HEALTH STUDIES 
 
 HOAG
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 AT LOS ANGELES 
 
 GIFT OF 
 
 Dr. EKNS3T C. MOORE
 
 HEALTH STUDIES 
 
 APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 
 
 BY 
 
 ERNEST BRYANT HOAG, A.M., M.D. 
 
 PIRF.CTOK OK HYGIENE AND PHYSICAL EXAMINATIONS IN THROOP 
 
 POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND THE CITY SCHOOLS OK PASADENA 
 
 LECTURER IN HYGIENE, UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA 
 
 WITH PREFATORY NOTE BY 
 DAVID STARR JORDAN, PH.D., M.D. 
 
 PRESIDENT OF LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY 
 
 BOSTON, U.S.A. 
 
 D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS 
 1909
 
 COPYRIGHT, 1909, 
 BY D. C. HEATH & Co.
 
 TU 
 
 
 PREFATORY NOTE 
 
 Tins little book of Health Studies is the work of a wise and 
 earnest man who is also a successful physician. Doctor Hoag has 
 tried to tell young people, in plain and direct language, how to take 
 care of themselves and thus to take the ordinary course of their lives 
 out of the hands of himself and other physicians. For the most 
 that the doctor is called on to do, in our day, is to relieve his patients 
 from the necessary results of carelessness or ignorance, on their part 
 or on the part of others. When carelessness and ignorance can be 
 avoided, we call it criminal not to do so. It was long ago said 
 about other forms of wickedness, "It is their condemnation that 
 light is come into the world.' 1 Much light as to sickness and health 
 has come of late years through the advance of scientific research. 
 It is nowadays the "condemnation'' of ignorance that truth is so 
 easy of access. Men and women who "ought to know better" than 
 to do unwholesome tilings must be taught to do better. To help 
 the young people in our schools, who will be men and women before 
 very long, to know the truth about common living and to act on 
 such knowledge is the purpose of this book. And having read the 
 book in manuscript, and having known the author as one of my own 
 students, I feel sure that it is well fitted to fulfill its purpose. 
 
 STANFORD UNIVERSITY. 
 
 rv 
 
 21516
 
 PREFACE 
 
 ANATOMY and physiology, except in their simple elements, 
 are of doubtful value for young pupils. But the study of 
 how to keep well, or hygiene, is something that every boy 
 and girl, man and woman, must learn or else must suffer 
 for his ignorance. Hygiene, properly presented, deals with 
 things of everyday life. No pupil in the schools is too young 
 to begin to learn how to adjust himself successfully to his 
 surroundings. This learning how to meet our environment, 
 as Professor Huxley long ago said, constitutes a liberal 
 education. 
 
 Many of the school texts have been based too exclusively 
 on physiology, or have dealt largely with elementary anatomy, 
 and have been difficult of comprehension to the pupils. 
 HEALTH STUDIES differs materially from such books. It 
 makes hygiene the primary study, and introduces only a 
 sufficient amount of physiology to form a sound basis for 
 the study of health principles. 
 
 If this small book succeeds in helping its readers to 
 think for themselves ; if it encourages them in making their 
 own definitions ; if it leads them to realize that it is not 
 ignorance but knowledge which leads to health, and there- 
 fore happiness ; and finally, if it helps to prepare them to 
 meet practical life as they will find it, then its appear- 
 ance will have been justified. 
 
 These studies are not intended for memorizing. They 
 are meant to encourage thought and a little original work on 
 the part of the pupil. The text, to be successful, must be 
 taken as a basis for simple discussions about the things
 
 vi PREFACE 
 
 which the pupils find around them every day, and not merely 
 as lessons to be learned. The lessons should be made a 
 pleasure rather than a duty. Any pupil can be interested in 
 the things of real life. 
 
 The criticism will perhaps be made by some that the 
 lessons are not presented in the usual way, and that many 
 things are introduced which are difficult for young students. 
 The writer believes that this subject is no more difficult than 
 arithmetic, much less difficult than grammar, and consider- 
 ably more important in life than either of these subjects. 
 
 The topics on each chapter (pages 181-198) are intended 
 as an outline for discussion, but not as demands upon the 
 pupil to be rigidly insisted upon. If the pupils, after review- 
 ing these topics, will make out from them a written outline of 
 each chapter, it will prove a helpful exercise. 
 
 The suggestions for teachers, which are found in the 
 appendix (page 205), present many topics for class discussion, 
 give ideas of how to start pupils on a little original obser- 
 vation, and furnish a bibliography of interesting articles 
 on health subjects which are available in almost every 
 community. 
 
 Suggestions and criticisms from teachers who are really 
 interested in health work and in trying to make hygiene and 
 physiology teaching something more than lessons to be fin- 
 ished by the pupil will be greatly appreciated by the writer, 
 who has here ventured into a comparatively new field. 
 
 Many friends in the medical and educational world have 
 given useful suggestions during the preparation of the manu- 
 script. Cordial thanks are due Dr. David Starr Jordan, 
 President of Stanford University; Professor I). R. Jones of 
 the San Francisco Normal School; Dr. N. K. Foster, Sec- 
 retary of the California State Hoard of Health, Sacramento; 
 Dr. (). F. Reinhardt, Professor of Hygiene, University of
 
 PREFACE vii 
 
 California; Dr. Ernest A. Sweet of the Public Health and 
 Marine Hospital Service, San Diego; Dr. 1). D. Whedon, 
 San Diego ; Mr. Edward Hyatt, Superintendent of Public 
 Instruction, Sacramento; Dr. William F. Snow, Professor of 
 Hygiene, Stanford University; Miss M. Henderson of the 
 State Laboratory of Hygiene, Berkeley ; Miss Grace Fisher, 
 head of the Department of Domestic Economy, Manual 
 Training School, Menomonee, Wisconsin ; Mr. A. L. Hamil- 
 ton, Superintendent of Schools, Mr. W. H. Holland, Principal 
 of the Garfield School, and Miss Virginia Pease, Principal 
 of the Elementary Polytechnic School, all of Pasadena. 
 
 Particular thanks are due Dr. Winfield Scott Hall, Pro- 
 fessor of Physiology in Northwestern University Medical 
 College, who wrote the chapter on Stimulants and Narcotics 
 and furnished much of the material for the chapter on Food ; 
 and to Dr. Arthur R. Reynolds, formerly Commissioner of 
 Health, Chicago, who supplied some of the facts for the 
 chapter on Public Health. 
 
 ERNEST BRYANT HOAG
 
 CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 THE OBJECT OF HEALTH STUDY i 
 
 PART I. GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 CHAPTER 
 
 1. THE GENERAL PLAN OF THE Bony 5 
 
 II. THE CELL STRUCTURE OF THE BODY 12 
 
 III. THE ORGANS OF THE BODY 15 
 
 IV. THE BLOOD 24 
 
 V. FOOD AND DIGESTION 30 
 
 VI. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 44 
 
 VII. THE LIVING MACHINE 53 
 
 PART II. HYGIENE 
 
 VIII. THE NATURAL DEFENSES OF THE BODY .... 59 
 
 IX. WHAT HEALTH DEI-ENDS UroN 67 
 
 X. THE CAUSES OF DISEASE 72 
 
 XI. CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 81 
 
 XII. COLDS AND THEIR PREVENTION 92 
 
 XIII. PERSONAL HYGIENE 98 
 
 XIV. THE HEALTHFUL HOME .115 
 
 XV. THE USE AND ABUSE OF FOOD 130 
 
 XVI. MILK AND WATER SUFI-LIES 137
 
 X CONTENTS 
 
 CHAPTER PACK 
 
 XVII. STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 148 
 
 XVIII. THE USK AND ABUSE OF DRUGS 156 
 
 XIX. ATHLETICS, KXERCISE, AND OUTDOOR LIFE . . . 161 
 
 XX. PUBLIC HEALTH 167 
 
 XXI. MAKING THE MOST OF LIFE 177 
 
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 181 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 WHY A WORLD WARFARE is BEING WAGED AGAINST TUBERCULOSIS 199 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 205 
 
 Tones ON HEALTH SUBJECTS 207 
 
 PUBLICATIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY AND HEALTH Tones . . . 208 
 
 READING REFERENCES GROUTED BY SUBJECTS 210 
 
 INDEX 217
 
 HEALTH STUDIES 
 
 THE OBJECT OF HEALTH STUDY 
 
 IT rarely occurs to people that most kinds of sick- 
 ness are preventable accidents. The greatest teacher of 
 science that England ever had, Professor Huxley, once 
 said that we should look upon most cases of illness as 
 criminal. What he meant was that people have no 
 right to treat their bodies recklessly, or to expose others 
 to disease by their own carelessness. Such carelessness 
 may be a crime. Every one who becomes sick puts a 
 burden on somebody else. Every one's usefulness is 
 decreased by sickness. 
 
 Another great Englishman, many years ago, said that 
 no other thing has detracted so much from happy living 
 as our sins against health, and those of our forefathers. 
 
 Man has always been most afraid of those things 
 which he does not understand. One need fear disease 
 far less when one really understands its nature and how 
 easily it can often be avoided. 
 
 We are all ashamed of most kinds of ignorance. We 
 wish to be well educated in order to succeed in the 
 world, and because it makes us happier. In spite of 
 this fact, few people feel any shame in their ignorance 
 of how to care for their own bodies. Boys and girls 
 often pass through the schools knowing almost nothing 
 of how the body does its work. Many men and women 
 are graduated from college just as deficient in this kind
 
 2 HEALTH STUDIES 
 
 of knowledge. Teachers, lawyers, ministers, and busi- 
 ness men, whom we all respect, sometimes do the most 
 foolish things imaginable in neglecting the care of their 
 health. 
 
 Knowledge is desirable only when it can make us hap- 
 pier or more useful. Nothing else in the world has so 
 much to do with happiness and usefulness as good 
 health. It is the duty of every one to learn something 
 of how his body does its >vork and how that work can 
 be made most efficient. It is not essential that young 
 students, or even most older people, should know a 
 great deal about the structure of the body. This is 
 what is called anatomy. But we all need to know some- 
 thing about how the work of the body is done. This is 
 physiology. We ought to learn even more about the 
 things that interfere with its best action, and how to 
 avoid them. This is hygiene. 
 
 The complete study of the human body is one of the 
 most difficult of all subjects. No piece of machinery, 
 however complicated it may be, can compare with the 
 body in this respect. But without trying to study all 
 the details of its structure and all the complicated kinds 
 of work which it does, we can understand enough about 
 this human machine of ours to learn how to take the 
 best care of it. This is health study, for hygiene is a 
 word which means simply health.
 
 PART I 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY
 
 Skull 
 
 Fic. i. TIIK HUMAN SKKI.KTON.
 
 CHAPTER I 
 THE GENERAL PLAN OF THE BODY 
 
 To make the best use of the house in which we live, 
 we examine first the general plan on which it is built. 
 We must know how many rooms it has, what is the 
 shape of the rooms, and how they are arranged and 
 connected. The appearance of the house as a whole 
 also interests us. In studying the human body and how 
 to make the best use of it, we must likewise know first 
 something of the general plan of the body and around 
 this build up our knowledge. 
 
 The framework of the body is shown in Figure i 
 on page 4. Notice that while the body Theframe 
 frame has many separate parts, yet they work of the 
 group themselves into a few main divisions: 
 
 1. The box-like skull. 
 
 2. The backbone. 
 
 3. The ribs and breast-bone. 
 
 4. The arm bones and hands. 
 
 5. The shoulder bones, to which the arm bones 
 
 are attached. 
 
 6. The leg bones and feet. 
 
 7. The hip bones, to which the leg bones are 
 
 attached. 
 
 The bony part of the body is called the skeleton. 
 
 5'
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 Enclosed within the bony framework are many im- 
 The main portant parts, or organs, of the body. The 
 
 divisions of 
 the body 
 
 body as a whole may be considered as sepa- 
 rated into four main divisions (Fig. 2): 
 
 1. The head. 
 
 2. The chest. 
 
 3. The abdomen. 
 
 4. The appendages (arms and legs). 
 
 The head contains the brain, the eyes, the mouth, 
 tongue, and teeth, and the or- 
 gans of hearing and smelling. 
 
 The chest contains the lungs, 
 the heart, and certain large 
 blood vessels. (See Fig. 14, 
 page 17.) 
 
 The abdomen contains the 
 stomach, the intestines, the 
 liver, and other organs of diges- 
 tion. A strong partition, called 
 the diaphragm, separates the 
 abdomen and the chest. 
 
 The delicate organs in the 
 head, chest, and abdomen are 
 protected by the bones. The 
 ribs, breast-bone, and back- 
 bone form a strong sup- 
 port and protection for the 
 organs of the chest. The 
 ribs, backbone, and hip 
 
 1 It is interesting to note that the body may be divided into two 
 vertical cylinders. The one behind contains the nervous system 
 (brain and cord) ; the one in front contains most of the other im- 
 portant organs. 
 
 Abdomen 
 
 Fir.. 2. 
 
 -THE MAIN DIVISIONS 
 
 OK THK BODY.1
 
 THE GENERAL PLAN OF THE BODY 
 
 bones do the same service for the organs of the ab- 
 domen. 
 
 The backbone encloses the spinal cord. This cord is 
 somewhat like a long rod which passes through the 
 center of the backbone. It continues through The brain 
 an opening at the base of the skull and con- and spinal 
 nects with the brain. The skull and the c 
 backbone perfectly protect these important organs. 
 The backbone is composed 
 of a series of separate bones, 
 called vertebrae (Fig. 3). 
 
 Closely connected with 
 the bones in the body is 
 muscle. What 
 we speak of as 
 
 lean meat of any kind is FIG. 3 .-Two VERTEBK.K AM> 
 
 A PORTION OF THE CORD. 
 
 I Cord 
 
 Prrtctra 
 
 Carti/agt 
 
 The muscles 
 
 Showing how the spinal cord passes 
 
 muscle. When you eat 
 the breast of a chicken or 
 
 turkey, yOU are eating the through the spinal canal, and how the 
 J J vertebrae rest on cartilage. 1 
 
 large, strong muscles that 
 
 move the wings and ribs. The meat of the drumstick 
 is made up of the muscles that pull on the leg bones 
 and make walking possible. Motions of various kinds 
 are made by muscles pulling on the bones. (Fig. 4.) 
 
 If you wish to move a rock or other heavy object, 
 you place a crowbar under it and then bear 
 
 , r -, c i i -T-I How muscles 
 
 down upon the tree end ot the bar. 1 he an d bones 
 
 crowbar is used as a lever. 
 
 many of the bones act as levers. They lift 
 
 weights and bring about motions of various kinds. Just 
 
 1 Cartilage is a smooth, elastic substance which protects bones 
 and prevents them from jarring against one another. 
 
 In the body produce mo- 
 
 J tion
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 !'!<;. 4. TIIK MUSCLES OK IIIK HOMY.
 
 THE GENERAL PLAN OF THE HOUY 
 
 Fir.. 5. THK MUSCLE THAT MOVES THE FOREARM. 
 Showing the change in the muscle when it causes motion. 
 
 as some force must work on the lever in order to raise 
 the rock, there must be a force pulling on the bone to 
 produce motion. This force comes from the muscles. 
 When a muscle pulls on a bone, the muscle becomes 
 shorter and thicker (Fig. 5), and this causes motion. 
 
 It is in this general way that the arms, legs, hands, 
 feet, head, eyes, and other parts of the body are moved. 
 In walking, one foot pushes against the ground, we lean 
 forward, and the other foot is carried forward to save 
 us from a fall. In doing all this, which appears so sim- 
 ple, many muscles and bones of the body are brought 
 into action. 
 
 We see, therefore, that bones are neces- The uses of 
 
 bones 
 sary for two purposes : 
 
 1. To protect important organs, such as the brain, 
 
 spinal cord, heart, and lungs. 
 
 2. For muscles to pull on, so that motion of various 
 
 kinds can be made. 
 
 Not all the muscles in the body do this work of 
 pulling on the bones to move them. The tongue, for
 
 10 
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 SOCKET JOINT. 
 
 At the hip; showing 
 
 ligament. 
 
 is held 
 together 
 
 example, is a rather large, strong 
 muscle. It does not pull on Muscleg 
 any bones, but is used in that do not 
 speaking and in moving pu 
 food about in the mouth. The walls 
 of the stomach and the intestines con- 
 tain muscles whose work is to force 
 along the food. The tubes in which 
 the blood flows (blood vessels) contain 
 
 FIG 6 A BALL AND musc ^ es by means of which the tube is 
 made larger or smaller. 
 
 The many bones and muscles of 
 the body are firmly united. 
 
 J '. How the 
 
 Bones are connected by strong ligaments framework 
 (Fig. 6). Muscles are attached to bones 
 by means of tendons (Fig. 7). 
 
 In the skull the separate bones 
 are joined in such a way that 
 they cannot be moved. In other 
 places bones can be moved freely 
 by means of joints (Fig. 7). 
 There are several kinds of joints 
 in the skeleton. At a hinge joint, 
 such as the elbow, the bones can 
 be moved back and forth, as a 
 door moves on its hinges. A 
 ball-and-socket joint, as at the 
 shoulder, allows the bones to move 
 in every direction. A gliding 
 Showing ball - and - socket joint, as in the wrist, occurs where 
 
 joint at A, hinge joint at /?, , a c c , ,. , 
 
 biceps muscle at C. and ten- the flat SUrfaCC f OIle b lle g lideS 
 
 dons at D. E, and /. or slips over another bone. 
 
 Fir,. 7. THE BONKS OK 
 ARM AND SUOUI.DKR.
 
 THE GENERAL PLAN OF THE BODY 
 
 1 1 
 
 The movements of bones and muscles are directed by 
 the nervous system. This consists of the brain, the 
 spinal cord, and the nerves. The nerves are 
 
 . . ,., ... General out- 
 
 strmg-hke structures which connect every i ine O f the 
 
 part of the body with the brain and spinal nervous sys- 
 tem 
 cord. Certain nerves carry messages to 
 
 muscles and other parts of the body. A muscle never 
 moves (i.e. shortens) until it receives a message from 
 
 FIG. 8. THE COURSE OF A NERVE MESSAGE FROM SKIN SURFACE 
 TO MUSCLE. 
 
 the brain or spinal cord. Other nerves carry messages 
 back to the brain and cord. For instance, if the hand 
 is burned, a message passes along certain nerves to the 
 brain, or cord, or both. The brain or cord then sends 
 back word to the muscles ; the muscles pull on the 
 bones of the arm, and the hand is jerked away (Fig. 8). 
 Later we shall learn that there is another part of the 
 nervous system not described here, which is known as 
 the sympathetic system.
 
 CHAPTER II 
 THE CELL STRUCTURE OF THE BODY 
 
 Now that we have surveyed the general plan of the 
 body as a whole, we will see of what it is made. The 
 The ceils of body is built up from millions of tiny parts, 
 the body \y e ca jj these parts cells, because they were 
 at first thought to be somewhat like the cells of a 
 honeycomb full of honey. (Fig. 9.) 
 Each cell is so small that it cannot 
 be seen without the use of a strong 
 microscope. Not a cell in the 
 whole body is large enough to be 
 seen with the naked eye. Each 
 tiny cell lives a life of its own, 
 
 FIG. 9.-FLATCELI* FROM and each ^ { WQrk j 
 
 THE SKIN. 
 
 The living substance of which 
 
 the cell is composed is called protoplasm. 
 
 Numberless single bricks, as we know, are put to- 
 gether to build a brick house. We can imagine that the 
 cells in the body are built together in a similar 
 ceils are held way. The bricks must be held in place by 
 together mortar. The cells, also, need something to 
 support them and hold them together. Such a sub- 
 stance is found between and around the cells (Fig. 10^. 
 Some parts of the body, where strength is required, con- 
 tain a great deal of this cementing substance. Other 
 parts, where strength is not so necessary, contain very 
 little of it. 
 
 12
 
 THE CELL STRUCTURE OF THE BODY 
 
 FIG. 10. CELLS AND 
 THE MATERIAL THAT 
 HOLDS THEM TOGETHER. 
 
 Other things besides the human body are made of 
 
 cells. In fact, every ordinary living thing plants as 
 
 well as animals is made up of 
 
 millions of cells. 
 
 Every living plant and animal 
 
 begins life as a single cell. This 
 
 The single nrs t cell grows and 
 
 cel1 multiplies. One brick 
 
 cannot produce other bricks from 
 
 which to build a house, but the 
 
 cell can do this. That is the way 
 
 plants and animals grow. 
 
 There are some plants and 
 
 some animals which always remain single cells, and 
 
 yet they are perfect living things in their way. The 
 
 amoeba is a minute, single-cell animal found in stagnant 
 
 water (Fig. u). Yeast, which we use to fnake bread 
 
 rise, is composed of millions of single cells, each one a 
 
 complete />// in itself (Fig. 12). 
 
 In the human body millions and millions of cells result 
 
 from the growth of the first single cell. The brain alone 
 is said to have at least four hun- 
 dred million cells (400,000,000). 
 All cells become dependent upon 
 one another, and they work together 
 to perform the various things that 
 must be done in the body. The life 
 
 THE AMCEBA, of the body must be thought of as 
 jj fe of the cdls that compose j t 
 
 The food that we eat goes, not simply to the stomach, 
 but to every little worker or cell in the body. The 
 stomach is only a receptacle for the food. It helps 
 
 FIG. ii. 
 
 A ONE-CELLED ANIMAL.
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 cells 
 
 FIG. 12. YEAST PLAN is. 
 
 prepare it for the workers. The blood carries this food 
 
 _ . . to them. We breathe fresh air, not simply 
 Nourish- 
 ment for the that the lungs may be filled with it. The lungs 
 
 are only reservoirs. From the lungs air must 
 be carried by the blood to 
 every cell. 
 
 What we must always 
 remember in the study of 
 the human body is this: 
 its work can be done only 
 by the aid of these many 
 individual helpers. The 
 care of the body is, after 
 all, the care of a great 
 army of small workers 
 which we call cells. 
 In this army some members are generals ; some are 
 ordinary fighters ; some are rubbish carriers ; some 
 The work of carry air ; some carry food from place to 
 the ceils place ; some store away extra food for future 
 use ; some prepare food for the others ; some help to 
 repair injuries ; some supply natural medicines. In 
 fact, the army of cell workers in our bodies is much 
 like an army of soldiers. 
 
 " Each cell must take food for itself and grow. Each 
 has a birth, life, and death, as each individual in a 
 The life of community of men; and as the community 
 the ceils continues, while the individual members 
 are constantly changing, so, in the body, while the form 
 remains about the same from year to year (in the adult), 
 the cells are continually changing, some dying, and 
 others taking their places. Each lives for itself, yet 
 all work together for the common good."
 
 CHAPTER III 
 THE ORGANS OF THE BODY 
 
 IN order that they may do their work, many of the 
 cells in the body are arranged in groups. When a num- 
 ber of different kinds of cells group themselves what an 
 together to perform a certain kind of work, <> r g an J s 
 they form an organ. The brain, heart, liver, intestines, 
 stomach, lungs, kidneys, and tongue are examples of 
 such organs (Fig. 14). 
 
 The cells which compose one organ are different from 
 those which form another. This is because the organs 
 have different kinds of work or, as we say, functions to 
 perform. The cells of the brain, for instance, are un- 
 like those of the heart, and the cells of the stomach 
 differ from those of the tongue. 
 
 Each organ is made up of more than one kind of cell. 
 For example, the brain has nerve cells, blood cells, 
 and supporting cells. These groups of cells 
 
 Tissues 
 
 within the organ we call tissues. In other 
 parts of the body, also, besides the organs, the cells of 
 each kind are grouped in tissues. The whole body is 
 made up of tissues. 
 
 One of the most important organs of the human body 
 is the brain. The cells of the brain have to The brain: 
 send out messages to every part of the body. 
 When we move our legs or arms or work the cells 
 eyes, a message is first sent from the cells of the brain 
 
 '5
 
 16 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 to the muscles of the part we wish to move. These 
 cells which send out messages to muscles are called 
 motor cells. (Fig. 13.) 
 
 Other cells in the brain are used entirely for receiving 
 messages from outside. We have learned that when 
 the hand touches something hot, a 
 message travels like lightning along 
 certain nerves to the spinal cord and 
 the brain. Quickly a set of cells (the 
 motor cells) sends a message to the 
 muscles of the arm, and the hand is 
 drawn from the dangerous place. 
 When this message is received by 
 another set of nerve cells in the brain, 
 we become conscious of the burn. 
 These cells which receive messages 
 from outside we call sensory cells. 
 FIG -A NERVE These messages are sent along the 
 CELL OK THE BRAIN, nerves. The nerves which carry mes- 
 sages to the brain are called sensory 
 nerves, and those which take messages from the brain 
 to muscles are called mo for nerves. 
 
 The heart is a large, hollow muscle which pumps blood 
 
 through the blood tubes connected with it. 
 
 It is composed of muscle cells. Such cells 
 
 are meant for work, just as are the cells in the muscles 
 
 of the arm. 
 
 The kidneys have the power of selecting and taking 
 out from the blood which flows through them sub- 
 Organs of stances that are of no further use to the 
 excretion body. An organ which helps the body 
 to rid itself of waste substances is called an organ
 
 THE ORGANS OF THE BODY 
 
 Cranial if-" 
 cavity 
 
 Abdominal 
 cavity 
 
 Fir.. 14. DIAGRAM SHOWING THK LOCATION OF THK PRINCIPAL ORGANS. 
 
 of excretion. 1 The principal organs of excretion are : 
 i. The kidneys. 3. The skin. 
 
 2. The lungs. 
 
 4. The intestines. 
 
 1 To excrete means to throw off waste materials : to secrete is to sepa- 
 rate material from the blood and make new substances of this material.
 
 1 8 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 The lungs, skin, and intestines have other functions 
 than that of excretion, but as they help to remove 
 wastes from the body, they may be included among 
 the organs of excretion. 1 
 
 The kidneys excrete urine, a waste substance which 
 contains a poison. It collects in a reservoir called the 
 The kidneys bladder. This is a thin- walled, somewhat 
 and bladder e i as tj c sac, which acts as a storage place or 
 reservoir for urine. 
 
 The largest organ in the body is the liver. It is 
 The liver solid and compact. The liver has two 
 principal uses : 
 
 1. Its cells manufacture bile from the blood passing 
 
 through the liver. (See page 40.) 
 
 2. The liver stores up a form of animal starch 
 
 called glycogen t which it gives back to the 
 body as needed. 
 
 We speak of the intestines as if they were made up 
 of several organs, but this is not strictly true. The 
 The intes- intestines consist of a tube about twenty-five 
 tines f e j- long. In order to accommodate itself to 
 
 the body this tube is coiled. Different names are given 
 to different parts of the tube. The first twenty feet, 
 starting at the stomach, are called the small intestine. 
 The remaining five feet make up the huge intestine. 
 The large intestine ends in the rectum. The appendix 
 is at the juncture of the large and small intestines ; it 
 is inflammation in this place which causes appendicitis. 
 
 Vegetable-eating animals like the rabbit, horse, cow, 
 
 1 The liver helps to rid the body of undesirable substances, but it 
 also furnishes useful material. It is classed as a secreting organ.
 
 THE ORGANS OF THE BODY 
 
 and deer require more room in the large intestine than 
 meat-eating animals do. In man the large intestine is 
 much longer than is necessary. This is because his 
 habits of life have become very different from what they 
 were ages ago. As a result, the large intestine is likely 
 to contain much waste food material. This material often 
 ferments and decomposes and may poison the body. 
 
 The stomach is usually 
 spoken of as a separate 
 
 The organ. It is, in 
 
 stomach fact> on ] y a part 
 
 of the intestinal tube 
 widened out for the pur- 
 pose of receiving food. It 
 is a sort of temporary store- 
 room where food is partially 
 prepared to be absorbed 
 into the blood. We shall 
 later learn how food is 
 digested ; that is, prepared 
 so that the blood can absorb 
 it and carry it to the cells 
 all through the body. 
 
 Beginning with the 
 mouth and including the 
 The diges- gullet, stomach, 
 tive tract. small i ntes tine, 
 
 large intestine, and rectum, 
 
 FIG. 15. THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 
 
 i, the gullet; 2, stomach; 3, small 
 
 we have one continuous intestine . 4i large intestine . 5i appen . 
 
 tube, wide in Some parts dix; 6, liver; 7, pancreas; 8, spleen. 
 
 and narrow in others. The The V er is here * resented as 
 
 somewhat so as to show the organs 
 
 entire tube is called the behind it.
 
 20 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 digestive tract. The work of the digestive tract is to 
 prepare food for absorption arm to carry away wastes 
 from the body. Most of this absorption takes place 
 in the small intestine. (Fig. 15.) 
 
 Certain organs in the body are known as glands. 
 
 They secrete from the blood some substance useful to 
 
 the body. Most glands have a little tube or 
 
 duct leading from them to carry away the 
 
 secretion. The liver is the largest of the glands. The 
 
 duct from the liver is called the bile duct. It leads to 
 
 the small intestine. 
 
 All through the body are little lumps or nodules 
 called lymph glands. What are commonly called ker- 
 nels in the neck are examples of such glands. They 
 are lymph glands which have become swollen ; some- 
 times they are very tender. 
 
 The ducts from the salivary glands lead to the mouth 
 and carry saliva. (See Fig. 24, page 39.) 
 
 Such glands as the spleen and thyroid have no ducts ; 
 the blood directly absorbs the useful material which 
 they produce. 
 
 The principal glands in the body are : 
 
 1. The liver. 
 
 2. The spleen. 
 
 3. The pancreas. 
 
 4. The thyroid. 
 
 5. The lymph glands. 
 
 6. The salivary glands. 
 
 7. The small glands in the walls 
 
 of the stomach and intestines. 
 
 When organs perform a work in common, they form
 
 THE ORGANS OF THE BODY 21 
 
 a system. The digestive tube, together with the liver, 
 pancreas, and certain glands in the walls of The 
 the stomach and intestines, is called the tems of the 
 digestive system (Fig. 15). 
 
 The heart and all the large and small blood vessels 
 connected with it form the circulatory system (Fig. 17). 
 
 The brain and the spinal cord, and all the nerves pass- 
 ing to and from them, form the nervous system (Fig. 29). 
 
 The lungs, together with the windpipe, nose, and 
 throat, form the respiratory system (Fig. 16). 
 
 All the muscles taken together give us the muscular 
 system (Fig. 4). 
 
 The bones of the body together comprise the bony or 
 osseous system (Fig. i). 
 
 Those organs, such as the kidneys, which take waste 
 substances out of the body comprise the excretory system. 
 
 The principal systems of the body are : 
 
 1. The digestive system. 
 
 2. The circulatory system. 
 
 3. The nervous system. 
 
 4. The respiratory system. 
 
 5. The muscular system. 
 
 6. The osseous system. 
 
 7. The excretory system. 
 
 8. The glandular system. 
 
 Each system is composed of organs. 
 
 Each organ is composed of tissues. 
 
 Each tissue is composed of cells. 
 
 Any impairment of an organ or system in the body 
 is sure to injure all the other organs and systems also. 
 If the stomach refuses to do its full share of work, the
 
 22 
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 food is not prepared properly for absorption by the 
 in'u to one blcL Food may remain much too long in 
 organ affects the stomach and intestines; thus, instead of 
 furnishing the body with material for growth 
 and strength, it may become an actual poison. The blood 
 absorbs such poisons from the walls of the stomach and 
 intestines and carries them to all parts of the body. It 
 
 follows, of course, that the 
 individual cannot then do his 
 full amount of useful work. 
 Many headaches and the com- 
 mon feelings of depression are 
 caused in this way. 
 
 No one can have pure, rich 
 blood when the digestive 
 organs do not prepare food 
 in the proper way for absorp- 
 tion by the blood. The blood 
 stream of a person suffering 
 from constant indigestion is 
 much like a polluted river. 
 As the blood carries the ab- 
 sorbed food to every organ in 
 
 FIG. 16. THE RESPIRATORY 
 SYSTEM. 
 
 I, air passage from nose; 2, 
 
 windpipe; 3, the lungs; 4, bron- ., 
 
 dual tubes. Notice the position the bod >'. ^ Can easily Under- 
 
 heart, lying back of the stand how important it is for 
 the welfare of the body to 
 have healthy digestive organs. 
 
 In much the same way, if the lungs fail to do full duty, 
 The work of a serious burden is placed on the other organs. 
 
 of the 
 
 lungs; also the diaphragm. 
 
 the lungs 
 
 we breathe, the lungs take in o.xygen 
 
 1 O. \ygen is a gas which forms about one fifth of the air. 
 necessary to all animal and vegetable life. 
 
 It is
 
 THE ORGANS OF THE BODY 23 
 
 from the air and give out waste substances. (Fig. 16.) 
 It is the business of the lungs : 
 
 1. To furnish oxygen to the blood. 
 
 2. To take from the blood certain waste sub- 
 
 stances l which various organs have produced. 
 
 If we fail to breathe deeply, if we fail to develop 
 large, strong lungs, if we live in badly ventilated rooms, 
 then we cannot secure the right amount of oxygen 
 for the blood, nor can we get rid of all the harmful 
 things in the blood. 
 
 If we close the draft in a stove, we must not expect 
 much heat. If we let the ashes accumulate, the stove 
 will not work well. Yet many people do just such 
 things as these with their bodies and expect good 
 results. 
 
 As a piece of complicated machinery, the human 
 body needs the best possible study and care to keep 
 it in good working order. 
 
 1 The waste substance which the blood leaves at the lungs is 
 carbon dioxide. This is a gas which escapes from the body in the 
 air which we breathe out from the lungs. It would poison the body 
 if we could not get rid of it. Green plants, however, constantly make 
 use of carbon dioxide in growing. This is one of the differences 
 between animals and the green plants.
 
 CHAPTER IV 
 THE BLOOD 
 
 THOUGH blood is familiar to us, most of us know little 
 about what it is and what work it does. If we can 
 thoroughly learn what the blood does in the body, we 
 shall then understand one of the most important parts 
 of the whole subject of physiology. 
 
 In some animals the blood does not run in closed 
 
 tubes or vessels, but in the higher animals and in man 
 
 it does. The blood system in our bodies is 
 
 General out- 11-1 
 
 line of the much like the waterworks system of a city, 
 circulatory The W ater runs through a set of pipes and is 
 
 system . 
 
 kept running by means ot a great pump at the 
 central station. But there is one great difference between 
 our blood system and a water system. In the body the 
 blood rinqs from the central pump, which is the heart ', 
 through a set of tubes or blood vessels, and then, after 
 passing to all parts of the body, it goes back to the 
 heart again. In the waterworks system the water leaves 
 the central pump, goes into the pipes, is drawn off at 
 the water taps, and does not go back to the central 
 pump. Instead of returning, it passes into the sewer 
 pipes and is not used again. 
 
 Just as every street of a city must have its water 
 supply and every house on all the streets, so every 
 part of the body must have its blood supply, and every 
 organ and cell in all these parts. The large pipes of 
 
 24
 
 THE BLOOD 
 
 FIG. 17. DIAGRAM SHOWING THE CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD. 
 
 a water system divide into smaller and smaller ones, so 
 that at last the water comes to our houses in 
 
 How the 
 
 very small pipes. In the same way, the blood supply 
 large blood vessels which leave the heart re f ches the 
 
 . cells 
 
 divide into many smaller ones. An organ 
 
 like the stomach or liver receives many very small
 
 26 
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 blood vessels, which have divided off from the large 
 tubes running near the organ. (Fig. 17.) 
 
 The little blood vessels not only become smaller in 
 size, but their walls or sides become much thinner. 
 The smaller tubes have walls so thin that some of the 
 liquid part of the blood can ooze through. This liquid 
 part of the blood, after it has oozed from the smallest 
 blood vessels, is called lymph. It contains the food and 
 oxygen with which the cells are fed. Every cell in the 
 body is constantly bathed in lymph. 
 
 The tubes which carry the blood are called arteries, 
 veins, and capillaries. TJie arteries carry blood from 
 Arteries ^ le ^ iearf to the different parts of the body, 
 veins, and TJie veins 1 carry the blood back to tlie licart. 
 The capillaries are the thin-walled tubes, 
 through the walls of which food and oxygen pass to 
 the cells (Fig. 18). 
 
 Frc. 18. ARTERY, CAPILLARIES, ANI> VEIN. 
 The shading indicates the change in the color of the blood. 
 
 1 In arteries the blood is red ; in veins it is bluish in color. This 
 is explained by the fact that the arteries carry blood rich in oxygen, 
 while the blood in veins is poor in oxygen. The blood in arteries 
 takes up oxygen at the lungs and contains very little carbon dioxide. 
 In passing through the capillaries, it gives oxygen to the cells and
 
 FIG. 19. RED AND WHITE 
 BI.OOD CORPUSCLES. 
 
 THE BLOOD 2/ 
 
 The movement of the blood from the heart, through 
 the arteries, and then through the capillaries close to 
 the cells, and finally in the 
 veins back to the heart, is 
 called the circulation. The 
 parts of the body which do 
 this work together form the 
 circulatory system. 
 
 The mistake must not be 
 made of thinking of the blood 
 as entirely liquid. It is, in fact, part liquid and part 
 solid. It may be described as a stream in piasma and 
 which float two kinds of solid bodies. The corpuscles 
 stream or fluid part is called plasma. The solid parts 
 are called the red and white blood corpuscles (Fig. 19). 
 
 Why do we need a set of blood vessels with a great 
 pump called the heart to drive the blood through the 
 body ? The answer is a long and complicated Functions of 
 one, but we shall try to make it as simple as the blood 
 possible. 
 
 1. Food must be carried by the blood to every part 
 
 of the body. Every cell worker must be fed. 
 The plasma of the blood carries food. 
 
 2. Air (oxygen) also must be carried by the blood 
 
 to every part. . The red corpuscles carry 
 oxygen. 
 
 3. Waste substances which the body cannot use 
 
 must be carried away by the blood. The 
 plasma carries away waste substances. 
 
 receives from them carbon dioxide. Consequently, when it reaches 
 the veins, the blood has changed its composition and color.
 
 28 
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 4. The blood keeps the temperature of the body 
 nearly the same in every part. (See page 
 32.) 
 
 We might think of the blood as a train of freight 
 
 cars. These cars load up with food which has been 
 
 made liquid at the stomach and intestines, 
 
 How food 
 
 goes to the and carry it to all parts of the body which 
 need it. Now we can understand one reason 
 
 why the blood vessels must have thin walls when they 
 
 pass into an organ like 
 the liver, to muscles like 
 those of the arm, or to 
 the brain, eyes, skin, or 
 any other part. Liquid 
 food must pass through 
 the walls of the capillaries 
 to feed every cell of the 
 body. (Fig. 2O.) 
 
