, all secretaries of state, all first lords of trade, all attornies, and all so- licitors general! However, they are safe; as no one impeaches them; and there is no ground of charge against them, except in their own unfounded theories. The fifth resolution is also a resolu- tion of fact — " That the said general as- semblies, general courts, or other bodies legally qualified as aforesaid have at sun- dry times freely granted several large subsidies and public aids for his Majesty's service, according to their abilities, when required thereto by letter from one of his Majesty's principal secretaries of state; and that their rights to grant the same, and their cheerfulness and sufficiency in the said grants, have been at sundry times acknowledged by Parliament." To say nothing of their great expenses in the Ind- ian wars; and not to take their exertions in foreign ones, so high as the supplies in the year 1695; not to go back to their public contributions in the year 1710; I shall begin to travel only where the jour- nals give me light; resolving to deal in nothing but fact, authenticated by Parlia- mentary record; and to build myself wholly on that solid basis. On the 4th of April, 1748, a committee of this House came to the following reso- lution : " Resolved, That it is the opinion of this committee, that it is just and reason- able that the several provinces and col- onies of Massachusetts Bay, New Hamp- shire, Connecticut, and Rhode Island be reimbursed the expenses that they have been at in taking and securing to the Crown of Great Britain the Island of Cape Breton and its dependencies." These expenses were immense for such colonies. They were above £200,000 ster- ling; money first raised and advanced on their public credit. On the 28th of January, 1756, a mes- sage from the king came to us, to this effect : " His Majesty, being sensible of the zeal and vigour with which his faithful subjects of certain colonies in North America have exerted themselves in de- fence of his Majesty's just rights and possessions, recommends it to this House to take the same into their consideration, and to enable his Majesty to give them such assistance as may be a proper reward and encouragement." On the 3d of February, 1756, the House came to a suitable resolution, expressed in words nearly the same as those of the message; but with the further addition, that the money then voted was as an en- couragement to the colonies to exert them- selves with vigour. It will not be neces- sary to go through all the testimonies which your own records have given to the truth of my resolutions; I will only refer you to the places in the journals: Vol. xxvii.— 16th and 19th May, 1757. Vol. xxvin. — June 1st, 1758 — April 26th and 30th, 1759— March 26th and 31st, and April 28th, 1760— Jan. 9th and 20th, 1761. 475 BURKE, EDMUND Vol. xxix.— Jan. 22d and 26th, 1762— March 14th and 17th, 1763. Sir, here is the repeated acknowledg- ment of Parliament, that the colonies not only gave, but gave to satiety. This na- tion has formally acknowledged two things; first, that the colonies had gone beyond their abilities, Parliament having thought it necessary to reimburse them; secondly, that they had acted legally and laudably in their grants of money, and their maintenance of troops, since the com- pensation is expressly given as reward and encouragement. Reward is not bestowed for acts that are unlawful; and encour- agement is not held out to things that de- serve reprehension. My resolution there- fore does nothing more than collect into one proposition, what is scattered through your journals. I give you nothing but your own; and you cannot refuse in the gross, what you have so often acknowl- edged in detail. The admission of this, which will be so honourable to them and to you, will, indeed, be mortal to all the miserable stories, by which the passions of the misguided people have been engaged in an unhappy system. The people heard, indeed, from the beginning of these dis- putes, one thing continually dinned in their ears, that reason and justice de- manded, that the Americans, who paid no taxes, should be compelled to contribute. How did that fact, of their paying noth- ing, stand, when the taxing system be- gan? When Mr. Grenville began to form his system of American revenue, he stated in this House, that the colonies were then in debt £2,600,000 sterling money; and was of opinion they would discharge that debt in four years. On this state, those untaxed people were actually sub- ject to the payment of taxes to the amount of £650,000 a year. In fact, however, Mr. Grenville was mistaken. The funds given for sinking the old debt did not prove quite so ample as both the colonies and he expected. The calculation was too san- guine; the reduction was. not completed till some years after, and at different times in different colonies. However, the taxes after the war continued too great to bear any addition, with prudence or propriety; and when the burthens imposed in con- sequence of former requisitions were dis- charged, our tone became too high to re- sort again to requisition. No colony, since that time, ever has had any requisition whatsoever made to ife. We see the sense of the crown, and the sense of Parliament,, on the productive nature of a revenue by grant. Now search the same journals for the produce of the revenue by imposition — Where is it? — let us know the volume and the page — what is the gross, what is the net produce? — to what service is it applied? — how have you appropriated its surplus? — What, can none of the many skjjful index- makers that we are now employing, find any trace of it? Well, let them and that rest together. But are the journals, which say nothing of the revenue, as silent on the discontent? Oh no! a child may find it. It is the melancholy burthen and blot of every page. I think then I am, from those journals, justified in the sixth and last resolution, which is — "That it hath been found by experience, that the manner of granting the said supplies and aids, by the said general assemblies, hath been more agree- able to the said colonies, and more bene- ficial, and conductive to the public ser- vice, than the mode of giving and granting aids in Parliament, to be raised and paid in the said colonies." This makes the whole of the fundamental part of the plan. The conclusion is irresistible. You cannot say, that you were driven by any necessity to an exercise of the utmost rights of legislature. You cannot assert, that you took on yourselves the task of imposing colony taxes, from the want of another legal body, that is competent to the purpose of supplying the exigencies of the state without wounding the preju- dices of the people. Neither is it true that the body so qualified, and having that competence, had neglected the duty. The question now, on all this accumu- lated matter, is: — whether you will choose to abide by a profitable experience, or a mischievous theory; whether you choose to build on imagination, or fact; whether you prefer enjoyment, or hope; satisfaction in your subjects, or discon- tent? If these propositions were accepted, ev- erything which has been made to enforce a contrary system, must, I take it for grant- ed, fall along with it. On that ground, 476 BURKE, EDMUND I have drawn the following resolution, which, when it comes to be moved, will naturally be divided in a proper manner: '• That it may be proper to repeal an act, made in the seventh year of the reign of his present Majesty, intituled, An act for granting certain duties in the British colonies and plantations in America; for allowing a drawback of the duties of cus- toms upon the exportation from this king- dom, of coffee and cocoa-nuts of the prod- uce of the said colonies and plantations; for discontinuing the drawbacks payable on China earthenware exported to Amer- ica; and for more effectually preventing the clandestine running of goods in the said colonies and plantations. — And that it may be proper to repeal an act, made in the fourteenth year of the reign of his present Majesty, intituled, An act to dis- continue, in such manner, and for such time, as are therein mentioned, the land- ing and discharging, lading or shipping, of goods, wares, and merchandise, at the town and within the harbour of Boston, in the province of Massachusetts Bay, in North America. — And that it may be proper to repeal an act, made in the four- teenth year of the reign of his present Majesty, intituled, An act for the im- partial administration of justice, in the cases of persons questioned for any acts done by them, in the execution of the law, or for the suppression of riots and tu- mults, in the province of Massachusetts Bay, in New England. — And that it may be proper to repeal an act, made in the fourteenth year of the reign of his present Majesty, intituled, An act for the better regulating the government of the province of Massachusetts Bay, in New England. — And, also, that it may be proper to explain and amend an act, made in the thirty-fifth year of the reign of King Henry VIIL, intituled, An act for the trial of treasons committed out of the king's dominions." I wish, sir, to repeal the Boston Port Bill, because (independently of the danger- ous precedent of suspending the rights of the subject during the king's pleasure) it was passed, as I apprehended, with less regularity, and on more partial principles, than it ought. The corporation of Bos- ton was not heard before it was condemn- ed. Other towns, full as guilty as she was, have not had their ports blocked up. Even the restraining bill of the pres- ent session does not go to the length of the Boston Port Act. The same idea of prudence, which induced you not to ex- tend equal punishment to equal guilt, even when you were punishing, induced me, who mean not to chastise, but to reconcile, to be satisfied with the punishment already partially inflicted. Ideas of prudence and accommodation to circumstances prevent you from taking away the charters of Connecticut and Rhode Island, as you have taken away that of Massachusetts colony, though the crown . has far less power in the two former provinces than it enjoys in the latter; and though the abuses have been full as great, and as flagrant, in the exempted as in the punished. The same reasons of prudence and accommodation have weight with m6 in restoring the charter of Massachusetts Bay. Besides, sir, the act which changes the charter of Massachusetts is in many particulars so exceptionable, that if I did not wish absolutely to repeal, I would by all means desire to alter it; as several of its provisions tend to the subversion of all public and private justice. Such, among others, is the power in the governor to change the sheriff at his pleasure; and to make a new returning officer for every special cause. It is shameful to behold such a regulation standing among English laws. The act for bringing persons accused of committing murder under the orders of government to England for trial is but temporary. That act has calculated the probable duration of our quarrel with the colonies; and is accommodated to that supposed duration. I would hasten the happy moment of reconcilation ; and therefore must, on my principle, get rid of that most justly obnoxious act. The act of Henry VIII., for the trial of treasons, I do not mean to take away, but to confine it to its proper bounds and original intention; to make it expressly for trial of treasons (and the greatest treasons may be committed) in places where the jurisdiction of the crown does not extend. Having guarded the privileges of local legislature, I would next secure to the colonies a fair and unbiassed judicature; for which purpose, sir, I propose the fol- lowing resolution: "That, from the time 477 BURKE, EDMUND when the general assembly or general court of any colony or plantation in North America, shall have appointed by act of assembly, duly confirmed, a settled salary to the offices of the chief-justice and other judges of the superior courts, it may be proper that the chief -justice and other judges of the superior courts of such colony, shall hold his and their office and offices during their good behaviour; and shall not be removed therefrom, but when the said removal shall be adjudged by his Majesty in council, upon a hearing on complaint from the general assembly, or on complaint from