WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
OPINIONS OF THE PRESS. 
 
 "SCOTSMAN." "Workshop Notes and ^ketches" is a useful intro- 
 ductory manual of technical instruction in wood working. It is written in a 
 clear and business like style, and has a good equipment of illustrations. 
 
 "SCOTS OBSERVER." The Author has had considerable experience in 
 teaching handicraft classes, and the course he lays down in his valuable little 
 work has been attended with satisfactory results. The volume is marked by 
 purpose-like methods which constitute it an admirable manual. 
 
 "ABERDEEN FREE PRESS." This manual is extremely well adapted 
 for its purpose, and will doubtless be widely welcomed by those interesting 
 themselves in the subject of technical education. The Author's practical 
 experience and success as a teacher have enabled him to do precisely what 
 was wanted. 
 
 " NEWCASTLE DAILY CHRONICLE." The instruction as to the use and 
 treatment of tools, and the lessons in the details of practical joinery, are 
 comprehensive and intelligible, while the execution of work is facilitated by a 
 series of useful diagrams. 
 
 " DUNDEE ADVERTISER." All those engaged in technical education 
 will find " Workshop Notes and Sketches" of great service to them. 
 
 "LIVERPOOL COURIER." "Workshop Notes and Sketches" is an 
 excellent practical text-book for a first year's course in wood working. It is 
 obviously the work of an experienced teacher, and will be found widely 
 useful. 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES & SKETCHES 
 
 FOR 
 
 HANDICRAFT CLASSES 
 
 BEING 
 
 A FIRST YEAR'S COURSE 
 
 IN 
 
 WOOD & METAL WORKING 
 
 BY 
 
 THOMAS A. CLARK, M.I.MECH.E. 
 
 
 SUPERINTENDENT OF WORKSHOPS AND TECHNICAL DRAWING MASTER, 
 GEORGE HERIOT'S HOSPITAL SCHOOL, EDINBURGH. 
 
 SECOND EDITION 
 
 EVISED AND ENLARGED 
 
 EDINBURGH 
 
 JAMES THIN, PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 1892 
 
 [ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HAI.L.] 
 
u 
 
 A. RITCHIE & SON, PRINTERS, 
 51 YORK PLACE, EDINBURGH. 
 
UNIVERSITY 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION being of so recent introduction 
 into our schools, teachers have meantime at their command 
 only a limited selection of text-books on the subject, and 
 in one of its branches, handicraft, no text-book entirely 
 suitable for young pupils has yet been published. 
 
 That the present book, which is the result of several 
 years' experience in the teaching vof handicraft in schools, 
 will altogether supply the want, it may be too much to 
 suppose ; but so far as it goes, the course which it lays 
 down has been found to yield very satisfactory results. 
 
 By providing pupils with an outline of the session's 
 work, and a concise description of the tools employed, a 
 considerable economy of time is effected. 
 
 Only the tools absolutely necessary for the various 
 processes are here described, but should the teacher 
 desire to refer to additional tools or otherwise vary the 
 course, advantage can be taken of the blank pages which 
 have been inserted chiefly for extension notes. 
 
 There may be a variety of opinion -about the most 
 suitable practice for beginners, but in the writer's 
 experience, that is best which gives every one the 
 opportunity of becoming familiar with some common 
 tools and fundamental processes involving their use. 
 
 Such a training leads to manual dexterity and habits 
 of accurate and intelligent observation. 
 
The exercises chosen are of a practical nature, so that 
 any one requiring them for trade purposes may have 
 nothing to unlearn. 
 
 To prevent confusion, dimensions have not been noted 
 on the sketches ; they should be given to suit the materials 
 chosen for practice. Frequent reference should be made 
 to the proportion of all parts in the various exercises, and 
 examples of their application exhibited or enumerated. 
 
 It may only be added that combinations will readily 
 suggest themselves to the experienced teacher, which will 
 enable him to vary, and to make additions to the course 
 of work here sketched. 
 
 PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 THIS Edition of "Workshop Notes and Sketches" has 
 been carefully revised and considerably enlarged. In 
 response to numerous requests made to him, the Author 
 has added an entirely new part on " Metal Work," which 
 it is hoped may meet with an equal measure of approval 
 to that bestowed on his Wood Work notes. 
 
 Under the head of Metal Work, the subjects of turning 
 lathes, planing, shaping and drilling machines, black- 
 smithing, moulding, and fitting are taken up and treated 
 from the standpoint of a practical teacher, whose daily 
 duty it is to instruct in the various branches of handicraft 
 dealt with in this little volume. 
 
 October 1892. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 WOOD WORKING TOOLS. 
 
 BENCH PLANES, 
 SAWS, . 
 RULE, 
 SQUARE, 
 PIN-HAMMER, . 
 MARKING GAUGE, 
 MORTISE GAUGE, 
 PARING CHISELS, 
 SOCKET CHISELS, 
 GOUGES, 
 OILSTONE, 
 SLIP STONE, 
 OIL CAN, 
 PARING BOARD, 
 BENCH-HOOK, . 
 SLIDING BEVEL, 
 MARKER, 
 MALLET, 
 WING COMPASS, 
 BRAD AWLS, 
 SCREW DRIVER, 
 PINCERS, 
 SPOKESHAVE, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 i 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 5 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 6 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 7 
 8 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 WOOD WORKING. 
 
 SAWING OR BREAKING OUT WOOD, . 
 
 PLANING, .... 
 
 GAUGING TO WIDTH AND THICKNESS, 
 
 JOINTING, 
 
 HALVING, .... 
 
 NOTCHING, 
 
 COGGING, 
 
 REBATE JOINT, 
 
 MITRE JOINT, . 
 
 MORTISE AND TENON JOINT, . 
 
 BRIDLE JOINTS, 
 
 SCARFING, 
 
 BOARD JOINTING, 
 
 DOVETAIL JOINTS, 
 
 HALF-LAP DOVETAIL, . 
 
 WOOD TURNING, 
 
 PART III. 
 METAL WORKING. 
 
 TURNING LATHES, 
 PLANING MACHINES, . 
 SHAPING MACHINES, . 
 DRILLING MACHINES, . 
 BLACKSMITH WORK, . 
 MOULDING AND CASTING, 
 FITTING AND FINISHING, 
 
 SKETCHES. 
 
OF THE 
 
 E 
 
 PART I. 
 
 GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS. 
 
 Bench Planes. An ordinary set comprises, in general 
 the three (^)jack plane^ (b) halflong, truing or trying plane, and 
 (c) hand or smoothing plane. The jack plane is used for removing 
 the rough surface after the saw, securing approximately correct 
 surfaces, and for rough work generally. The halflong is employed 
 for straightening, flattening or truing surfaces after the jack 
 plane. The hand plane is used for smoothing or finishing 
 work after the other planes, as also for numerous purposes 
 for which the jack or halflong would be unsuitable. The 
 stocks of bench planes are made of beech. The irons or 
 cutters are of wrought iron faced with cast steel to form the 
 cutting edge, which makes grinding more easily performed than 
 if they were wholly made of cast steel. The irons are fixed in 
 the planes at the angle of 45 to the face and kept in position by 
 beech wedges Plane irons are sharpened on the grindstone at 
 the angle of about 25, on one side only the other being left quite 
 flat; and afterwards on the oilstone at about the angle of 35, 
 thus leaving about 10 as an angle of clearance. Each iron is 
 
2 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 provided with a steel cover (kept in position by a screw) for the 
 purpose of strengthening the cutting edge, and at the same time 
 acting on the shaving as it is being removed, raising it up at a 
 more obtuse angle and enabling the cutting edge to get closer to 
 the point where the shaving is being severed from the wood. 
 This secures a better cutting action, and removes to a great 
 degree the splitting tendency, otherwise unavoidable. The screws 
 are all right hand, and are tightened on being turned by the thin 
 pane of a pin-hammer, in the same direction as that of the forward 
 motion of the hands of a clock or watch. The cover of a jack 
 plane iron should be kept about ^' from the cutting edge, whilst 
 those of halflong and hand planes should be placed as close to the 
 edge as practicable. 
 
 To keep planes in good working order, the stocks, when new, 
 ought to be well soaked with raw linseed oil, and receive an 
 occasional coat afterwards. This will cause them to work more 
 easily, last longer, look better, and be more pleasant to handle. 
 
 Saws. The saws required in general work are the rending 
 or ripping-saw, cross-cut or hand-saw, panel-saw, tenon-saiv, dove- 
 tail saw, and compass-saw. They may be classified into three 
 divisions, (a) for cutting along the grain of the wood, (b) for 
 cutting across the grain and (c) for cutting both ways. The 
 rending-saw is the only one belonging to the first class, the cross- 
 cut and panel-saws belong to the second, and the remaining three 
 to the third. The chief differences exist in form and size of 
 teeth and blade. 
 
 RENDING-SAW. The cutting faces of rending-saw teeth are 
 almost at right angles to a line touching their points. The teeth 
 are nearly of the form of right angled triangles, but for hard woods 
 this hook or angle is too great, and the teeth are sloped back- 
 wards so as to make the angle of contact with the wood more 
 obtuse. 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 3 
 
 CROSS-CUT OR HAND-SAW. This saw has its teeth more in 
 the form of equilateral triangles, and thus resembles a rending 
 saw used for hard wood, the angle being nearly equal at both 
 sides. The teeth of this saw are somewhat smaller than those of 
 the rending saw, as the saw itself is also smaller than the other. 
 
 PANEL-SAW. The panel-saw is very similar to the cross-cut, 
 only its teeth are smaller, and its blade smaller and thinner. 
 
 TENON-SAW. This saw has a thinner blade and finer teeth 
 than any of the foregoing, and is used for finer work. To 
 strengthen the thin blade, a thick back is supplied, giving to it 
 the name of the back-saw. 
 
 DOVETAIL-SAW. This is like the tenon-saw in all respects, 
 only smaller and finer every way, and is used for finer and 
 lighter work. 
 
 COMPASS-SAW. The compass-saw has a narrow, tapered blade, 
 and is used for curved work, as in following the lines traced by a 
 compass. 
 
 Saw blades are made of cast steel plate, while the backs of 
 tenon and dovetail-saws are made of iron, steel, or brass. The 
 handles are made of beech, fixed to the blades by brass screws. 
 Good saws have their blades ground thinner towards the back. 
 This makes them more easily worked, even with a smaller 
 amount of set. 
 
 SET. Set is the bending of adjacent teeth to opposite sides, to 
 make a wider saw-kerf and thus reduce the friction on the sides of 
 the saw. The cleaner the saw. cuts and the drier the wood, the 
 less necessity for set ; but if the wood is wet, or the saw dull, then 
 the value of set will be more readily perceived. 
 
 SHARPENING. Saws are sharpened by files of triangular 
 section, the blade being secured in a suitable vice. Alternate 
 teeth are sharpened from the same side, one complete side being 
 sharpened and then the saw reversed for the sharpening of the 
 
 VNIVERSITY 
 
4 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 opposite side. The file must be held at different suitable angles 
 to give the proper form to the teeth. 
 