 At the lungs our train 
 of freight cars (that is, the 
 
 FI<;. 20.-CKLLS AM, CAPILLARIES, blood) picks up How oxygen 
 
 Showing capillaries brandling among Oxygen 
 
 from goes to the 
 the cells, and the interchange of food t h C air W C 
 and wastes. , ,, . . 
 
 breathe. This it carries, 
 
 along with the food which has been taken on at the 
 stomach and intestines, to all the different parts of 
 the body. Like the food, oxygen passes through the 
 thin walls of the capillaries, and is taken up by the 
 cells. 
 
 We may also think of the blood as a train of freight 
 cars carrying substances away from the parts which
 
 THE BLOOD 29 
 
 have no further need of them. Some of these wastes 
 are unloaded at the lungs, where they are How wastes 
 breathed out, or exhaled ; others are deposited leave the 
 at the kidneys and leave the body in the form 
 of water. Others pass out through the skin and leave 
 as perspiration. 
 
 It is therefore plain that the blood is the common 
 carrier of the body, bringing in those things which the 
 body requires for its healthy growth, and carrying away 
 those which are worn out and useless. 
 
 When we come to study something about diseases 
 which affect the body, we shall learn that the blood has 
 many other useful functions in addition to those just 
 described. 
 
 The heart is an enlarged part of the blood tubes, 
 constructed so as to serve as a receptacle and a strong 
 pump. In some animals the heart is merely The struc . 
 a large tube, which contracts and sends the ture of the 
 blood through the other tubes. In certain 
 other animals the heart has two parts or cavities; in 
 others it has three such divisions; in man there are. four 
 divisions.
 
 CHAPTER V 
 FOOD AND DIGESTION 
 
 THE USES OF FOOD 
 
 FOOD for the body is anything that can furnish 
 material for growth, repair waste, and supply power 
 and heat to the body. 
 
 Food is what enables cells to grow and to make new 
 cells. It is the building material of the body. After 
 Food is a P erson reaches full development, food for, 
 needed for growth is no longer needed. For this reason 
 growth a y 0un g an i ma i or a growing boy requires 
 more food than an adult. 
 
 All through one's lifetime, however, portions of the 
 Food is for body are wearing out and are in need of 
 repair repair. Food is constantly needed to supply 
 
 material for repairing the parts that are worn out. 
 
 The body gets from food also the power to perform 
 work. The amount of work an engine can do depends 
 Food sup- directly upon the amount of fuel it can utilize, 
 plies power j n t ne sam e way, the amount of work which 
 a man can do depends upon the amount of proper food 
 which is supplied to the cells of his body. 
 
 The reason our bodies are warm is because we eat 
 certain heat-giving foods (or fuel foods), and these unite 
 Food sup- with oxygen in the body. Oxygen is taken 
 plies heat j n through the lungs with every breath and is 
 really part of the food for the body. It is carried by 
 
 30
 
 FOOD AND DIGESTION 31 
 
 the blood, as we have learned, to every cell in the 
 body. 
 
 A piece of wood burns because the substance of the 
 wood (carbon) and the oxygen of the air unite. This 
 union of carbon and oxygen produces com- combustion 
 bustion or oxidation, as it is called. If the or oxidation 
 union takes place rapidly, a great deal of heat is formed. 
 When carbon and oxygen unite, a new substance is 
 formed, called carbon-dioxide. It is a waste product of 
 combustion. 
 
 In our bodies this burning or combustion process is 
 almost exactly like the burning of coal or wood or gas. 
 The principal difference is that it is slower. Combus- 
 tion in our bodies begins with life, and fuel foods keep 
 it up. These foods unite with the oxygen and are 
 burned or oxidized, 
 
 The body in health produces an even amount of heat, 
 the temperature being about 985-. With some diseases 
 there is much fever, and the temperature may The rate of 
 rise to 1 02 or even 1 05, and occasionally a few combustion 
 degrees higher. When this happens, the tissues of the 
 body are burning rapidly and the sick person becomes 
 very thin. Animals that live extremely active lives, such 
 as birds, use oxygen rapidly and have high tempera- 
 tures. Other animals of more sluggish movements, such 
 as toads and snakes, use oxygen slowly and have lower 
 temperatures. 
 
 When we do very active work, as in running or in 
 taking brisk walks, we breathe rapidly and use a great 
 deal of oxygen. If enough food is eaten, the body will 
 lose little or no weight. But if one does much work 
 and takes but little food, the cells wear away faster.
 
 32 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 than they are repaired, and the body, loses weight 
 rapidly. 
 
 One might think that when oxygen is taken in rapidly 
 with active exercise, the temperature of the body should 
 The ula- rise, just as the temperature of a stove rises 
 tion of body when the draft is opened. This does not 
 happen, because we have a perfect device 
 for regulating temperature. As combustion increases, 
 the blood vessels of the skin dilate (that is, become 
 larger), and more blood comes to the skin surfaces. 
 Perspiration then occurs, and this evaporates. Whenever 
 there is evaporation, there is a loss of heat. Thus, you 
 see, perspiration cools off the body and prevents the 
 temperature from rising. 
 
 On a cold day the body naturally loses more heat to 
 its surroundings than in warm weather, but our tem- 
 perature apparatus meets this condition perfectly. The 
 'capillaries in the skin contract (that is, become smaller), 
 less blood comes to the surface, perspiration is checked, 
 and the body's temperature remains unchanged. 
 
 People in cold countries require more heat-producing 
 food than do those who live in warmer climates. Those 
 who do a great amount of muscular work or who exer- 
 cise, need more food than people who live quiet or 
 indolent lives. 
 
 In studying about food for the body we must keep 
 clearly in mind that we need food for 
 
 i. Growth. 
 
 The uses of 2. Repair. 
 
 food 3. Work. 
 
 4. Heat.
 
 FOOD AND DIGESTION 33 
 
 KINDS OF FOOD 
 
 We eat a great variety of things, but they may all 
 be classified in a few groups called food principles. 
 These are : 
 
 1. Proteids. 
 
 2. Starch and sugar. 
 
 3. Fats and oils. 
 
 4. Mineral salts. 
 
 5. Water. 
 
 All foods are either organic or inorganic. The first 
 three groups of food principles comprise the organic 
 foods. Inorganic foods include water and 
 mineral salts. These are as necessary to 
 the body as oil is to the locomotive or any inorganic 
 
 J foods 
 
 other machine. 
 
 The organic foods may be classed under two heads : 
 
 1. Carbon Foods. Sugar and starch of various kinds, 
 and fats and oils are the carbon foods. They are used 
 for heat and work. 
 
 2. Nitrogen Foods. Lean meats and eggs are exam- 
 ples of proteid or nitrogen foods. These foods are used 
 for growth and repair. 
 
 The sugar on our tables is made either from sugar- 
 cane or from the beet. Brown sugar is cane sugar 
 which has not been put through the process sugars and 
 of refining. Molasses comes from brown starches 
 sugar during the refining. Maple sugar comes from 
 the sap of the maple tree. Milk sugar comes from 
 milk. Fruits and vegetables contain sugar in greater 
 or less amounts. 
 
 Honey is a natural sirup collected from flowers by 
 
 \
 
 34 
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 the bees. Most of the table sirups are manufactured 
 from starch. Starch and sugar are much alike. In 
 the body starch is always changed to sugar before it is 
 absorbed. Starch is also changed to sugar in fruits 
 when they ripen. 
 
 Starch is found in most of our vegetable foods. Tapi- 
 oca and arrowroot contain much of it. Peas and beans 
 contain only a little. Potatoes are largely composed of 
 starch. Sweet potatoes contain more sugar and less 
 starch than white potatoes, but of the two the sweet 
 
 3 .0 O a 
 
 O O ". o 
 
 o O 
 
 o . o 
 
 o' .' 
 
 O O 
 
 . * 
 
 * no 
 
 00 ' 
 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 ^ O * o 
 
 
 
 O . 
 
 o gS^ c 
 
 ) 
 
 00 ' O 
 
 
 o o 
 
 <> ' o 
 
 . O o 
 ' * 
 
 o . 
 
 
 
 MlLK. 
 
 id 
 
 MILK. 
 
 CREAM. 
 
 ;. 2i. F~AT GI.OISUI.K.S IN MILK AND CRKAM.
 
 FOOD AND DIGESTION 
 
 35 
 
 potato is the more nutritious. Flour, and consequently 
 bread, and the cereals contain much starch. It is found 
 also in fruits. 
 
 Fats and oils are the same substances, varying only 
 in form fats are solid, oils are liquid. They are found 
 in both animal and vegetable foods. Milk Fats and 
 contains fat in the form of cream (butter fat) oils 
 (Fig. 21). Many nuts contain fat. The most common 
 animal fats and oils are butter, cream, and the fats of 
 beef, mutton, pork, and fish. The yolk of eggs is rich 
 in oil. Important vegetable oils are olive oil, cotton-seed 
 oil, and the oil of nuts. 
 
 About one fifth of the weight of the body consists of 
 fat. But it is a mistake to think that very much of this 
 comes directly from the fat of foods. The fat of the 
 body is derived mainly from other forms of food, which 
 make fat when eaten and taken up by the cells, or 
 assimilated. Most of the fat that is eaten is at once oxi- 
 dized, and it supplies a large part of the heat of the body. 
 
 The principal nitrogen foods are lean meat, some 
 kinds of fish, eggs, milk, cheese, peas, beans, Nitrogen 
 and cereals. foods 
 
 These foods all contain a substance called protcid. 
 The white of egg, called albu- 
 men, is a proteid. Milk con- 
 tains a proteid called casein, 
 from which cheese is made. 
 Lean meat contains about 
 twenty per cent of proteid, 
 which is here called niyosin. 
 Peas, beans, and lentils contain 
 much proteid, but not so much 
 
 St 
 
 Fir,. 22. A GRAIN OF WHEAT. 
 
 Analyzed to show starch and 
 
 gluten.
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 as meat. The proteid in flour is gluten. All cereals 
 contain proteid. (Fig. 22.) Proteids are necessary for 
 growth and repair. 
 
 Milk contains all of the food principles necessary for 
 life. But as about eighty-seven per cent of it is water, 
 an adult cannot support life on milk alone, for an im- 
 mense quantity would be needed to give him sufficient 
 proteid, sugar, and fat (Fig. 23). 
 
 Total solids 
 
 n 
 
 Water Su^'.ar Fat Casein AsL 
 
 Fie. 23. TIIK PROPORTION OF WATER AND SOLIDS IN MILK. 
 
 Salts, including the lime salts, are needed for many 
 purposes in the body, but particularly for bone building. 
 Salts and Our ordinary foods contain enough of these 
 water mineral substances so that we need not es- 
 
 pecially provide them. There is, however, one excep- 
 tion to this. We do need to provide ordinary table 
 salt. Animals, like cattle and deer, visit salt marshes 
 or deer licks to get salt. These deer licks are simply 
 earths which have in them deposits of salt. 
 
 Water makes up about two thirds of the body. The 
 blood is about four fifths water, the muscles are about
 
 FOOD AND DIGESTION 37 
 
 three fourths water, and the secretions are all largely 
 composed of water. A grown person needs two or 
 three quarts of water every day, but much of this may 
 be taken with liquid foods. 
 
 Wine, beer, soda water, and all such drinks satisfy 
 the thirst only because of the water they contain, and 
 none of them can take the place of water. Iced 
 water or other very cold drinks, when taken in large 
 amounts, interfere with digestion and are injurious. 
 
 Tea and coffee are not foods, except for the milk and 
 sugar that may be used with them. They are used partly 
 because of their pleasant taste, but mostly because they 
 are stimulants. 
 
 Food flavors do not ordinarily contain anything nourish- 
 ing to the body. They are desirable because 
 
 Food flavors 
 they make food more appetizing to us. Things 
 
 which are appetizing are always more easily digested. 
 
 Common flavors are pepper, mustard, cinnamon, 
 cloves, allspice, vanilla, lemon, and nutmeg. Chocolate 
 furnishes both a flavor and a real food. 
 
 We may now review what has been said about the 
 food needed by man. Review of 
 
 1. We need food for growth, repair, work, foods 
 and heat. 
 
 2. We need proteid for growth and repair. The 
 proteids in food are albumen, myosin, gluten, and 
 casein. All proteid foods contain nitrogen. 
 
 3. We need starch for heat and work. Starch is 
 found chiefly in vegetables and grains. 
 
 4. We need sugar for heat and work. Examples of 
 sugar are cane sugar, beet sugar, fruit or grape sugar, 
 and milk sugar. 
 
 215167
 
 38 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 5. We need fats and oils. These are the chief fuel 
 foods, used for heat and work. 
 
 Starch, sugar, fats, and oils are carbon foods. 
 6. We need water and salts. These are inorganic 
 foods. Salts are needed for bone building. 
 
 DIGESTION 
 
 Before food can be absorbed by the blood and assimi- 
 lated by the cells of the body, it must pass through 
 The mean- certain changes called digestion. During this 
 ing of diges- process the f ood is liquefied. The whole ob- 
 ject of digestion is to change the form of food 
 so that it may be absorbed and assimilated. Some of 
 these changes occur in the mouth, some in the stomach, 
 and some in the intestines. 
 
 Starches have to be changed to sugars. Part of this 
 Changes change takes place in the mouth by means 
 
 during diges- of the saliva - The rest of it occurs in the 
 tion small intestine. Proteid foods, such as lean 
 
 meat and the white of eggs, have to be changed into a 
 new form called peptones. This change of proteids to 
 peptones occurs in the stomach and small intestine. 
 Proteids cannot pass through the thin walls of the 
 capillaries to reach the cells, but peptones can do so. 
 
 Fats are not so greatly changed by digestion as other 
 forms of foods. But before they can be absorbed they 
 have to be emulsified ; that is, the fat globules are sepa- 
 rated from each other (Fig. 21). If you shake up raw 
 egg albumen with olive oil, it forms an emulsion. Fats 
 are emulsified in the small intestine. 
 
 Most kinds of sugar do not have to be changed by 
 digestion, but are absorbed at once by the blood.
 
 FOOD AND DIGESTION 
 
 39 
 
 The principal food changes which occur during diges- 
 tion are these : 
 
 1. Mastication, or grinding in the mouth. 
 
 2. Change of proteids to peptones in the stomach 
 
 and in the small intestine. 
 
 3. Change of starch to sugar in the mouth and 
 
 small intestine. 
 
 4. Em unification of fats in the small intestine. 
 
 Mastication and the emulsification of fats are what we 
 call mechanical changes. All the other changes are 
 chemical changes. New substances are formed. 
 
 These chemical changes occur because of the action 
 of certain digestive glands which secrete substances 
 called digestive juices. The secretions of Thediges- 
 digestive glands are manufactured by certain tive J uices 
 glands from the blood which passes through them. 
 
 Saliva is secreted by the salivary glands, which are 
 located under the tongue, under the lower jaw, and in 
 front of and below the 
 ears (Fig. 24). This se- 
 cretion is carried to the 
 mouth by means of small 
 ducts. It changes starch 
 to sugar. 
 
 Pepsin and hydrochloric 
 acid are secreted by thou- 
 sands of little tube-like 
 glands in the walls of the 
 stomach. They change 
 
 proteids to peptones. 
 
 r FIG. 24. THE SALIVARY GLANDS 
 
 The pancreas secretes AND DUCTS.
 
 40 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 pancreatic juice. This is carried by a duct to the small 
 intestine. This juice brings about many changes, in- 
 cluding : 
 
 1. The change of starch to sugar. 
 
 2. The change of proteids to peptones. 
 
 3. The emulsification of fat. 
 
 The liver secretes bile. This is useful in several ways : 
 
 1. It aids in the absorption of fat. 
 
 2. It helps to prevent fermentation of foods in 
 
 the intestines. 
 
 3. It stimulates action of the bowels. 
 
 In reviewing the story pf food and its uses and how 
 the body does its work, we cannot do better than repeat 
 the words of a great English physiologist and teacher, 
 Professor Michael Foster. 
 
 THE WHOLE STORY SHORTLY TOLD 
 
 " Now you ought to be able to understand how it is that 
 we live on the food we eat. 
 
 " Food, inasmuch as it can be burned, is a source of 
 power. In burning it gives forth heat, and heat is power. 
 If we so pleased, we might burn in a furnace the things 
 which we eat as food, and with them drive a locomotive 
 or work a mill ; if we so pleased, we might convert them 
 into gunpowder, and with them fire cannon or blast 
 rocks. Instead of doing so, we burn them in our own 
 bodies, and use their power in ourselves. 
 
 " Food passing into the alimentary canal is there di- 
 gested ; the nourishing food-stuffs are, with very little
 
 FOOD AND DIGESTION 41 
 
 change, dissolved out from the refuse ; they pass into 
 and become part and parcel of the blood. 
 
 " The blood, driven by the unresting stroke of the 
 heart's pump, courses throughout the whole body, and in 
 the narrow capillaries bathes every smallest bit of almost 
 every part. Kept continually rich in combustible material 
 by frequent supplies of food, the blood as well, at every 
 round, sucks up oxygen from the air of the lungs ; and 
 thus arterial blood is ever carrying to all parts of the 
 body to muscle, brain, bone, nerve, skin, and gland 
 stuff to burn and oxygen to burn it with. 
 
 " Everywhere oxidation, burning, is going on, in some 
 spots or at some times fiercely, in other spots or at other 
 times faintly, changing the arterial blood rich in oxygen 
 to venous blood poor in oxygen. From most places 
 where oxidation is going on, the venous blood goes away 
 hotter than the arterial which came ; and all the hot 
 blood mingling together and rushing over the whole 
 body keeps the whole body warm. Sweeping as it con- 
 tinually does through innumerable little furnaces, the 
 blood must needs be warm. This is why we are warm. 
 
 " But from some places, as from the skin, the venous 
 blood goes away cooler than the arterial which came, 
 because while journeying through the capillaries of the 
 skin it has given up much of its heat to whatever is 
 touching the skin, and has also lost much heat in turn- 
 ing liquid perspiration into vapor. This is why, so long 
 as we are in health, we never get hotter than a certain 
 degree of temperature, the so-called blood-heat, 98 Fahr. 
 
 " Everywhere oxidation is going on, oxidation either of 
 the blood itself or of the structures which it bathes, and 
 whose losses it has to make good. Everywhere change
 
 42 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 is going on. Little by little, bit by bit, every part of the 
 body, here quickly, there slowly, is continually molder- 
 ing away and is continually being made anew by the 
 blood made anew according to its own nature. Though 
 it is the same blood which is rushing through all the 
 capillaries, it makes different things in different parts. 
 In the muscle it makes muscle ; in the nerve, nerve ; in 
 the bone, bone ; in the glands, juice. Though it is the 
 same blood, it gives different qualities to different parts : 
 out of it one gland makes saliva, another gastric juice; 
 out of it the bone gets strength, the brain power to feel, 
 the muscle power to contract. 
 
 " When the biceps muscle contracts and raises the arm, 
 it does work. The power to do that work, the muscle 
 got from the blood, and the blood from the food. All 
 the work of which we are capable comes, then, from our 
 food, from the oxidation of our food, just as the power 
 of the steam-engine comes from the oxidation of its fuel. 
 But you know that in the steam-engine only a very 
 small part of the power, or energy, as it is called, of the 
 fuel goes to move the wheel. By far the greater part is 
 lost in heat. So it is with our bodies : all the force we 
 can exert with our bodies is but a small part of the power 
 of our food ; all the rest goes to keep us warm. 
 
 " Visiting all parts of the body, rebuilding and refresh- 
 ing every spot it touches, the blood current also carries 
 away from each organ the waste matters of which that 
 organ has no longer any use. Just as each part or organ 
 has different properties and different work, so also is the 
 waste of each not exactly the same, though all are alike 
 inasmuch as they are all the results of oxidation. The 
 waste of the muscle is not exactly the same as the waste
 
 FOOD AND DIGESTION 43 
 
 of the brain or of the liver. Possibly (in some cases) the 
 waste things which the blood bears from one organ may 
 be useful to another, and so be made to do double work, 
 just as the tar which the gasworks throw away makes 
 the fortune of the color manufacturer. 
 
 " Be this as it may, the waste products of all parts, 
 traveling hither and thither in the body, come at last to 
 be brought down to very simple things, with all their 
 virtue gone out of them, with all, or all but all, their 
 power of burning lost, fit for nothing but to be cast away, 
 come at last to be urea or ammonia, carbonic acid, and 
 salts. In this shape, the food, after a longer or shorter 
 sojourn in the body, having done its work, having built 
 up this or that part, having helped the muscle to contract 
 or the liver to secrete, having by its burning given rise 
 to work or to heat, goes back powerless to the earth and 
 air from which it came. And so the tale is told."
 
 CHAPTER VI 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 WHERE any large group of men is employed, some 
 one must direct their work. We often see numbers of 
 The need of ig norant laborers repairing railroad or street 
 direction and car tracks. Such men are usually unable to 
 do important work of any sort alone. But 
 the foreman in charge of these laborers so directs their 
 efforts that most useful and often astonishing results are 
 accomplished. The great pyramids of Egypt were built 
 by ignorant slaves of ancient times, but their labor was 
 directed and made useful by some superior intellect. 
 
 In much the same way the different organs of the 
 body, each doing its separate kind of work, are governed 
 and directed by the nervous system. If it were not for 
 this superintendent whose duty it is to direct and con- 
 trol the work of the body, all would be confusion. The 
 various parts, such as the muscles, glands, eyes, and 
 ears, must receive directions as to how and when to act. 
 Suppose, for instance, the five hundred muscles of the 
 body were not made to act in harmony with each other. 
 Each one might work at a different time and in a dif- 
 ferent manner. No useful action could then take place. 
 
 When a man has an epileptic convulsion or, in com- 
 mon language, a fit, the muscles are in a spasm. The 
 man falls down ; the body trembles ; the arms, legs, and 
 
 44
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 45 
 
 head jerk about, and all muscular control is lost. For 
 the time being the nervous system has entirely lost its 
 control of the muscles, and these and some other organs 
 act independently of each other and without any useful 
 purpose. But ordinarily all the parts of this complex 
 human machine work together in perfect harmony. 
 
 The controlling part of the body is found in the brain 
 and spinal cord. These are the coordinating Th di 
 organs of the body. They are the parts nating 
 which make all actions harmonious and use- organi 
 ful. They direct the other organs as to the amount of 
 work to be done, and the time to do it. 
 
 We have already learned that the skull encloses the 
 most important part of the nervous system, the brain 
 
 (page 7). We have learned also something 
 
 , & The brain 
 of the work done by the motor cells and the 
 
 sensory cells in the brain (page 15). The brain consists 
 of two chief parts, the cerebrum and the cerebellum, and 
 a bulb-like portion, the medulla, which joins the spinal 
 cord (Figs. 25 and 26). 
 
 The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. Con- 
 sciousness arises in the cerebrum. All voluntary action 
 action that we will to do is controlled in this part. 
 We tJiink with the cerebrum. Here are located many 
 different centers which direct various kinds of work or 
 functions, such as the center for sight, hearing, touch, 
 motion, sensation, thought, smell, and taste. 
 
 The cerebellum controls many complicated actions. 
 It has much influence on muscular action. Equilibrium, 
 or balance, is under the control of this part of the brain. 
 A pigeon with its cerebellum removed does not die, but 
 it cannot keep its balance.
 
 4 6 
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 The spinal cord acts in two ways: i. It connects 
 The spinal the nerves of the trunk, arms, and legs with 
 001-3 the brain. 2. It sometimes acts independ- 
 
 ently of the brain. 
 
 FIG. 25. A SECTION OF THE HEAD. 
 
 Showing brain, cord, and brain coverings, enclosed by the skull; 
 also bones of the nose. 
 
 When the spinal cord acts independently, we have 
 what is called 1 a reflex action. Such reflex actions occur 
 
 without COIl- Reflex ac- 
 
 Thought 
 
 sciousness 
 
 turns 
 
 Spinol 
 
 Bulb Controls 
 Heart 
 Blooc/veuth 
 Swallowing 
 
 .Cerebellum, 
 ntro/s Balance 
 5 erne 
 
 Spitial Cord 
 
 -T - - ff 
 
 FlG. 26. DIAGRAM OF THK BRAIN. 
 
 we do not will to do 
 them. The cord con- 
 trols reflex actions as 
 if it were a sort of 
 unconscious brain. A 
 chicken may run about 
 for a while after its 
 head has been cut off.
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 47 
 
 A frog with its brain destroyed will try to remove a drop 
 of acid placed on its skin. Such actions are under the 
 control of the spinal cord, and the will has, of course, 
 nothing to do with them. Many of the lowest forms 
 of animals perform all their actions reflexly. 
 
 In the case of some kinds of reflex actions, the brain 
 later becomes conscious of them. The hand may pull 
 away from a burn or pin prick before the brain knows 
 anything about the injury, but while the action is taking 
 place, the message travels up the spinal cord to the 
 brain. (See Fig. 8, page n.) The cord thus protects 
 the body and saves the brain a great deal of work. It 
 sends a message by motor nerves to the muscles, and 
 the danger is averted before the message over the 
 sensory nerves has reached the brain. 
 
 The cord performs ( many useful acts for us which 
 do not originate in the brain and of which we are some- 
 times conscious and at other times quite unconscious. 
 
 The upper part of the spinal cord joins the bulb or 
 medulla. The medulla connects the cord with the 
 higher parts of the brain. There are several The work 
 nerve centers in the medulla which send or- of the me- 
 ders to very important organs. Messages are 
 sent from these centers to the organs of breathing, to 
 the gullet, to the heart, and to the muscles in artery 
 walls which regulate the size of the arteries. Breathing, 
 swallowing, the beating of the heart, and the regulation 
 of the blood supply are the most important functions of 
 the body. All of these are reflex actions which go on 
 independently of our wills or consciousness. 
 
 Sometimes the spinal cord is badly injured. In such 
 cases no messages can be sent from the brain to any
 
 48 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 organs below the point of injury in the cord. Likewise, 
 no messages can reach the brain which start 
 
 The effect of , 
 
 injury to below the injured part of the cord. In such 
 
 cord and cases the foot might be burned and the reflex 
 brain 
 
 action of the cord would result in pulling the 
 
 foot away from the fire, but the brain would know 
 nothing about it. There would be no pain or other 
 feeling in the parts below the injury in the cord. 
 
 If a serious injury occurs in certain parts of the brain 
 which control muscles, then a burn in the hand or foot 
 might be felt as pain, but the brain would be unable to 
 send any messages to the muscles to draw the burned 
 part away. When such injuries occur to either the 
 brain or the cord, we call the condition paralysis. 1 
 
 Injury to the medulla, if at all serious, results in 
 death, because the most important functions of the 
 body are controlled from this part. Serious injury to 
 the upper parts of the brain or the cord do not directly 
 cause death, even though consciousness is lost and 
 paralysis occurs. 
 
 Lying in front and on each side of the spinal column 
 
 are strings of nerve fibers 2 and bundles of nerve 
 
 cells. These compose what is called the 
 
 The sympa- 
 thetic sys- sympathetic nerrous system. This system 
 
 is in close connection with the central nerv- 
 ous system (brain, cord, and connecting nerves) by 
 means of fibers which pass from it to the spinal cord. 
 
 1 Apoplezy is paralysis caused by a blood vessel breaking in the 
 brain and forming a clot of blood which presses on (lie cells that 
 control muscular action. When this happens, these cells cannot 
 perform their duty, which is to send messages to the muscles. 
 
 - The fibers are like very minute threads or wires, which, bound 
 together, make the nerve (Figs. 27 and 28).
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 
 
 49 
 
 The nerves from the sympathetic system pass mostly 
 to the muscles over which we have no conscious 
 control. They go to the internal organs of the 
 chest and the abdomen, and to the walls of blood ves- 
 sels. The beating of the heart is partially under the 
 control of this system. To a large extent breathing also 
 is controlled in this way. Muscle action in the intestines 
 and the arteries, and the secretion of glands come under 
 the control of the sympathetic nervous system. 
 
 Those important organs which directly control life 
 the heart, lungs, and blood vessels are fortunately not 
 under the control of our wills, but are gov- 
 
 . . The control 
 
 erned by the medulla and the sympathetic O f the most 
 system. These organs are practically auto- important 
 
 functions 
 
 mat ic. You may deliberately hold your breath 
 
 for a long time, but even if consciousness should be lost 
 
 you would not die, because 
 
 automatic breathing would 
 
 at once begin. In some 
 
 animals, like the frog for 
 
 example, breathing and 
 
 the heart beat will con- 
 tinue for several hours 
 
 after the brain itself has 
 
 been removed. 
 
 Every part of the body 
 
 is connected with the brain 
 
 The nerves : anc ^ Spinal cord 
 by means of 
 nerves. Mus- 
 cles pull 
 
 Fie. 27. A NERVE 
 CELL. 
 
 Merve 
 Fie. 28.- 
 A XERVE. 
 
 Fig. 27 shows a nerve fiber starting 
 from the cell, and Fig. 28 shows fibers 
 bones, glands Secrete, pain united to form a nerve. 
 
 the connect- 
 ing parts of 
 
 the nervous 
 
 system 
 
 on
 
 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 is felt, all because of this 
 communication between 
 every organ in the body 
 and the brain and cord. 
 (See Figs. 27 and 28.) 
 
 Two cities have, we will 
 say, batteries and telegraph 
 instruments, and they wish 
 to communicate with each 
 other. They can do so 
 only by means of wires. 
 So somebody connects by 
 wire the batteries and in- 
 struments of one city with 
 those of the other, and 
 messages pass back and 
 forth very easily. Our 
 nerves correspond to the 
 telegraph wires, our brain 
 cells to the batteries, and 
 the ivill power ol our minds 
 to the telegraph operator. 
 If a wire is cut, no message 
 can be sent past the point 
 where the break occurs. 
 If a nerve is cut, the same 
 
 FIG. 29. THK NKRVOIS SVSTI.M. thing is true. If the bat- 
 Notice UK- brain, the spinal cord, teries are destroyed, no 
 
 and the general arrangement of the messagccan be CVCH Started 
 nerves. 
 
 on the wires. If the cells 
 
 from which the nerve starts are destroyed, no message 
 can be started along the nerves.
 
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 5! 
 
 In one important particular, however, the nervous 
 system differs greatly from the telegraph system. We 
 have learned that reflex actions may occur without the 
 help of the upper parts of the brain. This is much 
 the same as if certain messages could be sent along the 
 wires when the telegraph operators were away or 
 asleep. 
 
 In the brain, nerve fibers connect all its centers, and 
 join them with the spinal cord. In the spinal cord, 
 nerve fibers pass up and dovyn, connecting all its parts. 
 Nerve fibers thus not only connect all organs with the 
 brain or cord, but also bring each part of the brain and 
 cord into communication with every other part. 
 
 At birth there are as many brain cells as there will 
 ever be, but the nerve fibers connecting these . 
 
 The educa- 
 
 cells may be developed until a person is at tion of the 
 least sixty years of age. Education consists 
 largely in developing these connecting fibers of the 
 brain. Education may be either good or bad in its gen- 
 eral nature. 
 
 By repetition we learn to do things very easily. At 
 last we succeed in doing many things almost without 
 thought, that is, automatically. It is in this The basis of 
 way, by automatic repetition, that one learns habit 
 to ride a bicycle, or play an instrument, or run an 
 automobile. 
 
 By such repetition of acts we not only gain useful 
 habits, but we may as easily acquire bad ones. Habits 
 of any kind always tend to become fixed, until HOW habits 
 they occur almost unconsciously. It is easy become fixed 
 to say that we can break away from a bad habit at any 
 time, but this is not true. Habits of all kinds have a
 
 52 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 pliysical basis ; that is, actual changes occur in the nerve 
 cells and fibers which make certain actions easy. It is 
 much the same as when we make travel through the 
 snow easy by digging paths. Beaten paths are made in 
 the brain by constant repetition. 
 
 Every one knows that if a boy or a girl forms good 
 habits, he or she will seldom make serious mistakes later 
 Good and in life. But when bad habits are learned and 
 bad habits practiced early in life, it is only by the greatest 
 effort that a strong character is formed in later life. 
 
 Such habits as smoking, drinking, drug taking, ordi- 
 nary lack of self-control, anger, and fault-finding may 
 all be explained to a large extent by early and continued 
 practice. A confirmed coffee or tea drinker forms a 
 habit. His nerve cells demand a stimulus, and thoughts 
 and actions fail to do their best unless the usual habit is 
 followed. 
 
 Bad habits of all kinds sooner or later wear out the 
 nervous machinery. False messages are received by the 
 brain, false messages are sent to the organs by the brain, 
 and the person becomes the victim of Jiis habits, not the 
 master of them. Drugs which dull the senses, actions 
 which exhaust the brain cells all such things tend to 
 make us less useful and less happy in the world. 
 
 Inasmuch as habits are to stay with us through life, 
 it is wise to form those that will be useful rather than 
 those that will do us harm.
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 THE LIVING MACHINE 
 
 WE do not often realize that the human body is a 
 machine, differing from other machines largely in the 
 fact that it is living. For our purpose we The human 
 must study the body simply as a machine. ma chme 
 We must learn how it does its work, how it keeps 
 in repair, and what puts it out of repair. It is sur- 
 prising that this most wonderful and complex of all 
 machines is the one about which most people usually 
 know very little. The body is the machine which more 
 than all others generally receives the least intelligent 
 care. 
 
 When a steam engine runs, it does a certain amount 
 of work ; energy is expended. Energy is the power of 
 doing work. Common forms of energy are What en- 
 light, heat, motion, and electricity. An en- er iy is 
 gine receives its energy from the coal it burns. The 
 body receives its energy from the food it consumes. 
 
 No machine can create or destroy energy. All it can 
 do is to change the form of energy. A machine is an 
 apparatus which can change one kind of energy into 
 another. The locomotive can change the energy in the 
 coal into heat and work, and the living machine can 
 change the energy of food into heat and work. 
 
 In the engine some of the energy is spent in driving 
 the machine, but much of it is lost. The best con- 
 
 53
 
 54 GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 structed steam engine is, after all, a wasteful sort of 
 The loss machine. If all the energy in the coal could 
 and waste be changed to heat, and this heat could be 
 
 iergy converted into motion, we should have a per- 
 fect machine. But much of the heat is lost entirely. 
 No machine is able to change the energy of coal into 
 work without much loss. But compared with other 
 pieces of machinery, the living body is the most eco- 
 nomical machine and most nearly perfect in its use of 
 energy. 
 
 Because the engine cannot change all its fuel into 
 energy, it gives off certain waste substances. One of 
 these is carbon dioxide ; another is the vapor of water. 
 In the case of coal, much ash is left which represents 
 mineral matters which cannot be burned. 
 
 The body or living machine gives off waste mate- 
 rials just as the engine does. This is the reason that 
 a badly ventilated room becomes charged with carbon 
 dioxide gas, watery vapor, and other harmful products. 
 Certain parts of the food leave the body as indigestible 
 waste substances, much like the ashes of a locomotive ; 
 and other w,aste substances leave the body in the form 
 of perspiration. 
 
 Every sort of machine wears out in certain parts 
 and must constantly receive repairs. The living 
 The work of machine very largely makes its own re- 
 repair pairs, though of course it does wear out at 
 last. It not only repairs waste, but in the young it 
 grows in size and increases in weight, so long as a 
 sufficient amount of food (fuel) is furnished. So you 
 see the living machine builds up as well as breaks 
 down.
 
 THE LIVING MACHINE 55 
 
 The living machine, as we have said, is the most 
 
 economical of all machines. Not only can 
 
 ... The body is 
 
 it use a large part of the energy received in t he most 
 the form of food and oxygen, but it can build economical 
 
 machine 
 
 up living matter from the food furnished it. 
 
 If the body is to do its work in the best possible way, 
 it must, of course, receive the right amount and kinds of 
 
 food. It must also be kept in good working , 
 
 5 How to care 
 
 order in all its parts. No one would expect for the 
 
 the best work from a machine which was hum ^ n 
 
 machine 
 
 constantly furnished with the wrong sort of 
 fuel, which was neglected and abused, or which was 
 allowed to clog up with waste substances. Yet that is 
 just what people often demand of the most important of 
 all machines the human body. 
 
 Most of us could greatly improve the condition of 
 the body as a piece of machinery if we only knew just 
 how; that is, if we were good human machinists. If we 
 could learn this lesson early enough, we should not have 
 to make so many unsatisfactory repairs later in life. 
 
 We are to study in PART II about the things which 
 interfere with the proper action of the living machine, 
 and how this machine may be managed so as to give 
 the best possible work with the least waste of energy.
 
 PART II 
 HYGIENE
 
 I 
 
 H* < 
 
 o 5 
 
 O 
 
 K - 
 
 U x 
 
 tn : 
 
 w ! 
 
 X ^S 
 
 W i
 
 CHAPTER VIII 
 THE NATURAL DEFENSES OF THE BODY 
 
 THE body is provided by nature with means for ward- 
 ing off disease. Some people have little power The natural 
 of this sort and others have a great deal. This resistance of 
 is only another way of saying that some 
 people "take a disease" much more easily than others. 
 
 One may be well protected against most diseases but 
 be very susceptible to some particular disease. For 
 example, many persons are susceptible to consumption, 
 and it seems as if some have little resistance to typhoid 
 fever. The trouble comes not so much because one is 
 exposed to a disease as because one naturally has little 
 protection against it. We call this protection our natu- 
 ral resistance. 
 
 It was not very long ago when people thought that 
 all diseases were caused by evil spirits, or that they were 
 sent as punishments for sins. Now we know that most 
 diseases are really accidents which may usually be pre- 
 vented if we have the right kind of knowledge. This 
 knowledge consists in understanding just what causes 
 disease, how the causes may be avoided, and what nature 
 does to help us out. When we become sick in spite of 
 all we can do to avoid it, then we wish to know how to 
 get well in the best and quickest way. 
 
 Most of the diseases that we hear about are caused by 
 certain tiny plants, something like the pollen of flowers. 
 
 59
 
 6o 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 We call these plants bacteria or germs. They must be 
 
 thought of as an army of invaders which 
 Bacteria 
 
 possess various methods of attack. The 
 
 white cells of the blood represent the resisting army 
 
 N whose duty it is to protect the 
 
 . i o / , ^ 
 
 fi\ * \ < } f S body from the attacks of the 
 
 .-. % j. ' bacteria or disease germs. 
 
 BACTERIA OF VARIOUS KINDS. There often occurs in our 
 
 bodies a silent, unseen war- 
 fare, which is as interesting when understood as the 
 noisy warfare of nations. The military methods are, 
 after all, not so very unlike in the two cases. 
 
 Let us see what some of the defenses of the body are. 
 In the blood there float, as we know, the red 
 and white blood cells, or blood corpuscles. 
 When disease germs get into the body, 
 through a cut in the skin, with water or 
 food, by our breathing them in with 
 dust, or in some other way, the white 
 blood cells usually try to destroy them. 
 So there follows a battle between these 
 soldiers of the body (the white cor- 
 puscles) and the attacking army (the 
 bacteria). 
 