the governor, or cetmeil, or the house of representatives severally, or of the colony in which the said chief -justice and other judges have exercised the said offices." The next resolution relates to the courts of admiralty. It is this: — "That it may be proper to regulate the courts of admiralty, or vice- admiralty, authorized by the fifteenth chapter of the fourth of George III., in such a manner as to make the same more commodious to those who sue, or are sued, in the said courts, and to provide for the more decent maintenance of the judges in the same." These courts I do not wish to take away; they are in themselves proper es- tablishments. This court is one of the capital securities of the act of naviga- tion. The extent of its jurisdiction, in- deed, has been increased; but this is al- together as proper, and is indeed on many accounts more eligible, where new powers were wanted, than a court absolutely new. But courts incommodiously situated, in effect, deny justice; and a court, par- taking in the fruits of its own condemna- tion, is a robber. The congress complain, and complain justly, of this grievance. There are three consequential proposi- tions. I have thought of two or three more; but they come rather too near de- tail, and to the province of executive gov- ernment; which I wish Parliament always to superintend, never to assume. If the first six are granted, congruity will carry the latter three. If not, the things that remain unrepealed will be, I hope, rather unseemly encumbrances on the building, than very materially detrimental to its strength and stability. Here, sir, I should close; but I plainly perceive some objections remain, which I ought, if possible, to remove. The first will be, that, in resorting to the doctrine of our ancestors, as contained in the pre- amble to the Chester act, I prove too much; that the grievance from a want of representation, stated in that preamble, goes to the whole of legislation as well as to taxation. And that the colonies, grounding themselves upon that doctrine, will apply it to all parts of legislative au- thority. To this objection, with all possible def- erence and humility, and wishing as lit- tle as any man living to impair the small- est particle of our supreme authority, I answer, that the words are the words of Parliament, and not mine; and that all false and inconclusive inferences, drawn from them, are not mine; for I heartily disclaim any such inference. I have chosen the words of an act of Parliament, which Mr. Grenville, surely a tolerably zealous and very judicious advocate for the sovereignty of Parliament, formally moved to have read at your table in con- firmation of his tenets. It is true, that Lord Chatham considered these preambles as declaring strongly in favour of his opinions. He was a no less powerful advocate for the privileges of the Ameri- cans. Ought I not from hence to pre- sume, that these preambles are as favour- able as possible to both, when properly understood; favourable both to the rights of Parliament, and to the privileges of the dependencies of this crown? But, sir, the object of grievance in my resolution I have not taken from the Chester, but from the Durham act, which confines the hardship of want of representation to the case of subsidies; and which therefore falls in exactly with the case of the colonies. But whether the unrepresented countries were de jure (in law), or de facto (in fact), bound, the preambles do not accurately distinguish; nor indeed was it necessary; for, whether de jure, or de facto, the legis- lature thought the exercise of the power of taxing, as of right, or as of fact with- out right, equally a grievance, and equally oppressive. I do not know that the colonies have, in any general way, or in any cool hour, gone much beyond the demand of immunity in 478 BURKE, EDMUND relation to taxes. It is not fair to judge of the temper or dispositions of any man, or any set of men, when they are com- posed and at rest, from their conduct, or their expressions, in a state of disturb- ance and irritation. It is besides a very great mistake to imagine, that mankind follow up practically any speculative principle, either of government or of free- dom, as far as it will go in argument and logical illation. We Englishmen stop very short of the principles upon which we support any given part of our consti- tution; or even the whole of it together. I could easily, if I had not already tired you, give you a very striking and convinc- ing instance of it. This is nothing but what is natural and proper. All govern- ment, indeed every human benefit and en- joyment, every virtue, and every prudent act, is founded on compromise and barter. We balance inconveniences; we give and take; we remit some rights that we may enjoy others; and we choose rather to be happy citizens than subtile disputants. As we must give away some natural lib- erty, to enjoy civil advantages; so we must sacrifice some civil liberties for the advantages to be derived from the com- munion and fellowship of a great empire. But, in all fair dealings, the thing bought must bear some proportion to the purchase paid. None will barter away the immedi- ate jewel of his soul. Though a great house is apt to make slaves haughty, yet it is purchasing a part of the artificial im- portance of a great empire too dear, to pay for it all essential rights, and all the intrinsic dignity of human nature. None of us who would not risk his life rather than fall under a government purely ar- bitrary. But although there are some amongst us who think our constitution wants many improvements to make it a complete system of liberty, perhaps none who are of that opinion would think it right to aim at such improvement, by dis- turbing his country, and risking every- thing that is dear to him. In every ardu- ous enterprise, we consider what we are to lose as well as what we are to .gain; and the more and better stake of liberty every people possess, the less they will hazard to make it more. These are the cords of man. Man acts from adequate motives relative to his interest; and not on metaphysical speculations. Aristotle, the great master of reasoning, cautions us, and with great weight and propriety, against this species of delusive geometri- cal accuracy in moral arguments, as the most fallacious of, all sophistry. The Americans will have no interest contrary to the grandeur and glory of England, when they are not oppressed by the weight of it; and they will rather be inclined to respect the acts of a super- intending legislature, when they see them the acts of that power, which is itself the security, not the rival, of their secondary importance. In this assurance, my mind most perfectly acquiesces; and I confess, I feel not the least alarm from the dis- contents which are to arise from putting people at their ease; nor do I apprehend the destruction of this empire, from giv- ing, by an act of free grace and indul- gence, to 2,000,000 of my fellow-citizens some share of those rights, upon which I have always been taught to value myself. It is said, indeed, that this power of granting, vested in American assemblies, would dissolve the unity of the empire; which was preserved entire, although Wales, and Chester, and Durham were added to it. Truly, Mr. Speaker, I do not know what this unity means; nor has it ever been heard of, that I know, in the constitutional policy of this country. The very idea of subordination of parts, ex- cludes this notion of simple and undivided unity. England is the head; but she is not the head and members too. Ireland has ever had from the beginning a separate, but not an independent, legislature; which, far from distracting, promoted the union of the whole. Everything was sweet- ly and harmoniously disposed through both islands for the conservation of Eng- lish dominion, and the communication of English liberties. I do not see that the same principles might not be carried into twenty islands, and with the same good effect. This is my model with regard to America,- as far as the internal circum- stances of the two countries are the same. I know no other unity of this empire, than I can draw from its example during these periods, when it seemed to my poor un- derstanding more united than it is now, or than it is likely to be by the present methods. 479 BTJRKE, EDMUND But since I speak of these methods, I quantity of payment, and its proportion to recollect, Mr. Speaker, almost too late, that others. If you should attempt it, the com- I promised, before I finished, to say some- mittee of provincial ways and means, or thing of the proposition of the noble lord by whatever other name it will delight to on the floor, which has been so lately re- be called, must swallow up all the time ceived, and stands on your journals. I of Parliament. must be deeply concerned, whenever it is Thirdly, it does not give satisfaction to my misfortune to continue a difference the complaint of the colonies. They com- with the majority of this House. But as plain that they are taxed without their the reasons for that difference are my consent; you answer, that you will fix the apology for thus troubling you, suffer me sum at which they shall be taxed. That is, to state them in a very few words. I you give them the very grievance for the shall compress them into as small a body remedy. You tell them, indeed, that you as I possibly can, having already debated will leave the mode to themselves. I really that matter at large, when the question beg pardon; it gives me pain to men- was before the committee. tion it; but you must be sensible that you First, then, I cannot admit that proposi- will not perform this part of the com- tion of a ransom by auction; because it pact. For, suppose the colonies were to is a mere project. It is a thing new; un- lay the duties which furnished their con- heard of; supported by no experience; tingent, upon the importation of your justified by no analogy; without example manufactures; you know you would of our ancestors, or root in the constitu- never suffer such a tax to be laid. You tion. know, too, that you would not suffer It is neither regular parliamentary many other modes of taxation. So that, taxation, nor colony grant. Experimen- when you come to explain yourself, it turn in corpore vili (Try experiments will be found, that you will neither leave only upon what is of no value) — is a good to themselves the quantum nor the mode; rule, which will ever make me adverse to nor indeed anything. The whole is de- any trial of experiments on what is cer- lusion from one end to the other, tainly the most valuable of all subjects, Fourthly, this method of ransom by the peace of this empire. auction, unless it be universally accc pted, Secondly, it is an experiment which will plunge you into great and inex- must be fatal in the end to our constitu- tricable difficulties. In what year of our tion. For what is it but a scheme for Lord are the proportions of payments to taxing the colonies in the antechamber be settled? To say nothing of the impos- of the noble lord and his successors? To sibility that colony agents should have settle the quotas and proportions in this general powers of taxing the colonies at House, is clearly impossible. You, sir, their discretion, consider, I implore you, may flatter yourself you shall sit a state that the communication by special mes- auctioneer with your hammer in your sages and orders between these agents and hand, and knock down to each colony as their constituents on each variation of it bids. But to settle (on the plan laid the case, when the parties come to con- down by the noble lord) the true propor- tend together, and to dispute on their rela- tional payment for four or five and twenty tive proportions, will be a matter of delay, governments according to the absolute and perplexity, and confusion, that never can relative wealth and burthen, is a wild have an end. and chimerical notion. This new taxa- If all the colonies do not appear at the tion must, therefore, come in by the back- outcry, what is the condition of those door of the constitution. Each quota must assemblies, who offer by themselves or be brought to this House ready formed ; their agents, to tax themselves up to your you can neither add nor alter. You must ideas of their proportion? The refractory register it. You can do nothing