 The Rule. For workshop purposes the rule varies in 
 length from 6 in. to 4 ft., the longer ones being made to fold up 
 into convenient lengths. The i, 2, and 3 foot rules are most 
 largely used the latter two being folded up into 6 in. and 9 in. 
 lengths respectively. Each foot is divided into inches and any 
 suitable fractional part of an inch, as J in., J in., J in., T X F in., &c. 
 Rules are mostly made of boxwood and mounted with brass ; but 
 small ones, to be used also as straightedges, are often of steel or 
 brass. 
 
 The Square. This tool is made up of two parts the stock 
 and the blade, fixed together at the angle of 90. The former part 
 is made of rosewood, covered on the edge by a brass plate to 
 prevent wear, the latter is a thin steel plate, and both are fixed 
 together by means of rivets to prevent shifting. 
 
 Pin-Hammer. The form of this tool for bench work is 
 varied, but a convenient shape is one with a thin cross-pane, 
 suitable for moving the plane iron screws. A useful weight is 
 about 10 oz. The head is made of cast steel and the handle of 
 ash. The handle is slightly reduced in section towards the head 
 so as to afford it more spring. 
 
 Marking Gauge One common form of construction of 
 this tool is a sliding block of beech, fitted tightly on a parallel bar 
 of the same material and provided with a screw of boxwood, let 
 into the side of the former, so that it can be readily pinched on to 
 the latter, to fix them in any desired position. At one end of 
 the bar, a sharp steel pin is passed through for the purpose of 
 marking the wood to be gauged. This tool is employed for 
 gauging wood to any desired size, such as, for example, width 
 or thickness of a rectangular block, preparatory to planing down 
 to the required dimensions. 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 Mortise Gauge. The mortise gauge is very much like the 
 marking gauge, the chief difference lying in its being supplied 
 with two marking pins instead of one. The block and bar are 
 made of rosewood, and the screw of steel. One of the pins can 
 be moved along the bar by means of a screw and slide, so that 
 the marking pins may be set at any desired distance apart. This 
 gauge is used for making two marks at one time, necessary as in 
 the case of the mortise and tenon joint. 
 
 Paring Chisels. These are divided into two classes, 
 namely, firmer chisels and bevel-edged chisels. Firmer chisels are 
 of rectangular section, while the others, as their name indicates, 
 have their edges bevelled away at an angle, making them more 
 suitable for some kinds of work, as also lighter to use. They are 
 made entirely of cast steel, the cutting edges being at one end 
 and a tapered tang at the other. The cutting edge is formed by 
 grinding at the angle of 20 and setting on the oilstone at an 
 angle of about 30. This is done on one side only, the tool being 
 left quite flat on the other, just as in the plane irons, and unlike 
 the axe, which is sharpened equally from both sides. A hard- 
 wood handle is driven on to the tang. Chisels vary in width 
 from ^ in. to 2 in. and upwards, and are employed to form flat 
 surfaces, on many of which the planes could not be applied. 
 
 Socket Chisels. For heavier work this chisel is more 
 suitable than the firmer chisel, and instead of the handle being 
 driven on to a tang, it is fitted into a socket. They are also 
 known as mortise chisels because much of the work done by them 
 is of the nature of mortising. The most of their work being 
 heavy, a hammer or mallet is necessary to drive them into the 
 wood, the mallet being the better of the two for this purpose. 
 
 Gouges. Gouges are very much like firmer chisels, only 
 they have a curved form of section. They are of two kinds, 
 namely, firmer gouges, which are ground on the outside of the 
 
6 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 curvature, and incanneled gouges, ground on the inside. This is 
 to allow of a greater variety of work being done by them. They 
 are to be had from \ in. upwards. The general remarks on firmer 
 chisels apply here, except that in sharpening the concave surface, 
 a slip of oilstone with a suitably curved edge has to be used, the 
 oilstone itself being employed for the outside. 
 
 Oilstone. This piece of bench-furnishing has a variety of 
 names, such as hone, set-stone, whet-stone, sharpening-stone, &c. 
 It is used for sharpening or setting edge tools after the grindstone 
 has performed its part. The oilstone ought to be mounted in a 
 small case of hard wood, having its upper surface covered when 
 not in use, to protect from dust. Some good oil, such as sperm, 
 should be applied on the surface operated upon, which surface 
 ought to be kept as clean and flat as possible. 
 
 Slip Stone. This is simply a small piece of oilstone with 
 rounded edges of different thickness and curvature, and is used 
 for sharpening gouges or edge tools of curved or irregular form, 
 on which the common oilstone cannot be conveniently brought to 
 act. It may be fixed in a case with the edge up, or used in the 
 hand without any case. 
 
 Oil Can. The most suitable form for bench use is made of 
 conical shape, either of brass or tinplate. The bottom is flexible, 
 and a nozzle having a small hole is screwed into the top. The 
 discharge of oil is effected by inverting the can and lightly pressing 
 the bottom. 
 
 Paring Board. To prevent the benches from being cut 
 with chisels, or other edge tools, and likewise to prevent the tools 
 themselves from being blunted by coming in contact with any 
 sand, nail, or other hard substance which might be on the bench- 
 top, it is advisable to be provided with a small piece of service 
 wood to work upon, which should be used at all times when any 
 process entails such operations as paring, &c. Its top surface 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 7 
 
 should be kept clean and flat, and if damaged in such a way as to 
 mark the work, should be refaced. 
 
 Bench- Hook. Although much of the sawing generally 
 done against the bench-hook can be performed against the bench 
 stop, yet if the wood has to be cut through, it is the safer way to 
 use the hook, as there is less danger of cutting the surface of the 
 bench. Any cutting of the bench is always objectionable and 
 more especially near the stop itself. 
 
 Sliding Bevel. Although different from the square, still 
 the sliding bevel is used for exactly similar work. Its corre- 
 sponding parts are made of the same materials as those of the 
 square, only the stock and blade are fixed together by means of 
 a screw instead of rivets, which allows them to be set at any 
 desired angle to one another. The blade is provided with a slot, 
 so that it may be shifted on end to suit special circumstances. 
 
 Marker. This tool is also known by such names as the 
 drawpoint and scriber. It is formed of a tapered piece of steel 
 wire about 6 in. long, and J in. diameter at one end (on which 
 may be fixed a handle) but coming to a sharp point at the other. 
 It is employed for marking or lining the more exact pieces of 
 work, such as in dovetail jointing, &c., when it is used to trace 
 the exact size and form of the dovetail pins upon the piece in 
 which the holes are to be made, or to make other exact transfers 
 when the pencil would not be suitable. 
 
 Mallet. When mortising or heavy paring has to be done, it 
 is not advisable to use a hammer, as the tool handles are too 
 readily damaged by this means. For such purposes the mallet 
 should be taken. Like hammers, these tools are made in a 
 variety of shapes, guided by the kind of work and the taste of the 
 workman. They may be made of various hard woods, the chief 
 item of importance being to select a piece of wood of tough nature 
 and not ready to split. 
 
8 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 Wing Compass. The chief difference between this one 
 and the simple compass is that the former is provided with a 
 radial wing fixed into one leg and passing through a small slot in 
 the other, where it can be pinched by a thumb screw to set the 
 compass at any required radius. Besides being used for describing 
 circles, or parts of circles, on the work under treatment, one 
 common use this tool is put to is that of laying off equal distances 
 either in a straight line or along the circumference of a circle. 
 By this means a much more exact result is arrived at, than by the 
 employment of the rule and pencil. 
 
 Brad Awls. Brad awls are used for making holes suitable 
 for small nails and screws. They are made of steel and vary in 
 diameter from the size of a small needle up to |- in. They are 
 sharpened equally at opposite sides and brought to a sharp flat 
 point. On the other end there is a tang on which is driven a 
 handle. The cutting edge should be inserted into the wood 
 across the grain to prevent splitting. The tool ought to be held 
 as nearly as possible in the direction in which the hole is begun, 
 as any attempt to alter it after the hole has been nearly bored 
 might result in the breaking of the awl. Equal care should be 
 taken in extracting it from the wood, for the same reason. 
 
 Screw Driver. Another name for this tool is the turn- 
 screw. It is used for turning or driving screw nails, as its names 
 suggest, and is made of suitable sizes to fit different screws. The 
 bar which acts on the screw is made of steel and thinned on the 
 point to fit the groove in the head of the screw. Like the chisel, 
 the other end is formed into a tang, upon which is fixed a handle 
 somewhat broader and flatter than the chisel handle. 
 
 Pincers. The pincers are used to pull out service nails, or 
 those which have gone wrong in driving. Although quite suitable 
 for bench work, they are discarded by joiners in roof work, floor 
 work, and general lining, in favour of the claw-hammer, which 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 can perform the double function of both driving and drawing 
 nails. 
 
 Spokeshave. For finishing many small curves the planes 
 are quite unsuited, and have to give place to the spokeshave, which 
 is constructed for the purpose. Boxwood and beech are the usual 
 materials of which its stock is made, but metal is also used. The 
 iron has two tangs at right angles to the cutting edge, by means of 
 which it is held firmly in the stock, the position of the iron 
 regulating the thickness of the shaving, as in the bench planes. 
 Both hands are needed to work the spokeshave, and the guiding 
 surface being so small, makes dexterity in its use rather difficult to 
 acquire. 
 
PART II 
 
 NOTES AND SKETCHES OF EXERCISES IN WOODWORK. 
 
 Sawing or Breaking out Wood. Before commencing 
 to cut out material for any piece of work, it is necessary to know 
 exactly the sizes of the several pieces required, the best method 
 of construction, and the class of wood to be used. Unless these 
 points are attended to, mistakes will be the outcome, leading to 
 loss of time and material, besides the danger of getting into bad 
 habits. It is always advisable to see the way clear from the 
 beginning to the end, and this can only be done by having correct 
 drawings of the articles to be constructed, from which a thorough 
 mental grasp of the whole should be obtained before starting 
 work. When a list of the sizes and sorts of wood required, with 
 allowance for sawing and planing, has been made up and the 
 wood selected, the rule, pencil, square, straightedge, and saws 
 should be at hand for lining on and cutting out the pieces 
 required. If those pieces are parallel, and one edge of the board 
 from which they are to be taken is quite straight, then a very 
 simple way of drawing the lines parallel to the edge, is by using 
 the rule and pencil like a marking gauge. The rule, held in the 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 11 
 
 left hand, is placed square across the top surface of the board as 
 far as the desired width of the piece to be cut out, and kept in 
 position by the thumb nail, which performs the functions of the 
 sliding block of the marking gauge. The pencil, as marker, must be 
 pressed against the end of the rule, and be in contact with the surface 
 of the wood. If both rule and pencil are now simultaneously and 
 carefully moved towards the body, a line, parallel to the edge, will 
 be drawn. By adopting this practice, a considerable amount of 
 time is saved. The forefinger nail of the left hand should not be 
 used in place of the thumb nail, for fear of accident. In many 
 instances the wood may not be straight on the edge, and the pieces 
 required may be of irregular shapes, and in these the rule and 
 straightedge should be resorted to. The best arrangement of the 
 pieces to be cut from a board, is that which allows them to be 
 broken out most easily and with the smallest possible waste. 
 Should knots or small cracks be objectionable, then both sides of 
 the wood ought to be well examined before lining, to avoid dis- 
 appointment, and waste of time and material when the work has 
 reached a more advanced stage. This is a safe precaution at all 
 times. 
 