 If the finger festers after an injury, 
 the pus that forms there is largely made 
 up of these white blood cells which have 
 rushed to the spot to destroy the bacteria. 
 They seem quite like an army of soldiers 
 rushing forward to the point of attack 
 to defeat and kill the enemy. In this 
 IN<; BACH.KIA. struggle some of the white corpuscles 
 
 White cor- 
 puscles are 
 guards 
 against 
 bacteria
 
 THE NATURAL DEFENSES OF THE BODY 6 1 
 
 themselves are destroyed. As in a military battle, there 
 is loss on both sides. 
 
 Besides this attack of the white corpuscles on the 
 bacteria, there are other and very different ways in 
 which nature fights against disease. When Natural 
 bacteria get into the body and begin to grow medicine 
 and multiply there, they often form poisons which affect 
 the body just as seriously as if poison had been swal- 
 lowed. What we ordinarily speak of as blood poisoning 
 is of this nature. The blood sometimes develops a 
 substance which attacks the poison produced by such 
 bacteria, and makes it either quite harmless or at least 
 much less harmful. Such a substance might be regarded 
 as a natural medicine. 
 
 Then again, the blood may contain substances which 
 weaken the bacteria which have entered the body, so 
 that the white blood cells can destroy them other 
 much more easily. It is somewhat as if an 
 army should first send out messengers to disease 
 poison the water supplies of the enemy before attack- 
 ing them. In both cases the enemy would, of course, be 
 weakened and more easily killed, because they are first 
 reduced in strength by a poison. 
 
 There are many other means which nature uses to 
 protect the body. All through the body we have little 
 nodules known as lymph glands. Sometimes they can 
 be felt in the neck, especially when one has a sore 
 throat. These glands act somewhat like filters, and 
 bacteria and even coal dust, iron dust, and the like are 
 often arrested here. 
 
 Sometimes bacteria are walled in and shut off so that 
 they cannot spread to other parts of the body, and
 
 62 HYGIENE 
 
 occasionally this wall becomes hardened with deposits 
 of lime. This is common in the lungs, and the germs of. 
 tuberculosis 1 (consumption) are in this way kept from 
 spreading. 
 
 When the appendix breaks or ruptures, as it some- 
 times does, then quickly bands and partitions (adhesions) 
 are formed, and the part where the trouble occurs is 
 walled off from the rest of the body cavity ; thus the 
 disease is kept within narrow bounds. If this does not 
 occur as it should, the bacteria which are causing the 
 attack of appendicitis spread to all parts of the abdo- 
 men, and death may result. It seems very wonderful 
 that nature can so successfully protect our bodies in 
 ways that appear almost conscious. 
 
 The nose is lined with many hairs, as you know, but 
 it has not occurred to you perhaps that these serve as a 
 sort of sieve and keep _ , 
 
 Defenses in 
 
 dust and bacteria from the nose and 
 entering the lungs in throat 
 breathing. The little tubes which 
 
 carry air to the lungs (bronchial 
 CELLS FROM *HK HRON- tubes) a)so are Hned with minutc 
 
 CHIAL TUBES, SHOWING . 
 
 CILIA, hair-like bodies which are m con- 
 
 stant motion. These little cilia, or 
 
 hairs, sweep foreign particles back toward the throat, 
 where they may be disposed of. 
 
 Then we have many kinds of defense which, though 
 
 1 The germs of tuberculosis may grow in various parts of the 
 body. The resulting diseases are called tuberculosis of the bones, 
 tuberculosis of the intestines, etc. These germs most frequently 
 attack the lungs ; tuberculosis of the lungs is commonly called 
 consumption.
 
 THE NATURAL DEFENSES OF THE BODY 63 
 
 they have nothing directly to do with disease germs or 
 any solid particles, protect the body in other other natu- 
 ways. When one is exposed to heat, mes- rai defenses 
 sages are sent from the brain or spinal cord along cer- 
 tain nerves to the skin. The result is that the little blood 
 vessels in the skin dilate, producing perspiration, and 
 the body loses heat. Exactly the opposite thing occurs 
 when one is exposed to cold : perspiration is prevented, 
 and heat is kept in the body. So it happens that 
 whether the day is hot or cold, nature by a self-regulat- 
 ing temperature device keeps the body at about the 
 same temperature (985). 
 
 If a speck of dust or a cinder strikes the eye, we all 
 know how quickly the eye "waters." This is nature's 
 attempt to wash out the offending particle. A severe 
 diarrhoea may occur after injurious things have been 
 eaten. This is nature's way of ridding the body of 
 something harmful to it. For this reason it is never 
 wise to check the diarrhoea at first. When the nose 
 bleeds, or a finger is cut, or whenever bleeding occurs 
 in any part of the body, a clot soon forms. If this were 
 not so, we should easily bleed to death. Such a clot 
 acts as a plug to the blood tube and stops it up. 
 
 Pain of all sorts is nature's warning signal that some- 
 thing is wrong. It is not a disease but a symptom of 
 disease. It is never right to stop the pain Pain . 
 without first attempting to discover its cause, warning 
 Pain is like a bell buoy on a dangerous rock Slgna 
 it points to the place of trouble. One may easily 
 stop the bell from ringing, but the dangerous rock is 
 still there. Nearly all advertised " pain killers " are 
 worse than useless, for the reason that they merely re-
 
 64 HYGIENE 
 
 move the pain by deadening the nerves that give the 
 warning, without removing the cause of the pain. 
 
 One may stop the pain of a headache* with some head- 
 ache remedy, but the cause is still there and will prob- 
 ably remain until man or nature removes it. For 
 instance, it may be due to diseased tonsils, or imperfect 
 eyesight, or a bad digestion, or constipation. We must 
 remove tlie cause, not the symptom, if we wish to do any 
 real good. 
 
 It is the same way with a cough, for this is usually the 
 symptom of something else, and we must try to cure, 
 not the cough, but the trouble which causes it. Some- 
 times it is even best to encourage the cough for a time, 
 because by this means nature may be trying to get rid 
 of mucus, bacteria, or other substances which are in the 
 throat or bronchial tubes or lungs. Advertised " cough 
 cures" cure nothing but the warning symptom. They 
 merely stop the bell from ringing. Even catarrh is not 
 itself a disease, but indicates some other serious condi- 
 tion in the nose or throat. You cannot cure a case of 
 catarrh, but you can heed the warning, discover the 
 cause, and usually remove it. 
 
 So the various warnings of disease whether they be 
 pain, headache, cough, catarrh, or " nervousness " 
 are really natural defenses of the body. 
 
 The skin which covers our bodies is another natural 
 defense. Unless the skin is broken, bacteria on its sur- 
 Skin f ace cai1 never enter the body. The lining 
 
 protection o f j| lc stomach and intestines acts in much 
 the same way, and this is one of the reasons why we 
 
 1 For further discussion of headaches, see page 108: of catarrh, 
 page 97.
 
 THE NATURAL DEFENSES OF THE HODY 65 
 
 ought to keep the digestive tract in the best possible con- 
 dition. Dangerous germs then may often pass through 
 it quite harmlessly. 
 
 Almost as soon as the skin is injured in any way, the 
 surface of the injured spot is covered with a sort of 
 natural plaster. In time this forms a scab. When the 
 scab finally falls away, a clean, new, healthy skin sur- 
 face is found beneath it. 
 
 When a bone breaks, nature quickly produces a great 
 amount of material around the broken ends to hold them 
 together. This material is called callus. In Bone 
 time it forms new bone, and the part broken heahn g 
 may be actually stronger than before the break occurred. 
 Such a callus acts much like the substance which forms 
 around an injured twig or limb of a tree. 
 
 Sharp objects and other foreign substances which are 
 swallowed or get into the body in other ways, often be- 
 come surrounded with a sac which nature p rei . 
 forms. Needles, pins, bullets, broken knife stances are 
 blades, and even larger objects, have become 
 enclosed in a sac in this way, so that they are rendered 
 harmless. Sometimes they remain in the body for many 
 years, or even for a lifetime, without the least harm. 
 
 Even the brain has its natural defenses. Ordinarily 
 only one side of it is in use. But when an Defenses of 
 injury occurs to it, the other and uninjured the brain 
 side may sometimes be brought into action. 
 
 Many of our actions are unconscious, or reflex. Such 
 acts protect us constantly. The eye winks R fl 
 and closes when an object threatens to fly actions 
 into it ; the hand draws away from the fire pro 
 before the brain knows what or where the trouble is.
 
 66 HYGIENE 
 
 Many of our everyday habits are reflex, and without 
 them we should soon perish. 
 
 One organ may sometimes take up the work of an- 
 other and help to protect the body in this way. When 
 How or ans tne kidneys are diseased, the skin may do a 
 help one an- good deal of their work. When one kidney 
 is entirely lost through disease or accident, 
 the other one enlarges and does double work. When 
 an organ of special sense, such as sight or hearing, is 
 lost, the other sense organs nearly always become more 
 active and acute, and thus help to supply the defect. 
 
 Many other natural defenses could be named, but 
 enough has now been said to show that our bodies are 
 wonderfully well provided with the means of defense 
 against disease and accident. The most important les- 
 son we can learn from these studies is that in trying 
 to cure disease and repair accidents in our bodies, we 
 must foil ouj nature s methods as far as possible. Nature 
 nearly always points out the right way.
 
 CHAPTER IX 
 WHAT HEALTH DEPENDS UPON 
 
 IN order to understand thoroughly what health de- 
 pends upon, it is necessary to study some of the general 
 principles which govern the action of the body. 
 
 The successful action of a locomotive or any other 
 machine depends upon the soundness of all its parts. If 
 any essential part is thrown out of order, the whole 
 machine suffers and perhaps refuses to work. This is 
 true also of the human body. Its parts must be sound 
 and in good working order, if we are to have good 
 health. 
 
 In a great factory, the manufacture of any article 
 as a piano or an automobile is accomplished by the 
 work of many different groups of workmen. The ri . 
 In the case of the automobile, one group of pieofdivi- 
 men works only with the framework of the 
 wheels, another with the tires, and others with the paint 
 and varnish. Each group of men is dependent upon all 
 the other groups, and a failure of any one of these to 
 do its work makes a successful result impossible. 
 
 In all such cases there is a division of labor, and be- 
 cause of this division each group learns to do its work 
 very skillfully. Any man may become skillful when he 
 devotes his whole attention to one specialty. In a fac- 
 tory all the work is done by such specialists. 
 
 In early clays a tailor not only did all the cutting and 
 
 67
 
 68 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 One-celled 
 objects are 
 
 sewing on a garment, but he took the measurement, and 
 he often made the cloth as well. And so it was with 
 shoemakers, furniture makers, and various other arti- 
 sans. There was no division of labor, and the work was 
 usually crudely done. Yet such a workman was, in a 
 sense, more independent than the specialist of to-day, 
 who perhaps does nothing but shovel coal into a fur- 
 nace, or sew buttons on a coat. 
 
 The simplest living plants and animals that we know 
 about consist of only one cell with no tissues or organs. 
 This cell is simply a minute particle of living 
 matter or protoplasm. It does all the work 
 
 independent o f uf e f or t h e wno le plant or animal. There 
 but crude . 
 
 is no division of labor. But in the higher 
 
 forms of life, the body of the animal or the plant is 
 made up of groups of cells, each 
 doing its special work very skillfully. 
 These groups of cells are like the 
 special workers in a great factory. 
 The low forms of the one-celled 
 growths are like the unspecialized 
 workman, quite independent in their 
 mode of life. But they are also very 
 crude and possess none of the higher qualities with 
 which we are familiar in the animal and plant world. 
 
 At first all animals and plants were simple and un- 
 complicated, consisting of only one cell. All life then 
 Evolution consisted of single cells only. After millions 
 of years the higher forms have gradually de- 
 veloped from these single cells. This is what 
 we call evolution. But as evolution has grad- 
 ually taken place, all life has slowly grown more com- 
 
 A ONE-CELLED 
 
 ANIMAL. 
 
 has pro- 
 duced a 
 complicated 
 organism
 
 WHAT HEALTH DEPENDS UPON 69 
 
 plicated. Special cells and organs have been added. 
 These have duties to perform, so important that life 
 itself depends upon them. 
 
 In the factory each man is expected to do his work cor- 
 rectly and promptly. In the body of the animal or plant 
 each cell must do its work in the same thorough manner. 
 
 Perhaps one man, or even several men in any one 
 group, may drop out or do poor work without very seri- 
 ously affecting the work of the whole factory. Fai i ure of a 
 In such a case the other men in this group few ceils 
 may be able for a time to make up the defi- ^by 6 
 ciencies entirely or in part. others 
 
 In the human body some cells in a certain group may 
 refuse to work, do imperfect work, or perhaps even be 
 destroyed in some way. When this happens, the other 
 members of that group will double their efforts and try 
 to offset this misfortune. Usually such efforts on the 
 part of the healthy and industrious cells in the group 
 are successful, and the body as a whole hardly suffers. 
 
 If an entire group of workmen in a factory, or several 
 such groups, refuse to work, the whole factory is thrown 
 out of order. If a similar group of cells in the body 
 does the same sort of thing, the whole body suffers. 
 
 In the manufacture of articles there are sometimes 
 certain parts so important that only men of the highest 
 skill can be depended upon to take charge of g u 
 them. Any failure of such men to do their are of vital 
 work would make the whole article either in- impor 
 ferior or entirely useless. In the same way, in one of 
 the higher living animals or plants, some cells perform 
 such important functions that any failure on their part 
 injures the whole organism very seriously, perhaps
 
 70 HYGIENE 
 
 beyond repair. If the nerve cells which regulate the 
 heart beat or the group which controls breathing is 
 injured or destroyed, the whole body suffers and per- 
 haps dies. What happens is much the same as when the 
 sparker of an automobile refuses to work or the piston 
 to drive. Some essential part has given out. 
 
 The more complicated a machine or other lifeless 
 
 thing is made, the more easily it gets out of order. 
 
 Exactly the same thing may be said of the 
 
 Important 
 
 parts are body. Important parts are hard to replace 
 
 hard to re- either in a machine or in man. Nerve cells 
 place 
 
 once destroyed are never replaced. Many 
 of the simpler and therefore less important cells of the 
 body are easily reproduced, as for example the blood 
 cells. Such cells are constantly wearing out and dying, 
 while others quickly take their places. 1 But if a man 
 loses a hand, it can never be replaced. 
 
 A person is in health when all his cells and organs 
 What are working together for the good of the 
 
 health and whole body. A person is sick or diseased 
 
 recovery 
 
 depend when some of his cells or organs ret use to 
 u P n do\ their regular work. 
 
 The seriousness of sickness depends upon : 
 i. Whether highly important cells or organs are af- 
 fected, or only the simpler and therefore less important 
 ones. 
 
 1 If a crab loses a claw, another one quickly grows in its place. 
 Crayfish and similar animals cast off their entire hard outer coats. 
 Many animals, such as deer, shed their horns and soon grow new 
 ones. Birds shed their feathers (molt). On man, the outer skin 
 is always being removed and replaced by new skin. We cut off our 
 hair and our nails, which are composed of worn-out, dead cells.
 
 WHAT HEALTH DEPENDS UPON 71 
 
 2. Whether the injury to the cells or organs is slight 
 and includes only a small area, or whether it is serious 
 and includes a large area. 
 
 Recovery from disease occurs if there has not been 
 too much injury to the cells or organs.
 
 CHAPTER X 
 THE CAUSES OF DISEASE 
 
 THERE is always a definite cause for sickness. Some- 
 times the cause is hard to find, sometimes it is easy. 
 There is always a reason for the direction of 
 
 Health and 
 
 disease the wind or for the course of a river. 1 hese 
 follow natu- things follow what we call natural laws. It 
 
 ral laws 
 
 is exactly the same with the health of the 
 body. Health, too, is subject to natural laws. When we 
 know what these laws are, we can usually obey .them 
 and profit by them ; but when we are in ignorance of 
 them, we suffer. Nothing in nature ever happens by 
 chance. Health or sickness is not a matter of good or 
 bad luck, but a matter of obeying or disobeying the laws 
 of health. 
 
 Every organ in the body has a special work to do. 
 We call thisvwork the function of the organ. When 
 What sick- anything interferes with the work of one 
 or several organs of the body, then we 
 are sick. No machine can do its work properly unless 
 all its parts are in good order. No person, likewise, can 
 do the work of life properly unless all his organs are 
 in good order. 
 
 If an engine is to do its work in the best possible way, 
 it must, of course, receive the right amount and kind of 
 fuel. The different parts must be clean and well oiled ; 
 ashes must not be allowed to accumulate; there must 
 
 72
 
 THE, CAUSES OF DISEASE 73 
 
 be a good draft under the furnace ; the smokestack 
 must be able to carry off the smoke and gases 
 which the engine cannot use. Many people machine is 
 who understand these things perfectly about ke P tin 
 
 good order 
 
 a machine, such as a locomotive or auto- 
 mobile or harvester, do not realize that the same rules 
 apply to the most important of all machines the 
 human body. 
 
 The body, like a machine, often becomes clogged with 
 waste substances. It frequently does not get enough 
 draft (pure air for breathing). It frequently receives 
 the wrong sort of fuel (food). Many human machines 
 receive more food than they can possibly use, and some 
 do not receive enough. Many of them are not kept 
 clean. 
 
 As engineers of our own bodies we ought to under- 
 stand all the parts of this machine, how they do their 
 work, and what things interfere with their work. But 
 most of us let the machine run itself, and if it gets out 
 of order we call a doctor to repair it. 
 
 A doctor is a specially trained Jiuman engineer, who 
 understands the complications of the human machine 
 which are too difficult for the average person. The p h ys i- 
 Every one ought to know how to do the ordi- cian as a 
 
 trained 
 
 nary repairs, but sometimes he needs the human en- 
 special "engineer." It is the business of the R meer 
 science of medicine to try to discover what things cause 
 trouble in the human machine, just as it is the business 
 of a locomotive engineer to discover what things inter- 
 fere with the best action of his engine. 
 
 Many persons who would never think of allowing a 
 poor mechanic to repair their automobile or watch or
 
 74 HYGIENE 
 
 harvesting machine, will, when sick, turn themselves 
 over for treatment to almost any sort of doctor or even a 
 "quack." A skillful physician understands his work. 
 People expect this much of the man who repairs their 
 watch, shoes their horses, cooks their food, or drives 
 their automobile. Why should they not ask the same of 
 their doctor ? If the proper qualifications were required 
 of all who attempt to heal the sick, we could easily do 
 away with the dangerous, unskillful healers in every 
 community. 
 
 We must now attempt to understand what are some of 
 the things or conditions which put our bodies out of order. 
 
 These may be classed in two large groups : 
 which'inter- I- Those things which weaken the body in 
 fere with some way so that we are likely to "take" 
 many diseases. Eating the wrong kind of 
 food, bad ventilation, and abuse of alcohol are examples 
 of such things. 
 
 2. Those things which directly cause disease. Bacteria 
 and other small forms of life which get into the body 
 are examples of these. 
 
 There are many ways in which we may weaken our 
 
 power to resist disease. When this power of resistance 
 
 is weakened, certain dangerous germs are 
 
 Weakening 
 
 the body's able to get a start ; but if the body is strong, 
 power of tne germs can do it no harm. We "take 
 
 resistance 
 
 a cold, for instance, not because of sitting 
 in a draft, but because the sudden chilling of the body 
 weakens its power to resist and the germs gain a foothold 
 in the nose or throat. These germs are always ready 
 to begin their harmful work ; but if we take proper 
 care of our bodies, and strengthen them, we shall not
 
 THE CAUSES OF DISEASE 
 
 75 
 
 be affected by the germs. By taking intelligent care, 
 we can ward off almost any disease, no matter how 
 much we may be exposed to it. 
 
 There are some occupations which are unhealthful 
 and lead to certain diseases. Knife grinders, file workers, 
 stone masons, and workers in bakeries and 
 other dusty places have a tendency toward occupation's 
 tuberculosis. Many children are forced to do 
 unhealthful work, when they ought to be engaged in 
 
 BOYS WORKING AT MIDNIGHT IN A GLASS FACTORY. 
 
 Photograph by Hine, National Child Labor Committee. 
 
 healthful school work and outdoor play. Thousands 
 of such children die or are made invalids every year 
 by their unnatural way of living. This is particularly 
 true of children who work in glass factories, sweat- 
 shops, cotton mills, tobacco factories, and coal mines.
 
 76 HYGIENE 
 
 In many factories these poor children are obliged 
 to work at night. They are robbed of their natural 
 hours of sleep, and often form habits harmful to both 
 minds and bodies. Very often they get into the habit 
 of using strong tea and coffee, or even more harmful 
 drinks, thinking that these will help them to keep 
 awake. Sunlight is nature's great health giver, and 
 children who work at night and sleep during the day 
 are never healthy. Some of these small workers get 
 very little sleep at any time, for they are obliged 
 to do other work to help the family during part of 
 the day. 
 
 Few saloon keepers or other people who handle 
 liquors live to old age. Any occupation which tempts 
 a man to use much alcohol usually shortens his 
 life. 
 
 Some occupations tend to give long life. Farmers, 
 fishermen, carpenters, gardeners, and clergymen are 
 among those whose work leads to long life. Such 
 people not only escape unhealthful surroundings, but 
 they get plenty of fresh air and sleep and generally 
 do not worry very much. Worry and unnecessary 
 trouble shorten the lives of very many people. We 
 ought all to learn the habit of cheerfulness. 
 
 Many persons inherit weak constitutions. Such people 
 
 do not resist disease well. The children of intemperate 
 
 parents often escape the evil of intemperance 
 
 themselves, but they rarely escape weakened 
 
 bodies. These children easily fall into bad 
 
 habits of many kinds. They are likely to go to excess 
 
 in many things, such as in the use of coffee, tea, 
 
 tobacco, alcohol, and various drugs. The children of
 
 THE CAUSES OF DISEASE 
 
 77 
 
 drinking parents form a large per cent of criminals, 
 paupers, and the inmates of insane asylums. Very often 
 they lack the ability to recognize their own weakness 
 and faults. They generally have less moral control 
 of themselves than other children have. 
 
 HEALTHFUL OUTDOOR WORK FOR CHILDRF.X. 
 
 There are many other conditions of life which weaken 
 a person's power to resist sickness, such as living in 
 un health ful climates or in badly ventilated rooms, 
 breathing sewer gas, eating poor food or eating too 
 much food, and lack of cleanliness. During the 
 period of childhood one is liable to have certain kinds 
 of sickness, in old age others, and in middle life still 
 others. 
 
 We must now study some of the direct or active causes 
 of disease. We would not often become very ill if it
 
 78 HYGIENE 
 
 were not for bacteria J or other minute forms of life, 
 which take advantage of us when we are 
 
 Bacteria, 
 
 the active run down. These little germs get into the 
 
 causes of body, and either form poisons there or do 
 disease 
 
 harm in some other way. 
 
 Bacteria are so very small that they can be seen only 
 by the use of a powerful microscope. The head of a 
 
 pin would furnish 
 
 s P ace for man y 
 
 millions of them. 
 They have various 
 
 c 
 
 forms; some are 
 
 Diphtheria Typhoid Fever 
 
 round, some oval, 
 BACTERIA OF DISEASE. 
 
 some rod -shaped, 
 
 Notice also the picture on page 60. 
 
 and others form 
 
 spirals. Some bacteria are provided with hair-like ex- 
 tensions by means of which they swim about in water or 
 other fluids. Many bacteria have no power of motion. 
 
 When bacteria are furnished with favorable food, 
 moisture, and temperature, they grow and multiply very 
 rapidly. Disease germs multiply most rapidly at body 
 temperature ^98 1). It has been estimated that if ideal 
 conditions for their increase were provided, such as 
 proper food, temperature, and moisture, one tiny germ 
 would in a few days multiply so rapidly that all the 
 oceans of the world would be filled solid with bacteria. 
 Of course such ideal conditions could never exist. 
 
 All bacteria do not cause sickness. Some are most 
 useful and indeed necessary to us. Certain useful bac- 
 
 1 Bacteria are minute, one-celled plants. There are also very 
 small animal forms of life, called parasites, which cause some dis- 
 eases, as malaria.
 
 THE CAUSES OF DISEASE 79 
 
 teria ripen butter and give it a pleasant flavor ; others 
 produce the flavors of cheese ; others change useful 
 cider or wine into vinegar. Some have the bacteria 
 wonderful power of helping plants of the clover family 
 to take nitrogen from the air and give it to the soil, which 
 needs nitrogen to make it more fertile. 
 
 If we did not have certain kinds of bacteria, nothing 
 would decay. The world would then become covered 
 with dead animals and plants. A tree falling The ba 
 in the forest would remain as it fell ; a fish teria of 
 dying in the sea would never decay. 
 
 Plants and animals all get their nourishment from the 
 soil and air and water. When we eat mutton, we are 
 using the things which the sheep took from the grass 
 it fed upon. If we eat potatoes or other vegetables, we 
 are using those things which the potato and other plants 
 took from the earth and air to grow upon. When plants 
 and animals die, their substance passes back to the air 
 and soil, and can then be used again as food for new 
 plants and animals. This decaying is the work which 
 the bacteria of decay accomplish. Our world could not 
 possibly exist without these small, busy friends of ours. 
 
 In order to prevent fermentation and decay we often take 
 advantage of our knowledge of the following facts : 
 
 1. Cold prevents the growth of bacteria. It is for this reason 
 that so much use is made of cold storage. On the same principle 
 we use ice boxes in which to preserve foods in our homes. 
 
 2. Heat destroys bacteria. For this reason we boil fruits, 
 meats, or vegetables, and then seal them in air-tight cans or 
 jars, where they keep indefinitely. 
 
 3. Thick sirups prevent the growth of bacteria. Use is 
 made of this fact in much of our preserving.
 
 80 HYGIENE 
 
 4. Crystallized sugar prevents the growth of bacteria. 
 Ginger, various fruits, and some other foods are preserved in 
 this way. 
 
 5. Sfrotig salt solutions (brine) prevent the growth of 
 bacteria. Pork, beef, and pickles are preserved in brine. 
 
 6. Drying kills bacteria and prevents their growth. We 
 often depend upon this principle in preserving meat, fruits, 
 and vegetables. 
 
 There are, however, some bacteria which are rnc- 
 mies, instead of friends, of man. Their number is corn- 
 Disease paratively small, but they do great harm, 
 germs Qur grandparents knew nothing about bac- 
 
 teria or how they cause disease. Even late in the last 
 century little was known about these tiny but powerful 
 plants. Now we know that most of our common dis- 
 eases are caused by them. Expert students can exam- 
 ine and study these microscopic living things; and with 
 our increasing knowledge of them the control and cure 
 of diseases have become far more certain.
 
 CHAPTER XI 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 
 
 A contagious disease, strictly speaking, is one which 
 occurs only from contact such a disease as a person 
 may readily take, or " catch," from one who is ill. In 
 a broad sense, however, contagious diseases are all dis- 
 eases which are spread in any way by bacteria or other 
 minute forms of life. 1 
 
 In olden times people thought that diseases such as 
 cholera, smallpox, plague, and other contagious dis- 
 eases, which spread as great epidemics, were ignorance 
 caused either by evil spirits for revenge, or and disease 
 by a god for the punishment of sin. No attempts were 
 made to make the surroundings of life clean and sani- 
 tary. Streets were used as open sewers ; the sick were 
 kept with the well ; personal cleanliness was not prac- 
 ticed much; dwellings were poorly ventilated ; food was 
 poorly prepared ; and in general people lived unsanitary 
 lives. People have always paid a fearful penalty for 
 this sort of ignorance. 
 
 All kinds of things were done to appease the particu- 
 lar god or demon who was supposed to be the cause of 
 the trouble. These superstitious people used to ring 
 bells to drive away the evil spirits of disease ; burn 
 human beings as sacrifices to the gods ; consult sor- 
 
 1 A better term than contagions for all these diseases is communi- 
 cable. 
 
 Si
 
 82 HYGIENE 
 
 ceresses; entomb living people in the walls of build- 
 ings; bury them alive; and do many other cruel and 
 foolish things, all because of their ignorant ideas about 
 disease. Even to-day we have left a suggestion of this 
 early superstition and ignorance. 
 
 Those who believe in mysterious methods of cure 
 which they cannot understand, and those who take 
 Mysterious P atent medicines about which they know 
 cures are nothing, are little better than their more 
 ignorant ancestors who consulted sorcer- 
 esses. It is because of this ignorance and superstition 
 which still exist, that every town and city has so many 
 special healers and impostors who promise cures for dis- 
 eases. The advertisements of marvelous cures in the 
 newspapers appeal to this same ignorance. 
 
 Although great numbers of people still ignorantly 
 spend their hard-earned money for worthless drugs and 
 for the services of worthless healers, yet we have made 
 a great advance in such matters. Scientists have taught 
 us that the causes of disease are not mysterious and 
 that diseases are never successfully treated by any mys- 
 terious methods. Nothing in nature is really mysterious. 
 Mystery is only another name for ignorance. 
 
 Long before bacteria were discovered, men learned 
 that certain diseases are in some way contagious. They 
 inteiu ence a ^ so ^ earnec ^ tnat cleanliness of person and 
 can control surroundings decreases disease. Now, with 
 our new and exact knowledge of bacteria, 
 we know the causes of contagious diseases and how 
 to prevent them. Scientific students are all the time 
 learning more about the control and cure of disease. 
 
 In countries like China and India there are still many
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 83 
 
 sections where people are no better educated about dis- 
 ease than we were five hundred years or more ago. 
 These are the places where great epidemics still rage 
 unchecked. Hundreds of thousands die every year 
 from the bubonic plague in India. 
 
 This terrible disease appeared in the United States in 
 1900. It was first discovered in San Francisco. Our 
 knowledge of how it is caused made it possible for us to 
 prevent its spread. Probably our country will never 
 again have a great epidemic of any kind of disease, 
 because we understand how diseases are carried and 
 how to check them. 
 
 When our government took charge of Cuba, in 1898, 
 one of the first things it did was to clean up the towns 
 and cities and drain the wet places. In this Yellow 
 way it succeeded in exterminating the mosqui- fever and 
 
 ,,..,. malaria in 
 
 toes, which breed m water and by their bite Cuba and 
 cause yellow fever and malaria. 1 These dis- Panama 
 eases had always been present in Cuba, destroying hun- 
 dreds of people every year. Our government has made 
 
 1 So far as we know, yellow fever and malaria are the only diseases 
 in this country carried by mosquitoes. It is interesting to know 
 something of how mosquitoes tnay be exterminated. There are three 
 methods commonly in use : 
 
 1. Kerosene oil may be spread upon the surface of ponds and 
 other places where mosquitoes breed. This prevents the young 
 insects, or larvae, as they are called, from rising to the surface and 
 getting air ; without air they die quickly. 
 
 2. Fish may be placed in ponds, reservoirs, and the like. These 
 fish feed upon the young insects and thus destroy them. 
 
 3. Swamps and other places where water collects may be drained. 
 Rain barrels and other receptacles for water may be screened to 
 prevent mosquitoes laying eggs in the water.
 
 84 HYGIENE 
 
 Cuba as healthful a place to live in as any place in our 
 own country. It has more recently done a similar work 
 ill Panama. 
 
 MOSQUITOES. 
 
 On the left the mosquito that carries malaria; on the right the harmless 
 mosquito. In resting position. 
 
 But there are two diseases in our country that we 
 are far too careless about, in spite of our knowledge. 
 The control These are consumption and typhoid fever, 
 ti n^nd" 11 ^ Sometime we shall succeed in wiping out 
 typhoid these diseases in the United States, but com- 
 paratively little has yet been done. We have become 
 used to these two fearful diseases, just as the Cubans 
 had becomfc used to yellow fever and malaria. It is 
 true that both consumption and typhoid are harder to 
 control than yellow fever or malaria, but ivc can control 
 tliem when enough people become really educated in 
 health matters. This is one of the reasons why every 
 pupil in school to-day ought to study and understand 
 how to care for his health. 
 
 Tuberculosis of the lungs, or consumption, is a conta- 
 gious disease, spread largely by the expectorations of 
 consumptives. Every year in this country at least 
 150,000 persons die from this preventable disease this
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 8$ 
 
 Red blood Cell 
 
 " great white plague" of the human race. At least 
 200,000 persons in our population are constantly sick 
 and more or less helpless with it. (See page 199 for 
 further discussion of tuber- 
 culosis.) 
 
 The prevalence of 
 typJioid fever results in 
 
 Sewage lar S e P art fl " m 
 and dangerous habits 
 
 of the past which 
 thousands are still practic- 
 ing in spite of all that has 
 been learned about disease. 
 
 Cell from Throat 
 
 For example, many cities 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS GERMS. 
 Expectoration, showing a great num- 
 
 pour their SCWage into b " f ^erculosis germs which spread 
 
 the disease if not destroyed. 
 
 rivers and then draw water 
 
 from those same rivers for drinking purposes. Most 
 of the cities along the Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri, 
 Hudson, Wabash, and many other rivers, do this. 
 Until a few years ago the city of Chicago emptied all 
 of its vast amount of sewage into Lake Michigan and 
 then drew the water of the lake into the dwellings for 
 drinking. In such cases, epidemics of typhoid fever 
 occur from time to time because the typhoid germs pass 
 into the drinking water with the sewage. Every year 
 thousands of deaths from typhoid fever in this country 
 occur in just this way. Every one of tJicsc dcatJis is 
 unnecessary and due to ignorance or carelessness. 
 
 Diphtheria, smallpox, scarlet fever, measles, pneu- 
 monia, chicken pox, mumps, and influenza are 
 
 Quarantine 
 all contagious diseases, and these we have 
 
 learned to control to a considerable extent. Boards
 
 86 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 of health insist upon the isolation of people sick with 
 such diseases ; this is called placing them in quarantine. 1 
 
 People sometimes 
 think the regulations 
 are very strict, and that 
 it is a great hardship 
 to keep pupils out of 
 school and to isolate a 
 family afflicted with a 
 contagious disease ; 
 but it is only by such 
 methods that the dis- 
 ease can be controlled 
 and exterminated. If 
 strict control were 
 practiced, it would be 
 possible to wipe such 
 diseases entirely out 
 of existence. (See 
 page 169.) 
 
 After a case of con- 
 tagious disease, the house must be thoroughly disin- 
 fected ; that is, cleansed so as to destroy the 
 germs of disease. The room occupied by the 
 patient should be closed for some hours to allow dust 
 particles to settle, and then fumigated with formalde- 
 hyde gas. After fumigation the room should be thor- 
 oughly cleaned with hot soda solution, chloride of lime, 
 or two per cent carbolic acid solution. Finally it should 
 
 1 Different states vary in their laws about quarantine. Measles, 
 mumps, chicken pox, pneumonia, and influenza are not always quar- 
 antined. 
 
 A HYGIENIC DRINKING FOUNTAIN. 
 It helps to diminish contagious diseases. 
 
 Disinfection
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 8/ 
 
 be aired and sunned, and kept vacant for several days. 
 The disinfection is best done by the health officer or 
 the physician in charge ; but for practical purposes the 
 following method will prove fairly satisfactory : 
 
 1. Clean the rooms thoroughly. 
 
 (a) Hang clothing, curtains, rugs, and bedclothes in 
 the bright sunlight for several hours. 
 
 (/) Wash the woodwork with water containing about 
 one pint of formalin to every gallon of water. 
 
 (<) Air out the rooms for several hours. 
 
 (</) Boil all linen, bedclothes, and other things which 
 have come in contact with the sick person. 
 
 2. Give the person who has recovered from the contagious 
 
 disease, and those who have been with him, a hot bath 
 with plenty of soap. 
 
 3. Burn infected articles which cannot be boiled. Toys 
 
 and books should receive particular care. 
 
 Dark, damp places favor the growth of bacteria; 
 sunlight and lack of moisture are destructive to them. 
 Rooms that do not get sunlight are therefore 
 
 Conditions 
 
 likely to harbor disease germs. Briefly it that favor 
 
 may be said that heat, moisture, lack of sun- the growth 
 
 of bacteria 
 light, and poor ventilation favor the life of 
 
 bacteria. These are some of the conditions we must 
 guard against in fighting disease. We must remember 
 also that sunlight and frcsJi air are the best disinfectants 
 in the world. 
 
 We must now consider how the germs of contagious 
 diseases are spread. Many germs are spread HOW bac- 
 by the air. Germs are often present in the gp" e a a d re by 
 expectoration of patients. If this is not the air 
 destroyed, the germs become dry and float about with
 
 88 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 the dust of the air ; then they are drawn into the lungs 
 
 in breathing. 
 
 The air of cities and of crowded places is always 
 
 more heavily laden with germs than the air of the coun- 
 try. On mountains 
 and at sea the air is 
 practically free from 
 germs. Pneumonia, 
 which is a germ dis- 
 ease, is very common 
 in cities, but rare in 
 the country. It is in- 
 creasing in all large 
 centers of population. 
 One of the reasons 
 the rooms in a house, 
 lecture hall, church, 
 and theater ought to 
 be well ventilated, is 
 because germs are 
 usually abundant in 
 such places. Street 
 cars, railroad cars 
 (especially the sleep- 
 ing cars), hotels, and 
 restaurants are other 
 
 places where germs are likely to be dangerous. The 
 
 danger in crowded, badly ventilated places is largely 
 
 because the air is infected ivit/i genus. 
 
 Several diseases are carried by water. Typhoid 
 
 fever is one of these. This, as we know, is because 
 
 of the sewage which is emptied into the water sup- 
 
 A DARK, UNVENTILATED BEDROOM. 
 Where disease germs flourish.
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 89 
 
 plies. Cholera is spread in the same way. When- 
 ever there is reason to suspect that the water Bacteria in 
 supplies are contaminated, the water should water, milk, 
 be thoroughly boiled before use. 
 
 Typhoid fever is frequently spread by means of milk 
 supplies. Usually the bacteria come from infected 
 water in which the cans and 
 other utensils have been 
 washed. Diphtheria and 
 tuberculosis, and occasionally 
 other diseases also, may be 
 carried by milk. 
 
 Meat may carry the germs 
 of tuberculosis when the 
 animal from which the meat 
 comes has had this disease. 
 All meat should be inspected to 
 guard against this. 
 