further, colonies, who refuse all composition, will For on what grounds can you deliberate remain taxed only to your old impositions, either before or after the proposition? which, however grievous in principle, are You cannot hear the counsel for all these trifling as to production. The obedient provinces, quarrelling, each on its own colonies in this scheme are heavily taxed; 480 BURKE, EDMUND the refractory remain unburthened. What will you do? Will you lay new and heavier taxes by Parliament on the dis- obedient? Pray consider in what way you can do it. You are perfectly con- "\ vinced, that, in the way of taxing, you can do nothing but at the ports. Now, suppose it is Virginia that refuses to ap- pear at your auction, while Maryland and North Carolina bid handsomely for their rfinsom, and are taxed to your quota, how will you put these colonies on a par? Will you tax the tobacco of Virginia? If you do, you give its death-wound to your English revenue at home, and to one of the greatest articles of your own foreign trade. If you tax the import of that re- bellious colony, what do you tax but your own manufactures or the goods of some other obedient and already well-taxed col- ony ? Who has said one word on this laby- rinth of detail, which bewilders you more and more as you enter into it? Who has presented, who can present, you with a clue, to lead you out of it? I think, sir, it is impossible, that you should not recollect that the colony bounds are so implicated in one another (you know it by your other experiments in the bill for prohibiting the New England fishery), that I you can lay no possible restraints on almost any of them which may not be presently eluded, if you do not confound the innocent with the guilty and burthen those whom, upon every principle, you ought to exonerate. He must be grossly ignorant of America, who thinks that, without falling into this confusion of all rules of equity and policy, you can restrain any single colony, especially Virginia and Maryland, the central and most important of them all. Let it also be considered, that, either in the present confusion you settle a per- manent contingent, which will and must be trifling; and then you have no effectual revenue: or you change the quota at every exigency; and then on every new reparti- tion you will have a new quarrel. Reflect, besides, that when you have fixed a quota for every colony, you have not provided for prompt and punctual payment. Suppose one, two, five, ten years' arrears. You cannot issue a treas- ury extent against the failing colony. You must make new Boston Port Bills, new restraining laws, new acts for drag- ging men to England for trial. You must send out new fleets, new armies. All is to begin again. From this day forward the empire is never to know an hour of tranquillity. An intestine fire will be kept alive in the bowels of the colonies, which one time or other must consume this whole empire. I allow, indeed, that the empire of Germany raises her revenue and her troops by the quotas and con- tingents; but the revenue of the empire, and the army of the empire, is the worst revenue and the worst army in the world. Instead of a standing revenue, you will therefore have a perpetual quarrel. In- deed, the noble lord who proposed this project of a ransom by auction, seemed himself to be of that opinion. His proj- ect was rather designed for breaking the union of the colonies, than for establish- ing a revenue. He confessed, he appre- hended that his proposal would not be to their taste. I say, this scheme of dis- union seems to be at the bottom of the project; for I will not suspect that the noble lord meant nothing but merely to de- lude the nation by an airy phantom which he never intended to realize. But what- ever his views may be, as I propose the peace and union of the colonies as the very foundation of my plan, it cannot accord with one whose foundation is perpetual discord. Compare the two. This I offer to give you is plain and simple. The other full of perplexed and intricate mazes. This is mild; that harsh. This is found by experience effectual for its purposes; the other is a new project. This is universal ; the other calculated for certain colonies only. This is immediate in its concilia- tory operation ; the other remote, con- tingent, full of hazard. Mine is what becomes the dignity of a ruling people, gratuitous, unconditional, and not held out as a matter of bargain and sale. I have done my duty in proposing it to you. I have, indeed, tired you by a long dis- course; but this is the misfortune of those to whose influence nothing will be con- ceded, and who must win every inch of their ground by argument. You have heard me with goodness. May you de- cide with wisdom! For my part, I feel my mind greatly disburthened by what I I.— 2h 481 BURKE, EDMUND have done to-day. I have been the less fearful of trying your patience because on this subject I mean to spare it alto- gether in future. I have this comfort, that in every stage of the American af- fairs, I have steadily opposed the measures that have produced the confusion, and may bring on the destruction, of this em- pire. I now go so far as to risk a pro- posal of my own. If I cannot give peace to my country, I give it to my conscience. But what (says the financier) is peace without money? Your plan gives us no revenue. No! But it does; for it se- cures to the subject the power of refusal; the first of all revenues. Experience is a cheat, and fact a liar, if this power in the subject of proportioning his grant, or of not granting at all. has not been found the richest mine of revenue ever discov- ered by the skill or by the fortune of man. It does not, indeed, vote you £152,750:11: 2%ths, nor any other paltry limited sum. But it gives you the strong-box itself, the fund, the bank, from whence only revenues can arise amongst a people sen- sible of freedom: Posita luditur area (The chest is staked ) . Cannot you in England, cannot you at this time of day, cannot you, a House of Commons, trust to the principle which has raised so mighty a revenue, and accumulated a debt of near 140 millions in this country? Is this principle to be true in England and false everywhere else? Is it not true in Ire- land? Has it not hitherto been true in the colonies? Why should you presume, that, in any country, a body duly con- stituted for any function, will neglect to perform its duty, and abdicate its trust? Such a presumption would go against all governments in all modes. But, in truth, this dread of penury of supply from a free assembly, has no foundation in nat- ure. For first observe that, besides the desire which all men have naturally of supporting the honour of their own gov- ernment, that sense of dignity, and that security to property, which ever attends freedom, has a tendency to increase the stock of the free community. Most may be taken where most is accumulated. And what is the soil or climate where experi- ence has not uniformly proved that the voluntary flow of heaped-up plenty, burst- ing from the weight of its own rich luxu- riance, has ever run with a more copious stream of revenue, than could be squeezed from the dry husks of oppressed indigence, by the straining of all the politic ma- chinery in the world. Next we know, that parties must ever exist in a free country. We know too, that the emulations of such parties, their con- tradictions, their reciprocal necessities, their hopes, and their fears, must send them all in their turns to him that holds the balance of the state. The parties are the gamesters; but government keeps the table, and is sure to be the winner in the end. When this game is played, I really think it is more to be feared that the peo- ple will be exhausted, than that govern- ment will not be supplied. Whereas, whatever is got by acts of absolute power ill-obeyed because odious, or by contracts ill kept because constrained, will be nar- row, feeble, uncertain, and precarious. " Ease would retract vows made in pain as violent and void." I, for one, protest against compound- ing for a limited sum, the immense, ever growing, eternal debt, which is due to generous government from protected free- dom. And so may I speed in the great object I propose to you, as I think it would not only be an act of injustice, but would be the worst economy in the world, to compel the colonies to a sum certain, either in the way of ransom, or in the way of compulsory compact. But to clear up my ideas on this sub- ject — a revenue from America transmitted hither — do not delude yourselves — you never can receive it — no, not a shilling. We have experienced that from remote countries it is not to be expected. If, when you attempted to extract revenue from Bengal, you were obliged to return in loan what you had taken in imposition, what can you expect from North America? For certainly, if ever there was a country qualified to produce wealth, it is India; or an institution fit for the transmission, it is the East India Company. America has none of these aptitudes. If America gives you taxable objects, on which you lay your duties here, and gives you, at the same time, a surplus by a foreign sale of her commodities to pay the duties on these objects, which you tax at home, she has performed her part to the British rev- 482 BURKE, EDMUND 'enue. But with regard to her own inter- your registers and your bonds, your affi- nal establishments, she may, I doubt not davits and your sufferances, your cockets she will, contribute in moderation. I say and your clearances, are what form the moderation, for she ought not to be per- great securities of your commerce. Do mitted to exhaust herself. She ought to not dream that your letters of office, and be reserved to a war ; the weight of which, your instructions, and your suspending with the enemies that we are most likely clauses, are the things that hold together to have, must be considered in her quarter the great contexture of the mysterious of the globe. There she may serve you, whole. These things do not make your and serve you essentially. government. Dead instruments, passive For that service, for all service, whether tools as they are, it is the spirit of the of revenue, trade, or empire, my trust is English communion that gives all their in her interest in the British constitu- life and efficacy to them. It is the spirit tion. My hold of the colonies is in the of the English constitution, which, infused close affection which grows from common through the mighty mass, pervades, feeds, names, from kindred blood, from similar unites, invigorates, vivifies every part of privileges, and equal protection. These the empire, even down to the minutest are ties, which, though light as air, are member. Is it not the same virtue which as strong as links of iron. Let the colo- does everything for us here in England? nies always keep the idea of their civil Do you imagine, then, that it is the land I rights associated with your government; tax act which raises your revenue? that 1 they will cling and grapple to you ; and no it is the annual vote in the committee of force under heaven will be of power to supply which gives you your army? or tear them from their allegiance. But that it is the mutiny bill which inspires let it be once understood that your gov- it with bravery and discipline? No! sure- \ ernment may be one thing, and their priv- lv no! It is the love of the people; it/ ileges another; that these two things may is their attachment to their government,; exist without any mutual relation ; the from the sense of the deep stake they have cement is gone; and everything hastens to in such a glorious institution which gives decay and dissolution. As long as you you your army and your navy, and in- have the wisdom to keep the sovereign au- fuses into both that liberal obedience, thority of this country as the sanctuary without which your army would be a base of liberty, the sacred temple consecrated rabble, and your navy nothing but rotten to our common faith, wherever the chosen timber. race and sons of England worship free- All this, I know well enough, will sound dom, they will turn their faces towards wild and chimerical to the profane herd you. The more they multiply, the more of those vulgar and mechanical politi- friends you will have; the more ardent- cians, who have no place among us; a ly they love liberty, the more