 In sawing out, the greatest care should be observed to cut 
 exactly by the lines and quite square through, but never on 
 any account to cut further than is absolutely necessary. As 
 considerable difficulty is generally experienced by beginners in 
 starting the cut, it will be found a great assistance if the weight 
 of the saw is nearly all borne by the right hand, while the points 
 of the teeth are brought lightly in contact with the wood, the 
 blade being guided into position by the thumb of the left hand. 
 Should the saw tend to leave the line, this can be counteracted by 
 a slight twist on the handle in the opposite direction, by the right 
 hand. This tendency is often due to a blunt side of the saw, or less 
 set on one side than the other, but more generally to a constant 
 
12 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 pressure by the hand in one direction, which should be early 
 avoided. 
 
 Planing. In using the planes, so as to obtain good results, 
 they ought to be kept quite sharp ; the covers must be screwed 
 firmly in their proper places on the irons ; the shavings should be 
 kept clear out of the plane mouth to prevent choking; and the 
 planes held steadily and straight along the wood. 
 
 Planing the Face. The best surface should be selected 
 for the face. If a piece of wood has been standing for some time 
 on the ground, the end may be covered with sand, and to avoid 
 blunting the planes, it may either be cut off with the saw, or a 
 small corner, called a chamfer, taken off the surface to be planed 
 This may be done by the paring chisel or jack plane. A shaving 
 should then be taken off all over, and the face made approximately 
 correct with the jack plane before using the halflong upon it. 
 The properties of a true face are threefold, ist, flat across, tested 
 by the edge of the square blade applied crossways; 2nd, straight 
 lengthways, tested (if short) by the edge of the square blade 
 placed along the wood, but if long, by a straightedge of suitable 
 length, or more commonly by the eye ; and 3rd, out of twist or 
 winding^ tested by diagonal application of the edge of square blade 
 both ways, by the eye, or by two winding-sticks, which are simply 
 parallel pieces of wood laid across the piece to be tested, one at 
 each end, with the edge up, when any twist or winding may be 
 detected by looking across their upper edges. After the face has 
 been properly finished with the halflong, some distinctive mark 
 should be put upon it, as on A, Fig. 12. 
 
 The Edge. If the wood is thin and broad, it will be 
 most easily held in position by fixing in the vice, with the edge 
 up, which will allow both hands to be free for manipulating the 
 planes. The properties of a true edge are its being, ist, at 
 right angles to the face, and 2nd, straight lengthways. The 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 V -"-ti 
 
 X^ t^ . OF _S 
 
 former is tested by firm application of the^^dge of square s'tock 
 upon the face, with the edge of the blade passing across the edge 
 of the wood, accuracy being obtained when the wood exactly 
 fills the square. The latter is tested by the same means as the 
 corresponding property of the face. The edge when finished with 
 the halflong should be marked in the same way as \heface. None 
 of the other sides, however, should be marked in this manner. 
 
 The Ends. The ends can be most easily planed when the 
 wood is fixed into the vice, end up, and only a little above the, 
 surface of the bench. As in this process there is a danger of 
 splitting pieces off the edge, it is advisable to use as little iron as 
 practicable and to plane away from the finished edge. To prevent; 
 splitting, a small chamfer can be taken off the far corner with the, 
 paring chisel. If sand should happen to be on the end, then a 
 short piece should be cut off with the saw before planing. The, 
 properties of a true end are square to both face and edge, and 
 tested by the square in a similar manner to the first property 
 of the edge. Both ends may be planed if the exact length is 
 known. 
 
 Gauging to Width and Thickness. Gauging is 
 somewhat difficult for the beginner. The chief error is the 
 tendency to put too much weight on the marking point and top 
 little pressure of the sliding block on the face or edge. Such 
 mistakes result in a crooked and irregular line, not at all parallel 
 to the surface gauged from. A very light mark should at first be 
 made, seeing that the block is pressed firmly and flatly on th$ 
 surface gauged from, while the gauge should be slightly tilted to, 
 prevent the marker getting too deep into the wood. When a 
 correct line has been formed, the depth can be readily increased 
 so as to make it distinctly visible. In planing the rough part with 
 the jack plane down to the gauge lines, occasional examinations 
 should be made, in order to insure a regular approach to the 
 
14 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 lines, without going beyond at any point. The surfaces should 
 be finished quite flat with the halflong to the centre of the 
 gauge-lines, and the square blade may be applied occasionally to 
 test the truth of each. 
 
 Modifications of the foregoing instructions will have to be 
 made in cases when the conditions may be different, as, for 
 instance, when the edges or ends do not require to be at right 
 angles to the face. In such cases the sliding bevel, set at the 
 required angle, would be used in a similar way to the square. 
 
 Jointing. In some exercises no jointing of the several 
 pieces may be required, as they may be fixed together by glue, 
 nails, or screws. In construction of the great majority of articles 
 made of wood, joints of various sorts are an absolute necessity. 
 In order that sufficient practice may be got in planing, gauging, 
 exact measurement, and cutting to lines preparatory to jointing, 
 it will be advisable to procure a piece of wood about i in. square, 
 and from 12 to 15 in. long. It must be planed correctly on face 
 and edge, and gauged to the greatest size it will stand, either f in., 
 | in., or under. When finished, a line must be accurately drawn 
 on each side, at right angles to face or edge, by the square and 
 pencil (observing the advice given at the centre of page 16), and 
 as far from the end as the width of the wood. This part must 
 now be carefully cut off with the dovetail saw, so that each line 
 may be split, and the end left quite square. If not successfully 
 performed at first, the process should be repeated till the cube is 
 exact, after which the same thing should be done by the help of 
 the angular groove, cut on each side, as described on page 17. If 
 unsatisfactory, this, also, should be repeated until the work is 
 without fault. 
 
 Halving. This class of joint is used for a great many 
 different purposes, and the joint itself assumes quite a number of 
 forms, depending upon the application. Halving is much applied 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 15 
 
 in housebuilding, as also in many pieces of general framing used 
 in mechanical engineering, &c. Applications of this joint are 
 very common, as a casual observation will show. Figs, i and 2 
 are selected when the ends cannot be allowed to pass beyond the 
 flush of the sides, Figs. 3, 4, and 5 when one end may pass, but 
 the other be flush or even with the side, and Fig. 6 when both 
 ends may project. Figs. 2 and 4 are called dovetail halving and 
 Fig. 5 bevelled halving. These joints may be used for uniting 
 pieces either at right angles or obliquely as Figs. 7, 8, and 9. 
 Figs. 10 and n are applications of the same joint, but many 
 additional ones are in common use. 
 
 In making halving joints, or in fact any class of joint, one 
 of the chief points of the work is to have the several parts 
 properly proportioned, and the lines carefully drawn on. As the 
 same general instructions are suitable for all these joints, a 
 description of one, say Fig. 4, will suffice for the whole. Fig. 4 
 is known as dovetail halving, because of the shape of one part of 
 the joint, after the side pieces have been taken off. The first 
 thing to be done, after the wood is planed to required sizes, will 
 be to arrange the pieces for jointing, so as to have the edges to 
 the most suitable sides, and the faces to the top or same side. In 
 this instance, shown in detail at Fig. 12, the edge of A may be 
 kept inside, while that of B may be put to fight or left. The 
 reasons for placing or arranging pieces in a certain way before 
 jointing, are, that certain surfaces may be to certain sides when 
 the work is completed, and that every advantage may be taken 
 of the true surfaces, to secure good and close joints. The faces 
 are kept to the same side, so that if any gauging has to be done, 
 the surfaces will be flush when the pieces are put together, as 
 half is taken out of each ; and likewise to have all the best 
 surfaces to one side. In some joints it is best to make one part 
 first, and then make a transfer by the use of a sharp pencil, a 
 
16 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 marker, or chisel edge. This, however, is only advisable when it 
 would take longer time by measurement, or be likely to prove less 
 correct when done. As one of the chief aims of this sort of 
 education is to obtain accuracy of observation, all methods likely 
 to beget the opposite should be avoided. To this end, careful 
 measurement should be insisted on at a very early stage, and no 
 guess work encouraged, or allowed to pass. It is one of the worst 
 possible styles of doing work, to allow so much for fitting, and 
 then gradually take it off piece by piece until the proper size is 
 arrived at. This must be done in some instances, but should by 
 no means be recognised as the right way, if it is practicable to 
 measure the sizes exactly. 
 
 The first line to be drawn is c D across the under side of B 
 (Fig. 12), square to its edge and about T V in. further from the end 
 than the width across A. Lines c E and D F are to be drawn 
 square across the edges from the ends of this line, and care should 
 be taken in every squaring operation to have the brass edge of the 
 square stock firmly placed against either face or edge. The last 
 line drawn square across the face, if correct, should exactly join 
 the ends, E and F, of the two lines on the edges. The lines for 
 the sides of the dovetail may then be put on, allowing sufficient 
 taper to give strength, while keeping the neck of suitable 
 width. Equal distances E G and F H are to be measured along 
 the line E F and the points G and H joined to the points i and j at 
 the extreme corners. Although not absolutely necessary, the 
 same may be done on the opposite side, in order to have an 
 additional safeguard and guide. This may be of no service, as 
 the under piece of B, on which the extra lines would be drawn, 
 may be cut off before the other process is performed. If found 
 necessary these lines can be put on after the slab has been 
 removed, but as the square may be readily applied from the face, 
 these extra lines will be found of less importance. Corresponding 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 17 
 
 lines o' i' and H' j' can now be put upon the face of A, and the 
 ends of the two lines squared half down the edges. The marking 
 gauge should then be set to half the thickness of the wood, and 
 gauge lines drawn off the faces, along both edges of each piece and 
 on the end of B. Both pieces are now ready for the making of 
 the joint. As it is somewhat difficult to begin the saw-cuts 
 accurately by the lines, and seeing that the saw does not leave a 
 very smooth edge, it is better in the first place to form a small 
 shoulder or angular groove, with the paring chisel, to insure an 
 exact beginning. To do this, place the square close by the line, 
 holding tightly with the left hand, while the chisel is held in the 
 right in an upright position, to form a square edge, and with its flat 
 side against the square blade, but tilted so as to make the corner cut 
 easily. A light line is first drawn across, and if correct, thereafter 
 made of suitable depth, say T ^ in. The chisel is then sloped 
 over to the angle of about 45, and inserted so as to reach 
 down to the bottom of the vertical cut already made. If this 
 groove be well formed, the tenon saw may be entered without 
 difficulty. The piece of wood B inverted is shown with these 
 grooves formed at B', Fig 12. The same may be done across 
 both edges of B, and also across by the oblique lines on the 
 face of A. It will be found advantageous to resort to this process 
 wherever a shoulder is to be made, or in fact, when any surfaces 
 of this kind are to be fitted together, and on which the planes 
 cannot be applied. The nature of each joint must be studied, for 
 it may be easily spoilt by taking out the sloping surface with the 
 chisel at the wrong side of the lines, and instead of a close joint 
 the reverse will be the result. The tenon or dovetail saw would 
 now be brought into requisition, and the several parts cut, while 
 the slab, below the gauge lines on B, would be cut off, or in the 
 case of small pieces with straight grain, they might be split with 
 the paring chisel. Sawing will be found to be generally the better 
 
18 WORKSHOP NOTES AND -SKETCHES. 
 
 and quicker method. The bench-hook and vice will each be found 
 suitable for holding the work during certain cuts the former 
 when the wood is horizontal and the latter when vertical. As 
 the saw leaves a good enough surface for the inside of the joint, it 
 should be the endeavour of the workman to saw so exactly 
 as to require little or no paring down to the lines, and thus 
 much time will be saved. The side pieces, to form the dovetail, 
 would be taken off in a similar manner. The piece above 
 the gauge lines on A can be split out with the chisel and 
 then pared to the lines. Before driving the pieces together, a 
 slight chamfer should be taken off the under corners of the 
 dovetail, to make it enter more easily. This joint may be fixed 
 together by glue, pins, nails, or screws. As already remarked, 
 those joints are so much alike in point of construction that it is 
 quite unnecessary to give a detailed description of each all that 
 has to be attended to, is to make sure of the sort of joint best 
 suited for the work, and to have the parts properly proportioned 
 and well fitted. 
 