 Many germs are carried by 
 clothing, carpets, bed cover- 
 Bacteria in in s s ' towels > han s- 
 
 clothing and ings, dishes, and 
 
 furnishings Qther househol( j 
 
 things. Probably measles, 
 diphtheria, scarlet fever, pneu- 
 monia, and tuberculosis are 
 
 frequently spread in this way. Carpets, heavy rugs, 
 and hangings everything that is not easily cleansed 
 and aired should be abolished from the sick-room. 
 The luxurious Pullman sleeping car is very hard to 
 keep clean because of the heavy upholstery, curtains, 
 and decorations which it contains. These cars are not 
 
 MEAT, SHOWINC INSPECTOR'S 
 MARKS.
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 always hygienic. All places of public gatherings, in 
 eluding hotels, ought to have plain, simple furnishings. 
 Several important diseases are carried by insects. 
 This is one of the latest discoveries of science. 
 Malaria is carried by mosquitoes. 
 Yellow fever is carried by mosquitoes. 
 Typhoid fever is carried by flies. 
 Tuberculosis and diphtheria, and possibly some other 
 
 diseases, may be carried by flies. 
 
 Leprosy is probably carried by bedbugs, and possibly 
 by flies and fleas. 
 
 Diseases 
 carried by 
 insects and 
 animals 
 
 A BREEDING-PLACE KOK KI.IKS. 
 
 This is a dairy which furnished milk to a. large eity. 
 
 Glanders is carried by horses. 
 
 Tuberculosis is carried by cattle, dogs, cats, and some 
 
 other animals. 
 
 Diphtheria is sometimes carried by cattle. 
 Plague is carried by fleas which infest rats.
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR CONTROL 91 
 
 There are many other methods by which contagious 
 diseases are spread, but enough has been said for our 
 purposes. It must be plain to every one that The need of 
 the control of these diseases is largely a matter cleanliness 
 of absolute cleanliness of person and surroundings. 
 
 Mosquitoes cannot breed where there is no stagnant 
 water. 
 
 Flies breed in refuse and manure piles. 
 
 Rats always live in filthy places. 
 
 Water polluted by sewage is not clean. 
 
 The habit of expectoration on streets is dangerous. 
 
 In a word, clean habits, sunshine, fresh air, and pure 
 food mean death to disease.
 
 CHAPTER XII 
 COLDS AND THEIR PREVENTION 
 
 COLDS usually seem to be of little importance. For 
 this reason most of us ignore them until they have 
 gained a firm hold. But when we consider all the dis- 
 comfort endured from colds and study carefully the 
 consequences of them, it becomes apparent that they 
 are far more serious than appears on the surface. 
 
 What we call a "cold" is a catarrhal fever. Every 
 
 Colds are co ^ ' s ^ ue * some sor ^ ^ infection. By this 
 caused by is meant that bacteria of some kind have 
 lodged in the nose or throat and are there 
 growing and multiplying. 
 
 Frequently one " takes a cold " after attending a 
 crowded, badly ventilated church, theater, or lecture 
 Colds are hall, or after sitting in close street cars, 
 contagious CoMs contracted during trips in sleeping 
 cars are very common. Wherever many people are 
 crowded together with poor ventilation, the air is always 
 heavily laden with bacteria. These facts show us that 
 colds are contagious. Every one must have noticed 
 how colds run through a whole family. Epidemics of 
 colds sometimes follow dust storms or dusty days with 
 considerable wind. This is because certain germs capa- 
 ble of causing colds are carried with the dust and are 
 inhaled. 
 
 It is an interesting fact that travelers who have 
 
 92
 
 COLDS AND THEIR PREVENTION 93 
 
 returned from the polar regions report the entire 
 absence of colds, even after the severest exposure to 
 very low temperatures and wet. This is of course ex- 
 plained by the absence of bacteria in such regions. Far 
 out at sea colds are rarely experienced, for the same 
 reason. The passengers on ships approaching land 
 from great distances often notice epidemics of colds as 
 soon as they encounter the land breezes bearing dust 
 and therefore bacteria. Residents in mountainous 
 regions and in sparsely settled countries suffer far less 
 from colds than do people who live at lower levels and 
 in or near centers of population. 
 
 The reason a person takes cold after sitting in a 
 direct draft or after a drenching, is because the body is 
 chilled. This chilling reduces the body'spoiver why we 
 of resistance, and if the right kind of bacteria take cold 
 are present, one comes down with a cold. An attack of 
 indigestion will sometimes bring on a cold in much the 
 same way. Every one must have noticed how easy it is 
 to take cold when very tired or exhausted. Anything 
 which reduces the resisting powers of the body makes 
 us more susceptible to disease. 
 
 It is because the bacteria of colds are nearly always 
 present and because we do so many things which 
 weaken our natural powers of defense, that we have so 
 many colds. Those who learn how to live normal lives 
 hardly ever suffer from colds. On the other hand, 
 many people eat too much, bathe too little, exhaust 
 themselves with work or pleasure or worry, overdress 
 themselves, live in badly ventilated places, or do other 
 unhygienic things and then wonder why they are con- 
 stantly subject to colds.
 
 94 HYGIENE 
 
 There are many other reasons to account for a ten- 
 dency to colds. For example, diseased tonsils 1 and 
 obstructions in the nose, such as adenoids and certain 
 other growths, render an individual an easy victim. 
 
 The indirect causes which make one liable to take 
 cold are usually one or more of the following : 
 
 Poor nutrition. Exhaustion. 
 
 Constipation. Exposure to dust. 
 
 Indigestion. Bad ventilation. 
 
 Improper methods of clothing the body, which usually 
 
 result in keeping the skin surface damp. 
 Improper care of the feet. 
 Disease in the nose or throat, such as adenoids and 
 
 diseased tonsils. 
 
 Neglect of bathing or improper methods of bathing. 
 Congestion of the throat, as from singing, with exposure 
 
 afterward. 
 
 Once knowing the causes of the disease we call a 
 Prevention cold, the prevention is fairly easy. Any one 
 of colds wno j s nO f- j n delicate health can learn to 
 avoid colds. x No one can afford not to do so. 
 
 Cool daily bathing increases the resistance of the 
 body. Such baths train the blood vessels of the skin to 
 dilate and contract quickly. This is desirable in order 
 that we may promptly meet sudden changes in tem- 
 perature by increasing or checking perspiration. The 
 practice of cool bathing is beneficial because it trains 
 the capillaries, or, to be more exact, it trains the nerv- 
 ou3 system which controls them. 
 
 1 For explanations of diseased tonsils and adenoids, see pages 104 
 and 105.
 
 COLDS AND THEIR PREVENTION 95 
 
 The use of heavy underclothing which keeps the sur- 
 face of the body constantly moist is to be avoided. 
 Linen or cotton mesh is better than wool ; the material 
 must be such as to allow evaporation of perspiration. 
 The habit of bundling up the neck with furs or other 
 wraps is a bad practice, except when one is exposed 
 to very cold weather. Rubbers and overshoes should 
 never be kept on long at a time, and heavy stockings 
 need never be worn. 
 
 Bedrooms must be well ventilated with open windows, 
 and the bedclothes should be warm but light in weight. 
 The practice of sleeping out of doors is desirable when 
 the climate and surroundings permit. We should be 
 careful that the air of the rooms is not too dry, as is 
 apt to be the case in steam-heated houses (see page 120). 
 Air that is too dry affects the nose and throat and is 
 likely to result in catarrh. 
 
 We should avoid sudden changes in temperature as 
 far as possible and never allow ourselves to become 
 chilled. Sensible care of the digestive apparatus and 
 attention to the bowels is most essential. 
 
 When one does come down with a cold in spite of 
 precaution, it should never be neglected. The best 
 method of cure is to go to bed for a clay or Thetreat 
 two in a well-ventilated room, take plenty of ment of 
 hot drinks, eat little food, and use some sim- 
 ple cathartic (a drug which acts on the bowels). Wash- 
 ing out the nose and throat with hot salt water fre- 
 quently is of great benefit. If the cold does not 
 promptly yield to such treatment, call a doctor without 
 delay. Do not resort to "cold remedies" about which 
 you know nothing, and avoid such common but foolish
 
 96 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 Outdoor life obtained 
 on roofs and balconies of 
 city houses is far better 
 than bad air in close 
 bedrooms. Consump- 
 tives have been restored 
 to health by living in the 
 places pictured here. 
 
 A BALCONY BUILT FOR OUTDOOR SLEEPING.
 
 COLDS AND THEIR PREVENTION 97 
 
 practices as closing the windows, bundling up in bed- 
 clothes, and applying poultices to the throat or chest. 
 
 The results of frequent or neglected colds are often 
 serious. Many people, through bad methods of living 
 or because of defects in nose or throat, are Results of 
 constantly having colds. One .result of this colds 
 is chronic catarrh. Much mucus is secreted from the 
 nose and throat, and even the bronchial tubes may be- 
 come involved. This means that inflammation is always 
 present and that certain harmful bacteria never cease 
 their labors. People who suffer in this way are likely 
 to have a decided tendency toward tuberculosis. Some- 
 times these catarrhal conditions travel back through the 
 eustachian tube connecting the throat with the ear, and 
 serious trouble in the ear follows. Most cases of deaf- 
 ness are due to neglected cases of catarrh. 
 
 The usual "catarrh remedies " are either worthless or 
 only temporary in 'the relief they give. Catarrh always 
 needs careful attention from a skillful physician. 
 
 You can now understand that a person who is con- 
 stantly taking cold is in a truly unnatural condition. No 
 one can be constantly subjected to colds and not suffer 
 seriously ; for though a single cold may seem trivial, re- 
 peated attacks predispose a person to catarrh, tubercu- 
 losis, and probably to pneumonia.
 
 CHAPTER XIII 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE 
 
 BY personal hygiene we mean those things which 
 have to do with the health of the person, as distin- 
 Personai guished from that of the town, city, or com- 
 and public munity. The various states have their state 
 boards of health to care for the health of the 
 state as a whole. Cities and towns have their local 
 health officer. Counties have their county health officer. 
 All of this is necessary, because there are many things 
 affecting health which the individual cannot possibly 
 control. An individual cannot prevent a city from 
 emptying sewage into public water supplies, but a state 
 or city health board can do so. But each one of us can, 
 to a large extent, control our personal health. 
 
 We may learn what foods are best for us, may clothe 
 ourselves pVoperly, take the right kind of exercise, 
 breathe pure air and plenty of it, bathe properly, care 
 for our teeth, avoid alcohol and tobacco and injurious 
 drugs, and, in a word, live sensible and reasonable 
 lives. 
 
 Let us briefly study some of the things, or condition.^ 
 which affect our personal health. 
 
 If a careful physician were to study the physical con- 
 dition of all the pupils in a large school, 1 he would prob- 
 
 1 The best schools now employ a school physician to examine the 
 physical condition of pupils. 
 
 98
 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE 
 
 99 
 
 ably find that, next to bad teeth, eye defects are the 
 most common. In the first 99,000 children ex- E e de 
 amined in New York City, about 33,000 were fects are 
 discovered with eye troubles of various kinds. c 
 
 Many pupils are constantly straining their eyes, with- 
 out being conscious of it. In order to overcome some 
 
 A MEDICAL EXAMINER AT WORK IN A PUBLIC SCHOOL. 
 
 defect, they make a great effort to focus on what they 
 look at, much as you would focus an opera glass. These 
 efforts will in time injure not only the eyes, but the nerv- 
 ous system also. Sometimes people have had nervous 
 breakdowns simply because their eyes were being 
 strained without their knowledge. Many others are 
 constantly " nervous" for the same reason. 
 
 When a -pupil does not easily see from his seat letters
 
 100 HYGIENE 
 
 on the blackboard, or does not read from his book easily 
 when it is held about fourteen inches from the eyes, 
 when words are blurred, when the eyes smart, when one 
 
 A B C 
 
 A. NORMAL EYE. B, LONG EYE. C, SHORT EYE. 
 
 Notice that the lines of the image meet too far forward in the long eye, 
 
 and too far behind in the short eye. 
 
 tires easily after reading, when reading makes the eyes 
 or head ache, then there is usually something wrong 
 with the eyesight. 
 
 Our sight is priceless, and we cannot care for it 
 too well. The success of a boy or a girl, not only in 
 Expert care school but in life, often depends upon good 
 for the eyes e y es jght. When there seems to be any 
 trouble, a person ought always to see a good oculist 
 that is, an eye specialist, not an optician. An optician 
 is generally a man who has studied the fitting of lenses 
 and eyeglasses, but knows almost nothing about the 
 diseases of the eye. Any treatment of the eye requires 
 the very best medical training. Remember that' the best 
 skill procurable is none too good for your eyes. 
 
 Many people do foolish things when reading, and in 
 this way injure the eyes. One ought not to read very 
 
 The best ^ ne P rmt - The wa " s f a place used for 
 conditions reading ought to be tinted rather than white, 
 reading Glazed paper is bad for the eyes. One ought 
 not to face the light or read in the bright .sunlight. 
 Light for reading should come over the left shoulder, or
 
 
 3. * 
 
 r 
 
 if r 
 
 I 1 
 
 w 
 
 g" - 
 
 . 
 
 - H
 
 105 HYGIENE 
 
 from behind and above ; sometimes light from both sides 
 may be arranged to advantage. The best light, when it 
 can be so arranged, is north light. Hospital operating 
 rooms and laboratories are generally arranged so as to 
 get their light from the north. 
 
 A steady light is necessary for reading or doing 
 other eye work. Electricity or kerosene is better than 
 gaslight, unless an Argand burner is used. Electric 
 lights for reading should have ground-glass globes. 
 Reading lights should be shaded so that light does 
 not enter the eyes from all directions. For this same 
 reason, reading out of doors is likely to be injurious. 
 
 If one reads in bed at all, a well-shaded light must 
 be properly adjusted at the head of the bed, and one's 
 head must be well raised. The use of the eyes when 
 lying flat is always hard on them. With all close work, 
 the position of the body should be as erect as possible. 
 The habit of placing the book or paper on the desk or 
 table and then bending over it should be avoided. 
 
 What has been said about reading applies equally 
 well to any other kind of eye work which requires close, 
 careful attention. Fine, sewing is particularly severe on 
 the eyes. The object on which one is working should 
 not be laid against a white surface if that can be avoided. 
 Covers on reading tables should not be white for this 
 reason. 
 
 Crosscd-cycs arc nearly always due to a defect in sight. 
 They may often be remedied without an operation, if 
 attended to early enough. If the condition is neglected, 
 the crossed-eye is likely to become entirely blind. Red 
 lids, watery or red eyes, and granulated lids always need 
 medical attention. Dirty towels and public bathing
 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE 103 
 
 pools are often the cause of infected eyes. The use of 
 a public towel ought never to be permitted ; this pre- 
 caution should be taken particularly in schools. 
 
 Children under ten or twelve years of age ought not to do 
 much reading or other things which require near eye work. 
 
 Until about eight years of age, a child is naturally 
 ...... i-ii Use of the 
 
 jar-sighted, and to give such a child near eye work eyes of 
 
 to do is always wrong. Most of the reading of young 
 children up to about ten years should be from large 
 letters on the blackboard and from charts. Nearly all children 
 in our public and other schools are taught near work with the 
 eyes far too early. This is one of the reasons why eye defects 
 become more common as we pass from the lower to the higher 
 grades in schools. 
 
 Many schoolrooms have the windows so arranged that direct 
 sunlight falls into the eyes of pupils during part of the day. 
 This condition should be corrected with tinted win- conditions 
 
 dow shades. All parts of a schoolroom should re- in the 
 
 c ,. , . , . schoolroom 
 
 ceive nearly the same amount of light, and there 
 
 should not be any dark corners. Green or brown tints are far 
 better for boards than the ordinary blackboards, and the surface 
 should be dull, not shiny. 
 
 The amount of window space for a schoolroom, or other 
 place where much eye work is necessary, should be about one 
 fifth or one sixth of the floor space. 
 
 It is very important that school books should have rather 
 short lines, not over four and a half inches long. If lines are 
 longer than this, too much rotating of the eye muscles is 
 required, and the eyes become very tired. 
 
 In order of frequency, nose and throat troubles usually 
 come after eye defects. One cause of trouble is ade- 
 noids, which are soft, spongy growths that sometimes 
 appear up behind the soft palate. Adenoids often grow
 
 IO4 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 Nose and 
 throat 
 troubles : 
 adenoids 
 
 ADENOIDS. 
 
 in children and young people. They prevent proper 
 breathing through the nose, so that a person 
 who has this growth breathes with the mouth 
 open. Many pupils in every school do this. 
 It gives them a rather stupid appearance, 
 prevents the full development of the face and lower 
 
 jaw, causes crooked or promi- 
 nent teeth, and often results 
 in a receding chin. Many 
 wo/* cases of actual mental dull- 
 ness are caused by these ob- 
 structions to breathing. 
 
 Such children do not get 
 enough oxygen, their chests 
 
 Growing between the nose and d o not develop properly, and 
 the throat, they swell and obstruct ,, ,, , . 
 
 they are usually more subject 
 breathing. j j t 
 
 to contagious and other dis- 
 eases than are those who can breathe in the right way. 
 It is much the same as if we should keep the windows 
 of a room shut and breathe the same air over and over 
 again. We could not possibly be healthy in such an 
 atmosphere. v Neither can the child be healthy who 
 never gets enough oxygen, and who has to keep his 
 mouth open in order to get what he does breathe. 
 Holding the mouth open is not a bad habit but a 
 necessity with such a child. There is only one thing to 
 do, and that is to have the obstruction removed. This 
 is neither dangerous nor serious. 
 
 On each side of the tongue, back in the throat, is a 
 body called the tonsil. The tonsils ought never 
 to project much into the throat, but they often 
 become enlarged and sometimes they nearly meet. They 
 
 The tonsils
 
 PERSONAL HVC.IENK 
 
 105 
 
 ADENOIDS AND CROOKED AFTKR ADKNOIDS IIAVK KEEN 
 
 TEETH, DISEIGI - RIN<; RKMOVKD AND TEETH 
 
 THE FACE. STRAIGHTENED. 
 
 By (X'rmission of Dr. Roy Robinson. 
 
 easily become diseased, especially when they are en- 
 larged. Large and diseased tonsils cause a great deal 
 of trouble. They obstruct breathing; they make a 
 person more susceptible to many diseases, particularly 
 to tuberculosis; and sometimes 
 they become much diseased and 
 very foul. From such tonsils 
 bacterial poisons are always 
 being absorbed, and the whole 
 body is weakened in this way. 
 When one has had many at- 
 tacks of tonsilitis (a form of 
 sore throat), the tonsils are 
 
 likely to be in such condition that they ought to be 
 removed. No one can be healthy who has enlarged or 
 diseased tonsils. 
 
 Catarrh is a symptom, not a disease. It means that 
 there is something wrong in the nose and 
 throat which keeps up a constant irritation 
 and inflammation. The cause must be removed before 
 
 THE NORMAL TONSILS. 
 
 Catarrh
 
 106 HYGIENE 
 
 the catarrh, or symptom, can be removed. The cause 
 and the treatment of catarrh we have already studied in 
 the chapter on colds (page 97). 
 
 The nose and throat have close connection with 
 the ears, and troubles in the nose and throat often 
 Defects in accompany defects in hearing. Leading from 
 the ears the back of the throat to the middle chamber 
 of each ear is the cnstacJiian tube. It carries air and 
 keeps the pressure of air within the ear the same as 
 the outside air pressure. When one has adenoids or 
 diseased tonsils, the opening of this tube may be cov- 
 ered or disease germs may travel back to the ear. In 
 this way the middle ear chamber becomes inflamed and 
 pus may form there. If the opening of the tube be- 
 comes closed, the air pressure may be changed so as 
 to injure the hearing. 
 
 Nearly all cases of deafness, earache, and discharge 
 from the ear begin with some trouble in the nose and 
 throat. Such symptoms of ear trouble must never be 
 neglected. Permanent injury is apt to follow, and 
 sometimes neglected cases cause death. 
 
 If the eye, ear, nose, and throat received the proper 
 care, many kinds of sickness might be avoided. Kye 
 strain, with all the nervous troubles and headache 
 which result from it, is caused by ignorance or careless- 
 ness. Frequent attacks of tonsilitis are never necessary. 
 They are due to neglect. Catarrh is almost universal, 
 but is quite unnecessary. Deafness can nearly always 
 be avoided. Few persons realize how much health, 
 efficiency, and happiness depend upon the proper care 
 of these organs. 
 
 Indigestion is often indicated by a burning sensation
 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE IO/ 
 
 in the stomach, and food may be thrown up without 
 any sick feeling in the stomach. Those Digestive 
 who have this trouble can usually correct troubles 
 it by avoiding foolish diet errors which they can 
 easily discover. They should put themselves on a very 
 simple diet and avoid overloading the stomach. Sweets 
 are especially to be avoided. Eating between meals 
 should never be indulged in. Regularity in eating is 
 of great importance. Most people eat too much, and 
 often of the wrong kinds of food. (See the chapter on 
 the Use and Abuse of Food, page 130, for more infor- 
 mation upon this subject.) 
 
 Free movement of the bowels should occur once 
 or twice each day. Regularity is very important. Any 
 neglect in this matter always results in more or less 
 disordered health. Many cases of headache, skin 
 eruption, yellow skin, colds, conditions of mental dull- 
 ness, sleepiness, and digestive disorder are due directly 
 to constipation. Such a condition may usually be cor- 
 rected by the free use of drinking water, especially 
 a glass of hot water before breakfast, and by eating 
 plenty of fruit, especially stewed prunes, apples, figs, 
 and fresh fruit. The habit of using cathartics should 
 be avoided. 
 
 Where constipation is continually present, one must 
 give particular attention to the diet and make use of 
 foods which leave a residue (that is, undigested material) 
 in the intestines and promote peristaltic action. 1 Such 
 foods include corn bread, graham bread, whole wheat 
 bread, crackers, prunes, apples, turnips, cabbage, and 
 
 1 Peristaltic action refers to the contraction of muscles in the 
 walls of the intestines, which forces the contents alon;.
 
 108 HYGIENE 
 
 celery. On the other hand, fine flours and foods which 
 are digested without leaving much residue in the in- 
 testines must be avoided. Such foods include white 
 flour, milk, pastry, prepared cereals, and potatoes. The 
 free use of water between meals is particularly valuable 
 in overcoming constipation. 
 
 Headache is not a disease, but a symptom of disease. 
 
 It has many causes, among which may be 
 Headache 
 
 mentioned the following : 
 
 Eye strain. Nervous exhaustion. 
 
 Constipation. Poor nutrition. 
 
 Indigestion. Jaundice. 
 
 Catarrh. Rheumatism. 
 
 Neuralgia. Bad ventilation (air poisoning). 
 
 Eye strain, constipation, indigestion, and nervous ex- 
 haustion are by far the commonest causes of headaches. 
 One ought always to attempt to discover the cause of a 
 headache before trying to treat it. Such causes are 
 usually not hard to find, and, once known, the treatment 
 is usually successful. If the cause is not easily dis- 
 covered and remedied, medical attention is necessary, 
 for headaches should never be neglected. 
 
 The common method of resorting to " headache pow- 
 ders " and other drugs, without much thought as to the 
 cause of the trouble, cannot be too severely condemned. 
 Most headache powders advertised as cures contain coal- 
 tar products, such as acetanilid, which are likely to injure 
 the heart and do much other harm. Some deaths have 
 been attributed to the use of such patent medicines. 
 
 It would seem as though very little need be said 
 about the care of the teeth, but such is not the fact.
 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE 
 
 109 
 
 Any intelligent person ought to understand the neces- 
 sity for keeping the teeth in good condition careof 
 as a matter of ordinary decency. Decayed the teeth 
 teeth are repulsive to others ; they render the breath 
 foul ; they harbor germs which may result in various 
 
 Upper 
 
 KINDS OF TEETH 
 Incisors 
 
 Canine 
 
 TIME OF APPEARANCE 
 
 7th Month 
 9th Month 
 18th Month 
 
 12th Month 
 - 24th Month 
 
 Molars 
 
 .... 12th Year 
 24th Year 
 
 TEMPORARY AND PERMANENT TEETH. 
 
 diseases ; they lower the general resistance of the body ; 
 they lead indirectly to indigestion. 
 
 The teeth should be cleaned twice or oftener daily, 
 and the use of a powder or paste containing prepared 
 chalk is desirable. Mouth washes are usually not neces- 
 sary in normal mouths. A visit to the dentist at least 
 once or twice yearly during the developing age is desir- 
 able, not only from the standpoint of hygiene, but as a 
 matter of economy as well. 
 
 The teeth are covered with a hard protecting sub- 
 stance called enamel. If this is broken by cracking
 
 no 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 hard substances such as nuts, or by biting on other hard 
 things, the teeth are almost sure to decay. Toothache 
 is nearly always caused by decay in the tooth. If the 
 condition is neglected, a cavity soon forms, and in 
 it food and various bacteria collect. Decayed teeth 
 should never be neglected under any condition, even if 
 they are the first or baby teeth. 
 
 Teeth seldom need to be extracted, and good dentists 
 rarely advise pulling one out. Crooked teeth, and teeth 
 
 PLASTER CASTS OK CROOKED TEETH CAUSED BY ADENOIDS. 
 
 By permission of Dr. Roy Robinson. 
 
 which protrude from the mouth, usually indicate some 
 obstruction v to breathing, frequently adenoids. Such 
 teeth can always be corrected, and it is quite unneces- 
 sary for any one to have such a deformity. It is a 
 common error to think that a child should wait until he 
 is twelve or fourteen years of age before having his 
 teeth straightened. It ought to be done as soon as the 
 second teeth have come. 
 
 Sleep is a building-up process by which new energy 
 is stored up to replace that which is more 
 or less exhausted by the clay's activities. It 
 is like the charging of a storage battery. If the supply 
 
 Sleep
 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE III 
 
 of a person's energy is drawn upon too much without 
 re-storing, serious injury results. The idea of drawing 
 upon the stored-up energy of the body for a long time, 
 and then making up the loss with long hours of sleep, 
 is just as unwise as doing the same thing with a set of 
 batteries. Batteries, to be kept in the most useful con- 
 dition, must be regularly and frequently recharged, and 
 human beings must do the same sort of thing with 
 their bodies. 
 
 It is never a matter of credit to any one to get along 
 with only a few hours of sleep. Actual experience and 
 observation prove that most adults require about nine 
 hours of sleep. Until the age of about fourteen chil- 
 dren should have at least twelve hours of sleep, and 
 infants to the age of four or five require fifteen to eigh- 
 teen hours daily. Elderly persons require less sleep 
 than young or middle-aged people, or perhaps it would 
 be more exact to say that they are unable to get as 
 much sleep. 
 
 Boys and girls, and young people generally, do best 
 with regular /tours of sleep, and late hours are never 
 good for them. For older people the period for sleep 
 makes less difference, and the sleeping hours may be 
 arranged to suit their individual peculiarities and condi- 
 tions of life. There is no particular advantage in the 
 mere fact of early rising or going to bed early. But we 
 should remember that sunligJtt is natures best JicaltJi 
 giver and tonic, and we ought not to spend in sleep the 
 hours of good morning sunshine. 
 
 For purposes of cleanliness, a hot bath once or twice 
 a week is all that is ordinarily required. But for pur- 
 poses of hardening the system against colds and for
 
 112 HYGIENE 
 
 stimulating effects, the daily cool bath in the morning 
 
 is very desirable. In this way the skin capil- 
 Bathing 
 
 lanes must be trained to react quickly, not 
 
 sluggishly, to changes in temperature. (See page 94.) 
 
 Some people do not endure very cold water well, and 
 it is not desirable for all persons to practice cold bath- 
 ing. Most invalids, if not all, are injured by cold bath- 
 ing, for they do not react 1 quickly and are consequently 
 apt to suffer all day from depression. Each person 
 must determine by experiment what temperature of 
 water best agrees with him, and must be led largely 
 by the amount and rapidity of reaction which follows. 
 Some do best with a cool bath at 85 temperature, while 
 others enjoy a bath at 65 or 70. Standing in hot 
 water while sponging or spraying the body with cold 
 water adds to the comfort of the cold bath. 
 
 There are some special dangers in sea bathing and 
 fresh-water bathing. One ought never to remain in the 
 Sea ' water after a feeling of chilliness has come 
 
 bathing on> b ut should take a thorough rub and dress 
 quickly. One should not bathe until at least two hours 
 after a meal. Any one who practices diving ought to 
 use cotton in the ears. Swimming is a rather violent 
 exercise and is likely to strain the heart if over-indulged 
 in. Many cases of sudden drowning are clue to heart 
 strain and exhaustion. 
 
 Swimming pools and plunges where many people 
 bathe in comparatively little water are likely to become 
 contaminated. Many cases of eye infection (red, sure 
 
 1 After the body has been chilled by the cold bath, the warm 
 blood from the interior flows back to the skin. This return of the 
 blood is called the reaction.
 
 PERSONAL HYGIENE 113 
 
 eyes) follow bathing in these tanks. Such places ought 
 to have a constant and rapid change of water, and even 
 then they are not desirable when crowded with people. 
 
 Public bathing suits are likely to carry infection unless 
 sterilized (that is, treated so as to kill bacteria) each 
 time after using. 
 
 Never use a public towel. Many eye and skin dis- 
 eases are contracted in this way. The same rule applies 
 to hair brushes and combs. 
 
 It is the duty of civilized man, as well as his privilege, 
 to keep reasonably clean. Cleanliness refers not only 
 to the hands, face, feet, nails, hair, teeth, and General 
 surface of the body in general, but to the cleanliness 
 inside of the body also. One cannot be clean unless 
 one observes great regularity in matters pertaining to 
 the daily toilet. One cannot be clean and practice 
 overloading the stomach with food. Part of such food 
 will surely ferment and decompose, and that condition 
 is no better because it is inside the body than it would 
 be outside. 
 
 The food that is eaten must be clean. This means 
 that we must know that our water, milk, meat, bakery 
 goods, vegetables, and other foods are pro- clean 
 duced under clean conditions and are handled food 
 in a sanitary manner. It means cleanliness in all things, 
 not in those things only in which it is customary to be 
 clean. 
 
 As a matter of fact, in many ways we are far from 
 being clean. It requires education, for example, to make 
 people think about the uncleanliness, to say nothing 
 about the disease, caused by drinking water polluted by 
 sewage. We are apt to eat, without much thought,
 
 114 HYGIENE 
 
 vegetables and fruit which have been exposed to dust, 
 disease germs, and the like, because we are accustomed 
 to do so. It is only rather recently that anybody has 
 thought how filthy milk may be and how much disease 
 can be spread in that way. We are now making laws 
 to prevent the adulteration of foods, but we are very 
 slow in making laws to regulate the cleanliness of foods. 
 
 A nation's rise in importance in the world is sure to 
 be in keeping with its idea of cleanliness. In matters 
 sanitation ^ cleanliness, and therefore of sanitation, 
 andciviii- Japan has taught other nations many a les- 
 son. No other army in the world equals the 
 Japanese in healthfulness, and this is due absolutely 
 and entirely to the practice of clean, sanitary principles. 
 
 In the long run, disease and dirt, as well as health 
 and cleanliness, are first cousins, so to speak. A dirty 
 people are always unhealthy ; a clean people are usually 
 healthy. The prevention of disease is largely a matter of 
 simple but absolute cleanliness. Sanitation and hygiene 
 are really the practice of simple habits of cleanliness.
 
 A HEALTHFUL HOME. 
 
 Where sunshine, fresh air, and flowers are abundant. 
 
 CHAPTER XIV 
 THE HEALTHFUL HOME 
 
 WE have studied the health of the individual ; now 
 we must learn about health in the home. The home 
 is the place where, more than anywhere else, health 
 should be studied. It is just as easy for children to 
 learn and to practice the rules of health as it is not to 
 do so, and the home is the natural place to get this 
 knowledge. We must realize that it is very necessary 
 to learn how to care for the health, for by so doing we 
 may avoid most of our illnesses and much expense and 
 unhappiness. 
 
 A healthful home must be located so as to have good 
 drainage, that is, arrangements for carrying off rain 
 water, ground water, and sewage. The house should
 
 n6 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 have plenty of windows, and some of the rooms at least 
 must get direct sunlight. Dark, damp rooms 
 
 Location 
 
 are always disease breeders. A home must 
 have plenty of fresh air and sunshine. The rooms 
 which are used the most ought to be the sunniest. 
 
 AN ATTRACTIVE HOME OF A WOKKIM; MAN. 
 Here health makes wealth. 
 
 Fresh air must always be provided for the rooms in 
 which people live. The air in a poorly ventilated room 
 in which several persons are present soon 
 becomes foul with carbon dioxide the 
 poisonous gas exhaled from the lungs and with other 
 harmful substances. The air must be in constant 
 motion, for it is only by this means that clean, fresh air 
 can be brought in and air that has been used can be 
 driven out. A place must be provided where the foul 
 
 Ventilation
 
 THE HEALTHFUL HOME 
 
 Methods of 
 ventilation 
 
 air can go out of a room and also where fresh air may 
 
 enter. One must remember that no more fresh air can 
 
 come into a room than 
 
 there is air leaving it 
 
 at the same time. 
 
 The ventilating of a 
 
 house is sometimes a 
 difficult prob- 
 lem, but usu- 
 ally it is an easy matter. 
 
 Open fireplaces are the 
 
 best of ventilators, and 
 
 our grandparents de- 
 pended almost entirely 
 
 upon these to secure 
 
 ventilation. They serve, 
 
 however, only to carry 
 
 air out, and some means 
 
 must be provided to 
 
 secure fresh air without 
 
 having direct drafts. 
 
 FIG. i. A Goon VENTILATION PLAN. 
 
 ;i 
 
 \ 
 
 \> 
 
 \v 
 
 FIG. 2. A POOR VENTILATION PLAN. 
 
 Grated ventilators 
 near the floor which 
 open into ventilating pipes are a good arrangement for 
 the escape of foul air. When air exhaled from the 
 lungs cools, it becomes heavy and falls ; hence the 
 opening for escaping air should be near the floor. If 
 there are no fireplaces or special openings where foul 
 air can escape, ventilation must be secured by the open- 
 ing of windows and doors. This is a very uncertain and 
 poor arrangement; but if one is careful to open doors 
 and windows often enough and to keep out of the draft,
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 FIG. 3. VENTILATION WITH STEAM 
 HEATING. 
 
 the air can be kept pure 
 by this means. 
 
 One of the simplest 
 plans for ventilating a 
 house is to have several 
 windows fitted with a 
 board under the lower 
 sash so that an opening 
 for air is left between 
 the upper and lower sashes. Even with this arrange- 
 ment, the outside doors should be thrown wide open for 
 a few minutes every day. 
 
 If a house is heated by a hot-air furnace, the fresh air from 
 the outside must pass through a cold-air box to the furnace 
 where it is warmed, and then it rises to the various rooms 
 through the hot-air pipes. The air for such a furnace should 
 never come from the cellar or from the hall or vestibule, as it 
 sometimes does. One of the best methods with a hot-air 
 furnace is to have the warm, fresh air enter a room high in the 
 wall and the foul air escape into a flue at the floor on the same 
 side. This arrangement is well illustrated in Figure i. Figure 
 2 shows a method which is much less effective ; the air circu- 
 lates through only half the room when the outlet is near the 
 ceiling and the inlet is at the floor on the opposite side. 
 
 When a house is heated by hot-water pipes or steam pipes, 
 there must be some special plan for changing the air. Two 
 sets of ventilators may be used for this purpose, both sets being 
 placed near the floor (Fig. 3). 
 
 In many modern buildings architects now arrange an 
 artificial system of ventilation by which fans and blowers 
 are used to suck the exhausted air out of the rooms and 
 to force the fresh air in.
 
 THE HEALTHFUL HOME 119 
 
 Houses in the country which are heated by air-tight 
 stoves usually have no 'regular means of bringing in 
 fresh air or of discharging the old air. In stoves and 
 such places one must rely upon windows and ventilation 
 doors for ventilation. In very cold weather the air in 
 these houses is nearly always bad. This is especially 
 true in the houses of the poor, where they imagine that 
 they cannot afford to let any cold air come in. To 
 make matters worse, such houses are most often lighted 
 with lamps, which exhaust the oxygen in the air faster 
 than the same number of people would do. One of the 
 reasons why tuberculosis is common in the country, 
 where one expects people to be healthy, is because so 
 much bad air is shut up in the living rooms all winter 
 long. 
 
 Most of the advantage of living in a mild climate 
 comes from the fact that one may be out of doors and 
 may always breathe pure, fresh air. Many invalids go 
 to California to recover their health and then shut them- 
 selves up in a close hotel or in an unventilated, gas- 
 heated room ; no one was ever benefited by such a 
 change. In California and some other warm places, 
 houses are often heated with coal-oil or gas stoves. 
 These are regular air destroyers. A gas stove ought 
 never to be used unless it is connected with a flue so 
 that the fumes and impure air may escape from the 
 room. 
 
 It is important that air in sleeping rooms should be 
 constantly renewed during the night. " Night air," so 
 much dreaded by many people, is the only air ventilation 
 there is at night, and is not different from at night 
 day air except that it is cooler. Bedrooms may always
 
 120 HYGIENE 
 
 be easily ventilated, for the windows may be thrown 
 wide open. If a person is properly covered in bed, he 
 need never fear taking cold. 
 
 A room must not only be well ventilated, but its air 
 must be neither too dry nor too humid. The air in 
 Drvness and a P ar tments heated with steam pipes or hot- 
 humidity in water pipes is nearly always too dry. This 
 may be remedied by heating water in an open 
 receptacle so as to evaporate it in the room. When 
 many people are crowded into a room, there is always 
 an excess of humidity. This causes much discomfort. 
 The perspiration on the skin does not evaporate easily 
 and impurities are retained in the body. Humidity from 
 overcrowding or other causes is always injurious to health. 
 
 Poor ventilation reduces the strength of the body 
 
 rapidly. A person living long in a poorly ventilated 
 
 house, store, or other place is constantly 
 
 Conse- 
 
 quences of poisoned. He might as well swallow a large 
 
 poor ventiia- ^ose o f p O i son every day and expect to keep 
 healthy, as to try to do so when constantly 
 breathing bad air. It is not only because he is self- 
 poisoned in such an air, but he is breathing over and over 
 again the germs of disease. No crowded, ill-ventilated 
 place can long be free from disease germs. 
 
 The air of the country is always purer than that of 
 cities, for in cities the air is filled with smoke, gas, dust, 
 Ci . and germ life. This does not mean that 
 
 may be un- every part of a city has such bad air, but that 
 many parts do. In Chicago the strong Lake 
 Michigan breezes bring in much pure, clean air and 
 drive away the polluted air of the city. Kvery one who 
 has lived there must have noticed what a relief a change
 
 THE HEALTHFUL HOME 
 
 121 
 
 of wind brings, when the suffocating, hot southwest wind 
 of summer changes to the pure, invigorating east or 
 northeast wind from the lake. 
 
 Thousands of lives are saved every year by the work 
 of many organizations which establish summer camps 
 for mothers and children in the country and Fresh-air 
 along the shores of the ocean and of lakes, education 
 Not only are lives saved, but this fresh-air campaign 
 
 A FRKSH-AIR COLONY. 
 In tliis sanitarium for consumptives, people sleep in the open air. 
 
 liy iKTiiiisMini f Dr. F. M. Pnttvnger, Monrovia, Oil. 
 
 brings happiness, increased vigor, and a fresh-air edu- 
 cation to those who have these privileges. When one 
 learns the value of clean air, one will never be satisfied 
 with foul, poisoned air.
 
