THE LIBRARY 
 
 OF 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY 
 OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 Professor 
 John Freeman Bovard
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION 
 
 OF THE 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATION 
 
 No. 5-1885 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 BY EDWARD MUSSEY HAETWELL, Pn.D., M.D., 
 
 OF JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY. 
 
 WASHINGTON: 
 
 GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE. 
 1886. 
 
 5068 No. 5
 
 Library 
 
 H- 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE. 
 
 Letter of the Commissioner of Education to the Secretary of the Interior 5 
 
 Ideals of manly excellence 7 
 
 Systems of physical training 9 
 
 Introduction of gymnastics into America 21 
 
 Condition of physical training in America prior to the introduction of the "new 
 
 gymnastics" 25 
 
 The new gymnastics 26 
 
 Opening of the era of huilding gymnasia in colleges 29 
 
 Department of physical training at Amherst College 30 
 
 College gymnasia built since 1860 39 
 
 Dr. Sargent's developing appliances 44 
 
 Number and cost of college gymnasia buildings in the United States 59 
 
 Descriptions of the principal gymnasia 68 
 
 Young Men's Christian Association gymnasia 87 
 
 Architects and furnishers of gymnasia 92 
 
 Military drill and discipline a physical training 92 
 
 Athletic sports in the United States 106 
 
 Concerning play-grounds 112 
 
 The Yale system of athletics 115 
 
 Professionalism and intercollegiate contests 124 
 
 Physical education for scholastic women 132 
 
 Instruction in hygiene 135 
 
 Concluding remarks and suggestions 152 
 
 APPEKDIX. 
 
 Physioal training in Germany 157 
 
 531 
 
 775135
 
 LETTER. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR, 
 t BUREAU OF EDUCATION, 
 
 Washington, D. C., October 24, 1885. 
 
 SIR : In spite of the frequent reference among educators and in edu- 
 cational literature to the fact that all education should aim at producing 
 a sound mind in a healthy body, it is well known that this important 
 truth is too often forgotten by school officers , teachers, and parents. 
 Generally in American rural -schools, and too often in our city schools, 
 the conditions requisite to health are ignored. Too frequently school- 
 houses are unhealthy in their location, their surroundings, or internal 
 arrangements. 
 
 Beyond the instruction in hygiene the main attempts to conserve 
 health in the public schools have consisted in introducing German 
 gymnastics, or in paying a more careful attention to the laws of heating 
 and lighting and the supply of pure air and water. Sometimes the in- 
 troduction of manual labor has been looked upon as the sure prevention 
 of all disease ; athletic sports have been tried ; and recently more careful 
 attention has been given to the whole subject, especially in connection 
 .with our colleges. TheJLing system of gymnastics is received_withjn- 
 creasing favor. More and monTBelfeve that the best physical training 
 will not aim to make either acrobats or athletes, but to promote health 
 of body and mind. The efforts of Prof. Edward Hitchcock at Amherst 
 College and of Dr. D. A. Sargent at Harvard have been attended with 
 most beneficial results, and serve to greatly increase the care of the 
 health of college students. . 
 
 The number of gymnasia of merit has greatly increased. Calls for 
 a report upon this new development in physical training have been 
 urgent and frequent. I have therefore employed E. M. Hartwell, M.D., 
 Ph.D., to collect the information accessible and prepare a report upon 
 the subject. His report is contained in the following pages, which are 
 recommended for publication. If our colleges and universities can lead 
 the way in devising and establishing the best hygienic training, their 
 example will soon affect favorably all other grades of instruction. 
 
 I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 
 
 JOHN EATON, 
 
 Commissioner. 
 
 The Hon. SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOR. 
 
 Publication authorized. 
 
 H. L. MULDEOW, 
 
 Acting Secretary. 
 533
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES AND 
 
 UNIVERSITIES. 
 
 IDEALS OF MANLY EXCELLENCE. 
 
 Philosophical speculations regarding the nature and future of man's 
 body and soul underlie and determine all our schemes and endeavors 
 for the nurture and training of youth. There appear to be four prin- 
 cipal ideals of manly excellence, which, singly or in combination, have 
 dominated the minds of the promoters and governors of educational 
 foundations, and in accordance with which physical training has been 
 favored, tolerated, neglected, or contemned. We may characterize 
 these ideals broadly as the Greek or aesthetic, the monkish or ascetic, 
 the military or knightly, and the medical or scientific. 
 
 The first three have been influential in varying degrees from very early 
 times. The fourth, although compounded of ancient elements, is so 
 strongly tinged with utilitarian and psycho-physical ideas that it is best 
 described as modern. All of these ideals are traceable to conceptions 
 of human nature and destiny which may be roughly classed under the 
 two heads of lugubrious and cheerful. 
 
 THE GREEK EDEAI,. 
 
 The Greek ideal, it is needless to say, was not lugubrious. "Every- 
 thing that is good," says Plato in the "Timseus," "is fair, and the fair is 
 not without measure, and the animal who is fair may be supposed to 
 have measure. Now we perceive lesser symmetries and comprehend 
 them, but about the highest and greatest we have no understanding; 
 for there is no symmetry greater than that of the soul to the body. This, 
 however, we do not perceive, nor do we allow ourselves to reflect that 
 when a weaker or lesser frame is the vehicle of a great and mighty soul, 
 or, conversely, when a little soul is encased in a large body, then the 
 whole animal is not fair, for it is defective in the most important of all 
 symmetries; but the fair mind in the fair body will be the fairest and 
 loveliest of all sights to him who has the seeing eye." 
 
 Well might Charles Kingsley say of the Greeks, "To produce health, 
 that is, harmony and sympathy and grace, in every faculty of mind and 
 body, was their notion of education." 
 
 535
 
 8 CIRCULARS Of INFORMATION FOR 
 
 The antithesis between the Greek and the ascetic ideals is clearly 
 indicated in a remark of Apuleius concerning Egyptian and Greek 
 modes of worship. "The Egyptian deities," he says, " were chiefly hon- 
 ored by lamentations, and the Greek divinities by dances." 
 
 THE MONKISH IDEAL. 
 
 The ideal of the monk, which, after the first few centuries of the 
 Christian Church, exercised such a profound influence upon European 
 thought and life, was of Asiatic and, to a considerable extent, of Egyp- 
 tian origin. "The duty of a monk," said St. Jerome, "is not to teach, 
 but to weep." Weeping and self-torture might well absorb the energies 
 of men who conceived that all flesh was the creation of Satan, and cham- 
 pioned the belief that soul and body are independent and mutually 
 antagonistic entities. 
 
 When it was held that "the greatest of all evils was pleasure, because 
 by it the soul is nailed or riveted to the body," and that mental and 
 spiritual health were best subserved by bodily weakness, we cannot 
 wonder that "a hideous, sordid, and emaciated maniac," to borrow 
 the words of Lecky, "without knowledge, without patriotism, without 
 natural affection, passing his life in a long routine of useless and atro- 
 cious self-torture, and quailing before the ghastly phantoms of his de- 
 lirious brain, became the ideal of the nations which had known the 
 writings of Plato and Cicero and the lives of Socrates and Cato." 
 
 Such views as these, although they were treated as heretical by the 
 earlier Fathers of the Christian Church, became accepted dogmas of the 
 Church of Rome in the Middle Ages; and one may hear similar doctrines 
 far from faintly echoed, if he will attend to the sermons of many of the 
 Scotch, English, and American divines who have within the last three 
 centuries striven to establish or perpetuate religious terrorism. 
 
 THE MILITARY IDEAL. 
 
 The military ideal of manliness, now existing side by side with the 
 monkish ideal, now confronting and challenging it, has played a most 
 important and conspicuous part in the education of the sons of noble- 
 men and of gentlefolk. Herodotus tells us that the sons of the Persians, 
 from their fifth year to their twentieth, were carefully taught three 
 things only, to ride, to draw the bow, and to speak the truth. Physical 
 training was predominant in the education of free-born youth among 
 the Spartans, Romans, and ancient Germans : it consisted chiefly of 
 martial exercises and the chase, and its aim was the formation of an 
 agile and enduring soldiery. " Plaienge att weapons " formed a neces- 
 sary part of every gentleman's education in Britain as well as on the 
 Continent, even later than the sixteenth century. 
 
 " I swear I'd rather that my son should hang than learn letters. For 
 it becomes the sons of gentlemen to blow a horn nicely, to hunt skill- 
 
 536
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 9 
 
 fully, and elegantly carry and train a hawk. But the study of letters 
 should be left to the sons of rustics." These are the words of an Eng- 
 lish gentleman, of the time of Henry VIII, who, on hearing letters 
 praised, " was roused to sudden anger and burst out furiously." 
 
 The ideal of the Greeks sprang from a passion for beauty and har- 
 mony, and a joyous sense of well-being ; that of the theologian and the 
 monk was conditioned on and determined by a profound ignorance of, 
 and a bitter contempt for, the body; while that of the soldier and the 
 knight owed its peculiar features to a rude appreciation of bodily force 
 and skill, gained from experience in camp and field. 
 
 THE MODERN IDEAL. 
 
 It is not to the generative vigor of any or all of these ideals that we 
 owe our modef n doctrine of the interdependence of body and mind ; 
 which doctrine is but vaguely, if at all, apprehended by the majority 
 of those who quote with generous unction the time-worn mens sana in 
 corpore sano line of Juvenal, who exhorts men not only "t6 T pray for a 
 Tiealthy mind in a healthy body," but also to "ask for a brave soul un- 
 scared by death." No : the belief " that to work the mind is also to 
 work a number of the bodily organs; that not a feeling can arise, not 
 a thought pass, without a set of concurring bodily processes," is the 
 child of the scientific spirit embodied in the new physiology and the 
 new psychology, and was engendered, as we know, through the labors 
 of Harvey and Haller, Du Bois-Eeymond, Miiller, and Weber, Helrn- 
 holtz and Wundt. 
 
 Mr. Huxley, it may be fairly said, voices the views of a large and in- 
 creasing number of scientific thinkers when he says : 
 
 That man, I think, has had a liberal education who has been so trained in youth 
 that his body is the ready servant of his will, and does with ease and pleasure all the 
 work it is capable of; whose intellect is a clear, cold logic engine, with all its parts 
 of equal strength and in smooth working order, ready, like a steam-engine, to be 
 turned to any work, and spin the gossamers as well as forge the anchors of the mind ; 
 whose mind is stored with a knowledge of the great and fundamental truths of Nat- 
 ure and of the laws of her operations; one who, no stunted ascetic, is full of life and 
 fire, but whose passions are trained to come to heel by a vigorous will, the servant of a 
 tender conscience; who has learned to love all beauty, whether of nature or of art, to 
 hate all vileness, and to respect others as himself. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF PHYSICAL TRAINING. 
 
 It would be interesting, did the scope and limits of this paper permit 
 it, to discuss' fully and in detail the means adopted, at different times 
 and in various countries, to realize the ideals of which we have spoken. 
 Some statements of a suggestive rather than of a descriptive nature 
 must suffice. 
 
 537
 
 10 CmCULARS OP INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 THE GREEK SYSTEM. 
 
 In Guhl and Koner's "The Life of the Greeks and Romans " we find the 
 gymnasia mentioned first among the public buildings of Greece because 
 they were "center-points of Greek life." The authors go on to say: 
 
 Games and competitions in various kinds of bodily skill formed a chief feature of 
 their religions festivals. This circumstance reacted on both sculpture and architect- 
 ure, in supplying the former with models of ideal beauty, and in setting the task to 
 the latter of providing suitable places for these games to be celebrated. 
 
 THE PALESTRA. 
 
 For purposes of this kind, as far as public exhibition was not concerned, the pal- 
 aestrae and gymnasia served. In earlier times these two must be distinguished. In 
 the pahestra young men practiced wrestling and boxing. As these arts were grad- 
 ually developed, larger establishments, with separate compartments, became neces- 
 sary. Originally such places were kept by private persons ; sometimes they consisted 
 only of open spaces, near a brook, if possible, and surrounded by trees. 
 
 THE GYMNASIUM. 
 
 Soon, however, regular buildings, gymnasia, became necessary. At first they con- 
 sisted of an uncovered court surrounded by colonnades, adjoining which lay covered 
 spaces, the former being used for running and jumping, the latter for wrestling. In 
 the same degree as these exercises became more developed and as grown-up men began 
 to take an interest in these youthful sports, these institutions grew in size and 
 splendor. 
 
 Minute descriptions of these establishments by Greek authors we do not possess, 
 but the important parts are known to us from occasional remarks, particularly in the 
 Platonic dialogues. There we find mentioned the ephebeion, where the youth used to 
 practice ; further, the bath, to which belonged a dry sweating bath for the use of both 
 wrestlers and visitors. The apoduterion was the room for undressing. In another 
 room, the elaiothesion, the oil was kept for rubbing the wrestlers, and there possibly 
 this rubbing itself took place. In the konisterion the wrestlers were sprinkled with 
 sand, so as to give them a firmer hold on each other. The sphairisterion was destined 
 for games of ball, while other passages, open or covered (collectively called dromos), 
 were used for practice in running, or simply for walking. A particular kind of cov- 
 ered passage were the xustoi, which had raised platforms on both sides for the walkers, 
 the lower space between being used by the wrestlers. 
 
 Among the Doric tribes, but chiefly in Sparta, physical education consisted princi- 
 pally in hardening the body of the young citizen- warrior against the influence of pain 
 and exertion ; among the Ionian tribes, and chiefly at Athens, the harmonious devel- 
 opment of body and soul, i. e., grace and ease of bearing and demeanor, were the 
 objects chiefly aimed at. At Athens the gymnasia were public institutions, supported 
 by public or private means, at which epheboi (youths old enough for military service) 
 and men spent a part of their day in athletic exercise and in instructive and social 
 intercourse. These were the Lukrion, the Kunosarges, the Akademia, the Ptolemaion, 
 the splendid gymnasium of Hadrianns, and the small gymnasium of Hermes. The 
 number of palaestrae at Athens was still greater. They were all private institutes 
 kept by single paidotribai, and destined for the athletic education of boys only. In 
 smaller cities the joint practice of youths and grown-up men in the same locality was 
 frequently inevitable. But it is erroneous to suppose that the palaestra was exclu- 
 sively the resort of the athletai. The separation of youths and men from the boys 
 was desirable, both for moral and educational reasons; for the difficulties of the task 
 increased in proportion to the age of the aspuant. 
 538
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 11 
 
 THE GAMES. 
 
 Before entering upon the single exercises we must try to define the three general 
 appellations, gymnastic, agonistic, and athletic. The first term comprises all kinds of 
 regulated bodily exercise for the purpose of strengthening the body or single limbs. 
 The agonistic comprises the gymnastic exercises tending to prepare the athletai for the 
 wrestling matches, which formed an important feature of the national festivities, 
 particularly of the games of Olympia. Here assembled, invited by the peace messen- 
 gers of Zeus, the delegates of empires and cities, not to speak of crowds of enthusias- 
 tic spectators from the most distant shores. The flower of Greek youth came up to 
 test their skill in the noble competition for the crown of Zeus. Only he whose untain- 
 ted character and pure Hellenic descent had been certified was allowed to approach 
 the silver urn which contained the lots. A previous training of at least ten months 
 at a Greek gymnasium was further required for obtaining the permission of taking 
 part in the holy contest. 
 
 The ethic purpose of gymnastic art came to be more neglected, when artificiality 
 and affectation began to prevail. It was then that the noble art deteriorated into a 
 mechanical profession ; the athletic is the later signification of the term. 
 
 THE TEACHERS. 
 
 The teachers of gymnastics among the Athenians were known as 
 gumnastai and paidytribai ; the former having to superintend the gen- 
 eral development and training of the body, while the latter directed the 
 single exercises. The sophronistai were responsible for the good behavior 
 of the boys. The whole gymnasium and all its teachers were under the 
 charge of a superintendent, termed the gumnasiarchos. His position 
 was highly honorable and responsible. The principal exercises taught 
 in the palaestra and the gymnasium were running, leaping, wrestling, 
 throwing the discus, throwing the spear, boxing, and the pagTcration, a 
 combination of boxing and wrestling. Various ball games were also in 
 vogue, and much attention was given to bathing. 
 
 It resulted from the best Greek training that Sparta needed no walls 
 of defense save the bodies of her sons, and that Athens furnished models 
 of manly vigor and beauty which have been alike the admiration and de- 
 spair of sculptors since the days of Phidias. 
 
 SYSTEMS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 In comparison with the comprehensive and well directed methods of 
 the Greeks, the means employed for the bodily training of the would- 
 be priest or soldier seem crude and primitive in the extreme. In the 
 better days of monachism it was held that a laboring monk had but one 
 devil to fear, while one who had idle hands must needs contend against 
 a legion. Accordingly labor in the field, the garden, and the vineyard 
 became a well recognized factor in the course of training laid down for 
 many of the religious orders, and especially of the Benedictines, the 
 champions and saviors of classical learning in the west. Although the 
 ghostly enemies of the young gentleman, or noble, were far from being 
 ignored, yet his training was mainly directed toward rendering him 
 fit to encounter savage beasts and men-at-arms. The exercises and 
 
 539
 
 12 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 pastimes of the tilt-yard, the village-green, and the bear-pit, differed 
 widely indeed from the exercises of the palaestra, the gymnasium, and 
 the stadium, though not so widely as from the feats achieved by scho- 
 lastic and religious youth with mattock, spade, and pruning-hook. 
 
 BRITISH USAGES. 
 
 In view of the kinship of American and British schools and scholars, 
 our purpose will be best served if, in the present connection, we confine 
 our attention chiefly to British usages as regards scholastic and knightly 
 training iu medieval and early modern times. 
 
 MEDIEVAL STUDENT -LIFE. 
 
 Asceticism [says Mullinger, the historian of the University of Cambridge, in his 
 chapter on mediaeval student-life], as it was then the professed rule of life with the 
 monk, the friar, and the secular, was also the prevailing theory in the discipline of 
 those whom they taught and trained for their several professions. The man fasted, 
 voluntarily bared his back to the scourge, kept long and painful vigils ; the boy was 
 starved, flogged, and sent to seek repose where he might find it if he were able. 
 * * * Lever, the master of St. John's, in ail oft-quoted passage, describes the 
 scholars of his college, then (in 1550) the poorest in proportion to its number in the 
 whole University, as going to dinner at ten o'clock, content with a penny piece of 
 beef, among four, having a little "porage" made of the broth of the same beef, with 
 salt and oatmeal, "and nothing else." After this slender dinner, he continues, "they 
 be either teaching or learning until five of the clock in the evening, when they have 
 a supper not much better than their dinner. Immediately after the which they go 
 either to reasoning in problems or unto some other study, until it be nine or ten of 
 the clock, and then, being without fire, are fain to walk or run up and down half an 
 hour to get a heat in their feet when they go to bed." 
 
 SPORTS AND PASTIMES. 
 
 Of the sports and pastimes of those days we have little record; but we know the 
 use of the cross-bow to have been a favorite accomplishment; cock-fighting, that 
 "last infirmity" of the good Ascham, was also a common amusement; while, from 
 certain college statutes requiring that "no fierce birds" should be introduced within 
 the precincts of the college, we may infer that many of the students were emulous of 
 the falconer's art. It is not uninteresting to note that a custom of the present day, 
 the daily walk with a single companion, was originally inculcated by college statute, 
 while this in turn is said to have derived its precedent from apostolic example. 
 
 The statute referred to, dates from the year 1336, which was a little 
 more than sixty years before the founding of Winchester College by 
 William of Wykeham, who strenuously and particularly forbade in the 
 statutes which he drew up for the government of his scholars pretty 
 much every kind of sport, whether it were gentlemanly or loutish. 
 
 TRAINING UNDER HENRY VIII. 
 
 From the letters of young Gregory Cromwell's tutor to his pupil's 
 father, the Earl of Essex and the King's chief secretary, we derive some 
 insight as to the education of a young nobleman of the time of Henry 
 YIII, at which time it was said that " gentlemen strive more to bring 
 
 540
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 13 
 
 np good hounds than wise heirs." It appears from the letters alluded to 
 that young Cromwell had " hours limited for the French tongue, writ- 
 ing, playing at weapons, casting of accounts, pastimes of instruments," 
 and that for his recreation he used " to hawk and hunt and shoot in 
 his long bow." 
 
 Henry VIII strove to foster the practice of martial exercises through- 
 out the realm. We are told of his " continuing daily to amuse himself 
 in archery, casting of the bar, wrestling, or dancing, and frequently in 
 tilting, tourneying, fighting at the barriers with swords and battle-axes, 
 and such like martial recreations, in most of which there were very few 
 who could excel him." 
 
 LAWS REGARDING ARCHERY. 
 
 He caused Parliament to enact, in 1511, that " every man being the 
 King's subject, not lame, decrepit, or maimed ; being within the age of 
 sixty years, except spiritual men, justices of the one bench and of the 
 other, justices of the assize, arid barons of the exchequer, do use and 
 exercise shooting in long bows, and also do have a bow and arrows 
 ready continually in his house, to use himself in shooting; and that 
 every man having a man child or men children in his house shall pro- 
 vide for all such, being of the age of seven years and above, a bow and 
 two shafts, to learn them and bring them up in shooting." Each village 
 was, in 1541, required to maintain a pair of archery butts. It would 
 seem that this statute was held to'apply to school-boys and collegians ; 
 for, while it is provided in the ordinances of Shrewsbury school, made 
 by the authorities of the town in 1578, that the " schollers shall plaie 
 upon thursdaies onles there be a holidaye in the weeke and no day els 
 but .the thursdaie," it is prescribed that the " schollers plaie shal be 
 shootinge in the long bowe and chesse plaie and no other games except 
 it be runninge, wrastlinge, or leapinge." It is also noteworthy that cer- 
 tain playgrounds, at Eton and Harrow respectively, are still termed 
 < The Shooting Fields" and " The Butts." 
 
 It is not safe, however, to infer from enactments like the above that 
 systematic physical training, even in the single particular of archery, 
 was ever generally enforced in English schools and colleges. System 
 and compulsion in such matters have ever been contemned both by 
 teachers and pupils. 
 
 Roger Ascham, in his " Toxophilus, the Schole of Shootinge," pub- 
 lished in 1545, declares that "if shooting could speak, she would accuse 
 England of unkindness and slothfulness," and further states that " very 
 many play with the King's acts, * * * many buy bows, because of 
 the act, but yet shoot not." 
 
 VIEWS OF CARDINAL POLE. 
 
 Very few men in England, during the middle third of the sixteenth 
 century, were so well qualified to set forth and criticise the educational 
 
 641
 
 14 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 methods of his time as Eeginald Pole, legate under Pope Paul III, arch- 
 bishop of Canterbury in the time of Queen Mary, and chancellor both of 
 Oxford and Cambridge. Pole, who had been educated at the Universi- 
 ties of Oxford, Paris, and Padua, and was on familiar terms with the 
 most renowned scholars of his day, was a man of eminent ability and 
 great independence of character. There can be little doubt that in 
 *' England in the Eeign of Henry VIII. A Dialogue between Cardinal 
 Pole and Thomas Lupset, Lecturer in Rhetoric in Oxford. By Thomas 
 Starkey, Chaplain to the King," the opinions of Pole regarding the 
 educational needs of England are set forth with substantial accuracy. 
 
 Pole favors the opinion of those who say that "the weal of man 
 resteth not only in the mind and the virtues thereof, but in the body 
 also, and in the prosperous state of the same," as being " very truth." 
 
 "First and most principal of all ill customs used in our country is 
 that which toucheth the education of the nobility," says Pole, " whom 
 we see customably brought up in hunting and hawking, dicing and card- 
 ingj eating and drinking, and in all vain pleasure, pastime, and van- 
 ity." Pole is equally severe on the education of the "men of the 
 church," who he declares " are not brought up in virtue and learning, 
 as they should be, nor well approved therein before they be admitted 
 to such high dignity, * * * for commonly you shall find that they 
 can nothing do but patter up their matins and mass, mumbling up a 
 certain number of words nothing understood." 
 
 ON COMPULSORY EDUCATION OP THK NOBILITY. 
 
 Pole distinctly favors compulsory education and public schools, in 
 order to remedy the "ill customs" noted above, as may be seen from 
 the following quotation : 
 
 But here is, Master Lupset, not only in our country, but also in all other which ever 
 yet I knew, a great lack and negligence of them which rule in common policy, and 
 that is this: that in no country there is any regard of the bringing up of the youth 
 in common discipline and public exercise. But every man privately in his own house 
 hath his master to instruct his children in letters, without any respect of other exer- 
 cise in other feats pertaining to nobility no less than learning and letters, as in all 
 feats of chivalry. Therefore there would some ordinance be devised for the joining 
 of these both together, which might be done after this manner, likewise as we have 
 in our universities, colleges, and common places to nourish the children of poor men 
 in letters ; whereby, as you see, cometh no small profit to the common weal. 
 
 So much more we should have, as it were, certain places appointed for the bringing 
 up together of the nobility, to the which I would the nobles should be compelled to 
 set forward their children and heirs, that in a number together they might the better 
 profit. And to this company I would have appointed rulers certain of the most vir- 
 tuous and wise men of the realm, the which should instruct this youth to whom 
 should come the governance after, of this our common weal. Here they should be in- 
 struct, not only in learning and virtue, but also in all feats of war pertaining to such 
 as should be hereafter in time of war captains and governors of the common sort. 
 This should be the most noble institution that ever was yet devised in any common 
 542
 
 PHYSICAL TKAINING IN AMEEICAN COLLEGES. 15 
 
 weal. Of this should spring the fountain of all civility and politic rule ; yea, and 
 without such a thing I can not tell whether all the rest of our deviee will little 
 avail. I think it will never be possible to institute our common weal without this 
 ordinance brought to pass and put into effect. 
 
 Pole's ideas, we need hardly say, were too novel and theoretical to be 
 adopted in his day; and it would be extremely difficult to realize them 
 in England even in our day. Milton and Bacon, Fuller and Locke, and 
 Herbert Spencer, have all argued in favor of physical training, in a strain 
 more or less similar to that of Pole. But the realization of their gener- 
 ous theories has never been widely and systematically undertaken by 
 the teachers of British youth. 
 
 Athletic sports, such as boating, cricket, and foot-ball, have come to 
 be highly prized and lauded. We are far from denying their great edu- 
 cational value, but it is clear that they owe their essential features 
 chiefly to the beliefs and customs of that most uncritical and preju- 
 diced class of conservatives, the British undergraduate, rather than to 
 the schemes and endeavors of innovating thinkers and reformers. It 
 is equally clear that innovators and dreamers have been largely influ- 
 ential in quickening and determining the development of modern 
 methods, both of physical and mental training, on the Continent of Eu- 
 rope. As we shall have occasion to point out further on, physical train- 
 ing in America owes more to German than to British models. 
 
 AMERICAN IDEAS AND CUSTOMS. 
 
 When we recall the fact that our oldest American colleges, like their 
 early English models, were established primarily to recruit with learned 
 men the ranks of the clergy, there is left no ground for wonder that 
 physical training has so slowly won its way to recognition as a necessary 
 part of a sound education. American educators were long ruled by 
 British notions as to curriculum and discipline; the American public 
 was mainly animated by narrowly "practical" and utilitarian ideals; 
 and American collegians, who were not too serious to play at all, dis- 
 ported themselves after inherited British fashions in their intervals of 
 study. 
 
 HARVAKD AND DARTMOUTH CUSTOMS. 
 
 The means afforded students for recreation a hundred and fifty years 
 ago were decidedly scanty, if we may judge from the only mention of 
 them in the "Ancient Customs of Harvard College, Established by the 
 Government of It." "Custom 16" runs as follows: "The Freshmen 
 shall furnish bats, balls, and foot-balls for the use of students, to be kept 
 in the buttery." Dartmouth College, in New Hampshire, was founded in 
 1769. In a statement made two years later by its first president, Eev. 
 Dr. Wheelock, concerning its aims and methods, we find a recommenda- 
 tion, on which the changes were rung by college officers and trustees 
 for more than fifty years in the east, and whose echoes*are still ringing 
 in the west. President Wheelock recommended the students to "turn 
 
 543
 
 16 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 the course of their diversions and exercises for their health to the prac- 
 tice of some manual arts, or cultivation of gardens and other lands, at 
 the proper hours of leisure and intermissions from study and vacancies 
 [vacations]". 
 
 VIEWS OF DR. RUSH. 
 
 Dr. Benjamin Eush, of Philadelphia, who was a signer of the Decla- 
 ration of Independence, was long the foremost teacher in the foremost 
 American medical college of his day, that of the University of Penn- 
 sylvania. Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes inclines to believe that Dr. Eush 
 not only gave direction to the medical mind of the country more than 
 any other one man, but that he "typifies it better than any other." Dr. 
 Eush urged his students "to turn nature out of .doors and appeal to 
 art," and published abroad his belief that " the time must and would 
 come when the general use of calomel, jalap, and the lancet should be 
 considered among the most essential articles of knowledge and the 
 rights of man." One has but to turn to Dr. Eush's "Essays, Literary, 
 Moral, and Philosophical", to find that his notions as to artificial and 
 heroic practice were not confined to medical matters. Among these es- 
 says is one published in 1790, on the "Amusements and Punishments 
 Proper for Schools." Dr. Eush voiced the prevailing sentiment of his 
 time, and of many of our time as well, in proposing that "the amuse- 
 ments of our youth shall consist of such exercises as will be most sub- 
 servient to their future employments in life." He favors agricultural 
 and mechanical employments as means of diversion and training, and 
 notes with approval that "in the Methodist College, in Maryland, a 
 large lot is divided between the scholars, and premiums adjudged to 
 those who produce the most vegetables from their grounds, or who keep 
 them in the best order." " The Methodists," he adds, " have wisely ban- 
 ished every species of play from their college." Again he says : 
 
 All the amusements of the children of the Moravians at Bethlehem, Penn., are de- 
 rived from their performing the subordinate parts of several of the mechanical arts; 
 and a considerable portion of the wealth of that worthy and happy society ia the 
 product of the labor of their little hands. 
 
 MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS AND TRAINING. 
 
 It was in accordance with such notions as those of President Whee- 
 lock and Dr. Eush that farm, manual labor, and Fellenberg schools 
 were founded, and societies for promoting manual labor in literary in- 
 stitutions were organized somewhat extensively in the United States 
 during the first third of the present century. 
 
 In South Carolina. 
 
 The first of these farm-schools was that established in 1797 at Lethe, 
 in Abbeville District, S. 0., in accordance with the terms of the will of 
 Dr. John de la Howe, a native of Hanover, in Germany, who left the 
 bulk of his estate, comprising a farm of 500 acres and 1,000 acres of 
 forest, for the educating, boarding, and clothing of twelve poor boys 
 544
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 17 
 
 and twelve poer girls of Abbeville District. The school did not go into 
 actual operation till twenty years later. 
 
 In Masaachusetts. 
 
 When Amherst College was founded at Amherst, Mass., in 1821, it 
 possessed at the start "an advantage over all other colleges," accord- 
 ing to the Boston Recorder published in September of that year, which 
 notes the purchase of " a large field for the express purpose of afford- 
 ing each charity student an opportunity of cultivating a quarter or half 
 acre in that manner which his taste and judgment should dictate." 
 While preparing this paper we have been assured that " ecclesiastical 
 students find plenty of recreation and amusement, either walking, work- 
 ing in flower gardens, or riding." 
 
 Tyler's "History of Amherst College" states that "all the earlier ter- 
 races on College Hill were the work of the officers and students of 
 Amherst College. And every spring, for many years, the students were 
 in the habit of devoting one day to raking off the chips and clearing up 
 the grounds." " Chip-day " at Amherst, it is to be remembered, was 
 probably imported from Williams College, whence came Amherst's first 
 president and students. At Williams College, years before and for 
 years after the foundation of Amherst, the students had, in addition to 
 a "chip-day," a "mountain-day" and a "gravel-day," the former being 
 devoted to tramping, and the latter to regraveling the college walks. 
 The Faculty granted these holidays for the purpose of "fostering in the 
 students the habits of physical labor and exercise so essential to vigor- 
 ous mental exertion." 
 
 GERMAN CUSTOMS AND THEIR INFLUENCE. 
 
 -rsPi 
 
 Prior to 1825, physical training, in its proper sense, had no recogni- 
 tion or standing in the curriculum of school or college, if we except the 
 United States Military Academy at West Point, and one or two insti- 
 tutions modeled on it. The germ of such physical training as exists at 
 present in many of our colleges came from abroad, and was planted by 
 German exiles in New England soil. 
 
 Among the ancient Germans, bodily exercises were generally and 
 strenuously cultivated for the sake of training men for war, the chase, 
 and the sacred games. In the Middle Ages, bodily training was re- 
 stricted to military gymnastics, and these were largely monopolized 
 by the feudal aristocracy, none but knights being allowed to take part 
 in the tournaments, whose origin is attributed to the German King, 
 Henry I. The opposition of the Church and the introduction of tire- 
 arms finally brought about the downfall of the chivalric games. 
 
 VIEWS OF THE REFORMERS. 
 
 Although the reformers, Luther, Melaucthon, and Zwingli, urged the 
 revival of gymnastics as a part of the education of all classes of youth, 
 00682*0, 5 3 545
 
 18 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 it was not until the last decades of the last century that any considera- 
 ble attempt was made to systematize and enforce gymnastic training in 
 Germany. 
 
 THE PHILANTHROPISTS. 
 
 The philanthropists, who, as regards the physical side of education, 
 were the precursous of Jahn, the father of German Turning, made such 
 an attempt in the reformed courses of instruction, by means of which 
 they strove to supplant the "old education" and follow "the method 
 of nature." Basedow, Campe, Salzmanu, Guts Muths, Pestalozzi, and 
 Fellenberg, all gave physical training a prominent place in the schools 
 which they instituted or controlled. In so doing, however, they were 
 only following, and that for the most part consciously, the suggestions 
 contained in Eousseau's Emile, which was published in 1762, and con- 
 tained much that seems but an echo from the essays of Montaigne, "On 
 the Education of Children " and "On Pedantry," which appeared some 
 eighty years before the fimile. Eousseau's main thesis is found in his 
 claim that his "system is nature's course of development," and that "the 
 great secret of education is to manage it so that the training of the 
 mind and body shall serve to assist each other." 
 
 BASEDOW AND THE PHILANTHROPINUM. 
 
 Basedow, who was born at Hamburg in 1723 and was by nature an 
 innovator, first attracted attention by his controversial writings on the- 
 ological subjects. He was incited to devote himself to educational re- 
 forms by reading fimile, which a recent writer characterizes as " perhaps 
 the most influential book ever written on the subject of education." 
 In 1774, Basedow founded at Dessau his famous school, the Philanthro- 
 pinum, "in which," says Von Eauiner, "the views of Eousseau were 
 strictly followed, and where these views were by every means sought 
 to be introduced into actual life." Basedow's division of the day was 
 as follows : eight hours for sleep ; eight hours for food and amusement; 
 and, for the children of the rich, six hours for school work and two for 
 manual labor, while the children of the poor were to have two hours 
 of school work and six of manual labor. His pupils in the Philanthro- 
 pinum were taught wrestling, running, riding, dancing, besides car- 
 pentry and wood-turning, and were regularly taken on long walks 
 into the country. They were also instructed as to the structure and 
 functions of the human body by the private physician of Prince Die- 
 trich, Basedow's patron. With Basedow philanthropy was indeed a 
 passion to the last. With his dying breath he said, " I wish my body 
 to be dissected for the good of my fellow-creatures." 
 
 It is noteworthy that Basedow and his immediate disciples and imi- 
 tators employed both gymnastic and industrial exercises in their efforts 
 to secure physical training to their pupils. 
 
 Fellenberg, at his schools in Hofwyl, near Berne, in Switzerland, 
 added military drill to instruction in gymnastics and handicrafts. 
 546
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 19 
 
 GUTS MUTHS. 
 
 The influence of the Greek ideal is clearly traceable in the writings 
 of Montaigne, Eousseau, Basedow, Guts Muths, and Jahn. " In the 
 year 1785," says Guts Muths, " I entered, when still a youth, the school 
 of Schnepfenthal, near Gotha, and thereupon Salzmann, its head, con- 
 ducted me to a place saying, < Here are our gymnastics ; within this 
 little space we amuse ourselves daily with five exercises, though they 
 are still only in their rudiments.' These exercises had been first tried 
 at Dessau where Salzmann had previously been. He soon intrusted me 
 with the direction of this first beginning of exercises. All that I found 
 out from ancient usages, from the historical remains of earlier and later 
 antiquity, all that reflection and sometimes chance offered to me, was 
 brought forward for the sake of amusing experiments. Thus the chief 
 exercises increased, were subdivided into new forms and tasks, and 
 were subjected to rules often laid down with great difficulty. Thus 
 originated, after seven years' experiments, in the first edition of my 
 'Gymnastics for the Young' (1793), my first attempt to call attention to 
 a subject that had been quite forgotten and only existed in history." 
 Under Rector Vieth, at Dessau, gymnastics gained great popularity 
 during the very time that Guts Muths was experimenting at Schnepfen- 
 thal. Guts Muths' efforts met with hearty recognition in Germany. 
 Nachtigall in Denmark, and Ling in Sweden, made systematic gym- 
 nastics popular and general among their countrymen. To Ling was 
 due the development of the system of medical gymnastics known as 
 the Swedish Movement Cure, and also a system of general bodily train- 
 ing still much prized in Sweden and Norway. 
 
 JAHN AND THE TURNERS. 
 
 The extraordinary progress made by gymnastics in Germany during 
 the first quarter of the present century was mainly due to the quicken- 
 ing and organizing genius of Friedrich Ludwig Jahn, known to all 
 German Turners as "Father Jahn." "His idea," says Schaible in his 
 "Essay on the Systematic Training of the Body," 
 
 was to unite the people of Germany into one nation, intellectually, morally, and 
 physically strong against the threatening enemy of the west. Boldly and vigorously, 
 a real reformer, he advanced toward his high ideal, the realization of which was at- 
 tained with a surprising rapidity, notwithstanding the many impediments that stood 
 in his way. The number of his pupils increased daily. His ideas of a revived na- 
 tional education were in this work ["Deutsche Turnkunst"] offered to the#nation, 
 and were enthusiastically received. Soon gymnastics took a national character. 
 Boys, youths, and men of all classes of society took part in the exercises, and gym- 
 nasia sprang up in all parts. Nor was it long before from their gymnasia [in 1813] 
 thousands of Turners of all ages rushed forth on a given signal as volunteers to the 
 unfurled standard of their Fatherland, to prove, in a deadly struggle for freedom and 
 country, the strength and self-reliance which they had acquired in the gymnasium. 
 After the German war of independence the effect of gymnastic training was fully 
 
 547
 
 20 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 recognized. On their return from the battle-fields the gymnasts went again to their 
 work with vigorous zeal. Gymnastics had gained a considerable importance through 
 the valor and endurance shown by the Turners during the war. Gymnasia were es- 
 tablished throughout Germany, from the primary school to the university [sic]. 
 
 In the troublous times that followed the war of independence, Jahn and 
 the Turners were denounced as liberals and enemies to the state, and 
 in 1819 the gymnasia throughout Prussia, and in all Germany with the 
 exception of Wiirtemberg, were closed. Jahn was thrown into prison 
 and kept there until 1825. He lived to see gymnastics introduced into 
 the schools in 1842, and Turners' societies flourishing all over Germany. 
 He died in 1852 at the age of seventy -four. 
 
 Gymnastics for the sake of securing a symmetrical development of 
 the bodily powers were not introduced into America before 1825. Mili- 
 tary drill was up to that time employed in only a few institutions, and 
 in them mostly for professional purposes. Educators in the United 
 States, so far as they made any effort to provide for physical training, 
 did so mainly with the view of providing an outlet for what were then 
 termed " animal spirits," or for the purpose of decreasing the cost of an 
 education by such means as had been advocated by President Wheelock 
 and Dr. Bush. 
 
 FELLENBERG AND THE HOFWYL SCHOOLS. 
 
 The attempts of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg to unite industrial and in- 
 tellectual training excited much more interest than did their efforts to 
 bring about the harmonious development of every human faculty. 
 
 Pestalozzi's attempts at Neuhof, Stanz, and Tverdun, in the period 
 from 1780 to 1809, were practical failures. What he was unable to ac- 
 complish was largely realized by Fellenberg and his successors at his 
 schools in Hofwyl, near Berne, in the years 1807-'48. The Hofwyl 
 establishment, to which Fellenberg devoted his time and fortune, in- 
 cluded the literary institution, which dated from 1807, the agricultural 
 or poor school, begun in 1808, the normal school, established a little 
 later, and the intermediate or practical institution, which was started 
 in 1827. Fellenberg's ideas on physical education are of especial inter- 
 est, since they are so much more liberal and enlightened than those of 
 the majority of his American imitators. The Hofwyl schools were or- 
 ganized and managed in accordance with the ideas expressed in the fol- 
 lowing extract from Fellenberg's writings : 
 
 Pure air, a suitable diet, regular exercise and repose, and a proper distribution of 
 time, ate the principal means of physical education. It is as essential that a pupil 
 leave his studies during the time appropriated to relaxation, as that he study during 
 the hours devoted to that purpose. Voluntary exercise is to be encouraged by pro- 
 viding suitable games, by affording opportunities for gardening, and by excursions 
 and bathing. Regular gymnastic exercises should be insisted on as a means of 
 developing the body; a healthy action of the bodily frame has an important influ- 
 ence on both mind and morals. Music is to be considered as a branch of physical 
 education having powerful moral influences. The succession of study, labor, musical 
 instruction, and play, should be carefully attended to. The hours of sleep should be 
 regulated by the age of the pupil. 
 548
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 21 
 
 At Hofwyl the gymnasium was a high-ceiled room, 100 feet loiig and 
 50 feet wide, with a floor of earth. It was well furnished with appa- 
 ratus. Besides fencing and dancing, military drill was taught. Riding- 
 horses, saddlery and carpentry shops, gardens, and a swimming pool, 
 were provided for the scholars' use. 
 
 INTRODUCTION OF GYMNASTICS INTO AMERICA. 
 
 FELLENBERG SCHOOLS IN AMERICA. 
 
 Fellenberg's demonstration of the fact that "a poor boy, taken in his 
 ninth year and staying till his eighteenth year was completed, paid by 
 his labor during the last half for the expenses of maintaining him over 
 his earnings during the first half," seems to have made a deep impres- 
 sion on "practical educators" in the United States sixty years ago. In 
 Volume XV of Barnard's Journal of Education the following statement 
 occurs : 
 
 The Gardiner Lyceum in Maine was established in 1823, for instruction in the sci- 
 entific principles of mechanics and agriculture, and in 1824 a Fellenberg school was 
 opened at Windsor, Conn., by Messrs. Stebbins & Sill. But the desire to afford 
 means by which poor students might defray the expenses of their education while at 
 the same time pursuing their studies, was more influential than any other motive in 
 the introduction of the manual labor system. The first institution founded upon this 
 system was the Maine Wesleyau Seminary, planned in 1820 by Elihu Robinson of 
 Augusta, Me., and put into operation in the spring of 1825. The Oneida Institute of 
 Science and Industry was founded at Whitesboro', N. Y., in 1825-'26, and became one 
 of the most successful manual labor schools in the country. In 1826 was also formed 
 the Andover Mechanical Association at Andover Theological Seminary, Massachu- 
 setts, solely for the purpose of invigorating and preserving health, without any 
 reference to pecuniary profit; but the success of the system of mechanical labor 
 instituted by them made it a model which was followed in many similar institutions. 
 Theological seminaries, colleges, and minor schools, in almost every State of the 
 Union, were established with manual labor as an essential principle in their consti- 
 tution. 
 
 In 1831 the Society for Promoting Manual Labor in Literary Institu- 
 tions was formed in New York City, " for the purpose of collecting and 
 diffusing information calculated to promote the establishment and pros- 
 perity of manual labor schools and seminaries in the United States, 
 and for introducing the system of manual labor into institutions now 
 established, without diminishing the standard of literary and scientific 
 attainment." Theodore D. Weld was the general agent of the society, 
 of which Zecariah Lewis was president. Mr. Weld made a report based 
 on an extended tour among .the "leading literary institutions in Ohio, 
 Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Missouri, Tennessee, and Alabama." After 
 his report was published the society ceased to labor for the accomplish- 
 ment of its objects. The manual labor of which the mass of college 
 students are capable is far too rude to afford profitable educational or 
 pecuniary results, and far too onerous to be attractive for its gamesome- 
 ness. Students so poverty-stricken as to resort to the menial drudgery 
 
 549
 
 22 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 of scullions and waiters and field-hands may be commended for their 
 pluck and assiduity, but it is time that a protest was entered against 
 such practices except in cases of the direst necessity. The spectacle of 
 college students seeking tips and drink-money is not a pleasant one. 
 
 THE FIRST GYMNASIA IN AMERICA. 
 
 The first gymnasia in this country were erected out of doors, in bald 
 imitation of Graco-German models. It is possible that as early as 1821 
 the Latin School at Salem, Mass., had some sort of a gymnasium, without 
 instructors being provided for its users; but it seems clear that the 
 Bound Hill School, established at Northampton, Mass., in 1823, for the 
 liberal education of boys, by Messrs. George Bancroft and Joseph Green 
 Cogswell, was the first institution in this country to make gymnastic 
 exercise a part of the regular course of instruction. This was done in 
 1825, when the Eound Hill Gymnasium was erected under the super- 
 vision of Dr. Charles Beck, who had been a pupil and friend of Father 
 Jahn, in Germany. 
 
 GYMKASTICS AT ROUND HILL SCHOOL IN 1825. 
 
 I am greatly indebted to the venerable Dr. George C. Shattuck, of 
 Boston, who was a pupil at Eound Hill, for the following account of 
 the physical training pursued there: 
 
 Dr. Beck, the teacher of Latin, afterward the professor of Latin in Harvard Uni- 
 versity, was the teacher of gymnastics. A large piece of ground was devoted to the 
 purpose and furnished with all the apparatus used in the German gymnasia. The 
 whole school was divided into classes, and each class had an hour three times a week 
 for instruction by Dr. Beck. At the same time there were a dozen riding horses and 
 classes for riding three times a week. Gardens were assigned the boys, in which they 
 raised plants and vegetables. A piece of land was set apart for building huts. Base- 
 ball, hockey, and foot-ball were the games. I remember playing in a match game at 
 the time of the Presidential election in which Adams and Jackson were candidates. 
 The Jackson boys beat. You notice how much was done for physical training. I 
 remember Mr. Edward Everett speaking at an annual exhibition and telling us how 
 much better a school, how much greater advantages we enjoyed than Mr. Cogswell 
 and himself had at Exeter. Though the school had only an existence of twenty years 
 or less, and failed from want of pecuniary support, I believe that its influence has 
 survived, and a great stimulus was given by it to the cause of education. Develop- 
 ing the bodily powers and strengthening the constitution were there first recognized 
 as of great importance in the education of boys. The boys were very healthy. I 
 only recall one death, from typhoid fever. 
 
 In 1828 Dr. Beck published at Northampton a translation of Jahn's 
 " Deutsche Turnkunst". Jahn's enthusiastic idealizing spirit seems to 
 have been caught by his pupil, for Dr. Beck, in his preface, alludes to 
 the advantages to be "derived by a republic from gymnastick exer- 
 cises, uniting in one occupation all the different classes of the people, 
 and thus forming a new tie for those who, for the most part, are widely 
 separated by their different education and pursuits of life." In the 
 republic of letters Dr. Beck did, indeed, as a professor of Latin, exert 
 
 550
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 23 
 
 a genuine influence ; but gymnastics have as yet achieved very little in 
 the way of shaping the affairs of the American Republic, at least in 
 the direction indicated in the preface above cited. 
 
 The Bound Hill School, in other features than those instanced in Dr. 
 Shattuck's letter, reminds one of Fellenberg's schools at Hofwyl. This 
 is far from surprising when we consider that both Mr. Bancroft and 
 Mr. Cogswell had studied and traveled in Germany, and that Mr. Cogs- 
 well's published letters show that he had visited Fellenberg at Hofwyl, 
 and Pestalozzi at Yverdun. 
 
 GYMNASTICS AT OTHER SCHOOLS. 
 
 It is. stated by Barnard, in his Journal of Education, that 
 
 Dr. Griscom, who had become acquainted with the gymnastic system from personal 
 observation in the schools of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg in 1818 and 1819, introduced 
 it to some extent into the High School in New York, established by him under the 
 auspices of the New York High School Society in 1825, in imitation of the Public 
 High School of Edinburgh. 
 
 Dr. Shattuck himself has, as is well known, done much to perpetuate 
 the ideas inculcated by his masters at Eound Hill, by endowing St. 
 Paul's School at Concord, N. H., which enjoys a wide and deservedly 
 high reputation for training boys. It is enough to say that the school 
 has won its success largely because it has been managed in accordance 
 with the designs of its founder, whose views are thus stated in his deed 
 of gift made about 1856 : 
 
 The founder is desirous of endowing a school of the highest class for boys, in which 
 they may obtain an education which shall fit them either for college or business : in- 
 cluding thorough intellectual training in the various branches of learning ; gymnastic 
 and manly exercises adapted to preserve health and strengthen the physical condi- 
 tion ; such aesthetic culture and accomplishments as shall tend to refine the manners 
 and elevate the taste, together with careful moral and religious instruction. 
 
 THE FIRST GYMNASIUM AT HARVARD COLLEGE. 
 
 Dr. Follen, another German exile, was for a time a teacher at Eound 
 Hill; like Dr. Beck, he later became a Harvard professor. It was due 
 to Dr. Follen's efforts, backed by an appeal, from the medical professors 
 of the college, strongly recommending the practice of gymnastics, that a 
 gymnasium was organized at Harvard College in May, 1826. Says Rev. 
 Dr. Cazneau Palfrey, in the Harvard Register : 
 
 A meeting of all classes was held in the college chapel, such a meeting as I do not 
 remember hearing of on any other occasion, at which a response was made to this 
 appeal, and resolutions passed expressing our readiness to follow the suggestions 
 made in it. One of the unoccupied commons halls was fitted up with various gym- 
 nastic appliances, and other fixtures were erected on the Delta [i. e., the college play- 
 ground]. But Dr. Follen did not confine his operations to these two localities. One 
 day he was to be seen issuing from the college yard at a dog-trot, with all college at 
 his heels, in single file and arms akimbo, making a train a mile long, bound for the 
 top of Prospect Hill. My impression is that the procession was stopped by a farmer 
 
 who threatened prosecution for damages. 
 
 551
 
 24 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 GYMNASTICS AT YALE AND OTHER COLLEGES. 
 
 In September, 1826, the corporation of Yale College voted an appro- 
 priation of $300, to be expended under the direction of the faculty for 
 the "clearing and preparing of the grounds [on the college green] for a 
 gymnasium and for the erection of apparatus for gymnastic exercises, 
 with a view to the promotion of the health of the students." In 1826 
 the Dwight Brothers established a school, known as the New Haven 
 Gymnasium, in whose course of instruction a prominent part was as- 
 signed to gymnastics. 
 
 In 1828, at Amherst College, a petition of the students for a bowling- 
 alley was denied by the faculty on the ground that it would cause too 
 much noise, but chiefly because " public sentiment would not justify 
 the countenancing of such a game." We may remark in passing, that 
 the new gymnasium at Amherst is provided not only with bowling- 
 alleys but also with billiard tables. The example of Harvard and Yale 
 as to gymnasia, not to speak of that of Round Hill, less than tea miles 
 distant from their college, must have had weight with the Amherst Fac- 
 ulty, at least to the extent of allowing an out-of-door gymnasium. One 
 who entered Amherst as a student in 1829 describes a gymnasium which 
 consisted of "a few horses and parallel bars, with one or two swings in 
 the grove, but even these belonged to a society of students who guarded 
 their property with jealous care." 
 
 VIEWS AND EFFORTS OF DR. J. C. WARREN, OF BOSTON. 
 
 Dr. John Collins Warren, in his day the foremost surgeon in Boston, 
 was for many years Professor of Anatomy and Surgery in the Har- 
 vard Medical School. For some years prior to 1825 he lectured to the 
 students of the college on the laws of health. He was prominent in es- 
 tablishing the Tremont Gymnasium, in 1825, in Boston, being its first 
 president, and also in forwarding Dr. Pollen's enterprise at Cambridge 
 in 1826. Dr. Warren endeavored to secure "the distinguished philoso- 
 pher and gymnasiarch, Professor Jahn," for the head of the Tremont 
 Gymnasium. But u Mr. Jahn was so situated," says Dr. Warren in 
 his "Biographical Notes", "that we could not, without obtaining more 
 means than were at our disposition, lead him to abandon his own coun- 
 try and establish himself for life in ours. The idea of obtaining his aid 
 was therefore relinquished, and I afterward addressed Dr. Lieber, a gen- 
 tleman of education and in other respects well fitted to take the super- 
 intendence of a public gymnasium." The Dr. Lieber referred to was Dr. 
 Francis Lieber, the distinguished publicist, who later became Professor 
 of Law in Columbia College, New York. 
 
 Dr. Warren goes on to say that the establishment of the Tremont 
 
 Gymnasium, "as is apt to be the case in this country in regard to nov- 
 
 1 el ties, acted contagiously on city and country. Small gymnasia were 
 
 ] established in connection with most of the schools and academies and 
 
 552
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 25 
 
 colleges, male and female." In 1830 Dr. Warren delivered an address 
 " On the Importance of Physical Education," before the American Insti- 
 tute of Instruction, at Boston. This paper was republished in England, 
 and formed the basis of a small volume on " The Preservation of Health ", 
 published by Dr. Warren in 1846. JIhe~leture contains many sound 
 suggestions and criticisms regarding certain abuses, which have by no 
 means disappeared as yet, in female education. How short-lived was 
 the interest evoked by J aim's pupils, in gymnastics for educational pur- 
 poses, may be seen from the following extract from Dr. Warren's ad- 
 dress : 
 
 The establishment of gymnasia throughout the country promised at one period 
 the opening of a new era in physical education. The exercises were pursued with 
 ardor, so long as their novelty lasted; but, owing to not understanding their impor- 
 tance, or some defect in the institutions which adopted them, they have gradually 
 been neglected and forgotten, at least in our vicinity. The benefits which resulted 
 from these institutions, within my personal knowledge and experience, far transcended 
 the most sanguine expectations. * * * The diversions of the gymnasium should 
 constitute a regular part of the duties of all our colleges and seminaries of learning ; 
 and * * * the system of rewards, so dangerous when mismanaged in literary edu- 
 cation, might be introduced without any ill effect. 
 
 Dr. Warren was very tenacious of his high opinion concerning gym- 
 nastics, for we find mention in his Journal, under the date of January 8, 
 1853, that he " Had much conversation with President Walker [of Har- 
 vard College]. Recommended to make gymnastic exercises a part of 
 the duty of the student." 
 
 CONDITION OF PHYSICAL TRAINING PRIOR TO THE 
 INTRODUCTION OF THE "NEW GYMNASTICS". 
 
 Teachers as a body fifty years ago had neither the training nor the 
 inclination for achieving success in the domain of physical education. 
 What might have been the result if Drs. Beck, Follen, and Lieber had 
 not quit the field it is vain to surmise, since even they were gov- 
 erned more by theoretical and aesthetic notions than by scientific 
 knowledge of the laws of bodily health and development. The late 
 Dr. E. Jarvis, in his "Practical Physiology", notes that when the gym- 
 nasium was established at Harvard University in 1826, "the students 
 were invited to go to the play-ground at 12 and engage in the gymnastic 
 exercises till 1 o'clock. These were very active, and some of them vio- 
 lent, for men and boys of their strength, so that when they left the field 
 for dinner they were generally fatigued, and some were almost ex- 
 hausted. Those who were most fatigued ate their dinner with less than 
 their usual relish, and felt neither refreshed nor comfortable afterward." 
 
 When we consider that in the case of the early gymnasia the appli- 
 ances were rarely protected from the weather; that competent native 
 teachers did not exist; that funds were not forthcoming to attract such 
 from abroad ; and that the prepossessions of the teaching class, and of 
 
 653
 
 26 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 boards of trust, were in general such as to render them indifferent, if 
 not positively averse, to the maintenance of a genuine and thorough- 
 going system of bodily training, the reasons are not far to seek for the 
 slow and often retarded development of physical training as a branch 
 of American education. 
 
 Here and there a handful of enthusiastic and athletically inclined 
 students, as at Princeton College in 1857, would attempt to furnish and 
 maintain a gymnasium, or would patronize some private venture of an 
 athlete or pugilist ; but there appears to have been no well-considered and 
 sustained attempt by the authorities of any American college to pro- 
 vide its students, either with instruction in gymnastics or adequate 
 facilities for athletic sports, during the period extending from 1826 to 
 1860. 
 
 THE GYMNASIUM AT THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 Possibly the University of Virginia presents an exception to this 
 statement, inasmuch as there was a large out-of-doors gymnasium main- 
 tained on the grounds of that institution from 1852 till the outbreak of 
 the war. A competent gymnast and sword-master, a Frenchman, had 
 it in charge ; but in order to support himself he had to eke out the 
 small sum received from the students by cultivating a kitchen-garden 
 and keeping a Russian bath-house. 
 
 REVIVAL OF INTEREST IN PHYSICAL TRAINING. 
 
 Just before and just after the outbreak of the war in 1861, a great 
 interest sprang up, especially among students, in regard to gymnastics, 
 feats of strength, and athletic sports. During this period Dr. Windship 
 appeared in Boston as the champion and exemplar of the severest form 
 of gymnastics, that of lifting heavy weights. The Tom Brown books 
 by Thomas Hughes, which were published about this time, served to fire 
 the imagination of school-boys and collegians, and to enhance the inter- 
 est of their elders in athletics and gymnastics. The Doctors Taylor in 
 New York and Dr. Lewis in Boston attained considerable success as ex- 
 ponents of Ling's Medical Gymnastics, or the Swedish Movement Cure. 
 
 THE NEW GYMNASTICS. 
 
 ' DB.JDIO LEWIS/ AND HIS INFLUENCE. 
 
 Dr. Dio Lewis labored strenuously for the introduction of his "new 
 gymnastics for men, women, and children," and succeeded in organiz- 
 ing in,1861 his Normal Institute for Physical Education in the city of 
 Boston; President Felton, of Harvard University, was its active and 
 earnest presiding officer up to the time of his death. The Institute 
 embraced the departments of anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, that 
 of vocal culture, and that of gymnastics. The full course of instruction 
 554
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 27 
 
 was ten weeks. At Boston, and later at Lexington, a large number of 
 teachers of the " new profession " were graduated. The first class, grad- 
 j3atedjnjeptember, 1861^numbered fourteen. 
 
 Dr. Lewis's book, "New Gymnastics for Men, Women, and Children, 
 with a Translation of Prof. Kloss's Dumb-bell Instructor and Prof. 
 Schreber's Pangymnastikon," was widely read, and reached its eighth 
 edition in the course of two years. It was believed that an era had 
 begun in which the "new gymnastics" would be universally introduced 
 into the schools throughout the land. The problem of physical educa- 
 tion was considered solved, because free gymnastics could be carried 
 out in any school-room without removing the desks. 
 
 MISS BEECHER'S EXPERIMENTS IN CALISTHENICS von GIRLS. 
 
 Prior to 1861 Yery little had been undertaken in the way of teaching 
 girls gymnastics, though Miss Catherine E. Beecher's eiforts in that 
 direction atdSarnOTfo Conn., and later, in 1837, at Cincinnati, O., merit 
 notice. In her "Educational Reminiscences and Suggestions", pub- 
 lished in 1874, Miss Beecher says : 
 
 la Cincinnati I invented a course of calisthenic exercises, accompanied by music, 
 which was an improvement on the one I adopted at'Hartford. The aim was to secure 
 all the advantages supposed to be gained in dancing- schools, with additional advan- 
 tages for securing graceful movements to the sound of music. These exercises were 
 extensively adopted in schools, both east and west, but finally passed away. One reason 
 was that they demanded a piano or some other instrument, and a large room without 
 furniture ; another was the want of appreciation of physical exercise, and of the im- 
 portance of training young girls to simple gracefulness. To meet the first difficulty, I 
 arranged a system of exercises which could be used in a school-room without remov- 
 ing desks and benches, to be performed either with or without music ; and this method 
 is found in my work on physiology and calisthenics, which has been extensively 
 adopted. Dr. Dio Lewis's system of gymnastics includes many of my methods, with 
 additions which seem objectionable in this respect : they are so vigorous and ungrace- 
 ful as to be more suitable for boys than for young ladies. When physical educatiou 
 takes the proper place in our schools, young girls will be trained in the class-rooms to 
 move head, hands, and arms gracefully ; to sit, to stand, and to walk properly, and to 
 pursue calisthenic exercises for physical development as a regular school duty as much 
 .as their studies ; and these exercises, set to music, will be sought as the most agree- 
 able of school duties. 
 