 Notching. This is closely connected with the last class 
 of joint, and in fact notching and halving, in some instances, are 
 almost synonymous terms, save that surfaces of halving joints 
 are made flush with one another, whereas in notching, the part 
 taken out to form the joint is often only a very small proportion of 
 the depth of the piece of wood. Such joints are largely used in 
 connection with flooring-joists, roofing, and framing of many sorts. 
 Figs. 13, 14, and 15 show different methods, as used for joists and 
 wall plates, purlins and rafters, &c. Fig. 16 is called dovetail 
 notching, and Fig. 17 Tredgold's notch. As the manipulation of 
 the tools, both while drawing in and making these joints, is 
 identical with the corresponding process in halving, further detail 
 is uncalled for. 
 
 Cogging. This joint is similar to notching, only instead of 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 19 
 
 the notch being carried right through, as in Fig. 14 a part or cog 
 is left near the centre, as shown at Fig. 18, or to one side as in 
 Fig. 19. The only difference in making this joint is that the 
 sides have to be mostly cut down with the chisel (Fig. 20), as the 
 saw can only be applied to do a small part of the work in this 
 instance. 
 
 Rebate Joint. The rebate joint is also known as the 
 rabbit or check joint. Rebate joints are employed over a wide 
 range of constructive processes. Many of them are applied to 
 join thin pieces at an angle, as at the corner of a box. The 
 corner may be a right angle, but this joint is also suitable for 
 acute and obtuse angles. The pieces to be jointed should be 
 arranged as directed in halving. The end out of which the 
 rebate is to be taken must be lined square across the inside, at 
 a distance from the end, as E F, Fig. 21, about T V in. more than 
 the thickness of the piece A, to be jointed into it. Lines should 
 then be drawn down the edges from each end of the cross line 
 E F, at right angles to the face, and a gauge line run across the 
 end and along the edges, parallel to the face and about half-way 
 through, but more or less may be taken out, just as the use the 
 joint may be put to requires. To enable an exact beginning to 
 be made by the saw, as well as to give an accurately close joint at 
 the shoulder, a small angular groove, c, Fig. 21, should be cut 
 out by the paring chisel, with the square used as a guide, and as 
 described in halving. The tenon saw would then be used to cut 
 down to the gauge lines both ways, or if the wood be straight 
 grained, the part to be taken out may be split off with a paring 
 chisel. When correctly finished, the joint should be quite close 
 at all points and at the same time square. Fig. 22 shows 
 Fig. 21 applied as the joint at the corner of a box. Fig. 25 is 
 used for the same purpose as Fig. 22, and possesses certain 
 advantages over it. Both are used when the joint is away from 
 
 B 
 
20 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 the end, as Figs. 23 and 24, Figs. 26, 27, and 28 show oblique 
 applications of the same joints. Such joints in boxes used for 
 holding liquids are generally coated with white lead before being 
 put together. The dovetail, as shown at Fig. 29, may be applied 
 here with good results instead of the process sketched in Fig. 23. 
 A very small amount of taper on the length of the dovetail may 
 be allowed to make sure of a tight fit. Such a joint may be used 
 for binding others together, and will do so up to a certain limit 
 without any fastening. 
 
 Mitre Joint. The mitre joint is one formed by the meeting 
 of two pieces at a corner, on a line bisecting the right angle. 
 The same class of joint may be used on angles greater or less 
 than 90, as in Figs. 31 and 32. The mitre joint is extensively used 
 in door and window making, joining of architraves, picture frames, 
 and all sorts of mouldings. It is also much used in cabinet and 
 pattern making. Keying is a process sometimes employed along 
 with this joint to strengthen it. A saw cut is let in as far as the 
 dotted line on Fig. 30, into which is glued a thin slip of wood. 
 If it is a deep joint, as the corner of a box, a few keys may be 
 put in, as shown in Fig. 33, while in a small picture frame, 
 only one would be used. A mitre square, i.e., one set at the 
 angle of 45, is used for drawing on the lines for this joint. 
 When much work of this sort has to be done, as is the case in 
 picture frame making, &c., a mitre-box is used. These assume 
 many different forms, some for the use of the saw only, and 
 others with the addition of a knife to finish the joint, or adjuncts 
 for the application of the plane after sawing. 
 
 Mortise and Tenon Joint. The simplest form of this 
 joint is when two pieces A and B are joined together at right 
 angles, as in Fig. 34. The joint is formed by cutting or mortising 
 out the hole, c, Fig. 35, called the mortise, and on the other piece 
 making a part D, the tenon, of corresponding size, to fit tightly into 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 21 
 
 the mortise. The thickness of the tenon is generally about -^ the 
 thickness of the wood, as in Fig. 36, which shows the sort of 
 double tenon used for the bottom rail of a framed door. These 
 joints assume a great diversity of form, because of the variety of 
 timbers to be joined and the way they may be required to meet. 
 Figs. 34-41 show a few joined at right angles. Fig. 42 is a 
 modification so as to show a mitre joint either at one or both 
 sides. Figs. 43 and 44 show the trimmer joint, with the tusk- 
 tenon, A, used in uniting joists and girders or beams together, 
 as in double floors or about a fire place, stair-case, or such like 
 openings in floors. Figs. 45 and 46 show oblique application of 
 the mortise and tenon joint as used between principal rafter and 
 tie beam in a roof truss. The construction of the simple mortise 
 and tenon joint is as follows : When the position of the mortise 
 has been fixed, and lines drawn, as well as shoulder lines for the 
 tenon, the gauge lines have to be put on for the thickness of 
 the tenon and width of the mortise. This is done by the mortise 
 gauge. All the lines should be gauged from the face or edge, as 
 in the other cases, and on both sides of the wood, if the mortise 
 should have to be cut through. The length of the tenon can only 
 be determined after the most suitable has been selected. If 
 the tenon is to go through, then its length must be a little 
 greater than the depth of the mortise, to allow a chamfer to 
 be taken off all round the point, in order to prevent splitting 
 at the under side of the mortise as it is driven through. This 
 extra piece can be cut off and planed flush when the work is 
 fixed together. A socket chisel should now be selected of 
 suitable width, and, by help of a mallet, the part inside the 
 mortise lines cut out. This is done by starting a little from 
 one end with the first cut and gradually working towards the 
 other. When the end is reached the wood must be turned over, 
 and the same done on the opposite side, after which the loose 
 
22 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 pieces can be driven out and the mortise finished up to the 
 lines. In making the tenon, a shoulder should be formed with 
 the chisel, as in the halving and rebate joints, before sawing 
 down to the gauge lines. The tenon saw would be the most 
 suitable to form the tenon, as the name implies, and the more 
 accurately this is done the less will be left for the chisel after- 
 wards. For heavy work the rending saw is taken for cutting 
 down the cheeks. Those joints are fixed in many instances, as 
 indicated in Fig. 49, by wedges, A A, the mortise having been 
 made wider at the outside to admit of this. When the tenon 
 does not go through, the joint may either be pinned as at B, or 
 fox-wedged as in Fig. 50. Mortise and tenon joints are widely 
 employed for most articles requiring to be strongly and neatly 
 framed together. Doors, windows, roof-trusses, many pieces of 
 household furniture, and the majority "of framed structures give 
 examples of their use. 
 
 Bridle Joints. Two examples of this class of fixing for 
 timbers, used instead of the mortise and tenon joint, are shown 
 at Figs. 47, 48. A bridle, or narrow bar, is left in the centre of 
 one piece, as A, Fig. 48, about i the thickness of the wood, and 
 the remaining parts formed similar to the oblique mortise and 
 tenon joint, only that the space B will have to be cut out 
 instead of being left in the form of the tenon, as already shown. 
 
 Scarfing. When a beam has to be lengthened without 
 enlarging the joint to any great extent, the pieces are scarfed 
 together. Figs. 51-56 show a few different kinds of scarf joints 
 as used for wall-plates, beams, and any long timbers. Many of 
 these joints are strengthened by straps or plates of wood or iron, 
 called fish plates, with through bolts to bind all together. Little 
 need be said about the construction of the joints, as the annexed 
 sketches should be sufficient guide. One of the main things to 
 be attended to in making this, as in fact any joint, is to see that 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 23 
 
 every part is an exact fit, and so ensure the strain being equally 
 distributed. 
 
 Board Jointing. When a surface is to be formed of 
 wood greater in width than can be conveniently got, several 
 pieces may have to be joined edge to edge, as for instance in the 
 case of flooring. Figs. 57-61 show a few common examples. 
 Fig. 57 shows plain or butt jointing; Fig. 58, the same with the 
 addition of dowel-pins put into both edges at short intervals ; 
 Fig. 59 is a rebated joint; Fig. 60, A, shows the tongue and groove 
 joint, while B is rebated, tongued, and grooved; Fig. 61 is a groove 
 and feather joint, in which the groove is taken out of both the 
 edges, and a feather either of wood or iron inserted. In flooring- 
 boards, the tongues are kept below the centre, to allow for the 
 wearing of the upper surface. Most of these joints are made by 
 machinery, although plough planes, &c., are used occasionally. 
 In laying large surfaces of wood it is the common practice to 
 make the pieces narrow, as in flooring, so as to prevent splitting 
 by contraction, and to show but a narrow opening at the joint 
 should contraction take place. To remove the bad appearance of 
 any open joint in linings, one edge is often beaded, as the tongue 
 edge of Fig. 62, A, while another common practice is that of 
 removing a small chamfer from each corner, as at B. 
 