 122 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 Dust is likely to carry disease, and care should be 
 taken that it does not collect in houses. The common 
 Dust and its methods of dusting and sweeping merely 
 dangers spread the dust about and do not destroy it. 
 When this work is properly done, the sweepings are 
 burned. Dusting should be done not with a feather 
 duster, but with a damp, soft cloth which will actually 
 
 gather up the dust and 
 not spread it around 
 to other places. Floors 
 are best swept by some 
 damp method. Damp 
 sawdust and damp 
 newspapers torn into 
 bits are useful for this 
 purpose. A person 
 who is sweeping a very 
 dusty place ought to 
 wear some protection 
 over the nose and 
 
 A TENT Housp.. 
 
 Bype 
 
 nixxion of Dr. F. M Puttcn^iT, Monrovia, Cal. 
 
 V 
 
 A sleeping porcli sheltered by canvas curtains 
 adjoins a small room. 
 
 mouth ; a damp towel 
 does very well. 
 Carpets and straw mattings are undesirable because 
 they gather so much dust. Rugs which can be fre- 
 Hygienic quently and thoroughly cleaned and hung 
 furnishings U p j n the bright sunlight are much less ob- 
 jectionable. Carpets in public places are absolutely 
 unhygienic and even dangerous. Furnishings should 
 be of the kind that allows thorough cleaning. Heavy 
 upholstery which accumulates dust and cannot be 
 frequently cleaned and exposed to sunlight is most 
 undesirable.
 
 THE HEALTHFUL HOME 123 
 
 There is no reason why a home may not be beauti- 
 fully and even elegantly furnished and yet be strictly 
 hygienic. The time is fast coming when things which 
 are elegant but not at the same time clean, will not be 
 considered in good taste. The elegance of many of 
 our wealthy homes, hotels, restaurants, steamships, 
 churches, and cars renders cleanliness impossible. The 
 really elegant home to-day is the clean one. 
 
 Many houses have been hotbeds of contagion because 
 of the furnishings. Some houses harbor the germs of 
 tuberculosis and other diseases for long periods because 
 they can never be thoroughly cleaned. 
 
 Bedrooms especially should be simply furnished. 
 Mattresses should always have some washable cover. 
 Quilts should never be used, for they cannot Bedr om 
 be washed and are not clean after a little arrange- 
 use. Never carpet a bedroom. Never use 
 an inside room for a sleeping room, or indeed for any- 
 thing but storage. In cold climates, whenever it is 
 possible, bedrooms should have open fireplaces as a 
 means of ventilation. About one third of your life is 
 spent in the bedroom. It ought to be made as healthful 
 and cheerful as possible. 
 
 In warm climates an outside sleeping room is most 
 desirable. A screened porch with shingle roof and 
 canvas curtains furnishes the best sort of outside bed- 
 room. Even in cold climates such rooms are desirable 
 for those who need a great deal of out-of-door life. 
 Inside dressing rooms ought to be connected with these 
 porches. Tent life is often possible for at least a part 
 of the year, and it is always an excellent thing. 
 
 Plumbing must be of a kind which can be approved
 
 124 HYGIENE 
 
 by a plumbing inspector. Every bathroom should have 
 an outside window. An inside room ought 
 
 Plumbing 
 
 never to be used tor a toilet or bathroom, 
 because it can never be well ventilated. The bathroom 
 ought to be the cleanest room in the house. 
 
 Sewer gas is poisonous and must never be allowed to 
 escape into a house. It may be present even when no 
 odor can be discovered. Great care should be taken to 
 prevent leaks in sewage pipes. Sometimes such leaks 
 occur in cellars and are badly neglected. Sewer gas 
 lowers the health and renders people more likely to 
 take disease. 
 
 In the country there are often no sewers. In such 
 places the sewage has to be carried into cesspools. The 
 
 contents of the pools often drain through a 
 
 Cesspools 
 
 porous soil into wells or streams used for 
 drinking water. Many cases of typhoid fever have 
 been caused in this way (see page 140). The best 
 cesspools are made of brick cemented on the inside. 
 These may be pumped out from time to time. Cess- 
 pools ought to have a ventilating pipe connected with 
 them. They\must not be located too near the house. 
 
 The hygiene of the kitchen includes not only the 
 kitchen and its surroundings, but everything that comes 
 The r biem m ^ ^' ^ c care ^ u ' housekeeper will know 
 of pure food where the milk supply comes from, and will 
 
 visit the dairy or in some other way satisfy 
 herself chat it is run in a clean manner. She will know 
 whether the water supply is pure and safe; she will 
 make sure that it does not come from a river or lake into 
 which a town or city empties its sewage, or from wells 
 into which a toilet drains, or from a reservoir which is ex-
 
 THE HEALTHFUL HOME 
 
 125 
 
 posed to contamination. She will not accept meat from 
 a market where it is exposed to dust, flies, and infection, 
 or where it may be treated with chemicals to prevent it 
 from spoiling when it is old. She will not patronize the 
 unhygienic grocery store, where fruits and vegetables 
 are exposed for sale on sidewalks and other open places. 
 
 A CLEAN, SANITARY RAKKRV. 
 
 By pcrin 
 
 of Jcvne mid Company, Pasadena. 
 
 She will buy her bakery goods from clean bakeries, not 
 from a place which is unventilated, full of sewer gas, 
 exposed to flies and other insects, and handled by peo- 
 ple with filthy hands and habits. 
 
 The kitchen ought to be completely screened and 
 kept free from flies and other insects. It is Hygiene of 
 probable that flies are one of the commonest the kitchen 
 carriers of diseases such as typhoid and tuberculosis.
 
 126 HYGIENE 
 
 The ice box must receive particular attention. Ice 
 boxes are often badly neglected, even in well-run houses. 
 They should be frequently cleaned and scalded out. 
 Foods with strong odors will taint other foods in the 
 ice box. Milk or water is best kept in the ice box in 
 bottles or covered jars. Water kept cold in this way 
 is far better for drinking purposes than iced water. 
 
 Kitchen floors ought to be uncovered and well painted, 
 or covered with linoleum only. The floor of a kitchen 
 should be impervious to moisture and free from cracks. 
 Kitchen tables and sinks and the woodwork in general 
 should also be kept in the same condition. 
 
 Open plumbing only should be found in the modern 
 kitchen. Dark, damp cupboards and storage spaces 
 under sinks are always bad. Vermin of various sorts 
 accumulate in such places. 
 
 A kitchen ought to be a sunny, bright, and cheerful 
 place. Absolute cleanliness in the kitchen is insisted 
 upon by every intelligent home maker. In olden times 
 the kitchen was the best room in the house and the 
 pride of the neat housewife. In matters of domestic 
 hygiene Americans might well follow the example of 
 the beautiful housekeepers of Holland. 
 
 Sickness sooner or later comes into every home, and 
 Nursing in w e should understand something of how to 
 the home meet it. For serious illnesses it is always 
 advisable to call a trained nurse, but when one employs 
 no nurse, members of the family can give many little 
 attentions to make the patient more comfortable. 
 
 Never allow a patient to wear in bed anything except 
 the lightest of night clothing, and under no circum- 
 stances should underclothing be worn. The bed-covering
 
 128 HYGIENE 
 
 should be warm but light. Always avoid the use of 
 quilts. 
 
 In most cases a daily morning sponge bath is desir- 
 able. This can be given under the sheet without expos- 
 ing the surface of the body. Tepid water followed by 
 an alcohol rub is best. Nothing adds more to a patient's 
 comfort than the daily bath when it is given skillfully. 
 
 Frequent change of position in bed is necessary. A 
 nurse ought never to forget that a perfectly smooth and 
 clean bed is absolutely necessary to the comfort of the 
 patient. 
 
 Cool sponging with alcohol and water relieves feverish 
 conditions wonderfully. An ice bag for a hot head is a 
 comfort. Headaches are often relieved by the applica- 
 tion of hot cloths. Pain is often relieved by the use of 
 a hot-water bag, but care must be used not to burn the 
 patient. 
 
 Foods for the sick must be made attractive and 
 appetizing. 
 
 Settle all questions for the sick and do not bother 
 them with deciding anything. Do not argue with them, 
 or notice any v unreasonableness. 
 
 Keep the room quiet and do not allow much conver- 
 sation. No sick person likes to see many visitors, and 
 Care of the even members of the family ought to be kept 
 sick-room away most of the time. Do not allow un- 
 pleasant topics of conversation or the discussion of other 
 cases of sickness. 
 
 Keep the room comfortable, but do not make the 
 common mistake of overheating it and piling bedclothes 
 on the patient. Of all rooms the sick-room must have 
 the best of ventilation.
 
 THE HEALTHFUL HOME 129 
 
 The room of a sick person should always be furnished 
 as simply as possible. Carpets, hangings, and uphol- 
 stered furniture are especially undesirable. No sweep- 
 ing should be done, but the various surfaces should be 
 wiped with a damp cloth every day. 
 
 System and regularity in all work about the sick- 
 room are necessary. 
 
 In the successful care of the sick there are many little 
 details which must be observed, but more depends upon 
 tact, natural aptitude, and common sense than upon spe- 
 cial education, although this is most desirable. 
 
 When infectious disease appears in the household, the 
 patient should be isolated in a large, airy room on the 
 upper floor. The upper floor is to be pre- c 
 ferred because it is farther removed from disease in 
 annoyance by street noises and from dust. i 
 All well persons, except those caring for the patient, 
 should be kept away from the room. The other mem- 
 bers of the family should usually be prohibited from 
 attending any school or other public assembly. (See 
 pages 85 and 169.) 
 
 A moistened sheet suspended in front of the door of 
 the sick-room will help to prevent dust particles and 
 germs from spreading to other parts of the house. 
 Such a sheet may be wet in a bichloride of mercury 
 solution. 
 
 Personal clothing and bed linen should be disinfected 
 in the room before being sent away. Napkins, dishes, 
 and utensils may be boiled in the room before being 
 sent to the kitchen. Unconsumed food should always 
 be burned.
 
 CHAPTER XV 
 THE USE AND ABUSE OF FOOD 
 
 THERE is no better way to keep healthy and happy 
 than by learning the importance of careful habits of 
 Health and eating. Most of our headaches, " fits of the 
 digestion blues," and depressed feelings come from 
 the abuse of food. People with healthy digestions arc 
 rarely sick. 
 
 Unless we take good care of the digestive organs, we 
 cannot expect to have much resistance against disease. 
 People with digestive organs which they either con- 
 sciously or unconsciously abuse, are far more likely to 
 have typhoid fever or cholera when they are exposed 
 than are those whose organs are normal. The digestive 
 organs naturally secrete juices which are antagonistic to 
 many disease germs. Abuse of these organs weakens 
 their powers of defense. Many colds are taken because 
 of disordered digestion. Decayed teeth are more often 
 caused by indigestion and bad nutrition than by any- 
 thing else. 
 
 It is no disgrace to be sick when we cannot prevent 
 it, but ignorance of how to keep well is rather worse 
 than any other sort of ignorance. One may be justly 
 proud of vigorous health, especially when it is the result 
 of careful study and obedience to nature's laws. 
 
 Probably more sickness is caused by the improper use 
 of food than by any other one cause. Most people eat 
 
 130
 
 THE USE AND ABUSE OF FOOD 131 
 
 too much food. Overeating easily becomes a habit. 
 When the stomach is overloaded, digestion Fermenta- 
 is retarded and some of the food is sure to tionoffood 
 ferment. Gas forms and also certain other products of 
 fermentation. The gas causes bloating, with uncom- 
 fortable sensations. Sometimes the stomach pushes up 
 against the heart and causes palpitation; many persons 
 imagine they have heart trouble, when indigestion is 
 really the cause of the symptoms. The fermentation 
 products are absorbed by the blood and circulate in the 
 body. Some of these are poisons. By overindulgence 
 in food, which may in itself be harmless, a person may 
 thus poison himself, just as if he had swallowed actual 
 poison. 
 
 Eating too much starch or sugar food is especially 
 likely to produce fermentation. This is one of the ob- 
 jections to eating more than a very moderate amount 
 of candy. Nearly all fruits are apt to ferment, unless 
 eaten in moderation. An excessive diet of rice or other 
 cereals, potatoes, bread, or pancakes is sure to cause this 
 fermentation. The best kind of diet is a mixed diet ; 
 that is, one which does not contain too much of any one 
 food principle. (See page 33.) 
 
 No one can be really healthy who constantly eats 
 a large amount of rich food. Many of the wealthy who 
 live at fashionable hotels and restaurants Intem 
 suffer sooner or later from foolish habits of ance in eat- 
 eating. Many of them grow too stout, their mg 
 muscles are likely to be flabby, and the habit of con- 
 stantly eating a great variety of rich foods often results 
 in dyspepsia, kidney and liver troubles, and many other 
 disorders. Intemperance in eating is as bad as intern-
 
 132 HYGIENE 
 
 perance in drinking. In the end it probably causes just 
 as much misery. Overindulgence at the table is a sign 
 of vulgarity, even when practiced by people of fashion. 
 The truly intelligent, cultivated person will be satisfied 
 with plain, nutritious food in moderate quantities. 
 
 Eating too rapidly causes many cases of dyspepsia. 
 The importance of thorough mastication must not be 
 forgotten ; people who sufficiently chew their food rarely 
 Rapid eating overeat. The American people are particu- 
 habits larly subject to this habit of rapid eating. It 
 
 is far better to miss a meal altogether than to eat it in a 
 hurry. Most cases of dyspepsia are caused by careless 
 or ignorant habits of eating, and could easily be avoided. 
 
 Regularity in eating is most necessary. One ought 
 never to eat between meals. The use of candy, soda 
 Regularity water, pop-corn, peanuts, and other such 
 in eating things is injurious because they are abused. 
 These things are usually taken after one has already 
 had enough food. 
 
 The state of the mind has a great deal to do with 
 how our different organs do their work. Pleasant com- 
 Themind P anv > gd cheer, and attractive food all 
 anddiges- stimulate the organs of digestion to do their 
 best work. Unpleasant surroundings, unat- 
 tractive food, or worry may cause an attack of indiges- 
 tion. People hardly ever suffer from indigestion after 
 a pleasant banquet, even when they overeat. But the 
 most frugal meal with a bad temper or other unpleasant 
 conditions may actually stop the process of digestion. 
 
 Many persons suffer from chronic dyspepsia simply 
 because they imagine that their food will disagree with 
 them. When the mind is directed into cheerful and
 
 THE USE AND ABUSE OF FOOD 133 
 
 healthy channels and common sense is used about eat- 
 ing habits, dyspepsia usually disappears. Dyspeptics 
 generally form the habits of thinking too much about 
 themselves and of resorting to drugs. 
 
 A healthy person has a good appetite and enjoys eat- 
 ing. But such a person does not form unnatural food 
 habits. One should not be fussy about food. It is easy 
 to get into the habit of thinking that one cannot eat this 
 or that particular kind of food. With few exceptions, 
 we can eat any wholesome food. The less one thinks 
 about his food, the better. One who is constantly think- 
 ing about his food is a gonna nd. 
 
 Fads in regard to food and peculiar diets ought to be 
 avoided. We hear much of fruit diets, vegetable diets, 
 nut diets, milk diets, and the like. One 
 
 Food fads 
 
 needs only to remember that experience has 
 
 proved, and science has demonstrated, that a mixed diet 
 
 is best for man. 
 
 Sensible people will learn to eat simple, well-selected 
 foods. But it requires some skill to select Thewise 
 foods which are best for us. The poor usu- selection of 
 ally eat too much starchy foods because they 
 are cheap. They often waste money on luxuries which 
 have little or no nutritive value. 
 
 Many "breakfast foods" with striking trade names 
 have come into use. Most of these are useful foods, 
 but are expensive. The same amount of nourishment 
 can be obtained from the old-fashioned simple cereals 
 at less cost. 
 
 It is possible to procure excellent nutritious food at a 
 small cost, if one will study the question a little.
 
 134 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 TABLE OF FOODS 
 
 Nutritious Vegetable Foods 
 
 Inexpensive 
 
 Expensive 
 
 
 Cornmeal 
 
 
 CEREALS 
 
 Hominy 
 Wheat Products 
 Oatmeal 
 Rice 
 
 ( Breakfast foods 
 
 CEREALS with various 
 trade names 
 
 
 Macaroni 
 
 
 
 Dried beans 
 
 
 VEGETABLES = 
 
 Dried peas 
 Potatoes 
 Carrots 
 Peanuts 
 
 f Fresh peas 
 VEGETABLES 
 I Fresh beans 
 
 
 Parsnips 
 Canned corn 
 
 
 
 Bananas 
 
 
 FRUITS 
 
 Fresh apples 
 Dried apples 
 Dried apricots 
 Dried peaches 
 Dried prunes 
 
 OTHER f Cocoa 
 EXPENSIVE Chocolate 
 FOODS [ Nuts 
 
 \ 
 
 
 Nutritious Animal Foods 
 
 Inexpensive 
 Skimmed milk 
 Cheese 
 Salt cod fish 
 Salt mackerel 
 Canned salmon 
 
 Cheaper cuts of beef and mutton 
 Pork 
 
 Expensive 
 Whole milk 
 Butter (at 40? per Ib.) 
 Eggs 
 
 Fresh fish (at 30? per Ib.) 
 High-priced cuts of beef and mutton 
 Veal 
 Lamb 
 Poultry 
 Game
 
 THE USE AND ABUSE OF FOOD 135 
 
 Expensive Foods which are Not Nutritious 
 
 Lobster 
 
 Oysters (14 equal i egg) 
 
 Early green vegetables 
 
 Fruits out of season 
 
 Artichokes 
 
 Flavors and Relishes 
 
 VEGETABLES 
 
 (Not classified as to cost) 
 Onions Peppers 
 Radishes Cucumbers 
 Celery Cabbage FRUITS 
 
 Pickles Cauliflower 
 Lettuce Chicory 
 
 Strawberries 
 
 Peaches 
 
 Oranges 
 
 Lemons 
 
 Plums 
 
 We should remember that tea and coffee contain no 
 nourishment except the sugar and milk which may be 
 added. On the contrary, they contain inju- Tea and cof- 
 rious substances (caffein and tannic acid), fee 
 which are in fact drugs. We should hesitate about 
 taking injurious things into our stomachs even in small 
 amounts, especially when a habit may easily be formed. 
 Young people particularly should always avoid tea and 
 coffee. (See page 149.) 
 
 Meat, fish, cheese, canned goods, ice-cream, milk, and 
 some other foods may be the cause of serious Some dis- 
 sickness. This happens when certain bacteria 
 grow in the food and form poisons there, foods 
 These poisons are called ptomaines. 
 
 Foods which have been kept in cold storage should 
 be used very soon after being bought. They are likely 
 to spoil quickly and thus produce poisoning. Canned 
 goods should never be kept standing in the can after
 
 136 HYGIENE 
 
 opening. Such foods should be emptied into a clean 
 dish at once and kept in a cool place. If a can is puffed 
 out, it shows that the contents were not perfectly ster- 
 ilized, and that bacteria have grown in the food and 
 produced gases and poisonous substances. 
 
 Pork often causes a serious disease because of a para- 
 site called trichina which it may contain. This is one 
 of the reasons why pork should always be thoroughly 
 cooked before being eaten.
 
 CHAPTER XVI 
 MILK AND WATER SUPPLIES 
 
 MILK and water supplies are of so great importance 
 that they deserve a special chapter to themselves. We 
 are altogether too likely to drink the milk or water 
 which is offered to us without any thought about its 
 possible dangers. Yet impure milk and impure water 
 are causing thousands of deaths every year. 
 
 Milk is the most nearly universal of all foods. It is 
 the sole food of infants and the chief food of young 
 children. It is, for many reasons, a very desirable food, 
 when pure. It is relatively inexpensive, requires no 
 preparation, and contains all the food principles needed 
 by the body. It is only when milk is improperly 
 handled that we need hesitate to use it. It is true, 
 however, that milk may easily become one of tJie most 
 unclean and dangerous forms of food in use. 
 
 The very high death rate of children in large cities 
 in summer is largely due to the use of impure milk. 
 No other article of food is so likely to be- Bacteria in 
 come contaminated with disease germs. No milk 
 other food furnishes such a favorable medium for the 
 growth and multiplication of bacteria. Many samples 
 of city milk contain as many as a million bacteria to 
 every quarter of a teaspoonful. It is not uncommon 
 for city milk to contain more bacteria than sewage does. 
 This does not mean that all of such germs are of the
 
 138 HYGIENE 
 
 disease-producing sort, but it does mean that any such 
 milk is dangerous to health. No milk can contain a 
 very large number of bacteria and be clean. 
 
 Dirty milk always contains bacteria. Clean milk does 
 not contain many bacteria. It follows, then, that the 
 Clean and number of germs in milk furnishes an exact 
 dirty milk index to its cleanliness. Sometimes a sample 
 of milk may contain vast numbers of germs, none of 
 
 . . 
 
 ?o 9 
 
 - V_/ ^ ^^O 
 
 u \J o 
 
 A, CLEAN MILK, SHOWING No BACTERIA. B, DIRTY MILK, CONTAINING 
 MANY BACTERIA. 
 
 which are of v a disease-producing sort; but when many 
 germs are present, it is evident that the milk has not been 
 handled in a cleanly manner. Whenever milk is care- 
 lessly handled, it is very likely to contain disease germs. 
 
 Milk from a healthy cow is free from germs, but by 
 the time it is delivered to the customer milk usually 
 contains vast numbers of germs. It is not a pleasant 
 thought to consider what carelessly handled milk may 
 contain. Aside from the question whether disease germs 
 are present, who really wants to drink dirty milk ? 
 
 Milk may be filthy ; it may be much diluted ; it may
 
 MILK AND WATER SUPPLIES 
 
 139 
 
 be adulterated. It may be rich, fairly clean, and un- 
 adulterated, but contaminated with disease germs. It 
 may be free from disease germs, but may contain other 
 bacteria which bring about changes that render the milk 
 harmful. 
 
 Germs get into milk from a great variety of sources. 
 Dust always carries them. Water in which dairy uten- 
 sils are washed may contain them. They are Howbacteria 
 on the hands of the milker, on his clothing, get into milk 
 on the body of the cow, and in the milk can. In a 
 word, germs are pres- 
 ent almost every- 
 where. 
 
 If a cow is kept in 
 a dirty condition, it is 
 easy to understand 
 how dirt will reach the 
 milk pail. It seems 
 strange that people 
 will take far less care 
 of cows than they do 
 of horses. A horse is 
 curried and kept fairly 
 
 clean, bllt Often no The black square represents the bacteria in 
 
 attention is paid tO the un -F >asteur i ze( J milk. After Pasteurization the 
 
 ... bacteria are reduced to the amount indicated 
 
 condition ot a cow. by the white square- ( See page I42 .) 
 A horse is driven in By pcrmission of Dr . H . L . R Usse i. 
 
 public places and the 
 
 owner is ashamed to have him seen in a dirty condition. 
 A cow is kept in the stable or pasture and the owner 
 is not concerned about her appearance because the 
 animal is not observed.
 
 140 HYGIENE 
 
 We are clean in those things about which it is cus- 
 tomary to be clean. But all of us have to be educated 
 into clean habits. We simply have not thought enough 
 about these matters. When we think of them, then 
 we demand a change ; but somebody must make us 
 think. 
 
 Most persons accept the milk which is brought to 
 them without question. They may be fairly particular 
 about their meats, fruits, vegetables, and bakery goods, 
 but they merely accept milk as milk, without much 
 thought. 
 
 Great epidemics of typhoid fever have often been 
 caused by the carelessness of a single milkman. Such 
 Typhoid and a case occurred at Stanford University a few 
 milk years ago, when many students lost their lives 
 
 and dozens were dangerously sick. In this instance a 
 dairyman had washed his cans and other milk utensils 
 in water which had been infected with typhoid germs. 
 This water came from a well and into this well the 
 sewage from the house had drained. Somebody in the 
 house was sick with typhoid. The ignorance of this 
 dairyman ca\ised many deaths and much suffering and 
 expense. This is not an unusual case ; such things 
 have occurred over and over again in all parts of the 
 world. 
 
 Many cattle suffer from tuberculosis. Figures vary, 
 but it is safe to say that from twenty-five to forty per 
 Tuberculosis cent of dairy cattle have this disease. It af- 
 and milk fects dairy cattle much oftener than it does 
 range cattle, and the finer breeds are especially likely 
 to have it. This is because they are kept in badly ven- 
 tilated stables and in close confinement, and because
 
 MILK AND WATER SUPPLIES 141 
 
 their powers of resistance are lowered by unnatural 
 conditions of life. 
 
 In a herd of selected cattle, owned by a wealthy 
 gentleman and supposed to be unusually fine, it was 
 recently found that thirteen of the thirty-two cows had 
 tuberculosis. This was not discovered by their appear- 
 ance, but only by means of the tuberculin test. This 
 test is a simple one that any veterinarian can apply. 
 All dairy cattle should be tested in this way. Every 
 city and town ought to require the tuberculin test and 
 make it part of the ordinance regulating the sale of 
 milk. 
 
 Tuberculosis among cattle is dangerous not only be- 
 cause it may spread the disease itself to human beings, 
 but because the milk from such animals cannot possibly 
 be healthful to drink. Milk or meat from a diseased 
 animal is always unhealthful. 
 
 Milk may be the means of spreading still other con- 
 tagious diseases. Diphtheria and scarlet fever are some- 
 times carried in this way. 
 
 Where there is a contagious disease in a family, no 
 bottles should be collected until the disease is over. 
 Then all the bottles should be thoroughly Thecare 
 sterilized by means of boiling water or live of milk 
 steam. Bottles of milk ought never to be 
 left standing in a sick-room. Such bottles have some- 
 times carried disease from one family to another, because 
 the milkman did not sterilize them before refilling. 
 Even when no disease is present in a family, great 
 care should be observed to clean milk bottles thoroughly 
 as soon as they are emptied. 
 
 When one cannot be sure about the purity of milk,
 
 142 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 A HOME PASTEURIZING APPARATUS. 
 
 it is best to Pasteurize it. 1 If one does not understand 
 Pasteurized how to do this, it can be boiled. A thor- 
 ^M*- oughly clean milk should not be either Pas- 
 
 teurized or boiled. Such methods are simply means for 
 guarding against the consequences of carelessness in 
 
 handling. Raw milk is 
 far more digestible than 
 Pasteurized or boiled 
 milk. 
 
 Any disagreeable odor 
 or flavor in milk indi- 
 cates that it is not clean. 
 Clean milk kept on ice 
 will remain sweet for 
 several days. Any sedi- 
 ment in the pan or bottle is also an indication of dirty 
 milk. 
 
 There are a few things that everybody ought to know 
 Some dairy about the proper handling of milk supplies, 
 rules whether they are in the dairy business or not. 
 
 The most important of these things are as follows: 
 
 The cows must be kept clean. 
 
 The barn must be kept clean. 
 
 The floors of the stables must be moisture proof. 
 
 Gutters behind the stalls should be made of cement and must 
 
 have proper drainage. 
 
 Manure must not be allowed to accumulate. 
 Wooden barns must be frequently whitewashed inside. 
 Dust must be avoided during milking time. 
 
 1 Milk may be Pasteurized by placing tlie bottles containing it 
 in water, and heating this to 160" (Fahrenheit). The water must 
 then be kept at this temperature for about twenty minutes.
 
 MILK AND WATER SUPPLIES 
 
 A SANITARY BOTTLING ROOM. 
 
 Here milk is kept pure by absolutely clean handling. Notice the costumes 
 of the men. 
 
 Used by courtesy of Brooksidc Farms. 
 
 The milk house must be separate from the barn and used for 
 
 no other purposes. 
 
 It must be clean and properly screened. 
 The water supplies must be pure. 
 There must be no chance for sewage contamination. 
 Every milker should have a clean milking suit which is used 
 
 for nothing else. 
 
 He should keep his hands absolutely clean. 
 He must be in good health and not associate with any person 
 
 sick with a contagious disease. 
 The milk bottles and all utensils must be kept clean. Scalding 
 
 water or live steam should be used for this purpose. 
 The milk pail should have a rather small opening in the top,
 
 144 HYGIENE 
 
 and this should be covered with clean sterile cheese cloth or 
 
 gauze. Through this cloth all milk should strain as it is 
 
 being milked from the cow. 
 Flies must be kept away from milk. They often carry disease 
 
 germs, especially those of typhoid and tuberculosis. 
 All small animals must be kept away from the dairy premises. 
 Milk must be quickly cooled to about 5^0 or less and kept so 
 
 until used. 
 All cows must be tested for tuberculosis by a properly qualified 
 
 person. 
 
 There is no reason why we should not demand pure 
 milk. We shall never get it until we make the demand. 
 The pure Never buy milk unless you know how it is 
 miikprobiem handled. Many towns and small cities have 
 already studied the milk problem and have succeeded 
 in their demands for pure milk. 1 Any town, village, or 
 city can have pure milk supplies just as soon as its 
 residents become educated to the idea. Pure milk de- 
 pots have been established in many cities, where the 
 poor may always get clean, safe milk at a moderate 
 price. We should not be unwilling to pay a fair price 
 for pure mMk. The demand for cheap milk is one 
 cause of adulteration and of carelessness in the han- 
 dling of milk. Cheap milk is never pure milk. 
 
 The dangers from using impure water have been 
 mentioned in several chapters, but we may now sum up 
 all these statements and add a few others. 
 
 River water is rarely pure, because towns and cities 
 
 1 Tlie city of Rochester, N.V., recently made such a study, with 
 wonderful results.
 
 MILK AND WATER SUPPLIES 145 
 
 on the banks frequently empty their sewage into the 
 rivers. Most cases of typhoid fever are Different 
 caused in this way (see page 85). kinds of wa- 
 
 Well water is often impure, because sewage 
 sometimes drains into the well. Wells should be located 
 so that this cannot occur. 
 
 Lake water is frequently polluted with sewage. Even 
 as far out as five miles from shore, Lake Michigan 
 water was found polluted with Chicago sewage before 
 the drainage canal was opened. 
 
 Spring ivater and artesian ivells furnish the purest 
 kinds of water, because the water comes from a depth 
 where bacteria are not present. 
 
 Sometimes mountain or other water is conducted into 
 rcscnwirs for storage. Such reservoir water may be 
 dangerous to health, in case it comes from streams 
 which are polluted from slops dumped on the banks, 
 from sewage draining into them from houses, from 
 campers along the banks who may be sick with typhoid, 
 or in other ways. One of the duties of the state 
 boards of health is to protect streams and lakes from 
 pollution. 
 
 Most of the niters in use are worthless. They take 
 the dirt out of the water and make it look pure and 
 clean, but they do not remove disease or , 
 
 Filters 
 
 other germs. It is far better not to use any 
 filter than a poor one, for these actually serve to collect 
 typhoid or other bacteria. The best filters for use are 
 the Chamberlain, Pasteur, and Berkefeld. These, with 
 proper care, are safe, and do remove all danger. The 
 water in such filters has to pass through a cylinder of 
 porcelain. But to insure safety even with these kinds
 
 146 HYGIENE 
 
 of filters, they must be cleaned every day with a brush, 
 and placed in boiling water for about ten minutes once 
 or twice a week. 
 
 Very large filters are sometimes used to filter the 
 entire city water supply. These are sand filters which 
 city fiitra- cover a large area of ground. The water is 
 tion of water fj rst allowed to settle; then it is filtered 
 through many layers of sand and gravel, and stored in 
 
 FILTER BEDS OF THE INDIANAPOLIS WATERWORKS. 
 
 Here the water from White River is purified by filtering through layers 
 of sand, gravel, and perforated tile. 
 
 great reservoirs. Since Philadelphia introduced such a 
 system, typhoid fever has been nearly wiped out in the 
 parts of the city receiving the filtered water, while in 
 the sections where unfiltered river water is used, there 
 is still much typhoid. 
 
 When we cannot be sure that water is pure it ought 
 always to be boiled for twenty minutes.
 
 MILK AND WATER SUPPLIES 147 
 
 THE CHICAGO DRAINAGE CANAL. 
 
 To avoid contamination of water supplies, this long canal was built to carry off 
 the city's sewage. This section of the canal is cut through solid rock. 
 
 The disposal of sewage is a very difficult problem in 
 large cities. Some places make use of sewer farms. 
 Here the sewage is spread over the ground Disposal of 
 and serves as a fertilizer. The bacteria are sewa g ft 
 exposed to the sunlight, which in time kills most of 
 them. The sewage is decomposed, and soon changes to 
 harmless gases which pass off in the air, and to chemical 
 substances which mix with the earth and fertilize it. 
 
 The only real danger in sewer farms is when garden 
 truck, such as lettuce and radishes, is raised on them. 
 Such foods may easily become polluted, and may carry 
 typhoid germs. On the Pasadena (California) sewer 
 farm they raise walnuts and alfalfa, which is profitable 
 and perfectly safe. 
 
 When sewage is drained into rivers or lakes, such 
 water is always dangerous to drink. Aside from this, 
 who really wants to drink diluted sewage? 
 
 Some cities use what are called septic tanks for the 
 collection of sewage. Here it is decomposed and be- 
 comes comparatively harmless.
 
 CHAPTER XVII 
 STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 
 
 THE Latin word stimulus means goad. The goad was 
 used in driving oxen from remote periods even down to 
 What a the times of our grandfathers. It consisted 
 stimulus is o f a long stick with a sharp metal brad in the 
 end. The lazy or fatigued ox, when prodded with this 
 stimulus, would quicken his pace, throwing the weight 
 into the yoke, and would thus increase his work in a 
 given time. Stimulus has also had for many years 
 another but similar meaning. In this sense it is ap- 
 plied to any influence which will cause a living tiring 
 organ, tissue, or cell to increase its work. 
 
 Mechanical stimuli are all similar in action to 
 the ox goad. Heat, light, and electricity are all 
 forms of stiWili. Most of these stimuli act from the 
 outside. 
 
 There is still another kind of stimulus that usually 
 acts from the inside, though not necessarily so, the 
 chemical stimulus. These chemical stimuli cause in- 
 creased activity or work when they come in contact 
 with living tissues. Common salt is an example. A 
 little salt applied to a fresh bit of nerve and muscle 
 tissue from a frog's leg makes it twitch. Salt stimulates 
 the heart, which is only a large, hollow muscle connected 
 with nerves. Many chemical stimuli are always dis- 
 
 148
 
 STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 149 
 
 solved in the blood and lymph. Some also form part of 
 the different secretions in the body. 
 
 There are many chemical stimuli which come from 
 without, but which influence the body in much the 
 same way. As examples, we have strychnine t T . 
 which is used as a medicine and which stimu- stimulant 
 lates action of the heart through the nervous 1: 
 system ; and caffcin, which is always present in coffee, 
 and is also sometimes used as a medicine. Caffein is in 
 constant use as a beverage. When a person drinks a 
 morning cup of coffee, he is quite likely to think only 
 of its delicious aroma, its amber color, and, if he adds 
 sugar and cream to it, he may think of it as a food. 
 But he should not lose sight of the fact that it also con- 
 tains a drug which is certain to influence his nervous 
 system as a stimulus. Tea also contains a drug, called 
 tannic acid. 
 
 One cup of moderately strong coffee, well diluted with 
 cream and sugar, will have only a slight drug action. 
 But several cups of strong black coffee will The coffee 
 have a decided influence upon the nervous habit 
 system. If a person comes to depend upon his two or 
 three cups of strong coffee at breakfast to keep him 
 going until noon, and another cup or two at lunch to 
 keep him stimulated during the afternoon, he is just 
 as surely the victim of a drug Jiabit as is the man who 
 takes morphine or cocaine for the same purpose. 
 
 Chocolate and cocoa, on the other hand, contain some 
 nourishment and practically no drug. Whether a person 
 ought ever to drink either coffee or tea is a question he 
 must settle for himself. Although a moderately strong 
 cup of coffee or tea does not contain much of the drug,
 
 150 HYGIENE 
 
 one must remember that there is always the possibility 
 of forming a coffee or tea habit. 1 
 
 In an emergency strong coffee may be a valuable and 
 necessary stimulant. It will not, however, generally act 
 as a stimulus to the person who habitually drinks it. 
 
 When the ox is fatigued with several hours of work, 
 
 and his driver begins to prod him with the goad, it is 
 
 easy to see that the ox receives no food from 
 
 gives no this goad. His slackened pace probably 
 
 added means that he needs rest, but instead of rest 
 
 strength 
 
 he gets the stimulus. The ox will make re- 
 newed efforts and work beyond his strength. But the 
 fatigue which follows will be much greater, and he will 
 require more time for recovery than would have been 
 required if he had been given rest. With rest and food 
 the body stores up energy. 
 
 It is just the same with all artificial stimuli of which 
 many people make use. A man may drive Jiimself to 
 increased work by the use of coffee or tea or some other 
 drug, but he will always be left more exhausted and will 
 require more time to rest than if he had not overstimu- 
 lated himself. 
 
 Enough has been said to explain what a stimulus (or 
 stimulant) is, how it may be used and how abused. We 
 see that it adds no strength to the body. It does some- 
 times enable the body to do an increased amount of 
 work for a short time. From this overexertion there is 
 always a reaction, and increased time must be allowed 
 for rest. Stimuli such as coffee, tea, and strychnine are 
 useful to the body only in emergencies. Coffee and tea 
 
 1 The French avoid strong coffee in their common use of cafi an 
 lait a little coffee in a cup filled with hot milk.
 
 STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 
 
 Alcohol is 
 not a 
 stimulant 
 
 are pleasant drinks, but are neither necessary nor even 
 useful under ordinary conditions. 
 
 Narcotics are drugs which cause a dulling of the 
 senses. They lessen the action and strength What a 
 of the cells of the body. Examples of nar- narcotic is 
 cotics are alcohol, opium, morphine, cocaine, cJilorofonn, 
 and ether. 
 
 Alcohol is usually thought of as a stimulant, but the 
 best physiologists now agree that it is not a stimulant 
 even in small amounts. 
 It is a true nar- 
 cotic. It pro- 
 duces a dulling 
 effect upon the cells and 
 tissues of the body. Al- 
 cohol at first causes excite- 
 ment and seems to act as a 
 stimulus. Why, then, is it 
 really a narcotic? We shall 
 try to answer this question. 
 