 Such exercises are not as yet so sought, to any considerable extent, 
 we may remark. 
 
 THE GYMNASIA OF THIS PERIOD. 
 
 Although the glowing anticipations concerning the immediate and 
 future usefulness of the light gymnastics, as distinguished from the 
 heavy gymnastics, as the Turning exercises were called, were not real- 
 ized, the era of building gymnasia dates from 1859-'60. Up to 1859 
 no college in the country possessed a commodious and well furnished 
 building devoted to the purposes of physical training. In the year 
 1859-'60, however, Amherst, Harvard, and Yale Colleges built gym- 
 nasia. 
 
 555
 
 28 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 T. W. HIGGINSON ON GYMNASTICS. 
 
 An article entitled "Gymnastics," by Thomas Wentworth Higginson, 
 in the Atlantic Monthly for March, 1861, admirably reflects the senti- 
 ment of that time on the part of those who were anxious to improve 
 educational methods. Mr. Higginson says: 
 
 It is one good evidence of the increasing interest in these exercises that the Amer- 
 ican gymnasia built during the past year or two have far surpassed all their prede- 
 cessors in size and completeness, and have probably no superiors in the world. The 
 Seventh Regiment gymnasium in New York, just opened by Mr. Abiier S. Brady, is 
 180 by 52 feet in its main hall, and 35 feet in height, with nearly 1,000 pupils. The 
 beautiful hall of the Metropolitan Gymnasium, in Chicago, measures 108 by 80 feet, 
 and is 20 feet high at the sides, with a dome in the center 40 feet high and the same 
 in diameter. Next to these probably rank the new gymnasium at Cincinnati, the 
 Tremont Gymnasium at Boston, and the Bunker Hill Gymnasium at Charlestown r 
 all recently opened. Of college institutions the most complete are probably those at 
 Cambridge and New Haven. The arrangements for instruction are rather more sys- 
 tematic at Harvard. * * * 
 
 Gymnastic exercises are as yet but very sparingly introduced into our seminaries, pri- 
 mary or professional, though a great change is already beginning. * * * Until lately 
 all our educational plans have assumed man to be a merely sedentary being ; we have 
 employed teachers of music and drawing to go from school to school to teach those 
 elegant arts, but have had none to teach the art of health. * * * It is something 
 to have got beyond the period when active sports were actually prohibited. I remem- 
 ber when there was but one boat owned by a Cambridge student, and that boat was 
 soon reported to have been suppressed by the Faculty, on the plea that there was a col- 
 lege law against a student's keeping domestic animals, and a boat was a domestic an- 
 imal within the meaning of the statute. * * * 
 
 It would be unpardonable, in this connection, not to speak a good word for the 
 favorite hobby of the day Dr. Lewis and his system of gymnastics; or, more prop- 
 erly, of calisthenics. .* * * Dr. Windship had done all that was needed in apostle- 
 ship of severe exercises, and there was wanting some man with a milder hobby, per- 
 fectly safe for a lady to drive. The Fates provided that man also in Dr. Lewis so hale 
 and hearty, so profoundly confident in the omnipotence of his own methods and the 
 nselessness of all others, with such a ready invention, and such an inundation of ani- 
 mal spirits, that he could flood any company, no matter how starched or listless, with 
 an unbounded appetite for ball-games and beau-games. How long it will last in the 
 hands of others than the projector remains to be seen, especially as some of his feats 
 are more exhausting than average gymnastics; but in the mean time it is just what 
 is wanted for multitudes of persons who find or fancy the real gymnasium to be uu- 
 suited to them. It will especially render service to female pupils so far as they 
 practice it ; for the accustomed gymnastic exercises seem never yet to have been 
 rendered attractive to them on any large scale, and with any permanency. 
 
 In another connection the same writer says : 
 
 Wherever Dr. Lewis's methods have been introduced important advantages have 
 followed. He has invented an astonishing variety of games and well-studied move- 
 ments, with the lightest and cheapest ajppjaratug, balls, bags, rings, wands, wooden 
 dumb-bells, small clubs, and otherTnstrumentalities, which are all gracefully and 
 effectually used by his classes, to the sound of music and in a way to spare the weakest 
 when lightly administered or to fatigue the strongest when applied in force. Being 
 adapted for united use by both sexes, they make more thorough appeals to the social 
 element than ordinary gymnastics ; and evening classes, to meet several evenings in a 
 
 556
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 29 
 
 week, have proved exceedingly popular in some of our towns. These exercises do 
 not require fixed apparatus or a special hall. Dr. Lewis himself is now training reg- 
 ular teachers to carry on the same good work,*and his movement ia undoubtedly the 
 most important single step yet taken for the physical education of American women. 
 
 OUTCOME OF THE "NEW GYMNASTICS." 
 
 Further on we shall have occasion to outline the development of 
 military drill and discipline as a feature in school and college training, 
 and to speak of the stimulus given by the War to all forms of bodily 
 training and exercise, and especially to athletic sports and contests. 
 At this point we need only note that, although what we may term the 
 light gymnastic movement was instrumental in causing the erection of 
 a considerable number of school and college gymnasia and the inaugu- 
 ration of a few poorly-endowed and rudely-organized departments of 
 physical culture, the force of the movement was soon spent, and the 
 schemes for physical training assumed a semi-military character. 
 
 OPENING OF THE EEA OF BUILDING GYMNASIA IN 
 
 COLLEGES. 
 
 - The Amherst, Harvard, and Yale gymnasia, as was stated above, 
 were built in 1859-'60. Their external dimensions were, respectively, 
 72 by 50 feet, 85 by 50 feet, and 100 by 50 feet. They cost, respectively, 
 in round numbers, $15,000, $10,000, and $13,000, and were, for their 
 time, elaborate and well furnished structures. The Amherst gymna- 
 sium was named the Barrett Gymnasium, in honor of Benjamin Barrett, 
 M.D., of Northampton, Mass., who was the largest contributor to the 
 fund for its erection. Dr. Barrett's name does not appear on the roll of 
 the Hound Hill School ; but it is not unlikely that familiarity with the 
 workings of that institution may have been influential in determining 
 his gifts to the Amherst gymnasium. One gentleman, who declined to 
 give his name, gave $8,000 toward the building of the Harvard gym- 
 nasium. These three gymnasia have all been outgrown, and those at 
 Amherst and Cambridge have been replaced by costly and vastly im- 
 proved edifices. 
 
 CHARACTER OF THE TRAINING ADOPTED. 
 
 From the outset compulsory exercise has been required of all able- 
 bodied students at Amherst, under the control and direction of an edu- 
 cated physician, whose professorial chair was accorded a place at the 
 faculty table. Gymnastics have never been required at Harvard, where 
 Dr. D. A. Sargent was, in 1879, appointed Assistant Professor of Phys- 
 ical Training, and Director of the Hemenway Gymnasium. His prede- 
 dfessors were a professional teacher of boxing, and a ma'ster of military 
 drill. At Yale College no very comprehensive or commendable system 
 
 of administration has as yet been worked out. 
 
 557
 
 30 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT AMHERST 
 
 COLLEGE. 
 
 The salient facts concerning the beginning, growth, and peculiarities 
 of the department of hygiene and physical education of Ainherst Col- 
 lege demand our attention at this point; for, as has been well said by 
 President Eliot of Harvard, "It is to Ainherst College that the colleges 
 of the country are indebted for a demonstration of the proper mode of 
 organizing the department of physical training." 
 
 VIEWS OF PRESIDENT STEARNS. 
 
 When the late W. A. Stearns, D.D., was inaugurated as President of 
 Amherst College, in 1854, he devoted a considerable portion of his dis- 
 course to enforcing the proposition that no course of education was 
 cooiplete that did not devote special attention to securing the normal 
 development and healthy working of the body. In his first report to 
 the trustees, in 1855, President Stearns said: 
 
 No one thing has demanded more of my anxious attention than the health of the stu- 
 dents. The waning of the physical energies in the midway of the college course is 
 almost the rule, rather than the exception, among us, and cases of complete breaking 
 down are painfully numerous. 
 
 A year later he tells the trustees that the breaking down of the health 
 of the students is, in his opinion, " wholly unnecessary." In his report 
 for 1859, President Stearns again returns to the consideration of the 
 question of students' health, and says : 
 
 Time and experience have convinced me of an imperious demand, in the circum- 
 stances of an academic life, for immediate and efficient action on this subject. Many 
 of our students come from farms, mechanic shops, and other active occupations, to 
 the hard study and sedentary habits of college. Physical exercise is neglected, the 
 laws of health are violated, the protests and exhortations of instructors and other 
 friends are unheeded. The once active student soon becomes physically indolent, 
 his mental powers become dulled, his movements and appearance indicate physical 
 deterioration. By the time Junior year is reached many students have broken down 
 in health, and every year some lives are sacrificed. Physical training is not the only 
 means of preventing this result, but it is among the most prominent of them. If it 
 could be regularly conducted, if a moderate amount of physical exercise could be 
 secured as a general thing to every student daily, I have a deep conviction, founded 
 on close observation and experience, that not only would lives and health be pre- 
 served, but animation and cheerfulness and a higher order of efficient study and in- 
 tellectual life would be secured. It will be for the consideration of this Board, 
 whether, for the encouragement of this sort of exercise, the time has not come when 
 efficient measures should be taken for the erection of a gymnasium and the procuring 
 of its proper appointments. 
 
 These remarks were rendered emphatic by a statement concerning 
 the death of tM r o seniors who had broken down under college life. 
 
 558
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 31 
 
 INSTITUTION OF THE DEPARTMENT BY THE TRUSTEES. 
 
 The trustees concluded that the time for erecting a gymnasium had 
 come, and set about raising the money for it, with the result before al- 
 luded to. It was unanimously voted by the trustees 
 
 To establish a department of physical culture in this college, and that the duties of 
 its professor shall be : 
 
 (1) To take charge of the gymnasium and give instruction to the students in gym- 
 nastics. 
 
 (2) To take a general oversight of the health of the students, and to give such in- 
 struction on the subject as may be deemed expedient, and under the direction of the 
 Faculty, like all the other studies. 
 
 (3) To teach elocution so far as it is connected with physical training. 
 
 (4) He shall give lectures from time to time upon hygiene, physical culture, and 
 other topics pertaining to the laws of life and health, including some general knowl- 
 edge of anatomy and physiology. 
 
 (5) The individual appointed to have charge of this department shall be a thor- 
 oughly-educated physician, and, like other teachers and professors, shall be a mem- 
 ber of the college Faculty. Ifc is distinctly understood that the health of. the students 
 shall at all times be an object of his special watch, care, and counsel. 
 
 At the suggestion of Dr. Nathan Allen, of Lowell, Mass., the well- 
 known writer on hygiene and sociology, then and now one of the trus- 
 tees of the college, it was voted to designate the head of the newly 
 created department as the Professor of Hygiene and Physical Education. 
 Dr. Allen was also mainly responsible for the definition of the duties 
 of the professorship as embodied in the vote quoted above. 
 
 The plan of the president and Faculty alluded to under the second 
 head of this vote was as follows: 
 
 First, The main object shall not be to secure feats of agility and strength, or even 
 powerful muscle, but to keep in good health the whole body. Second, That all the 
 students shall be required to attend on its exercises for half an hour, designated for 
 the purpose, at least four days in the week. Third, The instructor shall assign to 
 each individual such exercises as may be best adapted to him, taking special care to 
 prevent the ambitious from violent action and all extremes, endeavoring to work the 
 whole body, and not overwork any part of it. Fourth, That while it may not be 
 expedient to mark the gradation of attainment, as in the intellectual branches, yet 
 regularity, attention, and docility should be carefully noted, so as to have their 
 proper weight in the deportment column of the student's general position. Fifth, 
 That some time shall be allowed out of study hours for those volunteer exercises 
 which different men, according to their tastes, may elect for recreation, and particu- 
 larly that the bowling alleys be not given up to promiscuous use, but be allotted at 
 regular hours to those who wish to make use of them all these volunteer exercises, 
 of whatever kind, to be under the supervision of the gymnasium instructor. Sixth, 
 That the building shall always be closed before dark, that no light shall be used in 
 it, and no smoking or irregularities of any kind shall be allowed in it. Seventh, 
 That the instructor ought to be a member of the Faculty, and give in to it his marks 
 and occasional accounts, and receive directions as other officers of the college are 
 accustomed to do. 
 
 The department has been administered from the first without any 
 material deviation from the plan thus outlined. 
 
 559
 
 32 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 HISTORY OF THE DEPARTMENT SINCE 1860. 
 
 In August, 1860, J. W. Hooker, M.D., a graduate of Yale College, was 
 appointed Professor in this department. It is said of him that he had 
 " given special attention to physical training, and, being himself a skill- 
 ful gymnast, possessed qualities that eminently fitted him for starting 
 such an enterprise. But before the close of the year his health failed, 
 and he resigned his position, and died in about two years afterward." 
 The attention and cooperation of the students were the more easily en- 
 listed in the new departure, owing to the martial spirit then so rife. 
 During the spring of 1861 Colonel Lyman, a distinguished drill master, 
 was employed to give instruction and training in military tactics and 
 exercises. , 
 
 In August, 1861, Edward Hitchcock, M.D.. a graduate of Amherst 
 College and of the Harvard Medical School, was appointed Dr. Hook- 
 er's successor. Dr. Hitchcock has served continuously in that capacity 
 from then till now. 
 
 The best exposition of the Amherst system of training and its results 
 is found in Dr. Hitchcock's " Eeport of Twenty Years Experience in the 
 Department of Physical Education and Hygiene in Amherst College, to 
 the Board of Trustees, June 27, 1881. Amherst, Mass. : Press of C. A. 
 Bangs & Co., 1881," from which the following extracts are taken : 
 
 Physical culture as expressed to Amherst College students by the experience of 
 the past twenty years, means something besides, something in addition to, muscular 
 exercise. It includes cleanliness of skin, attention to stomach and bowels, relaxa- 
 tion from daily mental work, freedom from certain kinds of petty discipline, but with 
 so much requirement and restraint as will give coherence, respect, and stability to 
 the methods of maintaining health and the men employing them. 
 
 The way in which students here are called upon to secure health, and its correct 
 and normal maintenance for college requirements, is to be sure of some active, lively-, 
 and vigorous muscular exercise at stated periods ; not requiring a rigid military or 
 hardening drill of certain portions of the body, but offering them such exercises as 
 shall, while regularly engaged in , be vigorous, pleasant, recreative, and at the same 
 time, even without a manifest consciousness of it, be calling into exercise their pow- 
 ers in active, vigorous, easy, and graceful movements. Light wooden dumb-bells, 
 weighing about one pound each, are placed in the hand, and then a series of move- 
 ments are directed and timed by music, occupying in all from 20 to 30 minutes each 
 day, and are simultaneously performed by a whole class under the lead of the captain. 
 
 Believers in heavy gymnastics are apt to regard our exercises as perhaps well 
 enough for girls aud children, because they are only the swinging of one- pound dumb- 
 bells for less than half an hour. And they would reflect upon the exercise and call 
 it calisthenics, and not dignify it by the term gymnastics. To this we would only 
 say, "What's in a name?" If calisthenics only accomplishes what we need, our 
 wants are satisfied. * * * Certain it is that the young men at the close of one of 
 these exercises, with the temperature at 60, have ordinarily secured moisture on the 
 skin, are breathing full and deeply, the blood circulates, the abdominal viscera are 
 sufficiently stimulated, and their muscles are limber and elastic ; they have gained 
 good exorcise, arid the whole man has the feeling that he has worked in a physical 
 way, and yet is not exhauster!. The whole body in the loose and easy uniform, un- 
 constrained by a rigid piece of apparatus, is given a freedom of action which cannot 
 060
 
 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 33 
 
 be acquired by the stolid march, or the constraint of either fixed or many kinds of 
 movable gymnastic apparatus ; and, lastly, the students generally feel, withal, that 
 they have had a good time. And the mental and social freedom allowed and encour- 
 aged in these exercises conduces to the rapid and healthful evaporation of superflu- 
 ous animal spirits, generated by the physical and mental confinement of study. 
 
 And while our methods are not so perfect as might be devised with more complete 
 apparatus and better men to direct, if health of college be the only thing to be con- 
 sidered, they do seem to be good as far as they go ; enough for the large majority, 
 and of some service to all. * * * 
 
 During the first few years of our work, the simpler and easier forms of heavy gym- 
 nastic work were required of all the class ; every man was expected to practice heavy 
 gymnastics under direction of the leader, one of the class. This became very tedious 
 work, irksome and impossible for some men to do except with such effort, moral and 
 physical, :is was injurious to be put on a large part of every class. * * * But it 
 was found out that the men who were sound in all four of their limbs and eyesight 
 could go through movements enough with wooden dumb-bells to secure the necessary 
 muscular waste and development for healthful study, and hence no requirement for 
 heavy gymnastic work has been made of any student for the past fifteen years. At 
 the same time there are a few who take as naturally to heavy gymnastics, and as 
 profitably too, as ducks to water, and these are allowed and encouraged to reasonable 
 efforts in this direction. These at first are guided and watched, but they are at length 
 allowed and expected to go on with their exercise in this direction at their own dis- 
 cretion, save with the aid of one of the older classes who has shown himself the best 
 gymnast in college. 
 
 And once during each year a prize exhibition is held, when the individual students 
 may compete with each other in heavy gymnastics, and the classes may show their 
 proficiency in light exercises with dumb-bells and marching. For the first few years 
 the morning hour was secured as the best time for the physical exercises of the col- 
 lege. And while in theory, and perhaps fact, this is the best time for exercise, yet the 
 hour of early evening, between daylight and darkness, has come to be the time which 
 we have of late most largely employed for gymnastics. * * * 
 
 STATISTICAL \VORK AND RESULTS. 
 
 One of the first duties I felt called upon to perform after your appointment to this 
 Professorship, was to prepare blanks for several anthropometric observations of the 
 students of college. This I did partly to enable the students to learn by yearly com- 
 parison of themselves how they are getting on as regards the physical man. The 
 ulterior object, however, was to help ascertain what are the data or constants of the 
 typical man, and especially the college man. I have conceived no theory on the sub- 
 ject, a,nd have instituted but very few generalizations ; but my desire has been to 
 carefully compile and put on record as many of these observations as possible for 
 csmparisc-n and verification of statistical work in this same direction by many other 
 persons in America and Europe. 
 
 In many of the final results of these twenty years data, it is interesting to find a 
 general correspondence to the established data of more numerous measurements of 
 the human body, and in the variation from authorities of large experience we find 
 the differences as a whole in favor of the student. These results seem to show that 
 we must expect different physical characteristics in those who pursue the scholarly 
 life, from others whose occupations are unlike them in so many ways, and when prop- 
 erly understood and carried out we believe that the advantages will be found on the 
 side of the scholarly life. 
 
 In the fall of 1861 1 took measurement of all the college students in seven particu- 
 lars, and have faithfully made these examinations of almost every sound man since 
 connected with the college up to the present date. The measurements are made of 
 the Freshmen soon after entering, and are repeated upon them near the end of each year 
 . 5 3 561
 
 34 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 of the coarse. Thus every man who goes through college has been observed five times. 
 These observations during the first year were the age, weight, height, chest girth, arm 
 girth, fore-arm girth, and body lift. The second year the capacity of the lungs was 
 added, and for the last five years the finger reach and the chest expansion, and for 
 the last two years the comparative strength of the two hands. 
 
 ******* 
 
 The health of college, so far as figures and statistics can show it, must be repre- 
 sented by data of the sickness of students, and, like the anthropometric observations, 
 those of sickness are made from all the students, and by yearly reckonings. During 
 these twenty years 5,443 different entries, not individuals, have been on the annual 
 catalogues. Of this number 1,365 were entered on the sick list, representing those 
 who during their course have been absent from all college duties on account of sick- 
 ness for more than two consecutive days in term time. This gives a per cent, of the 
 students by entries, as at one or more times disabled by illness, of 25.26. A noticeable 
 point appears in the record of sickness as possibly showing the healthfulness of col- 
 lege life; it is the decrease of illness from Freshman to Senior year. The data are 
 given in Table No. 4, but the fact of interest is that while the per cent, of Freshmen 
 sick is 20.30, that of the Seniors is 19.05. 
 
 It may be thought, however, that as classes decrease in numbers, perhaps the dimi- 
 nution of sickness is only on a par with the numerical falling off of the classes. But 
 while the health increase of the course is 10.18 per cent., the natural dropping out is 
 only 5.95 per cent. 
 
 The time lost by sickness, as averaged on every student, is 2.65 days yearly. This 
 of course is constructively applied. Although but 1,375 students are recorded on the 
 sick list, yet the number of cases of sickness recorded is 1,725. This means that some 
 have been on the sick list two or more times, or 25 per cent, of the whole number 
 sick ; and the amount of time actually lost from college exercises by each of the sick 
 men has been 10.39 days on the average. 
 
 The maladies of college life are those of youth, and not debility or infirmities. As 
 would be expected, colds and slight lung difficulties are the most numerous, consti- 
 tuting nearly one-half of the whole amount ; and while physical injuries stand second 
 on the list of causes, it is instructive to learn that no serious or permanent injury has 
 ever happened from the gymnastic exercises, required or voluntary. 
 
 A natural inquiry is, if many of the students have left college on account of ill 
 health. * * * Seventy are reported as having left college on account of physical 
 disability, or more than three each year. Of these, however, twenty-two, or less than 
 one-third of the whole number, have re-entered and graduated with the class next to 
 the one which they first entered. Or, to put it numerically, 48 out of 2,106, or 2.27 
 per cent, of our students, failed in their college course on account of sickness. Do the 
 records of other occupations appear more favorably ? 
 
 By the laws of viability, or chance of life in males from birth, as established by 
 census returns and life insurance tables, this " chance of life," the world over, de- 
 creases from the ages of 15 or 16 on to 25, then rises to 30, and then falls to the end of 
 our existence. Or the curve of viability ascends rapidly from birth to 15 or 16 years, 
 and then slowly descends to old age. But by the Health Records of our students we 
 find a variation from this law, since we learn that sickness diminishes in our life here 
 from 18 to 22 years of age. This fact, with some others already mentioned, discrimi- 
 nates in favo'- of the healthfulness of student life. 
 
 ******* 
 
 Another subject illustrated by this department and its statistics is the amount of 
 growth, and is seen in Table No. 6. This embraces many of the students who have 
 completed the course, or given the data at entering and graduating, with a difference 
 in time of three years and six months, and an age of 19.2 and 22.11. Seven hundred 
 and forty-nine men have been measured, and these have furnished 5,160 items of the 
 562
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 35 
 
 seven different points of observation. Of all these men measured, 26.15 per cent, give 
 an increase iu all the items during the whole period observed. And 47.39 per cent, 
 of the men show some of the same measurements at Senior as at Freshman year. And 
 it is not the oldest or those least developed in whom this occurs. And 53.40 per cent, 
 give one or more items less at Senior than Freshman year, and 28.17 give one or more 
 items less, and also one or more the same. Of the items measured, however, a differ- 
 ent showing is made. The average of the whole 5,160 items shows 76.97 per cent, in- 
 creased during the course^ 13.58 per cent, less at the end of the course, and 9.43 per 
 cent, the same as at entrance to college, and it will be seen that some men give both 
 increased and diminished items: some items may be smaller and some items be larger 
 at the same time. The average increase of the 26 per cent, of these, in weight has 
 been 12.27 pounds, 1.05 inches in height, 1.45 in chest girth, 0.85 inches in arm girth, 
 0.685 in fore-arm girth, 28.4 cubic inches in lung capacity, and nearly 4.50 times in 
 body lift. This is what the college student may expect to grow from the 19th to the 
 23d year of his life. The items and points of increase may be found in Table No. 6. 
 
 A part of the work in this department is instruction in the general laws of health, 
 and in anatomy and physiology. The lectures in health are given the first term of 
 Freshman year, and the subjects are those which specially pertain to student life, such 
 as exercise, food, use of alcohol and tobacco, care of the eyes, the relation of body to 
 mind, and kindred matters. 
 
 The instruction iu human anatomy and physiology is given by study of a text-book, 
 a printed abstract, and illustrative lectures. Much of the illustration is aided by the 
 clastic models of Auzoux, nearly $1,000 worth of which have been given to the college 
 within the past few years. This study is taken up early in the Sophomore year. 
 Optional study in comparative vertebrate zoology has been carried on in addition to 
 ether work, and can be well illustrated by the collections in Appleton Cabinet. 
 ***#* 
 "In athletic sports, rowing, base and foot ball, and college games generally, this de- 
 partment has ever given encouraging though not inciting words. We have encouraged 
 home sports and games, and not stimulated the young men to enter into the hot and 
 violent contests with professional gamesters. With the example of the oldest and 
 largest colleges, and with the comity, rivalry, and good fellowship so largely existing, 
 it is but natural that our college should desire to compare its muscle and wind with 
 those in similar positions. We have had several trials, and been as successful as we 
 ought to expect with smaller numbers to select from, and some disadvantages inci- 
 dent to our geographical location. 
 
 In our home athletic sports we have taken a deeper interest. The annual and semi- 
 annual field days have always been well attended, both by contestants and spectators, 
 and we have a good record. And the preparation and participation in these contests, 
 this department has ever regarded as a full equivalent for the required gymnasium 
 exercises, as they are always undertaken under leaders, or directors, who have carried 
 them through with systematic and thorough drill. And for the training of all the 
 students, it seems clear that there are a certain number who must have these hard 
 and severe tests in developing and maintaining their powers up to their best possi- 
 bilities. 
 
 Besides the regular class exercises as required, and the heavy work as encouraged 
 and allowed, there are always a few who need special exercise and advice. These 
 are attended to as well as our limited apparatus will allow. But in the coming near 
 future, when we can see an enlarged and well equipped health building, we may then 
 hope for advanced hygienic development in the few who require special training to 
 secure the normal and healthful development. 
 
 663
 
 36 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 TABLE No. 1. Measure* of 2,106 different students of Amherst College, showing the aver- 
 ages of each class for twenty years, in age, weight, height, chest girth, arm girth, fore-arm 
 girth, lung capacity, body lift, finger reach, chest expansion, and the comparative righ t- 
 Tiand and left-hand strength. 
 
 
 Seniors. 
 
 Juniors. 
 
 Sophomores. 
 
 Freshmen. 
 
 College 
 average. 
 
 College 
 mean. 
 
 Number observed 
 
 1 113 
 
 1 148 
 
 1,263 
 
 1 489 
 
 5 013 
 
 
 Aire . . 
 
 22.24 
 
 21.87 
 
 20.57 
 
 19.31 
 
 21.10 
 
 
 Weight 
 
 142. ] 9 
 
 140. 59 
 
 139.39 
 
 133.19 
 
 138.84 
 
 131. 00 
 
 Height- .. 
 
 67.94 
 
 67.86 
 
 67.53 
 
 67.33 
 
 67.66 
 
 67.50 
 
 Cheat girth 
 
 35.97 
 
 35 61 
 
 35.44 
 
 34.76 
 
 35.40 
 
 35 50 
 
 
 11.77 
 
 11.72 
 
 11.69 
 
 11.23 
 
 1L19 
 
 11.25 
 
 Fore-arm girth 
 
 11.21 
 
 11.07 
 
 11.06 
 
 10.80 
 
 11.02 
 
 
 Lung capacity 
 
 251.05 
 
 250.07 
 
 249.23 
 
 233.08 
 
 241.79 
 
 230.00 
 
 Body lift 
 
 11.33 
 
 11.31 
 
 10.58 
 
 a 6i 
 
 10.25 
 
 11.00 
 
 
 69.72 
 
 69.78 
 
 69.70 
 
 69.60 
 
 69.69 
 
 
 
 3.18 
 
 3.33 
 
 3.45 
 
 3.00 
 
 3.02 
 
 
 Hight-hand strength ......... 
 
 92.02 
 
 88.99 
 
 90.45 
 
 87.83 
 
 89.69 
 
 
 Left-hand strength 
 
 86.48 
 
 85.98 
 
 86.05 
 
 83.34 
 
 85.50 
 
 
 Per cent, strongest with right 
 
 93 
 
 97 
 
 96 
 
 96 
 
 96 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE No. 2. Maxima and minima of every measurement of the 2.106 students observed. 
 
 
 2 
 
 a 
 
 5 
 
 .= . 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 ! 
 
 
 ^a 
 
 1 4 
 
 
 &i 
 
 3 O 
 
 S J 
 
 Iw 
 
 ikf. 
 
 ?*s 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 N 
 
 a o 
 
 a-g 
 
 
 $ 
 
 < 
 
 jig 
 
 
 
 w 
 
 3* 
 
 l5 
 
 c'r^a 
 n*2 
 o tt 9 
 
 h 
 
 bC.9 J 
 
 fe 
 
 
 
 M 
 
 I 2 
 
 H 
 
 ^ c 
 O 
 
 Maxima - 
 
 35.6 
 
 216 
 
 76.5 
 
 43.00 
 
 15.5 
 
 15.50 
 
 426 
 
 65 
 
 81.10 
 
 5.50 
 
 Minima 
 
 15.3 
 
 84 
 
 58.0 
 
 27.25 
 
 8.0 
 
 &25 
 
 115 
 
 2 
 
 48.00 
 
 1.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE No. 3. The mean observation* of the measures of Amherst College students for twenty 
 years, from a total of 34,384. 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 A . 
 
 
 - 
 
 
 e.2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 
 b 
 
 u 
 
 ij 
 
 fi 
 
 Sw 
 ota 
 
 u 
 
 g,| 
 
 ^ 
 
 1 
 
 ij 
 
 
 I 
 
 S-* 3 
 
 1 
 
 *> B 
 
 1 
 
 
 1 
 
 fl 
 
 f 
 
 ", 
 
 1 
 
 J?5 
 
 I 
 
 Sfe 
 
 
 S"* 
 
 I 
 
 S" 
 
 8 
 
 Sf"^ 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 9 
 fc 
 
 r 
 
 1 
 
 s- 3 
 
 I 
 
 If 
 
 1 
 
 -?""" 
 
 
 
 & 
 
 
 
 176 
 
 69 
 
 72 
 
 104 
 
 40 
 
 61 
 
 14.0 
 
 44 
 
 340 
 
 53 
 
 21 
 
 88 
 
 167 
 
 105 
 
 71 
 
 291 
 
 39 
 
 165 
 
 13.5 
 
 81 
 
 320 
 
 94 
 
 20 
 
 176 
 
 169 
 
 238 
 
 70 
 
 385 
 
 3d 
 
 394 
 
 13.0 
 
 323 
 
 300 
 
 275 
 
 18 
 
 372 
 
 161 
 
 490 
 
 69 
 
 808 
 
 37 
 
 704 
 
 12.5 
 
 602 
 
 280 
 
 608 
 
 16 
 
 610 
 
 143 
 
 798 
 
 68 
 
 955 
 
 36 
 
 1,079 
 
 12.0 
 
 1,117 
 
 260 
 
 871 
 
 14 
 
 790 
 
 185 
 
 1,157 
 
 67 
 
 986 
 
 35 
 
 1,164 
 
 11.6 
 
 1,205 
 
 240 
 
 1,287 
 
 12 
 
 940 
 
 127 
 
 L198 
 
 66 
 
 790 
 
 34 
 
 1,098 
 
 11.0 
 
 1,245 
 
 220 
 
 1,275 
 
 10 
 
 1,075 
 
 119 
 
 982 
 
 65 
 
 571 
 
 33 
 
 682 
 
 10.6 
 
 658 
 
 200 
 
 732 
 
 8 
 
 796 
 
 111 
 
 487 
 
 64 
 
 371 
 
 32 
 
 310 
 
 10.0 
 
 818 
 
 180 
 
 379 
 
 6 
 
 590 
 
 108 
 
 163 
 
 63 
 
 208 
 
 81 
 
 104 
 
 .6 
 
 77 
 
 160 
 
 148 
 
 4 
 
 302 
 
 95 
 
 46 
 
 62 
 
 65 
 
 80 
 
 41 
 
 9.0 
 
 17 
 
 140 
 
 39 
 
 2 
 
 120 
 
 
 5.733 
 
 
 6,534 
 
 
 6,812 
 
 
 5 685 
 
 
 6,761 
 
 
 5,859 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 664
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 37 
 
 TABLE No. 4. Data of student sickness and physical disability for nineteen years and nine 
 months in Amherst College. (Students 1 names on the annual catalogues 1861 to 1881, in 
 elusive, 5,443.) 
 
 
 1? 
 
 | 
 
 !^ 
 
 Ic * 
 
 Names on sick list. 
 
 Per cent, of each 
 class to -whole col- 
 lege. 
 
 Per cent, of sick- 
 ness in each class 
 to whole college. 
 
 Seniors 
 
 1 192 
 
 260 
 
 21.90 
 
 19.05 
 
 Juniors 
 
 1,270 
 
 319 
 
 23.33 
 
 23.37 
 
 Sophomores . .... .. 
 
 1 465 
 
 386 
 
 26. 92 
 
 28.28 
 
 Freshmen ... 
 
 1 516 
 
 400 
 
 27.85 
 
 29.30 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total 
 
 5,443 
 
 1,365 
 
 100. 00 
 
 100. 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Students on the sick list. 1,375 
 
 Cases (not individuals) of sickness 1, 725 
 
 Cases on sick list more than once in the year 350 
 
 Per cent, of college on the sick list ... . 25. a6 
 
 Maladies of the students, and their proportion, when it equals one or more per cent, of the 
 whole. (This is the number of cases, not students.} 
 
 Maladies. 
 
 Per cent v 
 
 Maladies. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Colds pneumonia bronchitis &c .i.... 
 
 37.4 
 
 
 2.3 
 
 
 8 8 
 
 Neuralgia 
 
 1.8 
 
 FebricnlsB 
 
 4 8 
 
 
 1.7 
 
 
 4 7 
 
 
 1.7 
 
 
 4 6 
 
 Diphtheritic 
 
 1.1 
 
 Boils 
 
 4.1 
 
 
 1.1 
 
 General inability 
 
 3.1 
 
 Teetb 
 
 1.1 
 
 Typhoid fever 
 
 3.1 
 
 Stomach 
 
 1.1 
 
 Bowels ....... 
 
 2.6 
 
 
 1.0 
 
 
 
 
 
 566
 
 38 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 TABLE No. 5. The measures of weight, height, chest, arm girth, lung capacity, and body 
 lift of 2,106 different students of Amherst College, arranged by age. 
 
 Age. 
 
 Number 
 of obser- 
 vations. 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Chest. 
 
 , Ann. 
 
 Lung 
 capacity. 
 
 Body lift. 
 
 17 
 
 330 
 
 131 99 
 
 66 60 
 
 33 87 
 
 11 12 
 
 224 8 
 
 8 58 
 
 18 
 
 1 172 
 
 134 07 
 
 66 96 
 
 35 10 
 
 11 36 
 
 238 7 
 
 10 35 
 
 19 
 
 1,511 
 
 135. 84 
 
 67.30 
 
 35.38 
 
 11.52 
 
 240. 3 
 
 10 82 
 
 20 
 
 1,358 
 
 138. 12 
 
 67.95 
 
 35.52 
 
 11.57 
 
 248.8 
 
 10 97 
 
 2J 
 
 1,171 
 
 140. 00 
 
 68.01 
 
 35.58 
 
 11.69 
 
 250. 1 
 
 10 84 
 
 22 .. . 
 
 807 
 
 141. 07 
 
 68.11 
 
 35.98 
 
 11.77 
 
 250 8 
 
 ]0 92 
 
 23 
 
 559 
 
 141.21 
 
 08 31 
 
 36 29 
 
 11.71 
 
 257.0 
 
 10 63 
 
 24 
 
 362 
 
 142 42 
 
 68 44 
 
 37 23 
 
 11.74 
 
 261.0 
 
 10 6'J 
 
 25 
 
 216 
 
 145. 12 
 
 68.68 
 
 36.66 
 
 11.79 
 
 263.6 
 
 10. 11 
 
 2 
 
 141 
 
 144. 91 
 
 68.82 
 
 37.46 
 
 11.81 
 
 262.5 
 
 10 71 
 
 27 
 
 71 
 
 144. 40 
 
 68.30 
 
 36.95 
 
 11.84 
 
 268.4 
 
 10 37 
 
 28 
 
 30 
 
 140. 71 
 
 68. 52 
 
 36.28 
 
 11.57 
 
 269.8 
 
 8 51 
 
 29 
 
 19 
 
 142. 08 
 
 68.09 
 
 36.41 
 
 11.51 
 
 260. 5 
 
 9.86 
 
 80 
 
 18 
 
 146. 50 
 
 69.19 
 
 36.70 
 
 11.61 
 
 279.5 
 
 7.50 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 TABLE No. 6. Giving the measure of 749 students of Amherst College at two intcrrah 
 of three years and six months, and at an average age of nineteen years and two months at. 
 
 the first observation, showing their physical development during this period. 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Number of men measured 749 
 
 " " increased iu all items - 196 26.15 
 
 " " decreased in some items ., 401 53.40 
 
 " " both same and increased items 355 47.89 
 
 " " both same and decreased items 211 28.17 
 
 Number of items secured 5,160 
 
 " " showing increase ^ 3,972 76.97 
 
 " " same Freshman and Senior year.. 487 9.43 
 
 " " less on Senior year 701 13.58 
 
 
 Weight. 
 
 Height. 
 
 Chest. 
 
 Arm. 
 
 Fore-arm. 
 
 Lung 
 capacity. 
 
 Body lift. 
 
 Greatest individual gain 
 
 56.00 
 
 6.00 
 
 6.50 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.50 
 
 1.34 
 
 25.00 
 
 Averages of increased men. . . 
 
 12.27 
 
 1.05 
 
 1.45 
 
 0.853 
 
 0.685 
 
 28.4 
 
 4.50 
 
 Per cent, of decreased items. . 
 
 11.00 
 
 0.00 
 
 20.31 
 
 13.46 
 
 25.27 
 
 14.64 
 
 20.13 
 
 SYSTEM OF REWARDS. 
 
 The "system of rewards" advocated by Dr. J. C. Warren in 1830, in 
 connection with his suggestion that "the diversions of the gymnasium 
 should constitute a regular part of the duties of all our colleges and 
 seminaries," has assumed considerable proportions, and is considered 
 valuable at Arnherst. There are three scholarships connected with 
 this department, and the following prizes are annually competed for : 
 
 The Sawyer prize, given by the late Edmund H. Sawyer, of Easthampton, a gold 
 medal of the value of fifty dollars, for the beat work in human anatomy and physi- 
 ology. 
 
 566
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 39 
 
 Gymnastic prizes: (1) The Gilbert prize, given by Frederick Gilbert of Cincinnati, 
 O., class of 1877, one hundred dollars to the class which, during the year, shall most 
 faithfully discharge its duties in the gymnasium, and carry out most fully the instruc- 
 tion of the professor of hygiene. (2) The Ladd prize, ; given by William M. Ladd 
 of Portland, Or., class of 1878, fifty dollars a year for excellence in heavy gymnastic 
 exercises at the annual exhibition. 
 
 COLLEGE GYMNASIA BUILT SINCE 1860. 
 
 The list of colleges, not to mention numerous high, normal, and pri- 
 vate-adventure schools, which provided their students with gymnasia 
 during the period ^86Q-'81 ,3s a considerable one, and includes such in- 
 stitutions as the following for young men : Beloit, Bowdoin, Dartmouth, 
 Hamilton, Oberlin, Pennsylvania, Princeton, Union, Wabash, Williams, 
 and Yale Colleges j and Brown, California, Cornell, Harvard, Vander- 
 bilt, Wesleyan, and Wisconsin Universities; and the Massachusetts 
 Institute of Technology, Phillips Andover Academy, St. Paul's School, 
 Wjlliston Seminary, and Gushing Academy; ancjlSmlth, Vassal^ and 
 Wellesley Colleges, and\ Mt. Holyoke Seminary for young women. In 
 the majority of cases instruction, where it has been attempted, has been 
 spasmodic, unintelligent, and half-hearted. In a few instances only, prior 
 to 1879, when the new Hemenway Gymnasium was opened at Harvard, 
 have fairly competent gymnasts been employed. In no case has the 
 course adopted been so comprehensively planned or so carefully and 
 continuously carried out as at Amherst. Ill-advised expenditures upon 
 buildings, vague aims, and inadequate organization, have characterized 
 the management of most of the attempts to institute departments of 
 physical training in our superior schools and colleges. 
 
 At the request of the Vice-Minister of Education in Japan, Mr. Tanaka- 
 Fujimaro, who visited Amherst in 1876, Dr. G. A. Leland, Captain of 
 the Class of 1874, was designated by President Seelye to introduce the 
 Amherst system of gymnastics into the Government schools of Japan. 
 For three years Dr. Leland was engaged in that work to the " high sat- 
 isfaction of the Government," as was officially communicated to Pres- 
 ident Seelye. 
 
 Of the three college gymnasia built in 1860, viz., those at Amherst, 
 Harvard, and Yale, the last-named was the best arranged and most 
 completely furnished. The gymnasium built by Princeton College in 
 1869 was until 1879 the date of the finest of college gymnasia as yet 
 erected, the Hemenway Gymnasium at Harvard University by far 
 the best of its kind. Toward the total cost of its site and erection, 
 $38,000, Messrs. R. Bonner and H. G. Marquand, of New York City, 
 each contributed the sum of $10,000. The Bissell Gymnasium at Dart- 
 mouth College should be mentioned in this connection. It was built 
 through the munificence of a Dartmouth alumnus, Mr. G. H. Bissell, 
 of New York City, at a cost of $24,000, in 1866. 
 
 667
 
 40 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 THE PRINCETON GYMNASIUM AND ITS ADMINISTRATION. 
 
 On account of its ancient pre-eminence, the Princeton gymnasium 
 merits more than a passing mention. Thanks are due to Mr. George 
 Goldie, for fifteen years its efficient superintendent, for the following 
 description of this gymnasium and the methods of management there 
 in vogue in 1882-'83: 
 
 The building was planned by George B. Post, of New York. It is of stone, and com- 
 prises 2 stories and a cellar. There are 3 rooms on the ground floor: the main room, 
 30 by 70 feet, contains 4 bowling alleys; the dressing-room, 78 by 14 feet, contains 
 221 lockers and 6 wash-basins; there is a room 70 by 10 feet for base-ball pitching, 
 and there are 3 shower-baths, supplied with hot and cold water; also 1 water-closet 
 and 1 urinal. 
 
 The gymnasium proper occupies the second floor. Its dimensions are 78 by 52 feet, 
 height to beams 21 feet, to apex of roof 45 feet. It is lighted and ventilated by 5 dor- 
 mer windows, 1 double dormer window at the east end, another at the west, and by 5 
 windows on the south side, coming to within 3 feet of the floor. 
 
 The apparatus consists of 20 sets of chest and other pulley weights ; 60 pairs of In- 
 dian clubs, varying from 2 to 18 pounds in weight; 1,000 pounds of dumb-bells; 1 
 hand-lifting machine; 1 set of tug-of-war weights; 1 abdominal machine; 4 rowing- 
 machines; 1 set of parallel bars, 20 feet long; 1 steel core, and 1 graduated horizontal 
 bar; 2 inclined ladders, 25 feet long; 1 horizontal ladder, 30 feet long; 1 pair of fly- 
 ing rings; 8 traveling rings ; 1 platform spring-board; 1 batule board; rack-bars; 
 single, double, and flying trapezes ; l'e"chelle ; peg-pole ; 2 sets of chest-poles ; a 
 grip-machine; climbing-ropes, and pole; 5 mattresses; jumping and measuring 
 standards, platform-scales; and all the apparatus that can be used for the practice of 
 athletic sports indoors. 
 
 The gymnasium is open from 7 A.M. to 8.15 A.M., 12 M. to 2 P.M., and 5 to 6.45 P.M. 
 The characteristic features of the gymnastic drill are Indian club exercise, with free 
 exercises for the trunk and legs. The duration of the class drill is thirty minutes, in- 
 cluding three rests of two minutes each. Two hours per day are devoted to individ- 
 ual and special exercise on apparatus, under the supervision of superintendent. The 
 class exercises are also led by him. 
 
 The aim of the class exercise is to give a reasonable amount of exercise to the whole 
 muscular system, so as to secure a symmetrical development, a healthy body, and a 
 graceful carriage. It has been employed since 1869 to the present time. i. e., 1884. 
 From 1869 to 1876 exercise was required. At the latter date it was made optional, be- 
 canae the gymnasium was too limited in area, and the time allowed for exercise too 
 short, to accommodate the increase in numbers. 
 
 In the autumn of 1884 the Indian club exercises and free-class gymnas- 
 tics were made obligatory for students in the Freshman and Sophomore 
 classes. The required exercises occupy thirty minutes each, four times 
 weekly, from the first of November till the first of April. Mr. Goldie, 
 after a continuous and successful service of fifteen years at Princeton, 
 during which his pupils gained the reputation of being the most expert 
 college acrobats in the country, has very recently assumed the charge 
 of the gymnasium of the New York Athletic Club, whose magnificent 
 new building, on the south-west corner of Sixth avenue and Fifty-fifth 
 street, New York City, is by far the most complete of its kind in America. 
 
 568
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 41 
 
 STIMULATING INFLUENCE OF THE WAR ON PHYSICAL TRAINING. 
 
 The worth of a good physique and the educational value of physical 
 training were most clearly demonstrated and sharply emphasized by the 
 lessons of the late war. The unexampled interest and activity in ath- 
 letic sports developed since the close of the War, have contributed most 
 materially toward the promotion of physical training. The youth of 
 the country have been led to engage more actively and intelligently in 
 athletic sports than ever before. Collegiate and intercollegiate con- 
 tests in great variety have attained to great prominence and favor in 
 the estimation of the general public, as well as of the college world. The 
 discussion of the question of athleticism in colleges will engage our 
 attention in its proper place, but meanwhile the fact should be empha- 
 sized that the best that has been done during the last fifteen years 
 toward the erection of gymnasia, the purchase and laying out of play- 
 ing fields, and the organization of college departments of physical train- 
 ing, has resulted from the demands and endeavors and benefactions of 
 the younger generation of college men, who have themselves experienced 
 or witnessed the beneficial effects of gymnastic exercises and athletic 
 games. 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICAL TRAINING AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY. 
 
 Next to the athletic revival, the cause of physical education in Amer- 
 ica has received its greatest impetus, in recent years at least, from the 
 organization by Harvard University in 1879 of a new department of 
 physical training, in connection with the Hemenway Gymnasium, for 
 whose erection and equipment Mr. Augustus Hemenway of Boston, a 
 graduate of Harvard in 1876, gave the sum of $110,000. President 
 Eliot, who had again and again pointed out the insufficiency of the old 
 gymnasium, was a boating man in his day, and is still a bold rider and 
 an enthusiastic yachtsman. 
 
 THE HEMENWAY GYMNASIUM. 
 
 The Hemenway Gymnasium was built according to the plans of 
 Messrs. Peabody and Stearns, the well-known architects of Boston. 
 Mr. Peabody was renowned as a successful athlete when a student at 
 Harvard. Dr. D. A. Sargent, a graduate of Bowdoin College in 1875, 
 and of the Yale Medical School in 1878, was appointed to take charge 
 of the new department, with the title of Assistant Professor of Phys- 
 ical Training and Director of the Hemenway Gymnasium. The gymna- 
 isinm was furnished with a full set of Dr. Sargent's developing appli- 
 ances, and has ever since it was opened been managed in accordance 
 with the system of training known as the Sargent system a system, 
 be it said, more comprehensive, practical, and scientific, than any hith- 
 erto attempted or adopted in any college. 
 
 569
 
 42 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 188.", 
 
 Dr. Sargent's reputation and success are due to his practical knowl- 
 edge of athletics (he was a stroke oar and the most accomplished ath- 
 lrU> of his day at Bowdoin) ; to his experience as a teacher of gymnas- 
 tics at Bowdoiu and at Yale and in New York City, before he went to 
 Cambridge; and to his inventive genius, which enabled him to embody 
 the results of his experience and his studies in the varied series of gym- 
 nastic machines which bear his name. 
 
 a a a a 
 
 3foin Floor 113 f X85! 
 
 a 
 
 Hi 11 ' 1111111 1 
 
 iiiiiniiniiiiiiiuiiiiiiiiniiiiiiiiiiiiii 
 
 'no Jtootn/. 
 
 r i n n ri TT i i T 1 1 T . . m mi i nnn i ri n T 
 
 Dressing 
 
 Ground plan of the Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. 
 Description of the Building. 
 
 The following description, compiled from authentic sources, may serve 
 to explain the views and ground plan of the Hemenway Gymnasium, as 
 printed in.this Report. The building, which is on the "Holmes Field," 
 faces on Kirkland street, and is built of brick, with sandstone triin- 
 
 570
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 43 
 
 mings, in the colonial style of architecture. The roof is covered with 
 red slate, and is surmounted by a cupola, the top of which is 98 feet from 
 the ground. The building is 125 feet long by 113 feet wide. Over the 
 main window, fronting on Kirkland street, the coat-of-arrns of the college 
 is carved in freestone. The main entrance is by way of an elaborate 
 porch. There is an outer and an inner vestibule. From the latter is 
 a flight of stairs, made of North* river bluestone, with iron balusters. 
 On the right is an office, 12 feet by 15, finished with enameled bricks. 
 Opening from this is the dressing-room, 103 feet by 15, containing sev- 
 eral hundred lockers, through which steam-pipes pass for drying the 
 clothing. On the same, or east side of the building, there are 2 bath 
 and toilet rooms, 25 by 30 feet each, and between them is a room, 10 feet 
 by 12, arranged for vapor and needle baths, with appliances for giving 
 a lateral, vertical, and descending shower. Three doors open from the 
 west side of the dressing-room into the main hall, over which extends 
 an iron framework, arranged with sliding eye-bolts and beams, so that 
 the swinging apparatus can be suspended from any point. On the left- 
 hand side of the hall is an apartment for developing apparatus and a 
 semi-circular room intended for an armory. The* main hall is very ele- 
 gant, the walls being of red and yellow bricks, and the wood- work of 
 hard pine. It is 113 by 85 feet, with an open roof, having hard pine, 
 open-timbered trusses resting on large brackets. 
 
 On the second floor there is a room, 25 by 30 feet, for the exhibition 
 of trophies and for committee meetings ; and a rowing-room, 70 by 20 
 feet, shut in from the rest of the building by a high wooden screen, and 
 containing 16 rowing-machines. At the level of the second floor a gal- 
 lery, 5 feet wide, that runs around the main hall, is used as a running- 
 track. On this floor, above the north bath-room, are the director's office, 
 25 by 30 feet, and two examining-rooms, each 10 by 15 feet. In the base- 
 ment at the north end is a room, 90 feet by 30, reserved for base-ball, 
 lacrosse, and tennis practice, and inclosed by a heavy wire netting. In 
 the basement are also the fencing-room, 25 feet by 30 ; the sparring- 
 room, 25 feet by 30; the store-room, 25 feet by 25; the boiler-room, 15 
 feet by 20; the room, 15 feet by 25, containing the water-closets; some 
 hundreds of lockers; and 8 bowling-alleys, 72 feet by 5. The whole 
 building is heated by steam, and is ventilated by means of fly win- 
 dows and a cupola. 
 
 Fittings of the Hemenway Gymnasium. 
 
 The cost of furnishing the Hemenway Gymnasium amounted to nearly 
 $4,000. The fitting was done in accordance with Dr. Sargent's direc- 
 tions, very many of the appliances having been devised by him. Sub- 
 joined is a list of the apparatus of the Hemenway Gymnasium : 
 
 (1) Heavy apparatus. Twelve mats; 2 vault ing bars ; 3 horizontal bars, suspended ; 
 3 pairs parallel bars, different sizes; 1 pair fixed flying rings ; 2 pairs adjustable flying 
 rings; 16 traveling rings ; 2 double trapezes ; 2 single trapezes ; 3 fly ing trapezes; 1 bal- 
 
 671
 
 44 CIRCULARS OP INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 ancing trapeze ; 1 triple-barred.e'chelle ; 2 pairs hanging ropes ; 2 knotted hanging 
 ropes; 1 slack rope; 3. suspended poles; 1 spring board; 1 leaping board; 1 rope 
 ladder; 2 peak ladders ; 2 slanting ladders ; 1 vertical ladder; 3 horizontal ladders; 
 2 plain vaulting stands ; 2 adjustable vaulting stands; 1 jumping platform; 1 pole 
 vaulting platform ; 1 running platform. 
 
 The swinging apparatus is suspended from an iron framework, in which the cross- 
 ties are adjustable and the eye bolts are made to move in grooves. 
 
 All the apparatus is so arranged that it can be pulled out of the way in a few 
 moments, by a system of ropes and pulleys, thereby leaving the floor clear for class 
 exercises. 
 
 (2) Dr. Sargent's developing appliances. One foot machine ; 1 ankle machine ; 2 
 wrist machines ; 1 foot rotating machine ; 1 pronator machine ; 1 supinator ma- 
 chine ; 1 back and loins machine ; 1 leg machine (chair form) ; 2 finger machines ; 
 1 lifting machine; 2 extensor leg machines ; 2 flexor leg machines ; 1 abdominal ma- 
 chine ; 1 head-balancing machine ; 1 rowing machine (weight attachment) ; 18 row- 
 ing machines (hydraulic); 1 paddling machine; 2 sets inclined parallels; 2 sets 
 vertical parallels ; 2 sets traveling parallels ; 1 pair balancing parallels ; 1 adjustable 
 ladder ; 1 folding table ; 1 peg pole ; 4 chest expanders ; 2 chest developers; 30 pairs 
 chest weights (plain) ; 10 pairs chest weights (swivel pulley); 6 pairs back and side 
 pulleys ; 5 pairs high pulleys; 2 single, one-arm pulleys : 2 quarter circles ; 2 travel- 
 ing horizontal bars ; 1 pair rack bars ; 1 long inclined plane for chest and arms ; 2 
 short inclined planes for lower extremities ; 2 pairs treadles (weight attachment) ; 2 
 pairs stirrups (weight attachment) ; 2 bridles (weight attachment) ; 40 pairs Indian 
 clubs (2J to 8 pounds) ; .40 pairs wooden dumb-bells; 36 pairs iron dumb-bells (5 to 
 125 pounds),; 40 wands. 
 
 (3) Dressing and bathing facilities. Eight hundred and forty lockers ; 5 tub-bath 
 rooms ; 9 sponge-bath rooms; 1 shower-bath room (needle, vertical, and lateral shower 
 and douche) ; 12 wash-bowls ; private bath-room (2 tubs and 2 bowls). 
 
 Bathing and dressing accommodations are inadequate, and a swimming-bath is 
 contemplated. 
 
 (4) Measuring apparatus, etc., in examining room. One pair of scales; dynamom- 
 eters, for testing strength of back, legs, arms, and chest; spirometer, for testing 
 strength of lungs ; spirometer, for testing capacity of lungs ; bars and rings, for test- 
 ing strength of various parts ; measuring rods and tape. 
 
 The annual cost of carrying on the gymnasium is about $6,000, in- 
 cluding the salary of the Director. 
 
 CONCERNING DR. SARGENT'S DEVELOPING APPLIANCES. 
 
 Dr. Sargent's remarks concerning the nature and purpose of the appa- 
 ratus, together with his exposition of his method of physical training, 
 are in point here : 
 
 The gymnasium, as a whole, is large enough, and has sufficient apparatus, to accom- 
 modate two hundred and fifty men at one time and allow each one all the room neces- 
 bary ; but if a run should be made on one kind of apparatus, although there are many 
 duplicates, it would of course be impossible to meet it. A dressing-room, with lockers 
 and bathing facilities enough to accommodate the whole university at one time, and 
 give each man ample room, would require a building about twice the size of the 
 present gymnasium, while the number of bowling-alleys demanded between three 
 and five o'clock would more than cover the entire floor-surface of the building. 
 Everything has been planned and arranged to meet the probable wants of the average 
 student, aud to satisfy the claims of the greatest number. Those who do nothing 
 but bowl ought not to regard the rest of the apparatus as useless; nor does it become 
 572
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 45 
 
 those who aspire to athletic fame, to undervalue the importance of ligkt gymnastics. 
 Every one has a right to enjoy his favorite exercise ; but before carrying it too far, it 
 behooves him to consider whether he is not riding a hobby. What is the best exer- 
 cise for one man may be the worst for another ; and an attempt to pursue an inap- 
 propriate course, without regard to constitutional or organic differences, has often 
 led to physical bankruptcy and ruin. 
 
 . The old-fashioned gymnasia are filled with crude appliances that have been handed 
 down in stereotyped forms for several centuries [sic]. To use this apparatus with 
 benefit, it is necessary for one to have more strength at the outset than the average 
 man possesses. A man must make use of that apparatus which his physical condition 
 permits. If he has strength euough to lift with ease his own weight, well and good ; 
 then work on the heavy apparatus will prove beneficial to him ; if he has not, the 
 liability to strains and injuries, and the enormous expenditure of nerve-power neces- 
 sary to keep his muscles up to their highest tension, more than counterbalance the 
 good effect of the exercise. When it is considered that only one man in five can raise 
 his own weight with ease, the need of introductory apparatus to prepare one for the 
 beneficial use of the heavy appliances becomes quite apparent. It was the realization 
 of this need that led to the invention of the numerous contrivances that have been 
 introduced into the Hemenway Gymnasium ; the desire to strengthen certain muscles, 
 in order to accomplish particular feats on the higher apparatus, was the original mo- 
 tive of their invention. The results which followed were so satisfactory that the 
 same appliances were afterward used as a means of attaining a harmonious develop 
 ment. 
 
 For this last-named purpose each machine has its own use. Each is designed to 
 bring into action one or more sets of muscles, and all can be adjusted to the capacity 
 of a child or of an athlete. There are in all fifty-six of these numbered appliances, 
 twenty of which are duplicated. In order to make the gymnasium complete, all the 
 old-style apparatus has been added, with improvements in form, structure, and ar- 
 rangement. The pulley weights run on steel rods in wooden boxes. In many cases 
 the radii of the rings, bars, etc., can be readily lengthened or shortened. The 
 side rings are made stirrup-shaped, and are covered with rubber. The hand-ropes 
 are made of cotton, and these, together with the hanging poles and flying rings, are 
 all capable of adjustment. In order to protect the hands the ladder rungs are pol- 
 ished, and the horizontal section is divided into one, two, and four feet distances. 
 The horizontal bars are centered with steel rods and hung from the iron framework by 
 shipper wire. The vaulting bar is also centered with a steel rod, capped with brass, 
 and pivoted two inches below the middle line. Considering the accidents that have 
 occurred on this apparatus from "slatting," the above-mentioned improvement will 
 be appreciated. The parallel bars have been shaped to the form of the hand, and one 
 pair is adjustable. The springboards, which in most gymnasia are so difficult to 
 manage, have been placed on iron pedestals in gliding and pivoting sockets. This 
 improvement facilitates the action of the boards and lessens their wear and tear. 
 
 Concerning the apparatus as a whole, it may be said that everything is arranged in 
 a progressive series. It is possible for a person to pass from the simplest movement 
 in calisthenics up to the most difficult gymnastic feat, without experiencing lameness 
 for a day. Easy adaptation to the capacity of the individual and facility of applica- 
 tion for remedying local defects and weaknesses are the distinguishing characteris- 
 tics of the apparatus in the new Henaenway Gymnasium. 
 
 DR. SARGENT'S VIEWS ON EXERCISE. 
 
 The object of physical training with us is not to make men active and strong, as 
 much as it is to make them healthy and enduring. Perfect health implies a condition 
 in which all parts of the body are properly nourished and harmoniously developed 
 in which the vital organs are sound, well balanced, and capable of performing their 
 
 573
 
 46 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 functions to the fullest extent. The researches of the physiologists have shown that 
 whenever a certain organ or class of organs becomes relatively too small or large, 
 causing a want of balance or harmony in their action, there is in every case far 
 greater liability to disease. It is in imperfect, ill-balanced organizations that we 
 find the greatest amount of sickness, and the greatest number of incurable disor- 
 ders. It is the weak spot, caused by inheritance, acquired by exposure, close confine- 
 ment, overwork, etc., that invites disease and death, even though the rest of the 
 system may be in perfect condition. To attain a perfect structure, harmony in devel- 
 opment, and a well-balanced organism, is our principal aim. 
 