 Dovetail Joints. Dovetail jointing is largely used for the 
 same purpose as the rebate joint. It is a much stronger and 
 more durable method of union, but rather more difficult to make. 
 A, B, c, Fig. 63, show different views of this joint in its simple 
 form. Fig. 64 will give a clear idea of what the joint is like. 
 Fig. 65 may indicate how the intervening parts between the pins 
 p P, &c., are removed. A shows one drawn on ready for cutting 
 out. The tenon or dovetail saw is taken to cut down the vertical 
 sides of the pins to the lines, after which the pieces between the 
 pins may be removed. This is done by cutting in with the chisel 
 
24 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 from both sides, a little away from the line, as at B, or better 
 still, by means of the bow-saw (if it can be got), which has a 
 narrow, thin blade, and if passed down the vertical saw-cut, it 
 may easily be turned round and made to cut along by the line as 
 at c. The holes in the other piece, A, Fig. 64, would be cut out 
 either way, except that the outside ones should be done" with the 
 dovetail saw. In lining off for making this joint, lines should 
 be drawn round the ends, a little farther away than the thickness 
 of the piece to be joined thereto, allowing about ^ in. over for 
 the end in which the holes are to be made, and J in. more on the 
 other for the pins. The pins would now be marked off on the 
 inside, care being taken, as with the rebate joint, that all the faces 
 are outside and the edges to one side. After the widths are set off 
 on the inside, say half the thickness of the wood, and twice its 
 thickness between their centres, the square would be used to 
 draw lines at right angles from the ends to the cross lines, or 
 parallel to the edge. From the ends of these, lines should next 
 be drawn across the end of the wood with the sliding bevel, 
 giving proper taper to the pins, and taking care not to bring them 
 to a sharp edge, while at the same time giving sufficient taper for 
 strength. Lines would then be drawn from the ends of these, 
 down the face, to the cross line and parallel to the edge, or at 
 right angles to the end. This would finish the drawing on 
 of the pins. When all the pins are marked off, the wood 
 should be fixed upright in the vice, and the tenon or dovetail 
 saw used to cut down the side of the lines, this being done 
 as exactly as possible. The large intervening portions should 
 now be cut out, which may be accomplished, as already explained, 
 by means of the bow-saw, or paring chisel and mallet. A 
 very sharp chisel should be used to clean out to the lines, as at 
 D, Fig. 65, and the surface at the bottom should be slightly 
 hollow, so as to ensure close bearing on the outsides, as at c, 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 25 
 
 Fig. 66, which is a section on A B. All other surfaces should be 
 as flat as possible to ensure a correct fit, and if the saw has 
 been carefully used, very little should be left for the paring chisel 
 to do, 
 
 When the pins are finished, their exact size and forms must 
 be transferred to the end where the holes are required to be 
 made. This is accomplished by placing the piece, just described, 
 with its pin points resting on the inside of the other piece of 
 wood, the inner surface of the pins touching the line formerly 
 drawn on the ends of the said piece, and the edges flush. Both 
 should be held firmly in this position, and lines traced exactly 
 round the pins by the marker. The lines should now be examined 
 and produced to the end, any error being corrected; then they 
 should be carried square over the end of the wood, and those 
 drawn on the inside should be reproduced on the face by the 
 aid of the sliding bevel. This is to ensure the holes being 
 the same size and shape at both sides, but it will become 
 unnecessary after proficiency in using the tools is arrived at. 
 Everything being now ready for cutting out the holes, the wood 
 is to be fixed in the vice, end up, as in cutting the pins, and 
 with dovetail or tenon saw, cut down exactly inside each set of 
 lines. For cutting out the useless portion, the same remarks 
 apply as to the similar process in forming the pins. Before driving 
 the joint together or home, a small chamfer or corner should be 
 taken off the points of the pins, to give more easy entrance and 
 prevent the other piece being damaged when the pins go through, 
 as in the mortise and tenon joint. 
 
 Half- Lap Dovetail. This is employed chiefly for the 
 front joints of cabinet drawers, &c., and only shows the joint to 
 one side. The front piece should be thicker than the sides or the 
 back. The dovetails come about two-thirds through the front 
 piece. The pins are first drawn on the front pr thick part, the 
 
26 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 necessary distance for the depth being a little more than the 
 thickness of the sides, and indicated by a line. The distance 
 that the dovetails are to come through from the inside of the 
 front piece is gauged from the inside outwards, and while the 
 gauge is set, a line should be drawn round the end of the other 
 piece, for the depth of the holes. The most of the work of 
 cutting out will have to be done by the chisel, as the saw can 
 only be used for a corner, at about the angle of 45. When 
 the pins are finished, the transfer must be made to the other 
 piece, as with the plain dovetail joint, and the same care 
 and precaution observed. The cutting out need not be again 
 described. Figs. 67 and 68 show this joint. Glue is chiefly 
 selected as the only fixing necessary for dovetail joints, but 
 occasionally, when extra strength is wished, nails or screws may 
 be added. 
 
 Wood Turning. Lathes, used exclusively for wood turning, 
 have no back motion, and in many instances not even cone 
 pulleys. This is owing to the necessity for a uniformly high 
 speed (1000 to 2000 turns per minute), and the fact that the 
 average diameter of the work is small. In many respects there 
 is very little difference between lathes used for wood and iron, so 
 the description given of the parts of the latter may, to some 
 extent, apply here. The countershaft is, however, frequently 
 dispensed with, and in its place a slack pulley is fitted on the 
 spindle, by the side of the driving one, so that the belt may be 
 moved from the one to the other by hand. Wood turning lathes 
 are provided with a variety of cup chucks, and several holding and 
 driving adjuncts, among them the fly centre, which imparts the 
 motion to the work, besides supporting it. The " T " rest is all 
 that is required, as the tools are entirely worked by hand. They 
 are of a most elementary character, the gouge and the flat turning 
 chisel playing the most important parts. The gouge is ground on 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 27 
 
 the outside, and has its corners removed, leaving a regularly 
 curved cutting edge. Its application is varied, for by means of it 
 the rough stock is reduced to cylindrical form, concave curves are 
 fashioned on the surface of the work, and, by its assistance, hollow 
 or cupped work may be performed. The flat turning chisel is 
 ground equally on both sides to form a thin cutting edge, and at 
 such an angle across as to make the acute corner from 45 to 60. 
 By means of it all flat, cylindrical, and convex surfaces are 
 finished, and even many of the fiat concave ones are cleaned 
 up without difficulty. After dexterity has been acquired in the 
 manipulation of these tools, so that flat and curved surfaces are 
 formed with ease, many beautiful pieces of work may be produced 
 by judicious combination. Before this stage has been reached, 
 however, many failures will beset the path of the beginner, not the 
 least, by any means, being the tendency of the tools to run in to 
 the work. The proper position of turning chisels is obtained 
 when the under side of the cutting edge is tangent to the surface 
 of the wood, and when the axis of the tool is at a slightly obtuse 
 angle to that of the lathe, the movement of the tool being towards 
 the obtuse angle. The chisel should be so placed that the acute 
 corner of the cutting edge may project over the work, the only 
 part allowed to cut being the half of the edge next the obtuse 
 angle. Neglect of this rule will lead to constant trouble, 
 arising from the acute corner running into the work, which, if bad 
 on a plain cylindrical surface, will be found much worse in turning 
 a bead or convex surface. This is caused by the constantly 
 varying position of the tool, and the absence of any surface on 
 which to support it. Although easy enough to all appearance, 
 the beginner must not be disheartened by repeated failure, for 
 perseverance will, in the end, be rewarded by success. After the 
 difficulties connected with the chisel have been overcome, those 
 met with in the use of the gouge will, in most cases, disappear, 
 
28 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 because of their similarity. On no account should any of the 
 surfaces be scraped with the tool at right angles, for by such 
 means a good finish can not be obtained on soft materials. Very 
 little should require to be done to turned work after the tools, 
 unless it be a slight touch with the finest glass paper, followed by a 
 handful of the softest turnings. Occasional oiling of the running 
 parts, sharp tools, steady application, and a smoothly running 
 lathe, all combine to produce good work. 
 
PART III. 
 
 METAL IORKIM. 
 
 Modern requirements have compelled the introduction of a 
 great variety of machine tools of all sorts, whereby the tedium of 
 production is greatly removed, and the rapidity of manufacture 
 increased a hundredfold. By the use of turning lathes, planing, 
 shaping, and slotting machines, together with milling and drilling 
 machines, a never-ending variety of articles may be produced. 
 As such are in a manner only copying machines, the exactness 
 of the work will greatly depend on the perfection of the tool, so 
 that although a piece of metal is shaped into cylindrical form by 
 the use of a turning lathe, it does not follow that it will be a true 
 cylinder, any more than that the surface produced by a planing 
 machine will always be perfectly straight, flat, and true. Constant 
 care must therefore be exercised in order that the slightest error 
 may be detected at once, and, if possible, rectified.- 
 
 Too much caution when engaged with any sort of power tool 
 in motion is impossible, and unnecessarily close proximity to gearing 
 of all kinds should be avoided. Every machine and hand tool should 
 be carefully and thoroughly cleaned after use, and all portable parts 
 
30 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 laid away in their respective places. Constant observation of the 
 old maxim "A place for everything, and everything in its place" 
 should be a law in every workshop. Breakages and accidents should 
 be reported without delay. 
 
 Turning Lathes. The most widely employed of all 
 machine tools is the turning lathe. By means of it, all sorts of 
 cylindrical work are fashioned, besides a great variety of other 
 forms. Lathes are of three general types hand, foot, and 
 power depending on the source from which the motion is 
 derived. The ordinary modern lathe is provided with a planed 
 metal bed fixed on metal standards. Two heads are supported 
 on the bed or shears, the one at the left called the running or 
 fixed head, the other the moving, shifting, or poppet head. The 
 running head is usually supplied with a stepped cone, corresponding 
 to one on the counter shaft, by means of which the speed of the 
 machine may be changed at will. The second, or back motion, 
 supplied to most power lathes, is for the same purpose, and is 
 resorted to when a very slow speed is required. The cone and 
 spindle are fixed together by means of a screw, which must be 
 moved before the back motion can be started. This will allow 
 them to revolve independently. The back motion is brought 
 into gear with the wheel and pinion on the spindle by the use of 
 two eccentrics, and kept in position by a pin passing through the 
 head. Each head is fitted with a hardened, conical, cast-steel 
 centre, which supports, and keeps in position, shafting and such 
 like work. The point of the running head spindle is provided 
 with a screw, on which all chucks and face plates are fixed when 
 in use. These lathe adjuncts are chiefly employed to hold the 
 work in position for turning, and are of many forms. The 
 shifting head is fixed in position by a bolt ; but for small move- 
 ments, the spindle may be altered by an internal screw, on which 
 the hand wheel is fastened. When properly set, the spindle is 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 31 
 
 held fast by another screw, to prevent accidental movement. 
 Most power lathes have self-acting slide rests and tool holders 
 combined, and are supplied with two motions one parallel to the 
 the axis of the 'lathe, and the other at right angles to it. The 
 speed of these motions may be changed by the use of different 
 trains of wheels, from which the movement is conveyed by a screw 
 to the slide rest. Any lathe, having such automatic movement, 
 is called a self-acting, screw-cutting turning lathe, for, by means of 
 it all sort of screws may be cut with perfect regularity. All 
 power tools ought to be provided with fast and loose pulleys, so 
 that they may be started and stopped at will. The speed of a 
 lathe depends on the material being turned, and its diameter ; 
 25 feet of surface per minute being about the average. The 
 different operations in metal turning will be most easily under- 
 stood by following the production of a small cylindrical piece of 
 iron, say 12 ins. long and i in. in diameter. In procuring the 
 rough stock, sufficient allowance for turning must be made in both 
 length and diameter. After cutting, the ends must be chipped, 
 filed or hammered, so that the centres may be readily marked. 
 By means of a jenny callipers, the centre point of each end may 
 be found, the ends having been chalked to show the marks 
 clearly. A small conical centre should now be formed with the 
 centre punch, after which the piece of iron must be put between 
 the lathe centres, and fixed so as to be readily revolved by one 
 hand, while with the other, a piece of chalk should be applied to 
 mark the high parts. This must be done at both ends, after 
 which the piece of iron should be taken out, put into the vice end 
 up, and the centre shifted as much as may be considered necessary. 
 It must now be replaced between the centres, and tested again, the 
 process being continued until the ends run true. Meantime the 
 other parts along the length ought to be tried in the same 
 manner, and hammered till straight. When found to run truly 
 