 The different actions of the body are under the con- 
 'trol of the nervous system, in much the same way that 
 
 a spirited team of horses is under the control 
 
 r ., , . ^, , u- The effect 
 
 of the driver. The driver may urge his O f alcohol on 
 
 horses forward with the whip and yet control the nervous 
 
 . . system 
 
 them by keeping them in check with the reins. 
 Or he may slacken his reins, and again the team rushes 
 forward. Either method increases the work of the team ; 
 but in one case he keeps perfect control of the horses, 
 and in the other he practically loses control. A careless 
 bystander watching the team might easily see no dif- 
 ference in the increased spirit of the horses in the two 
 
 THK PROPORTION OK ALCOHOL IN 
 WHISKY, WINE, AND BKER.
 
 152 HYGIENE 
 
 cases. A more careful observer would realize that in 
 the second case the driver had slackened his reins and 
 released his control. Alcohol has the effect of slacken- 
 ing the reins of control which each person ought to hold 
 upon himself. 
 
 At first, when a person drinks whisky or other strong 
 alcoholic beverage, he seems to be stimulated. He thinks 
 so himself, and it appears so to others. What he has 
 really done is to loosen the reins; and finally the team 
 runs away. As more and more of the drink is taken, 
 the excitability passes off and the drinker becomes dull 
 and stupid. At last, control of the ivill is entirely lost, 
 and we say the person is drunk. A few more drinks 
 are taken and the man loses control of his muscles; his 
 gait has become unsteady; he staggers, falls, and drops 
 off into a drunken stupor. 
 
 Such a man is as surely under the influence of a nar- 
 cotic as if he had taken chloroform or ether. He may 
 freeze to death or be run over by a train without know- 
 ing anything of his danger. 
 
 We have learned in our study of physiology that 
 
 carbon dioxiae is always given off from the lungs in 
 
 breathing in the same way that it is given 
 
 Alcohol and . 
 
 carbon off from a lighted lamp or candle. It is a 
 
 dioxide in waste product of combustion or burning, and 
 the body . . 
 
 is poisonous to man. A badly ventilated 
 
 room containing many people soon becomes foul with 
 this poisonous gas. When a person has taken large 
 doses of alcohol or opium or other narcotics, he does 
 not get rid of a sufficient amount of carbon dioxide 
 from his body. He is poisoned, just as he would be in 
 a close room filled with people.
 
 STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 153 
 
 The drinker's face always becomes flushed. This is 
 only an indication of what is taking place all over his 
 body. The minute blood vessels in the skin 
 
 Alcohol 
 
 become dilated ; much blood conies to the sur- ma kes the 
 face, and the individual has a pleasant sensa- bod y lose 
 
 heat 
 
 tion of warmth. But this is very misleading. 
 His skin surface feels warm, but he is actually losing 
 heat (see page 32). A man in this condition takes in 
 less oxygen and gives out less carbon dioxide. So you 
 see he is actually making less heat tlian usual and losing 
 more. His temperature is less than that of a normal 
 person. A drunken man easily freezes for this reason. 
 
 No one was ever made warmer by an alcoholic drink 
 on a cold day. 
 
 Nansen, the great Arctic explorer, would not allow 
 the use of alcoholic drinks among his men for just these 
 reasons, and they endured exposure remarkably well. 
 Dr. Grenfell has had the same experience in his work 
 among the fishermen in Labrador. Experienced moun- 
 tain climbers in high altitudes cannot be induced to take 
 even a small dose of alcoholic drinks. 
 
 Any activity that requires strong muscles is hampered 
 by the use of alcohol. Everybody knows that athletic 
 coaches and trainers never permit their men Action of 
 to use any drinks containing alcohol. A foot- alcohol upon 
 
 . . the muscles 
 
 ball player in training is never allowed to 
 
 take even a glass of beer. Many a man has been put 
 off a team for violation of this rule. In a long-distance 
 swimming race in Chicago, a man who was drowned 
 was accustomed to moderate drinking, and drank just 
 before entering the water. Experiments in laboratories 
 prove absolutely that alcohol even in small amounts
 
 154 HYGIENE 
 
 causes a loss of muscular strength and leads to fatigue 
 and to decreased quickness of action. 
 
 There are very good reasons to believe that alcohol 
 decreases the body's powers to resist disease. If this is 
 The relation true > the practice of giving alcohol in such 
 of alcohol diseases as typhoid fever and tuberculosis 
 would seem to be a great mistake. It is a 
 well-known fact that people accustomed to heavy drink- 
 ing nearly always die when stricken with pneumonia. 
 Even moderate drinkers have less chance of recovery 
 than those who never use alcohol. Surgeons know that 
 people who do not use whisky or other alcoholic drinks 
 usually rally better from operations than drinkers do. 
 
 Even men who believe in the moderate use of alcohol 
 advise against it until the brain work of the day is over. 
 Theinflu- The amount and quality of work which a 
 ence of aico- man can jo in six hours, for example, is 
 
 hoi on the 
 
 brain never increased by the use of alcoholic 
 
 drinks. Some recent experiments prove that the actual 
 important substance of the nerve cells of the brain is 
 exhausted by the use of alcohol. 
 
 " Alcohol "is probably the greatest of all breeders of 
 crime, disease, degeneracy, and poverty. It not only 
 Alcohol and robs the nation of an enormous amount of 
 crime wealth, but in return it contributes nothing 
 
 to its strength." 
 
 If the abuse of alcohol merely resulted in a diseased 
 stomach, a diseased liver, and some other diseased 
 organs, it would not be a very terrible enemy of man- 
 kind. Dyspepsia does all this and more. Hut when 
 one considers the unhappiness, cruelty, poverty, crime, 
 and last and worse than all else the effect upon the
 
 STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 155 
 
 innocent children of drinking parents, little more need 
 be said about the drink evil. 
 
 When we stop to think of the misery which is caused 
 in the world by the use of alcoholic drinks, it is clear 
 that no one of us ought ever to put himself in the way 
 of forming a habit which will add to that misery. 
 
 The use of tobacco in its various forms is, of course, 
 
 an unnecessary habit. It does no good to 
 
 Tobacco 
 any one, and often does much harm. It is 
 
 really a drug habit. 
 
 The use of cigarettes is increasing rapidly every year. 
 They are harmful in many ways. They generally con- 
 tain one, and only one, really injurious sub- cigarette 
 stance tobacco. They are injurious princi- s m kin g 
 pally because they furnish an easy smoke for a beginner, 
 and because they are usually used to great excess. 
 They are harmful also because cigarette smokers nearly 
 always inhale the smoke and thus absorb much poison. 
 One of the worst features about cigarette smoking is 
 that their use often leads boys into bad company. Other 
 bad habits are likely to go with cigarette smoking. The 
 whole point is this : if we wish to -make onr life and 
 zvork as effective as possible, then we ought to avoid t/iose 
 tilings wJiicJi are sure to lessen this efficiency. 
 
 Some people smoke with little injury to themselves, 
 but most people would be far better off without tobacco. 
 No boy should ever use tobacco in any form. He is sure 
 to be injured by its use. Employers very generally look 
 with much suspicion upon a boy who uses tobacco. 
 Frequently this habit indicates that the boy has a weak 
 character. It is hard enough to meet life successfully, 
 without assuming any habits which make it still harder.
 
 CHAPTER XVIII 
 THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS 
 
 WE have already studied some of the causes of dis- 
 ease, and have considered the natural defenses of the 
 body. We must now consider the uses of drugs and 
 also some of their abuses. Thousands of medicines have 
 gradually come into use, and many of them are either 
 utterly useless or actually harmful to health. 
 
 Early races of people believed many things about 
 the cause and cure of disease which seem absurd to us 
 Medicine to-day. Even many existing races practice 
 and super- superstitious rites in much the same way that 
 the ancients did. The Indian medicine man, 
 when he goes through his weird practices, his chants, 
 and various strange antics, is only imitating the customs 
 of more civilized races of ancient times. In some 
 isolated parts of Japan, tigers' bones are ground up for 
 medicine, with the idea that they will make a person 
 strong. In some regions in China the people bore 
 holes in the sick to let the Demon of Sickness out. 
 
 Even here in our own civilized America some people 
 fancy that gum camphor carried in the pockets will 
 ward off contagious diseases; that an aluminum ring on 
 the finger will cure rheumatism; that "electric belts," 
 in which there is no electricity, will give strength to the 
 nerves. They think that a gold ring rubbed on a sty 
 will cure it ; that a piece of brown paper over the 
 
 156
 
 THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS 157 
 
 stomach will prevent seasickness ; that medicines so 
 diluted that a chemist could detect nothing in them cure 
 disease; that medicines so strong that the digestion is 
 seriously affected can be of service. 
 
 Some of our well-educated people believe in almost 
 any remedy for sickness that is recommended by any 
 one, or in an advertised drug about which they know 
 nothing. All of this simply proves that we are not 
 free, even to-day, from the ignorance and superstition 
 of the past. 
 
 Every year we spend about seventy-five millions of 
 dollars in the United States for patent medicines. 
 These drugs are made to sell. They are 
 usually handled by persons who have no medicines 
 knowledge of the science of medicine. Great aretobe 
 
 distrusted 
 
 fortunes have been made out of patent medi- 
 cines which are quite worthless. 1 Investigation has 
 shown that some of these remedies are composed 
 largely of alcohol and are little better than taking a 
 drink of strong whisky. 
 
 Most of the testimonials which appear in advertise- 
 ments of patent medicines are " made up." Some of 
 them are from people who imagine the medicine has 
 cured them. Many of these testimonials are bought. 
 No reputable doctor ever advertises. No reputable 
 remedy is ever advertised in this way. 
 
 1 Patent medicines must not be confused with proprietary medi- 
 cines, which are drugs put up by wholesale dealers who state the 
 ingredients upon the label. We do not know what patent medicines 
 contain, but we do know the ingredients of proprietary drugs. Ex- 
 travagant claims for the value of proprietary drugs are seldom made, 
 as is always the case with patent medicines.
 
 158 HYGIENE 
 
 When a drug is advertised as a cure for tuberculosis 
 (as many are), it is a fraud. There is no drug cure for 
 tuberculosis. The cure comes mainly from a healthy 
 out-of-door life, with rest and good food. Many poor 
 people pay one dollar a bottle for tuberculosis cures 
 which are composed mainly of alcohol and some nar- 
 cotic like opium. 
 
 Aside from the use of worthless or harmful adver- 
 tised drugs and patent medicines, many persons take 
 The dosing too much medicine of the regular sort. The 
 habit dosing habit is easily formed. It is a great 
 
 mistake to suppose that every simple ailment needs to 
 be dosed. Fresh air, sunlight, good food, exercise, 
 and happy thoughts are often more useful than any 
 medicine. 
 
 People ought never to dose themselves or their friends 
 with medicine or drugs. They should consult a reliable 
 doctor when medicine is needed. Medicine, to be use- 
 ful, must be given by some one trained to apply it to 
 particular conditions. 
 
 Many of our disorders are largely or entirely imagi- 
 nary. They^ come from too much dwelling upon our- 
 selves. Some people can think themselves 
 
 The influ- . ., . . Tr 
 
 enceofthe ln ^o all sorts of sickness. It all 01 the 
 
 mind upon imaginary troubles of the human race could 
 health 
 
 be abolished, hundreds of our doctors would 
 find themselves out of practice. 
 
 It is never right to neglect a real physical trouble, 
 Ri ht livin ^ut t * lc practice of right living and right think- 
 cures many ing would relieve most of us of the majority 
 
 of our ailments. People overeat, drink tea 
 and coffee to excess, use tobacco and alcohol, take insuf-
 
 THE USE AND ABUSE OF DRUGS 159 
 
 ficient sleep, sleep in poorly ventilated bedrooms, fail 
 to exercise in the open air, and indulge in many bad 
 habits, and then either take a patent medicine or run to 
 their doctor to be cured. It is a great mistake to get 
 into the habit of running to a doctor for every slight 
 ailment. 
 
 If any one has diphtheria, he needs immediate treat- 
 ment from the best doctor he can find. If he has tuber- 
 culosis, or if he is "all run down," he needs Whenthe 
 the best obtainable medical advice at once, doctor is 
 And we might mention many other troubles r 
 which can be successfully treated by the skillful, honest 
 physician. 
 
 But what we want to remember is this : Nature fur- 
 nishes us ivitJi sufficient protection against most diseases. 
 It is only zvhen we live unnatural and nnJiealthy lives 
 that we become susceptible to most disorders. 
 
 The evil of using tobacco or whisky is not because 
 it is tobacco or whisky, but because these Tobacco and 
 things usually weaken the body's power to whisk y 
 resist disease, and injure the moral nature at the same 
 time. 
 
 Tobacco or alcohol are not the only things which 
 have this weakening effect. Many men and women 
 have wrecked their health by the excessive other 
 use of tea or coffee, and never realized that excesses 
 they were doing anything wrong. Such people break 
 down nervously or become dyspeptics, and then begin 
 their dosing and doctoring habits. An excessive eater 
 may be just as great a sinner against himself as an 
 excessive drinker. 
 
 It is the duty of us all to keep our bodies and minds
 
 160 HYGIENE 
 
 strong and vigorous. In one sense disease is a sin or a 
 vice. It is an excusable wrong only when it has come 
 through lack of knowledge or by accident. 
 
 When people learn the real causes of disease and also 
 learn what right methods of living are, they will cease 
 patronizing the makers of patent medicines and dosing 
 themselves for every little ailment. They will also learn 
 to respect the medical man who teaches right ways of 
 living and moderate use of medicines as much as they 
 do the one who largely prescribes drugs.
 
 CHAPTER XIX 
 ATHLETICS. EXERCISE, AND OUTDOOR LIFE 
 
 NEARLY all boys and many girls are much interested 
 in athletic games. Baseball, football, basket-ball, and 
 the field meets are sports that most pupils are enthusi- 
 astic over. 
 
 Nothing can be better for a boy or girl who wants 
 to be healthy and to succeed in the world, than plenty 
 of outdoor exercise. Sensible athletics are most useful 
 in aiding a boy or girl to develop a strong, healthy 
 body, but when athletics are abused, more harm than 
 good will result. Exercise is like food ; it is for use, 
 but not for abuse. 
 
 It is a great mistake to enter athletic games without 
 special preparation and direction. No young person 
 ought ever to enter a field meet or other very The needof 
 active sport, until he has first had a careful physical 
 physical examination from the school doctor * 
 or some other reliable person. Some boys have weak 
 hearts which would be injured by violent exercise, 
 but which would be much improved by mild, well- 
 directed exercise of other kinds. Many boys fail to 
 play a good game of baseball or football because, 
 unknown to themselves, they have imperfect eyesight 
 or poor hearing. Girls ought not to play basket-ball 
 until they have been carefully examined to make sure 
 that their organs can endure severe physical exertion. 
 
 161
 
 162 HYGIENE 
 
 One of the greatest harms from athletics comes from 
 failure to enter into proper training. Pupils often enter 
 The need of running races with no preparation for them, 
 training Developing boys are not physically toughened, 
 and often do serious injury to themselves in this way. 
 Such races should always be short and never of the kind 
 to place a heavy strain on the heart. It is a serious mis- 
 take for boys in the grammar school, or the average boy 
 in the high school, to attempt to play the heavy game 
 of football which college men play. They are seldom 
 physically strong enough for this. 
 
 The best way to learn how to exercise properly is to 
 attend a well-directed gymnasium. Most towns and 
 cities now have excellent Y.M.C.A. gymnasia, where 
 such instruction can be received. 
 
 The following rules should be followed in athletic 
 sports : 
 
 1. Never enter violent athletic contests without first 
 knowing that you are physically sound. 
 
 2. Never go into such contests suddenly, but always 
 train up to them very gradually. 
 
 3. Never v enter contests which require long, hard 
 runs. These surely do much harm to developing boys. 
 
 4. Young pupils ought never to enter violent con- 
 tests of any sort. 
 
 5. Always secure some competent person to direct 
 your athletics. 
 
 Many pupils develop an enlarged heart (the athletic 
 
 Thedan er neart ) from too severe muscular exercise. 
 
 of over- Such hearts are never strong, and may 
 
 Slng cause serious trouble later in life. Those 
 
 people who carry athletics too far are rarely healthy in
 
 ATHLETICS, EXERCISE, AND OUTDOOR LIFE 163 
 
 later life. Many athletes strain their hearts and over- 
 develop their lungs. For this reason many of them die 
 of heart and lung disease (consumption). The only 
 
 WELL-TRAINED BODIES AND WHOLESOME MINDS oo TOGETHER. 
 
 By permission of the Pasadena Y.M.C.A. 
 
 real benefit of any exercise is to make us stronger not 
 weaker. 
 
 For those who cannot take the rougher forms of 
 exercise and sports, there are still many other pleasant 
 kinds. Some can play tennis ; others ride T . 
 horseback ; others take tramps in the country of choice in 
 or hills ; others can use the light clubs and e 
 other apparatus in a gymnasium. Walking is one of 
 the best forms of exercise, and when one learns how 
 to observe things about him, it is never tedious. An
 
 164 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 observant walker in the country learns many things 
 which books cannot teach him. 
 
 Learn to like out-of-door life, even if you do not 
 naturally enjoy it. It is the natural life for a natural 
 person. Camp life, walking trips, rowing, swimming, 
 
 OUTDOOR LIKE is THK NATURAL LIKE. 
 
 horseback riding any such outdoor activities improve 
 our health, broaden our minds, and fit us better for the 
 serious duties of life. 
 
 Exercise that is taken just from duty is never very 
 useful. To be of much value it must be enjoyed. Play 
 is as important as work, and exercise should usually be 
 in the form of play. Try to find the thing you like to 
 do, and then cultivate it until you acquire skill. 
 
 Exercise and athletic games properly taken and well
 
 ATHLETICS, EXERCISE, AND OUTDOOR LIFE 165 
 
 directed do a great deal of good. They keep us out-of- 
 doors in the pure air and sunlight; we are Thereal 
 forced to faster breathing so that we get a value of 
 constant fresh supply of oxygen ; the appe- 
 tite is improved; the muscles grow firm and hard; an 
 excess of fat in the body is prevented. And perhaps 
 best of all, boys and girls learn how to be fair and 
 
 SWIMMING AND SAILING DF.VELOP ALERTNESS OF MIND AS WELL AS 
 STRONG BODIES. 
 
 square with each other, how to accept defeat gracefully, 
 and to forget themselves in happy activity. 
 
 Much of the benefit from out-of-door sport results 
 from the exact training of the hand, eye, ear, and other 
 parts 'of the body which comes with it. Almost any 
 good sport makes a person more alert and more grace- 
 ful. It is a mistake to suppose that the right sort of 
 exercise trains onlv the muscles.
 
 166 HYGIENE 
 
 A well-trained muscle must be guided by a well- 
 trained mind. Anything which trains the muscles also 
 trains the mind. A stupid person is almost 
 helps in always an awkward person also. Many 
 training the ra ther stupid pupils have been made bright 
 and active by muscular training. The boy or 
 girl coming back to the classroom after a well-directed 
 period of sport returns with a mind just as much im- 
 proved as it would have been with a lesson in algebra 
 or history. A boy or girl who learns to play a fine 
 game of baseball, or tennis, or basket-ball, has improved 
 his or her mind a great deal. The bookworm who does 
 not care for exercise is outstripped in the end by the 
 less studious boy or girl who builds up a strong, vigor- 
 ous body. 
 
 Exercises ought to be thought of as something more 
 than fun. They are as useful in educating us to meet 
 life as anything else. Sometime our public schools will 
 include directed sports as part of the school studies.
 
 CHAPTER XX 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 
 
 A PERSON may guard his own health fairly well if he 
 has the proper knowledge and is not exposed to the 
 carelessness of others. But however care- Theneces- 
 fully he may apply the principles of health . t j[ t j ub ~ 
 to his own habits of life, he may not be able protection 
 to resist the results of his neighbor's carelessness or 
 ignorance. For this reason much attention is now 
 given to the protection of the health of the public. 
 
 A family may be careful to drink only pure water 
 and clean milk at home, but often its members cannot 
 be certain that the water or the milk in a hotel or restau- 
 rant in a neighboring town or city is wholesome. When 
 we purchase meat, we must either depend upon the 
 producer's honesty as a guarantee of its healthful con- 
 dition, or else some public official must place his guar- 
 antee upon it. 
 
 It is only within recent years that either the United 
 States government, or state and city governments, have 
 paid much attention to meat or any other Regulation 
 food inspection. The Pure Food Law was b y law 
 passed by Congress as recently as 1907. Before this, 
 although there was some government inspection of 
 meat, little was done to compel producers to furnish 
 pure and wholesome foods of other kinds. Even now 
 we must depend largely upon local laws to guarantee 
 
 167
 
 1 68 
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 wholesome food. Some places have good food regula- 
 tions ; others have no regulations, or very poor ones. 
 
 Does the reader know whether, his bread comes from 
 a clean or dirty bakery ; does he know whether the 
 Duties of dairy which furnishes his milk supply is run 
 in a wholesome, sanitary way, or in an unsani- 
 tary manner ; does he know that the water 
 he drinks so frequently is pure and free from sewage ? 
 
 boards of 
 health 
 
 INSPECTION OF SHKKI> HKKORK KILLING. 
 
 Does he know that his vegetables and fruits have not 
 been exposed to contamination in front of stores or in 
 dusty, open markets, or that they have not been raised 
 on an unwholesome truck farm, perhaps fertilized with 
 public or private sewage, as is often the case on Chinese 
 farms? Does he know that his oysters have not been
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 169 
 
 grown in beds contaminated with sewage from a near- 
 by city, as has often happened ? These are some of 
 the questions which every person ought to ask himself. 
 But as he cannot always answer them satisfactorily and 
 can seldom control his food supplies, most states, cities, 
 and towns appoint boards of health, whose duty is to 
 attend to such matters. 
 
 It is more important to employ officers to guard us 
 against disease, than it is to employ policemen to guard 
 us against crime. This is true because disease is harder 
 to locate, harder to avoid, and more difficult to conquer 
 than crime. Disease kills far more people than crime 
 does. Disease costs us far more money than crime does. 
 Our country has only made a start in the protection of 
 the public against avoidable disease. The government 
 at Washington spends much more money every year 
 for the discovery and prevention of animal and plant 
 diseases than it does for the investigation and preven- 
 tion of human diseases. Sometime we shall have a 
 national Department of Health at Washington which 
 will save us from "preventable death, preventable sick- 
 ness, preventable conditions of inefficiency, and prevent- 
 able ignorance." 
 
 Boards of health not only protect us from impure 
 water and food supplies and provide for the disposal of 
 garbage, but they also try to protect us from Quarantine 
 contagious diseases. Such diseases as mea- P rotection 
 sles, diphtheria, scarlet fever, smallpox, and plague are 
 very contagious, and most places isolate, or quarantine, 
 people who are sick with any of these diseases. A 
 house which is in quarantine has tacked upon it a large 
 colored card showing the name of the disease, so as to
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 warn people to keep away. Sometimes it is necessary 
 to quarantine an entire family, even when only one 
 member of it is sick. If quarantine were strictly prac- 
 ticed, we could soon wipe out most contagious diseases. 
 Contagious diseases are spread in schools more than 
 in any other way. This is the reason why school chil- 
 dren who have any contagious disease ought always to 
 
 THE Qi\\RANTiNK STATION IN SAN FRANCISCO BAY. 
 
 be kept away from all other children until they are 
 well. Some diseases are contagious for a number of 
 weeks, and it is the duty of health officers to decide 
 when the patient may safely mingle again with others. 
 Many seaport cities have quarantine stations. If a 
 ship comes to San Francisco, for example, with small- 
 pox or plague on board, it is necessary to place the 
 vessel in quarantine, and hold her until there is no dan- 
 ger of new cases breaking out. Sometimes the entire
 
 PUHLIC HEALTH 
 
 I/I 
 
 crew and all the passengers are taken to the quarantine 
 station and held there until all danger is passed. In 
 such cases the quarantine officers disinfect the ship and 
 the baggage of the crew and passengers. 
 
 Quarantine stations are under the control of the 
 Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, an organi- 
 zation of the national government. 
 
 THE DISINFECTION OF CLOTH IN<; AT \ QPARANTINK STATION. 
 
 Steam or formaldehyde gas is turned into the great steel tubes where the 
 wire cases of clothing are put. 
 
 For at least one of our common contagious diseases, 
 a quick and almost certain cure has been discovered. 
 This disease is diphtheria. The cure is found The value of 
 in antitoxin. When this is given early in antitoxin 
 the disease, it practically always stops it. Antitoxin 
 treatment also protects those who have been exposed
 
 172 HYGIENE 
 
 to diphtheria from taking the disease. It is not 
 dangerous to health and should always be given 
 promptly. 
 
 At one time smallpox was a very disastrous disease. 
 Now, owing to our knowledge of the nature of this 
 Vaccination disease an< ^ the general practice of vacciua- 
 is a valuable ttoii, it is rapidly disappearing. Vaccination 
 is an almost perfect protection against small- 
 pox, which would soon become a common disease if 
 vaccination were abandoned. Vaccination is never dan- 
 gerous when properly done. The stories about the bad 
 effects of vaccination are either invented for the purpose 
 of attacking the practice or are due to some misunder- 
 standing of the real conditions. 
 
 Here is a vaccination creed : 
 
 1. True vaccination repeated until it no longer 
 " takes " always prevents smallpox. Nothing else 
 does. 
 
 2. True vaccination that is, vaccination properly 
 done on a clean arm with pure, potent lymph, and kept 
 perfectly clean and unbroken afterwards until the scab 
 falls off naturally never did and never will make a 
 serious sore. 
 
 3. Such a vaccination leaves a characteristic scar, un- 
 like that from any other cause, which is recognizable 
 during life, and is the only conclusive evidence of a 
 successful vaccination. 
 
 4. Serious results never follow such vaccination. On 
 the other hand, thousands of lives are usually sacrificed 
 through the neglect to vaccinate a neglect which 
 results from lack of knowledge.
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 173 
 
 THE SMALLPOX RECORD IN CHICAGO, 1899-1908 
 
 YEAR 
 
 CASES OF 
 SMALLPOX 
 
 DIED 
 
 NUMBER NEVER 
 VACCINATED 
 
 NUMBER 
 VACCINATED 
 
 1899 .... 
 
 25 
 
 I 
 
 24 
 
 I 
 
 1900 .... 
 
 S 2 
 
 2 
 
 48 
 
 4 
 
 190! .... 
 
 276 
 
 4 
 
 237 
 
 39 
 
 1902 .... 
 
 339 
 
 5 
 
 3'8 
 
 21 
 
 1903 .... 
 
 389 
 
 47 
 
 339 
 
 5 
 
 1904 .... 
 
 358 
 
 28 311 
 
 47 
 
 1905 .... 
 
 546 
 
 6 1 402 
 
 144 
 
 1906 .... 
 
 23 
 
 o 
 
 21 
 
 2 
 
 1907 .... 
 
 94 
 
 o 
 
 82 
 
 12 
 
 1908 (Oct. i) . 
 
 80 
 
 o 72 
 
 8 
 
 Total . . . 
 
 2182 
 
 148 1854 
 
 528 
 
 None died who were vaccinated. None of the 328 who were vac- 
 cinated had ever been revaccinated. 
 
 The health of the public is protected by public health 
 boards and health officers. States are under the con- 
 trol of a state board of health, and the secre- 
 
 Organiza- 
 
 tary of the board acts as the health officer of tions which 
 
 the state. Counties provide a county health P 10 * 60 * th * 
 
 public health 
 
 officer. Cities usually maintain a local board 
 of health and a health officer, or a commissioner of health. 
 In some large cities, as New York, Boston, Philadelphia, 
 and Chicago, there are many bureaus in the health 
 department. The most important of these are: 
 
 The Bureau of Vital Statistics. 
 
 The Bureau of Medical Inspection. 
 
 The Bureau of Disinfection. 
 
 The Bureau of Food, Milk, and Water Supplies. 
 
 The Bureau of Sanitation.
 
 174 HYGIENE 
 
 i. The Bureau of Vital Statistics keeps a record of 
 all births and deaths, and grants burial permits. A 
 study of the number and the causes of deaths in a com- 
 munity furnishes an exact index of the health conditions 
 in that community. The number of deaths in every 
 thousand of population is called the dcatli rate. 
 
 The death rate in London in the seventeenth century was 
 about 80 per thousand. To-day it is only 24. In 1665 the 
 death rate in London was 430 per thousand. This was due to 
 the plague which raged there almost unchecked. 
 
 The death rate in Boston during the last one hundred and 
 fifty years has been reduced from 37 to 25 per thousand. In 
 1908 this rate was only 19.10 per thousand. 
 
 In 1893 water filtration was introduced into Liwrence, Mass. 
 This reduced the death rate from typhoid to one sixth the pre- 
 vious number. 
 
 In 1908 the death rate in Chicago from typhoid fever was 
 only 1.56 for each 10,000 inhabitants. This was a reduction of 
 33 per cent over the average of the ten years preceding 1908, 
 and 91 per cent below the high mark of 1891, when Chicago's 
 record was the highest of any city in the civilized world. This 
 wonderful reduction in the number of deaths from typhoid in 
 Chicago is largely due to sanitary improvements and the edu- 
 cation which the work of the Public Health Department has 
 accomplished. 
 
 In 1854 the death rate in Chicago was 64 per one thousand 
 of population. In 1908 it was only 14.10. 
 
 In Stockholm, in the middle of the eighteenth century, the 
 average duration of life was sixteen years, while to-day it is 
 about forty- eight years. 
 
 The lessons to be drawn from such vital statistics are 
 many, but the chief one is this : much of the suffering,
 
 PUBLIC HEALTH 
 
 175 
 
 poverty, and death of the world is caused by prevent- 
 able ignorance. 
 
 2. The Bureau of Medical Inspection attends to all 
 cases of contagious diseases, and in some places in- 
 spects schools. 
 
 3. 77/t' Bureau of Disinfection has charge of the dis- 
 infection of all places which have been under quarantine 
 for contagious diseases. 
 
 4. The Bureau of Milk, Food, and Water Inspection 
 takes charge of everything that has to do with the fur- 
 nishing of healthful milk, food, 
 
 and water to the citizens of the 
 community. 
 
 5. The Bureau of Sanitation 
 inspects houses, premises, public 
 buildings, and tenements. It 
 looks after everything in general 
 that might prove a menace to 
 public health. 
 
 Nothing can add more to the 
 health, happiness, and efficiency 
 of a town, city, or country than 
 careful attention and education 
 in matters of public health. 
 Health is the greatest asset any 
 person or any country can pos- 
 sess. We owe far more to our 
 
 public health officers than we do even to our bankers, 
 lawyers, and family doctors. Mr. Roosevelt has said, 
 " Our national health is physically our greatest asset. 
 To prevent any possible deterioration of the American 
 stock should be a national ambition." 
 
 A TENEMENT-HOUSE 
 INSPECTOR.
 
 HYGIENE 
 
 Here are a few sentences from men who are to-day 
 trying to save the nation from unnecessary sickness and 
 death. They are worth memorizing. 
 
 " Knowledge has value in proportion as it benefits the 
 human race."- -PROFESSOR CHITTENDEN. 
 
 " The death rate might be cut in two were we to 
 apply the existing knowledge of hygiene to present liv- 
 ing conditions." - DR. WELCH. 
 
 " Sickness is going out of fashion. Well organized, 
 civilized society will not stand for it." - DR. CRANDON.
 
 CHAPTER XXI 
 MAKING THE MOST OF LIFE 
 
 VERY few people ever learn the lesson of living so as 
 to get the most out of life. By getting the most out of 
 life we mean keeping well, being happy, and learning 
 hbw to be as useful as possible. In this book we have 
 tried to show that health, happiness, and usefulness are 
 all dependent upon one another. 
 
 Without useful knowledge of our physical machinery 
 we can never hope to obtain the best success 
 in life. If we are ignorant of the human The efficient 
 machine, how it does its work, and how it p^^son 
 should be adjusted to its surroundings, we knowledge 
 fail to make the most of life. 
 
 We do not study physiology and hygiene in order to 
 remember some facts about bones and muscles, or about 
 digestive juices and reflex actions. We study these 
 subjects in order to learn how to live healthful, happy, 
 useful lives. Already such knowledge has added twenty 
 years to the length of the average human life. 
 
 In the army and the navy soldiers and sailors are 
 trained to meet conditions which we call warfare, but in 
 civil life almost no training is given to prepare boys 
 and girls, or men and women, for a more certain and a 
 more dangerous and disastrous battle the struggle for 
 existence. 
 
 We are never truly educated until we learn how to
 
 178 HYGIENE 
 
 meet successfully the surroundings of life, or what is 
 called our environment. The person who becomes ill 
 with typhoid fever, malaria, tuberculosis, or even indi- 
 gestion, is either ignorant or the victim of his neigh- 
 bor's ignorance. He has not learned how to meet his 
 environment. 
 
 A man's or a woman's efficiency in this world is 
 largely dependent upon his or her degree of health 
 Efficient Good health is the best investment that any 
 depends on one can possibly make. It will bring in more 
 money than any other one thing in the world. 
 Employers do not want boys with poor eyesight or poor 
 hearing, or girls with round shoulders or crooked backs. 
 Bright minds cannot make up for weak bodies, and 
 minds will not long remain bright in such bodies. 
 
 The earning power of any pupil who leaves school 
 early in the grades is reduced at least fifty per cent. 
 It is a fact and not a theory that the chief cause of 
 leaving school is not poverty, but defective health. 
 
 We must also remember that a healthy mind nearly 
 always goes with a healthy body. It is seldom that a 
 physically sound person is a very bad person. On the 
 other hand, it has been found that about eighty-five per 
 cent of the children who come before the juvenile courts 
 have physically defective bodies. 
 
 Good health will bring more happiness than any othet 
 . one thing in the world. Healthy people are 
 
 depends on nearly always happy ; unhealthy people are 
 rarely so. The world wants happy people. 
 
 The practice of health principles ought to be a part 
 of every one's religion. One can never harm his own 
 mind or body alone. Every man must be his brother's
 
 MAKING THE MOST OF LIFE 179 
 
 keeper whether he desires to be so or not. Not one of 
 us can live to himself alone. 
 
 Knowledge of healthful living is already saving the 
 world millions of dollars and years of suffering. Since 
 
 1007 we have learned that nearly two millions 
 
 Healthful 
 of people in the South, called the " poor white ii v i ng pre . 
 
 trash," are suffering from a preventable and vents dis - 
 easily curable disease. These people are 
 shiftless, lazy, ignorant, and worthless. They have been 
 in this condition for at least one hundred years, although 
 they come from good English stock. Is it not a sad 
 sight to see all these human beings enduring the con- 
 tempt of their healthier and happier neighbors, suffer- 
 ing from sickness, and incapable of succeeding at 
 anything, when a little knowledge could prevent all 
 this ? 
 
 They are the victims of an unequal struggle against 
 an unseen foe. That foe is a parasite called the hook- 
 worm, which makes its way into their bodies and saps 
 their vitality. 
 
 But thanks to the knowledge given to us by one of 
 our government experts at Washington, Dr. Stiles, it 
 now seems possible to raise these unfortunates from 
 misery and inefficiency to happiness and usefulness. 
 All that is required is that they shall learn and practice 
 a few simple health principles. 
 
 Dr. Grenfell tells us that one out of every three deaths 
 in Labrador is caused by tuberculosis, and in the United 
 States we have learned that one person dies of this dis- 
 ease about every four minutes. It is ignorance which 
 results in the loss of so many people in Labrador, for 
 they live all winter long in crowded, ill ventilated houses.
 
 l8o HYGIENE 
 
 Missionaries of health are needed there, and they are 
 needed also here at home. 
 
 Two million people in the South might be taught how 
 to save themselves. Two hundred thousand people who 
 are now sick with tuberculosis in the United States 
 might be taught the same simple lesson. Such knowl- 
 edge must also be learned by every growing boy and 
 girl, if the men and women of to-morrow are to lead 
 useful, efficient lives. 
 
 Louis Agassiz once said that a natural law is as 
 sacred as a moral principle. The laws of Jicaltli are 
 natural laws, and they are therefore sacred. 
 
 Great wars between nations are now almost things of 
 the past. President Jordan of Stanford University has 
 w rf shown that such wars really destroy the 
 
 against country's choicest men, for only strong men 
 disease can g O to war The wars o f the future will 
 be those directed not against men, but against disease. 
 It will be a warfare waged for the good of all and to 
 the injury of none. 
 
 A great teacher has said : " For each of us it is pos- 
 sible to incfrease the duration of his best moments, and 
 to render them more frequent. It is also possible for 
 us to reduce the number and length of those periods of 
 depression and low vitality when our work miscarries 
 and our lives lack snap and enthusiasm. 
 
 "If we succeed in bringing about such a change, we 
 shall have raised the whole plane of our living to some- 
 thing higher and more admirable. There are conditions 
 for each individual under which he does the most and 
 best work. It is his business to ascertain those condi- 
 tions and to comply with them."
 
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND 
 REVIEW 
 
 PART I. GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY 
 
 CHAPTER I (Pages 5-11) 
 
 These questions are given as suggestive reviews. The pupil roust not 
 he expected to answer all of them without the aid of the teacher. 
 
 1. Describe the framework of the body. 
 
 2. Describe the main divisions of the body. 
 
 3. How is the spinal cord protected? 
 
 4. What are bones for? 
 
 5. What is a muscle? 
 
 6. What is the relation between bones and muscles? 
 
 7. What is a lever? 
 
 8. Mention some muscles which do not act on bones. 
 
 9. What are nerves? 
 
 10. What is meant by the nervous system? 
 
 CHAPTER II (Pages 12-14) 
 
 1. Compare the cells of the body to the bricks of a house. 
 
 2. Why may the stomach be called merely a receptacle for 
 food? 
 
 3. When is the body fed? 
 
 4. Why may the lungs be called reservoirs for air? 
 
 5. Where do food and air finally go in the body? 
 
 6. How are food and air carried in the body? 
 
 7. Compare the cells of the body to an army. 
 
 8. Compare the cells cf the body to a community of people. 
 
 9. In what ways are cells dependent upon one another? 
 
 181
 
 182 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 
 
 CHAPTER III (Pages 15-23) 
 
 1 . What is an organ ? Name several. 
 
 2. Why do organs differ? 
 
 3. What is meant \sy function ? 
 
 4. Mention the principal function of the following organs : 
 brain, nerves, kidneys, lungs, liver, stomach, intestines. 
 
 5. What are organs of excretion? 
 
 6. What are secreting organs? 
 
 7. What is a gland? 
 
 8. What is a duct? 
 
 9. What is the digestive tract? 
 
 10. What work does the heart do? 
 
 11. What happens if any organ gets out of order? 
 
 12. What is meant by a system ? 
 
 13. What is meant by a tissue? 
 
 14. What is meant by a cell? 
 
 CHAFFER IV (Pages 24-29) 
 
 1. Compare the circulatory system with a waterworks 
 system. 
 
 2. Why do the smallest blood vessels have thin walls? 
 
 3. What i the work of the heart and blood vessels? 
 
 4. What is lymph? 
 
 5. Why may the blood be called the common carrier of the 
 body? 
 
 6. Where does the blood dispose of waste substances? 
 
 7. Name all the substances you know which the blood 
 carries. 
 
 8. How does food reach the cells of the body? 
 
 9. Explain why food in the stomach does not feed the 
 body. 
 
 10. What are arteries? 
 
 1 1. What are veirjs?
 