 In order to go about our work intelligently, we first take a number of body meas- 
 urements, which are compared with a standard for the given age. We then test the 
 strength of various parts, examine the heart, lungs, etc., and solicit as much of the 
 student's history as will throw light on his inherited tendencies. From the data thus 
 obtained a course of exercise is prescribed which is in every way desigmed to meet 
 the demands of his particular case. Let us take a few illustrations: 
 
 No. 1 has a flat chest and is predisposed to consumption. If he is admitted to a 
 gymnasium and left to his own discretion, the chauces are that he will exhaust his 
 vital energy in going from one thing to another before he has given his lungs and 
 chest the special attention which they need. His wants are best subserved by speci- 
 fying the work most suitable for him, and by adopting the apparatus best adapted to 
 his peculiar condition. 
 
 No. 2 has a weak, irregular heart and poorly-developed back and legs. Systematic 
 rowing and running at a slow pace are admirably adapted for toning up the heart 
 and strengthening the muscles of the back and legs, and are prescribed as special ex- 
 ercises with limitations. 
 
 No. 3 is nervous and excitable, inclined to do everything at a breakneck speed, 
 thereby drawing upon the very power which it is for his interest to conserve. In this 
 case a list of exercises is prescribed which are calculated to deaden nervous sensibil- 
 ity by increasing muscular strength. 
 
 No. 4 is bilious or lymphatic, and is given the opposite course from that prescribed 
 for No. 3 ; and so on. 
 
 ^There the muscular system only needs development, the pupil is directed at first to 
 those appliances which are designed to strengthen his weak parts. After he has be- 
 come more symmetrical his exercises are made more general. For the benefit of those 
 who simply need exercise without special training, a number 6f appliances have 
 been introduced, which are so constructed that they can be readily adjusted to the 
 " strength of the strong and the weakness of the weak." No long instruction ia 
 needed to make this apparatus available. It is only necessary to explain the desired 
 movements once, and the results which follow will tell how well they have been car- 
 ried out. Besides the developing appliances we have a great variety of swings, bars, 
 ladders, etc. ; but before the student is allowed to use them he must give evidence of 
 a certain amount of preparatory training. 
 
 This, in short, is the system pursued at Harvard, where there is no systematic in- 
 struction, and where, after an order of exercises has been once prescribed, everything 
 is left to the option of the student. How well the system works may be learned from an 
 inspection of the gymnasium records, which are always open to the public. The second 
 examinations show results which are very suggestive, if not a little startling. They 
 have led me to conclude that half the young men who come to college are physically 
 in arrears, i. e., their brains have been developed at the expense of their physique. 
 The rapid gain in health, strength, and size of students and professors (though more 
 advanced in years) during the first three or four months of their gymnastic training 
 can only be accounted for on this ground. Our best scholars fail for want of body, 
 not for want of brain. 
 
 . 574
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 47 
 
 The chief characteristics, then, of the Sargent system of training, as 
 originally introduced for educational purposes at Harvard, are 
 
 (1) It is based on a careful physical diagnosis. 
 
 (2) Exercise, diet, etc., are prescribed in each individual case in the 
 light of such diagnosis. 
 
 (3) Besides the ordinary light and heavy gymnastic appliances, 
 machines designed to produce definite localized effects in development 
 can be employed to insure symmetry, and to remedy specific defects or 
 departures from the normal standard of strength or development. 
 
 NATURE OF PHYSICAL EXAMINATION. 
 
 With the exception of some slight modifications of detail, made to 
 suit the convenience or peculiar notions of certain examiners, the fol- 
 lowing course of procedure is followed in examining individuals, male 
 or female, under the system : 
 
 (a) The person to be examined fills out the following "history blank" 
 in his own handwriting : 
 
 Name, 
 
 Class and department, or occupation, 
 
 Age, . Birthplace, 
 
 Nationality of 
 Father, 
 Mother, 
 
 Paternal grandfather, 
 " grandmother, 
 Maternal grandfather, 
 " grandmother, 
 
 Occupation of father, 
 
 If parents are dead, of what did they die f 
 
 Which of your parents do yon most resemble T 
 
 Is there any hereditary disease in your family f 
 
 Is your general health good t 
 
 Have you always had good health T 
 
 Have you ever had any of the following diseases : 
 
 Asthma, Bronchitis, Chronic diarrhea, 
 
 Dizziness, Dyspepsia, Dysentery, 
 
 Gout, Rheumatism, Neuralgia, 
 
 Pleurisy, Shortness of breath, Jaundice, 
 
 Palpitation of the heart, Headaches, Piles, 
 
 Pneumonia, Varicose veins, Liver complaint, 
 
 Habitual constipation, Spitting of blood, Paralysis f 
 
 Have yon ever had any injury or undergone any surgical operation? 
 
 (6) The examiner makes a series of measurements and tests in ac- 
 cordance with the following form, to determine the physical peculiari- 
 ties as regards weight, height, development, strength, and condition 
 of the person under examination. The results of this examination, 
 which is made upon the naked man, are carefully recorded, according 
 
 575
 
 48 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 to the metric system, the strength being determined by dynamometers 
 graduated to show kilograms of force: 
 
 ITEMS NOTED AND RECORDED. 
 
 Number, 
 
 Date, 
 
 Age, 
 
 Weight, 
 
 Height, 
 
 of knee, 
 sitting, 
 pnbes, 
 navel, 
 sternum, 
 Girth of head, 
 neck, 
 
 chest, full, 
 chest, repose, 
 belly, 
 hips, 
 
 right thigh, 
 left thigh, 
 right knee, 
 
 Girth of left knee, 
 right calf, 
 left calf, 
 right instep, 
 left instep, 
 upper right arm, 
 upper left arm, 
 right elbow, 
 left elbow, 
 right fore-arm, 
 left fore-arm, 
 right wrist, 
 left wrist, 
 Breadth of head, 
 neck, 
 shoulders, 
 waist, 
 hips, 
 nipples, 
 
 Right shoulder elbow, 
 Left shoulder elbow, 
 Right elbow tip, 
 Left elbow tip, 
 Length, right foot, 
 
 left foot, 
 Stretch of arms, 
 Capacity of lungs, 
 Strength of lungs, 
 back, 
 
 upper arm, 
 fore-arm, 
 
 Total strength, 
 
 Development, 
 
 Pilosity, 
 
 Color, hair, 
 eyes. 
 
 (c) After comparing the results obtained by the above-mentioned 
 tests and measurements with the standards for average healthy per- 
 sons of the age given, and taking into consideration any functional or 
 structural peculiarities which his observations or questions may have 
 brought to light, the examiner makes his prescription regarding exer- 
 cise, diet, sleep, air, bathing, clothing, &c. For the sake of conven- 
 ience this prescription is frequently given in the shape of a small hand- 
 book or card, so marked by the examiner that the person receiving it 
 is plainly directed as to the regimen he had best follow. Ke-examina- 
 tions are made and prescriptions are repeated or modified from time to 
 time, according to the nature of the case. 
 
 The system of measurements above described has superseded at Ain- 
 herst College that originally introduced there by Dr. Hitchcock. Dr. 
 Sargent and his followers, including several women trained under his 
 direction, have accumulated a great and growing mass of anthropo- 
 metrical data, which cannot fail to be of value in determining the phys- 
 ical constants of growing males and females, especially of the student 
 class. It is to be hoped that these data may soon be available for pub- 
 lication and discussion. 
 
 The subjoined tables, already published, No. 8 by Dr. Sargent, and 
 Nos. 7, 9, and 10 by Dr. Hitchcock, are of interest in this connection. 
 
 576
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 
 
 - 
 
 S 
 
 t- 
 
 CO 
 
 gi 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to t- 
 
 CO CM 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 -* 
 
 3 
 
 CO 
 
 
 at 
 
 
 a 
 
 Cl 
 
 
 
 CM 
 
 i 
 
 CO 
 
 d 
 
 00 
 
 3 
 
 t* CM 
 
 CO 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 OS 
 
 
 CO 
 
 5 
 
 Cl 
 
 CO CM 
 i-l 
 
 
 CM 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 r-l 
 
 8 
 
 O CM 
 t- t- 
 
 
 CO 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 CO 
 
 H 
 
 p 
 
 00 CO 
 CM CM 
 
 
 CM 
 CM 
 
 i 
 
 S 
 
 in 
 
 S 
 
 00 M 
 IO t- 
 
 co 
 
 ?, 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 os 
 
 CM 
 
 CM CM 
 
 ) students. 
 
 CM 
 
 m 
 
 CM 
 
 fe 
 
 id 
 
 OS 
 
 S 
 
 o 2 
 
 IO t- 
 
 eo 
 
 in 
 
 CO 
 
 Vj 
 
 5 
 
 CO 
 
 r-i 
 
 i 
 
 i 
 
 00 CO 
 i-l CM 
 
 Age of th< 
 
 CM 
 
 00 
 
 S 
 
 CO 
 
 5 
 
 * t- 
 
 in 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 i 
 
 O 
 
 Cl 
 
 iH t- 
 
 -^ O 
 
 1-1 
 
 
 OS 
 
 1 
 
 CO 
 
 ** 
 
 
 
 OB 
 
 S g 
 
 <O 
 
 in 
 
 CO 
 
 oo 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cl 
 
 i 
 
 CM 00 
 O r-1 
 
 * O 
 
 
 oc 
 
 i 
 
 'a 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 C3S t~ 
 " 
 
 in 
 
 
 
 c 
 
 It 
 
 in 
 35 
 
 Cl 
 
 n 
 
 S 
 
 Cl 
 
 ol 
 
 CO O 
 
 
 S 
 
 S 
 
 CO 
 
 e 
 
 tf 
 
 K i 
 
 fl 
 
 g 
 
 GO 
 
 ta 
 
 
 
 I", 
 
 
 
 eJ 
 
 CM 
 
 O IM 
 00 * 
 
 co os . 
 
 
 CO 
 
 o 
 
 CM 
 
 ea 
 
 i 
 
 m 
 
 O 03 
 t^ CO 
 
 to 
 
 8 
 
 oo 
 
 X) 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 cl 
 
 00 
 a 
 
 co 06 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 usured at eah 
 
 lecimal 
 
 s 
 
 unilredths 
 lilliractcrs 
 
 id liundredths. 
 
 1 
 
 d huudredths. . 
 
 (D 
 
 1 
 
 .S 
 
 
 
 
 Number of studeuts nx 
 
 Weight in pounds and 
 
 Weight in kilos and tei 
 
 Height in inches ami h 
 Height in meters and it 
 
 'ft 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 M 
 | 
 
 .= 
 
 5 
 
 Arm girth in inches an 
 
 Arm girth iu millimetc' 
 
 Lung capacity in cubic 
 
 Lung capacity in liters 
 Pull up, number of tim< 
 
 5068 No. 5- 
 
 577
 
 50 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1883. 
 
 TABLE No. 8. Strength and development of the First Ten, according to the tesl* made al the 
 
 NOTE. The items marked with an asterisk (*) are the girths -whose sum is taken as total develop- 
 the average girth of the right and left fore-arms is employed in computing total development. When 
 "total strength" is less than tbe "total development," it is marked minus. L. S. stands for law 
 age is not printed, the previous record has been accepted as entitling the person to a position among 
 
 
 Name and class. 
 
 S, 
 * 
 
 i 
 
 8 
 
 
 
 -ti 
 
 i 
 i 
 
 
 
 1 
 S 
 
 Natural chest. * 
 
 Inflated chest. * 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Right thigh. * 
 
 Left thigh. * 
 
 1 
 
 1880. 
 F. D. Jordan, 1880 
 
 23 
 
 73 
 
 175.7 
 
 57 
 
 95 
 
 105 
 
 78 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 3 
 
 "Walter Trimble L. S 
 
 23 
 
 70 
 
 176.4 
 
 56 
 
 89 
 
 100 
 
 76 
 
 54 
 
 54 
 
 1 
 
 Richard Trimble, 1880 
 
 21 
 
 74.6 
 
 182.3 
 
 57.3 
 
 92 
 
 99 
 
 78 
 
 56 
 
 55 5 
 
 1 
 
 N. J. Stephens 1881 
 
 22 
 
 72 
 
 177.2 
 
 53.5 
 
 93 
 
 101 
 
 76 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 5 
 
 R.W G Welling 1881 . . 
 
 21 
 
 80 2 
 
 188.1 
 
 57 
 
 9 
 
 99 
 
 73 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 A 
 
 C. H. W. Foster, 1881 
 
 20 
 
 60.9 
 
 175.9 
 
 55 
 
 91 
 
 98 
 
 70 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 7 
 
 James Otis 1881 ...... 
 
 21 
 
 84 
 
 182.3 
 
 58 
 
 100 
 
 108 
 
 85 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 8 
 
 F. B. Keene, 1880 
 
 24 
 
 66.7 
 
 172.4 
 
 57 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 74 
 
 51 
 
 51.5 
 
 <> 
 
 S. W. Skinner, 1880 
 
 22 
 
 72 
 
 169.5 
 
 56.5 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 78 
 
 59 
 
 59 
 
 in 
 
 G. B. Morison, 1883 
 
 19 
 
 68.3 
 
 179.4 
 
 54.5 
 
 90 
 
 95 
 
 70 
 
 52 
 
 51 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average .... 
 
 21.6 
 
 72.2 
 
 177.9 
 
 56.2 
 
 92.2 
 
 100.5 
 
 75.8 
 
 55.1 
 
 "4 8 
 
 
 1881 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 l 
 
 C. H. W. Foster, 1881 
 
 21 
 
 68.2 
 
 176.5 
 
 55.5 
 
 98 
 
 105 
 
 72 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 > 
 
 R. S. Codman. 1883 
 
 19 
 
 72.2 
 
 174.2 
 
 57.3 
 
 97 
 
 103 
 
 76 
 
 57.5 
 
 55 5 
 
 3 
 
 E. D. Brandegee, 1881 
 
 23 
 
 77.5 
 
 176.2 
 
 58.4 
 
 98 
 
 106.5 
 
 83 
 
 57 
 
 56.5 
 
 ,1 
 
 C. P. Curtis, 1883 
 
 20 
 
 68.5 
 
 178 
 
 58 
 
 90 
 
 94 
 
 75 
 
 53 
 
 53 
 
 t 
 
 N. J. Stephens, 1881 
 
 
 72 
 
 177.2 
 
 53.5 
 
 93 
 
 101 
 
 76 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 F, 
 
 R. W. G. Welling, L. S 
 
 
 80.2 
 
 188.1 
 
 57 
 
 92 
 
 99 
 
 73 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 7 
 
 G. B. Morison, 1883 
 
 20 
 
 71 
 
 179.4 
 
 55.7 
 
 89 
 
 96 
 
 73 
 
 55 
 
 54 
 
 | 
 
 James Otis, 1881 
 
 
 84 
 
 182.3 
 
 58 
 
 100 
 
 108 
 
 85 
 
 60 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 J. A. W. Goodspeed, 1884 
 
 21 
 
 64.5 
 
 165 
 
 54.5 
 
 85 
 
 96 
 
 73 
 
 50 
 
 50 
 
 10 
 
 O. J. Pf eiffer, M. S 
 
 23 
 
 81.2 
 
 182 
 
 58.5 
 
 95 
 
 104 
 
 84 
 
 57 
 
 56.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 2L1 
 
 73.9 
 
 177.9 
 
 56.6 
 
 93.7 
 
 101.2 
 
 77 
 
 55.5 
 
 54.9 
 
 
 1882. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 C P Curtis, 1883 . . 
 
 21 
 
 69.5 
 
 178 
 
 57.8 
 
 94- 
 
 98 
 
 73 
 
 52.5 
 
 52.3 
 
 1 
 
 James Otis, L. S 
 
 23 
 
 85.5 
 
 183 
 
 58 
 
 105- 
 
 113 
 
 86 
 
 59 
 
 59.5 
 
 7 
 
 H. L Smyth, 1883 
 
 20 
 
 73 
 
 178.6 
 
 58 
 
 96 
 
 102 
 
 78 
 
 54.5 
 
 54 
 
 1 
 
 W. S. Bryant, 1884 
 
 21 
 
 65.5 
 
 180 
 
 55.5 
 
 92 
 
 97 
 
 71 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 | 
 
 A R. Crane, 1885 
 
 21 
 
 64.8 
 
 169.3 
 
 56.5 
 
 92 
 
 97 
 
 76 
 
 53.5 
 
 53.5 
 
 fi 
 
 W. H. Page, 1883 
 
 21 
 
 69.5 
 
 169.5 
 
 56.5 
 
 90.5 
 
 94.5 
 
 77 
 
 56 
 
 55.5 
 
 7 
 
 L. A. Biddle, 1885 
 
 19 
 
 66.6 
 
 172 
 
 58.5 
 
 95 
 
 99.5 
 
 74 
 
 54 
 
 53.5 
 
 | 
 
 G. B. Morison, 1883 
 
 21 
 
 71.5 
 
 179.5 
 
 55.7 
 
 93 
 
 96.5 
 
 73 
 
 55 
 
 55 
 
 11 
 
 R. M. Bradley, 1882 
 
 21 
 
 66.2 
 
 177 
 
 59 
 
 88 
 
 93 
 
 75 
 
 51 
 
 51 
 
 in 
 
 John Russell, 1882 
 
 21 
 
 62.1 
 
 172.4 
 
 57.7 
 
 86.5 
 
 97 
 
 72 
 
 51 
 
 52 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Avenge 
 
 20.9 
 
 69.4 
 
 175.9 
 
 57.3 
 
 93.2 
 
 98.7 
 
 75.6 
 
 53.8 
 
 53.8 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 578 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 51 
 
 Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard University, during theyearslSSQ, 1881, 1882, 1883, and 1864. 
 
 merit. As the average strength of the right and left hands is used in computing the total strength, so 
 the " total strength " exceeds the " total development, " the "condition" is marked phis. When the 
 school ; M. S. for medical school. The measurements are according to the metric system. "Where the 
 the First Ten. 
 
 
 
 'Average of 
 
 
 Strength. 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 4t 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 tc 
 
 
 
 | 
 
 * 
 
 i 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 
 
 
 -a 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 a 
 
 
 It 
 
 t 
 
 G 
 
 ~g 
 
 5 
 
 li 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 a 
 
 i 
 
 | 
 
 gA . 
 
 2 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 
 
 S 
 
 3 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 
 30.5 
 
 30 
 
 27.5 
 
 27 
 
 531 
 
 40 
 
 145 
 
 230 
 
 175.2Q2) 
 
 85 
 
 675.2 
 
 144.2 
 
 1 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 27.5 
 
 27 
 
 526.5 
 
 25 
 
 155 
 
 200 
 
 224 G!) 
 
 70 
 
 674 
 
 147.5 
 
 3 
 
 33 
 
 32.5 
 
 27.8 
 
 27 
 
 531.1 
 
 20 
 
 159 
 
 185.5 
 
 223.8 (1?) 
 
 75 
 
 663.3 
 
 132.2 
 
 S 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 525.5 
 
 22 
 
 170 
 
 190 
 
 19,4 (g) 
 
 86 
 
 662.4 
 
 136.9 
 
 4 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 526 
 
 25 
 
 175 
 
 220 
 
 160.4Q 
 
 80 
 
 660.4 
 
 134.4 
 
 5 
 
 31.5 
 
 31 
 
 28 
 
 27 
 
 513.5 
 
 22 
 
 162 
 
 197 
 
 182.7 (I') 
 
 90 
 
 653.7 
 
 140.2 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 36.5 
 
 30.8 
 
 30.8 
 
 574.3 
 
 30 
 
 170 
 
 178 
 
 2- (Jo") 
 
 59 
 
 647 
 
 72.7 
 
 1 
 
 33 
 
 31.5 
 
 28 
 
 27.5 
 
 516 
 
 25 
 
 131 
 
 186 
 
 233.4 (20) 
 
 68 
 
 643.4 
 
 127.4 
 
 8 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 28.5 
 
 27 
 
 541 
 
 23 
 
 160 
 
 167 
 
 223.2 (g) 
 
 67 
 
 640.2 
 
 99.2 
 
 9 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 27 
 
 26 
 
 502.5 
 
 20 
 
 160 
 
 165 
 
 232.2 (20) 
 
 55 
 
 632.2 
 
 129.7 
 
 10 
 
 33.2 
 
 32.7 
 
 28.2 
 
 27.6 
 
 528.7 
 
 25.2 
 
 158.7 
 
 191.8 
 
 2059 I" 16 ' 3 } 
 
 205.9 ^ 12 . 6 ; 
 
 73.5 
 
 655.2 
 
 126.4 
 
 
 32 
 
 31 
 
 27.5 
 
 26.5 
 
 532 
 
 37 
 
 168 
 
 230 
 
 286.4 (2|) 
 
 80.5 
 
 801.9 
 
 269.9 
 
 1 
 
 34.5 
 
 33.5 
 
 28.3 
 
 28 
 
 542.6 
 
 29 
 
 165 
 
 175 
 
 267.1 
 
 61 
 
 697.1 
 
 154.5 
 
 2 
 
 36 
 
 36 
 
 29.8 
 
 28.5 
 
 561.2 
 
 25 
 
 180 
 
 215 
 
 193.7 (12) 
 
 80 
 
 693.7 
 
 132.5 
 
 3 
 
 31.5 
 
 30 
 
 28.5 
 
 28 
 
 513 
 
 30 
 
 150 
 
 175 
 
 (S) 
 
 61 
 
 690 
 
 177 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 525.5 
 
 22 
 
 170 
 
 190 
 
 194.4 (g) 
 
 86 
 
 662.4 
 
 136.9 
 
 5 
 
 32 
 
 33 
 
 28 
 
 29 
 
 526 
 
 25 
 
 175 
 
 220 
 
 !60.4 (JO) 
 
 80 
 
 660.4 
 
 134.4 
 
 fi 
 
 33.5 
 
 33 
 
 28.5 
 
 28 
 
 517.7 
 
 20 
 
 150 
 
 180 
 
 255.6(22) 
 
 54 
 
 659.6 
 
 141.9 
 
 7 
 
 36 
 
 36.5 
 
 30.8 
 
 30.8 
 
 574.3 
 
 30 
 
 170 
 
 178 
 
 210 f 15 "i 
 
 210 vio; 
 
 59 
 
 647 
 
 72.7 
 
 8 
 
 30.5 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 25.5 
 
 495 
 
 26 
 
 154 
 
 195 
 
 193.5 
 
 63 
 
 631.5 
 
 136.5 
 
 9 
 
 32.5 
 
 32.5 
 
 30 
 
 29.8 
 
 550 
 
 25 
 
 160 
 
 175 
 
 194.9 (g) 
 
 71 
 
 625.9 
 
 75.9 
 
 10 
 
 33.2 
 
 32.7 
 
 28.6 
 
 28.2 
 
 533.7 
 
 26.9 
 
 164 
 
 193.3 
 
 223 () 
 
 69.5 
 
 676.9 
 
 143.2 
 
 
 32.5 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 28.5 
 
 521.1 
 
 18 
 
 250 
 
 425 
 
 326.6 (jO) 
 
 66 
 
 1085.6 
 
 564.5 
 
 1 
 
 38.5 
 
 39.5 
 
 32 
 
 31.8 
 
 590.5 
 
 27.5 
 
 230 
 
 375 
 
 222.3 (g) 
 
 65 
 
 919.8 
 
 329.3 
 
 t 
 
 34.5 
 
 35.5 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 541.5 
 
 20.5 
 
 240 
 
 275 
 
 270.1 (ff) 
 
 65.5 
 
 871.1 
 
 329.6 
 
 i 
 
 31.5 
 
 32 
 
 28.5 
 
 28 
 
 511.6 
 
 18 
 
 200 
 
 325 
 
 229.2 (2|) 
 
 60 
 
 832.2 
 
 320.7 
 
 4 
 
 35.5 
 
 33.5 
 
 27 
 
 26.5 
 
 524.5 
 
 20 
 
 210 
 
 300 
 
 226.8 
 
 67.5 
 
 824.3 
 
 299.8 
 
 
 
 34 
 
 34 
 
 28.5 
 
 28.5 
 
 526.5 
 
 13 
 
 175 
 
 290 
 
 278 (i; 8 ,) 
 
 60 
 
 816 
 
 289.5 
 
 6 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 27 
 
 27 
 
 522.5 
 
 20 
 
 225 
 
 300 
 
 199.8 (lj>) 
 
 58 
 
 802.8 
 
 280.3 
 
 f 
 
 33 
 
 32.5 
 
 28.5 
 
 28 
 
 522.2 
 
 21 
 
 210 
 
 270 
 
 243.1(21) 
 
 56 
 
 800.1 
 
 277.9 
 
 8 
 
 31 
 
 30.5 
 
 26.5 
 
 26 
 
 505 
 
 22 
 
 200 
 
 260 
 
 258.2 (jl) 
 
 59 
 
 799.2 
 
 294.2 
 
 9 
 
 31 
 
 30.5 
 
 26.5 
 
 26 
 
 504.2 
 
 21 
 
 220 
 
 370 
 
 124.2 (JO) 
 
 62 
 
 797.2 
 
 293 
 
 10 
 
 33.2 
 
 33 
 
 28.2 
 
 27.8 
 
 526.9 
 
 20.1 
 
 216 
 
 319 
 
 237.8 (gj) 
 
 61.9 
 
 854.8 
 
 327.9 
 
 
 679
 
 52 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 TABLE No. 8. Strength and development of the First Ten, according to the tests 
 
 
 4' 
 
 Name and class. 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 Ja 
 
 .3 
 "3 
 
 W 
 
 *O 
 
 S 
 J 
 
 Katnral chest. * 
 
 Inflated chest. * 
 
 Waist. * 
 
 Bight thigh. * 
 
 Left thigh. * 
 
 1 
 
 1883. 
 C. P. Curtis, 1883 
 
 
 69.5 
 
 178 
 
 57.8 
 
 94 
 
 98 
 
 78 
 
 52 5 
 
 52 3 
 
 2 
 
 A R. Crane, 1885 
 
 22 
 
 64.5 
 
 169.3 
 
 57 
 
 95.5 
 
 101 
 
 76 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 7 
 
 G. B Morisoii, 1883 
 
 22 
 
 71 
 
 179.8 
 
 56.5 
 
 94 
 
 100 
 
 72 
 
 53 5 
 
 53 5 
 
 .1 
 
 EL L. Smyth, 1883 
 
 
 73 
 
 178.6 
 
 58 
 
 96 
 
 102 
 
 78 
 
 54.5 
 
 54 
 
 5 
 
 E. A. S.Clarke 1884 
 
 21 
 
 87.6 
 
 181 
 
 57 
 
 102 
 
 106 
 
 87 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 i; 
 
 F A P Fiske L. S 
 
 24 
 
 56.6 
 
 167.8 
 
 56 5 
 
 89 
 
 93 
 
 71 
 
 48 
 
 47 5 
 
 1 
 
 C.J.Hubbard 1883 
 
 26 
 
 79.1 
 
 184.5 
 
 58 
 
 93 
 
 102 
 
 82 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 g 
 
 W. H. Page, 1883 
 
 22 
 
 66.2 
 
 169.5 
 
 56.5 
 
 90.5 
 
 96 
 
 73 
 
 56 
 
 55 
 
 o 
 
 "W: S. Bryant, 1884 
 
 
 65.5 
 
 180 
 
 55.5 
 
 92 
 
 97 
 
 71 
 
 52 
 
 52 
 
 10 
 
 A. !L. McRfte, special 
 
 22 
 
 85.5 
 
 186 
 
 61 
 
 98 
 
 108 
 
 82 
 
 58 
 
 58 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 22.1 
 
 71.8 
 
 177.4 
 
 57 4 
 
 94.4 
 
 100.3 
 
 76.5 
 
 54 4 
 
 54 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 1884. 
 S L Foster 1885 
 
 21 
 
 71.8 
 
 168.5 
 
 58 
 
 95 
 
 104 
 
 77 
 
 56 
 
 56 5 
 
 2 
 
 R. W. Boyden, 1885 
 
 21 
 
 73.2 
 
 172 
 
 57 
 
 97 
 
 104 
 
 77 
 
 56 
 
 56 
 
 1 
 
 K. S. Gorham, 1885 
 
 21 
 
 67.6 
 
 172.3 
 
 56.5 
 
 94 
 
 103 
 
 75 
 
 54 
 
 53 
 
 \ 
 
 C. P. Curtis, L. S 
 
 
 69.5 
 
 178 
 
 57.8 
 
 94 
 
 98 
 
 73 
 
 52.5 
 
 52.3 
 
 *, 
 
 Arthur Keith, 1885 
 
 19 
 
 76.5 
 
 176 
 
 57 
 
 98 
 
 103 
 
 81 
 
 57 
 
 57.5 
 
 e 
 
 T. C. Bachelder, L. S 
 
 23 
 
 69.2 
 
 171 
 
 58.5 
 
 102 
 
 107 
 
 80 
 
 57 
 
 55.5 
 
 7 
 
 A. "R. Crane, 1884 
 
 
 64 5 
 
 169.3 
 
 57 
 
 95.5 
 
 101 
 
 76 
 
 52 
 
 53 
 
 | 
 
 "W. J. Bowen, 1887 
 
 23 
 
 71.7 
 
 172 
 
 56 
 
 95 
 
 100 
 
 76 
 
 57 
 
 57 
 
 
 
 E. A. S. Clarke, 1884 
 
 
 87.6 
 
 181 
 
 57 
 
 102 
 
 106 
 
 87 
 
 62 
 
 62 
 
 10 
 
 F. A. P. Fiske, L. S 
 
 
 56.6 
 
 167.8 
 
 56.5 
 
 89 
 
 93 
 
 71 
 
 48 
 
 47.5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Average ..................... 
 
 2L6 
 
 70.8 
 
 172.8 
 
 57.1 
 
 96.1 
 
 101.9 
 
 77.3 
 
 55.1 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 580
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 made at the Hemenway Gymnasium, Harvard University, $c. Continued. 
 
 53 
 
 
 
 ^Average of 
 
 
 Strength. 
 
 J 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt 
 
 
 B 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 *, 
 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 P 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 p 
 
 '*" 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 d +* 
 
 
 00 
 
 53 
 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 
 ii 
 
 g 
 
 I 
 
 > 
 
 I 
 
 * 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 ll 
 
 ! 
 
 "3 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 s 
 
 P 
 
 1 
 
 W 
 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 S 
 
 o 
 O 
 
 
 32.5 
 
 32 
 
 n 
 
 28.5 
 
 521.1 
 
 18 
 
 250 
 
 425 
 
 320.6 
 
 66 
 
 1085. 6 
 
 564.5 
 
 1 
 
 36.5 
 
 35.5 
 
 28 
 
 27.5 
 
 534.5 
 
 25 
 
 250 
 
 325 
 
 290.2 
 
 73.5 
 
 963.7 
 
 429.2 
 
 s 
 
 33 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 523.5 
 
 25 
 
 200 
 
 350 
 
 291.1 
 
 69 
 
 935.1 
 
 411.6 
 
 8 
 
 34.5 
 
 35.5 
 
 29 
 
 28 
 
 541.5 
 
 20.5 
 
 240 
 
 275 
 
 270.1 
 
 65.5 
 
 871.1 
 
 329.6 
 
 4 
 
 37 
 
 36.5 
 
 30.8 
 
 31 
 
 580.3 
 
 31.5 
 
 205 
 
 345 
 
 184 r 10> i 
 1B4 \ll) 
 
 98 
 
 863.5 
 
 283.2 
 
 5 
 
 29.5 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 26.8 
 
 490.5 
 
 19 
 
 255 
 
 330 
 
 175.5 (J5) 
 
 78.5 
 
 858 
 
 367.5 
 
 6 
 
 33.8 
 
 33.2 
 
 28 
 
 *28 
 
 542 
 
 28.5 
 
 225 
 
 300 
 
 213.6 
 
 89 
 
 856.1 
 
 314.1 
 
 7 
 
 33.5 
 
 33.6 
 
 28.8 
 
 28.7 
 
 522.9 
 
 19.5 
 
 200 
 
 275 
 
 291.3 
 
 67 
 
 852.8 
 
 329.9 
 
 8 
 
 31.5 
 
 32 
 
 28.5 
 
 28 
 
 511.5 
 
 18 
 
 200 
 
 325 
 
 229.2 
 
 60 
 
 832.2 
 
 320.7 
 
 9 
 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 29.5 
 
 29 
 
 564.5 
 
 24 
 
 230 
 
 350 
 
 145.2 ( I) 
 
 67 
 
 816.2 
 
 251.7 
 
 10 
 
 33.7 
 
 33.4 
 
 28.8 
 
 28.3 
 
 533.2 
 
 22.9 
 
 225.5 
 
 330 
 
 241.7 (J1J) 
 
 73.3 
 
 893.4 
 
 360.2 
 
 
 38 
 
 37 
 
 29.8 
 
 29.5 
 
 551.3 
 
 20.5 
 
 270 
 
 375 
 
 531.3 
 
 76 
 
 1272. 8 
 
 721.5 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 35 
 
 31.3 
 
 30.8 
 
 549.3 
 
 19 
 
 290 
 
 330 
 
 409.9 
 
 93 
 
 1141. 9 
 
 592.6 
 
 8 
 
 36 
 
 34 
 
 31.5 
 
 29.5 
 
 537 
 
 15 
 
 240 
 
 400 
 
 371.8 g) 
 
 72 
 
 1098. 8 
 
 561.8 
 
 3 
 
 32.5 
 
 32 
 
 29 
 
 28.5 
 
 521.1 
 
 18 
 
 250 
 
 425 
 
 326,6 
 
 66 
 
 1085. 6 
 
 564.5 
 
 4 
 
 34 
 
 33.5 
 
 29.5 
 
 28.8 
 
 550.5 
 
 32 
 
 300 
 
 360 
 
 252.4 
 
 84 
 
 1028. 4 
 
 477.9 
 
 5 
 
 36.5 
 
 36 
 
 31 
 
 30 
 
 563.5 
 
 28 
 
 245 
 
 300 
 
 332.2 
 
 89 
 
 994.2 
 
 430.7 
 
 
 
 36.5 
 
 35.5 
 
 28 
 
 27.5 
 
 534.5 
 
 25 
 
 250 
 
 325 
 
 290.2 
 
 73.5 
 
 963.7 
 
 429.2 
 
 T 
 
 33.5 
 
 33 
 
 29 
 
 29 
 
 536.5 
 
 25.5 
 
 190 
 
 340 
 
 243.8 
 
 73.5 
 
 872.8 
 
 336.3 
 
 8 
 
 37 
 
 36.5 
 
 30.8 
 
 31 
 
 580.3 
 
 31.5 
 
 205 
 
 345 
 
 * G!) 
 
 98 
 
 863.5 
 
 283.2 
 
 9 
 
 29.5 
 
 29 
 
 27 
 
 26.8 
 
 490.5 
 
 19 
 
 255 
 
 330 
 
 175.5 
 
 78.5 
 
 858 
 
 367.5 
 
 10 
 
 34.9 
 
 34.1 
 
 29.7 
 
 29.1 
 
 541.4 
 
 23.3 
 
 249.5 
 
 353 
 
 ql1 B /28.r\ 
 iJU - H \16.S) 
 
 80.3 
 
 1018 
 
 470.5 
 
 
 581
 
 54 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 TABLE No. 9. Bodily measurements of the students ofAmherst College for the years 1881-'82 
 to 1883-'84, inclusive, averaged by years of age. 
 
 [This table gives the average results of the study of 461 students during the past three 
 years in the more than fifty measures and tests that are applied. They are grouped 
 under the different years from 17 to 25, inclusive, and the results are given in kilo- 
 grams, meters, and millimeters, except the " capacity of lungs," which is in liters, 
 and the "chest strength," the unit of which is the bodily weight as raised iu a 
 "dip "and a "pull up." J 
 
 
 Years of age. 
 
 17. 
 
 18. 
 
 19. 
 
 20. 
 
 21. 
 
 22. 
 
 23. 24. 
 
 25. 
 
 (>>. -2 
 1.72 
 473 
 915 
 857 
 1. 02 
 1.40 
 
 573 
 357 
 925 
 880 
 741 
 900 
 509 
 357 
 345 
 238 
 277 
 250 
 247 
 260 
 164 
 
 155 
 110 
 423 
 260 
 326 
 190 
 370 
 454 
 258 
 1.77 
 1.71 
 10.7 
 138 
 5.0 
 9.4 
 164 
 37.1 
 4.00 
 2.7 
 
 "Weight . . 
 
 59.3 
 1.71 
 472 
 897 
 869 
 1.02 
 1.40 
 
 59.7 
 
 1.70 
 4G6 
 889 
 857 
 1.00 
 1.38 
 
 61.1 
 1.71 
 469 
 900 
 858 
 1.02 
 1. ?9 
 
 61.3 
 1.71 
 464 
 891 
 844 
 1.01 
 1.S9 
 
 569 
 350 
 922 
 883 
 723 
 897 
 513 
 356 
 346 
 240 
 284 
 253 
 248 
 261 
 163 
 
 153 
 108 
 428 
 258 
 324 
 197 
 369 
 456 
 257 
 1.77 
 1.72 
 13.0 
 146 
 6.2 
 8.9 
 180 
 38.4 
 4.01 
 2.3 
 
 63.2 
 1.72 
 
 477 
 904 
 863 
 1.02 
 1.40 
 
 575 
 354 
 935 
 896 
 736 
 903 
 523 
 357 
 351 
 243 
 298 
 257 
 251 
 265 
 166 
 
 155 
 109 
 435 
 256 
 329 
 202 
 375 
 461 
 262 
 1.80 
 1.73 
 12.0 
 153 
 7.0 
 9.0 
 193 
 40.0 
 4.10 
 2.4 
 
 62.7 
 1.71 
 
 474 
 902 
 860 
 1.02 
 1.39 
 
 572 
 351 
 933 
 895 
 735 
 896 
 513 
 355 
 346 
 241 
 294 
 254 
 248 
 261 
 106 
 
 154 
 107 
 441 
 259 
 323 
 202 
 371 
 462 
 261 
 1.79 
 1.73 
 12.0 
 151 
 7.0 
 9.1 
 18 
 39.9 
 4.40 
 2.6 
 
 63.1 
 
 1.72 
 480 
 902 
 863 
 1.02 
 1.41 
 
 575 
 358 
 934 
 899 
 747 
 901 
 525 
 358 
 345 
 242 
 301 
 261 
 253 
 266 
 167 
 
 156 
 109 
 437 
 259 
 330 
 201 
 376 
 466 
 262 
 1.80 
 1.73 
 12.6 
 159 
 8.2 
 8.8 
 197 
 40.9 
 4.29 
 2.7 
 
 64.7 
 
 1.72 
 467 
 916 
 847 
 1.01 
 1.4 
 
 572 
 356 
 942 
 908 
 753 
 911 
 527 
 358 
 360 
 247 
 297 
 258 
 254 
 264 
 167 
 
 155 
 108 
 438 
 266 
 332 
 201 
 378 
 461 
 261 
 1.78 
 1.73 
 12.0 
 154 
 7.3 
 8.8 
 183 
 40.7 
 4.14 
 2.3 
 
 Height. 
 
 Knee . . .. - - - - - 
 
 Sitting 
 
 Pnbes 
 
 Navel 
 
 
 Girth: 
 Head 
 
 568 
 
 337 
 887 
 853 
 703 
 872 
 501 
 356 
 337 
 236 
 275 
 242 
 244 
 251 
 163 
 
 152 
 106 
 414 
 247 
 319 
 188 
 372 
 465 
 260 
 1.77 
 1.73 
 10.0 
 132 
 3.6 
 7.6 
 166 
 33.9 
 3.86 
 2.1 
 
 568 
 341 
 903 
 865 
 717 
 875 
 501 
 354 
 340 
 237 
 279 
 247 
 243 
 253 
 162 
 
 152 
 
 106 
 428 
 247 
 321 
 192 
 367 
 460 
 257 
 1.77 
 1.72 
 13.0 
 132 
 5.2 
 7.9 
 161 
 34. 
 3.01 
 2.2 
 
 568 
 348 
 923 
 877 
 714 
 893 
 512 
 355 
 344 
 238 
 291 
 252 
 246 
 257 
 162 
 
 153 
 107 
 425 
 258 
 325 
 195 
 367 
 460 
 258 
 1.77 
 1.72 
 13.5 
 139 
 5.8 
 8.8 
 172 
 36.1 
 4.03 
 2.2 
 
 Neck 
 
 Chest full 
 
 
 Belly... 
 
 Hips 
 
 Thighs 
 
 ine< j 8 
 
 
 Insteps 
 
 Bight upper arm contracted . . . 
 Upper arms 
 
 Elbows 
 
 Fore-anus 
 
 Wrists 
 
 Breadth: 
 Head 
 
 Neck 
 
 Shoulders 
 
 Waist 
 
 Hips... 
 
 Nipples 
 
 Shoulder elbows 
 
 Elbow tips 
 
 Length of feet 
 
 Stretch of arms 
 
 Horizontal length . . .... 
 
 Strength of lungs .... 
 
 
 
 
 of legs , 
 
 
 Capacity of lungs 
 
 PiloBity 
 
 Nnrn^f"' m^wnrpd , 
 
 47 
 
 100 
 
 90 
 
 97 
 
 50 
 
 30 
 
 26 
 
 11 j 10 
 
 Total .. . 
 
 461 
 
 
 583
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 55 
 
 TABLE No. 10. Statistics of bodily growth and development secured from the class of 
 1884, in Amherst College, during junior and senior years. 
 
 
 Averages taken 
 in 1882. 
 
 Averages taken 
 in 1884. 
 
 Difference. 
 
 Largest individ- 
 ual measure. 
 
 Smallest individ- 
 ual measure. 
 
 Largest individ- 
 ual increase in 
 two years. 
 
 Weight 
 
 60 5 
 
 62 4 
 
 4i Ibs 
 
 82.5 
 
 50 5 
 
 15 Ibs 
 
 Height 
 
 1 71 
 
 1 72 
 
 4 in 
 
 1 86 
 
 1 53 
 
 1J in 
 
 
 918 
 
 921 
 
 4 " 
 
 1 00 
 
 820 
 
 1 " 
 
 Sternum 
 
 1.39 
 
 1.40 
 
 t " 
 
 1.54 
 
 1.24 
 
 1 " 
 
 Girth: 
 Head 
 
 568 
 
 578 
 
 4 " 
 
 615 
 
 541 
 
 1 " 
 
 Neck 
 
 347 
 
 356 
 
 4 " 
 
 400 
 
 320 
 
 14 " 
 
 Chest, full 
 
 924 
 
 932 
 
 4 " 
 
 1.01 
 
 840 
 
 24 " 
 
 Chest, repose 
 
 877 
 
 879 
 
 i " 
 
 1.02 
 
 795 
 
 24 " 
 
 Belly 
 
 710 
 
 739 
 
 i " 
 
 865 
 
 670 
 
 3 " 
 
 Hips 
 
 891 
 
 907 
 
 1 " 
 
 1.04 
 
 816 
 
 4 " 
 
 Thighs 
 
 508 
 
 526 
 
 1 " 
 
 650 
 
 475 
 
 34 " 
 
 Knees 
 
 353 
 
 363 
 
 i " 
 
 415 
 
 322 
 
 1| " 
 
 Calves 
 
 342 
 
 351 
 
 3 " 
 
 406 
 
 312 
 
 14 " 
 
 Insteps 
 
 240 
 
 239 
 
 a 1 * " 
 
 270 
 
 212 
 
 a .. 
 
 Contracted arm 
 
 290 
 
 296 
 
 i " 
 
 370 
 
 257 
 
 If " 
 
 Arm at rest 
 
 253 
 
 256 
 
 i " 
 
 346 
 
 220 
 
 1 " 
 
 Kl bows 
 
 246 
 
 259 
 
 4 " 
 
 292 
 
 223 
 
 U " 
 
 Fore-arms 
 
 258 
 
 266 
 
 i " 
 
 305 
 
 235 
 
 1 " 
 
 Wrists 
 
 161 
 
 165 
 
 J " 
 
 185 
 
 152 
 
 4 " 
 
 Breadth: 
 Head 
 
 154 
 
 154 
 
 o " 
 
 170 
 
 143 
 
 i " 
 
 Neck 
 
 102 
 
 109 
 
 i " 
 
 122 
 
 98 
 
 4 " 
 
 Shoulders 
 
 426 
 
 437 
 
 4 " 
 
 488 
 
 411 
 
 8 " 
 
 Waist 
 
 252 
 
 257 
 
 i " 
 
 293 
 
 230 
 
 i " 
 
 Hips 
 
 321 
 
 327 
 
 4 " 
 
 379 
 
 294 
 
 i " 
 
 Shoulder elbows 
 
 367 
 
 375 
 
 J " 
 
 419 
 
 337 
 
 i " 
 
 Elbow tips 
 
 456 
 
 459 
 
 i " 
 
 521 
 
 410 
 
 ij " 
 
 Length of feet 
 
 256 
 
 260 
 
 4 " 
 
 289 
 
 236 
 
 i " 
 
 Stretch of arms 
 
 1.77 
 
 1.79 
 
 i " 
 
 1.99 
 
 1.59 
 
 2$ " 
 
 Horizontal length 
 
 1.72 
 
 1.74 
 
 1 " 
 
 1.87 
 
 1.56 
 
 1J " 
 
 Strength 
 
 474 
 
 501 
 
 27 
 
 869 
 
 316 
 
 176 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 This is not presented as showing remarkably large results. These figures are not 
 compared with the picked men, such as soldiers, sailors, sporting men, or the volun- 
 teer or paid gymnasts who are paraded to announce a system, a method, or a theoretical 
 basis, but are the exact measurements of a whole class in Arnherst College, taken 
 with an interval of two years, with the sole object to show the growth and develop- 
 ment in an "average lot" of young men between twenty years and six months and 
 two years older, engaged in college study, discipline, and training. 
 
 In this table the first column of figures indicates the average measures of the class 
 as taken in February, 1882, and the second column the same in February, 1884, both 
 from 79 men. The data are all expressed in millimeters, except "weight," which is 
 in kilograms, and "strength," which is an arbitrary datum constructed by multiply- 
 ing the weight of the body into the indications of strength known as " chest tests," 
 and added to the tests of the " back, legs, fore-arms, and lungs." 
 
 The third column gives the difference or increase between the two series, expressed 
 iii fractions of an inch. 
 
 583
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 The fourth column gives the largest individual measurements found in Februai 
 1884, and the fifth column the smallest of the same date. 
 
 The sixth column gives the largest individual increase gained in the two years. 
 
 The item of "height" is of interest, in that we see a slow and apparently small 
 growth in two years. We, however, can very easily compare the results of the col- 
 lege students with those obtained by Dr. J. H. Baxter, Medical Purveyor, U. S. A., 
 during the late civil war. His measurements were from 190,621 drafted and enlisted 
 men, and those at Amherst from 1,806 students at college between 1861 and 1878. 
 
 
 Years of age. 
 
 17. 
 
 18. 
 
 19. 
 
 20. 
 
 21. 
 
 22. 
 
 23. 
 
 24. 
 
 25. 
 
 Dr. Baxter 
 
 Inches. 
 65.65 
 66.71 
 
 Inches. 
 66.39 
 67.38 
 
 Inches. 
 67.07 
 67.72 
 
 Inthes. 
 67.51 
 67.88 
 
 Inches. 
 67.58 
 67.86 
 
 Inches. 
 67.92 
 68.11 
 
 Inches. 
 68.01 
 68.17 
 
 Inches. 
 68.02 
 68.35 
 
 Inches. 
 68.05 
 68.34 
 
 Amhorst College .... 
 
 
 In both these tables we see a rapid increase from 17 to 20, and a slower and more 
 uniform rate afterward. 
 
 The chest measure is large for the Senior age, it being 36.75 inches for the class of 
 1884, while the Senior average for 20 years has been but 35.97 inches. 
 
 The abdominal girth expresses a healthy growth either in the fat or well developed 
 nutritive organs. 
 
 The increase of joints and muscles in both extremities is significant and symmetri- 
 cal, and while the average arm girth increase (biceps) is .25 inch, and the largest indi- 
 vidual increase is 1.75 inches, the development is shown in the test of strength, which 
 has increased from 474 to 501, showing the greater hardening and compactness of the 
 muscular fiber, a much more valuable acquisition than the greater girth. 
 
 Probably the brain acquires its full size early in life. This is corroborated by these 
 results. The increase of head girth is three-eighths of an inch, and that of the breadth 
 nothing. 
 
 These results go to show that the "stretch of arms" is more than the "perpendic- 
 ular height," as is latterly admitted to be the true proportion of the body. The 
 difference is more than two inches. That the finger-reach has increased three-quarters 
 of an inch and the height one-half an inch, may show that the one maximum is 
 gained before the other. 
 
 This study of these seventy -nine men is one of their unconscious additions to an- 
 thropology, and is their contribution to a knowledge of what constitutes the most 
 complete manhood. 
 
 INSTITUTIONS THAT HAVE ADOPTED MORE OK LESS COMPLETELY 
 THE SARGENT SYSTEM. 
 
 The gymnasia at the following named institutions have been wholly 
 or partially furnished with Dr. Sargent's apparatus since 1879. Those 
 in which his system of measurements and directions are employed are 
 indicated by an asterisk (*). 
 
 [M. against the name of an institution indicates that it is for males; F., for females; M. and P.. for 
 males and females. A I indicates that the gymnasium is in charge of a regularly educated physician. ] 
 
 1. *tAmherst College, Arnherst, Mass. M. 
 
 2. * Boston University, Boston, Mass. M. and F. 
 
 3. *t Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. M. and F. 
 
 4. *t Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass. M. 
 6. *tHaverford College, Haverford, Pa. M. 
 
 584
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 57 
 
 6. *t Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. M. 
 
 7. * Lehigh University, South Bethlehem, Pa. M. 
 
 8. Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Mass. M. 
 
 9. * Nashville University, State Normal College, Nashville, Term. M. and P. 
 
 10. 'National Deaf -Mute College, Washington, D. C. M. 
 
 11. * Smith College, Northampton, Mass. F. 
 
 12. *t Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa. M. and F. 
 
 13. Tufts College, College Hill, Mass. M. 
 
 14. Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass. F. . . _ . 
 
 15. English High and Public Latin School, Boston, Mass. M. 
 
 16. Marlboro Street School, Boston, Mass. ' F. 
 
 17. Mount Vernon Street School, Boston, Mass. F. 
 
 18. Berkeley School, New York City. 
 
 19. Fifth Avenue School, New York City. 
 
 20. Dr. Brearley's School, New York City. F. 
 
 21. *t William Penn Charter School, Philadelphia. M. 
 
 22. Gunnery School, Washington, Conn. M. 
 
 23. St. Mark's School, Southborough, Mass. M. 
 
 24. High School, Providence, R. I. M. and P. 
 
 25. Siglar's Preparatory School, Newburg, N. Y. M. 
 
 26. Cook Academy, Havana, N. Y. M. 
 
 27. Willard's Academy, Saxton's River, Vt. 
 
 28. McLean Insane Asylum, Somerville, Mass. M. and P. 
 
 29. Cadets' Armory, Boston, Mass. M. 
 
 30. *t Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. M. 
 
 31. Theological Seminary, Princeton, N. J. M. 
 
 32. Newton Theological Institution, Newton, Mass. M. 
 
 33. *t Young Men's Christian Union, Boston, Mass. M. 
 
 34. Young Men's Christian Association, Baltimore, Md . M. 
 
 35. Young Men's Christian Association, Providence, R. I. M. 
 
 36. Young Men's Christian Association, Chicago, 111. M. 
 
 37. Young Men's Christian Association, Washington, D. C. M. 
 
 38. Young Men's Christian Association, Lawrence, Mass. M. 
 
 39. Young Men's Christian Association, Bangor, Me. M. 
 
 40. *t Sanatory Gymnasium, Philadelphia, Pa. M. and F. 
 
 41. Sanatory Gymnasium, Providence, R. I. 
 
 42. *f Sa.na.tnry Gymnasium, Cambridge, Mass. F. 
 
 43. New York Athletic Club, New York City. K. 
 
 44. Olympic Athletic Club, San Francisco, Cal. M. 
 
 45. Montreal Athletic Club, Montreal, Canada. M. 
 
 46. Saint Louis Athletic Club, Saint Louis, Mo. M. 
 
 47. Rochester Athletic Club, Rochester, N. Y. M. 
 
 48. Norfolk Athletic Club, Norfolk, Va. M. 
 
 It is proposed to introduce the Sargent system of directed exercise 
 ^iiito Vassar College, for women, at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., and the Uni- 
 versity of Vermont at Burlington, Vt. It has just been adopted for 
 the new gymnasium of Lafayette College at Easton, Pa. The largest 
 and best of the gymnasia belonging to a woman's college is that_at 
 Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, Pa. It will be opened probably in 
 September, 1885, under the ebiffge pf a directress trained for the posi- 
 tion by Dr. Sargent. 
 
 585
 
 58 CIRCULARS OP INFORMATION FOE 1885. 
 
 CONCERNING TEACHERS OF THE SARGENT SYSTEM. 
 
 So great is the demand for competent teachers of physical training 
 that Dr. Sargent opened a school for teachers in the autumn of 1884, 
 with an attendance of sixteen pupils. 
 
 The following circular sets forth the nature, aims, and methods of 
 the Physical Training School for Teachers, corner of Church and Palmer 
 streets, Cambridge, Mass.: 
 
 Within the past few years the demand for competent teachers in physical training 
 has been so great that salaries ranging from one to three thousand dollars a year 
 have been offered to those that are capable of filling the desired positions. 
 
 Most of the applicants for these places have been poorly qualified, both mentally 
 and physically, for the work that was expected of them, and they have failed to meet 
 the requirements of the position for want of a proper preparatory training. 
 
 The numerous requests that I have received for teachers trained in accordance 
 with the Harvard system have induced me to open a school for this purpose. 
 
 The object of this school will be to drill pupils in the theory and practice of physi- 
 cal training, and to prepare them to teach in this much neglected branch of education. 
 
 Course. The course will extend over two years. Medical graduates and those that 
 are prepared to pass a satisfactory examination in the preliminary work will be re- 
 quired to attend only one year. 
 
 Applicants. All applicants must have good health, a sound physique, and have 
 had the advantages of at least a common school education. 
 
 Course for first year. Believing that all teaching should be preceded by inquiries 
 into the " nature, capabilities, and requirements of the being to be taught," the fun- 
 damental principles of anatomy and physiology will form the basis of the first year's 
 work. 
 
 The studies in these branches will be supplemented by such studies in biology, 
 zoology, chemistry, and physics, as are necessary to understand the laws of health, 
 growth, and development. 
 
 Practice for the first year. The practice for the first year will consist of special ex. 
 ercises for the development of the teacher : Massage, free movements, calisthenics, 
 light gymnastics the last including wooden and iron dumb-bells, wands, and Indian 
 clubs ; chest weights, class exercises, voice training, and introductory exercises on 
 the heavy apparatus ; practical carpentry, the art of splicing, serving, and knotting 
 ropes, and the mechanical working of the gymnasium ; what to do in case of emer- 
 gencies. 
 
 Course for second year. The studies for the second year will consist of inquiries 
 into the relation of body and mind : The conservation of energy, animal mechanics, 
 mental hygiene from the physical basis, anthropometry and the laws of form and 
 proportion, vital statistics, semeiology, physical diagnosis ; the hygiene of occupa- 
 tions and of schools ; natural heritage ; variations in exercise, food, sleep, bathing, 
 clothing, and climate, considered as to their mental and physical effects upon different 
 constitutions ; the analysis of sports, games, and educational exercises ; the relation 
 of the organism to the structure, the structure to the individual, and the individual 
 to the public ; the science and art of teaching. 
 
 Practice for second year. The practice for the second year will consist of class exer- 
 cises with bar bells, chest weights, and Indian clubs, marches, the organization of 
 classes and the division into squads, school work, athletic sports, heavy gymnastics, 
 practice with the dynamometers; the application of developing appliances for the re- 
 lief of natural weaknesses; the adaptation of exercise and training to individual needs ; 
 practice in teaching. > 
 
 586
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 59 
 
 Reading course. Special arrangements will be made with those who desire to take 
 the reading course at home, though attendance at the gymnasium is advised. 
 
 Summer course. For the benefit of all that are eugaged in teaching throughout 
 the year, a course of reading and practice will be prescribed, and a summer course of 
 lectures, examinations, and exercises will be given. 
 
 Equivalents. A good physique, fine muscular development, proficiency in physical 
 exercises, and experience in teaching, will be accepted as equivalents for a certain 
 amount of time. 
 
 Certificates. In every case the applicant must pass a satisfactory examination in 
 all of the work prescribed, and have taken a medical degree from a medical school in 
 good standing, in order to receive a full certificate. 
 
 In other cases certificates will be given indicating the time spent at the school, the 
 work done, and the nature of the service that each teacher is capable of performing. 
 
 Sessions. The course will be open to men and women, but the physical exercises 
 will be conducted in different gymnasia. The gymnasium for women will be in Cam- 
 bridge, the gymnasium for men in Boston. 
 
 The winter session will begin November 1, and continue until June 1. The summer 
 session will begin the first Monday after July 4, and continue five weeks. 
 
 Terms. For season ending June 1, 1885 : One-half course in theory and practice, 
 $100 ; one- half course in reading, prescribed, $50 ; one-half course in summer practice, 
 ending second week in August, $50. 
 
 In no case will a summer course be given unless preceded by a reading course ex- 
 tending over six months. All payments made in advance. For further particulars 
 address 
 
 D. A. SARGENT, M.D., 
 
 Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 THE NUMBER AND COST OF COLLEGE GYMNASIUM 
 BUILDINGS IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 In passing to consider the number and cost of the college gymnasia 
 erected and fitted since those of Amherst, Harvard, and Yale were built 
 in 1860, we may note that to Princeton College, probably, belongs the 
 honor of having the first college building devoted exclusively to gym- 
 nastic purposes. This embryo structure, if we may be allowed the term, 
 as befits an embryo, was a very small affair, and owed its existence to 
 the zealous endeavors of a few students of the college in 1856. It was 
 a small "single-boarded structure of wood," and was painted red, 
 " that," as its historian tells us, "it might resist the storms of heaven as 
 its founders had resisted the objections of an unpropitious Faculty." It 
 remained "a stoveless shanty" till 1860, when a stove and a new set of 
 apparatus were put into it. In 1"865, during the summer vacation, the 
 people of the town reduced it to ashes, on account of a report that a 
 tramp sick with yellow fever had slept in it over night. 
 
 The era of gymnasium building which opened in 1860 may be con- 
 veniently divided into three periods, viz. : first period, 1859-'60 to 1870, 
 inclusive; second period, 1871 to 1880, inclusive; third period, 1881 to 
 the present writing, February, 1885. 
 
 687
 
 GO 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 FIRST PKRIOD. 
 
 Institution with which gymnasium is connected. 
 
 When built. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 (a) Institutions for superior instruction. 
 Amherst College, Massachusetts 
 
 1859-'60 
 
 $15, 000 
 
 Dartmouth College, New Hampshire . 
 
 1866 
 
 24 000 
 
 Harvard University, Massachusetts 
 
 1860 
 
 10, 000 
 
 College of New Jersey (Princeton College), N. J 
 
 1869 
 
 38, 000 
 
 Washington University, Missouri 
 
 T 
 
 7,000 
 
 Wesleyau University, Connecticut 
 
 1863 
 
 5,000 
 
 Universitv of Wisconsin, Wisconsin. 
 
 1868 
 
 5,000 
 
 Yale College, Connecticut 
 
 1860 
 
 13,000 
 
 Pennsylvania College, Pennsylvania 
 
 1870 
 
 3,000 
 
 
 
 , ion nnn 
 
 (6) Institutions for secondary instruction. 
 
 Claverack College and Hudson River Institute, New 
 York 
 
 1861 
 
 6,000 
 
 West Newton English and Classical School, Massa- 
 chusetts 
 
 1860 
 
 500 
 
 Williston Seminary, Massachusetts ...... .. 
 
 ? 
 