32 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 through its entire length, a small hole about a $ in. in diameter 
 and an -J- in. deep, should be drilled into the piece of iron at the 
 bottom of each centre, to provide for lubrication, and insure con- 
 tinued truth. A driving chuck must be put upon the running 
 head spindle, and into it one or two pins fixed. These pins come 
 into contact with the carrier, screwed on one end of the work, to 
 which the motion, imparted to the lathe, is transmitted. After 
 the carrier is fixed in its place, and the work put between the 
 centres ready for turning, the proper tools must be selected and 
 sharpened. All metal cutting tools must, like those for wood 
 working, have a small angle of clearance, while the cutting angles 
 vary from 60 to 90, the former being suitable for wrought- 
 iron and steel, while cast-iron and brass require a much greater 
 angle. Roughing tools are of an angular form at the point, and 
 slightly rounded ; whereas finishing or planishing tools are flat on 
 the face, and sharpened to an acute edge with the set-stone. 
 If the lathe is provided with a self-acting movement and tool 
 holder, then the tool must be placed, so that the cutting edge 
 may be about level with the centre of the work, or slightly below 
 it, and firmly fixed in that position. No lathe should be set in 
 motion until it has been ascertained that all moving parts are clear. 
 This may be easily decided by turning the cone one revolution 
 with the hand, after which it may be started with assurance. The 
 running parts should be kept well supplied with oil to prevent 
 heating. Water is used in turning wrought-iron and steel to keep 
 the tool cold, but not in the case of cast-iron and brass. The 
 turnings and waste water are caught in a box below the tool, the 
 water being supplied from a small can above, provided with a drip 
 pipe and tap. When the tool has been brought in contact with 
 the work so as to give the depth of cut required, the self-acting 
 motion in the direction parallel to the axis of the work is started, 
 which will cause a cut to be removed from the surface. This can 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 33 
 
 only be done for part of the length, as the carrier prevents the 
 entire surface being operated upon. A series of cuts would thus 
 be removed until within about a F * T in. of the required diameter, 
 which would be left for finishing. When one end is roughed down 
 the carrier may be shifted and the other end similarly treated. 
 
 FINISHING. The finishing or spring tool should now be got 
 and fixed in the same position as the roughing tool, water being 
 used as before. Greater care must be exercised in sharpening, 
 setting, and fixing, than in the former process, in order to secure 
 the best possible finish. The callipers ought to be occasionally 
 applied to ascertain the diameter of the work, and so prevent 
 mistakes, while all vibrating must be stopped if possible. For 
 long work, this is accomplished by the use of a backstay, which is 
 generally fixed to the slide rest and moves with the tool. The 
 finishing cut should be light and regular, so as to produce a good 
 surface. After the first end is done, the unfinished one will be 
 treated in a similar manner, the catch or carrier being moved to 
 the other end, which will have to be protected from damage by a 
 piece of soft metal plate, such as copper, placed between the 
 finished surface and the carrier screw. Both ends have to be 
 turned down quite square by means of a side cutting tool, but 
 enough material must be left about the centre to prevent the work 
 being thrown out before it is completely finished. 
 
 POLISHING. The highest speed the lathe possesses is 
 employed for polishing. This process is performed by the 
 application of emery in either of two forms, viz., as emery cloth 
 or in a granulated condition. Both may be procured in a variety 
 of sizes or numbers, the selection of which will depend on the 
 quality of surface produced by the tools, and the kind of finish 
 ultimately desired. Sometimes fine filing is introduced as an 
 intermediate process between turning and polishing, but is not 
 advisable. Oil has to be used along with the emery to make it 
 
34 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 cut clean and regularly. As pressure is necessary in the process, 
 the emery is usually applied between two pieces of wood, or legs, 
 hinged at one end by a strip of leather, and long enough to give 
 the desired lever power. If the surface is not well finished at the 
 outset, several sizes of emery would be employed, the finest being 
 used last. By a little attention the sharp corners will be allowed 
 to retain their acute form, which is always advisable, for the sake 
 of appearance, unless specially desired otherwise. The necessary 
 quality of surface having been obtained, it is then cleaned and a 
 light coat of oil applied to prevent rusting. On no account should 
 emery be allowed to get near any of the lathe bearings, as the 
 effect will be very detrimental, leading to endless trouble. Should 
 a flat surface be desired, the movement of the tool would have to 
 be at right angles to the axis of the lathe ; in other respects the 
 details would be practically the same as in plain turning. 
 
 DRILLING IN THE LATHE. If holes have to be bored in the 
 lathe, the work is generally fixed to a face plate or in a chuck, 
 and the drill or cutter bar held firmly in the tool holder. Drills^ 
 unlike turning tools, cut with two edges simultaneously on opposite 
 sides, but the rules about their clearance and cutting angles are 
 the same. If a large hole has to be bored from the solid, several 
 drills of progressive sizes must be used, the last taking only a thin 
 finishing cut, so as to produce a true hole of the required diameter. 
 The size must be tested with the inside callipers, and to prevent 
 accidents it is advisable to stop the lathe before its application 
 The feed of the drill would be imparted in the same manner as 
 that of the tool in turning. Much experience and care are necess- 
 ary to ensure exactness of fitting in metal, as there is very little 
 compression possible, thus greatly differing from wood. 
 
 In the case of the foot lathe the tools have to be held by the 
 hand, and are either straight, with short handles, or bent, and fitted 
 with long handles. The latter are known as heel tools, and are 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 35 
 
 used for heavy work. Hand tools are supported on a " T " rest, 
 and the feed is produced by a combined twist and side movement 
 of the tool handle, the heel of the tool being kept firmly in position 
 by the left hand. Much practice is necessary to ensure good work 
 with a foot lathe, particularly in the manipulation of the tools. 
 
 Planing Machines. These tools are now very extensively 
 used for producing all sorts of flat surfaces on metals. The 
 general form is that, where the work is fixed and supported on a 
 horizontal, moving, cast-iron table, which slides laterally on a frame 
 having two " V " grooves, and is propelled by means of a rack and 
 pinion. Another make of machine, much preferred by some 
 engineers, has its table driven by a screw. The amount of stroke 
 or travel of the plane may be changed to suit the length of the 
 work, by moving two horns fixed on the edge of the table. Some 
 machines are supplied with cone pulleys like a lathe, but many 
 have only one speed, and may be driven direct from the main 
 driving shaft. The power is conveyed by belt pulleys, three being 
 needed ; those on the right and left are the driving ones, whereas 
 that in the centre is an idle or slack pulley, on which the belt must 
 be placed when it is desired to stop the machine. The shifting 
 of the belt is effected by a setter, moved by the two horns on 
 the side of the table, or, if necessary, by hand. The tool is 
 generally provided with an automatic feed-motion in three different 
 directions, transverse, vertical, and oblique, which, combined with 
 the motion of the table, will produce horizontal, perpendicular, 
 and slanting surfaces. The feed-motion may be reversed by the 
 movement of a pawl to right or left, and the amount of feed may 
 be changed by altering the relative position of the feed connecting- 
 bar ends on the bell crank levers. One peculiarity about the 
 planing machine is its quick return motion which is provided to 
 save time during the idle return stroke the cut being only taken 
 off in one direction. This is accomplished by means of gearing. 
 
 c 
 
36 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 The work is fixed on the table, either by bolts and plates, or by 
 the use of a parallel jawed vice. To accommodate different sizes 
 of work, the toolholder may be moved bodily in a vertical 
 direction by two equally pitched screws, connected by a shaft and 
 mitre pinions. The tools used are the same as those employed in 
 the turning lathes, and in consequence the same rules and pre- 
 cautions will be necessary. 
 
 Shaping Machines. The chief difference between these 
 tools and planing machines is that the work remains stationary, 
 while the toolholder has the motion given to it, and although 
 used for similar work, still it is of a smaller, lighter, and finer 
 character. Like the lathe, the shaping machine has a metal shears, 
 supported on cast-iron standards, on which the toolholder slide 
 moves. In the majority of cases the motion of the toolholder is 
 at right angles to the shears, but recently a new machine has been 
 introduced, in which the cutting motion is parallel to the shears. 
 Both types of machine give satisfactory results, but the latter has 
 unmistakable advantages for certain classes of work. Shaping 
 machines are generally fitted with speed cones, the high speeds 
 being used for the short cuts, and the speed decreased as 
 the length of the stroke increases. In most machines only 
 one self-acting motion is supplied, viz., at an angle of 90 to 
 the direction in which the tool moves, but there are always the 
 usual vertical and oblique movements imparted by the hand. The 
 travel of the tool may be easily altered by moving the driving pin 
 to or from the centre of rotation, and the position of the stroke 
 may be changed by shifting the relation of the toolholder slide 
 and the connecting-rod. The tools used are similar to those of 
 the planing machine and lathe. The work is fixed to cast-iron 
 tables (attached to the framing) by bolts and plates, &c., as in the 
 planing machine. 
 