perfect will sort of people who think that nothing ex- be their obedience. Slavery they can have ists but what is gross and material; and anywhere. It is a weed that grows in ev- who, therefore, far from being qualified ery soil. They may have it from Spain, to be directors of the great movement of they may have it from Prussia. But, until empire, are not fit to turn a wheel in the you become lost to all feeling of your true machine. But to men truly initiated and interest and your natural dignity, free- rightly taught, these ruling and master dom they can have from none but you. principles, which, in the existence, are in This is the commodity of price, of which truth everything, and all in all. Mag- you have the monopoly. This is the true nanimity in politics is not seldom the act of navigation, which binds to you the truest wisdom; and a great empire and commerce of the colonies, and through little minds go ill together. If we are them secures to you the wealth of the conscious of our situation, and glow with world. Deny them this participation of zeal to fill our place as becomes our sta- freedom, and you break that sole bond, tion and ourselves, we ought to auspicate which originally made, and must still pre- all our public proceedings on America serve, the unity of the empire. Do not with the old warning of the church, Sur- entertain so weak an imagination, as that sum corda! (Lift up your hearts). We 483 BURKE— BURLINGAME ought to elevate our minds to the great- Michigan and release the Confederate ness of that trust to which the order of prisoners on Johnson's Island; but the Providence has called us. By adverting Michigan captured the whole party. The to the dignity of this high calling, our ancestors have turned a savage wilderness Island Queen was sunk and the Philo Parsons abandoned. Burley was placed into a glorious empire; and have made the on trial for extradition, and after con- most extensive and the only honourable siderable diplomatic correspondence with conquests, not by destroying, but by pro- the British government was surrendered moting the wealth, the number, the hap- piness of the human race. Let us get an American revenue as we have got an American empire. English privileges have made it all that it is; English privileges alone will make it all that it can be. In full confidence of this unalterable truth, I now (quod felioo faustumque sit) [and may it be lucky and fortunate] lay the first stone of the temple of peace; and I move you: to the United States authorities for pun- ishment. The Confederate government, under the plea of belligerent rights, en- deavored to secure his release or exchange, but without success. Burlingame, Anson, diplomatist; born in New Berlin, Chenango co., N. Y., Nov. 14, 1820. His father, a farmer, removed to Seneca county, Ohio, when Anson was three years of age. Ten years later the family were in Michigan. Anson entered " That the colonies and plantations of the University of Michigan in 1837, and Great Britain in North America, consist- ing of fourteen separate governments, and containing 2,000,000 and upwards of free inhabitants, have not had the liberty and privilege of electing and sending any knights and burgesses or others, to repre- sent them in the high court of Parlia- ment." Burke, Thomas, governor, born in Ireland about 1747; went to Virginia when seventeen years old, and in time engaged in the practice of medicine. Then he studied law, and in 1774 moved to Hills- was graduated at Harvard in 1846. He began the practice of law in Boston, and subsequently became an active member of the Free Soil Party (q. v.), acquiring a wide reputation as an effective speaker. In 1849-50 he was in Europe. In 1852 he was chosen a member of the Massa- chusetts Senate, and became an active sup- porter of the American party in 1854, by which he was elected to Congress the same year. Mr. Burlingame assisted in the formation of the Republican party in 1855-56; and he was regarded as one boro. He had written against the stamp of the ablest debaters in Congress on that act and other obnoxious measures, and he took a conspicuous part in politics in North Carolina. He was a member of the Provincial Congress in 1776; was en- gaged a short time in the army, and was a member of Congress from December, 1776, until early in 1781, when he was chosen governor of the State. In Septem- ber of that year he was seized by Tories, and kept a prisoner on James Isl- and, near Charleston, four months; after which he was regularly exchanged, re- sumed his duties of governor, but soon re- tired to private life. He died in Hills- boro, N. C, Dec. 2, 1783. Burley, Bennett G., naval officer; served in the Confederate navy. On Sept. 19, 1864, with other Confederates, he seized the Philo Parsons, a steamer on Lake Erie, and afterwards another steamer, the Isl- and Queen, with which his party intended to capture the United States gunboat 484 side of the House. Severely criticising Preston S. Brooks for his attack upon Charles Sumner (q. v.), the South Caro- linian challenged him to fight a duel. He promptly accepted the challenge, proposed rifles as the weapons, and Navy Island, just above Niagara Falls, as the place of conflict. Brooks declined to go there, and the matter was dropped. In March, 1861, President Lincoln appointed Mr. Burlin- game minister to Austria. He having spoken in favor of Hungarian indepen- dence, the Austrian government refused to receive him, and he was sent as ambassa- dor to China. There he carried forward important negotiations; and when, in 1867, he announced to the Chinese govern- ment his intention of returning home, Prince Kung, the regent of the empire, offered to appoint him special ambassa- dor to the United States and the great European powers, for the purpose of BURLINGTON HEIGHTS— BURNS framing treaties of amity with those na- tions. This high honor Mr. Burlingame accepted; and at the head of a retinue of Chinese officials, he arrived in the Unit- ed States in March, 1868. From his own country Mr. Burlingame proceeded on his mission to England, France, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, and Prussia. He was well received, and he negotiated treaties with all but France. He had just entered upon negotiations at St. Petersburg, early in 1870, when he died of pneumonia after an illness of only a few days, Feb. 23, 1870. Burlington Heights, Expedition to. The British maintained for some time a fortified camp at Burlington Heights, at the western end of Lake Ontario. There they made a depository of stores; and to capture these an expedition, composed of 300 land troops, under Col. Winfield Scott, borne by the fleet of Commodore Chauncey, left the mouth of the Niagara River, July 28, 1813. The usual feeble guard over the stores had just been reinforced. Con- vinced that their forces were insufficient to seize the prizes, Scott and Chauncey concluded to attack York, from which the British reinforcements had just been sent. The fleet bore the troops across the lake, and entered the harbor of York on July 31. Scott landed his troops without oppo- sition; took possession of the place; burn- ed the barracks, public storehouses and stores, and eleven transports; destroyed five pieces of cannon, and bore away as spoils one heavy gun and a considerable quantity of flour. They found in York (Toronto) the sick and wounded of Boerstler's command captured at the Bea- ver Dams (q. v.). Burnet, William, colonial governor; born at The Hague, Holland, in March, 1688, when William of Orange (after- wards William III. of England) became his godfather at baptism; was a son of Bishop Burnet; became engaged in the South Sea speculations, which involved him pecuniarily, and, to retrieve his fort- une, he received the appointment of gov- ernor of the colonies of New York and New Jersey. He arrived in New York in September, 1720. Becoming unpopular there, he was transferred to the govern- ments of Massachusetts and New Hamp- shire. He arrived at Boston in July, 1728, and was received with unusual pomp. This show he urged in his speech as a proof of their ability to give a liberal sup- port to his government, and acquainted them with the King's instructions to him to insist upon an established salary, and his intention to adhere to it. The Assem- bly at once took an attitude of opposition to the governor. They voted him £1,700 to enable him to manage public affairs, and to defray his expenses in going there. The governor declared himself dissatisfied, and would not consent to their resolve, as it was " contrary to his Majesty's in- structions." The Assembly appealed to their charter, granted by King William, and refused to vote a fixed salary. A spirited contest in writing ensued. In one of his communications the governor threatened the colony with the loss of their charter. They remained firm, " because," they said, " it is the undoubted right of all Englishmen, by Magna Charta, to raise and dispose of money for the public ser- vice of their own free accord, without compulsion." At a town meeting in Bos- ton, during the controversy, a unanimous declaration was made that the people of the town were opposed to settling a fixed salary on the governor. That official then adjourned the legislature to Salem, re- marking, in his message for that purpose, that the interposition of towns was " a needless and officious step, better adapted to the republic of Holland than to a Brit- ish constitution." The Assembly adhered to their determination, and the governor was compelled to yield. In person he was very commanding; frank in manner, and of ready wit. He died Sept. 7, 1729. Burns, Anthony, negro slave; was seized in Boston, as a fugitive slave, May 27, 1854. After a judicial hearing he was remanded to slavery and was taken to the wharf and shipped South under a strong guard to prevent his rescue by anti-sla- very sympathizers. The event created great excitement, and subsequently his freedom was purchased by a subscription raised in Boston, and after his release he settled in Canada. Burns, John, military officer; born in Burlington, N. J., Sept. 5, 1793; served in the War of 1812-15, taking part in the engagements at Plattsburg, Queenston, and Lundy's Lane. He endeavored to en- 485 BURNSIDE— BURNT CORN CREEK list for the Mexican War, but being re- jected on account of his age went with the army as a teamster. In 1863, when the Confederate scouts entered Gettys- burg, he joined a party to oppose them, but was turned back by the National cav- alry. He took an active part in the sub- sequent battle of Gettysburg, and when the report of his participation reached the Northern States it aroused much interest and he was hailed as the " hero of Gettys- burg." He died in Gettysburg, Pa., Feb. 7, 1872. Burnside, Ambrose Everett, military officer; born in Liberty, Ind., May 23, 1824; was graduated at West Point in 1847, and, as a member of a corps of ar- tillery, accompanied General Patterson to Mexico the same year. Afterwards he was in charge of a squadron of cavalry in New Mexico; was quartermaster of the Mexican Boundary Commission in 1850- 51 ; resigned in 1853 ; established a manu- factory of breech-loading rifles (his own invention) in Rhode Island; and was an officer of the Illinois Central Railroad AMBROSE EVERETT BUKNSIDB. Company when the Civil War began. He went into that conflict as colonel of the 1st Rhode Island Volunteers. For good service at the battle of Bull Run he was made (Aug. 6, 1861) major-general of volunteers. He commanded the expedi- tion that captured Roanoke Island {q. v.) in February, 1862; also Newbern and Beaufort. He was called to Virginia after the close of the campaign on the Peninsula, and was active and skilful as a corps commander in many of the most important military events of the war. General Burnside served in the campaign in Maryland under McClellan, and was in the battles at South Mountain and Antie- tam. On Nov. 7, 1862, he superseded McClellan in command of the Army of the Potomac. Failing of success in his at- tack upon Lee at Fredericksburg (Decem- ber, 1862), he resigned, and was succeeded by General Hooker in January, 1863. As- signed to the command of the Department of the Ohio in May, he was active there in suppressing the disloyal elements in that region. In the fall he freed eastern Ten- nessee of Confederate domination, where he fought Longstreet. He was in command of his old corps (the 9th) in Grant's cam- paign against Richmond in 1864-65, where he performed important work. He re- signed April 15, 1865. In 1866 he was elected governor of Rhode Island, and was twice re-elected. Being in Europe in the fall of 1870, he was admitted within the German and French lines around Paris, and ineffectually endeavored to mediate between the belligerents. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1875, and was re-elected in 1880. He died in Bris- tol, R. I., Sept. 3, 1881. Burnt Corn Creek, Battle of. Peter McQueen, a half-blood Creek Indian of Tallahassee, was a fiery leader among the war party of that nation, wherein civil war was raging in the spring of 1813. This war Tecumseh had stirred up, and the whole Creek nation had become a seething caldron of passion. A British squadron in the Gulf held friendly inter- course with the Spanish authorities at Pensacola. To that port McQueen and 300 followers, with pack-horses, went to get supplies and convey them to the war party in the interior. That party was inimical to the white people settled in that nation, and it was the duty of the military in that region to protect the latter. This protection was not furnished, and the white inhabitants and the peace party among the Creeks prepared to de- fend themselves. Col. James Caller called out the militia to intercept McQueen. There was a prompt response, and Caller set out with a few followers. He marched towards the Florida frontier, joined on the 486 BURR way by the famous borderer Capt. Samuel the military family of that officer as hiw Dale and fifty men, who were engaged in aide-de-camp, with the rank of captain, the construction of a fort. He was now Offended because checked by Montgomery in joined by others from Tensaw Lake and his officiousness, he left his staff and joined Little River under various leaders. Caller's Arnold's. On the night of the assault on command now numbered about 180 men, in Quebec (Dec. 30 and 31, 1775) he was with small companies, well mounted on good Montgomery, and, when the latter was frontier horses, and provided with rifles and killed in that assault, he bore his body on shot-guns. Setting out on the main route his back from the field. He left the for Pensacola on the morning of July 27 (1813), they found McQueen encamped upon a peninsula formed by the windings of Burnt Corn Creek. It was resolved to attack him. McQueen and his party were surprised, but they fought desperately a few minutes, and then fled towards the creek. The tide then turned. McQueen and his Indians arose from an ambush with horrid yells and fell upon less than 100 of Caller's men. Dale was severely wounded, but kept on fighting. Over- whelming numbers at length compelled Caller's force to retreat. They fled in dis- order, many of them leaving their horses behind them. Victory rested with the hostile Creeks. Only two of Caller's com- mand were killed and fifteen wounded. The battle of Burnt Corn Creek was the first in the Creek war, a conflict which ruined that nation. See Creek Indians. Burr, Aaron, educator; born in Fair- field, Conn., Jan. 4, 1716; was of German descent; graduated at Yale College in 1735; and ordained by the presbytery army in Canada, and joined the military of east Jersey in 1737. He became family of Washington, at New York, in pastor at Newark, N. J., where he was May, 1776, with the rank of major. Dis- chiefly instrumental in founding the Col- satisfied with that position, he left it in lege of New Jersey (now Princeton Uni- the course of a few weeks and took a simi- versity), and was elected its president in lar position on General Putnam's staff. 1748. In 1752 he married a daughter of He was active in the events connected Jonathan Edwards, the metaphysician. In with the defence and abandonment of the 1754 he accompanied Whitefield to Boston, city of New York in 1776; and in 1777 He died Sept. 24, 1757. he became lieutenant-colonel of Malcolm's Burr, Aaron, Vice-President of the regiment. Burr distinguished himself in United States; born at Newark, N. J., Feb. the battle of Monmouth in 1778, where he 6, 1756; a son of Rev. Aaron Burr, Presi- commanded a brigade in Stirling's division, dent of the College of New Jersey, and During the winter of 1778-79 he was sta- of a daughter of the eminent theologian, tioned in Westchester county, N. Y. For Jonathan Edwards. When nineteen years a short time he was in command of the of age, he entered the Continental army, post at West Point, but, on account of ill- at Cambridge, as a private soldier, and health, he left the army in March, 1779. as such accompanied Arnold in his expe- Burr was a born intriguer, and was nat- / dition to Quebec. From the line of that urally drawn towards Lee and Gates, and expedition, in the wilderness, Arnold became a partisan in their schemes for in- sent him with despatches to General Mont- juring the reputation of Washington. He gomery, at Montreal, where he entered had been detected by the commander-in- 487 AARON BURR. BURR, AARON chief in immoralities, and ever afterwards Blennerhassett, Harman). He had a he affected to despise the military charac- pleasant mansion, enriched by books, ter of Washington. He began to practise adorned with paintings, enlivened by law at Albany in 1782, but removed to music, and presided over by a lovely and New York the next year. Entering the accomplished wife. Burr laid before Blen- arena of politics, he was chosen a member nerhassett a brilliant vision of wealth of the New York legislature in 1784, and and power, in a scheme of conquest or again in 1798. In 1789 he was appointed revolution, which captivated him and fired attorney-general of the State, and com- the ambition that lay in the bosom of missioner of Revolutionary claims in 1791. his wife. They engaged in Burr's scheme, A member of the United States Senate whatever it may have been, with ardor, from 1791 till 1797, Burr was a conspicu- After remaining there some time, Burr ous Democratic leader in that body; and pressed forward, and at Louisville over- in the Presidential election in 1800 he and took Matthew Lyon (q. v.), with whom he Thomas Jefferson had an equal number had voyaged in company in the earlier part of votes in the electoral college. The House of the journey. He accompanied Lyon to of Representatives decided the choice in his home on the Cumberland River, whence favor of Jefferson on the thirty-sixth bal- he journeyed to Nashville on horseback; lot, and Burr became Vice-President. In had a public reception (May 28, 1805), July, 1804, he killed Alexander Hamilton in which Andrew Jackson participated; in a duel ; and the next year he undertook and, furnished with a boat by that gentle- his mad and mysterious enterprise in the man, returned to Lyon's. Then he resumed West, which resulted in his trial for his voyage in his own " ark," and met treason. Wilkinson at Fort Massac, nearly oppo- In March, 1805, Burr's term of office as site the mouth of the Cumberland. Some Vice-President ended, and he descended soldiers were about to depart thence for to private life an utterly ruined man. But New Orleans, and Wilkinson procured a his ambition and his love of intrigue were barge from one of the officers for Burr's as strong as ever, and he conceived schemes accommodation in a voyage to that city, for personal aggrandizement and pecuni- There he found the inhabitants in a state ary gain. It was the general belief, at of great excitement. The introduction of that time, in the United States, that the English forms of law proceedings, and Spanish inhabitants of Louisiana would the slight participation of the people in not quietly submit to our government, public affairs, had produced much discon- Taking advantage of this belief, and the tent, especially among the Creoles and restlessness of many of the inhabitants old settlers. Even the new American im- of the valley of the Mississippi, he con- migrants were divided by bitter political ceived some daring schemes (none fully and private feuds. Burr remained only a developed) of military operations in that short time, when he reascended the Mis- region, which he attempted to carry out sissippi to Natchez, whence he travelled immediately after he left office. With through the wilderness, along an Indian several nominal objects in view, Burr trail or bridle-path, 450 miles, to Nash- started for the Mississippi Valley in com- ville, where he was entertained for a week pany with General Wilkinson, who went by Jackson early in August. After spend- to take possession of his office of governor ing a few weeks there, Burr made his way of the Louisiana Territory, to which he through the Indian Territory to St. Louis, had been appointed. At Pittsburg Burr where he again met Wilkinson, that being started in a vessel called an "ark," in the seat of government of the Louisiana which were fitted up conveniences for a Territory. Then> for the first time, he long voyage. Wilkinson was not ready, threw out hints to Wilkinson of his splen- and the impatient Burr proceeded without did scheme of conquest in the Southwest, him. He stopped at Blennerhassett's Isl- which he spoke of as being favored by the and, nearly opposite Marietta, then in- United States government. At the same habited by a wealthy and accomplished time he complained of the government as Irish gentleman of that name, who had imbecile, and the people of the West as created there a paradise for himself (see ready for revolt. He made no explanation 488 BURR, AARON to Wilkinson of the nature of his scheme, former, fifteen boats on the Muskingum and that officer, suspicious of Burr's de signs, wrote to his friend Robert Smith Secretary of the Navy, advising the gov- ernment to keep a watch upon his move ments. River; and negotiations were set on foot with an Ohio senator to furnish supplies for an army in the West and the purchase of two gunboats he was building for the government. A mercantile house at Mari- Burr went from St. Louis to Vincennes etta, in which Blennerhassett had been a with a letter from Matt. Lyon to Governor partner, was authorized to purchase pro- Harrison, in which he urged the latter to visions, and a kiln was erected on Blen- use his influence to get Burr elected to nerhassett Island for drying corn to fit it Congress from that district. Thence Burr for shipment. Young men enlisted in con- went eastward, stopping at Cincinnati, siderable numbers for an expedition down Chillicothe, and Marietta, everywhere con- the Mississippi, about which only mys- versing with leading men, to whom he terious hints were given, gave only attractive hints of a brilliant Meanwhile Wilkinson had arrived at scheme in hand. He spent that winter Natchitoches to repel, with 500 or 600 and the following spring and summer in troops, a Spanish invasion of the Ter- Philadelphia and Washington, engaged in ritory of Orleans from Texas. There a- his mysterious projects. There he more young man appeared in camp with a let- clearly developed his scheme, which seemed ter of introduction from Jonathan Day- to have a twofold character — the conquest ton, of New Jersey, to Colonel Cushing, the of Mexico from the Spaniards and the es- senior officer next to Wilkinson. He also tablishment of an independent monarchy, slipped, unobserved, a letter into Wilkin- and the revolutionizing the Mississippi son's hand, from Burr, which was a for- Valley, separating that region from the mal letter of introduction. It contained rest of the Union, and forming an inde- a letter from Burr, principally written in pendent republic, with its seat of govern- cipher. Circumstances seem to show that ment at New Orleans. If the first-men- Wilkinson was at this time privy to, if tioned scheme should be carried out, Burr not actually engaged in, Burr's scheme, aspired to be king; if the latter, he was The cipher letter informed Wilkinson that to be president of his new republic. Tow- he (Burr) had arranged for troops under ards the end of summer (August, 1806) different pretexts at different points, who Burr departed on a second Western tour, would rendezvous on the Ohio by Nov. For a year a vague suspicion prevailed 1; that the protection of England throughout the country that Burr was en- had been secured; that Truxton had gone gaged in a scheme for revolutionizing to Jamaica to arrange with the English