 1 20, 000 
 
 
 
 fi ^flf) 
 
 
 
 
 
 Total for the first period ..... 
 
 
 146, 500 
 
 
 
 
 Williams College, Massachusetts, and Bowdoin College, Maine, for 
 f young men, and Vassar College, for women, in New York, each fitted 
 f up a gymnasiumTduring this period, in a building since devoted to other 
 I purposes. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 \ 
 
 Institution with which gymnasium is connected. 
 
 When built. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 Institutions for superior instruction. 
 Beloit College \Visconsin .. ............... ...... 
 
 1874 
 
 $5,000 
 
 University of California, California 
 
 1878 
 
 12,000 
 
 Harvard University Massachusetts ....... .... 
 
 1879 
 
 110,000 
 
 Smith College Massachusetts ............ . .. 
 
 1880 
 
 4 000 
 
 Vanderbilt University, Tennessee 
 
 1879 
 
 22, 000 
 
 Newton Theological Institution, Massachusetts 
 Hartford Theological Seminary, Connecticut 
 
 1876 
 T 
 
 4,000 
 ^.OOO 
 
 
 
 
 Total for the second period . .... .. 
 
 
 165,000 
 
 
 
 
 ] Estimated. 
 
 588
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 61 
 
 Institutions with which gymnasium is connected. 
 
 When built. 
 
 Cost. 
 
 (a) Institutions for superior instruction. 
 Amherst College, Massachusetts ........ . ... 
 
 1883-'84 
 
 $65,000 
 
 Bryn Mawr College, Pennsylvania 
 
 1884 
 
 18,00<r> 
 
 Cornell University, New York 
 
 1882->83 
 
 40,000 
 
 Dickinson College Pennsylvania .. ...... 
 
 Ib84 
 
 . 8,000 
 
 Johns Hopkins University, Maryland ..... .... 
 
 1883 
 
 10,000 
 
 Lafayette College, Pennsylvania ........ ........... 
 
 1884 
 
 15, 000 
 
 Lehi^h University Pennsylvania. ....... 
 
 1882 
 
 40,000 
 
 Massachusetts Agricultural College, Massachusetts 1 .. 
 University of Minnesota, Minnesota 1 . . 
 
 1883 
 
 1884 
 
 6,000 
 34,000 
 
 Nashville University, State Normal College, Tennes- 
 see. 
 National Deaf-Mute College, District of Columbia 8 ... 
 Tufts College, Massachusetts .- ............. 
 
 1884 
 
 1881 
 1882-'83 
 
 5,500 
 
 14,600 
 10,000 
 
 University of Wooster, Ohio . .......... . ..... 
 
 1882-'83 
 
 4,200 
 
 (6) Institutions for secondary instruction. 
 Shattuck School Minnesota .............. ... 
 
 1880 
 
 20 000 
 
 
 
 
 Total for third period...... ................... 
 
 
 290 300 
 
 Total for second period . .... ........ 
 
 
 165 000 
 
 
 
 146, 500 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 601, 800 
 
 
 
 
 CONCERNING SCHOOL AND COLLEGE GYMNASIA NOT OCCUPYING AN 
 
 ENTIBE BUILDING. 
 
 It is impossible, owing to meager returns to our inquiries, to state ac- 
 curately the amount of money exp'ended for buildings and apparatus 
 by institutions not noted in the above lists ; but we may safely "guess" 
 that $150,000 have been expended since 1860 on the class of gym- 
 nasia under consideration, in addition to the $600,000 accounted for 
 above. 
 
 Funds are either in hand or are being raised for gymnasia at Phil- 
 lips Exeter Academy, New Hampshire ; University of Michigan, Mich- 
 igan; University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania; and Williams College, 
 Massachusetts. New gymnasia are projected at the United States Mili- 
 tary and Naval Academies. 
 
 1 Used at present for military drill. 
 
 * This is unique among our college gymnasia, as it contains, on the ground floor, a 
 swimming pool, which is 40 by 26 feet, 6 feet deep at one end, sloping upward to a 
 depth of 3 feet at the other. 
 
 589
 
 62 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
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 590
 
 PHYSICAL TEAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 63 
 
 591
 
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 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
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 592
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
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 503
 
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 rHWCO^USOe-WOO^M CO 
 
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 594
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 67 
 
 r- Number of stu- 
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 595
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PRINCIPAL GYMNASIA. 
 
 THE PRATT GYMNASIUM AT AMHERST COLLEGE. 
 
 The new gymnasium at Amherst College, which was completed during 
 the summer of 1884, is styled the Pratt Gymnasium, in honor of C. M. 
 Pratt, of Brooklyn, N. Y., a graduate of the college in 1879, who con- 
 tributed nearly $40,000 for its erection. The building, which faces 
 westerly, is situated within the college precincts, on, or rather in, a side- 
 hill sloping toward the south. The structure, which is 120 feet by 80 
 in the clear, is of brick, has a slated roof, and comprises two stories and 
 a basement. E. L. Roberts, 46 Broadway, New York City, was its archi- 
 tect. Through the kindness of Dr. E. Hitchcock, its director, we are 
 
 Store 
 
 JTneZ. 
 
 IiCtV. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 Sovfting^AHeif' 
 
 
 1 
 
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 3\ 
 
 
 1 Sparring 
 
 IJtooin. 
 r L U 
 
 1 I i^H 
 
 Matting -Uaom, 
 
 IBaih J looms- 
 
 Pratt Gymnasium Basement Plan. 
 
 enabled to give the floor plans of the Pratt Gymnasium and a view of 
 the building, and to furnish an itemized statement of its cost. The 
 rooms on the first floor, besides the front and side entrance halls, are 
 C in number: main hall and annex, 80 feet by 64; dressing room, 38 
 feet by 40, with 270 heated and ventilated lockers ; a tepidarium, or dry- 
 rub room, 15 feet by 12; a shower room, 14 feet by 12, opening from 
 the tepidarinm, and containing 6 shower baths ; the professor's room, 
 20 feet by 18, fitted as a study and office; and a statistics room, 18 feet 
 by 12, for the physical examination of students. 
 
 On the second floor are : the billiard room, 48 feet by 24, containing 
 3 billiard tables ; a small professor's room, 14 feet by 9; the resort, or 
 club-room, 25 feet by 14, for the headquarters of the Student (the col- 
 
 596
 
 t> 
 
 H
 
 PHYSICAL TEAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 69 
 
 legs journal:) and reading room ; 2 rooms, respectively 16 feet by 10, 
 and 32 feet \)y 16, for the custodians of the building to live in ; a fur- 
 niture room, 20 feet by 10 ; a spacious visitors' gallery ; and a running 
 
 Pratt Gymnasium Firs' Story Plan. 
 
 track, 207 feet long, extending around the main hall at an elevation of 
 11 feet from its floor. 
 
 Pratt Gymnasium Second Story Plan. 
 
 In the basement, which is high-studded and lighted by windows on 
 all sides, there are 7 rooms, viz. : the bowling room, 76 feet by 21, with 
 
 597
 
 70 CIECULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 3 alleys 70 feet in length ; a sparring room, 23 feet by 13 ; a " cage," or 
 room for base-ball and tennis practice, 76 feet by 21 ; a bath-room, 58 
 feet by 12, containing 6 tub and 6 sponge baths ; a room, 16 feet by 
 13, containing 2 water-closets and 3 urinals ; a store-room, 38 feet by 9 ; 
 a fuel cellar, 28 feet by 24 ; and a boiler room, 24 feet by 24. 
 
 In the Barrett Gymnasium all provision for lighting after dark was 
 deliberately omitted; but the Pratt Gymnasium has been abundantly 
 supplied with gas fixtures. The main hall of the new gymnasium, 
 which is ceiled with yellow pine, is 40 feet high in the central part, 
 and is lighted by means of a large skylight in the roof, besides numer- 
 ous side and end windows. The fixed apparatus and Sargent develop- 
 ing appliances, with which this gymnasium is liberally furnished, are 
 placed in the main hall under the visitors' gallery and that formed by 
 the running track. The open floor space of the main hall is amply 
 sufficient, when cleared of the portable gymnastic machines, for one 
 hundred men to engage in class exercise, which, as has been remarked 
 already, is a peculiar feature of the Amherst regime. The gymnasium 
 is open in term time from 8.15 A.M. to 10 P.M. 
 
 Those who wish to inform themselves fully as to the details of the 
 Amherst system will do well to consult " A Manual of the Gymnastic 
 Exercises as practiced by the Junior Class in Amherst College. Pre- 
 pared under the Direction of Dr. Edward Hitchcock, Professor of Phys- 
 ical Education and Hygiene. Boston : Ginu, Heath & Co. 1884." 
 
 The following itemized statement concerning the cost of building and 
 furnishing the Pratt Gymnasium is of interest : 
 
 The building as per contract $49,825 00 
 
 Excavation 1,500 00 
 
 Retaining wall, and railings 1,300 00 
 
 Heating apparatus , 3,700 00 
 
 Plumbing 2,790 00 
 
 Gymnastic apparatus..... 1,824 61 
 
 Bowling alleys 1,200 00 
 
 Billiard tables and fixtures 630 00 
 
 Piano 460 00 
 
 Gas fixtures 560 68 
 
 Gas piping 424 00 
 
 Anthropometric apparatus 100 00 
 
 Other furniture 149 00 
 
 Tiling 850 00 
 
 Safe, for papers and books 100 00 
 
 Total 65,413 29 
 
 THE CORNELL UNIVERSITY GYMNASIUM. 
 
 The following account of the gymnasium at Cornell University and of 
 its method of working, was kindly furnished by Lieut. Walter S. Schuy- 
 ler, U. S. A., Professor of Military Science and Tactics at the university, 
 in the absence of the professor of physical culture. 
 
 598
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 71 
 
 Buildings. The main building, completed in 1882-'83, is of brick, 
 with heavily buttressed walls, the self-supporting roof tiled without 
 and ceiled within. To this structure was annexed the frame building 
 formerly used as a gymnasium, refitted and practically rebuilt. In this 
 addition are 6 shower baths, a toilet room, closets, an office for the di- 
 rector, a withdrawing room for use in physical examinations, a small 
 store room, and, on the second floor, a set of 250 lockers for use of 
 students. The whole was designed to serve the double purpose of gym- 
 nasium and armory. 
 
 The main building comprises the armory and gymnasium hall, with 
 the floor, 60 by 150 feet, laid solidly in cement; an office for the military 
 professor ; a military store room ; and over these rooms and the lobby, 
 a gallery for spectators. Qn occasion, the gallery accommodates an 
 orchestra, and the office is arranged for use as a ladies' dressing room. 
 
 As the main hall must be used alternately as a gymnasium and a 
 drill room, nearly all of the apparatus is made detachable and portable, 
 and on drill days is, so far as necessary, removed into the annex, or 
 hauled up to the iron suspension frame by the janitor. The removal 
 occupies but a few minutes, and after drill the muskets are locked in 
 arm racks and the apparatus replaced in short order, so that class work 
 with dumb-bells and clubs, as well as general exercise, begins in half 
 an hour after the recall from drill. 
 
 The present locker and bath accommodations having been found in- 
 adequate for the rapidly increasing student body, an additional build- 
 ing has been planned to supply this deficiency, and also to give room 
 for special exercises. This annex will be of two stories with a base- 
 ment. The latter will contain four bowling alleys. On the ground floor 
 will be six bath rooms of various kinds, a rubbing room, and a dressing 
 room ; also a hall, 30 by 52 feet, for an upper classmen's general exercis- 
 ing room, fitted with about 100 lockers, and a small store room. The 
 attic floor will comprise a base-ball cage, 19 by 75 feet, in which certain 
 rowing machines will be placed, and small store closets between the 
 several windows protecting the same. 
 
 Equipment. The gymnasium is equipped with apparatus of the most 
 approved make and adjustment. The heavier pieces are mainly from the 
 Boston establishment; some have been manufactured in the university 
 shops, and there are a few "Giffbrd" and other patent appliances. 
 The machines are arranged about the room with a view to orderly and 
 systematic work, and on each is posted a card of direction as to its use. 
 
 System. The affairs of the associated departments of military science 
 and physical culture are regulated by a council composed of the pres- 
 ident of tbe university, one other member of the board of trustees, 
 the professor of physiology, etc., the professor of military science, and 
 the professor of physical culture. 
 
 The system now in vogue was adopted last year on trial, and thus 
 far has been found to work well. As soon as possible after the opening 
 
 599
 
 72 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 of the fall term, all members of the new class are subjected to a sys- 
 tematic examination by the professor of physical culture, the measure- 
 ments and other statistics being recorded in a book prepared for the 
 purpose. Military drill is required of all members of the Freshman 
 
 Armory and Gymnasium.. 
 0'.0"xl50',0 n 
 
 Scale of Feet. 
 
 Plan of Cornell University Gymnasium. 
 
 and Sophomore classes; but such students as are found, upon the ex- 
 amination referred to, to imperatively need special gymnastic training, 
 are at once transferred from the military to the gymnastic department, 
 and are required to pursue a course of training laid down for them by 
 the examiner, this course comprising five exercises per week, on the 
 apparatus specially adapted to their individual needs,
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 73 
 
 For all other students work in the gymnasium is optional, and under 
 the advice and direction of the professor and his assistant. Many of 
 the men whose development is not sufficiently defective to warrant 
 their transfer from the military department, are advised by the examiner 
 as to their deficiencies. To each is given a card showing a comparison 
 between his own statistics and the average to be expected in a subject 
 of corresponding stature and weight. 
 
 The professor of physical culture is also the medical examiner for 
 all those wishing to get excused from military exercises on the ground 
 of physical disability. The applicants for such exemptions for limited 
 periods are not more numerous than t is to be expected in a battalion 
 aggregating two hundred men. 
 
 Students absenting themselves from ' their assigned gymnastic or 
 military exercises for any cause other than illness, must conform to 
 the regulations governing absence from other university- duties. 
 
 This system, outlined above, will probably be, in time, so modified as 
 to require work in the gymnasium during the winter term of the entire 
 Freshman class. During that term there is no drill. 
 
 The professor of physical culture is aided by a skilled assistant who 
 conducts the class exercises and supervises all practice with the ap- 
 paratus. He also gives instruction in boxing and acts as coach for the 
 outdoor athletics. 
 
 /The exercises of the women students are conducted in the gymnasium 
 / of Sage College, by the professor in person, with the assistance of the 
 matron. 
 
 During the past year there were about twenty students transferred 
 from the military department for compulsory exercise, and the result 
 of their practice, as shown by comparison of the measurements made 
 at the beginning and end of the year, is most gratifying, the total in- 
 crease of the class (thirteen measured) in the one item of "lung capac- 
 ity" being over forty cubic inches. 
 
 In addition to this class upon which the exercise was compulsory, the 
 students to a large number have availed themselves of the privileges 
 of the gymnasium with greater or less regularity, and in every case to 
 good effect. Perhaps the best evidence of this is to be found in the 
 records of Cornell in the State intercollegiate contests during the 
 spring of 1885. 
 
 It is found by examination of the statistics that the topography of 
 the country supplies, in a sense, the place of a gymnasium for the stu 
 dents at large, the average increase of leg and lung dimensions during 
 their first year being unprecedented in college statistics. 
 
 The military drill gives a special training in discipline and personal 
 carriage which proves beneficial, and the effect of which is observed by 
 all who visit our campus. 
 
 Plan of the gymnasium. It may be readily seen that we have a main 
 gymnasium hall equal in space and equipment to any in the country, 
 
 601
 
 74 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 except, perhaps, that of Harvard; and after the completion of the ad- 
 ditional buildings as planned, our facilities will be second to none. 
 
 It appears from the printed forms accompanying Lieutenant Schuy- 
 ler's account, that the system of measurements and of obtaining the 
 "history" of an individual is the same as fhat used at Harvard and at 
 Amherst, and that cards are furnished each student exercising in the 
 gymnasium, containing specific printed directions in regard to the appa- 
 ratus he must use and the time he must use it. 
 
 THE LEHIGH UNIVERSITY GYMNASIUM. 
 
 The Lehigh University Gymnasium, at South Bethlehem, Pa., is 
 situated on the university campus and faces west, The building was 
 planned by Addison Hutton, architect, 400 Chestnut street, Philadel- 
 phia. Dr. Sargent of Cambridge rendered valuable service in perfect- 
 ing the jl.i!is, which embody features suggested by his experience as 
 director of the Hemenway Gymnasium. The building, of Potsdam 
 
 Lehigh University Gj nuituium First Floor I'lan. 
 
 sandstone, is au elegantly finished structure, and occupies a command- 
 ing site, being on the highest part of the university grounds. It was 
 erected in 1882 out of the university funds, at a total cost, including fit- 
 tings and furniture, of $40,000, and comprises two stories of stone and 
 a third of wood. The basement contains the engine, gauged to a press- 
 ure of 30 pounds, with a boiler having a capacity of 100 gallons. The 
 average pressure required is 8 pounds, and on the coldest days not over 
 15 pounds. f Thus, with the numerous radiators throughout the build- 
 ing, it is possible to maintain easily a comfortable temperature in the 
 602
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 75 
 
 coldest weather. As represented iii the front view of the exterior, there 
 are two entrances on the ground floor, viz., the main entrance, on the 
 left, and the entrance to the bowling alleys, on the right. The two 
 bowling alleys are contained in a room 74 feet by 13. Besides the 
 bowling alleys and the vestibule, which is 30 feet by 20, there are on 
 the first floor a billiard room, 30 feet by 30, containing a pool table and 
 a billiard table ; an assembly room, 44 feet by 30, for students' meetings, 
 which, although furnished with settees, can also be used for fencing 
 and sparring; and a bathing and dressing room, 38 feet by 13, contain- 
 ing 4 long tubs, 2 water closets, and 126 ventilated closets, or lockers, for 
 clothing. A small side room, containing 2 wash bowls and 3 urinals, 
 opens from the vestibule on the left. 
 
 On the second floor, which is reached by a broad main stairway in 
 front and a retired stairway in the tower at the rear, there are four 
 rooms, viz,: the director's office, 16 feet by 7, fitted with electric bells, 
 and so arranged with glazed casements as to command a view of the 
 whole floor as well as the stairway from the vestibule; the examining 
 
 Lehigh University Gymnasium Second Floor Plan. 
 
 room, 10 feet by 7, fitted with scales, measuring rods, dynamometers, 
 and the appliances for making the various strength tests and recording 
 the results of the examinations; a bath room, 44 feet by 13J, containing 
 6 poapstone sponge-bath tubs, 3 urinals, a water closet, shower room 
 with communicating drying closet, and 120 lockers; and the main hall, 
 or exercise room, 75 feet by 45. The main hall is 40 feet high in the 
 center, and is lighted by a bay-window containing 12 large panes, 36 
 
 603
 
 76 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 large windows, 52 smaller windows, besides 8 large skylights of ground 
 glass in the roof, each containing 4 panes, 2 feet by 7. 
 
 The visitors' gallery, having benches for spectators, and the running 
 track of 38 laps to the mile, take the place of a third story. 
 
 The main hall is fitted with 23 pairs of chest weights, 22 pieces of Dr. 
 Sargent's apparatus for individual development, and the usual gymnastic 
 apparatus, such as parallel and horizontal bars, flying and traveling rings, 
 trapezes, ladders, spring-board, Indian clubs, dumb bells, etc. 
 
 The ceiling of the main hall and of the dressing room is of oiled yel- 
 low pine. 
 
 Thanks are due to President T. H. Lamberton and Director W. H. 
 Herrick for the pains taken to provide the views, plans, and description 
 herein given of the Lehigh Gymnasium. This gymnasium is, taken all 
 in all, a model structure, on account of its elegance, convenience, and 
 commodiousness. 
 
 GYMNASIUM OF BRYN MAWR COLLEGE. 
 
 The architectural design, both as to the exterior and interior, is the 
 outgrowth of a careful study of the requirements of a gymnasium for 
 
 liutv 
 
 Bryn Mawr College Gymnasium Basement Plan. 
 
 girls, limited in its execution by due regard to economy. The walls of 
 the basement extend 5 feet above the ground line, and are built of dark- 
 604
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 77 
 
 gray granite." Above the basement the walls are made of red bricks 
 laid in red mortar, and no plaster appears on their inner surfaces. 
 
 The main floor of the building contains the principal hall, 80 feet long 
 by 30 feet wide, 22 feet high to the collar beams, and open to the roof 
 above, the timbers of which are exposed and finished to show the nat- 
 ural grain and color of the wood. Around this hall, at a height of 10 
 feet from the floor, is placed a gallery, 4 feet wide and supported upon 
 iron cantalevers inserted into the walls, to be used as a track for walk- 
 
 Bryn Mawr College Gymnasium First Story Plan. 
 
 ing or running. The floor of this gallery is of narrow pine boards, and 
 along its front is an iron balustrade of a pleasing design, surmounted 
 by a wooden hand-rail. Upon the north side of the main hall and sep- 
 arated from it by curtains, is a small room, 14 by 20 feet in size, in- 
 tended for special apparatus. 
 
 Upon the south side of the main hall, where are the rooms of adminis- 
 tration, there is a reception room, 12 feet 6 inches wide by 15 feet long, 
 entered by the front door. Beyond this room visitors cannot pass with- 
 out the express permission of the directress. Opening from this is the 
 directress's room, 16 feet long by 14 feet wide, which is separated by 
 glass partitions from the main hall and from the passage leading to it 
 and to the stairways. Adjoining this is the examination room, designed 
 
 605
 
 78 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 for the examination and record of the physical development of each 
 student using the gymnasium. From the reception room extends a 
 passage way, which is usually' closed, and through which alone visit- 
 ors may be admitted to the main hall. Another doorway from the re- 
 
 Bryn Mawr College Gymnasium Second Story Plan. 
 
 ception room admits students to the passage, from which one stairway 
 ascends to the walking track, and another descends to the basement. 
 Over the directress's room and examinatioH room is an apartment re- 
 served for the use of the directress. 
 
 The basement contains an apartment which is of the same dimensions 
 as the main hall above. It is 9 feet high, well supplied with windows, 
 which are colored and arranged to open inward, so as to secure abun- 
 dant light and air, with complete privacy. It is further ventilated by 
 8 large flues, in which a current is kept up at all times by steam-heated 
 coils of pipe. One half of this apartment is reserved for a bowling 
 alley, the other for dressing rooms. Adjoining this apartment and be- 
 neath the administration room, is a space allotted to bath rooms and 
 dressing rooms. The bath rooms are 4 feet square; they are lined with 
 lead on the bottom, and on the sides to the height of 5 feet. They are 
 supplied with hot and cold water, with a sprinkler, and are designed 
 for sponge baths only. They are entered from a hot room, into which 
 the bather steps after the bath. The floor of the entire basement is laid 
 with hollow tiles and covered with asphaltum, so as to make a thor- 
 oughly dry surface. ____
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 79 
 
 In tbe arrangement of the whole building great attention has been 
 given to the admission of an abundance of light and to thorough venti- 
 lation. The entrance is so arranged as to secure the greatest privacy 
 possible, iii order that the students may take exercise without the 
 slightest fear of intrusion. 
 
 THE LAFAYETTE COLLEGE GYMNASIUM, EASTON, PA. 
 
 The gymnasium has one story and a basement, is built of brick, w r ith 
 a slate roof, and a tower at each corner. 
 The basement contains the dressing room, provided with lockers, 
 
 (JrmcnG. ftart, THrnvntlena . ffO X 45. 
 
 Lafayette College Gymnaeinm. 
 
 and bath rooms provided with bowls and sponge, shower, individual, and 
 noddle baths. The main floor has a gallery across each end, one used by 
 visitors, the other by the medical director. It is lighted by four large 
 windows on either side, and above by four dormer windows on each 
 side in the roof; a rose window over the main entrance; and two dor- 
 
 607
 
 80 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 mer windows on the north end. There are also windows in the towers; 
 these open into the main tower arid increase the light. 
 
 The ventilation is carried on by means of throe flue shafts, with open- 
 ings at the floor. The heating is by steam, direct radiation. The ceil- 
 ing shows the roof timbers and is ceiled with wood above. 
 
 THE JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY GYMNASIUM. 
 
 Thfs gymnasium is conveniently situated near to the university build- 
 ings, in Baltimore. The main building is a parallelogram in plan, run- 
 ning north and south. An L wing, containing dressing rooms, baths, 
 director's office, and examination room, extends easterly from the south 
 end of the main building. Exclusive of the wing, the building covers 
 a lot 40 feet 2 inches by 103 feet 2 inches, and is one story high. The 
 wing, which is a remodeled structure of ancient date, is of two and a half 
 stories, and is 18 by 45 feet in area. Upon entering the hall through 
 the vestibule a wide staircase on the right leads to the office and exam- 
 ining room of the director. On the left, and near the front of the hall, is 
 the entrance to the main hall, or gymnasium proper. This room is 38 
 by 89 feet, and is covered by a simple open-timbered roof, constructed 
 with queen-post principals. The trusses, being spaced about 13 feet 
 apart, form 7 bays in the length of the room. The ceiling in the center 
 is 45 feet high, and at the sides 24 feet high "to plate." Each side 
 wall is pierced by 7 large semicircular-headed windows, the sills of 
 which are 6 feet above the floor, thus giving abundance of light. There 
 is a ventilator in the roof at its middle point, by which, together with 
 four stoves of peculiar pattern, the room is easily and well ventilated. 
 Artificial light is supplied, when needed, by bracketed fixtures on the 
 wall panels and a chandelier just under the ventilator. The rafters are 
 all dressed and open to view, and the ceiling is formed on the back of 
 them by narrow tongued-and-grooved cypress lining. Bafters and ceil- 
 ing are finished naturally. The inside brick-work is laid up with flush 
 joints and is painted of a light-buff color in oil. The advantage and 
 durability of this style of finish over plastering is indisputable. The 
 fixed apparatus consists chiefly of Sargent machines, which are for the 
 most part secured to the walls. The floor apparatus is portable. The 
 dressing rooms, which communicate by a doorway with the main hall at 
 its south end, have also a door opening from the east end of the entrance 
 hall. There are 4 dressing rooms 2 on the first floor and 2 on the 
 third containing in all 226 lockers. On the first floor are 6 set bowls, 
 with hot and cold water, 2 baths, and 2 water-closets, all of approved 
 pattern. 
 
 We have here produced the plans and descriptions of the Johns Hop- 
 kins University and the Dickinson College gymnasia for the purpose 
 of showing that commodious and well-fitted gymnasia can be had at a 
 comparatively slight cost. If an institution can afford to decorate its 
 campus with an elegant building, architecturally considered, we! and 
 608
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 81 
 
 good. But it -should not be supposed that it is necessary to expend 
 thirty or forty thousand dollars in order to provide gymnastic and bath- 
 ing facilities for 250 or 300 students. In our opinion, the Lebigh and 
 Amherst gymnasia cost more than was necessary, needless expense 
 
 Street. 
 
 \ 
 
 (hjmnftsiwn. 
 
 38'.0"x 89'.n"- 
 
 Plan of Johns Hopkins University Gymnasium. 
 
 having been incurred in finishing the walls with costly linings of wood.. 
 The total cost of the Johns Hopkins Gymnasium, with all its accessories 
 and fittings, including apparatus, was not far from $10,000. 
 
 THE DICKINSON COLLEGE GYMNASIUM. 
 
 The Dickinson College Gymnasium, at Carlisle, Pa., was completed 
 in 1884. The building has a frontage of 120 feet on a village street, and 
 is conveniently accessible from all the college buildings. In plan it is 
 a parallelogram, with a wing at each end. The main hall is 40 by 75 
 feet on the floor, and is accessible from the campus by means of a spa- 
 cious entrance hall through the east wing, which is 23 by 62 feet, two 
 stories high, and contains the dressing rooms, baths, offices, examining 
 room, etc. The opposite, or west wing, is 23 by 87 by 20 feet, one story 
 high, and contains the bowling alleys, three in number. This wing is> 
 entered from the main hall. The building is constructed of brick, withi 
 stone sills, and is covered by a simple open-timbered roof, the trusses 
 being placed about 15 feet apart and forming bays, each of which is. 
 
 5068 No. 5 6 
 
 609
 
 82 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 pierced by a large window, admitting ample light and serving for a good 
 natural ventilation. The walls are finished with flush joints for paint- 
 ing, and the woodwork throughout is finished "naturally" in oil, and 
 is of the best material. To complete the building, including bowling 
 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Alley. 
 
 Plan of Dickinson College Gymnasium. 
 
 alleys, but exclusive of plumbing and the fittings of the dressing room 
 and main hall, cost $7,300. 
 
 THE BUILDING OF THE NEW YORK ATHLETIC CLUB. 
 
 The building of the New York Athletic Club is not a gymnasium 
 only; it is a fully equipped club house. Situated on the south-west 
 corner of Sixth avenue and Fifty-fifth street, it extends 75 feet on the 
 avenue and 95 on Fifty-fifth street, and is four stories high. 
 
 The basement contains six bowling alleys and a rifle range. In the 
 first story there are facilities for Turkish and Eussian bathing, and a 
 swimming bath 66 feet long by 20 wide. The second story contains a 
 reception hall, parlor, reading room, billiard rooms, and a restaurant. 
 
 610
 
 BUILDING FOE THE NEW YORK ATHLETIC CLUB.
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 83 
 
 BASEMENT 
 
 Building of New York Athletic Club. 
 
 611
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 612 
 
 THIRD STORY PLAN 
 
 Building of New York Athletic Club.
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 85 
 
 Ou the third floor are a thousand lockers, a lavatory, douche room, re- 
 ception room, and sparring room. The entire area of the fourth floor is 
 occupied by the gymnasium ; it is 22 feet from floor to ceiling, light and 
 airy. Around this hall, 12 feet from the floor, extends a track for the 
 use of runners; twenty-two laps of it make a mile. 
 
 CALLERY PI-AM 
 
 Building of New York Athletic Club. 
 
 613
 
 86 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 The cost of the building was $250,000. The club is in a flourishing 
 condition, with fifteen hundred members and three hundred more wait- 
 
 KOOF AND SUPERSTRUCTURE 
 
 Building of New York Athletic Club. 
 
 ing anxiously to get in. The initiation fee is $50, and the annual dues 
 $30. Mr. William E. Travers is the president. 
 
 The tendency of the builders of our best and newest gymnasia is 
 to incorporate certain of the features of those of ancient Greece. This 
 is most manifest in the liberal bathing facilities and the means afforded 
 for social intercourse and amusement in the best of the gymnasia 
 above described. The ideal gymnasium would be in close proximity to 
 the fields devoted to athletic sports. At present the Hemenway Gym- 
 nasium approaches the ancient type more nearly in this respect than 
 any other known to us. % 
 
 NORMAL AND PREPARATORY SCHOOLS. 
 
 It appears from the Report of the Commissioner of Education for 
 1873 that out of a list of 119 normal schools in the United States only 
 17 claimed to possess a gymnasium. The Commissioner's Keport for 
 1882-'83 shows that 19 out of 119 public normal schools, and 1C out of 
 114 private normal schools, had gymnasia. As regards preparatory 
 schools, the same Eeport notices the fact that 56 out of 157 of them had 
 gymnasia. 
 
 614
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 87 
 
 YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION GYMNASIA. 
 
 GENERAL CHARACTER. 
 
 As a class, the gymnasia belonging to the Young Men's Christian 
 Associations are better furnished and officered than those belonging to 
 the two classes of schools above mentioned. Since 1869, when the New 
 York Young Men's Christian Association opened a gymnasium in its 
 new building, "physical culture" has been a prominent feature in Asso- 
 ciation work. The Young Men's Christian Association Year Book for 
 1884, p. 141, states that "83 associations report attention to physical 
 culture; 68 of these through gymnasia and 23 through other means, 
 including base ball, rambling, rowing, and swimming clubs, bowling 
 alleys, health lifts, and classes in calisthenics." Since this statement 
 applies to the United States and Canada, and only two of the Canadian 
 associations report gymnasia, 66 appears to be the correct number 
 for the United States, or rather 67, since the Boston Young Men's Chris- 
 tian Union Gymnasium properly belongs in this category, even though 
 its managers and patrons represent a different type of theology from 
 that of the affiliated associations. 
 
 In the days of primitive Christianity " gymuastical sports and exer- 
 cises" were classed with the "madness of the theater, huntings, and 
 horse-racings," and those addicted to them were required "either to 
 leave them off or be rejected from baptism." Superintendents of gym- 
 nasia probably correspond as closely as any class of modern men to 
 the ancient "curators of the common games and practicers in the 
 Olympic games," who, with " charioteers, gladiators, minstrels, harpers, 
 dancers, and vintners," were commanded by the apostolic constitutions 
 either to quit such callings or be rejected from baptism. 
 
 The gymnasia of the Young Men's Christian Associations in the fol- 
 lowing named cities have their own salaried superintendents, as is 
 shown by the published lists of officers: Baltimore, Md.; Boston ; Mass.; 
 Brooklyn, N. Y.; Buffalo, N. Y.; Chicago, 111.; Cleveland, Ohio; Indian- 
 apolis, Ind.; Newark, N. J.; Newburyport, Mass.; New York, N. Y.; 
 Philadelphia, Pa.; Pittsburg, Pa.; Providence, E. I.; San Francisco, 
 Cal., and Washington, D. C. 
 
 The Young Men's Christian Association gymnasia, as a class, do 
 not compare favorably with college gymnasia, and chiefly so because 
 they are placed in an out-of the-way corner of the building, and are 
 ill ventilated and poorly lighted. This criticism does not apply to all 
 of them ; but in too many cases the gymnasium, even in imposing and 
 commodious Young Men's Christian Association buildings, is placed at 
 or below the level of the ground. The Brooklyn association is to be 
 commended for its plan of erecting a gymnasium annex, which is now 
 building at an estimated cost of between $90,000 and $100,000. It is 
 
 615
 
 88 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 the intention of the projectors of this Brooklyn gymnasium to make it 
 the best of its class. 
 
 BOSTON YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN UNION GYMNASIUM. 
 
 At present the best specimens of the type are those of the Boston 
 "Young Men's Christian Association and the Boston Young Men's Chris- 
 tian Union. The Union gymnasium is on the whole the more worthy 
 of the two of imitation, since it contains a large number, of the Sar- 
 gent developing appliances, and is under the medical direction of Dr. 
 Sargent himself. 
 
 The following extracts from a recent circular indicate what are the 
 distinctive features of this gymnasium : 
 
 The Union gymnasium is 136 feet long, 22 feet high, and has a floor space of 6,200 
 square feet, exclusive of dressing and bath rooms. 
 
 The room is well lighted on every side, thoroughly ventilated, has indirect steam 
 heat, and the exercising floor is above the street level. 
 
 The dressing rooms are large and spacious, and contain over 900 lockers. 
 
 The bathing facilities are ample, there being 13 sponge-bath rooms, 8 bowls, 3 
 tubs, and 1 shower room. 
 
 'A running track has been arranged on the main floor with a course of 26 laps to a 
 snile, unobstructed by apparatus, and open to runners at all times during gymnasium 
 hours. 
 
 The management aim to make the gymnasium beneficial to all ages and to all con- 
 ditions. 
 
 By the use of the adjustable weights and appliances, the exercises can be adapted 
 to the "strength of the strong and the weakness of the weak." 
 
 Dr. Sargent will examine those who desire it, and make out a book with specific 
 directions for exercise, diet, sleep, bathing, etc., based upon the data ascertained 
 from the examination. Each book is furnished with a blank form ; and those who 
 wish may have their measurements entered, and their condition compared with the 
 average man of the same age, weight, etc. 
 
 Terms, including the Union membership (one dollar), and entitling to all its privi- 
 leges : 
 For one year, entitling to use of gymnasium, after 7 P.M., and on holidays 
 
 for such time as it may be open $5 00 
 
 For one year, entitling to use of gymnasium at all times when open 8 00 
 
 Keys, to be refunded on return of same 50 
 
 There is no extra charge for consultation with, and examination by, Dr. Sargent, 
 instruction, use of baths and dressing closets in the large dressing rooms. 
 
 Dr. Sargent will give during the fall and winter season a course of practical talks 
 on " the theories and principles of physical traiuing." 
 
 The gymnasium is open from 8 A.M. to 9.45 P.M. 
 
 THE BROOKLYN YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATION GYMNASIUM. 
 
 This gymnasium, the best of its class, is now (1885) in course of con- 
 struction. It constitutes a separate building in the nature of an annex 
 to the Young Men's Christian Association building, whose entrance 
 is on Bond street. The gymnasium building, which is 100 feet deep, 
 has a frontage on Hanover place of 60 feet. The structure, which was 
 
 616
 
 Hanover Place Front. 
 BROOKLYN Y. M. C. A. GYMNASIUM.
 
 "BROOKLYN 
 
 - R-AN OF (CELLAR. - - 
 
 1. Boiler room, engine room, workshop, and well. 
 
 "2. Four 80-feet bowling alleys. 
 
 3. Bottom part of swimming tank. 
 
 4. Coal cellar to hold 300 tons. 
 
 5. Extra locker space. 
 
 6. Cellar. 
 
 7. Mechanical class room. 
 
 8. Room to stall bicycles. 
 
 9. Passage-way to boys' quarters separate entrance, direct from the street,. 
 10 Boys' meeting room. 
 
 11. Boys' gymnasium and play room.
 
 30 
 
 3t 
 
 32 
 
 12. Six hot and cold bath tubs. 29. 
 
 13. Ten sponge baths. 30. 
 
 14. Eight hundred locker space. 31. 
 
 15. Swimming bath, 14x45. 32. 
 
 16. Russian, shower, needle, and douche 
 
 bath room. 33. 
 
 17. Lavatory. 34. 
 
 18. Washbowls. 35. 
 
 19. Gymnasium instructor's office. 36. 
 
 20. Bowling alley room. 37. 
 
 21. Small lecture hall for prayer meet- 38. 
 
 ings, Bible classes, &c. 
 
 22. Inquirers' room. 
 
 23. Private passage to gymnasium. 39. 
 
 24. Passage to lavatories. 40. 
 
 25. Lavatories. 41. 
 
 26. Ladies' lavatory. 42. 
 
 27. Cloak room ; also for keeping of val- 43. 
 
 uables of gymnasium members. 
 
 28. Area reserved for light and conserva- 
 
 tory. 
 
 Members' parlor. 
 
 Reception and amusement room. 
 
 Inner vestibule. 
 
 Outer vestibule and main entrance to 
 the building. 
 
 Office for committees. 
 
 General Secretary's private office. 
 
 Assistant Secretary's office. 
 
 Treasurer's office. 
 
 Board room. 
 
 Grand stairway to the main audito- 
 rium, with two fire-proof vaults be- 
 neath. 
 
 Ticket office. 
 
 Hallway. 
 
 Librarian's office anl library. 
 
 Reading room. 
 
 Side entrance to janitor's rooms and 
 exit from main hall.
 
 - PL.A.MOE* SECOND fil 
 
 44. Floor of gymnasium all clear space. 
 
 45. Platform or stage. 
 
 46. Parquette. 
 
 47. Air vent. 
 
 48. Lavatories. 
 
 49. Lower foyer. 
 
 50. Class room. 
 
 51. Landing and passage. 
 
 52. Class room, or office for rent. 
 
 53. Class room. 
 
 54. Class room. 
 
 55. Balcony. 
 
 56. Ladies' retiring or cloak room. 
 
 57. Gentlemen's retiring or coat room. 
 
 52
 
 58. 
 59. 
 60. 
 61. 
 62. 
 65. 
 6t5. 
 67. 
 68. 
 69. 
 70. 
 71. 
 72. 
 73. 
 74. 
 75. 
 76. 
 77. 
 78. 
 79. 
 80. 
 
 > Elevated running track in gymnasium. 
 
 Spectators' gallery. 
 
 Passage-way to retiring rooms of music hall. 
 
 Gentlemen's retiring room. 
 
 Lavatory. 
 
 Ladies' private entrance to the stage. 
 
 Side exit from hall. 
 
 Dress circle. 
 
 Air vent. 
 
 Lavatory. 
 
 Upper foyer. 
 
 Passage to janitor's room. 
 
 China closet. 
 
 Diuing hall. 
 
 Class room. 
 
 Class room. 
 
 Passage. 
 
 Class room. 
 Class room.
 
 PHYSICAL TKAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 89 
 
 planned by Parfitt Brothers, architects, Brooklyn, is built of brick and 
 terra cotta and Long Meadow red sandstone. 
 
 The first floor contains a locker room with about 200 public and 100 
 private lockers; also hot-water baths, sponge baths, large shower baths, 
 and a swimming bath 45 feet by 14, besides lavatories and an in- 
 structor's office. In the basement are 4 bowling-alleys 80 feet long, 2 
 60-horse-power boilers, and a coal cellar of 300-tons capacity. A well 
 50 feet deep and 5 feet in diameter, calculated to yield 100 gallons of 
 water per minute, has here been dug for the use of the baths, bowls, and 
 closets. 
 
 The gymnasium is in the second story. It is 24 feet high, 54 feet 
 wide, and 98 feet deep. The running track, which is suspended from 
 the roof, is 5 feet wide and has 22 laps to the mile. Its floor is 8 feet 
 above that of the gymnasium. The ceiling, which is of the open-roof 
 description, is supported on 6 elliptical arches of wood, each built of 12 
 sections of 1 by 6 inch pieces of wood laid one over the other, bent and 
 bolted into the shape desired. 
 
 It is worth noting that in the Bond street building the Brooklyn 
 Young Men's Christian Association will provide a gymnasium and play- 
 room especially suited for boys. 
 
 Future builders of gymnasip will do well to study the means em- 
 ployed in this gymnasium and in the Cornell University Gymnasium for 
 supporting the roof by arches instead of by pillars, as much valuable 
 floor space has been sacrificed in the Hemenway, Pratt, and Lehigh 
 gymnasia through the use of pillars and posts. Suspended running- 
 tracks are to be preferred when they are practicable. 
 
 Following is as complete a statement as we are able to make of the 
 facts regarding gymnasia belonging to the theological schools of 
 America. The gymnasium belonging to the Hartford Seminary is the 
 best of its class. 
 
 017
 
 90 
 
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 618
 
 PHYSICAL TEAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
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 619
 
 92 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 ARCHITECTS AND FURNISHERS OF GYMNASIA. 
 
 The following list of architects who have planned gymnasia is given 
 for the convenience of those who may have occasion hereafter to build 
 or remodel gymnasia: 
 
 Peabody & Stearns, of Boston, Mass., planned the Hemenway Gym- 
 nasium. 
 
 E. L. Roberts, 46 Broadway, New York City, planned the Pratt 
 Gymnasium. 
 
 Addison Hutton, 400 Chestnut street, Philadelphia, planned the Le- 
 high University Gymnasium and the Bryn Mawr Gymnasium. 
 
 F. C. Withers, New York City, planned the National Deaf-Mute Col- 
 lege Gymnasium. 
 
 G.B. Post, New York City, planned the Princeton College Gymnasium. 
 
 J; R. Richaud, , planned the Dartmouth College Gymnasium. 
 
 Charles Babcock. Professor of Architecture, Cornell University, 
 planned the Cornell Armory and Gymnasium. 
 
 C. W. Clinton, New York City, planned the New York Athletic Club 
 Building. 
 
 Parfitt Brothers, Brooklyn, N. Y., planned the Brooklyn Young 
 Men's Christian Association Gymnasium. 
 
 Charles L. Carson, corner Charles and Lexington streets, Baltimore, 
 planned the Johns Hopkins University Gymnasium and the Dickinson 
 College Gymnasium. 
 
 The names of the most reliable manufacturers of gymnastic appa- 
 ratus are: 
 American 
 
 Dr. D. A. Sargent, Cambridge, Mass. 
 
 Boston Gymnasium Construction and Supply Company, A. H. How- 
 ard, Secretary, 9 Ashburton place, Boston, Mass. 
 
 Fred. Medart, J206 North Main street, St. Louis, Mo. 
 
 John Gloy, 27 Johnson street, Chicago, 111. 
 Foreign 
 
 Julius Dietrich & Hannak, Chemnitz, Saxony. 
 
 A. Buczilowsky, 17 Kotheu street, Berlin, Prussia. 
 
 A. A. Stempel, 75 Albany street, Regent's park, London, N. W., 
 England. 
 
 Oscar Knofe, 26 Pancras road, King's cross, London, W. C., England. 
 
 MILITARY DRILL AND DISCIPLINE A PHYSICAL TRAINING. 
 
 "Solitary men dreaming in their corners," as well as the most severely 
 practical men of affairs, when proposing schemes for the betterment of 
 the " discipline of the common weal " through educational reforms, have 
 frequently, perhaps usually, urged the value of military drill and dis- 
 cipline as a means of training young men. 
 
 620
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 93 
 
 VIEWS OF LUTHER AND POLE. 
 
 Martin Luther, while praising bodily exercises as a means to health 
 and as a safeguard against "the temptations of the fiend," does not 
 fail to commend them as needful for rendering " us Germans fit and 
 always prepared for joining the army nnd for battle. For verily our 
 boys will have to defend land and people and to be warriors." 
 
 Eeginald Pole, when outlining to Master Lupset his idea of the " most 
 noble institute that ever was devised in any common weal," declares that 
 the nobility should "be constrained, by lawful punishment, to exercise 
 themselves in all such things and feats of arms as shall be for the defense 
 of our realm necessary; the which they should do with the same dili- 
 gence that the plowmen labor and till the ground> for the common food." 
 
 VIEWS OF MILTON. 
 
 John Milton, in his tractate on education, imagines an "institution 
 of breeding, which should be equally good both for peace and war." 
 " The exercise which I first commend," he says, " is the exact use of their 
 weapon, to guard and to strike safely with edge or point. This will keep 
 them healthy, nimble, strong, and well in breath; is also the likeliest 
 means to make them grow large and tall, and to inspire them with a 
 gallant and fearless courage, which being tempered with seasonable 
 lectures and precepts to make them of true fortitude and patience, will 
 turn into a native and heroic valor, and make them hate the cowardice 
 of doing wrong. They must be also practiced in all the locks and gripes 
 of wrestling, wherein Englishmen are wont to excel, as need may often 
 be in fight to tug, to grapple, and to close. And this perhaps will be 
 enough wherein to prove and heat their single strength." He further 
 recommends that all the youth, while engaged in study "under vigilant 
 eyes," should " about two hours before supper, by a sudden alarm or 
 watchword, be called out to their military motions, under sky or covert 
 according to the season, as was the Roman wont; first on foot, then, as 
 their age permits, on horseback to all the art of cavalry ; that having 
 in sport, but with much exactness and daily muster, served out the ru- 
 diments of their soldiership in all the skill of embattling, marching, en- 
 camping, fortifying, besieging, and battering with all the helps of an- 
 cient and modern stratagems, tactics, and warlike maxims, they may, 
 as it were out of a long war, come forth renowned and perfect command- 
 ers in the service of their country." The effect of classical studies 
 and the lessons derived from the experiences of civil war are strangely 
 mingled in this tractate. 
 
 MILITARY GYMNASTICS IN ENGLAND. 
 
 Gymnastics, in the Greek or German sense, have never been popular 
 in the public schools of England, or with the devotees of manly sports 
 outside of them; but volunteer military companies have sprung up at 
 
 621
 
 94 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 the schools and universities in recent years. In 1822, Captain Clias, 
 who had been instrumental in introducing gymnastic training for re- 
 cruits into the Swiss/ and French armies, introduced gymnastics into 
 the British army and navy. For the period of two years and a half he 
 was Professor of Gymnastics in the Royal Military Academy, at Wool- 
 wich. He occupied this post until September, 1825, when instruction 
 in gymnastics was intrusted to non-commissioned officers. After along 
 period of disuse military gymnastics were revived in England after 
 the Crimean war. In 1861 a central school of gymnastics was estab- 
 lished at Aldershot for the purpose of supplying instructors to the army. 
 This action was taken in accordance with the recommendations of the 
 report of a commission appointed in 1859 to examine into the systems 
 of military gynmasticstheu in vogue on the Continent. Later, by order 
 of Lord de Grey, gymnasia were built at all barracks. 
 
 MAOLAEEN'S SYSTEM OF GYMNASTICS. 
 
 The late Archibald Maclaren drew up the code of instruction which 
 was adopted by the authorities. Mr. Maclaren's writings and teach- 
 ings on physical education are the best that England has yet produced. 
 The principles of physical training, as expounded by Mr. Maclaren, are 
 essentially the same as those which lie at the basis of the Sargent sys- 
 tem. The followers of each labor for the same ends, though by methods 
 not always identical. A series of physical measurements, periodically 
 made and carefully registered, was employed by Mr. Maclaren from 
 the first. Similar measurements, it will be remembered, were instituted 
 by Dr. Hitchcock, at Amherst, in 1861, the same year that Mr. Maclaren 
 began his work in the British army. The Arnherst measurements were, 
 indeed, intended to determine the rate of growth and development; but 
 they served for statistical rather than diagnostic purposes. Mr. Mac- 
 lareu used the data obtained by his examinations in determining the 
 kind and amount of exercise to be required of his pupils. 
 
 PUBLICATIONS BY MR. MACLAREN. 
 
 Besides his "Military System of Gymnastic Exercises for the Use of 
 Instructors", originally published in 1862, two other works by Mr. Mac- 
 laren, viz., "Training in Theory and Practice", and "Physical Educa- 
 tion ", have been published respectively by Macmillan & Co. and the 
 Clarendon Press. The latter work well deserves the unstinted praise 
 bestowed upon it by that high authority on hygiene, Dr. E. A. Parkes, 
 who says of it that it " should be in the hands of every one." Its Part 
 I, comprising 101 pages taken up with an essay upon " Growth and 
 Development," is a lucid and admirable exposition of the modern views 
 of physical training, and contains apt characterizations of the German 
 and French systems of military gymnastics, which were adopted re- 
 spectively in the years 1845 and 1847. Dr. Ball, in Buck's Hygiene 
 and Public Health, New York, 1879, declares that Mr. Maclaren's code 
 
 622
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 95 
 
 of instruction- is much less elaborate than the French system, while it 
 is more thorough and practical than the German, and is based upon the 
 sound principle that the first requisite is to develop physical power by 
 a simple and gradually progressive course of exercises, after which the 
 practical application of this acquired power to the special duties of the 
 soldier becomes a com para tively easy task. 
 
 DR. PARKES ON MACLAREN'S CODE. 
 
 As yet no such comprehensive system as that contained in the Mac- 
 laren code has been adopted for the United States Army. The best 
 summary account of this code that has come under our notice is the 
 following, contained in the sixth edition of Parkes's "Practical Hy- 
 giene ", pp. 584-585 : 
 
 The instructions have two great objects: (1) To assist the physical development 
 of the recruit ; (2) to strengthen and render supple the frame of the trained sol- 
 dier. Every recruit is now ordered to have three months' gymnastic training during 
 (or, if judged expedient by a medical officer, in lieu of part of) his ordinary drill. Two 
 months are given before he commences rifle practice, and one month afterward. 
 This training is superintended by a medical officer, who will be responsible that it is 
 done properly, and who will have the power to continue the exercises beyond the 
 prescribed time, if he deems it necessary. The exercise for the recruit is to last only 
 one hour a day, and in addition he will have from two to three hours <ff ordinary 
 drill. 
 
 The trained infantry soldier is ordered to go through a gymnastic course of three 
 months' duration every year, one hour being given every other day. The cavalry 
 soldier is to be taught fencing and sword exercise in lieu of gymnastics. 
 
 The exercises have been arranged with great care, and present a progressive course 
 of the most useful kind. The early exercise commences with walking and running ; 
 leaping, with and without the pole, follows; and then the exercises with apparatus 
 commence, the order being the horizontal beam, the vaulting bar, and the vaulting 
 horse. All these are called exercises of progression. The elementary exercises follow, 
 viz., with the parallel bars, the pair of rings, the row of rings, the elastic ladder, the 
 horizontal bar, the bridge ladder, and the ladder plank. Then follow the advanced 
 exercises of climbing on the slanting and vertical pole, the slanting and vertical rope, 
 and the knotted rope. 
 
 Finally, the most advanced exercises consist of escalading, first against a wall, and 
 then against a prepared building. 
 
 It might be thought that so complete and methodical a system as that 
 of Mr. Maclaren, its good results being well known, would have com- 
 mended itself to the teachers of boys. But so late as 1869, Mr. Macla- 
 ren calls attention to the fact that, excepting the two military colleges 
 of Woolwich and Sandhurst, and Eadley College, not one of the large 
 educational establishments in England was provided with a regularly 
 organized gymnasium with properly qualified teachers. The case stands 
 only slightly better now. 
 
 EARLY SCHEMES FOR MILITARY TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 On January 21, 1790, President Washington transmitted to the first 
 Senate of the United States a comprehensive report from General H. 
 
 623
 
 96 CIECULAES OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 Knox, the Secretary of War, on a plan for " a national system of defense 
 adequate to the probable exigencies of the United States, whether arising 
 from internal or external causes." In passing we may remark that this 
 was seven months prior to the penning of Dr. Eush's eulogy of agri- 
 cultural and mechanical labor as an amusement. Among the princi- 
 ples on which Secretary Knox based his plan are the following : 
 
 That every man of the proper age and ability of body is firmly Wound, by the social 
 compact, to perform personally his proportion of military duty for the defense of the 
 state. 
 
 That all men of the legal military age should be armed, enrolled, and held respon- 
 sible for different degrees of military service. 
 
 PLAN OF SECRETARY KNOX, 1790. 
 
 The plan called for the enrollment of those liable to bear arms into 
 three classes, described as follows : 
 
 The first class shall comprehend the youth of eighteen, nineteen, and twenty y--ars 
 of age, to be denominated the advanced corps. The second class shall include the 
 men from twenty-one to forty-five years of age, to be denominated the main corps. 
 
 The third class shall comprehend, inclusively, the men from forty-six to sixty years 
 of age, to be denominated the reserved corps. 
 
 Of the advanced corps. 
 
 The advanced corps are designed not only as a school in which the youth of the 
 United States are to be instructed in the art of war, but they are, in all cases ol" exi- 
 gence, to serve as an actual defense to the community. 
 
 The whole of the armed corps shall be clothed, armed, and subsisted at the expense 
 of the United States; and all the youth of the said corps in each State shall be en- 
 camped together, if practicable, or by legions, which encampments shall be denomi- 
 nated the annual camps of discipline. The youth of eighteen and nineteen years shall be 
 disciplined for thirty days successively in each year; and those of twenty years shall 
 be disciplined only for ten days in each year. 
 
 At the age of twenty-one years, every individual having served in the manner and 
 for the time prescribed, shall receive an honorary certificate thereof, on parchment, 
 and signed by the legionary general and inspector. And the said certificate, or 
 an attested copy of the register aforesaid, shall be required as an indispensable qual- 
 ification for exercising any of the rights of a free citizen, until after the age of 
 
 years. No amusements should be admitted in camp but those which correspond with 
 war: the swimming of men and horses, running, wrestling, and such other exercises 
 as should render the body flexible aud vigorous. 
 
 This plan failed of adoption, although the need of a well-trained mi- 
 litia had been sharply and abundantly emphasized by the events of the 
 revolutionary war. The failure of this plan was attributed to the 
 great expense and the administrative difficulties which it was believed 
 it would entail. 
 
 MR. HARRISON'S PLAN, 1817 AND 1819. 
 
 In 1817, in a report on the reorganization of the militia, made to the 
 
 House of Representatives by Mr. Harrison, it was recommended that 
 
 "military instruction should not be given in distant schools, but that 
 
 it should form a branch of education in every school within the United 
 
 624
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 97 
 
 States; that a corps of military instructors should be formed to attend 
 to the gymnastic and elementary part of education in every school in 
 the United States, whilst the more scientific part of the art of war 
 should be communicated by professors of tactics, to be established in 
 all the higher seminaries." 
 
 It does not appear that this scheme, or anything like it, ever received 
 the sanction of law, although it was again brought forward for adop- 
 tion in 1819. 
 
 UNITED STATES MILITARY ACADEMY. 
 
 Meanwhile the United States Military Academy at West Point, in 
 New York, had been instituted for the professional training of army 
 officers. Yet the bitter lessons of the war of the Revolution had to be 
 enforced by those of the war of 1812 before Congress could be induced 
 to make anything like adequate provision for such training. 
 
 WASHINGTON'S VIEWS. 
 
 His experiences as coinmander-m-chief in the war of the Eevolutiou 
 caused Washington when President to suggest to Congress in 1793, 
 and again in 1796, the establishment of an academy for "the study of 
 those branches of the military art which can scarcely ever be obtained 
 by practice alone." Washington's suggestions bore no immediate fruit, 
 but his views on. this subject were adopted by his successor. 
 
 REPORT OF SECRETARY JAMES MCHENRY, 1800. 
 
 Mr. McHenry, of Maryland, Secretary of War under President John 
 Adams, made an elaborate report in 1800, recommending the establish- 
 ment of a military academy, to consist of the fundamental school, the 
 school of engineers and artillerists, the school ot cavalry and infantry, 
 and the school of the navy. Mr. McHenry's ideas were far in advance 
 of his time, and were little regarded until after the war of 1812. In 
 1802 the United States Military Academy was established by law, but 
 in name only, for, prior to 1817, there was but little system or regu- 
 larity observed in the instruction given. Cadets were admitted without 
 examination, and without the least regard to their age or qualifica- 
 tions. Sylvanus Thayer, who became superintendent in 1817, in the 
 course of the five years following established in all its essential feat- 
 ures the course of instruction which has become identified with the 
 name of West Point. 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING AT WEST POINT AND ANNAPOLIS. 
 
 Bodily training, under the heads of military instruction and sword 
 exercise, has received marked attention from the first. Dancing is 
 now regularly taught, and gymnastics and swimming have at times been 
 regular branches of instruction. The United States Naval Academy 
 
 625 
 5068 Xo. o 7
 
 98 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 elates from the year 1845. Both at West Point and at Annapolis the 
 course of study is characterized by an extended, varied, and exacting 
 system of bodily exercise, as embraced in the various drills and branches 
 of practical instruction. Weaklings in body are prevented from enter- 
 ing either academy by the requirement, which has been in force for 
 many years, that all applicants failing to pass a satisfactory physical 
 examination at the hands of a medical board shall be rejected. Idlers 
 and dolts lose their commissions. The absolute control and constant 
 supervision and inspection to which all cadets are subjected, as regards 
 deportment, dress, studies, exercise, recreation, diet, and rest, are produc- 
 tive of a vigorous manliness which is much less uniformly found in the 
 graduates of other institutions. In all other professional schools and 
 in the majority of our colleges the training is less steadily and success- 
 fully directed toward securing mental power, moral strength, and bodily 
 ability. 
 
 The writer is strongly convinced that the best that has yet been ac- 
 complished in the United States, in the province of physical training, 
 has been accomplished at West Point and at Annapolis; and, while 
 recognizing fully that the systems there in operation could not be im- 
 posed, without undergoing many modifications, upon any considerable 
 portion of the collegiate youth of the country, he cannot forbear recom- 
 mending a careful study of those systems to all who are responsible 
 for the training of boys between the ages of twelve and twenty. 
 
 It is eminently to be desired that the data on record in the War and 
 Navy Departments touching the physical condition, academic standing, 
 and professional success and career of all cadets, from the time of their 
 admission to the academy till the termination of their service by dis- 
 charge, resignation, or death, should be statistically digested and dis- 
 cussed. The publication of these records could not fail to be helpful to 
 those engaged in the study of the natural history of the student class: 
 it would be of very great pedagogical value. 
 
 The published reports of Medical Director A. L. Gihon, U. S. N., 
 upon the hygiene of the Naval Academy and on the rates of growth of 
 cadets before and after entering the academy, serve admirably to indi- 
 cate what might be done in this direction. A satisfactory comparison 
 of the results thus far obtained under the Amherst, Sargent, Maclaren, 
 West Point, and Annapolis systems of physical training is as yet hardly 
 feasible. 
 
 CAPTAIN PARTRIDGE'S MILITARY SCHOOLS, 1820-'53. 
 