 Should a certain fixed amount have to be removed from a 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 37 
 
 piece of metal, either by planing or shaping machines, lines are 
 drawn upon the surfaces at right angles to the one to be treated. 
 As many metals are so hard on the surface that a line made 
 by a steel marker cannot readily be seen on them, it is the 
 usual practice in all such cases to cover the part to be marked 
 with chalk. Even after this, the lines are often dotted along their 
 entire length with a small sharp pointed centre punch, which will 
 effectually preserve them. A great deal of care has often to be 
 expended in setting and fixing particular pieces of work, the assist- 
 ance of the rule, square, and spirit level being largely drawn upon. 
 Drilling Machines. These tools, in their simplest forms, 
 are used for boring holes, making recesses, and slot drilling if 
 supplied with a horizontal feed motion. They assume a great 
 variety of shapes, but, for ordinary purposes, that having an up- 
 right cast-iron frame, in which a vertical spindle is fitted, capable 
 of revolving at various speeds, and of being moved perpendicularly 
 by means of a screw, is found most suitable. In the lower end of 
 this spindle the drills are fixed, and at the top a hand wheel is 
 attached by which the vertical movement is supplied. A self- 
 acting feed-motion is used in some drilling machines, but owing 
 to the frequency with which small drills break, it is found more 
 advisable to apply the feed by hand. The work is supported, 
 either by the table or bench on which the machine is fixed, on 
 the cast-iron base of the machine itself, by a movable table 
 connected with the machine, or on the floor. A very convenient 
 form of machine is made where the table may be moved to 
 various heights to suit different sizes of work. Several speeds 
 are necessary for drilling different diameters of holes. This is 
 obtained by the use of cone pulleys, and the horizontal motion of 
 the driving shaft is changed into a vertical one by means of mitre 
 pinions. Large and small holes cannot be drilled advantageously 
 with the tool running at the same number of turns per minute, 
 
38 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES^ 
 
 hence arises the necessity for a variety of speeds, the greatest 
 velocity being used for the smallest holes, and the speed reduced 
 as the required diameter increases. The rule for speed, given "in 
 metal turning, will be found suitable here also. The drill, or 
 cutting tool, used in this machine, is now made in a great 
 many different forms, all supposed to possess special important 
 properties. Those in most common use are the twist drill, and 
 the old form of flat pointed drill. Each has two cutting edges, 
 the angles of which must be made to suit the metals that the 
 holes are to be drilled in if good cutting action is desired. The 
 chief advantages possessed by the twist drill are the regular 
 discharge of the borings, the production of straight and round 
 holes (owing to their equal diameter throughout), and their 
 quicker speed of action, together with less waste of time in 
 sharpening. Two arguments are used against their introduction, 
 viz., the initial cost, and the danger of breakage through careless- 
 ness ; but these are more than counterbalanced by those in favour 
 of them. Although unequal to the twist drill, the old form of 
 flat drill produces a very good hole if carefully made and 
 sharpened, and it is still very widely employed. Both drills are 
 ground to a u V" shaped point, with their cutting edges on the 
 opposite sides. If deep holes are to be bored without the use 
 of the twist drill, then the machine must be stopped occasionally 
 so that the borings may be removed. This will prevent choking 
 and consequent heating, both of which are objectionable and 
 hurtful to the drill. Much more constant care is needed in 
 drilling small holes than large ones, as the slightest error will 
 often be followed by the destruction of the tool. In all cases 
 wood should be used between the table and the work, but most 
 particularly so if the holes have to be drilled through. The 
 presence of the wood will indicate when the drill reaches the 
 other side, and at the same time prevent the table being damaged 
 

 WORKSHOP NOTES ANP SKETCHES. 39 
 
 by the point of the tool. As the drill passes through, the feed 
 should be reduced so as to prevent the possible breaking of the 
 former. This often takes place, particularly if there is any slack 
 on the spindle. The position of a hole is generally indicated by 
 a circle, the centre of which may be found by the compass, if 
 necessary, and fixed by means of a centre punch. Even when 
 a beginning is made in the very middle with the drill, it is 
 astonishing to see how far wrong it will sometimes go before it 
 reaches the circle. When this is the case (and it will be readily 
 detected by examination), the centre must be shifted by means of 
 a foals-foot or centering chisel, having a curved edge. When a 
 small cutting has been removed at the side most remote from the 
 circle, the drill will have to be tried again, and the operation 
 repeated until the result is satisfactory. By this means mistakes 
 in drilling will be few, whereas, if carelessly treated, the trouble 
 will be constant. A very little practice with this machine will 
 be sufficient to learn the weight of pressure suitable for various 
 drills and the speeds required, but, as in the case of many other 
 tools, the sharpening of the cutting edges will prove the chief 
 difficulty for some time. 
 
 Blacksmith Work. The work of the blacksmith com- 
 prehends the different processes connected with the manufacture 
 into useful and ornamental forms, of wrought-iron and steel while 
 in a heated condition. A forge, an anvil, hammers, tongs, 
 punches, cutting, and shaping tools are among the principal 
 adjuncts he uses to carry on his craft. The forge, where the 
 metal is heated, is an open fire supplied with a blast of air 
 from a bellows, fan, or blower, to enable him to procure a high 
 temperature readily. In close proximity to the fire, receptacles, 
 containing coals and water respectively, should be placed. The 
 anvil, on which the work is performed, is a suitably shaped block 
 of wrought-iron faced with steel, and raised to a convenient height 
 
40 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 on the end of a short log of wood let into the floor. Forge 
 hammers are of three kinds hand, sledge, and steam to suit 
 different weights of work, each being of many forms. The tongs, 
 punches, chisels, swedges, and shaping tools are of endless variety, 
 and adapted for the special branches of the trade. 
 
 Among the primary difficulties the young blacksmith meets 
 is the lighting of the fire, which, however, if properly gone about, 
 is not so difficult as it seems. Wood shavings are very suitable 
 for the purpose, and in most instances can be readily procured. 
 When a workman leaves his forge at night, or long enough 
 to necessitate the relighting of the fire, he should, in all 
 cases, rake back the partially burnt coals, clear out all the 
 dross and clinkers, removing the ashes so as to expose the 
 mouth of the tuyere. This having been properly done, a large 
 handful of shavings may be placed in the cavity, lit in several 
 places, and allowed to burn slowly until well nigh reduced to 
 ashes, when the partially burnt coal cinders may be cautiously 
 placed on them and the air blast gently applied. More cinders 
 may be added as the flames catch hold, the blast may be increased, 
 and after a short time, fresh coals may be put on without danger. 
 With proper attention to these instructions failure will be next to 
 impossible, and there will be little trouble from the burst of smoke 
 unavoidable in the ordinary method. The fire should be regularly 
 replenished, and should have the clinkers and other impurities 
 occasionally removed, so as to keep it as clear as possible. It is 
 necessary to have the coals moist, to prevent undue waste, and at 
 the same time, to help them to adhere or cake, so as to form a sort 
 of covering or roof over the work while heating. 
 
 Iron forging is divided into three main branches drawing- 
 down, upsetting, and building-up or welding. 
 
 DRAWING-DOWN is the reduction of size by the use of the 
 hammer on two adjacent sides alternately, in the case of square 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 41 
 
 section, the iron being twisted with the left hand, after every stroke, 
 through a quarter of a revolution. Exactness in the amount of 
 turning ensures the section remaining rectangular. This is very 
 difficult for a time, and must receive constant attention until it is 
 mastered. An approximation of flatness is troublesome to obtain 
 for a beginner, but with watchfulness this also may be secured. 
 
 UPSETTING is the converse of the foregoing process, and is 
 accomplished by striking on the end of the iron, so as to increase 
 the size of section. The heat is applied only at the part to be 
 upset, which may be at the end or elsewhere, and when sufficiently 
 enlarged, the remaining processes necessary to complete the 
 work would be performed. 
 
 BUILDING-UP OR WELDING is a much more difficult branch of 
 the blacksmith's work than either of the foregoing, and can be done 
 successfully only after much practice in the art. The temperature 
 required is what is known as a white or welding heat, reached 
 when the surfaces have begun to fuse, and it may be readily recog- 
 nised by the semi-molten appearance of the iron, together with the 
 discharge of small, vivid, white sparks. Sand must be employed 
 as &ftux to prevent oxidization, and to facilitate the ready removal 
 of adhering impurities, contracted in the fire. The flux should be 
 sparingly thrown by the hand on the parts to be welded while in 
 the fire, after they have been observed to approach the proper heat. 
 It is absolutely necessary that both pieces should be at a welding 
 heat, and that no time be lost after removal from the fire, before 
 they are brought into contact, and thoroughly welded together. 
 A sharp stroke across the anvil wfth both pieces, immediately after 
 removal from the fire, when the face of the scarf is in a vertical 
 position, will discharge the slag from the joints, or if the pieces are 
 too large to be so treated, it can be done by the aid of a wire 
 brush. As the anvil is cold, the piece lying undermost will very 
 soon lose its heat, particularly the point of the scarf. In order to 
 
42 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 minimise the effect of this, it is a common practice to allow the 
 point to project for a short distance beyond the edge of the anvil, 
 and as soon as the upper one has been attended to, the work 
 would be inverted, and the other scarf welded up. For light work, 
 the joints used are generally of the simple oblique scarfing variety, 
 although several others are employed in particular cases. It is 
 needless to say that bending enters largely into blacksmith work, 
 as many of the beautiful effects obtained are almost entirely trace- 
 able to the grace of their curves. Mufch of this class of work is 
 done by the use of the anvil horn and hammer alone, although 
 occasionally additional means may be found advantageous. 
 Punching is usually performed from both sides and finished on a 
 steel faced bore of suitable size, through which the point of the 
 punch passes, the hole in the first instance being made smaller 
 than the size required, and afterwards enlarged by tapered punches. 
 This produces a large hole without wasting the material. The 
 processes performed by top and bottom swedges, and many other 
 shaping tools, are too numerous and varied to be even entered 
 upon here. 
 
 HARDENING AND TEMPERING OF STEEL These are very 
 important branches of blacksmith work, but are by no means so 
 difficult as usually supposed. Hardening simply implies heating 
 and rapid cooling in some cold liquid, generally water, while 
 tempering is the cooling of the steel at a certain temperature. The 
 latter is required so as to obtain different degrees of hardness, and 
 may be performed either by heating in a bath of some molten 
 metal which fuses at a known temperature, or by observation of 
 the colours that appear on steel at different degrees of heat, 
 ranging from 420 to 620 Fahr. The colours change from white 
 to yellow, straw colour, purple, and blue, each indicating a certain 
 degree of hardness, increasing regularly from blue to white. The 
 method adopted will depend on the article under treatment; some 
 
r 
 
 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES." 43 
 
 tools, for example, have only the small edge tempered that is used 
 for doing the work, the remainder being left quite soft, whereas in 
 many other cases the entire piece of steel is tempered equally 
 throughout. The tempering of a chipping chisel will explain the 
 former process. The point of the tool is first heated to a cherry- 
 red colour, for some two or three inches, after which it is taken 
 from the fire and put into water, in a vertical position, for about 
 half that distance. At this stage a very common accident, called 
 water- cracking often takes place. It is caused by the sudden 
 change of temperature at the surface of the water, which may be 
 greatly lessened by imparting a slight vertical motion to the tool. 
 When quite cold, the point should be made bright with a piece of 
 sand-stone, in order that the colours may be seen distinctly. If 
 everything has been done carefully and rapidly, the point should 
 appear white, gradually changing into yellow, straw-colour, purple, 
 and blue. These colours will now move towards the point by 
 conduction of the heat in the body of the chisel. When the 
 proper colour, viz., one of the shades of purple depending on 
 the work the chisel has to be used for has reached the point, it 
 should be plunged immediately into water, which will complete 
 the operation. A little practice, so as to get acquainted with the 
 particular kind of steel under treatment, and the proper heat 
 required, should ensure very good work. If the steel has to be 
 tempered uniformly throughout, then the method is quite different, 
 the whole piece being hardened and thereafter brought back to the 
 desired colour by borrowed heat, metal bath or 'blazing-off' with 
 oil as commonly used for springs. Steel may be welded with care, 
 using borax as a flux, but the greatest caution is necessary to pre- 
 vent overheating, which results in the partial destruction of the 
 steel, by liberation of the carbon, A bright red heat should in 
 every instance be avoided, but if overheated, the damage may be 
 partially repaired by repeated heating, and hammering till cold. 
 