Mexico — an idea agreeable to the Western admiral ; that an English fleet would meet people because of the existing difficulties on the Mississippi; that the navy of the with Spain. It was believed, too (for so United States was ready to join ; that final Burr had continually hinted), that such orders had been given to his friends and a scheme was secretly favored by the followers; that Wilkinson should be sec- government. Under this impression ond to Burr only; that the people of the Burr's project received the countenance country to which they were going were of several leading men in the Western ready to receive them; and that their country. One of the first things which agents with Burr had stated that, if pro- Burr did after his arrival in Kentucky tected in their religion, and not subject- was to purchase an interest in a claim to ed to a foreign government, all would be a large tract of land on the Washita settled in three weeks. The plan was to River, under a Spanish grant to the Baron move detachments of volunteers rapidly de Bastrop. The negotiation was car- from Louisville in November, meet Wil- ried on through Edward Livingston at kinson at Natchez in December, and then New Orleans. The avowal of an intention to determine whether to seize Baton Rouge to settle on these lands might cover up a (then in possession of the Spaniards as far different design. Blennerhassett now a part of west Florida) or pass on. En- joined Burr actively in his enterprise. To- closed in the same packet was a letter, gether they built, with the money of the also in cipher, from Jonathan Dayton, 489 BURR, AARON telling Wilkinson he would surely be dis- placed at the next meeting of Congress, and added, " You are not a man to de- spair, or even to despond, especially when such prospects offer in another quarter. Are you ready? Are your numerous as- sociates ready? Wealth and glory! Lou- isiana and Mexico! — Dayton." The correspondence, in cipher and other- wise, between Wilkinson and Burr for several months previously leads to the conclusion that the former was, at that time, engaged in Burr's scheme, and that the latter relied upon him. Intimations in the letters of a design to seize newly acquired Louisiana startled Wilkinson, and he resolved to make the best terms he could with the Spanish commander on the Sabine and hasten back to New Or- leans to defend it against any scheme of conquest there which Burr might con- template or attempt. This design he com- municated to Cushing, and obtained from the bearer of the letters such information as excited his alarm to a high pitch. The young man (named Swartwout) stated that he and another (named Ogden) had been sent by Burr from Philadelphia ; that they had carried despatches from Burr to General Adair, of Kentucky, who was a party to the scheme; that they hastened towards St. Louis in search of Wilkinson, but learned at Kaskaskia that he had de- scended the river; that they followed to the mouth of the Red River, when Ogden went on to New Orleans with despatches to Burr's friends there, and he (Swartwout) had hastened to Wilkinson's headquarters. He said Burr was supported by a numer- ous and powerful association, extending from New York to New Orleans; that several thousand men were prepared for an expedition against the Mexican prov- inces; that the Territory of Orleans would be revolutionized — for which the inhabi- tants were quite ready; that he supposed some " seizing " would be necessary at New Orleans, and a forced "transfer" of the bank; that an expedition was to land at Vera Cruz and march thence to the Mexican capital; that naval protection would be furnished by Great Britain; and that Truxton and other officers of the navy, disgusted with the conduct of the government, would join in the enter- prise. After gathering all the information pos- sible, Wilkinson sent, by express, two let- ters to President Jefferson — one official, the other confidential, in which, without mentioning any names, he gave a general outline of the proposed expedition; and then pushed forward to the Sabine. He sent orders to the commanding officer at New Orleans to put that place in the best possible condition for defence, and to se- cure, if possible, by contract, a train of artillery there belonging to the French. Having made a satisfactory arrangement with the Spanish commander, Wilkinson hastened back to Natchitoches, where he received a letter from St. Louis informing him that a plan to revolutionize the Western country was about to explode; i and that Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Ten- nessee, and Orleans Territory had com- bined to declare themselves independent on Nov. 15. Wilkinson, alarmed, or- dered Cushing to hasten down with the troops, while he sped to Natchez; whence he sent a second special messenger to the President with duplicates of his for- mer letters, and another declaring that a. conspiracy really existed; and author- ' ized the messenger to mention the names of Burr, Dayton, Truxton, and others as apparently engaged in the enterprise. He informed Governor Claiborne, of the Or- leans Territory, that his government was menaced by a secret plot, and took other measures for its defence. At New Orleans Wilkinson procured a meeting of the mer- chants, to whom he and Governor Clai- borne made an exposition of Burr's suspect- ed projects. Bollman, an agent of Burr there, with Swartwout and Ogden, were arrested, and the militia of the Territory were placed at Wilkinson's disposal. Great excitement now prevailed on the lower Mississippi and on the Ohio and its tribu- taries. A series of articles, inspired, no doubt, if not written, by Burr, had ap- peared in an Ohio newspaper, signed " Querist," arguing strongly in favor of the separation of the Western States from the Union. Similar articles had appeared in a Democratic paper at Pittsburg. In Kentucky were many uneasy aspirants for political power, and an old story of Span- ish influence there — through pensioners upon the bounty of Spain — was revived. Burr's enterprise became associated in the 490 BURR, AARON public mind with the old Spanish plot; and Burr and his confederates, offended by what they deemed Wilkinson's treach- ery to their cause, associated him with the Spanish intriguers. These hints, reaching the lower Mississippi, embar- rassed Wilkinson; for it was intimated that he was also connected with the schemes of Burr. General Jackson — who had favored Burr's schemes so long as they looked only towards a seizure of Spanish provinces — alarmed by evidences that he had wicked designs against the Union, wrote to Governor Claiborne (with the impression that Wilkinson was associated with Burr ) , warning him to be- ware of the. designs of that officer and the ex- Vice-President. " I hate the Dons," Jackson wrote (Nov. 12, 1806) ; "I would delight to see Mexico reduced; but I would die in the last ditch before I would see the Union disunited." Daviess, United States district attorney for Kentucky, watched Burr, and finally applied to the court for process for his arrest. Burr was summoned before a grand jury (Nov. 25), but, the attorney failing to get such witnesses as he desired, the jury not only failed to find a bill, but declared their belief that Burr intended nothing against the integrity of the Union. This triumph for Burr was celebrated by a ball at Frankfort. Meanwhile the President of the United States had com- missioned Graham, secretary of the Or- leans Territory, to investigate the reports about Burr, and, if well founded, to take steps to cut short his career. On Nov. 27 the President issued a proclamation that he had been informed of an unlawful scheme set on foot for invading the Span- ish dominions; warning citizens of the United States not to engage in it; and directing all in authority to endeavor to suppress it. Before this Graham had drawn from Blennerhassett facts of great importance (for the latter took the sec- retary to be one of Burr's confidants) , and applied to the governor of Ohio for the seizure of the boats on the Muskingum. The legislature, then in session, granted the request. A few days afterwards sev- eral boats, in charge of Colonel Tyler, filled with men, descended the Ohio to Blennerhassett's Island. Blennerhassett, informed of the seizure of his boats on the Muskingum, and that a body of militia was coming to seize those at the island, hastily embarked (Dec. 13) with a few of his followers, and descended the river in Tyler's flotilla. The next day a mob of militia took possession of the island, deso- lated it, and even insulted Mrs. Blenner- hassett, who succeeded in obtaining an open boat and following her husband down the river. The legislature of Kentucky speedily passed a similar act for seizures to that of Ohio. Tyler, however, had already passed Louisville. They were joined by Burr, and the flotilla passed out into the Mississippi and stopped at Chickasaw Bluffs (now Memphis), where Burr at- tempted to seduce the garrison into his service. Burr now first heard of the ac- tion of the legislature of the Orleans Ter- ritory, before which Wilkinson had laid his exposure of the schemes. Perceiving what he might expect at New Orleans, and fearful that the authorities of Mississippi might arrest him at once, Burr passed to the west side of the river, out of their jurisdiction, where he formed a camp, 30 miles above Natchez. Under the procla- mation of the President, a militia force was raised to arrest Burr. He made an unconditional surrender to the civil au- thority, and agreed that his boats should be searched and all arms taken. Before this was accomplished his cases of arms were cast into the river; and as no evi- dence of any hostile intention was found, a belief prevailed that he was innocent of any of the designs alleged against him. Burr was brought before the Supreme Court of the Territory, and was not only not indicted by the grand jury, but they presented charges against the governor for calling out the militia to arrest him. Burr spoke bitterly of Wilkinson as a traitor, and, fearing to fall into his hands, he resolved to disband his men and fly. He told them to sell what provisions they had, and, if they chose, to settle on his Washita lands. They dispersed through the Mississippi Territory, and furnished an abundant supply of school-masters, singing-masters, dancing-masters, and doc- tors. A reward was offered for the capt- ure of Burr, and he was arrested (Feb. 19, 1807) by the Register of the Land- office, assisted by Lieut, (afterwards 491 BURR— BURROWS Maj. - Gen. ) Edmund P. Gaines, near Fort Stoddart, on the Tombigbee River, in eastern Mississippi. An indictment for high treason was found against Burr by a grand jury for the District of Virginia. He was charged with levying war, by the collection of armed men at Blennerhassett's Island, within the do- minion of Virginia. He was also charged with concocting a scheme for the over- throw of the national authority in the Western States and Territories. On these charges he was tried and acquitted. After his acquittal Burr went to England and sought to engage that or some other European government in his project for revolutionizing Mexico. Pressed by his creditors, he lived a miserable life, in poverty, in London and Paris. Becoming subject to suspicion in London as a French spy, he was driven from the country, and took refuge in Paris. Finally, after long solicitations, he obtained leave to return, and appeared in New York in 1812, where he resumed the practice of law; but he lived in comparative poverty and obscurity until 1834, when, at the age of seventy- eight, he married Madame Jumel, a wealthy woman in New York, with whom he lived only a short time, when they were separated. Burr's first wife was Mrs. Pre- lina. She left Charleston (1812) in a vessel to visit her father in New York, and was never heard of afterwards. Burr was small in stature, of great ability, and fascinating in manners. He died on Staten Island, Sept. 14, 1836. Burritt, Elihu, reformer; born in New Britain, Conn., Dec. 8, 1810. At the age of sixteen he was apprenticed to a black- smith. In order to read the Scriptures in their original language, he learned Greek and Hebrew, and read these with so much ease that he continued his stud- ies and mastered many other languages. He was called " the learned blacksmith." He became a reformer, and went to Eng- land in 1846, where he formed the " League of Universal Brotherhood," for the aboli- tion of war, slavery, and other national evils. He was appointed United States consul at Birmingham in 1865, and re- turned home in 1870. He died in New Britain, March 9, 1879. Burrows, William, naval officer; born in Kensington (now a part of Philadel- phia), Oct. 6, 1785; entered the navy, as midshipman, November, 1799; and served under Preble in the war against Tripoli. In March, 1807, he was promoted to lieu- tenant, and, early in the War of 1812-15, he was placed in command of the sloop-of- THE BURROWS MEDAL. vost, the widow of a British officer, by war Enterprise. On Sunday, Sept. 5, 1813, whom he had a daughter, Theodosia. She he fought the British brig Boxer, with the became an accomplished woman, and the Enterprise, off Portland, Me. The Boxer wife of Governor Allston, of South Caro- was vanquished, but Burrows was slain. 