 Alden Partridge, captain of engineers in the United States Army, who 
 was the immediate predecessor of General Sylvanus Thayer as Super- 
 intendent of the Military Academy, seems to have been the first person 
 to found an institution modeled after that at West Point. Captain 
 Partridge left the Military Academy in 1817, and in 1818 resigned from 
 the military service of the Government. In a lecture delivered by him 
 688
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 99 
 
 in 1820 on what he conceived to be the deficiencies of superior edu- 
 cation as then conducted, Captain Partridge spoke as follows : 
 
 Another defect in the present system is the entire neglect, in all our principal 
 seminaries, of physical education. The great importance and even absolute neces- 
 sity of a regular and systematic course of exercise for the preservation of health, and 
 confirming and rendering vigorous the constitution, must be evident to the most super- 
 ficial observer. It is for want of this that so many of our most promising youths lose 
 their health by the time they are prepared to enter on the grand theater of active and 
 useful life. That the health of the closest applicant may be preserved, when he is sub- 
 jected to a regular and systematic course of exercises, I know from practical experi- 
 ence : and I have no hesitation in asserting that in nine cases out of ten it is just as 
 easy for a youth, however hard he may study, to attain the age of manhood with a 
 firm and vigorous constitution, as it is to grow up puny and debilitated, incapable of 
 either bodily or mental exertion. 
 
 PHYSICAL, TRAINING- UNDER CAPTAIN PARTRIDGE. 
 
 Captain Partridge opened his American Literary Scientific Academy 
 at Norwich, Vt., his native town, September 4,. 1820. In a card pub- 
 lished in April, 1825, on the eve of his departure for Middletown, 
 Conn., for the purpose of reopening his seminary in that place, Cap- 
 tain Partridge set forth the results of his labors at Norwich. He 
 claimed that his plan of " connecting mental improvement with a regu- 
 lar course of bodily exercises and the full development of the physical 
 powers, the whole conducted under a military system of discipline," 
 had succeeded beyond his most sanguine expectations. Out of 480 
 pupils who had entered the seminary from 21 States, only one had died 
 there. " Many of my pupils, and those the closest applicants to study," 
 he says, " walk with facility forty miles per day. On a recent excur- 
 sion to the summit of the most elevated of the White Mountains, with 
 a party of 50 of my pupils, a large portion of them walked, on the last 
 day, 42 miles. Belonging to this party was a youth of but twelve years 
 of age, who walked the whole distance, 160 miles, carrying his knap- 
 sack, and returned in good health." It would be interesting to know 
 the ultimate stature of this youth. 
 
 Captain Partridge remained only three years at Middletown. He was 
 doubtless impelled to abandon his seminary there from the refusal of 
 the legislature of Connecticut to charter the institution as a college. 
 He was instrumental, in 1834, in rehabilitating the institution at Nor- 
 wich, which became known as "Norwich University", and in establish- 
 ing military schools at Portsmouth, Va., in 1839, at Brandywine Springs, 
 Del., 1833, and at Bristol, Pa., in 1853, the year of his death. 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS BEFORE 1801. 
 
 A considerable number of military schools and colleges, additional to 
 those above mentioned, were organized before the War of the Rebellion. 
 The more important of them were established in the Southern States, 
 and were in several cases subsidized by the State. This was notably 
 the case in Virginia, South Carolina, Louisiana, Kentucky, and Ala- 
 bama. The Virginia Military Institute, at Lexington, Va., the Mill 
 
 62?
 
 100 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 tary Institute at Frankfort, Ky., and the Louisiana State Institute, at 
 Alexandria, La., should be mentioned in this connection. It has been 
 estimated that "one-tenth of the Confederate armies was commanded 
 by the 6Uves of the Virginia Military Institute, at Lexington, embrac- 
 ing 3 major-generals, 30 brigadier-generals, 60 colonels, 50 lieutenant- 
 colonels, 30 majors, 125 captains, 200 to 300 lieutenants". General 
 "Stonewall" Jackson was long a professor in the Virginia Military In- 
 stitute. General W. T. Sherman, of the United States Army, was in 
 1861 the head of the Louisiana State University, which had been organ- 
 ized on a military basis in the previous year. At the North the mili- 
 tary plan of education was chiefly adopted by the proprietors of private 
 schools for boys. Among the principal schools of this description es- 
 tablished prior to 1861 we may mention, Russell's Collegiate and Com- 
 mercial Institute, at New Haven, Conn. ; the Highland Military Acad- 
 emy, Worcester, Mass.; Claverack College, Claverack, N. Y. 
 
 EFFECT OF THE WAR IN STIMULATING MILITARY DRILL. 
 
 Once the war opened, military drill assumed a new and unprece- 
 dented interest in the ej-es of school authorities. The educational 
 literature of that period teems with schemes for the introduction of 
 gym nasties -and military drill into public school courses. As early as 
 1861 military drill was introduced into a portion of the public schools 
 in the city of Bangor, Me.; and the State of New Jersey, about the same 
 time, made an appropriation of money for military instruction in her 
 normal school. 
 
 MILITARY DRILL IN BOSTON SCHOOLS. 
 
 Elementary military drill was experimentally introduced into the 
 Public Latin, English High, Eliot, and D wight Schools for boys in 
 Boston in 1863. It has since been eliminated from the grammar schools, 
 to which class the Eliot and the D wight belong, but has been introduced 
 into all the high schools of the city for males. Two drills a week, of an 
 hour each, are required of all boys able to carry a musket. 
 
 The new Public Latin and English High School house in Boston, 
 which was opened in February, 1881, is provided with a large and el- 
 egant drill hall, and a commodious and well -furnished modern gym- 
 nasium. The gymnasium remains practically worthless, through the 
 inability or unwillingness of the school authorities to grapple with the 
 problem of securing proper instructors. The publications of the Boston 
 school committee contain several elaborate reports, filled with com- 
 mendable expressions of sentiment on the subject of physical education ; 
 also a few notes and regulations regarding gymnastic and calisthenic 
 exercises ; but their actual working programme embraces almost nothing 
 worthy of imitation as regards genuine development and training of 
 the bodily powers. Military drill has also been introduced, to a limited 
 extent, into the public schools of other American cities; notably in 
 those of Baltimore, Md., and Washington, D. C. 
 628
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 101 
 
 MILITARY "TRAINING ORDAINED BY THE MORRILL ACT, 1862. 
 
 Congress, under the stress of war, passed, in July, 1862, the so-called 
 Morrill Act, granting thirty thousand acres of the public lands for each 
 of its Senators and Eepresentatives to every State which should "pro- 
 vide at least one college where the leading object shall be, without 
 excluding other scientific and classical studies, and including military 
 tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture 
 and the mechanic arts." Under the provisions of this act, as originally 
 passed and since amended, there have been detailed, as we are informed 
 by the Adjutant-General of the army, one hundred and forty-two dif- 
 ferent officers of the army for the purpose of teaching military tactics 
 and science. The following extracts and tables are taken from the Ee- 
 port of the Adjutant-General, published October 30, 1883: 
 
 ARMY OFFICERS AS MILITARY INSTRUCTORS AT COLLEGES. 
 
 The tables subjoined exhibit the apportionment of details, corrected to October 1, 
 1883, and the data contained in the reports of the several officers performing the 
 duties of professors of tactics and military science. 
 
 The law authorizing the detail of officers of the army at a limited number of col- 
 leges and universities evidently contemplated that the services of the military pro- 
 fessors would be the means of securing a number of youths well instructed in mili- 
 tary knowledge, who when occasion required could efficiently exercise command in 
 the militia of their respective States. A better plan could scarcely have been devised, 
 and, carried out faithfully, will prove a powerful factor in insuring the thorough 
 efficiency of that branch of the military service. 
 
 Section 1225 of the Revised Statutes empowers the President, upon the application 
 of a college or university having capacity to educate at the same time not less than 
 150 male students, to detail an officer of the army to act as president, superintendent, 
 or professor thereof. In establishing the minimum number of students that could be 
 educated at a college or university, the law no doubt contemplated that not only such 
 institutions should have capacity for educating a certain number of youths, but that 
 at least the minimum number prescribed be actually under instruction. This point 
 the War Department has no means of verifying except from the reports required of 
 the military professor ; and a glance at the second table submitted shows that a mi- 
 nority of the colleges or universities named therein actually educate 150 students. 
 It is earnestly recommended that, if necessary to prevent cavil, the law be amended 
 so as to require applications for the detail of a military professor to be accompanied 
 by satisfactory proof that at least 150 male pupils above the age of fifteen are actually 
 present at the institution. 
 
 The colleges and universities at which officers of the army may be detailed should 
 be designated by the governor of the State in which located, as being most interested 
 in the progress of the State and its institutions, and possessing greater means of in- 
 formation necessary to wisely determine the question of selection. 
 
 The section of the Statutes above referred to prescribes that the officer detailed 
 shall act as "president, superintendent, or professor." He should, therefore, be a 
 recognized member of the Faculty, with equal vote, and not simply a prefect of dis- 
 cipline. This is of the*ntmost importance to secure the best results, as well as to pre- 
 serve the dignity of the position of the professor of tactics nnd military science. 
 
 Drills should not be held outside of regular hours, but considered as part of the 
 curriculum of instruction. 
 
 Finally, I am of option that officers should be forbidden to instruct in any other 
 branch of education, except in so far as the instruction has direct reference to military 
 knowledge.
 
 102 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 
 
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 Colleges, &c., at which detailed. 
 
 Maine State College, Orono 
 
 University of Vermont , Burlington 
 Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amhers 
 
 Union College, Schenectady, N. T 
 Cornell University, Ithaca, N. T 
 Cathedral School of St. Paul, Garden City, L. 
 Pennsylvania Military Academy, Chester ... 
 Allegheny College, Meadville, Pa 
 Pennsylvania State College, Center County . 
 Rutgers College, New Brunswick, N. J 
 
 Hampton Nor. and Agric. Inst., Hampton, V 
 Bingham School, Orange County, N. C 
 
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 Officers detailed. 
 
 d Lieut Edgar W. Howe, Seventeenth Infan 
 
 Lieut. H. E. Tutherly, First Cavalry 
 d Lieut V. H. Bridgman, Second Artillery. . 
 
 JL,ieut. a., vv. JiuDueU, Jr., First Artillery ... 
 Lieut W. S. Schuyler, Fifth Cavalry 
 Lieut C. A. L. Totten, Fourth Artillery 
 Lient. W. P. Dnvall, Fifth Artillery 
 Lieut. J. W. Pullman, Eighth Cavalry 
 d Lient. J. A. Leyden, Fourth Infantry 
 d Lieut. F. L. Dodds, Ninth Infantry 
 
 d Lieut Geo. Le R. Brown, Eleventh Infantr 
 d Lieut. J. Batchelder, Twenty-fourth Infan 
 
 d Lieut. E. M. Weaver, jr., Second Artillery 
 
 
 
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 West Virginia 
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 South Carolina 
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 630
 
 PHYSICAL TKALNING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 103 
 
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 Agricultural and Mechanical College of Mis 
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 Agricultural and Mechanical College of Tea 
 
 near Bryan. 
 
 University of the South, Sewanee, Tenn'... 
 Agric'l and Mech'l College of Ky., Lexingt 
 Ohio State University, Columbus 
 Indiana Asbury University, Greencastle. . 
 Michigan Military Academy, Orchard Lake 
 S. Illinois Normal University, Calbondale. 
 Illinois Industrial University, Champaign . 
 University of Wisconsin, Madison 
 
 University of Missouri, Columbia 
 Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhatt 
 
 Iowa State University, Iowa City 
 Cornell College, Mount Vernon, Iowa 
 
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 ireorge Ruhlen, Seventeenth Infantry 
 . J. B. Goe, Thirteenth Infantry 
 . H. A. Schroeder, Fourth Artillery. 
 . C. G. Starr, First Infantry 
 . C. McClure, Eighteenth Infantry . . 
 G. N. Chase, Fourth Infantry 
 
 . John J. Haden, Eighth Infantry. . . 
 llbert Todd, First Artillery 
 
 S. C. Knower, Third Artillery 
 5. R. Jones, Fourth Artillery 
 
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 104 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 TABLE No. 15. Data contained in the reports of the officers detailed as military instructors 
 
 at the institutions named. 
 
 Universities and colleges. 
 
 No. of students. 
 
 Total average at- 
 tendance. 
 
 Average 
 attendance. 
 
 Aptitude of pupils. 
 
 Interest mani- 
 fested by Faculty. 
 
 I. 
 
 >>? 
 
 9* 
 
 '1* 
 
 > 
 
 6 
 
 Under 15 years 
 of age. 
 
 Artillery drills. 
 
 Infantry drills. 
 
 
 54 
 73 
 65 
 
 
 54 
 
 
 40 
 64 
 61 
 
 Good 
 Excellent . 
 Good 
 
 Very good. 
 Excellent. 
 Marked. 
 
 Good. 
 
 Commendable 
 and unremitting. 
 
 Good. 
 Satisfactory. 
 
 Very great. 
 
 Rather noga- 
 tive.t 
 
 Good. 
 Satisfactory. 
 Good. 
 
 Very satisfactory. 
 Very good. 
 
 Not good. 
 Not good. 
 Very satisfactory. 
 
 Fair. 
 Good. 
 
 Very indifferent. 
 
 University of Vermont, Burlington. 
 
 Massachusetts Agricultural Col- 
 lege, Amherst. 
 
 
 73 
 65 
 
 15 
 
 28 
 
 
 
 Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y . .. 
 
 Cathedral School of St. Paul. Gar- 
 den City, Long Island, N. Y. 
 
 Pennsylvania Military Academy, 
 Chester. 
 
 227 
 
 
 227 
 
 27 
 
 185 
 
 Good 
 
 
 112 
 
 19 
 
 131 
 
 
 131 
 
 Very good 
 
 
 Pennsylvania State College, Cen- 
 ter County. 
 
 Rutgers College, New Brunswick, 
 N. J. 
 
 Hampton Normal and Agricult- 
 ural Institute, Virginia. 
 
 Bingham School, Orange County, 
 North Carolina. 
 
 South Carolina Military Institute, 
 Charleston. 
 
 East Florida Seminary, Gaines- 
 ville, Fla. 
 
 Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
 lege of Mississippi, Starkville. 
 
 Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
 lege of Texas, near Bryan. 
 
 University of the South, Sewanee, 
 Tenn. 
 
 Agricultural and Mechanical Col- 
 lege of Kentucky, Lexington. 
 
 Ohio State University, Columbus. .. 
 
 Indiana Asbnry University, Green- 
 castle. 
 
 Michigan Military Academy, Or- 
 chard Lake. 
 
 Southern Illinois Normal Univer- 
 sity, Carbon dale, 111. 
 
 Illinois Industrial University, 
 Champaign. 
 
 University of Wisconsin, Madison. 
 University of Missouri, 'Columbia. . 
 
 Kansas State Agricultural College, 
 Manhattan. 
 
 Iowa State University, Iowa City.. 
 
 Cornell College, Mount Vernon, 
 Iowa. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 126 
 310 
 
 
 126 
 
 
 35 
 170 
 
 Good 
 Very good 
 
 33 
 
 343 
 
 42 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 51 
 185 
 229 
 104 
 143 
 
 280 
 280 
 
 78 
 64 
 214 
 
 27 
 6 
 5 
 22 
 20 
 
 (*) 
 30 
 
 16 
 
 78 
 191 
 234 
 126 
 163 
 
 280 
 310 
 
 94 
 
 64 
 1 
 214 
 
 27 
 (*) 
 16 
 20 
 
 48 
 (") 
 
 Good 
 Good 
 Good 
 
 Fair 
 
 51 
 119 
 
 150 
 117 
 
 64 
 58 
 70 
 
 Good 
 Fair 
 
 42 
 117 
 
 45 
 17 
 65 
 
 Good 
 Not good.. 
 Very good 
 Good 
 
 1 
 
 
 400 
 117 
 
 151 
 
 25 
 2 
 
 425 
 119 
 
 151 
 
 14 
 22 
 
 31 
 20 
 
 102 
 
 Good 
 Good 
 
 Average . . 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 * Not stated. 
 
 t Great interest shown and much assistance given in military discipline; found essential to control 
 of pupils. 
 
 632
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 105 
 
 Though theUeport of the Commissioner of Education does not group 
 military schools by themselves, an examination of his Report for 1882-'83 
 shows that there were at least thirty institutions, other than those men- 
 tioned in the above list, in which military drill and discipline formed 
 an essential feature. 
 
 During the year ending July 1, 1884, there were thirty-three officers 
 of the army on duty at colleges, universities, and schools of superior 
 instruction for young men. 
 
 633
 
 106 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1886. 
 
 ATHLETIC SPORTS IN THE UNITED STATES. 
 
 THE PRESENT CONTRASTED WITH THE PAST. 
 
 The griin and uujoyous ideals of the generations that conquered the 
 wilderness and laid the foundation of the Republic have ceased to actu- 
 ate the mass of the community, if we may judge from the practices 
 which now obtain all over the country with regard to recreation and 
 amusements. 
 
 The value of play is a favored theme with writers on hygiene and 
 education. The ardor and activity displayed by the undergraduate 
 world in games and exercises once frowned upon by Faculties and 
 boards of trust because of their " vain, idle, and flesh-pleasing " qual- 
 ities, have become so great that it is the fashion in certain quarters to 
 speak of many colleges as if they were schools for ball players, oarsmen, 
 and athletes. There would be more point to such satire if the interest 
 in athletics, which seems to strengthen year by year, were confined to the 
 student class, instead of pervading the community as a whole. It is too 
 often overlooked that the growth of college athletics has been stimulated 
 and shaped by forces whose effects are equally, if not more strongly, 
 marked on the non-scholastic classes of our population. Exhibitions 
 and contests of every description which would not have been licensed 
 or tolerated, much less pecuniarily supported, thirty years ago, now 
 yield quick and large returns in popularity and cash to their promoters. 
 Never, before the War and the profound changes that it has wrought 
 upon the American mind and manners, would it have been possible for 
 a single college class, or even a single college, to have raised $5,000 in 
 one year for the maintenance of its representative athletes. Such a 
 draft upon the imagination, as well as upon the pockets of the college 
 public, would inevitably have gone to protest, and for precisely the 
 same reasons that would have entailed disfavor and bankruptcy upon 
 almost any of the professional athletic organizations which now nourish 
 so on every hand that simply to name and classify them would prove 
 wearisome. 
 
 ATHLETICS STIMULATED BY THE WAR. 
 
 The disbanded armies of the Republic furnished a large contingent of 
 students who had been subjected to strenuous physical training, to the 
 preparatory schools and colleges during the decade succeeding the war. 
 The influence exerted by this contingent in reviving and developing 
 the interest in physical culture, whose beginnings in the fifties and early 
 sixties we have already noted, has been, perhaps, even more potent in 
 634
 
 PHYSICAL .TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 107 
 
 the department of athletics than in those of gymnastics and military 
 drill. The history of athletics in America has not yet been written, 
 and it is not our purpose to attempt it here ; but it would be a grave 
 omission in a survey of physical training in American colleges and 
 universities not to consider the salient features and tendencies of col- 
 lege athletics. 
 
 COLLEGE ATHLETICS. 
 
 The growth of college athletics within very recent years has led to a 
 very general and somewhat heated discussion regarding them. In the 
 last year (1884), especially, the question of their regulation has become 
 a burning one with more than one Faculty. That the question should 
 have assumed its present proportions is due to the fact that the ath- 
 letic interest has been developed and organized chiefly through the 
 efforts of the students themselves, and in accordance with their own 
 notions of what is fitting and desirable. The general weakening, 
 amounting sometimes to absolute break-down, of paternal government 
 in our colleges, serves to complicate the difficulties in those institutions 
 where the governing boards find themselves suddenly called upon to reg- 
 ulate abuses whose development they have been too short sighted to 
 prevent. 
 
 COLLEGE ATHLETIC ORGANIZATIONS. 
 
 Athletics have been carried to a higher degree of development and 
 specialization at Yale, Harvard, and Princeton, than at any other col- 
 leges in the country. The accompanying statement (Table No. 16) has 
 been prepared from authoritative returns made to the compiler of this 
 Beport. It is intended to set forth the status of the athletic interest 
 in the colleges named during the year 1882-'83. It is followed by 
 a summary statement (Table ~No. 17), which indicates in a measure the 
 number and activity of the athletic organizations maintained by the 
 students of seven less prominent colleges. It will be noticed that these 
 are chiefly eastern colleges. Neither the general nor college public at 
 the South manifests much interest in athletics or gymnastics. The best 
 gymnasium building in the South is at Vauderbilt University, Nashville, 
 Tenn., and a languid interest in athletics, more particularly in boating, 
 exists at the University of Virginia. Military drill is in vogue in many 
 places in the South, but athletic organizations comparable with those 
 below noted do not exist. It may be said, in general, concerning western 
 colleges, that physical education, both on its formal or gymnastic side 
 and on its recreative or athletic side, is still in its embryonic stage. 
 
 635
 
 108 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 TABLE No. Iti. Statement concerning the athletic organi- 
 
 Names of student organizations for 
 athletic sports, in 1882-'83 
 
 Tear it 
 was estab- 
 lished. 
 
 Number of 
 members 
 in 1882-'83. 
 
 Nature and 
 value of 
 property 
 owned. 
 
 Cost of 
 mainte- 
 nance in 
 1882-'83. 
 
 Amount of 
 funds raised. 
 1 Earnings. 
 2 Subscrip- 
 tions, ice. 
 
 At Yale College, Keiv Haven, Conn., 
 with 1,080 students. 
 
 18C5 
 
 1 000 
 
 
 $6 863 38 
 
 i$5 457 15 
 
 
 1852 
 
 1 000 
 
 a $16 000 
 
 7 348 86 
 
 2 1,797 00 
 11 322 11 
 
 Foot-ball clnb 
 
 1872 
 
 1,000 
 
 65,000 
 
 2 689 80 
 
 2 5, 926 87 
 1 1,329 65 
 
 
 1882 
 
 1 000 
 
 
 574 00 
 
 2 382 00 
 '225 05 
 
 Athletic association 
 
 1876 
 
 1 000 
 
 
 400 00 
 
 2 349 95 
 
 
 1882 
 
 1 000 
 
 
 25 00 
 
 
 
 1879 
 
 22 
 
 6700 
 
 
 
 Bicycle club 
 
 1883 
 
 29 
 
 
 
 
 Hare-and-honiids club 
 
 1882 
 
 56 
 
 
 
 el, 258 25 
 
 Yacht club 
 
 1882 
 
 43 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 
 
 
 17, 901 04 
 
 18, 048 03 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Balance 
 
 
 
 
 
 146 99 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 At Harvard University, Cambridge, 
 Mass., with 1,428 students. 
 
 1865 
 
 "Whole 
 
 
 4 500 00 
 
 '2,600 00 
 
 
 1866 
 
 university. 
 400 
 
 bats, balls. 
 d3 500 
 
 5 000 00 
 
 2 1,900 00 
 e'2, 764 00 
 
 
 1873 
 
 "Whole 
 
 64,500 
 
 3, 655 62 
 
 2 3, 342 00 
 ^,050 00 
 
 
 1878 
 
 university. 
 30 players. 
 
 
 350 00 
 
 2 857 00 
 '175 00 
 
 
 1874 
 
 775 
 
 322 
 
 1,653 00 
 
 2 175 00 
 1 1,025 00 
 
 
 1880 
 
 
 
 
 2 2, 775 00 
 
 
 1879 or 1880 
 
 91 
 
 
 150 62 
 
 1 150 62 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 
 233 20 
 
 2 233 20 
 
 
 1883 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Totals 
 
 
 
 
 15, 542 44 
 
 18, 046 82 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2, 504 38 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 At Princeton College, Princeton, N. J., 
 with 500 students. 
 
 
 f ">*' 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 o a 
 
 a 3, 500 
 
 1, 200 00 
 
 2 1,200 00 
 
 
 
 II 
 
 4 J3*a . > 
 
 6 1, 500 
 
 1, 975 00 
 
 '2,045 94 
 
 
 
 * 3 S 
 
 o o 2 
 
 
 322 11 
 
 '130 52 
 
 Athletic association 
 
 1870 
 
 "^^S 
 
 P* 
 
 
 755 06 
 
 2 101 00 
 '816 32 
 
 Totals .. . .. 
 
 
 
 
 4,252 17 
 
 4, 293 78 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 41 61 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 a Boat house. 
 
 6 Boats, &c. 
 
 o Balance from previous year. 
 
 636
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 zations at Yale, Harvard, < nd Princeton in 1882-'83. 
 
 Times 
 represented 
 in contests 
 in town in 
 1882-83. 
 
 Times 
 represented 
 in contests 
 out of 
 town in 
 1882-'83. 
 
 Number of 
 contewts 
 won l..y 
 them. 
 
 Number of 
 contests 
 lost by 
 them. 
 
 ' . Remarks. 
 
 18 
 
 14 
 1 
 3 
 
 20 
 
 12 
 
 1 
 
 Hamilton park, valued at $80,000, was rented for 
 matches and practice purposes at a rental amount- 
 ing to one-quarter of gross gate receipts. The 
 Yale Field Corporation now owns twenty-nine 
 acres of land inclosed and fitted for field and track 
 athletics. The names of the colleges whose 
 athletes contested with those of Yale iu champion- 
 ship matches in 1882-'S3 are Amhcrst, Brown, 
 Harvard, and Princeton. (This list is incomplete.) 
 In the six years ending 1882-' 83 the Yalo foot-ball 
 team did not suffer a defeat, and the base-ball club 
 held the college championship for five years of the 
 six, i. e., during the entire period of its belonging 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 to the American Base-Ball Association. 
 
 The colleges represented in athletic contests with 
 Harvard in 1882-'83 were Amherst, Bowdoin, 
 Brown, Dartmouth, Columbia, Haverford, McGill 
 University (of Montreal), Massachusetts Institute 
 of Technology, University of Now York, Prince- 
 ton, Trinity. Wesleyan University, Williams, and 
 Yale. The boat club pay's an annual rental of $800 
 for the boat-house, which belongs to the univer- 
 sity. 
 
 Princeton's contestants were chiefly drawn from the 
 following named institutions: Amhorst, Brown, 
 Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, University of New 
 York, University of Pennsylvania, Rutgers, and 
 Yale. The athletic association pays a nominal 
 rent for its grounds, which include, in ten acres, 
 a foot-ball field, a base-ball field, a quarter-mile 
 running track, five dressing rooms, and two grand 
 stands. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 11 
 3 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 14 
 3 
 8 
 3 
 
 15 
 
 7 
 2 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 3 and 1 draw 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 5 
 
 5 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 16 
 2 
 
 8 
 4 
 
 9 
 3 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 4 
 3 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 d Small house at New London. 
 
 e By theatricals for the club . 
 
 637
 
 110 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 TABLE No. 17. Summary statement concerning athletic organizations at Amherst, Bowdoin, 
 
 % 
 
 List of student organizations for ath- 
 letic sports, in 1881-'83 
 
 ! 
 
 3 
 
 ! 
 
 t* 
 
 Number of members 
 in 1882-'83. 
 
 . 
 
 w 
 
 iS 
 
 etS 
 
 3 SjS 
 
 cj &*> 
 ft 
 
 Cost of maintenance in 
 1882-'83. 
 
 Funds raised among 
 studentH. 
 
 At Amherst College, Mata., with 352 
 students. 
 
 Base-ball club - ....... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Foot-ball team 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 At Bowdoin College, Brunswick, Me., 
 with 215 students. 
 
 1871 
 
 73 
 
 
 $50 00 
 
 $79 00 
 
 
 1868 
 
 57 
 
 &c., $800. 
 
 430 00 
 
 211 00 
 
 
 1874 
 
 98 
 
 
 30 00 
 
 
 
 1883 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 30 00 
 
 At University of California, Berkeley, 
 Cal., with 143 male students. 
 
 F.U. Base-Ball Club 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 TT. C. Foot-Ball Club 
 
 1882 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 At Columbia College, New York City, 
 with 1,522 students. 
 
 
 
 Rents a $6 000 boat-house . . 
 
 4 500 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1873 
 
 95 
 
 
 400 00 
 
 400 00 
 
 
 1880 
 
 30 
 
 
 
 
 Cricket club 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 Tennis club 
 
 1883 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 A t Dartmouth College, Hanover, N. H., 
 with 329 students. 
 
 Base-ball association 
 
 1860 
 
 339 
 
 Uniforms, &c. $250 
 
 832 75 
 
 755 25 
 
 
 1881 
 
 339 
 
 
 175 50 
 
 175 50 
 
 Athletic association 
 
 1875 
 
 339 
 
 
 
 
 At Rutgers College, New Brunswick, 
 N. J., with 129 students. 
 
 Boating association 
 
 1871 
 
 31 
 
 Boat-house $1 500 ; carried 
 
 
 
 Base-ball association 
 
 
 
 away by freshet of 1882. 
 
 
 
 Foot-ball association 
 
 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 Tennis association 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 At Wesley an University, Middletown, 
 Conn., with 176 male students. 
 
 Foot-ball association 
 
 1881 
 
 
 Uniforms, &c. $130 
 
 261 30 
 
 219 50 
 
 Rowing association 
 
 
 60 
 
 Boats &c. $1 OCO ; boat- 
 
 805 68 
 
 360 00 
 
 
 
 
 house rented for $150. 
 
 
 
 638
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Columbia, Dartmouth, Rutgers, University of California, and Wesley an University. 
 
 Funds raised among 
 outsiders. 
 
 Times represented in 
 contests, in 1882-'83, 
 in town. 
 
 Times represented in 
 contests, in 1882-'83, 
 out of town. 
 
 Number of contests 
 won by them. 
 
 Number of contests 
 lost by them. 
 
 * 
 
 Remarks. 
 
 
 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 6 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Faculty make money contributions. Men in 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 teams are excused from certain exercises in the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 sionally employed. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 $210 00 
 30 00 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 bers of teams are excused from certain recita- 
 tions. 
 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 1 
 
 Class nines cost $20 for maintenance, and class 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 4 
 
 
 foot-ball teams, $25. 
 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 6 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 7 
 
 1 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 5 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 (a) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 77 50 
 
 7 
 1 
 
 5 
 1 
 
 9 
 1 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 There were also tennis, bicycle, and hare-9.nd- 
 honnds clubs established in*1881. The nine has 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The authorities do not interfere with athletics. 
 
 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 9 
 
 except that each man on the " 'varsity nine and 
 eleven is required to file a certificate to the ei- 
 
 
 7 
 
 3 
 
 G 
 
 4 
 
 him to play." 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 98 00 
 350 00 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 3 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 Crews and teams have been excused from college 
 exercises, to some extent, for inter-collegiate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 professional trainer. A gymnastic exhibition 
 has usually been given during commencement 
 week. The authorities have not provided for 
 any systematic instruction or drill in gymnas- 
 tics or athletics. 
 
 aDrawn games. 
 
 639
 
 112 CIECULAES OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 CONCERNING PLAY GROUNDS. 
 GENERAL FACILITIES. 
 
 At most country colleges ample facilities in the way of grounds are 
 furnished for the playing of Jbase ball, foot ball, and tennis. The play- 
 ing fields are usually within the college precincts. Since track ath- 
 letics, i. e.) walking, jumping, sprint and hurdle races, have become 
 popular, very considerable sums have been spent on the grading and 
 on the improvement of athletic fields, in the way of providing stands 
 for spectators, dressing rooms for the contestants, and " cinder tracks " 
 for pedestrian purposes. Haverford College has a fine cricket field; 
 Lehigh University has an inclosure containing a grand stand, dressing 
 rooms, and a quarter-mile cinder path, together with fields for ball and 
 lawn tennis; the University of Pennsylvania, in Philadelphia, has re- 
 cently furnished a well-appointed athletic field ; and the Johns Hopkins 
 University, in Baltimore, has one nearly completed. 
 
 HARVARD'S PLAYING FIELDS. 
 
 The grounds devoted to field sports at Harvard belong to the univer- 
 sity, and are well known among collegians as Holmes Field and Jarvis 
 Field. They are adjacent to the Hemenway Gymnasium, and together 
 embrace not far frotn ten acres of level land. Holmes Field was put in 
 order in 1883->84 at an expense of nearly $6,000, toward which the 
 university contributed $2,000, the remainder being raised by subscrip- 
 tion. The following statement, printed in the Harvard Advocate, Jan- 
 uary 4, 1884, is given for the purpose of affording information to in- 
 stitutions that may hereafter find it necessary to improve their play 
 grounds : 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 From subscriptions $3,814 00 
 
 From Harvard University 2, 000 00 
 
 5,814 00 
 EXPENDITURES. 
 
 For grading field, and making and furnishing material for track, etc., as 
 
 specified in agreement of July, 1883 $4, 541 00 
 
 For6M. feet kyanized spruce, at $23 : 138 00 
 
 For grass seed 152 50 
 
 For manure 195 00 
 
 For teaming lumber ^ 14 00 
 
 For watering track 4 00 
 
 For spreading and spading manure 112 50 
 
 For carpentering and other work 14 00 
 
 For sawing spruce stakes 4 00 
 
 For 52 loads of coal ashes, at 10 cents 5 20 
 
 For use of horses and carts . . 96 50 
 
 Carried forward 5,276 70 
 
 640
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 113 
 
 Brought forward $5,276 70 
 
 For services 106 75 
 
 For screening cinders, etc 100 00 
 
 For 14G loads ashes, at 15 cents 21 90 
 
 5,505 35 
 Balance in bank. . 30 65 
 
 5,814 00 
 
 To the balance in the bank must be added $180, which is due the athletic associ- 
 ation from the sale of cinders and gravel, and some money from subscriptions, which 
 has not as yet been deposited. 
 
 THE YALE ATHLETIC FIELD. 
 
 As showing what undergraduate zeal and alumni aid, when combined, 
 can accomplish toward promoting athletic interests, the following con- 
 densed abstract of the report of the Yale Field Corporation is given : 
 
 For many years Yale men have known that their college was one of the few which 
 made no provision whatever for the outdoor sports of its students. Though situated 
 near the center of a rapidly growing city, it relied entirely on such arrangements as 
 its undergraduates could make from year to year. 
 
 In the spring of 1880 a movement was started in the Junior class which led to a 
 university meeting, at which a committee of students was appointed to find out 
 whether a suitable field for college sports could be purchased, and, if so, whether it 
 was probable that money could be raised to pay for it. The committee reported 
 favorably on both points, and was authorized to take the necessary steps to secure a 
 field. Two months later this committee associated with itself the "Advisory Com- 
 mittee on Athletics," then composed of four graduates. During the following year 
 the sum of $15,000 was collected and twenty-nine acres of land were purchased. 
 
 On the 27th of May, 1832, the "Committee on Purchase of Yale Athletic Grounds" 
 was merged in the " Yale Field Corporation," which was formed to " manage grounds 
 to be used by persons connected, or who shall have been connected, with Yale Col- 
 lege, for athletic games, exercises, and recreations in said college, and to take, buy, 
 own, and hold property, real and personal, necessary or proper therefor." 
 
 The members of this corporation are all persons who prior to its incorporation had 
 paid $5 to the treasurer of the field fund, and all students and instructors who since 
 that time have paid a like sum to the treasurer of the corporation. The management 
 is vested in a board of twelve directors, of whom four are undergraduate officers of col- 
 lege athletic associations, six are graduates, and two are instructors in the university. 
 
 On the 1st of June, 1884, the field was thrown open to the college, and during the 
 fall it has been used for foot ball and lacrosse, and has given general satisfaction. Ifc 
 lies on the south side of Derby avenue, due west of the campus, and distant one and 
 one-half miles. 
 
 Some have objected to this field on account of its distance from the college. The 
 reason why it was selected was because there was no suitable field nearer which 
 could be bought. Every available spot within two miles of the college was carefully 
 examined and considered, and those who know what there was to choose from have 
 never questioned the wisdom of the choice. In point of fact, tbe new field is one 
 sixth of a mile nearer South College than the grounds heretofore used, and the direc- 
 tors think that tbe Chapel street cars will soon run to the entrance. The location 
 adopted, moreover, is in less danger from the opening of new streets than any other 
 site available. 
 
 The preparation of the field for use has gone forward rather slowly. The reasons 
 are numerous. It has been hard to raise money, and the expenses have been heavy. 
 
 5068 No. 5 8 641
 
 114 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 Many questions have arisen concerning the treatment of soil, raising of turf, build- 
 ing of the track, etc., about which it was extremely difficult to procure trustworthy 
 advice, and to proceed without it was simple experiment. The personnel of the com- 
 mittee and board of directors has undergone many changes. The members were from 
 different cities, and those who are graduates have been so closely occupied with their 
 own affairs that the time required for this work has not been easily spared. 
 
 Soon affer the land was purchased the fences, trees, and buildings were cleared 
 away, and about fourteen acres were graded for use. The soil was then enriched by 
 plowing in two crops of grass and the addition of large quantities of wood ashes with 
 other fertilizers; and by seeding and sodding, a strong turf was secured over an area 
 about equal to that of the New Haven Green. The plan for lay-out submitted by Mr. 
 Frederick Law Olmsted was adopted, with some modifications suggested by those 
 practically acquainted with college athletics. At the entrance a roadway 200 feet 
 long by 30 feet wide, flanked by a stone wall, was constructed, and drives four-fifths 
 of a mile in length have been laid out within the grounds. The running track lies 
 at the south-east corner of the field, and was built under the superintendence of Mr. 
 Robert Rogers. It is a quarter of a mile long, and the straight-away length of its 
 sides is 372.5 feet, while the width is 15 feet in the narrowest and 20 feet in the widest 
 part. No pains were spared in its construction or in procuring the right kind of 
 cinders and other materials of which it is made. The grounds are inclosed on three 
 sides by 2,762 feet of fence, the fourth side being bounded by the river. The water 
 supply is furnished by a good well and by 1,580 feet of pipe, which extend through 
 the grounds from the city main. The grand stand, situated at the north side of the 
 field and overlooking the principal ball ground, is the gift of Mr. William H. Crocker, 
 '82 S. It seats 850 persons, and will afford a perfect view of the intercollegiate games 
 to be played directly in front of it. The field is now ready for base ball, foot ball, 
 track athletics, lacrosse, and tennis, and a tract of about four acres has been set aside 
 for cricket, though it is not yet graded. When completed it will afford room and op- 
 portunity to all students for all games which they wish to play. 
 
 The plans adopted for further improvement include the grading of the cricket field, 
 the planting of a hedge just inside the fence, the erection of two club houses, con- 
 taining baths and dressing rooms for those who take part in the games, and some 
 minor matters which will add to the beauty and convenience of the grounds. 
 
 The field lies on the farther bank of West River, on a bluff that rises forty feet above 
 the water and extends westward. The side and eastern edge of this bluff are cov- 
 ered by a growth of chestnut, oak, and hickory, and near the entrance gate are two 
 large pines. Through the grove one sees the city, and toward the south catches 
 glimpses of the harbor and sound. The Edgewood hills rise on the side opposite the 
 river, and West, Pine, and East Rocks, and farther away Mount Carmel, may be 
 Been to the northward and north-east. With these natural advantages the field can 
 be made a pleasant place for all friends of the college to visit. * * 
 
 The following financial statement is submitted by the treasurer: 
 
 RECEIPTS. 
 
 Subscriptions paid $32,209 35 
 
 Amount borrowed 20,685 7B 
 
 Proceeds of buildings sold, rents, etc ,, 289 12 
 
 53, 184 25 
 
 DISBURSEMENTS. 
 
 For land -' $21,394 50 
 
 For track 3,330 02 
 
 For grand stand 6,658 67 
 
 Carried forward 31,383 19 
 
 642
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 115 
 
 Brought forward ................................................. $31,383 19 
 
 For grading and preparation of field ............... ..................... 13,558 41 
 
 For interest and discount .............................................. 1, 908 62 
 
 For expense account : 
 
 Superintendence ......................................... $1,893 62 
 
 Collection expenses, travel, etc ................. ..... ...... 2, 299 66 
 
 Fence ................................................... 907 13 
 
 Water pipes ............................................. 673 88 
 
 Seed .................................................... 55975 
 
 - 6, 334 03 
 
 53, 184 25 
 
 The above statement shows that the corporation is in debt $20,685.78. It was 
 thought best to borrow money to prepare the field for use rather than delay the work 
 longer. The estimated expense of grading the remainder of the ground, erecting 
 cottages, planting a hedge, and carrying out the rest of the plan already adopted, 
 is, in round numbers, $10,000. At least $30,000 is therefore needed at once. 
 
 It is estimated that the cost of employing a superintendent and keeping the field 
 in order after it is finished will be fully met by the money received for admission to 
 the games. When the students use their own field the expenses of maintaining ath- 
 letics can be materially reduced. 
 
 Any persons disposed to aid the corporation in meeting its obligations and continu- 
 ing the work are earnestly requested to communicate with the treasurer, Mr. Henry 
 B. Sargent, New Haven, Conn. 
 
 By order of the board of directors. 
 
 MASON YOUNG, President. 
 
 HENRY C. WHITE, Secretary. 
 NEW HAVEN, Conn., December 20, 1884. 
 
 During 1883-'84, Mr. W. C. Camp, who had distinguished himself as 
 an accomplished athlete and as a scholar during his course at Yale, 
 was engaged by the graduate advisory committee on athletics and the 
 athletic association of the undergraduates to supervise the field sports 
 of Yale students, at a salary of $1,200. Mr. Camp's assiduous and in- 
 telligent coaching and training contributed much to Yale's athletic 
 triumphs in 1883-'84, when the Yale crew, foot-ball team, and ball nine 
 each gained the championship prizes of the year. 
 
 THE YALE SYSTEM OF ATHLETICS. 
 
 Physical training at Yale means athletics, toward the regulation of 
 which the Faculty exercise a minimum of influence. It js rather singu- 
 lar that Yale, which has been so averse to anything approaching an 
 elective system of studies, should have developed a most unrestricted 
 elective system of athletics. 
 
 The fairest and most intelligent paper elicited by the recent discus- 
 sion of athleticism which has come under our notice, is the production 
 of an ardent friend and defender of the Yale system of athletics. In it 
 the whole system is so well set forth, its advantages are so cogently 
 argued, and the attacks of its critics so temperately met, that it seems 
 best to quote copiously from it. Its exposition of the reciprocal rela- 
 tions of body- work and brain-work should be grasped by every teacher. 
 
 643
 
 f . sy 
 
 116 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 Those who may desire to consult the paper as originally printed will 
 find it published, in two parts, in the Popular Science Monthly for 
 .February and March, 1884. 1 
 
 I. ADVANTAGES. 
 
 * * * If we can show that college athletics supply this need [of exercise] to 
 quite a large body of students, and supply it regularly and systematically, we may 
 eecure a patient consideration of their good effects long enough to add a discussion 
 of their accompanying evils. In this discussion we hope to prove that the evils have 
 been exaggerated ; that they are not so great as would be the evils of a college life 
 without a system of athletics ; and, lastly, that such evils as do inhere in the present 
 system are capable of remedy. 
 
 * * * Though we admit the truth of all the wise sayings with regard to a "sane 
 mind in a sound body," we are yet too apt to regard the sound body as a mere acci- 
 dent of inheritance or environment. So we read the proposition as a hypothetical 
 one, viz., "If the body is sound the mind will be sane." Few but physicians read it 
 -as indicating a connection between body and mind, by means of which we can make, 
 or help to make, a good healthy brain by making a good sound body. In the fact 
 that the brain always seems to direct the body, we are prone to forget that the body 
 carries the brain and feeds it with its own life. If the body has good blood the brain 
 will have good blood also. If the body does not furnish good material, the brain will 
 do, according to its capacity, poor work, or will not work at all. * * 
 
 There are two kinds of brain-work, one which we may very properly call body 
 Tbrain-work, and the other mind brain-work. Most people, including a great many 
 educators of youth, consider mind brain-work to be the only kind of brain-work. 
 .But body brain- work is quite as essential to the healthy existence of the brain, and 
 ireally comes first in the order of brain growth. The child, too young to know any- 
 thing except its bodily wants, and conscious of them only when the denial of them 
 causes pain, develops brain every time it makes a will-directed effort to grasp the 
 thing it wants. The movement of its hand is as necessary to the development of its 
 ^brain as the guidance and government of the brain are to the growth of the hand. 
 "What is true of the hand is true of the other bodily organs whose motion is under 
 ifche control of the will. They and the brain are developed by reciprocal action. In- 
 terfere with this body brain- work in childhood, or at any period of growth, either by 
 repressing it or by diverting from it too much vital energy to mind brain-work, such 
 as is involved in the acquisition of knowledge, and you not only stunt the body, but 
 also enfeeble the brain, by depriving both of their proper growth. * * * 
 
 Care to guard against this interference is all the more necessary in cases in which 
 the brain is large or sensitive. Now, will any man say that at the time of life when 
 .young men come to our American colleges, when, in fact, all their bodily organs are 
 mpproachiug maturity, this body brain- work ought to cease, or can, without danger, 
 t)o neglected ? Is it not most essential that at this very period the reciprocal action 
 between body and brain should be steadily maintained, in order that both should be 
 able to endure the strain put upon them by the various stimulants of thought and 
 feeling to be found in college life ? The great pressure brought to, bear upon them is 
 toward conscious cerebration. Acquisitions of knowledge, scholarships, the ambi- 
 tious desires of parents, and prizes, all incite them to neglect body brain- work, under 
 the mistaken impression th'at time given to that is time lost to the other. Many a 
 (fine scholar has left college with great honors to experience iu his subsequent career 
 the serious results of the mistake made in college, and has discovered, often too late, 
 that a vigorous body to carry his brain is more essential to success in life than a well- 
 
 1 College Athletics, by Eugene L. Richards, Assistant Professor of Mathematics in 
 Vale College. 
 644
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 117 
 
 trained brain full of knowledge but lacking a strong body from which to draw ita 
 nourishment and strength. 
 
 Again, exercise, to be beneficial, ehould be regular and systematic. To be most ben- 
 eficial it should be in the open air. The oxygenation of the blood is not the least im_ 
 portant effect of exercise. In consequence of the reciprocal action of mind and body,, 
 to be as beneficial as possible it should be accompanied by mental occupation. The 
 mind should be interested in the exercise while the body is engaged. How shall all 
 these requisites of the best kind of exercise be secured ? First, a regularly set time . 
 for exercise ; next, a fixed amount of time devoted to it; then, a place where the lunga 
 should breathe fresh air; and, lastly, a kind of exercise which should engage tho 
 mind as well as the body. By the present system of college athletics these requisites 
 are met, if not perfectly, at least as well as it is possible for them to be met . 
 * They do furnish a mental stimulus. They set up an object to be striven 
 for, and an ideal of strength or skill. The object is honor honor of no great worth, 
 perhaps, but still honor, to the student-mind. In boating, the object is a victory over 
 a crew of a rival class or a rival college. In lacrosse, base ball, and foot ball, besides 
 working for the ultimate object of the championship, the mind of the player has 
 continual occupation in the game itself. To secure a victory in any of these sports,, 
 good brains in the players contribute quite as much as good muscles. In fact, it i 
 the skilled muscles rightly directed by good brains which win, and not the playera 
 most skilled in the use of their muscles. Mind as well as body has to be consideredt 
 by the successful captains in the selection of their men. Then there are minor con- 
 siderations which keep students in steady training, and help to induce more men to 
 work than finally appear in the great contests, such, for instance, as the ambition to 
 secure an office or position in one of the university organizations, and thus an honor- 
 able standing as a college man. * * * 
 
 The following brief aciount of the exercise taken by tBe students is offered in order 
 to insure a better understanding of the system of college athletics : 
 
 Almost as soon as the college opens in the fall, the various class nines begin their 
 games for the college championship. At the same time the class crews, the foot-ball 
 and lacrosse teams, put their men into training. This means regular exercise in the> 
 open air from four to six weeks for about 140 men. Quite as many more are bene- 
 fited, some by actual participation in the games, in order to furnish opponents to the> 
 teams in practice, and others by training for the athletic association contests. After 
 the class base-ball championship is decided, and the athletic association meeting* 
 have terminated, fewer men exercise. The interest of the college then centers in 
 the foot-ball elevens, one selected from the whole university, and the other from the 
 Freshman classes of the academic and scientific departments. To give these teams 
 practice, all the college is urged to go to the field and play against them ; and though,, 
 of course, the invitation is not accepted as extensively as it is given, yet it does 
 induce quite a large number of men to exercise. But this is not the only good effect 
 of the existence of these teams. Catching the enthusiasm of the sport, often the men 
 of different dormitories and of different eating-clubs send out teams for matches^ 
 The foot-ball season terminates at the Thanksgiving recess. The two or three weeka 
 intervening between this recess and the winter examinations see very little exercise* 
 taken by the students, except by the few who regularly use the gymnasium. Imme- 
 diately on the opening of the winter term activity in athletics manifests itself again. 
 The captain of the university crew, the captain of the university base-ball nine, the* 
 captains of the different class crews, and the captain of the Freshman base-ball nine,, 
 call for men who wish to try for positions on these organizations. The candidates 
 are put into reguUrr training in the gymnasium while the season prevents exercise* 
 out of doors. Nearly a hundred men come forward, who are actually in training for 
 at least one hour a day. They are required to live rightly in all respects. Each 
 man is bound to avoid excesses of all kinds. The force of a public opinion created 
 by the sight of these men attending to their physical development, and living ao- 
 
 645
 
 118 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 cording to Jaws and rules, acts upon the college world to encourage regularity of 
 life and obedience to authority. It is a moral power in the community. As soon as 
 the season permits, the men are sent out of doors. The crews take their seats in the 
 boats. The nines take their positions in the field. The spring regatta terminates 
 the practice of the class crews, but, as that event occurs about three weeks before 
 the June examinations, and five weeks before the close of the college year, it does 
 not leave the young men a long time without exercise. The university, consolidated, 
 and Freshman nines, the lacrosse team, and the university crew (with sometimes 
 a second eight), continue their practice much longer, some of them stopping work 
 only after the close of the college year. 
 
 Now, it may be said that the writer has only shown that regular exercise has been 
 secured during a few weeks of the first term to 140 men at the most, and during the 
 whole winter term to 100 men ; and in the spring and summer to 100 men part of the 
 term, and to half that number during the whole of the term. Granted. But there 
 are other organizations which induce men to exercise. The athletic association has 
 already been mentioned. This gives three exhibitions; one during the winter or 
 early spring in the gymnasium, and two in the open air, one in the summer and one 
 in the fall. The Dunham Rowing Club has a membership of 44 men. Then there 
 are canoe clubs, tennis clubs, and gun clubs. It would be putting the estimate too 
 low to say that at least half of the undergraduate members of the academic and 
 scientific departments get quite a regular amount of systematic out-door exercise 
 from, or in consequence of, the present system of college athletics. This activity, 
 too, has been mainly the outgrowth of the attention given to boating and to base 
 ball. They had the first regular organizations, and the others have taken pattern 
 from them. It is no argument against the system that all the members of the uni- 
 versity do not take advantage of it. The need of exercise is met, and opportunities 
 for regular and systematic e%ercise are given, with inducements to take it, which do 
 act upon at least half of the membership of the two departments most in need of it. 
 The system might do more good if time were set apart by the various Faculties for 
 the purpose of encouraging exercise, but in considering the system it must be borne 
 in mind that it has grown up in a continual struggle for existence; and, until within 
 a few years, without either help from graduates or favor from the college authorities. 
 
 * * * In addition to those already mentioned, we claim for it the following ad- 
 rantages : 
 
 (1) The college is sending out a better breed of men. College athletics send their 
 healthy influence into the schools, and in them consequently increased attention is 
 given to physical development. Thus the material coming from the schools is im- 
 proved. In college this material is better preserved and better developed under the 
 present system of athletics. More well-trained minds in more forceful bodies are 
 graduated from college than in former years. What President Eliot says on this 
 subject is as applicable to Yale as to Harvard : 
 
 It is agreed on all hands that the increased attention given to physical exercise 
 and athletic sports within the past twenty-five years has been, on the whole, of 
 great advantage to the university ; that the average physique of the mass of students 
 has been sensibly improved, the discipline of the college been made easier and more 
 effective, the work of many zealous students been done with greater safety, and the 
 ideal student been transformed from a stooping, weak, and sickly youth, into one 
 well-formed, robust, and healthy. 
 
 (2) The system of college athletics gives opportunity for the development of certain 
 qualities of mind and character not all provided for in the college curriculum, but 
 qualities nevertheless quite as essential to true success in life as ripe scholarship or 
 liter*ary culture. Courage, resolution, and perseverance are required in all the men 
 who excel in athletic sports. The faculty for organization, executive power, the 
 qualities which enable men to control and lead other men, and again, those other 
 qualities by which men yield faithful obedience to recognized authority, are all 
 called into action in every boat race, in every ball contest, and through all the pre- 
 646
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 119 
 
 liminary training. In athletics the college world is a little republic of young men, 
 with authority for government delegated to presidents, captains, and commodores, 
 and loyally supported by the resources and bodies of the governed. Is the system 
 not worth something as a means of preparation for the responsibilities of life in the 
 larger republic outside the campus ? 
 
 (3) The system is conducive to the good order of the college. It conduces to good 
 order in furnishing occupation for the physically active. There are men in every 
 class who seem to require some outlet for their superabundant animal life. Before 
 the day of athletics, such men supplied the class bullies in fights between town and 
 gown, and were busy at night in gate-stealing and in other pranks now gone out of 
 fashion. * * * Any instructor who has kept track of the ways of college during 
 the past fifteen years cannpt fail to be struck by the decreasing number of the really 
 great disorders, by the mildness of those which remain, and by the increasing regard 
 on the part of the students for college authority, college property, and for the rights 
 
 of fellow-students. 
 
 # * * * * 
 
 Again, the system conduces to good order in its effects upon class-feeling. It acts up- 
 on this class-feeling in two ways : first, in the contests between class organizations, 
 furnishing a gafety-valve for it ; and second, in the university organizations, tending 
 to moderate it. * * * Since these organizations are composed of men of all classes, 
 it is impossible for a college to be enthusiastic for its crew, team, or nine, without' 
 a common sympathy binding all the classes together. Moreover, it is observable that 
 the time of the year when the athletic contests are not absorbing the attention of the 
 college is the very time when the disorders between classes and the persecutions of 
 Freshmen are most prevalent. * * * Formerly it was the strong men who incited 
 and took the chief part in disorders. Now all their interests and all their efforts are 
 against them. 
 
 (4) The system furnishes to instructors an opportunity of meeting their pupils as 
 men interested in a common good, without the chilling reserve of the recitation 
 room. * * The college officer who gives a little of his time even to the boys' play 
 soon finds his sympathies widen, and, by learning from actual observation how young 
 men feel and think, becomes able to deal more wisely with those under his charge, 
 from a fuller knowledge of them. 
 
 (5) The power of the athletic contests to awaken enthusiasm ought not to be held 
 of small account. The tendency of academic life is toward dry intellectualism. 
 * * * It is not too much to say that in many a student, while passing from Fresh- 
 man to the end of Senior year, this spirit would die for lack of culture were it not 
 for athletics. There is training for it in every contest witnessed. * 
 
 (6) The system of athletics, by its intercollegiate contests, brings the students into 
 a wider world. They are no longer "home-keeping youths" with "homely wits." 
 They measure themselves by other standards than those they find in the limits of 
 
 their own campus. 
 
 *** 
 
 II. EVILS AND THEIR REMEDIES. 
 
 * * * That the present system has evils is no valid argument against it, unless 
 it can be shown either that these outweigh the good, or that some other practical 
 system can be devised which shall have all the good with less of the evil of the 
 present system. 
 
 (1) One evil alleged against the present system is the excessive amount of time re- 
 quired for exercise under it. It is no doubt true that some students do give too much 
 time to athletics. Some students also give too much time to study; yet that fact is 
 not brought forward as a fatal argument against the college course of study. Of the 
 two excesses excess of study and excess of exercise the danger on s pressure at pres- 
 ent is toward excess of study. But, in point of fact, this evil of too much time given 
 
 647
 
 120 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 to athletics has been greatly exaggerated. The winter term is not open to the charge 
 of excessive athletics. The athletes then training do not devote an average of more 
 than an hour a day to exercise. Perhaps a few give an hour and a half. It would be 
 safe to say that, counting all the time consumed, including the time of exercise, the 
 time used in going to and from the gymnasium, and the time used in dressing and un- 
 dressing, it would not go beyond two hours per day, and in most cases would be less 
 than that amount. So, to consider the question of excessive time, we must look at 
 the fall and spring terms. In the fall, during days when afternoon recitations are 
 held, the class nines do not spend more than two hours' time all together, including 
 both practice in the field and the time of going to and from practice. The same may 
 be said of the foot-ball and lacrosse teams. On Wednesday and Saturday afternoons 
 the students give from two to three hours to practice. On these afternoons the match 
 games occur. They are prohibited on other days, except during examinations, at 
 which time they are allowed on any day, provided no player is thereby prevented 
 from attending his examination. The crews, also, in practice on the water and in go- 
 ing to and from their boats, spend two hours daily. On Wednesdays and Saturdays 
 they use more time, but the practice is so arranged as not to interfere with recitations. 
 
 In the summer the same amount of time daily is given to practice, except that 
 when recitations cease and examinations begin the university and Freshman nines use 
 more time. Even then that time will not average more than three hours per day. 
 When match games are played out of town, to the time of the game must be added 
 the timo used in travel to and from the scene of the match. In the season of 1882, of 
 the games played during the time when recitations or examinations were being held, 
 only five were played out of town by the Yale University nine, though the men 
 went out of town once or twice more but were prevented from playing by the rain. 
 Of these five, three were played in New York City, which is only a little over two 
 hours' ride from New Haven. Of the remaining two, neither needed more than 
 thirty-six hours' absence from town. 
 
 The university crew row only one race a year. The foot-ball elevens and the 
 lacrosse team play a few games out of New Hayen, but do not use in this way as 
 much time as the nine. 
 
 (2) It is said that the excitement attendant on these sports distracts from study. 
 It is true that the contests do furnish excitement for the students, but it is excite- 
 ment of a healthy kind. * * Banish athletics, and you increase the attendance 
 at the theaters and the saloons, where the temptations are greater, and the excite- 
 ments less healthy, than those of the ball field and boat race. 
 
 (3) There is the evil of betting. This is not an evil peculiar to athletics. * 
 Games and races in colleges do not create betting. They simply divert it from other 
 channels. 
 
 (4 ) Then there are the disorders consequent upon victories. These disorders are some- 
 times quite serious, but are by no means so serious as they are often represented to 
 be. On the campus such disorders have never been more serious than some disorders 
 taking place after the conferring of degrees. They have always been easily con- 
 trolled. ',*'. 
 
 It may be replied that disorders consequent upon victories are not confined to the 
 college campus. Indeed, to the minds of many candid men, the great disorders which 
 bring dangerous disgrace to the present system of college athletics, and reflect upon 
 college government as well, occur at the intercollegiate contests, when the athletes 
 meet on neutral ground. * * * For this evil a more general interest in the subject 
 on the part of instructors and parents, and their more general attendance at the 
 games, would easily suggest the remedies of a healthy and manifested public opinion, 
 and a judicious personal influence. 
 
 (5) It is charged against athletics that they benefit the few, and that these few are 
 those least requiring the exercise. One part of the charge can be appreciated that 
 few are benefited these few being the members of the crew, nine, eleven, and la- 
 
 648
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 121 
 
 crosse teams of the university. These, with substitutes, amount to about fifty men. 
 But it has been already shown that more men are induced to exercise than the actual 
 membership of these organizations ; and that the present system affects, in the matter of 
 exercise, at least half of the undergraduate department. 
 
 The objection that the men under training in the university organizations are the 
 men least requiring the training can be understood to be one of two propositions, 
 viz.. either that these men have naturally so much power or skill that they need not 
 develop any more, or that they will cultivate their strength and nerve without being 
 stimulated to do so by the workings of the present system. This would be like argu- 
 ing that men of great mental gifts either do not need an education, or would get an 
 education without any opportunities being provided for this purpose in a school or 
 college system a proposition which, however true in exceptional cases, taken as a 
 general statement no argument is required to prove absurd. * * * 
 
 (6) It is said, again, that the system may develop men, but it only makes fine brutes 
 of them, and sets before the college a false standard of excellence, viz., one entirely 
 physical. It cannot be said with truth that the standard is false. * * * Other 
 things being equal, the bright mind and good heart in a strong body are better than 
 
 the same things in a weak body, because they can accomplish more in life. 
 
 ****** 
 
 (7) The evil of a general nature last to be considered is that of expense. 
 