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 183 
 
 12. What are capillaries? 
 
 13. What is plasma? 
 
 14. What solid bodies are there in the blood? 
 
 CHAPTER V (Pages 30-43) 
 
 1 . What is food ? 
 
 2. Compare food with fuel. 
 
 3. Why is the body warm? 
 
 4. What is combustion? 
 
 5. What is the temperature of the healthy body? 
 
 6. What kinds of animals have the highest temperature? 
 Explain. 
 
 7. What animals have low temperatures? 
 
 8. Do you think the temperature of an animal which sleeps 
 all winter is high or low? Explain. 
 
 9. Why is it that the temperature of the body does not 
 rise during exercise? 
 
 10. How is the temperature of the body regulated? 
 
 1 1 . Why does it keep the same temperature on a hot and a 
 cold day? 
 
 12. For what do we need food? 
 
 13. Name the food prin ciples. 
 
 14. Name several starch foods. 
 
 15. Name several sugar foods. 
 
 16. What is a nitrogen food? Give examples. 
 
 17. What foods are needed for heat and work? 
 
 1 8. What foods are needed for growth and repair? 
 
 19. What is proteid? 
 
 20. What is peptone ? 
 
 21. What food principles are found in milk? 
 
 22. Why cannot an adult live on a diet of milk alone? 
 
 23. What is cheese?
 
 184 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 
 
 24. Name an albumen food. 
 
 25. Name the principal fat foods. 
 
 26. What are the organic foods? 
 
 27. What are the inorganic foods? 
 
 28. How much water does a person need daily? 
 
 29. What are food flavors? Name some. 
 
 30. Are coffee and tea foods? 
 
 31. Is alcohol a food ? 
 
 32. What is the purpose of digestion? 
 
 33. In what ways must starch, proteids, and fats be changed 
 by digestion? 
 
 34. What is saliva? What is its function ? 
 
 35. What is an emulsion? Give an illustration. 
 
 36. What is bile? What work does it do? 
 
 37. Describe the work of the pancreatic juice. 
 
 38. What organ secretes pepsin and hydrochloric acid ? 
 
 39. What food is changed by pepsin and hydrochloric acid, 
 and what is the change? Why is this change necessary? 
 
 CHAPTER VI (Pages 44-52) 
 
 1. How may the nervous system be compared with a fore- 
 man or superintendent ? 
 
 2. What is meant by coordination? 
 
 3. What are the controlling parts of the nervous system? 
 
 4. What is the cerebrum ? 
 
 5. What is the cerebellum? 
 
 6. What is the medulla? 
 
 7. In what part of the brain does consciousness arise? 
 
 8. What work does the cerebellum do? 
 
 9. What do you mean by centers in the brain? Illustrate. 
 
 10. What is the spinal cord? 
 
 11. How is it protected? 
 
 12. How is it connected with the brain?
 
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND KEV1EVV 185 
 
 13. What is a reflex action? Illustrate. 
 
 14. Is there ever consciousness with a reflex action? 
 
 15. What is the sympathetic nervous system? 
 
 1 6. What work does it do? 
 
 17. What parts of the nervous system control breathing, 
 swallowing, the beat of the heart, and regulation of the blood 
 supply? 
 
 18. What happens if the spinal cord is badly injured? 
 
 19. What happens if the medulla is badly injured? 
 
 20. What is paralysis? 
 
 21. What is apoplexy? 
 
 22. What do you mean by automatic actions? 
 
 23. What are nerves? 
 
 24. Compare the nerves of the body to the wires of a tele- 
 graph or telephone system. 
 
 25. Compare the will power to the telegraph operator. 
 
 26. Compare the nerve cells of the brain to batteries in a 
 telegraph office. 
 
 27. How are the different parts of the spinal cord and the 
 brain brought into communication with each other? 
 
 28. What is the difference between a nerve cell and a nerve ? 
 
 29. What is education as applied to the brain? 
 
 30. What parts of the brain keep on developing until at 
 least sixty years of age? 
 
 31. Kxplain habit. 
 
 32. What do you mean by the physical basis for habits? 
 
 33. Why is it hard to break a habit? 
 
 34. What do you mean by false messages received and sent 
 by the brain? What things produce these false messages? 
 
 35. In what way does one become a victim to his habits? 
 
 36. In what way does the use of alcohol, tobacco, coffee, 
 drugs, form a fixed habit? 
 
 37. What sorts of things make the nervous machinery wear 
 out?
 
 1 86 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 
 
 CHAPTER VII (Pages 53-55) 
 
 1. Compare the human body with a machine. 
 
 2. What is energy? 
 
 3. Name several forms of energy. 
 
 4. Compare food and fuel. 
 
 5. Why is a steam engine wasteful? 
 
 6. Why is the body less wasteful than a steam engine ? 
 
 7. What is a machine? 
 
 8. What do you mean by changing the form of energy? 
 
 9. What do you mean by combustion? 
 
 10. Compare the waste products of the human body with 
 the waste products of a machine. 
 
 IT. How can you get the most work out of a machine? 
 
 12. How can you get the most work out of the human body? 
 
 13. Why is it necessary to understand the working of the 
 human body? 
 
 14. Compare this sort of knowledge with the knowledge of 
 an engineer. 
 
 PART II. HYGIENE 
 
 v CHAPTER VIII (Pages 59-66) 
 
 1. What is meant by resistance? When is one susceptible 
 to a disease ? 
 
 2. What is meant by a natural defense in the body? Name 
 several. 
 
 3. Mention an important work of the white blood corpuscles. 
 
 4. Explain the struggle that occurs at times between the 
 white cells and bacteria. 
 
 5. How are bacteria sometimes reduced in strength after 
 they gain a foothold in the body? 
 
 6. If bacteria produce poisons in the body, how may nature 
 aid the body to overcome the poison ?
 
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 187 
 
 7. Mention one use of lymph glands. 
 
 8. Explain how the temperature of the body is regulated. 
 What is the temperature of the body ? 
 
 9. What uses has pain ? 
 
 10. Explain the difference between the cause of a trouble 
 and its symptom or symptoms. 
 
 11. Why must one discover the cause before treating a 
 trouble? 
 
 12. Can you mention any other defenses of the body not 
 named in the chapter? 
 
 CHAPTER IX (Pages 67-71) 
 
 1. What does health depend upon? 
 
 2. What is meant by division of labor among the cells of the 
 body ? 
 
 3. Compare the workmen in a factory with cell workers of 
 the body. 
 
 4. Why does the human body get out of order rather easily? 
 
 5. Compare the body to a complicated piece of machinery. 
 
 6. What kind of cells in the body can never be replaced if 
 once destroyed? 
 
 7. What kinds of cells are easily replaced ? 
 
 8. What does the seriousness of sickness depend upon ? 
 
 CHAPTER X (Pages 72-80) 
 
 1. What are some of the things that make a person sus- 
 ceptible to disease? 
 
 2. Name some of the most healthful occupations. 
 
 3. Name some of the most unhealthful occupations. 
 
 4. Give your explanation of the reasons in both cases. 
 
 5. What kinds of work have a tendency to lead to tuber- 
 culosis? 
 
 6. Why are the Jews a healthy race of people ? 
 
 7. What are some of the effects of child labor?
 
 1 88 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 
 
 8. What are some of the evil effects of intemperance upon 
 the children of intemperate parents ? 
 
 9. Which do you think are worse, l\\e physical or the moral 
 effects of intemperance? 
 
 10. What common things may a person use to excess besides 
 alcohol ? 
 
 11. What is the relation between intemperance and resist- 
 ance to disease? 
 
 12. Does a child of drinking parents necessarily inherit a 
 taste for alcohol ? 
 
 13. What qualities is he pretty sure to inherit? 
 
 14. What are some of the direct causes of disease? 
 
 15. What is meant by the terms bacteria and parasites ? 
 
 16. What conditions are favorable to their growth? 
 
 17. What can you say about their multiplication? 
 
 18. How long have we known about bacteria? 
 
 19. What benefit has this knowledge been to mankind? 
 
 20. What are some of the uses of bacteria? 
 
 21. What is the relation between bacteria and decay? 
 
 22. Name some methods used to prevent fermentation and 
 decay. 
 
 23. Explain how the food for animals and plants originally 
 comes from the^ earth, air, and water, and how all animals and 
 plants are at last reduced to this source. 
 
 CHAPTER XI (Pages 81-91; 
 
 1. What is a contagious disease? 
 
 2. Are bacteria animals or plants? 
 
 3. Name the common contagious diseases. 
 
 4. What did people formerly think was the cause of conta- 
 gious disease? 
 
 5. What were their conditions of life? 
 
 6. What is the relation between sanitary surroundings and 
 health ?
 
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 189 
 
 7. What superstitions about disease still exist among people 
 to-day? 
 
 8. Why should one not take patent or other advertised 
 medicines? 
 
 9. What is the objection to " street doctors " and those who 
 practice with mysterious methods? 
 
 10. What ought the public to demand of a doctor? 
 
 11. Is there anything mysterious about disease? 
 
 12. In what countries is bubonic plague the worst? Why? 
 
 13. What is the relation between rats and the plague? 
 
 14. How does our government prevent the plague from 
 gaining a foothold in this country? 
 
 15. Explain the relation between swamps and other wet 
 places and malaria. How can a malarial district be made 
 healthful? 
 
 1 6. How did our government stamp out yellow fever in 
 Cuba? 
 
 17. Why did not the Cubans succeed in doing so years 
 before ? 
 
 1 8. What work of our government is making the digging of 
 the Panama Canal possible? 
 
 19. Why did not the French succeed in this work? 
 
 20. What two dangerous diseases still rage in this country, 
 and why? 
 
 21. Why is tuberculosis a dangerous disease? 
 
 22. How could tuberculosis be controlled better than it is at 
 present? 
 
 23. Why is the public so careless about tuberculosis? 
 
 24. How do you think the public could be aroused on this 
 subject? 
 
 25. Tell what you know about the way typhoid fever and 
 tuberculosis are spread. 
 
 26. What is meant by quarantining a house ? 
 
 27. What is meant by isolating a sick person?
 
 190 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 
 
 28. How may a room be disinfected? 
 
 29. What are the best disinfectants? 
 
 30. How can the public be educated best about health and 
 disease ? 
 
 31. How do you think an epidemic of diphtheria, scarlet 
 fever, or measles in a school could best be controlled? 
 
 32. Mention some of the work of a board of health. 
 
 33. How could contagious diseases be wiped out of exist- 
 ence? 
 
 34. What conditions favor the growth of bacteria? 
 
 35. What conditions are necessary in the home for protection 
 against disease germs? 
 
 36. What is the relation between bad ventilation and disease? 
 
 37. Why is pneumonia so common in large cities? 
 
 38. Compare the air of mountains and the sea with that of 
 cities. 
 
 39. What may be the danger from expectorations in the 
 street? 
 
 40. What diseases may be carried in water, milk, meat? 
 
 41. What is a.fi/f/i disease? 
 
 42. Explain how insects may carry disease. 
 
 43. How may animals carry disease? 
 
 \ 
 CHAPTER XII (Pages 92-97) 
 
 1. What is a cold? 
 
 2. What is meant by " taking cold "? 
 
 3. What is meant by an infection ? 
 
 4. In what sort of places do we most often take colds? 
 Why? 
 
 5. Why do not people take cold in the polar regions, on 
 mountains, and far out at sea ? 
 
 6. What has chilling to do with colds? 
 
 7. Why is a direct draft dangerous? Is it always dangerous? 
 
 8. What things predispose a person to colds?
 
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 191 
 
 9. How may indigestion cause a cold? 
 
 10. Is there any relation between colds and tuberculosis? 
 
 1 1 . What is meant by catarrh ? 
 
 1 2. How may colds be avoided ? 
 
 13. How should a cold be treated when it first comes on? 
 
 CHAPTER XIII (Pages 98-114) 
 
 1. What is meant by personal hygiene? 
 
 2. What is eye strain ? 
 
 3. What are some of the causes? 
 
 4. What are some of the indications of eye troubles? 
 
 5. Tell what you know about the care of the eyes. 
 
 6. What sort of light is best for close eye work? 
 
 7. Why ought not young pupils to do much close eye work? 
 
 8. What objection is there to going to an optician, instead 
 of to an oculist ? 
 
 9. What is the difference between the two? 
 10. What are adenoids? 
 
 i r. What harm may they do to the health? 
 
 12. What is the usual cause of crooked teeth? 
 
 13. When are tonsils dangerous to health? 
 
 14. What relation is there between nose and throat troubles 
 and ear trouble? 
 
 15. What are the common causes of deafness? 
 
 1 6. What is catarrh ? 
 
 17. What are some of the causes of catarrh? 
 
 1 8. How may indigestion be avoided? 
 
 19. What are some of the causes of headache? 
 
 20. Why should advertised headache remedies be avoided? 
 
 21. How often should a young person see a dentist? 
 
 22. Do the first teeth need dental care? 
 
 23. Why are decayed teeth injurious to health? 
 
 24. What should one do about crooked teeth?
 
 192 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 
 
 25. Discuss sleep : why it is important ; how much is needed ; 
 the best time for sleep. 
 
 26. Explain the uses of cool bathing. 
 
 27. Discuss bathing in general. 
 
 28. Name the dangers of sea bathing. 
 
 29. Why is the Japanese army healthier than any other? 
 
 CHAPTER XIV (Pages 115-129) 
 
 1. What is the best kind of location for a home? 
 
 2. What are the objections to dark, damp rooms? 
 
 3. What is the value of sunlight and fresh air in a home ? 
 
 4. What is the value of an open fireplace ? 
 
 5. How may a room heated by a stove be best ventilated? 
 
 6. Explain a good method of ventilation, when a home is 
 heated by a hot-air furnace. 
 
 7. What is the objection to oil and gas stoves? 
 
 8. What kinds of heating systems make the air too dry? 
 
 9. What is the effect of dry air? 
 
 10. What conditions are likely to cause too much humidity 
 in a room ? 
 
 it. What effect does the burning of lamps have on the air 
 in a room? 
 
 12. Discussvthe ventilation of bedrooms. 
 
 13. Is there any danger in night air? 
 
 14. Describe an out-door sleeping room. 
 
 15. Tell one reason why tuberculosis is a common disease in 
 the country. 
 
 1 6. What are some of the consequences of poor ventilation? 
 
 17. Why is dust dangerous? 
 
 1 8. Describe the best methods for dusting a room. 
 
 19. What are the best floor coverings? 
 
 20. What are the objections to heavy upholstery and hang- 
 ings in a room? 
 
 21. What are the dangers from bad plumbing in a house?
 
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 193 
 
 22. What are cesspools? 
 
 23. How may they cause trouble? 
 
 24. Describe a modern hygienic kitchen. 
 
 25. Discuss sanitary stores, bakeries, meat shops, milk sup- 
 plies. 
 
 26. How should a sick-room be cared for? 
 
 27. Tell something about the care of a sick person in the 
 home. 
 
 CHAPTER XV (Pages 130-136) 
 
 1. Compare food and the body to fuel and an engine. 
 
 2. What are the uses of food to the body? 
 
 3. What kinds of food are needed by people in cold coun- 
 tries ? 
 
 4. Why does not a grown person require as much food as a 
 boy? 
 
 5. What foods are used principally for growth and repair? 
 
 6. What foods are used principally for heat and work? 
 
 7. Give examples of foods containing starch. 
 
 8. Name several kinds of sugar and explain where they 
 come from. 
 
 9. Name several kinds of fats and oils. 
 
 10. What is a nitrogen food ? Give examples. 
 
 1 1. What do you mean by a mixed diet? 
 
 12. What is the objection to a diet of starchy foods? 
 
 13. What is an unnatural food habit? 
 
 14. What is the object of the process of digestion? 
 
 15. What is the relation between health and digestion? 
 
 1 6. What has indigestion to do with weakening the defenses 
 of the body? 
 
 17. What foods are apt to ferment in the stomach or intes- 
 tines? 
 
 18. How may a person poison himself with healthful food? 
 
 19. What is the commonest cause of decayed teeth?
 
 194 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 
 
 20. What has the mind to do with digestion ? 
 When is candy harmful ? 
 What can you say of tea and coffee as food ? 
 
 23. Make a series of rules for correct habits in eating. 
 
 24. Explain several methods by which foods may be pie- 
 served. 
 
 25. Why do foods spoil? 
 
 26. How may foods be kept from spoiling? 
 
 27. Why do foods from cold storage and canned goods need 
 special care? 
 
 CHAPTER XVI (Pages 137-147) 
 
 1. Why is milk so frequently contaminated with bacteria? 
 
 2. Why is city milk usually worse than that from a private 
 dairy? 
 
 3. Are all the germs in milk of the disease-producing kind? 
 
 4. What kind of milk contains the greatest number of 
 germs? 
 
 5. What kind contains the least number? 
 
 6. How can you tell when milk has been carelessly handled ? 
 
 7. How do germs get into milk? 
 
 8. What is the relation between the water supplies at the 
 dairy and the milk? 
 
 9. What very common disease affects cattle? 
 
 10. How may this disease be detected? 
 
 1 1. How may a clean, wholesome milk supply be obtained? 
 
 12. If you could not discover the reliability of the milk supply 
 at once, what would you do to make the milk safe to drink ? 
 
 13. Does Pasteurizing milk injure it? What is the effect? 
 
 14. Mention some of the rules for a clean dairy. 
 
 15. Why should a town or city undertake to obtain a pure 
 milk supply? 
 
 1 6. What is the condition of the milk supplies in your town 
 or city?
 
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 195 
 
 17. Visit a large dairy, if possible, and report what you 
 observe. 
 
 1 8. Visit a private dairy, if you can, and see if it is a clean 
 one. If it is not, tell how it could be made so. 
 
 19. Why is river water seldom pure? 
 
 20. How may a well be contaminated? 
 
 21. Why is spring water usually pure? 
 
 22. Explain why filters are usually worthless. 
 
 23. What sort of filter is useful? 
 
 24. How should a filter be cared for? 
 
 25. Does removal of dirt from drinking water by means of a 
 filter always mean that the water is pure? Explain. 
 
 26. Explain some of the methods for disposing of sewage. 
 
 27. Explain some of the dangers from leaking sewer pipes. 
 
 28. When may cesspools be a source of danger? 
 
 CHAPTER XVII (Pages 148-155) 
 
 1. What is a stimulus? 
 
 2. What is a narcotic? 
 
 3. Why is alcohol not a stimulus? 
 
 4. Why is it a narcotic? 
 
 5. What effect has alcohol upon the muscles? 
 
 6. What effect has it upon the brain ? 
 
 7. What effect has it upon the morals? 
 
 8. Do you think the moral or physical effects of alcohol 
 are worse ? 
 
 9. What effect has alcohol upon the temperature of the 
 body? 
 
 10. Explain this effect upon temperature. 
 
 11. Why does a person at first feel stimulated by alcoholic 
 drinks? 
 
 12. What change occurs in the nerve cells of the brain from 
 the use of alcohol?
 
 196 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 
 
 13. What do you think is the strongest argument against the 
 use of alcohol ? 
 
 14. Is " alcoholism " a habit or a disease? 
 
 15. What is the relation between the resistance of the body 
 to disease and the use of alcohol ? 
 
 1 6. What is the effect of the habitual use of alcohol upon 
 the children of parents who so use it ? 
 
 17. What is the relation between disease, poverty, crime, 
 and the use of alcohol? 
 
 1 8. Does alcohol increase the power for work? 
 
 19. If you were going out for a long drive on a. very cold 
 day, would a drink of whisky warm you ? 
 
 20. Why do mountain climbers and Arctic explorers avoid 
 alcoholic drinks ? 
 
 21. Why do those in training for athletic contests avoid 
 alcohol ? 
 
 22. Why is the use of tobacco injurious? 
 
 23. What are the dangers from the use of cigarettes? 
 
 24. Is the use of coffee and tea injurious? 
 
 25. If you think so, explain why. 
 
 26. Under what conditions may the use of good food be as 
 injurious as coffee, tea, or tobacco? 
 
 27. How may a person poison himself with ordinary food? 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII (Pages 156-160) 
 
 1. How much is spent every year in the United States for 
 patent medicines? 
 
 2. Why should every one avoid patent medicines? 
 
 3. What can you say about tuberculosis " cures " ? 
 
 4. What can you say about cures in general that are adver- 
 tised in the papers and magazines? 
 
 5. Explain the evil of the dosing practice with regular drugs. 
 
 6. How can one avoid most disorders? 
 
 7. When should a person consult a physician?
 
 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 197 
 
 8. What sort of physician ought one to go to? 
 
 9. Mention some of the superstitions about disease to-day. 
 
 10. Do you know of any not mentioned in the book? 
 
 1 1. What has the mind to do with the health of the body? 
 
 12. What do you mean by right ways of living? 
 
 13. Mention some of the habits which break down the health. 
 
 14. What habits may be just as vicious as the excessive use 
 of alcohol or tobacco ? 
 
 CHAPTER XIX (Pages 161-166) 
 
 1. Why is a physical examination necessary for any one 
 who enters athletic work? 
 
 2. Why is gradual training necessary in athletics? 
 
 3. How may violent exercise harm a boy or girl? 
 
 4. What is the danger from sudden strains? 
 
 5. From what diseases do many athletes die? Why is this ? 
 
 6. What is the real use of exercise? 
 
 7. Name the advantages of out-of-door exercises. 
 
 8. What are some of the milder forms of exercise ? 
 
 9. In what way do exercises aid in the training of the eye, 
 ear, and hand ? 
 
 10. Do exercises improve the mind? If so, how? 
 
 11. Can exercise be compared in value with an ordinary 
 school study? If so, how must it be directed? 
 
 12. Explain why out-of-door life is the natural life for a 
 natural person. 
 
 13. What is the relation between a bright, clear mind and a 
 healthy body, and what has exercise to do with this? 
 
 14. Tell what you know about public playgrounds. 
 
 CHAPTER XX (Pages 167-176) 
 
 1. What are some of the government organizations that 
 protect public health ? 
 
 2. Explain why such protection is needed.
 
 198 TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND REVIEW 
 
 3. Tell what you know about the Pure Food Law. 
 
 4. What are some of the duties of the board of health re- 
 garding food and water supplies? 
 
 5. How do health officers protect us from contagious dis- 
 eases? 
 
 6. Tell what you know of the quarantining of ships coming 
 from foreign ports. 
 
 7. What is antitoxin? 
 
 8. What is vaccination ? 
 
 9. Explain the importance of vaccination. 
 
 10. Tell as much as you can of the work done by the various 
 bureaus in the health department of a big city. 
 
 11. Discuss some of the ways in which general good health 
 promotes the success and happiness of a nation.
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 WHY A WORLD WARFARE IS BEING WAGED AGAINST 
 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 IMPORTANT FACTS CONCERNING TUBERCULOSIS l 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS, or consumption, is a disease which robs the 
 mothers of the world of one out of every ten children. The 
 causes of this disease are known, likewise the means whereby 
 it may be prevented. 
 
 In the United States more than 150,000 persons die every 
 year from tuberculosis, and 200,000 are constantly sick with 
 this disease. The great majority of these persons The cost of 
 are in the prime of life. Many of them are married, tubercu- 
 and by their untimely deaths leave dependent 
 families to be cared for by the state. The loss in money to 
 the United States from these preventable deaths every year 
 amounts to more than $300,000,000. The suffering caused by 
 the disease it is impossible to estimate. 
 
 1. Tuberculosis is preventable. Two impor- 
 
 2. Tuberculosis is curable. tant facts 
 These are most important facts worthy of widest circulation, 
 especially as contrary ideas prevail. Universal prevention and 
 cure of this disease will result only when there is universal 
 effort against it. 
 
 The direct cause of tuberculosis is a germ. There can be no 
 tuberculosis unless this germ is present in the body. A second- 
 
 1 Adapted from " Gold Medal Leaflet," International Tuberculosis 
 Congress, 1908. 
 
 199
 
 200 APPENDIX 
 
 ary cause is that the body of the person who takes this disease 
 The causes * s f avora ble to the growth of the germ. Any 
 of tubercu- person whose health and strength are run down 
 is predisposed to tuberculosis, because in such a 
 person there is not much resistance. The two things necessary, 
 then, for tuberculosis, are the presence of a certain germ and a 
 lack of resistance to it. 
 
 When the germ gets into the body of a person who is run 
 
 down in health, it finds conditions suitable for its growth, and 
 
 it produces the disease called tuberculosis. Poisons 
 
 thrown out by the germs get into the blood, and 
 
 these poisons cause most of the symptoms of the disease. 
 
 The symptoms of tuberculosis vary according to the stage 
 The svmp- which the disease has reached. The symptoms or 
 toms of tu- the early stages particularly should be learned, for 
 bercuiosis ^ - ]S tnen tnat cure can ^ b rou g nt about and lives 
 
 can be saved. 
 
 This disease usually comes on in very slow and mild fashion. 
 That is what throws the persons infected off their guard. There 
 may be nothing more than a tired feeling, especially after work, 
 a lessened appetite, some loss of weight, and perhaps an occa- 
 sional cough. 
 
 As the disease grows worse, these symptoms likewise increase. 
 The loss of weight may be very noticeable ; there may be fever 
 and night sweats. With the more frequent cough much sputum 
 may be expectorated. 
 
 In the advanced stages some of these symptoms, like cough, 
 loss of weight, and fever, may be very pronounced. Then we 
 have the picture of the "consumptive." 
 
 Tuberculosis is prevented by doing two things : 
 How tuber- i. Killing the germs that cause the disease, 
 be re 8 "^ 2> H av ' n gP e P' e become healthy, so that they will 
 vented not be predisposed to the disease. 
 
 The germs are scattered far and wide in the sputum coughed
 
 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 2O I 
 
 up by consumptives. One consumptive can cough up in a 
 single day several billion of these germs. When this How the 
 sputum dries as dust, the germs are blown about ; germs are 
 they get into the air we breathe and on the food destr y ed 
 we eat and things we handle. In this way every person at 
 
 OUTDOOR LIFE CURES TUBERCULOSIS. 
 
 This patient is regaining health by living on 
 a leaky porch. 1 
 
 some time in life probably gets the germs into his body, but if 
 he is in good health they do him no harm. 
 
 To destroy these germs, all that is necessary is to destroy the 
 sputum. If it is coughed into paper cups or napkins, these 
 can be burned and the germs destroyed. For spittoons, dis- 
 infectant solutions like lye should be used. Spitting on the 
 streets, and especially on floors, is dangerous. 
 
 lr This picture and those on page 96 are used by courtesy of the 
 Emmanuel Church Tuberculosis Class.
 
 202 APPENDIX 
 
 Bodily weakness, that is, the predisposition to tuberculosis, 
 may be overcome by right living, particularly by breathing 
 How the pure air, eating nourishing food, and getting the 
 tendency to proper proportion of rest and exercise, 
 may be A child weak at birth should be guarded, and 
 
 overcome as he grows older he should spend much time 
 out of doors. 
 
 Children weak from diseases like measles or whooping cough 
 should not be neglected. These and kindred diseases are often 
 responsible for tuberculosis being contracted later in life. 
 
 Children should not be made to work at too early an age, 
 nor allowed to study so hard as to interfere with health. 
 
 Food should be eaten slowly, and should always be nourish- 
 ing. If cow's milk is used, it should be obtained from a dairy 
 having no tuberculous cattle. 
 
 The living and sleeping rooms of the family should always 
 be well ventilated. The human body, if it is to be in a healthy 
 state, must have pure air. Bedrooms should not be over- 
 crowded, and single beds are a necessity. 
 
 Tuberculosis may be cured by the same measures which pre- 
 vent it, namely, by making the body stronger, so that it will 
 H t b r ^ e able to kill the germs that have entered the 
 culosis may tissues. Pure air, good food, and plenty of rest 
 constitute a treatment which cures more people of 
 tuberculosis than all the medicines that are known. Tent life, 
 or the use of a sleeping porch or tent room, has aided in the 
 cure of thousands. 
 
 The patient should avoid patent medicines for tuberculosis, 
 particularly cough medicines, as these usually contain alcohol 
 and opiates, which, though they make the patient feel better, 
 usually allow the disease to grow worse. 
 
 These methods of treatment should be carried out under the 
 advice of a private or dispensary physician who has made a 
 study of the disease.
 
 TUBERCULOSIS 203 
 
 SOME RULES FOR THE STUDY AND PREVENTION OF 
 TUBERCULOSIS ' 
 
 Tuberculosis is a communicable disease. 
 
 Tuberculosis is a preventable disease. 
 
 Tuberculosis is a curable disease. 
 
 Tuberculosis is communicated by means of the tubercle 
 bacilli, small plants which are thrown off frequently from the 
 lungs in the expectoration. 
 
 The patient is not dangerous to others if this expectorated 
 matter is properly destroyed. 
 
 Tuberculous discharges should be received in a receptacle 
 of such nature th;it the matter can be burned, or otherwise 
 destroyed, and the receptacle boiled. 
 
 Expectorations should never be swallowed. 
 
 When coughing or sneezing, patients should cover their 
 mouths with the hand or handkerchief. 
 
 Several forms of spit cups are on the market : some of 
 pasteboard, which can be burned ; others of metal, which can 
 be boiled ; others of metal form, holding a papier mach cup, 
 which can be replaced at nominal expense. Whatever form is 
 used, the cup should be covered to prevent flies from coming 
 in contact with the sputum. 
 
 Disinfectant solutions may be used in these cups : carbolic 
 acid solution, five parts to one hundred of water ; concentrated 
 lye, one tablespoonful to a glass of water ; or formalin, five 
 parts to one hundred of water. 
 
 Expectorating into cloths which are carried in the pocket 
 or placed about the bedding, is a dangerous practice. It may 
 cause further infection of the patient and the infection of 
 others. If circumstances are such that cloths must be used 
 temporarily, they should be burned, never washed. After the 
 
 1 Southern California' Association for the Study and Prevention of 
 Tuberculosis.
 
 204 APPENDIX 
 
 sputum has become dry, such cloths are dangerous to persons 
 who handle them. 
 
 Expectoration should be destroyed before it dries. 
 
 Expectoration should be kept away from flies. 
 . Never expectorate in dark corners. 
 
 Tuberculosis patients should always wash their teeth, mouth, 
 and hands before meals and frequently during the day. 
 
 Apartments used by consumptives should not contain car- 
 pets, unnecessary upholstering, curtains, or tapestry. 
 
 Apartments which have been used by tubercular patients 
 should be thoroughly disinfected under the direction of the 
 health authorities or a competent physician. 
 
 Cases of tuberculosis should be reported to the proper health 
 authorities, not for the purpose of quarantine, but for general 
 instruction. 
 
 Those afflicted with tuberculosis should not play or associate 
 intimately with children. 
 
 Remember that tuberculosis is curable, if the case comes early 
 under the guidance of an intelligent physician. 
 
 Remember that tuberculosis is rarely, if ever, inherited. 
 
 Remember that the hereditary tendency toward tuberculosis 
 can always be overcome if one has the proper knowledge.
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR TEACHERS 
 
 In order that the study of health may be made really profit- 
 able, it is necessary to interest pupils, and older readers a.s well, 
 in things outside of book studies. 
 
 Pupils may be readily started upon a little original investiga- 
 tion. For example, certain of them may be asked to study the 
 dairy conditions of their town or city and report upon them ; 
 others may be given the problem of mosquito extermination ; 
 some pupils can be interested to look up the health ordinances 
 of their town, city, or state ; many will be glad to investigate 
 the local water supply and the methods for the disposal of 
 sewage and garbage ; the question of tenement house improve- 
 ments will interest city pupils ; any pupil can be interested in 
 the subjects of public playgrounds, summer health camps, and 
 outdoor life. The health conditions of its own school and 
 grounds will serve as profitable topics for any class. Encourage 
 pupils to tell what they know from actual experience about 
 contagious diseases and their control. Let some pupils investi- 
 gate the conditions of the streets, public buildings, back yards, 
 etc., in their own locality. Interest certain members of the 
 class in the sanitary conditions of the local grocery stores, meat 
 shops, bakeries, and candy stores. Assign such topics as drain- 
 age, meat inspection, pure food laws, patent medicines, flies, 
 preparation of food, ventilation at home, the care of the teeth, 
 adenoids, diseased tonsils, defective eyesight, and causes of 
 poor nutrition. In a word, try to induce the pupils to apply to 
 life what they learn, from the day of the very first lesson. 
 
 Make out a list of questions dealing with daily life to be 
 answered in writing by each member of the class without sign-
 
 206 APPENDIX 
 
 ing any name, and from the answers lay out a course in practi- 
 cal hygiene. The following questions are suggested : 
 
 1. Do you have one or more windows open in your bedroom at 
 night? 
 
 2. Is your bouse screened in summer? 
 
 3. Do you take cold easily? 
 
 4. Do you eat lunch every day? 
 
 5. If you do not eat every day at noon, how often do you take 
 lunch? 
 
 6. Do you drink coffee? 
 
 7. If you do, how often each day? 
 
 8. Do you drink tea? 
 
 9. If you do, how often each day? 
 
 10. What do you usually eat for breakfast ? 
 
 1 1. How often do you bathe all over? 
 
 12. How many hours do you sleep? 
 
 13. What time do you go to bed? 
 
 14. What time do you get up? 
 
 15. Do you work outside of school hours? 
 
 16. If you do, at what kind of work? 
 
 17. Do you have headache often? 
 
 18. Do your eyes hurt often? 
 
 19. Can you read writing on the board easily? 
 
 20. Do you use a toothbrush ? 
 
 21 . If you do, how often ? 
 
 22. Have you any bad teeth? 
 
 23. Have you ever been to a dentist? 
 
 24. Do you smoke? 
 
 25. If you do, how often? 
 
 Many special problems of local interest will suggest them- 
 selves. Physiology and hygiene taught in this way will soon 
 cease to be a bore and become a pleasant diversion as well as 
 a profitable duty.
 
 TOPICS ON HEALTH SUBJECTS 
 
 Alcohol. 
 
 Antitoxin. 
 
 Bacteria : use ; harmful. 
 
 Boards of Health. 
 
 Canning Industry. 
 
 Care of Milk. 
 
 Cereal Breakfast Foods. 
 
 Certified Milk. 
 
 Child Labor. 
 
 City Health Ordinances. 
 
 Cuba : health conditions. 
 
 Dairy Investigation. 
 
 Destruction of Mosquitoes. 
 
 Disinfection. 
 
 Dust. 
 
 Field Meets. 
 
 Garbage Disposal. 
 
 Health Camps. 
 
 Health of Various Countries. 
 
 Ice. 
 
 Japanese Army Sanitation. 
 
 Malaria. 
 
 Medical Supervision of Schools. 
 
 Milk Ordinances. 
 
 Model Dairies. 
 
 Municipal Playgrounds. 
 
 Open Air Sanatoria. 
 
 Panama. 
 
 Patent Medicines. 
 
 Plague. 
 
 Preparation of Food. . 
 
 Preservation of Food. 
 
 Pure Food Legislation. 
 
 Quarantine. 
 
 School Hygiene. 
 
 Sewage Disposal. 
 
 Summer Camps for Children. 
 
 Sweat Shops. 
 
 Tenements. 
 
 The Teeth. 
 
 Tobacco. 
 
 Tuberculosis. 
 
 Typhoid. 
 
 Unhealthful Occupations. 
 
 Vaccination. 
 
 Water Filtration and Water 
 
 Supplies. 
 Yellow Fever. 
 
 207
 
 PUBLICATIONS ON PHYSIOLOGY AND 
 HEALTH TOPICS 
 
 The Human Mechanism. SEDGWICK and HOUGH. Macmillan Company. 
 
 The Human Body. MARTIN. Henry Holt. 
 
 Physiology and Hygiene. WALTERS. D. C. Heath and Company. 
 
 Good Health for Boys and Girls. BROWN. D. C. Heath and Company. 
 
 The Story of the Living Machine. CONN. D. Appleton and Company. 
 
 Principles of Hygiene. BERGEV. W. B. Saunders Company. 
 
 Personal Hygiene. PYLE. W. B. Saunders Company. 
 
 Physical Nature of the Child. S. H. KO\VE. 
 
 Hygiene, pp. 2, 122, 171, 175, 182, 184; Health, pp. 6, 91, 93, 107, 131, 
 161. 
 
 Section on Hygiene, 1907, 1908, and succeeding years, American Medical 
 Association, Chicago. 
 
 Civics and Health. ALLEN. (Especially useful for teachers and parents.) 
 (Jinn and Company. 
 
 The Community and the Citizen. DUNN. D. C. Heath and Company. 
 
 Principles of Sanitary Science and Public Health. SEIJGWICK. Macmil- 
 lan Company. 
 
 Outlines of Practical Sanitation. II. B. BASHORE. 
 
 School Sanitation and Decoration. BURRAGE and BAILEY. D. C. Heath 
 and Company. 
 
 The Hygiene of the Schoolroom. BARRY. Silver, Burdett and Company. 
 
 Bibliography of Education. Chapter on School Hygiene. W. S. MUNROE. 
 
 Medical Inspection of Schools. GULICK. Charities Publishing Company, 
 New York. 
 
 Dynamic Factors in Education. O'SHEA. Eye defects, p. 269; Eye 
 strain, pp. 267-274; Fatigue, pp. 23, 178, 180, 188-208. 
 
 Examination of the Eyes of School Children. J. C. EBI.RHAKDT. National 
 Educational Association. Report, 1906, p. 173. 
 
 Plan for Health and Development Inspection. GEO. L. LESLIE. National 
 Educational Association, 1907, p. 922. 
 
 Physical Training and School Physiology. WM. W. HASTING. National 
 Educational Association, 1907, p. 925. 
 
 Relation of the Physical Nature of the Child to his Mental and Moral De- 
 velopment. G. \V. REIO. National Educational Association, 1907, 
 
 V- 3"5- 
 
 208
 
 PUBLICATIONS ON HEALTH TOPICS 209 
 
 Requirements as to Vaccination of School Children. Commission of Edu- 
 
 cation, vol. I, 1905, p. 207. 
 Secondary Education. New York State Educational Department, Bulletin 
 
 27, p. 119. 
 Health Pamphlets for Teachers and Parents. E. H. Hoag. Cunningham, 
 
 Curtis, and Welsh, San Francisco and I.os Angeles. 
 Foods and their Adulteration. WII.KY. Blakiston, Chicago. 
 Food in Health and Disease. L. B. YKO. W. T. Keener and Company, 
 
 Chicago. 
 