44 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 Moulding and Casting. By means of these branches 
 of handicraft much of our most intricate work is now performed 
 in a comparatively simple manner. They imply the making of a 
 mould or cavity of the desired shape in some suitable substance 
 by means of a model or pattern, and the rilling of this mould 
 with liquid metal, which, when cold, will be of the desired form. 
 There are three common kinds of moulding, green sand, dry sand, 
 and loam. The first is the class of moulding in most general use, 
 an explanation of which will be sufficient for our present purpose. 
 The moulds are made in fine river sand mixed with old foundry 
 stock, and in positions of close proximity to the pattern, with coal 
 dust in the case of such metals as cast-iron, requiring a high 
 temperature to melt them. The addition of the coal dust is to 
 prevent the melting of the sand as far as possible, and increase 
 the porosity of the mould. Moulds are in most instances made 
 from patterns constructed of wood, which are formed so as to 
 be readily extracted from the sand. An allowance of about - in. 
 per foot has to be made for the contraction of the metal in cooling, 
 and the same amount, and often more, is given as draw or taper, 
 so as to enable the patterns to be removed from the sand without 
 damage. All patterns have, therefore, to be made so much larger 
 than the castings required, for which cause a special contraction 
 rule has to be worked from. Many castings are made from metal 
 patterns, so that, in the construction of the original, double con- 
 traction must be allowed. 
 
 When the moulder has been provided with a pattern from 
 which one or more castings may be required, and after he has 
 been satisfied that it is properly put together, he selects suitable 
 boxes, usually made of cast-iron and supplied with numerous 
 cross bars, in which the sand forming the mould is held firmly 
 together. Foundries have a large number of such boxes, 
 generally made in pairs the bottom one being known as the 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 45 
 
 drag, and the top one as the cope. The sand is then sifted, 
 mixed, and made moist enough for adhesion and taking the 
 correct impression. If the pattern is small and of such a shape 
 that it may be completely imbedded in the sand of the drag, then 
 it should be laid face down on a flat board and the drag placed 
 over it in an inverted position. The facing sand, containing the 
 coal dust, may now be put carefully over the pattern through the 
 bars of the drag to the depth of an inch and half or thereby and 
 carefully rammed, more common foundry stock being added as 
 the ramming proceeds until the box is filled flush, when the 
 surplus should be cleaned off and the box restored to its 
 original position. Equality in ramming is very desirable, and 
 both extremes should be avoided. If too slack the mould will 
 not be strong enough, but if the other extreme be the condition 
 of the sand, the easy escape of the gases will be prevented and 
 possible damage to the casting may ensue. A little dry sand, or 
 brick dust, should now be shaken over the face of the drag to act 
 as parting sand, and ensure an easy separation of cope and drag. 
 The cope is now placed in its proper position, exact replacement 
 being ensured by the use of guide pins, and a round pin, to form 
 the ingate or entrance for the metal through the sand of the cope, 
 is then fixed in the most suitable place. The cope may next be 
 filled up in the same manner as the drag, and when finished the 
 sand should be sufficiently pierced towards the mould with a 
 sharp wire to make sure of good ventilation. In no case should 
 the piercing point be allowed to come in contact with the pattern. 
 Rapping on the outside of the boxes is necessary in all cases when 
 part of the pattern is contained in the sand of the cope so as to 
 slacken it, after which the top box may be removed. The upper 
 box must be raised simultaneously at all points, and unless this is 
 done, the mould will often suffer. The pattern may now be 
 extracted from the sand of the drag. Occasionally the rapping 
 
46 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 outside the boxes will be all that is needed for the removal of the 
 pattern, but in cases when the parts are deeply imbedded in the 
 sand, a repetition of the process may be necessary when the 
 upper box has been removed. The pattern should not be struck 
 directly (if it can be avoided), but on a rapping-rod, often supplied 
 for the purpose, which may also be used for lifting the pattern 
 from the sand. The ingate pin should now be removed and an 
 opening made into the mould. All damage done to the sand in 
 both boxes should now be repaired, and the surfaces of the mould 
 sleeked over with plumbago by the use of suitable trowels. The 
 last-mentioned part of the work gives a better skin to the mould 
 and makes the sand more easily removed from the casting. If 
 small parts are found broken, the fractures may be repaired by the 
 use of clay-water, while nails are often brought into requisition 
 to give extra strength. The cope should now be cautiously 
 replaced, after which the mould is ready for the metal. In many 
 instances it will be necessary to place weights upon the top box 
 to prevent its being raised by the molten metal. It is also a 
 wise precaution to place something in the mouth of the ingate to 
 prevent anything falling down before the metal has been poured. 
 Should a casting be required hollow, clay cores are used to give 
 the desired internal form. These cores are made in specially 
 formed boxes, which, in some instances, are more difficult to 
 construct than the patterns themselves. After removal from the 
 core boxes, they are placed in an oven and thoroughly dried. In 
 such castings as long water pipes, columns and similar articles, 
 where the core might bend, small supports called chaplets are 
 used. The stem is made of wrought-iron, about J in. square, 
 having on one end a piece of hoop iron of suitable shape and size. 
 Sufficient support for the sand is not, at all times, obtained from 
 the cross bars of the cope> particularly in large flat castings. Iron 
 hooks, or hangers are very extensively employed as auxiliaries. 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 47 
 
 CASTING. Cast-iron is melted in a furnace known as a 
 cupola, but for small quantities of softer metals, crucibles of fire- 
 clay or plumbago are made use of. For the softest metals and 
 alloys, a ladle, heated on an open forge fire may be found quite 
 sufficient, if large enough to contain the quantity. In any case, 
 the utmost caution must, at all times, be taken, so as to prevent 
 accidents, which often assume a very dangerous form. Ladles 
 used for molten metal must be carefully prepared and made per- 
 fectly dry. This is ensured by covering the inside with clay, which 
 has to be thoroughly dried and smoked. After everything is ready, 
 a sufficient quantity of metal is run into the ladle, and cautiously 
 poured into the mould, until it appears at the top of the ingate. 
 In a short time, in the majority of cases, the metal will set or get 
 into a solid state, soon after which it may be removed from the 
 mould and exposed to the air. If there is danger of fracture, 
 arising from unequal speed of contraction in the different parts, it 
 is often advisable to expose only those least likely to cool quickly, 
 and so, if possible, produce a sound casting. Sometimes the cast- 
 ings are left in the sand all night, so as to cool slowly. Little more 
 remains to be done in the foundry, except to remove any surplus 
 parts of the metal, or to drive out the cores employed in different 
 parts of the construction. 
 
 Fitting and Finishing. This branch of the engineer's 
 work includes all the processes where the hammer, chisel, file, 
 and scraper are used. These are necessarily very numerous and 
 diversified, but not so much so as in past years, because of the 
 introduction of so many machine tools. When small, the work 
 is held in the vice, with soft metal grips interposed to prevent 
 damage to the surfaces in contact with the jaws. The old form 
 of tail vice is still very widely employed in fact in some work- 
 shops nothing else is met with but during recent years the 
 constant cry about the absence of parallelism in the hold has led 
 
48 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 to the introduction of many parallel jawed vices, some worked by 
 screws and others by instantaneous grip arrangements. These 
 are quickly growing in favour, and in many works already hold 
 entire sway. For medium weight of work the surfaces operated 
 upon should not be higher than the workman's elbow, so that he 
 may secure the best possible command over them. Engineers' 
 hammers vary chiefly in weight and form oipane, the latter being 
 made of three different kinds cross, straight, and round. The 
 weight of the hammer will be determined by the strength of the 
 workman and the kind of work to be performed, while the size 
 and shape of the chisel will be guided by similar considerations. 
 Chisels are of several shapes, the most useful being the flat 
 chipping chisel, the cross-cut, and the foals-foot or round nosed 
 chisel. For much of the ordinary run of work, chisels are made 
 of f in. octagonal steel, from 9 to 10 ins. long. Flat chipping 
 chisels, necessary for all sorts of flat work, are broad and parallel 
 to the point, and sharpened on the grindstone equally on both 
 sides, so as to make an angle of from 60 to 70 with one another 
 larger and smaller angles being used when advisable. The 
 cross-cut is a narrow chisel broadening slightly towards the point 
 and sharpened like the flat chisel, though often on one side only. 
 It is required for cutting out flat, narrow grooves, key-ways, and 
 such like. The foals-foot is of the same shape as the cross-cut, 
 except in one respect, viz., that one of its edges is curved, and so 
 made suitable for cutting a semi-circular groove, and performing 
 such like work as centre shifting at the drilling machine. Steadi- 
 ness of position and regularity of stroke in the direction of the 
 axis of the chisel are leading elements in easy and correct chipping. 
 The aim of the Jitter is to produce as flat a surface as possible 
 with the chisel, and so save work with the file. This, however, 
 is no easy matter, for the slightest alteration of the chisel's 
 position will produce a corresponding variation on the surface, 
 
WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 49 
 
 the truth of which will be tested, in the first place, by steel 
 straightedges. 
 
 FILING. When a surface has been reduced to approximate 
 flatness, the file is next applied. Files vary in length, contour, and 
 section, besides quality of cut, so that several things have to be 
 taken into consideration in their selection. If it is difficult to pro- 
 duce a flat surface on wood by the use of planes, much more so is 
 it the case with files on metal. Steadiness and constant watchful- 
 ness are needed to prevent any one part of a surface being reduced 
 too low. The ever-varying position of the file on the work in- 
 creases the difficulty of maintaining the tool in a horizontal plane, 
 particularly if the surface operated on be small. This is caused 
 by the overhanging ends of the file continually changing position, 
 and, in consequence, altering the amount of lever power, which, if 
 the pressure is not correspondingly varied, must needs give rise to 
 the formation of a curvilinear surface. When filing soft metals, 
 the teeth often get filled up, and are thus prevented from working, 
 in which case a wire brush should be freely used across the file, in 
 the direction of the teeth. A true surface plate, slightly smeared 
 with red lead and oil, will have to be used as a test when the sur- 
 face approaches towards completion. The parts coming in contact 
 with the surface plate, and therefore requiring to be filed, will be 
 indicated by the red lead markings. After most of the surface 
 shows contact with the test plate, but not so regularly and equally 
 distributed as might be desired, the file should be laid aside, and 
 a flat steel scraper substituted. Cutting, as this tool does, with only 
 one point at a time, there is no difficulty in removing the exact 
 particles desired, and by patient and careful work producing all 
 but a perfect surface. 
 
 FINISHING. A great deal of the finisher's work is now per- 
 formed by large grindstones and buffs ; all that in many instances 
 remains to be done being to inspect the work, and correct any 
 
50 WORKSHOP NOTES AND SKETCHES. 
 
 irregularities, going over the surfaces with the finest emery cloth. 
 In many surfaces absolute flatness is not required so much as 
 perfection of finish. In such instances the scraper would not 
 be used at all, but files and emery of various degrees of fineness, 
 until the surface was of the quality specified. In order that the 
 partial flatness of the surface obtained by the files may not be lost, 
 the emery cloth must be applied by a piece of flat wood. In 
 many workshops emery is not allowed on flat surfaces intended 
 to work on one another ; the only finish they receive coming 
 direct from the scraper. All finished surfaces, liable to rust, 
 should be coated over with clean oil before being laid away ; and 
 even this may require to be supplemented by a covering of white 
 lead and tallow if the work be intended for transport, or to remain 
 unused for a long period of time. 
 

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