 The expenses of the organizations which have special university representatives 
 are only taken into account, since these are the organizations of which the evils have 
 been so loudly proclaimed to the public. In the table given below (for Yale College) 
 the " expenses " and "income" are the totals for both university and class clrfbs 
 combined. For base ball, foot ball, and lacrosse, the amounts in the column headed 
 " earned " are made up for the most part of gate-money taken at exhibition games. 
 For the boat clubs, of the amount put in the same column, $1,045.36 was the net re- 
 sult of a dramatic entertainment given by the students for the benefit of the univer- 
 sity club. The balance was obtained from entrance and carriage fees at regattas, 
 renting of lockers, and sale of boat. 
 
 Clubs. 
 
 Expenses. 
 
 Income. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Balance 
 from 1881. 
 
 Earned. 
 
 Subscribed. 
 
 Boat 
 
 $7, 348 86 
 6, 863 38 
 2, 689 80 
 574 00 
 
 $7, 426 52 
 7,254 15 
 2, 792 36 
 575 00 
 
 $177 54 
 
 $1, 322 11 
 5,457 15 
 1, 329 65 
 225 05 
 
 $5, 926 87 
 1, 797 00 
 382 00 
 349 95 
 
 Baseball 
 
 Football 
 
 1, 080 71 
 
 I/acrosse ................. ... 
 
 Total 
 
 
 17, 476 04 
 
 18, 048 03 
 
 1, 258 25 
 
 8, 333 96 
 
 8, 455 82 
 
 
 It will be observed that the total amount subscribed is less than half the expenses. 
 Two hundred and ninety dollars of this sum were given by graduates. Deducting 
 this, and considering that, according to the catalogue of 1881-'82, there were, in the 
 undergraduate, academical, and scientific departments, seven hundred and eighty-six 
 students, the cost (above earnings) of the present system averages only a little over 
 $10 per man. As all departments are benefited by the system, the average ought to 
 be taken for the whole university. There being in the university over one thousand 
 men, the average cost per man would be considerably less than $10. It will be said 
 that part of the earnings come from the students, since they are the chief attendants 
 at the game. This is true. Assuming that half the earnings corne from the students 
 (an amount probably in excess of the real amount), the average cost per man for the 
 university will not be far from $12. Fifteen dollars per man would undoubtedly 
 
 649
 
 122 CIRCULAKS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 cover the whole cost of athletics throughout the year, counting not only the athletics 
 represented in the table, but all other kinds as well. Certainly this does not seem 
 an extravagant sum to pay for the benefits derived from the system. The writer be- 
 lieves that the expenses can be very much diminished. The tendency to unnecessary 
 increase of expenses can certainly be diminished by measures hereafter noticed. 
 
 By the table, it will be seen that the subscriptions for base ball and foot ball were 
 small in amount, as compared with their earnings. It is generally believed, among 
 students, that the university organizations of both these sports can be made self- 
 supporting. 
 
 The evils already commented on are general. There are other so-called evils which 
 are special some peculiar to one kind of athletics, but not belonging to the others. 
 One of these, charged against base ball, is that the game brings the students into 
 contact with "professionals." Whatever may be the extent of the evil in other col- 
 leges, at Yale it has not proved to be so great as to call for faculty interference, or 
 even to excite apprehension. All the evils, real or imaginary, connected with ball- 
 playing, are reduced to a minimum when the students meet "professionals." They 
 meet them simply for practice. Betting is, as a rule, precluded by the fact that the 
 result is generally a foregone conclusion, and men bet on only doubtful issues. Off the 
 field there is no more intercourse between the students and the " professionals" than is 
 necessary to transact the business attending the match. The professional nine are 
 then generally represented by their business manager, and the students by the presi- 
 dent or treasurer of their club. In the game one nine is in the field, while the mem- 
 bers of the other are at the bases, or waiting for their turn at the bat. The " profes- 
 sionals " are under the strictest discipline, so that their presence does not invite or 
 occasion dissipation in any form. Victories of college nines over " professionals " are 
 not frequent, and are not attended by disorders on the campus. 
 
 But to some objectors the evils of "professionalism" in athletics includes more 
 than playing with professional nines. The employment of professional "trainers" in 
 preparing students for contests is, for some, the chief evil. Such trainers are looked 
 upon as bad companions for our young men. It is contended that they undermine 
 the morals of our students by their profanity and generally low talk. They are also 
 supposed to give too high a standard of excellence for our amateur athletes, and 
 thus to draw on too much of their time and strength in the effort to make them conform 
 to this standard. All these things may happen in some cases, but they do not hap- 
 pen frequently. 
 
 ***** 
 
 An easy cure for possible evils in this direction would be for the Faculty of each col- 
 lege troubled by vicious trainers to forbid their students employing such men. An in- 
 vestigation, however, into the relations between such trainers and their pupils would 
 show that the pupils despise the lowness of the men quite as much as do the Faculty 
 themselves. Another and better remedy would be to select an amateur athlete from 
 the graduates, educated as a physician, and give him a salaried office, with duties 
 as general advisejr and guardian of the athletic interests. Such a man, if properly 
 qualified, would help the students to a safer and better physical development than 
 they now get, and would, besides, soon drive away all trainers exercising improper 
 influences among them. 
 
 **** 
 What the condition of the college would be w ithout a system of athletics is a question 
 already partly answered by what has been said in meeting the charges against the 
 system. We can understand, also, theeffectofabolishingthepresentsystembycalling 
 to mind the disorders reported in colleges in which no such system is allowed to exist. 
 The revolts against authority and the great disorders between classes now occur with 
 the most frequency, not at colleges which have the greatest number of students and 
 the most extensive athletic organizations, but at the colleges in which the students 
 650
 
 PHYSICAL TEAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 123 
 
 cither are not able or are not allowed to establish such organizations. The disorders 
 which used to occur in New Haven thirty or even twenty-five years ago ought to con- 
 vince any candid man that, however great the present evils of college life are with 
 athletics, the past evils without athletics were worse. 
 
 ******* 
 
 As to those evils which are capable of remedy, and of which the remedy has not 
 been before expressed or implied, we will take up that of unnecessary expense. It 
 has been before shown that the expense of the system is not enormous, considering 
 the good done. But undoubtedly it is greater than it need be. Moreover, it will 
 naturally tend to increase. * * * Each officer, as a rule, serves but a year, 
 when he makes room for a new officer, who is as inexperienced as his predecessor. 
 The experience gained eacli year might be made serviceable by associating with the 
 incoming treasurer a permanent graduate treasurer. The vice-president might be 
 elected to become president as soon as the year's service of the president expired, so 
 that he would serve as vice-president one year and one year as president, his service 
 thus extending over two years. * * * Besides the changes suggested, a gen- 
 eral auditing committee for all the interests should be formed, consisting of grad- 
 uates and undergraduates. * * * A committee of both graduates and under- 
 dergraduates could audit the accounts, and would be able to make suggestions which 
 would be sure of a hearing. By such changes in the system and the economies which 
 ought to result from them, field sports, such as base ball, foot ball, and lacrosse, 
 should be self-supporting. The income derived from gate-money should meet the 
 expenses. 
 
 Since some very worthy people who believe in manly sports object to young men 
 playing for money taken at the exhibition games, it is necessary to say a word of ex- 
 planation with regard to this feature of all ball-games. If field athletics are to con- 
 tinue, the expense of them must be met in one of two ways, either by gate-money 
 or by subscription. * * * It seems only just that, if the public desire to see a 
 good game, they should pay for the exhibition. The men work hard in practice, 
 and are entitled to have their expenses paid. More than that they do not ask. They 
 do not play for gain, but for honor. By their rules, they do not allow any man to 
 be a member of their organizations who has earned money as a professional. 
 
 The evil of liability to strains and injuries in athletics cannot be entirely obviated. 
 * * * Yet, so far, according to the recollection of the writer, no regular mem- 
 ber of a Yale crew, team, or nine, has been permanently injured by participating 
 in a race or match. Still, it is possible that a slight injury, to a person having 
 organic weakness, might result in a fatal difficulty. Such an issue might be avoided 
 by the requirement that every candidate for trial should be examined by a competent 
 physician, and, in default of procuring a certificate of physical soundness, should be 
 excluded from participation in athletic contests. Besides this, every candidate for a 
 place in a crew should be debarred from entering a race unless he had mastered the 
 art of swimming. 
 
 If, moreover, the Faculty of every college having a system of athletics would exert 
 a sympathetic as well as a judicious oversight of the students interested in the sys- 
 tem, they would find the young men quite willing to listen to friendly suggestions. 
 If, also, the times of recitation were so arranged that a proper amount of time could 
 be devoted to exercise without interference with study, more brain-work, and of 
 better quality, would be secured than by the policy prevailing in some colleges, ac- 
 cording to which, not only no encouragement is given to athletic sports, but, on the 
 contrary, every obstacle is thrown in their way. 
 
 The college which neglects or ignores physical culture may send out scholars, but 
 it will not educate forceful men. It will not be the living power which it might be. 
 Truth is not to prevail by the dry light of intellect alone, but through the agency of 
 good, wise, and strong men. 
 
 651
 
 124 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 The Yale authorities, we are assured, "take no official notice" in 
 regard to athletics, and exercise no interference, except the negative 
 one of granting no privileges. Individually two or three members of 
 the Faculty take great interest and show sympathy by attendance and 
 personal encouragement. 
 
 PROFESSIONALISM ASD INTERCOLLEGIATE CONTESTS. 
 
 DEMORALIZING INFLUENCE OF PROFESSIONALISM. 
 
 Professionalism has done much within the last five years to bring 
 discredit upon college sports; and by professionalism we mean the 
 purpose to win a game by any means, fair or foul. Professionals make 
 a business of contending for money, either as stakes or prizes or gate 
 receipts, having little or no regard to the benefits which should accrue 
 from the exercise of bodily force or skill. The enhancement of health 
 and manliness by vigorous recreative action is the primary aim of 
 athletics. This is frequently lost vsight of in the pursuit of athletic 
 honors. Honors obtained at the cost of physical strains or one sided 
 development are dearly bought and injurious. Not a few are stimu- 
 lated to unduly exhausting and violent exertions by their ill-judged 
 desire to win. Athletic honors are sometimes not generally, but more 
 and more frequently in recent years sought by collegians through the 
 use of dishonorable means. The intercourse between college teams 
 smacks too often of the manners of professional pugilists and of roughs. 
 Expedients to disable or outwit antagonists have come to be looked on 
 with too great a degree of allowance. Questionable means are some- 
 times employed to enable professionals or semi professionals to play 
 in college teams. When college men are willing to travel with profes- 
 sional ball players, and especially under assumed names, it is time for 
 college authorities to recognize and regulate college athletics. 
 
 THE REGULATION OF ATHLETICS AT HARVARD. 
 
 At Harvard the Committee on Athletics is one of the standing com- 
 mittees of the Faculty. The following regulations, promulgated by this 
 committee October 7, 1882, serve to exemplify in a measure the ideas of 
 
 the Harvard authorities with regard to the matter : 
 
 
 
 (1) No college club or athletic association shall play or compete with professionals. 
 
 (2) No person shall assume the functions of trainer or instructor in athletics, upon 
 the grounds or within the buildings of the college, without authority in writing from 
 the committee. 
 
 (3) No student shall enter as a competitor in any athletic sport, or join any college 
 athletic club as an active member, including base ball, foot ball, cricket, lacrosse, and 
 rowing associations, without a previous examination by the director of the gymna- 
 sium, and his permission so to do. 
 
 652
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 125 
 
 (4) From the beginning of the college year 1883-'84 no person shall be admitted as 
 a member of any class or university crew unless he knows how to swim. 
 
 (5) All match games outside of Cambridge shall be played upon Saturday, unless 
 permission to play on other days is first obtained from the committee. 
 
 It should be noted that certain remedies proposed last March by 
 Professor Richards for admitted or " possible" evils in college athletics, 
 were embodied, in 1882, by the Harvard Faculty in the above quoted 
 Regulations 2, 3, and 4. They have also adopted by anticipatory 
 action, we believe, another of his suggested remedies, viz., the appoint- 
 ment of an auditing. or advisory committee in relation to expenditures 
 for athletic purposes. 
 
 By some of their impatient critics it has even been proposed to abolish 
 intercollegiate contests. To attempt such extreme measures would be 
 unwise, if not futile. Those who propose them fail to appreciate how 
 strongly rooted an institution athletics have become ; how great is their 
 educational value when rightly managed ; and how far sympathy, tact, 
 and reasonableness are demanded in governing undergraduates. We 
 must think, however, that the endeavors of the Harvard authorities to 
 eliminate the aims and methods of professionals from college athletics 
 were called for and timely. 
 
 THE INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETIC CONFERENCE OF 1884. 
 
 Early in February, 1884, an Intercollegiate Athletic Conference was 
 held in New York City, at which delegates from the Faculties of the 
 following named colleges were reported to be present : "Williams, Am- 
 herst, Dartmouth, Tufts, Harvard, Columbia, Trinity, Wesleyan Univer- 
 sity, Stevens Institute, Hobart, Rutgers, Lafayette, Bowdoin, Princeton, 
 Union, Cornell, Lehigh, Brown, University of Pennsylvania, University 
 of Vermont, and College of the City of New York. Harvard took the 
 lead in calling the conference. Yale was not represented at it. The fol- 
 lowing circular letter was issued by the conference : 
 
 REGULATIONS FOR INTERCOLLEGIATE ATHLETIC SPORTS. 
 
 FEBRUARY 7, 1884. 
 
 The object of physical training is to confirm health, correct morbid tendencies, 
 strengthen weak parts, give a symmetrical muscular development, and secure as far 
 as possible a condition of perfect physical vigor. In order to accomplish these desir- 
 able ends, young men are encouraged to take exercise and to enter into the general 
 practice of athletic sports and games. If, however, the object of physical training 
 be lost sight of, and the desire to win the championship or to attain the highest degree 
 of excellence in these sports be made the paramount aim, then the practice of athlet- 
 ics is likely to be attended with evils that demand consideration. Some of these 
 evils have already begun to make themselves manifest in the practice of college sports. 
 With a view to correcting them, and of making athletic exercises an aid instead of a 
 hindrance to the cause of education, the Intercollegiate Athletic Conference recom- 
 mend the adoption of the following resolutions: 
 
 It is deemed advisable that physical training should form an essential part of a 
 collegiate course; that the person selected to superintend this branch of education 
 
 653
 
 126 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 should be a man of character and ability, and that the dignity of his position should 
 be recognized by giving him the moral support of the appointing power of the col- 
 lege. Therefore, 
 
 (1) Resolved, That every director or instructor in physical exercises or athletic sports 
 must be appointed by the college authorities, and announced as such in the catalogue. 
 
 The object for which youug mefc come to college is to get an education. If this 
 object is to be secured, it is impossible for them to make a serious business of any- 
 thing else. Ball playing, boating, etc., are engaged in by students as recreations, and 
 students ought not to be expected to compete on equal terms with those who make 
 the practice of these recreative sports the business of their lives. Students who compete 
 or practice with professionals undoubtedly gain in experience and skill, but this ren- 
 ders it necessary that their college opponents should have a similar advantage or the 
 terms would be unequal. This would lead to the general employment of professional 
 service in every branch of competitive sport. But it is known that the character of 
 professionals, as a whole, is not high ; that their aim is to win at all costs; that they 
 are often ready to sacrifice honor and self-respect, and even to jeopardize health, for 
 mercenary motives. It is believed that the general employment of this class and the 
 infusion of the professional ^)irit into college athletics would lead to their speedy 
 decline. Therefore, 
 
 (2) Resolved, That no professional athlete, oarsman, or ball player, shall be employed 
 either for instruction or for practice in preparation for any intercollegiate contest. 
 
 Much of the expense and loss of time attending the practice of college sports is 
 occasioned by playing games at a distance ; yet for various reasons it seems advisable 
 that intercollegiate contests in these sports should be continued. They develop 
 strength and executive ability, as well as courage, presence of mind, and other im- 
 portant elements of character. They give students an opportunity to measure their 
 physical powers with others, and, when conducted in the right spirit, tend to make 
 friends of rivals and to subordinate class feeling to college unity. For these reasons, 
 these games ought to be more generally played in college. Class nines and foot-ball 
 teams should be formed as well as class crews ; and the university teams should de- 
 pend more largely upon these organizations for practice. If the base-ball nines of 
 one college practice with expert amateur clubs, because such clubs exist in their 
 vicinity, this compels the nines of other colleges, not so favorably situated, to prac- 
 tice with inferior amateur organizations, regular professionals, or, what is more to be 
 regretted, with undisciplined semi-professionals. Therefore, 
 
 (3) Resolved, That no college organization shall row, or play base ball, foot ball, 
 lacrosse, or cricket, except with similar organizations from their own or other in- 
 stitutions of learning. 
 
 During the past few years several disagreeable controversies have arisen and much 
 ill-feeling has been occasioned by the manner in which intercollegiate contests have 
 been conducted. Much of the consequent dissatisfaction may be attributed to want 
 of proper preliminary arrangements, over-zealonsness on the part of some of the 
 officials to see their own men win, a neglect to make rules and regulations to prevent 
 unfair play, and a failure to provide a referee willing to enforce the regulations pre- 
 scribed. Students in their conventions represent no one but themselves, and often 
 act without responsibility and without authority, committing their fellow student* 
 to a questionable policy and establishing precedents which are detrimental to the 
 interest of college sports. Therefore, 
 
 (4) Resolved, That there shall be a standing committee, composed of one member 
 from the Faculty of each of the colleges adopting these regulations, whose duty it 
 shall be to supervise all contests in which students of their respective colleges may 
 engage, and approve all rules and regulations under which such contests may be 
 held. 
 
 The students who are selected to take part in college athletics are men of fine phy- 
 sique, who, in order to keep themselves in excellent condition, do not need the amount 
 654
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 127 
 
 of training which they get. Not infrequently these men have built up their bodies 
 on farms and in workshops, and are paying their way through college by tutoring 
 and other means. Time is of great importance to them ; but their physical powers 
 are in demand, and they are forcibly urged to join the " crow" or "nine," and work 
 for victory and athletic honors. This double draft upon their energies sometimes 
 costs them their degree, and obliges them to spend another year in college. Men 
 have even been induced to enter the professional schools after graduation that they 
 might help retain the championship in certain sports. 
 
 The evil of such a course is twofold : It tends to raise the standard of the sport be- 
 yond the capacity of the undergraduate, and thus limits the number that can par- 
 ticipate in it. It makes hard work of what was intended for a recreation, and some- 
 times obliges a young man to make serious changes in his plan of life. Therefore, 
 
 (5) Risolved, That no student shall be allowed to take part in any intercollegiate 
 contest as a member of any club, team, or crew, for more than four years. 
 
 The practice of playing match games in large cities for the sake of gate money has 
 crept into college sports within the past few years. The evils which result from this 
 practice are many. It leads to the introduction or retention of such features in the 
 games as tend to draw large crowds, independently of the merit of the game and the 
 spirit of fair play. It induces college men to put themselves in the hands of specula- 
 tors, who manipulate and manage them as they would any traveling combination 
 for the money to be made by it. It cultivates a passion for excitement in both play- 
 ers and speculators, which makes the ordinary field sports and gymnastic exercises 
 seem tame and uninteresting, thus depriving the great majority of college students 
 of a motive for physical exertion. Therefore, 
 
 (6) Resolved, That all intercollegiate games of base ball, foot ball, lacrosse, and cricket 
 shall take place upon the home grounds of one or other of the competing colleges. 
 
 Nearly every intercollegiate boat race in this country has been won at the end of 
 the third mile. The result has been a " procession " for the fourth mile, or a desperate 
 attempt on the part of the defeated crew to retrieve themselves. The consequent 
 tendency has been to lessen the interest in college boating, or to endanger the health 
 of the participants from over-exertion and heart-strain. The training of class crew* 
 is generally for two miles. The style of rowing for a four-mile race is essentially dif- 
 ferent from that of a two-mile race, and requires different qualifications. The work 
 of the class crew should be preparatory to that of the university crew. This is the 
 goal for which most of the members of the class crews are struggling, and they should 
 not be discouraged by having the difference in style and requirements too marked at 
 the outset. Therefore, 
 
 (7) Resolved, That no intercollegiate boat race shall be for a longer distance than 
 three miles. 
 
 As loiig as intercollegiate contests arc continued, the conditions under which th& 
 students of the different colleges compete should be as nearly equal as possible. It 
 is manifest that the conditions could not be equal should any college which adopts 
 these resolutions play with any college which does not adopt them. Therefore, 
 
 (8) Resolved, That the students of colleges in which these resolutions are in force 
 shall not be allowed to engage in games or contests with the students of colleges in 
 which they are not in force. 
 
 W. M. SLOANE (COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY), 
 
 Chairman. 
 D. A. SARGENT (HARVARD COLLEGE), 
 
 Secretary. 
 
 The recommendations of this circular failed of adoption by the con- 
 current action of five colleges, and no subsequent attempt has been 
 made to secure an intercollegiate athletic code. Of the code as pro- 
 posed it may be said that, though many of the colleges taking part in 
 
 655
 
 128 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 the conference concurred as to its general principles, it was judged that 
 its detailed working would entail hardships in many cases. The entire 
 field of athletics can hardly be controlled in accordance with a single 
 set of rules. It seems more feasible to have the rules under which 
 intercollegiate contests shall take place enacted by special conferences 
 touching each athletic interest, e. #., foot ball and base ball ; care being 
 taken to have the student organizations represented, as well as the dif- 
 ferent Faculties. 
 
 HARVARD'S ACTION REGARDING FOOT BALL. 
 
 Harvard, failing to secure the co-operation of other colleges for the 
 regulation of intercollegiate sports, has very recently forbidden the foot- 
 ball elevens of the university from engaging in any more intercollegiate 
 matches. This action was due to the belief that foot ball had become 
 a " brutal and dangerous" game. At Princeton, even more recently, i. e., 
 in February, 1885, the Faculty have, it is reported, conditioned their 
 consent to future participation by Princeton players in intercollegiate 
 foot-ball matches on the revision and improvement of the present ob- 
 jectionable rules of the game. It is a curious fact that our imitative 
 collegians, in adopting the Eugby game of foot ball, as has been so gen- 
 erally the case, have adopted one of the roughest of the English varie- 
 ties of the game. The influence of "Tom Brown at Eugby" may be 
 partly responsible for this. Foot ball is played in such different fash- 
 ions at the great English schools that interschool matches are less gen- 
 eral in England than are intercollegiate matches in the United States. 
 
 We have given the Yale view of athletics as expounded by Professor 
 Eichards, because that exposition may stand as the best utterance of 
 those who favor non-interference by college authorities in college ath- 
 letics. The following report to the Faculty of Harvard University by 
 its standing committee on athletics, is here given as an expression of 
 the Harvard idea of regulating what is deemed by them the most objec- 
 tionable of athletic games, viz., foot ball: 
 
 To the Faculty of Harvard College: 
 
 GENTLEMEN : On the 22d of November, 1883, the committee on athletics, believing 
 that the game of foot ball had begun to degenerate into a brutal and dangerous con- 
 test, informed the captain of the Harvard eleven that the team could not be allowed 
 to take part in any further intercollegiate match-game until substantial changes in 
 the rules had been made. According to the rules then existing a player could hack, 
 throttle, buff, trip up, tackle below the hips, or strike an opponent with closed fist 
 three times, before he was sent from the field. Changes in the rules were made im- 
 mediately, and they were subsequently adopted by the intercollegiate association. In 
 June of the present year the committee said to the captain of the Harvard team for 
 1884 that the eleven would be allowed to play during the following season, on the un- 
 derstanding that the games should be regarded as a test whether or not the changes 
 of rules had resulted in substantial changes of the character of the game. 
 
 At the beginning of this season your committee decided to attend the games of the 
 656
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 129 
 
 intercollegiate series, and to observe them carefully. We have attended four games, 
 the three of the Harvard-Yale- Princeton series, and one between Wesleyan and the 
 University of Pennsylvania, played in New York on the morning of Thanksgiving 
 day for the third place among the college teams. At each of the games we stationed 
 ourselves in different parts of the field, and observed and carefully noted what 
 seemed to us the objectionable feature of the play. Two of the games, those in which 
 the Harvard team took part, were very one-sided contests. In the Yale-Princeton and 
 Wesleyan-Pennsylvania games the opposing teams were very evenly matched. Of 
 the four games, the Yale-Harvard game was the least objectionable, and the Wes- 
 leyan-Pennsylvania game was the worst. 
 
 In every one of these games there was brutal fighting with the fists, where the men 
 had to be separated by other players, or by the judges and the referee, or by the by- 
 standers and the police. We saw one such case in the Harvard-Princeton game, two 
 in the Harvard- Yale game, three in the Yale-Princeton game, and three in the Wes- 
 leyan-Pennsylvania game. 
 
 In addition to these fights there were numerous instances where a single blow was 
 struck, instances that occurred in every one of the games. A man was felled by a 
 blow in the face in the Harvard-Princeton game, in the Harvard- Yale game, in the 
 Yale-Princeton game. In the Wesleyan-Pennsylvania game a man was thrown un- 
 fairly, out of bounds, by an opposing player. Then, as he was rising, but before he 
 was on his feet, his antagonist turned, struck him in the face and knocked him down, 
 and returned in triumph with the ball. 
 
 In all the games the manifestation of gentlemanly spirit was lacking the spirit 
 that scorns to take an unfair advantage of an opponent. The teams played to win by 
 fair means or by foul. 
 
 Unfair play, often premeditated and sometimes concerted, was a prominent feature 
 in all of the games, and, although not always successful, was rarely punished. Inten- 
 tional off-side play and unlawful interference with opponents who were not running 
 with the ball were the rule rather than the exception. The game is demoralizing to 
 the spectators mainly through its brutality ; unfair play they usually fail to recog- 
 nize. We often heard cries- of "Kill him!" " Break his neck !" "Slug him!" "Hit 
 him!" "Knock him down!" from those around us. That the game is dangerous needs 
 no argument. The Rugby game of foot ball, under the present rules, might perhaps 
 be played with advantage where public opinion was strong enough to make deliber- 
 ate attempts at unfair or brutal play impossible. There is, unfortunately, no such 
 controlling sentiment among college students. The nature of the game puts a pre- 
 mium on unfair play, inasmuch as such play is easy, is profitable if it succeeds, ia 
 unlikely to be detected by the referee, and if detected is very slightly punished. If 
 two teams are at all evenly matched, and one plays a gentlemanly and the other an 
 unfair game, the self-respecting team will always be beaten. The game is so com- 
 plicated, so confused, and covers so much ground, that no referee, however honest 
 and determined, can see half of what is going ou, especially since the judges, who 
 were originally intended to help him in securing fair play, have developed into cap- 
 tains of their teams, and purposely distract his attention and increase his difficulties. 
 
 After deliberate investigation we have become convinced that the game of foot ball, 
 as at present played by college teams, is brutal, demoralizing to players and specta- 
 tors, and extremely dangerous ; and we do not believe that at the present time, and 
 with the prevailing spirit, any revision of the rules made by the intercollegiate asso- 
 ciation could be effective in removing these objectionable features. 
 
 We therefore recommend that all games of foot ball be prohibited to students of 
 the college, except those played by our own men on our own grounds, and that these 
 shall be allowed only in case it shall prove possible to eliminate all objectionable 
 features from the game. We believe that foot ball, played in the proper spirit, under 
 proper conditions, may be made one of the mppt valuable of college sports, and we 
 
 657 
 5068^0. 5 9
 
 130 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 should deprecate its permanent loss. We have conferred with students interested in 
 the game at a meeting whero there was great unanimity of opinion concerning its 
 present objectionable character, and have grounds for hope that means may be de- 
 vised to make it a credit, in place of a disgrace, to the university. 
 
 JOHN WILLIAMS WHITE, 
 W. E. BYERLY, 
 D. A. SARGENT, 
 
 Committee on Athletics. 
 CAMBRIDGE, December 2, 1884. 
 
 The recommendation of this report, "that all games of foot ball be 
 prohibited to students of the college," was adopted by the Faculty by a 
 vote of twenty-four to five. 
 
 THE POLICY OF THE HARVARD COMMITTEE ON ATHLETICS. 
 
 Undoubtedly the firm stand taken at Harvard will have a stimulat- 
 ing and salutary effect upon the future action of other colleges. For 
 the purpose of showing that good results have already been secured 
 through the efforts of the committee on athletics, the following extract 
 from the correspondence of the New York Evening Post is subjoined : 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, Mass., February 12, 1885. 
 
 Athletics at Harvard are slowly undergoing a great change a change which, in 
 the judgment of all who have without prejudice watched the movement, is for the 
 better. In former days, when the Hemenway Gymnasium was as yet unbuilt, and 
 the little octagonal building which is now the university carpenter-shop was the only 
 place in which Harvard muscle could be cultivated, the college was overrun with 
 ruffians "professionals" in the worst sense of the term who exhibited their feats 
 to the students for hire. But this was not the worst. In many cases the object of the 
 "professional" was not the earning of honest money by the teaching of his specialty, 
 but the inducing of young men to go with him to the city under pretense of seeing 
 some athletic exhibition, in order there to initiate them into all kinds of vice and to 
 swindle them of their money. 
 
 This state of affairs has passed away. " Roughs" no longer have possession of the 
 gymnasium, but instead there are honest instructors and a capable manager. But the 
 war against professionalism still goes on. In this war the chief battlers are the three 
 men who form the athletic committee. 
 
 The committee is not appreciated by the students ; it is fashionable among them to 
 joke about, oppose, and argue against all its acts. They say that Latin and Greek 
 professors are not capable of managing athletics ; that their actions are uncalled for 
 and inefficient ; that, finally, the committee has no reason for existence. The only 
 thing that the students as a body will allow to the committee is " good intentions." 
 
 But this estimate is not supported by facts. The facts are that the members of the 
 athletic committee are all trained athletes as well as cultured men ; that they have 
 the good practical knowledge necessary for the conduct of athletic affairs, and that 
 they have a keen and friendly interest in all sports of the collegians. In fighting 
 against a tangible evil their actions have been called for, and in a great measure 
 efficient. 
 
 To those who are interested in Harvard athletics a clear statement of what this 
 committee is, will be interesting. It is a committee of the Faculty, the special duty 
 of which is the overseeing of all the athletic interests of the college. It may be said 
 with truth that the athletic committee is the Faculty as far as athletics are concerned ; 
 for any suggestion which they may make to the Faculty is almost certain to be ap- 
 proved by that body. 
 658
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 131 
 
 To those who have watched the progress of affairs from the first forbidding of base- 
 ball contests with professional players up to the late foot-ball manifesto and the dis- 
 missal of Colonel Bancroft as coach of the crews, the committee may seem to lack 
 plan and to be often inconsistent. But this is not so, their policy in every case being 
 " the greatest amount of exercise for the greatest number." 
 
 Under this policy foot ball, confined practically to eleven men, and base ball, also 
 limited to a small number of men, have been discouraged, while all gymnastic work 
 in which every member of the college can take part, all track athletics, which by 
 their nature are open to an almost unlimited number of men, tennis, etc., have been 
 encouraged. 
 
 To be convinced that this is so, one has only to look at the great prosperity of the 
 Athletic Association, the success of the Harvard Mott Haven teams, and the great 
 popularity and large entries in the fall, winter, and spring athletic contests. Wher- 
 ever, in short, the scientific accuracy with which any game comes to be played debars 
 from enjoyable exercise the general student, for whose benefit all sports ought to be, 
 that scientific accuracy has to be given up. 
 
 All exercise at college is for the purpose of keeping body and mind in fit condition 
 for study. When the means to this result become an end, then sport is abused and 
 reform is necessary. In short, the present policy of Harvard is that there should 
 be more sport and fewer "sports" about the college. The encouragement given to 
 boating here is often advanced to show that the acts of the committee are inconsist- 
 ent. The explanation is this : the real interest of the college in boating centers in 
 the class races. Each class has its own crew, from which the 'varsity draws its ma- 
 terial, and thus affords exercise to many men. But the class nines and the class elevens 
 exist only in name. Everything centers in the 'varsity nine or eleven and in the contest 
 with Yale. If the interest were centered in contests between evenly-matched nines 
 or elevens from the different classes, brighter days would dawn for foot ball and base 
 ball at Harvard. 
 
 Indeed, the dissatisfaction with the athletic committee, when examined closely, 
 seems to arise wholly from the popular jealousy of Yale and the disappointment of 
 men who hoped to win popularity among their fellows by helping to gain victories 
 over a rival college. But the committee treats with supreme indifference the ques- 
 tion whether Yale is to be beaten or not, and gives its attention wholly to making 
 enjoyable exercise attainable by every student of the college, and it is more anxious 
 to give this enjoyable exercise to the weak than to the strong. 
 
 One word about professionals. What is a professional? He is a man who depends 
 upon the exercise of his specialty to make a living. Such a man has frequently as- 
 sociations which unfit him to come in contact with young men in college. A man 
 who teaches only, and who is sober and honest, would not be ranked as a "profes- 
 sional." This is the general rule of employment of coaches and trainers of Harvard. 
 
 From the data here given it is easy to see what will be the future of Harvard ath- 
 letics. If, as it is hoped, every man, no matter how small or weak, can have plenty 
 of enjoyable exercise, then this future will be bright indeed. 
 
 We have now traced in outline the growth and development of gym- 
 nastics, military drill, and athletics, so far as the principal institutions 
 of superior instruction in the United States are concerned. Very few of 
 such institutions combine these three features in their course of phys- 
 ical training, as was the case in Fellenberg's schools, at Hofwyl, early 
 in the century. At Cornell University, however, military and gym- 
 nastic drill are required of certain classes of male students, and calis- 
 thenics are obligatory on the female students. 
 
 659
 
 132 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR SCHOLASTIC WOMEN. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF COLLEGIATE ALUMNJE. 
 
 The schools and colleges for women are, as a class, not so well organ- 
 ized on the side of physical training as are those for young men. That 
 the physical education of women is likely to receive more intelligent 
 attention than has been the case hitherto, may be inferred from the 
 appended circular of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae. 
 
 Physical education. The members of the Association of Collegiate Alumnae have had 
 their attention drawn very forcibly to the present need for physical education among 
 the women in our universities and colleges. They fully believe that college educa- 
 tion per se is physically beneficial, and that college statistics show an average of 
 health among women students higher than that among women at large ; but they also 
 realize that the physical status of American women of the educated class is painfully 
 low, and they believe that the colleges ought to be among the first to take measures 
 against this dangerous deterioration of physique. The following schedule, however, 
 shows how fragmentary has been the work done hitherto in the nine institutions rep- 
 resented in the association : 
 
 Lectures on physiology. 
 
 Lectures 
 on 
 hygiene. 
 
 Gymna- 
 sinm. 
 
 Calisthen- 
 ics (under 
 supervi- 
 sion). 
 
 Physician. 
 
 Hospital 
 and 
 nurse. 
 
 Voluntary 
 boat in e, 
 skating, 
 &c. (Lake.) 
 
 Oberlin 
 
 Oberlin . . . 
 
 Oberlin . . . 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vassar 
 
 
 Vassar 
 
 Vassar . . . 
 
 Vassar .. 
 
 Vassar 
 
 Vassar 
 
 Cornell 
 
 Cornell 
 
 Cornell 
 
 
 
 
 
 Michigan 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wisconsin. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Smith 
 
 Smith 
 
 Smith 
 
 Smith 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Wellesley . 
 
 Wellesley. 
 
 Wellesley . 
 
 Wellesley . 
 
 Welleslev. 
 
 Wesleyan 
 
 
 Wesleyan . 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vassar, Smith, and Wellesley are conducted on the dormitory system, Smith main- 
 taining separate " cottage " dormitories, and Wellesley giving choice of large or small 
 buildings. 
 
 Oberlin, Wisconsin, Cornell, and Wesleyan do not require students to board in col- 
 lege buildings. 
 
 Michigan and Boston do not provide boarding places. 
 
 One hour of physical exercise daily is required of students by Vassar and Wellesley. 
 
 A knowledge of elementary physiology is required for admission by Cornell. 
 
 The attainment of a certain standard of health is required for admission by Wellesley. 
 
 In view of these facts, tke members of this association, as women college graduates, 
 most earnestly and respectfully urge the following suggestions upon those interested 
 in the higher education of women, and especially (1) upon parents, (2) upon the gov- 
 erning bodies of institutions which grant degrees to women, and (3) upon the women 
 studying in these institutions. 
 
 The members of the association are convinced that the low standard of health 
 among women in and after college life is largely due to their common lack of physi- 
 cal training and disregard of the laws of health before they enter college. At six- 
 teen it is often too late to undo all the mistakes made during the most important 
 years of a girl's physical life. They therefore wish to call the careful attention of 
 parents everywhere to the following evils among school-girls, which threaten every 
 interest of educated women. 
 660
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 133 
 
 (1) Social dissipation and excitement, which is neither amusement nor recreation. 
 Girls are too often stimulated to shine socially and intellectually at the same time. 
 
 A mother proves her daughter's perfect health by saying, " She has been able to go 
 to parties or entertainments four or five evenings a week all winter, and she stands 
 at the head of her class ! " 
 
 (2) Habitual loss of sufficient and healthy sleep. 
 
 In a New York Academy, a class of sixty girls, between the ages of twelve and 
 eighteen, chanced to be asked by a recent visitor for the time they retired the night 
 before. The average was found to be twenty minutes before midnight ; but no sur- 
 prise was manifested by teachers nor regret by pupils. 
 
 (3) Irregularity and haste in taking food, the use of confectionery in the evening, 
 and the omission of breakfast. 
 
 The principal of a large girls' school in Philadelphia lately said that so many habit- 
 ually came to school without having taken sufficient breakfast, and taking little or 
 no lunch, that he had been compelled, in order to obtain good mental work, to have 
 a warm lunch furnished, and to insist upon the scholars taking it in the middle of the 
 morning. 
 
 (4) Tight, heavy, and insufficient clothing, which frightfully increases the tenden- 
 cies to consumption and spinal diseases. 
 
 A physician of wide experience confidently states that this cause alone has inca- 
 pacitated more women than over-study and over- work of all kinds. 
 
 (5) The lack of sufficient out-door exercise. When a proper amount of time is de- 
 voted to such exercise, no time will be left for over-study. 
 
 (6) The ambition of parents and daughters to accomplish much in little time, which 
 sends students to college either hurriedly and imperfectly prepared, or with a thorough 
 preparation gained at the expense of health. 
 
 (7) The usual postponement of instruction in the laws of physiology and hygiene to 
 a college course. Thus, daughters go out from their mother's care wholly ignorant 
 of the common laws by which they may increase and preserve the health upon which 
 every hope and ambition depends. 
 
 II. 
 
 The members of this association believe that these faults in home and school train- 
 ing, as well as those found in college schemes, can be reached most effectually through 
 the colleges. And, while recognizing the efforts already made in this direction, they 
 respectfully recommend to the consideration of college-governing bodies the follow- 
 ing remedies for existing evils: 
 
 (1) The introduction of a consistent, thorough, and scientific course of physical 
 education for women. 
 
 (2) The appointment of a thoroughly competent woman as an instructor in this de- 
 partment, who shall superintend the gymnasium, give practical courses of lectures, 
 and be, so far as possible, responsible for the general health of the women in her 
 classes. 
 
 Where the dormitory system obtains, the appointment of a resident physician is 
 also urged. 
 
 (3) The provision of an adequately equipped gymnasium. 
 
 (4) The provision of one or more courses of lectures by non-resident specialists on 
 physiology, hygiene, sanitation, heredity, athletics, gymnastics, etc. 
 
 (5) The provision of special libraries on subjects pertaining to physical education. 
 
 (6) Careful study in the construction of buildings for recitation and dormitory pur- 
 poses, with special reference to counteracting the acknowledged evils of the dormi- 
 tory system. 
 
 (7) The requirement (whenever practicable) that candidates for admission shall 
 reach a certain standard of attainment iu physical education. Physical health is 
 already required for admission by Wellesley College, and a knowledge of physiology 
 by Cornell University. 
 
 661
 
 134 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 III. 
 
 The women studying in our colleges are urged by the women graduates of these 
 colleges 
 
 (1) To bear constantly in mind in their own work the fact that the best intellectual 
 results cannot be attained without perfect physical health. 
 
 (2) To maintain a constant and sensible watch over their own habits as regards 
 sleep, exercise, food, dress, etc. Failure to take the requisite amount of sleep, food, 
 or exercise, should be lamented as much as failure in recitation. 
 
 (3) To form athletic associations for the promotion of wholesome exercise and the 
 stimulation of public opinion. 
 
 (4) To collect comparative statistics relating to the age, height, weight, size of 
 waist, breadth of chest, weight of clothing, etc., of women college students. Such 
 statistics should be taken at regular intervals throughout the college course. As 
 taken by Dr. Sargent, of Harvard University, in his ladies' gymnasium at Cam- 
 bridge, they have proved valuable as well as interesting. 
 
 The association hopes to publish a series of short, practical monographs on these 
 and similar subjects at some future time. Meanwhile, information in regard to the 
 practical working of these suggestions, many of which are already in operation, may 
 be obtained on application to any of the officers of the association: President, Mrs. 
 J. F. Bashford, University of Wisconsin, Auburndale, Mass.; vice-president. Miss F. 
 M. Cashing, Vassa.r College, 8 Walnut street, Boston, Mass.; secretary, Miss Marion 
 Talbot, Boston University, 66 Marlborough street, Boston ; treasurer, Miss Margaret 
 Hicks, Cornell University, Cambridge, Mass.; directors, Miss A. E. F. Morgan, Ober- 
 lin College, Wellesley, Mass.; Mrs. E. H. Richards, Vassar College, Jamaica Plain, 
 Mass. Miss A. E. Freeman, University of Michigan, Wellesley, Mass. ; Miss K. E. 
 Morris, Smith College, Hartford, Vt. ; Miss H. M. Peirce, Wellesley College, Newton 
 Center, Mass. 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING AT WELLESLEY COLLEGE. 
 
 Wellesley College, in Massachusetts, has a more highly organized 
 department of physical training than any other institution at present 
 devoted to the education of women. The Sargent system is followed 
 and out-of-door games are encouraged. Since 1880 all applicants for 
 admission have been required to present a certificate from some reputa- 
 ble physician that they were physically fit to undertake the course of 
 study prescribed in the institution. Out of 485 who presented such cer- 
 tificates in 1882-'83, 23 were found within nine months to be unable to 
 continue their studies on account of ill health. During the same year 
 470 students underwent physical examination touching the condition of 
 " spine, lungs, and heart," made by Miss E. H. Jones, M.D., the resi- 
 dent physician. Of these, 32 were found to have " narrow chests with 
 poorly developed lungs ;" 9 had valvular disease of the heart ; 2 had 
 hypertrophy of the heart ; 16 had curvature of the spine ; and 7 had 
 spinal irritation. 
 
 No woman's college in America, however, has a gymnasium which 
 approaches in costliness and completeness that of Bryn Mawr College, 
 soon to be opened, to which allusion has been made already. 
 
 662
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 135 
 
 LNSTBUCTION IN HYGIENE. 
 SUGGESTION OF THE APOSTLE ELIOT. 
 
 Lectures upon health topics were not uncommon in American col- 
 leges long before any systematic effort was made by any of them to 
 provide its students with practical facilities for living in obedience to 
 the laws therein enunciated. Even here American educators cannot 
 lay claim to originality, for in Basedow's Philanthropinum at Dessau, 
 in 1774, lectures were given by a physician on human anatomy and 
 physiology. It is not possible for the writer to state when such lectures 
 were first given to American students; but it is safe to surmise that 
 their date is not earlier than the year 1647, when the following rather 
 vague suggestion of a course of medical instruction for his Indian schol- 
 ars was penned by the Apostle Eliot. "I have thought in my heart," 
 he wrote to Thomas Shepard, the pious minister of Cambridge in Mas- 
 sachusetts, "that it were a singular good work if the Lord would stir 
 up the hearts of some or other of his people in England to give some 
 maintenance toward some schoole or collegiate exercise this way, wherein 
 there should be anatomies and other instructions that way." 
 
 LECTURES AT HARVARD. 
 
 In 1781, Dr. J. Warren, father of Dr. J. C. Warren, alluded to in the 
 early part of this paper as a lecturer on health to the students of Har- 
 vard College, at the request of the Boston Medical Society, " demon- 
 strated a course of anatomical lectures at the hospital in Boston." This 
 course was " quite public," and "some of the students of Harvard Col- 
 lege were permitted to attend." In 1784 the Harvard Medical School 
 was opened at Cambridge. Its first quarters proving unfit, the Holden 
 Chapel was fitted up, and lectures in anatomy, surgery, and materia 
 medica were delivered there. "The number of medical students who 
 attended was small, but as the president permitted the two elder classes 
 to attend the lectures the rooms were well filled." 
 
 It is not clearly shown in such statements as have come to our notice 
 that instruction on the nature of the human body has regularly been 
 provided for Harvard students since the time of those lectures alluded 
 to as having been delivered in Holden Chapel; but it is stated in 
 Quincy's "History of Harvard University" that in 1810, when the med- 
 ical school was removed to Boston, "the medical professors were re- 
 quired to deliver an annual course at Cambridge, adapted to resident 
 graduates and the Senior class of undergraduates." Dr. J. C. Warren, 
 in 1825, and Dr. James Jackson, in 1830, were in the habit of giving 
 such lectures. It is a part of Dr. Sargent's duty at the present day to 
 deliver lectures on personal hygiene and physical training to the stu- 
 pents of the university. 
 
 663
 
 136 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 LECTURES AT DARTMOUTH. 
 
 The first published announcement of the course of instruction at 
 Dartmouth College is contained in its catalogue for 1822. From it we 
 learn that the members of the two upper classes were " permitted to 
 attend all the lectures of the medical professors by paying a small fee." 
 In 1825 this fee amounted to 67 cents a term for Juniors, and to twice 
 that sum for Seniors. At present the Freshmen at Dartmouth are re- 
 quired to attend six lectures, and the Seniors twelve lectures, delivered 
 by the professor of science and practice of medicine in the medical 
 school. 
 
 INSTRUCTION IN HYGIENE AT OTHER COLLEGES. 
 
 Colleges of the present day very generally aim to give at least text- 
 book instruction in "anatomy, physiology, and hygiene." At Amherst, 
 Dr. Hitchcock instructs, both by lectures and recitations, the two lower 
 classes in these subjects, especial stress being laid upon hygiene, and 
 such has been his custom during almost all of his term of office, i. e., 
 since 1861. At Cornell University careful provision has been made 
 ever since its foundation, in 1868, for the study of human anatomy, 
 physiology, and hygiene. At Cornell, moreover, applicants for admis- 
 sion are required to pass an examination in physiology. 
 
 There is such a variety of usage in regard to the character and amount 
 of instruction in hygiene in our principal colleges that the facts con- 
 cerning it, so far as the inquiries made by the writer have elicited any 
 information on this head, may best be set forth in tabular form. 
 664
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 137 
 
 S 1 
 
 IT 
 
 g 
 
 a 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 o 
 
 ft 
 
 a 
 
 8 
 a 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 70 1st yr. r ; 88 2d yr. r. 
 
 
 
 ri 
 
 48 
 
 m 
 
 00 
 CM 
 
 All of 3d yr. r; prep, and Eng. o. 
 354 ; 169 m, 185 /. 
 
 15r ; lOo. 
 Nearly all Freshmen in university. 
 All Sophomores. 
 
 150; 861styr., 64 4th yr. 
 250 m in 1883. 
 
 15 m and 20 /, r ; 20 m and 25/ o. 
 
 6 3d yr. ; 5m,1 f, r. 
 All students o. 
 
 
 
 cf 
 
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 B 
 
 q" 
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 t=B Ss 
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 O 
 
 
 
 
 
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 : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 rt r* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Number of 
 lectures given 
 in 1S82~'83. 
 
 o 
 
 <B 
 rt 
 
 Not given 
 
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 o 
 
 in ^* in 
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 18;6tolstyr., 
 12 to 4th yr. 
 
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 ! I l i 
 
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 ractice 
 
 iructor. 
 
 a ' 
 
 5 "* 
 
 1 
 
 .3 
 tl 
 
 1 
 
 Name and title of teacher. 
 
 .. E. Hitchcock, sr., M. D., M. A., prof, 
 giene and physical education. 
 
 .. Prof, of natural history 
 . . J. Lindahl, Ph. D., prof, of natural scie 
 
 . . None reported 
 
 An 
 
 . . L. A. Lee, B. A., prof, of geology aud bi 
 
 . . L. W. Sperry, M. D., prof, of geology, zc 
 and physiology. 
 
 . G. W. Hubbard, M. D., lecturer; R.F 
 M. D., teacher of physiology. 
 
 .. A. W. Smith, D. D. S 
 
 . . B. G. "Wilder, M. D., prof, of physiology 
 parative anatomy, and zoology. v 
 
 . . C. P. Frost, M. D., prof, of science and p 
 of medicine (Dart. Med. School). 
 
 Prnf Rator \T Tl 
 
 . . Miss L. M. Saundereon ( for 1883-'84) , ins 
 
 .. F. A. Chase, A. M., prof, of physical sci 
 
 . . D. A. Sargent, A. B., M. D , asst. prof, oi 
 cal training and director of gymnasil 
 
 .. "W. A. Ford, M. D., instructor in p] 
 training. (?) 
 
 . . H. "W. Parker, A. B., prof, of natural hie 
 
 .. E. M. flartwoll, Ph. D., M. D., instru< 
 physical culture, 1882-'83. 
 
 ..| E. M. Shelton, B. Sc., professor 
 
 Location. 
 
 Amherst, Mass 
 
 Meadville.Pa 
 Rockford. Ill 
 
 Beloit, "Wis 
 
 P.Ajt/m \fn<3 
 
 Brunswick, Me 
 
 Roi-VoW f!a1 
 
 c fl : : 
 a H ! 
 
 J H ^ 
 
 \\ 1 1 1 
 
 fa ft (H M 
 
 Hanover, N. H 
 
 r.,.onr,nQotl Tn>1 
 
 Springfield, Mo 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 Cambridge, Mass . . . 
 
 ! Haver ford, Pa 
 
 \ Grinnell. Iowa 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 .; Manhattan, Kans... 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i .t 
 
 d 
 
 Name of institution 
 
 Amherst College 
 
 Allegheny College 
 Augustana College 
 
 Bcloit College 
 
 Bowdoin College 
 
 Carleton College 
 Central Tennessee Coll 
 
 Central University . . . 
 Cornell University 
 
 Dartmouth College 
 
 T>. 11., ,, ,,- TTr,;^n^aU.- 
 
 1 ! 
 
 - ti 
 
 5 > 
 
 i 5 
 * 
 ^ P 
 
 Fisk University 
 Harvard University .. 
 
 Haverford College 
 
 Iowa College 
 Johns Hopkins Univer 
 
 Kansas State Agric'l C 
 
 
 * 
 
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 * * 
 
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 00 S> O -* 
 
 CO C 
 
 ". -f 
 
 m to 
 
 S 
 
 00 0> 
 
 rl f-t 
 
 3 
 
 665
 
 138 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 Attendanco npon lectures. 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 2 ij 
 
 no - 
 
 o -9 1 
 S g I 
 
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 t . fi s e 
 K ( * -3 S 
 
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 fcf* 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 R 
 
 Traill Green. M. i)., prof, of chemistry; 
 Charles McJntyre, A. M., M. D., lecturer OB 
 hygiene. 
 
 J. Green, M. D., lecturer 
 
 J. M. Tyler, B. A., prof, biology (Am. College) . 
 
 V. C. Vaughan, Ph. D., M. D., professor of 
 physiological and pathological chemistry. 
 
 C. N. Htwitt, M. D., prof, of public health, and 
 Sec'y State Board of Health. 
 
 i Some one of instrnntors ._ 
 
 ; - 
 
 
 J. S. Schenck, M. D., LL. D., lecturer (?) .... 
 E. T. Nelson, Ph. D., professor 
 
 J. B. Scott will lecture on anatomy, physiolo- 
 gy, and hygieno, 1883-'64. 
 
 Miss Ruth lloppin, A. R. , instructor 
 J. J. Brown, LL.D., prof.chemistry and physics 
 H. Nicholson, B. A., prof, of natural history . . . 
 Chairman of Faeiilt.v. . 
 
 
 Hygieno not formally taught. The entire 
 training is based on personal hygiene. 
 
 Mary E. Allen, M. D., professor and resident 
 physician. 
 
 I 
 s 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 ! '5 i i : 
 
 
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 Location. 
 
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 Poughkeepsie, N. ^ 
 
 "NTa.al.T-illo Torm 
 
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 State Normal College. 
 
 1 : .? : : : ' 
 
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 U. S. Military Academy . . 
 
 TT S W.nrol A<.<wlnrmr 
 
 Vassar College 
 
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 >
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 139 
 
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 667 
 
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 '
 
 140 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 t I 
 
 - g 
 
 53 
 
 8 S 
 
 I s 
 
 I 
 
 Has a gymnasium or drill- 
 hall. 
 
 . 6 Pratt Gymnasinm. 
 
 XT_, .(._,! 
 
 . . Cheap frame, 1883, 24 x 96. 
 fi fin T An 
 
 . . 2 rm, each 35 \ 20. 
 
 ).. Gymnasium discontinued; 
 new one contemplated. 
 
 a" 
 { s 
 
 So - 
 M d J S 1 
 
 U 114 .g-J 
 
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 .. 6 1883. 
 
 . rm Armory, 40 x 90. 
 .. ii Gymnasinm. 
 
 
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 : : g : : j 9 
 
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 Subjects taught. 
 
 Human anatomy, physiology, and hyj 
 
 . Anatomy, physiology, andhygiene . . . 
 
 . Anatomy, physiology, and hygiene re< 
 . Anatomy, physiology., and personal h 
 
 . Anatomy, physiology, and hygiene . . . 
 
 . Anatomy, phys., public and personal 
 . Anatomy, physiology, and hygiene. . . 
 . Personal hygiene and physiology 
 
 Public and personal hygiene 
 . Anatomy, physiology, and hygiene . . 
 . Anatomy, physiology, and personal h; 
 
 
 . Anatomy, phyciology, aud hygiene . . . 
 do 
 
 Anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, 18f 
 
 . Anatomy, physiology, and hygiene. - . 
 . Anatomy and personal hygiene 
 
 te2*a 
 
 9.2 8 
 
 
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 3d yr. acad. 
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 p*. 
 
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 fcl) 
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 a 
 
 Name of institution. 
 
 Amherst College 
 Allegheny College . . . 
 
 Augustana College 
 Beloit College 
 
 Boston University 
 Bo wdoin College 
 
 University of California . . . 
 
 M : ' : : : ' 
 
 S j i : * 
 
 a $ -& i? & g : : 
 
 a 111 s I : -& 
 
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 = III 5 s t g 
 
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 fl H p fa 1 fc g | 
 
 | 11 =3 lib* 3 
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 o ooo OPPS 
 
 Harvard University 
 
 Haverford College 
 Iowa College 
 
 Johns Hopkins University . . 
 
 Kansas State Agricultural Co 
 Lafayette College 
 
 
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 668
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
 141 
 
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 . . Anatomy, physiology, and persona 
 . Hvciene and sanitary science. . . 
 
 . . Public and personal hygiene 
 . . Physiology and hygiene, 1st year t 
 
 . . Personal hygiene by personal ad 1 
 Goldie; human anatomy taught 
 
 . . Human anatomy and physiology . . 
 
 .. Anatomy, physiology, o. Persona 
 Anatomy, phj'siologj', and pub. an 
 
 Comparative anatomy and phj'sic 
 giene taught incidentallj'. 
 
 . . Human anatomy, physiology, and 
 . . Anatomy and physiology 
 . . Personal hygiene inculcated 
 .. do .. 
 
 . . Anatomy and phys., o. Personal '. 
 
 \V>t, tnnp-ht. ... 
 
 . . None reported, exercises in mil. sci 
 . . Anatomy and physiology 
 . . Physiology and personal hygiene 
 .. Anatomy, physiologj', and hygiene 
 
 .. Anatomy and physiology 
 . . Anatomy, physiology, and hygiene 
 
 Iv flvciene . . . 
 
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 ti 
 
 described) 25 o, 
 >, 10 /. 
 
 st yr. r 
 
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 ; : s 
 : : 8 
 
 
 
 
 
 U niversity 
 husettsState Agricultural Col- 20 2 
 
 sity of M iunesota (Ur 
 
 M 
 
 sity of Nashville State Normal 28 I 
 ge- 
 
 of New Jersey 
 'esley an University 122, 
 
 College 
 BO University 
 sity of Tennessee 21 r 
 
 State Agricultural College 
 JoMege - 
 
 ilitary Academy 
 
 I : 
 
 'if,' 
 
 4 | l t 
 
 a State Agricultural College 
 agton University 
 Lej- College 
 
 an Universitv 4 Is 
 
 3c 
 
 sity of Wooster 
 sity of Wisconsin 
 
 t 
 f 
 1 
 
 0) < O 
 
 eo S 5: 5: 
 
 = ^ 3 a 
 
 X P P 
 
 co in 
 
 ! W 91 
 
 Ohio Wes 
 Penns.ylv 
 
 Smith Co 
 
 <s -- 
 
 X ' 
 
 2 '2 
 
 OJ P 
 
 Texas St 
 Tufts Col 
 
 5 
 
 b* 
 
 U. S. Nav 
 Vassar C 
 
 Vanderbi 
 Virginia 
 
 Washing 
 Wellefclej 
 
 I 
 
 i 
 ^ 
 
 Uuiversi 
 
 Universit 
 
 Yale Coll 
 
 % g 
 
 CO 
 
 CO CO 
 
 S ift 
 
 CO CO 
 
 o 
 
 CO 
 
 S % 
 
 o o 
 
 CO 
 
 ^-1 (M 
 
 M 
 
 $ 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 669
 
 142 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 i 
 I 
 1 
 
 I 
 
 a< 
 
 s .5 
 
 1 
 
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 670
 
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 143 
 
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 A. B. Brown, 1883-'84, in 
 
 D A. Sargent, A. B., 1! 
 physical training nnd 
 cuway Gymnasium. 
 
 W. A. Ford, M. D., direc 
 None reported . . . 
 
 kji a <i W ^ 
 
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 Place apparently vacai 
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 J. J. Chickerine, B. A . . 
 
 George Goldie, supt. of 
 
 J. H. Grove, asst. prof, 
 awaken an interest ii 
 
 None reported . . . 
 
 ^ 
 
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 1 
 
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 Col. S. B. Crawford, com 
 
 C. T. Crane, 1st lieut. U. 
 cor assists. 
 
 Department unorcaniz 
 
 00 
 
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 a 
 
 
 
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 2 
 
 
 Drury College 
 Fisk University. .. 
 
 Harvard University 
 
 Havorford College 
 Iowa College 
 
 II I . I 
 
 P tX tJD -g 55 tfl g 
 
 00 ^1 U rr. ^ 
 
 Q ^- aa JZ''t.^ 
 
 3 1 5 | go ^ 
 
 4 M 3 ^S a a P 
 
 University of Minnesota 
 
 University of Nashvi 
 State Normal College. 
 
 National Deaf-MuteColl 
 
 College of New Jersey . 
 
 Ohio "Wesleyan Universi 
 Pennsylvania College... 
 
 Smith College . . 
 
 Syracuse University. . . 
 
 University of Tennessee 
 
 Texas State Agricultm 
 College. 
 
 Tufts College... 
 
 
 ?! ?3 ?3 
 
 m m n 
 
 671
 
 144 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 
 g bo ^ 
 
 
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 2 
 
 
 
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 1 
 
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 38 g |? | 5 
 
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 9 
 
 
 
 
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 g 
 
 
 f. .2 'g.3 g 
 02 02 M tl 
 
 N w 
 
 5 
 
 
 Attendance on drill in 1882-'83 ; 
 required unless otherwise 
 stated. 
 
 G. required ef all Ist-year men ; 
 mil. d. required of all cadets. 
 
 G. required of all Ist-year ca- 
 dets, and drill of nil cadets. 
 
 All able-bodied students 
 o for all, 6 hours weekly 
 
 1n r, * 1 hr 19. -wAftta 
 
 20 1st year, 17 2d year, r; 16 3d 
 year, 10 4th year, o. 
 
 350 /, r, 50 o, 2 t, J ftr, 20 weeks . 
 
 All males, 4J hours weekly 
 All m, 145 in 1882-'83 j since 1874. 
 'FYfishmnn. 2i\ term . . 
 
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 672
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 145 
 
 DEf. BOWDI'ICH ON THE TEACHING OF HYGIENE. 
 