 Dairy Bacteriology. RUSSEL. University of Wisconsin. 
 The Story of Germ Life. G>NN. D. Appleton and Company. 
 Bacteria, Yeasts, and Moulds in the Home. CONN. Ginn and Company. 
 Hygiene of Transmissible Diseases. AHBOTT. W. B. Saunders Company. 
 Practical Points in Nursing. STONEY. W. T. Keener and Company, 
 
 Chicago. 
 
 Home Medical Library. Review of Reviews Company. 
 The Great American Fraud (Patent Medicines). Collier's Weekly. 
 
 Pamphlets, Reports, etc., dealing with Health Subjects 
 
 Hygiene and Physical Education. F. A. Bassette Company, Springfield, 
 
 Mass. 
 
 Bulletin of the Hygienic Laboratory, Treasury Department, Washington. 
 Year Books and Farmers' Bulletins, U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
 
 Washington. (Very practical.) 
 Publications of the U. S. Public Health and Marine Hospital Service, 
 
 Government Printing Office, Washington. 
 Annual Reports and Bulletins of the New York and Chicago Health 
 
 Departments. 
 Reports of the Tenement House Department, New York. MARTIN B. 
 
 BROWN. 
 
 Journal of the American Academy of Medicine. (Devoted largely to hy- 
 giene.) Easton, Pa. 
 
 The Psychologic Clinic, Philadelphia. University of Pennsylvania. 
 The American Journal of Public Health. Boston. 
 American Health. Also 24 pamphlets. American Health League, New 
 
 Haven, Conn. 
 School Hygiene. American School Hygiene Association. D. C. Heath 
 
 and Company. 
 
 1 8 Booklets. Health Education League, Boston. 
 The Survey, formerly Charities and the Commons. New York.
 
 READING REFERENCES GROUPED BY 
 SUBJECTS 
 
 [ These references are largely to periodicals. Consult also the list of books, 
 
 page 2oS.~\ 
 BACTERIA 
 
 Life of the Invisible World. Scientific American, vol. 67, p. 63, Jan. 
 
 23, 1909. 
 
 Straight Way of Life. P. C. MITCHELL. World's Work, vol. 15, 
 p. 9540, Nov., 1907. 
 
 CONTAGIOUS DISEASES 
 
 House Fly Nuisance. W. FROST and C. T. VORHIRES. Country Life, 
 
 vol. 14, p. 57, May, 1908. 
 The House Fly. Department of Agriculture, University of California, 
 
 1909. 
 Do Doctors carry Contagious Diseases ? Kevie^v of Reviews, vol. 36, 
 
 p. 630, Nov., 1907. 
 Scientific Study of Infectious Diseases. Nature, vol. 75, p. 213, Dec. 
 
 27, 1906. 
 Metchnikoff on ^mmunity in Infectious Diseases. Current Literature, 
 
 vol. 42, p. 332, March, 1907. 
 
 Vaccination Creed. Department of Health, Chicago. 
 Antitoxin. Publications of Stearns & Co., Detroit; Parke, Davis & Co., 
 
 Detroit; Mulford & Co., Philadelphia. 
 Opsonic Theory 
 
 New Hope for Health. E. A. AYERS. World's Work, vol. 14, p. 
 
 9431, Oct., 1907. 
 New Microbe Inoculation. R. K. Di'NKAN. Harpers' Weekly, vol 
 
 115, p. 204, July, 1907. 
 Plague in India 
 
 Outlook, vol. 87, p. 274, Oct. 12, 1907. 
 Black-woods, vol. 182, p. 577, Oct. 12, 1907. 
 R. Ross. Nature, vol. 76, p. 609, Oct. 17, 1907. 
 210
 
 REFERENCES GROUPED BY SUBJECTS 211 
 
 CUBA, PANAMA, and the PIIILIITINES 
 
 What Americans have done in Cuba. J. M. GREENK. Wisconsin Re- 
 port, vol. 30, p. 595, Aug., 1907. 
 
 Health Conditions at Panama. Scientific American, vol. 96, p. 366, 
 May 4, 1907; vol. 98, p. 270, April 18, 1908; vol. 100, p. 117, Feb. 6, 
 1909. 
 
 Helping the Philippines to light Disease. II. M. E<;HERT. Harper? 
 Weekly, vol. 52, p. 28, Dec. 26, 1908. 
 
 EYE TROUBLES 
 
 Good Eyesight in relation to Good Health. I.. II. GUI.ICK. World's 
 Work, vol. 13, p. 8629; Review of Reviews, vol. 35, p. 503, April, 
 1907. 
 
 Examination of the Eyes of School Children. J. C. ElfERHARDT. Ele- 
 mentary School Teacher, vol. 7, p. 263, Jan., 1907. 
 
 Free Eyeglasses for School Children. Charities, vol. 18, p. 130, April 
 27, 1907. 
 
 Sacrifice of the Eyes of School Children. W. D. SCOTT. Popular 
 Science Monthly, vol. 71, p. 303, Oct., 1907. 
 
 Sanitary Regulation of the Schoolroom and Vision. C. A. WOOD. 
 Elementary School Teacher, vol. 7, p. 62, Oct., 1906. 
 
 FOOD QUESTIONS 
 
 Influence of Diet on Endurance and General Efficiency. CHITTENDEN. 
 
 Popular Science Monthly, vol. 71, p. 536, Dec., 1907. 
 Pure Food Law and its Results. A. LACKAY. Outlook, vol. 88, p. 260, 
 
 Feb. I, 1908. 
 Preservation of Food, Scientific American, vol. 62, p. 25907, Dec. 29, 
 
 1906. 
 Principles and Practice of Food Preserving. Xature, vol. 76, p. 266, 
 
 July 18, 1907. 
 
 HEALTH 
 
 Does your Work Drive You ? L. II. GULICK. World's Work, vol. 15, 
 
 p. 10020, March, 1908. 
 Fresh Air Method to Keep us Well. R. C. NEWTON. Ladies' Home 
 
 Journal, vol. 25, p. 26, April, 1908. 
 Health Resolutions, Good and Bad. L. II. GUI.ICK. World's Work, 
 
 vol. 15, p. 9797, Jan., 1908. 
 
 HEALTH OF SCHOOL CHILDREN 
 
 Health of School Children. G. W. WHARTON. Outlook, vol. 84, 
 p. 662.
 
 212 APPENDIX 
 
 Health of the School Child. W. L. MACKENZIE. Natur-e, vol. 75, 
 
 p. 435, March 7, 1907. 
 Effect of School Life upon the Health of School Children. G. \V. 
 
 JOHNSTON. North American Review, vol. 182, p. 829. 
 Physical Conditions of Children in Elementary Schools. Nature, vol. 73, 
 
 P- 548. 
 Relation of School and College to Health. A. W. SOULE. School Re- 
 
 vie-M, vol. n, p. 817. 
 
 Health and Education, Nature, vol. 76, p. 508, Sept. 12, 1907. 
 Health and Education. T. C. HORSFELL. Contemporary Review, vol. 
 
 89, p. 340. 
 Health of School Girls. N. C. WHITAKER. School Review, vol. 16, p. 
 
 391, June, 1908. 
 Physical Betterment of our Growing Girls. Educational Review, vol. 36, 
 
 p. 190, Sept., 1908. 
 Physique of the Public School Boy. J. H. VINES. Westminster Revieiv, 
 
 vol. 159, p. 317. 
 
 Physique of Scholars, Athletes, and the Average Student. D. A. SAR- 
 GENT. Popular Science Monthly, vol. 73, p. 248, Sept., 1908. 
 
 INTEMPERANCE 
 
 Broader Motive for School Hygiene. W. H. ALLEN. Atlantic Monthly, 
 
 vol. 101, p. 824, June, 1908. 
 Error through Strong Drink. J. HAWTHORNE. Cosmopolitan, vol. 45, 
 
 p. 198, July, 1908. 
 Evidence against Alcohol. M. A. and A. J. ROSANOKK. McClure, vol. 
 
 3 2 . P- 557. March, 1909. 
 Fight against Alcohol. A. BRISBANE. Cosmopolitan, vol. 44, pp. 492, 
 
 549, April, May, 1908. Harpers' Weekly, vol. 52, p. 6, April 25, 
 
 1908. 
 
 MALARIA 
 
 How Quinine Fights the Germ of Malaria. Review of Reviews, vol. 39, 
 
 p. 235, Feb., 1009. 
 Malaria in the West Indies. H. A. BALLOU. Science, vol. 28, p. 885, 
 
 Dec. 1 8, 1908. 
 
 MEDICAL INSPECTION 
 
 School Children and their Medical Supervision. J. J. CRONIN. Chari- 
 ties, vol. 1 6, p. 58, April 7, 1906. 
 
 Methods and Results in the Medical Supervision of Schools. E. B. 
 HOAU. Sierra News, San Francisco, May, 1909.
 
 REFERENCES GROUPED BY SUBJECTS 213 
 
 Considerations Regarding Medical Inspection in Public Schools. 
 
 El)WAKi> JACKSON. American Academy of Medicine, Bulletin 6, 
 
 p. 923, April, 1905. 
 Medical Examiner Systems. S. W. ABBOT. American Journal of Social 
 
 Science, vol. 41, p. 61. 
 Medical Inspection of Schools. S. D. WALD. Annals of American 
 
 Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 25, p. 290. 
 How may the Medical and Teaching Professions cooperate to improve 
 
 the Moral, Mental, and Physical Condition of the Young? American 
 
 Academy of Medicine, Bulletin 7, p. 604, Oct., 1900. 
 Examination of Minneapolis School Children. Charities, vol. 19, 
 
 p. 1744, March 21, 1908. 
 Nurses in the Public Schools of New York. L. L. ROGKRS. Charities, 
 
 vol. H6, p. 65, Apiil 7, 1906. 
 Physical and Mental Examinations of Schools in Chicago. D. P. MAC- 
 
 MILLAN. Charities, vol. 17, p. 529. 
 
 MOSQUITOES 
 
 Mosquito Extermination Work. H. C. WEEKS. Scientific American. 
 
 vol. 64, p. 155, Sept. 7, 1907. 
 Mosquito Problem. Scientific American, vol. 96, p. 371. 
 
 PLAYGROUNDS 
 
 Playground Legislation in Washington. Charities, vol. 17, p. 434, Dec. 
 
 8, 1906; p. 967, March 2, 1907. 
 
 The City Child. J. BRYCE. Charities, vol. 19, p. 1661, March 7, 1908. 
 Health, Morality, and the Playground. E. E. BROWN. Charities, vol. 
 
 1 8, p. 500, Aug. 3, 1907. 
 Playgrounds, Progress and Tendencies, 1907. Charities, vol. 1 8, p. 495, 
 
 Aug. 3, 1907. 
 Practical Play with a Sound Basis. World's Work, vol. 15, p. 9504, 
 
 Nov., 1907. 
 Union of Playgrounds and Public Schools. D. H. PERKINS. Charities, 
 
 vol. 1 8, p. 538, Aug. 3, 1907. 
 Relation of Municipal Playgrounds to Schools. H. B. F. MACFARLAND. 
 
 Charitus, vol. 18, p. 545, Aug. 3, 1907. 
 Playground Association in Philadelphia. Charities, vol. 2O, p. 462, 
 
 July 4, 1908. 
 
 Playgrounds for New York City School Children. L. W. BETTS. Out- 
 look, vol. 75, p. 209.
 
 214 APPENDIX 
 
 PUBLIC HYGIENE 
 
 A Department in Public Hygiene. E. B. DE GROOT. Elementary School 
 
 Teacher, vol. 6, p. 40. 
 
 Preventing Sickness a City Investment. World's Work, vol. 12, p. 7914, 
 Aug., 1906. 
 
 SCHOOL HYGIENE 
 
 A Broader Motive for School Hygiene. W. II. ALLEN. Atlantic Monthly, 
 vol. 101, p. 824, June, 1908. 
 
 The Next Move in School Supervision Hygiene. K. L. STEVENS. 
 World's Work, vol. 16, p. 10430, July, 1908. 
 
 Report of the Committee on School Hygiene Worcester Public Educa- 
 tional Association. Pedagogical Seminary, vol. 13, p. 230, June, 1906. 
 
 National Program for Departments of School Hygiene. W. II. ALLEN. 
 North American Review, vol. 188, p. 112, July, 1908. 
 
 Status of I lygiene in the American College. G. L. WEYLAN. Educa- 
 tional Review, vol. 36, p. 132, Sept., 1908. 
 
 Hygiene in European Schools. Scientific American, vol. 64, p. 381. 
 Dec. 14, 1907. 
 
 International Congress on School Hygiene, 1907. Nature, vol. 76, pp. 
 349, 382, Aug. 8-15, 1907. 
 
 International Congress on School Hygiene, 1907. T. LONDONDERRY. 
 Nineteenth Century, vol. 62, p. 388, Sept., 1907. 
 
 London Conferences on School Hygiene. Nature, vol. 71, p. 377. 
 
 SCHOOL SANITATION 
 
 School Sanitation. W. P. GERHARD. American Architect and Build- 
 ing News, vol. 87, p. 177. 
 
 School Architecture and Hygiene. W. P. GKRHAKD. American Archi- 
 tect and Building A'ws, vol. 88, p. 14. 
 
 Deadly Poisons in our Schools. Good Housekeeping, vol. 48, p. 143, 
 Feb., 1909. 
 
 Health Laws in American Schools. American Architect and Building 
 News, vol. 88, p. 148. 
 
 TEETH 
 
 Oral and Dental Conditions. W. R. WOODBURY. Charities, vol. 21, 
 p. 258, Nov. 7, 1908. 
 
 TUBERCULOSIS 
 
 Consumptive Convalescents and the Land. B. HOLT. Charities, vol. 
 1 8, p. 230, May 27, 1907.
 
 REFERENCES GROUPLD BY SUBJI-XTS ->\$ 
 
 Institutional Care for Karly or for Advanced Consumptives. J. II. 
 Sen IKK. Charities, vol. 21, p. 242, Nov. 7, 1908. 
 
 Playgrounds in the Prevention of Tuberculosis. II. H. FAVII.I.. Lhari- 
 lies, vol. 18, p. 501, Aug. 3, 1907. 
 
 Providence Fresh Air School. W. E. KKUERI. Charities, vol. 20, pp. 
 97-99, April 1 8, 1908. 
 
 Tuberculosis and the Schools. J. A. LOVVMAN. Charities, vol. 18, 
 p. 657, Sept. 7, 1907. 
 
 Gold Medal Leaflet on Tuberculosis. International Congress on Tuber- 
 culosis, 1908. 
 
 Silver Medal Leaflet on Tuberculosis. DK. GKO. KRKSS, Los Angeles, 
 California. 
 
 UNHK.AI.THKUL OCCUPATIONS 
 
 American Women at Men's Work. Harpers' Weekly, vol. 51, p 831, 
 
 June 8, 1907. 
 Hygiene of Work in Compressed Air. J. S. HAI.DINK. Engineering 
 
 Magazine, vol. 35, p. 91, April, 1908. 
 Injurious Process in Workshops. Scientific American, vol. 65, p. 39, 
 
 Jan. 18, 1908. 
 National Front against Child Labor. G. TAVI.OK. Charities, vol. 21, 
 
 p. 673, Jan. 6, 1909. 
 Unsettled Question about Child Labor. O. R. LOVI.JOY. Charities, 
 
 vol. 21, p. 673, Jan. 16, 1909. 
 Articles by Edwin Markham on Child Labor. Cosmopolitan, 1907.
 
 INDEX 
 
 Abdomen, 6, 17. 
 Adenoids, 94, 103-106, I IO. 
 Adhesions, 62. 
 Adulteration, of foods, 114. 
 
 of milk, 139, 144. 
 Advertised medicines, 157, 158. 
 
 See Medicine, 
 Air, Dry and humid, 95, 120. 
 
 Fresh, 76, 87, 91, 116-121, 158. 
 
 in city and country, 88, 119, 120. 
 
 spreads germs, 87. 
 
 See Oxygen, Ventilation. 
 Albumen, 35. 
 Alcoholic drinks, 37, 52, 76,98, 155, 
 
 '59- 
 
 as a narcotic, 151. 
 effect on the body, 74, 75, 151- 
 
 I54,'59- 
 
 in medicine, 157, 202. 
 Alimentary canal, see Digestive tract. 
 Anneba, 13. 
 Anatomy, defined, 2. 
 Antitoxin, 171. 
 Apoplexy, 48. 
 Appendicitis, 18, 62. 
 Appendix, 18, 19, 62. 
 Arteries, 26, 41, 49. 
 Artesian wells, 145. 
 Athletics, 161-166. 
 
 and alcohol, 153. 
 
 Backbone, see Spinal column. 
 Bacteria, and disease, 60-65, 74, So- 
 93, 97, 106, 109, no, 120, 129, 
 130, 199-204. 
 and food, 135, 136. 
 
 Bacteria (contin.}. 
 
 Description of, 59, 60, 78-80, 87. 
 
 Destruction of, 79, 80, 86, 87, 1 13, 
 20 1, 203, 204. 
 
 in milk, 89, 137-142. 
 
 in water, 85, 89, 145. 
 
 Useful, 78, 79. 
 Bakery, Hygiene of, 125. 
 Bathing, 93, 94, 98, in, 1 1 2. 
 
 of sick persons, 128. 
 
 Public pools, IO2, 113. 
 
 Sea, 1 1 2. 
 Bathroom, 124. 
 Bedroom, Furnishing of, 123. 
 
 Outdoor, 95, 96, 121-123. 
 
 Ventilation of, 88, 95, 119, 123. 
 Bile, 1 8, 40. 
 Bladder, 18. 
 Blood, 22-29, 3, 4!-43> 7- 
 
 poisoning, 6l. 
 Blood vessels, Control of, 48, 49. 
 
 Description of, 10, 21, 24-28. 
 
 Dilation and contraction of, 10, 
 32, 47, 63, 94, 153. 
 
 Functions of, 21. 
 Board of health, 98, 145, 168-170, 
 
 173- 
 
 Body, The human, Cells of, 12-14. 
 compared to a machine, 53-55, 
 
 67, 72, 73- 
 
 Defenses, against disease, 59-66. 
 Divisions of, 6, 17. 
 Heat of, 30-32. 
 Organs of, 6, 15-23. 
 Systems of, 21. 
 Bones, 4-11, 21, 36, 65. 
 
 217
 
 218 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Bowels, 40, 95, 107. 
 
 Brain, Cells of, 13, 15, 1 6, 51. 
 
 Defenses of, 65. 
 
 Effect of alcohol on, 154. 
 
 Functions of, II, 21, 45-52. 
 
 Location of, 6, 7, 1 7, 46. 
 
 Structure of, 45, 46. 
 Breast-bone, 4, 5, 6. 
 Breathing, Control of, 47, 49. 
 
 Obstructions to, 103-105. 
 
 Organs of, 21, 22. 
 
 See Air. 
 Bronchial tubes, 22, 62, 64, 97. 
 
 Caffein, 135, 149. 
 Callus, 65. 
 Canned foods, 135. 
 Capillaries, 26, 28, 38, 41, 94, 112. 
 Carbon dioxide, a waste of the body, 
 54, 116. 
 
 and alcohol, 152, 153. 
 
 in combustion, 31, 152. 
 
 in the blood, 23, 26. 
 Carbon foods, 33, 34, 38. 
 
 in combustion, 31. 
 Cartilage, 7. 
 Casein, 35. 
 
 Catarrh, 64, 92, 95, 97, 105, 106, 108. 
 Cells, of the body, 1 2- 1 6, 21, 26, 28, 
 30,68-71. X 
 
 One-celled objects, 13, 68. 
 Centers in the brain, 45, 51. 
 Cereals as food, 35, 108, 131, 133, 
 
 '34- 
 
 Cerebellum, 45, 46. 
 Cerebrum, 45, 46. 
 Cesspools, 124. 
 Chemical, food changes, 39. 
 
 stimulus, 148. 
 Chest, 6, 1 7. 
 Chicago, Air of, 120. 
 
 Death rate in, 174. 
 
 Sewage of, 85, 145, 147. 
 
 Smallpox record of, 173. 
 
 Chicago, Typhoid fever in, 1 74. 
 Child labor, 75-77. 
 Chocolate, 37, 134, 149. 
 Cholera, 81, 89, 130. 
 Cigarette smoking, 52, 155. 
 Cilia, 62. 
 
 Circulatory system, 21, 24-27, 41-43. 
 City, Air of the, 88, 120. 
 Cleanliness, in food, 113, 114, 124, 
 137-144, 1 68. 
 
 in the house, 122, 123. 
 
 Personal, 77, 8l, 91, 113, 140. 
 
 See Bathing. 
 Clothing, carries germs, 89. 
 
 Disinfection of, 87, 129, 171. 
 
 in sickness, 126, 129. 
 
 Proper, 94, 95. 
 Coffee, 37, 52, 75, 76, 135, 149, 150, 
 
 159. 
 
 Cold storage of foods, 79, 135. 
 Colds, 74, 92-97, 130. 
 Combustion, see Oxidation. 
 Constipation, 64, 94, 107, 108. 
 Consumption, see Tuberculosis. 
 Contagious disease, 81-91. 
 
 in the house, 129. 
 
 Protection against, 86, 129, 169- 
 
 '73. '75- 
 
 See TvplioiJ, Tuberculosis, etc. 
 Corpuscles, Red, 27. 
 
 White, 27, 60, 6l. 
 Cough, 64. 
 Country, Air in, 88, 119-121. 
 
 Disease in, 93, 1 19. 
 Cows, Care of, 139-144. 
 Crime, compared to disease, 169. 
 
 relation to alcohol, 154. 
 Cuba, Disease in, 83. 
 
 Dairy, Sanitary conditions in, 142- 
 
 144, 1 68. 
 Unsanitary, 90. 
 Deafness, 97, 1 06. 
 Death rate, 137, 174, 176.
 
 INDEX 
 
 219 
 
 Decay, Bacteria of, 79. 
 
 of teeth, 109, no, 130. 
 
 Prevention of food decay, 79. 
 Dentist, 109, no. 
 Diaphragm, 6. 
 Diarrhoea, 63. 
 Diet, 107, 131, 133. 
 Digestion, 19, 38-40, 107, 130. 
 
 See Indigestion. 
 Digestive, glands, 39. 
 
 juices, 39, 40, 130. 
 
 system, 19, 21. 
 
 tract, 19, 65. 
 Diphtheria, 78, 85, 89, 90, 150, 169, 
 
 171. 
 Disease, and alcohol, 154. 
 
 and digestion, 130. 
 
 and foods, 135, 136. 
 
 and milk and water, 137-141, 
 
 I45-'4J- 
 
 Causes of, 72-80, 1 13, 1 14, 1 16, 1 20. 
 
 Contagious, 81-91, 129, 169. 
 
 Ignorant ideas of, 59, 81, 82, 156. 
 
 Protection against, 59-66, 169. 
 
 Recovery from, 70. 
 Disinfection, 86, 87, 129, 171, 204. 
 
 Bureau of, 173, 175. 
 Division of labor, 67-69. 
 Dosing habit, 158. 
 Drainage, 1 15. 
 
 See Seivage. 
 
 Drinking fountain, Hygienic, 86. 
 Drugs, 52, 76, 98, 133. 
 
 in medicines, 157. 
 
 in tea and coffee, 135, 149. 
 Ducts, 20, 39, 40. 
 Dust, and food, 114, 125, 139, 142. 
 
 and germs, 60, 6l, 62, 75, 88, 92, 
 94, 122, 201. 
 
 Methods of dusting, 122. 
 Dyspepsia, 131-133, 154, 159. 
 
 Ears, 97, 106, 1 12. 
 
 Eating, Habits of, 107, 131-133. 
 
 Education of the brain, 51, 52. 
 Emulsirication, 38, 39. 
 
 Energy. 53- 
 
 Epidemics, 81, 83, 92, 140. 
 
 See Contagious disease. 
 Eustachian tube, 97, 106. 
 Evolution, 68. 
 
 Excretion, Organs of, 1 6, 17, 21. 
 Exercise, 58, 98, 158, 166. 
 Expectoration, Germs in, 85, 87, 91, 
 
 200-204. 
 Eyes, Crossed, 102. 
 
 Protection of, 63, 65. 
 
 Troubles with, 64,99-103, 108, 113. 
 
 Fats in foods, 33-35, 38-40. 
 Fermentation of food, 19, 40, 79, 
 
 i3. 131- 
 Fever, 31. 
 
 Filtering water, 145, 146, 174. 
 Fireplaces as ventilators, 117, 123. 
 Flavors in foods, 37, 135. 
 Flies and disease, 90, 91, 125, 144. 
 Food, Abuse of, 130-133. 
 
 Adulteration of, 114, 139, 144. 
 
 Cleanliness of, 113, 114, 124, 137- 
 144, 1 68. 
 
 Digestion of, 38-40, 107. 
 
 Disease and, 135, 136. 
 
 Fermentation of, 19, 40, 79, 113, 
 
 I3I- 
 
 for the cells, 13, 14, 26-28. 
 Kinds of, 33-38. 
 laws, 167. 
 Liquefied, 28, 38. 
 Preserving, 79, 80. 
 Table for selection of, 134. 
 Uses of, 30-32. 
 Food, Milk, and Water Supplies, 
 
 Bureau of, 173, 175. 
 Food principles, 33, 131. 
 Fruits, and disease, 114, 125, 168. 
 as food, 33, 34, 35, 107, 131, 
 134. 135-
 
 22O 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Fuel foods, 30, 31, 35, 38, 73. 
 Fumigation, 86, 87. 
 Function of an organ, defined, 15. 
 Furnishings, harbor germs, 89, 90, 
 
 123. 
 Hygienic, 122, 129. 
 
 Germs, see Bacteria and Parasites. 
 Glands, 20, 38, 49, 61. 
 Gluten, 35, 36. 
 Glycogen, 18. 
 
 Government, protection against dis- 
 ease, 169-171. 
 regulation of food supplies, 167- 
 
 169. 
 
 Grenfell, Dr , 153, 179. 
 Gullet, 19, 47. 
 Gymnasium, 162, 163. 
 
 Habits, Coffee and tea, 149, 150. 
 
 Drug, 149, 158. 
 
 Origin of, 51, 52. 
 Head, Organs in the, 6. 
 Headache, 22, 64, 106-108, 128, 130. 
 Health, of the home, 115-129. 
 
 officers, 98, 173. 
 
 Personal, 98-114, 178. 
 
 Public, 167-176. 
 Heart, Control of, 47, 49. 
 
 Function of, i6,\2i, 24, 26. 
 
 in athletics, 162, 163. 
 
 Location of, 17. 
 
 Structure of, 16, 29. 
 
 trouble, 131. 
 Heat in the body, 30-33, 35, 40, 41, 
 
 53. 54, '53- 
 Heating systems and ventilation, 95, 
 
 118-120. 
 
 Hip bone, 4, 5, 6. 
 Hookworm, 179. 
 House, bedroom, bathroom, kitchen, 
 
 123-126. 
 
 Furnishings of, 121. 
 Location of, 115, \i1. 
 
 House, Ventilation of, 116-118. 
 Hydrochloric acid, 39. 
 Hygiene, defined, 2. 
 
 See Food, Sanitation, House. 
 
 Ice box, Care of, 126. 
 
 India, Plague in, 83. 
 
 Indigestion, 22, 64, 93, 94, 107-109, 
 
 i3-'33- 
 Inherited, disease, 200. 
 
 weakness, 76. 
 Inorganic foods, 33, 38. 
 Insects and disease, 83, 84, 90, 91, 
 
 125- 
 Intemperance, in drinking, 76, 149- 
 
 154. 
 
 in eating, 131, 159. 
 Intestines, Control of, 49. 
 
 Description of, 1 8, 19, 21, 64. 
 Functions of, 17, 20, 22, 38-40. 
 
 107, 108. 
 Location of, 17, 19. 
 
 Japan, Sanitation in army, 1 14. 
 Joints, 10. 
 
 Kidneys, 16, 18, 21, 29, 66. 
 Kitchen, Hygiene of, 124-127. 
 
 Labrador, 179. 
 Levers, Bones as, 7. 
 Ligaments, 10. 
 Light for eyes, 100-103. 
 Liver, 17-21, 40. 
 Lungs, Control of, 49. 
 
 Functions of, 14, 17, 18, 21-23, 
 1 1 6, 117. 
 
 in athletics, 163. 
 
 Location of, 17, 22. 
 Lymph, 26, 28, 149. 
 
 glands, 20, 61. 
 
 Malaria, 78, 85. 
 Mastication, 39, 132.
 
 INDEX 
 
 221 
 
 Meat, and disease, 125. 
 
 as food, 33, 35, 134. 
 
 Inspection of, 89, 167, 168. 
 Mechanical, food changes, 39. 
 
 stimulus, 148. 
 Medical, examiner in school, 98, 99. 
 
 Inspection, Bureau of, 173, 175. 
 Medicine, Advertised or patent, 63, 
 64, 82, 95, 97, 108, 157-160, 202. 
 
 Ignorant ideas of, 156. 
 
 Natural, 61. 
 
 Strychnine and caffein as, 149. 
 
 Testimonials of, 157. 
 
 Use and abuse of, 73, 156-160. 
 Medulla, 45-48. 
 Mental, alertness, 166. 
 
 conditions in eating, 132, 133. 
 
 dullness, 104, 107. 
 Milk, Bacteria in, 137-142. 
 
 carries disease, 89, 114, 136-141. 
 
 Food value of, 33, 34, 35, 36, 134, 
 
 137- 
 
 in the ice box, 126. 
 
 Pasteuri/.ed, 139, 142. 
 
 Sanitary production of, 124, 139- 
 
 144. 
 Mosquitoes and disease, 83, 84, 90, 
 
 91. 
 
 Motor cells and nerves, 16, 47. 
 Mouth, 38, 39. 
 
 breathing, 104. 
 Muscles, and alcohol, 153. 
 
 Control of, II, 44, 47, 49. 
 
 Description of, 7-11, 36, 42. 
 
 in exercise, 165^166. 
 Muscular system, 21. 
 Myosin, 35. 
 
 Nansen, 153. 
 Narcotics, 151-155. 
 Nerves, 21, 49-52. 
 
 and alcohol, 154. 
 
 cells, 1 6, 49, 52, 70. 
 
 Deadening of, 64. 
 
 Nerves, fibers, 48, 49-52. 
 
 Motor and sensory, 1 1, 16, 47. 
 Nervous system, 6, u, 16,21, 44-52. 
 
 and alcohol, 151. 
 
 Nervousness, 64, 99, 106, 108, 159. 
 New York City, Eye defects in 
 
 schools, 99. 
 
 Nitrogen foods, 33, 35, 37. 
 Nose, 21, 22, 62, 63, 74, 103-106. 
 Nursing in the home, 126, 128. 
 Nutrition, Poor, 94, 108. 
 
 Occupations, Healthful, 77. 
 
 Unhealthful, 75, 76. 
 Oculist, 100. 
 
 Oils in foods, 33, 35, 38. 
 Opium, 151, 152. 
 Optician, 100. 
 Organic foods, 33. 
 Organs of the body, Control of, 44. 
 
 Description of, 15-23. 
 
 in sickness, 70, 72. 
 
 Location of, 6, 17, 19, 22. 
 Osseous system, 21. 
 Outdoor, life, 164, 201, 202. 
 
 sleeping, 95, 96, 121-123. 
 Oxidation, 31, 40-42. 
 Oxygen, and lamps, 119. 
 
 defined, 22. 
 
 for the cells, 14, 30. 
 
 in combustion, 31, 41. 
 
 in the blood, 23, 26-28, 41. 
 
 Pain, a symptom, 63. 
 
 " Pain killers," 63. See Medi- 
 cine. 
 
 Relief of, 128. 
 Panama, Disease in, 84. 
 Pancreas, 19, 20, 39. 
 Pancreatic juice, 40. 
 Paralysis, 48. 
 Parasites, 78, 136, 179. 
 Pasteurization of milk, 139, 142. 
 Patent medicines, see Medicine.
 
 222 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pepsin, 39. 
 
 Peptones, 38-40. 
 
 Perspiration, 29, 32, 41, 54, 63, 94, 
 
 1 20. 
 
 Philadelphia filter system, 146. 
 Physician, 73, 74, 98, 99, 158-161, 
 
 202. 
 
 Physiology defined, 2. 
 Plague, 83, 90, 169, 170, 174. 
 Plasma, 27. 
 
 Playgrounds, frontispiece. 
 Plumbing, 123, 126. 
 Pneumonia, 85, 86, 88, 97, 154. 
 Pork, Parasite in, 136. 
 Proteids, 33, 35-40. 
 Protoplasm, 12, 68. 
 Ptomaine poisons, 135. 
 Public Health and Marine Hospital 
 
 Service, 171. 
 
 Quarantine, 86, 129, 169-171, 175. 
 
 Reading, Conditions for, 100-103. 
 
 Reflex action, II, 46-52, 65. 
 
 Repair of the body, 30, 32, 33, 37, 54. 
 
 Reservoir water, 145. 
 
 Resistance to disease, 59, 93, 200. 
 
 Respiratory system, 21, 22. 
 
 Ribs, 4, 5, 6. 
 
 Rochester, N.Y., milk supply, 144. 
 
 Saliva, 20, 38, 39. 
 Salt, as a stimulus, 148. 
 
 in foods, 33, 36, 38. 
 San Francisco, Plague in, 83. 
 
 quarantine station, 170. 
 Sanitation, 81, 1 14. 
 
 Bureau of, 173, 175. 
 
 See Cleanliness. 
 Seal), 65. 
 School, athletics, 161-166. 
 
 Conditions in the schoolroom, 103. 
 
 Contagious disease in, 86, 170. 
 
 inspection, 175. 
 
 School, physician, 98, 99, 161. 
 Secretion, 37, 149. 
 
 Organs of, 17, 18. 
 Sensory cells and nerves, 1 6, 47. 
 Septic tanks for sewage, 147. 
 Sewage, 168, 169. 
 
 and typhoid, 85, 88, 124, 140, 145. 
 
 and water supplies, 85, 88, 91, 98, 
 113, 124, 145-147, 168, 169. 
 
 Disposal of, 115, 147. 
 Sewer, farms, 147, 168. 
 
 gas, 77, 124, 125. 
 Shoulder bone, 4, 5. 
 Sickness, in the home, 126, 128, 129. 
 
 Organs and cells in, 70. 
 
 Preventable, i, 59, 131, 169. 
 
 See Disease. 
 Skeleton, 4, 5. 
 Skin, 65, 70. 
 
 Blood vessels in, 32, 41. 
 
 Functions of, 17, 18, 29, 64. 
 
 troubles, 107, 113. 
 Skull, 4, 5, 7, 46. 
 Sleep, 75, 1 10, in. 
 
 Outdoor, 95, 96, 121-123. 
 Smallpox, 85, 169, 170, 172, 173. 
 Spinal column, 4-7. 
 Spinal cord, 7, 1 1, 21, 45-51. 
 Spleen, 19, 20. 
 Starch foods, 33, 34-36, 37, 133. 
 
 Digestion of, 38-40, 131. 
 Sterili/ing, 113, 136, 143, 171. 
 Stimulants, defined, 148. 
 
 F.ffect of, 1 50. 
 
 in coffee and tea, 37, 52, 149. 
 Stomach, 64. 
 
 Functions of, 12, 19. 
 
 in digestion, 22, 38, 39, 107, 131. 
 
 Location of, 17, 19. 
 Stoves and ventilation, 1 19. 
 Strychnine, 149, 150. 
 Sugars in foods. 33, 34, 37-40, 131. 
 Sunlight, Value of, 75,87, 91, III, 
 110, 158.
 
 INDEX 
 
 223 
 
 Superstitions about disease, 59, Si, 
 
 82, 156. 
 
 Sweeping, Methods of, 122, 129. 
 Swimming, 1 1 2, 153, 164, 165. 
 Sympathetic nervous system, 48, 
 
 49- 
 Systems of the body, 21. 
 
 Tannic acid, 135, 149. 
 Tea, 37, 52, 75, 76, 135, 149, 159. 
 Teeth, 98, 104, 105, 108-110, 130. 
 Temperature, and alcohol, 153. 
 
 of animals, 31. 
 
 of the body, 28, 31, 32, 41, 63. 
 Tendons, 10. 
 
 Tenement inspection, 175. 
 Tent life, 123, 164, 2O2. 
 Throat, 21. 
 
 Bacteria in, 74. 
 
 troubles, 64, 97, 103-106. 
 Thyroid, 20. 
 Tissues, 15, 21, 31. 
 Tobacco, 52, 98, 155-159. 
 Tongue, 9. 
 Tonsilitis, 105, 106. 
 Tonsils, 64, 94, 104-106. 
 Toothache, no. 
 Trichina, 136. 
 Tuberculin test, 141. 
 Tuberculosis, 199-204. 
 
 and alcohol, 154, 202. 
 
 Causes of, 75, 84, 89, 90, 97, 119, 
 123, 163, 199-204. 
 
 Control of, 84. 
 
 Cure for, 62, 96, 121, 158, 199- 
 204. 
 
 in cattle, 140, 141, 144. 
 
 Various forms of, 62. 
 
 Victims of, 84, 85, 179, 180, 199. 
 Typhoid fever, and alcohol, 154. 
 
 Bacteria of, 78. 
 
 Typhoid fever (contin.). 
 
 Caused by polluted water, 85, 88, 
 
 89, 124, 140, 145, 146. 
 Causes of, 89, 90. 
 Control of, 84. 
 Death rate from, 85, 1 74. 
 Susceptibility to, 130. 
 
 Urine, 18. 
 
 Vaccination, 172, 173. 
 
 Vegetables, and disease, 125, 1 68. 
 
 as food, 33, 34, 35, 134, 135. 
 Veins, 26, 41. 
 
 Ventilation, Effects of poor, 23, 54, 
 74, 77, 87, 92, 94, 108, 1 16, 1 19, 
 1 20, 179. 
 
 Methods of, II6-I2O. 
 Vertebrie, 7. 
 Vital Statistics, Bureau of, 173, 174. 
 
 Walking, as exercise, 163. 
 
 Muscles in, 9. 
 Wastes of the body, 20-23, 2 7~ 2 9 
 
 42, 43. 54- 
 Water, carries disease, 85,88, 91, 145. 
 
 Contamination of, 85, 88, 89, 91, 
 113, 124, I45-I47- 
 
 Drinking fountain, 86. 
 
 Filtration of, 145, 146, 174. 
 
 for the body, 33, 36, 37, 38, 107, 
 1 08. 
 
 in the ice box, 126. 
 
 Kinds of, 144, 145. 
 Well water, 145. 
 Whisky, see Alcoholic drinks. 
 Will, The, 45-52, 152. 
 Windpipe, 21, 22. 
 
 Yeast plants, 13, 14. 
 Yellow fever, 83, 90.
 
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