492 BUSHYHEAD— BUTLER bk/jamin franklin butler. For this exploit, Congress voted a gold 5, 1818; was graduated at Waterville Col- medal to his nearest male relation. lege, Me., in 1838; was admitted to the Bushy-head, Jesse, jurist; was a self- bar in 1841; and continued the practice educated man; became greatly honored in until 1861, with a high reputation as a the Cherokee Nation; and was chief -jus- criminal lawyer. He was an active poli- tice there for many years. He died in tician in the Democratic party until it? the Cherokee Nation, July 17, 1844. Bute, John Stuart, Earl of, states- man; born in Scotland in 1713; succeeded to his father's titles and estates when he was ten years of age; and, in 1736, mar- ried the only daughter of Lady Mary Wortley Montagu. In February, 1737, he was selected one of the sixteen representa- tive peers of Scotland, and appointed lord of the bedchamber of the Prince of Wales in 1738. The beautiful Princess of Wales gave him her confidence on the death of her husband in 1751, and made him pre- ceptor of her son, afterwards King George III. Over that youth he gained great influence. When he ascended the throne, in 1760, George promoted Bute to a privy councillor, and, afterwards, a secretary of state; and, when Pitt and the Duke of Newcastle retired from the cabinet, Bute was made prime minister. He soon be- came unpopular, chiefly because the King had discarded the great Pitt, and pre- ferred this Scotch adventurer, whose bad advice was misleading his sovereign. In- sinuations were rife about the too inti- mate personal relations of Bute and the young King's mother, who, it was believed, ruled both the King and his minister; and a placard appeared in front of the Royal the middle of May he was made major- Exchange, in large letters, " No petticoat general of volunteers, and put in corn- government — no Scotch minister — no Lord mand of the Department of Virginia, with George Sackville!" Bute was vigorously headquarters at Fort Monroe, where he attacked by John Wilkes in his North held as contraband all fugitive slaves. In Briton. The minister's unpopularity in- August (1861), an expedition which he creased. Suspicions of his being bribed commanded captured forts Hatteras and by the enemies of England were rife; Clarke; and, in the spring of 1862, he and, perceiving a rising storm that threat- led another expedition for the capture of ened to overwhelm him with disgrace, New Orleans, in which he was successful. Bute suddenly resigned his office (April In New Orleans he elicited unbounded 7, 1763), but nominated his successor. He praise from loyal people because of his retired to private life, passing his time vigor and efficiency, and created the most between England and Scotland in the en- intense hatred of himself personally joyment of an ample fortune. He pub- among the Confederates by his restrictive lished, at his own expense ($50,000), a measures. On his arrival he seized the work on botany, in 9 volumes, printing fine St. Charles Hotel, and made it his only twelve copies to make the work headquarters. The mayor of the city, scarce. He died in London, March 10, 1792. John T. Monroe, took an attitude of de- Butler, Benjamin Franklin, lawyer fiance. He refused to surrender the city, and soldier; born in Deerfield, N. H., Nov. or take down the Louisiana flag from the 493 disruption at Charleston in 1860; and he had served as a member of both Houses of the Massachusetts legislature. As brigadier - general of militia he hastened towards Washington, on the call of the President, with troops, in April, 1861, and landed at Annapolis. He was placed in command of the Department of Annapolis, which included Baltimore (q. v.). At BUTLER, BENJAMIN ERANKLIN city hall. The editor of the True Delta move all causes for unnecessary irritation, refused to print Butler's proclamation in and removed his headquarters from the hand-bill form. The general invited the St. Charles to a private residence, city authorities to a conference. The At the beginning of September, 1862, mayor at first refused to go, but finally Butler was satisfied that the Confederates went to the St. Charles, with Pierre Soule had abandoned all ideas of attempting to (formerly member of Congress) and other retake New Orleans, so he proceeded to friends. They persisted in regarding " repossess " some of the rich districts of Louisiana as an independent nation, and Louisiana. He sent Gen. Godfrey Weitzel the National troops as invaders or in- with a brigade of infantry, with artillery, truders. An immense and threatening and Barnet's cavalry, late in October, into mob had collected in the streets in front the region of the district of La Fourche, of the St. Charles. Butler had placed west of the Mississippi. On Oct. 27 Weit- troops there and a cannon for the protec- zel had a sharp fight at Labadieville with tion of headquarters. The commander Confederates under General McPheeters. sent him word that the mob was pressing They were on both sides of the Bayou La hard upon him. " Give my compliments Fourche, with six pieces of cannon. These to General Williams " ( the commander ) , Weitzel attacked with musketry and can- said Butler ; " and tell him if he finds he non. The Confederates were driven and cannot control the mob to open upon them pursued about 4 miles. Weitzel lost with artillery." The mayor and his eighteen killed and seventy-four wounded, friends sprang to their feet, exclaiming, He captured 268 prisoners and one can- " Don't do that, general ! " " Why not, non. He then proceeded to open commu- gentlemen ?" said Butler ; " the mob must nication with New Orleans by the bayou be controlled. We can't have a disturb- and the railway connecting Brashear (af- ance in the street." The mayor went to terwards Morgan ) City with it. The whole a balcony, informed the mob of the gen- country was abandoned, and the troops eral's order, and persuaded them to dis- were received with joy by the negroes, perse. Butler read a proclamation which All industrial operations there were par- he had prepared to Soule, who declared it alyzed, and General Butler, as a state pol- would give great offence; that the people icy and for humane purposes, confiscated were not conquered and would never sub- the entire property of the district, ap- mit, and uttered a threat in smooth terms, pointed a commission to take charge of To this Butler replied : " I have long it, and set the negroes to work, by which been accustomed to hear threats from they were subsisted and the crops saved. Southern gentlemen in political conven- Two congressional districts in Louisiana tions; but let me assure the gentlemen were thus " repossessed," and the loyal cit- present that the time for tactics of that izens of New Orleans elected to seats in nature has passed, never to return. New Congress Benjamin F. Flanders and Mi- Orleans is a conquered city. If not, why chael Hahn. In December, 1862, General are we here ? How did we get here ? Have Butler was succeeded by Gen. N. P. you opened your arms, and bid us wel- Banks ( q. v.), in command of the Depart- come? Are we here by your consent? ment of the Gulf. Late in 1863, he was Would you or would you not expel us if placed in command of the Department of you could? New Orleans has been con- Virginia and North Carolina, and his quered by the forces of the United States, force was designated the Army of the and, by the laws of all nations, lies sub- James. After an unsuccessful expedition ject to the will of the conqueror." These against Fort Fisher, in December, 1864, utterances indicated the course General General Butler retired to his residence in Butler intended to pursue in New Orleans Massachusetts. He was elected to Con- and in the Department of the Gulf; and, gress in 1866, and was one of the princi- within twenty - four hours after he had pal managers of the House of Representa- taken possession of the city, there was a tives in conducting the impeachment of perfect understanding between him and President Johnson. He was a Republi- the people of their mutual relations. But- can Congressman until 1875, and again in ler, at the same time, took pains to re- 1877-79. In 1883 he was Democratic gov- 494 BUTLER, BENJAMIN FRANKLIN ernor of Massachusetts, and in 1884 the People's party candidate for President. He died in Washington, D. C, Jan. 11, 1893. Farewell Address in New Orleans. — As before stated, General Butler was super- seded by General Banks in December, 1862. The latter assumed command of the army and Department of the Gulf on the 16th, and the same day General Butler issued the following address: Citizens of New Orleans, — It may not be inappropriate, as it is not inopportune in occasion, that there should be address- ed to you a few words at parting, by one whose name is to be hereafter indissolubly connected with your city. I shall speak in no bitterness, because I am not con- scious of a single personal animosity. Commanding the Army of the Gulf, I found you captured, but not surrendered; conquered, but not orderly; relieved from the presence of an army, but incapable of taking care of yourselves. So far from it, you had called upon a foreign legion to protect you from yourselves. I restored order, punished crime, opened commerce, brought provisions to your starving peo- ple, reformed your currency, and gave you quiet protection, such as you had not enjoyed for many years. While doing this, my soldiers were subjected to oblo- quy, reproach, and insult. And now, speak- ing to you, who know the truth, I here declare that whoever has quietly remain- ed about his business, affording neither aid nor comfort to the enemies of the United States, has never been interfered with by the soldiers of the United States. The men who had assumed to govern you and to defend your city in arms having fled, some of your women flouted at the pres- ence of those who came to protect them. By a simple order (No. 28) I called upon every soldier of this army to treat the women of New Orleans as a gentleman should deal with the sex, with such effect that I now call upon the just-minded ladies of New Orleans to say whether they have ever enjoyed so complete pro- tection and calm quiet for themselves and their families as since the advent of the United States troops. The enemies of my country, unrepentant and implacable, I have treated with merited severity. I hold that rebellion is treason, and that treason persisted in is death, and any pun- ishment short of that due a traitor gives so much clear gain to him from the clem- ency of the government. Upon this thesis have I administered the authority of the United States, because of which I am not unconscious of complaint. I do not feel that I have erred in too much harshness, for that harshness has ever been exhibited to disloyal enemies of my country, and not to loyal friends. To be sure, I might have regaled you with the amenities of British civilization, and yet been within the supposed rules of civilized warfare. You might have been smoked to death in caverns, as were the covenanters of Scotland, by the command of a general of the royal house of England; or roast- ed like the inhabitants of Algiers during the French campaigns; your wives and daughters might have been given over to the ravisher, as were the unfortunate dames of Spain in the Peninsular War; or you might have been scalped and toma- hawked as our mothers were at Wyoming, by