 In 1876 Dr. H. I. Bowditch, of Boston, Mass., delivered the Centen- 
 nial Address before the International Medical Congress, in Philadelphia, 
 on Public Hygiene in America. In the appendix to the volume in 
 which the address is found, Dr. Bowditch gives summary statements 
 setting forth the results of his correspondence with (a) sixty-two Ameri- 
 can universities and colleges, and with (&) twenty-three medical colleges, 
 relative to the amount of instruction given by these institutions in pub- 
 lic and private hygiene and physical culture. Under the first head 
 Dr. Bowditch's conclusions are as follows : 
 
 (1) Instruction on public hygiene and state preventive medicine is wofully neg- 
 lected. 
 
 (2) On private hygiene only about one-third of the colleges give any instruction. 
 
 (3) A full special course of instruction on either of the above themes is almost un- 
 known. 
 
 (4) Incidental}}/, in connection with some other not necessarily allied subject, and 
 therefore inefficiently, the topics are treated of by about three-fourths of the colleges, 
 while one-fourth of them do not even perform this small duty in this most important 
 matter. Meanwhile, although the instructors of the colleges thus neglect important 
 duties, the youths, of their own free will, and at times lately with the aid and coun- 
 sel of the college governments, have commenced athletic sports. This will gradually 
 force the colleges to take, on their own parts, a higher position. 
 
 His conclusions under the second head, i. e., as regards medical col- 
 leges, are 
 
 (1) Only a little more than one-third of the colleges pay any attention to public or 
 private hygiene. 
 
 (2) A still smaller proportion notice state preventive medicine. 
 
 (3) Only about one-fifth have special professors and special courses in hygiene. 
 
 (4) About one-half say they have subsidiary teaching given by various professors 
 in other departments. 
 
 
 
 PRESENT TEACHING OF HYGIENE IN MEDICAL COLLEGES. 
 
 The Report of the Commissioner of Education for 1882-'83 enumerates 
 eighty schools of medicine of the class known as "regular." About 
 one-half of them, as shown in the following table, advertise to teach 
 something of hygiene to candidates for their diplomas. An inspection 
 of this and the preceding table affords evidence that there has been 
 some slight improvement in the amount of attention given to hygiene 
 in colleges and medical schools since Dr. Bowditch's investigation in 
 
 1876. 
 
 673 
 5068 No. 5 10
 
 146 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 Title of teacher. 
 
 )f materia medica, therapeutics, hygiene, and botany. 
 
 
 
 .q 
 
 
 )f physiology and lecturer on hygiene. 
 )f State medicine and public hygiene. 
 
 )f State medicine and hygiene. 
 )f hygiene, adjunct professor of practice. 
 
 n etiology and hygiene. 
 )f physiology and hygiene. 
 
 )f physiology, hygiene, and clinical medicine, 
 f physiology and clinical medicine, lecturer on hygiene. 
 
 if physiology, pathology, general therapeutics, and 
 y'giene. 
 
 1 
 6 
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 >f materia inedica, therapeutics, and hygiene. 
 )f hygiene and clinical dermatology, 
 n hygiene, 
 jf physiology and hygiene. 
 
 >f clinical medicine and hygiene. 
 )f sanitary science and hygiene. 
 >f diseases of children and hygiene. 
 >f theory and practice of medicine and hygiene, 
 tor of anatomy and lecturer on hygiene. 
 
 f principles of medicine and hygiene, materia medica, 
 ipeutics. 
 
 >f hygiene and forensic medicine. 
 
 
 Pessor ( 
 
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 >hn J. McAlmont, M. D. 
 
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 San Francisco 
 
 Denver, Colo 
 
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 artment, Arkansas Indus 
 
 irtment, University of Cn 
 
 ical College 
 
 (lical College 
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 lysicians and Surgeons.. 
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 dical College 
 
 cal College of Chicago .. 
 
 age of Indiana 
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 674
 
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 Frances Emil\ 
 
 W. P. Jones, : 
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 Chirurgical College of Philadel 
 
 'a Mpilical ro1]r nf Ppniisvlv 
 
 le Medical College 
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 1 "The subject of public hy 
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 675
 
 148 
 
 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 TABLK Xo. 19. Nature and amount of instruction in hygiene given in American medical schools for 1882-'83 Continued. 
 
 Books recom- 
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 pital. 
 
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 23. Northwestern Medical College of Saint 
 24 Saint Joseph Medical College 
 25. Missouri Medical Collet ... 
 
 Southern Medical College . 
 Chicago Medical College 
 College of Physicians and Surgeo 
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 676
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 
 
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 677
 
 150 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 The foregoing table is compiled from as complete a set of catalogues 
 of medical schools as was accessible to the compiler of this Keport. It 
 appears, however, from the conspectus of the medical schools of America, 
 including those of Canada, published by the Illinois State Board of 
 Health, received as we go to press, that in 1882-'83 there were 42 Amer- 
 ican medical schools having "chairs" of hygiene. Of these, 32 were 
 regular, 7 homeopathic, and 3 eclectic. In 1S83-'S4 the number had 
 increased to 80, of which 63 were regular, 8 homeopathic, 7 eclectic, 
 and 2 physio-medical. So large an increase in "chairs of hygiene" is 
 surprising. If they are indeed " chairs," and not stools, it is encourag- 
 ing as well. We are inclined to suspect that many of them have been 
 manufactured to order, on account of the action of the Illinois State 
 Board of Health, whose schedule of minimum requirements, adopted 
 in 1880 as its standard for determining the status of medical colleges 
 under the Medical Practice Act of that State, took effect at the close of 
 the lecture sessions of 18S2-'83. Of the ten branches of medical science 
 included in that schedule, hygiene is one, being placed ninth on the list. 
 
 THE STUDY OF HYGIENE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 Elementary physiology, or, as it is usually entitled, "anatomy, physi- 
 ology, and hygiene," is very generally given a place in the courses of 
 study laid down for high schools, academies, and normal schools. If we 
 were to base an opinion simply on the statements of catalogues and 
 schedules, we might believe that hygiene, under the name of physiology, 
 received ample attention in our secondary schools. But if any one who 
 knows the difference between modern and mediaeval notions regarding 
 the nature and needs of the human body will glance at the text-books 
 used, and inform himself as to the antiquated and unreal methods of in- 
 struction, he will cease to wonder at the unsatisfactory results thus far 
 attained in attempting to teach the laws of health. It would be diffi- 
 cult to devise more unscientific and unnatural educational methods and 
 practices than those which obtain in a very large proportion of the med- 
 ical schools of the country. When medical men are so generally trained 
 after vicious methods and amid unsanitary surroundings, it is too much 
 to expect that the ordinary school committee-man and the average 
 teacher will be anxious or able to work intelligently and successfully 
 for the natural and healthy mental and bodily development of those 
 intrusted to their charge. Of the J19 normal schools classed as public 
 in the Report of the Commissioner of Education, at least 75, in 1882, 
 specify physiology and hygiene in their courses of study. Less than 
 one-quarter of them require gymnastics of their pupils. 
 
 REFORMS NEEDED. 
 
 The principles of hygiene and hygiene is simply applied physiology 
 cannot be clearly and intelligently taught, much less authoritatively 
 enforced, either in superior or secondary schools, KO long as the main de- 
 
 G78
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 151 
 
 pendence of teachers is upou lesson cramming from text-books burdened 
 with antiquated statements and exploded hypotheses. But much more 
 is demanded in the domain of school and college hygiene, using the 
 term broadly, than would be embraced in simply reforming methods of 
 instruction. There is the additional need, not only of sanitary inspec- 
 tion and regulation of schools and scholars, but also of a thorough 
 overhauling and general disinfection of the courses of instruction and 
 of the rules and regulations for the conduct and control of teachers and 
 taught. It is within the mark to say that the majority of our educa- 
 tional schemes and practices, especially in the field of female educa- 
 tion, are not in harmony with the laws and facts of modern physiology 
 and psychology. The need of such harmony is beginning to be appre- 
 hended. To bring about a clear and general recognition of its need, 
 not to speak of its realization, will require a vast amount of patient 
 and skilled labor on the part of the growing baud of writers and work- 
 ers who are concerning themselves alike about the physical and the 
 mental well-being of the student class. 
 
 OPINION OF PROFESSOR HUXLEY ON ELEMENTARY INSTRUCTION IN 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 The following opinion expressed by Professor Huxley, in an address 
 on "Elementary Instruction in Physiology," seems pertinent and weighty 
 in this connection : 
 
 It is, I think, eminently desirable that the hygienist and the physician should find 
 something in the public mind to which they can appeal ; some little stock of univer- 
 sally acknowledged truths, which may serve as a foundation for their warnings, and 
 predispose toward an intelligent obedience to their recommendations. 
 
 Listening to ordinary talk about health, disease, and death, one is often led to en- 
 tertain a doubt whether the speakers believe that the course of natural causation 
 runs as smoothly in the human body as elsewhere. 
 
 Hence, I think, arises the want of heartiness of belief in the value of knowledge 
 respecting the laws of health and disease, and of the foresight and care to which 
 knowledge is the essential preliminary, which is so often noticeable, and a corres- 
 ponding laxity and carelessness in practice, the results of which are too frequently 
 lamentable. 
 
 I am not sure that the feeling expressed in the doctrine that all disease is brought 
 about by the direct and special interference of the Deity does not lie at the bottom 
 of the minds of a great many people who yet would vigorously object to give a verbal 
 assent to the doctrine itself. However this may be, the main point is, that sufficient 
 knowledge has now been acquired of vital phenomena to justify the assertion that 
 the notion that there is anything exceptional about-these phenomena receives not a 
 particle of support from any known fact. On the contrary, there is a vast and in- 
 creasing mass of evidence that birth and death, health and disease, are as much parts 
 of the ordinary stream of events as the rising and setting of the sun, or the changes 
 of the moon ; and that the living body is a mechanism, the proper working of which 
 we deem health ; its disturbance, disease ; its stoppage, death. The activity of this 
 mechanism is dependent upon many and complicated conditions, some of which are 
 hopelessly beyond our control, while others are readily accessible, and are capable of 
 being indefinitely modified by our own actions. The business of the hygienist and of 
 the physician is to know the range of these modifiable conditions, and how to influ- 
 
 079
 
 152 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 ence them toward the maintenance of health and the prolongation of life; and the 
 business of the general public is to give an intelligent assent and a ready obedience, 
 based upon that assent, to the rules laid down for their guidance by such experts. 
 But an intelligent assent is an assent based upon knowledge, and the knowledge here 
 in question means an acquaintance with the elements of physiology. 
 
 From our point of view it is quite as necessary, though in a different 
 degree, for the educator, as for the hygienist and the physician, " to 
 know the range of these modifiable conditions" to which Professor 
 Huxley alludes. Those who contemn or ignore the knowledge of such 
 conditions and the means of influencing them, contemn or ignore that 
 fundamental attribute of human nature which renders man capable of 
 self-improvement and perfectibility through the exercise and training 
 of his faculties. We may, and too often do, lose sight of the interde- 
 pendence of the mind and body ; but none the less is it impossible to 
 separate the two and train either independently of the other; for, as was 
 well said by Sterne, " The body and mind are like a jerkin and its lining. 
 If you rumple the one you rumple the other." 
 
 CONCLUDING REMARKS AND SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 OUTLOOK FOR THE FUTURE. 
 
 We have now considered the peculiar features of the origin and devel- 
 opment in American schools and colleges of physical training in its three 
 principal branches, viz., gymnastics, military drill, and athletics, and 
 have endeavored to indicate the nature and extent of the instruction 
 undertaken in the science of personal hygiene. The present condition 
 of affairs is such as to lead us to hope for even better results than those 
 attained within the last twenty-five years. College authorities and 
 patrons are very generally awake, or are awakening, to the necessity of 
 providing better instruction and facilities for the physical training of 
 the youth of either sex. With a very few, but very marked, exceptions, 
 however, our colleges have not emerged from that stage of development 
 in which the needs of physical training are supposed to be met by the 
 construction and furnishing of a fine gymnasium building. Even in 
 such institutions as have placed their gymnasia and their gymnastics 
 under the charge of a medical director, only a beginning has been ef- 
 fected toward organizing the department on a broad, scientific, and 
 thoroughly educational basis. It is a good thing to have taken the 
 control of college gymnasia out of the hands of ignorant and low-toned 
 trainers and athletes. Laudable results have already been brought to 
 pass through putting the department of physical education into the 
 hands of educated medical men. But a much more liberal outlay of 
 imagination and money than has yet been expended in any of our col- 
 leges is indispensable to render such departments thoroughly and effi- 
 ciently adequate to the demands that may fairly be made upon them. 
 680
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 153 
 
 QUALIFICATIONS OF A DIRECTOR OF A COLLEGE GYMNASIUM. 
 
 The director of a college gymnasium should possess sufficient aca- 
 demic and professional training to entitle him to a place in the Faculty, 
 and to insure him the respect of his colleagues. The supply to meet 
 even the present demand for such men is not large. The director's 
 duties should be mainly those of a friendly medical, or rather hygienic, 
 adviser of young men in regard to their habits of study, exercise, and 
 recreation. He should be expected to make a close study of the bodily 
 and mental peculiarities of those under his charge, not only for the 
 purpose of diagnosis in individual cases, but also for the purpose of 
 contributing the results of his observations toward the determination 
 of the physical and mental constants of the student class. The director 
 should have a sufficient staff of assistants subject to his orders to pro- 
 vide safe and graded instruction in the principal gymnastic and athletic 
 specialties. It should be within the director's province to forbid men 
 to take part in contests and exhibitions, when, in his judgment, on ac- 
 count of insufficient or improper training, or because of structural or 
 functional weakness, such participation would be likely to prove injuri- 
 ous. He should also, by lectures or otherwise, give regular and genuine 
 instruction in personal hygiene. 
 
 PROPOSED SCHEME FOR ORGANIZING A COLLEGE DEPARTMENT OF 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL TRAINING. 
 
 The following may serve to indicate what, in the opinion of the writer, 
 should be the ends aimed at in the establishment and maintenance by 
 a college or university, whether for men or women, of a department of 
 personal hygiene and physical training. 
 
 Three special ends are to be subserved in such a department : 
 
 Firstly, The instruction of students in the laws of health, such instruc- 
 tion to be based upon an exposition of the modern doctrine of the hu- 
 man body. 
 
 Secondly, The guidance of students in a systematic attempt to at- 
 tain sound bodies and vigorous normal functions by means of gym- 
 nastic exercise, the use of developing appliances, and the non-abuse 
 of athletic sports and scholastic work, such guidance being based upon 
 a careful examination into and study of the bodily endowments, consti- 
 tutional peculiarities, and mental habits of the individuals under guid- 
 ance. The counsel and direction of the director should be seconded by 
 the instruction of special teachers in the principal branches of gymnas- 
 tics and athletics, such teachers to be subject to his control and super- 
 vision. 
 
 Thirdly, The scientific study of the natural history "of the student class. 
 
 Toward the furtherance of these ends a well-equipped gymnasium and 
 
 681
 
 154 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 ample and conveniently-arranged play-grounds are indispensable, and 
 the director should be expected to give 
 
 (I) Instruction (a) by means of lectures; (&) by marking out a course 
 of reading ; (c) by anatomical and physical demonstrations ; (d) by hold- 
 ing examinations. Undergraduate students should be required and 
 other students allowed to attend such instruction. 
 
 The lectures might be grouped advantageously as follows: (1) on 
 the nature and needs of the human body, in connection with demonstra- 
 tions (a) on the skeleton, (6) with anatomical preparations, and (c) by 
 means of physiological apparatus ; (2) on the theory and practice of 
 exercise and training; (3) on selected topics in public and personal 
 hygiene ; (4) on the aims and means of modern medicine, with hints 
 as to the selection of medical advisers. 
 
 (II) Guidance, by means of personal suggestions, advice, and di- 
 rection. Each undergraduate student should be required, and all oth- 
 ers encouraged, to undergo a physical examination by the director, 
 in order that he may be enabled to prescribe such exercises and the use 
 of such developing appliances and measures as may be appropriate to 
 the special needs of each individual. Each student should be examined 
 at least twice a year, and the results of such examinations should be 
 carefully recorded and tabulated. 
 
 (III) By making statistical and scientific reports of observations 
 and experiments. The director should record, analyze, and discuss the 
 results of his observations, measurements, and examinations; and be 
 encouraged to investigate the problems appertaining to the develop- 
 ment and maintenance of normal bodily and mental functions in mem- 
 bers of the student class, to the end that physical education may be 
 put upon a rational basis. 
 
 It is only through a wise combination of gymnastic training and 
 athletic sports that the best results can be hoped for or attained. Ath- 
 letic sports can, if wisely managed and supervised, be made most serv- 
 iceable in securing manliness and self-control to those engaging in 
 them. The abandonment of them as a general "elective course" to 
 the unregulated control -of unripe and inexperienced youth is, to say 
 the least, unwise. He who shall consider intelligently and critically, 
 in the light of our present knowledge of brain and nerve and muscle 
 physiology, the various games and sports which are deservedly popular, 
 and shall show wherein they are valuable as a means to manly and 
 womanly development, cannot fail of contributing greatly to the ad- 
 vancement of pedagogical science. 
 
 So dense is the present ignorance, not only of the mass of the people, 
 but also of a large section of the educated portion of the community, 
 concerning the elementary truths of biological science in general and 
 of psycho-physical science in particular, that it would be well-nigh 
 hopeless to attempt to institute and administer any thorough-going 
 system of physical training as a part of the system of public instruction 
 682
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 155 
 
 in even the most enlightened States of the Union. Until the modern 
 doctrine of bodily exercise is more generally apprehended, we can only 
 look for sporadic efforts and fragmentary and discordant results in so 
 much of the field of physical training as the richer and more advanced 
 colleges and universities may occupy. The German, Swedish, and 
 French systems of physical training and of educating teachers in gym- 
 nastics are well worth studying; but the greatest present need is to 
 educate trustees, committee-men, teachers, and physicians in physiology 
 and hygiene. 
 
 DU BOIS-KEYMOND ON EXEBCISE. 
 
 One of the pioneers and masters in modern physiology, Professor Du 
 Bois-Heymond, of the University of Berlin, has given an admirable 
 statement of the physiology of exercise. He says : 
 
 By exercise we commonly understand the frequent repetition of a more or less com- 
 plicated action of the body with the co-operation of the mind, or of an action of the 
 mind alone, for the purpose of being able to perform it better. We seek in vain in 
 most physiological text-books for instruction respecting exercise ; if it is given, only 
 the so-called bodily exercises are generally considered, and they are represented as 
 merely exercises of the muscular system; therefore, it is not strange that laymen in 
 medicine, professors of gymnastics, and school teachers, generally believe that. Yet it 
 is easy to show the error of this view and demonstrate that such bodily exercises as 
 gymnastics, fencing, swimming, riding, dancing, and skating are much more exercises 
 of the central nervous system, of the brain and spinal marrow. It is true that these 
 movements involve a certain degree of muscular power ; but we can conceive of a 
 man with muscles like those of the Farnesian Hercules, who would yet be incom- 
 petent to stand or walk, to say nothing of his exerting more complicated movements. 
 
 Thus it becomes clear, if proof were needed, that every action of our body as a 
 motive apparatus depends not less, but more, upon the co-operation of the muscles 
 than upon the force of their contraction. In order to execute a composite motion, 
 like a leap, the muscles must begin to work in the proper order, and the energy of 
 each one of them (in Helmholtz's sense) must increase, halt, and diminish according 
 to a certain law, so that the result shall be the proper position of the limbs and the 
 proper velocity of the center of gravity in the proper direction. Since the nerves only 
 transmit the impulses coming from the motor-ganglion cells, it is evident that the 
 peculiar mechanism of the composite movements resides in the central nervous system, 
 and that consequently exercise in such movements is really nothing else than exercise 
 of the central nerve-system. This possesses the invaluable property that the series 
 of movements, if we may speak thus, which take place in it, frequently, after a defi- 
 nite law, are readily repeated in the satne order, with the same swell and ebb and 
 intricacy, whenever a singly felt impulse of the will demands it. Thus all the bodily 
 exercises we have mentioned above are not merely muscle gymnastics, but also, and 
 that pre-eminently, nerve gymnastics, if for brevity we may apply the term nerves 
 to the whole nervous system. 
 
 Still, something else than the control of the muscles by the motor-nervous system 
 comes into consideration in most composite movements. The sight, the sense of press- 
 ure, and the muscular sense, and finally the mind, must be prepared to take in the po- 
 sition of the body at each instant, so that the muscles may be in a proper state of 
 adjustment; this is plainly shown in the exercises of fencing, playing billiards, rope- 
 dancing, vaulting on horses in motion, or leaping down a mountain slope. Thus not 
 only the motor, but the sensor nervous system also, and the mental functions, are capa- 
 ble of being exercised, and need it ; and the muscles again appear to acquire a deeper 
 
 C83
 
 156 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 importance in gymnastics. What is said here of the coarser bodily movements ap- 
 plies equally to all skilled work of the highest as well as of the lowest kind. 
 Although a Liszt or a Rubinstein without an iron muscularity of arm cannot be 
 thought of, and although, likewise, the movements of Joachim's bow during a sym- 
 phony may correspond to many kilogram-meters, still their power as virtuosos resides 
 in their central nerve-system. When Lessing asked whether Raphael would have been 
 any the less a great painter if he had been born without hands, he perceived this truth. 
 Is it necessary to add that the same principle applies to all the movements as well as 
 to those of the hands? that, for example, vocal culture rests upon no other one? 
 
 . The modem ideal of manly excellence is more nearly related to the 
 Greek ideal than to the monkish or even the knightly. When modern 
 methods for the realization of the modern ideal are perfected, they will 
 doubtless as far surpass the methods of the Greeks as the physiology 
 of Du Bois Eeymond surpasses that of Plato. Meanwhile, the true end 
 a,nd aim of physical training in America is the same that Plato enun- 
 ciated, namely, that the bodies of the trained may, better than those of 
 the untrained, minister to the virtuous mind. 
 
 And once more [to continue in Plato's words], when a body large and too strong for 
 the soul is united to a small and weak intelligence, then, inasmuch as there are two 
 desires natural to man, one of food for the sake of the body, and one of wisdom for 
 the sake of the diviner part of us, then, I say, the motions of the stronger, getting 
 the better and increasing their own power, but making the soul dull and stupid and 
 forgetful, engender ignorance, which is the greatest of diseases. There is one pro- 
 tection against both kinds of disproportion, that we should not move the body with- 
 out the soul, or the soul without the body, and thus they will aid one another and 
 be healthy and well balanced. Aud therefore the mathematician, or any one else 
 who devotes himself to some intellectual pursuit, must allow his body to have motion 
 also, and practice gymnastics; and he who would train the limbs of the body should 
 impart to them the motions of the soul, and should practice music and all philosophy, 
 if he would be called truly fair and truly good. 
 684
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN GERMANY. 
 
 Physical training has been accorded a considerable place in the educational sys- 
 tems of the principal countries of Europe, including Germany, Sweden and Norway, 
 Switzerland, France, Austria, Belgium, ard Denmark. It would be interesting and 
 instructive to compare the systems of physical training now in vogue in these coun- 
 tries with what has been attempted and accomplished in Great Britain and the United 
 States. The writer originally intended to embody such a comparison in this report, 
 but found it impossible to gather, from the libraries to which he had access, sufficient 
 data ou which to base a comprehensive and accurate account of the actual working 
 of physical education in any of the foreign countries named above. 
 
 Since the foregoing pages were prepared for publication, the writer has visited 
 Germany, and, through personal observation and inquiry, made a tolerably compre- 
 hensive study of German methods of physical training, especially of those which 
 obtain in Prussia. While he would not disparage the merits of the gymnastic train- 
 ing given in the schools of Sweden, Switzerland, and France, and of other coun- 
 tries which he was likewise unable to visit, the writer inclines to the opinion that 
 the Prussian system is the most highly developed and the best organized of its 
 kind, and is, therefore, more worthy than any other of close study on the part of 
 those who desire to check the present tendency to brain-forcing in the education of 
 American youth. 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF GERMAN GYMNASTICS. 
 
 English and American writers on education have very generally either entirely neg- 
 lected, or largely failed to apprehend, the lessons which German experience teaches in 
 regard to physical education. 
 
 The German for gymnastics is Turnkunst, or Turnen, though the term Gymnasiik oc- 
 curs not infrequently, especially in the earlier writings. Turnplatz and Turnhalle cor- 
 respond respectively to our terms out-door gymnasium and gymnasium, which- latter 
 ordinarily signifies a building for gymnastic exercises. A gymnasium, in the German 
 sense, is the highest of the secondary schools, and leads directly to the university. 
 The uniform use of this term to designate such schools dates, in Prussia, from the 
 year 1812. 
 
 German gymnastics embrace three well-marked fields, or departments, viz : Volka- 
 turnen, or popular gymnastics; Schulturnen, or school gymnastics; and Militarturnen, 
 or military gymnastics. The organization of the last two departments is maintained 
 and controlled by the Government for strictly educational purposes; whereas the 
 Turnvereine, as the societies of the turners are called, are voluntary associations of a 
 social and semi-educational, but wholly popular and patriotic, nature. The fondness 
 of the German people for gymnastic exercises is as marked a national trait as is the 
 liking of the British for athletic eports. The germ of the turning system is to be 
 found in the martial games and exercises of the ancient Teutons. 
 
 Considered from an educational point of view, British athletics are rude and primi- 
 tive when compared with German gymnastics, which, in many of their features, are 
 almost Grecian. The two systems are as widely different in their aims and methods 
 as are the British school-boy and the German school-master, and for the same reasons. 
 
 685
 
 158 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 GERMAN REFORMS AND REFORMERS. 
 
 The reform whereby mental and physical training have been made conjoint factors 
 in the compulsory education of every German, has been worked out during the last 
 hundred years. At every stage of its course the quickening and shaping influence of 
 innovating educators has been felt. The three most eminent names in the list of men 
 identified with the revival and upbuilding of German gymnastics are those of Guts 
 Muths, Jahn, and Spiess. Each was a teacher and writer. Jahn was an agitator and 
 popular leader in addition. Guts Muths lived from 1759 till 1839, Jahn from 1778 till 
 1852, and Spiess from 1810 till 1858. 
 
 GUTS MUTHS AND HIS WORK. 
 
 Guts Muths was teacher of gymnastics in Salzmann's Philanthropinum, at Schnep- 
 fenthal, from 1787 till his death, in 1839. His " Gymnastik filr die Jugend," published in 
 1793, was the first German manual of gymnastics. He did much by his writing! and 
 labors to prepare the way for Jahn, the " Father of turning," and Spiess, the "Founder 
 of German school gymnastics and the creator of gymnastics for girls." Guts Muths's 
 success at Schnepfenthal led many private and a few public teachers to attempt to 
 give their pupils some gymnastic training. The influence of Guts Muths is also 
 traceable in the revival of gymnastics in Denmark, under the lead of Nachtigall, and 
 in Sweden, where Ling, the founder of modern medical gymnastics, made gymnastics 
 extremely popular. It should not be forgotten that Ling did much more than to de- 
 velop the Swedish movement cure, on which his fame outside of his own country 
 chiefly rests. He organized admirable systems of popular and school gymnastics, 
 which are still extant and flourishing. 
 
 REFORMS IN PRUSSIA. 
 
 Prussia's commanding position in science and politics is due to the perfection of 
 her educational and military systems. Their present excellence and efficiency are, in 
 a large degree, the outcome of reforms begun by the sagacious and energetic ministers 
 of the father of Kaiser Wilhelm, in the period of Prussia'** deepest humiliation and 
 distress, the period between the battle of Jena, in 1806, and the War of Liberation, in 
 1813. Bismarck and his coadjutors, Roon, Moltke, and Falk, have but cultivated the 
 seed and reaped the fruits of the reforms instituted or marked out by Stein, and 
 .Scharnhorst, and Wilhelm von Hutnboldt. 
 
 Steiu emancipated the peasants from serfdom, broke down the barriers between 
 them and the middle classes, and gave enlarged freedom to trade. His name is also 
 associated with radical and successful reforms in the constitution and administration 
 of the State. Scharnhorst reorganized the army in accordance with the principle that 
 all the inhabitants of a country should be trained to defend it. "In the field of edu- 
 cational reform the providential man," says Professor Seeley, "appeared in Hum- 
 boldt, as great a master of the science and art of education as Scharnhorst was of 
 war." 
 
 As early as 1804, Guts Muths urged upon the Prussian minister, Massow, the im- 
 portance of introducing physical education into the schools as a means of promoting 
 the military efficiency of the people. The minister replied that he proposed to make 
 bodily training an essential part of his plan for national education. The war with 
 Napoleon prevented this reform from being more than projected. In 1808 Scharnhorst's 
 provisional scheme for the reorganization of the army was submitted to Stein for 
 criticism and suggestions. Scharnhorst urged that fencing, swimming, leaping, etc., 
 should be taught in the town and city schools. Stein approved the views of Scharn- 
 horst in regard to bodily exercises, called attention to the success of Guts Muths at 
 Schnepfenthal, and suggested the desirability of securing his co-operation in bringing 
 about the general introduction of gymnastics into the schools. Humboldt likewise
 
 PHYSICAL TKAINING IN AMEKICAN COLLEGES. 159 
 
 favored the scheme, but no efficient measures were taken, at this time, to carry it out. 
 The first public gymnastic ground (Turnplatz) was established in the summer of 1809 
 at Braunsberg, in Prussia, under the auspices of a secret association formed under the 
 name of " The Moral and Scientific Union," the so-called Tugendbund, for the purpose 
 of arousing national feeling and throwing off the French yoke. The gymnastics 
 adopted at Braunsberg seem to have been based on the principles of Guts Muths. 
 
 "FATHER JAHN" AND THE TURNERS. 
 
 That gymnastics under the name of Turnen became a popular institution and a 
 potent factor in national development, was due to Jahn, a man of much more aggres- 
 sive spirit than the quiet teacher of gymnastics at Schnepfenthal. In 1810 Jahn be- 
 came a teacher in the Kollnischfs Gymnasium, one of the city schools in Berlin, and 
 in 18ll-'12 he also taught in Plamann's Pestalozzian Institute in the same city. 
 Prince Bismarck was a pupil in this institute from 1822 till 1827. 
 
 Jahn was an ardent patriot, and was filled with an enthusiastic admiration of the 
 spirit, manners, and speech of the ancient Germans. His strong and rugged nature, 
 and his eager, restless, passionate spirit, qualified him for popular leadership in the 
 movement which he initiated. He seized the idea of making bodily training a force 
 in national regeneration and education, and dreamed and wrote and labored for a 
 free and united Germany. Before he had fairly entered upon his course as a teacher 
 in Berlin, his book on "German Nationality" appeared in 1810. In the interval 
 which elapsed between 1810 and 1816, the date of "Die Deutsche Turnkunst," he accom- 
 plished the main labor of his life. The nature of his work, the ideas by which he 
 was animated, and the circumstances of the time which favored his success, are in- 
 dicated in the following extracts from "Die Deutsche Turnkunst" : 
 
 Like many other things in this world, the German turning system had a small and 
 insignificant beginning. In the end of the year 1809 1 went to Berlin to see the entry 
 of the King. Love to my fatherland and my own inclinations now made me a teacher 
 of youth,, as I had often been before. During the beautiful spring of 1810 a few of my 
 pupils began to go out with me into the woods and fields on the holiday afternoons 
 of Wednesday and Saturday, and the habit became confirmed. Their number in- 
 creased, and we had various youthful sports and exercises. Thus we went on until 
 the dog-days, when the number was very large, but very soon fell off again. But 
 there was left a select number, a nucleus, who held together even during the winter, 
 with whom the first turning ground was opened in the spring of 1811, in the Hasen- 
 heide [i. e., a pine forest on the outskirts of Berlin]. 
 
 At the present time many exercises are practiced in company and before the eyes 
 of all, under the name of turning. But then the names turning system, turning, 
 tuvuer, turning ground, and the like, came up all at once, and gave occasion for much 
 excitement, scandal, and authorship. The subject was discussed even in the French 
 daily papers, and even here in our own country it was at first said that the ancient Ger- 
 man ways have brought forth a new folly. 
 
 During the winter we studied whatever could bo got on the subject, and we re- 
 flected with gratitude upon our predecessors, Vieth and Guts Muths. The stronger 
 and more experienced of my pupils made a very skillful use of their writings, and 
 were able, during the next summer, to labor as instructors in turning. In the sum- 
 mer of 1812 both the turning ground and system of exercises were enlarged. They 
 became more varied from turning day to turning day, and were mutually developed 
 by the pupils in their friendly contests of youthful emulation. It is impossible to say 
 in detail who first discovered, tried, investigated, proved, and completed one or an- 
 other exercise. From the very beginning the turning system has shown great com- 
 munity of spirit, patriotic feeling, perseverance, and self-denial. Every extension 
 or development of it was used for the common good, and such is still the case. 
 
 Toward the end of the summer exercises of 1812, a sort of association of turners was 
 formed for the purpose of the scientific investigation and artistic organization of the 
 turning system in the most useful and generally applicable manner. On the King's 
 proclamation of February 3, 1813, all the turners capable of bearing arms entered the 
 field. After long persuasion I succeeded at Breslau in inducing Ernst Eiselen, one of 
 my oldest pupils, to take charge of the turning institution during the war. I myself 
 accompanied Eiselen from Breslau to Berlin, and introduced him to the authorities 
 and to the principals of schools, who promised him all manner of co-operatiou, and 
 who have ever since shown confidence in him. Since that time Eiselen has been at 
 
 687
 
 160 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 the head of the turning institution, during the summers of 1813 and 1814 and the 
 intervening winter, and has conducted the exercises of those who were too young to 
 carry arms. 
 
 At the eud of July, 1814, I returned to Berlin. In the winter, when the volunteers 
 returned, bringing many turners with them, the associated discussions were reuewed. 
 On the escape of Napoleon all the turners able to bear arms volunteered again for the 
 field, only two who had fought during the campaigns of 1813 and 1814 remaining at 
 home from the consequences of those campaigns. 
 
 The younger ones who remained behind now took hold of the work again with re- 
 newed zeal. During the spring and summer of 1815 the turning ground received 
 still further improvements and enlargements. In the following autumn and early 
 part of winter, the turning system was again made the object of associated investi- 
 gation. After the subject had been ripely considered and investigated in the turning 
 council, and opinions had been compared, experience cited and views corrected, a be- 
 ginninsj was made in collecting into one whole all the results of earlier and later la- 
 bors on the subject, and all the separate fragments and contributions relative to it, 
 a labor which has lastly been revised by my own pen. Although it was only one ar- 
 chitect who at first drew the plan, yet master, associates, pupils, and workmen have 
 all labored faithfully and honestly upon the structure, and have all contributed their 
 shares to it. 
 
 This is a brief account of my work, my words, and my book. Neither of the three 
 is perfect ; but the book may serve to promote a recognition of its ideal. It is put 
 forth only by way of rendering an account to the fatherland of what we have done 
 and endeavored. 
 
 The turning system would re-establish the lost symmetry of human development; 
 would connect a proper bodily training with mere exclusive intellectual cultivation; 
 would supply the proper counteracting influence to the prevailing over-refinement, 
 and would comprehend and influence the whole man by means of a social mode of 
 living for the young. Every turning institution is a place for exercising the bodily 
 powers, a school of industry in manly activity, a place of chivalrous contest, an aid 
 to education, a protection to the health, and a public benefit. It is constantly and 
 interchangeably a place of teaching and of learning. In an unbroken circle follow 
 constantly after each <>thcr, direction, exemplification, instruction, independent in- 
 vestigation, practice, emulation, and further instruction. Thus the turners do not 
 learn their occupation from hearsay. They have lived in and with their work, inves- 
 tigated it, proved it, and perfected it. It awakens all the dormant powers and 
 secures a self-confidence and readiness which are never found at a loss. 
 
 The director of a turning institution undertakes a high duty. He must cherish 
 and protect the simplicity of the young, that it may not be injured by untimely pre- 
 cocity. He who is not thoroughly penetrated with a childlike spirit and national 
 feelings, should never take charge of a turning institution. It is a holy work and 
 life. 
 
 But all education is useless and idle which leaves the pupil to disappear, like a 
 will-o'-the-wisp, in the waste folly of a fancied cosmopolitanism, and does not confirm 
 him in patriotic feeling ; and thus, even in the worst period of the French domina- 
 tion, love of king and fatherland were preached to and impressed upon the youth of 
 the turning association. No one ought to enter a turning association who is know- 
 ingly a perverter of German nationality, and praises, loves, promotes, or defends for- 
 eign manners. 
 
 With such principles did the turning societies strengthen, train, arm, encourage, 
 and man themselves for the fatherland, in the sultry times of the devil. Nor did faith, 
 love, or hope desert them for a moment. "God deserts no German," has always been 
 their motto. In war none of them staid at home, except those too young or too weak, 
 and they were not idle. 
 
 The turning system [says Von Raumer] soon spread from Berlin throughout Ger- 
 many, and a large part of Southern Germany. Next to Berlin, Breslau had the largest 
 number of turners, some eight hundred. In that city students, Catholic and Protestant, 
 seminary pupils, the pupils of four Gymnasien, officers, and professors frequented the 
 turning ground. Singing flourished. On Wednesday and Saturday afternoons, after 
 exercising from three to seven, the whole company returned singing to the city. 
 ******* 
 
 Together with this first natural development of the turning system, there came up 
 also a reaction against many received and universal customs and manners. This nec- 
 essarily aroused enemies, and the more because the turners frequently overpassed the 
 bounds of moderation, and made turning identical with a warfare against all ancient 
 errors. This was particularly the case after the war of freedom.
 
 PHYSICAL TRAININGS IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 16l 
 
 THE ATTITUDK OF THE STATE AUTHORITIES. 
 
 The state authorities, especially those at the head of the department of education, 
 seem to have manifested a lively and, on the whole, friendly interest in Jahn and 
 his work. In 1813, during Jahn's absence in the field, six hundred and seventy tha- 
 lers were appropriated to enable Eiselen to conduct an eight weeks' normal course 
 of instruction for teachers of turning, but it was impracticable to carry out the 
 plan at that time. Several reports of a favorable nature were made to the Govern- 
 ment on the pedagogical and hygienic worth of turning, and turning grounds weie 
 established in various parts of fhe Kingdom under governmental auspices. In 1814 
 the Prussian chancellor, Prince Hardenberg, bestowed a pension of five hundred 
 thalers upon Jahn, in recognition of his services to the state. In September, 1815, 
 Jahn's pension ws increased to eight hundred thalers, and Eiselen was granted a 
 salary of four hundred thalers. This was due to a report made to Hardeuberg in 
 April, 1815, by Minister Von Schuckmann, to whom Hardeuberg had referred a plan 
 of Jahn's for enlarging the turrplatz, purchasing certain buildings, and bringing the 
 turning institution into close connection with the Berlin school-system. Von Schuck- 
 raauu was averse, by reason of the low state of the treasury, to incurring the large 
 expenditures suggested by Jahu, and deemed it unadvisable to introduce turning 
 formally into the schools, lest it should lose its spontaneous popular character. 
 
 In Ibid Alteustein, the minister of education, caused an official investigation to be 
 made into the nature, extent, and effects of turning throughout Prussia. During the 
 period 1816-'19, the department of education elaborated a provisional scheme for a 
 general education law, which, however, was never enacted in its entirety. In this 
 scheme a place was assigned to gymnastics, and it was proposed to introduce them 
 into the rural schools as well as into the middle schools, normal schools, and Gyui- 
 nasieu. 
 
 At last, in 1819, a plan was perfected by the educational authorities for the estab- 
 lishment of turning grounds thonghout Prussia in connection with the schools. On 
 March 23, 1819, the very day that this plan was laid before the King for his ap- 
 proval and signature, the news of Kotzebue's murder by Sand, who was a student and 
 a. turner, reached Berlin, and the King refused his approval. Sand's deed of crazy 
 violence had, as it appears now, no political significance; but the Prussian Govern- 
 ment feared revolution, and looked upon the spread of liberal ideas among the rising 
 generation with alarm. The Burschenschaften, or students' societies, and the Turn- 
 rereine were pnr. under the ban as being hotbeds of liberalism. Jahn was arrested 
 in July, 1819, on I he charge of engaging in revolutionary practices and conspiring 
 to as.sassinate a privy councilor, Von Kamptz by name. Francis Lieber, then a youth 
 of nineteen, one of Jahu's oldest and favorite pupils, was also arrested on suspicion. 
 Lieber regained his freedom in a few months, but was forbidden to study at a Prus- 
 sian university. Jahn was acquitted and set free in 1825, but was banished from Ber- 
 lin, and forbidden to reside in any town where there was a university or Gymnasium. 
 Francis Lieber came to the United States in 1827 for the express purpose of taking 
 charge of the then recently founded Tremont Gymnasium, in Boston, Mass., where 
 he established a swimming school on his own account. 
 
 In January, 1820, the Government abolished turning in Prussia by closing the 
 turning grounds, some ninety in number. Volkstnrnen was not again allowed until 
 1842. Gradually gymnastics found a place in the instruction of a few Hchools. In 
 1836, Dr. Loriuser, of Oppeln, published in a medical journal an article entitled 
 'The Protection of Health in Schools." Dr. Lorinser was very severe in his strict- 
 ures on the management of the schools, especially of the Gymnasien. He declared 
 that bodily and mental weakness were on the increase among school children, and 
 especially the Gymnasium pupils, by reason of the overburdening due to multiplicity 
 of studies, too many school hours, and an undue amount of home work. This paper 
 g.ive rise to a wide and somewhat heated discussion, and indirectly brought about a 
 renewed interest in school gymnastics. 
 
 5068 No. 5 11 689
 
 Ifi2 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 188',. 
 
 In 1840 the department of education recommended the introduction of bodily train- 
 ing into all the higher schools for b^-vs. In April, 1842, the ministers of war, the 
 interior, and education, united in recommending to the King the reintroductiou of 
 turning. In June following, the King gave his sanction to the proposal of his minis- 
 ters that '' bodily exercises shonld be acknowledged formally as a necessary and in- 
 dispensable integral part of male education, and should be adopted as an agency in 
 the education of the people." The King also authorized the establishment of "gym- 
 nastic institutes," in connection with " the Gyinnasieii, the higher middle schools, the 
 training schools for teachers, and the division and brigade schools in the army." 
 
 THE REVIVAL OF TURNING. 
 
 Volksturneu revived, after the promulgation of the above cited cabinet order of 
 King Frederick William IV; but its aims and usages were too strongly colored by 
 political views for the turning societies to pass unscathed through the troublous years 
 1848-'50. It was not until 1660 that the turning movement began to regain its lost 
 momentum. Great enthusiasm for turning was awakened by the first German turn- 
 ing festival, held at Coburg, in 1860, in which some thousand or more turners took 
 part in celebrating the victory of Waterloo. In August, 1861, came the second gen- 
 eral Turnfest, when the turners celebrated, at Berlin, the fiftieth anniversary of the 
 establishment, by ,1 aim. of the original turnplatz in the Haseuheide. Nearly six thou- 
 sand turners, representing more than two hundred and sixty districts, took part in 
 this festival, which is also notable for the laying of the corner-stone of the national 
 monument to Jahn. The completed monument, consisting of a bronze statue of Jahn 
 upon a pedestal of stones contributed by turning societies in every quarter of the 
 world, was dedicated in August, 1872. 
 
 Between 1859 and 1862 the number of German turnvereine increased from 241 to 
 1,279. In 1863, 20,000 turners took part at Leipzig in the celebration of the fiftieth 
 anniversary of Napoleon's defeat near that city by the allies. A year later the socie- 
 ties numbered nearly 2,000, and their members nearly 168,000. The great majority 
 of German tnruvereiue have, since 1860, belonged to the organization known as 
 the Ueut&chr Turnerschaft. 
 
 THE "DEUTSCHE TURNERSCHAFT." 
 
 The Turnerschaft comprises fifteen circuits, or geographical divisions, within the 
 German Empire and Austria. Each circuit (Kreis) is subdivided into districts (Gae), 
 and each district into societies ( Vereine). On January!, 1885, there were 220 Tum- 
 gane within the Turnerschaft. In 1880, out of 2,226 turuvereiue in 1,741 municipali- 
 ties and villages, 1,971, with a total membership of 170,315, belonged to the Turner- 
 schaft. On January 1, 1885, the number of vereiue within the Turnerschaft had risen 
 to 2,878, an increase of 223 over 1884 ; while the uuniber of vereine outside the Tnrn- 
 erscbaft had decreased from 343 to 329. The membership in 1885 was 267,854, of 
 whom 114,134 were active turners; or, to express it differently, in 2,413 localities 
 there was an active member of the Turnerschaft for every 134 of the population. 
 During lt'82, 1,915 vereine practiced turning in the winter; 294 owned a turnplatz, 
 and 153 a turnhalle ; while in 1884, 2,409 societies practiced winter turning, 353 owned 
 a turnplatz, antt 182 owned a turnhalle. 
 
 It is almost as common to find turnvereine among Germans in foreign lauds as to 
 find cricket and foot-ball clubs among British colonists. Turning societies flourish in 
 the United States, Brazil, Chili, and Australia, as well as in every country in Europe. 
 In the United States the principal association of the turners is the North American 
 Turnerbund, which embraces more than two hundred vereine with a membership of 
 more than twenty thousand. 
 
 690
 
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 163 
 
 The nature and working of the spirit which animates the German folk are disclosed 
 to a highly interesting degree in the organization and the management of the Deutsche 
 Turnerschaft, which is, in a sense, the most genuinely popular of German institutions, 
 lu their Volksturnen we find the people acting with more freedom and spontaneity 
 than iu almost any other field. It is one of the few fields in which the folk has heen 
 left comparatively untrammeled by the Government. While its aims are hroadly 
 national and social, and tinged with sentimental idealism, the Turnerschaft reflects 
 in its democratic organization and government, its systematic methods, and its eco- 
 nomical administration, the severely practical German spirit, with all its love of or- 
 der, discipline, and minute division of labor. The turnvereine are in their way as 
 much center points of the popular life of Germany as the gymnasia were center points 
 in Greek life. It is to be noted, however, that the Turnerschaft is largely recruited 
 from such classes ae were enslaved by the Greeks. 
 
 Volksturnen of the present day differs somewhat from that which flourished in the 
 time of Jahn and Eiselen. Individualism is less rampant for one thing, and certain 
 styles of exercise first made prominent by Spiess, whose method and work we shall 
 consider under Schulturnen, have been adopted by the turners. Then, too, the 
 turnvereine have ceased to resemble political clubs. The committee of the turn- 
 vereine declared at Gotha in 1861 that turning could only yield abundant fruit when 
 it should be considered a means for training strong men for the entire fatherland. 
 The turuvereine should hold themselves entirely aloof from the consideration of party 
 questions as such. The formation of definite political opinions was the affair and 
 duty of the individual turners. The general adoption of military exercises by the 
 turners was deprecated. A genuine normal training to render the body equal to the 
 performance of all manly exercises should remain the principal concern and business 
 of the turnrereine. 
 
 The hand-book of the Deutsche Turnerschaft very clearly sets forth the distinctive 
 features of the Volksturnen of the present day. What follows in relation to the 
 aims, organization, and practices of the Turnerschaft is based upon statements made 
 in that work, and in the organ of the Turnerschaft, the Deuttche Tnrn-Zeitung, a 
 weekly paper published at Leipzig, and also upon personal observations made in 
 various German cities, -particularly in Dresden, during the continuance of the Sixth 
 General German Turning Festival, held there in July, 1885. 
 
 The aim of the Turnerschaft is to promote the interests of turning, as a means to 
 bodily and moral strength. Its members (any German of good moral character who 
 is fourteen years old, may join it) are urged to render turning attractive to boys and 
 apprentices who have passed the school age ; to cultivate simple German customs and 
 manners; to cultivate national exercises and games, such as free and class exercises, 
 running, leaping, climbing, casting the weight, hurling the spear, wrestling, fencing, 
 and sword play ; to promote sociability through the singing of folk songs, and those 
 having freedom and the fatherland for their themes such songs should be thoroughly 
 known by every turner, and not merely their first lines ; to participate in all popular 
 festivals, especially those commemorative of national events, such as the Kaiser's 
 birthday, Sedan day, and the like ; to manifest an active interest in useful public en- 
 terprises and associations, such as fire and salvage companies, and sanitary corps for 
 the care and transportation of the sick and injured. 
 
 The turners are divided into two main sections, viz, boys from fourteen to seventeen 
 years of ago, and men. These divisions are subdivided according to their gymnastic 
 ability into squads, or classes (Riegen), each class being under the lead and guidance 
 of a " foreturner" ( Vorturner}, chosen on account of fitness. The chief foreturner is 
 the turriwarden (Turnwart). Strength alone is not enough. It is the foretnrner's 
 business 1o make his squad as expert as possible, and above all to secure to each of 
 its members an erect, firm, and graceful carriage of the body. 
 
 The times most favored for turning are Sundays, holidays, and certain appointed 
 evenings during the week. The order recommended for the ordinary evening turning 
 
 691
 
 164 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 is as follows: A brief Kiirturnen, i. ., gymnastic exercise in which each individual 
 follows his own taste and inclination as to apparatus and movement. Then con 
 the formation of the classes, which fall into line at a signal from the tnrnwart, and at a 
 second signal march to the machines, the hars, horse, horizontal bar, etc., to which 
 acb has been assigned. The exercise on each piece of apparatus is set by the fore- 
 turner at . the head of the class. Usually after exercising for a quarter of an hour 
 the lines are reformed and each class marches to a machine of a different character. 
 After this second period of fifteen minutes of heavy gymnastic exercise (Geratturnen) 
 the ranks are reformed, and " free movements " are made by the assembled classes. 
 No apparatus is used in the free movements, which are made in unison and according 
 to commands given by the turnwart. The evening closes with a second Ktirturnen. 
 The affairs of the verein are regulated by officers elected by its members. The pro- 
 gramme of exercises, . e., the amount and nature of the Geratturnen, or heavy gym- 
 nastics, is determined by the officers and is duly bulletined. The foreturners are bound 
 to practice together at appointed times. The order of exercises on the gymnastic 
 machines is changed from evening to evening, and variety and interest are further 
 secured, when the weather is favorable, by engaging in out-of-door games (Turnspiele) 
 in the tumplatz. The cultivation of gymnastic specialties and of one-sided dexterity 
 .is discouraged. 
 
 From time to time the societies comprised in a district, and the districts included 
 in a circuit, hold festivals, when both individuals and squads compete for prizes. 
 The intervals between these festivals vary greatly in the different circuits and dis- 
 tricts. The General German Turning Festival (Das Attgemeine Deutsche Turnfest), 
 as the grand festival of the entire Turnerschaft is termed, occurs at intervals of at 
 least four years. It continues for at least three days, one of which must be Sunday. 
 Six such festivals have been held in different German cities since the first was cele- 
 brated at Coburg in 1860. 
 
 THE DRESDEN TTJRNFST IN 1885. 
 
 The programme carried out at the sixth Deutsche Turnfest in Dresden, July 18-23, 
 1885, was in the main as follows : 
 
 Saturday, July 18. 
 
 Reception during the day at the railroad station and steamer wharves on the Elbe 
 of the visiting turners. At 8 P. M. reception at the festival hall. Transfer of the 
 standard of the Turnerschaft from the Frankfort-on-the-Main color guard to the 
 Dresden color guard. Celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of the founding of 
 the Turnerschaft. Music and singing in the festival hall. 
 
 Sunday, July 19. 
 
 6 to 7 A.M. Reveille ( Weckruf). 
 
 7 to 9 A.M. Bathing in the Elbe. 
 
 11.30 A.M. Formation of festival procession. 
 
 11.45 A.M. to 2.30 P.M. March to the festival grounds. 
 
 3.30 P.M. Assembly of turners and general free gymnastics in the festival 
 
 grounds. 
 5 to 7 P.M. Class exercise (Musterriegenturnen) of the most proficient squads, 
 
 representing single circuits, districts, and societies. 
 7 to 8 P.M. General Kiirturneu and gymnastic games. 
 
 From 8 P.M., in the hall, concert by the united singing societies of Dresden. 
 From 5 P.M., on the grounds, music and dancing. 
 
 692
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 165 
 
 Monday, July 20. 
 
 7 A.M. to 12 M. Prize turning ( WeUturnen) and class turning. 
 
 12 to 3 P.M. Banquet in the hall. 
 
 3 to 5 P.M. Free gymnastics by the Saxon turners, including the pupils of the 
 
 higher boys' schools of Dresden. 
 5 to 7 P.M. Class turning; exhibition sword play (Schaufechten). 
 
 7 to 8 P.M. Kiirturnen by the most expert turners. Games. 
 
 8 P.M. Convention of the German teachers of gymnastics. 
 
 8 P.M. Reunions of fellow-countrymen. 
 
 From 5 P.M. Music and dancing on the grounds and in the hall. 
 
 Tuesday, July 21. 
 
 7 A.M. to 12 M. Prize turning and conclusion of class turning. 
 
 2 to 3 P.M. Prize sword play (Preisfechten). 
 
 3 to 7 P.M. Prize turning. 
 7 to 8 P.M. Games. 
 
 9 P.M. Torch dance. 
 
 From 5 P.M. Music and dancing. 
 
 Wednesday, July 22. 
 
 7 to 10 A.M. Conclusion of prize turning. 
 
 10 A.M. to 12 M. Gymnastic games by the boys and girls of the public schools 
 
 ( Volkuschulen') of Dresden. 
 2 P.M. Wrestling. 
 
 8 P.M. Announcement of the victors. 
 
 10 P.M. Illumination and official close of the festival. 
 From 5 P.M. Music and dancing. 
 
 Thursday, July 23. 
 
 Turner excursions (Turnfahrten) to the Saxon Switzerland, and other points of 
 
 interest. 
 From 3 P. M. Social reunions on the grounds ; music and dancing. 
 
 The festival was characteristically German in its object, arrangements, and detailed 
 workings. It afforded an admirable opportunity for studying national traits and pe- 
 culiar folk customs, and furnished abundant evidence of the sturdiness, good humor, 
 and order-loving disposition of the common people, as well as of their genuine liking 
 for and ability in gymnastic drill and gymnastic games. In the opinion of competent 
 judges, moreover, a very considerable increase in gymnastic proficiency over that ex- 
 hibited at any former festival was noticeable. . 
 
 It concerns us here to note only the more striking of the turning exercises and reg- 
 ulations, without attempting to describe the festival as a whole, or venturing to en- 
 large upon its many attractions for the lover of the picturesque or the student of men, 
 manners, and institutions. 
 
 More than 20,000 turners, including delegations from England, France, Russia, 
 Holland, Switzerland, Austria, Hungary, Sweden, and the .United States, took part 
 in the street parade, which was reviewed by the King of Saxony from a balcony of 
 his palace on Sunday. The grounds set apart for the use of the turners were some- 
 thing more than ten acres in extent, and were situated in the outskirts of the city, ad- 
 joining the Grosser Garten, the principal park of the King. Chief among the tem- 
 porary buildings erected on the Festplatz was the festival hall, with an estimated 
 capacity for 10,000 people. The main part of this hall was loft unfloored, so that in 
 case of unfavorable weather all the heavy gymnastics might take place under cover. 
 
 693
 
 166 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 As the weather was fine during the entire continuance of the festival, the hall was used 
 chiefly for speech-making and merry-making, and the turning of every description 
 was carried on out of doors on the Turnplatz, which had an area of more than three- 
 quarters of an acre. 
 
 The most noteworthy gymnastic features of the festival were as follows : The free 
 gymnastics (allgemeine Freiiibungen) on Sunday; the class turning of the most profi- 
 cient turners (Musterriegenturnen) on Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday ; the Kurturnen, 
 or exhibition gymnastics, on Sunday and Monday ; the prize turning ( Wettturneu) on 
 the last three days, and the gymnastic games of the Dresden school children on 
 
 Wednesday. 
 
 The Free Gymnastics. 
 
 The free gymnastics resemble somewhat the "setting-up drill" employed in the 
 United States Army, inasmuch as they are bodily movements arranged in groups of 
 related exercises, which are executed at command and in unison. In them no appa- 
 ratus of any kind is made use of. They may be characterized as calisthenics raised 
 to their highest power. The free gymnastics on this occasion included sixteen differ- 
 ent movements, and required nearly three-quarters of an hour for their completion. 
 The order and character of the movements had been determined and ordained by the 
 proper committee of the Turnerschaft months before, and the movements had been 
 practiced by the different vereine at home, but only there. The turners who took 
 part in the free movements numbered 4,544, and were formed in seventy-one " open 
 ranks" of sixty-four men each, facing toward the front, the distance between the 
 "files" being a full arm's-length. Facing the huge class was a high platform, on 
 which two marvelously expert foreturners first executed each movement in sight of 
 the class, and then, at signals given with a flag by the turnwart in command of the 
 class, and re-enforced by strokes given on gongs in the middle of the field, the foreturu- 
 ers repeated the movement, the entire body of 4,500 men following in unison. The 
 sight of 4,500 bareheaded, white-shirted men, many of them grayheaded, executing 
 complicated movements, which involved tossing of the arms, bowing and bending 
 of the trunk, facing now this way and now that, and all with military precision, in 
 nearly perfect time, was a novel and inspiring one. The free movements, on Monday, 
 of the Saxon turners and the Dresden school-boys, in all 2,300 persons, were even more 
 complicated, difficult, and picturesque than those above spoken of. The King and 
 Queen of Saxony, with a numerous retinue of courtiers, were among the interested 
 spectators of the free movements on Sunday. 
 
 The Class Turning, or " Musterriegenturnen." 
 
 Class turning under the lead of a foreturner has been a peculiar feature of Volks- 
 turnen since the days of Jahn, and many of tie machines used in this class of exercises 
 were devised by Jahn and his early followers. Such are the parallel bars, the horizon- 
 tal bar, the horse, and the buck. Only the most proficient member^ of a verein are al- 
 lowed to represent it in the Musterriegentumen. At Frankfort, in 1880, sixty-one classes, 
 or squads, were entered under this head. At Dresden the number of classes entered 
 was two hundred and seventy-six. Of these, one was from the United States, one from 
 Belgium, one from Denmark, one from Hungary, and four were from Holland ; the re- 
 maining 268 were from within the Turnerschaft. Of the 276 classes entered, 244, com- 
 prising 2,517 turners, turned and were reported upon by the judges. The number of 
 turners in a class varied from four to sixty-four ; the mean number was, however, nine. 
 The extremes of age were sixteen and seventy-one years. An nnnsual number of men 
 past middle life took part in the heavy gymnastics. There were fully a dozen classes 
 composed of men over forty years old, and nearly three hundred men over thirty-five 
 years of age appeared in the ranks of the " proficients." The class of the "Eldest 
 turners," numbering eleven men between the ages of sixty and seventy-one, engaged 
 in free movements, putting the stone, and high leaping; while several squads of 
 younger veterans, ranging in age from forty to sixty, exercised on the parallel bare, 
 694
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 167 
 
 the horse, and the inclined ladder. Yet there are those who would have us believe 
 that agility and bodily force in adults are the almost sole possession of the modern 
 Englishman ! If they would take the trouble to inform themselves in regard to the 
 national games of the Germans, the Norsemen, and the Swiss, they would learn that 
 the athletic vesture of the ancient Greeks has not all fallen to the lot of the British. 
 
 Each class was allowed twenty minutes for exercise, and machines enough were pro- 
 vided for twenty classes to exercise at a time. It was the duty of the judges to note 
 and report upon the number, age, and general appearance of the class members ; upon 
 their carriage, marching, and clothing, as well as upon the worth and character of the 
 exercises chosen by them and the degree of their proficiency in the exercises. The 
 ability of the foreturner and his use of technical terms (Tumsprache ; this has at- 
 tained the proportion of a special dialect) were also items for note and comment. 
 
 The scale of marks for the actual turning ranged from 5, extremely good, through 
 3, barely good, to 0, bad. Of the 244 classes reported on, the rating of the judges was 
 as follows : 
 
 18 classes were marked 5. 
 
 10 classes were marked 4 to 5. 
 
 70 classes were marked 4. 
 
 23 classes were marked 3 to 4. 
 
 87 classes were marked 3. 
 
 18 classes were marked 2 to 3. 
 
 13 classes were marked 2. 
 1 class was marked 1 . 
 
 In the case of four classes the report was incomplete. 
 
 Some notion of the kind of exercises chosen may be gained from the following 
 
 statement : 
 
 115 classen turned with the parallel bars. 
 51 classes turned with the horizontal bar. 
 51 classes turned with the horse. 
 