savage allies of Great Britain, in our own Revolution; your property could have been turned over to indiscriminate " loot," like the palace of the Emperor of China; works of art which adorned your buildings might have been sent away, like the paint- ings of the Vatican ; your sons might have been blown from the mouths of cannon, like the Sepoys of Delhi; and yet aTl this would have been within the rules of civil- ized warfare, as practised by the most polished and the most hypocritical na- tions of Europe. For such acts the rec- ords of the doings of some of the inhabi- tants of your city towards the friends of the Union, before my coming, were a suffi- cient provocative and justification. But I have not so conducted. On the contrary, the worst punishment inflicted, except for criminal acts punishable by every law, has been banishment, with labor, to a barren island, where I encamped my own soldiers before marching here. It is true, I have levied upon the wealthy rebels, and paid out nearly half a million of dollars to feed 40,000 of the starving poor of all nations assembled here, made so by this war. I saw that this rebellion was a war of the aristocrat against the middling men; of the rich against the poor; a war 495 BUTLER of the land-owner against the laborer; that it was a struggle for the retention of power in the hands of the few against the many; and I found no conclusion to it save in the subjugation of the few and the disenthralment of the many. I there- fore felt no hesitation in taking the sub- stance of the wealthy, who had caused the war, to feed the innocent poor, who had suffered by the war. And I shall now leave you with the proud consciousness that I carry with me the blessings of the humble and loyal under the roof of the cottage and in the cabin of the slave, and so am quite content to incur the sneers of the salon or the curses of the rich. I found you trembling at the terrors of servile insurrection. All danger of this I have prevented by so treating the slave that he had no cause to rebel. I found the dungeon, the chain, and the lash your only means of enforcing obedience in your ser- vants. I leave them peaceful, laborious, controlled by the laws of kindness and justice. I have demonstrated that the pestilence can be kept from your borders. I have added a million of dollars to your wealth in the form of new land from the battue of the Mississippi. I have cleansed and improved your streets, ca- nals, and public squares, and opened new avenues to unoccupied land. I have given you freedom of elections, greater than you have ever enjoyed before. I have caused justice to be administered so impartially that your own advocates have unanimous- ly complimented the judges of my appoint- ment. You have seen, therefore, the benefit of the laws and justice of the government against which you have rebelled. Why, then, will you not all return to your al- legiance to that government — not with lip service, but with the heart? I con- jure you, if you desire to see renewed prosperity, giving business to your streets and wharves — if you hope to see your city become again the mart of the Western world, fed by its rivers for more than 3,000 miles, draining the commerce of a country greater than the mind of man hath ever conceived — return to your al- legiance. If you desire to leave to your children the inheritance you received of your fathers — a stable constitutional gov- ernment — if you desire that they should in the future be a portion of the greatest empire the sun ever shone upon — return to your allegiance. There is but one thing that stands in the way. There is but one thing that this hour stands between you and the government, and that is slavery. The institution, cursed of God, which has taken its last refuge here, in His provi- dence will be rooted out as the tares from the wheat, although the wheat be torn up with it. I have given much thought to this subject. I came among you, by teach- ings, by habit of mind, by political posi- tion, by social affinity, inclined to sustain your domestic laws, if by possibility they might be with safety to the Union. Months of experience and of observation have forced the conviction that the exist- ence of slavery is incompatible with the safety either of yourselves or of the Union. As the system has gradually grown to its present huge dimensions, it were best if it could be gradually removed, but it is better, far better, that it should be taken out at once than that it should longer vitiate the social, political, and family relations of your country. I am speaking with no philanthropic views as regards the slave, but simply of the effect of slavery on the master. See for your- selves. Look around you and say whether this saddening, deadening influence has not all but destroyed the very framework of your society. I am speaking the fare- well words of one who has shown his devotion to his country at the peril of his life and fortune, who in these words can have neither hope nor interest, save the good of those whom he addresses; and let me here repeat, with all the solemnity of an appeal to Heaven to bear me wit- ness, that such are the views forced upon me by experience. Come, then, to the un- conditional support of the government. Take into your own hands your own in- stitutions; remodel them according to the laws of nations and of God, and thus at- tain that great prosperity assured to you by geographical position, only a portion of which was heretofore yours. Butler, Benjamin Franklin, lawyer; born in Kinderhook Landing, N. Y., Dec. 17, 1795; studied law with Martin Van Buren in Hudson, and subsequently be- came his partner. In 1825 he was ap- pointed one of the three commissioners to revise the Statutes of New York; in 1833- 496 BUTLER 38 was Attorney - General of the United in the battle of Churubusco, Aug. 22, States; and in 1836-37 was acting Secre- 1847. tary of War. In 1837 he became Professor Butler, Richard, military officer; born of Law in the University of the City of in Ireland; came to America before 1760; New York. He was the author of Outlines was a lieutenant-colonel in the Pennsyl- of the Constitutional History of ~New vania line in the Continental army, and York. He died in Paris, France, Nov. 8, also of Morgan's rifle corps in 1777. But- 1858. ler jserved throughout the war; was agent Butler, John, Tory leader; born in for Indian affairs in Ohio in 1787; and Connecticut; was in official communica- was with St. Clair in his expedition tion with the Johnsons in the Mohawk against the Indians, late in 1791, com- Valley before the Revolutionary War, and manding th*e right wing of his army, with was colonel of a militia regiment in Try- the rank of major-general. In that ex- on county, N. Y. In 1776 he organized pedition he was killed by Indians in a a band of motley marauders — white men battle in Ohio, Nov. 4, 1791. and Indians, the former painted and be- Butler, Thomas, military officer; born having like savages. He was in command in Pennsylvania in 1754; was in almost of them in the battle of Oriskany (q. v.), every important battle in the Middle and of 1,100 men who desolated the States during the Revolution. At Brandy- Wyoming Valley in July, 1778. He fought wine and at Monmouth he received the Sullivan in the Indian country in cen- thanks of his commanders (Washington tral New York in 1779, and accompanied and Wayne) for skill and bravery. In Sir John Johnson in his raid on the 1791 he commanded a battalion under St. Schoharie and Mohawk settlements in Clair, and was twice wounded at the de- 1780. He died in Niagara in 1794. His feat of that leader, where his brother son, Walter, was killed during the Richard was killed. He died in New war. Orleans, Sept. 7, 1805. Butler, Matthew Calbraith, military Butler, William, military officer; born officer; born in Greenville, S. C, March 8, in Prince William county, Va., in 1759; 1836; educated at the South Carolina graduated at the South Carolina College College; admitted to the bar in 1857; in 1779; entered the Revolutionary army joined the Confederate army as Captain the same year; served under Pulaski, in June, 1861, reaching the rank of major- Pickens, and Lee; organized a regiment of general. At the battle of Brandy Station mounted rangers; rose to the rank of he lost his right leg. He was a United brigadier - general ; member of Congress, States Senator, 1877-95; major-general of 1801-13. He died in Columbia, S. C, volunteers in the war against Spain, 1898; Nov. 15, 1821. and a commissioner to superintend the Butler, William Orlando, military offi- evacuation of Cuba. cer; born in Jessamine county, Ky., in Butler, Pierce, statesman; born in Ire- 1791; graduated at Transylvania Univer- land, July 11, 1744. He entered the Brit- sity in 1^812; in the War of 1812 he took ish army in 1761; resigned before the part in the engagements of Raisin River, Revolution, and settled in Charleston, Pensacola, and New Orleans; major-gen- S. C. ; member of Congress, 1787, and of eral during the Mexican War, distinguish- the Federal Constitutional Convention, ing himself at Monterey; succeeded Gen- where he supported the " Virginia " plan ; eral Scott in the command of the army in United States Senator, 1789-96 and 1802- Mexico; candidate for Vice-President in 4. He died in Philadelphia, Feb. 15, 1822. 1848 on the ticket with General Cass. He Butler, Pierce Mason, military officer; died in Carrollton, Ky., Aug. 6, 1880. born in Edgefield, S. C, April 11, 1798; Butler, Zebulon, military officer; born entered the United States army in 1819; in Lyme, Conn., in 1731; served in the resigned, 1829; served in the Seminole French and Indian War and in the expe- War; governor of South Carolina, 1838; dition to Havana in 1762, when he became re-entered the army in 1846 as colonel of a captain. He settled in the Wyoming the Palmetto Regiment, which he led with Valley, Pa., in 1769, and was there when great gallantry at Cerro Gordo; killed the valley was invaded by Tories and Ind- 497 BUTTERFIELD— BYRD ians under Col. John Butler in 1778. In jor-general for "gallant and meritorious defence of the inhabitants he commanded service," and was for some years head of the feeble force there, but was unable to the sub-treasury in New York City. He prevent the massacre that took place, died in Cold Spring, N. Y., July 17, 1901. The next year he accompanied Sullivan Butterworth, Benjamin, statesman; in his expedition into the Indian country born in Warren county, O., Oct. 22, 1822; in central New York, and served during educated at Ohio University; member of the remainder of the war. He died in Congress, 1879-83; 1884-90 commissioner Wilkesbarre, Pa., July 28, 1795. of patents, 1883 and 1897. He died in Butterfield, Daniel, military officer; Thomasville, Ga., Jan. 16, 1898. born in Utica, N. Y., Oct. 31, 1831; Butts, Isaac, journalis., born in Wash- graduated at Union College in 1849; be- ington, N. Y., Jan. 11, 1816; edited the Rochester Advertiser, 1845-49, and the Rochester Union, 1857-64; originated the doctrine of " Squatter Sovereignty," or "Popular Sovereignty" — that -the people of each Territory should decide the ques- tion of slavery for themselves. He died in Rochester, N. Y., Nov. 20, 1874. Byrd, William, colonial official; born in Westover, Va., March 16, 1674. In- heriting a large fortune, and acquiring a good education, he became a leader in the promotion of science and literature in Virginia, and was made a fellow of the Royal Society of London. Long receiver- general of the revenue in Virginia, he was also three times made agent of that colony in England, and was for thirty - seven years a member, and finally president, of the King's council of the colony. He was one of the commissioners, in 1728, for running the boundary - line between came brigadier-general of volunteers soon Virginia and North Carolina. He made after the breaking out of the Civil War, notes of his operations and the -incidents and took part in campaigns under Gen- thereof, which form a part of the West- erns McClellan, Burnside, Hooker, and over Manuscripts, published by Edmund Pope. He was Hooker's chief-of-staff at Ruffin in 1841. In 1733 he laid out the the battle of Lookout Mountain. At the cities of Richmond and Petersburg, Va. close of the war he was brevetted ma- He died Aug. 26, 1744. 498 DANIEL BDTTKRPIEI.D. *!F^ OF THE UNIVERSITY 0)