 1 class turned with the buck. 
 
 3 classes turned with the buck and horse. 
 
 2 classes turned with the buck and horizontal bar. 
 6 classes turned with the flying rings. 
 
 2 classes turned with the jumping table. 
 
 1 class turned with the ladder. 
 
 5 classes engaged in wand exercises. 
 
 1 class engaged in free exercises. 
 
 2 classes engaged in wrestling. 
 
 1 class engaged in club swinging. 
 1 class engaged in disk throwing. 
 1 class engaged in casting weights. 
 1 class engaged in marching figures. 
 
 Outside of the class of professional acrobats and of the ranks of the Turnerbund it 
 would be difficult, if not impossible, to find in the United States more than a hand- 
 ful of men who could compare in strength, agility, grace, and bodily self-control, 
 with even the average member of the Mnsterriegen of the Turnerschaft. The reason 
 for this is not far to seek. Those who aft'ect gymnastics in America, whether for rec- 
 reation or training, are, as a rule, ill-taught or not taught at all ; While in Germany 
 good teaching is general and highly appreciated. 
 
 The Prize Turning, or " Wettturnen." 
 
 Thf prizes for individual excellence in heavy gymnastics consisted simply of 
 wiTiiths of artificial oak leaves and diplomas. Out of six hundred persons whose 
 names were entered in the lists of competitors, only three hundred and seventy-eight 
 
 695
 
 168 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 put in an appearance. In 1880, at Frankfort, only one hundred and thirty out of a 
 list of one thousand entries actually competed for the prizes. Of the three hundred 
 and seventy-eight above mentioned, sixty-four withdrew before the completion of 
 the competition, mostly on account of blistered hands or some other slight ailment. 
 Of the three hundred and fourteen turners who made a complete record, thirty-six 
 were adjudged victors, having scored at least fifty points out of a possible total of 
 seventy-five points. Two of the victors were from the United States. All the victors 
 received wreaths and diplomas. Under the rules, only the first eighteen were enti- 
 tled to wreaths, but on account of the exceptional difficulty of the exorcises the judges 
 awarded wreaths to the second eighteen also. The best record made was sixty-one 
 and one-eighth points. Each of the prize turners was required to execute three exer- 
 cises on the horizontal bar, three on the parallel bars, and three on the horse. Two 
 exercises on each of these machines had previously been ordained by the committee of 
 the Turuerschaft ; the third in each was left to the individual choice of the compet- 
 itors. Each competitor was also required to try his skill in three selected "national 
 games." Those selected by the committee for this occasion were high jumping, long 
 jumping, and weight lifting. 
 
 The highest attainable mark in each of the nine " machine exercises " was five, and 
 iii each of the national games ten. Two of th victors scored five on the horizontal 
 bar ; seven scored five on the parallel bars ; but none scored more than four and 
 seven-eighths on the horse. One of the victors scored ten in high jumping, three 
 scored the same number for long jumping, and ten scored ten in the weight lifting. 
 
 The victors did not seem to be men of phenomenal muscular development, though 
 it should be said that the turner costume of loose jacket and trousers is not calcu- 
 lated to set off the figure to the best advantage. They did, however, exhibit an 
 astonishing power of executing difficult and pleasing feats feats which called fora 
 combination of strength, dexterous agility, prolonged endurance, close attention, pur- 
 poseful daring, and cool judgment. They illustrated most admirably the truth of the 
 
 poet's lines 
 
 It is not growing like a tree 
 
 In bulk, doth make mail better be. 
 
 The qualities which make " the better man " among athletes and gymnasts are moral 
 and mental, rather than muscular, iu their nature. Muscular action, unless it be 
 altogether abnormal, cannot be dissociated from mental and nervous action. Precise 
 and purposeful movements of the trunk and limbs involve the possession of an intelli- 
 gent and educated nervous system. From the failure of parents and teachers to ap- 
 prehend this fact, it lias come to pass that the average man can control and use only 
 fractional parts of his muscular system. The German turner's aim is to make his 
 entire body the ready servant of his will, and every Turnfest demonstrates the fact 
 that he has achieved an encouraging measure of success. 
 
 Sword play and wrestling were minor attractions of the festival. Under the former 
 head were included contests with the foils, the Schlager, or straight sword, such as is 
 used in the ordinary students' duel, and the saber. Such contests were included in 
 the programme of a general festival of the Turnerschaft for the first time at Dresden. 
 Twenty-eight men fought with the foils, fourteen men with the echliiger, and twenty 
 men with the saber. Only thirty-two men engaged in the contests in wrestling. Only 
 such turners as had completed the twelve exercises ordained for the prize turning 
 were eligible to take part in the wrestling. 
 
 On Wednesday the Festplatz, from 10 A.M. till noon, was given up to the games of 
 the Dresden school children. There exists a general but erroneous opinion among 
 foreigners that German children do not play, though the history of the kindergarten 
 system and of school turning affords abundant evidence to the contrary. Not only 
 have the Germans a great variety of national games for children and youth, but iu 
 many cases they have made vigorous efforts to introduce and acclimatize foreign 
 games, like cricket and foot ball. Base ball and lacrosse are apparently unknown to 
 them. In some cities, and notably in Berlin, Dresden, and Frankfort, special efforts 
 696
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 169 
 
 are made by the school authorities and various private associations to secure public 
 play-grounds for tbe children of all classes, and inucli has been accomplished in this 
 direction. No ouo could witness the play of 1,600 school girls and ],'200 school boys, 
 under the lead of their teachers, on the Dresden Festplatz, and deny that German 
 children arc gamesome as well as tractable. The girls played at catch, running races, 
 ball, skipping rope, etc., and the boys engaged in foot ball, bat and ball, tug of war, 
 and the like. As a rule, the German school and city authorities provide more gener- 
 ously and intelligently for the recreation of the children under their charge than is 
 the case in Great Britain or America. 
 
 SCHOOL GYMNASTICS. 
 
 We pass to a consideration of the salient facts regarding the development and pres- 
 ent organization of school gymnastics (Schultui-nen) in Germany, particularly in Prus- 
 sia, The essential differences between Volksturnen and Schulturnen are based on the 
 fact that the former is a free art, originating with and maintained by the common 
 people, and the latter is a discipline imposed by authority upon persons in a state of 
 pupilage. The ends of training and education are not lost sight of in Volksturnen, 
 but in Schulturnen they occupy the foreground. 
 
 Although Volksturnen has lost many of the extravagant and marked peculiarities 
 of its assertive and aggressive youth, and has become better regulated and systematized 
 with the lapse of years, it still bears the impress set upon it by Jahu and the times 
 which produced him. The democratic organization of the turnvereine ; the volun- 
 tary submission of the turners to taxation, drill, and discipline, for common and pa- 
 triotic ends, and the predilection for heavy gymnastics under foreturners, all survive. 
 The turners are men and youths who devote a portion of their spare time, particu- 
 larly during the evening hours and on holidays, to the exercises of the turnplatz and 
 the turnhalle, for the sake of social entertainment and the promotion of health. 
 Schulturnen, on the other hand, is a department of instruction in the educational 
 system ordained by the state. As such, it is administered by officers of the state, who 
 aim, by means of a graded, progressive series of bodily exercises, to bring about the 
 symmetrical and normal development of pupils of both sexes, ranging between the 
 ages of six and twenty. 
 
 School turning works in the interest of folk turning by preparing promising re- 
 cruits for the turnvereine, and the turners have ever been its zealous friends, doing 
 much to secure its spread and to enhance its usefulness. 
 
 The Work and Influence of Spiess. 
 
 It is chiefly to Adolf Spiess and his followers that German Schultnrnen owes its most 
 distinctive and valuable peculiarities. Spiess was a Hessian, born in 1810. Like Jahn, 
 he was a pastor's son and a teacher. In his father's private school, which was con- 
 ducted according to the principles of Pestalozzi, he was trained in gymnastics, partly 
 after the methods of Guts Muths and partly after those of Jahn. While a student of the- 
 ology at the universities of Giessen and Halle, he was an active turner and dnlist. In 
 1829 he became acquainted with Jahn. In the following year, while still a student, he 
 formed a class of boys at Giessen, and made a beginning in teaching what came to be 
 known as " common exercises" (Gemeiniibungen), or class drill " in standing, walking, 
 running, and jumping." "Class turning," consisting in the simultaneous performance 
 by a number of persons, either with or without the aid of apparatus, of a given exercise 
 at the word of command, was introduced by Spiess, and lies at the foundation of his 
 system of physical training; whereas in the J.ahn-Eiselen system the members of the 
 class followed in succession the example set them by their foreturner. 
 
 In 1833 Spiess became a teacher of historj, singing, drawing, and turning, in the 
 public schools of Bnrgdorf, a town in the canton of Bern, in Switzerland, where he 
 became intimate with Froebel. Spiess is sometimes called the " creator of gymnas- 
 
 697
 
 170 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885, 
 
 tics for girls" (Madclienturnni). The exercises for girlswhich he introduced at Burg- 
 dorf were chiefly of his own devising. They included free gymnastics, dumb-bell ex- 
 ercises, and exorcises on the suspended ladder and the see-saw, besides a variety of 
 exercises in running, jumping, and swinging. In 1844 ho removed to Basel tatake 
 charge of the gymnastic instruction in the higher schools of that city. 
 
 In 184S iSpifss returned to Germany, having been appointed to a high office in the> 
 department of education of the Grand Duchy of Hesse, and took up his residence in 
 the. city of Darmstadt. It devolved upon Spiess to organize and supervise school 
 turning throughout that state. In 1849 and 1850 he conducted special normal classes 
 for the purpose of preparing trained assistants for his work. At Darmstadt, as at 
 Basel and Burgdorf, Spiess was highly successful in introducing gymnastics into 
 schools for girls. He died in 1858. 
 
 S-ness based his theory of bodily training on the laws of anatomy and physiology., 
 and grouped and ordered his exercises in compliance with those laws. He applied' 
 his principle of common exercises to the Jahn heavy gymnastics as well as to the free 
 movements, which latter were often made to music. It was his distinctive work to 
 render German gymnastics systematic and scientific, and to adapt them to pedagogi- 
 cal purposes and methods. As a teacher, organizer, and writer, his influence has been 
 wide and weighty. His principal books were "Lehre der Turnkunst," Basel, l840-'46, 
 and "Twrntnch fiir Schulen," Basel, 1846-'51. 
 
 The Rise of School Gymnastics in Prussia. 
 
 Allusion has already been inade to the cabinet order of June, 1842, in which Fred- 
 erick William IV formally recommended the adoption of "bodily exercise as an in- 
 dispensable integral part of male education" throughout the Kingdom of Prussia. 
 Eichorn, the minister of education, by an ordinance issued in February, 1844, under- 
 took to carry the King's recommendations into effect. This ordinance directed that a 
 sufficient number of turnpliitze and turnhallen should be established to furnish all 
 the Gyranasien, higher burgher schools, and normal schools for males, with accommo- 
 dations for winter and summer turning. Those in charge of school affairs were charged! 
 to do their utmost for the promotion of the new department of instruction. When its 
 was feasible, pupils were to exercise daily for an hour after school. At least the af- 
 ternoons of Wednesdays and Saturdays should be devoted to gymnastics, on whichi 
 days no home study was to be exacted. In the "certificate of ripeness," given at the 
 "leaving examination," the examiner must indicate the degree of gymnastic ability 
 attained by the candidate. 
 
 Spiess had an interview with Eichoru in Berlin, in the summer of 184", in relation 
 to the proper mode of organizing school gymnastics, and there seems to have been a 
 somewhat general expectation that he would be called from Burgdorf to Berlin. 
 8piess was, however, passed by, and Massmann. who had since 1827 been engaged in 
 teaching gymnastics in Munich, where the sons of Ludwig I, King of Bavaria, ami 
 the royal corps of cadets were numbered among his pupils, was in 1843 called to Ber- 
 lin to aid Kichorn's department in carrying into effect the views expressed in the* 
 King's cabinet order. 
 
 Massmann had been a Berlin turner in the palmy days of 1811-'13, and was strongly 
 wedded to the methods of Jahn and Eiselen. He looked with disfavor upon the new 
 methods of Spiess, and, not being endowed with sufficient skill or energy to adapt 
 Volksturnen to school needs, his administration, which lasted until 1850, was, on the 
 whole, a failure. 
 
 A serious obstacle to the success of gymnastics in the schools was the lack of com- 
 petent teachers. To meet this want the Central Normal School for Training Teach- 
 ers of Bodily Exercises was opened in Berlin, under Massmann's direction, in 1848. 
 Ifr.e > school died in 1849. In 1851 the Royal Central Gymnastic Institute, with par- 
 .' courses of instruction for officers of the army and school teachers, was established 
 lin under the conjoint control of the ministers of war and education, and Capt.
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 171 
 
 H. Rothstein, of the Prussian army, was placed at its head. This institute has exer- 
 cised a powerful influence upon the rise of military and school turning in Prussia. 
 Its dual constitution remained unchanged until the year 1877 ; since then two sepa- 
 rate training schools have been in operation ; the one for army officers is entitled the 
 ^Koniyliche Militdrturnanstalt ; the other, for teachers of turning in the schools, is 
 termed the Konighche Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt. 
 
 Tiothsteiii was a firm partisan of the Swedish system of gymnastics as developed by 
 Ling and his followers, while the civilian teachers of the Central Institute either fa- 
 vored the Jahn-Eiselen system or a compromise between it and that of Spiess. Roth- 
 steiu banished the horizontal and parallel bars from the institute, thereby giving rise 
 to a long and bitter controversy. The turners and their champions attacked the 
 Swedish gymnastics on the ground that they were too formal, one-sided, and unin- 
 teresting, as well as un-German and outlandish. Medical men and university pro- 
 tfessors took an active part in the discussion over the merits and faults of the " bar 
 exercises." Professors Virchow and Du Bois-Reymond, of tbe Berlin University, 
 stood up for German gymnastics and the "bars." Finally, in December, 1862, a com- 
 mission, composed of the most eminent medical men in Prussia, declared that "the bar 
 exercises might, from a medical point of view, be improved, but ought not to be done 
 away with." The triumph of the "bar exercises" involved the defeat of the Ling- 
 Rothstein system of school turning. In 1863 Rothstein left the Central Institute ; in 
 1865 he died. 
 
 In 1860 Lehnert, then minister of education, issued an order for the gradual intro- 
 duction of gymnastic instruction into the elementary schools ( Volkaschulen) for boys. 
 In 1862 attendance upon such instruction was made obligatory. In recent years 
 turning has become quite general in girls' schools of all grades. It is obligatory in 
 female normal schools, and also in all the girls' schools of some cities, for example, 
 those of Berlin, Frankfort-on-the-Main, and Hanover. 
 
 THE ORGANIZATION SCHOOLS AND ARMY. 
 
 Popular education in the German sense involves compulsory attendance upon school 
 instruction and compulsory military service. 1 Speaking broadly, the state requires 
 every Prussian child to go to school for eight years, and every Prussian man to serve 
 twelve years in the army. In order to render clear the relation which physical train- 
 ing bears to school training on the one hand, and to military training on the other, 
 in the Prussian system of education, we must first give some account of the organiza- 
 tion of the Prussian schools and army, and of the character of the instruction imparted 
 in each. 
 
 The population of Prussia may be divided, for convenience, into three classes: (1) 
 The Volk, which includes 90 per cent, of the whole, and embraces the peasant 
 class and unskilled laborers of every sort ; (2) the middle class, embracing the burgher 
 class, the farmers, the smaller tradesmen and manufacturers, skilled mechanics, and 
 a great variety of petty officials ; (3) the scientifically educated or upper class. To 
 this class belong the officers of the army, professors in the universities, teachers in 
 the schools of superior instruction, literary men, the members of the learned profes- 
 sions, the great landowners, manufacturers and merchants, and officials in the higher 
 grades of the civil service. 
 
 There are three grades of schools corresponding to the social classes above men- 
 tioned: (1) The elementary schools ( Folksschulen) ; (2) tbe intermediate schools (Mittel- 
 scliulen), including the so-called "burgher schools "and the lower Realschulm ; (3) 
 the higher schools, including the Gijmnasien, Realgymnasien, the normal training 
 schools, the technical schools, and the universities. 
 
 In the army the rank and file (Soldaten) are drawn from the Volk ; tbe under-officers 
 corresponding to our non-commissioned officers come mostly from the middle classes; 
 
 ' - ' i . 
 
 1 Prussia pays annually not far from $37,000,000 for her schools and $50.000,000 for her army. 
 
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 172 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 and the officers, who constitute the only professional military class, belong to the upper 
 class, and are to a large degree of noble birth. Regimental schools are provided for 
 the soldiers ; schools of a higher sort for the under-officers ; while the scientific train- 
 ing of the officer class is carried on in the cadet institutes, the war schools, and the 
 War Academy. 
 
 The Schools. 
 
 The elementary schools in the larger cities and towns consist usually of eight 
 classes, in which instruction is provided for children between the ages of six and 
 fourteen. The complete course, which is not always enforced in the remoter country 
 districts, embraces the following subjects : Religion, reading, writing, the common 
 rules of arithmetic, the rudiments of algebra, the elements of geometry, history, 
 drawing, geography, elementary physics and natural history, German composition 
 and grammar, singing, and gymnastics. Girls are, in addition, taught sewing and 
 knitting. 
 
 The intermediate schools have only a five or six years' course. They aim at giving 
 a practical education, supplementary to that of the elementary schools, for pupils in- 
 tending to follow technical, industrial, or mercantile pursuits, or who look forward 
 to subordinate positions in the civil service. French and English are taught in these 
 schools, but the ancient languages are not. 
 
 Both the Gymnasien and the Realgymnasien have a nine years' course, in classes 
 designated in descending order: I. A., or Oberprima ; I. E., or Unterprima ; II. A., 
 or Obersecunda; II. B., or Untersecunda ; III. A., or Olertertia ; III. B., or Unter- 
 iertia ; IV., or Quarto, ; V., or Quinta ; and VI., or Sexta. 
 
 In the Gymnasien much attention is given to Greek and Latin, while French and 
 English are less thoroughly taught. The Gymnasium graduates usually enter the 
 university for the sake of preparing themselves to enter upon a career in one of the 
 learned professions, or in one of the higher grades of the civil service. 
 
 The coune of the Realgymnasien differs from that of the Gymnasien in that Greek 
 is omitted, and that more stress is laid upon mathematics, natural sciences, and the 
 modern languages. The graduates of a Realgymnasium are admitted to one only 
 of the university faculties, that of philosophy, with its departments of natural science 
 and modern languages. As a rule they pass to one of the higher technical schools in- 
 stead of to the university. 
 
 The normal schools for teachers are of the nature of special technical schools hav- 
 ing a three years' course. Preparatory schools ( Vorschulen) with a three years' 
 course have been organized in connection with many Gymnasien, Realgymnasien, 
 and higher girls' schools, so that children of the upper classes need not mingle with 
 the children of the Volk in the elementary schools. 
 
 The Army. 
 
 With few exceptions, the able-bodied men of all classes are liable to be called on 
 for military service as soon as they reach the age of twenty and until they have 
 attained the age of forty-two. The term of active service " with the colors" is three 
 years, during which period the soldier is continuously subjected to military discipline, 
 and is liable to be sent to the field in case of war. Then follow five years of service 
 in the reserve, during which one is occasionally, and for some weeks at a time, 
 called out for drill, or to take part in mobilization or the annual field maneuvers. 
 Men in the reserve are liable to field duty, either at home or abroad, in case of war. 
 
 In the Landwehr the term of service is four years. Service with the colors for three 
 years and in the reserve for five is considered sufficient to make a trained soldier of a 
 man, so that members of the Landwehr in time of peace are released from active 
 military duty of any kind. They are, however, organized into regiments, and must 
 keep their arms and accouterments in readiness for instant service. The Landwehr 
 is officered mostly by men from the middle classes. In time of war the Landwehr gar- 
 700
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 173 
 
 risons the forts, guards the frontier and the prisoners captured from the enemy, and 
 covers the lines of communication between the base of supplies and the field army. 
 The Landsturm, composed of men between thirty-two and forty-two years of age, is 
 only called out for purposes of defense and in caae of great need. 
 
 The German Empire can mnster 1,300,000 trained soldiers, excluding the Landsturrn, 
 of the different states. The Prussian army, on a peace footing, numbers more than 
 330,000 men and under-officers, and 14,000 officers. It can be mobilized for field serv- 
 ice in a week. 
 
 A soldier who becomes incapacitated after eight years' service for further active 
 service, or who has been for eighteen years in active service, may demand a certifi- 
 cate recommending him for such a place in the civil service as his education may fit him 
 for. Accordingly schools for the further instruction of soldiers in reading, writing, 
 grammar, geography, arithmetic, history, and drawing, are organized in every regi- 
 ment. Six special schools for the higher training of under-officers are also maintained 
 by the War Department. The same studies as those pursued in the regimental schools, 
 and certain other special subjects, are taught in the under-officer schools ; but the 
 subjects are pursued farther. A soldier with a good record, if he is intelligent enough 
 to pass the examination for promotion to the grade of under-officer at the end of 
 twelve years' service, i. e., at the expiration of his service in the Landwehr, becomes 
 eligible, is, indeed, a sort of preferred aspirant, for a subordinate post in the civil 
 service. Such positions are those of janitor, messenger, clerk, etc., in various gov- 
 ernmental bureaus which pertain to postal, customs, telegraph, and railroad affairs. 
 If an under-officer possess the necessary qualifications, after nine years' service in the 
 army and at least five years' service aa an under-officer, he may be appointed a gen- 
 darme or become a policeman. Almost all the offices with which in America "the 
 boys" are rewarded for yeoman service in "politics, "are in Prussia given as rewards 
 of merit and intelligence to old soldiers. 
 
 The Training of Officers. 
 
 The ordinary course of procedure by which a civil aspirant attains to the lowest grade 
 in the corps of Prussian officers, that of second lieutenant, is as follows : (1) He is nomi- 
 nated an avantageur by the colonel of some regiment; (2) he serves for six months 
 in the ranks ; (3) he passes the examination for promotion to the grade of " sword-knot 
 ensign," (he requirements of which examination are practically the same as those of the 
 "leaving examination" at the completion of the course in a Gymnasium or Realgym- 
 nasiuin ; (4) then, after ten months of professional study in a war school (Kriegsschulc), 
 he passes the " officers' examination" ; (5) and in case the officers of the regiment to 
 which he has been nominated vote favorably upon him, he is commissioned a second 
 lieutenant by the King. 
 
 Perhaps a third of those who enter the corps of officers receive their preliminary 
 education aa members of the corps of cadets. Since 1877 the course of study in the 
 cadet institutes haa been the same aa that followed in the Realgymnasien. There 
 are aix lower cadet institutes in Prussia, having five classes, viz : VI., V., IV., III. B., 
 and III. A. ; and one chief cadet institute, that at Lichterfelde, near Berlin, having 
 classes which correapond to II. B., II. A., I. B., I. A., of a Realgymnasium, and an 
 advanced class, the " Selecta." For each class a year's work is laid out. Boys from 
 ten to fifteen years are received in the lower cadet-schools. The corps of cadets is 
 largely composed of the sonn of officers. It numbers 2,088 members, 880 of whom are 
 at Lichterfelde. All of the cadet institutes are organized with two boards of in- 
 structors, an academic board of civilians, and a military board of officers, and are 
 subject to military regulations. The discipline is strictest in the chief institute. 
 
 A premium is put by the state on mental training, by allowing all who hold certif- 
 icates of fitness to enter Obersecunda (II. A. ) of a Gymnasium or Realgyumasium, to ab- 
 solve their service with the colors by one year's volunteer and unpaid service. Fitness 
 
 701
 
 174 CIRCULARS OP INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 to enter Unterprima (I. B.) entitles one to stand the "sword-knot-ensign" examina- 
 tion on completing six months' service as " avantageur" in the ranks. The "certif- 
 icate of ripeness," i. e., of having completed satisfactorily the studies of Oberpriina 
 (I. A.), admits its possessor to the University or to the higher civil service positions, 
 and exempts "avantageurs" from the " sword-knot-ensign " examination. 
 
 In the chief cadet institute, at Lichterfelde, when a boy is seventeen years of age 
 and his bodily development is up to a certain standard, if he has passed II. A., i. e., is 
 ready to enter Unterprima, he may try the "sword-knot-ensign" examination. If he 
 pass this examination he may (a) begin his service in the ranks and aspire to the offi- 
 cers' examination at the end of the required course of study in a war school ; or (6) 
 he m'ay, if a very promising youth, be admitted to the Selecta ; or (c). should he not 
 aspire to an officer's career, he may enter the ranks as a volunteer for one year (Ein- 
 jahrij-Freiwilliger). Many cadets complete the course laid out for Unterprima (I. B.) 
 in order to be eligible, should they ever leave the army, to positions iii the higher 
 grades of the civil service, which would otherwise be closed to them on the ground of 
 insufficient education. Should he complete the year I. A. satisfactorily, a cadet may 
 enter a war school at once, being then exempt from serving as an "avantageur," and 
 from passing the " sword-knot-ensign" examination. If he pass the officers' exami- 
 nation, he may receive his commission from the King as second lieutenant without 
 being voted on by the officers of a regiment. The cadet who goes successfully through 
 the Selecta is not required to enter the ranks, or even to attend a war school, but is 
 promoted directly from the corps of cadets to that of officers. 
 
 There were formerly nine war schools for the special preparation of civil aspirants 
 for the officers' examination. Within recent years they have been consolidated to 
 three. The ten-months' course of study in the war schools is of a strictly professional 
 nature, such subjects as tactics, fortification, siege practice, and the like, being in- 
 cluded in it. Concerning the physical training in the cadet and war schools we shall 
 speak under the head of Military Turning. 
 
 The War Academy (Eriegsalcademie) in Berlin is the central scientific school of the Ger- 
 man army. At the most, only three hundred officers may attend its classes, each class 
 in the three years' course being limited to one hundred members. Only officers who 
 have served three full years with the troops, and are recommended by their colonels 
 as men of exceptional energy, character, and intelligence, are allowed to attempt the 
 severe entrance examination in mathematics, history, geography, military science, 
 and the French language. Nine months of each year of the course are devoted to 
 scientific instruction, which consists of lectures of the most advanced character giveu 
 by civilian and military professors, while the remaining three months are yearly 
 given up to practical studies in topographical engineering and general staff duty, 
 and in familiarizing the student with other arms of the service than his own. The 
 course at the War Academy is so severe, its examinations and practical tests so minute 
 and searching, that only a very few, the "best of the best," are able to pass into the 
 charmed circle of the general staff, under Field Marshal Von Moltke. The men com- 
 posing the general staff of the Prussian army are the consummate flower of Prussian 
 education. As a corps they are unrivaled, and the individuals are few anywhere who 
 possess trained powers of mind and body in anything like so high a degree. 
 
 SCHOOL GYMNASTICS. 
 
 As regards physical training in the schools of Prussia, the case stands thus : Attend- 
 ance upon instruction in turning is exacted of all unexcused pupils for two hours 
 weekly in all schools for boys, and also, in some cities, in all schools for girls. As a rule, 
 each school has its own turnhalle, and in very many cases its own turnplatz, furnished 
 with appropriate gymnastic machines. Some cities, for instance, Frankfort-on-the- 
 Maiu, provide special playgrounds and swimming baths for the use of school children. 
 
 While gymnastic drill is not universal in the public schools, it is very general. As 
 might be expected, it is more common and better provided for in the cities than in the 
 702
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 175 
 
 Country. In 1882 only ten percent, of the pupils in the higher schools for boys were 
 excused from turning, and they were excused on the certificates of physicians that 
 the exercise would be prejudicial to their health; only eighteen percent, of this class 
 of schools were obliged to discontinue turning in winter through having no proper 
 turnhalle, and sixty per cent, of them possessed a tnrnhalle. 
 
 In the course of study each class has its special time for gymnastics, just as it has 
 special hours set for arithmetic and reading, and in the majority of cases the instruction 
 is given by one of the ordinary class teachers, and not by a special teacher of turn- 
 ing. The amount of time devoted to turning, singing, and drawing, is usually the 
 same, viz, two hours weekly. 
 
 The exercises are carefully adapted to the age and sex of the pupils. The youngest 
 pupils, from six to ten years old, engage in a great variety of simple games, easy, 
 free movements, marching, jumping, and climbing exercises, and the fundamental 
 exercises on the easier gymnastic machines. In free, light, and heavy gymnastics 
 the exercises grow more complicated and difficult with the advaucing age of the 
 pupil. The expertness of the boys in the upper classes is often quite astonishing, 
 lu the Gymnasien and Realgymnasien fencing is taught in the upper classes. Pedes- 
 trian tours, skating parties, and excursions into the woods are frequently made under 
 the lead of those who teach turning. The gymnastic course for girls comprises tho 
 ordinary free gymnastics; class gymnastics wi th "hand apparatus," such as dumb- 
 bells, wands, and skipping ropes; marching, dancing, and balancing exercises; vari- 
 ous games of ball, easyjumping, swinging, andclimbing; and a few of the simplest ex- 
 ercises on the parallel and horizontal bars. Singing, especially during the march and 
 the minuet, is frequently engaged in during the hour given to gymnastic instruction. 
 
 In nearly every university, voluntary associations of students are formed to practice 
 turning. The university massers of sword-play and riding are survivals from feudal 
 times. 
 
 SCHOOL GiMNASTICS IN BERLIN. 
 
 Iii 1881 there were 4,815,974 children of school age in a total population of 27,250,000 
 in the Kingdom of Prussia. The number of teachers was over 61,000. The population 
 of Berlin in 1880 was 1,122,330. The total number of pupils in schools of every kind 
 iu the city was more than 149,000, of wliom not more than 25,000 were in private 
 schools. In schools wholly maintained at the city's expense, there were 104,720 pu- 
 pils. Of 70 tumanstalten, 9 were under royal patronage, including the MilHur- 
 turnanstalt, the Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt, and the gymnasia belonging to the Royal 
 Asylum for the Blind and the Royal Institution for the Deaf and Dumb. Of the 62 
 turnhallen belonging to the city, 41 had turnpliitze adjoining or near to them ; 2 be- 
 longed to higher schools for girls ; 11 belonged to higher schools for boys ; and 48 be- 
 longed to schools of the grade of Volksschulen (termed in Berlin Gemeindeschulen*) ; and 
 1 belonged to the Berlin Orphan Asylum. The city paid nearly $50,000 in 1880-'8l 
 for the instruction given its school children in gymnastics, which sum is equal to 
 about one twenty -third of its total expenditure for schools in that year. 
 
 In June, 1885, Berlin provided free-school instruction for some 143,000 children, 
 which shows an increase of 10,000 over the corresponding class in 1884. On the same 
 date the city had 148 Gemeindeschulen iu operation, and buildings for 8 more in process 
 of construction. The new school-houses are provided with turuhallen. 
 
 The present number of city turnhallen used for educational purposes in Berlin is 98. 
 The largest of them is the Stadtische Tiirnlialle, iu the Priuzenstrasse. This was estab- 
 lished in 1864; its cost was as follows: for land, including a turnplatz, 99,000 marks; 
 building, 254,000 marks; apparatus, 18,000 marks; total, 371,000 marks, or $92.750. 
 The building is of brick, and consists of two three-story wings and a one-story main 
 hall. The wings contain residence flats for the use of the officials charged with the 
 oversight and direction of school gymnastics. The main hall is 150 feet long, 75 feet 
 wide, and 48 feet high, and easily accommodates 400 turners at a time. Adjoining it 
 
 703
 
 176* CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1886. 
 
 is a well-appointed turnplatz, with an area of more than half an acre, which is planted 
 with shade trees. The City Turuhalle is open every day and evening, and is used at 
 appointed times hy several of the Berlin turnvereiue, also hy the association of Berlin 
 teachers, the royal firemen, the normal classes for teachers of turning, and by eight 
 of the city schools for school turning. In all, more than 13,000 persons exercise here 
 weekly. The annual appropriation for its maintenance, exclusive of salaries, is be- 
 tween $2,500 and $3,000. 
 
 As a rule, the school gymnasia in Germany are separate and specially designed 
 buildings, and not refitted rooms. As a class, the German gymnasia are not so luxuri- 
 ously fitted or so architecturally imposing as many of the newer American college 
 gymnasia, but they are admirably adapted to the teaching of free and class gymnas- 
 tics of every description. As much as possible the apparatus is adjustable and port- 
 able. A plain, one-story, brick turnhalle, 60 by 33 feet and 15 to 20 feet high, can 
 bo built in Germany at a cost of $5,000, and well furnished with apparatus for $1,000. 
 
 The city of Frankfort-on-the-Main, which is about the size of Washington, D. C., 
 spends yearly about $27,000 for the gymnastic instruction of its school children, some 
 18,000 in number. About one-third of this sum goes toward the furtherance of turn- 
 spiele. Boys and girls, unless excused on a physician's certificate, have two hours' 
 weekly instruction in turning, and two hours weekly of compulsory play besides. 
 The majority of the school children in Frankfort are also taught and practiced in 
 swimming under the auspices of the city. 
 
 In this connection the following facts regarding the Volksschulen of Vienna may be 
 of interest: In 1882- '83 Vienna, whose population in 1880 was 704,756, had 72,912 
 pupils in its 135 Volksschuleu. Of this number 44,614 (20,047 of whom were girls) 
 practiced turning under the guidance of 658 teachers. The city paid for the teach- 
 ing of turning and the care of the turnhallen, in 1882-'83, a sum equal to $34,860, or one- 
 twenty-ninth as much as its total ordinary expenditure for the Volksschnlen. 
 
 THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS OF TURNING. 
 
 The teachers of gymnastics in Prussia, indeed throughout Germany, are specially 
 trained for their duties. They are not, as is too often the case in England and America, 
 retired drill sergeants, broken down athletes, or merely enthusiastic gymnasts. There 
 are, it is said, more than 1,000 teachers in Berlin alone who are competent to give 
 instruction in turning. According to the regulations now in force, in order to be in- 
 stalled as a teacher of turning iu a Prussian school, one must first pass a satisfactory 
 examination and secure a certificate of fitness ; such certificates must be obtained at 
 Berlin, and from one of two sources, viz., the Konigliohe Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt, 
 or the Turnltltrer Prufungs Kommission. The latter is simply an examining board, 
 originally established in 1867, which holds examinations for male candidates annually 
 in February, and for female candidates in the spring and autumn of each year. 
 
 The Turulehrerbildungsanstalt holds two examinations yearly, one at the end of its 
 winter course of instruction for male teachers, the other at the end of its spring and 
 summer course for female teachers. Those who take the examinations set by the 
 Kouimission are mostly teachers who have attended courses in turning at a normal 
 school, or have received special training in classes formed for the purpose by the 
 educational authorities of one of the provincial cities ; some are university students 
 who look forward to a teacher's career. 
 
 At the examination held by the Kommissiou in November, 1884, 43 women passed; 
 at that held iu February, 1885, 39 men passed, 8 of whom were pronounced fit to teach 
 swimuiiug us well as turning ; 83 women were passed at the examination in May, 1885. 
 The number of males who completed the winter course of instruction at the Turnlehrer- 
 bildungsanstalt and secured the certificate of fitness to teach turning was 71, of whom 
 42 were passed al&o in swimming ; while the number of women who were passed at 
 the close of the course given in April, May, and June, 1885, was 82, of which number 
 28 took the course of instruction in swimming. 
 704
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 177 
 
 The examinations of the board of examiners of teachers of turning (Turnlelirer 
 Priifungs Kommissiori) are conducted by a board consisting of the principal teachers 
 belonging to the Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt and other teachers of turning named by 
 the Minister of Education. The board seldom exceeds five in the number of its mem- 
 bers. The teacher of anatomy in the Bildungsanstalt takes part in the examination 
 of male candidates, and a female teacher of turning is always a member of the board 
 when women are examined. The candidates are of three classes : (a) Those who have 
 already been found competent to be installed as teachers in the schools ; (7;) students 
 who have completed five semesters at a university ; (c) persons of sufficient age 
 (twenty years in the case of men, eighteen years in that, of women), not teachers, 
 who have had a good school education. 
 
 The examinations are both theoretical and practical. The theoretical examinations 
 are both written and oral. The written examination consists in the preparation, 
 within a limited time and without the assistance of books or persons, of a thesis on 
 such questions relating to school gymnastics as the examiners may select. The can- 
 didate is examined orally on his knowledge in relation to the most important points 
 in the history of turning, particularly of school turning ; in the literature and tech- 
 nical language of turning; on the kinds of exercise adapted to pupils of different 
 ages and states of proficiency ; on the principles involved in the construction and use 
 of the various gymnastic appliances ; on human anatomy, physiology, and hygiene, 
 and their relation to gymnastics ; and on the means of rendering first aid to the in- 
 jured. In the practical examination the candidate is required to show what degree 
 of expertness he possesses in the exercises made use of in school turning. 
 
 THE ROYAL INSTITUTE FOR TRAINING TEACHERS OP TURNING. 
 
 As has already been stated, this institution, known as the civil section of the Cen- 
 tralturnanstalt till 1877, dates from 1851. Since the separation of the military and 
 civil sections in 1877, the latter has been known as the Konigliclie Turnlehrerbilditnga- 
 anstalt. Prof. Dr. Carl Euler, who, though not the titular "director" of the Bil- 
 dungsanstalt, actually directs its daily affairs, is a highly accomplished teacher, and 
 one of the best known German writers on turning. He has occupied his present po- 
 sition as the chief normal teacher of turning in Prussia since the year 1860, when he 
 was called from Schulpforta to take charge of the civil section of the Centralturn'- 
 anstalt, of which Rothstein was then the head. The writer is deeply indebted to Pro- 
 fessor Euler and his assistant, Oberlehrer Eckler, for many kindnesses and much 
 valuable information concerning gymnastics in Berlin and Prussia. Messrs. Euler 
 and Eckler not only conduct most of the theoretical courses in the Bildungsanstalt 
 (with the exception of the course in anatomy and physiology, which is given by Dr. 
 Hoffmann), but they are also charged with the inspection, as regards turning, of the 
 schools in all the provinces of Prussia. The nnmber of assistant teachers in the 
 Bildungsanstalt varies with the number of pupils from year to year. In the winter 
 course of 1883-'84, five male assistants were connected with the institute, and an equal 
 number of female assistants gave practical instruction in the summer course of 1884. 
 The winter course for men begins in October of each year, and lasts six months; the 
 course for women begins at the close of the Easter vacation. and continues for three 
 months. 
 
 Since 1879 the institute has occupied a building of its own at 229 Friedrichsstrasse. 
 This building is a model one of its kind. It consists of a main building two stories 
 high, with an L one story high. On the first floor there are, besides several reception 
 rooms and the living rooms of the janitor, three rooms appropriately fitted for gym- 
 nastic exercises. One in the main building is for the use of girls and women, and is 
 65 feet long, 32. 5 feet wide, and 17.8 feet high ; another, for the use of school children 
 belonging to the model classes, is 81.25 feet by 40.6 feet ; and the third, for the use of 
 males, is 91 feet by 47.7 feet. The principal rooms on the second floor in the main 
 
 5068 No. 5 12 705
 
 178 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 building are the waiting and cloak rooms, a large office, two lecture rooms, a museum 
 containing a collection of models of a great variety of gymnastic appliances, and a 
 library. 
 
 The examinations of the Turnlehrer Priifungs Kommission are held in the rooms of 
 the Bildmigsanstalt. 
 
 Courses of lectures are given in anatomy, physiology, and dietetics ; on first aid to 
 the injured; on the history of bodily exercises and the science and methods of turning; 
 and on the construction and use of apparatus. The practical instruction comprises 
 lessons and practice in free gymnastics; exercises with "hand apparatus" dumb 
 bells, wands, and the like; exercises on the heavy gymnastic appliances; fencing and 
 sword-play, and swimming. The pupils of the institute are required to conduct 
 classes in gymnastics, under the supervision of their instructors, in several of the city 
 schools. As might be expected, numerous systematic works in the form of handbooks 
 and manuals on all branches of turning have been published. 
 
 The systems of school turning in the other states of the German Empire do not dif- 
 fer very widely or essentially from that in vogue in Prussia. Each of the principal 
 states, too, maintains a Turnlehrerbildungsanstalt. There is one at Dresden, for 
 the Kiugdom of Saxony, which dates from 1850 ; that at Stuttgart, for the Kingdom 
 of Wiirtemberg, was founded in 1862 ; that for the Grand Duchy of Baden, at Carls- 
 ruhe, was established in 1869 ; and the one at Munich, for the Kingdom of Bavaria, 
 was opened in 1872. 
 
 MILITARY TURNING. 
 
 Gymnastic exercises constitute a considerable and important part of the prelimi- 
 nary training of officers in the cadet and war schools, and of the drill to which re- 
 cruits and soldiers in the army are subjected. Military drill of the technical and 
 special sort is not a prominent feature in the course of the six preparatory schools for 
 cadets ( Voranatalten des Cadeiten Corps), whose pupils, from ten to fifteeen years of 
 age, are arranged in five classes, corresponding to the classes Sexta to Tertia, inclusive, 
 of a Realgymnasium. The boys of the lower classes have gymnastic instruction 
 adapted to their age and strength, and are encouraged to engage in out-of-door sports, 
 such a* foot ball, tug of war, and snowballing, during their play hours. Only the 
 boys in Unter- and Obertertia are allowed to drill with muskets. At Lichterfeldo the 
 eight hundred and eighty youths are organized as four battalions of infantry, and 
 much attention is given to infantry drill and evolutions, target practice, gymnas- 
 tics, fencing, and riding. The pupils in the war schools are also thoroughly drilled in 
 the above-mentioned branches of physical training. Two hundred lieutenants are 
 annually trained as leaders of military turning at the Konigliclie Militarturnamtalt in 
 Berlin. 
 
 Gymnastics are also taught in the HiUtarreitinslitut at Hanover. This 'institute 
 includes a riding school for officers and a riding school for under-officers. The pupils 
 in the former are lieutenants, and in the latter under-officers, who are mostly detailed 
 from the Prussian cavalry, though a few are drawn from the field artillery. The 
 number detailed annually to each school is eighty-three. The majority of these re- 
 turn to their regiments after a year's instruction, while the remainder, twenty-nine 
 officers and twenty-eight under-officers, stay a second year at the institute. 
 
 The Militarturnanstalt. 
 
 The system of gymnastic instruction originally adopted as an essential factor in 
 the training of the Prussian soldier was that of Ling. In 1845 General Von Boyen, 
 the Minister of War, who had three years before joined his colleagues, Von Rochow, 
 Minister of the Interior, and Eichorn, Minister of Education, in urging upon the King 
 the views expressed in the epoch-making cabinet order, sent two officers, one of whom 
 was Rothstein, to investigate the nature and working of the Swedish system of gym- 
 nastics, especially as regarded its military side. Rothstein and his companion re- 
 706
 
 PHYSICAL TKAIX1XG IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 179 
 
 paired to Stockholm, went through the regular ten months' course of instruction in 
 the Royal Central Gymnastic Institute, which had heen in operation since 1814, and 
 graduated as teachers of Ling's gymnastics. They then spent three months at Copen- 
 hagen in the Danish Royal Central Institute, whose date of establishment is 1806. 
 They returned to Berlin in June, 1846, and early in 1847 the War Department adopted 
 the main recommendations of their report by ordering the establishment of a Prussian 
 central institute for the gymnastic instruction of the army. This institute was 
 opened in Berlin October 1, 1847, with eighteen officers as pupils. The revolutionary 
 outbreak of 1848 caused the suspension of the institute for three years. In 1851 the 
 Konigliche Centralturnanstalt, to which allusion has already been made, was opened 
 in Berlin with Rothstein at its head. 
 
 Although Rothstein's opponents were able to defeat his efforts to supersede the 
 Jahn-Eiselen and Spiess gymnastics, as regarded school gymnastics, the system of 
 military gymnastics introduced by Rothstein was never fully abandoned by the War 
 Department. In the Militarturnanstalt of to-day one does not find the horizontal 
 bar or the parallel bars in use ; and various pieces of gymnastic apparatus are still 
 used there and throughout the army, which are seldom, if ever, used in Volksturnen or 
 Schulturnen. 
 
 Two five-months' courses are annually given at the Militarturnanstalt. The num- 
 ber of officers enrolled at one time as pupils is usually one hundred. Lieutenant- 
 Colonel Von Dresky is at present the director of the institution. His assistants, in- 
 cluding a medical officer who lectures on anatomy and physiology, are all army offi- 
 cers. Practical instruction is given in free gymnastics, heavy gymnastics, jumping, 
 sword-play, bayonet exercise, and in what may be termed " applied military gymnas- 
 tics" (Hindernissturnen'), in which squad exercises in clearing ditches and scaling 
 intrenchments, walls, and spiked fences, occupy a prominent place. The training 
 given at the Militiirturnanstalt is such that those officers who complete its course 
 are thoroughly fitted, on returning to their regiments, to give practical instruction 
 to their subordinates. 
 
 In the gymnastic drill of the troops, the nnder-officers play an important part ; but 
 they learn and perform their duties as teachers of gymnastics under officers who have 
 had the benefit of the Berlin course. All officers of infantry are required to be fa- 
 miliar with the principles of military gymnastics, and the younger officers must be 
 able to teach and practice them. 
 
 ' Peculiarities of Military Turning. 
 
 The following statements, derived from the latest "Vorschriften iiberdas Turnen der 
 Infanterle," may serve to indicate the salient features of military turning, at leaat so 
 far as the infantry arm of the service, which includes more than 230,000 men and 
 officers, is concerned : 
 
 Gymnastic exercises constitute an essential factor in the military training of the 
 individual man. They should not only increase the strength, agility, and endurance 
 of his body, but should strengthen his will power, resolution, self-confidence, aud 
 courage, and call forth a healthy spirit of emulation. In order to attain these ends, 
 the soldier must be taught the natural, sure, and energetic use of his limbs by means 
 of properly devised exercises.' These exercises are divided into (a) free- and weapon 
 exercises, (6) exercises with gymnastic machines (Eustiibungen), and (c) exercises in 
 applied turning, by which are understood exercises to render soldiers able to surmount 
 artificial or natural obstructions in the field. 
 
 Turning should be practiced by all the men from the beginning of their term of 
 service, due regard being had to individual peculiarities and circumstances. During 
 the entire term of service the free and weapon exercises are to be pursued as exercises 
 for the promotion of the soldier's health. . In the course of every hour devoted to 
 gymnastics, all parts of the body are, so far as possible, to be brought equally into 
 play. In judging of the excellence of the exercise, strength, dexterity, and the car- 
 riage and control of the body are to be considered, rather than the difficulty of the 
 exercise. The performance of gymnastic tricks and feats is never to be considered the 
 aim of the exercises. 
 
 707
 
 180 CIRCULAKS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 The free movements are those which aro performed without the aid of any ap- 
 paratus. They lie at the foundation of the bodily training of the soldier, both as re- 
 gurds drill and gymnastics. They are the especial means for suppling the stifl' joints 
 of the raw recruit. The free movements are to be arranged in groups, so that head, 
 arms, back, legs, and feet shall be exercised in equal measure. Exercise in the quick- 
 step, 165 to 175 steps in the minute, are included in the free movements. 
 
 Weapon exercises (Geweliriibungen) are defined as exercises in which the musket is 
 used for the further development of the soldier's strength. In these exercises the 
 musket is used in something the same way that the staff or wand is used in light 
 gymnastics. The exercises are of two sorts with both hands and with one hand, 
 hi the one-hand exercises the left and the right hands must bo equally taught. 
 
 The principal machines employed in the Rustiibunfjen (which is a Liug-Rothsteiu 
 word for the Geratiibungen of the turners) are the horizontal beam ; the spring-board ; 
 the cross-tree, or beam, which resembles the horizontal bar ; the ladder-plank ; the 
 inclined ladder ; the leaping-table ; the vertical ropes and poles, for climbing. 
 
 lu the applied military gymnastics the soldiers are taught to leap ditches and bar- 
 riers, and to scale walls, fences, and stockades of various kinds. In these exercises 
 the men carry their muskets and side arms, and are divided into larger and smaller 
 squads, which are, of course, required to keep step and time as much as possible. 
 These exercises are very useful, and by no means easy in some of their branches, yet 
 it is astonishing to a civilian to witness the celerity, precision, and certainty, with 
 which a squad of a dozen men will surmount a wall or a high, spiked fence, or cross 
 a wide, deep ditch on a narrow, shaky bridge. 
 
 Rothstein, in his account of the Ceutralturnanstalt published in 1861, describes 
 the " obstructed running track " (Laufbalin mil Hindernissen') in which the pupils of the 
 institute were exercised in " applied gymnastics." The track was U-sbaped, 195 paces 
 long, and 18 feet broad. The obstructions were arranged in the following order : (1) 
 A ditch C feet wide, for the running leap ; (2) a mound of earth 3 feet high and 4 
 feet wide at the base, for the high jump ; (3) a ditch 12 feet wide, for the long leap ; 
 (4) a mound 6 feet high and 10 feet wide at the base, on the edge of a ditch 12 feet 
 wide, for the "deep leap" ; (5) a board fence 5 feet high, to be vaulted over ; (6) an 
 "escalading stage," 12 feet high and 6 feet wide at the top. to be climbed by ladders, 
 ropes, or poles, and jumped or dropped from ; (7) a ditch 10 feet deep and 9 feet wide, 
 with an escarpment wall rising 4 feet above the hither edge of the ditch, and bridged 
 by a shaky beam ; (8) a palisade 7 feet high, of sharpened planks ; and (9) a glacis. A 
 section of twelve men in three ranks of four files each, the men having muskets, side- 
 arms, and knapsacks, usually made the entire course from* end to end in three to 
 three and a third minutes. Without weapons or knapsacks, four men, each doing his 
 beat to outstrip his fellows, usually covered the course in sixty to seventy seconds; 
 while a few individuals were able to cover the course ii; forty-three to forty-five 
 seconds. 
 
 The following extract from a circular on the teaching of gymnastics in the ele- 
 mentary schools, addressed to the superintendents and inspectors of schools in the 
 district of Lieguitz, province of Silesia, in 1671, by the section for church and school 
 affairs, may serve as an indication of the esteem in which turning is held by those 
 most concerned with educational affairs : 
 
 It is acknowledged everywhere by soldiers and civilians that the astonishing accom- 
 plishments of our armies in the late war, especially their thorough discipline, exhib- 
 ited in the most cheerful and Belf-sacrilicing manner, their skill in overcoming nat- 
 ural and artificial obstacles in the enemy's country, their courage and calmness 
 in battle, the resolution with which they bore pain and privation, must, in a large 
 measure, bo attributed to the gymnastic training of the rank and file. 
 
 As has been well said, " Hardly any army deserves better than the Prussian- 
 German the name Exercitus." Prussia, in the interval between Jena and Sedan, de- 
 monstrated most clearly and strikingly the power and worth of comprehensive and 
 scientific "training." Even the English are beginning to doubt the infallibility of 
 the -notion of which they have been so fond, " that you come to do a thing right by 
 7G3
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. , 181 
 
 doing it, and not by first learning to do it right and then doing it." It is a conspic- 
 uous merit of the Prussian scheme of national education, that both in mental and 
 physical training little or nothing is left to the rule of thumb. 
 
 It may fairly be doubted if any modern nation can vie with Prussia in ability to mob- 
 ilize its strength ; nor can it be doubted that her system of physical training has 
 proven a very considerable factor in developing her power to transform her potential 
 energy into work. 
 
 It is impossible that Prussian turning, reaching, as it does, nearly a fifth of the en- 
 tiro population of the kingdom, through the instrumentalities of the school, the army, 
 and the Turnerschalt, should not exercise a powerful influence upon the national life 
 and development. 
 
 A belief in the validity of Prussian methods has led to a more or less general and 
 close imitation of them throughout Germany. And France has, since 1870, intro- 
 duced gymnastic training into the plan of work ordained for its system oi' public 
 schools. 
 
 If physical training should ever be pursued intelligently and systematically in the 
 schools of any American State or city, many of the same problems with which the 
 educational authorities in Germany, Switzerland, Sweden, and France, have been so 
 deeply engaged, will inevitably present themselves. The writer is far from thinking 
 that such problems can be satisfactorily solved by the attempted introduction of any 
 unmodified foreign system of gymnastics or athletics. But he is firmly convinced that 
 whoever may be impelled or called upon to attempt to provide an adequate remedy for 
 the present lamentable neglect of physical training in American schools and colleges, 
 can readily save money, time, and trouble, if they will but study the German system 
 of turning; "for there can be no doubt," to borrow the words of Prof. Du Bois-Rey- 
 mond, "that German turning, in its wise mingling of theory and practice, exhibits 
 the happiest, yes, the most adequate solution of the great problem with which peda-' 
 gogics has been busy since Rousseau, a truth which, after a short obscurity, is now 
 hardly contested, but the physiological principle of which a few are beginning to 
 understand," 
 
 THE NORTH AMRRICAN.TURNERBUND. 
 
 The largest association of turners in the world, outside of the Deutsche Turnerscbaft, 
 is that formed by the German gymnastic societies of the United States, under the 
 name of the North American Gymnastic Union, or Turnerbund. The aims of the Tur- 
 nerbund are most gloriously broad and general. The solo and simple end of its mem- 
 bers is " to aid each other in rearing a people stroug in both body and mind." As a 
 means to the furtherance of this end, the framers of the platform and statutes of the 
 Turnerbuud, which were adopted at its national convention held at Davenport, Iowa, 
 in 1884, pronounce in favor of " a thorough reform of social, religious, and political 
 life." 
 
 The maxims and demands expressed in the declaration of principles of the Turner- 
 bund are held " to form the programme for the realization of a system of pure popular 
 sovereignty," under which " not only everything should be done for the people, but also 
 by the people." This programme seems to us so fantastic, so impracticable, so entirely 
 irrelevant to the legitimate purposes of a "gymnastic union," that we shall content 
 ourselves with the bare mention of a very few of its main features, and confine our 
 attention chiefly to the field of practical endeavor, in which the Turnerbuud has 
 achieved substantial and really commendable results. 
 
 The officers and members of the gymnastic union are "earnestly admonished" to 
 make snch propositions as follow, the subject "of special and thorough discussion"; 
 " Senate and Presidency are but copies of monarchical institutions, being undemo- 
 cratic and uurepubljcan, and should be abolished." The general convention of the gym- 
 nastic union recommends, "as proper means of relieving public distress and of amelio- 
 rating social conditions, the protection of labor against spoliation, and securing to 
 
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 182 CIRCULARS OF INFORMATION FOR 1885. 
 
 it the real product thereof ; sanitary protection of citizens ; a prohibition of the abuse 
 of employing the labor of children for industrial purposes ; a cessation of all further 
 land grants or sales to individuals and corporations; free instruction to everybody ; 
 a progressive income tax, and a legacy or succession duty or tax ; abolition of all 
 monopolies ; a thorough reform of our judicial system ; the abolition of all indirect 
 taxation." 
 
 The practical aims of the Turnerbund are well set forth in sections 21 to 23, inclu- 
 sive, of its statutes. They read as follows : 
 
 21. It is one of the chief aims of the gymnastic societies, and of the gymnastic 
 union, to labor for the intr eduction of systematic gymnastic training into the exist- 
 ing schools, since such training is indispensable to the thorough education of the 
 young. 
 
 2<J. It is therefore obligatory upon the gymnastic societies to see that their gym- 
 nastic exercises are conducted according to rational principles, and to take special 
 care to employ only such persons as teachers of gymnastics, supervisors of exercises 
 (Turuwarte), and leaders of practice sections (Vorturner) as are thoroughly qualified 
 to understand and teach gymnastics in harmony with those principles. 
 
 It is furthermore the duty of the societies to labor in their own sphere for the es- 
 tablishment and perfection of good German-English schools, in which music, singing, 
 drawing, and gymnastics receive full attention, and to work in favor of compulsory 
 school attendance ; and lastly to take pains to have the German language taught in 
 the public schools. 
 
 23. It, is obligatory upon the societies to provide for the further education of their 
 members by arranging for instructive addresses, lectures, or discussions once a 
 month ; and such topics chiefly shall be selected for this purpose as relate to the res- 
 olutions or principles of the gymnastic union. 
 
 In January, 1885, the North American Tumerbund consisted of 213 vereine, with 
 a total membership of 21,809, an increase of 2,096 over the previous year. In the 
 Turuschuleu of the Bund, 12,228 boys and 4,005 girls received instruction in gymnas- 
 tics during the year 1884-'85. The Turnschulen, which are maintained by the turn- 
 vereine, have come very generally into vogue within the last ten years. They have 
 been established for the purpose of securing to the children of German and German- 
 American parents instruction in the German language and literature, as well as in 
 the ordinary branches of a common school education and gymnastics. Very fre- 
 quently the children attend a public school and a Turuschule at the same time, the 
 session of the latter being held after the completion of the daily session of the pub- 
 lic school. The gymnastic (societies in many of the larger cities, like New York, Chi- 
 cago, Saint Louis, Milwaukee, and San Francisco, have dramatic, musical, and art 
 sections. The New York Turuverein, for instance, supports an evening art school, 
 with classes in drawing and modeling. 
 
 The Turnerbund owned property worth $2,409,375 in 1885. This represented a total 
 indebtedness of only $840,427. Its Turnhallen (gymnasia) numbered 140, an increase 
 of 13 over the previous year. Its trained and salaried teachers of gymnastics num- 
 bered 98. 
 
 The teachers of gymnastics receive their special professional training in the Turn 
 lehrer Seminar. The gymnastic aims and methods of the Turnerbund and its teachers 
 are closely modeled after tho^e which obtain in Germany. The Turnlehrer Seminal 
 is, in the writer's opinion, the best normal school for teachers of gymnastics in the 
 United States. It has for some years had its headquarters at Milwaukee, Wis., and 
 been under the charge of Director G. Brosins. It was formerly located in Chicago, 
 and still earlier in New York. 
 
 It is interesting to note that a grandson of " Father Jahn" is one of the eighteen 
 pupils who constitute this year's class atthe Milwaukee Seminar. Jahn's son has lived 
 in poverty and obscurity for many years in Baltimore, Md. Ho receives ao.aun.ual sti- 
 pend from the Turnerbund, which has adopted his son, the youth above referred to, 
 as its foster child. 
 
 The course of instruction given in Milwaukee approximates, on the whole, so nearly 
 in character to that of the Turnlohrerbildungsaustalt in Berlin that it is .unneces- 
 710
 
 PHYSICAL TRAINING IN AMERICAN COLLEGES. 183 
 
 sary to characterize it further. Graduates of the Seminar are now required to speak 
 and read English. 
 
 Thus far the Turnerhund has made but little progress toward bringing about the 
 introduction of gymnastic instruction into the public schools. Meager results, not 
 worth mentioning in comparison with what may be observed in almost any German 
 city, have been attained in the cities of Milwaukee, Saint Louis, and Cleveland, 
 where feeble experiments in giving instruction in calisthenics have been made. 
 
 It is nearly a year since the committee on course of study and school books of the 
 board of education of the city of New York voted in favor of testing a plan, which 
 emanated from the Turnerbund, for the introduction of gymnastic training into the 
 public schools of that city. It was voted to furnish three schools with gymnastic ap- 
 pliances at a cost not exceeding $94 for each school, and that " an instructor be em- 
 ployed, at a salary of not more than $50 per month, to take charge of these schools for 
 one year, under the direction of the city superintendent as to time, etc." As it was 
 found that the committee had no right to vote an appropriation, physical training in 
 the New York public schools remains in the same unsatisfactory condition in which 
 it was before the vote was passed. 
 
 No city or town can secure physical training to its schoolchildren unless it provide 
 gymnasia and specially trained and well-paid teachers. A salary of $50 per month, 
 we need hardly add, will not secure competent teachers of gymnastics ; and without 
 competent teachers gymnasia are useless, or worse than useless. 
 
 The Turnerbund owns more gymnasia than do all the colleges of the country taken 
 together, and its corps of teachers of gymnastics is made up of the best the country 
 affords ; yet the aims, methods, and achievements of the Turnerbund are almost un- 
 known to the mass of men and women engaged in the education of American children. 
 One would think from the utterances of some of the prophets and disciples of " physi- 
 cal culture" that the field of bodily education was white for the harvest. Such facts 
 as those above cited seem to us to indicate that the field is only here and there ready 
 for the sowing of seed. 
 
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